LIBRARY AT 3 1924 073 870 267 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924073870267 Production Note Cornell University Library produced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. It was scanned at 600 dots per inch resolution and compressed prior to storage using CCni/riU Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell's replacement volume on paper tfiat meets tiie ANSI Standard Z39.48-1992. The production of this volume was supported by the United States Department of Education, Higher Education Act, Tide n-C. Scanned as part of the A. R. Mann Library project to preserve and enhance access to the Core Historical Literature of the Agricultural Sciences. Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series The Literature of the Agricultural Sciences. 1991-1996, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. -a k 3 O. uT m -a "^ oj >. o CO Lh =3 03 iS" > c5 (D (H ^ ■T3 2 cS 3 -^ -3 fl O Lh o O, B S 1 3 G d c3 C q; >> .& :3 X: O -a 3 s 0^ o c 3 "3 _o a; 3 -0 o 3 B B g o ^ a o b£ C3 a; C3 »; -4J 02 j3 C t-, w OJ 0) g 0) -3 c '3 :3 'o c o 3 o i o s i <; a ft 3 QJ o: STUDIES IN FRENCH FORESTRY BY THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jr. Consvliing Forester, Author of French Forests and Forestry (Tunisia, Algeria. Corsica), and Executive Member Interallied War Timber Ccmmittee, Paris, 1917-1919 WITH TWO CHAPTERS BY WILLIAM B. GREELEY Forester, U. S. Forest Service, and formerly Chief, Forestry Section, C. and F., S. 0. S., American Expeditionary Forces NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 1920 COPTEIGHT, 1920, BY THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jr. ATLANTIC PRINTING COMPANY CAMBRIDGE, UASS., U. S. *A. PREFACE The matenal for this book was collected largely in 1912. Adminis- trative work in the United States Forest Service, teachiag at Yale Forest School, and service in the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., during the war prevented an earlier completion of my task. The success of the American Expeditionary Forces in securing its timber supply, under conditions existing in France in 1917-18, was due chiefly to the extraordinary capacity of the commanding officers at Tours and the American lumbermen and foresters who assisted them through- out France. These efforts might have failed, however, if the American E. F. had not been so ably seconded by 1' Administration G^n^rale des Eaux et Forets under the direction of M. Dabat, Conseiller d'Etat, Directeur, and by M. Antoni, now an Inspecteur G6n^ral des Eaux et ForSts and Sous-Directeur, as well as by the French officers and officials working under or in collaboration with G6n6ral de Division Chevalier, D. S. M., Inspecteur General du Service des Bois, notably: Lieut.-Col. Joubaire, Armand, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets h Saumur, President de la Commission ForestiSre d'Expertises. M. Emery, Auguste, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets, Minist^re de I'Agriciilture, Paris. Lieut.-Col. de Lapasse, Louis, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets £i Bordeaux, Gironde. Lieut.-Col. Buffault, Pierre, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets, a Aurillac, Cantal. Lieut.-Col. Deroye, Nancy, Meurthe et Moselle, Chef du Service For- estier d'Arm^e. Lieut.-Col. Mathey, Alphonse, Conservateur des Eaux et ForMs k Dijon, C6te d'Or. Lieut.-Col. Schlumberger, Pierre, Conservateur des Eaux et ForSts k Colmar, Alsace. Commandant Badre, Louis, D. S. M., Inspecteur des Eaux et Forets, Liaison Officier Am6ricain, G. H. Q. Commandant Jagerschmidt, Jean, Inspecteur des Eaux et ForSts, Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. Colonel Steiner, Directeur des Etapes, Service Forestier, k Vesoul et Valleroy. Capitaine Sinturel, Emile, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets, Chef du Secteur Forestier de Gray, Haute-Sadne. Vi PREFACE Capitaine Fresson, Maurice, Officier de Liaison auprfe du D616gu6 Am^ricain au Comity Interalli6 des Bois de Guerre. Capitaine Vantroys, Henri, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et For^ts, Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. Capitaine Oudin, Auguste, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et ForSts, Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. Capitaine Roux, Edgar, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et For^ts, Ad- joint a M. le G6n^ral Chevalier. Capitaine Ri\6, Andr^, Garde G^n^ral des Eaux et For^ts, Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. Capitaine Hurteau, Henri, Garde General des Eaux et Forets, Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. Capitaine Coulon, Jean Pierre, Membre du Bureau de la Centre des Bois de Bordeaux. Lieutenant Girault, Pierre, Garde G^n^ral des Eaux et Forfets, Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. Lieutenant S4bastien, Maurice, French D61lgu6, C. I. B. G. Lieutenant Detr6, L^on, Adjoint au Bureau du Del^gu^ Am^ricain au Comite Interalli^ des Bois de Guerre. Capitaine Fresson and Lieutenant Detr6 labored assiduously in my own office on the Executive Committee of the Interallied War Timber Committee. Lieut.-Col. Pard6 and Commandant Hickel gave much per- sonal help, and Commandant Hirsch, Director of the Bureau des V6g6- teaux Combustibles under the Ministre de I'Armement, assisted in the purchase of manufactured cordwood. The local French officers in charge of forests and conservations at all American operations everywhere in France gave the utmost help. During this allied campaign cooperation was the key to final victory. To General Lord Lovat, K. T., K. C. V. O , K. C. M. G., C. B., D. S. 0.. Director of Forestry of the British Expeditionary Forces; Colonel John Sutherland, C. B. E., Assistant Director of Forestry and British Repre- sentative on the C. I. B. G. ; Major Viscount de Vesci, who served on the C. I. B. G. after the armistice; General MacDougall, C. B., Chief of the Canadian Forestry Corps; General White, C. M. G., in charge of C. F. C. operations in France; Lieut.-Col. Lyle, the Canadian member of the C. I. B. G.; and to Commandant Parlongue, Belgian delegate to the C. I. B. G., thanks are due for hearty cooperation and assistance in a campaign for timber supplies which overshadowed for the time being the management and preservation of French forests. To those who worked in the World War this spirit of cooperation has left the pleasantest of memories. Many whose names are not given here gave freely to help the American E. F. As a matter of fact these very efforts, which helped to gain the victory for the allied cause, were detrimental to the forests of PREFACE VU France. Many forests were clear cut with no satisfactory provision for regeneration, and in others the growing stock of sawlog material was so reduced thai " normal" production cannot be secured for a century or more. Yet, it must be recognized that this destructive use of .the French forests helped to save France and her armies. It is for this reason that it seems fitting to make this acknowledgment to those who cooperated in direct- ing and facilitating the American manufacture of French timber and the acquisition of the raw supplies. THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jr. Janvary 1, 1920. CONTENTS Page Preface v Introduction xiii CHAPTER I Impressions of French forestry 1 Economic needs and national traits 1 Significant public phases of French forestry 2 Forest and land conservation 6 Private forestry in France 12 Forest problems of France and the United States 15 CHAPTER II The rSle of forests 17 The value of forests 17 Forest influences 19 CHAPTER III Forest regions and important species 25 Physical and cUmatic features — industry 25 Forest regions 29 Important forest species 40 CHAPTER IV Forest statistical data 45 Private forest owners 45 CHAPTER V Natural regeneration 65 French policy 65 French silvicultural methods 70 High forest systems 71 Coppice systems 92 Care of the stand after regeneration 105 CHAPTER VI Artificial reforestation 114 French policy 114 Seed 117 Nurseries 122 Planting 125 Field sowing 132 ix X CONTENTS CHAPTER VII Control of erosion in the mountains 140 French policy and summary of reforestation 140 The damage 147 Corrective measures 153 Typical reforestation areas 168 CHAPTER VIII Forestry in the Landes 169 The dunes 169 History of reclaiming the Landes 173 Fixing the sand 177 Management of maritime pine forests 186 CHAPTER IX Government regulation and working plans 206 Mensuration in working plans 206 Regulation of cutting 215 Working plans 243 CHAPTER X Features op French national forest administration 261 Brief summary of legislation 261 Administrative organization and education 268 Protection 275 Betterments 290 Sale of timber 293 CHAPTER XI Private porestrt in France 315 General discussion 315 Examples of the best private forestry 323 CHAPTER XII The American Forest Engineers in France 336 Timber in modern warfare 336 The organization of Forest Engineers 338 The Forestry section of the Expeditionary Force 340 Sawmills and logging equipment 343 The production of fuel wood 347 What the Forest Engineers accomplished 348 Cooperation with the forest agencies of France 351 Forest troops loaned to French and British armies 357 What the American woodsmen learned in France 358 The war a vindication of French forestry 358 APPENDIXES AtoL 360-536 ILLUSTRATIONS A valley in Alsace-Lorraine Frontispiece Fig. Page 1 Rainfall and summer temperatures 26 2 The richest silver fir (with spruce) stands in France are found in the State forest of La Joux (Jura) 32 3 Larch and cembric pine in the Canton of Melezet, communal forest of Villaro- din-Bourget 33 4 (o) The communal forest of Manigod (Haute-Savoie) 39 4 (6) The communal forest of Gets 39 5 Distribution of six important forest trees 42 6 (o to /) State forest of Hez-Froidmont 58-59 7 (o) Natural regeneration of spruce 85 7 (6) Spruce stand in the Melezet Canton, commimal forest of Villarodin- Bourget 85 8 Pure larch in the communal forest of Tignes 90 9 (a) Pole stand of spruce in the communal forest of Beaufort 109 9 (6) Spruce and fir in the Canton du Mont, communal forest of Thones-Ville . . 109 10 (a) Costly system of dams to prevent erosion in the bed of a French torrrait . . 154 10 (6) An expensive masonry dam, Gave de Pau (Hautes-Pjr^ndes) 154 10 (c) Log and dry stone dams to prevent erosion at Var-Moyen (Alpes-Mari- times) 155 10 (d) Wattle work' on small side gullies and masonry dam in main ravine in Ubaye area (Basses-Alpes) 155 11 (a) Retaining walls on a hillside that had been slipping down 159 11 (6) Walls to prevent avalanches with an inspection trail in the foreground ... 159 11 (c) Walls to prevent avalanches 159 12 Paved drains at Bastan (Hautes-Pyr6n6es) 161 13 (a) Wattle work in a ravine in the Verdon-Sup6rieur (Basses-Alpes) area .... 163 13 (b) Bed of small ravine stabilized by wattle work 163 14 (o) The Rata ravine at Ubaye (Basses-Alpes) after the reclamation work was finished 166 14 (6) A mountain village in the Pyrdn^es menaced by erosion 166 14 (c) Preventing further erosion by larch plantations in Ubaye area (Basses- Alpes) 166 15 Protection dune at Lacanau-0c6an in State forest of Lacanau (Gironde) .... 171 16 Barrel price of turpentine at Bordeaux 185 17 (a) Maritime pine 57 years old during improvement felling 194 17 (6) Small tree being tapped to death prior to utilization for mine props 194 18 French turpentine tools 197 19 (o and 6) Examples of stand graphics 216-217 20 (a and b) Growing stock compared with present stock and with the normal stand 257 21 A graded trail, which serves as a compartment boundary, and which can be used by tourists 291 xi INTRODUCTION No student can fail to see that forestry may attain its optimum de- velopment under the favorable climatic, regenerative, and vegetative conditions that exist in France. Dr. Martin, of Tharandt, remarked, after a tour of French forests, that "Natural regeneration is more suc- cessful and far more general than in Germany because of the mild cli- mate, sufficient rainfall, and prolific seeding." Natural regeneration of sessile oak in the valley of the Adour is not only certain but easily ob- tained; and what could be simpler than the clear cutting of maritime pine, followed by complete seeding? Even the high forests of peduncu- late oak in mixture with beech are naturally regenerated because the soil and seed may be made ready for regeneration by the application of forest science.^ The silver-fir stands in the Vosges, Jura, Savoie, Haute-Savoie, and the Pyrenees regenerate naturally. Even spruce can be reproduced with but httle artificial aid. /But when Martin predicted, in 1906, that artificial forestation was oii the increase in France, he missed the mark. With the shortage and high cost of labor to-day, France is further away from artificial regeneration than ever before, except to repair the ravages of war and counteract the results of past improvident and excessive exploitation. The value and necessity of maintaining a conservative forest policy is to-day recognized in France as never before. It is generally admitted that the area (18.7 per cent) already in forest is insufficient. France had to import heavily before the war and her timber needs cannot be met from local sources even with the return of Alsace-Lorraine. What countries will furnish this timber deficit is difficult to predict. The cost of importing timber from the United States has been accentuated by the increase in steamship and railway freight rates, and by the unfavorable rate of exchange, since to-day it takes 10 to 11 French francs to equal one dollar. Even with the timber France can buy from countries with de- preciated currency and with the timber she should receive from Germany as reparation, every acre of waste land should be forested. France can- not afford to neglect maintaining and increasing her natural forest re- sources, not only for their direct returns, but also for their indirect value ' Soil preparation is usually obligatory, arid it is often difficult to maintain the proper proportion of oak in the north or west of France because good oak-seed years occur only every 10 to 12 years. xiii XIV INTRODUCTION as protection against unfavorable cKmatic conditions, erosion, drought, frost, and hail, as well as providing a playground for the millions that will flock to France during the reconstruction period. French statesmen have seen France saved by her forests, and the agitation in the press against overcutting during the last phases of the war was merely a re- action from the excesses made necessary by war demands. When the history of the defense of France is written the part played by French forests should be recognized. These forests gave fuel and lumber during the crisis of ocean transportation, when every available ship was required for men, munitions, food, and other necessities which could not be wholly supplied from local sources. Then, too, the large forested areas in the line of actual fighting proved a point of defense which apparently could not have been spared. It is impossible to determine what would have occurred without the forests of Compi^gne and Villers-Cotterets. Had France wasted her forest resources in the past (Uke Spain and Italy) the war might have been a draw or a defeat, instead of a victory. In the past French forests have suffered from abuse. Much of the damage in the Alps, Pyrenees, Central Plateau, Landes, and Gironde occurred during or before the Middle Ages, and a part of the damage at least resulted either directly or indirectly from war. The two great achievements of French forestry are the repair of this damage and the reforestation of eroded soils in the mountains as well as the reclamation of the sand dunes along the Gulf of Gascogne and Pas-de-Calais. The leaders responsible for these two achievements, D6montzey and Br^mon- tier, will long live in the history of France. Who will successfully re- forest and rehabilitate the land damaged by the war of 1914? There are more than a million acres to be restored to productivity, as well as innumerable forests whose growing stocks must be enriched by economy at a time when the economic demands for wood products will be at least double the normal consumption. There are certain features of French forest administration and manage- ment that deserve emphasis: the State, Communal, and Institutional forests are almost invariably managed on longer rotations than are private forests of the same species and situation. It is evident from what is taught at Nancy, that, in a narrow sense, the rotations in State forests are clearly not financial : (1) In protection forests the trees should, in theory, be left standing until they decline in vigor; the product will then have but small value. (2) In a great country like France commerce requires wood of large size. To obtain this it must be cut at an advanced age. This leads to retaining a considerable unnecessary capital, and de- creases the interest returns to a figure that is too small for the private owner. These two considerations justify the State ownership of a certain number of forests, which alone can logically accept this situation INTRODUCTION XV (low returns) for the general welfare. In times of emergencies, such as have just passed, the wisdom of maintaining State forests as storehouses of heavy timber cannot be questioned. On the other hand an unneces- sarily long rotation means an excess growing stock, or forest capital, which must earn so much greater income to be profitable; besides there is apt to be more damage from fungi, insects, and windfall. Yet, because of the favorable climatic and soil conditions already emphasized, little silvicultural damage has resulted. The tendency in State management, where climate and species permit, is toward the high-forest systems and away from coppice and coppice-under-standards. These conversions also necessitate cutting less than the growth for many years, as well as increasing the rotation. There is always a safety valve, however, because, as Professor Jolyet puts it, "Prudence demands frequent inven- tories — repeated every ten years for example — estabUshing the oscilla- tion of standing timber volumes." This frequent stock-taking is a safe- guard against retaining overmature timber, because the working-plans officer is sure to demand its removal. But on the whole the average French State forester is perhaps overconservative. This has been inbred into him, for the French code itself prescribes that 25 per cent of the yield in communal forests shall be set aside for emergencies. This rule was due to the overcutting of two centuries ago. During the past few years some State forests have been cut to the extent of ten to eighteen annual yields and perhaps this will prove to French foresters that the growing stock in such forests as Risol and Levier (Jura) have been ex- cessive and can be reduced without danger. Private forests, chiefly coppice and coppice-under-standards, on the contrary, are heavily cut — perhaps overcut — on short rotations, which is liable to gradually im- poverish the soil. The high prices prevailing since 1916 have tempted many private owners to dispose of their forests entirely or at least to make inroads on the growing stock. This was but natural when prices doubled in 1917 and trebled in 1918. Undoubtedly the private forests in France yield a higher rate of interest on the investment than do State forests, but the product is inferior and not so essential to French in- dustry. Private owners are practically unfettered in the treatment, management, and exploitation of their forest lands, provided the clearing of timber is not intended. According to the Forest Code: " Opposition to the clearing can only be formulated for the timber whose preserva- tion is recognized as being necessary — " 1. For the maintenance of soil on mountains or slopes. "2. As a protection against soil erosion and silting up of creeks, rivers, and torrents. " 3. For the preservation of springs and water courses. " 4. For the protection of dunes and coasts against erosion by the sea and encroach- ment by sand. "5. As a protection of territory in that part of the frontier zone which shall be de- termined by regulation of the civil authorities. " 6. For the sake of public health." XVI INTRODUCTION Exactly the same law '^ applies to Algeria and Corsica and it is rigidly enforced where large areas are to be deforested and where the public interest is at stake. It does not apply to — 1. Timber sown and planted and less than 20 years old. 2. Parks or fenced gardens. 3. Isolated stands less than 10 hectares (24.7 acres) in extent and if not on mountains or slopes. But the private owner is exempt from his land tax for " areas sown or planted on the summits or slopes of mountains and upon the dunes or waste lands." This law against the clearing of land is fully justified by the forest his- tory of France. A country with only about 18.7 per cent of forested area cannot afford to allow further deforestation, even if unintentional. For this reason excessive cutting or abusive treatment which would result in complete destruction comes under the prohibition of this law. Who would advocate further deforestation of mountain land after the disasters of erosion in the French Alps and Pyrenees; or the deforestation of sand dunes after the difficulties of reparation have been driven home? The observance of this law against cutting strategic forests along frontiers has been fully justified by the war of 1914, when France was protected against German drives. Ample provision ' is made for the enforcement of the law, and for reparation in case the law is violated, but on the other hand its application is liberal when it comes to clear cutting, followed by natural or artificial regeneration, as is the practice in the maritime-pine stands in the Landes. The art of the French forester lies in his keen perception of the true objective and in his simple methods. In thinnings he attacks the stand in its top story, to allow the development of the trees that will form the future commercial stand. He deals with stands rather than with trees — the correct viewpoint. In the regulation of yield of selection forests he computes the cut with an admittedly inaccurate formula, but he gets his desired results — a reasonably equal annual cut — and he realizes that with oft-repeated inventories the inaccuracies of the formula mil be cor- rected. His mensuration is a rough guess, many refinements (used even in the United States with its extensive conditions) being omitted as un- necessary to the objective. If he makes an error in estimating the volume of a sale this slack is taken up in the bidding, and there are stringent laws against illegal combinations in restraint of true competi- tion. Timber sales are kept small so as to give the small local millman a chance as well as to increase competition. No logging is done by the State, as in Germany, except experimentally in Alsace-Lorraine. 2 See Part VI of the Algerian Forest Code, pp. 184-188, French Forests and Forestry, Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ' See Chapter X on " Legislation." INTRODUCTION XVU It is as a silviculturist that the French forester is at his best, and regu- lation statistics are rarely allowed to interfere with silviculture. One State forester was deliberately departing from his working plan because good silvics demanded a group-selection cutting instead of the shelter- wood. The success of the State Forest Administration is largely due to its splendid personnel; the Director is the only political appointee, and no doubt this position will soon be assumed by a technical forester with breadth of vision. Though woefully underpaid, even in these times, the morale of the service has not been broken and it is most unusual for a forester to retire to take a more lucrative position elsewhere. The authority is clearly decentralized and the Conservator (or "District Supervisor" as the position really is) has full authority to handle his district without undue interference. Given more money for a modern office establishment he would be able to spend more time in the forest with his inspectors — a needed improvement. One of the perplexing problems which confronts the American student of French forests is to understand the units of measure in common use. For example, a stand of 200 cubic meters, or steres per hectare, conveys no concrete idea to the forester accustomed to speaking in terms of board feet or cords per acre. To avoid this difficulty the American units of measure have been adopted in this study and the following equivalents used in conversions: 1 pound (avoirdupois) = 0.45359 kilogram 1 pound (Troy) = 0.37324 kilogram 1 millimeter = 0.03937 inch 1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 1 meter = 3.28083 feet 1 meter = 1.093611 yards 1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile 1 square millimeter = 0.00155 square inch 1 square centimeter = 0.1550 square inch 1 square meter = 10.764 square feet 1 square meter = 1.196 square yards 1 square kilometer = 0.3861 square mile 1 hectare = 2.471 acres 1 cubic millimeter = 0.000061 cubic inch 1 cubic centimeter = 0.061 cubic inch 1 cubic meter = 35.314 cubic feet 1 cubic meter = 1.3079 cubic yards 1 liter = 1.05668 quarts (liquid) 1 liter = 0.26417 gallon (liquid) 1 liter = 0.9081 quart (dry) 1 Uter = 0.11331 peck 1 hectoliter '. = 2.83774 bushels 1 gram = 15.4324 grains XVUl INTRODUCTION 1 gram = 0.03527 ounce (avoirdupois) 1 gram = 0.03215 ounce (Troy) 1 kilogram = 2.20462 pounds (avoirdupois) 1 kilogram = 2.67923 pounds (Troy) 1 franc = 19.3 cents (normal rate) 1 stere * = 0.277 cord (3.6 steres = 1 cord) 1 cubic meter (au rdel) = 285 board feet (mfg.) 1 cubic meter (mfg.) = 420 board feet (mfg.) These are exact equivalents and can be changed back to the metric system without error, with the exception of the board feet equivalent which varies with the size of the timber, method of manufacture, and product. A cubic meter in large logs yields more board feet than from small logs; a mill equipped with a band saw yields more per cubic meter than does a wasteful circular saw; and if logs are cut into large dimension stuff, or ties, the yield from a cubic meter is higher than if the product is inch boards. The only authoritative data on the ratio between cubic meters (au reel) on the stump and board feet are those secured by the U. S. Army during 1917-19. In the Landes where the American mills equipped with circular saws cut 148,585 cubic meters the product was 41,437,304 board feet, mill tally, or 278 board feet to one cubic meter. The ratio varied from a minimum of 227 board feet at Sabres to 287 at Candale. For general calculations it may be said that 3| to 4§ cubic meters of standing maritime pine is equal to a thousand board feet. In the Jura silver-fir stands 144,203 cubic meters yielded 43,639,876 board feet, or 303 board feet to the cubic meter. Here the timber was larger than in the Landes. At one sawmill (Morteau) a cubic meter averaged 383 board feet, at Mouthe only 311. In round figures it takes 21 to 3 J cubic meters of silver fir to cut a thousand board feet. For general com- putations it would be safe to count 4 cubic meters of maritime pine or 3 cubic meters of silver fir to the thousand board feet. In the Dijon hard- wood belt it was found that 319 board feet were secured from the average cubic meter, or 3 to the thousand. As an average converting factor for all saw timber logs in France 3| cubic meters to the thousand is suggested, and for different sized timber, the following: Small timber 4i to 1,000 board feet Medium timber 4 to 1,000 board feet Average timber 3^ to 1,000 board feet Large timber 3 to 1,000 board feet Very large timber 2^ to 1,000 board feet When dealing with stands, from 10 to 40 per cent must be deducted for fuel. < In his statistical work (Notes sur les ForSts de I'Algfirie) Marc took 3 steres of fuel to 2 cubic meters, 50 poles to 1.30 cubic meters, ties at their full volume less 30 per cent. He counted 1 cubic meter as 750 kilos and 12 steres to one ton of charcoal. INTRODUCTION XIX Frequently it is of convenience to use rule-of -thumb methods for quick, rough calculations. With exchange at 5.18 francs to the dollar, and taking 420 board feet to the manufactured cubic meter, 285 board feet to the cubic meter of standing timber (unmanufactured) and 3.6 steres (stacked cubic meters) to the cord, we have: (a) To reduce francs per cubic meter of manufactured timber to dollars per thousand board feet, multiply by 0.46. (b) To reduce francs per cubic meter of standing timber to dollars per board foot, multiply by 0.64. (c) To reduce francs per stere to dollars per cord take 0.7. For example: 100 francs a cubic meter for boards is equal to. $46 a thousand; 50 francs a cubic meter of standing timber is equal to a stump- age rate of $37 a thousand; and 10 francs per stere is $7 a cord. It is obvious that these approximate ratios would vary with the rate of ex- change, and in case (6) to the per cent deducted for cordwood. Any student who has toured the forests of France must be impressed with the occasional difference between the theoretical forestry that is described in the text-books and the practical forestry one sees in the different regions. The writer has accordingly tried to combine the practice with the theory. An excellent illustration of the difference be- tween text-book and field forestry is found in the aleppo pine forests in the Provence, already alluded to. In theory these light-demanding coniferous stands might be managed by the shelterwood system. In actual practice not more than 15 to 20 per cent of the volume is removed in gradual selection cuttings. Yet in any study it is necessary to rely on text-books. Accordingly, the writer addressed the Director of the Waters and Forests Service at Paris in regard to the foremost standard authori- ties. These are: (1) Silviculture — Le Traits de Sylviculture de MM. Boppe et Jolyet (Berger- Levrault, Editeur — 5 Rue des Beaux-Arts, Paris) . (2) Forest Economy — (all phases of forestry) L'ficonomie ForestiSre de M. Huffel — 3 Tomes. (Laveur, Editeur — 13 Rue des St. P^res, Paris.) (3) Forestation — Guide de Planter et Semer — D. Camion (Laveur, fiditeur). (4) Reboisement — Restam-ation et Conservation des Terrains en Montagne (Parties 1, 2, and 3, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1911). (5) Forest Law — Code de Legislation Forestiere, par Puton et Guyot (Laveur, fiditeur). (6) Organization — Aide-M6moire du ForestiSr (Imprimene: Jacquin, Besangon (Doubs)). An authoritative synopsis of the original working plans of some notable forests is contained in the Appendix. The formal statistics given in Chapter IV is from "Statistique des For§ts de France" (Volumes 1 and 2). Of necessity much of the material is borrowed from authoritative French sources, and no claim can be made for originaUty. This was impossible XX INTRODUCTION if a true picture of French forestry was to be drawn. One of the editorial problems was, then, to decide what should be quoted and what should be merely digested. Exact translations only are written with quotation marks. Information digested (but not in the exact words of the original source) is not quoted. To accurately depict the French viewpoint it was considered advisable in many cases to adhere quite literally to the form of expression used by the French author, and yet, because of the need for reducing the verbiage, a complete translation could not be given. Oc- casionally whole chapters of a French work have been condensed and given in tabular form, as for example Table 11. One of the first questions that confronts the student is which forests to visit. There are many communal and national forests in France under formal technical management and naturally the student of French forestry should visit those which will furnish the most instructive lessons typical of French forest management. Conservateur de Lapasse, now stationed at Bordeaux, furnished the following list of forests with relative data. These he thought were most worth a visit: INTRODUCTION XXI T3 a si •ats -o SB S d 03 c3 oQ ra CQ T3 a C3 S.2.2 b m 00 O ki M **-" 03 a? ja > > a o o Woo a> a> 0) ,T3'B _T3 C-g C C g C O S 3 3 2 3 •St,' ■"^ • ra 3 gj Sg-.SP o ■d 3 a o o T3 a ci »,~._.2 £.2 03 o 000 OMOOOO 00 M eT3 : (BOB u u o ■B,T3 " gi Ji 03 _ 4^ B O! .2 >^ 0) 8 «? ^ 0) - o -t- -.--a -»- - OQ CD A CO ou (n 0) 0) Q. 0) 0) 0) h b O^ ki h tH O O o O O O js j3 -s ja ja ja hpbBgbpbObp tn ffi HH HH W pM 0) 0) 03.0 vQ B C3 O O 03 O 03 03 0) 3^ 03 03 03 .a Co 03 03 CQ O OOOOP3 m u 3.-1 O o •3 3.3 3 •° «?, « 0) m C3 03 C 03 ^ 0) j'Q.O 3 u oS o3 ^ o3 0000 C .2 0) u B O' ." 0) Cu.a 03 03 00 .3.ia.3 0) 0) 0) 03 0) CS 03 03 000 ja-« C3 " .3 03 ^M C3 03 00 ..!.C 3 a .*a 0) 5 3 o3^^ Pi 0P30>-J S •a O 03 03 3 E. 0) 03 03 0) 03 4 -« "a'sO 03 03 wm;^ -^ 03.^ i 2 i 3tI^'a3'03*O 03 33 03 03 S 03 0) 3 ^ .2 3 o 3 h CO) 03 •=5 s-1 §1 1° h-i !-i > 5 X Id 0H 8 0) 3 O O 3 O £5 oa 8 'S. HHHH = 2 03 03 > d o o 8 03 xxu INTRODUCTION ■d a c3 -d e 03 J5 bO ■a II §■ Woo a _o '■^ o C 0) O -«J -^ -P -*:> 4J (U r; CO U] CO CO m m OQ Oj CD OJ Of « ^ g S O S.O O g" ^ «4-t »*-. S^- S*« S*« _ W § bD W be bS bC a Mw'atawo -♦3 +a ■♦a CO OS CQ « a> (u )^ M M o o o «<-i «M c»^ bjo bO bO 15 i^ '-3 cap! o o o C3 O O _ci QJ 03 OJ 'Q, 03 CQ OQ OOfG aToT oT© ^ oT a, &< a, o^^ n, o^ cu cu a m cu o o o ov:i o OOOOffiO ^a +3 +» +3 +3 CD CQ CO 00 00 (U 03 03 V 03 ^ (^ »^ tH (h o o o o o bO U) bC UD bO bO Ph W HH K W j3 j3 +3 « h£ Ph GQ Oh CO OOO ■ao- » » 01 K" C C H^ ■g c c g c^~ ^ c 2 c B c c h O 0.0 O O o 0) h QJ *-■ „ - ^ o 0? O 0) c a&a • OS 0^3 0^ QJ CQ pa on a e ^ S - U U C) u o o o o OOOO .S'g.S-E s 0.3 p.* a a on t>J3 I 1— t c3 3 ID -3 S 3C0 Oi O 00 OiCD-" 00 COOOtH CO CfllO'^ CO Cfl 10 (N (N OS OCOOCOOCO ■* C^«OCO^O^ O^ bO ^ K) 03 03 O m 0^0 o rr. c3 »♦« CO 5P« 03 c^ 1i' ■SPhC sis §1- HOOPnfam :.£§§ S c ° =s S oT3 " ■ N S » g « g o c ^ o J CQ e c o 9 - - 4!S u u W o 9 a 3 <1 CO a_« P-( (U 9 « o3 o o O 3 a p ii ■is d a ^ d ^ ^ o o > *^ - wM O o •^.'c OJ o ■ — ^ D. '^ -■ 3 cp o M ^^ -^ C CB o CD — 03 O •^oj2 s^ b e 40 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES Acreage and Distribution. — The figures that follow show the propor- tionate area stocked with each of the principal species in France in the forests under State supervision. These statistics are based on Huffel's figiu-es of 1904, corrected proportionately to conform to the ofl&cial statis- tics on total forest area pubHshed in 1912 by the Service des Eaux et For^ts. According to these figures, broadleaf trees occupy 77 per cent of the area as against 23 per cent for the conifers. There are no accurate figures for private forests, nor for communal and institutional forests not under State supervision, but Huffel estimates that for all of France the timber oaks occupy 35 per cent of the ground, the holm oak 4 per cent, miscella- neous broadleaf trees 41 per cent, and the conifers about 20 per cent. Table 2 follows: TABLE 2. — AREA OCCUPIED BY BROADLEAVES AND CONIFERS Species Oak Beech Hornbeam Holm oak Miscellaneous broadleaves Fir Scotch pine Maritime pine Spruce Larch Aleppo pine Miscellaneous Grand total As the foregoing table indicates, the occurrence of the various species depends chiefly on climatic conditions and the oak is unquestionably by far the most important and typical timber species. The timber oaks not only occupy 27.5 per cent of the total productive forest area under work- ing plans but are also encouraged in regeneration in their fight against other species, and in many State forests the oak is grown to unprofitably long rotations in order to supply industry with the class of wood which it requires. Two important species are the sessile and pedunculate oak; they occur in mixture and separately. Oak is found all over France ex- Acres, Per cent of total area. productive forest productive forest 1,796,000 27.5 1,194,000 18.2 717,000 11.0 264,000 4.0 1,053,000 16.0 5,024,000 76.7 455,000 7.1 430,000 6.5 262,000 4.0 178,000 2.7 116,000 1.8 30,000 0.4 54,000 0.8 1,525,000 23.3 6,549,000 100.00 ACREAGE AND DISTRIBUTION 41 cept in the higher mountains and in the regions bordering the Mediterra- nean and the Atlantic Ocean. The essential silvicultural characteristic of each of these species is given on pp. 387. Beech is the second important species and occupies 18.2 per cent of the productive forest area. It is found everywhere except in the highest mountains, on the Mediterranean, and plains of the southern Atlantic coast line, including the Gironde, Landes, and Dordogne. The distribu- tion of beech is shown in Fig. 5. The hornbeam, although it occupies 11 per cent of the productive area, is not an important timber species notwithstanding its wide distribution. It does not grow to large size and its chief function is to supply fuel and to maintain soil conditions. The distribution of hornbeam is shown in Fig. 5. The holm oak is confined chiefly to the regions not occupied by the timber oaks, by beech, and by hornbeam. It is often found in mixture with cork oak (whose distribution is given in Fig. 5) and with aleppo pine. Silver fir occupies 7.1 per cent of the productive forest area and is especially adapted to the climate prevailing in northern, eastern, and central France, and is a typical species of the Vosges, Jura, Alps, and Pyrenees. It reaches its optimum development in the Jura. Notwithstanding that Scotch pine occupies 6.5 per cent of the produc- tive forest area, it does not grow naturally in level country, but only in the mountains of the Vosges, Central Plateau, Alps, and Pyrenees; it has not grown naturally in the Jura, since in that department it cannot main- tain its struggle for existence on Umestone soil. But because of its use for forestation it is. found in every department in France except ten; it forms at least one-tenth the stand of technically administered forests in twenty-six departments. The maritime. pine commercially is one of the most important timber species of France, but is limited to a comparatively small region, as shown by Fig. 5. Norway spruce is found only in the higher mountain regions of the Jiu-a, Vosges, and Alps, and does not grow naturally in the Pyrenees. Outside of these moimtain regions it is unimportant, since the mild climatic conditions of the plains do not favor its growth. The larch also is confined even more markedly to the higher mountain regions. Its natural habitat is the Alps. These five broadleaved species and six conifers are the important trees of France. How they are distributed in the different forest regions has already been explained. To give a more intimate view of French silvi- culture, the writer has included monographs on these principal species. The data are not original; much are freely translated from authoritative 42 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES E — Maritime pine (Pin maritime) F — Aleppo pine (Pin d'alep) Fig. 5 (after Jolyet). — Distribution of six important forest trees in France. Key: Dominant, flfB; subordinate, | ing, I |. j; rare, I::-:::::-!; very rare or lack- USE OF EXOTICS 43 sources, but it was considered very essential to present the data so as to give, as nearly as possible, the French viewpoint on the silvics of each important species. In order not to encumber the text these data on species are given in the Appendix. Exotics. — Jolyet, on the authority of Belgian and French authors, cites the following exotics as of possible value in France: Red oak {Qvereus rubra L.), rapid growth; hardy. June oak (Quercus pedunculata, var. tardissima Simonkai), hardy. White ash (Fraxinus americana L.), hardy; rapid growth. "Parrotia" (Parrotia persica C. A. Meyer), much like beech but can develop on dry, shallow, limestone soils; Carpinetum zone. Common walnut (Jitglans regia L.), cabinet wood; Carpinetmn zone. Black walnut {JugUms nigra L.), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. Butternut; White walnut (Jitglans cinerea L.), cabinet wood; a hardier tree; Carpine- tmn zone. SheUbark hickory (Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. Mocker nut hickory {Hickoria alba (L.) Britton), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. Yellow birch (Betvla lutea Michxf.), cabinet wood. Black cherry {Prunus serotina Ehrh.), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. Aspen (Populus tremuloides Michaux), furnishes soft wood; hardy. Yellow linden (Tilia rubra var. euMora C. Koch), furnishes soft wood; hardy; from Crimea. Manchurian linden {Tilia mandschurica Ruprecht and Maximovicz), furnishes soft wood; hardy. Honoki; Japanese magnoUa {Magnolia hypoleuca Siebold and Zuccarini), furnishes soft wood; rapid growth. Yellow poplar {lAriodendron tulipifera L.), furnishes soft wood; Carpinetum zone. Locust {Bobinia pseudacacia L.), a durable hard wood; hardy. Tree of heaven; Ailanthus {Ailantus glandvlosa Desfontaines), rapid growth and hardy; near ocean in Laurentum zone, and in Castanetum zone. Chinese ''cedar"; Cedrela (Cedrela sinensis A. Jussieu), quaUty of ash but hardier; near ocean in Laurentum zone, and in Castanetum zone. Keaki (Zdkova acuminata Planchon), wood like elm; requires fresh soil; Carpinetum zone. Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Poit) Britton), rapid growth; hardy. White fir {Abies concolor (Gord) Parry), rapid growth; hardy. Oriental spruce {Picea orientalis Carr.), drought enduring; comes from Asia Minor between Trebizond and Erzervim. Lodgepole pine {Pinv3 conUyrta Loudon), hardy for "Karst" soils. White pine {Pinus strobus L.), rapid grower; hardy; hable to borers and parasites. Norway pine; Red pine (Pinus resinosa Alton), rapid grower; hardy; free from insect danger. Use of Exotics. — Certain conclusions can be reached regarding the introduction of exotic species: (1) Exotic species are almost always uncertain, even after they have reached the sapling or pole age. Local species should be favored. (2) If exotics are used they should never be employed on a large scale 44 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES until they have been thoroughly tested over a rotation under similar conditions. (3) When employed there must be a definite justification for not using local trees — (a) Quahty of wood (not contained in local species) required by na- tional wood industries. (6) Rapid growth or hardiness under adverse soil or climatic conditions. France is poor in tree species (see p. 40) and particularly needs cabinet woods and woods easy to work, like yellow poplar. She requires trees hardy on unfavorable sites, but nevertheless, because of the high cost of foreign tree seeds the use of exotics, even though of proven worth, is rarely practicable. There are, of course, exceptions to this fundamental rule — notably Scotch pine, whose range has been increased largely by artificial means. Too often the forester may be tempted to use an exotic which has been grown successfully in botanical gardens. This is poor practice and should not be followed. Beware of exotics, because they rarely succeed and are subject to insect and fungous damage! CHAPTER IV FOREST STATISTICAL DATA Phivate Forest Owners (p. 45). Ownership, System of Cutting, and Production, Forest Areas and Per Cent of Species by Departments, Analysis of General Statistics, Management Statistics, Costs of Administration, Statistics of Fir Stands in the Jura, Statistics for Levier. Private Forest Owners. — About one-tenth the French forest area belongs to the State, two-tenths to communes and public institutions, and seven-tenths to private owners. There is an incredible number of small owners, a fact never before noted by English or American writers. In 1912 there were 1,538,526 private forest owners ^ (excluding the com- munes, which are really groups of small joint owners). There were fully 1,446,200 owners with less than 25 acres, only 82,285 owners with forests of 25 to 1,253 acres, and but 742 owners of forests over 1,235 acres. Take any department at random: In the Puy-de-D6me 101,510 acres out of the total area are in the hands of 32,684 owners, each owning less than 25 acres, and there are only 628 owners who possess more than 25 acres each. Even in the Seine-et-Marne, just west of Paris, there are 50,787 acres in the hands of 31,085 owners. Out of ten departments, taken at random, there were 97,710 owners with less than 25 acres of forest each, their average holdings being 3.2 acres. This is of the utmost importance; it is the key to the stabiUty of France. In other countries the forests are usually in the hands of large owners; in the Republic of France the forest land, as well as the agricultural land, is divided among the people. There are few large estates remaining. Out of all the private forests in France there are only seventy-nine over 2,500 acres; in twenty-one departments there are none of this size. In the United States there are millions of farmers owning small woodlots, but according to the Society of American Foresters : "A few men have secured vast amounts of private timber and timberlands. Already 1,802 owners control more than 79,000,000 acres of the forest lands of the United States. In Florida 182 holders own more than 9,000,000 acres. In Michigan over 5,000,000 acres are held by 32 owners. In Louisiana 27 holders own more than 6,000,000 acres. In the Pacific Northwest three ovmers have more than 9,000,000 acres. And these are but typical instances." ' The figures of the total number of owners, given in the official French Forest Atlas of 1912, do not check with the owners under the various size classes. This discrepancy cannot be explained but does not affect the conclusions. 45 46 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA From a national and political standpoint France is unquestionably the gainer by having her forests in small holdings. From the standpoint of forest management and the treatment of individual stands small owner- ship necessarily imphes that each owner will cut spasmodically to satisfy his needs in the village or farm. The large owner, on the contrary, upon competent technical advice, manages his forest as a permanent business and adheres fairly well to a sustained annual yield and to regulated fell- ings. Other things being equal, having forests in small holdings benefits a nation but deteriorates the stand. Ownership, System of Cutting, and Production. — The summaries that follow (taken from the official statistics of 1912) have been some- what modified by the cutting and destruction made necessary by a great war. But fundamentally the statistics will probably remain correct as regards forest area because of the stringent laws against deforestation. For the next himdred years the wood production will probably be at least 10 per cent less than during the past century. This means that in the next decade the production will be, say, 20 per cent less, while during the period 2010 to 2019 the loss may be only 1 per cent. In other words, the recovery will be gradual and progressive if a proper forest poUcy is fol- lowed. Detailed statistics (p. 50) show that 18.7 per cent of the total area of France is in forests. A siunmary of forest ownership, system of management, and annual production follows: TABLE 3. — SUMMARY OF FOREST OWNERSHIP, SYSTEMS OF MAN- AGEMENT, AND ANNUAL PRODUCTION Total area, acres Unpro- ductive, acres Coppice, acres Coppice- under- stand- ards, acres Under conver- sion, acres High forest, acres Annual production " Ownership 1,000 board feet Cords State 2,963,861 4,815,148 15,988,857 662,590 366,226 188,632 610,901 81,357 64,109 645,992 4,856,214 202,627 792,539 2,471,332 5,856,947 43,735 241,186 33,008 106,314 3,590 1,529,825 1,476,186 4,558,481 3,311,836 288,745 355,061 1,205,555 68,292 496,664 943,422 3,157.516 66,719 Communes and pub- lic institutions Private Communes and pub- lic institutions — Totals 24,430,456 1,247,116 5,768,942 9,134,653 384,098 10,876,328 1,917,756 4,664,379 <■ A factor of 3.5 cubic meters of logs to 1,000 board feet and 3.6 steres of fuel to one cord was used to obtain the column "Annual production." Because of deple- tion during the war these statistics are probably 10 to 20 per cent too high. Table 4 which follows shows the average annual per hectare production in cubic meters by departments. These data are classed especially for Federal, communal, and institu- OWNERSHIP, ETC. 47 TABLE 4.— AVERAGE ANNUAL PER HECTARE PRODUCTION IN CUBIC METERS BY DEPARTMENTS Under technical manas^ement Private Comn Department Federal Communal and institution lunal Logs Fuel logs Fuel Logs Fuel Logs Fuel Ain 4.0 2.1 1,0 1.2 2.7 1.4 oii' 6!55 2.6 0.8 2.5 0.7 0.8 3.4" 1.0 2.1 1.6 1.5 2.0 0.4 2.7 3.3 i.2 0.3 2.8 1.9 1.4 0.2 0.9 3.4 0.2 1.9' 2.0 2.2 0.2 3.2 0.6 2.0 6]25 1.2 2.6 i!5' 6.32 1.3 1.6 0.6 0.05 0.26 0.4 0.1 0.4 1.2 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 o'e' 0.1 0.1 0.7 o.\ 0.4 Q.2 1.7' 0.3 0.2 0.05 O.'b 0.6 1.0 O.'b 0.3 ois' 1.1 1.4 0.8 2.4 1.1 6!i' 0^3' 0.2 o!4' 1.0 2.6 2.6 0.35 0.24 0.2 1.3 2.4 0.8 3.1 0.6 0.9 3.9 0.3 i.2 1.8 2.2 3.2 2.2 0.5 2.5 2:2' 2.7 0.8 2.1 1.15 l.Q 1.5 2.9 1.2 0.4 2.0 2.4 ois' 2.6 1.0 2.0 0.8 0.4 i.'l 2.h 0.5 2.'b 0.2 0.8 0.3 0.08 0.15 0.1 0.5 1.0 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 1.4 0^3' 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.7 2.7 0.4 2.9 2.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 1.1 0.4 0.1 0.2 1.8 2.1 2.7 0.62 0.45 0.5 0.8 2.2 0.9 2.0 1.4 1.3 2.7 0.6 2.2 0.8 2.3 3.1 2.7 0.4 0.7 2.5 2.7 2.6 1.3 1.8 0.9 1.9 1.9 2.7 0.8 1.9 1.8 2.0 0.5 2.5 2.7 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.0 1.8 1.1 1.2 3.2 2.0 0.6 1.6 1.2 3.1 2.1 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 6!4' 6!i' 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.1 .... 0.2 0.6 6:4' 0.3 0.6 0.2 6:7' 6.1 0.1 Q.2 1.3 Q.i 0.5 Q.2 0.3 3.0 0.1 3.7 1.5 0.1 0.9 0.3 6:2' 1.1 Aisne 1.7 Allier 2.8 Alpes (Basses) 0.4 Alpes (Hautes) 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.7 1.1 0.2 Alpes-Maritimes 0.5 Ardfeche 0.2 Ardennes 1.0 Arifege 0.7 Aube 2.3 Aude 0.8 Aveyron 1.1 Belfort (Territoire de) Bouches-du-Rh6ne Calvados 2.0 0.4 0.3 0.9 1.0 0.2 0.6 3.1 0.75 1.98 Cantal 1.0 Charente Charente Inf^rieure. . 0.8 Cher 2.9 Correze 0.1 Corse 0.9 C6te d'Or 1.4 C6tes-du-Nord 1.6 0.4 2.7 Dordogne 0.4 Doubs 6.8 0.3 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.4 Dr6me 0.8 Eure . 1.7 Eure-et-Loir 1.5 Finistdre 2.1 Gard 0.4 Garonne (Haute) ... 0.3 1.3 Gers 1.6 Gironde 1.6 1.0 H6rault 1.4 Ule-et-Vilaine 1.4 0.5 0.8 1.3 2.1 1.6 1.2 0^25 1.1 0.3 1.5 2.5 Indre-et-Loir Isere 0.7 1 1.0 Loir-et-Cher 1 6 Loire 0.8 Loire (Haute) 0.8 3,6 Loiret 1 2 Lot 0.6 Lot-et-Garonne 7 Loz&re . . 0.8 Maine-et-Loire 1.8 0.08 2 48 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA TABLE i. — Continued Department Marne Haute-Marne Mayenne Meurthe-et-Moselle . . Meuse Morbihan Nievre Nord Oise Orne Pas-de-Calais Puy-du-D6me Pyr6n6es (Basses) . . Pyr4n6es (Haute) . . . Pjrrdnfies-Orientales . Rhdne Sa6ne (Haute) Sa6ne-et-Loire Sarthe Savoie Savoie (Haute) Seine Seine-et>-Marne Seine-et-Oise Seine-Int^rieure Sevres (Deux) Somme Tarn Tarn-et-Garonne . . . . Var Vaucluse Vendee Vienne Vienne (Haute) Vosges Yonne Under technical manangement Federal Logs 1.5 0.8 3.7 1.0 0.8 1.9 0.6 2.5 1.0 0.7 1.9 1.3 0.6 0.3 0.1 3.6 1.9 1.5 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 1.4 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.2 2.5 0.6 Fuel 3.4 2.2 1.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 3.8 1.7 2.0 1.8 2.3 0.5 3.0 1.2 0.1 1.2 2.1 2.6 1.5 0.3 0.1 3.8 1.6 2.5 3.2 4.4 3,0 1.3 3.8 0.4 0.5 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.9 3.0 Communal and institution Logs 0.9 0.6 6.5' 0.5 O'.Q 2.3 0.3 6!6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 6!9 0.7 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.9 0.3 1.4 6!7 0.4 0.1 6!i" ia' 0.3 Fuel 3.1 2.3 2^7' 2.5 4^6' 2.2 2.0 2^2' 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.4 3.& 3.5 2.8 0.7 0.9 3.2 0.6 0.5 2!4' 2.0" 2.7 Private Logs 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.8 0.5 1.0 0.4 1,4 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.8 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.5 ois' 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.9 0.3 Fuel 1.9 2.1 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 1.7 1,9 1.3 1.2 0.5 3.0 2.3 2.3 3.0 2.2 1.7 0.9 0.5 0.5 2.5 2.0 3.1 1.5 2.6 Communal Logs 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.3 1.8 i!o' 0.5 i!6 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 o^i' 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 6^3' 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.3 0,3 0.5 0.2 Fuel 0.8 1.1 2.0 1.1 1.4 0.3 5.0 0.6 0.6 3.3 2.2 2.1 2.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 2.5 2.4 1.7 3.6 2.6 1.4 tional forests which are under technical State management and for private and communal forests which are ordinarily not under technical supervision. The figures for each class of owner are divided into logs and fuel, and represent the number of cubic meters which the forests produce per hectare and per year. In order to reduce these figures to American units of measure (board feet and cords) the figures in the log column should be divided by 3.5 and figures in the fuel column by 0.277, the approximate answers being 1,000 board feet and cords. A study of these figures shows clearly that the forests under technical management pro- duce a much higher proportion of sawlogs to fuel than do the private or FOREST AREAS 49 communal forests not under management; for example, take the depart- ment of Ain : the Federal forests produce more than three times a? much saw timber as fuel, while the private forests produce nine times as much fuel as saw timber. A somewhat similar ratio holds for other departments. Forest Areas and Per Cent of Species by Departments. — Table 5 which follows shows by departments: (a) per cent forested; (6) total forest area, areas under technical management, and areas not under State work- ing plans; (c) for the forests under technical management the per cent of the important species given to the nearest tenth. 50 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA ^iiTusaqQ eaid euid • -M • r- auid 3t]cn)TjBi\[ o w o Oh CO Q <: CIS < PJ H CO O hi pq < aaid odd3{y ■■S pn^ aanjdg enoaieai snoaa^ll'aQsijfi ■low ■ -iO • ■ .-HO ' - *< • ■ m B3AB3[pBaiq -HMN ■ -^H ■ CO -H Hf< *M i~i C4 C4 -H -OjT-iNt-n- ■ eq . -H -H eg f-H 1-1 »■ enid qo^oag • e» - ■« • -o - ■ ■ -ca eg T^OIVJ ■c4eoe4 OTBaqujOH qoaag Neo«T-i-H • e* -1 eo -H M to eg ■M«^-HMOCC - ■ — H eo 1^0 CCC4U3^0 ■ CO 09 ' CO CO OQ ■ t» U5 -CO ■ • r^'vaoco o>cooot;-oO^«^QO^^t>-*OiOiome^oa)c^«D«o(Nooo3t— — n-<^o*HQot^Ne>aNeoos iooo|>ooc»or~-o-Heooie<»Mosooo^^«ai^-ojooi--Ococ>i(MeDc*3^Ho»t-M^-ieosO^.«o CO M oeoi^co o>_CT t^r» Mcoc»o0'^eo(0oo"50'-"0i0t^o-"icooi^o ooooo^co^ r-i'^ CO w -H ^ CO cq ofl CO th CO !-< ^H m i-h pa c«.-H Si's! I in 00 to 2SS3 ^oq^os^-* csj^o3 00 o t-i . ^ NN.-I f-HOS COCO atuaooeoc|^u3t^^•^c4e«loeooau^o>oe>4^aQO^<•oaooe^»QOM<'^aoeot«c4«o«ocolo S2^SS2Sttel^H?3^15*^*>^coeq^^Q6o>a>'^u^^^oogjodo^u^■* eq "H rt C^ C4 C4 )-( C4 CO C4 tH CO *h i-i r-) >-< ^^ «-< vh C^ C4 e4 ^ i~i *^ Cq vH ■^^'H i-lvi^ FOREST AREAS 51 < Q 02 O EM 02 Q IS «! 02 cocooooc^oaoocoM■*oa^-■*<»«e■^oooeo■^*^^col«co«QOOscM■*pp^-oomc^t-Noos 3 ■'*< ej CO -H CM WCMC-1.-H1-I ■«*<■* CO Tti r-i T»( T-1 CM Cfl CM CO CM CM ■* CO CM CO CO (N CM CM M ^ I> CM CM ^ "5 ■* 3eocD^ooous>ot--o>'-i>n>HOor-cooocoa Moocscocoeococo- j 'fc^ «i-^ -ST- 1-w wi "J ".J 1-- wj T-i "J -^ u« I— iw >~ -u -u ^. u^ -w w. -«- ». .— — . .. --H CO th ua o 00 ^ CO ^ » CO CO t; ^ P S !5 Ti S 5eo•^»*co^-HOO(Rt^cMCMO^eoiO^-cooopmN«r^^-^;OcoWl2£•g2^-| 900CM^a>eocoeooo"3— 't-i>-eo»coot^f-r— ^o> o co "^oo m ^- oq r^cM W3 t^us tH i^^cm «s w us w o> wso oo H CM o CO o to CO 00 1^ W3 in r>r vn rH -.J* CO tC cT CO CO t^ CM QO CO 00 CO 3a3CMCMOcocMcoo5 0co-^oocoi--ooeoooo»o»o^cotO'-OTjHt--oo»oseocooaO'--i»ncooi-<*'Of-HOCo^oocD'--i'*coeo«oopcoineogpeogj ^.^ — ^ — — - — —' •- — — -..■. — "^-"cOOt^O'4 W3 OS »0 CM »0 •* CO CM OOCMO^t CO t^ O ~^3I^S^***'~'S5*^ fflQOTXeO'^i-i»00»00«COOOCMlO»OOOOOOOO^lOlOCO'*OeOOSCOO»lO^Oi'*eOt-WlON H<1 52 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA A comparison of the ten most heavily forested departments with those least timbered is given below: TABLE 6. — MOST HEAVILY AND THE LEAST FORESTED DEPARTMENTS Numerical Most heavily forested Least forested order Department Per cent forested Department Per cent forested 1 Landes . . . 55.4 46.2 49.5 36.9 35.7 33.8 32.5 31.5 29.8 29.8 Manche 3 2 2 Gironde 3 7 3 Var Vendue 4 3 4 Vosges Finistere Loire-Inferieure. . C6tes-du-Nord. . . Pas-de-Calais Mayenne Creuse 4 4 5 AriSge 4 5 6 Jura 4 7 7 8 9 Sadne (Haute) .... Marne (Haute) . . . Cfited'Or 5.4 5.8 5 9 10 Meuse SnTnTnp 6 5 Averaged bv deoartments . . 38.1 4 8 An analysis of the heavily forested departments discloses that two were sand wastes (Uke parts of Minnesota and Michigan) but were reforested; five are mountainous, or very hilly; and two are hilly or too wet for agri- culture. The least forested departments are largely agricultural land or moors. When it is considered that the final use of this land has been evolved after centuries of settlement, the present-day use is significant, and it is especially noteworthy that there is to-day much land growing timber which is suitable for agriculture, yet the French Forest Code recognizes that it is in the public interest to retain the land now under forest for the production of timber, even where it could grow agricultural crops. Analysis of General Statistics. — General — The following facts are shown by Tables 3 to 6: (o) Out of 24.5 million acres of forest land less than one-third is under technical forest management. (6) Less than 5 per cent of the entire forest area is unproductive. A larger proportion of State and communal forest land is unproductive because the State and communes own most of the mountain slopes requiring conservative cut- ting, and where considerable areas cannot support tree growth, (c) More than two-thirds of the private forests are treated under coppice, or coppice- under-standards; less than one-half of one per cent of this area is being converted into high forest. Only two-fifths of French forests are under high forest, (d) The total annual production of French forests is esti- mated at 1,917,756,000 feet board measure and 4,664,379 cords of fuel. State Forests. — According to the original statistics on State forests: ANALYSIS OF GENERAL STATISTICS 53 (a) There are no State forests in the departments of C6tes-du-Nord, Dordogne, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne, Rh6ne, Vienne (Haute). (6) The six departments with the most State forest area, in the order of importance, are: Ari^ge, Alpes (Basses) Vosges, C6te d'Or, Loiret, Drome, (c) The six heaviest producing (State forest) departments, in the order of their importance, are: Vosges, Seine-Inferieure, C6te d'Or, Aisne,^ Jm-a, Meurthe-et-Moselle.2 (rf) The unproductive land in the State forests is chiefly in the mountains, notably in the departments of Aridge, Alpes (Hautes), Pyren^es-Orientales, Dr6me, Isere, Alpes (Basses). Communal and Institution Forests. — There are no communal and in- stitution forests under State control in the following departments: (a) Calvados, C6tes-du-Nord, FinistSre, Indre-et-Loire (Inf^rieure), Lot, Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Morbihan, Orne, Vendue. The largest areas are in the (6) Vosges, Sa6ne (Haute), Cote d'Or, Doubs, Meuse, Marne (Haute), but as regards production (c) Sa6ne (Haute) is first with Doubs, Vosges, Jura, Meuse, Cote d'Or, in the order named, (d) The unproduc- tive land is also in the mountains, notably in the following departments : Alpes (Hautes),Var, Ardeche, Is&re, Pyren^es-Orientales, Alpes (Basses). Private Forests. — The statistical data on private forests and on com- munal and institution forests not under management is less trustworthy, (a) But it is certain that there is privately owned forest land in every de- partment of France, with a minimum ownership of but 121 acres in the Seine which includes Paris (this corresponds to the District of Columbia in the United States). (6) The largest areas of privately owned forests are in the Landes, Gironde, Dordogne, Var, Nievre, Marne. The Var moimtain forests produce but httle saw timber though the acreage is large, (c) The heaviest production of private forest land is found in the Landes and Gironde, together 3,008,483 cubic meters (corresponding to 446,253,000 feet board measure and 340,963 cords of fuel), Nievre, Dor- dogne, Marne, C6te d'Or, together 1,871,144 cubic meters (or about 88,928,000 feet board measure and 481,563 cords). Certain features of production are illustrated by these figures and by the original statistics. In the Landes the fuel produced was about one-third the volume of the timber, while in the Gironde (also a maritime pine producing department) the ratio of fuel to timber was as 8 is to 6. Moreover, in the Nievre, Dordogne, Marne, and C6te d'Or, where private forests are largely cop- pice and coppice-under-standards, the total timber production was but one-fifth that of the Landes and Gironde, but the fuel produced exceeded the latter two departments by more than 140,000 cords, (d) There is less unproductive forest privately owned than pubhcly owned, although the total area of private forest is about double that in the hands of the State, communes, and institutions. 2 Heavily devastated by the war operations of the Germans and the French. 54 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA Management Statistics. — Unquestionably the management of French State forests is over-conservative. No systematic attempt has been made to follow financial rotations. There have been excess growing stocks,' due in many cases to over-careful working plans that followed an era of overcutting. In communal forests, managed by the State, this excess is usually 25 per cent and often more. As contrasted with those pubhcly managed, the forests in private hands are managed on shorter rotations and far too great an acreage is in coppice, or coppice-under- standards. As an illustration of this tendency to short rotations we find eight-tenths of the private forests in coppice or coppice-under- standards, no-tenths in conversion, and only two-tenths in high forest. With State forests five-tenths in high forest, three-tenths in coppice and coppice-under-standards, and two-tenths in conversion. This variance in the length of rotations is further illustrated by the de- tailed statistics for each department. Take some typical examples: VOSGES (CONIFERS) System of treatment Coppice Coppice-under-standards . Conversions High forest Length of rotation in years Under State cxjntrol 25-40 100-132 120-150 Private or uncon- trolled communal 15-25 (few 35) 80^100 (few 120) Some are cut for paper pulp at 30. For the high forests under State control the prevalent rotation is 144 years, while notable State forests like G^rardmer, Ban d'Etival, la Bresse, Cornimont, and Champ have 150-year rotations. SAVOIE (HAUTE) (CONIFERS) System of treatment Coppice Coppice-under-standards Conversions High forest Length of rotation in years Private or uncon- trolled communal 6-10 10-25 30-100 ' For example, in the State forest of Bercd (Sarthe) there are compartments with 700 to 800 cubic meters of oak to the hectare, worth 30,000 to 40,000 francs. In the forest of Levier silver fir runs as high as 1,000 cubic meters per hectare, or 25,000 francs, on soil worth 100 to 200 francs per hectare. MANAGEMENT STATISTICS 55 The rotation of 180 years is chiefly for forests at high altitudes where the growth of spruce or fir is slower. Chamonix is 200 years (see p. 252), Samoens 162 to 180, and the forest of Houches 180 to 240. These are all selection forests in a severe mountain cUmate. SAVOIE (CONIFEHS) System of treatment Coppice Coppice-under-standards . Conversions High forest Length of rotation in years 144r-180 Private or uncon- trolled communal 6-10 10-25 30-120 These long high forest rotations are for selection forests in the moun- tains. A few run even higher, notably Pussy communal at 200, Tignes communal 180 to 240, and Bramans 198 to 264. The State forest of Belle- vaux is 144 years. These communal forests with long rotations were formerly overcut and are now being improved and a suitable growing stock accumulated. VAR (MARITIME PINE, ALEPPO PINE, HOLM OAK COMMON OAK) Length of rotation in years System of treatment Under State control Private or uncon- trolled communal Coppice ... 18-25 25-30 10-18 CoDDice-under-atandards High forest 60-80 50-60 and less PYRfiNfiES-ORIENTALES (MOUNTAIN PINE, HOLM OAK, BEECH, MISCELLANEOUS) System of treatment Coppice Coppice-under-standards . Conversions High forest Length of rotation in years Under State control 18-26 32-40 150-180 Private or uncon- trolled communal 15-20 Devastated 56 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA The mountain pine in the regular State high forest of Barres is handled on a 180 to 200 year rotation, and the fir and mountain pine in the com- munal forest of Bolquere, 240 years. ORNE (BBOADLEAVES) System of treatment Coppice Coppice-under-standards . Conversions High forest Length of rotation in years Under state control 20-30 150-180 150-180 Private or uncon- trolled communal 8-12 ' Short The oak and beech in the State forest of Econnes is managed on a ro- tation of 180 years; State forest of Bourse 180 years; State forest of Bel- leme 200 years; State forest of R6no-Valdieu 180 years. The pine which has been introduced in this region is not yet mature. OISE (BROADLEAVES) Length of rotation in years System of treatment Under State control Private or uncon- trolled communal Coppice 10-15 Coppice-under-standards 20-35 18-25 Conversions High forest 80-150 The State forest of Hez-Froidmont (see Fig. 6 (ato/)) , oak, beech, etc., has a rotation of 150 years. Compiegne (where the Germans were stopped) 150 for high forest and 35 for the coppice and coppice-under-standards. HAUTE-MARNE (BROADLEAVES) System of treatment Length of rotation in years Under State control Private or uncon- trolled communal Coppice 25^0 14^25 (few 30-40) Coppice-under-standards Conversions 144-150 144^150 High forest COSTS OF ADMINISTRATION 57 There are no rich notable State forests in this department. The State forest of d'Auberive is managed on a 150-year rotation; Bussieres 144; de la Haie-Renault 144; all of these are being converted from coppice and coppice-under-standards to high forest. YONNE (BEOADLEAVES) Length of rotation in years System of treatment Under State control Private or uncon- trolled communal Coppice 12-18 Coppice-under-standards 20-30 150-180 150-180 20-25 Conversions High forest 40-50 (Scotch pine) Here four-fifths the forest area is under rotations of less than 25 years. LANDES (MARITIME PINE) System of treatment Coppice Coppice-under-standards . Conversions High forest Length of rotation in years Under State control 20-25 60-120 Private or uncon- trolled communal 10-20 60-80 12-16 GIRONDE (MARITIME PINE) System of treatment Coppice Coppice-under-standards . Conversions High forest Length of rotation in years Under State control 15-25 15-25 50-72 Private or uncon- trolled communal 13-15 20-25 45-60 (resin) 15-30 (mine props) Costs of Administration. — As Huffel points out, it is difficult to say authoritatively just what it costs to manage the State forests because the budget provides also for the management of communal forests and public establishments, for game and fish protection, for control of deforestation, for the reforestation of eroded mountain lands, for dune protection and for Fig. 6 (a to c). — State forest of Hez-Froidmont. First working group: (a — top left) Oak and beech saplings; (b — top right) Poles; (c — bottom) Seed feUing in course of exploitation, illustrating thorough utihzation and use of long clear lengths 68 Fig. 6 {d to/). — State forest of Hez-Froidmont. (d — top left) Appearance after seed felling is completed; (e — top right), (/ — bottom) Secondary felling showing regeneration secured by seed felling. The advance growth in the background will be cut back, so as to assure an even-aged stand. 59 60 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA grazing betterments. Much the same thing is true in the United States, where the Forest Service has a lump-sum appropriation to cover all man- ner of scientific work and investigations as weU as for the management and protection of the National Forests. Huffel * makes the conclusion : "Taking everything into consideration, it is estimated that $173,700 is about the expense for the management of the State forests; this figure corresironds to 6 cents per acre. It is estimated that protection costs 16 cents per productive acre; maintenance absorbs 12 cents per acre; communal and departmental tax 16 cents per acre. We have then the following revenues and costs per productive acre in State forests for 1892 (which is considered a typical year) : Per cent of gross revenue S2.26 Net yield, or 81.2 .06 Cost of management, or 2.5 .16 Cost of protection, or 5.8 .12 Maintenance, or 4.5 .16 Communal and departmental tax, or 5.9 $2.76 Gross revenue 99.9 "The expense for the personnel in France represents only 23 cents per productive acre, or 8.3 per cent of the gross revenue." It is of interest to note that this cost figure is less than those for Ba- varia, Prussia, Saxony, or Wiirtemberg where the lowest (Wurtemberg) absorbs 12.1 per cent of the gross revenue for personnel. Statistics of Fir Stands in the Jura. — One of the questions asked by private forest owners and others interested in the yield of forests is: What will forests (naturally regenerated) return in limiber or money? The answers given to this question by normal yield tables, usually based on planted stands, are often so high that they cannot be appUed, without much guesswork and modification, to American conditions. Actual averages of compartments or whole forests are more rehable for the pur- poses ef judging what forestry can attain. (See also Chapter XI.) Therefore the statistics ^ which follow, for fir-spruce forests in the Jura mountains of France, somewhat comparable to spruce-fir stands of northern New England, are of particular interest and value. They show what forestry can attain (as a maximum) under favorable amditions on non-agricultural moimtain land over whole compartments of 15 to 30 acres. (a) Compartment 18, fifth working group, State Forest of La Joux (second Jura Plateau), 60 per cent fir and 40 per cent spruce, fully stocked, thrifty stand planted after a windfall in 1812; 100 years old in 1912. * Pp. 408-409, Vol. I, ficonomie Forestifere. 5 Based on unpubhshed data suppUed by Devarennes, Inspector, French Forest Service, in charge of Jura working plans in 1912. STATISTICS OF FIR STANDS IN THE JURA 61 Diameter, breast-high, inches Number of trees per acre Volume, cubic meters per acre Approximate a Board feet per acre Cords per acre 10 16 22 28 Totals 45.6 63.6 24.8 3.2 137.2 32.4 112.0 88.0 24.0 256.4 5,700 32,300 23,400 7,200 68,600 4.8 15.0 11.8 1.6 33.2 (6) Same forest and working -group but compartment 19 and from entirely natural regeneration; 100 years old, but 90 per cent fir and lO per cent spruce. Diameter, Number of trees per acre Volume, cubic meters per acre Approximate a breast-high, inches Board feet per acre Cords per acre 10 16 22 28 Totals 67.2 98.0 35.2 4.0 204.4 47.2 170.8 123,6 24.0 365.6 8,400 45,300 33,800 7,200 94,800 7.2 22.6 16.4 1.6 47.8 Such yields seem incredibly high, and the larger number of trees and the higher yield on the area naturally regenerated is especially note- worthy. The fact remains that these yields were attained, within at least 10 per cent, allowing for a possible 10 per cent error in estimate. (c) Pure spruce, 100 years old from natural regeneration on a compart- ment in the forest of Ouhans (first Jura Plateau) ; altitude 2,300 feet. Diameter, Number of trees per acre Volume, cubic ' meters per acre Approximate a breast-high, inches Board feet per acre Cords per acre 10 16 22 Totals 97.2 84.8 13.2 195.2 60.8 151.2 54.4 266.4 10,600 39,600 14,500 64,700 9.2 21.6 7.2 38.0 " These conversions (a, 6, c, d) were made as follows: For lO-inch trees 4 cubic meters were counted to the 1,000 feet after 30 per cent subtracted for cordwood. In the other diameter classes 3 cubic meters were counted to the 1,000 feet, after subtracting 20 per cent for the cordwood in the 16 and 22 inch classes and only 10 per cent of the 28-inch class. Two cords were considered equal to 1,000 board feet. 62 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA (d) Ninety per cent fir, 10 per cent spruce, 100 years old from natural r^eneration on a compartment in the forest of St. Point (third Jura Plateau); altitude 3,280 feet. Diameter, Number of trees per acre Volume, cubic meters per acre Approzunatefl inches Board feet per acre Cords per acre 10 16 22 Totals 76.8 64.0 13.6 154.4 44.8 119.2 57.6 221.6 7,800 31,800 15,400 55,000 6.8 15.8 7.6 30.2 These four compartments average almost 71,000 board feet per acre and indicate what can be attained in 100 years as a TnaTriTniim with thrifty, vigorous stands of silver fir vmder proper forest man^^ement. Statistics for Levier. — The Federal forest of Levier * perhaps contains, next to La Joux, the best large body of silver fir in the Jura and is one of the richest and most productive in France. It is situated near Pontarlier and rests on three plateaus cut by more or less deep vaUeys. With inter- spersed private and conunimal forests it makes a stand of about 24,000 acres of almost pin-e fir. It runs up to 800 cubic meters to the hec- tare (80,000 to 85,000 board feet to the acre). There is an excellent road system. The forest was formerly the property of the Prince de ChMon, afterwards Philip n, of Spain. It was added to the Federal domain in 1674, with the exception of the forest of Vignory which was sold to the king in 1782, and the forest of Gonailles which was not joined to the royal domain until 1725. The forests of Aro and jMaubUn were despoiled by the neighboring communes. One canton has the right "for timbers in case of fire or in other cases resulting in the destruction of in- habited places." The same communes have the right to remove stumps and debris, and some grazing. The grazing right, however, is not ex- ercised. The total area of this Federal forest is 6,713 acres, of which 6,702 acres are productive. There are eight working circles with an average area of 838 acres, and 193 compartments with an average area of ' La ForSt Domaniale de Levier, par G. Mongenot, 1912, pp. 1-23, Lucienn Laveur, EditeuT. Since this forest was a notable American center during the war, considerable detail is given. The forest of La Joux is the richest in the Jura, the yield amounting to 15.8 cubic meters per hectare (about 1,900 feet board measure per acre) per year. The gross revenue has averaged for a period as high as $15.12 per acre per year. The net revenue is approximately $14.81 per acre per year. STATISTICS FOR LEVIER 63 35 acres. The soil is generally deep, fresh, and rich in humus, and the rainfall is 4.5 to 6.5 feet per year. The fir comprises 90 per cent of the stand and the spruce 10 per cent. The beech is, unfortunately, rare. Fir 160 years old yields timber 115 to 131 feet in length and when 210 to 260 years old it is 3 to 4 feet in diameter. Seed years occur every two years and reproduction is easy if there are no briars. In the past there has been but Httle insect damage, but recent windfalls which were not immediately barked occasioned some insect damage. The fungus, Aeddium elatium, when it affects trees, is removed in thinning. Under present conditions game is quite rare and the hunting is annually let for $79.13. Before regular logging the timber is generally lopped and lightly squared with the axe and the smaller pieces barked. It is hauled in full lengths. There are 42 miles of local forest roads, 6.5 to 16.4 feet in width, which are maintained at an annual expense of about $3,474. There are also 29 miles of rather poorly laid out old roads, and the entire forest is bounded by a rough stone wall, 39 inches in height, to prevent grazing and trespass. There are two small nurseries (one near the Ronde Ranger Station). Formerly the yield was fixed at one and a half trees of 1.33 meters (4.26 feet) diameter per hectare (3J trees per acre) per annum. These moderate cuttings, below the real capacity of the forest, accumu- lated a considerable reserve. In 1818-1820 Lorentz inspected this forest and advised the cutting of all the old trees over the young growth. In 1844 the yield was 7 cubic meters per hectare (2.8 cubic meters per acre). In 1861 the yield was by volume coupled with improvement selection cuttings every four or five years without limitation of volume. This proved a happy innovation because it diminished the excess growing stock and saved a great many trees that were declining in vigor. From 1881 to 1894 the average yield was 10.27 cubic meters per hectare (4.1 per acre) per year, worth $32.47 or 33.17 per cubic meter (about $10 per acre). Of this yield, it should be mentioned, however, that 10 per cent was branch and stump wood. The compartments were made approxi- mately equal. This was an error, since it would have been better to have them differ somewhat in size and follow natural features for boundaries. In 1894 the working plan was revised and all trees 9.5 to 60 inches in diameter were caUpered, giving 231 trees per hectare (94 trees or 49,000 feet board measure per acre). The yield per cent was established at 2.35 per cent, plus a fraction of the excess volume, bringing the total cut up to 2.74 per cent. During the years 1905 to 1911 the yield was 11.93 cubic meters per hectare (4.8 per acre) per year, or a revenue of $16.12 per acre. This amounted to 2.66 per cent of the total volume. In 1911 it is interesting to note that the windfalls amounted to 11,134 cubic meters and were sold at $42,196. During 1916-1919 about eighteen an- nual yields were cut to supply the armies. 64 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA This is the history of a forest where the results of sound management have proved increasingly beneficial. It is cited in connection with the study of forest statistics to illustrate the history of a well managed forest and to drive home the increasing benefits derived. CHAPTER yi NATURAL REGENERATION French Policy (p. 65). General, Nancy School Policy, Assist Nature, Study Soil Conditions, Soil Preparation. French Silvicultural Methods (p. 70). Systems of Cutting, The Market. High Forest Systems (p. 71). Clear Cutting Oak, Clear Cutting Maritime Pine, Clear Cutting Aleppo Pine, Spruce Strip Fellings, Shelterwood Cuttings in Oak, Seed Felling, Secondary Felling, Final Felling, Shelterwood for Beech, Shelterwood for Oak- Beech, Shelterwood for Maritime Pine, Shelterwood for Scotch Pine, Shelterwood for Fir, Shelterwood for Spruce, Shelterwood for Fir and Spruce in Mixture, The Selection System in Broadleaf Stands (Beech), Fir Selection Fellings, Spruce Selection FeUings, Selection FeUings for Scotch and Aleppo Pine, Group Selection for Fir or Spruce, Group Selection for Larch (and other methods), Treatment for Scenic Forests. Coppice Systems (p. 92). General, Simple Coppice, Coppice with Field Crops, Selection Coppice (Beech), Coppice-Under-Standards, A Substitute for Coppice-Under- Standards (Futaie Claire), Conversions. Care op the Stand After Regeneration (p. 105). Intermediate Cuttings, Clean- ing (and Freeing) Young Stands, Thinnings, Improvement Fellings. FRENCH POLICY General. — The French forester has always been a close student of soil conditions, seed crops, and methods of seed germination, because his ideal has always been to obtain the natural regeneration of forests. And to-day high labor costs will make artificial forestation almost pro- hibitive. It has been argued that natural regeneration is the more costly in the end, because to regenerate forests naturally took 15 to 20 years or more and that even then the results were unsatisfactory. But in France, with a mild climate, plenty of rainfall, rich soil, and species that produce seed crops in abundance, natural regeneration has succeeded and will be continued, except when normal forest conditions must be restored in the devastated war zones and where the damages of past over- cutting have not yet been completely repaired. The French forester is a student of nature. For generations he has been taught "Imiter la nature, hMer son ceuvre, telle est la maxime fondamentale de la sylviculture." His simplest problem is where he can clear-cut the entire stand and yet secure his second crop without plant- ing; his difficulties increase as the cuttings must be varied in degree and in number so as to tempt the next generation of trees to gain a footing > Professor Hawley kindly reviewed this chapter. 65 66 NATURAL REGENERATION in competition with grass, weeds, and vmdesirable species. But he recog- nizes that success cannot alwajre be obtained under these difi&cult condi- tions without assisting nature. Consequently he is ready to wound the ground covered with grass so that the seed can germinate in the mineral soil, or he may have to cut back briars or heather which is crowding out the conunercial stand. In the United States there are three schools of forest sentiment: (1) The lover of primeval forests wants to spare all trees for the sake of their beauty. He does not care whether trees mature and die and go to waste. (2) The lumberman, who buys forests for profit. After stripping off the merchantable timber he lets the soil take care of itself if he cannot sell to a land speculator. (3) The State preaches a middle course — grow timber as a crop and cut the stand when it ripens. This should be the forester's Golden Rule. Let us profit by the example of a country like France and use nature to help us in our task. Natural regeneration is the aim in France and, in the United States, with our high labor costs, forestry will be a business failure for some time to come imless 95 per cent of our forest soil can be stocked without sowing or planting. Nancy School Policy. — Jolyet argues that: "In France silviculture has always aimed at securing r^eneration by the play of natural forces alone, man intervening only for exploitation, so as to give more or less space to the crowns of trees selected as seed trees, and more or less Ught to the soil destined to receive the seed. Our silviculture teaches us, moreover, that artificial re- generation is not only onerous, but in addition gives poorer results. And this viewpoint is fvUy justified. In reality, if you plant or sow by day labor, you are forced for economy's sake to reduce to a minimum the quantity of seed, or the number of plants per unit of area . . . and the owner is forced to retain for as long a period as possible aU these trees which have cost so much; he will do his utmost to preserve even the most decrepit specimens . . they will have, therefore, on the whole, a reduced vitality. On the contrary, if you employ natural r^eneration, the seed trees sow on the soil of the cutting area without counting the seeds; the seedlings come in excess numbers and in this mass of individuals, amongst which commences an active fight for existence the weaker and less sturdy are eliminated by the most vigorous which remain masters of the soil. The stand will then be composed of trees selected by nature herself, on whose vitality and longevity you have the right to count." This latter argument is perhaps contrary to the reasoning of some who claim that young trees are only weakened by imdue competition and that thinnings (made so as to favor the most vigorous trees) should eliminate this struggle to decide the survival of the fittest. But it re- mains a fact that with proper thinnings natural regeneration produces a finer forest than any feasible plantation and better than the average sown stand. Assist Nature. — But the forester knows from bitter experience that satisfactory regeneration cannot always be secured from nature alone; adverse soil conditions may have to be bettered, suitable seed trees may STUDY SOIL CONDITIONS 67 be lacking, frost may destroy seedlings when it is too late to await natural regeneration longer. "It is rare," says Jolyet, "without question, when the conditions are such that any production of acorns or nuts is absolutely impossible; it is, on the other hand, quite common to find this production insufficient." To await natural regeneration xmder these conditions is, therefore, often poor forestry; particularly with virgin stands which have not been under intensive forest management, it is often best to aid nature. In many German forests, it is argued that natural regeneration at best is difficult and uncertain and requires more time and consequently a longer rotation; so why not plant or sow at once and be done with it? In France, as already explained, the conditions are more favorable. In the Landes natural regeneration is almost certain; in the silver fir reasonably certain; in the spruce or Scotch pine quite possible of attainment; in aleppo pine attainable; with beech usually certain, as with the oak, under favorable conditions. In mixture with beech the regeneration of the oak is often more difficult because it cannot compete with the more shade- enduring species. Study SoU Conditions. — It is, therefore, vital to thoroughly under- stand the properties, constitution, and influences of the forest soil upon the final results attained. Like agricultural soil the forest soil ^ is mineral and organic. But the forest soil is more complex and more difficult to keep in proper condition; moreover, conditions are constantly changing so that what are normal soil conditions at the beginning of the regenera- tion period should gradually change as the canopy is opened up. Forest soil has (1) a dead litter of leaves, twigs, bark; (2) a humus or decayed litter; (3) a vegetable soil or mixture of humus with the mineral soil; (4) a mineral soil coming from the decomposed rock, and (5) the base rock itself. It takes years to get a normal forest soil (that may be ruined by over-exposure or fire), while the agricultural soil can be acquired arti- ficially by introducing the necessary elements that may be lacking. Of these ingredients, in forest soils, humus is the most important. True forest humus is beneficial; on the contrary, acid humus is harmful and prevents or hinders regeneration. Acid humus, infrequent in French forests, may be due to a number of causes — insufficient heat, too much moisture, drought, or steriUty. In everyday practice the forester is troubled more by the physical texture of the soil and with the htter and vegetable cover than by the chemical composition or the presence or absence of chemical ingredients. A soil baked by the sun or packed by grazing usually prevents regeneration, as does a cover of dry leaves, grass, sod, or weed growth. For example, a growth of heather under 2 Traits Pratique de Sylviculture, Antoine Jolyet, Bailli6re et Fils, Paris, pp. 298-358. 68 NATURAL REGENERATION Scotch pine absolutely prevents reproduction. Jolyet holds that "the depth of a soil from the rock base will be always greater in the forest than on bare ground. This is due to the greater rapidity of decomposi- tion, owing to the effect of water infiltration which is charged with car- bonic acid by percolating the Utter." Forest soil is deepened not only by decomposition from the underlying rock, but also by the accumulation of humus from above. Every forester should study the depth ' and character of soils. A deep- rooting tree on a shallow soil cannot develop its root system properly and normally, but on a shallow soil with an outcropping rock such trees as aleppo, mountain, or Austrian pine possess root systems that penetrate the rock fissures and make the most of a sterile soil. A soil covered with tree growth is alwaj^ more jwrous than the same soQ denuded. It is not enough for a soil to receive the water necessary for tree growth; water must be stored or retained in such form iiat it is available for use when required by the tree dining the vegetative period. On a bare though porous soil the run-off is excessive. Soil Preparation. — Soil preparation is often necessary in any kind of cutting, yet in France the sentiment is everywhere in favor of natural regeneration, preferably withoid the additional expense of artificial soil preparation. But the more the system departs from nature's method, the more the soil must be worked. With the shelterwood system there must be more soil preparation than with the selection method. The suc- cess of natural regeneration depends on the proper number and location of trees bearing seed, the right amount of Ught or shade for the develop- ment and existence of the young seedhng, as weU as upon proper texture of the ground free from weed cover. But it is only under the most favor- able conditions that some kind of soil preparation is not necessary for the successful regeneration of a species like spruce. In theory, the forest could wait until natural regeneration came in without assistance. In practice, the regeneration would often be incomplete; it would come in slowly and seed trees valuable for timber of the highest quaUty would decrease in value and become firewood. Even with very full seed crops some kind of assistance may have to be given natural regeneration usually for three reasons: (1) Because of a dense vegetable cover which prevents the seed coming in contact with the mineral soil; (2) because of an exces- sive cover of undecomposed dead needles, or (3) because the sm-face of the soil itself is too compact. The vegetable cover is often too thick because, imfortunately, as trees mature their cover is less dense — especially with species hke oak or » Very shallow sofl, less than 6 inches deep; shallow soU, less than 12 inches deep; slightly deep soil, less than 24 inches deep; deep soQ, less than 3.28 feet deep; very deep soil, over 3.28 feet deep, — according to French classification. SOIL PREPARATION 69 Scotch pine — consequently weeds and shrubs take possession of the soil. Under such conditions it is an obUgatory rather than an optional expense to remove this cover. It is not always necessary to regularly cul- tivate the soil. On the contrary, it is usually better to keep the surface of the soil where the seed can reach it. It suffices, then, to tear up the vegetable cover. This work should be locaUzed on those areas where there are seed trees and where there is suitable Ught for seedUngs. The opera- tion should be carried out only during the seed year, otherwise the vege- table cover will reinstate itself before any benefits have been received. In oak forests, where the regeneration is prevented by grass or herba- ceous growth (Jolyet, p. 362), the soil preparation must usually be carried out over the whole surface of the ground. The rake is the best imple- ment for this purpose. The seed crop cannot usually be determined accurately before the month of August, so that the work should not be- gin before this date, although it may be continued during and after the crop has fallen. In certain forests, it was the practice to drive hogs over the area to be seeded; this gave very fair results. The hogs ate up a large amount of seed mudoubt, but in wounding the soil they gave a thorough soil preparation which cost nothing. In mature Scotch pine forests it is usual to find a cover of heather or shrubs which practically prevents regeneration. With a mattock or hoe it is usually possible to weed the area and encourage regeneration. The work is costly, jio doubt , but it can be diminished by localizing the soil preparation on parallel strips or in spots. The cultivated strips should have a width of 5 feet and should be separated by uncultivated areas of about 10 feet. This would cover about one-third of the entire ground. Spots are even more economical; they may be 5 feet square and 10 feet apart. This covers about one-ninth of the total area. In spruce stands similar meth- ods may be of value. The choice of implements to use is usually gov- erned by local conditions, although in Germany the so-called forest plow is favored. It has but one wheel and is Ught enough so that one horse can pull it. It wounds the soil without actually turning it over, and is not sharp enough to cut the roots which it may cross. Where the leaf htter is too thick, as in certain pure stands where the dead leaves decompose very slowly, the roots of the seedling cannot be- come established in mineral soil before the summer drought. The top layer and humus dry out and this results in the death of the seedUng. With a good, strong iron rake, dead needles can be mixed with the humus on spots about 29 inches square and 5 feet apart. In some forests in France a regular harrow is used for this work. Where the soil surface is too compact it must be wounded if the regeneration is to be a success. This is especially true on compact soils, such as clays, where there has been grazing before the seed felling. 70 NATURAL REGENERATION FRENCH SILVICULTURAL METHODS Systems of Cutting. — French silviculture is especially simple. Where the German silviculturist may describe twenty or thirty different methods of cutting, French authors generally confine themselves to a comparatively few. Special methods of cutting, or variations from regulated systems, they leave to the individual silviculturist who uses his judgment in vary- ing standard methods so as to meet local conditions. These variations, as well as special emphasis on the object of cutting and method of attain- ing the end, are usually cited in the local working plan. The systems used in France are: (1) Clear cutting, (2) shelterwood (progressive cut- ting), (3) selection fellings, (4) group fellings, (5) coppice, (6) coppice- under-standards, (7) conversions. A routine description of these stand- ard methods does not seem necessary, but instead the French method of appUcation of silvicvilture to the more important species has been studied and cited. The illustrations are from original French working plans. The Market. — According to Huffel, forests have always played an important r61e in the national life. First, for hunting and food; then, until the Nineteenth Century, the forest furnished fuel, timber for houses and ships, tools and utensils, honey and wax, dead leaves for manure, nuts, various fruits, and resin. Grazing was important, and as late as 1560 the forest of Haguenau in Alsace was described by the number of hogs it woidd support. Additional products were strawberries, rasp- berries, mushrooms, moss, plants, twigs, cones, heather, and ferns, much of which were collected by the poor, since the French have always con- sidered that "the forest is the cloak of the poor." In the present cent my, although the tendency is decidedly toward the production of saw timber, three-fourths of the output is still firewood. In 1815 Paris consumed 0.50 cords per inhabitant; in 1865, 0.13, and in 1900, but 0.05 cords per inhabitant. Not only has the use of charcoal for cooking fallen off, but factories use coal to the almost total exclusion of wood or charcoal. The early writers, prior to the discovery of coal, often predicted a wood famine, and had not coal been discovered their predictions would have come true, because to supply the equivalent of the present coal consmnp- tion of France more than ten times the total forest area would be necessary. Fortimately for the timber resom-ces the use of wood is becoming less and less. Iron was first used for shipbuilding in 1843; iron and cement have largely replaced wood for houses. The great demand to-day is for a good quahty of boards, mine props, ties, paving blocks, wood pulp, tan bark, and cork, as well as for such products as turpentine, rosin, alcohol, etc. This rough summary of the decreasing use of wood products and the change in kind of material required is merely given as an illustration to show how necessary it is for the forester to study the future needs of the coimtry. CLEAR CUTTING OAK 71 He must be far-sighted, since he cannot count on present demands. Gener- ally speaking the world's industry demands more and more high forests for timber and fewer coppice forests for fuel and minor products. HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS* Clear Cutting Oak. — In the valley of the Adour [70] above Dax the pedunculate oak grows in areas subject to inundations and where agri- culture is not feasible. It is practically pure, with rapid growth and a remarkable longevity. These forests are celebrated for the enormous quantity and quaUty of the oak wood which they produce and especially, in former years, for the ship timber which was used when wooden battle- ships were built. With such a warm climate the trees are prolific seed producers. Abundant crops of seed are borne every year. On the other hand, late frosts must be guarded against. These high forests are not treated by any regular system since the fertility of the soil, coupled with its depth and freshness, enables the trees to seed and the seedling to live, notwithstanding the overstory of old trees and notwithstanding the underbrush; apparently the only danger is hog grazing, which does con- siderable damage, but in this wet region the growth of shrubs and vines is almost tropical in character and forms such a dense thicket that the young seedlings are in part protected against such injury. It is interest- ing to note that the seedlings, which in other parts of the country would be suppressed by the underbrush, shoot up through the entanglements, twisting their terminal shoots in the direction where there is most light. This results in the production of rather crooked trees. [74] These ped- unculate oak forests of the Adour are regenerated to-day very successfully by a simple system. Taking for granted that there are always acorns ready to germinate and that these will survive the cover of the old trees, the old trees are clear cut in one feUing. At the same time all the briars, un- dergrowth, oak seedUngs (damaged by exploitation or suppressed by the cover) are cut level with the ground. The shoots from these very young stumps have practically the same qualities as seedUngs. Al- most invariably this clear cutting will be followed by the development of an incalculable number of young oaks which rapidly cover the soil with a complete stand which in time develops into an oak high forest. In the valley of the Adour the growth of the young oak is sufficiently rapid so that cleanings are rarely necessary. Thinnings, on the con- ' Since the high forest systems are of paramount importance in the United States their application to typical species has been given in detail. Note. — The bracketed numbers refer to page references in La Forfit, by Boppe, the source of much of this material. 72 NATURAL REGENERATION trary, are very important in all the young stands. With clear cutting it is naturally necessary to regulate grazing. On account of the richness of the soil the grazing is quite valuable, and the communes even insist on the clearing out of the briars and underbrush which formerly protected the young oak. Under these conditions the grazing is prohibited two years before the clear cutting in order to enable the seedlings to estabUsh them- selves to the very best advantage, and in addition the area cut over is closed for 12 years after felling operations [75], making 14 years of closure. Clear Cutting Maritime Pine. — The maritime pine is essentially a light-demanding tree, and while it can stand the average winter in the northeast of France it cannot withstand unusual cold. It furnishes an abundance of seed every year with remarkable regularity. It was for- merly treated by a sort of crude selection system. The great importance of the tree is on account of its resin production. Formerly it was tapped for resin and when a tree was dying it was cut. In these openings the young seedlings came up but developed poorly because there was in- sufficient hght. On account of the prolific seed production after clear cutting and because cones open under the effect of the sun's heat, after the trees are feUed, it is essential that the species be clear cut. Scattered seed trees after felUng are unnecessary. The young seedlings develop excellently in full simhght and are neither damaged by the heat nor by the spring frosts. According to the working plan for the State forest of Carcans the following silvicultural operations are in force : " 1. Successive regeneration by clear cutting preceded by tapping to death. "2. T hinni ng by tapping to death the superfluous stems of those which are of poor qiiaJity after the trees reach 26 years of age. Tapping aUve trees which have reached a diameter of 13 inches. "3. T hinnin gs in young stands in order to obviate the extremely slow growth of very dense stands." It should be noted that the maritime pine immediately bordering the ocean is never clear cut but is maintained as a protection belt against the sand dimes. Only dead and dying trees are cut from this shelter belt. As a matter of fact the trees, owing to the wind, are inferior in quality and stunted in growth. Clear Cutting Aleppo Pine. — On account of the dry soil conditions which are prevalent in aleppo pine or stone pine forests, clear cutting is rarely advisable (see pp. 88-89). The forester in charge of the impor- tant aleppo pine forests around Marseilles uses a conservative group- selection system, making it a point never to expose the soil. Spruce Strip Fellings. — Notwithstanding the development of various forms of strip fellings in Germany and Switzerland, they have not been practiced to any extent in France. This is only another illustration of SEED FELLING 73 the simplicity of French silviculture and the absence of variations from the few standard systems of cutting which have been in use for centiu-ies. The keynote to French practice is that the method of natural regenera- tion should closely approximate nature's method. "Strip cuttings," according to Jolyet, "are nothing more than a variation of clear cutting." In theory, at least, it should succeed with spruce, provided the strips are not too wide. They should be in the shape of long rectangles and should extend up and down the slope with their axis preferably at right angles to the prevailing wind. Since this method of cutting has not been de- veloped by French siMculture, the details will not be discussed here. Shelterwood Cuttings in Oak. — Some of the best high forests [81] of France are composed of sessile oak (with some beech in mixture) on sandy loam soil. These soils are often quite sandy in character and yet splendid forests, such as Perseigne, Berc6, Blois, Senonches, Bell^me, result. Thanks to the mild climate, the acorn crop is frequent but by no means annual, as in the valley of the Adour. In this region an acorn crop can be counted on every 6 to 8 years; besides the sandy soil is particularly favor- able to natural seeding. In former days hunting to hounds was ex- tremely popular, so that it was fortunately necessary to have high forests rather than coppice. The first regular method of cutting applied to these high forests was the so-called "tire et aire" — successive clear cutting with a reservation of eight seed trees per hectare (2.5 acres). Unfor- tunately the acorn crop did not always correspond with the year of re- generation felling and the soil was soon covered with weeds and heather. It is ordinarily sufficient, however, to have an acorn crop the year before felling, or at least within two or three years after. To-day these oak (beech) forests are treated by what the French call the method of progressive ^ fellings (shelterwood system), or "system of natural regeneration and thinnings." This method means felling not at one time by a clear cutting, but instead by a number of cuttings succeed- ing one another and removing progressively all the old trees. These cut- tings are called seed felUngs, secondary felUngs, and final fellings which together constitute the regeneration fellings. Seed Felling. — Seed felling, as the term implies, aims at starting regeneration. In order that the seedUngs may start two things are necessary: plenty of seed and a chance for development for the seedhngs after they have germinated. Three steps comprise these seed fellings: (1) The crowns of a certain number of trees designated as seed trees are isolated. This gives light for the development of the seed trees as well as for the development of the existing seedlings. The isolation of these 'Also termed "regular method" for high forests. The French have never copied the German term "shelterwood." They prefer "progressive cutting" (coupes pro- 74 NATURAL REGENERATION crowns may vary. A so-called "dark" felling, according to Bagneris, is when the lateral branches of the crowns of the reserved trees touch when the wind is blowing. In an "open" or "hght" feUing the space between the crowns may be 7 to 16 or 20 feet. A "dark" felling has this advan- tage, in that the seed trees are more numerous, the acorns are better scattered over the entire surface of the felling area, and the seedUngs are better protected against the late frosts. The trees chosen for seed trees must be soimd and must have well developed crowns. (2) All trees, other than seed trees, whose foliage extends to the ground and is therefore suppressing seedUngs, are removed. Beech, or hornbeam, which often forms a valuable understory in order to preserve soil conditions up to the time of the seed felling, is cut. (3) If the soil is covered with weeds they are cut level with the groimd, as are also oak advance growth imsuit- able for future regeneration. The soil, after a seed felling, must be cleared of all low growth. If necessary, the surface of the soil is loos- ened by wounding it. A successful seed felling is where there are one or two seedhngs per square yard. Often there is practically a carpet of young oak. Secondary Fellings. — The next step is to gradually remove the seed trees and to gradually free the existing seedlings without causing too much damage. These secondary feUings in oak stands are usually two or three in number. Care should be taken not to expose the existing seedlings to late frosts, not to damage too many seedhngs in the lumber- ing operations, and to retain enough seed trees in locaUties where seed- Ungs have failed. It is also essential not to remove the seed trees so rapidly that the ground may rvm wild to weeds. The best time to mark secondary feUings is during the simamer, since the state of the vegetation can be more accurately determined. The removal depends primarily on the condition of the ground. If the seed crop is poor it may be necessary to again cut back the weeds and to woimd the soU. If, on the other hand, the seedling growth is very luxuriant, cutting can be much heavier. The result of the secondary felUng is to increase the growth and development of the seedUng crop and to enable it to maintain possession of the ground. Final Felling. — As soon as the young crop is complete and the first seedUngs have developed into saplings, it is time for the final feUing, which is reaUy a final secondary felUng and which is generally termed final fell- ing. This felUng merely removes the remainder of the seed trees at one stroke, since it is rarely advisable to hold over a few seed trees even where regeneration may be lacking in a few spots. When seed trees are held over it means that very valuable timber decreases in value, since as soon as these mature oaks are isolated, epicormic [92] branches develop, the crown deteriorates, large branches die, and there is great danger of rot or damage from insects. The regular high forest (shelterwood) aims at FINAL FELLING 75 the complete natural regeneration of the proper species of uniform age. It has the advantage of preserving the soil and of producing regularly formed trees, but the disadvantage of possible damage from insects, snow, wind, and weeds unless the species are mixed. According to De Gail * the regular shelterwood system was adopted all over France during the last half of the last century. "The rotation was divided into a certain number of periods, generally of equal length, frequently four or five. For each one of these periods there was a corresponding periodic block on the ground. During each of the periods the corresponding block had to be regenerated while the others were run over by improvement cuttings. The volume to be removed each year in the regeneration fellings formed the chief yield and was the quotient of the existing volume in the periodic block in question, growth in- cluded, divided by the number of years forming the period. Improvement fellings were assigned by area at regular intervals, the volume to be realized remaining unfixed." The objection to this system was that it was good in theory but did not work out on the ground. Too many sacrifices had to be made for regu- larity, and damage resulted from fire, wind, and insects. Very fre- quently the whole scheme was disarranged by unforeseen damage, and yet the working-plan scheme depended for its success on orderly ar- rangement. Exactly the same yield was unnecessary each year, but great differences had a bad effect on the regulation, as, for example, after an enormous cut following an unforeseen windfall. In 1878 an endeavor was made to correct the weakness by first subtracting accidental yields from the major yield before the regular annual cut was prescribed. But even this was not entirely satisfactory, chiefly on account of windfall in such regions as the Jura and Vosges. The forest of Paridas working plan stated that during the regeneration of this oak forest it is usually necessary to fence to prevent damage from game. The old oak is growing close together and very heavy openings are made in this stand, since the luxuriant grass crop seems to assist the oak regeneration inasmuch as it freshens the soil. After regeneration cutting there are about 80 trees per acre with the openings often 100 feet across. Occasionally the cuttings are made lighter because of the danger of briars and weeds. There is very rapid growth and the rotation is 120 years. Where thickets of blackberries have come in they are removed at the first cleaning when the reproduction is 12 to 15 years old. If cut earHer they spring up again. There has been some damage to the oak from the "sidium" disease, which must be sprayed with salt as a curative and pre- ventive, but there is danger of the salt hurting the roots. Where the oak stands are very dense there is much less seed, as is illustrated by condi- tions in the Paridas forest. The oak sometimes comes in even in dense heather but frequently it is necessary to cut strips in the heather to en- 8 Nouvelles Tendances et M^thodes d'Amenagement, No. 2, 1907, S. F. deF. C. et B. 76 NATURAL REGENERATION courage regeneration. The regeneration period is 30 years. Light thin- nings are made every 10 years, and usually after 35 years the canopy of the crowns is complete. Shelterwood for Beech. — Beech forests are still important in France [130] on the Parisian Plateau, on the Plateaus of Lorraine, Bourgogne, Franche-Comte, on the lower mountain slopes of these regions, and on aD the mountains in the fir zone. The regeneration of beech is always by the shelterwood method (progressive fellings), but regeneration by dear felling is absolviely impossible, since the beech seedlings are very susceTptible to damage from late frosts and from drying oxtt. While it is true that the mast is not more frequent than the acorn crop, yet it is easier to secin-e beech seedlings, since on account of its tolerant quaUty the advance growth is often existing at the time of the seed felling, even if the cover is considerable, whereas the oak seedling must be freed from overhead cover. This step is not so necessary with the beech since it is so tolerant. There is less danger of the beech seedlings being damaged by weeds or briars than of the oak. The seed feUing with the beech is always light, since the seedlings cannot stand a rapid opening up. When there is a thick carpet of vmdecomposed dead leaves on the groimd wounding the soil is quite necessary in order to expose the humus. This is sometimes secured by driving hogs through the area just before the seed feUing, in order to let them, without expense, dig up the weeds and wound the soil. Frequently it is sufficient to let in enough Hght to eat up the leaf cover. The secondary fellings are also "dark," and often it is necessary to hold over trees which should be felled, on account of the danger of making too large openings. This means that instead of two or three secondary fell- ings, as with the oak, it may be necessary with the beech to make three or four secondary fellings. This has no drawbacks since the young beech seedlings can stand the shade of the seed trees. The final feUing is made as soon as the seedUngs have grown to the sapHng stage and it should not be held over too long because of the damage which results to the saplings. The final feUing always removes all the remaining trees. Shelterwood for Oak=Beech. — A feature of oak and beech naturaUy regenerated is the maintenance of the soil in good condition and a suit- able mixtin-e of beech in the understory. The tolerant beech always has a tendency to take possession of the soil and therefore it is often necessary to favor the oak. This can be done by reserving more oak seed trees in the seed felling and by cutting the beech in the understory, by hastening the secondary felUng and making it rather open wherever oak seedlings have estabUshed themselves. Otherwise, they may be crowded by the tolerant beech. The seedhng of the oak may be favored by wounding the soil. When the seedUngs are freed, and in the thinning, the oak also may be favored. According to Inspecteur Badr6 it is very difficult to SHELTERWOOD FOR OAK-BEECH 77 maintain beech and oak in mixture, side by side, for the beech always dominates the oak unless it is progressively freed from the surrounding beech. The most practical solution is to grow the oak in small groups, which can often survive the struggle with similar groups of beech without assistance. The forest of Pare et St. Quentin has had working plans made in 1869, 1884, and 1905. As a result of experience a rotation for 120 years was found too short because of the large proportion of oak. It was, therefore, increased to 150 years. Where there is difficulty in regeneration, according to the following most recent working plan, the cuttings would be regulated according to seed crops rather than to the sequence of fellings as developed : "The density of the seed fellings will be regulated so as to allow for the requirements of the species — oak and beech — which should be forced into the proper mixture (about half and half). The existing understory must be completely removed above this size, and under no pretext whatever should it be allowed to form part of the future stand. The seed fellings will be followed by secondary and final fellings laid out ex- clusively according to the cultural needs. The improvement cuttings should aim at the establishment of a high forest with a suitable mixture of species and as fully stocked as possible; they will be carried out by the use of regular normal thinnings, the removals limited to trees already dead or almost wholly so. ... In the young stands the valuable species will be carefully freed and, in accordance with their needs, the softwoods and species of secondary value will be sacrificed." The working plan of the forest of Malmifait is as follows: "The regeneration felUngs which remain to be carried out during the second period, consist solely of secondary and final fellings. The secondary fellings will be made care- fully according to the amount and vigor of the existing reproduction. Where considered advantageous, the natural seeding will be assisted by soil preparation during seed years, coupled with the dibbling of acorns and beech nuts if necessary; this will be supple- mented, if need be, by plantations which will be set out in systematic lines in order to make future clearings easier and cheaper. Seedlings and plants must always be pro- tected at the start against the briars and the grass, as well as sprouts of species of secon- dary value. The final felling will take place as soon as regeneration is secured, and with- out too much delay, in order to lessen the damage, always considerable, caused by the exploitation and removal of the trees. When the cutting area is completely cleared, all the damaged stems must be cut back. It will be carefully seen to that the game, espe- cially the wild boar and hares, do not increase to an excessive degree. Thanks to this precaution it will be unnecessary to build wire fences, which are very expensive and which usually give only mediocre results, around the compartments recently seeded; especially since the patrol force of the Malmifait forest is composed of a single employee who, without question, would find it difficult to maintain the fences in good order and to watch continually the rabbit holes. But in the areas where the mammals are most dangerous, it may be unsafe to start reforestation by means of plants, whose stems should be protected by wire netting fastened to stakes.'' An interesting example of field practice in marking ' shelterwood fell- ings was studied in the oak-beech forest of Pare et St. Quentin. Before ' In France the marking hammers are kept looked up by the forest assistant or in- spector, and when trees are marked they are stamped both on the roots and at breast- 7s NATURAL REGENERATION beginning the inspector explained to the rangers the fine points of the marking. In the area marked he illvistrated the need of favoring beech, especially trees with well-developed crowns, on account of the necessity for plenty of seed. The trees cut were caUpered and every record checked by being repeated by the tallyman. All poor trees were cut, notwith- standing the need of beech in mixtiu-e on account of its being insufficient. The marking passed the long way with the cutting area, and in some places it was noticed that regeneration was protected against rabbits by wire netting. The marking was very carefully executed, and the first time the rangers went over the felling area they merely blazed the trees to be cut. As a protection they went over this same area a second time to see whether mistakes had been made. At this second trip they stamped and blazed the roots of the trees left, and in addition, because of their great value, talUed the number of large trees left standing. It was explained that seed felhngs were held up in 1911 and 1912 because of poor seed years. The local inspector favored seed feUings by area as well as improvement cuttings by area, since it would obviate extensive calcula- tions of yield. Shelterwood for Maiitime Pine. — The shelterwood system should never be apphed to maritime pine. Clear cutting is, and must be, the invariable rule except in protection belts along the dunes. Shelterwood for Scotch Pine. — The shelterwood system is sometimes apphed to Scotch pine. Here the seed felhng is made very open, the secondary feUings are delayed and are rarely more than one or two in number and the final felling comes early. It really takes on the aspect of clear cutting with the reservation of seed trees [160]. The forest of Ermenonville presents an interesting study in the treatment of Scotch pine in the Paris region.* The soil in the fourth, fifth, and sixth working circles of this forest is quite sterile over some 3,672 acres and therefore imsuitable for broadleaves. The rotation is 80 years of eight periods and the regeneration is nominally by the shelterwood system, although the results thus far, without sufficient artificial assistance, are very imperfect. The forty to sixty seed trees per acre are chosen Avith care and distributed height. The trees marked for any cuttmg are usually tallied by five-centimeter classes (2 inches) . If any marked tree is blazed twice on the bole it means that it must be limbed and the top cut off before it is felled to prevent damage to existing reproduction. The forest guards check the cutting after it is finished and go to every- stimip to see if the tree was marked. If all right the stump is stamped on the top. The guards and rangers are always on the lookout for windfall and dead wood. When found the tree is numbered consecutively and the following data secured : serial number, circumference, and general location. It is a guard's special duty to look out for windfalls in spring so that they may be disposed of while they are still salable. ' Traitement du pin sylvestre dans la region de Paris, par L. Parde, Nos. 19 and 20 March 1 and 15, 1905. Revue des Eaux et Forlts. SHELTERWOOD FOR SCOTCH PINE 79 as uniformly as possible over the area. The soil is cleared of brush, cones, and needles, either in strips or in spots, and there is artificial sowing where young seed trees are available. According to Parde : "If necessary the regeneration wiU be completed by plantations at the time of the first improvement felling when the seed trees wiU be cut. For my part, I confess that I am now rather disposed to admit that, so far as the Scotch pine high forests around Pans are concerned, the regeneration by artificial means would be preferable to the shelterwood method actually followed." Various steps have been taken to assist regeneration, such as raking strips and spots during the seed years; in addition the young seedhngs are sheltered by means of branches, which is apparently very favorable to their development. If the natural seeding fails the plantations must be made promptly before waiting for the first improvement cutting. Assisting regeneration in this locahty has cost as much as $8.70 per acre, while restocking blanks costs about $12.19 (1905 labor prices). Not- withstanding the expense of $8.70 for soil preparation, the regeneration is in poor shape, due to local droughts. Even with a large number of seed trees retained, the cost in windfalls has been heavy. In the forest of Fontainebleau.there are some 822 acres of Scotch pine. The regular rotation is 72 years and the same methods have been applied as in the forest of Ermenonville. Probably one-tenth of the surface has been naturally seeded, chiefly from advance growth rather than from the results of seed feUings. In the forest of Rambouillet, on 4,942 acres of Scotch pine, but 680 acres have been regenerated successfully. According to Parde: "In practice the preparation of the soil has consisted in a light harrowing which removes the very thick mat which covers the soil; this mat is piled up at the foot of the reserved trees. The harrowing is followed with broadcast seeding, 6.2 pounds per acre, when, in order to work the seed into the soil, it is again harrowed hghtly and covered with branches." Even after soil preparation regeneration has not been successful, and it will be necessary to sow or plant artificially. Probably it will be nec- essary to abandon the seed trees and to cut clean and sow broadcast by the method described above. The conclusion reached, as a result of the attempt of natural regeneration of Scotch pine around Paris, is that the present shelterwood system will probably be abandoned, at least until further experiments determine upon a successful method. Appar- ently it is unnecessary to leave seed trees scattered over the area under regeneration, since these trees are damaged by windfall and their extrac- tion damages seedhngs, increases the area under feUings, and makes the protection against game more difficult. Experiments are recommended with the two following systems : 80 NATURAL EEGENERATION 1. Cut clear strips at right angles to the wind and remove the stumps. Clear the ground cover and harrow. Sow artificially with protection of branches. If seeding does not take place within a few years plant at once before the ground cover comes back. Never wait more than five years. 2. Proceed as in the case of the system described above, but with the reservation of seed trees. Of the two methods, the one without seed trees is probably preferable. The product would sell better; there would be no windfall; insect damage would be lessened; with the sinface completely cleared, temporary nur- series would be more conveniently established where planting was neces- sary; fencing would be less costly; there would be no damage to young stock in the final fellings. Shelterwood for Fir. — In order to secure fir regeneration it is necessary to have a deep fresh soil and a humid climate; the chemical composition is less important. In order that fir seedUngs may develop properly it is neces- sary to preserve the shelter of the cover stand as a protection against dry- ing out and against spring frosts. It is also necessary to have a thick humus cover and a protection against summer drought and weeds. The seedlings estabhsh themselves under the immediate shelter of the seed trees. In every case the young seedlings develop naturally during the first five to ten years under the cover of the mother stand. Therefore, any system of clear felling is out of the question, but the shelterwood method may be successfully used. In fir stands advance growth almost always exists, therefore the seed felling is really a light secondary felling, since its object is to allow this advance growth to develop. This first secondary felling or seed felhng is made very conservative so as to remove the cover gradu- ally and not to expose the seedhngs to drying out or to permit weeds to take possession of the soil. Even if suppressed for a number of years, fir seedlings have the abUity to develop into good trees after the cover has been removed. The other secondary fellings which follow should also be "dark," since a gradual removal of the cover is essential. On the other hand, the final felling should always be complete on account of the danger from windfall and because of the damage which results to the old isolated trees from drying out. De Gail has shown (see p. 75) that because of windfall and the consequent irregularity of the stand (and derangement of working plans) the shelterwood system for fir is fast proving unsuccess- ful. An excellent illustration of the derangement of working plan yields by windfall is in the forest of Gerardmer (Vosges). On September 1, 1908, the inspector reported that, in the first, third, fourth, sixth, seventh, and eighth working circles, which had a prescribed annual yield of 11,971 cubic meters, on account of tremendous windfalls 46,378 cubic meters, or the yield for almost four years, had already been cut. As a result of the SHELTERWOOD FOR SPRUCE 81 windfalls of 1902 the conservator favored a return to an irregular selec- tion instead of the shelterwood system. The selection preferred is one regulated by volume and by area. In the fir forest of Noir^mont (Jm-a) the seed felUng removes practically two-fifths of the volume, the two secondary feUings one-fifth each, and the final fellings one-fifth. After the final felling in this forest there were openings 33 feet across where the parent trees had been cut. Here the openings were being planted up. The improvement felHngs in this forest, regulated by area, remove the badly suppressed trees, badly formed trees, those dry topped, and the so- called "wolf" trees. But even under the favorable conditions existing the shelterwood system may be abandoned. In the forest of Risol they have a rule of cutting not more than 100 cubic meters per hectare at one time. According to the ranger's records : "Cultural operations should always be directed with the aim of developing as much as possible the growth of existing stands without sacrificing anything for regularization. The ripe trees should always be removed when encountered in the fellings, but on condi- tion that their retention is not considered necessary for reproduction." In the sapUng stands the dominant beech is almost invariably cut. In the pole stands the suppressed and damaged trees are removed, and in the high pole stands quite heavy thinnings in the top story are begun. All beech not needed for reproduction is removed. Shelterwood for Spruce. — While the spruce is not essentially a tolerant species like the fir, yet it is not exactly a light-demanding species hke the oak; it does not grow while under direct cover, and while it wiU come in naturally on pastures, some side cover is desirable on account of its demanding fresh soil. It is deeper rooted than the fir and more difficult to secure. The seed of the fir is quite heavy, is of average size, and cannot be carried great distances. On the other hand, most of the cones are at the top of the tree; they open, not because of the heat, but because of the moisture at the end of the September rains. The spruce cones, to the contrary, are lower down on the tree and most of them are found at the ends of the branches; they open under the influence of heat, especially when the dry east wind is blowing, so that the seed may be carried some distance from the tree. Moreover, the spruce seed does not germinate well under the immediate cover of the mother tree nor do the seedlings germinate successfully on dry needles, therefore the best condi- tions for the germination of spruce seedUngs are openings in the mature stands, exposed to the full sunlight, and where the mineral soil is at least partially bared. In theory, at least, the shelterwood method of pro- gressive feUings is appUcable to this species, but unfortunately there are difficulties. The tree is subject to windfall on account of its superficial root system and the heavy foHage. It is therefore necessary to make the 82 NATURAL REGENERATION seed fellings conservatively but, after the seedlings are once established, to cut the mature stand very rapidly [193]. As with the fir, the shelter- wood system has not been wholly successful. Shelterwood for Fir and Spruce in Mixture. — Fir and spruce are very often foimd in mixture. From the economic viewpoint they have about the same value. It is sUviculturaUy advisable to have them in mixture since, when mixed, insect and fungous damage is not so dangerous and the soil is better conserved. When in mixture advance growth of fir is quite common under the old stand. It is therefore necessary to fell old trees here and there in order to enable the spruce to profit by the light and establish itself in the center of the openings. While the advance growth of the fir has the advantage of age the spruce seedHngs develop more rapidly and make an excellent mixture. The more you want to favor the spruce the larger the openings should be made. It is also advisable to favor it by wounding the soil. The mixture can be regulated in the clean- ings and thinnings that foUow [202]. The Selection System in Broadleaf Stands (Beech). — In practice the [137] treatment by selection fellings is not systematically applied in France to broadleaves. The beech is an exception. Because of the irregularity of beech regeneration, even if treated by the method of pro- gressive fellings, it may often assume the character of a selection forest. The beech may be treated under the selection sj'stem except in those forests where it is mixed with fir. In theory, at least, the selection system is very simple. In the working plan the exploitable or maximiun size of trees is given and the amount, either in number of trees or in cubic meters, that should be cut each year. The entire forest is cut over, and trees above the stated diameter limit are removed to the amount of the estimated jdeld. In practice the forest is often di'\'ided into a number of compartments and, for the sake of economy in lumbering, the selection feUings are concentrated on a portion of the forest. Selection fellings avoid the crisis of regeneration which other more regular methods pre- cipitate at the time of the seed fellings. Moreover, the classic selection felling is only suitable to shade-enduring species. Selection fellings mean irregularity as opposed to the regularity of clear cutting, shelter- wood (progressive feUings), etc., [213]. Practically speaking the classic selection fellings of a few trees from the entire area under treatment is never applied in France except possibly in the sub-alpine forests where, in order to assist the forest in its struggle for existence against vmfavor- able climate and soil conditions, a Ught selection (or improvement) fell- ing is usually employed. Clear cutting, even by strips or by the shelter- wood method, is extremely dangerous in the mountains, but in the sub- alpine forests, where the larch is one of the most important species, the simple selection feUing becomes a group selection, since the larch (see FIR SELECTION FELLINGS 83 p. 89) is a light-demanding species and considerable openings in the stand must be made. With cembric pine, or mountain pine, the openings can be much smaller and the removal of a single tree is sufficient. With- out question the tendency in France, as in other European countries, is away from the original tree selection. Instead, especially with somewhat intolerant trees, the practice is now to cut in groups so that, preferably, there are clumps of even-aged trees all over the forest which can be thinned. Fir Selection Fellings. — In theory, at least, the fir should be treated under selection fellings except for the difficulty of lumbering all over a forest and the danger on the other hand of compressing fellings into too small an area and thereby making too great openings. Consequently, in fir forests, selection felhngs run over the same area on an average of every eight years, removing about 12^ per cent of the stand. For this reason, even in fir stands, the selection assumes the character of a group or hole selection system. At high altitudes, in theory, the per cent re- moved at one time should be small, but in practice as high as 18 or 20 per cent may be cut in order to make logging feasible. For example, in the communal forest of Cette-Eygun (p. 17 of the working plan) the method of exploitation is as follows: "These two working groups will be treated by the selection method; the high altitude, the severe chmate, the danger of avalanches, the slowness of reproduction at the higher elevations, the control of water flow, the obligation in a country habitually and essen- tially pastoral to keep stands open for grazing so far as possible, necessitates maintaining a dense forest on all areas and slopes, and ratifies the choice of this selection method for all regulated mountainous forests." About 18 per cent of the stand is cut at one time. Mathey argues {Societe de Franche-Comte et Belfori) that to obtain the regeneration of spruce in the Alpine forests, the following are necessary: 1. Maintain shelter belts and groups of trees as a precaution. 2. Encourage the mixtme of broadleaf trees and conifers so that the former comprise at least 12 per cent of the upper story and 13 per cent of the lower story, or 25 per cent in all. 3. Remove the sod in spots where it is desired to favor the develop- ment of seedlings. 4. Cut conservatively. In the lower working group cut every 6 or 8 years over the same area. In the average working group (4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude) cut every 10 to 12 years, and in the upper working group (5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude) cut only every 14 to 16 years. Areas above 6,000 feet should be considered zones of protection solely. It is abso- lutely essential to be conservative in the treatment of these forests. For the best management of a selection forest it is necessary for the 84 NATURAL REGENERATION forester to have in mind the normal or average local number of trees per acre for the different diameter classes; then by a comparison of the normal with the actiial stand it can be determined whether the forest has too many or too few trees of the different dxe classes. Such data would be a gvide to determine from what diameter classes in a selection forest trees should preferably be cut. The following table, compiled by Huffel, shows average figures per acre for fir ia different regions. TABLE 7— A^-ERAGE FIGURES PER ACRE FOR FIR Number of fir tieea p» acre Diameter. bieast-high. Allies Voaees LonaiDe FroDcli Jura Moantaiss Pi&Alpes inches for of Daiqihuie toward Ssvoie) sfope Low Average Hirh 3.200 to 3,460 feet G" 12.0 8.4 12.0 8 3.2 9.4 10 2.1 6.0 32.0 6.4 2.3 7.0 12 1.6 4.3 26.8 5.6 1.9 5.1 14 1.2 3.1 21.2 4.2 1.5 3.6 16 1.0 2.2 17.8 3.5 12 2.6 18 0.8 1.6 12.9 2.6 0.9 1.7 20 0.6 1.1 9.2 1.8 0.6 1.0 22 0.5 0.8 6.1 1.2 0.5 0.6 24 0.4 0.6 3.4 0.7 0.4 0.4 26 0.4 2.4 1.4 0.9 0.5 i 0.5 0.4 28 30 32 34 Total 11.4 40.5 135.0 26.9 9.3 43.4 « SmaUer trees are not calipo^d. Schaeffer ' gives the following formula for the management of a selection forest: "1. Establish a curve of a normal high forest, as has been indicated (see p. 214) according to the pyi.'it.ing stand. "2. Calculate the yield by any method (if you wish, even by the mmiiber of trees), provided it is simple, taking care to adopt a figure less than the Tna-ri mnin yidd which has been determined. " 3. First cut the over-stocked age classes. "4. Arrange for periodic stocktaking in order to revise the yield and to make sure that it approaches the type of forest desired." Spruce Selection Fellings. — Contrary to fir forests it is rare that ad- vance growth is found under the parent spruce stand. Therefore, selec- tion by groups or holes is always necessary, since it assures the regenera- » Un TyiK! de Futaie JardinSe, S. F. de F. C. et B., A. S. Fig. 7 (a). — Natural regeneration of spruce in the openings where it has sufficient light. Under partial cover the seedlings have not as yet come in. (b). — Spruce stand in the Melezet Canton, communal forest of Villarodin-Bourget, running 146 trees per acre and 109 cubic meters (36,000 feet board measure). Here selection feUings removed trees dechning in vigor until openings have gradually been made. Since the soQ became partially sodded and covered with spruce needles no regeneration ha.? succeeded. Had the openings been made at once, instead of gradu- ally, the reproduction would have been secured. (c)-(d). — Natural regeneration of spruce in the Melezet Canton, communal forest of Villarodin-Bourget, at an altitude of 6,060 feet. No regeneration of spruce came in after ordinary selection cuttings, which removed only a tree here and there. After a windfall gave sufficient Ught (and wounded the soil) reproduction has succeeded in the following proportions: Spruce, six-tenths; larch, three-tenths; cembric pine, one-tenth. (85) 86 NATURAL REGENERATION tion a sufficient amount of light and at the same time it does not open up the forest enough to allow weeds to come in (see Fig. 7, A to D). The openings made are not quite so large as in the Scotch pine, because the spruce does not demand the same amount of Ught. Frequently in spruce stands the feUing of one large tree makes an opening large enough to favor the introduction of spruce seedhngs, although \isually two, three, four, and even five trees may be cut [199]. A study of the spruce stand in the Savoie, by Thiollier (see Fig. 7), showed that, on the whole, regeneration is difficult. In a wet, mild climate, at lower altitudes, the spruce behaves much like the silver fir, but at higher altitudes the spruce must be differently handled. To secure spruce regeneration: (a) The seed must come in contact with fresh mineral soil, or soil covered with humus of another species. If, for example, the ground is covered with grass, or spruce Utter, this must be worked and the soil bared. (6) Isolated spruce saplings suffer from the snow, so every effort should be made to secinre clmnps or groups for regeneration. (c) To secure thrifty, well-developed crowns, early and frequent thin- nings are indispensable; but if too heavy the height growth is decreased, the cover is broken, and the trees become branchy; if too light, or if begun too late, the growth is slow and the trees are never really merchantable for timber. (d) Since the spruce requires full sunhght for best development it is best grown in even-aged clumps or stands. But since it is so hable to windfall some form of selection fellings is desirable and necessary at these altitudes. This shows the vital necessity of not practicing a selection system by cutting single trees but rather groups of trees. These groups are then developed by successive cutting into fairly even-aged stands. ThioUier stated to the author personally that these three cultural rules should therefore be followed: "1. The young stands must always be kept dense; the thinnings should only remove trees without a future and free the crowns of the best stems without ever opening up the stand. "2. When a stand or a clump becomes of exploitable age, to regenerate it; make openings (or holes) whose size varies with the altitude, the kind of soU, exposure, to be made after an examination of existing blanks. " 3. The soil cover (grass, brush, spruce Utter) should be broken up by insular seed spots so as to form flat areas in the holes or blanks where the seeding should take place. If regeneration fails, plant in the center (of openings) with at least five trees spaced 12 inches." In Other words, Thiollier recognized the necessity of assisting natural regeneration, and that the ground must not be allowed to run wild. Since fir or beech is almost invariably mixed with spruce care must aJ- SELECTION FELLINGS FOR SCOTCH AND ALEPPO PINE 87 ways be taken to favor the spruce if this species is especially desired. But judging from results studied in France the practice of sacrificing a fair species like fir for spruce (which brings a Uttle better price) is poor technique, and there is danger of windfall. The spruce and fir regeneration in the forest of St. Martin d'Arc is favored by cleaning out the birch, aspen, and other less desirable species. In the case of pine a complete cleaning is made wherever groups require more light; with fir the cleaning is gradual and partial. In this particular forest the cutting period is 15 years with a separate rotation for each species, whereas in other parts of the Savoie the working plans officer usually establishes one rotation to cover all species. In the improvement cuttings undesirable trees are often left because if all undesirable ones were cut it would mean a too heavy felling. In the neighborhood of Thonon (Savoie), above the Drance River, the selection felhngs take place every 12 to 14 years, according to the working plan, but, in practice, they cannot take place quite so often because the amount to be removed is limited and accidental fellings consume too much of the yield. On this rich soil the spruce comes in best in the openings. The protection zone covers a 30 per cent rocky slope where only windfall is removed. In the forest of Bonnevaux a selection cutting removed one tree from the center of a group of three — a diseased tree, one that was suppressed, and a stag-headed tree — as well as two trees which were suppressing fir repro- duction. An opening 66 by 98 feet was made at one place because of the removal of a large tree with a bad crown. The cut probably removed 25 per cent of the stand, the amount removed being necessitated by the poor condition of the trees. In the forest of Grande Chartreuse, cut over by selection fellings, weeds have come in in the openings which were made to favor the reproduction of spruce, since fir here reproduces under cover before the spruce can gain a foothold. In the forest of Chapelle d'Huin beech and a Httle oak are mixed with the fir. Beech is cut rather heavily, especially in cleanings, because firewood values have decreased to such an extent. There is too much beech coming in under the old stand of fir but, curiously enough, under the beech there is a good deal of fir. In this locality, for the value of cordwood removed, the peasants will cut the beech; thus the cleaning is made free of charge. Selection Fellings for Scotch and Aleppo Pine. — Ordinary selection felHng is not suitable for Scotch pine; group selection, when applied to a hght-demanding species, must produce two results — it must diminish the number of stems in the stand so as to open it up sufficiently and it must make openings large enough so that the seedhngs will receive the necessary light, at least during the middle of the day. The size of these openings or holes depends on the height of the tree and distance from the seed trees. It is usually necessary to concentrate these felhngs on, 88 NATURAL REGENERATION say, one-fifteenth of the forest. Under the same conditions it is pos- sible to make the openings 2 to 4 acres in area. The diameter of the opening is usually at least one-half the height of the neighboring trees. As soon as the regeneration starts it is necessary to open up around it in order to give it sufficient Ught for development, always bearing in mind, however, that too wide openings, which become choked with brush, are consequently expensive to clear. This hole-selection method has been apphed to aleppo pine, but until experiments in Algeria in the Oran Conservation are completed by Conservateur Laporte, no final decision can be reached as to the best method of treatment. It is very significant, however, that near Marseilles the working plan calls for the shelterwood system, that is, progressive feeUngs, but the local in- spector preferred the method as described in the following statement furnished the author personally: "The aleppo pine is the only coniferous species of the calcareous regions of the Medi- terranean Provence. Besides this species there is only the holm oak and the pedunculate oak treated under coppice and furnishing nothing but firewood. In the Department of Bouches-du-Rh6ne the aleppo pine ordinarily forms almost pure stands or mixed with a small per cent of oak (.0 to 15 per cent). "The forests of aleppo pine occupy the lower mountains where the altitude ranges from sea level to 2,600 feet. The calcareous soil is generally on steep slopes, which are usually rugged. There are numerous rock benches and stone slides with but Uttle vegetation. The climate is characterized by hot and dry summers. The average annual rainfall is 20 inches at Marseilles to 28 inches at Areasque (in the center of the small moimtainous forest situated to the northeast of Marseilles) . The average number of rainy days is 85, chiefly in autmnn and spring. During 1912 there was an almost complete drought for two months — July and August. "The aleppo pine is admirably adapted to these conditions, which any other indige- nous species would not be able to stand. It is essentially light-demanding, endures drought, and is vigorous. It has a very light foUage and is easily regenerated by natural means. But while it stands heat and prolonged droughts, its growth suffers neverthe- less, and its remarkable thrift when near water . . shows it can thrive on fresh soil. The young seedlings suffer from drought if the roots are not well into the soil; they are often burned by the sun in the summer if it is especially hot and dry. On cer- tain rocky slopes where the stand is open it is difficult to get regeneration imder the old trees; on the other hand, the soil should not be allowed to run wild, since it must be pro- tected against the heat of the sun; cuttings must be light. "The treatment by regular high forest (shelterwood) with a rotation of 60 years and with the division of the forest in three periodic blocks (each to be regenerated in turn within 20 years) has been followed in a number of forests for 50 years. But the looked- for regularity has not been obtained on the arid and rocky soil which one finds on most of the area under management. "Uniform stands have been obtained only on several areas where the soil was deeper and richer; these are the exception rather than the rule. In reality most areas treated by the shelterwood system have always remained in a transition stage. On the contrary the selection system is adapted to the regional conditions. Forests of more than 741 acres are divided into working groups whose area ordinarily does not exceed this. Each working group is divided into a certain number of felling areas, usually 10 to 16, which GROUP SELECTION FOR LARCH (AND OTHER METHODS) 89 are cut over each year successively (the area of each felling area usually varies from 12 to 49 acres) . The number of the felling areas also fixes the periodicity of cutting over the same point, 10 to 16 years . . . and at each cut the trees which have attained exploitable size (12 to 14 inches in diameter) along with the badly shaped and over- mature trees are removed; at the same time the trees, where they are too thick, are thinned, thereby freeing the promising seedUngs. The yield is not fixed; the cut re- moves each time 15 to 20 per cent of the standing material. Seedlings ordinarily come in quickly where the stand has been opened; and it the neighboring trees shut off a portion of the sun's rays when it is low on the horizon the effect is not bad for the seed- lings, but on the contrary preserves them against the dangers of excessive heat and drought, due to the intensity of the fight and the lightness of the cover. "The selection method gives in the end excellent results from the cultural viewpoint and is perfectly suited to the silvics of the aleppo pine, both as to the soil and climatic conditions. It assures the conservation of the stand, something that is essential in a region where the percentage of wooded areas is much too small (14.2). It yields short- stemmed trees, to be sure, but 36 feet of height growth is sufficient for very mediocre soil. Moreover, the length of the stem is of secondary importance, because at the saw- mill the aleppo pine is cut into small boards for shipping crates. From the economic viewpoint there is the objection of giving a very great latitude to the oflBcer who does the marking, since there is no fixed yield, but it must be remembered that because of frequent fires . it does not seem feasible to establish a precise working scheme which would have to be incessantly revised and whose provisions would be constantly re- versed." Group Selection for Fir or Spruce. — In high altitudes, or perhaps on rocky soil, the advance growth is rare and it may be impossible to wait for it to install itself. There are usually groups of advance growth, however, and these may be gradually uncovered by removing the stand surrounding them. As these groups develop other trees are removed so that they become larger and larger until the ground is completely stocked. This method has given very good results and often is the only one that can be employed. If there are no groups of advance growth an old tree may be cut here and there in order to start seedUng growth. If the openings are too large there is danger of weeds taking possession of the soil [174]. Spruce reproduces better with group selection than with selection by single trees. Group Selection for Larch (and Other Methods). — Near Briangon there are numerous interesting examples of the treatment of larch forests. (See Fig. 8.) In the communal forest of Villard St. Panerace the larch comprises an open park-Uke forest where cattle grazing is allowed. The cutting made is really an improvement felling, but the young growth is always freed even if a good tree has to be cut. On the other hand a good many poor trees are left rather than make large openings. According to the working plan it is a seed felling, but on the ground it was a selection felUng by groups. According to the working plan no sacrifices are to be made to regularize the stand and yet the inspector is not advised systematically to make a regular stand irregular. In 90 NATURAL REGENERATION another portion of the forest the marking illustrates the freedom and flexibihty of French silviculture. Here the cutting was the removal of small groups of trees and the groups left were occasionally thinned. Trees were left along roads and around a small moimtain swamp. The openings were rarely more than 33 to 49 feet in diameter and the groups Fig. 8. — Pure larch at an altitude of 5,970 feet, in the communal forest of Tignes. The stand totals 49 trees per acre and 45 cubic meters (11,000 feet board measure). A selection felling has resulted in an open stand, because the ground (grass covered) was not worked to assist regeneration. left were preferably on rocky ground and very steep slopes. The cutting in one locaUty where conservatism was indicated by the steep slopes removed, in a Ught selection system, about 20 per cent of the stand. An experiment was being tried out by cutting in strips running hori- zontally aroimd the slopes. The strips cut were about 100 feet in width TREATMENT OF SCENIC FORESTS 91 and the uncut strip, which was thinned, was about 65 feet wide. In the same locaUty in the forest of Ban de Puy-Saint Pierre the selection system was used because it did not interrupt the local grazing. The local inspector stated that if there had been no provisions in the working plan (by BroilUard, December 31, 1855), he would have used the shelter- wood method on the lower gentle slopes and a conservative selection system higher up where the slopes were steep. According to page 13 of the original working plan the secondary fellings are not necessary, "The regeneration felUngs fall into a seed felhng and a final felhng." The trees reserved after the seed felling should be at least twenty per acre. Grazing should be forbidden in each division when it comes to be regenerated, and the extraction of underbrush should be made at the time of seed felhng. When the natural reseeding is less than half completed, say 7 years after the seed felling, the ground still un- stocked should be cultivated in horizontal strips 20 inches wide, spaced 3.3 feet. Moreover, any openings still remaining at the final felhng should be planted. The final cutting will take place when the reseeding is completed, and the seed fellings shall not be started again until after the ground is fully stocked. The rotation is 200 years. Treatment of Scenic Forests. — Forests retained as semi-parks for recreation are always high forests and are usually free from working- plan regulation so far as the specific amount to be cut is concerned. A selection system is usually appHed but in reality it is a light improvement cutting, removing only the dead and dying trees. The young stands are often thinned. For example, in the working plan for the forest of St. Antoine in the Vosges (for the years 1908-1939), special provi- sion is made for the scenic working group designed to protect a gorge with waterfalls and precipitous slopes. In the selection system used the fine, big trees are favored and are retained as long as possible for their natural beauty. According to the working plan : "The aim of this scenic working group is to form and to keep a stand of beautiful trees without striving for regularity and without a necessity for economic exploitation. Each year after having marked the windfall and dead trees and having subtracted their volume, the remainder of the yield should be cut from the entire compartment . . ' . by selection . . . see to it not only that the stand is not opened up, but also that it is maintained sufficiently dense. In the young stands remove only the trees wholly dominated and the stems too dense which will certainly become valueless. In the high forest . . . remove only the overmature or wholly defective trees . . . the greatest prudence will always be the maxim. The selection feUings will be extended over a large area in order to cover the working group one and one-half times during the cutting period." In all forests under working plans famous trees are always reserved from cutting. 92 NATURAL REGENERATION COPPICE SYSTEMS General. — Economically and silviculturally the application of any coppice system over large areas is a grave error. Tassey estimated the loss in France, due to the large areas in coppice, at more than 60 million dollars per year. In fact aU the best French authorities condemn cop- pice and especially short rotations, yet to-day we find four-fifths of the private forests in some form of coppice. Even in the State forests more than one-third of the producing forest area is in coppice (largely cop- pice-under-standards). Furthermore, nine-tenths of all coppice in France is managed on too short a rotation. In the past this type of stand was very profitable because of the high prices of tannin bark and firewood. But to-day, on account of the large decrease in these values, coppice is becoming less and less profit- able, and so far as economic and silvicultural conditions permit, these stands are being transformed to high forest. One of the main objections to conversions is that it is necessary to increase the growing stock, and communes dependent on local wood suppHes cannot afford this economy. In some localities where tannin bark is the chief product, coppice rota- tions have been as short as 12 or 15 years. In other localities the coppice of sessile oak has been continued, but with a longer rotation so as to produce mine props and stulls. With this longer rotation (which often amoimts to 30 or 40 years) it is necessary to thin coppice in order to give the best chance for development to those trees which will produce mine props 16 to 33 feet in length. The management of simple coppice is popular with private owners because it has frequently given a certain fixed income, it requires httle or no skiU, less money is tied up in grow- ing stock, and because there is little danger from insects or fimgus. Except in very wet locaUties, however, it results in positive damage to the sou. According to Boppe: "There is grave danger from frost, especially to species Uke beech, and to have successful coppice stands for generations a mild chmate is essential." Furthermore it is necessary to study the sprouting longevity of the species in the coppice.^" For example, the sessile and pedunculate oaks in France sprout well up to 40 or 50 years of age, while other oak species, such as hohn, do not sprout vigorously after 25 or 30 years. But as a matter of fact most private coppice in France should be cut on double its present rotation. Some specie (oak, hornbeam, ash, maple, alder) reproduce vigorously from the stvraip, others (beech and birch) sprout poorly but make up for this deficiency by proUfic seeding; the aspen '"See "Le Traitemcnt des Bois en France,"Broilliard, Nouvelle Edition, especially pp. 62-236. Since the coppice systems will not be widely used in the United States the French application to the various species has not been given in detail. SIMPLE COPPICE 93 does not sprout from the stiimp at all but produces root suckers in abundance. These qualities must always be considered. The chief species found in French coppice stands are locust, poplar, maple, oak, beech, ash, elm, alder, birch, and hornbeam. In a great many localities it is becoming very popular to introduce conifers into the coppice stand with the idea of converting them gradually into high forest and in order to have the conifers increase the production of timber. Maritime pine and aleppo pine are also being introduced in coppice stands in the south of France. The following official figures give an idea of the relative yield of timber and fuel from simple coppice, coppice-under-standards, and high forest : Simple coppice 0.015 0.985 Coppice-under-standards 0.175 0.825 High forest 0.465 0.535 Simple Coppice. — The important technique is to cut at the right season and to cut smooth, sloping stumps close to the ground. In France the season to cut oak is from March to May; for hornbeam, March to April; for birch, November to December. August is the most unfavorable month in which to cut coppice, and on fire lines it is often of value to cut in August so as to weaken and decrease the sprout- ing. It is of interest that there are two variations to the rule of cutting low stumps: (a) In holm-oak stands where the ground is dry and the cUmate hot, the stump may be cut 2 inches below the ground to increase sprouting; (6) on wet ground, where there is often standing water (as in the Sologne) the stump may be cut 5 to 8 inches above the ground. This method would be followed with willow along the river beds. To maintain coppice in good condition the better species, such as oak, must be occasionally planted or sown in the blanks; these seedlings must be usually protected from suppression by the more rapidly growing sprouts. When the coppice rotation is 25 years or more one thinning, about 8 years before the end of the rotation, is necessary for the following reasons : The growth of the coppice will be increased; the first-year standards will endure isolation better; valuable species, and especially seedlings, can be assisted by cutting weed species which are competing with them; coppice suppressing the lower branches of valuable reserves, which would start rot, can be cut out ; and short Uved species can be removed before they die. 94 NATURAL REGENERATION Coppice with Field Crops. — " Sartage," the combination of coppice with field crops, has been largely condemned in France as poor silvi- culture, but Jolyet beheves in it "since the potash resulting from burn- ing the branches enriches the soil sufficiently to permit with some success the cultivation of grain." On the other hand Boppe [222] calls attention to the damage from fire, the decrease in the amount of oak, the washing away of soil foods on the slopes, and the difficulty of in- creasing the rotations. Selection Coppice (Beech). — While considerable difficulty has been experienced in treating beech under the simple coppice system, it can be worked in selection coppice (taiUis furete), since the selection cuttings enable the retention of part of the stand which protects the shoots against the first autumn frosts. It is usually worked on a diameter- hmit basis and furnishes a great deal of charcoal for manufacturing purposes. Huffel, who likes this method, says [147] that "the treat- ment in selection coppice is really a methodical treatment and perfectly rational, justified by the sUvics of the beech and the exceptional condi- tions of the coppice. . . . When employed correctly it gives good results." Correctly appUed, the selection coppice does protect the young beech from frost, but since the best sprouts are being cut continually the stand must in time deteriorate. In practice, with a 30-year rotation, one-third of the stand in each compartment would be cut every 10 years. Natvu^ally it is difficult to cut the larger sprouts from a clump without damaging some of those that remain. Coppice-TJnder-Standards. — Coppice-under-standards is composed of two distinct elements: the lower story, the coppice, which is cut clean on a short rotation, and the upper story, or reserve,^^ which is \isually managed on a rotation four to five times the length of the coppice. The object of this kind of management is to increase the proportion of timber. It is now generally admitted as being inferior to high forest without the advantages of coppice. The species composing the coppice in coppice-under-standards evidently should have splendid sprouting ability and should also be species that wiU endure some side shade. The hornbeam, the maple, and the linden are the chief species; beech and oak are less valu- able. The pyrenean oak is used as coppice a good deal in the west of Prance, birch is useful on sandy soils, and poplar on wet soils. The chief skill in managing a coppice-imder-standards forest is the choice of the upper story, which should be chosen from species of a light foliage so as not to suppress the under story, and should be selected so far as possible from seedUngs or root suckers as a second choice. The peduncidate and sessile oak are of the first importance as standards, although ash, elm, " See Jolyet, pp. 225, 250, 382, 431-439 for data on coppice-under-standards. COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS 95 avd maple are good associates. Even with light foliaged oak three to six per cent of the coppice is lost through shading. The alder and linden are not so good on account of their thicker foliage, and beech can be used only in exceptional circumstances. The foliage of the hornbeam is too thin. Most stands of coppice-under-standards have been ruined through careless selection of the trees to be reserved. These reserved trees should be carefully distributed over the area so that the crowns can be isolated. According to Inspecteur Galmiche [233] the following space should be allowed for oak standards of the following ages: 50 years, 22 square yards; 100 years, 89 square yards; 150 years, 145 square yards. According to Jolyet two-thirds to one-third the grow- ing space should be reserved for the coppice and a normal number of reservesi^ are per acre: IR = 20, 2R = 12, 3R = 8, 4R = 4. Broil- liard prefers not to specify any exact number of reserves as an ideal, but advises the forester to mark as many as possible if good trees can be found. He cautions against stopping the reservation of standards simply because 20 to 25 or more have been secured. If good trees can be secured it is better to go ahead and mark them. In a coppice-under- standards forest near Oloron in the Pyrenees the foresters are guard- ing against keeping too many standards. They argue that, with too much of a reserve, the coppice does not grow well in youth and the reserves do not develop so thriftily. As explained by the local inspector the Nancy Forest School teaches the value of retaining many standards for the simple reason that they yield a larger percentage of timber, but rather than adopt this practice the local inspector favored conversion to a high forest. The normal number per acre in this section is four 3R, twelve 2R, and twenty-four IR standards. It is claimed that with many reserves they cannot grow such good trees and the oak is pre- vented from coming in as thriftily as it otherwise might. Major Hirsch, the owner of the famous forest of Amboise, reserves all the standards he can secure and in view of eventual conversions this seems the best policy for those who can afford it. Badre believes in greatly increasing the number of standards to secure quick conversions, especially in Normandy where up '^ The French name their reserves as follows : French name Age, 30-yeaT coppice rotation Key letter used by author Baliveau 30-60 m-m 90-120 120-150 150-180 180-210 IR standard Moderne 2R standard Ancienne, 2d class 3R standard Ancienne, lat class 4R standard Vieille ficorce, 2d class 5R standard Vieille ficorce, let class 6R standard 96 NATURAL REGENERATION to 600 per acre are sometimes reserved. Thiollier ^^ gives four niles for the improvement of coppice-under-standards: (1) Lengthen coppice ro- tations; (2) increase the density of the reserves and thin when coppice is 20 years of age; (3) concentrate the oak on the soil best suited to it; (4) choose standards best suited to the soil. Gazin," one of the best foresters in France, in private employ, has called attention to the bad effect of higher labor costs on coppice exploitations and the necessity for reserving more standards and planting. He advocates using 100-foot strips through the cutting area, cutting clean the coppice on half the strips and the ripe standards on all strips so as to (1) get mine props from the coppice held over; (2) crowd out the weed trees; (3) enrich the stand; (4) improve the soil by having uncut strips. Such procedure is mani- festly a compromise so as not to reduce the revenue too much during the process of increasing the growing stock. The following rules for the choice of standards have been developted in France: ^^ (1) All reserved trees (standards) must be of sufficient distance apart so that the branches of their crowns cannot join before the end of the rotation which is beginning. If they do join sufficient hght will not be admitted to allow the coppice understory to develop. (2) It is not absolutely essential to have the reserves evenly distributed over the cutting area because to do this means to sacrifice the choice of species. For instance, it is better to have some grouping of the reserves if by so doing some good oak standards can be secm-ed. (3) It is ad- vantageous to reserve a great number of standards near the forest boundaries to serve as a wind protection and to prevent the soil in the interior of the cutting areas from drying out too much. (4) It is also advantageous to have the reserves, so far as possible, situated near the logging roads and compartment lines, since it makes cutting cheaper and the product more valuable, at the same time giving the forest the appearance of richness. (5) A good, soimd oak should always be favored as against other species for the reserve. (6) If two trees are oak of equal vigor the largest should be reserved if it will last until the next rotation. (7) If neither of the two trees is oak, reserve the next best species and the straightest, thriftiest tree. (8) The selection of first- year standards should be made personally by an experienced forester. BroiUiard adheres to the rule: "It is always the vigor of a tree that should determine its retention, and those are the big trees which enrich the coppice." A good coppice-imder-standards is impossible with a short rotation for the coppice, because the length of clear bole of the standards is determined by the height of the coppice. With a rotation " Taillis et Futaie M61ang6s, par E. Liouville (ThioIKer cited). Besancon, 1911. " Coupes de Taillis sous Futaie par Bandes Altemes. Brochure, pp. 73-85 « Jolyet, pp. 23^239. COPPICE-UNDER-STANDABDS 97 of 15 to 20 years the coppice is necessarily short-boled. Broilliard there- fore concludes that the rotation for a coppice-under-standards should be 30 to 40 years or more unless the soil is very rich, but unless repeat- edly freed the oak shows a tendency to disappear. It is becoming more and more popular, with the decrease in fuel values, to plant conifers in coppice-under-standards, especially on rather thin soils and where there are considerable blanks. According to Jolyet, such species, to make their introduction a success, should have the following quaUties: (1) Rapid growth, especially during the initial years when there is competition with the rapidly growing coppice; (2) intolerance (or at least not tolerant); (3) hght-fohaged crown; (4) hardiness (especially against late frosts); (5) must be windfirm. Not- withstanding these rules the species most frequently introduced are: (Locusts) Austrian pine, (birch) Scotch pine, white pine, alder, larch, and spruce. The spruce is clearly neither Ught-fohaged nor wind- firm. In the third conservation the financial yield of the coppice-under- standards has been classified,^* according to the soil, into six groups : TABLE 8. — COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS I. — "Calmatages" . . II. — Sandy clay III. — "Maris" IV. — Clay V. — Calcareous marl VI. — Rocky state forests Kotation, years 20-25 $4.63 40 3.01 , 32-38 2.54 32-36 3.09 32 Anniial average net yield, ■ per acre 0.85 Communal forests notation, years 20-26 20-27 20-29 20-30 24-36 Annual average net yield, per acre $2.54 up 3.01 1.62 0.93 0.46 net yield on 25-year rotation, per acre Coppice Annual $2.54 2.16 1.38 0.93 0.70 0.39 The coppice-under-standards system is typical of France but is merely a weak compromise between the high forest (the forest of the future) and the coppice (the forest of the charcoal and cordwood age which is past). French writers, like BroilUard, show clearly that it pajrs to hold good trees over as reserves, by citing the value of a IR standard as 20 cents, a 2R standard as $2, a 3R standard as $8, and a 4R to 5R standard as $20, without taking into consideration the damage the standards do the coppice, for, as a rule, the better the stand- 111 ' Traitement et Aminagement d'un Taillis sous Futaie, M. A. Mathey, 1909. S. F. 98 NATURAL REGENERATION ards the poorer the coppice, except on the richest of soils. But from the American viewpoint the question must always arise: "If standards pay well, why not have high forest and be done with it?" In the ma- jority of cases the owner of the coppice-imder-standards probably pre- fers this system, since he has not so much capital tied up as he would have in the high forest, and because he not only gets his retxims oftener but gets besides some saw timber. A Substitute for Coppice-Under-Standards (Futaie Claire). — Accord- ing to Huffel (pp. 327-333, Vol. II), a new method of treatment must be adopted for the oak-beech stands in the northeast of France: "In a large part of France, and precisely that part where there are most pubUc for- ests, the natural regeneration of broadleaf trees, where oak is the chief species, is at- tended by great diflBculties. The seed crops are often very rare, separated by intervals of almost 25 years. (There were no complete crops in Lorraine from 1861 to 1888.) Furthermore, in this region, the oak grows on fresh (compact) clay . . . where weeds grow rapidly and prevent natural regeneration. These difficulties, and others . . . decided our predecessors to abandon the treatment of forests under regular high forest (futaie pleine) in the northeast of France. . . . They had pictured instead . . . a, coppice-under-standards. . . . But when fuel wood commenced to be menaced by coal . . . they looked for a substitute for the coppice-under-standards which would produce a TniniTniiTn of fuel and a maximimii of saw timber. Two solutions were adopted. In the State forests they generally imdertook the conversion of the coppice-under-standards to regular high forest. ... It ended, in many forests, by their abandoning the conversions. . . . The attempts at conversion put a great many of our best stands in a state of disorder. . . Then they thought best to substitute for the coppice-under-standards what they called 'high forest over coppice,' that is to say, by multipljring as many times as possible the number of standards in the compound coppice. . . . The coppice-under-standards became gradually, under the influence of exaggerated reserves, a sort of irregular high forest over a decrepit coppice, formed mostly of weed trees in which the oak had entirely dis- appeared. . . . T^Tiere the young standards were oak . . . the harm was not irreparable. A systematic felling of three-fourths the 2R standards . . would reform the coppice. . . . But where these IR standards or superabundant 2R standards were beech the situation was very grave. . . . They will be forced after one or two rotations to complete the conversion to high forest. . . . The high forest over coppice, where you mark 200-300 standards from the coppice (aged 25 to 30 yeais) is nonsense and ends sooner or later in an 'impasse' from which it is difficult to get out. "It seems possible to form a type of forest, more easily secured in the northeast of France than the regular high forest, and more productive in saw timber than the cop- pice-under-standards. It is with this aim in view that we now sketch a kind of ex- ploitation which we call by the old term 'open high forest' (futaie claire) that our pre- decessors frequently used for discribing the isolated oaks which they grew above their coppice." Huffel accordingly proposes in effect a selection high forest with oak as the principal species with fellings on a 16-year cutting cycle regulated by area. With a 120-year rotation there would be trees in the first compartment 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 years old; SUBSTITUTE FOE COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS (FUTAIE CLAIRE) 99 and in the fifteenth compartment 1, 16, to 106 years, or in correspond- ing size classes. "These trees are so mixed up, that at every point there would be seed trees. . . . We would thus succeed in profiting by all partial seed crops. . . . Moreover these (seed) trees are isolated, that is to say, they would not form a continuous complete stand with one story. Between the largest (oldest) trees there would be openings, whose size would be determined by the tolerance of the species, and by the need of hght for the seedlings. . . . Each age class must occupy equal areas in the forest. . . . If we had ten, then each would cover one-tenth of an hectare (2.5 acres). In the oak forests, for which we suggest this kind of a felUng, it would be advisable, as a precaution, to leave a portion of the area unoccupied . . . so as to favor the germination and maintenance of seedlings which might come in, mixed with . . . weeds and sprouts. When the time for cutting arrives the less vigorous and less desirable trees in aU size classes wiU be felled in excess of the normal number assigned to the size class. At the same time the young seedlings, poorly formed or lacking in vigor, would be cut back and the others freed." . . . This type of forest, Huffel claims, would have the following advantages over the coppice-under-standards : (1) Almost all seed would be used no matter where or when it is produced. (2) The systematic and frequent cutting over the same area would insure the maintenance of the seedlings by disengagement cuttings. (3) This frequent cutting would also make it possible to leave only small intervals between the large trees and the saw timber would therefore be increased over that obtained in coppice-under-standards. (4) The large trees would have longer boles. (5) The frequency of felling would allow the removal of defective trees and weed species. (6) The felUng would be lighter and hence better for the stand. (7) The improvement felling so necessary in coppice-under-standards, though often omitted, would not be so vital because of the frequent regular fellings. (8) "The operation of marking the felhngs (without being more difficult to make them correctly in the coppice-under-standards) will be in every case clearly and precisely regulated. They could not depend on the arbitrariness of some man who changes the method of treatment of the forest by unreasonable multipUcation of IE, standards of second- ary species, or of being ruined by the excessive felling of large trees." As empirical figures, subject to variation, Huffel gives the "normal" number of trees for each diameter class. These data would be used as a guide and for the purpose of comparison with the actual stand when the felHngs are made: 100 NATURAL REGENERATION D. B. H., Average number D. B. H., Average number inches of trees inches of trees 8 28 20 6.1 10 17.6 22 5.1 12 12.8 24 4.8 14 10 26 4.4 16 8 28 4 18 7 It is too early to give the results of this suggested departure from standard methods. The greatest danger appears to be from tolerant species which may usurp more than their share of the soil. Oak demands full sunhght for its regeneration. Will this be secured? Then, too, how would HufFel's "futaie claire" differ from a group selection system with a cutting cycle of 15 years? Conversions. — If we accept the arguments against the coppice and the coppice-under-standards systems these forests must be converted into high forest, and to-day there are 241,189 acres, one-fifth of the State forest area, in France being transformed into high forest.'^ This is easy in theory but difficult to execute satisfactorily except on rich soils with good conditions for natural seeding. The procedure ^* for conversions varies with the quality of the stand: (A) With rich coppice-imder-standards : (1) Increase the rotation of the coppice to reduce sprouting; (2) increase the number of standards; (3) every 10 to 12 years thin out the coppice and favor the standards; (4) at the end of the new rotation make seed fellings, secondary fellings, and a final felling as required by the silvicultural conditions; (5) fill in blanks with rapidly growing light crowned species. (B) With a nmdown coppice on poor soil rather than wait for the lengthening of the rotation or the gradual reservation of standards, it may be best to: (1) Make a heavy improvement cutting; (2) plant the blanks, and (3) protect the plantations by frequent cleanings and thin- nings. Between the extremes of (A) and (B) there may be many combina- tions and variations. In case (A) the coppice rotation may be increased 70 to 80 years, since aging the coppice increases the soil fertihty and assists the future regeneration. The thinnings can realize the dying trees in the coppice, reduce the number of sprouts to each stump, while the cover will hinder sprouting. If the seed fellings are hght, beech and " According to HujBfel (p. 328, Vol. 11, footnote 2) : "From 1876-1892, 348,000 acres of State forest formerly imder conversion were made into coppice-under-standards. The acres of coppice under conversion were 699,000 in 1868, 717,000 in 1876, and 368,000 in 1892." In 1912 the area was further reduced to 241,189 acres. "Jolyet, pp. 149, 252, 260. CONVERSIONS 101 other tolerant species will be favored against the more desirable oak. After the final feUing great care should be taken to free the oak. Con- versions should begin only where the conditions are favorable and not all over the forest. Cuif/' in charge of research at Nancy, favors conversions by group selection rather than by the shelterwood for the following reasons: (1) It is apphcable to large and small forests ahke; (2) forest capital is more evenly distributed; (3) the method approaches nature; (4) it profits by seed trees here and there; (5) mixtures are encouraged; (6) each species can be cut when ripe with coppice-under-standards. He favors the best stems and seedlings, cutting sprouts level with the ground to pro- vide them with good root systems; he plants in the openings and cuts the coppice back to favor the best trees. Probably the best-known conversion ^o in France is that for the State forest of Amance undertaken by the Nancy Forest School. It was started by Lorenz in 1826 and the working plan was revised in 1856, 1877, 1888, 1901, and 1908. It offers the best chance in France for a detailed study of conversion methods as applied to hardwoods. In the original working plan Cuif says: "The conversion of a coppice-under-standards to open high forest (futaie claire) does not seem to present very serious difficulties. It is even likely that it would auto- matically follow the application to a coppice-under-standards of a rotation equal to the period of an open high forest. It would suffice then, in order to accomplish this, to add to the reserve every 15 years the oak and ash seedlings which would be found mixed with the young coppice shoots and to eliminate systematically from the high forest the beech, elm, and Ught woods which it actually includes. This method of procedure would surely lead to the final aim. But the conversion would be long, and it would require sacrifice even greater than the coppice, destined to disappear only gradually and only because of natural forces would furnish products without commercial value. In order to alleviate this inconvenience we propose to adopt the following rules in marking the conversion fellings which follow one another at 15-year intervals: "1. Preserve all the reserves of the oak and ash species except those which are defective or too weak to warrant the hope of seed. "2. Complete lopping of coppice around these reserves, this lopping being extended far enough so that the circumference of the crowns may be freed completely and bathed in sunlight. "3. Levying of a moderate yield among the trees 10 inches and above in diameter among the other species, the large beech with many by preference being eliminated. "4. In those localities where the cover of oak and ash reserves is lacking, form with these trees (also small beech, elm, and linden, or with coppice poles) an open stand ca- pable of serving as a nurse stand for the oak and ash. These plantations should be made in the same year as the feUing; they should aim to introduce these two species in the parts where they are totally lacking. " Personal notes supplied the author in 1913. ^'' Amenagement de la For^t domaniale d' Amance (Meurthe et Moselle), 1908. Par Cuif. 102 NATLTIAL REGENERATION "5. Reserve all oak or ash wherever found, but take pains to free all seedlings suid saplings- " These general principles being stated, the management of a conversion in opoi highforest requires: (1) Forest descriptions by divisions on the ground destined to form separate units; (2) the results of the stock-taking made in each of these divisions; (3) the regulation of felling during the first period of 15 years with an indication of the jidd and the approximate amount of aTmnal planting; (4) a critical analysis of the products to be realized before and after the conversion." In the forest of Montargis conversion, according to the working plan, the following cultural rules are given: '■ Except on several areas which are quite opoi, natural regeneration of the old poles can readily be obtained, but we do not pretend that the r^eneration mixed in the old pole stands wiU thrive. The sprouts are usually not to be feared as a general rule be- cause of their overmaturity and because of decaying stumps, but, on the other hand, there wiU be an insufficiency of seed coupled with a rapid deterioration of the soil and encroachment by the heather. Moreover, it is felt that it will often be advisable not to wait too long for a complete natural reproduction but, that it will be better to secure a second crop by artificial restocking. We are convinced that for these stands only resin- ous species are suitable." In this forest the coppice is held over to a rotation of 70 to 80 years in order to secin-e complete cover, good seed bearers, soil protection, and to protect the young seedlings from the frost as well as to weaken the sprouts. It will also be necessary to free the seedUngs during the first 20 years. In order to encourage seedlings to come in the ground is worked, but only where there is a probability of an acorn crop. Soil wounding here costs from $1.15 to S1.50 per acre. The hornbeam and beech will be cut first because they form too vigorous stands, but in one place where the beech had come in after the seed felling (because Httle Ught was admitted) it will not be sacrificed; instead it will be retained. In another working group, where the coppice had been ruined, the groimd was planted to Scotch pine which was first thumed after 15 years and afterwards every 10 years. An interesting plantation of Scotch pine had been made on the south side of a compartment along a road in order to protect the interior stand against the stm. In some worn-out blanks single Scotch pine had been planted in November and December, separated by at least two meters from the neighboring sprouts. In this conversion the chief factors were: lengthening the cop- pice rotation, securing all possible seedhngs and root suckers for the reserve, filling up blanks with conifers, repeated cleanings to favor the r^erve so that the coppice would be gradually shaded out and the forest trans- formed to a high forest. In the forest of Huit a coppice-under-standards forest is being con- verted into a conifer high forest. Spruce has been planted in rather a poor, open coppice-under-standards. At the age of from 10 to 15 years CONVERSIONS 103 quite a proportion of the spruce was suppressed by the sprouts, and in the 1912 felUng a great deal of damage was done. It is clear that the spruce should have been hberated some time ago. The 1912 cut removed all the poor material and kept all the best poles, although some of the older standards were cut in the openings; the coppice is still coming up strong, but where lots of standards have been reserved, it is fast dis- appearing and becoming suppressed. The Scotch pine introduced at Baccarat (Basses- Vosges) at an alti- tude of from 900 to 1,900 feet, is now 70 to 80 years of age. Most of the area was in coppice-under-standards. Nine pounds of Scotch pine per acre was sown in cultivated strips 24 inches wide and 5 feet apart on the areas ruined. The broadleaves on such poor soil yield each year about four cords and 62 cents per acre. The total cost spent on conversion amounted to about $12 per acre; this did not include the cost of cleanings at two years of age at $2.40 per acre; at 4 to 5, 6 to 8, and 8 to 10 years at costs of $1.54, $1.54 and 38 cents, a total cost of $5.86 per acre. Thinnings began at 10 to 15 years and paid for them- selves up to 15 years; at 26 years they netted 39 cents per cubic meter; at 35 years about $1.05 per cubic meter, and at 44 years a net yield of $1.44 per cubic meter (about 11 cents, 29 cents, and 40 cents cord net); owing to deterioration of the soil it was found necessary to underplant with fir and beech at 25 to 30 years at an additional cost of $9.60 per acre. This makes a total cost of $27.46 per acre on soil preparation, seed, sowing, cleanings, and underplanting. Counting the former broad- leaf forest yielding at 62 cents per acre per year, the Scotch pine at the end of 59 years has shown an annual yield of $2.01 per acre, or $1.39 more. Apparently this conversion will prove a sound business venture. Even with good technique it takes time to make conversions. In the communal forest of Vuillecin (near Pontailler, Doubs), the oak and beech comprise 0.6 of the stand and fir and spruce. According to the special felUngs scheme: "In order to obtain a systematic conversion to conifer high forest and in order to accelerate the transformations with the aid of artificial restocking and local thinnings ... the compartments have been divided into two groups. In the first group we have assigned compartments . . . where the conversion to conifers is the least advanced and where, because of the poor condition of the coppice, the large number of old beech which still remain, and because of the plantations which have been lost, im- provement is needed at once. It will require about 30 years ... to complete the restocking which is required. . . . These compartments are to undergo transforma- tion cuttings at the start, being something like shelterwood fellings followed by planta- tions, then by thinnings whose renewal will depend on cultural requirements. "The second group will include the remaining compartments under improvement cuttings. "A. — Transformatim cuttings. The compartments of the second group shall num- ber four; two with 5-year and two with 10-year intervals. Thus it will be possible to 104 NATURAL REGENERATION give, without undue delay, all necessarj' care to the existing plantations, to complete them where necessary, and make sure of the transformation of the compartments of the first group during the period (30 years). "B. — Improvement cuttings. The compartments of the second group shall be thinned twice during the period of 30 years, or once every 15 years. "1. — Transformation ciUUngs. The first two cuttings (transformation) shall aim to give to the existing plantation what is considered a sufBcient number of trees to pro- tect the restocked areas, which shall be made after the cutting, provided that is neces- sary. "The second two cuttings shall remove the overmature material that remains stand- ing so that each compartment of the first group shall be completely converted into conifer high forest by 1939. " Prom 1910 to 1939 all the restocking shall be done exclusively in the compartments of the first group. Spruce should be used, as heretofore, for planting since it has given excellent results; on the poorer soils, however, it might be well to try out Austrian pine and Scotch pine. "2. — Improvement cuttings. These shall be carefully executed and shall consist of: (1) Extraction of fir most liable to rot and old oak or beech of poor quaUty that has become useless . . . general development of existing conifer poles; (2) thinnings in the poles where they are too thick, and cleanings in the thickets and saplings to assist the more valuable species, and to free them . . . removal of crooked stems and dead trees; (3) in the pole stands where the broadleaves dominate, the best beech should be resowed and, so far as possible, the conifers of all ages." The best-known example of a conversion attempted in the United States is found under the direction of the Yale Forest School. Accord- ing to a statement issued by the school: "The general plan of management for Maltby Park may be summarized as follows: It is handled in conjunction with other forest lands owned by the New Haven Water Company, the total area being in the neighborhood of 9,000 acres. The hardwood stands will be managed on some modification of the shelterwood method, such as the polewood coppice system, on a rotation between 60 and 80 years. Several problems in connection with this method remain to be solved, such, for example, as the influence of sprouts which start after thinnings, on seedling reproduction which later on it is desired to secure. "Where conifers have been underplanted the hardwoods will eventually be removed, and a coniferous or nuxed stand obtained. It is believed that, on account of the rda- tively slow growth and low j-idd per acre of the hardwood species, better finanpial re- suits could be obtained by converting all the hardwood stand to coniferous forest but, until approximately 2,000 acres of open land on other parts of the holdings are planted this policy will not be adopted." Under the condition existing at Maltby Park probably even better silvicultural results would have been secured if the hardwoods had been cut more heavily and if more money had been spent in freeing the plantations suppressed by the coppice sprouts. The value of the land as watershed would not have suffered because the area under conversion comprised only a small per cent of the drainage area. INTERMEDIATE CUTTINGS 105 CARE OF THE STAND AFTER REGENERATION Intermediate Cuttings. — Especially with natural regeneration, clean- ings, thinnings, and improvement cuttings are particularly important.^^ With natural regeneration there are always weed trees to be cleaned out of the stand, and valuable seedHngs and saplings to be protected and favored; the over-dense stands must be thinned to prevent undue competition; and later on the stand must be continually improved by the eUmination of the poorer specimens. According to Bardrillart a cleaning "is a cutting designed to clean or 'purge,' as one might say, a forest of a part of the wood, briars, brush, weed trees that damage the growth, or trees that are dead or dying, or too numerous." It is very much like weeding a garden. As a rule, private owners in Prance over- look the necessity of weeding or cleaning their forests because there is a definite expense involved. The French employ the term "to free a stand" as synonymous with the term "to clean," with the slight differ- ence that they free a valuable species from crowding while they clean out a seed tree to avoid injurious competition. According to Jolyet "the chief aim of a thinning is always to favor the growth of the best trees ... to maintain a stand in the best vegetative condition, or a mixture in the desired proportions . . . and to increase the yield." It thus appears that thinnings also free and clean the stand, but at a later period in its development, and their main objective is to increase the growth by reducing unnecessary competition for hght and growing species, and at the same time realize merchantable timber. In France the term "improvement cutting" means, as the words imply, the improvement of the stand by thinnings, or fellings which yield money returns. There appears to be no clearcut distinction as to the age of the stand when improvement feUings are appUed, as may be seen by the quotation from the Malmifait working plan (p. 112). From the standpoint of silviculture it is essential that intermediate cuttings be ordered, in current working plans, by area and not by volume. Forest valuation should never interfere, as it has in the past, with silvi- culture. If the forester aims at checking excessive cuts he should pre- scribe the area to be cut over each year with a maximum volume merely as a check. Too often in the past the French forester has marked an im- provement cutting in a compartment only to find that it could not be properly executed because the working plan prescribed a maximum cut of 80 cords, whereas the marking properly executed should remove 180 cords. Happily errors due to restraining the silviculturalist from " In France the marking, which requires real technique, is always done under the personal supervision of a forest assistant, assistant supervisor, or supervisor. Even district foresters take part in important marking conferences. 106 NATURAL REGENERATION really "purging" the stand are now well recognized in France and are avoided. Intermediate fellings should begin early, should be repeated as often as necessary, and should be governed only by good silAdcs. Cleaning (and Freeing) Yotmg Stands.^ — Jolyet describes cleanings as "the operation, which consists in retarding the development of secondary or too ambitious species, tending to improve the normal development of the future stand, consists in freeing these seedlings or 'degagements.' " Boppe says that "cleanings should aid the normal development of the best species, favor seedhngs against sprouts, and should be started early, since they are only justified if in good time." They should be repeated as often as necessary to protect the more valu- able species. Schaeffer,^' one of the foremost French conservators, recognized that cleanings referred especially to young stands. He wrote: "It is admitted today that a cleaning should only include small timber, and con- temporaneous authors reserve this term for the whole cultural assistance to be given young stands. However broad this definition may be, it appears to me to be still in- complete, for it lacks the idea of clearing brush from a soil imder a mature stand. ' Clean' should signify: To make clean, clear; to relieve the soil of a forest of the weed growth (shrubs) means to many the very essence of cleaning; this aspect of the question should not be overlooked." But without doubt the most important aspect of cleaning is the cutting of small immature timber to improve the stand. Most important timber species, such as sessile oak, even when 10 to 15 years old, have a slow rate of growth as compared with the weeds or poorer species which surround them. Therefore it is necessary to free them and assist them in their competition with weeds and poorer species. It is not necessarily desired to entirely cut out interfering shrubs or species, but rather to favor only the valuable species in their fight for existence, provided the surrounding brush does not interfere with the growth of the terminal shoot. It is even an advantage to have it in mixture, since it promotes height growth and prevents snow breakage or other damage. All weeds cut in a clearance are valueless. To remove them would be expensive, to burn them often dangerous. Where they must be cut level with the ground it would be imwise to leave them, and the usual practice is to pile them around the base of the reserved trees which still occupy the feUing area before the final cutting. The forest guards are the ones who should make the cleanings and it is essential that the same individual trees should always be favored in subsequent operations, since it is obviously poor poUcy to favor one 22 See Boppe, pp. 94, 134, 162, 200, 248, 254; and Jolyet, pp. 93, 114, 134, 154, 174, 186, 200, 239, 243, 248, 254, 385. '^ Du Nettoiement dans les Bois. Par A. Schaeflfer, Besangon. CLEANING (AND FREEING) YOUNG STANDS 107 sapling at one clearance and a different one at another [94]. A shade- enduring species such as beech, of course, does not require freeing to the same extent as does a hght-demanding species such as oak [134]. Even the maritime pine, which is a rapidly growing species and a prolific seeder, requires assistance against the genista, with which it is often in mixture [154]. Scotch pine, until it has developed above the heather, must always be assisted [162]. The young spruce does not resist shrubs even as well as the fir, and notwithstanding its rapid growth at the start it may often remain dominated by weeds unless cleanings are practiced [200]. In coppice-under-standards, it is particularly essential to protect the best species and the best seedlings or sprouts against competition with inferior species and weeds [2^3]. In conversion [254] cleanings are also essential. One of the most important objects in freeing desirable species is to give them the preference over less desired species which may be more rapidly growing during youth. For example, in a mixed birch and Scotch pine stand, the birch might damage the Scotch pine, which is the more valuable, unless assistance were given it. According to Schaeffer cleanings in regular high forest should first of all destroy the weed trees, briars, and weeds which develop on rich soils, so as to conserve Ught, water, and food for the future commercial stand. But he cautions all foresters against the unnecessary cleaning of light-fohaged, short-hved trees that will do no material damage to the valuable species. He favors the Bagneris method of only topping competing unmerchantable weed trees instead of cutting them off at the stump. This method, which prevents sprouting, and though cheaper, it must be recognized, means more work because it must be done oftener; it should rarely be appUed in the United States. The best time to clean out weeds from young growth is in the late summer or autumn; but for cleanings in stands the spring is best because, if too heavy, the stand has time to recover before snows. In fir the period is less important, but the winter is best. In selection forests the procedure is somewhat different. There are two schools; one beheves that the ground cannot be too densely covered, while the other, led by Gurnaud, believes in periodic cleanings in the understory. Probably the theory of at least partial cleanings in selection forests is correct, but care must be taken to study the soil conditions. Some soils may need every shrub or weed as a protective cover. But since most selection forests are in the mountains, moderate cleanings are usually advisable at the time of felling the saw timber. This cleaning removes small trees damaged by exploitation, weed trees, holly, and even beech which is not required for soil cover in the moun- tains. 108 NATURAL REGENERATION In coppice cleanings protect the seedlings. They must be started 4 or 5 years after cutting the coppice and continue for 15 or 20 years. They act as a thinning in increasing growth and in removing the briars and weeds, weed trees, and poor stems of more valuable species. The increased growth due to a cleaning may be 40 to 50 per cent or more. Where the coppice is grown under standards the cleaning is all the more essential, because the best standards are of seedhng origin, a class of tree especially protected by the cleaning. To give the best results cleanings, according to Schaeffer, must be made every 3 or 4 years. The growth of the standards is increased. Jolyet is satisfied with clean- ings at 5, 10, or 15 years. Thinnings. — Thinnings have three main objects: (1) To eliminate the least desirable specimens; (2) to increase the rate of height and diameter growth of the final stand by artificially removing a portion of it in order that the competition for existence need not weaken the best trees; (3) to improve the quaHty of the trees of the final stand. (See Fig. 9, a and b). It is erroneous to beUeve that a very dense stand means rapidity of height growth. To secure proper development trees must have sufficient growing space so that their crowns can increase in vigor. While thinnings do not always result in a greater final yield the quantity of large, good-quahty timber is certainly increased and the intermediate plus the final yield of a thinned stand is always more than the final yield of an unthinned stand. Thinnings decrease insect and fungus loss as well as windfall and snow breakage. There is a general f eehng among foresters that the French beUeve in making heavier thinnings than do the Germans. The old axiom of thinning early and often is actually practiced in the forest in France and is advocated in the text-books. The French believe in thinning the top story in order to decrease the struggle for existence among the dominant species.^^ On the other hand, as in other divisions of French silviculture, the French methods are simple and direct. They have not classified the thinnings, as have the Germans, into a large number of grades. In coppice with long rotations the French believe in moderate thin- nings [111].25 Most thinnings start in France when the stand is 20 years old and continue every 6 to 20 years. They are marked by the guards and rangers under the personal direction of the inspector, assist- ant inspector, or forest assistant [134]. With a species hke maritime " The bracketed page references are to Jolyet. " This naturally is not an ironclad rule. In the forests of Mouthe and Puvelle (Jura fir) up to 50 to 60 years the thinnings were largely in the understory; only after the stand had closed were the thinnings in the top story. This is logical. After 60 to 70 years the t hi nn in gs in fir may remove up to one-fifth the stand. THINNINGS 109 pine it is invariably the practice to make heavy thinnings ^^ in order that the crowns may be fully developed when tapping for resin begins. These start at 10 years of age and continue every 5 years until tapping to death begins at about 20 years. Jolyet says [155]: A B Fig. 9 (a). ■ — Pole stand of spruce at an altitude (west exposure) of 4,590 feet in the communal forest of Beaufort. There are 364 trees per acre, yielding 117 cubic meters (23,000 feet board measure). The thinnings thus far have too much Ught to permit crown development. (6). — Spruce and fir running 255 trees and 283 cubic meters (74,000 feet board measure) to the acre, in the Canton du Mont, communal forest of Thones-VUle, at an altitude of 3,120 feet on a west exposure. Thinnings have been insufficient to free the crowns of the most promising trees. ^^ This is entirely proper with maritime pine but with spruce or fir, for example, care should be taken not to open up the stand too suddenly. The chief danger in the United States is of too heavy thinnings because of the need of a large cut at one time to reduce 110 NATURAL REGENERATION "At 15 years there is a second thinning (made with an axe), this coupled with a pruning of the remaining trees up to the TnaYimiiTn height the face will reach, that is to say up to 6.6 to 9.8 feet above the ground. At 20 years there is a third thinning, pre- ceded by the tapping of the trees destined to be felled. There is no reason to try to maintain the vigor of these trees; the essential is to realize as quickly as {xissible all the resin which they can jdeld; they are . . . tapped to death at 25 years, and at 30 years there is a fourth and a fifth thinning, always preceded by tapping to death. After the fifth thinning is cut out the stand becomes very open; it is hardly complete. This condition is, however, favorable to the growth of maritime pine, since the crown, when well thinned or in full sunhght, produces more rapidly the substances necessary for the formation of wood and resin. The pine trees which remain are now called pins de jAace and are tapped alive, that is to say they are worked with a moderate number of faces so as to obtain a reasonable amount of resin without compromising the vitality of the tree. This tapping will be continued, moreover, during the entire life of the tree (with 1 or 2 years of respite). In addition the thinnings (every 5 years) are continued in the stand until the time comes for regeneration by clear cutting; it should be vmderstood that each thinning is preceded by the tapping to death of the trees marked for felling." In Scotch pine it is often dangerous to wait until trees are large enough to yield mine props; it is better to start thinnings earlier, say at 18 or 20 years, as pin-ely cultural operations. After once starting they should be made every 7 to 8 years [163]. In mixed stands [182], such as beech and fir, the thinnings should favor the fir against the beech, since the latter is essentially adapted to an imderstory rather than to the major stand [182]. In even-aged stands it is the French practice to choose the trees which should form the future stand and then favor them in the thinnings. The mere removal of suppressed or intermediate trees is not countenanced, since the French beheve very firmly in thinning the upper story [2(X)]. The chief aim in making thinnings in the coppice of a coppice-imder-standards stand 8 to 10 years before the coppice is cut is to increase the diameter growth of the most vigorous trees which will make the best standards for the upper story during the succeeding rotations [245]. Another operation, ia reality a thinning or loosening (d^pressage) in seedling stands, is very necessary in crowded maritime pine regenera- tion, and often in dense clumps of Scotch pine reproduction, to prevent damage by fungus through overcrowding. Jolyet " says of it: the cost of logging. Huff el says in the preface to Vol. II of ficonomie Foresti&re: "Exaggerated thinnings are fatal to the health and finally to the very existence of forests. By breaking the cover and uncovering the soil, they diminish or destroy its productive- ness. The humus disappears; the soil dries out, packs and hardens. The forest is invaded by weeds, heather, and grass; the valuable species are gradually eliminated. If made too suddenly thinnings cause windfall. Too heavj' thinnings are imeconomic since they increase the volume of branches and sapwood, yield short tapering boles. . . . They also decrease the quality of wood. . . ." "Influence des ficlaircies dans les Peuplements r^guliers de Sapin. E Cuif 1905. IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS 111 "It is necessary to break up these thickets by cutting a certain number of seedlings. The term 'd6pressage' (literally loosening) explains well enough the nature of the work which is done with a bill hook or pruning iron. To sum up, the 'depressage' is not a freeing (d^gagement), but more nearly a first thinning executed in very young stands." There can be no question but that thinnings are profitable when the trees to be cut can be sold. As a concrete example of increment the following is cited for a fir stand in France: Plot A, thinned Plot B, unthinned 1913 value of stand $889.13 667.01 $1,687.78 43 39 Sales since 1893 Totals 81,556.14 1,113.41 81,731.17 1,323.21 Price in 1893 Difference $442.73 3.76 1.37 $407.96 Per cent of value increment 2.80 Increase in average price per cubic meter (per cent) . . .97 Thus thinnings, properly executed, increase average annual revenue and the unit of value of the final product. On account of the larger logs in another plot the price increment per meter was 17 cents. Cuif believes that good thinnings will enable the State to decrease the ro- tations. Huffel cites some authoritative figures for the growth per cent for a spruce forest thinned and unthinned. Starting with 20 years the growth per cent is 0.7 for both stands; at 50 years the unthinned stand was growing at the rate of 4.3 per cent and the thinned at 4.5 per cent, at 100 years the growth per cent for the unthinned stand was 2.6 and for the thinned 3 per cent. The losses througn poorly executed thinnings may be lasting. Schaeffer ^^ cited a case where a compartment was ruined for 30 years because the officer in charge of the marking did not study the stand curves in the working plan (see p. 216). He cited diameter limit mark- ing as abominable. Important marking, according to French belief, should always be executed under the direction of a trained officer. Improvement Fellings. — French text-books do not refer to " improve- ment felUngs" as such. They describe freeings, cleanings, thinnings, and accompanying cultural operations. But in State forest and communal working plans there are always instructions under the head "Coupes d' amelioration," as distinct from regeneration fellings and freeings. In the forest of Argon according to the original working plan, when ™ Sylviculture Administrative. A. Schaeffer. Besangon, 1907. 112 NATURAL REGENERATION the stand is 50 to 60 years old there are careful thinnings in the poles and the removal of dry, suppressed trees and final feUings with Ught thinnings in the pole stands and the gradual elimination of the beech. According to the working plan: "1. In the spring, one shall carefully reconnoiter the windfall, dry trees, dead trees, or those declining in vigor; the volume shall be determined from the volume table. Under the head of defective wood should be included all trees seriously defective, such as rotten, fungus infected, or very crooked trees, or those exuding resin or showing cancer." This clean-up in the almost mature stands is in effect an improve- ment felling. In the forest of Malmifait, under the heading "Improve- ment Fellings," the working plan prescribed the following: "The cultural rules to apply will vary according to the working group. In the third group (the first to be regenerated so far as the mature reserves are concerned, which must be zealously kept to furnish most of the future seed trees), it is necessary that only dead and dying trees be cut and everywhere on those areas where it is impossible to find suitable seed trees in the poles; on those areas aU the trees are defective or hollow. In the poles the young trees of desirable species, which must furnish the future seed trees, will be freed rather energetically and prepared for seeding purposes along with the mature reserves and especiaUy when these reserves are lacking; moreover the thinnings will be very light so as not to expose the soil; otherwise the seeding would be started (prema- turely) along with briars and grass which would form, later in the third period, an ob- stacle to natural reproduction. The same cultural rules will be apphed in the fourth group, but with even greater moderation; it wiU be possible to sacrifice some of the old trees which are hollow or in mediocre condition in favor of good stems, still young, existing in the poles; but here, also, the thinning as a whole will be Ught. . . . In the young growth of the fifth group, where old reserves are lacking or few in number, the oak must be freed, and the good beech as required; there should be no hesitation, in the areas where the oak is the dominant species and where the beech is insufficient, in sacrificing the former of these two species to assist the latter, so as always to make sure of a proper mixture of these two species. "Finally, in the compartments of the second group where it will be necessary to pass most often, the special cutting scheme provides for four fellings instead of two, for the other groups, during the last 26 years of the period; the improvement cvMng will take the form of cleanings, liberation cuttings, or thinnings, according to the condition of the stands; besides it is necessary, wherever the regeneration does not take hold, to assist the seeding by means of wounding the soil and to complete it by plantations of oak and even beech where necessary. It is essential to continually see to it at the start that the seedlings and plants are not choked by the briars . . . and later on that the promising individuals of the good species should not be hindered in their growth by secondary species. These operations are especially delicate. So far as possible they will actually be done by the employees as betterments (improvement work). They must be carefully and progressively executed at short intervals on the same ground. Often, especially at the start, it would be better to cut out the weed trees gradually rather than to remove them all at the same time, which would uncover the seedlings too brusquely. . . . Often it will be preferable to kill the weed trees by girdling rather than to cut them level with the ground, which would favor the production of vigorous sprouts, able to very rapidly interfere with the young growth of valuable species." IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS 113 Judging from this quotation the term "improvement fellings" in France is used rather as a general term to signify any kind of intermediate felling. It has been employed by some officers in a narrower sense to denote the improvement of mature stands prior to regeneration, where dead, dying, and diseased trees are cut out systematically to reaUze profit on what would otherwise constitute a loss. CHAPTER VI 1 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION French Policy (p. 114). General, Choice between Sowing and Planting. Seed (p. 117). Cultural Value of Seed, Seed Testing, Rules for Seed Control. NuHSEMEs (p. 122). Location of Nurseries, Nursery Practice, Two Sample Nurs- eries. Planting (p. 125). Cultivation and Spacing, Age of Plants, Time to Plant, Plantar tion by Holes, French Planting Technique, Cover and Protection, Species and Methods to Use, Chief Dangers. FiBLD Sowing (p. 132). Prepared and Unprepared Soil, Amoimt to Sow, Season for Sowing, Summary of Sowing Methods as AppUed to Species and Regions. FRENCH POLICY General. — Notwithstanding the sentiment in France in favor of regeneration by natural means it is obvious that with only 18.7 per cent of the land under forest, considerable areas must be restocked artifi- cially if France is not to suffer for lack of wood (of the kinds needed). Thus far the Government has devoted the most time and revenue to the reclamation 'of the sand wastes in the Landes (see Chapter VIII) and to the reforestation of lands in the mountains (see Chapter VII), denuded through past improvident overcutting and overgrazing. Next in importance has been the planting and sowing in the Sologne and Champagne. Besides this restocking of barren areas there has been occasional sowing and planting to supplement natural regeneration when this has been a partial failure. There are always fail places in natural reproduction where nature must be assisted to maintain pro- duction and to keep the present stand from deterioration. For example, with more than three-fifths of the forest area in coppice or coppice- under-standards these stands must be continually sown to oak or under- planted (the usual practice) to prevent blanks. In conversion from these systems to high forest more desirable species than can be secured by natural seeding must be introduced. Too frequently, however, the private owner has allowed his forest to deteriorate because sowing or planting involved direct expenditures to-day, with returns deferred until the next generation. To practice good forestry is to save, so it is somewhat surprising that ' Prof. J. W. Tourney, Dean of the School of Forestry, Yale University, and Lt.-Col. A. S. Peck kindly reviewed this chapter and made many valuable suggestions. 114 CHOICE BETWEEN SOWING AND PLANTING 115 to-day there is not a larger per cent of French territory under well- managed forest. The main reasons for this deficiency can be traced to the vicissitudes of famiUes and of the nation, coupled with the selfish- ness of pleasure-loving nobles, kings, and politicians. Yet, curiously enough, the search after pleasure, in the form of hunting and shooting, is responsible for some of the most famous high forests of France. Trees are sometimes planted as shelter-belts for the fields on the right of way along the railways. This apparently is a wise use of land otherwise unproductive, but it is very hard on the eyes of travelers. Where the railroad grade passes through cuts trees have been planted to hold the earth and prevent erosion. This is a practice which American railroad engineers might well follow. At Toulouse cypress trees are planted along canals to protect them against drying winds. Roadside tree planting is practiced very generally throughout France and results in endless rows of trees flanking the highways which is one of the characteristics of the French countryside that impresses itself most indelibly on the traveler. French writers ^ class (a) the forestation of the Landes and mountains as obligatory forestation and (b) the stocking of poor agricultural land or waste land, which has never been cultivated, as optional. From the standpoint of pubUc economics no nation can afford to permit land suitable for growing crops of trees to he idle. If the individual cannot afford the proper forestation the State must step in. There should be no waste land nor should its use for forestry be optional. It should be obligatory, but with the alternative of yielding ownership to the State under equitable conditions. With at least 300,000 acres partially or completely denuded by the recent war, France has a vital problem of reforestation to meet and must import a large portion of her seed or plants. It would certainly be a just settlement if the Germans were made to furnish much of the seed and plant material. No attempt will be made to treat the subject of artificial stocking systematically; instead only the most interesting and instructive phases of the problems will be covered in varying detail. Choice between Sowing and Planting. — According to such foresters as Lorentz and Parade field sowing is considered especially useful on a large scale, since it is alleged to be simpler and cheaper than plantations and because the result is more nearly like the natural forest. On the other hand, it is recognized that the plantation is surer and results in more regular stands. Therefore where the soil is dry, where it is de- nuded, and where it is eroding, as in the majority of cases in the Alps, planting is preferable to sowing. While no absolute rule can be formu- lated for the choice between sowing and planting, Demontzey, the ' For example, see Jolyet, pp. 467-468. 116 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION father of mountain planting, believes that planting is usually preferable and that sowing should be done only in special cases, since the sowing, while sometimes less costly than planting, is less certain and often in- complete. Sowing is best, according to the French writers, on some kinds of rocky soil where plantations are made with difficulty, where seed is very cheap, and where the soil need not be previously prepared. Otherwise it is usually more expensive. Planting was neglected for a long time in France, but Government forestation has given it an impetus and formally estabhshed its desira- bility under certain conditions. Planting makes possible the control of species, mixtures, and spacing, and is generally considered better on very rich soils where weeds abound, where there is damage from rodents or squirrels, and in hot and dry regions where the young trees cannot be protected but must resist the heat. For successful direct seeding, it has been found necessary that (1) there be no dense cover that will shut out the light, (2) the young plants should have a little protection against the snow, (3) the soil should not be too exposed to heaving by frost, but that it should have a moist surface, and (4) the slopes should not be too steep. Otherwise the plants will be eroded or covered by earth transported by flood water. There are other considerations. Certain seeds take more than a year to germinate so that they remain exposed for a long time to the different agencies of destruction. For example, cembric pine seeds and some species of ash belong to this class. Therefore, planting is to be preferred to sowing for these species. Not- withstanding this, however, cembric pine is sometimes sown because of the shortness of the favorable season at the high altitudes and the diffi- culty of handling labor in these out-of-the-way places. Of course, species which develop a long taproot at the start are better sown, as, for example, the holm oak and the maritime pine. In the case of the cypress it is better to plant because a certain niunber of seeds bear plants having a pyramidal form. In Savoie and in the Basses-Alpes sowing is often employed, in connection with planting, at high alti- tudes and on stable ground for the cembric pine, the mountain pine, and the larch; spruce is also sown in Savoie. In the Basses-Alpes, Dr6me, and Vaucluse acorns and aleppo pine seed are sown; beech nuts are also sown in the Basses-Alpes. Aleppo pine comes up well from sowing operations in the Maritime Alpes. Scotch pine, Corsican pine, and maritime pine are sown successfully in the northeastern part of the Gard department. Elsewhere in this department sowing is re- served for the summits and high altitudes where the wind is very strong. The sowing of Scotch pine on heather has been employed in the Central Plateau, in which region sowing and planting generally give about equivalent results. In the Ard^che the sowing of fir under the shelter CULTURAL VALUE OF SEED 117 of open stands of beech or pine often succeeds, as in other places where this species is suited to the cUmate. In the Loz^re seeding is employed only for the pedunculate oak, chestnut, and Scotch pine. In the Aude and the Pyr^n^es-Orientales holm oak and maritime pine are sown. Pedunculate oak, chestnut, and aleppo pine in this region are both sown and planted, with a preference for sowing. SEED Cultural Value of Seed. — It is important for successful artificial forestation that the real cultural value of the seed to be used should be known in advance. Much attention has been given to this point. After comparing the results obtained at Paris and Barr^s with those at other experiment stations, Fron concludes that the average seed value of the principal tree species, bought in the open market, is as given below. This signifies that for larch 10 pounds must be used where the sowing plans call for 4 pounds. TABLE 9. — AVERAGE SEED VALUE Species Scotch i)ine. . . Mountain pine Austrian pine. Maritime pine . Aleppo pine . . . Spruce Larch Fir Average purity, per cent 95+ 95+ 95+ 95+ 95+ 95+ 80-85+ 88+ Average germination, per cent 75-80+ 70 75-80+ 75 80 75-80 45-50 20 Duration of test, days 10 14 30 30 42 30 30 42 Average cultural value. per cent a 70-75+ 66+ 70-75+ 70+ 75 70-75 40+ 16. 6 (Zurich) " Obtained by dividing the product of germination and purity coefficients by 100. The experiments conducted also emphasized the fact, now so generally known, that forest tree seeds cannot be stored successfully without losing so much of their germinative per cent that storage becomes un- profitable, unless kept in air-tight retainers — not yet generally em- ployed by seed houses. Scotch pine, with a cultural value of 74 to 79 per cent, was reduced to 49 to 58 per cent the second year, 28 to 45 per cent the third year, and less than 5 per cent the sixth year. These are maximum losses. The cultural value of mountain pine and Austrian pine decreases as rapidly, but maritime pine stands storage much better, and even after 10 years' storage has a cultural value of 40 to 60 per cent. Spruce seed values decrease rapidly with storage; if 73 to 77 per cent the first year, they are 53 to 62 per cent the second, and but 26 to 44 per cent the third year. It might almost be said that larch seed 118 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION cannot be stored; if 39 to 44 per cent the first year, it is only 16 to 18 per cent the second, and 5 to 8 per cent the third year. Seed Testing. — As a result of these experiments a fixed procedure was adopted for official tests on tree seeds. It must be known ' (1) whether seed can germinate and what the germination per cent will be; (2) per cent of impurities, since the germination per cent plus the purity per cent gives the cultural value of the seed, subject to practical field condi- tions which always modify the supposed cultural value. In addition to the above factors it is also necessary to know (3) germinative energy. In 1872 germinative seed tests were started at the secondary school for rangers and guards at Barr^s. An experimental seed-testing station at Paris was estabUshed in 1884.* There were 117 analyses in 1895 and 2,201 in 1902-03. The object was to control and better the tree- seed market of France. This seed-testing laboratory enabled the State to purchase seed with a guaranteed germinative per cent, and the ciunu- lative result of germinative tests at the various stations has made it possible that no one need purchase or sow tree seeds without knowing their germinative value. The first colxmin following gives the gross amoimt of seed required for a complete test, and the second column the amount usually required in the laboratory for the actual test. TABLE 10. — SEED REQUIRED Birch and analogous species Seed required, complete test Seed required, actual test Grams Troy ounces Grams Troy ounces Scotch pine, Corsican pine, aleppo pine Spruce, larch, alder, hornbeam, maple Cambric pine, fir, cedar, oak, beech 50 100 200 250 1.6 3.2 6.4 8 20 30 50 100 0.6 1.0 1 6 Acacia, ash, linden, maritime pine . 3 2 " Analyse et Contr61e des Semences Foresti^res, par A. Fron, Paris, 1906, pp. 1-128. Those interested in seed control should study this monograph. * So far as possible the French forest administration collects its own seed. Various local dry-ldlns have been established as, for example, at Murat (Cantal), Puy-de- D6me, and Gap for Scotch pine; at Modane, Briangon, and Cavanasse for mountain pine, although some Scotch pine is produced at Cavanasse. At Salzman, Corsican pine seed is produced. At Montiers (Savoie) spruce; and aleppo pine at Font-de- I'Orme (Vaucluse), d'Aubagne (Bouches-du-Rh6ne). Maritime pine is secured from Lavand^e, although a part is secured from permittees who have the right to collect cones in the dunes of Gascogne. Larch and cembric pine are purchased in the Hautes- Alpes and Basses-Alpes and distributed from Embrun and Barcelonette. It is in- teresting to note that the larch seed is collected by beating the trees when they are ready to shed, between January 1 and March 1. SEED TESTING 119 For determining the weight by volume one and one-half quarts are usually required. It goes without saying that the samples from each lot must be chosen with the utmost care. First, the shipment must be thoroughly mixed, then at least ten samples, selected from different places in the pile, are mixed and a final average lot selected. When the seed comes in sacks * samples can be extracted from each sack or from a certain proportion mixed together and sampled as given above. Where samples must be sent away for testing they must be labeled and sealed in air-tight bags, but if the water content of the sample is to be determined the shipment is made preferably in corked glass or air-tight metal boxes. It is of value to keep samples of seed known to be normal to use as a basis for comparson; with reliable samples oflB.cers that are not experts can readily check species and, occasionally, varieties. The. separation of the debris from the real seed can best be made by hand. The seeds are placed on a glass and separated from the wings, particles of cone, refuse, debris, wood, sand, and damaged or puny seed by the use of a penknife. The operation must be completed as soon as possible to guard against changes in weight due to drying. The absolute weight is determined by averaging the weight of two lots of 1,000 seeds each; with this figure the number of seeds to the pound can be decided by multiplication. When the amount of seed per quart is to be secured a number of quarts must be averaged owing to the variations usually encountered. A reliable germination test must include four separate lots of 100 seeds each, or for acorns and nuts four of 50 seeds each; the choice of which seeds to use must be by lot to eliminate absolutely the personal element. After the tests on each lot the results ought not to vary more than 10 per cent for seed with high germination powers nor more than 15 per cent for seed germinating around 50 per cent. Before the germi- nation tests it is customary to soak conifer seeds in sterilized luke- warm water for from 6 to 15 hours. This time counts on the total length of time allowed for germination. For germination Fron recommends a heavy sterilized blotting paper or sand with a Schribaux stove, the humidity being kept at 50 per cent to 60 per cent during the entire test. No chemicals are used. The temperature is maintained between 20° C. (68° F.) and 30° C. (86° F.); for conifers Fron recommends a temperature of 20° C. to 25° C. (68° F. to 77° F.) during 18 hours, and 25° C. to 30° C. (77° F. to 86° F.) during 6 hours, but Schwappach recommends 25° C. and 30° C. (68° F. to 86° F.), respectively. Mari- time pine can stand up to 35° C. (95° F.) for short intervals. Ordinarily no light is admitted, but alder and birch appear to germinate more * In Germany the sampler (Sonde) of Professor Noble, made by Mathes, of Tharandt, Saxony, has been used with success. 120 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION rapidly if they are exposed to daylight. The ofl&cial duration for tests has been 30 days for Scotch pine, Corsican pine, spruce, larch and most conifers, willow, alder, elm, hornbeam, maple, oak, and beech, and 42 days for maritime pine, aleppo pine, mountain pine, fir, and white pine (P. strobus). After these tests are completed note is always made as to how many of the ungerminated seeds are still fresh, but these figures do not enter into the calculation of cultm-al value. To obtain the actual sowing value of any seed the product of the coeflScient of purity and the germination per cent is divided by 100. The germinative energy is measured by the number of seeds which have germinated after a fixed period, which is usually 10 days for species germinated for 30 days in all and 14 days for those requiring 42 days to complete the normal tests. The following variations are allowed in deciding whether to accept purchases or not : For germination per cent, 5 per cent for species running 90 per cent and more; 8 per cent for species less than 90 per cent; purity, 2 per cent and 3 per cent; cultiu-al or real value, 6 per cent and 9 per cent. As Fron remarks, "If the cultural value were guaranteed at 80 per cent but showed only 70 per cent or less, the seed could be accepted." For American conditions such percentages set too high a standard; they should be at least 10 to 20 per cent less. The water content of samples is found by taking 10 to 20 grams (0.3 to 0.6 ounces T.) and maintaining it for three days at a tempera- ture of 105° C. (221° F.). The loss in weight after being dried gives the desired per cent when divided by 100. The station record shows how the tests were made, the amount of seed received and actually used, date seed was shipped and received, how packed, and conditions after transport. Rtiles for Seed Control. — French foresters have tried to have all sales of tree seeds controlled by the State so that buying would be done on the basis of cultural value rather than on a gamble, but as yet no such regulation is in general force. The proposed rules to govern the analysis and control of forest tree seeds are as follows: "Article I. — Name of method of analysis and of control. A. The aim of the analysis and control of forest seeds is as follows: 1. To centralize everything touching on the study, analysis, and control of forest seed. 2. To contribute to the continuous improvement of collected forest seeds sold or utihzed in France, based on the results of authentic samples of different kinds and by researches on the physiologic growth, selection, and variety with the aim of practical results. 3. To contribute to the study of exotic forest species by experiments carried out on the seeds locally and in arboretums and experimental plots. RULES FOR SEED CONTROL 121 B. So far as the analysis and control of forest seeds is concerned the experiments will determine: 1. Correctness, so far as possible, of genus or species. 2. The purity. 3. Absolute weight. 4. The actual weight in case demand is made. 5. Germinative figure and germinative per cent. 6. Water content. The experiments must be carried out in conformity with exact technical methods. The experiments with knife without being proved by germination may suffice for the large seeds (cembric pine, oak, beech, etc.), but give only approximate results. The results given by the experimental service are obtained by experimenting with average specimens, that is to say that the advertisements of the analysis executed by the ex- perimental service cannot be utiUzed by the vendor as exact data on the value of a given purchase. Artide II. — Control of the sale of forest seeds. 1. Analysis of control. Contract houses (with the aim of controUing the sale of forest seeds) and experimental service can conclude contracts with seed merchants entitled contracts of control. The list of houses placed under the control of the experimental service can be mailed free to persons who demand it. It may be pubUshed. The conditions of these contracts are as follows: A. The house promises to observe the rules in every particular. B. The house engages to indicate on the bill the guarantees for the merchan- dise sold and delivered to the purchasers under the conditions given in the certificates of control and to furnish, at the expense of the house, an analysis of control. C. The purchasers of seed from a controlled house acquire, if purchasing the minimum amount stipulated, without further formality and without special authorization, the right to have a free analysis by the experi- mental bureau of the material purchased. D. The controlled houses must agree that the analysis made by this bureau shall be final for the purposes of fixing the amount of the bill. If the results of the analysis do not correspond with the guarantee given, they promise to make it up to the purchaser. E. The houses controlled do not pay any annual charges to the testing bureau . . since the expenses are borne by the Maison de Commerce. . . . F. The houses which do not guarantee to their purchasers free analysis or which do not even give a limited guarantee cannot be admitted as houses controlled by the bureau. G. The controlled houses are forbidden to furnish several certificates of free analysis for a single sale of the same sort of seed. Each certificate is valuable only for the special sale for which it has been deUvered. H. It is forbidden to insert in the contracts of control any stipulations con- cerning the probable analysis cost. The analysis of this kind must be paid for according to the tariff." ° 'Such a system of general seed control is needed in the United States. Uijder present conditions a private purchaser of forest tree seeds has no guarantee of the real 122 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION NURSERIES Location of Nurseries. — Judging from visits to a number of nurseries (1) near areas under natural regeneration and (2) at regular forestation projects, France has not much to teach us in the minutiae of modern nursery practice. What there is to learn is chiefly along the Unes of policy. For example, French foresters have demonstrated that in the forestation projects in the mountains it is important to have small local nurseries near the area to be forested, while the tendency in the United States has been to maintain large central nurseries from which stock can be shipped. On the National Forests in the United States, according to Greeley: "The policy has been pretty generally adopted of maintaining large nurseries rather than small ones, notwithstanding the shipping cost and the danger of the stock drying out in transit. A few years ago a large number of so-called ranger nurseries were es- tablished on almost every Forest, but this proved expensive and unsatisfactory. Many of the rangers wasted time on their nursery work and it seriously interfered with their regular executive duties.'' At Barcelonnette, in the Basses-Alpes, they have tried three kinds of nurseries: (1) Permanent or central nurseries, (2) so-called "flying" nurseries, and (3) fixed local nurseries. Permanent or central nurseries are now rare. Small temporary or "flying" nurseries in or near the area to be sown are extremely popular. After they have produced once or twice and the nearby planting is completed they are abandoned. The small fixed local nurseries, often two or three in each working group, are placed conveniently near plant- ing sites where for a number of years material will be required. Departing somewhat from this practice. Dinner, an eminent author- ity on forestation, had very few temporary nurseries in the Maritime Alps because he believed in thorough irrigation, and it was often diffi- cult to secure a certain water supply near the planting site. Dinner used 1 to 3 year old untransplanted stock and developed a formula to govern the size of his nurseries. For 100 acres of planting site his nursery J , planting site area 100 ^^ . , , covered 1 acre or nursery area = T' ^® ^""^^ *^^* *^^ ^'^^'^^ out with remarkable accuracy, and cautioned against establishing nurs- eries at too high an altitude (where the climate is severe) because of the increased cost of working. The following general principles have been developed in France to govern the establishment of nurseries: cultural value. Other commodities, such as lumber, wool, or cotton are sold on the basis of grade or quality. If our export of tree seeds is to grow a definite scheme of seed control will be essential in order to protect foreign purchasers against fraud. NURSERY PRACTICE 123 It is advisable to locate nurseries near the land to be restocked to reduce the inconvenience and cost of transport, provided the climate is not too severe. They are usually established on a bench where the soil is sufficiently deep and fresh, near a brook or a spring, and near a forest house or camp. The higher the altitude the more the plants may suffer from frost, from throwing, or from the snow; therefore the nursery should not be estabUshed at an altitude higher than the average elevation at which the species are to be used; in the Alps and Pyrenees it is rarely advisable to establish nurseries at a higher elevation than 5,600 feet. It must be borne in mind that the growing season at high altitudes is very short, the growth is slow, and the dangers from snow, etc., considerable. Nurs- eries in the C^vennes or the Central Plateau are rarely higher than 4,600 feet. If it is necessary the plants can be transported and heeled in where they are to be used at high altitudes the autumn preceding field work; or they can be heeled in at the nursery itself in order to retard vegetation where nm-series are situated considerably below the planting area. One should not hold stock at the nursery for later shipment into higher altitudes if the nursery is much lower or on a warmer site. Ship earlier and heel in where they are to be planted. The usual niu^ery practice in regions where regular reforestation work is carried on is as follows: The soil is cultivated to a depth of 16 to 20 inches, leaving the humus near the surface, and the French policy is to use plenty of fertilizer — either manure or any standard chemical type of plant food. As much vegetable mould as possible is retained in the soil. It favors the seedUng, the transplant, and all other forms of vegetation, and sometimes doubles the growth. Usually sowing is in strips 2.6 to 3.9 feet in width according to the slope; the sowing on the strips is usually in drills about 1.1 inches apart. Conifers are covered with about 0.4 inch of soil. To conserve the freshness of the soil the area sown is often covered with one layer of moss or pine needles. Some- times flat stones are placed between the drills to prevent throwing and to conserve the moisture. Before germination the seeds are protected against birds; weeding is done as required. As a protection against the sun in summer lath shade frames are used or else branches are stuck in the ground at each side of the strips and inclined toward the center. As a rule, the simplest possible methods are followed. Nursery Practice. — One moderate watering is favored and then only when the germination is being hindered by drought or the health and vigor of the plants require moisture. But much irrigation washes the soil, decreases its fertility, and exaggerates the growth of the plants, so that later they are all the more susceptible to drought. Irrigation 124 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION should be followed by cultivation. Yet it should be noted that Dinner departed from this policy in the Maritime Alps where the climate is especially dry. The object is to produce nursery stock which will have: ^ "1. A complete weU-developed root system, with regular and numerous rootlets. "2. A straight regular stem, a well branched and vigorous crown with lateral branches proportionate to the age of the stock. "3. Foliage or buds complete and well-formed. "4. A healthy appearance, the stem and roots without any wound or suspicious scars.'' Two Sample Nurseries. — A model nursery representing the best of French nursery practice ^ is to be seen at the Barres Secondary School for Rangers. The seed here is carefully stored. It is left in sacks no longer than necessary and is frequently shifted so as to be thoroughly aerated. As a general rule, the scales and debris are kept with the seed, approximating the natural method of leaving the seed in the cones, which is recognized as the best. The nursery consists of twenty-seven plots, each 0.037 acre in extent, with two-thirds in cultivation and one- third in paths. The work is very systematically arranged. Every year one plot is sown, another transplanted, while the third furnishes the plants for shipment after a year in the transplant beds. Each plot con- sists of ten strips 33 feet long and 3.3 feet wide, separated by 2-foot paths. Each strip has six lines of plants, single or double, separated by 6.3 inches from axis to axis with a margin on the edge of 3 inches. The sowing for most species ^ is done as early in the spring as possible, beginning not later than March 15. An annual is usually sown and plowed in once every three years to enrich the soil. A very simple sowing board is used, V-shaped (double or single), and about 1 inch deep. This is merely pressed in the ground in a straight line and the seed distributed along the bottom of the de- pression thus made. The beds are protected against birds and rodents by small frames 4 inches high covered with 1-inch, or smaller, wire mesh. The frames are covered with a few branches for protection against the sun for six to eight weeks after the seed has germinated. Rodents have been suc- cessfully destroyed by strychnine which was mixed with flour, placed in a pan, and covered to protect it from the rain. Very little success has resulted from treating oak acorns; the general policy is to kill the rodents rather than to prepare the seed so that it will not be eaten. Stones are often placed between the transplant lines to hold the moisture in the ' See Boppe, pp. 349-392. ' From notes supplied by the director of the school. » A species hke silver fir would be sown in the fall. CULTIVATION AND SPACING 125 soil and prevent throwing. As a general rule, untransplanted stock is recommended in big planting operations, 2 to 3 year-old conifer seed- lings being preferred. Transplanted stock, on the other hand, is used to complete natural regeneration. Here the cost is less important be- cause only a small percentage of the total area need be planted and better success is secured, since it is less likely to be crowded out. The plants are never pulled and are not watered before shipment because of the danger of heating while en route. Baskets or open boxes are generally used for shipping. It should be borne in mind that large nurseries, such as the one just described, are no longer numerous, many of them having been abandoned in favor of small local nurseries near the planting site. Much more typical is the small local nursery at Royat in the Central Plateau, which is situated in a narrow valley on a 6 per cent west slope. The main product here is 3-year-old spruce fir or Scotch pine seedlings. There is no transplanting, since it is considered too expensive. The fir is sown under lath frames 6.5 feet wide and placed 2.5 feet above the soil and the pine is sown in drills spaced 3 to 4 inches apart. Shade frames, 10 to 12 inches above the ground, are used for the Scotch pine also during the heat of the first year. PLANTING Cultivation and Spacing. — In planting, Jolyet says " cultivation should usually be considered indispensable — always advantageous." The great aim of planting is the use of the most economical local means to get the roots in touch with the humus and the soil. Complete culti- vation is, of course, never necessary and would only increase the danger of erosion. Planting trees in horizontal strips is often advantageous in dry regions, but the general preference of the forester should be for holes or spots. As a rule, the French favor much wider spacing in plantations than do the Germans. Bartet even suggests spacing spruce 6.5 feet apart owing to its superficial root system and in order to give the crown a chance for development. In Germany the average distance for spacing spruce is usually 4 feet and sometimes closer. The French rule is never less than 3.3 feet and never more than 10 feet. Intolerant species like maritime pine can be spaced wider apart than a tolerant species such as fir; and as a general rule, rapidly growing species can be spaced wider than species that are slow growing during the seedling and sapling stages. Ordinarily the spacing is 5 to 6.5 feet. It is cer- tainly apparent, without going into further detail, that the French system is more in accordance with American practice, namely, wide spacing and comparatively few trees per acre as contrasted with the close spacing in Germany. 126 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION Age of Plants. — "In every conifer plantation aimed at restocking mountain slopes you should follow the principle of having the plants as young as possible." The ages indicated below vary according to the nature of the species, the altitude of the nursery, and according to whether the plants are transplanted or not: Cypress, 2 to 3 years; fir, 3 to 4; spruce, 3 to 4; larch, 2 to 4; cedar, 2 to 3; Scotch pine, mountain pine, Corsican pine, Austrian pine, and C6vennes pine, 2 years (occasionally 3) ; aleppo pine, preferably 1 year (sometimes 2); cembric pine 3 to 5; ash, 2 to 6; beech, 1 to 5; chestnut, 1 to 4; sessile oak, 1 to 4; other broadleaves, 2 to 6. Older plants, 4 to 5 years old, are used in certain limestone soils where the groimd is badly heaved by the frost, on very steep slopes where snowslides are feared and where the plants may be torn out if they are not deep-rooted, and also on unstable shallow ground where there is danger that the young plants may be covered with debris already eroded. The natural larch stock secured from neighboring stands is usually ball-planted at 5 to 8 years of age. At Barcelonette (Basses-Alpes) the local rule still holds that the younger the plants the better the success. Austrian pine is ordinarily used at 2 to 3 years of age with 4 to 5 year plants on exceptionally diffi- cult and steep talus. Larch and mountain pine are used at 2 years of age and cembric pine at 3 to 5 years, the stock rarely being transplanted. (See also p. 165.) Time to Plant. — It has been found best to plant coniferous trees in the spring because the soil is then fresh and the plants will have one whole growing season for development before the severe autumn weather. If solidly rooted in the soil they can resist to better advantage the frost, erosion, sliding snow, and drought, as well as the wash of heavy rains. The autumn, however, is sometimes used for planting conifers at high altitudes because of the shortness of the working season. The deciduous species, which are habitually planted at lower altitudes, may be set out in the spring before the beginning of vegetation but ordinarily this is not done until the autumn. Soil and climate have weight in deciding upon the proper season. For example, in the Ardeche the autumn plantations alone give satisfactory results on limestone soils situated at low altitudes. Planting is preferably done also in the autumn in the Aude since frosts are rare at this season and because in the spring there are often prolonged rains which may completely wash out the soil from around the plants. Dinner stated that in the Maritime Alps, in the zone where it does not freeze hard in winter, he can plant in the fall, but higher up in the mountains he must plant entirely in the spring. At Marseilles in the forest of La Gardiole the best time for planting on FRENCH PLANTING TECHNIQUE 127 this limestone soil is in November, December, and January so as to benefit from the late autumn rain. At Barcelonette autumn planting, especially when done in September or in October, gives very good results in the high altitudes. Plantations in Holes (or Spots). — While to have a complete stand from the start 4,000 spots to the acre would be required, this number is largely reduced to an extent varying with the region and on the species in order to cut down the cost of forestation and thinning. Dense planta- tions are reserved for land which presents very difficult conditions on account of the soil or of the climate. The depth and length of the spots is ordinarily 16 to 12 inches, the size being reduced where the plants may be badly damaged by the frost or where the slope is very steep. On difficult slopes the conifers are often planted by the French i" in clumps of two to three seedUngs; the larch is usually planted single. With transplanted stock the single plants are used in the case of the broad leaves, except that beech is sometimes planted in pairs. Protec- tion is frequently afforded by overturned sod or by stones. According to Dinner, he is obliged by the Paris office to do some sowing, but would otherwise do all his reforestation by planting. The main feature of his planting technique is the size of the holes. The Paris authorities impose a size of 10 inches square, but Dinner uses 16-inch "spots" and even larger if the ground is bad. He feels that the secret of success is in large spots which hold the moisture, whereas small spots would be dried out. On large areas he plants strips of broadleaved trees as future fire belts. Where there are 1,600 to 2,000 plants per acre the whole expense is $10 to $12 per acre with labor at 70 to 80 cents a day. The average loss through his inspection is 25 per cent, some seasons being almost nothing, but other years 60 to 70 per cent. At Barcelonette the plant- ing in spots or-in bunches (that is, three or four plants to the spot) is favored. They count 2,000 spots per acre and three plants per cluster. This cost (in 1912) $3.86 to $5.79 per acre without the cost of the stock. French Planting Technique. — The usual implements employed are the pick, mattock, and shovel. When digging a hole the grass is thrown to the right, the fine soil to the left, and the poor bottom soil in front. When the tree is planted the fine soil is placed immediately around the roots and the poorer bottom soil above. In this way the humus is left where it is most needed to enrich the root system. The French favor the use of stones to protect the planting spot from washing and to pro- tect the surface from drying out; often in extensive planting operations, furrows are plowed to assist the hand work. "• See French Forests and Forestry, already cited, especially pp. 41-43, 77-87. This planting of more than one seedling in a spot is distinctly French and would rarely be advisable in the United States. 128 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION Care is, of course, taken to keep the rootlets fresh and moist during the operation, a fundamental of successful planting. The usual method of planting is as follows: A few handsful of fine soil are placed next to the roots while the root collar is held close to the ground. With the right hand the planter fills in the loose soil after arranging the roots so as to he naturally. The ground is pressed hghtly with the hands after the soil is filled in. Soil is usually piled an inch above the root collar to allow for natural sinking. But the French are very careful not to plant too deep since this checks the roots, encourages false roots, and induces rot. On very dry ground, or sand, the planting is cheaper than on very compact moist soils where they rarely plant below the root collar. In very dry regions where rocks are not available, a mound 4 to 12 inches high is often built up on the south side of the plant for protective purposes. For really difficult planting the French favor ball planting with the ball of earth 3 to 4 inches in diameter. This conserves the moistm-e, but of course costs much more. It is always necessary that the ball of earth adhere to the surrounding soil, since if this contact is not made the soil will dry out and the beneficial results of ball planting be lost. D^ montzey adopted a so-called bush or clump method of planting which is sometimes used in Algeria, in which three or four plants are placed together. This was alleged to be cheaper and surer. Apparently French foresters argued that there was no danger of too many plants and that there would always be one most vigorous plant that would survive in the competition for existence. This method is only used in the moun- tains. The disadvantage is that, if there are contagious diseases, all plants will be affected and succumb. In water-logged soil the French prefer ridge planting rather than mound planting. They call a stand planted by the mound method, where it is necessary to pile up 3 or 4 cubic yards of earth per thousand plants, a "plantation-de-luxe." The plowed ridges ordinarily used are much cheaper, since the work can be done on a large scale. Another special method used by the French is the so-called basket method. "The method consists in excavating a hole (like a cone upside down) 2 to 3 feet wide at the top and 10 to 14 inches in depth; all around the sides of this hole a series of short or average-sized stems (generally broadleaf ) are placed 4 to 6 inches apart and placed so that the stems form the skeleton of a basket. Then the whole is filled with loose soil, mixed with humus, if that is possible." This results in a httle green island of trees and is especially useful for planting in torrent beds or on thin soil. Occasionally it has been found possible to plant profitably on un- prepared soil by simply making a hole in the earth with a spade or stick, inserting the plant, and pressing down the soil with the foot. COVER AND PROTECTION 129 Of course this is an exceedingly cheap method. It has, however, the disadvantage of favoring a high percentage of loss. It is only desirable on exceedingly rich or fertile soil where the spade, dibble, or grub hoe can be used to advantage. With very compact clay the method is rarely successful, since the roots will not secure sufficient aeration. In the forest of La Gardiole, on exceptionally difficult ground, the seed- lings are raised in pots and set out directly without disturbing the root system. This system is very expensive. When 2-year-old aleppo pines are planted in pots the stock cost, prior to 1912, approximately $4.82 per thousand trees plus transport; to-day it would be at least $10 to $12. In the drier localities where sowing by the seed-spot method had been employed, the few surviving seedlings were under the shade of the stone which anchored the branches or under the shade of the stumps or the larger branches. Apparently even better results would have been secured if heavier protective cover had been used. The object of the reforestation project of La Gardiole was to serve as an example to the surrounding population and if possible to temper the hot climate of Marseilles. Cover and Protection. — On slopes or soils that are so unstable that forest trees cannot be planted at once it is first necessary to anchor the soil with grass or shrubs. The best shrubs to use are those of rapid growth, since they must be able to take possession of the soil and fight successfully against the effects of erosion. Usually the seed of French grass and rye-grass pure or in mixture is used. The sowing is done in the spring from the top down in order that the lower lines of sowing will not be covered with debris from the higher elevations. Since the seed is so small it is covered with an extremely thin layer of soil. Strips of sod are planted in order to stop the erosion of the surface soil and in order to make possible the growth of trees. These strips or benches of sod are planted horizontally on the slope. In very easily eroded soil, such as the glacial muds, it is often necessary to protect the brush or sod by fascines in horizontal strips. No general rule can be laid down as to when to apply sod and when, to use brush, but it is true that shrubs resist erosion better and are often preferable to sod in maintaining certain kinds of unstable ground. The shrubs are sown or planted, layered, or suckered. The hazel may be sown or planted, while the cherry and the alder are planted. The willows and the poplars are usually layered but the aspen and the willow may be reproduced from slips. It is of interest to note that the seeding of some of these shrubs often takes place naturally after the bed of a stream has been fixed by means of correction works. It often happens, however, that the slopes are too steep to be stabilized by any vegetation. In such cases it is neces- 130 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION sary to wait until the talus can be terraced when it assumes a suffi- ciently gentle slope to permit this work. The natural talus frequently corresponds to a slope of 67 per cent while, with the use of terraces, the ground can be stabilized up to a 100 per cent slope. (See Chapter VII.) Species and Methods to Use. — Jolyet " advocates the planting of coniferous stands since they furnish a larger percentage of timber. While he recognizes the force of the argument in favor of mixed forests he favors a coniferous stand with some broadleaves to assist in the preservation of soil conditions and to make natural regeneration more convenient. He recommends the introduction of a very few species of exotics. As for conifers he recommends the planting of spruce and Scotch pine, and where there is a choice as to which of these to plant he prefers Norway spruce on account of its rapid growth and high yield. If for some reason or other so-called exotics have to be introduced Jolyet especially favors the Japanese larch and the Douglas fir. He cites an ideal plantation (made at Nancy by Cuif) spaced 5 by 5 feet, which contained the following species in the ratio indicated: As major species, spruce 44 per cent; Scotch pine, 31 per cent. As secondary species, Japanese larch, 6 per cent; Douglas fir, 13 per cent; "concolor" fir, 3 per cent; beech and sycamore (each one-half), 3 per cent. Total, 100 per cent. Dinner, head of the " Reboisement " at Nice (which includes the drier portions of the Southern Alps), uses aleppo pine on limestone soil and maritime pine on sandy soil (only) up to 2,100 feet; for altitudes of 2,100 to 4,500 feet he has found Austrian pine (see p. 167) better than Scotch pine, his 20 years of experience having shown that it grows more rapidly and has fewer enemies; above 4,500 feet he prefers larch. For various soil conditions Jolyet recommends the following species and methods: TABLE 11.— FORESTATION METHODS FOR TYPICAL SOIL CONDITIONS IN FRANCE* Objective Product Species recommended Methods (1) Aredble land For profit Saw timber Scotch pine April-May. Broadcast 7 pounds per acre with oats. Cultivate (plow) in autumn, again in spring. Harrow, sow, and harrow in " Compiled and digested from Jolyet, pp. 468-520. " Quelles essences faut-il planter? Par Jolyet. BesanQon, 1911, pp. 1-15. SPECIES AND METHODS TO USE 131 Objective Product Species recommended Methods (2) Light areable land Permanent har- Saw timber Scotch pine often mixture with Broadcast dy forest with broadleaf, desirable natural regen- eration (3) Heavy areable land Permanent forest Saw timber Oak in deep soil Sow May 1 to 31 in plowed furrows, 2 to 3 inch^ deep and 5 feet apart, 480 pounds of acorns per acre (4) Brush and pasture land Permanent forest Saw timber Scotch pine Sow as in (2) or as above in strips if ground cannot be plowed; strips should be east and west. If brush, short strips 12 inches wide; if light, brush double width. Strips 5 to 8 feet apart. Preferable to cultivate in autumn and in spring, sow April 15 to May 15, 4^ pounds per acre. If desir- able to economize sow on portioiu of strips. On rough ground use seed spots 14 inches square, 6| feet apart. Increase size if brush is thick and tall. Occasionally sowing 7 pounds per acre broadcast on heather has succeeded if sheep are grazed afterwards to work the seeds into the ground. Maritime pine, if in Laurentum (see p. 27) zone, can (a) broadcast II pounds per acre, (6) sow strips 7 pounds per acre, (c) seed spot 3 pounds per acre (5) Barren land (dry and hilly) ^ Reclamation and soil cover Of secondary importance Few spruce or larch or Scotch pine, best sites with Aus- trian pine as major species. Sometimes Scotch pine can be used more freely. Use beech, maple, linden, horn- beam, willow, alder, etc. In mixture according to condi- tions. Plant 5 by 5 feet. Take advantage of favorable pockets of soil. Use grub hoe and work soil well 3 to 8 weeks or a season ahead of planting. Plant in autumn preferably. Must be finished before April 1. Holes should be at least 10 inches square. Fill in with humus. Dirt put under sod, then sod, and lastly the dirt from bottom of holes. Cover with flat stones. Plant on still day ^ For example, see Jolyet, pp. 467-468 (6) Bogs and swamp land Reclamation and Of secondary Alder, birch (white pine), Mound planting (or perhaps plow 2 fur- drainage importance mountain pine, Murray pine rows and plant on upturned ridges of (Scotch pine where layer of earth) alios) 132 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION Objective Product Species recommended Methods (7) Small scale (lots of less than H acres) Woodlots Fuel Hornbeam, acacia (or alder on fresh soil) Broadcast with easy natural regeneration Chief Dangers. — The dangers to sown or planted seed arise mainly from drought, mammals, insects, and birds. For rabbits, a source of much damage in France, it is considered necessary to fence with wire mesh usually 3 feet high, the barrier leaning away from area protected, and sunk 8 to 12 inches under the ground. Mice and other small rodents are killed with poisoned oats or barley. For birds poison is used, or in the case of seed spots, a cover of wire mesh. To avoid damage from drought, deep, large, well-prepared holes are used in planting, and the young trees protected with flat stones; these holes or spots must often be protected under especially unfavorable conditions by a layer of brush. FIELD SOWING Prepared and Unprepared Soil. — When sowing is attempted soil preparation is usually necessary to give the young seedlings a start against weeds and grass. The previous vegetation must often be re- moved and the soil cultivated. This cultivation enables the soil to absorb water, diminishes evaporation, and permits the rapid develop- ment of the root system and reheves the young plants of competition with weeds for water. Soil preparation, on the other hand, increases the danger of the young plants being frozen or thrown, and in light soils, especially on slopes, may result in erosion. Seed may be broadcasted, as in ordinary agricultural practice, after the surface of the ground is cleared. For broadcast sowing, cheap seed is a necessity. Sowing in patches is merely localized broadcast sowing. This method is a convenient means of supplementing partial failures in natural re- generation,- and is especially useful in introducing more valuable species into a natural stand, which varies a great deal in quality, since it per- mits the choice of the best spots and the adaptation of the proper soil. Seed spots are considered economical, but there is always considerable danger from mammals and from weeds. Sowing in continuous or brokeq strips requires less seed than broadcasting, and there is less danger from the uncleared areas. The sown strips are 20 to 40 inches in width with 3 to 10 feet of uncultivated land between the strips. On level ground or gentle slopes, it is the custom to run the lines east and west, but always horizontally on slopes above 7 or 8 per cent. Where there is danger of water collecting, the hues must be broken, even on hori- zontal strips. There will then be 16 to 20 feet of sown strip separated by 5 to 10 feet of unsown strip. AMOUNT TO SOW 133 Where the sowing is on unprepared soil the ground must be loose, the seed must be cheap, and the growth of the species sown rapid, so that it can protect itself against the weeds. The best example of suc- cessful broadcast sowing on unprepared soil is the sowing of maritime pine seed on the sand dunes of the Landes and Gascogne. Another well-known example is on the Central Plateau where Scotch pine has been successfully sown without any advance soil preparation. Occa- sionally, the sowing has been followed by sheep grazing, in order that the sheep may eat out the heather and let the seeds get to the soil. The hoofs of the sheep cover the seed sufficiently, but failures following this method are even more frequent than successes. According to my original notes, "At Cleremont-Ferrand in the Central Plateau Scotch pine region one of my friends mentioned a former method used for the cheap artificial stocking of Scotch pine by broadcast sowing. The seed was sown plentifully in the fall and during the winter rains sheep were allowed to trample the seed into the sod. The results I saw were very good, but I found no one who had practiced it himself." Sowing without soil preparation outside the Landes is best justified on rocky soil in the mountains, at the foot of chffs — in other words, where cultivation is impossible. If the soil is fresh and there is no fear of mice and grass, broadcast sowing is often successful after snowfall (see p. 136) or on the bare soil. One advantage is that it can be done when other work is impossible. When sowing on rocky ground the seed should be thrown up hill from below so that it will get some pro- tection under the rocks. Where there is danger of erosion, broad- casting should not be attempted. There are a number of short-cut sowing methods which find favor in France and which are well known in the United States, such as hoeing the soil and covering the seed; dibbling to complete regeneration; at high altitudes, where the ground is fresh and where regular cultivation is impossible -or difficult, the dibbUng or cane method of sowing (see p. 167) may be advisable. On the whole, these special broadcasting or planting methods are justified only where made necessary by peculiar conditions and rarely are as successful as really thorough soil preparation. Amount to Sow. — The amount of seed to use naturally varies with the soil, slope, and local cUmate, and also, of course, with the size of the seed, quaUty, method, and season of planting. The amount sown must be increased if there are droughts, frost, or mammals to allow for prospective losses. The sowing figures used by the French foresters are shown in the following table (after Boppe) : 134 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 1^ O < o O H Q o H H ij >>» = s !»i.s 11 S2.9 00iO«3(N ^ CO CD -^ W3 ■<* ^ CO Cp ooo T-l O CD N coco a .s I n ffi ^ 1^ 1-H 1-H 1-H QD ■T3 tp«5«tc><©«>apap-j<>ncptp-g-3-g-g-g g^ cJj 4< O et 4 4 4< 4< ci ct i:!> ct O'O'O'Gi'CPO c!( T3'B 'BT3't3 O 03 CS ^ o3 la 2tS 1-1 L^ Ui L^ c_. Q) n 03 •B -4J » CQ C3 CI o S 03 •^ja a jj o. o. " g o. '^'S g I a '^-2 ■ d o a 3 o i «.S I" ID O I a P o 19 ^ M CM Js a^ " o C on — (B ■lA CD S o £-a Q) O » g *" O ^ ^ |s B (B II If OS SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 135 Season for Sowing. — The natural time to sow is when nature sows, but this is often impossible owing to the price of labor and the difficulty of seed collection. The best season for sowing seeds ripening toward the end of summer is the autumn or winter. This has the additional advantage that the seeds germinate early in the spring and get the start of the weeds. The spring gives the best results when species ger- minate quickly and when there is danger from rodents. The directions for sowing which are standard in France have been summarized in the following table. It covers the more important species only: TABLE 13.— SEASON AND METHOD OF SOWING CHIEF SPECIES Species Method Season Oak Sowing best on account of taproot; deep soil, can plow 1.6 to 2.4 inches deep; dibbling good. Like oak. Broadcast under partial cover best; 0.4 to 0.8 inches. Only need partial cover at low elevations; cleared soil by strips or seed spots, rake into soil; all methods appli&able; strips and seed spots especially good. Best for direct seeding; no need of cover; if seed is expensive planting is better. Better than Scotch pine for limestone soil; same method. Direct seeding. Bears heat and drought; bare ground. Soak seed in water 15 to 20 days before sowing; like spruce; needs moist soil but good for rocky ground. Spring. Beech . Hornbeam Spruce Autumn. Spring. (( It Autumn or spring. Scotch pine Austrian pine Maritime pine. . . Aleppo pine Larch Summary of Sowing Methods as Applied to Species and Regions. — In the Alps at high altitudes the sowing of larch, mountain pine, and cembric pine is usually done with seed spots or furrows of variable size. In the seed spots three to four seeds of cembric pine are planted, and eight to ten of larch or of mountain pine. They are then covered by hand. In the furrows one or two seeds per running 0.4 inch of soil are sown. In the case of the larch it is especially necessary to sow strictly according to the germinative per cent, which often varies from 40 to 70. The amount of soil needed for covering depends on the size of the seed. Larch and mountain pine are covered with 0.4 inch of soil, while cembric pine seeds are covered with 0.8 inch. Seed bought in the autumn is sown the following spring. The spring sowing, while securing the benefit of the heat and humidity favorable for germination, does not always resist the summer drought. Autumn sowing often gives the best results because the seed can germinate early in the spring, thus getting a start 136 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION over the seed sown later. Broadcast sowing in the spring on snow where the mineral soil is bared often succeeds. According to my original notes: "Another special method of sowing was Ulustrated by a splendid larch stand near Barcelonette. Here European larch was sown broadcast before or during a snow storm. The moisture conditions here, however, are much better than in many parts of the western United States where we have tried this method without success. Per- haps one reason we have failed is that the French soak the seed in water for about a week {larch three weeks) before sowing so that it wUl germinate. We might try this out on a small scale. I am still convinced that we should not try to sow on our most difficult ground; that for the very worst soil we must use spots or a substitute (such as bail planting), but that the cost will be prohibitive for some years to come." In the Ventoux sessile and holm oak are sown. Eight hundred to 1,600 seed spots each, 12 inches square and 12 to 16 inches deep, are sown per acre with 60 to 120 quarts of acorns. Shrubs are placed as a shelter over the seed spots and as a further protection stones are heaped up to the south side. In each seed spot the fifteen to twenty acorns are covered with 0.8 to 1.1 inches of soil; this depth is varied. The sowing is generally during November and December after the collection of the acorns and before the frost, or, if it is not done at this time, in February and March. In the Basses-Alpes seed spots are used for sessile and holm oak and aleppo pine, species of a temperate climate. These seed spots are 10 to 14 inches deep and in each spot are placed five to six acorns or eight to ten pine seeds. The sowing is generally in the autumn. In the Maritime Alpes aleppo pine and maritime pine are sown in seed spots in the spring; 2,400 seed spots per acre are prepared 16 inches square and 12 to 18 inches in depth. The same method is used for sowing chest- nut and oak. In the C^vennes and Central Plateau strip sowing is sometimes employed. In the Var (near Marseilles) the conditions are unfavorable to tree growth. There are rains from September 15 to December 15, and from February 15 to April 15. The great drought occurs in June and it is somewhat dry during the short winter season. During a hot summer day the temperature rises to 37° C. (98.6° F.), and during the night it rarely falls below 25° C. (77° F.). The soil is limestone and once bared of tree growth is difficult to restock. Under these conditions there is but one method of artificial restocking with aleppo pine. The sowing is done in large seed spots, 3.3 feet long by 1.6 feet in width and 10 to 16 inches in depth. The whole seed spot is sown thickly, so that often as many as ten plants germinate in one spot, but because of drought few survive after a year or so. Immediately after sowing the surface of the seed spots is covered with brush held in place by rocks. This brush protects against rodents, heat, and wind. The top of the seed spot is usually left 0.8 to 1.2 inches below the rest of the ground in order to collect moisture. SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 137 In the Puy-de-D6ine '* seed spots are often used, protected by bunches of brush or scattered in the coppice stands which are being improved. In the first case oak or pine is sown pure or in mixture; in the second, oak is sown with beech. In the Haute-Loire stands of spruce, Scotch pine, mountain pine, and cembric pine have been obtained by means of broadcasting or by seed spots. The Scotch pine is usually broadcasted and the other species sown in seed spots 3.3 to 6.6 feet apart. These species do not give as good results as would the fir if there were the necessary protection available. In open beech stands Scotch pine or mountain pine is often sown in strips 14 inches in depth and 16 inches wide, the length depend- ing on the size of the opening. Sometimes these strips are cut into seed spots 16 inches square. In this region sowing is done in the spring or even later, toward the middle of May. The amount of seed used is about 9 pounds per acre. It is sown generously and covered lightly with loose soil. After the sowing seed spots are covered with branches which are left until the beginning of the autumn. The seed spots are visited in the following spring or autumn in order to free the young plants of leaves or dead needles which cover them. In the Lozere (Central), Aveyron, and the Corr^ze broadcast sowing of Scotch pine generally succeeds on sandy soil partially covered with short heather, but poor results are certain on land occupied by genista and tree heather. Success is best assured by opening up seed spots only 2 inches square in the midst of the heather in order to avoid heaving by the frost. Near Nimes maritime pine has been successfuly repro- duced by broadcasting 7 pounds per acre on heather in the autumn just before the winter rains. The heather is then cut and for protection the litter left as it lies. Sowing of this kind is done very late in the spring just before hot weather. In the department of the Lozdre there is also sowing of oak and chestnut. The slopes are generally not excessive and the seed spots are opened up in the spring and in the autumn are sown with acorns and chestnuts, despite the damage usually done by rodents; 3.4 bushels of acorns or chestnuts are used per acre for 1,000 seed spots. In the Gard and H6rault, Scotch pine, Corsican pine, and maritime pine are sown in seed spots in the spring; chestnuts and acorns in the fall. The seed spots are 12 to 16 inches square and 6 inches deep. It takes 6 pounds of conifer seed or 3.4 bushels of acorns or chestnuts per " Digested from DSmontzey. Elers Koch, of District 1, U. S. Forest Service, once wrote me: "It makes me weep to think of all the good money used in feeding pine seed to the chipmunks. ... If there is going to be any money spent on the Lolo Forest for reforestation, it is going to be for good strong nursery stock, and we will have something to show for it." 138 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION acre. In the Aude the sowing is done with seed spots in the autumn, the spring being generally too rainy and day laborers too diflBcult to secure. Sixteen hundred to 2,000 seed spots, 12 to 16 inches square and 12 inches deep, are used per acre. This takes 60 to 80 quarts of acorns or 120 quarts of chestnuts. The conifer seed, such as Scotch pine, Austrian pine, or aleppo pine, is sown at the rate of 2.2 pounds per 1,000 seed spots. Fir seed is also sown in the autumn in seed spots 4 to 5 inches square and 3 inches deep, 800 to the acre where there are open beech or pine stands. In the Pyrenees, in the eastern part, sowing is used only for sessile and holm oak and in order to introduce fir under the shelter of other species. The seed spots, about 1,000 per acre, having the same size as those in the Aude, are sown with fifteen to twenty acorns each. The young seedhngs obtained are cultivated. The stones which may cover them are removed and every 2 or 3 years trees or brush which suppress them are removed until they reach the age of 8 to 10 years, when the young stands are cut back, after which they grow very rapidly. The cost of sowing depends on the region, on the method, and on the kind of seed. As an average the cost of day labor per acre for broadcast sowing was 46 cents, $1.73 for sowing with a very Ught soil cover at high altitudes, and $2.31 to $4.62 for sowing by seed spots. To this expense must be added the cost of the seed, 41 cents to $1.07 per bushel for acorns or chestnuts and 44 cents to 88 cents per pound for conifer seed. To-day all these prices are double or triple — or even more. According to one authority " maritime pine will not grow if the soil is more than 4 per cent lime, but ordinarily the reproduction is easy on bare soil, since the seed is both winged and abundant. With 75 per cent germination and broadcast sowing it takes about 10.6 pounds of seed per acre, with strip sowing 7 pounds, and with seed spots 4.4 pounds, but these figures may be doubled or tripled under unfavorable conditions. Where sowing fails it is often customary to fill in by planting, which can be successfully done if the seedlings planted are 1 to 2 or more years old. On the Combre dune the sowing was 9 pounds per acre of maritime pine, 8 of "genista," and 3.5 kilograms of "gourbet." (See p. 182 for additional data on sowing sand dunes.)'* "La Foret, par L. Boppe, pp. 47, 205, 206, 332-341. " In 1912 a member of the U. S. Forest Service raised the following questions regard- ing the French forestation practice: 1. Qiiestion. — Is there any way to treat refractory seed to make it come up the first season? Answer. — See p. 119. 2. Q. — What methods and tools do they use in nursery transplanting? A. — Seedling stock is usually preferred; transplanting methods have not been systematized as in Germany. See pp. 123, 124. SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 139 3. Q. — What fertilizer do they use in seed beds? How much? A. — Ordinary commercial fertilizers in quantities determined by local soil conditions. See p. 124. 4. Q. — What sort of packages are used for shipping nursery stock? Is stock puddled? .4 . — See p. 125. 5. Q. — What ages of nursery stock are chiefly used? A. — See p. 126. 6. Q. — What spacing is generally adopted in planting? If we assume that we cannot thin are we justified in spacing widely? A. — See p. 125. The French justify wide spacing even with intensive thinnings. 7. Q. — Just what tools and methods are used for field planting? A. — See pp. 127, 128. 8. Q. — Is pine seed generally sowed broadcast or in drills in the seed beds, and why? A. — See p. 124. Cultivation is easier and it takes less seed. 9. Q. — Do they use much seedling stock or transplants in conifers? A. — Seed- ling stock is very much preferred because it is cheaper. 10. Q. — What spacing and arrangement of transplant rows is adopted? Do they irrigate transplants? A. — See pp. 123, 124. Since the officer who raised these questions had the supervision of a very large and important nursery it is desired to emphasize their importance by special page references. CHAPTER VII CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS French Policy and Summakt op Rbpohestation (p. 140). Introduction, His- torical Summary of Legislation, Law of 1882, Statistics of Reforestation. The Damage (p. 147). Erosion and Precipitation, Rocks and Soils Easily Eroded, Definition of a Torrent, Formation of Torrent Gorges, Causes of Torrents in Mountain Forests, Damage Caused by Torrents. Corrective Measures (p. 153). Policy and Summary, Technique of Dams, Walls and Protection Against Avalanches, Rock Drains, Paving Channels, Tunnels and Aqueducts, Wattle Work (Garnissage), Forestation, with examples. TrpicAii Reforestation Areas (p. 168). Regions. FRENCH POLICY AND SUMMARY OF REFORESTATION Introduction. — According to Daubree, the Minister of Agriculture : " The Waters and Forests agents charged with the appUcation of the laws which affect to such a high degree the national safety and property wiU, in the performance of their duties, continue to use the most absolute devotion and will show, as in the past, that they are worthy servants of the republic." The Minister thus emphasized the responsibility and efficiency of the officers on reforestation work because he realized the direct bearing of forestation in the mountains of France on the future prosperity of the rich valleys many miles from the watersheds now being forested. Moreover Huffel remarked: "The case of the forest is special because the abuse can continue a long time before the consequences become evident." According to an official report:' "The opinion of the (local) population is profoundly modified; confidence has taken the place of enmity. Communes, of whom a large number were formerly refractory, struck with the advantages of reforestation, assured, moreover, by the moderation and by the spirit of broad conciliation of the Forest Service, ask for the execution of work (in this locality) at home. This is an omen of happy augury which cannot but encour- age the admmistration to persevere in the way outlined in order to regenerate the moun- tains and assure the safety of the rich valleys." The necessity of forested mountains has always been recognized, states an official report. Bernard Palissy (1510-1590) advocated the protection of forests; he paved the way for Surell, Cezanne, Gras, Breton, 'The material on reforestation is taken mainly from "Restauration et Conserva- tion des Terrains en Montagne," Volumes I and III, 1911, and from D6montzey's treatise on "Reboisement." 140 INTRODUCTION 141 Mathieu, Costa de Bastelica, and, finally, D^montzey, whose reforesta- tion work for France will never be forgotten. There is always greater rainfall in the mountains than in the plains; ^ this favors erosion on the one hand, but on the other is more favorable to tree growth. This greater rainfall is due to the well-known effect of the colder air on the moisture-laden atmosphere, as it is forced to rise on meeting a mountain range. But, when an altitude of about 6,500 feet is reached, the rainfall begins to decrease again, and only scattered trees or groups of trees are found. The distribution of this rainfall has an important bearing on the problem of reforestation. Up to 45° north latitude the rain is evenly distributed, whereas in the south there is little moisture in summer, the rainfall being evenly distributed between winter, spring, and autumn. But in the Alps the climate seems to have become drier, a fact due, as some authors say, " to the intervention of man" though others say it is because the air has really become drier through climatic changes. Possibly these two views can be reconciled. The Waters and Forests Service says : "The direct intervention makes itself felt in mountain regions by felling trees along the forest limits, by unregulated grazing, and in certain places by too conservative forest fellings, as M. Thirion has indicated." In the mountains the forester must avoid leaving too many trees which would become overmature and at the next felling could not assure the perpetuation of the forest, because, if the stand has not been opened up while the trees are vigorous, it is certain that regeneration will not be complete; and if at the same time, as happens only too often, the forest has been opened to grazing, its ruin has been completed through having too few trees and trees of very mediocre quality. To this fact can be attributed the so-called receding of the forest growth in the high moimtains. The stand not having been thinned when the trees were vigorous and healthy and grazing not having been forbidden, surfaces covered with old stands have not been able to reseed and the forest has been forced to disappear. M. Flahaut says: "In the lower mountains the passage of the plains climate to that of the heights is at first favorable to tree growth. As you rise, the pressure diminishes, the capacity of the air in water content is less, the rains are less frequent and less abundant, the heaviest winds increase the transpiration. These conditions are unfavorable to tree growth; when extreme they become fatal and completely prevent it; they are on the contrary favorable to herbaceous growth. Commencing at a certain altitude, which varies according to the geographic situation of the mountains, according to the cli- matic conditions, and even according to the topographic detail, the tree growth is then impossible." ■^ A brief summary of the campaign for forestation in its broader sense will help to an understanding of French sensibilities on the deforestation caused by the Great War, The statement by the French Government has been followed, for it gives the official viewpoint. 142 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS Historical Summaiy of Legislation. — The first complete law on re- forestation dates from July 28, I860.' Up to that time methods of pre- venting flood damage had been tried out locally and sporadically, "most active when the catastrophies took place, weakening as the remembrance became effaced." The disastrous inundation of 1840 brought the problem to the front. In 1846 a proposed law "relative to the reforestation of the mountains and the conservation of forest soil " failed to pass the Chamber of Depu- ties. It was considered too drastic and provoked numerous objections because of economic questions, aiming especially at the grazing industry, which it aroused and antagonized. The bill was retired several months after it was presented, and for ten years a means of combatting inunda- tion was not considered further. A veritable cataclysm was necessary to bring up the question anew. In June, 1856, terrible floods ravaged the valleys of the Rhine, the Loire, the Rhdne, Gar6nne, and the Seine, causing the loss of a great number of lives and doing damage amounting to more than 138,600,000- A law had been made in 1858 for the defense of towns against floods, but it was not until July 28, 1860, that the law on the reforestation of the mountains was passed. It was received with great disfavor by the grazing interests. "The reforestation," they said, "would do away with grazing; the forest would everywhere replace the pastures." Very vigorous objections were made, even to the extent of armed resistance. After the law of June 4, 1864, was passed, which authorized forestation, they learned very quickly that they were mis- taken. But the law of 1864 could not produce results. Grassing alone was not in itself sufficient to fix the sliding land where it was heavily eroded, land whose preservation affected the pubUc interest. Besides the law of 1864, which included the same principles as the law of 1860, also contained some faults — "a collection of defects, any one of which was enough to kill it." The appropriations were too small for the work to be accomplished, but the main defect of the law was that the com- munal lands could be taken over without -payment. The dispossession was only temporary, to be sure, but the conditions governing the return of the land were onerous and inequitable. "Since 1874 a devoted repre- sentative of the mountain population. Doctor Ch^vandier (of the Drome) was asking, if not the actual repeal of the legislation on reforestation, at least a very material modification of its provisions." In 1876 the Government proposed a law destined to replace the laws of 1860 and 1864. The Chamber passed it in 1877, but the Senate com- mittee opposed it with a counter project, which included the regulation of grazing. The Government withdrew the bill and sent to the Senate ' "Restauration et Conservation des Terrains en Montague," Premise Partie, pp. 1-4. LAW OF 1882 143 in 1879 a new proposed law which, after having been modified in certain of its provisions, became the law of April 4, 1882, on the "Restoration and the Conservation of Mountain Lands." Law of 1882. — The law clearly recognized reforestation as obhgatory public work. Local commissions examine the plans proposed by the Forest Service and finally the law itself (Art. 2), and not merely a decree, determines the boundaries within which the work must be executed — that it only applies to land actually damaged or in " actual and present danger." Within the established boundaries the work is carried out on lands belonging to the State in fee simple, which acquires them either privately or by expropriation (Art. 4). Moreover, the private owners, the communes, or the public institutions can retain the ownership of their land if they reach an understanding with the State before the expropriation and if they engage to carry out, within the time allotted, the work of restoration under the conditions prescribed by the Waters and Forests Service administration and under its control. The State subsidizes this reforestation work because of its value to the public and in order to repay the owners for their sacrifices. The law also prescribes the "reservation" (for a period not to exceed 10 years) of grazing grounds whose degradation is not far enough advanced to justify expropriation; and the boundaries are estabUshed by decree. The deficiencies (without doubt wilful in the provisions concerning grazing) have rendered the application of the law extremely difficult. In the United States most of the additions to western National Forests can be made only by Congress, but a Presidential decree is sufficient for eliminations. The same dis- tinction is made in France, where reforestation boundaries are made by law and grazing betterment boundaries by decree. "From the considerations which precede, it results that parhament, guided by the dominating thought of reconciUng the public interest with that of the mountain in- habitants, did not wish that the boundaries be excessively restricted. The original organic law did not foresee the inclusion of vast areas in order to regulate water courses; it only gave the administration the power to take the live sores, the lips eroded by tor- rents, where actual and present dangers presented themselves." The law of 1882 ordered the revision of the former boundaries, which were found much too extended. It follows that the law did not aim to create vast forests capable of yielding large revenue in the future, but rather the concentration, over limited area, of intensive work — dams, etc. — accompanied now and then by forestation. But if these lands yield nothing in money to the State, that does not mean that they are of no value to the local community, for they protect the villages, the roads, the railways, and the crops of rich valleys against torrents or avalanches. However, in certain regions, the problem has been considered somewhat differently. It has appeared (the damage 144 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS being small) that it was possible with the approval of the public to make the boundaries larger and to really reforest on a considerable scale. In the lower part of the C^vennes, including the departments of the Gard and H^rault, a region which has neither large lakes nor glaciers to regulate the water flow, it has seemed best to create considerable forested areas. "The great forest which one dreams of forming in this region will act like an enor- mous spring; it would tend to retard the collection and then the runoff of water, by decreasing the volume and by storing most of it in order to give out released water, flowing with checked or diminished speed, to the tremendoiis profit of business and agriculture. . . ." The era of hesitation and doubt in regard to the execution of the reforestation work has passed; mistakes very rarely occur. The cer- tainty of the methods used for combating floods at their starting points, which finally consists only in a series of small, inexpensive measures, is to-day recognized. The facts established the value of French methods. The soil is stabilized, the aridity and barrenness of the slopes disappear as the forest and grass growth is re-established, and "the torrent muddy and menacing changes into a brook harmless and even beneficent"; this is what has happened in many localities through the apphcation of the law of April 4, 1882. Everywhere the efficiency of the reforestation work is apparent. "The provisions of the law of 1882 relative to grazing, despite the efforts of the administration, have not been able always to give the results expected, because of the opposition of the mountain people. Must one fall back on force? Nothing should oblige too rapid a march, or the attempt to do everything at once; everything, on the contrary, induces one to advance cautiously and progressively in a way which the study of the past has shown full of difficulties and possible dangers. One feels that much more would be obtained "by example rather than by force. Encourage, by Uberal grants, the individual initiative; stimulate everjrwhere good will; make an appeal very skillfully to the intelligence and interest of communities and individuals." Such is the administration program adopted in order to bring the grazing population to a better comprehension of the value of the regula- tion of grazing land. The work of grazing betterment, which is in every way the necessary counterpart of reforestation, has been greatly extended, but there are still obstacles to be met. "Grazing betterment work has been criticised on the ground that it has only ephem- eral duration; the habits of the mountaineers are in poor keeping with the betterment of a common weal, and people have proposed different remedies. Some have recently asked, in order to smooth out the deficiencies of the law, to place the communal grazing under 'a grazing regime,' similar to the regime applicable to the administration of the communal forests." STATISTICS OF REFORESTATION 145 With this brief sketch (translated and digested from official sources) of the development of reforestation legislation it must be clear what a task it has been to secure the legislative authority for the reclamation of these devastated areas. Statistics of Reforestation. — The figures which follow show the ex- penditures and acreage as of January 1, 1909. The areas comprise the land within the boundaries of the projects acquired under the terms of the budget for reforestation and often include the remains of ruined forests which require improvement. Land of this nature has been in- cluded under the term "land restocked." The land impossible of forest- ation includes the rocky areas of shifting soils, or areas at too great an altitude. Land of the last two classes perhaps can some day be in part reforested. Discrepancies exist between the area of the land belonging to the State and the area reforested partly because the State has of its own volition decided not to expropriate land where the conditions have become more favorable, and partly because, in some places, the neces- sary nurseries and paths could not be constructed. Moreover where the compartments are of considerable extent the area to be forested is naturally limited by the local labor supply, for it appears to be good policy to employ the local mountaineers, so that they can receive in salaries an equivalent of the revenue which they lose through loss of grazing ground. This delay is not disadvantageous, for it gives the soil an excellent rest. The expense does not stop with the restoration work, for the maintenance cost is becoming greater from year to year, and a comparison of the re- sults on January 1, 1893, and on January 1, 1909, sixteen years later, is of interest. During 32 years — 1860 to 1891 — 248,863 acres were purchased and 16,951 acres were reforested. During the period from 1893 to 1909 • — 16 years — the area purchased was 263,740 acres and the area forested was 194,236 acres. These figures show that during the latter period the work progressed twice as rapidly as at the start. The Alpes contain about 65| per cent of the eroded areas of France, with 23J per cent in the C^vennes and Central Plateau and 11 per cent in the Pyr^n^es. In 1894 D^montzey reported that there were 1,462 distinct torrents in France, divided as follows: Alpes, 1,138; C6vennes and Central Plateau, 206; and Pyr^n^es, 118. Huffel says that "two-thirds of the torrents of Europe are in France." For the three main f orestation divisions (1) the Alpes, (2) the C^vennes and the Central Plateau, and (3) the Pyr6n6es — the official summary of the work undertaken is given in Table 14. During the period from 1860 to 1909 the work executed by the com- munes (see Table 15) amounted to 21.6 per cent, by the departments 23.4 per cent, and by the State 54.9 per cent of the total expenditures of $1,433,994.59 to reforest 134,064 acres. The contribution of the 146 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS g 2 2 ^ i-J t^ N ■2 pnsi JO S 5 q o |a snoijismbov S eo OS OO ^ Ol eo o6 noijoauoQ W NO CO ^ CO kn a» « MM » jtn8aiOj[ CO « ^ CO in « so ■* lO 6ai91! g ^ •patBaiojai »o 00 o> § 1 T-l ^^ CO eo OO t^ o seja^ eo ■S '(leajojai »» ^ C4 OO lO eiqissodinx ^ CO CO CO ^ t- r- w OO QO T3 a esjoB « M -* 'psfesiojsg i s's" s eo r- OS CO o> saiira ^ ss 00 to *pejmtio« -4< OO ^ OO 1 aqoi S 2^ CO ta w eo p oi B3ia^ S 00 « 00 'p9niio-«tw)g CO ^-^ : "3 . L. . 4J ■ c . ■ii :0 : -d : § 1 lilt I -J!0 F^ i EROSION AND PRECIPITATION 147 State included money or seed and plants, the plants having been esti- mated below their actual value. TABLE 15.— SUMMARY OF FORESTATION BY COMMUNES, 1860-1909 Departments Alpes Cfivennes and Central Plateau Pyr6n6es Miscellaneous depart- ments Total Area refor- ested, acres 66,539 48,169 9,479 9,877 134,064 Amount spent By the com- munes $159,428.48 65,813.81 35,843.09 58,603.74 $309,689.12 By the departments $151,217.76 123,803.13 44,164.76 18,830.41 $338,016.06 By the State $349,176.16 271,501.52 106,814.37 58,797.41 $786,289.46 Total expense $659,822.40 451,118.43 186,822.20 136,231.56 $1,433,994.59 Most of the forestation work done by individuals (see Table 16) during the period from 1860 to 1909 was paid for by the individuals. The de- partments assisted them to the extent of 5.3 per cent of the total expense TABLE 16.— SUMMARY OF FORESTATION BY INDIVIDUALS, 1860-1909 Departments Alpes Cevennes and Central Plateau Pyrenees Miscellaneous depart- ments Total Area refor- 13,092 107,442 7,887 3,967 132,388 Amount spent By in- dividuals $72,862.02 383,435.79 54,011.72 17,051.47 $527,361.00 By the departments $4,151.09 42,427.33 1,987.90 115.80 $48,682.12 By the State $27,286.33 270,860.93 24,543.67 13,847.72 $336,538.65 Total expense $104,299.44 696,724,05 80,643.29 31,015.00 $912,581.78 and the State 36.9 per cent, leaving 57.8 per cent to be paid for by indi- viduals — a total amount of $912,581.78 spent to reforest 132,388 acres, or a cost of $6.89 per acre.* THE DAMAGE Erosion and Precipitation. — It has already been pointed out (see p. 141 ) that the rainfall is heavier in the mountains than in the plains, and that * In addition to expenditures for reforestation, allotments during the 10 years from 1899 to 1909 for the improvement of grazing amounted to $110,440. These figures show the enormous damage that has resulted from deforestation (mostly due to over- grazing) in the mountains of France, which should serve as a warning to all other coun- tries where abuse of forest or grazing lands is in its infancy. 148 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS as a general rule the precipitation increases with the altitude. Accord- ing to an official report: "While atmospheric precipitation gives birth to torrents in the mountain regions, one must not overlook the fact that this same moisture enables the creation of forest stands to diminish the violence of floods." It is clear, therefore, that the rains have a double effect. From one viewpoint they damage the mountains; and from the other they make forests possible and thus prevent disastrous erosion. A part of the abundant rainfall is absorbed by the ground, a part is evaporated and a part rims off in streams. The quantity of water absorbed naturally depends on the character of the soil and on its vege- tative cover. The runoff depends on the slope for its speed, and the evaporation (which is often very great) depends upon the water being available. Natural vegetation plays an important part. On impervious rocks practically all the water either runs off or is evaporated. On per- meable ground, especially if it is wooded, most of the water is absorbed. The desirabihty, therefore, of having the slopes forested is apparent. On the other hand, one must not lose sight of the fact that on impermeable surf aces " certain ground sometimes . . . absorbs water to the satu- ration point and slides according to the degree of slope." After prolonged rains or storms the water erodes the surface of the soil and forms ravines. While this form of erosion is dangerous it is not nearly so difficult to control as landslides, which occur where the per- meable soil is saturated and slides over an impermeable surface. Snow frequently causes damage; it forms avalanches which erode ravines by tearing away the surf ace»of the soil. Hail acts mechanically in detaching little particles of rock and in facilitating the movement of large rocks down steep slopes. Variations of temperature and wind all assist in erosive action. "The wind is a denuding agent which is often very active." According to my notes : "In the Maritime Alpes on a windy day thousands of particles of rock and soil are moved by the wind; this makes a peculiar noise which struck me as being especially mournful." Sometimes a considerable mass of water accumulates under a glacier and when it breaks out erodes a ravine with great rapidity. Rocks and SoUs Easily Eroded. — In the Alps the soils which disinte- grate the more readily are the marls, the schists, the gypsums (including the so-called "terres noires"), and, finally, the detritus and the glacial and alluvial sediment. The very great abundance of land of this nature explains the intensity of the damage done by torrents in this region. Most of the slopes are steep, and the water of storms or heavy rains concentrates rapidly in the arroyos and is laden with d6bris of DEFINITION OF A TORRENT 149 every kind resulting from superficial erosion. The black schists dis- integrate in small fragments and form small ravines analogous to those in the granites and in the mica schists of the C^vennes and of the Central Plateau. The other "black soils" are even more easily washed and erode with very great rapidity. Soils of this kind are deeply ravined as soon as they are denuded. Glacial deposits also erode with extreme ease. These muds, often soaked to a great depth by rain or by melted snow, flow wherever they are not held in place by vegetation. The ravines that they make deepen very rapidly and become the courses of torrents which transport the detritus into the valleys below. It often happens that erodible soil rests on a steep, rocky, or compact clayey bed. Here the water filters into the top soil and great masses of earth are detached and slide to the bottoms of the ravines. Unstable ground frequently flows in a rock-mud-water lava. Fragments of all kinds of rock accumulate in the ravines and mix with the eroded earth from the black soil, forming a fluid mass which shdes slowly or rapidly according to the slope of the stream bed and the amount of rain. In the Cevennes and the Central Plateau the slopes formed by gneiss, mica schists, Paleozoic schists, and granites disintegrate the most easily. True torrent gorges are not formed on them, but instead a multitude of furrows and ravines, which transport great quantities of sandy material and fragments of rocks. It is a region of torrential rivers rather than of torrent courses such as are found in the Alps. The Pyrenees are char- acterized by an abundance of glacial or semi-glacial deposits. The granites disintegrate and the detritus covers considerable areas. In the Corbieres the marls are especially exposed to erosion, which form short, straight torrent gorges or ravines which have numerous branches that feed and fill up the water courses with detritus. Limestone is usually fissured, so that rain water rapidly penetrates the interior of the rock if the surface is not protected by thick grass or by well-rooted forest vegetation. Where the soil becomes denuded steady and deep erosion often forms gorges that have abrupt slopes. It is clear that excess of water is the chief danger on all easily erodible soils. From the forester's standpoint, however, too little water or drought is the greatest obstacle to the reclamation of land of this type, for the soU becomes baked and excessively arid as soon as it loses its protective vegetative cover. The soils thus suffer from the extremes of too much moisture and lack of moisture. Definition of a Torrent. — The snow on the high mountains protects the rocks and soil against various disintegrating agencies but not against erosion due to glaciers and to subglacial water. Erosion of the soil and of the rocks accordingly takes place below the limit of perpetual snow, a limit that ranges from 8,850 to 10,800 feet in the Alps and in 150 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS the Central and Western Pyrenees. In the Eastern Pyrenees and in the Cevennes and the Central Plateau there is not much year-long snow. Even after deducting the areas protected by snow in the Alps and Pyre- nees, vast areas of erodible ground remain. The north and northeast slopes remain covered with snow for considerable periods in each year and consequently suffer less than the other slopes. On these slopes the variations in temperature are less sudden and of less extent, the rains are even less intensive, and the vegetation is habitually more vigorous than on south slopes. Therefore most of the torrent gorges are formed on south and west slopes. A French definition of a torrent gorge says it is: "A temporary water-course in which the water concentrates after heavy rainfall and acquires, because of its mass and because of the slope of the stream bed, a con- siderable live force. The characteristic trait of torrent gorges is the faculty which they possess of reuniting in a single flood all the water falling within a certain time on an extensive area. This faculty is due to the configuration of the ground and the principal feature of a torrent gorge, that which gives it being is a collecting basin which favors the rapid concentration of rainfall. The basin of reception of a torrent, called also the funnel, is a more or less complete circle on whose steep slopes falls the water of heavy rains. . . . The Gavarnie 'circus' in the Pyrenees is a good example. . . . The torrents run in very short valleys, which cut the mountains at right angles to the slope just as in simple depressions. Their slope may exceed 6 per cent for their entire length but it varies a great deal and is never less than 2 per cent. They have an entirely special characteristic in that they flow in areas determined by their courses, resting upon one another and diverging because of their deposits. According to Scipiongras, a torrent is a water course whose rise is swift and violent, whose slopes are considerable and irregular and which often raises certain parts of its bed because of the deposit of material; it is this which makes the water diverge at the time of floods." Torrent gorges may be the courses of temporary or permanent streams whose beds are not yet fixed and which perform the work of carrying away the mountain for deposit in the plain. The following definition is also of value: "A torrent gorge is a temporary or permanent water course in which the water concentrates with extreme rapidity after heavy rains and by its energy of movement digs out its bed, which is considerable because of the mountain slope and because of the increase in density of the material transported. The soil and d<5bris of all kinds eroded by the waters are deposited on the plain." These different definitions support each other. Ravines have the same character as torrent gorges but are less strongly marked. "A ravine is a branch of a torrent gorge in process of formation. . . . " Formation of Torrent Gorges. — The energy of movement or force of water that flows down a steep slope is greater at the base of the slopes than at the summit and erosion is therefore greatest at the base. It also follows that the lower part of the slope is often erodible ground CAUSES OF TORRENTS IN MOUNTAIN FORESTS 151 and, moreover, it is ordinarily little protected by forest vegetation, for in France much land of this type is in fields or is devoted to agriculture. The formation of a torrent gorge involves three distinct areas: (1) An area on which rain water falls before it runs into the "thalweg" or collecting basin; (2) an eroded area, the torrential gorge or bed; and (3) an area of deposit, the delta or torrential cone. Surell designates, under the name of the basin of reception — ". . . The region in which the water collects and floods the ground, but, when concerned with work of restoration, it is preferable to consider the entire collecting basin under the general definition of basin; . . . the space at the bottom of which runs a course of water and into which all the slopes are drained." Torrent gorges that form on steep mountain slopes are short and usually run at right angles to the slopes. Where the slope is gentle the length of the gorge increases and the curves or bends in the gorge probably increase. These curves seem to be due to the unequal resist- ance of different parts of the hills. A torrential cone does not always exist at the base of the torrent gorge. Sometimes the gorge or the drainage way extends to the bottom of the valley and the material borne by the torrent is deposited in a river which carries it away. Causes of Torrents in Mountain Forests. — Huffel says that torrential rains, easily eroded surfaces, and steep slopes promote torrents. Tor- rent gorges — the products of erosion — may be due immediately or directly to natural conditions or operations, but are usually directly or indirectly due to the destruction of the soil cover by the residents of the region in which they occur. It is conceivable that an exceptional storm might start erosion that would form a torrent gorge in a virgin forest. An accumulation of overmature timber or natural windfall coupled with a heavy snowfall and rapid melting may produce avalanches and denuded slopes. The area at the upper limit of tree growth is always liable to damage from the normal snowslides which are so preva- lent in high mountains. Numerous other causes of "normal" damage by nature to forested areas could be cited, but under the usual condi- tions this change in topography — a change which is continually going on all over the world — is slow and locahzed. Where valley after valley that was once forested is being eroded and where there are numer- ous torrents nature is not alone to blame. The destruction must be due (1) to deforestation and (2) to the breaking of the soil surface. In France the once forested mountain areas that are now being repaired at so great expense were overcut, burned, and overgrazed. This might be termed collectively "abusive use." Even to-day typical examples abound (see also p. 153). At Mont Dore (Puy-de-D6me) there are Roman mineral springs, and around the watering places there has been partial deforestation caused 152 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS by fire and grazing. On the west side of the valley there are belts of forest that extend from the foot of the slope almost to the top. On the east side, which faces the west or the south, the forest belt is narrower. At the head of the valley there is hardly any forest at all, because the slopes are rocky and very steep. Above and between the present forest zones grazing by sheep had started erosion and landslides. The soil, permeated with water, loosens and slides down, the slides producing great gullies. This is a good example of how small torrents begin. At Barcelonnette it was pointed out that the beginning of ravines on bare grass-covered slopes was usually due to grazing by sheep and par- ticularly to permanent bedding groimds at the heads of high mountain valleys. According to my field notes : "The Ravine de Roche Noire (Basses-AIpes) 50 to 60 years ago was merely a cow trail or a path where wood was sledded down the slope. The soil, formed of a schist- marl, has now been eroded to a depth of 30 to 40 feet. As no dams were built when the slopes of this ravine were reforested the erosion has continued, and it is now necessary to build low, dry stone dams to prevent further damage. Without these dams, which are built without masonry binder, the erosion will eat in 20 inches after a single bad storm. It was explained that this erosion was not caused by grazing but was merely due to the faUing of rocks, through natural causes, from the precipices above. This raises an interesting question : What would the natural erosion in the Alps have amounted to without the advent of man! The local inspector said that while sheep grazing is still doing great damage it cannot be forbidden or even summarily restricted because it is the sole industry of the mountain villages, and drastic restrictions would mean the depopulation of the countryside." Damage Caused by Torrents. — We have already seen that " a tor- rential wash " is a fluid mass which carries material of all sizes and whose speed is dependent upon the slope and upon the amount of rainfall. This material comes from a number of sources. It may consist of debris from the disintegration of rocks, carried by gravity, by water, or by avalanches; (2) it may be due to simple erosion by rainwater, to slides, or to the movement of glaciers; (3) it may include trees, branches of trees, and debris from fellings, which, even if small, are dangerous ele- ments in washes because, on account of their light weight, they do not stop until the slope becomes very gentle and they form temporary dams behind which the water accumulates only to break forth and inflict greater damage lower down. Each year torrents and ravines cause material and even great damage and, only too often, loss of human life. Such acci- dents direct public attention to their danger. The direct losses during 17 years are estimated in Table 17, and it is very noteworthy that the damage was always less in the areas where erosion betterments had been started: POLICY AND SUMMARY 153 TABLE 17.— LOSSES FROM NOTABLE TORRENTS FROM 1890-1907 Year 18901 1891 J 1891 1892 1895 1897 1897 1897 1899 1899 1899 1900 1901 1901 1904 1906 1906 1906 1907 1907 1907 1907 1907 Locality Bassin des Gardons (Lozfere) Bassin de la Beaume (ArdSche) Le glacier de TSte-Rousse (Haute-Savoie) Bassin du Gave Pau (Hautes-Pyr6nees) Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne) Bassin de la Haute-Ariege (Ari^ge) Bassin de Bastan (Hautes-Pyr6ndes) Bassin de 1' AUier (Ardeche) Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne) Bassin de I'Arve (Haute-Savoie) Bassin de la Beaume (Ardeche) Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne) Bassin du Tarnon (Loz6re) Bassin du Doron (Savoie) Bassin de 1' Arc (Savoie) Bassin de Bastan (Hautes-Pyr6n6es) Bassin de Gave de Pau Bassin de la Lergue (H^rault) Bassins de I'H^rault et de la Dourbie (Gard) Bassin de la C^ze (Gard) Bassin des Gardons (Gard) Miscellaneous basins (Loz^re) Total 1890-1907 Financial loss $225,810 317,485 337,750" 10,000 100,000" 48,250 60,000° 9,650 10,000° 2,000 1,761,125 10,000 57,900 96,500 115,800 1,000° 15,000° 2,000° 500° 1,000° 200,000 5,000° 3,376,770 " Amount of loss estimated. CORRECTIVE MEASURES Policy and Summary. — Briot, formerly a conservator in the French Forest Service, was the first to make a fight against "dead works" in reforestation as opposed to living plantations of grass, shrubs, or trees. The final judgment of the French foresters seems to be that though to permanently reclaim an eroded area vegetation is essential, yet dams, walls, and like works are also necessary. During the early work in the Alps, the operations of the French engineers might possibly be criticised on the ground that they depended too much on masonry dams (see Fig. 10, a to d) and purely artificial corrective works rather than on the permanent vege- tation (grass, shrubs, and trees) which is necessary if erosion is to be permanently corrected. Briot did a great deal of good in agitating for less masonry and for more vegetation. He argued that to get at the root of the evil the correction must start at the top of the slope because other- wise the dams fill up with silt and the slopes remain as bad as before. Possibly Briot went to extremes in his propaganda against the methods then current, but to-day it is unquestionable that the results of his attacks have been beneficial. The present methods are the result of having wasted public money and of having profited by the mistakes. CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS i- >.J= :S-^ g t >> S -H F-H ^ K -—^ -U) tr. a cj CJ o . > 2 C5 0) C o ^i:"g -So "^ .^ -^ — c; P-, ^60 -:3 -^ e |::z: ystei 1 tor a so " ~ S :3 tu M 53 ^>- (3 2 1 -B > ^ OJ c — T? s* -S- S 1 POLICY AND SUMMARY 155 >> J3 a a O (D a ^ "^ . b <) 'm Da C3 t» c3 a; -1-3 1 > -9 03 P. ' M 03 2 a^ -d o 1© >. Q. ^^- -a a 03 s bD >1 O o 1 03 _^ > ^ -f^ A o 03 p. ri & ^o o s 'w ^ £ ^ 0) p. 156 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS One of the first problems to arise — a problem of great importance practically — was : How much ground should the work of restoration cover? According to Surrel and his followers it is necessary to include the entire receiving basin of a torrent and the slopes of the gorge. To-day it is still felt to be best to include as large an area as possible to take in the torrent basins and their slopes. The commimes usually, with their nar- row self-interest, argue for withdrawing the minimum area; the Forest Ser- vice, on the other hand, realizes the technical requirements and desires to set aside the area already eroded and the area immediately threatened. The correction of the effects of a "torrent" comprises a number of operations, all closely related to their effect upon the surface of the slopes and the bed of the stream: Dams (barrages), walls, rock drains, protection against avalanches, the paving of channels, the building of timnels and aqueducts, wattle work (garnissage), and the introduction of grass, shrubs, or trees. Concisely stated, a theoretical torrent above a rich village might be controlled somewhat as follows: Where a ledge of rock crosses a stream bed, and where there are good foundations, a base masonry dam is con- structed; at the same time dry stone dams are built higher up the main bed to prevent deeper erosion of the stream bottom. A slope in danger of sliding into the main bed is fixed by a masonry retaining wall. Small, incipient gullies are rocked over as drains to prevent further erosion and to act as permanent drains. Small ravines are held in place by wattle work and garnissage (p. 162). Beginning at the top of slopes that are liable to erosion selected areas are first sodded; then, as soon as the soil is stable enough, shrubs are planted on the slopes and in the stream beds. After shrubs are established and the soil is held in place trees are planted. Wattle work may be necessary here and there where the soil is crumbling away, and the main bed of the torrent perhaps must be paved to prevent further washing below the base dam. An illustration of the corrective methods employed (see also p. 168) in full swing is afforded by the torrent of St. Julien, in Savoie. Here the schist is easily eroded, for it is very friable. The torrent begins at an altitude of 9,186 feet, is 6.2 miles long, and covers some 4,942 acres of land, of which 1,866 acres belong to the State. The village of St. Julien had been damaged, parts of a railroad and wagon road had been washed away, and portions of Mont-Denis were gradually sliding and were being washed away by the torrent. The corrective measures employed were as follows: Where there was danger that the stream might undermine a promi- nent ridge, and to reduce the flow of water in the main channel, it was conducted 843 feet through a 32 per cent tunnel cut through solid rock. Where the stream passed the village it was paved to prevent further TECHNIQUE OF DAMS 157 erosion. In order to reduce the slope of the stream bed to approxi- mately a 5 per cent grade, where the erosion was most severe, it was necessary to construct twenty-six small and three large dams. Along one stretch there was one dam every 85 feet. The catchment basin is being grassed over and planted. In addition a very complete system of rock drains has been built on the most dangerous slopes. A drain 13 feet deep and 5 feet wide cost $2.31 per running yard; one 5 feet deep and 3.3 feet wide cost only 97 cents per yard. It was necessary to put in a holding wall at the foot of the slope, where erosion was particularly severe. The trees planted included alder, willow, Scotch pine, ash, oak, maple, and poplar. It is interesting to note that for planting Scotch pine, two-year seedlings are used in spots with two seedlings per spot. The spots are 12 to 20 inches square and number about 2,800 per acre. The cost of stopping the movement of the earth on Mont-Denis, together with the system of trails that it was necessary to build, was $30,494, and the improvements on this one torrent alone have cost, so far (1913), over $129,310. This example affords an excellent illustration of the difficulty of cor- recting erosion after it has once started, and shows the absolute necessity of not letting it get a start. Much of the difficulty has been caused by waiting too long before beginning corrective measures. Technique of Dams. — The principal objects of dams are (1) to stop material transported by the water, (2) to diminish the speed of the water, (3) to prevent further erosion, (4) to prevent the enlargement of the torrent bed and the erosion of the border talus, and (5) to hold up unstable slopes. Dams are constructed in torrents and ravines that are under active erosion. It is usually advisable to estabUsh dams of about the same size, that they may be homogeneous, and to avoid the installation of secondary dams of doubtful stability. Of course, uni- formity of construction cannot always be maiatained. The dams must be constructed to fit local conditions, and usually the torrents have a double character. Their slopes are eroding and the material eroded is carri^ along in the flood. In certain places it is sufficient to construct a stone step across the bed to prevent further erosion. As the construc- tion of these stone dams is entirely a work of engineering based on the stress which they must withstand, no details of construction are given. Above each dam it is customary to construct a rough paved area at the level of the dam, 2^ to 5 feet in thickness. It is constructed with stones which cannot be used in the masonry work. These paved areas are made to diminish the drop upstream so as to decrease the pressure of the water collected behind the dam. But there can be no ironclad pro- cedure. So far as the work of correction is concerned, it is usually best to construct only absolutely necessary dams at the base of the torrent 158 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS until the small dams at the head have been built. The base dam must be faced upstream on a part of the stream bed which is absolutely stable. It is necessary to avoid building so-called "suspended" dams, which must necessarily disappear as the stream erodes upward or downward. It often happens that a torrent is intersected by a rocky barrier. This barrier or ledge is an excellent point for the base dam. Many of the dams in the Alps are simple, some of them consisting of a single log staked in position across the bed of a ravine. The general tendency is to avoid building expensive masonry dams and to build simple stone dams without mortar. Formerly it was often the practice to curve the face of the dam, but now they are built straight, for ex- perience has proved that the curved dam is not necessary to withstand the average pressure. Walls and Protection Against Avalanches. — The main protective measures against avalanches are walls, benches, or steps with wattle work or high stumps. (See Fig. 11, a to c.) Avalanches are very frequent in the high mountains, and most of them follow the depres- sions or the Unes of least resistance, where they do not cause a great deal of damage. But it is often necessary to prevent them, especially if they menace villages or carry great quantities of eroded material or if they damage forested areas. Walls (or benches) are usually built where the snow begins to slide. The walls are built of dry masonry and usually have a total height of 65 feet and a minimum length of 50 feet. The width at the top is from 24 to 31 inches, depending on the height. The depth of the foundation varies with the ground and is sometimes as much as 5 feet. So far as possible, large stones are used, preferably of the same width as the wall. Masonry is used when dry stone of the proper size and quantity is not available. On a slope that has a practi- cally uniform grade walls are run on the level at equal distances apart. Where the snow slides in regular runways, the walls are really dams, some with a clear height of 10 feet and a width of 31 inches at the top, with an increase of one in five inches to the base. In Savoie, where there is no resistant material at hand for such construction and where consequently it is not possible to build regular barriers, it is necessary to build benches, a bench being a flat pocket in the rock 3.3 feet wide and about 33 feet long. Where possible, this is inclosed with a small wall on the outside of the cut to collect debris. The benches constructed in the Pyrenees are of two different types: (1) Horizontal platforms about 6^ feet wide, slopes slightly downward toward the mountain. The talus is held by a dry stone wall with a decrease in -width of 1 in 5 toward the top. Its length is 16 to 49 feet, 33 feet being the average. These platforms are 26 to 33 feet apart horizontally and about 33 feet below one another. (2) The platform cut into the side of the mountain ^. .,_.., ^^ ^^3 ilMk^i^a^^ ^^^^^^S l^g 1^^ ^ ^^K H '^^^ ^M ll^^^l ^P kH^^^^^KS^^ |^^BpB| j^^^^^^^BBBaBg|^^ ^W^^^JE J ffi m ^S ^ ^# ^^^^^m ^^M ^^^^^^s ^^g 1 ^H mi ^^m s |jP^j§ bI^^^ubgSS^S P^^^3^^ M^KS^^^a^^^^^^ ^^^t^Se i ^E H ^^Offi ^^8 P ^ ^^H Hi ^^^^w ^s Fig. 11 (o). — Retaining walls on a hillside that had been slipping down. (French official photograph.) (6). — Walls to prevent avalanches (at top) with an inspection trail ia the fore- ground. (French official photograph.) (c). — Walls to prevent avalanches. (French official photograph.) 159 160 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS serves as a support for dry stone barricades that jut out about 6§ feet. If the walls or benches are in a forested region the plantations are made under their protection; here they are considered only temporary for when the trees take hold protection is no longer necessary. Sometimes it has been found advisable to establish ordinary snow walls to turn snow slides from their course; where pockets of snow are heaped up by the wind it is often necessary to build walls 3.3 to 5 feet high back of the drifts to prevent the snow from blowing over. Wooden snow fences and wind shields, so common in the western United States, are not used in France. The tendency in France is ever toward simplification in the protection against avalanches; sometimes chunks of earth are cut out of a steep slope 13 to 16 feet in length and 3.3 feet in width at the bottom. Stakes are then set at the lower Kmit of the cut and are bound together with branches. With a large number of these steps cut in the slope avalanches can often be prevented, for the pits or steps act as catchment areas for loose material that slides down. These pits are often placed 7.5 to 10 feet apart vertically and 6.5 feet apart horizontally. Where there is danger from slides in partly forested areas, or where the timber has been killed by fire, dead and dying trees in improvement fellings are cut, and their stumps, 2 to 5 feet high, used to anchor the snow. Rock Drains. — Saturated soil loses all cohesion and flows on a steep slope; it even slides on underlying strata that are less permeable. These earth movements are due to the infiltration of water coming from pro- longed rains, from the melting of snows, from deep springs, and from irrigating canals that are not leak-proof. Such movements are combated by drainage, which makes the soil cohere and thus prevents slides. In order to accomplish this work canals or drains are built to conduct the water into the valley bottoms. (See Fig. 12.) Where considerable ground is in movement it is not possible to open trenches suflBciently deep for drainage, but by digging a large number of drains the soil can be dried up and a sufficiently resistant surface formed to prevent it from disintegrating. The average depth of such drains is 6.5, 5, and 3.3 feet. The deepest drains, called "collectors," ordinarily have a width at the bottom of 28 inches and an increase in width toward the top of 1 in 5. The best drains have a concave base, built on a radius of 10 or 20 per cent, and are so constructed as to form a canal of triangular construction. Above this base the ditch is filled with stones of all sizes, the largest being placed at the bottom. Drains 6.5 feet deep for the chief drainage and 3.3 feet deep for the lateral drainage generally suffice. The triangular section is sometimes replaced by a half -circular section or by a rectangular section, which is easier to construct. Second-class or third-class drains have a depth of 3.3 to 5 feet and a width at the bottom of 16 to 24 inches. ROCK DRAINS 161 The drains must be large enough to insure the prompt runoff of water. Under exceptional circumstances the French have managed to dry ground to a great depth, sometimes up to 10 to 13 feet, but the expense is much greater. First-class drains are generally built where the slope is steep, in order to assure rapid runoff. They are less likely to be dislocated by soil movements. At the head of drains little walls are constructed as props. Fig. 12. graph.) - Paved drains at Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees). (French official photo- When the drainage water is abundant it is often united in a paved trench built in the valley bottom to carry the water under the dams. Where the soil movements are due to a leaky canal it is often better to stop the cause of the infiltration rather than to take up the expensive work of drainage. To prevent running water from eroding the soil it is often advisable to collect it in little canals, about 20 inches in depth, which follow the slope and which are filled with little stones or fascines. These canals can be replaced by paved drains if the earth is in movement. Trees are planted 162 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS as soon as the drainage has made the soil sufficiently stable. Drainage has always been satisfactory where it has been used to stop superficial shdes over a small area or to dry up saturated soil. Where earth is sliding over a nonpermeable surface the timber still standing is almost invariably cut so as not to retain surplus water. Paving Channels. — The typical torrent is almost dry except during a period of storms. To prevent erosion, enlargement, and changes in the main channel bed it is necessary to pave the bed. This facilitates the passing of the detritus during floods, especially below the base dam. Tunnels and Aqueducts. — In a few places it is necessary to use tunnels or aqueducts to conduct excess water through ridges or over artificial obstacles, such as roads or railways. For example, near Thonon (Haute- Savoie), where the limestone soil is badly eroded, a road is protected by carrying the wash from a ravine over it on an aqueduct. Wattle Work (Gamissage). — On steep slopes (more than 60 per cent) and in small ravines wattle work is often necessary. (See Fig. 13, a and b.) A common method is to stick willow shoots in the ground 1 to 3 feet apart and to weave willow branches in between the shoots to hold the rocks and shifting earth. The shoots take root and when estabhshed assist in holding the sod, when forestation becomes possible. Another system of building wattle work (now largely abandoned) was to lay the brush straight up and down the stream bed and pin it in position with cross pieces every 6.5 feet. The latest method is to lay the brush as formerly but to hold it in place with two stakes driven in the soil in the shape of a V, the head of the V pointing down stream. According to Ddmontzey: "The 'gamissage' correction of little dry ravines and the consolidation of unstable slopes is as follows: "In the dry ravines of the Alps 'gamissage' is often used in the bed of the stream; stems of branches are laid on the bottom so that the ends of the branches may be toward the top. By dry ravines is meant those that carry no water during normal times or those in which there is a very small trickle of water. The branches are so placed as to form a slightly concave surface, and are held in place here and there by cross pieces fixed in place by stakes. The most common form of 'gamissage' employed during the past years has been to place brush on the bottom of the ravine and then to mat it down by interwoven branches. When completed, the branches form squares on top of the d6bris. Winter willow or poplar branches are used, and the ends are covered with earth, commencing from the top of the ravine and extending downward, so that they can take root and form a living protection. Most 'gamissage' eventually results in vegetation that forms a permanent protection against erosion. In the Maritime Alpes where branches cannot be had at a reasonable expense, the flow of water in the ravines is controlled by a series of Uttle dams formed of balls of sod, used alone or combined with stone. When the water falls it is stopped at each dam so that it cannot attain sufficient velocity to be dangerous. The dfibris backs up behind each little dam and further lessens the velocity of water. . . . The dams must become larger and larger down stream in order to resist the floods . . . until these dams reach a height of 3.3 WATTLE WORK (GARNISSAGE) 163 03 ^ >, Xi ■n c3 I-. p3 03 ^ ^ a ji CO ft is ca O 6b o o j3 1 p. g -o 'c CO Sfi o 43 6 o M d li* £ fe 164 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS feet and a length of several yards. Where sod cannot be obtained layers of branches alternating with layers of stone are used. Sometimes also these ravines are held in place by small dry stone dams some 16 to 23 inches in height, soUdly anchored. In the high mountains, in certain places, some of the ravines are filled with stones just as if they were small drainage canals. This method of cover has given good results on slopes situated at an altitude of 6,500 feet in the upper Verdon valley. In addition to fixing the ravine bottom, a necessary precaution to prevent erosion from extending farther up is to construct just below the summit a so-called consolidation wall about 20 inches in height, which if well anchored holds the ground. After this wall is built the soil around it can often be sodded over. The methods used for fixing unstable banks or slopes are extremely variable. If their instabiUty is very pronounced they must be sustained at the bottom by transverse works very much like the wall that holds up the side of the ridge. Some slopes can be held up by a superficial cover of branches held in place by stakes or poles, such as are used in a ravine. Under the shelter of this cover natural vegetation can easily be developed. Little horizontal structures, wattle work 10 to 12 inches high, or fascines reinforced by. layers of shoots between which are sown forage plants, are used everywhere. Where stones are abun- dant little walls of dry stone are built, topped with sod." Forestation, with Examples.^ — The purpose of dams, walls, drains, wattle work, and other artificial "dead works" is to stop the movement of the surface soil, because until that is anchored forestation is impossible, and before the final protective cover is planted the surface must often be held in place by grass or shrubs. It is clear from the French literature on reforestation that engineers have not always admitted or realized the importance of vegetative cover for permanent reclamation: "Some geologists have expressed the view that a torrent is a phenomenon whose development cannot be stopped. If this opinion is accepted there is nothing to do but to let the destruction of the mountain go on and try to defend the valleys against the results of torrents. Some feel that protection against torrents can be obtained in a certain measure (when the hmit of slope erosion has approached) by installing a canal to conduct the eroded material from the foot of the mountains to the river. But the danger is not overcome. The detritus is merely transported from the torrential valley to the main valley. Others believe that it is impossible to slow up the torrent by these canals and use the water for commerce. They beheve that a dam can be built high enough to retain the flood waters and that these waters, once stored, can be used for commerce or for agriculture, thus making the flood a benefit rather than a damage. Quite often this method is possible, provided the ground and the economic conditions permit, but it cannot be considered a general answer to the problem. Foresters take another point of view. We have already seen that the rapidity of erosion depends on the fluid mass, on the slope, on the river bed, and on the resistance of the ground. Is it not necessary, therefore, to try to retard the flow and diminish it and to retain the rocky debris which is sliding on the slopes? This result can be obtained only by a forest cover on the soil in and between the existing ravines.'' Surrel (quoted by Huffel) concluded that: " (1) Forests stop the forma- tion of torrents; (2) deforestation delivers the soil as a prey to torrents; ' The methods of forestation are described in Chapter V and the chief species used in French reforestation work are given in the Appendix, p. 407. FOREST ATION, WITH EXAMPLES 165 (3) the development of forests tends to stop torrents; (4) the fall of forests redoubles the violence of torrents and can even start them afresh." An interesting study^ that illustrates methods of reforestation is an area in the basin of the Ubaye (see Fig. 14, a) which comprises some 46,661 acres, 18 per cent of which was natural forest, now bearing only 34 per cent of a stand. The species growing naturally include larch, fir, spruce, mountain pine, beech, oak, alder, and willow. The species introduced artificially are Austrian pine, ash, locust, birch, green alder, and aspen. Of the species growing naturally the larch is the most valuable and is found at its optimum in the forest of St. Paul. Unfortunately the growth of Austrian pine slows up and the needles turn yellow when 15 to 25 years of age. Prior to this the tree makes good growth. In this region the limit of stable soil is a slope of 45 per cent. Where the slope is less than this the ground can be planted immediately, but where it is more the ground must be first sodded before it can be planted to tree growth. Where the slope is 60 per cent or more grassing cannot be undertaken, for the instability of the soil is an absolute obstacle. In this event it is necessary to construct artificial dams or to wait until the accumulation of talus has abated. Two general methods have been used to grass over ground that has been eroded — sowing forage seed and planting sod. The first method was formerly used .over large areas in this region but is now limited to un- stable soil. "Sainfoin" and "fenasse" (see p. 408) were used separately or mixed in the proportion of three to one. The seed was sowed in small trenches or in horizontal lines at variable distances apart. On an average 18 pounds of seed (costing $9.65) was necessary to sow one acre of eroded ground. The labor amounted to $6.75, making a total cost of $16.40 per acre. But as a result of experience laying sod has proved to be the best method. Large tufts of Clamagrostis argentea were cut from- near-by grass land and planted in rows IJ to 3 feet apart, or in quincunx.' The sod costs $3.83 a thousand. Still another method that is often used to fix rapidly the slopes of mountains or ravines is to sow "bugrone arbrisseau" or to propagate hippophae rhamnoide, or willows, by suckers. Sowing was formerly employed in reforestation, but to-day the pref- erence is for planting. Cembric pine, larch, and mountain pine are sown at high altitudes, provided the slope is not more than 30 per cent to 40 per cent and there is enough vegetation or rock to protect the young seedlings against water and sun. Otherwise planting is considered necessary. The seed is sown in the spring, at these high altitudes about the end of May. Although the spring sowing is often burned out by the sun, if the sowing is delayed too late the germination is retarded and the 6 Etude sur lea Forlts et les Reboisements de la Vallde de I'Ubaye, par H. Vincent, 1909. Fig. 14 (a). — The Rata ravine at Ubaye (Basses- Alpes) after the reclamation work was finished. (French official photograph.) (b). — A mountain village in the Pyrenees menaced by erosion. (French official photograph.) (c). — Preventing further erosion by larch plantations in Ubaye area (Basses- Alpes). (French official photograph.) 166 FORESTATION, WITH EXAMPLES 167 seed is more exposed to mice and to birds. The seed sown in the autumn is covered almost at once by snow, and in the high mountains the period from September 1 to October 30 is considered the best time. Excellent results were occasionally obtained in the past by sowing broad cast on the snow, especially by the notable sowing at Barcelonnette in the years 1842-1846. Now, however, an entirely different method is employed, known as the stick method (a la pointe du biton) (see p. 133). "The workman, who wears a little apron sack belted to his waist, holding 4 to 6 pounds of seed, is given a stick 1 to 1 J inches in diameter and 12 to 16 inches in length. With this stick, one end of which is pointed, he makes little furrows in the soil at suit- able places. The depth of these furrows should not exceed 0.8 to 1.2 inches and the length should be between 8 inches and 3.3 feet. In this diminutive trench he places pinches of seed carefully spaced; one or two seed to each 0.4 inch is amply sufficient; as a rule the workmen tend to put in too much, and the seed is thus wasted. Exper- ience has shown that this "stick sowing" gives surer and better results than sowing by any other method. It is, moreover, quicker and cheaper. Its cost does not exceed $3.86 to $4.82 per acre. The amount of seed used per acre is variable, an average perhaps of 8.8 pounds for the larch and mountain pine and 22 pounds for cembric pine. Moreover, the seedlings obtained by this procedure have also the advantage of being ready for removal for fall planting if desired." This is a local method, however, which has not received wide official sanction. At Barcelonnette (see p. 136 for further discussion) consider- able success was attained by sowing larch seed on the snow in March or April, especially when it was sown on the grass immediately before snow fall. In this region the fir is both sown and planted, but apparently, according to the local inspector, the best results were obtained by sowing seed spots. Spruce is usually planted. Planting is generally employed where the soil is bare. According to French practice transplants are not necessary. Here, in accordance with French practice, good-sized rocks were placed south of seedlings on south slopes in grass where there was danger from sun and drjang. It is curious to find in the Barcelonnette region a considerable use of Austrian pine, although Scotch pine grew there naturally. According to the local inspector: "The foresters in France always like to change things. This apparently was the only reason for using an exotic when a local species would have given better results. In this locality, for planting on plateaus in grass, the hole is dug 12 by 12 by 12 inches with a grub hoe. The richest soil is placed next the roots and the sod is turned up- side down and replaced around the plant. On steep slopes the method is somewhat different. The hole is dug 10 to 12 inches deep, 4.5 to 6 inches wide, and 12 to 14 inches in length, and care is taken not to cut the sod below the hole, if there is any, in order to avoid erosion. A peculiar method of planting in grazing land, where public interest demands grazing and yet some tree shelter is desired, is to plant a group of fifty trees and then another group about 160 feet away." One of the best examples of reforestation in the Alps is in the valley of the Dr6me above Valence, called the Luc working group. Corrective 168 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS measures were begun in 1865, and on January 1, 1899, 1,547 acres had been reclaimed at a total expense of 167,656.15, or about $42 per acre. The species planted were chiefly Austrian pine and Scotch pine, but in- cluded various broadleaf trees. The Scotch pine is to-day doing very well. In another nearby project the cost was $40 per acre, divided as follows : Cost of soil purchase $9 . 10 Corrective works (dams, drains, etc.) 11 .60 Plantations (grass, shrubs, trees) 19. 30 Total $40.00 These costs would now be doubled or tripled, but today the difference in the present rate of exchange and the normal must be deducted to get the relative cost in dollars. A remarkable example of the control of a torrent which did a great deal of damage from 1832 to 1847 is to be found at La Grollaz. The correction work was started in 1880. To-day the torrent is a pretty brook with waterfalls over artificially constructed cement dams protected by an absolutely dense cover of alder, which holds the soil immediately along the brook. Further up from the stream Scotch pine has been planted, so that the result is a pretty New England trout stream bordered by trees 50 feet in height. This illustrates the two great principles in the control of erosion: first, to stop the earth from moving as a whole and, second, to cover it with shrubs, nurse trees, and forest. TYPICAL REFORESTATION AREAS Regions. — To give a picture of the conditions in the principal regions, important reforestation areas (see Fig. 14, c) in the Alpes, sub-Alpes, Cen- tral Plateau, C^vennes, and Pyr^n^es are described in considerable detail, the material being furnished in the official report, " Restauration et Con- servation des Terrains en Montague." The routine and systematic descriptions (given in the Appendix, p. 422) of the conditions following erosion, and the tedious difficulty (see Fig. 14, c) of stopping the damage, emphasize the dangers and costs of overgrazing and deforestation. CHAPTER VIII FORESTRY IN THE LANDES The Dttnes (p. 169). Introduction, Kinds of Dunes (Causes), Rate of Advance, Local Conditions. History op Reclaiming the Landbs (p. 173) . Periods of Work, Before Brimontier, The Br6montier Period, The Dune Commission, The Bridge and Road Service, Waters and Forests Service, Statistics. Fixing the Sand (p. 177). Construction of Coast Dunes, Forestation, Special Betterments in the Landes, Cost and Price Data. Management op Maritime Pine Forests (p. 186). Objects of Management (Protection Forests), Silvicultural Systems, Intermediate Fellings, Rotations, FeUing Cycles, Working Groups, New Tapping Scheme, Tapping Other Species, Resin Sales, French Tools for Tapping and Their Use, French and American Methods Contrasted, Technique of Tapping, Effect of Tapping, Utilization, Logging and Local Specifications, Yield of Maritime Pine, Protection. THE DUNES Introduction. — The reclamation and forestation of the sand wastes of the Landes and Gironde between Bayonne and the Garonne River (north of Bordeaux) is perhaps the best possible illustration of the bene- fits of forestry to the individual, to the community, and to the nation. The individual who pioneered in sowing these sands made a handsome profit, the communities were saved from obliteration by the encroach- ment of the sand dunes and, after being bankrupt, became rich, and lastly France found itself sovereign of departments producing handsome revenues instead of having to furnish them assistance. Before foresta- tion the Landes was populated with a shiftless class of "poor whites" eking out a livelihood. To-day it is one of the most progressive and per- haps the most prosperous region in France, with good schools, splendid churches, and up-to-date communal buildings. Nor should the indirect benefits of this work be overlooked; a region formerly fever-stricken be- came healthy, and to-day places like Arcachon and Mimizan are health resorts both in summer and winter. Much of this land was sand, worth- less for agriculture and mediocre for grazing, but nevertheless an ideal soil for the rapidly growing, resin producing maritime pine. Br^montier, a great engineer and believer in forestry, was able to put the work of stabilizing the dunes and forestation on a sound basis during the years 1787 to 1817 and the problem was solved during his administration. He proved to the canny French that the work was sound financially. The 169 170 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES parallel between the so-called sand wastes of the southern United States and the great Landes region in southern France is most striking. What has been accomplished in the Landes? In place of virtually worthless fever-stricken land the French have a balance sheet of: (1) Revenue producing forests, protected from fire ; (2) a protection for such important industries as agriculture; (3) a needed supply of timber ,i mine props, and resin products; (4) a healthy land to Uve in and largely increased popu- lation. Is it to be wondered at that the French Chamber of Deputies has de- clared that producing forests are of paramount necessity to the nation and insist on their perpetuation, or that reforested land of this class should be exempted from taxation for thirty years? But it should be noted that the French Government itself took the initiative financially and technically in the reclamation and sowing of the Landes; it blazed the trail for the private owner. The Landes is a triangular area of some 1,977,000 acres ^ bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the three rivers, Garonne, Midouze, and Adour. Three-quarters of a century ago this was mostly an unhealthy sand waste of swamp land, ponds, brush, and limited scrubby stands of maritime pine and a scattering of oak with other broadleaves. There was no system of roads and the chief industry was sheep and goat graz- ing. As early as 1737 the reclamation of this waste land was under consideration, but only after Chambr61ent and Br^montier had shown that drainage and forestation was practicable did the State secure the law of 1857 which provided for the (a) drainage of communal land and (6) the construction of a system of roads to feed the areas drained and forested. Without these betterments the continued forestation on a large scale would have been well-nigh impossible. The drainage was finished in 1865 and cost only $172,484 to drain 468,767 acres (which had been purchased from the communes), and by 1860 $1,238,095 had been spent on roads. The communes had forested 183,000 acres by 1891 (or three-fourths the waste area they owned) and the forestation of private land had not lagged behind. It should be emphasized that to-day the State and communal forests under working plans occupy the poorer sands on the dunes almost entirely on a strip within four miles of the ocean. They form protection belts for the richer private forests and agricultural land which is found on the better soils inland. The system of management described later in this chapter ' The principal exploitations of the American Forest Engineers, A. E. F., were in the Landes south of Bordeaux. They cut 41.4 million board feet. Major Swift Berry, who was stationed in the Landes for two years, kindly reviewed this chapter and made many valuable suggestions which were incorporated in the text. ' Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 177-184. KINDS OF DUNES (CAUSES) 171 applies to public forests under working plans. The distinction between public and private management is described on page 186. The State and commtmal forests thus lie mostly in the dimes and the private forests in the level Landes behind the dune region. Kinds of Dunes (Causes). — The maritime dunes of France are formed of sand usually drifted from the ocean or occasionally from the beds of rivers near the sea. The sand dries out on the beach or river bed at low tide and is blown inland. The normal dune is entirely a natural phenomenon, but its movement far inland is usually caused and accentu- ated by the destruction of bordering forests and soil cover. Huff el ^ says: Fig. 15. — Protection dune at Lacanau-Oc^an in State forest of Lacanau (Gironde). The sand is held in place by planting maram grass on the wind-swept dunes. "Two kinds of dunes are found on the shores of Gascony: (1) Recent new dunes which were fixed during the last century; (2) very old (prehistoric) ones, known locally by the name of mountains, which are still covered to-day with very old forests of pine, live oak and cork oak. These mountains do not form (as the recent dunes do) chains of ridges separated by little ravines parallel to the shore; their confused grouping tends to show that they formed at a period when the shore line was not so remarkably straight, as it became in recent times, imder the action of the north-south currents." These recent dunes * may be of three kinds: (1) High dunes; (2) flat 2 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 152. * Notes sur les Dunes de Gascogne, par J. Bert, 1900, which has been largely followed in tracing the history and development of the dune reclamation work. River sand in the dunes probably comes down into the Bay of Biscay from the streams of the Pyre- nees and is then, according to Major Berry's conclusions, thrown up on the beaches. 172 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES dunes; and (3) scattered dunes. Types (1) and (2) require no further elaboration. Type (3) are dunes where the sand had formed irregu- lar banks or mounds on adjacent level areas. Near the ocean the western slope (facing the sea) is 4 to 25 per cent and the eastern slope 7 to 75 per cent. Dunes are rarely more than 200 feet high, the maximum height being 292 feet in the forest of Biscarrosse. See figure 15. Rate of Advance. — The ends of a dune usually advance more rapidly than the center, but the ridges are about parallel to the beach and at right angles to the wind. They are irregular and form mounds of various shapes. The rate of advance inland has been estimated at from 33 to 164 feet per year, depending unquestionably on the wind and on the local topography. The average is probably 65 to 80 feet per year. There is another phenomenon connected with the dunes — the erosion of the shore line by the sea. According to my field notes : "At La Teste, during the period 1886 to 1912, the sea has eaten away 2,231 feet of shore dunes opposite the ranger house at Gaillouneys, and at the ranger station of La Sallie 623 feet has been eroded between 1886 and 1912 (86 and 24 feet per year)." It appears reasonably certain that the forest of Biscarrosse (partly logged by the American E. F. in 1918) extended to the ocean in the 13th century. Huffel * finds no reference to moving sand prior to 1580 when Montaigne wrote: "Along the ocean in M^doc my brother, le sieur d'Arzac, saw his land covered with sand that the sea vomited over it . . . the inhabitants say that for some time . . . they have lost four leagues of land." * A "U6ve" of land was about 4.4 kilometers or 2.7 miles. If this is correct it might be argued that the destructive action of moving sand in France dates from about the year 1200 if the land was covered for 4 leagues inland (17.7 kilometers or 11 miles) at the rate of 50 meters (164 feet) a year. But this is only conjecture. Local Conditions. — There are fresh water ponds between the dunes from the Gironde to the Adour. Only one of these (Arcachon) is con- nected with the sea so as to form a bay. The average elevation of these ponds varies from 39 to 59 feet (Hourtin and Lacanau) and from 6 to 19 feet (Soustons). These ponds are typical of the dune region and are responsible to a large extent for the unhealthy climate of the region prior to the systematic drainage undertaken by the State. The water 5 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 153. ' That the area from Biscarrosse north to the fitang of Cazeau has been forested for a long period is evidenced by ancient vested rights which permit residents of the community to cut trees for fuel and construction. It was originally one estate, but has since been divided through heirs into a multitude of holdings. The owners can take the resin but have no right to cut the trees. The portion logged by the A. E. F. was on the newer dunes planted by the French Government, and possibly a little farther south than the old forest. PERIODS OF WORK 173 hollows (lettes) between the dunes were also a source of fever. In former days there was considerable cattle, sheep, and goat grazing which did a great deal of damage. According to Bert: " After the execution of the first work, the water holes between the dunes furnished quite good drainage ground for some time. But because of the drying action of the pine, the grass production disappeared little by Httle; the grazing in the region of the dunes became practically of no value." This has had an important bearing on the attitude of the communes, since the restocking of the sand areas often meant the physical oblitera- tion of their grazing, and because grazing was often disastrous to the artificial forestation and had to be curtailed or forbidden altogether. Bert says: "One of the most important problems confronting the Dune Commission was the ownership of the land. The dunes were evidently regarded as belonging to the State and the forestation was certainly alluded to at that time as belonging to the Nation, to the republic, to the Government, and as royal property. If this private property, whether belonging to individuals or to communes, had been left to shift for itself it certainly would have been lost to the Nation. But possibly a great deal of trouble would have been avoided if the land, then worthless, had been exappropriated at its actual sale value instead of being merely sown or planted by the State after having been abandoned by its original owners. It is significant that one or two owners in after years had their lands returned to them upon payment, with interest, of the cost of forestation. On account of the damage done by grazing these private rights were gradually extinguished by piurchase by the State." This is similar to the policy now followed in the Alps (see p. 143). The climatic conditions are favorable to the growth of maritime pine since the extremes of temperature are 3° and 23° C. (37.4° and 73.4° F.) for cold and heat, the average rainfall 31 inches, and the average number of rainy days 200. An unfavorable climatic factor, which is often dis- astrous but which can be alleviated by shelter belts, is the violent west winds so typical of the region (see p. 204, " Fire Protection "). According to my field notes : "In the vicinity of the Lacanau Ocean (forest of Lacanau) the average tempera- ture throughout the year is 13° 54' C. (56.3° F.); in summer the average is 20° 48' C. (68 .9° F.), and in autumn 13° 32' C. (56.3° F.). There are 102 clear days annually, with a rainfall of 32 inches, coupled with frequent fogs. Violent west and southwest winds are very frequent." These violent winds made the fixation of the sand all the more difficult. The main dune area (see p. 177 for statistics) is between the Gironde and Adour rivers in a strip 3 to 4 miles wide and 145 miles in length. HISTORY OF RECLAIMING THE LANDES Periods of Work. — Five periods ' are distinguished in the develop- ment and reclamation of the dunes : 'Bert, id. (seep. 171). 174 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 1. The groping of those who preceded Br^montier, 1734-1786. 2. Bremontier himself, 1787-1793 (with interim). 3. The Dune Commission, 1801-1817. 4. Administration of the Bridge and Road Service, 1817-1862. 5. The Waters and Forest Service, 1862 on. (1) Before Bremontier. — Before Br^montier's time, a number of persons had suggested the possibility of reclaiming the dunes and pre- venting the disasters caused by the advancing sand. Following a dis- astrous fire in the forest of Teste in 1716 the forest was resown by its communal owners in 1717, although there is a possibility that the records are inaccurate and that the sowing was natural rather than artificial. De Ruat, a member of the Bordeaux ParUament, argued in 1776 that it was perfectly practicable to sow the dunes, and on March 23, 1779, a decree in council accorded him perpetual ownership of a concession in the Teste region if he would reforest the area and prevent the sand from further encroachment. He had to pay, as purchase price, two pounds of wheat for each acre. Desbiey, former receiver at Teste, on the 25th of August, 1774, presented a statement to the Academy of Sciences at Bordeaux arguing that the sowing of the dunes was entirely practicable. In 1779, De Villers wrote a special report on the possibility of fixing the Gascogne dunes. In 1778-1779 a commission studying the dune problem proposed interior plantations of trees, with plantations of genista and Uttle bundles of straw held in place by stakes to hold the genista in place. According to Bert: "It therefore appears certain that the methods of sowing and fixing dunes were known before the first experiments of Bremontier. They had been applied to a cer- tain extent by Peychan, taken account of by De Ruat, and described by De Villers." Tassin made some claims of originating the dune protective work but, apparently, in the words of Bremontier: " He told me positively that my sowing and plantation of the dunes would never have been considered except as a brilliant theory which it is impossible to make practical use of." Br^montier's ' credit for this great reclamation work rests on his devotion, activity, persistence, and clearness of vision rather than on an origination of ideas or methods. He was the man "to put it across." ' According to the Indian Forester, p. 415, Vol. 21, 1895, July 10, history has given Bremontier the credit for being the father of dune reclamation jn France, but it is certain that there was considerable sowing on the dimes before Brdmontier's time. In 1734 Alaire de Rust planted or sowed pine and oak on the dunes. In 1779 this work was continued by De Rust's grandson, but owing to fires the experiment was not suc- cessful. In 1773 the Comte de Mont Ausier presented a petition to the King to under- take dune reclamation, but at that time it was declared illegal. In 1777 Desbiey PERIODS OF WORK 175 (2) The Bremontier Period. — Following the study of drainage in the Landes, completed in 1773, the Controller General, by letter dated September 20, 1786, put at the disposition of the proper authorities "the sum of 50,000 livres (about $9,650) to be employed in works aimed at assuring the execution of a canal in the Landes and of finding efficacious means of fixing the dunes." This work was assigned to Bremontier who, in turn, appointed Pey- chan, of Teste, who had taken charge of the sowing of the water hollows between the dunes for De Ruat. The earliest important document signed "Bremontier" is dated September 28, 1781, wherein he calls attention to the necessity of having 90,000 livres (about $17,370) to assure the maintenance of local roads. According to the Memoir of De Villers dated 1779: "Work was commenced near the sea at a point above the high tides in order to stop the sand in the areas planted, protect these parts by layers of wattle work or fascines, scattering the pine seed evenly over the ground with acorns here and there and a quan- tity of bush and plant seeds in order to fix the sand in place. The furze, genista and maram grass appear especially suitable to accomplish this object." On the 21st of April, 1797, Bremontier sent Peychan, who was in charge of the experimental work at Teste, specific directions which did not mention the use of genista, furze, or maram grass seed recommended by De Villers, but, nevertheless, Peychan mixed the genista seed with that of the pine, and since then it has been recognized that the mixture was indispensable. The work began March 12, 1787, and in 1793 practically the whole amount appropriated had been spent. Peychan was succeeded by D^jean as Inspector of Works. (3) The Dune Commission. — The Dune Commission, 1801-1817, on the recommendation of Bremontier, was appointed August 5, 1801, after a lapse of some years following Br^montier's first experimental work. The commission was composed of the Prefect of the Gironde; Du Bois; Bremontier, Engineer-in-Chief; Guyet-Laparde, Conservator of Forests; and three scientists from a Bordeaux society. Bremontier was the wrote a paper on the sowing of pine seed. In 1778 the engineer Baron de Villers was sent by Louis XVI to study the question of dune reclamation with special reference to the harbor at Arcachon. He recommended in his report the sowing of pine seed and that the seed must be prevented from being blown away, and he solicited a trial of the system. In 1784 Bremontier was set to carry on this experiment, being aided by a private landowner named Peychan. This gentleman had previously made several successful attempts and he had covered the seed with branches to prevent it from being blown away. In 1787 Bremontier began the work of dune forestation, but the first experiments were failures, since he refused to use the Peychan method of covering the soil with branches to prevent damage by wind. In 1802 Br^montier's enterprise can really be said to have been successfully started and to be inaugurated as a success- ful project. 176 FORESTRY IN THE LANDE8 ruling genius of the commission until he was appointed Inspector General of Roads and Bridges at Paris. He claimed that the cost would not be more than 4,000,000 livres (about $772,000). In 1804 the new Inspector of Dune Work, D^jean, covered the sowing with branches with the ends stuck about 4 inches in the sand, using heather, genista, and furze, as well as tamerisk and pine branches. In the same year he was able to report that the trees sown in 1788 and 1789 at Teste (Gironde) produced 2,196 pounds of resin and that many- trees had reached 12 inches in diameter at the end of 14 or 15 years, while in the Landes 30 years is necessary to reach the same size. On September 17, 1808, the first pubUc auction was held by the Forest Service agents to sell resin and turpentine secured from reforested areas. The cost in 1807 was about $9.26 per acre but varied considerably (see p. 183). In 1810 locust, chestnut, poplar, and oak were planted with some success. (4) Bridge and Road Service. — The administration by the Bridge and Road Service, 1817-1862, followed the commission form of adminis- tration which had established the methods of sowing, regulated the pro- ductions of the sown areas, and had practically solved the question of ownership. The principle of an artificial dune was described by Br^montier as early as 1787, but the first work of this kind was under- taken some years later by the Forest Service which was able to suc- cessfully stop the sand. The permanent administration of these areas and the continuance of the work, however, required a stable organization, and the commission was therefore terminated in 1817, the work being turned over to the Bridge and Road Service. At that time the Forest Service was in bad odor and could not count on the liberality of appro- priations which the Bridge and Road Service could secure. (5) Waters and Forest Service. — As the stands began to mature it was increasingly difficult to keep distinct the work of the Forest Service and that of the Bridge and Road Service which, until 1862, had charge of the reclaimed areas. The engineering details of barrier dunes and drainage had been solved so the main problem was to protect and manage the forests. It was therefore entirely logical to turn the entire forestry work over to trained foresters, which was done in 1862. This organiza- tion is still in charge. Statistics. — Huffel ' says there are the following maritime dunes in France: » Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 149-150. CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES TABLE 18.— AREA OF FRENCH DUNES 177 Departments Area in acres Main ownersliip Nord-Somme 30,147 3,954 33,606 i« 252,046 2,422 Finistere, Morbihan Two-thirds private, one-third State State One-half State, one-half private or communal Private Loire-Inf., Vendue, Charente-Inf. Gironde, Landes Departments on Mediterranean. . Totals for France 322,175 One-half private, one-half State The dune areas in the Gironde and Landes are about equal. The maritime pine covers a large area outside the dunes. There is a total forest of 1,656,630 acres in the Lot-et-Garonne, Landes, and Gironde divided as follows: Ownership Acres Private and communal forest 1,510,549 Communal forest under State control 17,411 State forest 128,670 1,656,630 By 1899 there were 140 miles of artificial barrier dunes in the Landes and Gironde Departments alone, the first barrier dune having been constructed in 1833 (see p. 178). FIXING THE SAiro Construction of Coast Dunes. — It has already been seen that the ocean sand, if unchecked, drifts inland and submerges everything of value in its path. The theory of fixing or stabilizing the sand is to secure and maintain the following conditions. Desired conditions Objective Gradual shelving beach. . .To allow the waves to break their force without eroding or washing the dry sand. Barrier dune To dam the drifting sand. Grass or vegetable cover . . To maintain the sand in place on and around the barrier dune. (See Fig. 15.) Forest protection belt To help maintain the sand in place and to protect the merchantable stands from the effects of the wind. The underlying principle is as follows: " " Every fixation system is founded on the following principle : In the mass of bare sand susceptible of being eroded by the wind, the transport takes place grain by grain. . . . "This is substantially the same area as was reported in 1822; in 1800 Br6montier had estimated it at 271,815 acres and at over 281,420 acres in 1803, while Villers had grossly overestimated the area in 1779 at 878,913 acres. " Boppe, pp. 478-481. 178 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES Therefore, if the displacement of the surface particles can be stopped there is nothing to fear regarding those underneath, and the entire mass is fixed. "The method consists in sowing the maritime pine under cover. It is to a land- owner at Teste, Pierre Peychan — often known as Mattre Pierre — that we owe this method, both simple and practical, about which he advised Bremontier, and which we still use almost without modification. "To keep the seed from being buried by the sand a cover of brush is laid over the entire surface seeded. This precaution is necessary not only for holding the seed but also for protecting the young plants against the action of the moving sand; for the moving crest of particles, projected without and* against the growing stems, wears them out to a point when they fall over; being no longer able to hold up their heads, most of them would thus die. In practice, bundles of fagots up to 1,000 per acre are scattered over the area to be forested. These fagots are 3.3 feet in circumference measured on the withe and 4.3 in length. For their manufacture the gorze (ajouc) is the species preferred; then comes the genista (genet), then the heather, tree heathers, the ronches (reed of fresh water marshes), and pine branches; but these latter have the disadvantage that too often under cover, cryptogamic diseases break out. The thorns, briars, ferns, and light woods do not protect the soil sufficiently. . . . "Immediately after the sowing of the seed the areas sown are covered over, or better still, the two operations are carried out at the same time. The brush is placed as you proceed toward the sea, the large ends facing (the sea) and the branches of each tier covering the base of those which proceed them. Then in order to keep this cover in place, the workmen put good sized (pelletdes) sand on the portions where no seed has been sown and spread it on the outstretched branches, about 12 inches apart, measur- ing from the centers. The sole improvement made on the system of Pierre Peychan and Bremontier is that of fixing the cover in place by means of small poles placed across and held down by notched stakes driven into the sand." At the end of the day's work the last row is securely fixed so any wind storm wiU not wreck the work already done. "To sum up, it is really a dead cover which has been placed on the soil. But it would not last indefinitely, it is but the beginning to be followed by a hving cover which will carry on its role." Otherwise the sand coming from the ocean would be blown landward and would continue to cover the areas which had been reforested. There- fore to start with: " . . . There "^ was estabhshed above high tide at a distance of 100 to 165 feet a wattle work fence or paUsade. As the new sand drifted in front of this obstacle a part passed through the spaces between the planks or the wattle work holes and banked up behind. Little by Uttle the sand rose and covered the palisade which was then gradiwlly raised until the dune was 33 or 49 feet above the the level of the sea." When the proper height was attained, the sand was planted to maram grass in order that it might be held in place. Once it was fixed in this manner it had to he maintained, since with every storm there were areas to be repaired. (See Fig. 15.) "In 1858 " there were 17 consecutive days of storm; the littoral line was broken at several points and it was impossible to repair it with sufficient rapidity. More than $9,650 damage to sown areas was done in the Department of the Landes alone." '2 Les Landes et les Dunes de Gascogne, par. ch. Grandjean, Paris, 1897. "Boppe, pp. 471-481. CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES 179 According to Grandjean: " In the Gironde the palisade was established quite close to high tides ... but in the Landes on the contrary it was 490 feet from high tide. This paUsade having been successively raised until the dune attained an elevation of 20 to 26 feet and the talus becoming too steep they estabhshed (5 feet to the west) a cordon of fagots at the foot of the talus." This lessened the steepness of the slope and was an excellent modifica- tion. The tendency has been to build the artificial dunes farther from the sea, up to 820 to 980 feet. In 1851 the artificial barrier or coast dune was constructed as follows: "At 165 to 260 feet from the high tide mark, parallel to the shore that is to-day per- pendicular to the direction of the wind, a palisade is built of joists 4.7 inches wide and 1.2 inches thick; these joists are deeply imbedded in the sand with a projection of 3.3 feet above the soil; they are spaced 0.8 to 1.2 inches from each other. After each storm the sand, driven by the wind, accumulates in front of the palisade and piles up on the other side through the spaces left between the joists; according to the size of the particles the equilibrium between the piles on the two sides is more or less readily established. This operation is repeated until the artificial dune is 33 to 39 feet high above high tide. The theory of this method is that the wind is harnessed by man to do his work. The slope is quite rapid on the talus facing the sea and the best grade or reUef is always an important problem which must be studied locally. The surface is fixed with maram grass (gourbet, calam agrastis arenacea) secured by sowing or by root suckers. The maintenance work consists chiefly of repairing the breeches made by the sea or wind." To-day the profile of these artificial dunes is being reversed, and the slopes are gently inclining toward the sea and abrupt on the land side, since it has been found by experiment that this gives better results. "This new profile is secured by placing (parallel to the shore) successive lines of little hedges about 24 inches in height built of pine branches at the foot of which the sand accumulates. The skill consists, according to the form of the shore line and the prog- ress of the sand, in placing these obstacles at the desired point to assist the dune to form its ridge line at such a distance from the shore that the slope can extend on the most practical incline. These very cordons, coupled with the maram grass sowing without a branch cover, can stop and hold in check the 'whistle-wind' and the ravines that the wind bores in the dune. . . . "Moreover, it is marvelous to see how experienced foresters know how to use the growth to model the dune sand, something so mobile and capricious; where the (de- sired) profile has been secured they use the maram grass to fix these points, or on the contrary, pull out or thin the plant when they wish the wind to remove the piles of sand or mounds which have become useless or troublesome. Frequently hedges parallel to the coast are flanked with dikes whose direction is perpendicular to them, when these can be further subdivided into crow's feet or reverse dikes. "When winding shores with sharp points are exposed to very violent wind, a care- ful study of the situation only can determine the places where defense work must be established, and what direction to give them. . . . Finally, on points where the sea in eroding its shores and breaks into waves without depositing sand the material be- comes scarce . . . the force of the waves is reduced by the erection of a forest of sohd stakes driven into the sand and called break-water (bris6-lame) . The tamerisk, with its long flexible branches, renders the greatest service in consolidating all these dead 180 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES works by a live growth. At the same time they try to replace the former profile out- lined by the caprice of the waves by a suitable artificial beach with a grade as low as 5 or 6 per cent, so that the wave can roll in, losing its power of erosion. Moreover, each point demands a special solution. ... In fact the final dune profile is not yet discovered; perhaps it will never be." At Lacanau they began the artificial slope of the protective dune at 33 feet from high tide and extended it 148 feet to where the palisade originally stood. The protective dune was 52 feet high and 13 feet wide (across the top) with sand barriers at each side of the top. The dune then sloped gradually to a bench 164 feet farther back; perhaps about 65 feet farther on the lowest point was reached and the sand rose again to another dune where the protective pine zone began. At Lacanau there were four kinds of barriers against sand erosion: (1) To prevent the erosion of the tops of barrier dunes upright stakes were placed 1.6 feet apart, 1.3 feet in height, with interwoven branches and genista to prevent the sand from sifting through. Here the ordinary palisades had been abandoned because the natural method just described is considered cheaper to maintain when once the protective dune is raised to the proper height by use of the palisade method. Here the artificial dunes were 52 feet in height. (2) To protect the rear of the protective dune rows of genista 2.3 feet high were sunk 1.1 to 1.3 feet in the soil. This resulted in keeping the rear of the protective dune to the proper height. (3) To hold the sand branches were laid on the sand to prevent wind erosion. (4) To hold and build up areas where the sand had been excavated by the wind near the ocean clumps of genista 1.6 feet in circumference were planted in quincunx. The French specifica- tions for the "Fixation and Maintenance of Dunes" is given on page 429 of the Appendix. This gives a very minute and accurate account of the methods now in use. According to Lafond : ^* "The littoral dune is the best defense in the dune region. If it is abandoned or if its maintenance is not kept up, new natural dunes invariably form and, blown by the wind, cover successively not only the forests created at great expense but afterwards additional country." North of Bordeaux the protective dune seems to have assumed special importance. Parallel to the ocean and at a distance of about 656 feet from high tide a plank'' palisade, formed of planks 8 inches wide and spaced 1.2 inches is sunk in the sand. As soon as the sand accumulates, as in other dune regions, the palisade is raised about 31 inches. After the dune has once been formed it is of course planted to maram grass. " Fixation des Dunes, par M. A. Lafond, Paris, Imprimerie Nationaie, 1900. " Frequently ordinary wattle work made of sticks 6.5 feet long and 2.5 inches in diameter sunk 1.6 feet in the sand and 1.6 feet apart is used. These pieces are then woven with branches and shrubs to a point 1.6 feet above the sand level. CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES 181 The height of the artificial dunes in this region is usually 33 feet. Lafond says: "If higher, they cost much more to establish and are more difficult to maintain, and they give more of a lever to the winds, moreover, if they are built too high. Usually a lower height is sufficient." From Point Arvert to Point Coubre (Charente Inf^rieure Department) the height of the artificial dune is usually 23 feet. At Requin it is extremely variable, being from 6.5 to 65 feet, and at Volcan 43 feet. From the Tournegand Canal to Palmyre it is 16 feet in height and from there on to the Grande-C6te it is but 13 feet. This shows how the height of the artificial dune must vary with the local conditions. The destruction of these littoral dunes comes either from the wind or from the sea. The wind is the commonest danger but the sea the most difficult to combat. According to Lafond: " A httoral dune not too high and bordering a permanent beach is on the whole easy to maintain. It is sufficient to keep the maram grass plantation (executed at the time of construction) in good condition and to maintain its original density on the different parts of the dune surface; the beach sand blown by the wind slides along the dune where it is scattered as nourishment for the clumps of maram grass. The ex- cess amount passes behind the dune and is scattered in the httoral hollows (ledes). It does not cause any damage, however, because it is only a small amount and covers the soil so slowly that the brush or shrubs can grow as fast as the sand covers the soil and also keeps it fixed." It is not nearly so easy to maintain a high protective dune at Coubre. Here the sand accumulates at certain points and forms hummocks which must be fixed immediately. " The formation of hummocks is avoided by not allowing the maram grass bunches to grow too thick and by removing every obstacle on the dune." If hummocks of sand are formed their summit has to be broken so as to make the sand mobile and allow the winds to blow it away. If these irregularities can be avoided then, so far as the wind is concerned, the artificial dune can maintain itself. Lafond says a dune can always be kept in good condition by means of maram grass plantations judiciously placed so as to hold the sand in the depressions and let it blow over the humps so as to have nothing but regular slopes or long undulations. When the littoral dune is washed by the waves during storms it usually suffices to build barriers to retain the sand in place and permit it to re- sume its original shape. "If the breech is quite considerable, to smooth it over the sand is topped by means of fagots planted in quincunx; often these quincunx are placed in two barrier lines, the one completing the action of the other. Where the erosion by the water is caused by dangerous currents then it is a very serious undertaking and masonry or expensive cement work is often necessary." 182 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES Lafond describes in great detail special problems caused by the action of the ocean currents. Forestation.** — It has been seen that the first step is to make sure that the protection dunes are stable, and that the first essential is to sow or plant maram grass on the slopes toward the sea about 60 to 70 feet from high tide. It is usually planted in November to February since, if planted later after the raias have ceased, it is apt to die. It is dug up from maram bunches (which are too thick) and usually six to eight shoots are planted at one place. It is cut 8 inches below the soil when collected and is dibbled 12 inches deep in the sand; it is spaced 31 inches apart near the sea and farther back 20 inches. This wider spacing near the ocean is because it needs plenty of fresh sand in order to thrive, yet inversely if it is covered with too much sand it dies out and must be replanted. The next step is to sow the maritime pine coming back to the barrier dune. According to a report published in 1834 the method of sowing was as follows: "Pine seed, mixed with genista, furze, or maram grass was used for sowing in the littoral zone. It was covered with branches of genista, furze, or pine according to the locality. . . . These branches were laid flat and placed as if they were ferns. . . . They were held in place on the soil with a httle sand (thrown broadcast)." The methods have remained about the same. According to the in- structions of May 16, 1888, 9 pounds of pine per acre with 8 pounds of genista or 9 pounds of maram grass pure were used; in either case it took 400 fagots of 44 pounds each for the covering. The present method of sowing takes about 18 pounds of seed^' per acre of maritime piae, 1.8 of genista, and 1.8 of maram grass. The tendency is to sow too densely. The correct method of sowing means scattering the seed, theoretically about 1 to 2 inches apart. The seed is then covered with branches held down by sand. The cover is abso- lutely essential so that the sand will not burn the seed and so that the surface will not blow. A second method is by holes 4 inches deep and 20 inches apart, covered mth genista and held down with sand. A third method now used is sowing in ditches 8 inches deep and 8 inches wide. These are then covered with sand and with a hght brush cover. For dry localities the best time to sow is in October but for wet localities in March. When maritime pine is occasionally planted wild stock is used. According to Boppe (already cited) : " The land tax on forested land on mountains, dunes, or waste land is exempt for thirty years; three-fourths the land tax is remitted on any cleared soil that is afterwards planted. " Maritime cones are collected from January 1 to March 1. Genista seed is collected in June and July and thrashed the end of July; maram grass is collected in August. COST AND PRICE DATA 183 "For this purpose, instead of using ptu'e maritime pine seed, the following mixture is sown per acre: Maritime pine, 26 pounds; furze, 2.6 pounds; genista, 2.6 pounds; maram grass, 2.6 pounds; miscellaneous seed to attract birds, 2.6 pounds. This for- mula is used in the Coubre Dune. In the Landes practice the maritime pine is re- duced to 9 pounds per acre, while the genista is increased to 8 and the maram grass to 3.5 pounds. "The pine, the genista, and the furze come up simultaneously, and it is usually noted that the pines are better if the necessary seedhngs are more numerous, moreover the cover rots where it hes and gives the soil its first supply of organic material. When the forestation is commenced at the very base of the dune the first stands established for a distance of 660 to 980 feet damaged by the ocean winds usually remain stunted and crooked; but under cover of this protective zone the stands which follow it de- velop normally; it is even stated that the pines on a dune yield more resin than those growing on (ordinary) ground." Special Betterments in the Landes. — Next to the fixation of the sand and the drainage work one of the greatest problems in the Landes has been road construction, since paved roads have proved extremely expen- sive. It is for this reason that narrow-gauge railroads are so popular when a large area is to be worked. A special kind of wagon road is built of wood blocks 14 by 4 inches laid vertically. The usual dune road is the so-called "paillage." Such roads are 8.8 to 6.5 feet in width and the sand is dug out to a depth of 4| inches and thrown to one side. Then twigs and branches are placed in the bottom and a cover of pine needles and moss placed on top. Roads of this type are confined largely to the dunes or pure sand areas. All main roads in the flat Landes are macadamized and the others are dirt roads, sometimes covered with needles. Cost and Price Data. — Br^montier's original estimate for the dune control and forestation was about $772,000 (see p. 170). The final cost^* of reclaiming 195,212 acres totaled $1,854,344 or $9.50 per acre. In addition $656,200 was spent on maintenance of roads, forest houses, fire lines, and barrier dunes, making a grand total of 2^ million dollars. But just as Br6montier predicted, the annual revenue from this land, which would otherwise have been worthless, is more than the original amount spent. According to Huffel ^' the total Dune and Landes pine forest (including State, communal, and private) comprised 1,611,121 acres which represents an investment of $10,331,290 on the following basis: '8 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 159. " Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 182-183. The average costs are low because of the partial use of natural regeneration after the original dune forestation had been completed; this explains the difference between $9.50, 810.75 and $4.25 per acre. 184 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES Totals 74,131.3 acres of dunes reforested by the State at a cost of $10.75+ per acre $926,400 1,536,989.3 acres of private and communal interior holdings forested at $4.25- per acre 6,602,530 1,611,121 acres of soil at a cost of $0.77+ per acre 1,258,360 $8,787,290 Road betterments 1,544,000 $10,331,290 This is equal to an average investment of only $6.41 per acre. A con- servative estimate of yield, before the war, was $2.22 per acre per year. Thus if taxation is eliminated the original investment yields over 30 per cent as a national "speculation," but it must be noted that the real soil value was almost nothing at the time the investment was made. It is at least significant that prior to 1914 timber appraisals of young stands used an interest rate of 7 per cent for the calculations, which is unique in forest technique and is due to the high returns and to the risk from fire. Huffel estimates the average forest revenue in the Landes at $2,702,000 net per year, representing a new capitalization including timber of at least $86,850,000, or about $54 per acre. As a matter of fact State forests with growing stock have been sold for around $60 per acre and to-day average more than $93 per acre for land purchased at less than a dollar! The bare soil sold for $16 to $32 an acre prior to 1914 — in other words, it was capitalized on the basis of what it could produce in resin and timber.^" The artificial barrier dunes cost about $96 per mile. The forestation cost has been as high as $38.60 per acre in the Landes and in the Coubre dunes only $14.20. In 1817 a large area was sown at a cost of $15.05 per acre. In 1827 Dejean reported ^' the cost per acre had been reduced "" J. H. Rieard says that impeeled mine props sold for 15 francs per English ton in 1903, and up to 18 francs in 1908; ties of various specifications 2 to 3.40 francs; squared timber 22 to 25 francs per ton. Regarding land values Rieard says that the bare land sold in 1835 at 8 to 15 francs per hectare as a minimum, with 30 to 40 francs as an average. In 1910 the values were 40 francs minimum, 100 francs ($7.72 per acre) average, and up to 300 francs maximum ($23.16). *' The details were as follows: Francs per hectare Cutting 1,400 fagots at 0.80 francs per 100 11 . 20 Working them up at 0.80 francs per 100 1 1 . 20 Transport 1,500 to 2,000 meters at 4 francs per 100 56.00 Drying at 1 franc per 100 14 . 00 Miscellaneous fagot expense at 0.75 francs per 100 10.50 One-half hectoliter maritime pine seed 10. 00 5 kilograms genista seed 2.50 Miscellaneous expense and repairs 4.60 Total 120.00 (or $9.26 per acre). COST AND PRICE DATA 185 o> s s 01 s as 1861 1865 1870 1875 1880 1885 Kl 1890 1895 1900 1905 1911 Mi- —J 1 Civil War i rr", ' 1 ^ i 1 " ^ ^ — i — '. — I — ; — 1 -^ ~ ~ 1 1 1 — ^" 1 •i ^-^ hr— -^^'"^ 1 It —7-^ 1 «r^ 1 •«i — '■ M •<^ •« =rH" r~~~4— 1 t i__j_. "• •c — ■• _>• .=i=? 1 1 "~ ■~J >• •; r- > ^ ^ s ._ 1 ■• _j 1 ^ i 1 r^ ^^ i 1 ' "v" -^ 1 vp- t-' =»• • Ci* • e— i« ^ 1 ■K ^ •: n 1 « ^ 1 S Cs. •r- ik N ^ •=: ~ EM S ^ » "KT ^ [Jk —■ * •c — ■• ^ *: — :^ ^ » ^ •^ ]T L I _ _ _ Fig. 16. — Barrel price, in dollars, of turpentine at Bordeaux. 186 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES to $9.26. To-day there would be natural regeneration. The cost per acre for hoeing (to 8 inches deep) and clearing fire lines has been, accord- ing to Bert, about $6.50, or for a fire line 33 feet wide $26 per mile. The price of turpentine at Bordeaux from 1861 to 1911 is shown in Fig. 16. The extremely high price per barrel (340 liters or exactly 359 Hquid quarts) in 1862 was because of the American civil war. According to Conservateur de Lapasse, writing from Bordeaux De- cember 16, 1919, the average prices per hter (1.05671 hquid quarts) of resin (r^sines ou gemmes) for the past 14 years were as follows: TABLE 19 — PRICE OF CRUDE RESIN Year Price per liter, dollars Year Price per liter, dollars 1906 0.050 1913 0.048 1907 0.052 1914'" 0.054 1914" 0.025 1908 0.052 1915 0.046 1909 0.058 1916 0.093 1910 0.071 1917' 0.125 1911 0.079 1918 0.135 1912 0.071 1919 0.208 " Price up to the war. * Price August 1 to October 1, 1914. " In 1917 the franc ran 5i to the dollar, in 1918 about 5i to 5f , and in 1919, 5f to llj. The normal rate $0,193 to the franc has been used in conversions. MANAGEMENT OF MARITIME PINE FORESTS Objects of Management (Protection Forests). — The objects of State management are to protect the soil from driftiug sand and to produce resin, lumber (short length), ties, mine props, paving blocks, and other special wood products. The aim of the Government has apparently been greater volume production, disregarding consideration of the sizes in which it is produced, while private owners look to resin pro- duction and to higher stumpage values involved in larger timber. This is natural, because the poorer soils where State timber grows could not produce tall, large saw timber. The State is now looking more to receipts from resin. But according to Barrington Moore: "The essential difference between Government and private management is that the former aims to produce a maximum volume of wood, whereas the latter aims to produce as much turpentine as possible and considers the wood as secondary. As might be expected, the Government must care for the needs of the community as well as for revenue. The Government foresters themselves admit that turpentine is more profitable than wood. . . . The silvicultural difference is, briefly, that the Gtovernment thins its forests lightly in such a way as to keep a complete canopy in order to grow OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT (PROTECTION FORESTS) 187 the trees tall and straight and keep a maximum number per acre, whereas private own- ers choose the best trees to leave and thin heavily around them to give each tree full sunlight and encourage a large crown development." Yet, as a matter of fact, the best timber is in private hands because the private forests usually occupy the richest soils, while the State forests are along the coast. In the Landes and Gironde most of the dune forests are in public hands and they are primarily held as a zone of defence against drifting sand. Of necessity they are heavily thinned relatively to allow the crown development so necessary to a Hght-demand- ing species. Moreover, so far as my own investigations show, even State forests outside protection working groups are now managed for resin rather than for lumber. Private forests are in less exposed situations and are managed solely for profit, and resin yields more than two-thirds the income. According to an unpublished official note it appears that protection working groups must be handled with great conservatism: " . . . The protection ^ working group will then be treated with cuttings having a selection character; a physical exploitability will be applied, taking count, however, in a certain measure, of the special vegetative conditions of the maritime pine. Tap- ping without killing will be practiced, but with prudence, the yield in resin being first sacrificed in the interest of keeping the stand as fully stocked as possible in the essen- tial r61e of protection. Experience has shown that the faculty given executive agents by the special decisions governing exploitation of the coast working groups, of com- mencing the appUcation of tapping without killing pine measuring 12 inches and over in diameter (instead of 14 inches in the other working groups), has had unfortunate results on the increment and longevity of the trees faced. In the last marking we have really been obhged to let a considerable number of pine clearly over-worked remain idle in order to allow them to heal their scars which were too numerous and too wide. "Being selected for protection working groups the production in wood is only second- ary; on the other hand the production in resin can return an important revenue from these stands. But this production will not continue sustained unless it is not over- whelmed by a premature chipping of the trees exposed to the ocean winds, and con- sequently growing under less favorable conditions than the stands in the interior. Accordingly we believe that the reverse of this has been carried out and under penalty of making mistakes it is essential that the pine of the coast working groups be treated conservatively and only tapped without killing when they reach a size which will en- able them to stand this operation. We are of the opinion that, as in the case of the exploitation working groups, the tapping without killing cannot be applied until the trees measure at least 14 inches in diameter. In the seventh working group the felhngs wiU take place on the basis of special recommendations; the work done will follow the principles which have just been explained." 22 Cultural niles for protection working groups, unpubUshed note by De Lapasse, dated December 21, 1908: The general forest conditions of the Landes and Gironde have already been described (see p. 169) and also the silvical characteristics of the maritime pine (see p. 401). Mature stands 60 to 70 years old average 10,000 to 20,000 board feet to the acre; this high yield from small timber is because the soil is fully stocked. On private land matiu-e timber runs 60 to 70 trees per acre and in State forests 100 or more. 188 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES On the Lacanau (Gironde) State Forest the dune protection strip, according to the current working plan, is 2,625 feet wide where only the dead and dying trees are cut. In the State Forest of Carcans (Gironde) the protective zone is classified into three distinct parts and the growth of the dune forests as you approach the ocean (east to west) is similar to the decrease in growth as you near the limit of tree growth in the mountains: (1) The httoral zone of mere shrubs which is 535 to 1,322 feet wide. (2) A zone of badly formed trees of no commercial value, of slow growth and open formation. (3) A third zone where the stand is sufficiently dense to be tapped but which is maintained without tapping as a protective barrier. It is very significant that these trees which are exposed in part to the rigors of the ocean winds are not tapped at all but are maintained exclusively as a protective zone. Silvicultural Systems. — Next to the protection working group (which is in the shape of a long strip five-eighths of a mile parallel to the ocean) additional working groups (in strips) are laid out from west to east. These are treated as high forests by the shelterwood compartment system with the usual seed f elUngs and secondary felHngs omitted, since regeneration is easy by clear cutting without the necessity of seed trees or the shelter of a portion of the mature stand. The seed is furnished by the tops of the felled trees. The normal compartment is 247 acres which may be leased for tapping or sold for cutting as a unit or in as many as four sub-units, especially if because of dunes or previous fires the character of the timber differs. Final cutting is clear for the unit. All tops are lopped out and left or scattered to he flat on the ground to assist reseeding. Before felling all underbrush and seedlings are felled flat for the same purpose. The cover of moss, needles, limbs, and brush prevents any movement of the sand before the pine seed has a chance to sprout. Under this procedure natural reseeding nearly always occurs. On areas in which it fails solving is done. Because of sod, high- water table, etc., natural seeding is frequently not so successful in the private forests. Sowing there may be broadcast or in plowed strips. Planting is also done extensively, largely with seedlings collected from nearby stands. Grazing is not permitted for about four years after sowing or planting on private areas. Immediately around Arcachon the maritime pine is under the selection system and is kept entirely cleared of undergrowth, since it is maintained as a sort of pleasure park for tourists. In the nearby forest of La Teste some clear cutting was practiced entirely too near the sea and after two years the regeneration had only partially succeeded. It would have been much better to have left a protective zone of virgin timber for seed, since clear cutting close to the sea is always dangerous, especially with the current fire danger. INTERMEDIATE FELLINGS 189 Intermediate Fellings. — After the stand has been regenerated the sapling thickets are thinned by the so-called "d^pressage" (see p. 110), before they reach merchantable size, to avoid fungous damage, and cleanings are sometimes necessary to protect the pine against the heather. Under "Improvement Cutting" the Biscarrosse working plan pro- vides: "Cleanings and thinnings without tapping. Commence the cleanings in the re- generated 'periodic blocks' 5 years old; at the same time lop the lower whorls of the vigorous shoots and cut the weeds which suppress the pine. These (cultural) opera- tions should be made periodically every 5 years and wiU become thinnings at 10 to 15 years; thus the stand will be systematically thinned and when about 20 to 25 years old there should be about 200 stems per acre. Do not hesitate to cut back the weeds at each period, both broom and furze, with the double object of doing away with thickets which promote conflagrations and to give the pine the air and light so necessary for good growth. It is, in effect, absolutely proven in the Landes that the piaeries on cleared soil grow much better than those with thick understory (of weeds) . In the older stands the thinnings (without tapping or with the axe) have almost entirely the char- acter of weedings; the advance seedlings of no value at the time of regeneration will then disappear under the cover of the dominant story." Pruning usually starts at 10 years of age. The typical 3-inch tree is naturally pruned up to 2 feet above the ground, while the typical tree of 6 inches is pruned artificially up to 10 to 12 feet above the ground. The branches, which are left as they fall, take about 5 years to rot. This priming is done every 5 years. In order to protect stands from fire at the time of cleaning the genista is now cut. Stands artificially sown are usually mixed with a dense stand of genista 10 feet high; con- sequently the pine has to be freed. The first thinning or cleaning is quite heavy and one stand was noted where there were 800 trees per acre before the thinning that showed only 480 per acre after the thinning. Regular thinnings "with the axe" without tapping (see p. 110) are thus usually necessary before the trees are large enough to stand a face. At about 25 years, depending on the growth, the regular thinnings by tapping to death begin, often preceded by tapping to exhaustion (see quotation below). This merely means that instead of at once fell- ing a tree, which is superfluous or of poor quality, it is first heavily tapped for a period and then tapped to death and cut after four or more years of very intensive tapping. This type of thinning is continued every 5 to 10 years until the stand is mature and rather open (see p. 192). In the forest of Biscarrosse (Landes) thinnings by tapping alive are conducted as follows : ^' 2' Extract from the revised working plan for Biscarrosse (Landes) forest containing an inspection note from De Lapasse of December 21, 1908. Reference is made to page 193 where the new 4-year cycle (for thinnings and tapping) is fully explained. 190 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES "The thinnings made every 5 years will aim to open up the forest. This favors both the production of wood and resin in maritime pine. The thinnings will «im to maintain the timber in a good state of growth by placing it under the best conditions for increment; owing to the fact that the maritime pine is a light demanding species one should not forget that in the case of this species the vmderwood as well as the sup- pressed trees are valueless and that the upper story alone is of interest. This cul- tural rule seems much surer than that given in the working-plan report. "In the regenerated stands the thinnings with tapping will commence at about 25 years of age, or as soon as the timber shall have attained a sufficient size to enable it to stand a face. Except when the removal of a pine is more or less urgent tapping to death or 'tapping to exhaustion' will be followed. The 'tapping to exhaustion' will precede the appUcation of tapping to death by at least the length of a period (5 years) ; it can then be accomphshed by one or by two faces according to the size of the trees. This method of tapping will be applied to the entire stand of each periodic block during the period which precedes regeneration. The tapping without killing (gemmage a vie) will continue to be appUed to the pine 14 inches and over at breast height. Very vigorous trees measuring at least 16 inches in diameter can be intensively tapped without killing and receive two faces. This method of extracting the resin can be made general and wiU be justified chiefly during the three or four periods pre- ceding regeneration. "The application of 'exhaustive tapping' and of intensive tapping without kiUing (without injury to the stands) has been rendered possible by the decision of the Direc- tor General, dated March 23, 1908, who has authorized the Mont-de-Marsan inspection to reduce the sizes of the faces in height and in diameter." It should be particularly noted that, so-called exhaustive tappings which precede the usual thinnings by tapping to death is a new feature of French practice aimed at the increase of resin production in State forests. This means that there is a good deal of marking expense. In 1905, in the inspection of Mont-de-Marsan, 15,180 acres had to be marked; the work lasted practically continuously from February, 1915, to July 8, and the marking removed on an average of almost exactly 40 trees per acre, or 612,455 trees. This illustrates the heavy thinnings followed in State forests — so necessary for maritime pine to develop good crowns. The first cleaning in private forests takes place at 4 years, and the first tapping to death for thinning at 15 years. By 30 years the stand is pretty well reduced to its final number and tapping of all trees alive begins. The "Landes" rule is that no permanent tree should be tapped until it is at least 13 inches in diameter. All private tapping is now being done 4 years to a face. Rotations. — The State forest rotations adopted in the past have been 70 years with fourteen periods of 5 years each, 72 years with twelve periods of 6 years each, 75 years with fifteen periods of 5 years each, and 80 years with sixteen periods of 5 years each. When the length of the period is six years the consecutive tapping is separated by one year of rest. In a large number of forests, however, the final rotation is preceded by a transitory rotation which usually differs for each working WORKING GROUPS 191 group. Rotations in private forests are usually shorter. The average is between 55 and 65 years and, where the production of mine props is the chief objective, the rotations can be reduced to about 40 to 50 years. With the new 4-year thinning cycle the present rotations may be shghtly reduced. According to the working plan for the forest of Biscarrosse, revised January 7, 1910, the maritime pine has a 75-year rotation. The forest is divided into fifteen periodic blocks. The growth data available show that the maximum growth of the maritime pine is between 40 and 50 years; therefore a transitional rotation of 60 years has been recom- mended. It is almost certain that as the humus in the different maritime forests fertilizes the soil the growth will become more rapid, so that the proverbial 70 to 75 year rotations may be generally reduced to 55 to 65 years. According to this working plan "The yield is established by area; the surface of each periodic block is run over by a clear-cut regeneration felHng, exploited during the period having the same numerical order as the periodic block. " Felling Cycles. — In the past the felUng cycle was almost invariably 5 years, but sometimes 4 to 6 years. In the future it will usually be 4 years (see p. 193). In the past the trees were resined for 4 years and felled the fifth year. But in the forest of Carcans a 6-year period allowed 5 years for tapping and the usual 1 year for felHng. Working Groups. — According to De Lapasse the past method of management was as follows: "These forests are divided into working groups whose number varies from two to six, according to their importance and size; working groups are established in long strips parallel to the ocean, bounded by parallel fire lines, the first working group being placed on the east side of the forest. In each working group the periodic blocks are numbered in the order in which regeneration is fixed, from the north to the south. In each forest the working plans have estabhshed a group without predetermined treatment, to in- clude the dune and littoral zone, designed to form a shelter belt which protects the re- mainder of the stand against wind action and sand coming from the west. " The scheme is very simple. During each 5-year period each periodic block (except those to be regenerated and those including young growth) is run over by a thinning with turpentine operations. The trees which are to be removed are, before they are cut, tapped to death during a period of 4 years; simultaneously, the pines which have reached 14 inches in diameter and above are tapped aUve for 5 years. The oldest periodic block in turn is regenerated by clear cuttings preceded by tapping to death all the trees. These are felled during the fifth (see 'New Tapping Scheme,' p. 193) and last year of the period. The periodic blocks of young growth are run over by or- dinary thinnings without tapping. At the beginning of each period (every 5 years) each working group is completely marked (and valued) to compute the material of the clearcut regeneration fellings (to be sold standing) and the trees to be tapped aUve where the contractor receives only the resin." 192 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES With the new 4-year tapping cycle a working plan for a maritime pine forest having a 68-year rotation and 17 periods would normally be worked as follows: TABLE 20.— WORKING PLAN FOR A MARITIME PINE FOREST Tapping periods § toS s o .2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 U 12 13 14 15 16 17 •E S.s 1921 1925 1929 1933 1937 1941 1945 1949 1953 1957 1961 1965 1969 1973 1977 1981 1985 > s Si to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to a Solide et M6tre Cube, B., S . F . de F — C. et B., Sept. 7, 1908, J. Banehereau. ' An interesting comparison between the new and old French measures is given on pages 14-19 of Garnet — Agenda du Forestier. Besan^on, 1902. Paul Jacquin, Im- primeur. It should be noted that in France logs are measured outside bark, while in the United States log scaling is always inside bark. s See also classes of cordwood and saw timber given under "Sale of Timber," page 307. 208 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS piled fuel. Cordwood is frequently sold by the ton; this is an excellent system. It compensates at once for species and for seasoning. For the measurements of log lengths the French prefer a melastic tape, and for diameter ^ an accurate adjustable caliper to take maximum and mini- mum diameters, or a diameter tape if only one measurement can be taken. The French policy is clearly to avoid unnecessary and costly ac- curacy when something less exact will serve just as well. Volume Tables. — Volume tables for estimating the cubic (metric) contents of standing timber are simpler and more standardized in France than in the United States. There are no volume tables in use which give the contents of trees in terms of the manufactured product. The fol- lowing classes of volume tables are used: (1) A "universal" table, based on diameter, total height, and taper of a tree (there are also tables giving contents of cylinders of given diameter and length which must be reduced by a form factor). (2) Merchantable log length table, especially designed for standards or for high forest trees, based on diameter and the merchantable length of the bole (to a top Umit of 9.8 inches) classified by 2 or.4 meter lengths (6.5 to 13.1 feet). (3) Cordwood tables, based on the diameter of standards and whether (a) very branchy, (b) average, (c) mediocre, or (d) few branches. (4) Local volume tables for (a) total or (6) merchantable contents in cubic meters based on diameter alone are common and are usually based on the type (1) table and on local diameter and height measurements. It is customary to give the name of forest, working group, year table was made, author, soil, part of tree included, silvicultural system, species, altitude, and general quahty. Cordwood from the top or from branches is estimated by using a ratio of the bole; this varies with the species, height of the tree, age, top cutting limit for saw timber, and silvicultural system. The results are naturally subject to wide variations. An average figure for oak high forest is 60 per cent to 75 per cent saw timber with 25 per cent to 40 per cent fuel (of this fuel one-third is fagots); for beech the figures for saw timber would be 10 per cent to 20 per cent less; for fir or spruce 80 per cent to 90 per cent saw timber and 20 per cent to 10 per cent fuel. But in statis- tical computations the French usually figure that 100 cubic meters gross yield of standing timber will give in (a) hardwoods, 80 cubic meters of timber and 20 cubic meters (equal to 30 stacked steres) of fuel; in (6) softwood, 90 cubic meters of timber and 10 cubic meters (15 steres) of fuel. ' Huffel thinks there may be a 5 to 10 per cent difference between the measurements and volume computation of a lot of large irregular logs even if great care is taken. Much of the data which follows is from Huffel, Vol. II. VOLUME TABLES 209 It is clearly established that trees of the same (a) species, (b) diameter, (c) silvicultural system, and (d) height 3deld a greater volume as they increase in age but the variation is usually disregarded in ordinary valua- tion surveys, except so far as it is represented in local volume tables. The wide variation between local volume tables for the same species and diameter is merely a repetition of experience in all countries. But an- other complication arises in working plan revisions. It is desired to esti- mate the present stand accurately yet to-day's stand must be compared with the stand at the last revision because the original stand plus the cut, minus or plus the difference between the original stand and the present stand, gives an accurate line on growth. It is, therefore, necessary to compute the volumes to be compared by the same volume tables. In fact, with hundred per cent estimates, each compartment or working group is in reality a permanent sample plot which at each working plan revision gives fairly exact data on growth and yield. The sample volimie table which follows is for spruce and fir in the Jura. To the figures given 10 per cent must be added if branches are included. The volume tables supplied the local officers also give the volume by cir- cumference and heights for one to nineteen trees (omitting the volumes for ten and twenty trees) to facilitate multiplication when figuring results of valuation surveys: 210 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS Q <; 1^ o PL, o P3 < H I O 1-1 oa 1^ •■<1<(NOO(MC<50IM05^00QOOC55-. ■OOt^CDt^OOON'^QOt-HlOO'^OO ■cO'^»ocot>-OiO^W'^»or*ooa) ■CC-^»OCOt^CX)030C^IM-^CDt^OS ■NW^lCCDt^OOOO^HCCt^lCfOOO ■CCia5t~OOOlO'-HW<*iOtO • - 00 '^ 1-H OS l> iO -^ ■* W CO ^ -^ ■<*< lO CO t^ •wMC^C0'^l0C0t*t*Q0a)O'-ICQM ■<*oo(Nait*»cco*-H0050ot^coco»o ■ ■ -^ >-H cq N CO 05 ■^ in to t>^ 00 00 oi o -H N CO -COO?D'^rH^^Cqt^»0*Ot^»-it*»C'^TfHW5 •t~o«ooTtn-*s^odo50rtrt(N •OOrtT-KNC^ro-^-^iOtOt^t^OOOSO — N OOO^rti-<(NWlW^>OtO rtcDt^a^cot^«t*'' OOOO^T-t Sg E Sooon^cooooin^SooSn^SooSS dO'-i-H'^'-i'-iNNNciNeoeoeoeoTO'*'^ CALIPERING STANDS 211 Rule-of-Thumb Methods. — There are various rule-of -thumb methods^ all based on the metric system. They are chiefly of value in stimu- lating local forest officers to study the laws of diameter, height, and volume. (1) Bouvard formula: F = | D^H which is somewhat conservative, though used for coppice-under-standards . (2) d'Auverne formula: V = 7/10 volume of cyUnder of size of middle girth, for oak cut to top limit of 11.8 inches. (3) Villers-Cotterets formula: V in steres = circumference in centimeters minus one meter (i.e., 1.70 — 1.0 or 0.7 steres) used for beech locally. (4) Algan formula: V = 0.33 D'H. Used for spruce 5.9 in diameter at small end; or V = 0.42 Dm. (5) Plank formula: P = f A'-D^- In the Vosges it is customary to estimate in "board feet" or planks 4 M long X 0.25 wide X 0.025 thick or 1/40 plus or minus of a cubic meter. Ocular Estimating. — In regular fully stocked stands of coppice or young high forest ocular * estimating is exceedingly accurate, and coppice is rarely estimated by any other method since the number of steres per hectare can be gauged if the age and soil quality are known. Then too it must be remembered that each compartment has been cut over for generations and where the rotation or treatment has not been modified there are usually the records of past cuts to base estimates upon. Such ocular estimates for coppice can be made within 90 per cent of the actual cut or even closer so that they answer for sale purposes and the price is usually a lump sum per hectare. High forest timber, except when in the sapling stage, is never estimated ocularly. Calipering Stands. — The French measure the diameter or circum- ference of standing timber at 1.50 meters (4.92 feet) or 1.30 (4.26 feet) above the ground and on hillsides they measure the breast-height point from the uphill side of the tree. They often take into account the fact that the largest diameters are parallel with the wind or the crown or root development; this would apply especially to an intolerant species like the maritime pine in the Landes where there are strong winds from the ocean. But generally these points are waived since the errors in calculating volumes are even greater. In accurate estimating the mer- chantable sawlog length is almost invariably measured or approximated in the field; this is especially important with standards. In growth studies in coppice-under-standards the length of the merchantable bole 1 V = Volume in cu. m.; D = d. b. h.; L = length of merchantable bole; H = total height, d = middle diameter of standing tree; P = plank; N = number of trees. 8 A rule-of-thiunb method given by Huffel (p. 120, Vol. II) for estimating mature (a) fir or (6) oak stands is to multiply the average merchantable length by from (a) 25 to (b) 30 the answer being cubic meters per hectare. This illustrates the bearing of height on volume in fully stocked stands. 212 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS is often periodically measured by hand, through the use of ladders or by climbing the tree. When stands must be caUpered, the following principles govern the valuation survey: (1) Diameter classes are 5 centimeters (or 1.97 inches).' (2) It is not customary to note the height classes of all trees caUpered except in very large valuable timber; instead, the merchantable height of a few normal trees of varying size is secured from felled trees or by measurement. The results are averaged graphically and a local volume table made for the compartment, cutting area, or working group. The height classes are usually 2 to 4 meters (6.5 to 13.1 feet). (3) In merchantable stands 100 per cent estimates are almost uniform; with cheap labor this is fully warranted. (4) In timber sales estimating is always done when trees are marked for cutting. The usual and necessary errors in estimating are considered 6 per cent of the true volume even under favorable conditions; in virgin or mature stands they count for possible errors up to 10 per cent to 13 per cent. But the French defend the volume table method of obtaining volume, even in experimental work, against the German and Swiss sample tree methods. In other words, they prefer volumes based on a local table of 40 to 50 trees rather than on 5 to 10 sample trees chosen by mathematical averages'" but selected on the basis of judgment. ' The 1-inch diameter classes used by the U. S. Forest Service for its early working plans was an absurdity. The writer used 3-inch diameter classes for estimates in western yellow pine in Arizona and New Mexico. Captain Kittredge reported that 20 cm. cir- cumference classes (2| inch d. b. h. classes) were used in the C6te d'Or. In practice the French usually measure regular trees once; and irregular trees twice in order to secure the average diameter. 1° The valuation surveys in private forests bought by the A. E. F. were made as follows, according to a report by Dunning: Estimators are equipped with calipers and scribes or marking hammers. They proceed through the timber in parallel strips, mark each tree to be cut, taking the cir- cumference at lm30 from the ground, or in the fir of the Jura at ImSO. The tally- man repeats each circumference announced to avoid mistakes. Trees from 20 to 30 cm. in circumference are recorded as poles. In hardwoods trees below 50 cm. are not usually marked. The estimators rate the height of each hardwood tree in meters usually to a top circumference of 60 cm.; if serious crooks, forks, or large limbs occur the height is taken as far as a reasonably straight log can be obtained. In uniform stands of pine the chief of detachment or tally-man estimates the average height for each circumference class, the trees being tallied by 10 or 20 cm. classes, and the estimators announce onlj' the circumferences. In open stands of old pine the height of each tree is taken. In the fir of the Vosges the circumference only is taken, heights being given by circumference classes in volume tables, to a top diameter of 20 cm. When the average height method is used allowance is made for exceptionally short CALIPERING STANDS 213 border trees or broken trees by diminishing the circumference. Average heights are obtained by eye estimates, by measuring sample felled trees, or by some simple method such as the use of two sticks of equal length. The chief of detachment or tally-man also determines for each stand the average middle circumference for each breast-height circumference class. This is usually done by eye or by determining the average taper per meter of length by measuring sample felled trees. In the large fir of the Jura it is impracticable to estimate the middle cir- cumference, and volume is taken from tables based on circumference at ImSO and curved heights. For felled trees the length and middle circumference outside bark is taken. Maritime, Scotch, and Austrian pine are taUied separately. In hardwoods, where occasional individuals of several species occur, these are tallied with the more numerous species which they most closely resemble, for example, poplars as birch, locust as oak, and hornbeam as beech. Sometimes larch is thus tallied as Scotch pine. Small trees which would be broken during felling operations are sometimes marked. Standing dead trees are tallied if sound. Cordwood. — In stands of pine the amount of fire-wood in steres is roughly taken as one-fifth of the number of cubic meters of saw timber, imless the chief of detachment considers the conditions unusual, when he estimates the variation accordingly. In the silver fir forest of Levier, Doubs, the number of steres of fire-wood was taken as one-tenth of the number of cubic meters of saw timber. For hardwoods the chief of detachment estimates for each stand according to condi- tions whether the number of steres of fire-wood is 1, 1|, or 2 steres to the cubic meter of saw timber. Estimates of coppice are made in steres per hectare, according to species, age, density, etc., and depend much on the experience of the estimator. Reports on private forests consist of the tally (kept much the same as in America), the estimates of fire-wood and other products, and a description of the various factors of location which affect the value of the timber. Cmnputation. — Using the middle circumference and height to a top circumference of 60 cm., the volume is taken from a table of contents of cyUnders. The same method is used for all species, except in the large fir timber of Doubs State Forests where the tally-man records the cubic contents of each tree directly in the field from a volume table. Although volume tables exist for the pines of the Landes, men of the C. F. E. say that no tree tables are used in that office. Accuracy. — The methods used are probably as nearly accurate as any in common use. For saw timber the principal factor affecting the estimate is height. Pine stands are usually uniform and the average height by circumference classes can be estimated clo.sely. In the large fir timber in the selection forests of Doubs and Jura, separate volume tables are iised for distinct site classes where the height growth varies greatly. For hardwoods the height of each tree is estimated and French foresters vary greatly in their height estimates. One chief of detachment may instruct the men to take heights only to the first large branch, fork, or serious crook, while another may insist that heights be taken to the top circumference Umit as long as the trunk can be divided into straight log lengths to eliminate the effect of crook, etc. In hardwoods the height factor greatly affects the accuracy of the estimate. Cordwood estimates depend mtich on the experience of the estimator, and can be only approximate. Wherever possible measurement of the piled wood after cutting should be made. For saw timber under American methods of exploitation, check scales of logs after 214 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS Stand Graphics. — Under the leadership of Schaeffer," now conservator at Vesoul, the routine descriptions of selection forest stands (which " had to be done, were a great bore, and were never looked at") have been largely replaced by graphics based on the stock sheet for each compart- ment and for the forest. The objective is to picture the size classes of the stand so the marking will be guided accordingly. This, perhaps, is the feature of French mensuration and can be apphed in the United States under intensive conditions. This method and its interpretation is illustrated by Figs. 19 (a) and 19 (6) (after Schaeffer) which depict the number of trees per hectare per (5 centimeter) two-inch diameter class at breast height in fir-spruce selection forests. Certainly these graphics would disclose inaccurate and imtrustworthy valuation surveys. No. 1 represents a pure high forest of ten acres, where there is not a single tree less than 35 centimeters in diameter. It shows at once past regeneration has been a failure. No. 2 is for a younger stand, similar in character and where no trees less than 20 centimeters in diameter, breast-high, have been calipered. No. 3 represents a selection high forest, where the number of trees is approximately inversely proportional to the squares of the diameters. Consequently the curve approaches an hyperbola and the stand is more satisfactory to the forester. No. 4 shows at once that the stocktaking was carelessly done, for evi- dently those who were supposed to caliper did not scrupulously measure all trees, but estimated a good many with the eye. This accounts for the evident error in classifying more trees 20, 30, and 40 centimeters in diameter than trees 25 or 35. In any compartment, of course, certain diameter classes may predominate, but there would be no such irregu- larity Uke the teeth of a saw as is shown in No. 4. No. 5 represents a forest of 10,000 acres and consequently unevennesses have been eUminated but it is clear there are too few trees per acre, especially in the larger age-size classes. No. 6 is a young pole stand where the large number of stems less than 20 centimeters in diameter are coming into the merchantable class. The removal from the woods will nearly always fall short of the French estimates, especially in the large fir timber of the Jura, owing to defect and a certain amount of unavoidable breakage. Conclusions. — Methods used are as nearly accurate as practicable, when properly appUed, for standing saw timber, felled trees, and counted material. Cordwood esti- mates are only approximate, depending on the experience of the estimator. The men are usually capable and experienced enough to apply the methods to advantage. " Interpretation des Graphiques de Peuplements. A. Schaeffer, B. S. F. de F.-C. et N., No. 6, 1912. Since the figures are merely to illustrate methods, no conversions to American units were made. BROAD AIMS OF FRENCH REGULATION POLICY 215 evolution of a regular stand from the pole stage to maturity is shown in graphic No. 10. No. 7 shows the progress of a forest toward the normal state. It is a forest which was formerly poor but which is becoming more valuable, owing to the conservative fellings. The curves show that presently it will be more nearly normal. At the first stocktaking the stand was open; trees of all diameters developed freely, but now the stand is well stocked and the young trees have ceased to increase in number, either (a) being eliminated or (&) after a successful struggle for existence have reached higher diameter classes. The curve of the third stocktaking is approach- ing the normal by a sort of wave movement very characteristic in a forest conservatively managed. No. 8 represents a forest in poor condition and where the yield is low. The old trees continue to accumulate and the density of this old excess growing stock is damaging the young growth, which is very deficient. No. 9 shows a compartment where, despite the conservative treatment and contrary to all prearranged plans, the volume has decreased from A to B. REGULATION OF CUTTING Broad Aims of French Regulation Policy. — The aim and objective of practically all forest legislation during two or three centuries culmina- ting in the revised forest code of 1827 was to prevent the destruction, diminution, and impoverishment of French public forests in quantity and in quality. The success of this legislation depended largely on the press- ure for timber or for the capital it represented. The demand was natur- ally greatest (1) near the large towns, Uke Paris, which were the commercial timber centers, and (2) during times of stress, when families and govern- ments needed the raw product or money. Working plans,*^ or management plans as they are sometimes called, to enforce a wise use of forests, were finally required by law simply because it was found that systematic forest production with a sustained yield could not be obtained without them. Forest history has proved that even the trained forester cannot be trusted not to overcut unless he is systematically guided and controlled by a working plan that prescribes the maximum amount to be cut. And after centuries of practice the French consider a sustained yield for each forest and working group essential for the following reasons: " Huffel says (in a footnote, p. 15, Vol. Ill) : "Out of 504 forests or working groups . . in Meurthe-et-Moselle, there are 230 . . . antedating the forest code of 1827, 187 .. . prior to 1789, and 15 . . . prior to 1860, the oldest dating from 1726." 216 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS No.1 _] I I I 253035M45e055C0 65 No. 4 25 30 SS 10 iS 60 S5 60 20 26 SO 35 10 16 50 55 60 No. 5 InTcntozy, Normal Material, -J I I 1 30 35 40 16 60 56 60 65 A No, 6 - Ftrat IsTentory. - Becond Invento^. -Normal Material. —I ■ ' 10 46 60 65 60 Fig. 19 (a). — Examples of Stand Graphics. BROAD AIMS OF FRENCH REGULATION POLICY 217 Ho. 7 First Inventory. Second Inventory. Third Inventory. Kormal Material. No. 8 \"-- 1 1 < ■. \ S!0263033W15e065e0 20 25 303SM1660B5 60 No. 9 \ \f ^ ^ 30 33 10 t6 60 55 CO 69 No. 10 IS 30 2S 30 36 iO 15 so es so Fig. 19 (6). — Examples of Stand Graphics. 218 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 1. Local wood markets must be stabilized; and local needs, which can only be supplied from certain forests, must be met. 2. Limiberjacks, and other forest workmen who Uve in local villages, must be supplied with work. 3. An annual revenue is necessary for the communes since it takes the place of income from taxes; it is not so necessary for the State owning forests all over France, but is considered a convenience. Working plans are necessary because it is difficult to distinguish be- tween the capital or growing stock, which is "property held in trust"" and the annual income or growth which constitutes the owner's returns. The main trouble with forest crops is that they become merchantable only after a long time. The yield is essentially periodic. There is a final yield at the end of the rotation, and only if thinnings are profitable or practicable is there in addition an intermediate yield. After a forest is once estabhshed, this disadvantage of deferred yield is obviated by hav- ing part of the crop mature every year and thus give a sustained annual yield, which, if necessary, may be periodic instead of annual. The longer the rotation the larger the growing stock and usually with long rotations the per cent earned by the capital invested is less than with short rotations. For example, a coppice on a rotation of 20 years, in theory at least, has less than one-fifth the growing stock when ripe of a high forest with a 100-year rotation. In practice, since the high forest soil yields more heavily, this disparity is even more marked. Due to the small interest returns from long rotations private owners frequently favor coppice with a short rotation, notwithstanding the consequent damage to the soil. On the other hand, the French State poUcy has been to grow the kind of wood most needed rather than that which would be most profitable. The beginnings of forest regulation in France make interesting reading because often we see conditions depicted which bear some resemblance to the conditions during the past decade in the western United States. The beginning of systematic cutting in the great Vosges^^ fir-spruce forests is of particular interest: "At the commencement of our era the Sylva Vosagus belonged to the imperial treasury. Later the great abbeys such as Remiremont, Senones, and Moyemnoutier divided the ownership of this immense domain with the Lorraine dukes, who inherited from the emperors. The Vosges fir stands thus belonged to a few very rich and power- ful owners who began a systematic improvement (of the stands) at an early date, an improvement not only of grazing and of wood usage but also of feUings for the supply of the trade. The method adopted by the Vosges foresters for this objective was the construction of sawmills. Set up on small streams which supplied the power . . . " d'Am^nagement. Puton, pp. 1-18. » Huffel, Vol. Ill, pp. 108-110. APPLICATION TO UNITED STATES 219 they were pretty well over the whole region at the end of the 15th century. . . . The sawmills, which belonged to the dukes and abbeys who had built them, were leased with the stipulation that the number of trees that could be sawed would be furnished each year. These trees were cut in the watershed where the sawmill was located . . . or here and there. Thus there was a real selection feUing, with the yield in number of trees, fixed not by the productive capacity of the forest, but according to the out- put of the sawmill . . . about 200 fir of average size per year. When the country tributary to a sawmill was exhausted the forest was closed and the felling was transferred to another area. Thus the Lorraine foresters obtained an exact idea of the relation between the area of the forest and the number of trees which it could annually yield without being depleted." Application to United States. — The theoretical need of working plans has been recognized by the U. S. Forest Service for the last ten years but no systematic recording of management plans has yet been done except on a very few Forests. As a result, a number of National Forest divisions or working groups have possibly been overcut; later on this may mean hardship to the local interests. Obligatory working plans are needed to-day for all National Forest areas which are being intensively logged. It is not enough to refuse to make sales because of fear of over- cutting — there must be a definite scheme planned in advance. Other- wise the Forests will unquestionably suffer. Such is the lesson from France. And it is equally important to provide transportation to tap virgin timber where literally millions of dollars of raw product is going to waste every year, notwithstanding the timber famine which has been predicted. We must, of course, recognize that we are in a transition period, and when regulating virgin stands the excess growing stock must be reduced. Moreover the practical conditions often make it appear advisable to make very large sales so as to compete with offerings of private owners. There are forests, like the Plumas, where some over-cutting is probably necessary because the Forest Service owns but a small proportion of the timber, the bulk being in private hands. In such case the choice may be between (a) leaving islands of inaccessible uncut timber or (b) overcutting. In such case (6) may be the lesser evil. But even ad- mitting that our present rotations, cutting cycles (and even our silvicul- tural practice) are transitory, yet, even then, obhgatory regulation is necessary for our public forests, for even the forester cannot be trusted to cut by rule-of-thumb. This is doubly true where many of our officers are not technically trained. Broad-gauge regulation does not signify at once tying to a mean annual growth nor a strict academic sustained annual yield — concessions must often be made to meet practical demands — but let us have our regulation down in "black and white," in orderly and systematic working plans. Such detailed plans are generally non- existant, and yet are needed. It is open to argument whether even large 220 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS virgin areas of timber, distant from transportation, should be heavily cut (as they may be) without first having a working plan to show how the removal of the over-mature timber will merge into the desired forest management. There is a striking analogy between the early crude regulation in the Vosges and the 1905-1918 "regulation" on some of our National Forests where the yield area unit or working group may correspond to the area required to supply one or more sawmills. In the Vosges "how- ever numerous were the sawmills, they touched only a small portion of the immense stand." The excess of supply over demand unquestion- ably saved these Vosges forests just as our early logging of only a small portion of the stand on private forests, because the rest was unmerchant- able, saved large areas from total destruction. But with a more in- tensive market these conditions have changed; everything — even small trees — are merchantable, so we must look to the future. Until 1919 on our National Forests the great danger was that real mandatory (obhgatory) regulation '* was not generally in effect. From 1905 until about 1918 the administrator has been more powerful than the working plan expert, because the expert has not formulated a practical plan — something exceedingly difficult because of changing conditions, unstabil- ized and unforeseen local demands, and economic factors which dictate the export of all good grades of lumber to far distant regions. Even with obligatory regulation recognized as a necessity there is danger in making sales for 8 to 10 years. With long-term sales and sales for enormous amounts to one company, as have been planned and made in a few instances, the tendency is to sell immense tracts and thus to bind the local forester to an economic lumberman's poUcy for years to come. Because of the frailty of human foresight, these contracts which bind the Forest Service to a long continued economic exploitation are prob- ably unwise. This means that an administration in 1910 may bUndly bind the administration in 1930 to a policy of overcutting a locality in the West. The administrator of 1925 may want to build a privately- owned railroad as a separate enterprise and sell in small amounts. This he could not do because perhaps ten or fifteen townships in ques- tion had been sold to a great lumber corporation on a 20-year sale; once the investment is made can further sales be refused without hard- ship on the operator even if his plant has been amortised in the mean- time? Shall a local forest industry be wiped out? I believe such a situation is almost unique in the history of our Government. These big sales are justified by the necessity of selling overmature timber which " Since this was written it is understood that the Forest Service has begun the study of regulation in earnest and that long-term sales are to be largely confined to Alaska. It is hoped that the change in policy will be effective — but the lesson holds good. ABUSES LED TO LEGISLATION 221 is wasting — something commendable in itself — but they bind the future administrations of our Government to a policy which may not be wise at that time. Suppose the timber were required for local use by small isolated communities whose development was not foreseen when the long-term sale was made. The lumber company could not store the timber until needed. It must be exported where the demand for a large output is keen. It would be better to develop Government or private transportation as a separate business and then sell to small mills for short periods. The details of long-term sales have been wisely worked out but the broad-gauge policy is at fault. Would the present Forest Service administrator willingly sell the Kaibab Forest to one company to secure development? I believe not, because the sentiment has changed within the past year. How do large sales affect regulation? It means that to justify the very large cut, required for big sales, which removes one-half to two-thirds or more of the stand, the working groups are ex- tended to take in as much growing stock as is needed to yield the annual cut of the large sale. Under such conditions the real regulation for the benefit of the future local community may be impossible. There must be smaller working groups, smaller sales, and permanent road and railroad transportation, because the long-term sales such as have been sanctioned by the Secretary of Agriculture are merely compromises between destruc- tive lumbering and forestry. There is no need to make such compro- mises, and these sales should be abandoned. The intensive, energetic, and serious campaign for real regulation, which began in the fall of 1919 on all National Forests, based on silviculture, local economic require- ments, and yield should result in excellent management plans — needed but not yet in effect. Abuses Led to Legislation. — Anyone who doubts the folly of the present forest destruction in the United States, by the private owner who treats his forest as a mine instead of an annual crop, should read and study the forest history of overcutting in France. The campaigns against the use of forest capital for income did not always succeed; it took a national need for timber to make regulation possible and to stop abuse and overcutting. It was a succession of ups and downs for forest conservation, and much of the overcutting was in royal forests under trained foresters. The great conservationist Colbert showed clearly by his appointment of a special forest commission that he did not trust the foresters in charge because he had found that the tendency had been to overcut. Let us examine a few instances of the early vicissitudes of forest control. In 1596 an attempt was made to prescribe the amount of timber to be sold annually in royal forests. The plan was never followed and in 1612 was formally suppressed. In 1614 new restrictive rules were made especially for the Normandy forests but abuse and 222 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS overcutting continued. In 1661 royal forests were closed to cutting as a "reformation against forest abuse" and in 1662 Colbert started a reconnaissance and stocktaking. Colbert's^* code of 1669, which above all was " an organic law and one of policing," was the first step that really counted because it became part of the recognized law of the country, and though it was evaded and was modified from time to time, it re- mained a bulwark against forest profligacy. In 1668 definite arrange- ments were made for working plans, which included a check and a map of the boundaries, estimates of timber, descriptions of the soil, species, merchantable sizes, local needs, rotations, and special data on timber suitable for ships. But certain abuses continued even after 1669; poor location of sales, high stumps, waste and failure to reserve sufficient standards. The Policy of "Reserves". — In French forest management the "re- serve" refers to the growing stock or timber capital held in excess of the stock which would normally be provided by the working plan. The need of reserving a nest egg of timber in communal forests (in excess of the normal growing stock), a policy continued to the present day, is clear when we look back at past improvidence. It was natural to "lean over backwards" and to retain excess growing stocks. And during the war it was fortunate for the allies that these reserves existed, for without them the war shortage would have been more acute. HuffeU' thus summarizes the history of "reserves": "Commenced in the 16th century they then aimed solely at the general welfare," at the expense of the clergy and communes and were therefore ineffective. Reestablished in the 17th century, they aimed at the private and public interest. But during the 18th century, because of poor execution, the so-called reserves impoverished more forests than they enriched. In the 19th century the reserves were maintained for the communes and espe- cially for their finances. They were more effective as the administrative '* As a matter of fact the wood famine predicted by Colbert never arrived becaiise he based his prediction on an increased demand for cord-wood whereas fuel wood has been replaced by coal, oil and electricity. It is not unlikely that a real world timber famine will never arrive because an acute shortage will bring pressure and lead to substitutes. But from the viewpoint of national efficiency and health forests will become more neces- sary as our civilization and settlement intensifies. It is interesting to compare the gross and net revenue (cited by Huffel, p. 256, Vol. Ill) before and after the Colbert reforms. In 1682 the area of the royal forests was 1,303,834 arpents (about 1.3 million acres). In the years 1660-69, the average gross revenue was 447,623 livres, the aver- age net revenue was 325,699 livres; 1680-89 the average gross revenue was 1,557,363 livres, the average net revenue was 1,110,773 livres. " Vol. Ill, pp. 84-86. The history of "fonds de reserve" is from Huffel who is the best author on French forest economics. The French reserve to-day is usually separate from the working group being systematically cut over; it is held for emergencies and cut when required. THE POLICY OF "RESERVES" 223 control became firmer. The next development in the objective of the reserves was to stabilize revenue in case of an act of Providence or errors in management. Contrary to ordinary German usage, the French insist on carrying more than a "normal " growing stock. This, they argue, will stand them in good stead if there are windfalls, insect attacks, or wars. This question of a reserve in publicly owned forests is important, because we are about to begin the regulation of our National Forests. It is therefore of interest to examine how and why the policy of reserves was established in France. As early as 1549 it was ordered "that a third of the forests belonging to the communal citizens shall be reserved for growth in high forest." In 1561 this was extended to include royal forests but the reserve was reduced from one-third to one-fourth. In 1580 the order was cancelled by Henry III, but 17 years later, because of con- tinued forest destruction, the order of 1561 was reestablished and Col- bert's code of 1669 provided that one-fourth the communal and clerical^* forests over 25 acres in area, conifers excepted, should be thrown into a reserve. From 1706 to 1730 the policy of reserves was suppressed in portions of France, but the principle was firmly established and was em- bodied in the working plans for communal broadleaf forests which were almost all completed by 1750. It was found best to have this "quarter in reserve" separated from the rest of the forest so that an inspector could determine on the ground whether a bona fide reserve had actually been made. And to-day these reserves are still considered advisable in commimal forests, as provided by the revised code of 1827, because if the cutting in the regular working groups, for example, is stopped by having to clean up heavy windfall, then the reserved portion can be worked dur- ing the crisis. This furnishes employment for local laborers and safe- guards the continuance of a revenue from special fellings in the reserve. Where, as in some instances, the reserve was not separated out on the ground but merely banked by having an excess growing stock through cutting only three-fourths the estimated yield called "fonds de reserve k assiette mobile," the silvicultural results were less satisfactory, but the reserve supply of fine, large timber strengthened the special industries which depended on a local supply of high-class logs. Before the war the long rotations so prevalent in State forests constituted a strong reserve which war requirements largely reduced. As much as 15 to 18 annual yields were cut in 1917-1918 in some fir (Jura) forests. Judging by the experience of France, our public forests in the United States should not be cut up to their full capacity unless it is locally essential from the view- point of sound silvics. Under American conditions perhaps the best 18 The A. E. F. bought a part of the forest of Citeaux (Loire-et-Cher) so it is interest- ing to know that the Citeaiix monks protested for over 60 years against the reserve re- quired by the law of 1669. 224 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS way to obtain a reserve is to use rotations somewhat longer than is indicated by the culmination of mean annual growth, or frankly to adopt a physical rotation and grow the large timber that the private owner can never afford to produce because of the lower financial returns. Summary of Principles and Methods. — French Government regula- tion i' of cutting shows "for a given period^" when, how, where, and how much should be cut in the forest." With more compUcated silviculture, where the number of fellings must be increased to secure natural regulation, or with windfall or other accidents, regulation is natm-ally more difficult and requires modifica- tion oftener than with clear cutting. With simple coppice, regulation, once wisely estabUshed, will last indefinitely, provided the rotation remains unchanged. The management of a forest includes the (a) preliminary work upon which the working plan is based and (6) the regulation of felling which is based on the fundamental statistics collected under (a) . French writers recognize only four essential kinds of yield regulation: (1) By area, which is simple but entails sacrifices if parts of the forest are irregular and if too rigidly applied to secure an orderly sequence of age classes. (2) By number of trees, usually with a diameter limit system.^ This gives a variable volume yield and has been abandoned, except for experimental purposes, with the exception of selection beech coppice (talUs furete). In India this method, really a crude volume method, is still extensively used possibly partly because of the fact that coolie labor is used to collect working plan valuation survey data. " The following management terms (French terms and American equivalents) are used by French writers: Rfeglement d' exploitation (cutting plan). Procte-verbal d'am^nagement (working plan report). Possibilite (yield, amount forests can furnish without diminishing revenue). S6rie (working group which forms a distinct economic unit). Rotation (cutting cycle). Revolution (rotation). Affectation pdriodique (periodic block, cut over during the period). Produits normaux (product or yield pre- scribed by permanent working plan). Prodmts normaux prdvus (abnormal regenera- tion fellings). Produits extraordinaires (cutting of reserve, in communal forest). Produits principeaux (yield of mature timber, final regeneration fellings). Produits interm^diares (thinnings). ™ Huffel, already cited. " Where all trees over a fixed diameter are cut by the so-called diameter limit method brought to the United States by Gifford Pinchot and first described by Lorenz in France in 1867, there is great danger of irregular yields and of overcutting virgin stands where age class normality is rarely found. Huffel says, "such a system can evidently be applied only to forests very nearly normal. In a fir stand rich in large trees, seedlings, and saplings, but poor in average sized trees, it would result in a rapid and ill-considered cutting of all the old timber in a short period of superabundance, which would be fol- lowed by a period of largely reduced fellings or even by a complete suspension of income." MANAGEMENT SUBDIVISIONS 225 (3) By volume, which is supple, difficult to calculate, requires short periods between working plan revisions and frequent inventories and is somewhat dangerous, since it is apt to lead to overcutting if the growth is largely overestimated. (4) By area and volume, a combination of (1) and (3). This is the modern method of regulation except for coppice stands which can usually be regulated correctly by area after making suitable allowances for soil quality (see page 232). Management Subdivisions. — The great lesson in a study of the details of European forest management is that in dealing with nature perfection is impossible. Regeneration is usually not complete; there are windfall and insect attacks to throw out yield calculations and create disorder silvically and financially. Until the forester learns this lesson he cannot create proper pictures of the future forest, especially if he follows the ideal of natural regeneration, which will usually be the rule in the United States for some years to come. In systematizing the cut or in regulating a forest there are two kinds of management work: (1) "Preliminary work . . . the study of physical conditions, growth, and the economics of exploitation. (2) Essential work . . . the regulation of felling." After deciding on the classes of product desired, based on the local or general industrial requirements (see "Rotation," page 226), and the system ^^ of silviculture necessary to the objects of the State (see Chapter V) the first important step in the systematic management of a forest is to form so-called management "^ subdivisions, for without these no yield regulation is possible. Management divisions rest fundamentally on two bases: (a) silvicultural systems and (b) economic units. A priori, simple coppice is not mixed with high forest but forms separate sections; these sections are then formed into working groups "destined to form distinct economic units with distinct cutting cycles and a sustained yield." Whether a section is divided into one or more working groups or whether the working group may comprise one or more sections de- pends on the size of the section and the economic conditions. Usually in France the section of high forest in State forests forms more than one working group and the section of coppice only one. This is immaterial to our consideration of the subject of French public forest regulation. " In France there is always a presumption in favor of the former method of treat- ment which is the result of centuries of evolution. A change in treatment involves financial sacrifices and has usually been brought about by a change in market, which would justify a conversion from coppice to high forest, or an error in the original choice of treatment through failure to secure natural regeneration. ^ French administrative subdivisions built up from the beat, the forest, the canton, the inspection and the conservation are not treated in detail (see Chapter X, p. 273). 226 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS From the American viewpoint it is interesting to note that the areas covered by each working group in France are usually small — 1,000 to 1,300 acres — but it should be emphasized that this is due to the in- tensive economic conditions. In France a small valley may supply a lumber-jack village in the mountains with its sale of logs essential to the continuance of its waterpower sawmill. If this valley is 15 to 20 miles from a railroad, up a steep grade, the cost of obtaining the neces- sary local supply of lumber from a large producing center would be pro- hibitive. Without steady work during the winter months, when farm- ing is impossible, the laborers would have to migrate or give up their home life. These conditions often explain the small working groups, which cost more trouble and money to estabhsh, but which hold the local population. For parts of New England it is the ideal which public forests should strive to imitate, but it must be admitted that the more working groups there are, the more difficult and complicated is the log- ging, since the sales must be smaller. According to the teaching at Nancy "the solid base of the whole management structure, the indispensable criterion of its precision, the incessant guide of administration, the necessary means of the control of operations and of the results obtained" is the compartment sub-division. Under intensive conditions this is usually between 15 and 40 acres in area and, unless soil quality varies greatly, the compartments in one forest do not vary greatly in area. An important exception is where the regulation is by area and where to obtain a nearly equal annual cut it is necessary to increase the size of compartments, where the poorer soil gives a smaller yield per acre. The main criticism of compart- ment boundaries, as found in French State forests, is that they are some- times too artificial. The soil, exposure, logging roads, ridges, valleys, canals, and railroads should all govern the shape and boundary of the compartment, but usually the boundaries in hilly country should be per- pendicular to the logging road to facilitate logging. The so-called "etoile," so common in level forest subdivisions, is more important from the scenic or shooting viewpoint than from the standpoint of logging. Rotations and Cutting Cycles. — The rotations are based on the object of the owner and are determined by technical, silvi cultural, economic, or financial considerations as Hmited by silvicultural possibilities. Ac- cording to Fernow a rotation is "the time through which the crop is allowed to grow normally until cut and reproduced." The viewpoint in India as expressed by D'Arcy ^^ is contrary to the European conception of rotation, except in selection forests in France: "the exploitable age of a forest crop is the age at which the individual " D'Arcy, W. E. Preparation of Forest Plans in India. Calcutta, 1898, 3d edition. ROTATIONS AND CUTTING CYCLES 227 trees furnish the kind of produce naost wanted." Endres says "^ that "by rotation period or rotation is meant that time which elapses under normal conditions between the planting and the utilization of a stand. In the case of the working group the rotation is the average time of grow- ing merchantable material which is the fundamental consideration in working plan calculations." Variations from the normal may be due to unusual silvicultural, financial, or economic conditions. Rotation is not to be confused with cutting-cycles ^' in selection forests, which is the period elapsing between cuts on the same area. Obviously in selection forests the length of the cutting cycle has an important in- fluence on the amount removed, and the frequency of cut also has a " Endres, pp. 220-221. 2^ There are strong arguments in favor of a long cutting period. The longer the time between cuts the more time will be allowed for eradicating damage caused by log- ging. When it is necessary to cut a amall amount per acre over a large area it neces- sarily increases the cost of logging. Some argue that the cutting cycle should not be less than the time which it will take the tree to pass from one diameter class to the follow- ing. On the other hand well-known writers, like M. Gazin, argue that the cutting cycle should be very short — 5 or 6 years — in order to secure the yield without opening up the stand too much and without the necessity for heavy cuttings. If, for example, the growth per cent is 4, a cutting cycle of 5 years means removing an amount equal to 20 per cent of the original volume; with a 10-year cutting cycle 40 per cent miist be re- moved; and with 15 years, 60 per cent, which is certainly too much from a cultural point of view. A short cutting cycle, moreover, enables the removal of dead and dying trees which otherwise would lose a great deal in value. As a general rule, the more intensive the treatment the shorter the cutting cycle. With the recognized tendency to coniferous forests, intensive treatment becomes more and more necessary if the spruce, fir, or pine is to be favored in the cutting. Moreover, recent yield in- vestigations show that the growth of coniferous stands is much more than had been supposed. Schaeffer, a specialist in fir forests, advocates neither the very short nor the very long cutting cycle, but has called attention to the possibility of cutting over the same ground twice during one cycle. This double cut idea is only advocated, how- ever, for the rich compartments, since one cut per cycle would be sufficient for the areas where conditions of growth are less favorable. He says: "The cutting cycle of 16 years, usually followed under average conditions in the Savoie Alps, can be con- tinued with 8 years between the cut. In calculating the yield with conservatism it will result in certain compartments realizing every 16 years 30 per cent or more of the stand. This volume cannot be secured at one time without endangering the future of the stand." Two cuts, therefore, would be justified during the course of the formal felhng cycle. However, it should be recognized that in exceptionally rich forests it would be possible to reduce the cutting cycle to 12 years and the interval between the two cuts to 6 years. On the other hand, in certain stands where the time necessary for trees to pass from one diameter class to another is 40 years, 20 years woxild be a better felling cycle, but instead of fixing the length of the cutting cycle arbitrarily Schaeffer advocates the determination of the number of years which it takes a tree to pass from one diameter class to another, and adopts this figure, provided during this cutting cycle each compartment will be cut over twice, but after the first cutting no new stocktaking need be made. (De la Dur6e de la Rotation dans les Futaies Jar- dinfe. A. Schaeffer, 1907. B. de S. F. de F. — C. et B.) 228 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS direct bearing on the amount that is lost through decay; consequently there is a tendency with intensive management to short cutting cycles of from 5 to 10 years. With extensive management longer cutting cycles are unavoidable. In Oregon (western yellow pine) a cutting cycle of 50 to 60 years has been tentatively adopted, obviously far too long when the market is estabhshed. In France, under most intensive conditions, the cutting cycle is 5 to 8 years; under less intensive conditions 9 to 18 years, and rarely more than this. The cutting cycle is usually a sub- multiple of the rotation; with a cutting. cycle of 5 years it is presumed that 5 per cent of the stand will be cut every 5 years, with a cutting cycle of 10 years 10 per cent would be cut every 10 years, and with a cutting cycle of 20 years 20 per cent must be cut every 20 years. This has an important effect on practical logging, especially in the United States where a considerable cut is usually essential to justify logging investments. Short cutting cycles which are best for the cultural needs of the stand are only possible under intensive conditions. The tendency is to have too narrow an idea of what length of rotation means. For example, if 5-year-old transplants are used in a plantation, after clear cutting, which is allowed to grow 100 years, the rotation in this case would be 100 years rather than 105 years, since the age of the transplants at the time used would be omitted in the calculation. On the other hand it is recognized that the length of the rotation is shortened by the use of well-formed transplants simply because the stand matures sooner. Frequent and early thinnings are of the utmost importance in affecting the length of a rotation. With thinnings the stand will become mature earlier than if left unthinned. It must be borne in mind that while the forest as a whole may be managed according to specified rota- tions yet individual stands may be cut before or after the age fixed by the rotation because of accidents, market conditions, or numerous other considerations. Still another point worthy of emphasis is that it is usually sufficient if the rotation can be established to the nearest decade; it is splitting hairs to figure to the exact year when computing the rotation. According to one writer: ''^ "It has often not been appreciated that the rotation actually employed is not that corresponding to the age of the smallest trees felled, but of the number of years in the felling cycles in excess of this." In India economic conditions necessitate an annual felling area, an average tree best suited to the objects of the manage- ment, sufficiently heavy fellings to insure regeneration, and, of less importance, a felling cycle which shall be a sub-multiple of the rota- tion. "Blascheck, A. D. "The True Selection System." Indian Forester, 1913, pp. 427-430. ROTATIONS AND CUTTING CYCLES 229 One of the chief difficulties in computing rotations, and especially financial rotations, is that the forester must use present statistics or the trend of present statistics for calculations which pretend to answer management problems on the basis of unknown or roughly approxi- mated conditions a half century or a century hence — obviously im- possible to fathom. But the proper regulation viewpoint is that the problem should be solved for the present on the basis of the best avail- able data on the assumption that when the working plan is systemati- cally revised these calculations will be recomputed and brought up to date. The fact that a revised and altered answer to the rotation prob- lem will be certain is no reason for not doing our best with available statistics. As a matter of policy it is safe to estimate future conditions based on the trend of economic conditions, rather than to follow blindly present stumpage prices, present cost values, present current interest rates, and market requirements for forest products. The best regulation implies some attempt to fathom the future. We know from past history that forest conditions change; therefore to follow blindly present condi- tions we arrive at the least accurate predictions. There is a middle ground between following to-day's data on the one hand and on the other of making unwarranted guesses at the future. Moreover, we must realize that our calculations are at best approximations and therefore the minutia may often be omitted with profit and propriety. Efficient thinnings not only enable the forest to grow timber of a specified size in fewer years, but they increase seed production and promote earlier seed crops, they decrease the date of the culmination of mean annual growth, and, as Endres puts it, "The greatest benefit is felt where the highest soil rent is maintained. It is recalled that large, early yields produce large soil rent and vice versa ... a stand that has been thinned up to the nth. year will have higher value than one that has not been thinned." In intensive regulation, as for example in parts of New England, the forester must, in theory, distinguish between the rotation for a particular stand and the rotation for a working group which is composed of a number of stands of varying quality, but in the West, in northern Arizona for example, a rough general average rotation for even an entire region will usually be a sufficiently close approximation for conditions preva- lent while National Forests are being organized. Even in a selection forest such as Chamonix (see p. 252) the French prescribe one technical rotation for Norway spruce and larch based on a rough proportion of the length of time it takes to grow the two species weighted according to the aggregate volume present. This rightly emphasized the futility of minute mathematical calculations for the solution of a problem which demands only an approximate answer. 230 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS No strictly financial rotations ^* have been established on public forests in France. The nearest approach to a high forest financial rotation is with maritime pine and Scotch pine, but even here the usual public forest rotations are 10 to 30 years more than would probably be indicated by soil rent calculations. Even coppice rotations are usually 10 to 20 years longer than soil rent rotation, but are sometimes calcu- lated on the best gross money returns. Technical rotations in the United States are of more than mere histori- cal interest. Here a technical rotation, especially under conditions existing in the West, might be the final rotation chosen. Take the case of a watershed which is most suitable for producing railroad ties, because railroad ties alone could be floated down a drivable stream as on the Carson National Forest, Arizona. Here a technical rotation based on the length of time it took to grow ties of given dimensions is clearly indicated. The exact length, in this instance, would depend on the most suitable period for growing the quahty of tie which yielded the largest net return on the investment, not taking into consideration compound interest charges (according to C. F. Korstian) unless the data for financial calcu- lations were available. In French Government selection forests technical rotations are usually chosen which will produce the kind of material most in demand by the public, so as to support local industries of value to the economic life of the locality. This kind of rotation, under the economic conditions existing in the Vosges, Jura, or Alps has been severely criticized by German foresters because of the financial losses usually involved. The German viewpoint as expressed by Endres ^ is: "Were we to apply the technical rotations to even aged high forests, producing mainly large timber, great financial losses would take place. However, the policy of bringing about a mixture of species in order to meet market requirements or demands is apparently correct . . . it is in keeping with sound forestry because it also maintains soil fertility. . . . The technical rotation may also be used by the State for social and political reasons . . . but the technical rotation can only be recog- nized when production costs . . . are of no consequence to the owner." Undoubtedly there are some economic rotations on French State coppice forests where the objective is to get the maximum quantity of wood. The silvicultural rotation idea, based on the limitation of the species to reproduce or to resist decay, is always present but is never the chief factor — which is always physical — namely, the product most necessary for local or general French industry.*" Rotations may ^ No references have been found in French working plans based on maximimi soil rent or maximum forest rent. For statistical data on rotations see page 54. » Endres, pp. 243-244. ™ The rotation in France is ordinarily based on the length of time it takes a tree to grow to exploitable size; or, in other words, it is purely a technical rotation. For REGULATION OP CUT 231 be temporary where it is clearly recognized that the rotation adopted is a temporary expedient (see p. 191). The Normal Forest. — The normal forest with its normal distribution of age classes, normal increment, and normal growing stock is not used by the French Government in its regulation. Where the normal forest is used in working plans it is the empirically normal stand based on selected average local stand tables which show the volume in cubic meters and the number of trees by age classes. Schaeffer, in his de- velopment of working plans for selection fir stands in Savoie and Haute- Savoie, used this empirical normal stand as a basis of comparison, especially for marking the fellings prescribed by the working plan (see p. 256). Regulation of Cut. — The regulation of the cut comprises two dis- tinct operations: (1) The final fellings, regulated by area or volume or both, which naturally constitute the chief return. These are regulated by the working plan in general terms while much depends on the progress of regulation and accidents: "A more complete regulation is necessary for administration; year by year there must be prescribed the place, the kind, and the quantity of the felhngs to make." (2) Intermediate fellings or thinnings, which are not regulated by volume but by area. This form of regulation is also applied to the cork-oak bark collections and to the resin crops from maritime pine. The essential regulation of French public forests may be classified as follows : '1 example, in a slow growing forest, like Risoul, the rotation is 180 years, while in La Grande C6te, where the growth is much better, the rotation is reduced 30 years to 150 years. In the forest of La Joux, notwithstanding the rapid growth, the rotation is 150 years, because in this State forest very large wood was desired (Bois de Marines). The low returns from long technical rotations may be somewhat increased by the higher prices secured from large-sized timber. '1 Masson's method, like Von Mantel's, which consists in dividing the total growing stock of the forest by half the length of the rotation, is well known. In applying this method there is realized each year a fraction of the stand represented by 2/R. This per cent of realization is not a function of the rotation. It will be 2 per cent for a rotation of 100 years, 1.43 per cent for 140 years, 1.12 per cent for 180 years, and 1 per cent for 200 years. It is necessary to have a normal stand or the cut is too high for an im- poverished forest and too low for a rich, well-stocked forest. In order to obviate this error Schaeffer worked out a correction figure based on a knowledge of the stand per acre. (No. 3, 1905, B. de S. F. de F. — C. et B.) The Masson formula was used extensively in the Vosges in the middle of the last century and gave fairly accurate results, simply because the fir rotation was usually 140 years, and by the formula the yield was thus 1.4 per cent which happened to agree exactly with the average site of the Baden yield tables for silver fir. This method is no longer in use (see Appendix K (2)), because the fundamental assumptions, on which the formula is based, are in error. 232 GO\Ti:RNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS Method of regulating the cut System of cutting (a) Coppice (clear cut) page 232. (6) Resin crops, page 232. Pure SiTGSi (c) Intermediate fellings, page 233. (d) Selection high forest (solely for pro- tection), page 233. (e) Coppice (selection), page 233. Area and thickness of bark . . (/) Cork bark, page 233. ig) Coppice-under-standards, page 234. Method of 1883 {h) Selection high forest, page 2&. Area — volume allotment by periods .... (i) Even-aged high forest, page 239. Pure Area. — The underlying principle is to divide the area to be cut over into a number of equal cutting areas corresponding to the number of years in the rotation. (o) Coppice {clear cut). — If there are wide variations in soil quality, which would necessarily mean a variation in yield per acre, then the fixed area to be cut over each year can be increased or decreased so as to equalize the cut. Illustration. — If a coppice forest of 250 acres had a 20-year rotation with three-fifths the area producing 10 cords at the end of 20 years and two-fifths the area only producing 5 cords, then the area cut over would be 10 acres per year for 15 years, and 20 acres per year for 5 years when the poorer soil came to be logged. Certain principles govern the designa- tion of the cutting areas on the ground. If the forest is small, say 30 acres, it is better with a 30-year rotation to divide into fifteen or ten cutting areas, making a cut of 2 acres every other year, or 3 acres every three years. If possible similar types should be grouped into one cutting unit unless this interferes with the logging plan. Obviously it is poor policy to divide the coppice without seeing to its practicability as a logging unit. BroilHard favors rectangular cutting areas, say 1,500 by 600 feet. It is better to follow contours or logging roads in establishing coupe boundaries on hilly ground than to adhere rigidly to rectangles. The coppice cutting order should be against the prevailing storm direc- tion and it should be numbered in the order of cutting. When coppice rotations are lengthened or shortened the redivision of the cutting areas is usually an interesting puzzle which can be solved only after careful study on the ground. (6) Resin crops. — Both the final and intermediate yields are regu- lated by working over equal areas each year. No attempt is made to get a more exact yield by taking into account the soil productivity. For a detailed description of the system of working and an illustration of yield regulation see pages 191 and 192, Chapter VIII. The final yield of these maritime pine forests is also regulated by cutting equal DIAMETER LIMIT BY SINGLE TREES 233 areas each year. This is simple and works well, because regeneration immediately after clear cutting is practically certain. (c) Intermediate fellings. — These are regulated by cleaning, freeing, or thinning an equal area each year. It was found that where the volume to be removed by intermediate fellings, especially thinnings, was limited the forest suffered silviculturally, consequently no limitation of volume is considered advisable. (d) Selection high forests, usually maintained in the high mountains solely for protection purposes, are, however, cut over periodically on a cutting cycle of 12 to 20 years so as to remove the dead and dying trees which would otherwise be lost. With a protection working group of 120 years and a 12-year cutting cycle 10 acres would be cut over each year. At high altitudes where logging is difficult and expensive it is often considered more practicable to combine several years' operations, so under the conditions enumerated it would probably be better to cut 30 to 50 acres every 3 to 5 years rather than to log 10 acres, for the few trees it would yield, each year. There is no limitation of volume since the restriction of cut is secured by the silvicultural rule of cutting only dead, dying, and deteriorating trees. Diameter Limit by Single Trees. — The basis for this method is to cut all trees which have attained a certain diameter. This system, now largely abandoned, was first used in the Vosges in the middle ages where there was an excess of raw material and where only trees of a certain size and number were wanted at the local sawmills. (e) Coppice (selection). — The selection coppice forests of beech are found chiefly in the Pyrenees. When appUed to high forest virgin stands where age class normaUty is rarely found, there would be grave danger of overcutting, for as Huff el says, "Such a system can evidently only be applied to forests very nearly normal." No illustration of the method is necessary. (/) Cork bark. — The cork-oak bark yield '^ is regulated by computing the number of trees which bear bark thick enough to be merchantable. In other words, there is the diameter limit idea apphed to single trees but it is gauged by the thickness of the bark (not by the total diameter of the tree), and by the area to be harvested. (See also page 396.) Illustration. — The forest of I'Est^rel is divided into two divisions each with three working groups. It takes 12 years for the cork to reach a thickness of 0.9 inch, the merchantable size, and it is collected on a cutting cycle of 2 years. The yield is obtained by dividing the number of trees (with salable bark on a working group) by 2 and multiplying by the average yield per tree. ^ For further details see Chapter III, French Forests and Forestry, by T. S. Woolsey, Jr. John WUey & Sons, Inc., 1917. 234 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS Area and Age. — The regulation of (g) coppice-under-standards is based on clear cutting the coppice and felUng the ripe or deteriorating standards (and thinning the IR standards where necessary) each time the coppice is clear cut. Therefore the cutting cycle is equal to the coppice rotation. The coppice cut is regulated by feUing an equal area each year (see (a) page 232); the standards are cut when they reach maturity — say four coppice rotations — and sooner if they show signs of disease. In addition some of the immature standards are also re- moved at the time of the coppice felling. An approximately equal annual cut in standards is obtained, since an approximately equal number of fresh standards are reserved when the coppice is cut. The natural loss of standards while they are growing to maturity is fairly uniform. Great freedom is allowed in leaving thrifty trees for added growth and in removing those at a standstill. Occasionally the amount of the cut in standards is gauged by applying an empirical growth per cent to the growing stock represented by the overwood or standards and then cutting just the amount of the growth. Since the standards are selected and reserved from the coppice stand the number secured is in theory fairly uniform and there is no danger in cutting on a growth per cent basis unless the new supply of IR standards falls short (see pp. 94-98). Method of 1883. — This method originated in France and wiU therefore be discussed in considerable detail, especially as Schaeffer has developed several refinements which have never been understood in the United States, and since this method could be apphed to selection forests of spruce and fir in New England and elsewhere. This so-called method ^ of 1883 as apphed to (h) selection forests of tolerant species is as follows: After the inventory, by diameter classes, determine the rotation and the corresponding size of tree, then classify the stock in three classes: (1) Old wood, trees more than two-thirds the exploitable diameter; (2) average wood, less than two-thirds and more than one-third; (3) young wood, less than one-third (usually not calipered). Where there is a normal, or nearly normal, proportion of old and average wood the cut ^ equals the volume of the old wood divided by a third of the rotation » Based on the original official instructions issued by the Secretary of Agriculture and on the Chamonix Working Plan, by A. S. Schaeffer. " The student should compare this method with the Hufnagl '•diameter dass method" described by Recknagle, pp. 100-105. The Hufnagl method (Variation 1) is: "Annual cut = Volume of trees or of diameter classes 5 years and over, plus increment thereof . r ^ m 2 years. . . . " Recknagle gives an interesting example of (Variation 2) where the trees have been grouped by 3-mch classes with the basis data (for each class) of volume per tree, average number of trees per acre, and years required to grow from one class to the next (and METHOD OF 1883 235 plus the growth on the old wood class while it is being cut. But in many former working plans the growth of the old wood class was not com- puted; the result was therefore a slightly more conservative yield. The method was designated for selection high forests of tolerant species, where the regeneration could be secured in at least one-third the rotation, and where a sustained yield was important. It is based on the conception that a selection forest, normally constituted, is just like an even-aged forest (where, on equal areas, stands of all ages, up to the rotation age, are found), except that the various aged trees are intermingled. In the latter case an equal cut is secured by cutting each year areas of the same size and productivity. But in the selection forest the cutting must remove only ripe trees here and there over the 'entire area without any comparison of surface. Therefore in this case volume must be substituted for surface. The method is based on the assumption that the volume of the old wood is five-eighths and the volume of the average wood three-eighths the total merchantable volume, presuming that the young wood is un- merchantable. According to the French Secretary of Agriculture the data furnished by research on the mean annual rate of growth of high forests shows that this relationship is approximately as 5 is to 3. There- fore, whenever in a selection forest the volume of the old wood and the average wood is as 5 is to 3 it can be taken for granted that these two groups are similar to the first two periodic blocks of a high forest. To demonstrate that the volume covering the first two periodic blocks of a regular high forest (divided into three periodic blocks) is about as 5 is to 3, which represents their average age respectively, it suffices to note that the trees of the second periodic block are the average wood, which has arrived at a state where the annual growth is very uniform and just about equal to the average of the stand and at a period when it is safe to figure the future growth as equal to the past average. Sup- pose a high forest with a 150-year rotation were divided into three periods of 50 years each. The average age of the first (old wood) and second (average wood) periodic blocks will be 125 and 75 years and will be separated by a length of time equal to a period of 50 years. In admitting that the future growth will be equal to the average growth, the volume of the 125-year wood will be equal to that of the 75-year old wood increased by an amount equal to 50 times the annual growth, "average age of the average tree in each diameter class"). For each class the cut is = VoWofclassX ^g^^lf^^. The summation of the yield for aU classes is the cut per acre which can then be increased or decreased according to the surplus or deficit in the growing stock.. According to Recknagle's example the surplus is reduced in one cutting cycle (which is made equal to the number of years to grow to the highest diameter class for the preceding class). 236 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS Then if we designate the volume of the 75-year-old wood as 3 the 125- year-old volume will be 3 3 -|- =^ X 50 = 3 + 2 or 5. This assumption of an equal mean annual growth of course is not exact, but according to French reasoning it is sufficiently accurate for an approximate formula which is being continu- ally revised at working plan revisions, when the standing timber is re- calipered. According to the original circular: "One can object to this method of classification (see definition, page 234) because the diameters are not exactly proportional to the ages, that they are not equal for the same species, or same age, inasmuch as the trees of a selection forest are very far from growing under the same conditions. But it is to be supposed that with a large number of trees ... a sufficient compensation wiU take place in order to even off the inaccuracies and render them negUgible. Moreover, it is not essential, nor possible, to arrive at exact mathematical results. . . -" The language and the argument of the original French instructions are instructive in considering the method and in applying it. As originally promulgated, so as to be conservative, no increase was made in the cut for the growth which took place on the old wood while it was being harvested. But within recent years it is customary to figure growth. The method is simple when the proportion of the old wood to the young wood is as 5 to 3 or nearly so (see definition of method, page 234) but this normal ratio is not usually found. Instead there is (1) an excess of old wood, (2) an excess of average wood. In either (1) or (2) an approximately normal ratio is secured by transferring diameter classes from the old wood to the average wood or vice versa if it is safe silviculturally to hold over some of the older trees or if, where the average wood is too great, the large average wood sizes can be cut without too great a sacrifice. An important feature of the application of this method by the best French working plan officers is that they compare the actual growing stock, on the basis of number of trees per acre of different sizes, with an empirical "normal" stand (an adjusted average for the region). This is an essential and important part of the method as best applied but is not mentioned in the official instructions. Fig. 19 illustrates the method used, where the actual forest is progressing toward an em- pirically normal state. At the first stocktaking the stand was open; there was an improvement of the stand at the second measurement, and the curve of the third stocktaking is approaching the normal by a wave movement already referred to on page 215. A rough area check can be applied, if desired, by considering that the area cut over should be proportional to the volume removed. The original instructions stipulated that (1) the length of the felling period METHOD OF 1883 237 be a submultiple of a third of the rotation; (2) the number of compart- ments be about equal to the years in the period; (3) the local forester be free to allot the amount of the cut in each compartment according to local requirements at the time of cutting; (4) the yield be revised at the end of each felling period. Disadvantages. — (1) To be exact the number of years in each class should be varied in accordance with the number of years of growth actually consumed. (2) Unless there is some other check on the nor- mality of the old wood and average wood besides the proportion of 5 to 3 it is insufficient because an acre might contain 5 board feet of old wood and 3 board feet of average wood without being normally consti- tuted. There must be some conception of total volume. (3) Trees must be tallied down to one-third the rotation (exploitable size). The advantages are: (1) The yield is in accordance with the condition of the stand. (2) The tendency is to work toward normal diameter classes. (3) A sustained yield is secured and the growing stock is being continually built up. (4) The method has worked fairly well in practice. Illustration.^^ — The merchantable size is 24 inches corresponding to a rotation of 180 years. The old wood is 17 inches and over, the average wood 9 to 16 inches inclusive, and the young wood 1 to 8 inches. A sample inventory is shown on the following page. (A) According to the inventory the normal proportion exists, the average wood totaling 3,000 M and the old wood 5,000 M — therefore the cut is ' = 83 M per year or if the old wood were growing at the ^ ^ X 5,000 X 0.02 X 60 „ , , , , , , , , rate of 2 per cent per year — ^ or 3 M would be added making the cut 86 M. (B) Suppose the volume of the old wood = 6,200 M and the volume of the average wood = 1,800 M. Here the old wood exceeds the normal proportion so the old wood diameter classes should be examined to see if they can be transferred to the average wood group and held over a period equal to 60 years — one-third the rotation. If there is no objec- tion to this transfer the trees in the 17 and 18-inch diameter classes, 35 An exact adaptation of an oiBcial French illustration of the method and as illus- trated by the Chamonix Working Plan, by A. Schaeffer. American units have been substituted. The art of French regulation imder such an expert as Schaeffer rests chiefly on a thorough, intimate knowledge of the local conditions rather than on the organization of methods that differ fundamentally from what has already been accepted. Schaeffer knew the selection conifer forests of the Savoie region so well that he could probably estimate ocularly the growth per cent on any forest within one-half of 1 per cent by simply making a reconnaissance on foot. Such insight into the growth of a forest is similar to the knowledge of stands per section obtained in the West by seeing what the timber on sections of land (640 acres) looks like, and then learning what they cut out under given methods of logging. 238 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS which we will presume totals 800 M, will be deducted from the old wood. 5 400 Thus 6,200 M - 800 M = 5,400 M, -^ = 90 M per year, plus growth. (C) Suppose the volume of the old wood equals 3,300 M and the volume of the average wood equals 4,700 M. Here the average wood is in excess of the normal ratio, so it is determined where one or more of the largest average wood diameter classes can be transferred to the old wood for immediate cutting. If it were found that the 16-inch diameter class, which we will presume totals 600 M, can be added to the old wood, the volume will be 3,300 M plus 600 M which equals 3,900 3 900 M and the cut ' _ equals 65 M, plus growth. oU Young wood D.B.H. inches Number trees Total volume, board feet Not calipered nor computed Average wood D.B.H. inches Totals. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Number trees Total volume, board feet Completely calipered and computed Old wood D.B.H., inches 3,000 M Number trees Total volume, board feet 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Completely calipered and computed 5,000 M After studying the application of this method of 1883 for 25 years, Schaeffer^' decided that the results were very satisfactory; it has >« Possibility des Futaies Jardinfes, A. Schaeffer, pp. 321-326. Revue des E. et F., 1908. AEEA (VOLUME) ALLOTMENT BY PERIODS 239 enriched poor stands and in some cases has resulted in an excessive growing stock. But the excess of the timber capital is in accordance with the government policy of conservation. From the viewpoint of good silviculture, Schaeffer has formulated a rule for selection fir-spruce stands of always cutting at least two-thirds the actual increment each year. Otherwise the stand cannot be maintained in good condition because if less than two-thirds the increment is removed it means that some diseased or decrepit trees must be held over a cutting cycle. Such a rule has wide application to similar stands in the United States when a wave of forest saving shall finally lead us away from the current forest destruction. To practice too intensive economy in a stand means an increase in defective timber. Area (Volume) Allotment by Periods. — This method, called by French writers the ^ "combined method," is as follows when applied to an (see i page 232) even aged high forest : The method is applied throughout France to the rich oak-beech high forests which are so noteworthy in the so-called Parisian zone of the Plains (see p. 30) where the regenera- tion is by the shelterwood system over a regeneration period of 20 to 30 years. Formerly great stress was laid on the necessity for an orderly sequence of fellings. Lately the tendency is to break away from any preconceived order of felling and instead to base the order and sequence of fellings on the conditions actually existing in the various compart- ments.'* But protection against dangerous winds and the maintenance of protection belts of old timber is always sought after. In the spruce- fir forests great difficulty has been experienced in regularizing fellings (see p. 75). "After having fixed the length of the rotation, it is divided into equal periods, which should be long enough to permit the regeneration of a complete forest canton (during a period) ." The period adopted is usually 20 to 30 years and rarely 40 years. The next step is to determine what compartments are to be cut during each period. ^ See Huflfel, Vol. Ill, "M6thode combinte.'' To give an accurate picture of how the French apply this method, the text has been followed as closely as possible. " Where the shelterwood system was applied to fir-spruce stands it had been cus- tomary to divide the forests into four fixed periodic blocks corresponding to four periods, equal to one-fourth the rotation. This led, according to Huffel, to "excessive cutting of large timber on half the area (blocks I, IV, and sometimes III), absolutely deplor- able felling of average-sized timber on most of the forest (blocks I, IV, and often II), and during (the operations) the maintenance of overmature timber in the second periodic block no less deplorable. ... In the first period the revenue was too much, in the second about correct, in the third a deficiency, and in the fourth very deficient. . . . The "pr6comtages" invented in the last case to correct this de- ficiency rendered the yield calculation incoherent and illogical, without remedying the evil very much." 240 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS "Each periodic block must be formed of a single contiguous area, naturally de- limited, separated and distinguished in a permanent way from the bordering blocks so as to form a topographic mass in the forest. . . . The yield of chief fellings is calculated by volume, as in Cottas method. The immediate fellings (thinnings) have no fixed yield; it is enough to indicate the annual area they run over during the period. . . . The (exact) location of the principal feUings is not determined (in advance); they take place according to the needs of regeneration, at any point within the periodic block to be reahzed in turn." At the end of each period the yield is recalculated for the periodic block which will then be cut over. In theory the areas of periodic blocks should be equal, but owing to varying soil quality they may vary considerably. As already stated the period must be long enough so that regeneration can be secured, because "during a period of fixed length an entire periodic block of determined area will be cut." It is considered better to pre- scribe the cutting of 125 acres in 20 years rather than 250 acres in 40 years, because in the latter case it leads to irregularity and confusion. For example, with a rotation of 144 years, there would be a choice of (a) eight periods of 18 years, and with oak and a mild climate (a) would be preferred to the (6) or (c) alternatives which follow; (6) six periods of 24 years; (c) four periods of 36 years. The compartments are arranged in the order in which they require cutting, and they put in the first period all compartments most in need of cutting, in the order of urgency. If there is a lot of old overmature timber declining in vigor the French use the " precomptage, where they then subtract their volume from the yield of the normal maximum fellings . . . and by the same amount decrease the cut of the block when its turn comes to be cut." This is too artificial and often results in confusion. It is really borrow- ing from the future cuts to make a heavy present cut so as to get rid of overmature stands in need of regeneration. The main disadvantages of this method if applied too rigidly is that it is impossible to fix the order of cutting in advance even for one period, because the schemes are soon disarranged by nature, and contiguous blocks are impossible. If an ironclad order of cutting is maintained heavy sacrifices must be made, because stands are cut before or after they should be cut silvically. If there are subtractions and transfers, i.e., "precomptage," then the whole scheme of future management becomes disarranged (see p. 75). Variations in the commonly accepted periodic block method have been suggested by Huffel and others. Changeable periodic blocks which are not formed of contiguous compart- ments are advocated in preference to the fixed periodic block of the older working plans. This means that there is only one periodic block — the first — which at the end of each period is always being revised. A THE GURNAUD METHOD 241 similar scheme is where the forest is divided into a number of compart- ments equal to the number of years of the rotation. Then the period is based on the time it takes to get regeneration with a margin of a few years for safety. The compartments, equal in number to the years of the period, and most in need of cutting, are grouped into the periodic block to be cut during the period, and the yield is the total volume in this compartment divided by the years of the period. The Gumaud Method.'^ — The Gurnaud method of yield regulation bases the cut upon the actual growth of the different size classes subject (a) to the condition of the stand and (6) to the judgment of the forester since, according to Jobez, "the interpretation of these figures (the growth) is entirely a personal matter and according to each individual case." The growth is secured by adding the present growing stock to the cut for the last cutting cycle; this total is subtracted from the original stand to give the apparent growth. To obtain the real growth the volume of the trees under the minimum size calipered, which grew into the merchantable size classes, is subtracted from the apparent growth. This last step is a new idea in American forest technique; it may be going to an extreme of refinement, and might be questioned. The growth per cent is then figured by dividing the original volume into the real growth. The method demands great technical skill and sound judgment in its application; any method can be made to serve imder such circumstances but the Gurnaud formula is especially exacting in this respect. The method was designed for selection forests and where a forest had the normal growing stock it could be readily applied as could any other formula method. The advantages of the method are : (1) It necessitates a frequent and detailed study of the stand by size classes, and allows the forester to use his judgment. (2) The growth is based on the increment of the whole stand and allows for the volume of trees which were too small to be calipered but which grew into merchantable size classes during the cutting period. This avoids the calculations of growth based on the increase in size of individual trees. (3) The trained forester realizes that growth and yield figures are, at best, an approximation.*" There- fore, the best way to avoid errors is to have frequent stocktaking. The disadvantages are: (1) It is not a real method of regulating the yield because correct results depend on the art of forestry rather than on definite clear-cut principles. (2) Instead of dividing the real growth by the original volume to get the growth per cent Gurnaud should have taken the mean of the first and second inventories. This error, a* Based on the discussion by Huffel, Vol. Ill, ficonomic Foresti&re. *> Accroissement d'un Massif Jardin6, S. F. de F. C. et B., No. 5, March, 1908, A. S. 242 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS which could easily be corrected, tends to make the growth per cent appear too high. (3) The method as originally designed requires fre- quent and accurate stocktaking and therefore is expensive and tedious. (4) The accuracy of the growth calculations depends on accurate inventories which might easily be in error by 5 to 10 per cent. There- fore if both the (a) first and (6) second inventories were (a) 10 per cent too much and (6) 10 per cent too little an error of 20 per cent would result in the yield. (5) Too much is left to the opinion and judg- ment of the forester. (6) Huff el advances another objection with which the writer is not wholly in sympathy, namely, that it is dangerous to examine too minutely the growth of trees of different sizes and ages because the stand should be regarded as a whole. The tendency to-day in the opinion of the writer is to use more judgment in treating selection stands and if possible to get rid of tree classes which show they are declining in vigor or annual growth. On the other hand the method would not work well with abnormal stands. Illustration. — Suppose a selection fir forest of 1,000 acres were divided into ten equal cutting areas, and that every 10 years, beginning in 1910, all trees over 12 inches in diameter were calipered and estimated by 2-inch diameter classes. Gurnaud would first calculate the growth for each cutting area as follows: Area of cutting 100 acres Treea Feet, board measure Stand in 1920 2,000 100 2,100 1,960 140 1,000,000 50,000 1,050,000 980,000 70,000 Cut 1910-1920. . Total Stand in 1910 Apparent growth To arrive at the true growth a deduction must be made for the 140 trees which grew into the merchantable size class: 140, 11-inch trees X 100 board feet, or 14,000 feet board measure; true growth for 10 years, 56,000 feet board measure; true growth for 1 year, 5,600 board feet. 5,600 980,000 = .57-|- per cent or better if the mean of the two inventories 5,600 were to be taken 1,000,000 -|- 980,000 = .56 -f per cent. The stand 2 per acre would be 10,000 feet and the growth per acre per year 56 board feet. When it comes to an analysis of the stand separately for each size class the process is somewhat more complicated; those inter- ested in a further study of the method should study La M^thode du GENERAL 243 Contr61e, P. Jacquin, Besangon, 1886, or La Methods du Controle, published in 1890 by the Exposition Universelle of 1889." WORKING PLANS General. — The working plan, or management plan, is merely the means of enforcing systematic, obligatory, mandatory regulation. It is " The plan or plans under which a given forest property is to be continu- ously managed." In France the government working plans in use to-day are the revised plans, good for only 15 to 30 years. In theory the work- ing plan revisions have to be made at the end of each period, but in Savoie, where the yield will be greatly increased after 20 years, it may be necessary to make revisions oftener. They are simple, concise, and must be followed by the local officer in charge. There is no differentia- tion into planting, protection, grazing, improvement, administration, or feUing plans, such as have been attempted in the United States on our National Forests. The French working plan is essentially a timber felling plan for one or more small economic units (or working groups) of a distinct local forest. The ideal working plan should control and order the felhngs; but in addition there is a certain suppleness necessary owing to unforeseen accidents which may occur even in well-managed forests. To be suc- cessful, any working plan should be adaptable to local changes, for, without suppleness, a working plan is a failure and the tendency of any working plans officer without experience is to be too narrow and to in- sist on rigid methods applicable to all forests. An excellent illustration of the derangement of working plan yields by windfall is in the forest of G^rardmer. On September 1, 1903, the inspector reported that in the first, third, fourth, sixth, seventh, and eighth working groups, which had a prescribed annual yield of 11,971 cubic meters, on account of tremendous windfalls, 46,378 cubic meters, or the yield for almost four years, had already been cut. In the United States fire will be the greatest cause of overturning working plans for years to come. The main difference between the working plans ^ of State and com- " Before leaving the subject of regulation the writer should acknowledge that some of the ideas — and very fundamental and sound ones — have been absorbed from the regulation lecture notes of Professor H. H. Chapman of Yale University. Those who had the privilege of hearing Professor Chapman lecture may judge to what extent his technique has been followed. ** The stocktaking of an average forest now costs aoout 1.5 francs per hectare, but on account of the increased cost of labor this will soon increase to 2 francs per hectare. No detailed system of cost keeping is kept for different phases of a working plan, but the'total cost per hectare, including office work, boundaries, and compartment bounda/- ries, is about 3 francs per hectare (23 cents per acre). (1912 cost data.) 244 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS munal forests is that in communal forests the cut has to be divided up so that each village will not have too far to go. In other words, this is a potent reason for small sales. For example, in the forest of Dingy St. Clair, the annual cut has to be divided up so that there will be one sale near each village. The forest is on each side of a valley and it would be too costly to have one or two central sales, since the transport of the wood would have to be across the valley. This is an inconvenience to the working plans officer since it complicates the sales problem. Before attempting a new working plan it has been the French custom to have a frank discussion of the essential problems with the local force before the working plans officer makes his final decision. At this con- ference it is entirely feasible for the local officers in charge to emphasize exceptions from the general rule. Once formulated the plan must be accepted by a commune. Each ranger in charge of a district is furnished with a digest of the working plan.^ The main points covered in this digest are the order, location and area of fellings during the period. The exact data in- cluded are rotation, yield and what should be charged against the annual felling budget; volume fellings with the canton, compartment, area, total volume, and estimated amount to be cut designated for each separate felling; area fellings with year, canton, compartment, and area of felling classified by compartment. Under remarks is included the method of treatment, such as selection fellings, special instructions regarding the fellings, cultural rules given separately for volume and area cuttings. The data are precisely presented, and cover rather more than a double page. In past years the inventory frequently included only trees of consider- able size. To-day it usually includes trees down as small as 0.20 meter (7.9 inches) in diameter by 5-centimeter (2-inch) classes. In other words, all trees were measured in the valuation survey down to the estimated diameter which would be reached in one-third the years of the rotation. The general feeling is that this very complete inventory is exceedingly valuable for the sake of future comparisons. Schaeffer " has originated new methods of working plan description. In describing the fertility of the soil he argues that "figures are better than epithets." Recognizing the inaccuracy of describing soil quality, Schaeffer has established this simple rule: *' The working plans in France are rardy typewritten but are copied by hand. Copy- ing costs 75 centimes per double foolscap page and one franc for tables, an ordinary map 5 francs per copy. Four copies must be made of each working plan — one copy for Paris, one for the conservator, one for the inspector, and one for the local ranger. « A. Schaeffer, S. F. de F. C. et B., No. 5. March. 1910, "Coefficients de Fertilit6 des Sols." GENERAL 245 "To obtain the coefficient of fertility of any stand in a selection (fir) forest, normally stocked (that is to say, complete and carrying trees of all ages properly spaced), divide the figure 40 by the average mmiber of rings in the last centimeter of growth." This rule is explained by the following table: Number of rings in the last centimeter (average) Growth per cent Soil fertility (key) Equivalent 2.0 6.64 20 Excellent 2.1 5.64 19 Excellent 2.2 5.64 18 Very good 2.4 5.64 17 Very good 2.5 5.64 16 Very good 2.6 5.64 15 Good 2.8 5.64 14 Good 3.0 3.76 13 Good 3.3 3.76 12 Quite good 3.6 3.76 11 Quite good 4.0 2.83 10 Quite good 4.5 2.83 9 Passable 5.0 2.26 8 Passable 6.0 1.88 7 Passable 7.0 1.61 6 Mediocre 8.0 1.41 5 Mediocre 10.0 1.13 4 Poor 13.0 0.87 3 Poor 20.0 0.57 2 Very poor 40.0 0.28 1 Very poor Another innovation in working plan description is the wide use of graphics which allow a comparison between the forest at different stages of its development and with average or normal conditions. An example of the latest forest description follows (see also p. 532) : 246 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 00 C4 U d d .2 liSm -5 & S ID O Q eii3 lis 1 1 1 5 « o 5 5 s s 8 3 1^ H ■a -S Bf-S J4 I a •J I S I OOS 1 . 1 iV ^ / vf, y^ ^ 8W s4 ft. i,* ^ < % ^ Vs. ^ \ ^ 1 1 1 1 i 1 3" THE WORKING PLAN REPORT 247 The Working Plan Report. — According to the Dictionnaire des For^ts, by Rousset et Boner, page 68, the working plan report follows the outline given below : Part I. — General data. — 1, Name. 2, Total area, area wooded, openings and clearings. 3, Boundaries. 4, Rights and servitudes. 5, Topography and drainage. 6, Soil. 7, Climate. 8, Nature and condition of stand. 9, Kind of treatment. 10, Wood products, principal and secondary; their volume and value in money during the next ten years. 11, Routes, roads and method of logging. 12, Nurseries. 13, Market. 14, Grazing, pasturage, agriculture. Part II. — Chapter 1 . — Digest and critical review of treatment and, if there has been any, of the working plan in force. Chapter 2. — Basis of the proposed management. 1, Division of the forest into sections and justification of this division. 2, Division of each section into working groups and justification. 3, Choice and justification of the method of cutting to apply to each working group. 4, Table (A) of the working groups by sections. Part III. — Special studies of each working group. 1, High forest section. (1) Division into compartments with description of compartments in table (B). (2) De- termination of the normal age for cutting and consequently normal rotation; division of this rotation into periods; division of the working groups into periodic blocks; general system of normal cutting with table (C). (3) Preparatory rotation. (4) Chief transi- tion rotation. (5) General scheme of felling with table (E). (7) Yield with table (F). (8) Allotting the cut with table (G). (9) Application of the yield; cultural rules. S. Coppice section. (1) Division into compartments with description of compart- ments. (2) Determination of the exploitable age for the coppice, decision as to the length of rotation; division of this rotation into periods, where (furete) coppice is con- cerned. (3) Establishment of the general scheme of cutting; quarter in reserve in the pubUc (institution) and communal wood with table (H). (4) Standards. (5) Im- provement cuttings; gleanings; freeing of seedlings. Part IV. — Works and betterments. (1) Preparation of the general map and the compartment map. (2) Subdivisions of management; the boundaries. (3) Survey and marking of the boundary. (4) Artificial reforestation and nurseries. (5) Drainage. (6) Roads. Pg^^l Y. — Comparative examination of the annual production and accessory prod- ucts in material and money, now and after management. l/laps. — Part of the working plan is a general map on tracing cloth, showing grad- ient, water courses, routes, roads, ranger stations, sawmills or nurseries, boundaries of working groups, cantons, periodic blocks, compartments, and coupes. If the scale of the map will not allow all the necessary details, there should also be a map by work- ing groups. Appendix.'^ — Should include tables, stand tables, and stem analyses used m fixmg the yield. The outline for the revision follows : Part I. — Preliminary data. — (1) Name. (2) Area. (3) Department and dis- trict. (4) Conservation, inspection, canton. (6) Altitudes. (6) Species by per cent. Part II. — Managemeni in force. — (1) Digest of the management in force; system and method of feUing appUed to the forest; division in sections and working groups. (2) Digest of the general and special scheme of felling. (3) Aim of management and « The outline for the revision of a working plan should be compared with the above and with the outline actually foUowed in the revised working plan (1910) for the com- munal forest of Thiez given in the Appendix, page 517. 248 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS results obtained by the reproduction cuttings, selection, preparatory in coppice, im- provement. Part III. — Revisions. — Chapter 1. — General considerations. Modifications to make in the general fundamentals of management, to the division in sections and work- ing groups, to the rotation, etc. Table (A) of new sections and working groups. Chapter $. — Special studies in each new working group. High Forest Section. — (1) Composition of the working group compared with the former working plan. (2) Compartments. (3) General scheme of felling, normal and provisionary. (4) Special scheme of feUing. (5) Determination of the yield. (6) Location of fellings for the period. (7) Allotment of the yield; cultural rules. Coppice Section. — (1) Composition of the working groups compared with the former working plan. (2) Description of stands. (3) Determination of the exploitable age for coppice; fixing the rotation; division of the rotation into periods; selection coppice. (4) General scheme of feUing; quarter in reserve; yield. (5) Special scheme of felling with table (H). (6) Standards. (7) Improvement cuttings; cleanings; freeing of seedlings. Part IV. — Betterments. — Betterments prescribed by the working plan. Better- ments accomplished (remarks on the methods employed, results obtained). Better- ments remaining to be done. Estimate of the expense. Part V. — Comparative review by working groups of the annual products, principal and secondary, in material and money realized before and after the revision. Federal Forests {Digest). — Complete data replanting, etc. (1) Species seeded, amount per hectare, methods. (2) Species planted, kind and number per hectare, methods. (3) Results. (4) Care and expense of upkeep, weeding and replacements. (5) Total cost. (6) Necessary data to get better results in future. Sample Plots in all Federal forests when natural seeding with thinnings close one- half hectare area in young stand, chosen by chief ranger, checked by inspector, marked and boundary stones laid, take inventory after each cutting to determine exploitability and revenue. Communal. — One-fourth in reserve when area more than 10 hectares, "and not entirely stocked with conifers on one-fourth area." Chamonix Working Plan. — The best picture of a modern French working plan revision is obtained by the study of a working plan in actual use; the Chamonix working plan ** has therefore been studied at length. It is for a communal forest where there is need for a sustained annual yield, and where, because of its importance as a tourist center, the forest cover must be maintained. A selection system is considered imperative on account of steep slopes, the danger from windfall and avalanches, as well as the necessity of taking every precaution to guard against erosion. There follows a complete r^sum4 of the plan with an explanation of the methods employed. It is divided into five parts with an appendix following Part V. By way of introduction the author, M. Schaeffer, states that the original working plan contains complete statistics, but that a number of points require modification and correction. Part I, "ProcSs verbal de revision d'Am6nagement, par A. Schaeffer, 1910. This plan costs about 20 cents per acre excluding oflSce work. CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 249 preliminary data, includes a very detailed review of area changes (Art. 2)/' the present area being 4,733 acres; brief allusions to, (Art. 3) boundaries; (Art. 4) rights and servitudes; (Art. 5) topography; (Art. 6) soil; (Art. 7) climate; (Art. 8) composition and condition of stand; the per cent of each species is calculated on the basis of the volume of all trees calipered, namely, 5 inches and over; the per cent given in even hundreds was found to be: spruce 78 per cent; larch 20 per cent; fir, Scotch pine, and cembric pine (with alder, birch, and service tree) 2 per cent; (Art. 11) roads, paths, means of logging; besides some 22.5 miles of new trails many of the old paths which had faulty alignment had been recon- structed; (Art. 14) pasturage, gathering needles. The practice of gathering the dry needles, the moss, and even the humus, has led in some cases to the impoverishment of the stand and the commune is, therefore, urged to put a stop to it at once in view of the aesthetic value of the stands bordering this great tourist center. Part II. — Management in Force. — The fourteen working groups are listed in numerical order and by name with the area of each as for example : first working group, " Argenti6re-Nord," 508 acres. The working groups vary in size considerably, one with 23 acres, six with from 99 to 247 acres, three with 249 to 494, and four with from 496 to 581 ; M. Schaeffer believes a working group in the mountains should not be more than 1,000 acres. Then follows the felling scheme for the period dating from March 9, 1892. This table is headed as follows: Working group Order of fellinga Method o( calculating the yield Bematks First working group of Argenti6re-Nord. First lot: A, B, C, etc. Transfer of trees from 5 inches up in the "average wood." " Art. I is "name" (see official outline for working plans given on page 247 for the list of other project headings not included in the revision). According to W. B. Greeley: ". . . it is probable that the greatest public encouragement to the private owner to keep his timberland productive has been the stimulus and example of the publicly owned forests. These are scattered through practically every section of the country. In every forest region, the private owner has seen good forestry practice demonstrated for scores of years on State or communal holdings. He knows the forest officers in his locality and consults them on the methods applicable to his own woodland. The widely distributed pubhc forests have not only set the standards of good management but have made the local silviculture a part of farm lore of the region. The rural popu- lation of France knows how to grow trees just as it knows how to grow potatoes or care for its vineyards. . . . And, by a law passed in 1913, the expert services of the State are offered at cost to owners of timberland who wish to cut their holdings on a conservative basis corresponding to the requirements of the "regime forestier" and to obtain the special forms of protection against trespass now accorded to public holdings by the forest code. This law is of too recent origin to have yet demonstrated its value." 250 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS Under the topic, " Application of the working plan," there are given by working groups the data below: Compartments cut over Materi&l to be cut, cu. m. Material cut No. of working group Subtracted from yield Not sub- tracted, cu. m. Grand total, cu. m. Main cut, cu. m. Emer- gency, cu. m. Wind- fall dead- wood, cu. m. Total, cu. m. Remarks 1 2 etc. Totals.. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, M, 1,720 26,100 1,509 20,215 13 579 307 8,363 1,829 29,157 1,061 1,829 30,218 Results obtained. — While admitting that an exact comparison for the whole forest is not possible, yet notwithstanding the overcut M. Schaeffer feels that the forest has been enriched by the management during the past period. For those areas which can be compared he gives the results in tabular form: Former volume by new volume tables, cu. m. Present volume, cu. m. Volume cut, cu. m. Growth Working group Total, cu. m. Per hectare, cu. m. Remarks 1 etc. Totals 21,648 114,509 26,547 230,778 1,609 19,230 6,508 75,499 1.84 2.92 This comparison, systematized as it is, cannot help but be an accurate guide in determining the yield and consequently it is all the more sur- prising that the calculation is omitted from so many plans. Changes in lines between working groups often make an exact comparison by groups impossible, but the figure for the whole forest is well worth the cost of the calculation. M. Schaeffer makes it a rule to multiply the former growing stock figures by the volumes of the latest volume table if the original table is not still in use. The systematic comparison of financial results is equally interesting; it is by years, and has been given in full so as to illustrate the fluctuations which must be looked for owing to windfalls and unforeseen damage to grow- ing stock or to unusual communal demands: CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 251 Q hi Q O r oT CO i>r c^ cTcT'-h' lo cTto'TtT fH i-H i-H rt i-H T-H rH 1-* 1-H i> "5 Is e s ^— 1 ill II M ■* -sti TO IM TO 0=_S_S ^ CB O iO i-H^ 03^ Oi^ W 00 N N U5 ffi OS^ N CD lO O 1-H i 1— 1 00 (N TO >0 |3 QO^'^OOt^t-l^u^COOCOQpN^COOSNOCOCq Wt*QOCOt~NOt^^-HOOt^ScDCDN'-iC^asiOt>- CO W^t^ OS CD '-^^OS ^^'^^^ ^W^*^""!.*^ CO -^ CO 1-1 i J 1 a !« OSOSOsCsOsOSOSCSOdOOOOOOOOOOO ooxooooooaoooooooxicnioso303Cscso3GaO)a) IS 1 > 1 ^ a c 252 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS ACCESSORY YIELD (non ligneux) in Francs Years Eztenaion of time tation Various concessioDS sold (q)riiigs, CTOSSiDg privileges, stone, sand, etc.) Minor products delivered in tlie forest in forest Hunting Trespass Totals Value of day's labor of free use permittees Value Price of location CSvU damages 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 Totals Average annually. 60 3 12,771.35 638.5 25,716.50 1,286.00 7,039.73 352.00 150.00 7.5 8,760.70 438.00 54,498.28 2,725.00 It is rather surprising to see the price per cubic meter for the windfall (5.4) greater than the price for the regular cut (5.2) ; this is explained by the cost of logging scattered timber as contrasted with the clean cutting of a considerable wiadfall even though it were thrown on the market quite unexpectedly. Part in. — Revision. Chapter 1 , General Considerations. — The neces- sity for varying the management boundaries is here taken up; these are, of course, merely working plan lines. Rotation. — In the words of M. Schaeffer, " The rotations are actually fixed at 180 years for the spruce and pines and at 240 years for the larch. The notion of a distinct rotation for each species is a theoretical consideration which does not possess much weight practically ... as a simplification we propose to adopt a .single average rotation of 200 years." This policy seems to be so well adapted to practical conditions in the United States that it has been quoted in part verbatim. Chapter II. — Special Study of Each Working Group. — (Art. 1) CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 253 Composition of the working groups as compared with former plan. (Art. 2) "Compartments." The feature of the working plan is the conciseness with which statistical data are presented. Those who are familiar with the detailed compart- ment descriptions given in German working plans will be particularly interested in the graphic representation of the growing stock. This is of great importance because in reality it is the key to the marking. The weak link is the determination of the normal growing stock which is taken to be the same for all situations and stands, but to be exact would be practically impossible without undue expense. The stand descriptions are exact and are not by any means perfunc- tory: For example, "Despite the avalanche of February 17, 1904, which knocked down 3,116 trees and poles in the middle of the growing com- partment, the stand has recovered and is approaching a normal growing stock." As one glances through the pages care for exact details is evident: "Avalanche area 3.91 hectares; numerous defective stands; opening of 3.00 hectares; a number of trees dead topped; reproduction suflSciently abundant " ; these are partial examples of the detail. Possibly more care could have been taken in describing the reproduction, but I rather surmise it is often lacking, so no mention is made. (Art. 3) Regulation of felUng. Exact order left to local officers. (Art. 4) Determination of the yield. The yield is calculated under the so-called method of 1883 where in the selection forest the volume of the "old wood" is supposed to be five-eighths and the volume of the "average wood" three-eighths of the total. If the minimum tree meas- ured is 8 inches in diameter then the "average wood" includes trees 8 to 14 inches inclusive, the "old wood" all above 14 inches, and the "young wood" the trees below 8 inches. In this case the actual total of the "average wood" amounted to 165,797.7 cubic meters and the "old wood" 126,979.3, a total of 292,777 cubic meters. The working plan says: 292 777 X 5 "The normal proportion should be: old wood, — '—x = 182,986; average wood, 292,777 X 3 _ jQg ygj jj jg f^r from being attained, but experience has shown that 8 it is necessary to convert it artificially. The principal yield would otherwise be lowered by the normal volume of 'old wood.' It appears on the other hand from the descrip- tive summary that a careful thinning is necessary in a large number of compartments; there the average wood forms regular even-aged stands. It is then necessary to add to the yield of the principal products an accessory yield comprising the loss which is unavoidable because of the volume which does not enter into the calculation of the yield, namely 109,791 cubic meters. We put this loss with great conservation at 0.25 per cent per year, and we will then have for the actual yield (P), P = — goo — '" T 254 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS ^^ X 109,791 = 2,744 + 274 = 3,018 cubic meters, this result coiresponding to 1.03 100 per cent of the total growing stock and to 1.68 cubic meters per hectare figuring on the basis of 1,800 hectares actually wooded. This yield is considered so conservative that it is expected the actual growing stock will be increased." Reference should be made to the growth figures, pages 256 to 260. (Art. 5) Allotting the yield. The annual cut is allotted by convenient districts, 10 in number, so that the wood will be convenient to the differ- ent hamlets or small sawmills. In other words, it would impose a hard- ship on some of the villagers if the cut were made in one locality alone. This compHcates the management, but much the same problem may be looked for in the United States on National Forests where a number of small local mills must be supphed with stumpage or else they will have to shut down and move elsewhere. (Art. 6) Marking the cutting areas during the second period (1910- 1929). The order of cutting is often disarranged by windfalls, etc., but it is carefully worked out by the working plans officer by working groups. The form used is: Canton Compartment Ana Vol lime inven- toried Percent to be realized Estimated yield Remarks L. E. Grand Chantey. . . 70 12.69 1,549 25 388 In the first working group the per cent to be cut varies from 10 to 25 per cent of the standing timber. The total amount inventoried was 43,360 cubic meters, and the cut estimated at 872. (Art. 7) Cultural Rules. {A) Fellings by volume. "A large number of compartments have not been cut over for quite a long time, therefore, the overmature and rotting trees, and those crooked or dry topped, are abun- dant. In certain divisions they even form most of the stand. We estimate that their removal would almost equal the yield during a period at the very least ... on the steep slopes so frequent in the forest, every day there are trees damaged by falling stones or by the logging. But it miist be observed that while on the one hand one must often remove diseased trees, yet on the other there are compartments where poles and young high forest need immediate thinnings. It will then be the thirming of these young stands which will complete the yield and we believe it necessary to insist on this point. One can but admit that to get a considerable volume by marking stands of small size on steep slopes is hard work. The officer in charge of marking must guard against the tendency of the markers to designate large trees ... he will also have to fight against the difficulties of the ground. This rule should be applied specially in the com- partments (enumerated) on areas where the regeneration is difficult (compartments . . especially) continue the existing thinnings and in the little openings caused by the removal of several overmature trees at once start reforestation by groups. In the old compartments (unmanaged) the stand should be kept as fully stocked as CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 255 possible. Be careful to take the necessary steps to get rid of all stems which might start an insect attack. There is another group of divisions which require attention; there are those which are situated in the valley near the group of hotels and really form a park. (Compartments . . .) usually stocked with an old spruce stand on the decline and for the most part in a critical condition. The soil packed by the walkers, free to grazing and Utter gathering they are in a terrible condition for reproduction and the future of the stands is absolutely compromised. . . One can without great inconvenience let the old oaks stand until the last stages of decay, but not so with the spruce which when they decUne . . . collect insects. . . . These stands must be closely watched and not allowed to wait until the last phase of decay. Several measures seem necessary; closure to common entry and Utter gathering, successive fencing areas to start the regeneration." In the park behind the Casino the existing reproduction should be opened up so as to form little patches of advance growth. (B) Felling by area. It will consist in toppiag the broadleaved trees to favor the conifers, but birch in good condition should be preserved where it is of aesthetic value. (Art. 8) Deduction. All trees 8 inches and over are counted against the yield. Part IV. — Bettervients. — The following improvements are taken up. Map, compartment numbers; boundary pillars; restocking; re- generation has been retarded by grass and weeds so M. Schaeffer recom- mends the grubbing out of horizontal seed spots 3 by 3^ feet in size, since they have given excellent results. They should be not only in the open- ings but also in the sodded ravines. "When the slope is steep the sod which is removed should be placed on the lower side to form a bench. On the bare soil sow broadcast several larch seed. We have not seen any failures, and the experiment thus far may be considered as decisive. It should be seen, however, that the seeding is not too thick because usually the natural regeneration wiU complete it . . - and an excess density is to be feared smce with the larch it is a cause of damping oft." The little benches have also proved of value in stopping small snow- Slides Works to prevent avalanches. The plan of campaign recommended is- (1) Don't bother with those areas which are almost impossible to correct (2) Where work will avail the Reforestation Branch will build dry masonry walls on a small scale, and plant denuded areas to larch and cembric pine. (3) The small ravines which are eroding should be handled by the local force by building small benches. The finances are then discussed and the commune assured of State assistance. Part V. — Financial Summary and Forecast. — From 1890 to 1909 the average annual revenue is given as S2,078 and the cost of admimstration $768, leaving $1,310 net. For the next 10 years the gross revenue is estimated at $5,196, the expenses at $725, and the net revenue at $4,471 256 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS or more than triple that of the past period. The rise is due chiefly to increases in stumpage. Counting 4,450 acres of forest this is $1 net per acre per year for a mountain forest. It will be double or triple this figure owing to the increase in stumpage since the war.* The Appendix. — The Appendix is especiaUy interesting and instruc- tive. To start with there is a tabular and graphic comparison of the old and new volume tables. These are based on diameter alone and the same volume table figures are used for spruce and larch, but a separate table for the pine. Next comes a hst of all trees calipered by compart- ments. The species are listed separately as follows: COMPARTMENT 14 Number of trees Volumes, D. B. H. Spruce Larch Total 20 25 etc. 2,986 121 88 6,069 3,074 1,213.8 1,229.6 On each page in the first column before the d. b. h. figures is given the volume in cubic meters (to the nearest tenth only) for each diameter classified. Separate records are given for each of the 137 compart- ments, for each working group total, and for the entire forest. After giving his theoretical normal hectare of selection forest, 400 trees 8 to 24 inches in diameter, totaling 343 cubic feet, the growing stock (for the entire forest) for 1889 is graphically compared with the present stock and with the normal stand. These curves show at a glance that the forest is still understocked especially in the larger diameters. But it also illustrates the progress made during the past ten years in conserv- ing a depleted stand. A point in poHcy which M. Schaeffer has estab- hshed is that it is not safe to hold over more than one-third the annual increment because of the continual need of cleaning out overmature material in a selection forest and of making thinnings. The curves are reproduced below; in the original working plan, they are supplemented by a table giving for the normal hectare the number and volume of trees by 2-inch diameter classes 8 inches to 24 inches. The Pressler borings are given in full, tabulated by 2-inch diameter classes. There are not many, but they are carefully selected under average conditions. For 8-inch trees there are 39; for 10, 48; for 12, 46; for 20, but 22. The readings are the number of years it takes the tree in each class to grow 2 inches. These are then averaged for each diam- " During the war 700 cubic meters sold for 70,000 francs! CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 257 eter class and the growth per cent calculated for the corresponding classes by the grovrth per cent formula. The results were then evened off as 160!,OOO- S 100,000 2: 60,000- for the entire forest Diameter in inches Fig. 20 (a). .Aetual reanlta -Actual results, evened off. by corvre J 1 I I I L. 10 20 -1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I Diameter in inches Fig. 20 (b). 40 follows, the irregularity in the larger diameters being due to insufficient data: 258 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS i ill — « o ill t j 1 1 1 i / / / / / / t / / / # > * y y y y ^ y ,.'-' ^^ ,---■ , '---'■ u I E 5 S 3 S 1^ t^ arnnioA 1 1 s 1 1 •3 1 S 9 o 1 s r> i 1 « li li IMI (S 1 *1 HE lO eo 1 lO -Iriiiit i il-tli.i 1 0) a .2 1 3 1 = ill 1 a E « g 1 1 a ■1 11 "* si II OS Si N - s SI ^•si = |i eo 1 E a' 1 ^« o i a 1- r=| e> i New com- part- ments C4 3 B Wg. 1 1 CO . *§ s a a J3 p C 3 3 - •5 S 1 O Eh 1 I I CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 259 M. Schaeffer's argument based on these figures is given in full since it illustrates the judgment — or, if you like, guesswork — which enters into the final yield analysis and answer. "The 312 trees (bored) together take 6,742 years to pass from one (2-inch) diameter class to another or an average of -^^ = 21.6. If one glances at the preceding table (see curve) it is evident that for the diameter classes between 8 and 28 inches the time it takes to pass is about constant. . . . One can conclude also that the length of the period fixed at 20 years by the working plan of 1890 should be considered as a mmimum and that the rotation of 200 years adopted in the present study is not too high when it takes the average seedling 194 years to pass from a diameter of 6 inches to 24 (21.6 X 9 = 194). This conception of the average length of time (to pass from one class to another) establishes, in a way, an index of the forest. For the forest of Houches, where situated in a valley ... the average time was 19.4 (Chamonix 21.6). This difference of two years shows that the forest of Chamonix is less favorably situated than its neighbor, and it might be said this inferiority amounts to 10 per cent. The rotation of the forest of Houches has been fixed at 180 years; that of Chamonix, therefore, ought to be normally 200 (as it is). "In evening off this growth per cent graphically (see curve; . . . several inter- esting deductions can be made. To start with it is noticeable that in the lower classes where the measurements were numerous, the evened off curve follows the actual curve. It might be stated also that beginning with 24-inch diameters the growth per cent falls normally below 1 per cent. This merits the conclusion that the reservation of trees of higher diameters should be the exception. If the evened off growth per cent is multiplied by the total volume (on the entire forest) as given in the recent stock- taking, the probable production of the forest as it stands is obtained: 2.54 X 30,437 -1- 2. X 43,951, etc. (for each class), with the following total = — ' = 4,511 cubic meters. The average per cent would then be _ ' _-_ = 1.54 per cent. If it is possible to conclude that 1.54 is the maximum growth per cent under actual conditions, and given the yield reduced to 1.03 per cent then 0.51 per cent (of the growth) or about one-third will be saved each year. "There are other methods of valuing the probable production of the Chamonix forest. Taking for granted that the figure of 1,800 hectares represents the area actually 292 777 forested, it might be argued that the average stand is - ' ., = 160 cubic meters IjoUO roughly. By referring to the table (of average production for Savoie) ... it appears that when it takes 22 years (to pass from one diameter class to another) and the stand per hectare is 160 cubic meters then the growth is 2.5 cubic meters per hec- tare; the total growth then is 1,800 X 2.5 = 4,500 cu. m., a figure which exactly agrees with that obtained (by multiplying the volume by the growth per cent). It is, more- over, confirmed by the comparison of the compartments calipered twice; those 20 years ago had a volume of 218,980 cubic meters (calculated by the present volume table) and to-day 278,360. Since about 26,000 cubic meters (by same volume table) was cut, the production has been 278,360 + 26,000 - 218,980 = 85,380 or 4,269 per year, a figure which is also in accord with the preceding when it is considered it applies to only about 1,700 hectares (i.e., ^j^^^J^ = 4^519). "Finally if we use the formula of the whole yield, that is to say, if we take count of the growth of 'old wood' and a third of that of the 'average wood' (remembering that 260 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS in view of the transfer the rate of growth of the 'old wood' is about 1 per cent, and that of the 'average wood' 2.1 per cent) we will have 182.986 + 1§M«|X^X^ „, P (yield) 250 +m^ ^'^•'^^^ = *'^' T a, figure which is also near the others (already given above). This similarity, it is interesting to note, allows one to conclude that the production of the forest of Chamonix is in the neighborhood of 4,500 cubic meters and that in fixing the yield at 3,018 cubic meters there will be an annual saving of about 1,500 meters. This economy, which is really an enrichment of the stand, is fuUy justified and is in perfect accord with the wishes of the officials." The American professor of management could easily pick flaws in this working plan. To start with, he might argue that the same normal stand should not hold for all soUs, species, mixtures, and altitudes; that Pressler's method is not exact; that the decrease in the number of trees is not fully known, and so on. But what impresses me most is the simphcity of the plan, its evident practicability, its freedom from ponderous descriptions which are replaced by tables and curves showing at a glance what the administrator must know. No two plans are exactly aUke. Where there is a "Chief of Management" stationed in a district, they have no cut-and-dried air. Some of the methods are far too intensive for the United States, but it is believed the review contains suggestions which may be of value to the profession. There is practi- cally no difference in the important details between an original plan and a careful revision. As a matter of fact, the methods could be followed very closely in a forest where intensive management had to be applied such as on a small estate. It is no wonder that M. Schaeffer is recog- nized as the foremost working plan expert in France. CHAPTER X FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION » Bbief Summaby op Legislation (p. 261). General, Corsica, Maures and I'Est^rel, Frontier Forests, Fishing and Shooting, Dimes and Landes, Mountain Landes, Clearing of Private Timber, References to Legislation. Administbativb Obganization and Education (p. 268). Early Organization, Re- organization of 1882, Salaries, Modern Organization, Military Rank, Education. Protection (p. 275). Introduction, Damage from Logging, Servitudes and Use of Minor Products, Excessive Pruning, Damage by Birds, Insect Damage, Damage by Game, Damage from Grazing, Fungous Damage, Windfall Damage, Damage by Frost, Damage by Sunscald and Drought, Snow Damage, Intensive Fire Damage, The Fire Problem in the Forest of I'Est^rel (Var), Fire Insurance in France. Betterments (p. 290). Forest Houses, Roads and Trails, Boundaries, Maps. Sale op Timber (p. 293). General Sales Procedure, Estimate and Appraisal, Cutting and Logging Rules, Example of a Long-term Sale, Stumpage Prices. BWEF SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION General. — It is rather surprising to find a forest code and ordinance still in force, except for niinor modifications, that was passed in 1827. Since that time there have been numerous special laws for Corsica' on account of the less intensive conditions and long-term logging con- tracts; for the Mauj-es and I'Est^rel, between Toulon and Cannes, on account of the dangerous fires; for frontier forests; for Algeria,' Indo- China, Tunisia,' and other colonies. There are also special laws for fishing and shooting, dunes and Landes, eroded slopes in the mountains, military organization of the Forest Service, pensions, taxes, public works, water (including log driving), and rural police. There are many who believe that the Forest Code of 1827 is out of date and therefore should be replaced by a new law more suited to changed conditions. On the other hand it is strict, it is well under- stood, and a change would be strongly opposed by many foresters be- cause of the disastrous effects of too lenient forest laws and the impossi- bility of passing a law as drawn up by the Forest Service owing to the probability of amendments by the legislative assembly. Those who wish to obtain an idea of the essential details covered by the code are referred to the translation of the Algerian Code of 1908 which follows > Major R. Y. Stuart kindly reviewed this chapter. 2 See Appendix of French Forests and Forestry (Tunisia, Algeria, and Corsica). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 261 262 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION closely, in part word for word, the French Code of 1827. The main difference is that the Algerian Code is more supple and less repressive. Corsica. — Since 1840 the Waters and Forest Service was given the right to make sales for periods up to 20 years after suitable public auction. This law provided that the transport improvements should revert to the State when the sale expired; that the State should have an option to purchase sawmills within 1.2 miles of the forest. The object of this law was to develop forests hitherto inaccessible imder ordinary sales. The law of 1854 abolished grazing servitudes in Corsica but as a matter of fact even to-day grazing is practically imrestricted. Maures and l'Est6rel. — Owing to the excessive fire damage a special fire-protective scheme was legislated in 1870 and revised in 1893. The provisions of this law are discussed in this chapter under "Protection." Frontier Forests.' — Trespass committed on a bordering State can be judged in France under French law if the State in question has passed a reciprocity law to the same effect. Fishing and Shooting. — Important and detailed laws have been enacted to govern the administration of fishing and shooting. It is inter- esting to note that the law of 1908 contains a hst of the useful and harmful birds. Dunes and Landes. — The decree of April 29, 1862, placed the fixation, maintenance, conservation, and exploitation of the dunes under the Ministry of Finance (Director of Forests), but the Ministers of State, Finances, Agriculture, Commerce, and Pubhc Works were all charged with the execution of the decree. The decree of December 14, 1810, provided for the fixation and forestation of the dunes. In the first place a map was required showing State, communal and private lands with a plan as to the best methods to follow. Where owners were unable to carry out the measures prescribed it was arranged that the work should be undertaken by the State and managed until the cost of the work was completely paid for with interest (since April 7, 1900, calculated at 4 per cent). The measures included: Forbidding the removal of weeds or plants from dime areas without special authorization, patrol and pohce force, and the State was given the right to remove brush from private land. The ordinance of February 5, 1817, provided that the work should be directed by the "Fonts et Chauss^es" under the Minis- try of the Interior, with the provision that when the trees reached a certain age, to be determined later, they would be under the Waters and Forests Service. The ordinance of January 31, 1839, sanctioned the auction of resine on 18,632 acres of wooded dunes; both thinnings and final cuttings were mentioned and natural regeneration was to be ' The basis for these data and what follows is: C!ode de la Legislation Foresti^e, A. Puton et Ch. Guyot, Paris. CLEARING OF PRIVATE TIMBER 263 provided for. The ordinances of July 15, 1810, and May 2, 1810, pro- vided protective measures for the dunes in the Department of the Pas-de-Calais, no ditches or removal of sand within 200 fathoms of high water, no removal of grass or weeds, no grazing without special authorization. The law of June 10, 1857, provided for the drainage and sowing of communal lands at the expense of the communes, or if they were unable at the expense of the State, with reimbursement from the proceeds with principal and interest. Mountain Lands. — The law of July 28, 1860, which provided for the restoration of the eroded mountains, was superseded by the law of April 4, 1882. Before a reforestation area boundary is decided upon there is an open hearing in each of the communes interested, a meeting of the municipal councils, a recommendation of the Arrondissement Council, General Council, and Special Commission. The period of inquiry is 30 days and if a decision is made to set aside the area for reforestation then a law is passed setting aside the land required as shown by the approved reports, maps, and plans of forest officers. The work is carried out by the Waters and Forest Service at the expense of the State. The ownership of this land is governed as follows: Where institution, communal, or private land is being damaged by grazing it can be reserved from use after inquiry and consideration similar to that required before reforestation, but if, after 10 years, it is still necessary to reserve it, public expropriation is necessary. The annual loss during the first 10 years of reservation is paid for from the municipal treasury. Work can be undertaken at the expense of the State to hasten restoration, and trespass will be prosecuted as if on a Clearing of Private Timber. — The restrictions against clearing private forest land, even if for purposes of cultivation, are so stringent that the analysis of the law by Guyot is given in full. It is generally referred to as the law of June 18, 1859, put into effect December 19, of the same year.* Art 219 (Law of June 18, 1859). — No private owner has a right to grub up or to clear his timber without notifymg the sous-pr6fecture at least 4 months m advance, during which time the administration may inform the owner of its opposition to the clearing. The declaration of the owner states choice of residence m the canton m which the timber is located. , . . . . ., _. Before signifying opposition, and at least 8 days after ad^ace is pven to the party concerned, the inspecteur or the " sous-inspecteur," or one of the "gardes gfo^raux of the circonscription, proceeds with the examination of the condition and location of the timber and makes out a detailed "proc6s-verbal" of which the party is given notice with the request that any objections be submitted. < Translated by R. C. HaU. 264 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION The pr6fet, "en conseil de prefecture," gives his opinion on this opposition. The forest agent of the department is notified of this opinion as well as the owner, and it is transmitted to the Minister of Finances who makes an administrative decision, after having consulted the financial section of the "conseil d'6tat.'' If, within six months following the notification of opposition, the decision of the minister is not given and transmitted to the owner of the timber, the clearing may take place. Original Art. 2t9. — For 20 years from the date of promulgation of the present law, private owners have no right to grub up or to clear their timber, unless they notify the sous-pr6fet at least 6 months in advance, during which time the administration may inform the owner of its opposition to the clearing. Within the 6 months from this notification, the pr6fet has to decide the case subject to approval of the Minister of Finances. If within the 6 months following the notification of the opposition, the decision of the minister has not been given and transmitted the owner, then the clearing of timber may take place. Ordonnance of Avgust 1, 18S7, for the execution of the "Code Forestier." BEGITLATIONS KEOABDnTO THE CLEABINQ OF TIMBEB Art. 192. (Decree Nov. 22, 1859.) — The declarations prescribed in Art. 219 of the "Code Forestier" must indicate the name, the location, and the area of the timber which private owners desire to clear; furthermore they must mention the choice of a residence in the canton in which the timber is located; these declarations will be made in dupUcate and deposited at the prefecture where they wiU be put on record. They will be signed by the sous-pr^fet who will give back one of the copies to the owner mak- ing out the declaration, and will immediately transmit the other to the "agent forestier superieur de I'arrondissement." Art. 193. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — Before proceeding with the investigation of the conditions and location of timber, and at least 8 months in advance, one of the agents designated by Article 219 of the "Code Forestier" will have to send the party concerned, at the residence selected by this party, a notice stating the day on which the said investigation will take place and inviting the party to assist or to be represented. Art. 194. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — The procfes-verbal established by the for- estry agent will mention aU data and information which may be of such a nature as to cause objection to the clearing on account of one of the reasons enumerated in Article 220 of the "Code Forestier"; furthermore, if the timber in question is located in part of the frontier zone, where the clearing cannot take place without authorization, this fact will simply be mentioned in the procSs-verbal. Art. 196. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — The proc6s-verbal will be transmitted with all papers to the conservateur who, before reporting his opposition, will have a copy of it sent to the party concerned, inviting him to present his objections. Art. 196. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — If the conservateur thinks that the timber must not be cleared, he will transmit his opposition to the owner and he will immediately refer the case to the pr^fet, transmitting him all his papers with his objections. In a contrary case, the conservateur will refer without delay to the directeur g&i6ral des forte, who will report on the matter to the Minister of Finances. Art. 197. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — Within a month's time, the prfifet, at the prefecture meeting, will give his opinion regarding the opposition with full details. Within 8 days following this opinion, the pr^fet will have it transmitted to the owner of the timber and to the conservateur and, if there is no conservateur in the REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CLEARING OF TIMBER 265 department, to the "agent forestier supfirieur" who will decide the case after having consulted the financial section of the "conseil d'6tat." The ministerial decision will be transmitted to the owner within 6 months from the date of notification of the oppo- sition. AH. Z20. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — Opposition to the clearing can only be formu- lated for the timber preservation of which is recognized as being necessary : (1) For the maintenance of soil on mountains or slopes. (2) As a protection against soil erosion and silting up of creeks, rivers and torrents. (3) For the existence of springs and water courses. (4) For the protection of dunes and coasts against erosion by the sea and invasion of sand. (5) As a protection of territory in that part of the frontier zone which shall be deter- mined by regulation of public administration. (6) For public health. The previous Article 220 is now the new Article 221. Art. 221. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — In case of violation of Art. 219 the owner is fined the sum of $96.50 minimum and $289.50 maximum per hectare (2J acres) of cleared timber. Furthermore, he is compelled, if so ordered by the Minister of Finances, to replant places cleared with timber trees within a period which cannot exceed three years. "Code Forestier," 91, 159, 160, 165, 198, 199, 219, 223. Original Art. 221 . — In case of failure of the owner to do the planting or the sowing within the time prescribed by the judgment, the work will be done at his expense by the forestry administration upon authorization previously given by the pr^fet who will settle the voucher covering this work and wiU have it executed against the owner. Ordonnance of August 1, 1827. Art. 198. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — When mayors and adjoints shall have made out procfes-verbaux stating that clearing work has been effectuated in violation of Title 15 of the Forestry Code, they will be obUged, independently of the delivery they must make of them to our "procureurs," to send a certified copy to the local forestry agent. Art. 199. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — The conservateur will report to the directeur g^n^ral des forfits on the condemnations pronounced in the case provided for in Par. 1 of Article 221 of the Forestry Code, and will give his advice on the necessity of replant- ing the places with timber trees. The ministerial decision which will order replanfr int will be transmitted to the party concerned through administrative channels. Art. 222. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — In case of failure of the owner to do the planting or sowing within the time prescribed by the ministerial decision, the work will be done at his expense by the forestry administration upon authorization previously given by the pr6f et who will settle the voucher covering this work and will have it executed against the owner. "Code Forestier," 15, 41, 140, 221. New Article 222 (Forestry Code) is only a reproduction of Article 221 of the same code, except for the substitution of the words "ministerial decision" for the word "judgment," as a consequence of the change brought by the law of June 18, 1859, to the wording of former Article 220. Art. 223. (Law of Jime 18, 1859.) — The disposition contained in the preceding four articles may be applied to the sowing and planting made for replacement of cleared timber pursuant to the ministerial decision. "Code Forestier," 219 s., 224. Article 223 (Forestry Code) modified by the Law of June 18, 1859, reads like the old Article 222 of the same code, in which the word "judgment" has been replaced by the expression "ministerial decision" in order that this disposition may agree with the new wording of Article 221. 266 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION Art. 224. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — There are excepted from the regulations of Art. 219: (1) Young timber during the 20 years following its sowing or planting, except in case provided for in the preceding article. (2) Parks or fenced gardens, or gardens adjoining houses. (3) Open timber of less than 10 hectares area (24.7 acres) when not part of another forest, the whole of which aggregates an area of 10 hectares, or when not lo- cated on the top or on the slopes of a mountain. Forestry Code 219, 223. New Article 224 (Forestry Code) corresponds to the old Article 223. It only modi- fies it by: (1) Substituting the figure of 10 hectares for 4 hectares for the area of timber which may be cleared without ful fillin g formalities determined by Article 219 (Forestry Code). (2) Substituting the expression "fenced gardens or gardens adjoining houses" for the words "fenced gardens and gardens adjoining houses," concerning trees forming part of parks or gardens exempted by the appUcation of Article 219. Art. S25. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — Court actions concerning clearings made in violation with Article 219 are outlawed after lapse of two years from the date when the clearing took place. — Forestry Code 185, 187, 221. New Article 225 is the reproduction of previous Article 224. Art. HH6. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — The sowings and plantings of timber on the top or on the slopes of mountains, on dunes, or in the waste lands will be exempted from taxes for 30 years. — Forestry Code 194, 195, 219 s. New Article 226 reproduces the terms of Article 225, except two changes. Law of March 29, 1897. — Fixing the general budget of expenses and receipts of exercise, 1897 (Renueil P&iodique Dallez, 97.4.33). Art. S. Article 116 of the Law of the 3 Frimaire, an VII, regarding the repartition and the situation of the land-tax is modified as follows: "The revenue taxable on any cleared soil which shall be afterwards planted or sown with timber will be reduced by three-fourths during the first 30 years after planting or sowing, whatever may have been the state of cultivation of the soil prior to the clearing. 1. The ministerial decision which refuses an owner of timber the authorization of clearing is not limited in its duration; it is final and lasts with all its effects so long as unmodified or not recalled by the minister who rendered it. — Cr. c, March 15, 1884. D. P., 84.5.281. 2. The prohibition of clearing pronounced under these conditions has the character of a true legal servitude burdening directly the timber itself, and as long as this inter- dict has not been recalled, it keeps all its force in regard to the owner who has made the declaration requesting clearing as well as toward his assigns "a titre gratuit" or "a titre on^reux." Then, if the said owner or his assigns thinks proper to provoke a new investigation in order to be authorized to clear all or part of the timber on which the ministerial decision has been made, he should not proceed in accordance with the terms prescribed in Art. 219 (Forestry Code), but should address directly the minister who has made the decision in order to obtain from him the modification or cancellation of his decision. — Same decree. 3. Par. 2 of Article 214 (Forestry Code) which excepts from the prohibition of clearing "the parks or fenced gardens adjoining houses," must be understood in this sense, that the exception exists only in favor of parks or gardens which are actually both fenced and adjoining habitations. Riom, June 11, 1883, D. P., 84.5.283. 4. Especially one cannot consider as a park in the meaning of Article 224 (Forestry Code) a body of timber around a ch&teau but not fenced; it makes little difference if this timber combines certain conditions of management for the satisfaction and interest of the owner. — Same decree. REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CLEARING OF TIMBER 267 5. And the appellate judge cannot admit the proof of the enclosure of the timber when the lack of enclosure has not been established by a court which has had authority to deal with the subject. — Same decree. 6. The Par. 3 of Art. 224 (Forestry Code) freeing from the interdiction of clearing, timber not fenced, of less than 10 hectares (24.7 acres) area, provided it is not part of another forest which would make up an area of 10 hectares, does not establish any dis- tinction between timber belonging to the same owners or to different owners. Riom, June 11, 1883, D. P., 84.5.282. 7. The accused party has to prove that the timber cleared was of an area less than 10 hectares, and that it was not part of a body of timber of more than 10 hectares area. — Same decree. 8. And this proof cannot be accepted when the contrary is formally stated by a "proc6s- verbal" which must be trusted imtil shown false. — Same decree. 9. The exemption from all taxes during 30 years, established by Art. 226 (Forestry Code) in favor of sowings and plantings of timber on the tops or slopes of mountains is only applicable to the "land-tax" and not to the registration taxes, especially to taxes for transfers due to death. — Req. July 7, 1885. D. P., 85.1.453.^ Certain features of land control (or acquisition) for combating drift- ing sand or erosion deserve emphasis if only to illustrate how demo- cratic the governmental methods are in France when the interests of the local inhabitants are concerned: (1) Where private owners are unwilling to repair damage injurious to the public interests the use of the land can be taken over by the State, the work done and the land only returned to the original owners when they pay the bill with legal interest, or when the costs are earned by the land itself; or in the mountains the land may be condemned, the necessary work done by the State when the owner could secure his ' Speaking of French forest taxation, W. B. Greeley concludes: ". . . When land is planted which has lain fallow for a considerable time, the law provides that there shall be no increase in the assessed value, or rated income, of the ground for a Uke period. Aside from these exemptions, private forests in France are taxed on their current income, a method which dates back to the Revolutionary period. Under the law of 1907 a valuation commission periodically classifies the lands in all forms of culture, commune by commune, in accordance with their relative pro- ductivity. There may thus be three or four types of forest, as determined by their soil and timber species and the value of their products. A net yearly income is then ob- tained for average areas within each type. All forest properties shown on the official survey and plats of the commune are thus classified and a net income based upon the sample tracts studied is assigned to each. The periodic revenues customary in French forests, where nearly all properties harvest some products every few years, are, under this system, reduced to an annual basis which represents the net returns for stumpage after deducting costs of upkeep, fire protection, forest guards, thinnings, planting blanks, and other cultural measures. The tax is levied upon this net income and usually amounts to 8 or 10 per cent, about half of which goes to the central government. The rest comprises the departmental and communal taxes and levies for local roads. It is of interest to note that French forest owners are demanding a straight-out yield tax levied upon forest products when actually cut, the same principle which is generally regarded as the basis for forest tax reforms in the United States. . . .' 268 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION land by repaying the State with interest; as an alternative the private owner could secure half his land by trading the other half to the State to cancel the costs of reparation. Similar methods were applied to communal lands which were really private lands owned in fee simple but with the various interests undivided. (2) Before mountain land can be reserved from use the scheme advo- cated by Government technical representatives had to be passed upon by the village, by the commune, by the arrondissement, by the depart- ment, by a technical and political commission, and by the Secretary of Agriculture who also had to have a decree by the House of Deputies before the actual work could be begun. These details are recited to illustrate the difficulty of securing legisla- tion in France, even if it aims at benefiting the public, if private inter- ests are on the defensive. Even during the Great War the requisition of private timber finally had to be passed upon by a local and a central commission before the requisition could be placed. And in France the adverse interests are always represented on the commissions. More- over these interests have representatives in the House of Deputies who can embarrass the ruling party if injustice is done. References to Legislation. — Special features of French forest legisla- tion are treated in the various studies of this volume; the references are given in the Index under "Legislation." ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND EDUCATION Early Organization. — The quality and efficiency of the French Waters and Forests Service has varied with the history of France. It is not surprising that, in the early days, there was a great deal of graft and incompetency. It was the order of the day. At a period when even the bishops and clergy lent themselves to corrupt methods of ad- ministration it was no wonder that the Forest Service suffered likewise. Beginning in 1554 positions in the Forest Service were sold by the King and from the 17th century employment in the royal forests was heredi- tary. The first mention of regular "conservations" was in 1791, when France was divided ' into 28 conservatorships with inspectors, assistant inspectors, guards, surveyors, and rangers as assistants. In 1817 the Forest Service was suppressed, but in 1820 it was reestablished. Real forestry might be said to have started in France December 1, 1824, with the founding of the Nancy Forest School, the first director being Bernard Lorentz, who had studied under Hartig in Germany. Such foresters as Parade, Nanquette, Bagneris, and Broilliard were the result of teaching by Lorentz. • See Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 308, 325. REORGANIZATION 269 Reorganization of 1882. — On August 1, 1882,' the forest department was reorganized. On that date the departmental establishment was simplified and was reorganized to include general inspectors, conservators, ' "You will find below the text of a Govermnent order, dated August 1, 1882, which confirms the new organization of the Forest Department of which the foundations had been laid by the Minister of Agriculture on the 28th of April preceding. The pubUea- tions of M. Tassy, late Conservator of Forests, have made known to you the spirit and object of this much needed reform. "It was in fact necessary to put an end to the confusion of functions everywhere existing in our department; it was necessary to suppress divers grades corresponding to identical duties as superfluous; and lastly, it was necessary to stop the frequent trans- fers of forest oflBcers, and to accelerate their chances of promotion to responsible posts. "Such are the results that we may be permitted to expect from these reforms. The departmental estabUshment is simplified. It is composed of general inspectors, of conservators, of inspectors, of general guards. It would seem useful to define sum- marily the attributes attaching to these several grades. "General Inspectors. — They represent the superior administration in their tours of inspection in the provinces. "Visiting the different forest regions every year, in frequent contact with the officers of all grades, and thus becoming acquainted with their capabilities, it is the mission of the general inspectors to seciore unity of action in conformity with plans previously agreed upon. "In the intervals between their tours, as members of the administrative council imder the presidency of the director general, they are enabled, from a complete local knowledge, to offer their opinions on the proposals made by forest officers. "Conservators. — The conservator's r61e is to transmit orders and to explain their spirit and object to the officers placed imder his orders. His attributes are not altered, but the control of operations and works, which he used to exercise in concurrence with inspectors, now falls on him alone and will necessitate a greater activity on his part. "The efficacy of this control will besides be facilitated by the early forniation of new forest circles. "Inspectors. — The inspector of forests has now become the chief executive oflScer of the department, and has the initiative and responsibility in all principal forest opera- tions. He prepares and executes plans and estimates of works. He directs fellings, whether principal or secondary, and remains responsible for those, the execution of which is intrusted in certain cases to his subordinates. He' issues all executive orders and conducts all the correspondence. Under the new system he combines the former duties of an inspector with most of those which hitherto devolved on range officers (chefs de cantonment), that is, sub-inspector, general guard, or general guard ' adjoint.' "The execution of all these duties has been rendered possible by the Government order of August 1, last, which increases the number of inspectors from 160 to 240, and at the same time reduces the areas of their charges to about 30,000 acres. "The inspector will be assisted in his office work by a clerk, and in his other duties by a nimiber of subordinates from the secondary forest schools. The latter will serve under his orders in charge of ranges with the title of general guard, and will be responsible to him. " General Guards. — The general guard is an officer whose duties are essentially active, who should be as often as possible lodged in a house belonging to the department, and should keep neither an office nor records. ... In the same spirit it is intended that in order to reward capable and zealous foresters, promotion to certain posts of 270 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION inspectors, and forest assistants.' The general inspectors represented the administration at Paris and inspected the work throughout France. In the office they passed upon proposals submitted by forest officers. The conservator transmitted orders sent him from Paris and explained their spirit and object to the officers under his charge. The inspectors were made the chief executive officers and had the initiative and re- sponsibility for all important forest operations, such as executing plans and making estimates, supervision of felhngs, correspondence, and such work as is now performed by forest supervisors in the United States. Under the inspectors the forest assistants performed field work, but were not responsible for administration. They assisted and supervised rangers and guards. The organization of 1882 did not last long, for in 1883 they returned to the system of "cantonments" managed by forest assistants and assistant inspectors. The general inspectors' positions which had been done away with in 1887 and replaced by administrators under the director at Paris were reestabhshed at the end of 1911, but the number was reduced to two. A r6sum6 of the suc- cessive organizations is shown in the table which follows: TABLE 23 — NUMBER OF OFFICERS IN EACH GRADE 1882 1887 1902 1911 1912 General inspectors Administrators Conservators Chief of personnel Directors and professors Inspectors Assistant inspectors Forest assistants Inspector (assistant) in office Forest assistants, fourth and fifth classes . Forest assistants (office) 39 189 300 213 71 8 "41 1 3 244 234 243 65 3 36 '5 237 228 179 56 3 37 "5 235 223 202 46 etc, Total supervisory force. Total subalterns 234 584 287 554 281 463 280 471 Totals. 818 851 744 751 general guard may be open to them, although they may not have undergone the tests of passing out from the secondary schools. "For the success of the reform, I rely on the zeal and good will of oflScers of all grades. They will find in the new organization better chances of promotion, and wiU be able to devote a part of the time hitherto spent in the office to out-door work. To these advantages I hope that increased pay may soon be added, and in this expectation I am encouraged by the benevolent intentions of which the Minister of Agriculture has already given us bo many proofs. In any case I can announce that traveling allow- ances will shortly be better proportioned to the actual expenses incurred by officers.'' ' For detailed data and names of oflRcers see the Annuaire des Eaux et Forfits, pub- lished annually by the Revue des Eaux et Forfets. SALARIES 271 No change in 1912 in other grades.^ Reorganization under considera- tion. Salaries. — The yearly salary of a French forest officer is low" and has » L' Administration ForestiSre et des Transformations. By "P. F.," "R. E. and F.," pp."^618-620. 1911. These data on organization were checked by Lt. Col. Pard6, Director of the Barrls Ranger School. 10 During the war they have received per diem allowances to compensate for the high cost of living. As a matter of fact these were entirely inadequate and were only $1 to $2 a day. The amount depended on rank. On account of the increased cost of Uving, the following new salary schedule (retro- active to July 1, 1919) was approved by Deschanel on March 13, 1920. The salaries are in dollars at the normal rate of exchange: Class General inspectors Conservators Inspectors Assistant inspectors Forest assistants Professors at school of Nancy "Agents compatable" at school 4,250 3,860 3,470 3,470 3,090 2,700 2,700 2,500 2,310 2,120 2,120 1,930 1,740 1,530 1,330 1,230 3,090 2,900 on clerical duty 1,140 students 770 2,700 2,500 2,310 2,120 1,740 1,560 1,380 1,200 1,020 880 As a matter of fact these salaries at the current rate of exchange are about one-third the amounts Ksted in dollars because to-day (May 15, 1920) it takes 15 francs to equal a dollar. It is interesting to compare the French salaries with those paid in British India in 1916, which are more than double those paid officers in the U. S. F. S. : Inspector general, $10,600 per year. Chief conservators, $8,600 per year. Conservators in three grades, $7,600, $6,800, and $6,000 per year. Deputy conservators and assistant conservators, $1 520 per year, rising by annual increments of $160 to a maximum salary of $2,800, when the annual' increment becomes $200, until a maximum of $5,000 is reached in the twentieth year of service. (While drawing pay up to and including $2,160, officers are styled assistant conservators, and after this deputy conservators.) The provincial Forest Service, recruited from the native population, includes: Extra assistant conservators, $1,000 per year, and rising by annual increases of $80 to $2,200 in the sixteenth year of service. Extra deputy conservators, $2,300 per year, and ris- ing by annual increments of $100 to a maximum of $2,600. By special orders m each case an extra deputy conservator's pay may be raised to $2,800, $3,200, or $3,400, respectively. The subordinate force is paid as follows: Rangers, $200 to $800 per year. Deputy rangers and foresters, $60 to $160 per year. In Burma the pay ranges from $80 to $200 per year. For guards and other subordinates the pay varies, according to the standard of wages in the various provinces, from $28 to $60 per year. 272 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION always been considered too low when the nature of his work is compared with other branches where higher pay is received. The allowances for travel are on a per diem basis and increase with the higher rank. Classes 1 2 3 4 General inspector Conservator Inspector Assistant inspector $2,509,00 2,316.00 1,302.75 916.75 636.90 "231.60 $2,123.00 1,930.00 1,206.95 820.25 550.05 $1,737.00 1,090.45 723.75 $1,544.00 993.95 Forest assistant National forest school student . . " Per year during school attendance. If an agent, such as an inspector or assistant inspector, is attached solely for office duty he receives the regular pay of his rank. Frequently a forest assistant or an assistant inspector who is poor at field work may be given a position similar to that of chief clerk. The rate of pay per year for the subordinate force (pr6pos6s) was (1918): 1. Detailed as clerks: Special (office assistant) 12 3 Rangers $328.10 $308.80 $289.50 $270.20 Guards One class of $250.90 with free lodging. 2. In the forest with free lodging: Special 12 3 Rangers $308.80 $289.50 $270.20 $250.90 Guards 250.90 231,60 212,30 193.00 In addition to this schedule of pay every employee entitled to the forest honor medal for exceptionally meritorious work receives $9.65 a year extra. While a ranger is at the Barrfe Secondary School he receives the full salary attached to his rank. AU officers and svhmdinates receive a pension. Modem Organization. — The modern organization of the French For- est Service (the result of the 1888 decree) is as follows: It is under the Department of Agriculture and is managed by a Direc- tor General who is a Conseiller d'Etat. The different bureaus at Paris are under three conservators (corresponding to branch chiefs in the U. S. F. S.). These bureaus are divided into sections as follows: Per- sonnel and organization, areas, forest instruction, grazing and game, management, exploitation, reforestation, betterments, and fish culture. The two general inspectors are charged with the inspection of the work in all departments outside Paris. MODERN ORGANIZATION 273 France proper is divided into thirty-two conservations. This includes Corsica ^^ which is listed as the thirtieth conservation. These thirty-two conservations are located at the following points: (1) Paris (Oise, Seine, Seine-et-Mame, Seine-et-Oise). (2) Rouen (Calvados, Eure, Eure-et-Loire, Manche, and Seine-Inf6r.). (3) Dijon (C6te-d'0r). (4) Nancy (Meurthe-et-M. Meuse p., Vosges p.). (5) Chambery (Mayenne, Savoie, Haute-Savoie). (6) Charleville (Ardennes, Aube p.. Mama). (7) Amiens (Aisne, Nord, Oise p., Pas-de-Calais, Somme). (8) Troyes (Aube, C6te-d'0r p., Mame (Haute) p., Yonne). (9) £pinal (Meur-et-M. p., Vosges). (10) Gap, Alpes (Hautes). (11) Valence (Ardfeche, Dr6me, Vaucluse). (12) Besaneon (Doubs, Terr, de Belf.). (13) Lons-le-Saunier (Jura). (14) Grenoble (Isfere, Loire, Rh6ne). (15) Alengon (C6tes-du-Nord, FinistSre, Ille-et-Vilaine, Morbihan, Ome, Sarthe). (16) Bar-le-Duc (Arddnnes p., Meuse). (17) MaQon (Ain, Saone-et-Loire). (18) Toulouse (Arifege, Haute-Garonne, Gers p., Tam-et-Gar). (19) Tours (Indre-et-Loire, Loir-et-Cher, Loire-Inf6r., Loiret, Maine-et-Loire). (20) Bourges (Cher, Indre, NiSvre). (21) Moulins (Ailier, Creuse, Puy-de-D6me, Haute- Vienne). (22) Pau (Gers, Basses-Pyr6n6es, Haute-Pyr6n6es). (23) Nice (Alpes-Marit, Var). (24) Niort (Charente, Charente-Inf6r., Vendue, Vienne). (25) Carcassonne (Aude, Pyr6n6es-Or., Tarn). (26) Aix (Basses-Alpes, Bouches-d.-Rh.). (27) Nlmes (Gard, H^rault, LozSre). (28) Aurillac (Haute-Loire, Aveyron, Cantal, Corrfeze, Lot). (29) Bordeaux (Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Gar). (30) Ajaccio (Corse). (31) Chaumont (Haute-Mame). (32) Vesoul (Haute-Sa6ne). At the head of each conservation there is a conservator. Each con- servation is divided into "inspections," comprising a number of forests, administered by an inspector; each inspection includes two or three "cantonments" under assistant inspectors or forest assistants (gardes g6n6raux). The protective force includes rangers and guards; these employees are usually housed by the State. As compared with the United States the Forest Service administration in Washington corre- sponds to the central administration in Paris, but in France there is less centralization. The districts of the United States Forest Service " See Chapter IV, French Forests and Forestry. There are now three new conserva- tions in the restored provinces (a) Metz (Moselle), (ft) Strasbourg (Bas-Rhin), (c) Cohnar (Haut-Rhin). See appendix, page 495. 274 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION correspond to the conservations in France except that the conservations are really one-man positions and are consequently very much smaller than the seven large centralized districts in the United States. On the forests, the inspector corresponds to the supervisor, and the assistant inspector to the deputy supervisor or forest examiner, except that the assistant inspector may be in sole charge of a forest. The garde general corresponds to the forest assistant in the United States; the ranger and guard positions are the same except that in France these officers are in charge of definite areas rather than on special projects, such as large timber sales, as is often the case in the Western United States. In the central bureau at Paris the rank does not differ from the rank on the forests themselves. For example, a conservator or inspector may be in charge of a bureau or section, respectively, whereas in the United States a new position has been created, namely, that of assistant forester or forest inspector, when an officer is given special administrative work at the central bureau at Washington. In the Service des Eaux et Forets the responsibility is essentially personal for all lines of work; in the U. S. Forest Service there is a tendency to divide the work among a staff of specialists. In France forest operations are largely controlled by the working plan; at the time of writing there are no real working plans in operation on U. S. National Forests (see p. 219). There is no position in France corresponding to that of State Forester in the United States. Military Rank. — The corresponding military rank held by forest officers in time of war is as follows : Forest rank Military rank Guard / Private (first class) Ranger Forest assistant I Corporal Non-commissioned officer Lieutenant Captain Inspector Commandant (battalion chief) Conservator Lieutenant colonel The Forest Service uniform is theoretically retained in time of war, subject to changes made necessary by general changes in color or material to conform with the Regular Army standard. It is customary to assign the younger forest officers to line regiments (usually, if not always, to the infantry) and the older men to executive and administrative work of various kinds. '^ Education. — The officers of the French Forest Service are recriated chiefly from Nancy, the official State forest school estabUshed Decem- " For a further discussion of administrative organization see French Forests and Forestry, especially pp. 18-21, 53, 101-105, 123-128. PROTECTION 275 ber 1, 1824.1' It is a 2-year course with extensive field work in local forests followed by a tour of all important regions. The ranger force is educated at Barr^s (Loiret) where there is an extensive botanical garden of exotic species. An excellent forestry course is given at (a) the Institut Agronomique and at (6) the Ecole Polytechnique; students enter Nancy after two years' study at (o) or (b). Guards are trained at Nogent-sur-Vernisson (Loire et Cher). As part of the forestry education and propaganda system there are a number of important societies " and associations which aim at protect- ing and popularizing French forests. These have been arranged in alphabetical order: (1) Acad6mie d' Agriculture de France, of Paris, is interested in all branches of agricultiire and has a silviculture section which specializes in all general forestry ques- tions, such as physiology, development of trees and stands, wood utilization, manage- ment, reforestation, etc. It is interesting to see forestry made an integral part of agriculture. (2) Association Centrale Pour 1' Am€nagement des Montagnes, of Bordeaux, special- izes in restoring mountain areas by improving grazing lands, in creating woodland on poor grovmd, and in reforesting mediocre grass land. (3) Club Alpia Frangais, of Paris, furthers the reforesting of denuded mountains. (4) Comitd des For^ts, of Paris, a syndicate of forest owners, has to do with the improvement of private forest property, and especially its administration and exploiter tion. (5) Soci6t6 des Agriculteurs de France, of Paris, entirely independent of the Govern- ment, is active in aU branches of the theory or practice of agriculture and silviculture. (6) Soci6t6 Forestifire Franpais des Amis des Arbres, which has a section at Paris and affiliated sections in the departments, conducts propaganda for the improvement and the creation of forests, planting of fruit trees, and betterment of grazing lands. It also supplies seed and planting stock to its members. (7) The Soci6t6 Forestifere de Franche-Comte et Belfort, of Besangon, aims to im- prove technical methods and furthers reforestation on uncultivated land and grass land. (8) Soci6t6 Gay-Lussac, of Limoges, organizes a congress each year on "Trees and Water." (9) The Toiiring-Club de France, of Paris, has a section of "Land and Forests" which conducts an active campaign for preserving beautiful forests, reforestation, reclamation of eroded mountains, and general forest betterments. PROTECTION Introduction. — The prevention of damage of all kinds must depend on the practicability and cost of prevention. Logging operations result in unavoidable damage and in war-time logging much of the finesse of European methods had to be waived. But even in France most of the damage is by fire, although only in the Provenge (chiefly from the Italian border to Marseilles) and in the Landes and Gascogne is inten- " See Huffel, Vol. Ill, for further data. " This list was obtained for the writer by Captain Fresson. 276 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION sive fire protection necessary. In these localities the danger of fire is so great that even costly protection has frequently failed and large areas have been burned. Owing to the excessive fire damage in the Maures and I'Est^rel (Var) a special fire protective scheme was first legislated in 1870 and revised in 1893. The main provisions of the law are: The use of fire in any form is forbidden during July, August, and September within 656 feet of forest or brush land, except upon special authorization; at other times charcoal kilns, and other dangerous use of fire, can only be located at the risk of the owner or contractor. Special police powers are accorded both private and public forest officers. Owners of forest or brush land which is not entirely cleared of undergrowth may be required by neighbors to open cleared fire lines 65 to 164 feet in width to be built half on each owner's land. Railroads are also required to clear and maintain fire lines 65 feet from the track; if not completed the work can be done under the direction of forest officers at the expense of the railroads. To encourage road building a subsidy of $932 per mile was granted for suitable roads built within the Maures and I'Est^rel area. (See p. 285 for additional details.) In 1918 and 1919, however, there were disastrous fires in the Landes and in the Maures and I'Est^rel regions because, owing to the war, the undergrowth could not be systematically cleared. The Engineer (for- estry) troops salvaged more than 120,000 cubic meters (about 30,000,000 feet board measure) of fire-killed timber in the Landes alone. The chief fire preventive measures in France '' have been fire notices, look- out posts connected with telephones, tool depots, fire lines (to fight from, since the French hold that " one should never count on a fire line to stop a fire by itself") 33 to 66 feet wide, aad secondary lines 3.3 to 6.6 feet wide, and, finally, cutting of inflammable undergrowth (an efficient means of fire prevention, but expensive). But unquestionably the fire prevention and fighting practice in the United States is on a greater scale and is farther advanced than in Europe; consequently the opportunity for developing forest-fire technique has been larger. Per- haps the greatest lesson to be derived from the intensive protection in France is that with dense and inflammable brush under a pine high forest no measures are reasonably certain unless the underbrush is kept cleared." Even intensive fire Unes will not prevent or stop dangerous fires if there is underbrush and high winds during a drought. In France the protec- tive measures against birds, mammals, fungous diseases, dangers following windfall, or snow damage have not been so intensively developed as in other European countries. There are three main reasons for this. " Jolyet, pp. 581-586. " See also French Forests and Forestry, T. S. Woolsey, Jr., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., for conclusions in Algerian and Tunisian Sre protection. SERVITUDES AND USE OF MINOR PRODUCTS 277 (1) The appropriations for experiments of all kinds have always been meagre; (2) under the favorable climatic conditions usually prevailing in the rich forest regions there is not the same danger and damage as in countries like Germany; (3) with natural regeneration on such an extensive scale, ordinary damage is usually discounted by having such a bountiful oversupply of seedlings or saphngs. The protection of forests against trespass is discussed in this chapter under "Legislation." Forest trespass in such an old estabUshed forest region as France is natu- rally well controlled, but the general principle has been evolved that the good will of the neighboring population is much better than repressive measures and very complex inspection control. French measures for protecting forests from damage have most value to the American forester practicing imder intensive market conditions. Damage from Logging.^' — The best time for logging broadleaves is in the late winter and operations in coppice are suspended in France pend- ing the two months following the rising of the sap, since at that time young trees are easily injured. It is current practice to cut the branches o£f large trees when they must be felled into reproduction, but this prac- tice may be abandoned because of expense and lack of skilled labor. It has been found better to cut the lower branches first. In a fir forest it is considered better to cut the stem into fairly short lengths, since the dragging of long logs is the cause of most of the damage in the Vosges and the Jura. Thinnings in hardwood forests are made in the sum- mer so far as practicable in order to discourage sprouting. Sliding and dragging logs on erodable ground should be kept at a minimum. As a rule, hardwood high forests suffer less damage from lumbering operations than do resinous ones, but the damage is almost always proportional to the length and weight of the stems removed. Servitudes and the Use of Minor Products. — A necessary evil in many forests (see p. 261, "Legislation") is the free use or sale of dead wood, dead stumps, brush, litter, leaves, grass seed, mushrooms, plants of various kinds, stone, sand, heather, or peat. Such material is often given for a few days' work or sold, or the local peasants may have cer- tain rights (or servitudes). While there is real need for certain of these minor products, the use is often abused and frequently results in damage to the forest. The dead wood and leaves make valuable humus and even the removal of dead branches is often deleterious. Even grass is sometimes needed to protect reproduction (see p. 68), and the removal of moss often means the trampling and damage of seedlings. Seed collection obviously reduces the seed supply if not properly restricted, and if it is not carefully supervised results in damage. Such an inno- cent pastime as gathering wild strawberries has often resulted in damage " See La ForSt, pp. 260-305. 278 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION to young stands. Often the undergrowth may be required to preserve forest conditions and the removal of the soil itself sometimes means uncovering the roots and later results in local erosion. To sum up : As a result of experience in France regarding the removal of minor products the concensus of opinion is that it often results in damage to the forest and should be restricted '* so far as practicable. Excessive Pruning. — The removal of "epicormic" branches from the boles of standards (in coppice-under-standards) is often practiced, but French foresters agree that it is rarely advisable to remove branches over 0.4 of an inch in diameter." If practiced at all it should be done in the middle of the summer or in the autumn. Ordinary pruning of green branches to improve the appearance of the bole is generally for- bidden. When pruning must be done the wounds should preferably be covered with pitch, except in the case of maritime pine or trees which heal cuts by resin flow. Sometimes the removal of branches from trees soon to be cut is advisable in order to increase seed bearing. Conifers generally should not be pruned, and even dead branches should not be removed from light-demanding trees since the wind will break them off at the proper time. Dead branches on shade-enduring trees are a sign of bad health. Damage by Birds. — Owls and other mice-eating birds are encour- aged since they destroy rodents; but sparrows and other birds which destroy immense quantities of seed must be combated. Poisoned seed and shooting are the usual combative methods. While it is recognized that all birds destroy insects and should consequently be encouraged, yet French foresters have found in practice that they do not destroy insects in sufficient numbers to actually prevent insect infestations. Insect Damage. — It is proverbial that coniferous trees suffer more from insects than do broadleaves and a pure conifer stand is most liable to damage. It is often necessary to fell or burn whole forests when once an insect attack gains headway. The methods of insect control in France are to first secure the life history of the insect doing the damage and then to be on the lookout for local damage and to at once fell and bum trees attacked so as to " There is always a balance between the forest and the local climate which must not be disturbed. The writer recalls the disastrous results following the drainage of a stagnant lake or marsh near the top of a mountain in the Black Forest (Baden). After the drainage was carried out (a work which aimed at the improvement of the forest) a great many fir trees on the slopes below suffered severely from lack of moisture which they had evidently secured by seepage. » An exception is where the lower branches in the crowns of standards are removed up to a diameter of 2 to 3| inches. DAMAGE BY GAME 279 destroy the larvae. This principle is simple and is in universal use. In the words of Conservateur de Gail: ™ "Local officers are instructed to carefully reconnoitre the trees attacked; fell, bark, and limb them at once, make a fire with the branches and throw the bark with its larvae into it." If the weather is dry and hot there is all the more danger and it is difficult to distinguish the trees attacked from trees damaged by drought. According to de Gail the value of the trees damaged by insects in the Vosges region was in a few years more than $67,550. It is obvious that large insect attacks demand special study by experts, but the for- ester's rule-of-thumb in France is to fell and burn at once all trees attacked by dangerous insects and to restock blanks with species which are resistant. A typical contract clause from the 12th conservation (Besan9on) reads: "Art. 18. Those trees sold which are found to be attacked by insects shall be felled and peeled as soon a-s they have been designated by the local agents; the bark, crowns, and branches unpeeled shall be immediately burned up 'sur place.' If the highest bidder or the contractor refuses to do this work within five days of the extra judicial summons which shall be made, there shall be official proceedings for these costs in con- formity with the provisions of Art. 41 of the Forest Code." Damage by Game. — Wolves and foxes are considered desirable in forests since they destroy quantities of field mice which are so destruc- tive of seed; foxes also eat considerable numbers of injurious insects. Wild boar are favored under some conditions since they destroy insects and mice and wound the soil,^* thus favoring natural regeneration. On the other hand they eat seed and damage seedlings. Deer and stags are on the whole harmful to forests in nibbling tender shoots and bark- ing saplings (especially hornbeam) in spring, and for this reason fenc- ing is often necessary (see p. 77). Hare nibble the bark of young trees in winter and damage nurseries, and rabbits are especially dangerous in coppice and open pine plantations, both in destroying the bark of young shoots and damaging root systems. But, on the whole, if we ex- cept rabbit damage, game causes such insignificant loss that ordinarily it is considered advisable to stock forests so that hunting or shooting privi- leges can be leased. (See p. 326 for returns from shooting.) Squirrels eat seeds and shoots, especially the tender young bark of the spruce, fir, and beech. Mice destroy enormous quantities of seed, especially in artificial reforestation, and store a great deal which is never touched, even eating the tender bark of hornbeam and hazel. Apparently the ™ Une Invasion de Bostriches dans les Vosges, Revue des Eaux et Forte, April 1, 1905. " In the fir-spruce forests of British India the wild boar wound the soil and help regeneration. 280 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION French consider that the best preventive for mice is the encouragement and protection of owls, buzzards, vultures, foxes, and cats. Damage from Grazing. — The French policy is to exclude goats and sheep from all forests without exception and only to allow other classes of stock, such as cattle and horses, when unavoidable, but never in broadleaf stands, where even logging teams must be muzzled when not at work. As explained in Chapter V (p. 69), hogs are sometimes driven through beech forests to wound the soil and assist regeneration, but this is rare, and hogs are never allowed to graze freely. In the United States the grazing of stock, so generally allowed on National Forests in the West, was an inheritance from the public lands adminis- tration. Admittedly much damage results, but at the present stage of our economic development in the West it is a necessary evil in the extensive conifer stands, but grazing of all kinds should certainly be rigidly excluded from our broadleaf stands if serious damage to young growth is to be avoided. Grazing is tolerated in the United States to a far greater extent than in France, and the damage will become more and more serious as the silvics of our species are studied and systematized. Fungous Damage. — The actual loss from fungus in well-managed forests is small. In the fir stands there is some damage from the so- called canker, and one of the most importani objects of frequent thinnings is to remove trees infected with this disease in order to gradually stamp it out and prevent it from spreading to neighboring stands. The good results of this simple operation are evidenced by the small amount of rot in the final fellings. In a trip of more than a month's duration in the Jura the writer saw only two cases where timber cut was badly damaged by rot, and in one place the amount left in the woods did not amoimt to more than 10 per cent of the entire tree. In the remote inaccessible stands of the Pyrenees and Alps there is considerable defect because periodic thinnings cannot be made. In the Landes there is some damage from fungus in the maritime pine stands. This has been controlled by isolating with a ditch the groups of trees attacked so that the myceUum of the fungus cannot spread to the roots of other trees. This method, while still used, is not satisfactory; it is best to prevent the damage by "d^pressage" or thinnings in seeidlings or sap- ling climips, since the damage is usually due to overcrowding. Windfall Damage. — The material loss from windfall is not great, since usually as soon as discovered and before it becomes worthless the down timber can be sold at approximately five-sixths of the full stumpage price.** The damage is mostly in the moimtains, but occasionally occurs « A windfall in the Jura sold in May, 1919, at about five times the normal stumpage price of 1913. This was due to the abnormal shortage of softwood lumber and in- ability to import. DAMAGE BY FROST 281 also in the plains. Especially with shallow-rooted species, such as spruce, the cut should be managed so as to proceed toward the wind- Usually in the mountain regions, where the damage from the windfall is greater because of heavier fellings, the selection felling must be used rather than the shelterwood compartment system. In the high forests under regeneration the windfall has been estimated to be twenty- three times as great as in uncut stands or in coppice-under-standards. Often belts of shelter trees managed under the selection system must be maintained around a forest where windfall is dangerous and zones of de- fense against wind in the mountains may often be maintained. Accord- ing to De GaU,^ on January 30, 1902, a hurricane came from the north- east and resulted in windfall (in the Vosges) amounting to 1,206,755 cubic meters (about 302,000 thousand feet board measure) on a total area of 215,757 acres, and amounting to 5.64 cubic meters (about 1.4 thousand feet board measure), per acre where the average stand was originally about 120 cubic meters (30,000 feet board measure) per acre. Equalling almost two and one-half years' growth it interrupted the sustained yield and resulted in increased labor prices and consequently diminished profits. It is interesting to note that the measures taken by the local conservator were: (1) The suspension of all regular fellings for the year 1902; (2) extension of time for the timber sales of the past year; (3) payment for windfalls in four installments instead of wholly in advance; and (4) more than the usual time allowed for feUing and removal. The average price received for this windfall, including branchwood, was nine-sixteenths the regular price, or a diminution of 44 per cent below normal because of the wholly unusual amount of timber thrown on the market. De Gail says the irregular stand stood the hurricane best, especially where there was a tremendous disparity in the height of the trees comprising the stand. The total estimated loss was as follows: Reduction in price $1,068,932.82 Breakage 68,411.75 Loss through felling inunatuie timber 595,059. 14 Extra forestation charges 17,885. 31 Derangement of working plans 11,580. 00 Damage to sawmilk through excessive use 4,168.80 $1,766,037.82 Damage by Frost. — The damage from hail, frosts, or ice (on trees) is considerable, and apparently there is no known preventive. In January, 1879, 41,666 cords of fuel wood were broken by an ice storm of unusual severity. Late and early frosts can be guarded against by u.sing species which are not easily damaged and by maintaining a pro- " L'Ourage de 1902 dans les Vosges, Revue des Eaux et Forfets, July 15, 1903. 282 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION tective cover for such species as beech so as to prevent damage. Frost cracks, frequent in hardwood forests, let in rot and result in eventual damage. Quick changes of cold are most dangerous and apparently are more so on a sandy soil than on clay, clayey hmestone, or peat. The damage is accentuated with thin barked trees. Damage by Sunscald and Drought. — Thin barked trees, especially when young, suffer from exposure to the fall rays of the sun. It is for this reason that severance cuttings are sometimes necessary; these are merely "the clearing of a narrow strip on the border of a young stand" to accustom the bark to the full intensity of the sun. In the forest of Saint Antoine (Vosges), there were at least eighty red- topped fir trees in one working group killed by the unusual drought of 1911. It is of rather frequent occurrence to see spruce which has been rocked by the wind die from drought because the root systems have been weakened by having the rootlets lose contact with the soil. The damage was less with the selection system than with the shelterwood. Snow Damage. — Snow damage can best be controlled by early, frequent, and correctly executed thinnings. The most resistant French species against snow damage in the high mountains is the cembric pine. A recent (1911) snowslide ^* below Mont Blanc overturned 23,000 trees which brought only 12 francs per cubic meter for logs and 3 francs per cubic meter for cordwood. This avalanche was started by a block of ice''^ and, had not immediate removal of the timber been planned, it would have resulted in the starting of insect damage on the area de- stroyed. The actual physical damage by the avalanche itself was 650 feet wide but the wind pressure on each side of the snow extended it 325 feet on one side and 650 feet on the other; in places the total damaged area was more than 1,640 feet wide. Intensive Fire Damage. — In most sections of France there is compar- atively little danger from fire, the most dangerous portions, as might be expected, being in the conifer ^^ and brush forests of the South where the summers are hot and dry. French fire protection is most intensive in the Maures and I'Est^rel because of the resulting damage and because the locality is an important tourist center where it is very essential that forest conditions be maintained in order not to damage the important pleasure grounds of the C6te d'Azur between Toulon s' and Monte " A method used by French foresters to prevent avalanches on steep slopes is to cut stumps 3 to 5 feet high above the soil in order that the stumps may hold the snow and prevent the starting of snowslides. 25 Most of the damage was due to the unnd caused by the avalanche and not by the snowshde itself. •' 26 For lightning damage there is, apparently, no prevention. " The best center for studying intensive protection is from St. Raphael. In the maritime pine forests of the Landes the student should go from Bordeaux to some center like Arcachon or Mimizai), FIRE PROBLEM IN FOREST OF L'ESTfiREL 283 Carlo. The damage from fires in the Landes is not so great because of the ease of regenerating the maritime pine after fires; the problem of reforestation is far less serious than in the Maures and I'Est^rel coimtry. The law of August 19, 1893, already referred to on p. 262, covered State, communal, and private forests. After establishing the nominal area of fire danger the law provided that from June to September open fire was forbidden within 656 feet of all forests or brush land without special authorization. The pr^fet or the conservator could grant permits for charcoal making, but it was provided that in case of damage the party burning charcoal would be liable. The law also provided that fire may be authorized on forests cut by fire lines, but the responsibility for damage would not be waived. The penalty for building fires illegally was five days in jail or a fine of $3.86 to $9. 65, and the responsibility of children or workmen was fixed on parents or contractors. Forest officers were given police powers, as were private guards after being duly authorized by the conservator or the pr6fet. According to Article 9 of this law: "Every owner of wooded land, forest or ground, covered with brush, which has not been entirely cleared may be compelled by the owner of similar adjoining land to open and maintain on his part along the boundaries of the two contiguous areas a fire line cleared of aU brush or conifers and maintained in a thoroughly cleared state; the width of this fire line, to be established half on each property, shall be from 66 to 164 feet. Its location shall be fixed by agreement between the interested owners and in case of disagreement, by the prifet, with the approval of the conservator of forests." Railroads operating in this region are required to open fire lines and keep them cleared 66 feet from each rail within 6 months from the enact- ment of the law and entirely at the expense of the railroad. The debris must be suitably disposed of and if not it can be done by the Service of Waters and Forests and the cost assessed against the railroad com- pany. By special agreement in exceptional cases trees on fire Unes need not be felled.28 The local mayor of the commune, or his deputy, or the highest official may alone start back fires without danger of civil suit in case of resulting damage. A subsidy of $932 per mile for the network of main line defense roads for this region was provided by the law. The Fire Problem in the Forest of I'Esterel (Var). — According to the local working plan, by Inspector Salvador in 1906, and subsequent official reports the following areas have been burned over: » For a discussion of the problem of entire or partial clearance of fire hnes see French Forests and Forestry already cited. 284 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION Period 1833-1842 1843-1852 1853-1862 1863-1872 1873-1882 1883-1892 1893-1902 1903-Aug. 20, 1912. Acreage burned 11,120 1,169 4,989 35.8 4,381 30 86 435 Up to 1862 apparently the chief cause of fire was incendiarism, but since that time it has been carelessness, railroads, and the execution of improvement work. During the last period given in the above table fires on 297 of the 435 acres burned over were caused by lumbering operations. It is quite significant that out of a total of 21,999 acres burned over during the years 1838 to 1857 the amount was 17,310.16 acres, and during 1858 to 1877 the area burned over was reduced to 4,459.65 acres, and from 1878 to 1905 it was only 229.66 acres. Un- questionably the largest conflagrations have been due to the extreme droughts when even fire lines failed to stop the damage. The disastrous fires of 1918 were due largely to the lack of labor with which to clear out underbrush which is cleared out by day labor. Light burning is never permitted. Much the best example of intensive Federal fire protection is in the State forest of I'Est^rel which is in the Nice Conservation (Toulon In- spection), with a forest assistant residing at Frejus near St. Raphael, Agay, and Le Trayas on the main fine of the P. L. M. Railroad between Toulon and Nice. The total area of this forest is 14,226 acres, of which 10,915 is forested. The boundary (34.7 miles) is marked by boundary pillars, and fire lines, half on the forest and half on bordering land, have been maintained since 1894 for the entire boimdary in accordance with the law of 1893. There are no free-use rights other than right of passage for grazers and this is restricted to forest roads. The topography is hilly, two small mountains reaching an altitude of 2,020 and 1,788 feet, respectively, but the general relief is rugged. The soil is formed from volcanic rocks (porphyries), with some projecting ledges of schists. Red porphyry occupies alone more than two-thirds of the surface of the forest. It produces on decomposition a sandy soil which is arid, easily ^dried up and very permeable. The climate is typical of the French Mediterranean border, with extreme temperatures, hot summers, and mild and humid winters. The annual temperature is 14.5° C. (58.1° F.), minima of 6° C. to 8° C. (42.8° F. to 46.4° F.) are exceptional. The winds are frequent and very violent, the so-called "mistral" blowing FIRE PROBLEM IN FOREST OF L'ESTEREL 285 from the northwest and northeast, but when from the northeast it is often accompanied by rain. Of an average annual rainfall of 35.7 inches, half falls in the autumn and the remainder in the winter or in the spring. There is practically no rain during the summer months. Maritime pine (64 per cent of the stand) is the dominant species. The trees are characteristically distributed in groups with openings caused by past fires and stocked with heather. The cork oak is next in im- portance (26 per cent of the stand) but is not distributed over the whole forest. It is usually found in clumps generally localized at the foot of the porphyry slopes or below cliffs. The holm oak (6 per cent of the stand) is found on the rocky slopes and on steep escarpments along ravines. The aleppo pine is foimd chiefly along the ocean on a narrow zone of schists and on red sands, with some limestone soil in mixture. The chestnuts, the sessile oak, the maple and the nettle trees comprise 1 per cent of the stand. In the first, second, third and sixth working groups, which alone are cut over by regular fellings during the first cutting cycle of 16 years (1903-1918), pines 10 inches in diameter and above, estimated at 204,343 small trees, amounting to 75,909 cubic meters (about 10,000,000 feet board measure), were removed. The forest is divided into six working groups, treated by the selection system, both for the felling of conifers and for the collection of cork oak. During the years 1902-1911, 20,059 cubic meters (about 2| million feet board measure) of wood netted $26,986.03; while 121,695 pounds of bark netted $41,457.56; and acces- sory products, including the hunting privileges, yielded $10,921.87; a total of $79,365.46 or an average annual yield in money of $7,936.55 for the forested area under management. This amounts to 61 cents per acre per year at 0.450 cubic meters (60 feet board measure) of wood and 94 cents for 27 pounds of bark. It is unfortunately true that fuel has practically no value, and consequently the yield from this source is insignificant. The average value of the soil without the timber is esti- mated at $15.44 per acre. The road and trail system is admirably de- veloped as follows: Thirty-five miles of roads 11.48 feet in width, eighty- eight miles of roads 8.20 to 9.84 feet in width, and 129 miles of trails. This road system is cut by two branches of the National Highway be- tween Toulon and Nice, one inside the forest and one along the ocean front, often outside the forest, called "La Corniche." There are no nurseries. Artificial restocking has been suspended since 1895, since it would obviously be poor business to plant or sow until the fire danger is better controlled. The products are sold locally and at Marseilles. There is no grazing nor is litter collection allowed. The lower Kmit of exploitability for the conifers is 13 to 15 inches in diameter depending on the working group. These sizes correspond to an age of 90 to 110 years. 286 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION The cutting cycle is 16 years and the yield is based on number of trees. It takes 12 years for the cork to reach a thickness of 0.9 inch, the ex- ploitable size; it is worked on a cycle of two years. The forest is divided for cork oak extraction in two divisions, each comprising three working groups. The yield for each working group is calculated by dividing the number of trees of salable size in the working group by 16. In each of the six working groups there are also intermediate cuttings by area which aim at thinning young stands which are too dense, removal of damaged or dead timber and the freeing of promising clumps of cork oak. In reality the selection system practiced in this forest is not a theoretical selection of single trees but selection by groups. In addition to the maintenance of the forest houses, roads, trails, etc. (the communications cost about $1,544 a year to maintain), the protec- tion work takes first importance. This comprises a system of fire lines 33 to 98 feet in width along the boundaries, on the main ridges, and along the main roads and trails. This system of fire lines covers 1,332 acres. The fire protection also includes complete brushing, with root extraction, in the compartments where the trees are most susceptible to fire. The fire lines are cleared every 4 years and the brush every 8 years. The fire lines cost $1.69 per acre to clear, and to grub the brush costs $5.02 per acre. In addition there is a complete telephone system connecting all the ranger stations with the lookout station on Mont-Vin- aigre and with the forest assistant's ofiice at Frejus. The expenses for improvement work during the period from 1902 to 1911 were $10,586.44 per year, or an excess of more than $2,509 over the revenue. The per- sonnel for this complete fire system includes two rangers without any assigned district and seven guards. Besides, during 8 months of the year, there are ten special guards for fire protection and for supervising betterment work. During the four summer months these special guards comprise a floating force to see that the law of 1893 is carried out. Of the nineteen employees cited, eighteen are lodged within the forest in eleven forest houses. The clearing of underbrush over large areas is the feature of this intensive fire protection. It means that even expen- sive and numerous fire lines cannot alone control fire under these danger- ous conditions. Otherwise it is certain that the French would never have gone to this unusual expense which has resulted in a deficit. "According to the rules for contractors issued for the twenty-third conservation governing the work in the Toulon Inspection, there can be no subcontract. The con- tractor cannot work intermittently, he must begin within 15 days of the contract award, and the details must be in accordance with instructions and orders and must proceed in logical sequence. "In addition, during the dry season from the first of June to the first of October, he cannot stop for more than a month the work which is in the course of execution FIRE PROBLEM IN FOREST OF L'ESTfiREL 287 under forfeiture without a specific reason. The workmen employed must be sufficient for the work in hand. AH the weeds, shrubs, and plants of all kinds must be taken out by the roots. However the arbute andphyllaria will be only cut level with the ground upon designation by the local guard. The contractor will cut level with the ground all pines which are designated around cork oak and lop others to one-third their height. "Poorly shaped cork oak will be cut back level with the ground and all wood felled or extracted wiU be stacked. The products which cannot be utilized will be piled and burned in openings. Any fire, except charcoal pits, is forbidden from the first of May to the first of October and the location of charcoal will be designated by the local ranger and can be visited by employees or officers during the day or night for inspection pur- poses. Before the contract work is accepted there will be a general cleanup of the area cleared and weeds, etc., which have grown up will be burned. Then a month after the permit for work is issued the contractor must open a brush line 6.5 feet wide around the contract area in order to faciUtate survey. On fire lines, however, this Une will be opened up in the center. In case the contractor refuses to abide by the calculated area a re-survey may be ordered but it will be at the expense of the contractor in case the original survey is found to be correct. All loss to the contractor on account of fire or other natural causes will be at his expense, but in case the area which is being cleared is burned over, a re-estimate of the work may be made and the contract relet." The fire lines are usually 132 feet in width on the boundaries (that is, 66 feet on the State forest and 66 feet on private land), 66 feet on the ridges but with an increased width of 98 feet where the danger is particu- larly great. The fire lines dividing the compartments are usually but 33 feet in width. According to past practice thrifty oak or pine on the fines are usually left uncut, but the tendency now is to clear the lines of all cover, since the needles and leaves falling from the trees on these fire fines often partly destroy their value. An ideal system would be to plant the fines with non-combustible hardwoods.^ The second clear- ing of fire lines cost $1.31 to $2.32 per acre, and the average cost per acre during the years 1906-1908 was $1.70. Ridge lines are almost invariably favored, since they (1) are better for fire fighting, (2) contain less timber, (3) are easier to clear, and (4) faciUtate the direction of fire fighting operations. Side-hiU fines are never constructed except where absolutely necessary along bound- aries. The lines which are cleared every 4 years become covered with rough grass, ferns, and weeds after 2 years, so that they would not stop fire without art,ificial aid. It is only by the clearance of brush and Mbris throughout the forest that crown fires are prevented. "The complete brushing aims to entirely remove and burn the weeds. . . . This will materially improve the growth, assure a positive protection against fire for 3 to 4 years, according to the soil. . . . One need not hesitate to profit at the time of brushing ... by making a first thinning in the maritime pine saplings . . . increases growth . . . and reduces the danger period." *> The American Consulate at Rouen, France, reported that the enclosure of conifer- ous forests with non-inflammable hedgerows of opuntia had been tried out. It is not known by the writer whether the experiment was successful or of practical value. 288 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION The paths are cleared of pine needles twice a year — in October and May — and at the same time the trails are repaired. In the Toulon Inspection the needles fall in July and August during the danger season, and in May a path was noticed which was covered with needles. When fighting fire in this locaUty, even with fire lines, it is usually necessary to back-fire, although occasionally it is possible to station men along the paths or fire lines and beat out the fires with boughs. The night is invariably considered the best time for fire fighting, since there is less wind."* Fire Insurance in France. — In theory there is more need for fire insurance of forests than there is of city dwellings. In practice there is but little forest-fire insurance even in European coimtries where the fire danger is much less than in America because the rates are so high that private owners cannot afford it, while it is the policy of govern- ments not to insure. A number of companies pretend to insure forests but most of them refuse when it comes to the point; they will only insure forests where the danger is so small that there is no object in insuring. Where the risk is great the rates are prohibitive. Ordinarily companies only insure broadleaf high forests, coppice, or coppice-under-standards which do not contain more than 10 per cent of conifers in mixture. The insurance of forests which contain a larger proportion of conifers than broadleaves or where the conifers are less than 10 years old is rarely agreed to, and then only in the north or center of France where the fire danger is much less than in the south. Insurance companies do not ordinarily insure the theoretical damage '' to management following fire or the loss of sprouting capacity. They refuse to insure cover, regeneration, felled timber and bark, and debris of every kind which has fallen on the ground.'^ Typical rules concerning the insurance of forests are: "Based on the average price at the day of exploitation and based upon half of this average price if the forest is under management or on half the usual age at the time of felling if the forest is not run under formal working plan. "1. For the coppice. To value the capital insured by calculating the value of the cutting at different ages according to the amount grown at the time the fire takes place with poUcies fixed for 10 years and a re-valuation at the end of each decennial period. "2. For the reserves. To value the capital to be insured by classes by determining for each diameter class the value of the average tree and the average number of trees *> For Landes methods see pp. 203-205. » For a detailed discussion of French damage appraisal methods see "Incendies en ForSt," by Jacquot. This has been translated and published in English. A critique of (company) forest fire insurance is given by Jacquot in "Assurance des Forfits Contre Incendie." Le Mans, 1909. " "Assurance des For^ts Contre I'lncendie," par M. Deroye, Besancon, 1911. FIRE INSURANCE IN FRANCE 289 to the acre. These classes would be estabhshed according to the size of the trees either by circiunference or diameter. "3. For the estabUshment of stands. To value the capital to be insured by the amount necessary to restock the area forested, supposedly entirely destroyed, by means of plantations. This would include the purchase, transport and planting of the stock as well as the necessary accessory costs. "4. For the humus and dead cover. To value the capital to be insured by the sum necessary to replace the quantity of fertilizing material lost by means of manure appropriate to the nature of the soU. In this amoimt would be included the purchase, transport and spreading of the manure as well as all supplementary expense." The companies demand, for coppice and coppice-under-standards, a rate of 70 cents per $100 applicable to all the insured risks. They require besides a special tax of 10 cents per $100 for the risk of lightning. The French forester would prefer a variable scale of charges according to the risks and local conditions, depending on the vicinity of railroads or public roads, absence or presence of fire lines or brooks, existence of green vegetation, as well as danger from local industries such as char- coal burning. They hold that the risk should start at 50 cents per $100 with increases of 5, 10, or 15 cents according to the supplementary risk of fire. They would also take into account the fire statistics based on the percentage of fires in the neighboring forests managed or not man- aged by the Federal foresters. Companies should charge, as they do not, the same rates for various risks. A special lightning risk should be eliminated in order to simplify the calculations. According to present practice the companies value the fire damage in the case of coppice by a simple proportion based on the actual age as compared with the usual age at the time of felling. Moreover they diminish the amount arrived at by 4 per cent for each year remaining up to the usual age of felling . Finally they subtract the amount of wood salvaged after the fire; for the reserves accordiag to their value at their average age at time of felling, diminished by depreciation from this age at the time of the fire, and further diminished by 4 per cent remaining before the usual age of exploitation; for forestation by the amount neces- sary to plant two plants per tree destroyed without the cost of remov- ing the stumps. French foresters hold that: (a) The coppice burned should be estimated at its actual age calculated according to the amount grown without any deduction made for salvage, (b) The reserves burned should be valued individually according to their value by classes with deductions for salvage, (c) The damage caused to growth should be calculated by the acre according to the amount insured, (d) The damage caused to the litter and humus should be calculated by the acre accord- ing to the amount agreed upon, (e) It is absolutely essential to establish in advance the rate of interest to be used in calculations, and the exploita- 290 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION tion should also be insured except for the timber actually felled, which should be insured separately.'^ The rates prevaiUng in 1912 were as follows : Type of forest Hate per $100 $0.40 0.70 7.70 3.85 2.70 1.95 0.40 High forest, without conifers Coppice, or coppice-under-standards, with not to exceed 10 per cent of conifers in the stand Conifers 1 to 10 years old Conifers 10 to 15 years old Conifers 15 to 30 years old Conifers 30 to 50 years old Conifers older than 50 years It is curious to note that the rate for conifers older than 50 years is the same as the rate for a broadleaf high forest without conifers. This hardly seems fair, but according to French writers there is but Uttle danger in old conifer stands, since insurance is limited to portions of France where the fire damage is at a minimum. There is not a company in France that would assume the risk of insuring aleppo pine stands along the Mediterranean — the risk is considered too excessive. Nor would they insure maritime pine stands in the Landes. The company. La Providence of Paris, charges approximately 20 per cent higher rates than those cited. Judging from the results thus far there Avill never be practicable fire insurance in France jor stands where the fire risk is really great. But it is hoped that the day will come in the United States when forest-fire insurance will be possible for the majority of stands. BETTERMENTS ^ Forest Houses. — Very substantial houses are constructed for the use of French rangers. They are of fire-proof construction, with cement floors, tile roofs, and stone or cement walls. On the large forests the ranger house is sometimes in the center of the ranger district even if it is some distance from local villages. In such cases the problem of transportation is a simple one, since all the roads are suitable for bicycles. Where practicable the tendency is to locate the ranger station on the outskirts of or near local villages. In one or two instances double houses for two guards and their families have been tried, especially in out-of-the- way places, but this arrangement is rarely successful. Roads and Trails. — The roads are generally of two main classes — " A translation of a French forest fire damage calculation is given in the Appendix p. 534. " See French Forests and Forestry already cited. ROADS AND TRAILS 291 paved and unpaved. Paved roads are first-class in every respect and are usually maintained by the State, being macadamized and each length of road being in charge of a separate laborer outside the employ of the Forest Service. A great many forests are traversed by first-class ■ main route national highways which are always kept in perfect condition. The dirt forest road is maintained by a charge on the purchaser of tim- ber, a certain tax being added for road maintenance, usually amounting Fig. 21. — A graded trail, which serves as a compartment boundary, and which can be used by tourists. to about 4 per cent of the purchase price. In the Landes the sand makes cheap dirt forest roads impossible and the roads are merely lanes cut through the forest, covered with branches and pine needles so that the wheels can get traction. Near the frontiers special permission must be secured before building forest roads on account of their strategic value to the enemy in case of an attack. One unfortunate feature of French State forest roads is illustrated by the roads in the forest of Levier in the Jura; here the forest roads were laid out at right angles 292 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION along compartment boundaries whereas they should have followed the contour. This mistake in ahgnment is often encountered. Trails rarely have a grade of more than 12 per cent and are kept in excellent repair. One feature is the provision for adequate drainage and up-keep. The drainage is often secured by placing a cross-piece of wood, 6 or 7 inches in diameter, so that when the water runs down the path it is deflected as soon as it reaches the wooden barrier; it is raised 1 to 2 inches above the level of the path. Trails that are used largely by tourists (see Fig. 21) are marked with distinctive paint that corresponds with guide maps used by the Touring Club de France. Boundaries. — The boundaries of all French forests are accurately marked and some of the former royal forests are surrounded by stone walls. There are usually at least stone boundary pillars properly chiseled and marked in red, giving the number of the compartment working group and the serial number of the boundary post. For example, 54 E 1 would mean boundary post No. 54, compartment E of working group No. 1. In the forest of Risol in the High Jura, the compartment boundaries usually follow roads and trails, but a few had to be blazed and marked through the forest. On each side of the road along compart- ment boundaries there is a letter every 50 yards or so giving the number of the compartment. Where two boundaries join both sides are marked in order to avoid confusion. When it is considered that the area of a com- partment is usually as small as 35 to 50 acres the intricacy of boundary up-keep may well be realized. A favorite method of marking is to paint the border tree with a white square with the letter in red in the center. In the thirty-second conservation (Vesoul) the following specific directions were issued regarding boundary ditches: "Ditches. — New ditches or those repaired will be designated on the ground by the local agent. . . . They will have the full dimensions." Vertical depth, inchea Width At top, inches At bottom, inches 1. Boundary ditches 39 24 20 16 79 59 47 26 8 2. Border ditches. . 8 3. Ditches for drainage 8 4. Ordinary drains .... 4 As an alternative: "And if it is recognized by the local agent that the natvire of the soil prevents the construction of boundary ditches a stone wall may be substituted, solidly constructed, with a height of 39 inches, a width at the base of 31 inches and at the top of 20 inches. If there is no stone the wall may be replaced by an earth embankment 79 inches at the base and 39 inches high." GENERAL SALES PROCEDURE 293 According to Article 19, forest boundary stones must be of good quality and for the outside boundary of the forest must be 31 inches high and 8.7 by 7.1 inches square. They extend 14 inches above the ground and are engraved with letters 3.1 inches high. Boundary pillars of felling areas are 24 inches high by 7.9 by 5.9 inches square. They extend 7.9 to 9.9 inches above the ground, and have numbers painted in black 2 to 2.4 inches high. Maps. — Separate maps, issued for each State forest, rarely give contours but include roads, trails, towns, villages, houses, telephone lines, ranger stations, fire lines, boundaries of forest, working groups and compartments, names of border forests, areas of compartments, alienations, ponds and streams. The usual scale is 1/20,000 or even larger.^ SALE OF TIMBER General Sales Procedure. — There are five main steps necessary before French timber under forest management can be cut: (1) The working plan prescribes the area to be cut over in final fell- ings. Frequently the working plan also indicates, in the order of im- portance, when stands of timber should be cut, but considerable leeway is left to the local officer in charge, since a good deal depends upon seed years, the reproduction, weed growth, windfall, and other unforeseen accidents. (2) The trees on the area where the cutting is to be made are care- fully marked, usually under the supervision of an ofiicer of the rank of deputy supervisor (assistant inspector) or forest supervisor (inspector). After the marking in any forest is completed the local inspector makes a formal report showing the number, size, and volume of the different species marked, and the approximate value. A minimum •price is always established. (3) Announcement is made when an auction will be held and a detailed description of the timber to be sold is printed for general distribution. The data furnished include the location, the estimated products, bound- aries, method of removal, and assessed road charges, if any. (4) At the time appointed for the auction the bidders assemble and each lot or sale is auctioned off by calling the maximum possible price for the lot first and gradually reducing the price until a bidder calls "I take it." (5) After the sale is made and all charges paid in advance, cutting is al- lowed after certain formalities (see contract clauses) have been completed. The French sale on the stump is in reality a sale for a lump sum on the basis of the scale of the standing timber. The French consider that their method of selling timber standing is ^ For grazing, dune, and reforestation betterments see Chapters VI, VII, and VIII. 294 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION more economical and suits the timber purchaser better than the Ger- man method of selUng in the log, since he can get the lengths that he prefers and, as he is in close touch with his local market, his judgment is likely to be correct. (See Appendix, page 498.) Selling the timber standing after the marking is completed is certainly cheaper, simpler, and better than to have the exploitation by day labor under State con- trol. The only disadvantage appears to be the danger of having some- what more damage done in the woods, since it is often difficult to supervise a large number of small operations going on at the same time. For this reason the contract clauses are very specific, particularly where they provide for damages in case sales methods are departed from (see also Chapter X, "Protection"). Upon the day and hour announced for the auction the proper officials assemble and the presiding officer explains the conditions of the sale. If the price bid goes below the estimated value then the bidding is stopped and the lot auctioned at a later sale. In the auction at Pontarlier (held July 4, 1912), the prices for State timber were 2.45 per cent above their estimated value and the communal sales 12 per cent above. If the value of the timber is estimated at 7,000 francs the bidding will be started at, say 13,000 francs, the price being gradually decreased until one of the bidders exclaims "I take it." Where there is competition for timber the shouting often begins before the price is actually read, and where there is a tie the bidding is started over again, or the successful bidder may be chosen by drawing lots. Immediately after the pubHc auction each bidder signs an agreement to purchase. The sureties are usually looked up and ex- amined as to solvency prior to the auction. This sale of $115,800 worth of timber in 102 lots at Pontarher was conducted in less than an hour's time. Practically and theoretically this method of sale seems to pos- sess a great many advantages where the amounts sold are small, where there is keen competition, and where the utiUzation is intensive. Individual contracts, such as are used for large timber sales by the United States Forest Service, reciting in great detail the special felling rules for each individual sale, are unnecessary for the small French sales. The expense of repeating the rules and regulations would prove too great. Instead there are certain general rules which apply to the whole of France, with special clauses to cover necessary departures in each conservation. This is a simple and economical method which could be well copied to some extent in the United States after our sales methods are standardized for each locality. For small sales the French Forest Service has a printed form of contract which only requires the addition of routine data. Estimate and Appraisal. — In estimating a fair price for timber the government allows a 10 per cent contractor's profit under ordinary ESTIMATE AND APPRAISAL 295 conditions and up to 20 per cent where the risk is greatly increased. Although the sale is made by estimate and it is considered essential that very accurate estimates be made of the timber marked for cutting, based on a tree-to-tree count, yet, as a matter of fact, errors in estimat- ing occur. This does not necessarily mean a loss to the State, since bidders usually re-estimate lots they intend to bid on; a low estimate by the State merely means that the bid is that much higher per cubic meter or stere and the error in calculating the presumed products is thus discounted. All the State guarantees is that the number of trees in the size classes is accurate. Since the demand for timber is greater than the supply the competition for State and communal sales is suffi- cient to make the price depend upon competitive bid rather than on the minimum estimated price based on the costs of logging, transport, and allowed profits subtracted from the estimate sales price of the product.'' With the exception of a few large sales in the Pyrenees, timber sales are in small lots usually with intensive market conditions. The location of sales has nothing to do with the demands of the purchaser but is planned in the working plan according to the needs of intermediate cuttings and regeneration. If the boundaries of sales do not correspond to compartments the lines are clearly marked with paint. When there are extensive windfalls or where there are insect attacks special fellings are authorized. In communal forests special sales are often allowed to provide mainly for special improvements, such as a school house or town hall. It is as if the forest were a communal bank, safe-guarding the reserve capital of the inhabitants. There are three main methods of selling timber: (1) By the lot on the stump; such sales are the rule in France for saw timber sales and for cop- pice. (2) By unit of product; intermediate fellings are sometimes sold 5* A sample appraisal follows: Francs Building material: 60 cubic meters at 45 francs 2,700 13 cubic meters at 35 francs 455 Building material (small size) : 300 cubic meters at 25 francs 7,500 119 cubic meters at 17 francs 2,023 Fire wood: 45 steres at 7 francs 315 297 steres at 5 francs 1,485 Charcoal: 126 steres at 3 francs 378 Total 14,856 From which must be deducted the following: Contractors' 15 per cent 2,228.40 FelUng trees 732.00 Cutting of branches 412.50 Fuel and charcoal at 2 francs per stere 936.00 Special work 450.00 Fuel for local officers 108.00 Special registration fees 25.00 Total 4,891.90 Net value of timber (14,856.00 - 4,891.90) 9,964.10 Less 5 per cent for special costs 499.00 Net total value 9,465.10 296 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION on the basis of the material cut and stacked, since it is often difficult to estimate the product accurately in advance. (3) By unit of product after the timber has been exploited by the State; this method is rarely used. Before any timber sale is made it is customary to advertise the lots very widely, and there are strict laws against combinations or agree- ments to eliminate competition. The method of describing the lot to be sold differs somewhat in the different conservations, and according to the material to be disposed of, but as a rule the purchaser is given an exact and complete description of the product, the conditions he must work under, and his obligations for road repair or other charges.^' Orders have been issued to make small sales, because if large only a few of the larger manufacturing companies can compete. The writer attended the sale of 102 lots (each a separate small timber sale) at " Two examples of the data furnished purchasers are given below: (1) In the Oloron inspection a sale of timber to be removed in thinning was described as follows: Thinning on 4.94 hectares, including the felling of stems designated or to be desig- nated. Estimated product — 1 cubic meter of building material, 8 cubic meters of small building material, 80 steres of cordwood, 150 fagots. Boundaries — Correspond to the compartment. Logging — Existing roads. Estimated prices — 12 francs per cubic meter of building material, 6 francs per cubic meter of small building material, 1.50 francs per stere of firewood, 2 francs per 100 fagots. (2) In the Saint Di6 inspection even more data were given in the booklet describing a regeneration feUing. Art. 49 — Forest of Moyenmoutier (first working group), Balthazard Canton, Compartment 13 (Lot No. 1), Beat of, etc. Regeneration felling, 98 trees and 16 poles, to wit: Diameters: 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90 64 spruce: 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 5, 10, 9, 8, 7, 3, 3, 1 33 beech: 9, 2, 2, 4, 3, 9, 1, 3, 1 oak: 1 Estimated product — Fir, 261 meters of sawlogs, 39 steres of fuel; beech, 61 steres; oak and miscellaneous, 3 steres. Boundaries — North Compartment 12, east, same, south, second lot, west, communal forest of Raon-l'fitape. Sawmill — Use of the Federal sawmill Bris6genoux commencing with the day after the sale of December 31, 1910. Francs Charges — 1. Maintenance of roads 250 2. Cutting back beech 10 3. Furnishing 16 steres of beech fuel for the forest house at Balthazard, making and transport being estimated at a value of 45 Total charges 305 Cleaning — Estimated at 5 steres of first-class fuel. Number of trees to hmb before felling, 23. fitival railroad station, 6 kilometers. CUTTING AND LOGGING RULES 297 Pontarlier (Jura) July 4, 1912, composed of dry, diseased, and wind- fallen trees. At this auction the lot estimates averaged 253 cubic meters (about 60,000 feet board measure and 30 cords) and $1,099.33, with average charges for road upkeep, etc., of $41.69. In this case it is noted that the "charges" amounted to about one-twenty-sixth of the sale value; in other words, a tax of about 4 per cent to be added to the sale price; but the bid is, in theory, 4 per cent lower. This method of mak- ing a charge on the purchaser for the upkeep of roads, for the delivery of fuel, etc., is somewhat similar to the requirements made on the U. S. Forest Service purchasers for piling, scattering, or pulling brush on timber-sale areas; the difference is that in France the "charge" is on the purchaser, so he bids that much less, while in the United States the charge is figured in the appraisal. Out of 65 lots on other forests in the inspection of Pontarlier regular fellings the largest sale made was for 747 cubic meters — the minimum 89 cubic meters and the average 289 cubic meters. In the inspection of Saint Di6 the first 50 sales made on October 2, 1910, averaged 221 cubic meters, with the maximum at 370 and the minimum at 116. The material sold both at Pontarlier and at Saint Di6 was almost entirely fir. In the inspection of Oloron, with oak and beech as the chief species, in sales made in 1911 the average number of cubic meters in any one sale (there were 11 sales that only included cordwood) amounted to 157 cubic meters, with a maximum of 732 cubic meters and a minimum of 6 assigned from those sales where there was nothing but fuel cordwood. This shows clearly how the policy of small sales is encouraged in France where conditions make this method possible. Cutting and Logging Rules. — With the sale of timber on the stump it is essential that the purchaser be given very minute directions how the exploitation should be conducted. The central office at Paris accord- ingly issues, from time to time, a printed circular giving clauses and conditions that govern sales procedure and exploitation. The last revision was made May 11, 1912, following closely the issue of June 22, 1903, and May 27, 1909. Part III, "Exploitations," of this circular is of interest, and cutting on any timber sale must conform to these general conditions unless the local conservation in which the sale is made has issued'* modifications (see p. 298) to the general rules; the essentials are as follows: PajTnents must be made in advance of cutting; partial payments are only allowed on long-term sales. Before cutting begins the ranger must be shown the pas^ment receipt. Estimates. — If the purchaser can show an error in the number of trees advertised he is given a pro-rata reduction. General conditions. — Timber cannot be piled outside the sales boundaries without special permission, nor Ls grazing allowed within the felling area. Sawdust and bark must be disposed of as directed. " See also the different methods in long-term sales, p. 301. 298 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION Stumps must be cut with an axe in coppice fellings so that water cannot gather on the stump to cause rot, and in high forests the stumps must be sawed or chopped level with the ground. Where the stumps are removed the holes must be filled up. Surface of the ground. — Debris must be removed or burned as directed and cord- wood stacked as the cutting proceeds. Areas occupied by buildings must be leveled and reforested. Damage to regeneration and to the stand. — Trees so designated must be topped and limbed before feUing and must be thrown up hill so as to cause the least possible damage. In coppice stands old stumps and weed growth must be cut level with the ground. Peeling of timber while standing is not allowed nor can debris or wood be left or piled on regeneration or against standing timber, nor can standing timber be damaged in any way. Penallies. — If reserved trees are damaged or destroyed by the exploitation they can be replaced by similar trees marked for cutting, or the purchaser may be required to pay cash at the rate of 3 cents to 9 cents per inch of circumference for standards, or 3 cents to 11 cents for high forest trees, but the timber so paid for remains the property of the State or commune. Seasons of cutting. — Cutting must be completed by April 1 and corded by June 1 ; logging by April 15, except for trees peeled, which must be cut by July 1 and corded by July 15. Necessary extensions of time may, for a nominal charge, be granted. Protection of forest bettermerUs. — Roads must be maintained and kept free from debris and manufactured products, and all damage to any forest betterment must be repaired or paid for. Protection of cwUing area. — Buildings or betterments made necessary by the sale must be built only on approval of the forest officers, and spark arresters are always required on smokestacks, the piu-chasers being held responsible for damage. Logging restrictions. — Hauling must be over designated roads and timber cannot be skidded on roads, roUed or sUd down slopes, nor should logs or squared timbers be skidded on the felling areas. Miscellaneous provisions. — Three days before the check of the felling area pur- chasers must place stakes near all trees felled to facilitate inspection, the "A. F.," imprint must show upon all stumps or roots. Foreign labor. — Only a specified percentage of foreign labor can be employed on government sales. In imit of product sales the same rules apply and in addition the product must be piled by the price classes agreed upon when a joint scale is made; removal is only after specific authorization. In case wood is removed illegally, double the stumpage price can be levied and in addition punitive damages assessed. Extensions of time for logging costs 1.6 per cent the purchase price of the material not logged for each ten days. Supplemental to these general rules each conservation issues special clauses or modifies general rules which cannot be applied locally. For example, in the ninth conservation, which includes the fir and spruce forests of the Vosges, the use of the saw is authorized for cutting coppice when the stump measures more than 59 inches in circumference. Con- tractors are not obliged to top and cut the branches from designated trees before felling if they are willing to pay all damage for trees injured in any way. FeUing of cordwood may take place at any time during the year and for any species in the inspection of Saint Di6, Fraize, Sen- ones, and Remiremont, and in these districts the time for the removal CUTTING AND LOGGING RULES 299 of the wood is extended to May 10, of the second year following the sale. The right to bark trees is granted in all fellings, but peeling trees stand- ing is tolerated only under special conditions. Firewood coming from felled trees must be made up within 48 hours after felUng. Sliding logs can be authorized by the conservator under exceptional circumstances when it is necessary, but special care must be taken to protect the public and to assume responsibility in case of accident. The contractor is held responsible for all damage to unmarked timber. The fuel to be delivered to forest employees or to communes must be stacked by June 1 following the sale. Foreign laborers can be employed only up to a proportion of 20 per cent. When government saw mills are used special permit is necessary and the contractor must be responsible for the maintenance of the houses and for all equipment. Payments for the use of sawmills are made monthly and the contractor cannot claim any reduction in price because of fire or any other act of Providence. The contractor who, without special authorization, permits manu- factured material to remain more than 10 days around the sawmill will be fined 58 cents a day for each day thereafter. There is a good deal of similarity in the special clauses issued by each conservation, so these will not be repeated unless the wording is of special interest. In the twenty-second (Pau) conservation, which includes the western Pyrenees, the right to add windfalls or damaged trees to current sales is reserved, provided the total windfall does not exceed one-tenth the total original sale. If it does exceed 10 per cent the contractor can refuse to accept the windfall wholly or in part. In the high forest fellings it is provided that the trees marked for cutting can be barked standing. The sliding of the logs is permitted only in the felling areas designated as "mountain felling." Proper precautions to avoid accidents or damage must be taken by the contractor. In the coppice fellings the beech shoots (see p. 94) shall be cut above the stump of the last felling. Contractors may bark coppice trees stand- ing provided they make a circular incision at the foot of each stem at least 4 inches above the root collar. Special provisions are also made for delaying the clean-up on the felling areas to suit local conditions. When sales are made by unit of product the contractor must have the material ready for scaling within 2 months after the felling is completed. The fire wood for forest employees, mayors, schools, etc., will be piled by steres and by bunches of 50 fagots for scaling by the local ranger not later than June 1 of the year following the auction. The reforesta- tion of areas occupied by huts, workshops, and charcoal pits need not be carried out unless specially provided for in the auction announce- ment. This work will be done according to the methods suggested and at the time fixed by the local ranger and in the presence of the local 300 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION guard. Not more than 60 per cent of foreign workmen can be used in the mountain feUing (see p. 302) and not more than 10 per cent for the other felUngs. In the thirty-second conservation, at Vesoul, the special clauses are even more minute. According to Article 2: "Peeling oak. — Permission to peel is granted in all oak fellings. Peeling standing is only permitted if a circular incision is first made around each stump 5 inches above the soil and provided that the felling keeps pace with the peeling. . . ." According to Article 3 : "Method of felling. — Fellings shall be made level with the ground except for clumps of beech stool shoots which must be cut in accordance with the direction of the local agent. The use of the saw is authorized in high forest felhngs for all trees and in cop- pice fellings for trees measuring more than 59 inches in circumference at breast high. The local agent can authorize stump extraction in the reserve felhngs on condition that the resulting excavations shall be carefuUy filled and leveled, that these areas shall be planted before the first of April . . . with the species suitable for the soil, at the rate of two per square yard, in accordance with the directions of the forest agents " According to Article 4: "Cleaning, extraction of weeds, arrangement of brush. — In the high forest fellings, the contractor must cut level with the ground not later than the first of November of the year following the sale ... in accordance with the demand of the local ranger all trees damaged, bent, or injured by felling. . . . The branches from peeled oak may be scattered over the felling area between the stumps in accordance with the instructions from the local agents. In all the felling areas, the heather and weeds (if there are any designated in the marking record) shall be hoed up before the fifteenth of April of the year following the auction, except in the selection fellings and thinnings." Special provision is made for the pruning of branches on the trunks of coppice standards, which must be done before May 15 of each year. Logs or trees can be dragged only in the interior of felling areas and not on roads paved or unpaved except with the express permission of the local ranger. Areas covered with huts or workshops must be leveled and planted at the expense of the contractor before April 1 of the year in which the sale is terminated. Not more than 20 per cent of foreign labor can be employed in the felling areas. Withes will be paid for at the rate of 58 cents per thousand. Very detailed directions are given for the classification of fuel to be delivered to the Federal and communal employees. "The fagots must be 4.36 feet in length and 32.5 inches in circumference. . . . Each fagot must be composed of 10 billets having a minimum diameter of 2 inches; fagots may be substituted by stacked billets having at least 8 inches circumference at the small end of beech, or hornbeam at the rate of 3 steres (3.6 steres — ■ 1 cord) per 100 fagots. . . . In the twelfth conservation (Besangon), which includes part of the valuable Jura region, trees can be peeled standing and the contractor EXAMPLE OF A LONG-TERM SALE 301 "may leave standing parts of the felling area difficult to log" after designation by a forest officer. Unmerchantable debris is burned if in regeneration fellings, elsewhere it is scattered. In coppice stands "oak, beech, ash, and maple seedlings over 2.5 inches in diameter must be pro- tected." Here, bordering Switzerland, one-third foreign labor is allowed. Cleanings are limited as follows: "Art. 15. — The cleanings specified by Art. 52 (see Appendix) of the general ex- ploitation rules only pertains to stems at least 8 inches in diameter on the stump; the products of these operations shall be removed, corded, and stacked without delay at the designated places; they shall be delivered to the highest bidders at the price fixed by the contract, and in the absence of special stipulations at the price of 39 cents per stere and 58 cents per 100 fagots." Such minute and specific directions for all details of forest exploitation can of course be worked out only after years of experience. Specifica- tions are so well known by local contractors and lumber-jacks that it is hardly necessary for them to refer to written specifications which are part of their trade education. The utilization of timber sales naturally varies with the difficulty of transportation and with the local demand for by-products. In the Pyre- nees, on ground difficult to log and with an expensive haul, defective trees (such as would be logged in a government timber sale in the western United States) are merely girdled to make room for new growth, but may be left standing. Logs half or one-third merchantable are often left to rot. Even in the Landes where, during the war, saw timber stumpage prices rose to $16 to $30 per thousand feet board measure, the tops were usually left in the woods, since there was no local cordwood market and transport was impracticable; the same conditions prevailed during peace times. In most parts of France every portion of the tree has a market. For example (according to Captain Kittredge) in the C6te d'Or the market is intensive: "The trees over about 10 inches in diameter are cut into shingle logs, full length to a top diameter of 4 to 6 inches. The stems are hauled off the forest in this form. The material in the coppice and in the tops from 3 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter is cut usually into 52-inch lengths and piled for cordwood. The smaller stems and branches from three-fourths inch to 3 inches in diameter are cut into 26-inch length sand piled. Later this wood is usuaUy converted into charcoal right on the ground or hauled to a nearby hardwood distillation plant. The twigs below three-fourths-inch diameter are bound into bundles with limber twigs and hauled away for local use as kindling." Example of a Long-term Sale. — The sale of 236,000 cubic meters (about 66,000,000 feet board measure) extending over a period of 14 years, made by the Inspection at Oloron in 1908, called for deviations from the regular sales methods of France. It is typical of methods used in Corsica in similar sales. Even before the timber was marked and more than two years before the bidding was called for, the local inspector ad- 302 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION dressed circular letters to possible purchasers in order to interest them in the details of the proposed sale. He called attention to the necessity for a personal study of the timber and explained that after the marking a detailed synopsis of the estimated volume would be furnished them, showing the proportion between sawlogs and cordwood.'' After the esti- mate was made the material to be sold was divided into "lots" and the amount of beech and fir in cubic meters was hsted separately. The stand in each lot was carefully analyzed as follows : Situation, altitude, area. — These forests occupy slopes and are on fairly level ground. The slope facihtatea logging. The total area is estimated at 14,209 acres at an altitude between 1,640 and 4,921 feet. Sizes of the trees. — Ninety per cent of the trees included in this sale are more than 21.5 inches in diameter and 10 per cent from 12 to 21 inches. In the forest of Laune, there are very few fir that measure less than 25.5 inches in diameter and there are some as large as 63 inches. The height of the saw timber varies from 30 to 60 feet. Ownership. — AH of the forests are communal. Rights of way. — There are no rights of way which must be bought. The roads belong to the forests and all the bordering ground belongs to the communes. Logging. — The purchasers can establish such roads as they deem necessary under the direction and with the approval of the Forest Service. This approval will not be refused. The alignment of the roads will be indicated by the Forest Service. More- over, the successful bidder can install necessary railroads but must negotiate with the communes for the right of way outside the forest. The sale. — ■ The sale will be made by public auction. Contract conditions. — The contract wiU follow the general rules (see p. 297) of the Forest Administration subject to certain modifications; special clauses will be drawn up to cover the sale. Price. — The estimated value of the timber is as follows: Lot No. 1, a maximum of 1.15 francs per cubic meter (about 78 cents per thousand board feet). Ijot No. 2, a maximum of 1.50 francs per cubic meter (about $1.01 per thousand board feet). Tx)t No. 3, a ma.\imum of 1.25 francs per cubic meter (about 83 cents per thousand board feet). Cost of logging. — Unfortunately lumber-jacks will have to be imported since there is no local labor available. It is estimated that the cost of felling will be about 19 cents per tree with an addition of 19 cents per stere for eordwood. Unfortunately fire wood is not in demand locally, but perhaps small quantities can be sold at 6.50 francs per stere delivered (about $4.50 per cord). Therefore the balance of the wood will have to be made into charcoal. Probably sufficient labor can be imported from Spain or from the Vosges. Cost of transportation. — Much of the transport in the forest can be by mules, oxen, and cattle. The ox is better for road work and the cattle better for work in the forest itself. The exact cost of transportation will vary according to the distances, the roads, difficulties of ground, etc., so no further exact data can be given. A good cow suitable for logging purposes costs locally from $58 to $68, while a mule costs $77 to $87. Merchantable material. — Fir is in great demand and brings good prices, since Bay- onne is only 87 miles from Oloron by railroad. At Oloron the local price is 50 francs " In this locality it was estimated that 100 cubic meters of fir would equal 86 cubic meters of building material and 21 steres of fuel; 100 cubic meters of beech would equal 82 cubic meters of building material and 27 steres of fuel. To reduce round timber to square timber purchasers were advised to multiply by 0.7854. It is likely that the policy of making large long-term sales will be abandoned by the French government. EXAMPLE OF A LONG-TERM SALE 303 per cubic meter au carree ($23 per thousand board feet). The beech, which is gener- ally used for ties, sells at Oloron or at Maul6on at 48 cents each or 25 francs per cubic meter for squared timber ($11.50 per thousand feet). There is a good export demand in Spain where the beech is usually sent to Barcelona, the center of the industry. De- tailed data can be secured at this point. Profits. — As already explained, the maximum price will probably be 1.15, 1.50, and 1.25 francs for the three lots, or an average of 1.28 francs per cubic meter (85 cents a thousand feet). The material being about two-fifths fir and three-fifths beech. Con- sidering 86 per cent of the fir and 82 per cent of the beech as building material, this means a net cost of 30 cents per cubic meter of saw timber or 38 cents for squared lumber which would bring at Oloron or Mauleon an average of about $6.76. These calculations upon which the estimated profit and stumpage price is based seem simple and primitive compared with the minute calcu- lations in the United States National Forest appraisals. Nothing is said of the cost of equipment, interest on the capital used, depreciation of equipment, nor cost of supervision. Rule-of-thumb methods are followed, and in the appraisal the contractor's profit was figured at 20 per cent. This sale was finally made in 1908, and it is interesting to note that the sale price was 19 cents per cubic meter (about 67 cents per thousand board feet) instead of the 25 cents (85 cents per thousand) estimated in the appraisal. According to the special contract conditions the sale, as finally made, covered 10,089 acres, comprising first-class merchantable material, but in part defective, damaged, diseased, or dying trees which were marked for removal for the improvement of the stand. These de- fective trees were partly girdled and partly felled in the actual operations, the choice being left to the purchaser. As in small sales in France, all the marking was completed prior to the formal auction. The sale was made in one lot, with provision for the division of the proceeds between the various communes interested, based on the volume of merchantable material marked in the forests owned by each, prorated according to the average rate received in each forest. At the auction the minimum pur- chase price was placed at $37,635 and was decreased by jumps of $193 imtil a bidder took it. The payment was made as follows : Within 10 days of the auction the successful bidder had to pay 10 per cent of the total purchase price and the remainder in twenty-four equal installments payable quarterly on March 31, June 30, September 30, and December 30 of each year, beginning with September 30, 1908, and ending June 30, 1914, inclusive. A discount of If per cent per year was provided for if payments were made in advance of their being called for. The final date for removal of the timber was fixed at December 31, 1922. The compartments could be cut over in the order desired by the con- tractor, and more than one compartment could be cut at one time. Three years were allowed for felling each compartment after cutting once began. If the imprint of the official marking hatchet shows a tendency to disappear toward the end of the sale the trees already marked will be 304 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION re-marked by the Forest Service in collaboration with the contractor or his representative. Special timber not included in the sale and used for logging was to be charged for at the sale rate of 19 cents per cubic meter (67 cents per thousand feet). No claim can be allowed for ground which proves impracticable to log. Wood used for improvement of the roads or any other logging purpose must be purchased at the regular price. The contractor must within 6 months after the expiration of the sale remove all machinery and furnishings; but houses, workshops, or permanent betterments will become the property of the communes upon whose ground they are situated. No allowances were to be made for windfalls or other damages which may occur during the duration of the sale. Special charges aggregating $6,214.60 were made for improvements and roads used by the contractor and he had to dehver about 18 cords of fuel per year to the local commune. There are certain featiu'es of this sale which should be emphasized: (1) The stumpage price of 67 cents per thousand is far less than the stumpage for similar timber in the western United States. (2) The methods of logging were wasteful; the French policy was that the timber had been sold and the purchaser could use it or waste it as he desired. Marked unmerchantable trees could be merely girdled. (3) Permanent improvements, after the sale is completed, become the property of the commune. (4) No attempt was made to adjust the stumpage price during the sale period of 14 years; the price of 67 cents held during the entire period. The French felt that rise in timber values would mean proportionately higher operating costs. (5) The contractor's profit allowed was 20 per cent as contrasted with 10 per cent in ordinary sales. Stumpage Prices.*' — The stumpage values in France under the intensive management that exists are of interest to the American forester because they give a rough indication of the prices that may be secured in this country after the supply of cheap virgin timber is exhausted. But " The prices paid for manufactured lumber by the French Woods Service during 1918-19 were approximately as follows: Species Claas of product Francs per cubic meter Dollars <■ per thousand hoard feet Hardwoods Spruce-fir Boards, etc Boards, etc Boards, etc 180± 160± 140± 79 70| 611 Pine " Exchange at 5.45 francs to 81. But to secure offerings at these low prices the product had to be requisitioned for STUMPAGE PRICES 305 in making the comparison it must be borne in mind that no one can pre- dict what the future conditions will be, and whether changes in building methods will materially modify the demand for lumber, wood products, and timber. Then, too, what will be our cost of production and carrying charges? It is most surprising to find French communes prior to 1912 selUng good saw timber in the Pyrenees at 67 cents per thousand board feet, Army use. According to the French Forest Service the correct commercial prices in March, 1919, were as follows: Species Class of product Francs per cubic meter Current dollars " per thousand board feet Fir-spruce Poplar Oak Beech Ash Boards and dimension Boards and dimension Boards and dimension Boards and dimension Boards and dimension Boards and dimension 250-300 225 300-350 250 350-400 200-220 100-132 99 132-154 110 154-176 Elm 88-97 " Exchange at 5.45 francs to $1. These prices are excessive and are due to an acute shortage and to speculation, but in 1920 were still higher. The approximate prices asked by the American E. F. on the liquidation of its stocks in France are as given in the table below. The main reasons for these comparative low prices, in the face of a large demand and acute shortage, were because of (1) need for quick sale, (2) difficulty of transportation, and (3) faulty manufacture as judged by French standards. Product Unit Price at railroad, francs per unit Approximate equivalent dollars " per thousand board feet Hardwood logs Spruce and fir logs, poles, and piles Spruce and fir boards Pine logs Pine lumber Pine props Standard-gauge hardwood ties.. Standard-gauge softwood ties. . . Hardwood fuel Softwood fuel Cubic meter. Cubic meter. Cubic meter. Cubic meter. Cubic meter. Linear meter Each Each Stere Stere 82 75 160 55 130 0.90 10.40 6.50 25 15 52J 70 35 57 0.049 per linear foot 57 36 16 per cord 10 per cord " Exchange at 5.45 francs to $1. In the final settlement these prices were reduced 10 to 20 per cent (or more for fuel), but even as they stand they are low even for very large wholesale operations. Until the market becomes stabilized by steady imports the prices will vary, owing to short- age of supply and to speculation. In France the stumpage price represents a larger proportion (often one-third to one-half) of the final market price than it does in the United States. See also " Private Forestry in France,'' page 320, for additional data on stumpage prices. 306 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION simply because the logging and transportation was difficult, when similar timber in the Vosges and Jura on accessible forests was, in 1912, worth $9 to $12 and more. Such a divergence in price seems extraordinary when one compares this price of 67 cents in the Pyrenees near a good market with the $2 to $3 received for accessible timber difficult to log in our western National Forests. Perhaps the American has solved the prob- lem of cheap large-scale railroad logging better than the French. As already emphasized in other chapters, cordwood values of two cen- turies ago have decreased and saw timber, especially softwoods and oak, has increased. During the war there was much speculation in timber- lands, labor was abnormally high, the value of the franc ^' had deprecia- ted, and transportation was extremely difficult, there was no real compe- tition with import timber from foreign markets because it could not be transported; all tonnage was requisitioned by the Allies solely for war needs. Then, too, many French merchants wanted to have their capi- tal in timberlands rather than in currency or loans. Before reviewing average local prices it is well to emphasize some of the shortcomings and difficulties of giving average price figures. As in other countries there are "variables" which affect the price of all classes of timber — distance from market, cost and difficulty of logging, kind of cutting (clear cutting or light thinnings), cultural and betterments costs, other economic difficulties and expenses, species, size, quaUty, local and general demand as compared with the local and general supply, and cost of imported timber. Then, too, abnormal or unusual sales, such as occur after heavy windfall, bring less than regular sales. Quite frequently a local shortage, as in Haute-Savoie during the war, leads to unusual values ^ because in France there are distinct local markets. This is surprising considering the small size of the country and the comparatively short hauls necessary to enter the general market. It is partly due to the effect of permanent forest production which protects and maintains small local industries and prevents the local market from being exhausted. Under normal conditions the price of French stumpage is the market price for the manufactured product less the cost of cutting, logging, transporta- tion, manufacture, and contractor's profit. In most sales the auction price must be increased by so-called charges for road repair and damage to other forest betterments and growing stock, which in the aggregate aver- ages 5 per cent of the stumpage cost. The French usually distinguish three classes of product: (1) Fuel, (2) saw timber, and (3) miscellaneous products (such as bark). The price of cordwood depends on its size; the " With a gold reserve of only 16 per cent the French paper currency is really promis- sory notes issued by the French Government with no date set for Uquidation. " Spruce and fir timber on steep rocky slopes, difficult to log sold in 1918 for over 100 francs per cubic meter or over 863 per thousand feet board measure for the stump- age secured. STUMPAGE PRICES 307 standard length is now 1 meter (3.4 feet). While diameter classes may differ in various parts of France the following is the usual classification: Class Size and specification Usual price ratio " on basis of store Quartier Over 4.7 inches in diameter outside bark at small end. Split wood 100 Rondin ' From 1.97 inches to 4.7 d.o.b. Round 66 From 0.98 inches to 1.97 d.o.b. Round 33 Fagots Less than 0.98 inches d.o.b. Small branches Small "fagots" or bundles of twigs Charcoal . . . Made mostly from charbonnette " Subject to wide variation. * Sometimes two classes of rondin are distinguished (a) small rondin and (6) large rondin. The price of saw timber (bois d'ceuvre) also varies according to the classification of the product : Class Size and specification Usual price ratio on basis cu. m. DniR Hp Sprvipp or fionstriifition rSee footnote 45^ 100 Bois d'Industrie or tra.va.il (See footnote 45) 50 Bois chauffaee (See preceding table) 15 The minimum diameter of saw timber varies considerably. Oak and beech is used to 9.8 inches for ties, softwoods to 5.9 for saw timber, and 2.7 to 3.1 inches for mine props. In the "log" and lumber market prices are usually for round logs (grume or au reel) but may also be for: Squared timber with some wane (au carrte) equal cubic volume of round" log X 0.7864. Squared timber normally without wane or sap (au i e dSduit) equal cubic volume of round log X 0.5026. Squared timber without wane but with some sap (au i e d^duit) equal cubic vol- ume of round log X 0.5454. Squared timber without wane but with all sap (4 vive arSte) equal cubic volume of round log X 0.6366. The ratios between the different methods of commercial sales are as follows: ** *> "Volume grume" is the cubic volume of a round log based on a cylinder with the diameter equal to the middle circumference of the log; it is also called "au r^el" when referring to standing timber or stumpage. For further details see Cubage des Bois. R. Roullean., Paris, 1905. « Camet — Agenda du Forestier, Besan^on, 1902, p. 92. 308 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION From Au i sans deduction Aui sans d£duit Aui deduit Grume Clogs) X vive ardte Meter cube grume (round logs) . . . Meter cube grume au J sans d6duit Meter cube grume au 5 d^duit Meter cube grume au J deduit Meter cube grume au -^ 0.7854 'i!4466 1.5625 1.2337 0.5454 0.6944 o.om 0.8567 0.5027 0.6400 0.9216 '67896 'i!2732 1.8335 1.9895 1.5708 0.6366 0.8106 1.1672 1.2665 In other words 100 cubic meters of logs are equal to 78 cubic meters of logs squared according to the | rule, or 54 cubic meters by the | rule. Inspector Montrichard has invented a slide rule by which can be read the contents of a log (a) grume, (&) au j, (c) au i, or (d) au J of known diameter or circumference and length. The principle of a comparison of log rules by the use of a slide rule has wide application in the United States. There are frequent misimderstandings, however, because in one lo- cality logs are sold round (or " au r^el ") while elsewhere the prices quoted are for squared timber "au carr6e," and because of different methods of measurements (see p. 207). Thus to speak of French stumpage rates in exact terms it would be necessary to give at least the data enumerated below; obviously in general averages such minute data are out of the question: (1) Region (and forest), (2) haul, (3) species, (4) kind of fell- ing (and area to be cut over), (5) charges, (6) size of trees, (7) per cent (a) saw timber and (6) cordwood. The forests of the Vosges, Jura, and Savoie are comparable to the coniferous forests of Vermont and northern New Hampshire except that (1) the road system in French forests is already constructed and logging is therefore that much cheaper, (2) the cutting removes a smaller per- centage of the stand, and (3) there is a better market and therefore more competition for the stumpage. To secure an exact line on French stump- age rates on timber in these fir-spruce forests logs were scaled on timber sales in 1912, resulting as follows: (o) In a good stand of silver fir (final felling) 1.1 miles haul to tramway and 10.5 miles from Pontarlier, ten logs averaging 16 inches d. i. b. and 13^ feet in length sold for 28 francs per cubic meter; 6.6 cubic meters sold for $36; the scale of these logs by the Scribner Decimal C rule amounted to 1,350 board feet or $26 per thousand feet board measure on the stump. Adding 5 per cent for all charges the rate is $27.30 per thousand feet board measure. (ft) In the forest of G6rardmer with a wagon haul of 3 to 4 miles to a broad-gauge station three-fourths spruce and one-fourth fir (intermediate fellings) brought only 18 francs per cubic meter. The sale of a representative number of logs (averaging 6 to 11 inches d. i. b.) by the Scribner Decimal C rule netted $21.40 per thousand; which increased 5 per cent for charges is $22.47 per thousand feet board measure. In other STUMPAGE PRICES 309 sales in the same forest the rates (based on an actual scale of the logs) were (1) (average d. i. b. 4.4 to 15.6 inches) $22.17 per thousand feet board measure or $23.27 with 5 per cent added for charges; (2) (average d. i. b. 6.4 to 11.5 inches) $19.73 and with 5 per cent added $20.72. (c) In the rich fir forest of Noirfoiont secondary feUings brought $21.62 per thou- sand feet, or $22.70 with the 5 per cent added. Here the haul was longer than in G6rardmer. (d) In the Jura (forest of Frivelle) small pulpwood on the stump from thinnings was $3.47 per cord. (e) In the forest of Risol (Jura) stumpage was about $19.30, or with 5 per cent added $20.26. if) In the forest of Mouthe (Jura) fine timber near the road cut in final feUings brought $27.50 per thousand feet board measure, or with 5 per cent added $28.87. (9) In the forest of Chotel (with a 26-mile downhill haul for the lumber) the price for fir was $24 to $25.20 a thousand. This high price was due to competition between local mills. From the foregoing figures it is safe to say that in 1912 the best fir-spruce stumpage, easy to log, sold for $20 to $25 a thousand feet board measure or four to five times the then current price in northern New England which was between $4 and $8 per thousand feet board measure. Since the war stumpage prices in France have increased to a greater degree than in the United States. A comparison of stumpage rates *^ in the various regions, on the basis of average sales gives a lower price and is less exact but nevertheless of interest. In the table which follows the ratio between thousand feet board measure and cubic meters has been varied according to the estimated size of the timber; this explains why 60 francs per cubic meter of fir is less than 60 francs per cubic meter of oak and why 55 francs per cubic meter in the C^vennes is more than 55 francs in the war zone. Maritime pine which takes 4 cubic meters to the thousand board feet is relatively more expensive (per cubic meter) than fir which takes 3 cubic meters to the thousand. The same applies to small Scotch pine. <5 For statistical purposes it is presumed that in mature conifer stands cordwood will comprise 10 per cent of the yield (tmder French logging conditions) and in mature hard- wood forests 20 per cent; the amount of cordwood varies, but to simplify the calculations the average saw timber rates have been merely increased 10 per cent and 20 per cent; this provides for the loss in saw timber but allows nothing for the 10 per cent to 20 per cent of cordwood stumpage received by the purchaser in lieu of that much saw timber. The normal rate of exchange has been used. "Boise d'Oeuvre" or timber included: (1) "Bois de service or de construction" includes (o) "Charpente" or construction timber of considerable size, the exact dimen- sions varying with the different markets; (6) ties; (c) telegraph poles; mine props. (2) "Boise d'Industrie ou de Travail " may be (o) "sciages," boards, and scantlings of 310 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION TABLE 24. — COMPARISON OF PRE-WAR AND WAR STUMPAGE PRICES" FOR SAW TIMBER PAID BY THE A. E. F. Chief of species Average pre-war prices, francs per cubic meter dollars per thousand Average war prices 1918-19 Begion Francs per cubic meter Approximate dollars per thousand Vosges Conifers — 22 20 18 11 15 30 to 45 14.00 12.75 11.45 9.30 12.70 24 to 36 55 58 37 28 33 35 30 70 55 60 55 41 34.75 Fir .:■■.■.'.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■. 37.00 Central Fir 23.50 24.00 C^vennes.. . Brittany AUier C6vennes. . . Brittany Allier " 28.00 28.70 Broadleaves — Oak — beech 25.50 47 to 32 War Zone... Vosges " Based on data collected by the American Delegate, Interallied Timber Executive Committee, Paris, France. » Chiefly Haute-Marne, Meuse. In this connection see the stumpage rates given on p. 320, Chapter XL It is especially with hardwood logs that the price per cubic meter varying length, width, and thickness according to local species and market; (6) "Bois de fente" cooperage stock, etc. As an illustration of French lumber grades the following "Sciages du Jura" is given: French term Width, inches Thickness, inches 12.80 11.7] 10.65 4.26- 7.48 4.26-12.80 4.26-12.80 8.74-12.80 4.26- 7.48 8.74^12.80 4.26- 7.48 0.98-1.08 Pla.iiches a.licn^s. first cla.ss 0.98-1.08 0.98-1.08 Planches align^s, first class 0.98-1.08 Planches aliGrn^s. second, class. 0.98-1.08 0.98-1.08 Lambris align6s (rem.) first class Recette. . . Lambris align^s, second class (large 6troite) . . Lambris align6s (minces) first class Recette . . Lambris. second class Qarce 6troite) 0.71 0.71 0.52 0.52 0.42-0.71 Planches brutes 1.08-1.60 Lambris brutes 0.52-0.71 Dauves de long de 2 pi (0.65) a 4 pi (1 . 30) ... . Jjettes et liteaux. Long 3a 12 pieds 3.1&- 5.32 0.71- 1.60 0.71-0.98 0.71-1.08 Types les plus usit6s: 8/18, 12/8, 12/12, 12/15, 12/18, etc Lames-parquet (length variable) 0.04- 0.07 0.71-1.08 STUMPAGB PRICES 311 varies widely with the size. For example the official price for oak in the Meuse department in October, 1918, was as follows: Diameter, breast height, inches Francs per cubic meter Approrimate dollars per thousand 7-11 24 36 54 72 21 11-17 26 17-24 36 Over 24 42 These prices are about 30 per cent to 50 per cent over the pre-war rate. The price of beech is usually about two-thirds that of oak and the larger the size the more marked is the difference in price. Before the war cordwood was difficult to dispose of and all the small material (charbonnette) was made into charcoal before it could be moved from the forest. During the war the coal shortage doubled and tripled prices. In the Haute-Marne the averages for all State hardwood-fuel sales on the stump were as follows: 1914 1917 1918 Class of product Francs per stere Approx. dollars per cord Francs per stere Approi. dollars per cord Francs per stere Approx. dollars per cord Quartier 5.30 3.10 0.35 3.70 2.10 0.24 7.80 5.70 1.20 5.40 4.00 0.83 15.00 11.00 5.00 10.40 7.60 3.50 These prices are typical of average conditions in France; most of the salable fuel comes from the tops of hardwood trees or from coppice. Softwood cordwood has but little value in the Landes or in the mountains. Near the large towns the prices in the above table may be largely ex- ceeded. The American E. F. settled most of its cordwood purchases from State or communal forests at 9 francs per stere for quartier, 6 francs for rondin, and 3 francs for charbonnette. A large purchase in the C6te d'Or was recommended for settlement at a flat rate of 5.50 francs per stere ($3.80 per cord). This was about double the 1914 rates.'** There has been much speculation regarding future French prices. Unquestionably in the general market prices will fall to the level estab- lished by the cost of imports and will be below war rates, but much " It should be noted that the early 1919 exchange rate was 5.80 francs to one dollar; toward the end of 1919 it was 10 to 11}^ francs to the dollar, but all conversions have been made on the normal value of the franc, 19.3 cents. 312 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION higher *' than the 1912 price level because the demand for timber will exceed the supply for years to come. For the next few years the prices may go even higher because of the depreciation of the franc and because of unrestrained speculation. Additional original data on stumpage prices during the past century has been supplied (March 27, 1920) by the Directeur G6n6ral des Eaux et Forets, from the official archives at Paris, but M. Dabat states in his letter of transmittal : " .... I must call your attention to the fact that smce the price of timber is not under official control, the figures below have only a relative value . . . they only indicate .... and are not exact data on the price variations during the long period examined." " According to data furnished by Colonel Sutherland, C.B.E., the average market price of pitwood, "ex ship Cardiff" has been as follows: Year Dollars per ton Year Dollars per ton 1910 4.70 1915 8.76 1911 5.31 1916 11.22 1912 5.39 1917 16.79 1913 5.49 1918 15.86 1914 5.56 1919 15.86 to 13.42 The dollar has been figured at the normal rate of $4.87 to 20 shillings. It is significant that the English coal mines are withholding their orders and are now re- fusing to pay the high war rates, and on January 1, 1920, report the market " glutted." A ton is equal to about one cubic meter; it takes 3.6 stacked cubic meters to make one cord. The relative imports (chiefly from France) from the " board of trade returns of imports of pitprops and pitwood " in million carloads are as follows: Year Million loads Year Million loads 1902 2.0 1911 2.9 1903 2.3 1912 2.9 1904 2.3 1913 3.45 1905 2.1 1914 2.5 1906 1915 2.1 1907 2.4 1916 2.0 1908 3.0 1917 1.0 1909 2.6 1918 0.7 1910 2.8 1919 1.5 STUMPAGE PRICES 313 (a) State Forest of Trongais (AUier), oak saw-timber stumpage prices: Year Franca per cubic Approx. dollars per meter 1,000 board feet 1820 34.00 26.00 1830 36.50 28.00 1840 43.00 33.00 1850 30.00 23.00 1860 51.00 39.00 1870 53.00 40.75 1880 32.00 24.50 1890 42.00 32.25 1900 60.00 46.00 1910 70.00 53.75 1920« 170.00 130.50 « Estimated. (b) State Forest of Ban d'Etival (Vosges) fir saw-timber stumpage prices: Year Francs per cubic Approx. dollars per meter 1,000 hoard feet 1835-1870 10.00 7.00 1871-1889 13.50 9.50 1890-1899 15.00 10.50 1900-1909 20.00 14.00 1910-1913 22.00 15.50 1918 60.00 42.25 (c) State Forest of G6rardmer (Vosges), fir saw-timber stumpage prices: Year Francs per cubic meter Approx. dollars per 1,000 board feet 1870-1879 1880-1889 1890-1899 1900-1909 1910-1913 1918 9.50 11.00 11.50 14.00 20.00 60.00 6.75 7.75 8.00 9.75 14.00 42.25 314 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION (d) G6rardmer Region (Vosges), hardwood cordwood stumpage prices: Year Francs per atere Appiox. dollars per cord 1830-1839 5.00 3.50 1840-1849 6.00 4.20 18-50-1859 5.50 3.85 1860-1869 5.50 3.85 1870-1889 6.00 4.20 1890-1899 6.00 4.20 1900-1909 5.60 3.92 1918 16.00 11.20 (e) Port of Clamecy (Yonne), coppice cordwood ready to load on canal boats: Year Francs per stere Approx. dollars per cord 1817-1827 1837-1847 1857-1867 1877-1887 1897-1907 1913-1918 10.30-14.50 11.00- 8.00 10.00- 9.00 12.00-11.00 10.00-12.50 9.50-25.00 7.21-10.15 7.70- 5.60 7.00- 6.30 8.40- 7.70 7.00-8.75 6.65-17.50 A study of these figures shows : (1) There have always been higher saw-timber stumpage prices during and after great wars; and that investors who placed their money in forests in 1914 would have been spared the losses due to the depreciation of French currency. (2) Stumpage values for saw timber during the past century have about doubled and since the war have been almost three times the pre-war value. (3) Stumpage values for cordwood have remained a^out the same for the past 100 years, but during the war they almost tripled owing to the shortage of coal throughout France. (4) The prices charged the American E. F. by the French Government (see p. 310) were much less than the current commercial average rates. Some of the difference in price is due to the fact that the timber cut by the American E. F. took fewer cubic meters to the thousand board feet than that sold the average customer. CHAPTER XI PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE General Discussion (p. 315). Trend of Private Ownership, Areas and Systems of Management, Legislation Against Deforestation, Forestry as an Investment, Money Yields from Public Fir Forasts (Jura-Doubs), Drawbacks and Advantages to Forest Investments, Indirect Benefits. Examples op the Best Private Forestry (p. 323). Three Notable Forests, The Grand Domaine of Arc-et-Ch4teauviIlain (Haute-Mame), Forest of Amboise (Indre- et-Loire), A Fir Forest (Vosges), Conclusions. GENERAL DISCUSSION Trend of Private Ownership. — In 1912, when the last statistics were compiled, seven-tenths of the forest area in France was privately owned and with the possible exception of the Landes and Gironde this forest area was largely in small holdings. Out of ten departments, taken at random, there were 97,710 owners, each with less than 25 acres of forest, the average holding being 3.2 acres. In the Puy-de-Dome department 101,510 acres were in the hands of 32,684 persons, and around Paris 31,085 owners divided 50,787 acres. In all France it is safe to say that there are less than 100 families that own more than 5,000 acres each. From the national and political standpoint this era of small forest holdings is beneficial. It has been stated that social upheavals will be prevented by this division of forest and agricultural land. But other things being equal forests divided into small ownerships benefit a nation but deterio- rate the stand. The reason is that the peasant cuts spasmodically to satisfy his needs in the village or farm, to realize on his capital, or to allow an estate to be settled. The large owner on the contrary can afford to employ a competent forester and can manage his forest as a permanent producing business, based on a sustained annual yield. Or, better than this, the rich landlord may increase his growing stock and improve a de- teriorated stand.^ The kings and nobles formerly owned the best high forests in France and to-day the best of the private forests are unquestion- ably in the hands of the old nobility and the new industrial millionaire. ' The Count de Grancey, the largest private owner in the C6te d'Or, had increased his coppice rotations and was increasing the number of standards. It was unfortunate that some of his best stands had to be requisitioned and cut for the A. E, F. fuel supply, 315 316 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE But nevertheless many of the great forest properties are disappearing ^ because the higher cost of operation usually reduces the return to less than 3 per cent. Areas and Systems of Management. — No less than 15,988,857 acres of forest (out of a total of 24.4 million acres) are in private ownership. Of this 610,901 acres are unproductive; 4,856,214 acres in coppice; 5,856,947 acres in coppice-under-standards; 106,314 in conversion; and less than one-third, or 4,558,481 acres, in high forest. In other words more than two-thirds of the private forests are in coppice or coppice-under-standards, and in 1912 less than 1 acre in 100,000 was being converted to high forest. The individual clearly wants his forest to yield returns frequently and he desires but a small amount of capital tied up in growing stock. Therefore it is only when local conditions almost force the high forest on the private owner that he holds this class of stand. In the Landes and Gironde, in parts of the Sologne, in mining districts where there is a great demand for props, and in the mountains where coppice will not thrive, he must fall back on the high forest. In order to still further reduce the capital tied up in growing stock the private owner invariably chooses shorter rotations than does the technically trained State forester. It is not infrequent that private coppice is managed under a 6- to 18-year rotation, whereas the State forest coppice would be at least 25 to 40 years. For spruce or fir the public forest rotation would be 120 to 180 years and the private forest 30 to 120. A similar difference exists in pine stands, although this difference is less marked with maritime pine than with Scotch pine. Legislation Against Deforestation. — All through the later forest history of France the Government has always tried to restrain the private owner and force him to conserve his property. "The files of the Chamber of Deputies are full of projects that menace forest property," wrote Bonnevoy, the Rh6ne deputy, in commenting on proposed con- servation laws. Yet from 1815 to 1870 the State itself sold no less than 871,401 acres' of pubhc forest for $59,251,000! With the necessity for restraining the private owner it is not sur- prising that there should be a stringent law again.st the "clearing of private timber" revised and reenacted in 1859 (see p. 263). The owner is given an opportunity to present his argument at a public hearing. It is my impression that the law is leniently applied but in notable instances large properties have been held to be essential forest land and could not be clear cut. Most French laws benefit and protect the private owner, especially against theft, trespass, and fire. 2 The great forest of Eu-et-Aumale was sold in 1912 for $1,883,500 to a company which was preparing to clear cut. This the Government was unwilling to allow and was, there- fore, planning to purchase it as a State forest. ' Du R6tabhssement de Nos Forfits, par Ch. Broilliard. Besangon, 1910. FORESTRY AS AN INVESTMENT 317 Where the owner of land has mismanaged it and allowed erosion or drifting sand to destroy its value, even then the State must buy the land before reclaiming it, notwithstanding the resulting common good for the community. If land is being damaged by overgrazing it can be reserved from further use, but during a 10-year period the value of the rental must be paid the owner, and if after that period forestation is deemed necessary, exappropriation, with payment, is obligatory. The dunes, as well as the mountain reforestation areas which have been restocked, are exempt from taxation for a period of 30 years. Other plantations are exempt for 20 years only and this applies also to the restocking of blanks which have existed for at least 10 years before the passage of the law.'* Even during the war, where the power of Army requisition had been extended to cover standing timber needed by the AlUes as well as by the French people, the rights of the individual were fully protected. In fact an individual with political power could some- times evade the requisition. The conclusion is that the property rights of the individual are practically free from obnoxious State control, and that in fact every encouragement is given the private owner to practice forestry. Forestry as an Investment. — Many writers (even such an eminent authority as Broilliard) have argued that money in savings banks paying only 2| to 3 per cent interest ° had better be invested in producing forests. In forest valuation it is customary to use low interest rates for calculations. Certainly one reason why this is done is because usually if rates of 4 per cent or more are adopted for the basic interest rate the forest investment shows a decided loss. Yet even here there are notable exceptions as in the Landes where it was estimated that by sowing sand wastes, soil formerly worth an average of 77 cents per acre is now selling at $54 to $93 per acre. We know that it cost some 10.3 miUion dollars * L'Impot sur le revenu des Forits, S. F., XI, 5, pp. 372-375. 5 The interest rates paid by the French Government have varied from a maximum of 8.6 per cent (in 1816) to a minimum of 3 per cent, the prevailing rate in 1901. Not- able variations in these rates, due to wars and revolutions, are shown in the following table (after Huff el) for 100 years: Year Per cent Year Per cent Year Per cent Year Per cent 1816 8.60 1832 5.06 1854 7.81" 1870/ 4,95 1818 7.52" 1841 3.13* 1855 4.61 1870" 7.42 1821 5.79 1845 3.95 1859 4.83« 1871 6.23 1823 5.58 1847 3.88 1861 4.32 1886 3.75 1828 3.87 1848 5.00'= 1863 4.50 1901 3.00 1830 3.92 1868 4.32 1918 6.83 "and 7.45, *and 3.50, »and 6.64, "and 4.69, «and 4.00, 'Aug., "Oct. 318 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE to reforest 1.6 million acres, or about $6.41 per acre. As a national investment this has certainly paid. It has created enormous wealth in a region formerly poverty stricken and unhealthy. But from the stand- point of the individual to-day the investment is not so attractive, because, if the sale value is compared with the revenue it is seen that land worth (with its growing stock) perhaps $54 per acre nets year in and year out about S2.22, or about 4.1 per cent. According to HuffeP the average returns from private forests were, in 1892, 1.16 cubic meters (about two- thirds to three-fourths of this is fuel) worth 67 cents per acre per year (2.90 cubic meters and 16.80 francs per hectare). If we place a soil and growing stock value of only $30.88 per acre (400 francs per hectare) the net return is about 4 per cent. The return is probably less than this. According to French data the lower the soil values the better the forest investment but the higher the risk from fire, fungus, insects, and acts of Divine Providence. This seems logical because the risk in the manage- ment of maritime pine on Landes sand is unquestionably greater than in the thrifty coppice of the C6te d'Or on rich well watered soil. According to Huffel's definition the soil or "fonds" includes everything that remains in a forest after it is completely clear cut: the unmerchant- able part of the stumps, roots, seed, humus, dead leaves, boundaries, roads, management divisions, drainage ditches, fire Unes, forest houses, and all other betterments. Any study of soil values shows the advantage of reforesting cheap, so-called waste land; proof is abundant in French forest history — the Landes Sands (where values increased from 77 cents to as many dollars per acre), the uncultivated land in Champagne (which sold at $1.50 to $4.50 until planted to Austrian pine, when soil values increased to $10 or more, because it could produce $60 per acre from timber crops on a short rotation) ; similar advantages occurred to foresting cheap waste soils in the Central Plateau, Sologne, and elsewhere. But the State had to prove the way. Values are created; for before the for- estation the value of the soil is the local sale value, while after the pioneer has created the forest the value is based on what the soil can produce. It has been made revenue-producing, and the pioneer reaps the profit. A good illustration may be taken from the sale of stock. Let us as- sume that a wire company sells its stock at par, or $100 a share, and pays 8 per cent (in accordance with 1920 rates). The concern prospers, earns and pays 12 per cent. Capital values have been created by its earning capacity and the stock sells at $150 a share instead of $100. The same increase in values occurs when barren soil is made to produce salable forests. •ficonomie Foresti&re, Vol. I, p. 407. G. Huffel, 1904. Some writers claim a return of 6 to 7 per cent on timber investments in the Landes. See also Chapter VIII. FORESTRY AS AN INVESTMENT 319 French writers are apt to make excessive claims for forest investment returns, Risler/ director of the Institut Agronomique, claiming 5 to 10 per cent for conifer plantations. For a pine plantation near Selongey (C6te d'Or) a return of 5.7 per cent was claimed ' for a 30-year rotation on soil worth $7.72 an acre (100 francs per hectare). For a larch stand at Boisy near Geneva, Barbey claimed a return of 6.30 per cent. And it was said that "a private owner in the Pyrenees spent 10,000 francs on reforesting uncuUivatible slopes worth 20,000; forty-five years later he left to his children a property worth 270,000 francs." Cases such as this are numerous where the owner reaped good returns by reforesting ground which he would have held anyway. The following returns are cited for plantations of broadleaf species, such as chestnut: SoU Soil cost per acre Cost of plantation per acre Eeturn at end of rotation Kotation Rate of return, per cent $3.86 9.65 19.30 $7.72 9.65 11.58 $ 93 193 386 35 40 50 6.25 Quite good 6.00 Very favorable 5.12 For a fir stand in the Doubs on poor soil an average annual revenue of $8.96 per acre was secured (116 francs per hectare) but there are no exact data on the soil and growing stock values. Extraordinary yields are often cited for this region. Mangenot owned 9.1 acres which in 1868 were estimated to have 1,510 trees or 667 cubic meters worth 9,265 francs. From 1868 to 1890 he cut 498 trees or 604 cubic meters and sold at 9,650 francs; in 1890 he still had 1,600 trees estimated at 660 cubic meters and worth 9,165 francs. These exact data cited by Schaeffer ' were equal to a net annual yield of about $9 per acre per year. The growing stock per acre was worth in round figures $199 and the soil at least $10, so this return of $9 per acre was only 4.3 per cent on the invested capital in a favorable forest region and with rapidly growing fir, spruce, and beech. But it should be noted that if this property had been held until 1918 and then clear cut down to a low diameter limit he would have doubled his money because of the high prices prevailing during 1918 and because the French currency had depreciated. But this introduces a new feature — a speculative one — which is present in all forest investments, namely, the sporadic increase in stumpage values with occasional very high levels. ' Placements Financiers en Bois. A. Jacquot. ' In the State forest of Levier the gross returns have been as high as $15.90 per acre, according to an engineer officer writing in American Forestry (p. 1537), 1919. » Quelques Conseils aux Sylviciilteurs du Chablais. A. Schaeffer, Annecy, 1894. 320 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE Much of this increase may be due to the decrease in the purchasing power of money in addition to an increasing shortage of supply. In the State and communal forests under the inspector at Lorient (Morbihan) the "average price per cubic meter for commercial sales ^^ was as follows: Year Total sales, cubic meters Average price, francs per cubic meter Price per thousand feet board measure'^ 1890 12,749 10.99 $11.31 1900 16,932 13.34 13.73 1910 21,211 14.78 15.22 1912 41,338 8.58 8.83 1913 25,365 11.90 12.25 1914 18,586 10.70 11.02 1915 23,560 14.28 14.70 1916 25,822 14.69 14.86 1917 23,353 23.16 23.84 1918 25,032 29.54 30.41 " This is only approximate since these prices were averages including cordwood. To reduce to dollars per thousand, the average price figure has been increased 33f per cent and four cubic meters counted to the thousand board feet. These original data show how the private owner could have taken ad- vantage of the prevailing high prices in 1917 and 1918 and could have profitably reduced his growing stock. They also show a steady increase in price since 1890, with the probability of much higher prices even after the abnormal war conditions are passed. Under such conditions the new owner, who has bought at the higher price level, may be influenced to cut and sell at the new price level. The forest investment, even after stumpage values increase, is much the same because the capital values of the land and growing stocks have increased in the same proportion; but it is during such times that the incentive to liquidate the investment is greatest. Money Yield from Public Fir Forests (Jura-Doubs). — It is interesting to compare the returns from the private forests just reviewed with those from public forests which are perhaps more conservatively managed. Table 25 which follows" shows the basic data: Much can be learned from a study of the following table, for the past history of four important State and communal fir and spruce forests in the Jura Mountains can be accurately analyzed, (a) The average ro- tation is 150 years; in other words it takes 150 years to grow (Jura) fir and spruce 22.8 inches in diameter breast-high, (b) The average stand (mean '» The low price in 1912 was due to windfall; the low price in 1914 was due to the un- settled conditions prevalent during the initial period of the war. " From original data prepared by Inspecteur Dfivarennes. Such detailed data on managed French forests have never before been made public in the United States. MONEY YIELD FROM PUBLIC FIR FORESTS 321 i 'ffl'* .8 E 1 s CO «D s ill s £4 P3 1 § 1 ^ o a 10 1 " 2 o h:i ^ a & a ec g M Pk B - g 3 Tjt CO ^ CD s «0 OGOMCOCO CO O & ■* QD OO CO 00 0> If ■* 1-5 00 « CD CO 2 i d Z 5 SSSSS oo ■* ■* p Si g ^ p M s o .-H MrH r~t ll i ". °i °i M CO eo « m m IR t>- 00 1 II 3 CO U3 CO ■-* ffi ■3 s M OS er cs H K 00 Mi 1 T« oo >" W g- ^ •2E &l ec ^ ^ t£ ■d 1 .a i^ b'^ C^ bO ^^Bf ca rl N r^ CO O00(M<£)U3 CO CO CO : m 1 1 8 9 S SS S 1 .2.2.2.5.2 i: c J 1 g 1 IS ^ 2 '?> -0 O (1,8 CO CM CO cq (N W CO O 1 lllsl 1 nils < ifi CO OCMCOi-"-* ^' CO ui Tji « CO Tt* ir z o ooooe c o n O JS 8 g g g g g g 1 i :2 = d ^ ■^00i-ie».-< ^ t- ■* 2.2 1 lllll CM coc0 CO US 10 00 i^ g » ggggg H H. so oousooia S -Ko-t^ocdiomM-tS An (SSot-aoco cQ TfT O iSS 1 1 p. ri. s w 2 3 2 = * '^ 2SS2SS2 00 00 rn u "■5-2 "" s -H . l4 O 02 o J_»0 a r^ II s m o 8 g sssss 00 ^ g. 1 fe 1 iiiii 1 cs ssggg Tf4 o» 00 O ;2*^ o i-HNeeOSO e< ^ a p '"' 1-H c a 1^^ T-* ^Neo-*m r a in e Histoire de I'Acad^mie Royale de France," 1739, "Mfimoire sin- le R^tablissement et la Conservation des ForSts." • Art. 220. '» To quote only one instance: The waters which have filtered through into the green sand of the basin of the Meuse are found again at Paris at a depth of 1,798 feet (artesian wells of Crenelle), or at 1,903 feet (wells of Passy), and this may well appear at the siirface of other extremely remote points. " We should be led away too far if we reproduced here even a small part of the mass of observations more or less precise on this subject. A great number will be found 364 APPENDIX culties of experimenting and even of making direct observations on the action of forests bearing upon the feeding of springs, some light has necessarily been thrown on this question from several directions. The different attempts which have been made have not all proved equally successful; too great a number, especially those directed toward measuring directly the quantity of water which passes through soil covered with varied vegetation, seem practically of very httle value. It does not concern us to discuss them here; we would only say that all measurements and weighing performed in a laboratory can do nothing toward solving the problem. It can only be solved by practical experiments on a large scale, and in the forests themselves. To the "Station des recherches Suisse" must be given the honor of having inaugurated such an experiment, thanks to the initiative of its zealous director. Pro- fessor Bourgeois." M. Bourgeois has chosen in the Emmenthal a fresh green valley in the hollow of the northern buttresses of the Alps two little streams, the Rappengrabli and the Sperbel- graben,!' secondary affluents of the Emme, whose upper reservoirs could not be better adapted to the researches he proposed to undertake. With an area of about 198 to 247 acres each they have the appearance of almost entire circles, very clearly defined by a ridge in the form of a horseshoe. The general aspect of the thalweg (toward the southeast) is identical as well as the nature of the soil and the altitude (which varies from 3,215 to 4,035 feet in the case of the Rappengrabli, and from 2,953 to 3,937 feet for the Sperbelgraben). The first is almost entirely composed of pasture land and has only 18 per cent of forest disposed in a thin ribbon along the stream, in the thalweg; the second (Sperbelgraben) is covered for 91 per cent of its extent with a splendid irregular growth of fir. With the concurrence of the Federal hydrographical ofiice, a depositary has been installed upon the two little streams, at the point where they issue from the almost enclosed basins which constitute their upper valleys, permitting their outflow to be measured with the utmost exactness. On the other hand rain gauges have been placed reported among the periodicals on forestry, especially in the "Revue des Eaux et ForSts" (see particularly the volumes for the years 1866, 1867, 1868). A Swiss en- gineer, R. Lauterburg, quoted by M. Weber in the "Encyclop6die Forestiire de Lorcy." asserts that the destruction of forests carried out in the canton of Tessin, principally during the first half of the 19th century, must have reduced by a quarter the minimum outflow of the Adige at the period of low water. A similar phenomenon has been reported of the Po. Observations undertaken with the greatest care in Prussia by M. G. Hagen (quoted by M. Lehr in the "Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft") seem to prove conclusively that there has been a reduction in the total flow of nearly all the rivers which have been observed (for instance the Elbe, Moselle, Vistula, Pregel, Memel) in the course of the second half of the last century, but nothing proves that this phenome- non is connected with the deforestation which was taking place at the same time. M. Henry, a professor at the "Ecole National des Eaux et For^ts," has also collected a number of interesting and well-proved facts in a communication made in 1901 to the "Soci§t6 des Sciences de Nancy" under the title "Le R61e des For^ts dans les Circular tions des Eaux." "Le Journal Suisse d'ficonomie Foresti^re" (1898) reports some observations of M. de Rothenbach which prove, in a manner which appears to be con- clusive, the influence of forests on the abundance of water in the springs which supply the city of Berne, etc. "The premature death of M. Bourgeois on the 8th September, 1901, has removed one from whom the science of forestry had much to hope. He was under 46 years of age. His work in the Emmenthal is being carried on by his worthy suc- cessor. Professor Egler; up till the present (July, 1903) no result of it has been published. '» See Sheet No. 197 of the map of the "fitat-Major Suisse " at 1/25,000. The experi- ments took place about 21.1 mUes east (airline) of Berne in the canton of the same name, 47°1' north latitude and 5°32 (about) east longitude (of Paris). THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 365 at varioiis altitudes, indicating in an exact manner the quantity of rain which falls into the two basins." The observations are made daily, and were begun in 1900. There will, in the future, perhaps be occasion to simplify the depositary employed for the gauging of the outflow by substituting, for example, self-registering apparatuses for the intermittent measurements now being effected.'' It is also doubtful whether these two little streams exactly give off (in the visible part of their course) all the water which filters into their basins. It is probable that it is so; but no one can positively assert that there does not exist some fissure of the subsoil where masses of water accumulate, by means of which they are lost, and escape observation. The installation of rain-gauges in a wooded region would also be very difficult if one wished to collect all the water drawn from the atmosphere by condensar tion on the branches, water of which only a part reaches the soil by rolling down the trunks, etc. This does not prevent the experiences gained in the Emmenthal from constituting an essay of the greatest interest, in view of the solution of a question as controverted as it is important. The iastallation of these instruments will be epoch making in the science of forestry, and one cannot but be grateful to Professor Bourgeois for taking the initiative in an experiment which we hope wiU not remain isolated. It is with impatient curiosity that we await the result of the measurement in the two Uttle basins of the Bernese Emmenthal. In view of the difficulty which the direct study of the influence of forests on the feed- ing of springs presents, an attempt has been made to simplify the question by examining how the presence of woodlands modifies the different factors uponjwhioh the abundance of springs depends. This abundance is evidently the result (1) of the quantity of water which comes from the soil; (2) of the proportion of this water which, having filtered through the ground, has reached the subterranean sheet, of which the springs are apparently the overflow. Our study therefore divides itself natm-ally into two parts. The first concerns that which is knoAvn of the influence of forests on the quantity of water which reaches the soil. The second is devoted to the influence of forests on the proportion of that water which filters through to the subterranean sheet. These two elements of the question will form the subject of the following paragraphs. Influence of Forests on the Quality of Atmospheric Water which Reaches the Soil. — Water which reaches the ground is derived from three principal sources: 1. From rains, snows, hail, etc., which, forming on the upper strata of the atmos- phere, are precipitated on the ground. 2. From the condensation of vapor upon the surface of vegetation, when this is colder than the air itself; water thus condensed reaches the ground in a sohd or in a liquid condition, in the latter case either in falling through the air or in rolling down stalks. " The gauging apparatuses were installed imder the direction of "M. I'mg6nieur en chief de Morlot," according to the plans of "M. I'ingSnieur Epper," employed in the Federal service. When the outflow is weak it is directly measiu'eid by diverting the waters into a gauged basin and noting the mass of water collected in a given time; when the water is plentiful it is made to run through one or two or three channels, terminating in orifices with rectangular sections where the outflow is calculated accord- iag to the formula indicated by the French engineer, M. Bazin ("Annales des Fonts et Chauss^es, Vol. XVI, 1888, and XIX, 1890), by estimating the bulk of the sheet of water passing on to the waste weir. " Since our first visit to the Emmenthal in 1900 the wish expressed above has been gratified. In April, 1903, self-registering apparatuses have been installed on the two streams; at the same time the apparatuses for gauging the snow and rainfall in their basins have been improved. 366 APPENDIX 3. From condensation taking place on the superficial parts of the soil itself, upon its covering of dead leaves, where the ground is wooded. We will begin by discussing this last source of the feeding of the soil by water, not because it is without importance, but becaxise its relative importance has not yet been discovered. " ' In the previous chapter it has been shown in detail, that the presence of forests increases the rainfall in a very marked degree. This result has been incontestably obtained, at least in the case (unique it is true) " noted at the Research Station of Nancy. During 33 consecutive years, without any divergences, it has been proved by observation that, while in the center of the forest of Haye (17,297 acres of beech, hornbeam, and oak) there is a rainfall of 33.4 inches an- nually in the open, on a piece of ground cleared for about 5 acres, while on the other hand only 31.4 inches fall on the borders of the forest, and 25.6 on a similar piece of ground some distance off; and it is to be remembered that this difference in the rainfall occurs in the same ratio, each year at every season, whatever may be the direction of the winds, and is only sUghtly altered without being reversed by the total amount of rainfall during the year. The measurements of M. Fautrat, also given above; those of M. de Pons in the forest of Trongais (AUier) although less reliable because they extend over a smaller period of years; as well as many others carried out in Germany, Austria, and Russia, in Anglo- India, etc., lead one to believe that this phenomenon is common to all countries. If the summits of wooded masses are more bedewed than the neighboring fields, does the same hold good for the soil in a forest? Here, incontrovertible observations are much more rare. It is not enough in fact, to place a rain gauge under the trees in order to arrive at even an approximate idea of the quantity of water which reaches the soil of the forest. As Mathieu already observed 30 years ago, the quantity of water collected will vary in a singular degree, according as one puts the rain gauge near the trunk sheltered under the network of big branches, or under a gap in the leafage of the summits, or under the center of a branch, or at the extremity of this same branch which will drain into it like a gutter, in emptying into it all the water or all the snow fallen on its surface, and upon that of the upper branches. M. Boppe '' has shown that rain gauges placed under the same tree, at very short distances from one another collect quantities of water varjdng to an unbelievable degree. Finally a procedure such as this does not take into account the quantity of water which reaches the soil by running down stalks, and whose proportion may be 15 to 20 per cent, perhaps even more of the annual rainfall, even if this water is derived from rain, or is directly drawn from the atmosphere by means of condensation on leaves or on stalks. It is for this reason that no mention will be made here of the results obtained in France or abroad by means of ordinary rain-gauges placed under trees. The only « Giseler, quoted by M. Ney ("Der Wald und die Quellbildung," Metz, 1901), has proved by experiment that in a tube of glass maintained at 0° c, and placed in a room where the temperature remained uniformly equal to — 4, 5 c. a quantity of water was condensed in one j'ear equal to a rainfall of 13.8 inches. It is superfluous to remark that this experiment as well as many others effected in laboratories in the cause of agronomy have no real value. Things happen entirely differently in nature, than in the conditions rendered obligatory for the purposes of experiment. " Since January 1, 1903, new experiments have been undertaken upon our initiative at different points of the French Vosges, with a view to verifying the generality of the facts observed in the neighborhood of Nancy. ""Regenmessungen unter Baumkronen," 11th number of the " Mitteilungen aus dem forstlichen Versuchewesen Oesterreichs," Vienna, 1896. THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 367 really reliable data are those obtained by means of the simple and reliable depositary invented by Mathieu in 1867, which has been retained at the Research Station of Nancy, during 32 years of observations. Here is the description of it, taken from the inventor himself:" "La Station des Cinq-Tranch6es, situated about 5 miles to the west of the town of Nancy, at a height of 1,247 feet, is situated in the midst of a large wooded plateau, ' La Haye,' which the limestone strata form of the lower oolith. '^o rain-gauges are placed there; one in the middle of the wood, under a polewood of beeches and horn- beams, moderately compact, of about 40 years of age in 1866. The other, at a short distance from the preceding, is in the middle of an open space of about 5 acres, adjoining the ' Maison Forestiere des Cinq-Tranch6es.' "The quantity of rain water which a gauge receives, when placed in a forest, varies with the position of the instrument in dense foliage or in openings. The forest rain- gauge is especially constructed to avoid this source of possible mismeasurement; it is provided with a receptacle of large dimensions, of which the circular surface is exactly equal to the projection of the top of one of the poles of the clump.'" The stem of one of these passes through the center, and is surrounded by a kind of collar; thanks to this arrangement, the water which nms down the trunk can be collected, be it the result of prolonged rainfall, or of a dense mist, or the effect of a thaw in producing the melting of snow, or of hoar frost on the branches." These observations began in 1867 and were continued tmtil 1898 when an accident happening to one of the instruments prevented them from being carried on longer. They embrace, however, a period of 32 years. The following table gives a rdsum6 of the results obtained: " SUMMARY OF MONTHLY AVERAGES OF RAINFALL OUTSIDE AND INSIDE THE FOREST Months Average rainfall in inches outside the forest Average rainfall in inches inside the forest Per cent of rainfall actually received by forest 1867-77 1878-88 1889-98 1867-98 1867-77 1878-88 1889-98 1867-98 soil May-October*. . . November-April . 16.7 14.9 20.2 15.2 19.2 13.8 18.7 14.6 14.8 14.0 17.8 14.9 17.2 13.5 16.6 14.2 88.8 96.9 Totals for year.. 31.6 35.4 33.0 33.3 28.8 32.7 30.7 30.8 92.4 * The figures for the individual months have been omitted and the data rearranged. A comparison of the foregoing fi^es will show us that, for a certain number of months, especially in winter, the rain-gauge placed under cover collects the greatest " " Met^orologie Compart Agricole et Forestifere; rapport a M. le sous-secr6taire d'fitat, etc.," of 25 February, 1878, p. 4. In this report, published by the "Imprimeri, National," Mathieu gives an account of the results of the first eleven years of observa^ tions. . «» This pole was a young hombeamof about 41 years of age at the beginning of the experiments, of a regular shape and with well crested top. " This table is borrowed from the work by M. de Bouville ah-eady auoted: "Observa- tions de m^t^orologie . . . de la Station de Recherches de PEcole National des Eaux et Forfits," Paris, 1901. 368 APPENDIX quantity of water. A similar fact had already been observed in 1878 and 1890 in the reports published by Mathieu and M. Bartet ^ on the results obtained in those years by the "Station de recherches" of Nancy. This is the more instructive, inasmuch as it is the winter rains which are the most important from the point of view of the feeding of springs. The fact is very naturally explained by the condensation of aqueous vapor on the considerable surface presented by the crests of forest trees.^ At all seasons of the year and all hours of the day the trees are, in fact, colder than the surrounding atmosphere. Nevertheless the difference is greater in summer than in winter, and during the day rather than at night. It is also greater at the base of the trunk than among the branches. Here are some figures on the subject. The Swiss observations give results recorded on an average of 12 years; those in Bavaria were undertaken during two years only: DIFFERENCES (IN CENTIGRADE DEGREES) BETWEEN THE TEM- PERATURE OF THE TREES * AND SURROUNDING AIR Winter Larch (near Interlaken) Spruce (near Berne) Beech (near Porrentruy) Miscellaneous species (Bavaria) | Spring Summer Autumn 2.1 3.3 1.0 3.4 4,1 2.2 1.5 3.2 1.5 1.3 1.7 0.7 0.8 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.9 0.3 1.3 1.4 * In the Swiss ejcperiments the temperature of the tree was taken at breast-height, while in Bavaria it was in the branches of the crown. These reports suffice to give us the key to the important phenomenon noted above. Trees with considerably spreading crowns form very excellent condensers of vapor from atmospheric water which they conduct to the soil in a Uquid condition; this process is naturally more marked at the beginning and end of winter, periods when the atmos- phere of our latitudes, especially in forests, is very near the point of saturation. The slightest lowering of the temperature is then sufficient to produce condensation. In conclusion, the results obtained by the observations conducted at Cinq-Tranch6es can be summed up in the following manner: Of a hundred millimeters (3.94 inches) of atmospheric water, the instrument placed under shelter of the crest of a young horn- beam only received in an average year 92 m.m. 4 (3.64 inches); therefore 7 m.m. 6 (0.299 inch) were retained by the crown a balance produced by the amount of condensa- tion from branches and the top of the trunk. '^ " M6t6orologie Compar(5e, Agricole et Forestilre. . . . Observations faites k la Station de Recherches de I'Ecole National Forestifere," published by M. E. Bartet, Paris, 1890 ("Bulletin du Ministfere de I'Agriculture"). ^ It happens sometimes that a considerable quantity of water is supplied to the forest soil m a very short period of time. This occurred in January, 1882. The east wind accompanied by fog had deposited such a quantity of hoar frost on the trees that a great number of branches were broken by the weight of it. This first took the form of icicles ten centimeters in length. A twig covered with them, cut off with great care, weighed 550 grams; relieved of its burden, it only weighed 70 grams ("Bulletin de la Commission M6t6orologique de Meurthe-et-Moselle"). This frost in melting on January 17 was equal to a rainfall of 7. m.m. 4 according to the rain-gauge under the trees at Cinq-Tranch6es. In January, 1879, a branch of birch from the forest of Fontainebleau, weighed by M. Croizette-Desnoyers, covered with a thick crust of rime, turned the scales at 700 grams. Weighed again after the frost had melted, the result given was only 50 grams. THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 369 The action of the forest besides differs appreciably at different seasons of the year. In winter the trees are denuded, although at that period they are more than ever favorable to the condensation of atmospheric vapors. Also once in every three times almost the gauge under the trees is the fullest, and this one contains on an average 96.9 per cent of the water fallen during the months from November to April — almost all of it. The condensation by the tree cre.sts suffices therefore to compensate almost entirely for the loss due to the adherence of a part of the water fallen upon the trees. During the summer, on the contrary, the branches covered with foliage intercept the rain more efficaciously. If one compares the maximum rainfall occurring in the months from May to October on the open ground, and under the trees, respectively, one finds that they are equal to the numbers 100 and 88.8. If the proportions in which the forest soil is watered vary according to the season, they ought therefore to be somewhat different according to the age and density of the plantations. In fact, calculating by averages of three successive periods approximately equal, and no longer by the total period during which observations have been made, it has been ascertained that under the trees in summer 89.1 per cent, 88 per cent, and 89.4 per cent of the quantity of water precipitated by atmospheric water have been collected. The portion retained by the crowns of trees increases from 1867 to 1888 at the same time as does that imder cover, owing to the growth of the tree under observa- tion from 40 to 62 years old. It then diminishes as a result of the gradual lightening of the foliage coinciding with the decline of the vegetation, which shows itself in the hornbeam sprouts in the forest of Haye about every 60 to 70 years under ordinary conditions. Let us quote a few figures taken from abroad relative to the proportion of rain inter- cepted by the tree tops. The absolute quantity of water that adheres to the trees and returns to the atmosphere by evaporation is regular for the same tree, whatever may be the duration of the rain- fall, but evaporation is sufficient to absorb the rainfall entirely, especially in summer, if the rain is of short duration, while it will only absorb a steadily decreasing quantity in proportion to the increase in the duration of the rainfall. The loss of water owing to shelter is therefore very variable according to the local distribution of rains. The same applies to different species of trees. By placing a great number of rain gauges under the crown of the same tree at varying distances from the trunk, M. Boppe has tried to obtain an average of the quantity of water which passes directly through the tree tops. He has then measured separately the water running down the trunks. Combining these results with those obtained by himself, M. Ney ^ has arrived at the conclusion that the loss due to adherence to the crowns is: 15 per cent of the annual rain- fall for the beech tree; 20 per cent for Scotch pine; 33 per cent for spruce. If one considers the water rainfall separately, the only important one for the feeding of springs, one ascertains according to the same author: That the crowns of beech trees retain 7 per cent, those of pines 15 per cent, and those of lower spruce pines 20 per cent. This last figure should be still in relation to the surplus of rain acquired by the presence of forests, according to French experiments. The figures given by M. Ney do not take into account the water suppUed by the tree crowns through the process of condensation, and moreover are only based on a small number of measurements. It remains now to draw conclusions from all the preceding data, relative to the feeding of springs.*' The question to be resolved is as follows: Is the ground under cover of " Op. cit., p. 10. ^ De Bouville, op. cit. 370 APPENDIX the forest better watered than cultivated ground? To understand the matter rightly it is sufficient to compare the records of the rain gauges installed under the trees at Cinq-Tranch6es with those of the instrument estabUshed at Amance-la-Bouzule. The following table has that object in view by giving the records for the whole period during which they were kept, and also separately for summer and winter and the entire year. A comparison between the quantity of rain water which reaches the ground in an open agricultural region on the one hand, and on the other that which reaches the ground in a forest under shelter of the trees. (Summary only is given for the years 1867-1898.) May-October November-April Entire year Forested Open Forested Open Forested Open Yearly averages in inches of rainfall* 16.6 14.3 14.2 11.2 30.8 25.5 * The forest measurements were at Les Cinq-Tranch6es and those on agricultural land at Amance-la^Bouzule. An examination of the figures demonstrates that the groimd of the forest of Haye, at the center, and under cover of its trees, is always better watered than the neighboring plains. The difference is particularly marked in winter; it diminishes in summer by reason of the foliage. In an average year only 82 per cent was collected at Amance-la- Bouzule of the quantity of rain water collected under the trees at Cinq-Tranch6es, the proportion being 86.4 per cent for the months from May to October, and 78.7 per cent only for those from September to April. The conclusions drawn from the French reports, however, call for a few remarlcs. The forest rain-gauge indicates the loss resulting to the soil, from the adherence of a part of the atmospheric waters to the foliage; all that it receives arrives at the soil intact. It is not the same with the rain gauge installed on a cultivated field. The surface of this field is covered with a thick carpet of grasses or vegetables which retain a consider- able portion of the fallen rain water, and allow it to evaporate in the air exactly as do' the leaves of trees." On the other hand the water condensed by contact with the carpet of vegetation has not been measured either; it is true it must be a very small quantity comparatively, because the carpet of vegetation often fails in cultivated fields during autumn and winter. One may infer that this quantity of water is comparable (somewhat less as far as one can judge) to that which is condensed by contact with dead leaves on the forest soil. It appears, therefore, that these remarks will further strengthen the conclusions favor- able to the forest, will become, in fact, valuable a forlwri. Taking into consideration the actual knowledge to hand, it must be admitted the ground covered by forests in leaf receives more water from the atmosphere than ground under cultivation; the difference can be considerable and reach to 20 to 25 per cent of the rainfall in winter, a season which alone supplies infiltrated waters. It would appear that the same holds good in the case of pine forests, especially in » It has been calculated (M. Ney, "der Wald und die Quellen," Tiibingen, 1894, p. 30) that the crop of a field of wheat would have a growing surface of 32,370 square yards to the acre, that of an imeultivated field would have 22,006 square yards, that of a field of clover 27,190, of a field of potatoes 24,876. The surface of a well developed forest of beech trees of average age would be 39,707 square yards. THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 371 winter. The fact may be accepted as almost certain in the case of Scotch pine and larch, and it is probable even of the spnice, the tree of our country whose foliage is the thickest. Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Water. — In the preceding paragraph the influence of conditions on the quantity of water which reaches the soil has been shown. It remains for vis now to examine how forests modify the conditions of the feeding of springs, in working on the deep infiltration of the water as far as the sub- terranean sheet, of which springs constitute the overflow. Of the water reaching the ground, one part rxins along the surface and arrives directly at the water courses in the form of streams. Those waters which run along the sur- face without penetrating into the soil are called "wild waters" — and "coefiicient in surface flow," is the term (le nombre) which expresses their relative importance. A second part returns directly to the atmosphere, in a gaseous condition, as a result of the phenomenon of physical evaporation. A third part, after having penetrated the superficial strata of the soil, is extracted from it by suction of roots which carry it into the body of the plants. This water is partially utilized in forming vegetable tissues, but the greater part returns to the atmos- phere in gaseous form by the stomata of leaves, after having brought into the latter the mineral elements necessary to the growth of the plant. This important phenomenon is called physiological evaporation; it carries away from the soil considerable quantities of water which have already penetrated to greater or lesser depths according to the dimensions of the vegetation. One understands in fact that the zone thus drained is quite near to the surface in the case of grass or cereals with superficial roots, while it can be fairly deep in the case of forests whose roots penetrate very far down in permeable soils. Lastly, a fourth part having penetrated, thanks to the permeabihty of the soil, manages to pass through the entire depth of the region where roots can inhale, or from which, by means of capillary action, it can raise itself into the region where the roots are active. It penetrates deeper and deeper into the soil until, encountering the obstacle of an impermeable stratum, it accumulates and founds a subterranean sheet of free water. It is this sheet which dispenses itself outwards when the conditions stated in Paragraph I of this chapter have been fulfilled. If the lie of the ground is such that the water cannot reach the open air, the subterranean sheet is then exploited by means of wells, and it has been proposed " to call the sheet nearest to the surface a "phreatic sheet," because it is this one that feeds the wells, their depth being naturally limited to the level of the upper part of the highest subterranean sheet, and not gener- ally getting beyond it even when this level sinks. Before proceeding further, it is necessary to establish an essential distinction between springs in mountainous regions and those in a country of plains. In the mountains the surface flow plays such an important part in the question we are about to consider that we need only concern ourselves with this phenomenon, after setting aside those of evaporation and permeabihty. The influence of the loss due to superficial running waters ("wild waters") surpasses all others. This special and most simple case is the only one upon which one can formulate absolutely certain con- clusions. It is, moreover, much the most important; springs are infinitely more numer- ous, abundant, and useful in the mountains than in the plains. Springs in the plains are either fed by waters which have filtered down from the mountains or else they have virtually no influence on the regular course of waters on account of their feeble outflow. The rainfall in low regions is, in fact, too feeble, after the levy made on it by agricultural vegetation generally speaking, to allow remaining a sufficient proportion to feed the springs. Often indeed the soil of the plains bears crops,! which, ^ order to develop, "Daubr^e "Les Eaux Souterraines," Vol. I, p. 19 (Paris, Dunod, pub., 1887). 372 APPENDIX absorb more water than the local fall produces, the balance being provided by natural or artificial irrigation by means of the surplus of higher regions. In the plains, on the contrary, surface flow does not exist, and the feeding of the subterranean sheet depends upon the permeabihty of the soil and upon evaporation. The Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Water in Mountains. — The pro- portion of the surface flow increases according to the declivity, and according to the greater or less rapidity with which rain falls or snow melts on the slopes. It can become very great. M. Imbeaux,'* in a study on the course of the Danube, has dis- covered "during the three exceptional floods of Oct. 27, 1882; Oct., 1886, and Nov., 1886, that the proportion of surface flow at Mirabeau was from 0.33 to 0.39 and 0.42, that is to say, more than a third of the rainfall; it fell to 0.27 during lesser floods, and even to 0.23 and 0.18 for average and small floods, thus demonstrating that the law of its decrease is parallel with that of the intensity of the rainfall." Of the Danube at Vienna the Central Hydrographic Office of Vienna has discovered, in applying the same method, 42.1 per cent for the period from July 28 to Aug. 14, 1897.=® Other authors (D6montzey and M. Ney) have proved that the proportion of surface flow can reach 40 to 50 per cent of the rainfall on wooded slopes. D^montzey even quotes a case where it has reached three-quarters of the water brought by a storm of rain into the bed of a torrent, extending over more than 1,977 acres. The action of forests on the reduction of "wild waters" is so well known, so univer- sally recognized, that to insist upon it has become commonplace. We will only recall that it results principally from: (a) the fact that, thanks to the obstacle caused by mountain tops, water reaches the soil with hardly any celerity; (&) that the rainfall, other things being equal, is more frequent and less violent in forests, and above all the melting of snows is much less rapid, as this process often lasts a fortnight or even a month longer in the forest than in open ground; (c) that the obstacle offered to the course of the water by stalks and the roots of trees, and lastly the absorption of a considerable quantity of water by mosses or dead leaves covering the soil. It has been calculated that such coverings of dead leaves or moss retain by their hygroscopicity a rainfall of 2.91 inches of depth falling in one day before allowing an}rthing to run off by surface flow.'" Even when the covering is saturated, it only allows the water to escape drop by drop, so that the soil is able to imbibe the whole of it, to the great benefit of the sub- terranean sheet. One may say that the process of surface flow is almost entirely suppressed on wooded slopes in good conditions where the covering of the soil is left alone. We could not better sum up the subject of the action of forests on the feeding of springs in mountainous districts than by quoting so great an authority as Professor Henry;'' "Wooded mountains attract rain; it is there that precipitations from the atmosphere attain their maximum; it is there that great reservoirs of water are found; 28 Essai-Programme d'Hydrologie, by Dr. Imbeaux, ing€nieur des Ponts et Chaus- sSes. Published in the Zeitschrift fur Gewasserkunde, 1898 and 1899. (Quotation borrowed from M. Heniy.) " Die Hochwasser — Katafitroi>he des Jahres, 1897, in Oesterreich. . . . Beit- rage zur Hydrographie Oesterreichs. Published by the K. K. Hydrographischer Central Bureau of Vienna, II bulletin, 1898. '"Ebermayer ("Die gesammte Lehre der Walstreu," BerUn, 1876, pp. 177 to 181) shows that moss can retain in suspension 2.8 times its weight in water. The sphagnums and species of hypnums such as N. loreum can absorb up to 4.5 kilograms of water by the square meter of ground where it grows. Dead beech leaves retam about 2.3 times that of pine or spruce, 1.2 times their weight in water. See abo M. Ney's work, "Der Wald und die Quellen," p. 70 (Tubingen, 1894). "Communication made to the "Congrfes International de Sylviculture k Paris en 1900," p. 327 of the " Compte-rendu Official." THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 373 it is there that nearly all springs are concentrated. Forests existing on mountains, notably on those whose aspect is perpendicular to those of moist winds, cause the pre- cipitation of the greatest quantity of aqueous vapor which they contain. It is enough to cast a glance at a hydrographic map to be convinced of this fact. Bare, denuded mountains have only a very feeble action in this respect; the countries bordering on the Adriatic as well as on a part of the Mediterranean, which are renowned for their dry- ness, show this in a very striking manner. Deprived of forests, these moimtains lack the means of cooling the air and drawing to themselves in consequence the vaporous precipitations it contains. The denuded soil, which the sun penetrates with intense heat on those parts exposed to the west and the southwest, does not certainly possess this property." "A second distinction consists in the enormous diminution in the proportion of smface flow on wooded mountains, compared with the same slopes when they are denuded. . . . The water, instead of precipitating itself into the thalweg and caus- ing thereby sudden and dangerous inundations, penetrates slowly through the covering and into the soil which it soaks to a great depth. Therefore it is unquestionable, and we beheve an uncontested fact, that mountain forests are favorable generally to the production of springs." There is a stronger reason stUl for this being the case when mountain forests grow in a hot cUmate where physical evaporation is considerable. The Infltience of Forests on the Infiltration of Waters in the Plains. — The influence of the surface flow is complete in the case of forests in the plains. There the feeding of the subterranean sheet will depend only on physiological evaporation and on the permeabihty of the soil. Let us first examine the action of forests on this permeability of the soil. Forest soil in good condition is naturally light. The roots of trees penetrate deeply into it, sometimes to a depth of 10 and 13 feet and more; in swelling out they produce the effect of wedges which divide the soil mechanically. When the trees have been felled the roots decompose and their place is taken by a network of channels filled with hygroscopic matter, which directly conducts the water to considerable depth. Along the roots of trees under foot, especially near the stem between tEe soil and the bark, there exist empty spaces which are caused by the swaying of the tree when shaken by the wind; rain water, which has run along the stem, arrives directly, one might say instantaneously, by means of these at the soil. Lastly, forest vegetation is favorable to the division of the soil through the action of earthworms. In winter, the temperature of the forest soil is appreciably higher than that of the open groimd. It often results from this that during the cold season the rainfall or melting snow acts upon a frozen surface, which has become impenetrable at the surface, in such a manner that all the water disappears in surface flow. In the forest, the soil which is less cold need not necessarily be frozen, and can therefore absorb the fallen water. According to all the evidence collected, physical evaporation of the water of the soil is less under trees than on an agricultural soil. The forest covers the ground with a double protective screen; first the covering of dead leaves, an eminently hygroscopic substance, and in consequence always cool, which, superimposed immediately on the ground, opposes evaporation with great energy. Higher up, the crown, often very dense, offers its maximum density in summer, at a period when evaporation is greatest. The temperature of the air is also lower under the trees than outside, especially in summer. This forms a powerful impediment to evaporation. The lowest temperature of the forest soil in summer acts again in the same way. Finally, evaporation is much favored in a flat country by the wind, which is con- tinually renewing the strata of the air, saturated by direct contact with the soD. 374 APPENDIX An attempt has been made to measm-e the comparative importance of evaporation beneath the trees and outside of them by ascertaining the quantity of liquid lost from receptacles full of water placed under cover and in the open fields. Under these condi- tions two to five times, in certain cases eight times, but on an average three times, more water is evaporated in the open country than imder the trees. But these experi- ments are of little value even when the receptacles of water are replaced by impene- trable chests fuU of earth; the conditions under which the experiments are made being too far removed from natural conditions.'^ It remains for us now to compare the forest with land under cultivation from the point of view of the quantity of water drawn off from the soil by the vegetation. To tell the truth, we are absolutely ignorant of the quantity of water necessary to the production of agricultural or forest crops. One observer, Wollny,'' undertook in 1879 and 1880 direct measm-ements of the quantities of water consumed by various plants (barley, oats, red clover, grass, rye, etc.) which he had sown in especially pre- pared boxes without drainage. At the beginning of the experiment he had ascertained the quantity of water contained in the soil of the boxes; by adding to this the same quantity of water as would be furnished under natural conditions lasting over a similar period of time, either by rain or by dew, and by removing from the bottom of the boxes aU that filtered through the earth, and which he carefully collected, the amount of water consumed was obtained. In reaUty the quantities measured are superior to this consumption for they include, in addition, that which has been lost by evaporation from the soil, or by evaporation of the water remaining adherent to leaves and stalks. The experiments of Wollny were extended over 105 to 155 days of the season of growth. The consumption of water was on an average 38 miUion pounds to the acre, the maxi- mum figure being furnished by the clover which reached 47 million. These figures represent an average consumption per acre per day during the growing season of about 18 to 19 cubic yards. In 1870 and 1871 an older writer, Risler,'^ discovered that the average daily con- sumption per acre during the season of growth was 27 cubic yards for Luzem and fields generally, 23 for oats, 12 for rye, etc., and on an average 17 for cviltivated vege- tables, while it would only be 4.2 cubic yards for the fir tree and 3.1[for the oak. It is much to be regretted that we have no means of judging of the value of these figures, as we do not know how they were obtained. M. Ney, by combining the figures of Wollny and of Risler, calculates '^ that field vegetables in general consume 2,093 cubic yards of water per acre during the growing season. An Austrian experimenter, V. Hohnel, has directly measured the quantity of aqueous vapor emitted by the leaves of different trees from June 1 to October 1. During that period he found that the leaves of the several species emitted the following percentages of their own weight in aqueous vapor: Birch, 68 per cent; ash, 57; hornbeam, 56; beech, 47; oak, 28; spruce pine, 6; Scotch pine, 6; fir tree, 3. With these data for basis, M. Ney ^ calculates that the consumption of water per ^ For the French experiments see M. de Bouville, op. cit., pp. 25 et seq. For those carried out in Switzerland consult the "Mitteilungen" of the Research Station of Zurich. For the German observations see the official accounts published by M. Miittrich on the work of the Research Stations; a r6sum6 of the results is to be found reproduced by M. Weber in the "Encyclop^die Forestifere de Lorey." " "Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Agricultur — Physik, Vol. XII, p. 27. " The experiments of Risler are only known by the quotations made by Wollny in the work mentioned previously, and we are ignorant of the methods pursued by this experimenter. » "Der Wald und die Quellen," p. 74. ™ Op. cit., p. 75. THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 375 acre during the season of growth would be 24,112,000 pounds for beech (5.6 yards per diem); 18,568,000 pounds for spruce pine (47 yards per diem); 6,424,000 pounds for Scotch pine (1.6 yards per diem). It is to be remarked that these quantities do not include the water incorporated in the tissues of the trees for the purposes of their growth, but only that emitted by evapora- tion from leaves." Other figures have been pubhshed by Th. Hartig, V. Hohnel and WoUny; they differ sometimes so much from those quoted above that one is necessarily very sceptical as to the value of the results obtained. As M. Henry remarks very justly: '' "If it is easy to determine, by means of weighing, the evaporation on a sapling in a pot, or of a square of young forest trees, of grass or corn; if one can calculate, strictly speaking, according to those results, without fear of too great discrepancies the evaporation on an acre covered with grass, with com, or young forest trees of equal height,'* it is far too rash to apply the results obtained by experiments on an isolated sapling grown in a pot to a forest comprising many tangled and superimposed stages of growth, whose leaves giving more or less shade are doing their work with different degrees of intensity." In the present condition of science it is not therefore possible to determine by con- trast in a sufficiently precise manner the difference between the volume of water under the trees and in the open which goes to feed the subterranean sheets. In view of the great interest this question presents, and of the diversity of opinions on the subject, the greatest efforts have been made in an indirect manner to arrive at a clear idea of the action of clumps of trees on the feeding of the subterranean sheet. A primary series of researches has been undertaken with a view to determine com- paratively the quantity of water which filters through a stratum of earth enclosed in a box without drainage, its surface being covered with different kinds of plants. It has proved that the bare earth allows more water to pass than that which is covered with vegetation, dead leaves, moss, etc. This is almost the only definite result obtained, and even this is controvertible. We do not lay much stress on these experi- ments which, it would seem, can give us no definite information as to what occurs vmder natural conditions.*" An attempt has been made to measure directly the quantity of water contained in the soil under the trees and in the open at different depths. Experiments imdertaken in Germany " and in Russia have brought to light the following facts which appear to be properly established: The humidity of forest soU is very great at the surface, but diminishes rapidly to a depth varjdng in degree which does not go beyond 31.5 inches under plantations of spruce pine, according to Ebermayer, and which reaches a depth of 10 or 13 feet, according to Russian experiments. Below thb level the amount of water keeps on increasing with the depth. There exists in the ground, therefore, a dry zone more or " The quantity of water remaining annually in the tissues of trees may be estimated at 2,640 pounds per acre. '* "Annales de la Science Agronomique," 2nd Series, 4th year, 1898, pp. 20 et seq. 39 It is doubtful if even this is admissible. ^''For the measurements made in Switzerland see Bulletin IV of the "Mitteilimgen" of the Research Station of Zurich; for the Bavarian works', see the various pubUcations of M. Ebermayer, etc. ■" "Einfluss des Waldes," etc., an article by M. Ebermayer which appeared in the January 1888 number of the "Allgemeine Forst und Jagd Zeitung." A good trans- lation has been pubhshed by M. Reuss in the first volume of the "Annales de la Science Agronomique," 1889. A complete r6sum6 of all the works published up till then is inserted in the account of the "Congrfis International de Sylviculture k Paris en 1900," pp. 328 et seq. (Communication bylM. Henry to this Congress). 376 APPENDIX less thick and more or less deep, lying between the humid region of the surface and the humid region below. One sees there, in a very clear fashion, the influence of the absorption of water by roots of plants in the region where they are active, or in that immediately below where the water can raise itself by capillary action after drying up the superior stratum.** This is a general fact for all ground covered with hving plants; they present a dry stratum more or less removed from the surface, according to the depth of the root system of vegetation above. This depth being greater in the case of forest vegetation than in others, it is clearly to be seen that at a similar level, within certain limits, the soil of the forest will be poorer in water than an agricultural soil.*' It has been con- cluded from this that the forest absorbed more water by its vegetation than other species of culture, and thus was harmful to the feeding of phreatic sheets of water. It must be admitted that there is no evident and necessary connection between the humidity of the soil in its superficial parts and the alimentation of the subterranean sheet. Other things being equal, the latter depends not so much on the degree of dampness of the soil as upon its permeabUity. A stratum of coarse sand will allow rain water to filter through rapidly, while a fine clay will keep it stagnant at the sur- face and give it over to evaporation. And, nevertheless, the sand will be dry, while the clay wUl always contain a quantity of hygroscopic water. An extremely interesting fact, which will perhaps throw some light on the relation of the wooded condition of the surface with the feeding of phreatic waters, has been quite recently brought forward. We think we ought to dwell on this with some detail, borrowing what follows from the last publications of our learned colleague, M. Henry." The Imperial Free Economic Society of St. Petersburg undertook a series of re- searches into subterranean hydrology in the forests of the steppes of Russia, the director- ship of which was confided to M. Ototzky, curator of the Mineralogical Museum at St. Petersburg. From borings effected in the forest of Chipoff (province of Voronez) and in the Black ^^ The depth of the system of our large tree species is much greater than has been generally supposed. The tempest of February 1, 1902, having torn up by their roots a multitude of fir trees of all ages in the Vosges, we took advantage of this opportunity to ascertain the depth to which the roots, thus rendered visible, had penetrated the Vosges sandstone formation. It varied from 5 to 11.5 feet. If one takes into account that the extremities of the roots were still remaining in the soil, one can reahze that these trees were deriving nourishment from a stratum which must extend to a depth of 13 and perhaps of 16 feet. *' These researches of a very deUcate nature only meet with reliable results when they are conducted simultaneously for a very long period of time under the trees and in the open. If one observes the soil after heavy rain one sees it saturated at the surface to a greater or lesser depth. The rain having ceased, the free surface water sinks down gradually into the soil under the action of its weight, saturating always a deeper and deeper zone, above which the ground has become dry, until it comes in contact with the phreatic sheet of water of which it raises the level. It is conceivable that very varymg amounts of water in the soil, at one particular season and depth, have to be accounted for, according to the proximity and abundance of the latest rainfall, that is to say, according to fortuitous circumstances which, up till now, observers do not seem to have taken into account. ** M. E. Henry, professor of the "ficole Nationale des Eaux et Fordts," was the first to draw attention to the Russian borings, the results of which, up tiU then, had been unnoticed both in France and Germany. He gave an account of these in a series of articles, one after the other, from 1897 and February, 1898 (Annales de la Science Agronomique), until 1903. In his article of 1903 M. Henry narrates for the first time the complete result of his own researches undertaken in the forest of Moudon. The few pages which M. Ebermayer devotes to the subject in his publication dated 1900 (Emfluss der Walder auf das Gumdwasser) only reproduce, almost word for word, M. Henry's report of 1898. THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 377 Forest (province of Cherson), M. Ototzky was led, since 1897, to formulate this theory, that, all physico-geographical conditions being equal, the level of phreatic waters in the forests of the region of the steppes is lower than in neighboring open spaces. In support of these unexpected conclusions M. Ototzky published the results of a series of sound- ings, of which some it is true are open to objection as proof positive of his theories." In 1897 M. Ototzky was directed by the Imperial Society to undertake some new researches, but this time in the Province of St. Petersburg at 60° north latitude in a region whose rainfall is much greater than that of the steppes, where he had worked in 1895 (23.6 inches annual rainfall instead of 11.8). He proved again that, under the forests where observations were made, the phreatic sheet is depressed compared with what it is n neighboring cultivated regions. The difference of levels is rather slight, and varied from 19.7 to 44.5 inches. On July 1, 1899, M. Henry, professor at the "ficole Nationale des Eaux et Forfits," at his own request, was authorized to undertake at the expense of the "Administration des Eaux et ForSts" some soundings, with a view to verifying and completing the data furnished by the Russian experimenter. The forest of Moudon near Luneville (Meurthe-et- Moselle) was chosen for these re- searches. It forms a large mass of woodland about 4,942 acres in extent (the altitude varies from 807 to 873 feet). The soil is composed of sirata of sand, gravel, and flint, originating from the ancient alluvial beds of the Meurthe and the Vezouse, at the con- fluence of which rivers the forest is situated. The water-bearing strata are met at a slight depth, their upper level being given at depth of about 6.5 to 16.4 feet. A httle lower, about 23 feet or more, one finds an impermeable clay against which the infiltra- tions are arrested. These different strata, and especially the last named, appear to be horizontal. The rainfall in the forest was 28 inches in 1900 and 35 in 1901. The mean annual temperature is 9° 4 C. (49° F.) with an average of + 1° 43 C. (345 F.) in winter and 17° 70 C. (64° F.) in summer. The forest is composed of oak, beech, and hornbeam; it has been planted with storied coppice in a rotation of 35 years in the greater part of its extent. Some small parts are to be found covered with Scotch pine, the result of the replanting of ancient gaps in the forest. In the spring of 1900 ten holes of 2 inches in diameter were drilled by the aid of the Belgian geological borer, and these holes were lined with zinc tubes which had been pierced with small apertures and furnished at their lower end with a similarly perforated cone. Thus the earth was prevented from falling in and filling up the bottom of the well. The numerous small apertures in the metal allowed the water easily to find its own level. Five holes were bored in bare ground in parcels of ground which had been cleared for the use of the forest guardians, in the nursery gardens, and in the communal pasturage, but always on the borders of the forest, the farthest removed being about a hundred meters. Five others, destined to be compared with the preceding five, were made under the neigh- boring woodlands, as nearly approaching the same conditions as it was possible to give. « Evidently it is well to operate only in ground which lies horizontally at the surface, and which is of a homogeneous character to a great depth, so as to avoid the influence of an uneven surface, and that of the undulations of the upper levels of deep impermeable strata, whose projection may be very different from that of the surface. In stratified ground, with strata alternately more or less permeable, the course of the subterranean waters depends solely on the wajr these strata run, and can give us no notion of the influence of the superficial vegetation. Unfortunately the ground in which M. Ototzky first undertook his experiments appears to have been far from homogeneous, since he found there in less than 16 feet of depth, three different well-defined spring levels. Moreover the projection of the soil seems to have been taken very little into account, notably in No. 3 boring in the forest of Chipoff. 378 APPENDIX There were, therefore, five pairs of borings. Observations were made once a month from May 4, 1900, to Augiist 24, 1902. The leveUng was done by the pupils of the " ficole Forestiere " in May, 1900, and May, 1901, in taking for the initial point the altitude of the Station of MarainviUiers which is about 790.1 feet. One will find in the following table (page 379) all the measurements taken at Moudon; none have been omitted (abridged in translation). We have been obliged, however, to omit the report of one of the five pairs, of which one bore was made in the fields of the farm of St. George and the other in the neighbor- ing coppice (third cutting in the third series of coppices) because the bore made in the field was destroyed by the plow in March, 1901. The figures of the table (page 379) give the immediate results of the measurements effected, without taking into account the difference in the altitude of the orifices of the borings. If all the measurements are reduced to the same horizontal level, one finds that the level of the water under the forest at all seasons is lower than that under bare groimd: By 11.8 inches for the first couple, 7.9 for the second couple, 16.5 for the third couple, 12.2 for the fourth couple. It is certain that the difference of level is more accentuated than these figures would indicate, since one knows that in permeable soils the phreatic sheet follows the varia- tions of the outline rehef of the stratum, although with far less pronounced undulations. But let us accept the preceding figures as unquestionable minima whose average is 11.8 inches. We can afifirm that, according to the measurements effected each month from May 4, 1900, to August 24, 1902, in eight borings made at random, sometimes imder the wood- lands, sometimes under the bare ground near the forest of Moudon (Meurthe-et-Moselle) the level of subterranean waters at all seasons is at least 11.8 inches deeper under the woods than it is outside. The experiments of M. Henry, carried out regularly for a period of 28 months have further brought to light the following facts, which are absolutely new. The oscillations in the level of phreatic waters is less under the woods than in the open. The infiltration, too, is slower in the forest. The maxima and minima occur about a month later than those observed outside of the woods. One sees here that the forest plays the same r61e of regulator and stabilizer which one recognizes it to do with regard to the temperature. Some experiments made quite recently by M. Ototzky, an account of which has been published in Russian in the fourth number of 1902 of the Magazine "La P^dologie," and of which a French translation by M. A. de Lebedef, attache of the "MinistSre de L'Int4rieur " at St. Petersburg, is in the press has still further confirmed these facts. M. Ototzky's experiments were made at the "Ecole forestiere" of Staraia Rossa (province of Novgorod) at 58° N. latitude, near to the Lake of Ihnen. " One is obUged to conclude," says M. Ototzky at the end of his article, " that the level of subterranean water is lower in the forest than in the stratum exploited, in summer as well as in winter, and also that the oscillations are less." To sum up, we seem to have gained the information that in the forests of the plains in temperate or cold climates,*' whose soil is formed of homogeneous « Quotation borrowed from M. Henry (Revue des Eaux et Forfets, 1903, p. 197). *' In the tropical region of the globe where the heat is torrid, it is physical evaporation from the soil which plays the preponderating part, while physiological evaporation does not increase with the temperature. It may be, therefore, that in this case the level of the subterranean waters is even higher in the forest. M. Ribbentrop has vouched for this fact near Madras (Revue des Eaux et Forfets, 1901). THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 379 DEPTH OF THE SUBSOIL WATER (IN FEET) IN THE FOUR COUPLES OF BORINGS IN THE STATE FOREST OF MOUDON.* Bare ground Old coppice Bare nursery Bite Old coppice Bare ground Old coppice Bare pasture Scotch pine Altitude of station, in feet Average depth of water level, in feet 799.77 8.50 11.12 802.42 12.11 12,11 +.99 3.44 802.26 13.32 14.73 5.68 803.8 15.39 15.39 +.66 3.84 845.37 9.25 13.19 6.66 849.31 14.57 14.57 +1.38 6.56 811.87 7.09 7.09 10.73 807.08 3.31 Average depth of water level corrected for altitude, in feet 8 10 +1.01 Maiimum monthly varia- 4.43 5.12 * Totals and averages only are given in translation, condensed and rearranged from results of field work extending over 28 months, May 4, 1900, to August 24, 1902. See page 22 for a confirmation of these conclusions. strata Ijdng horizontally and in which in consequence the subterranean sheet is motionless: (1) The level of phreatic waters is lower imder the forest at aU seasons, than outside of it. (2) The depression appears greater in regions where the rainfall is less, than where it rains a great deal. (3) The oscillations in the level are considerably reduced and lessened by the presence of the forest. Returning now to our subject, can we conclude from the foregoing that forests are injurious to the feeding of the subterranean sheet of water on level ground in temperate climates? This certainly seems probable. The intensity of physiological evaporation may be the explanation of this curious lowering of the subterranean sheet under the woods. This will be the lower, that is to say, the less thick (admitting that the impermeable stratum by which the infiltrated waters are arrested, is horizontal), because the forest abstracts more water from infiltration in its growth than does the neighboring ground. Nevertheless, there is one thing which may cause us to doubt the truth of these con- clusions. A careful examination of Table 6 shows us that the depression of the sheet beneath the forest is more marked during the season of repose in vegetation than during the summer. This fact is verified in the case of all the couples of borings, and for the whole length of time during which observations were made. One might conclude from this that it is not the vegetation of the trees that causes the lowering of level. Are we here perhaps in the presence of a fresh consequence of this fact that, under the forest, the region drained of water by roots, the dry zone in fact reaches to a lower level than under cultivated ground? However this may be, if the fact of the lowering of the level of subterranean waters under the woods appears certain, its interpretation is less so, and we are left in doubt as to the definite influence, all things taken into consideration of the woods upon the feeding of springs in level ground. This first study was in the press when we received notice (March, 1904) of the official 380 APPENDIX account of the fourth congress of the International Association of the "Stations de Recherches Forestieres," which assembled in Austria in September, 1903.** At this congress, M. Hartmann, an engineer of the Bavarian State, gave an account of the results of researches undertaken in collaboration with the Forest Service by the Royal Hydrotechnical Service with a view to the comparative study of the oscillations of the level of the subterranean water in wooded ground or in the open. Observations were taken at two points. The first, Mindelheim, at a height of 2,014 feet, is situated on almost perfectly horizontal ground at the surface (inclination six per thousand) composed of the alluvial deposits of the Mindel, a direct tributary of the right bank of the Danube. The forest is situated in a small piece of isolated ground composed of about 988 acres in the midst of landed estates, and is composed of oak, Scotch, and spruce pines, of about 9 years of age. The other station, Wendelstein, is in the neighborhood of Nilmberg. M. Hartmann thinks it can be concluded from his statements " that the forest exerts no influence on the level of the subterranean sheet. The latter is generally not stagnant (as has been known for a long time) but takes a more or less rapid course according to the inclination of the surface of the subsoil, the thickness of the subterranean sheet in motion, and the degree of permeabUity of the soil in which it moves. The considerable differences in the level of subterranean waters observed in Bavaria at points contiguous to a horizontal and homogeneous soil at the surface, can only be explained by the varia- tion in the projection of the subsoil stratum, and by the very variable depth and celerity of the subterranean sheet. At Mindelheim, in fact, the subterranean sheet is nearer the surface under the woods than in the open. M. Hartmann thinks that the forest counts for nothing, and that the reverse might just as equally hold good. Conclusions. — In the course of this long study on the influence of forests on the feeding of springs, we have particularly insisted on certain points which, recently brought to hght, have hitherto only been dealt with in original memoranda, and are therefore inaccessible to the greater number of readers. This chapter, now that its end has been reached, leads to one conclusion. (1) We have seen that the forest has the effect of increasing the abimdance and the frequency of atmospheric precipitations. This action of the forest, proved by many experiments in France and abroad during 30 years, must be regarded as a well established fact, although certain authors, without absolutely denying it, have declared it negligible, or else of so slight a nature as not to be ascertained by ordinary rain gauges, since these instruments are lacking in absolute accuracy. The increase of water which the forest obtains, amounts to 23 per cent in an average of 33 years of observations taken at the "Station de Recherches" of Nancy. It seems however to increase with the altitude of the place where the forests are situated. (2) The forest retains a part of the fallen water by its adherence to the crowns and branches and this returns to the atmosphere by direct evaporation. On the other hand these same crowns and branches are always colder, and often to a very considerable "Vierte Versammlung des internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Versuchsanstaten, 1903. Mariabrun, 1904 (published by the "Station de recherches autrichienne"). " It seems to us that the conclusions of the Bavarian engineer are somewhat lackine in precision, at least in the text we have before our eyes. One might conclude, it would seem, especially from the accounts given by himself, that the two points chosen for the experiments were not at all suitable for the purpose, the subterranean sheet being far from immovable, and the subsoil not horizontal. In any case, we find nothing here of a nature to invalidate the very clear and well balanced results of the measurements taken at Moudon, as given us by M. Heniy. PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 381 degree colder, than the surrounding air, and sometimes are the means of condensing enormous quantities of aqueous vapor, which they introduce to the soil in a liquid state. Moreover, it is not uncommon, especially in winter time, to see the soil which is immediately shaded by a tree, receive more water than a neighboring point in the forest where there is a gap in the shade. For the rest it would seem that the loss of water aris- ing from its retention by the crowns is inferior to the increase of water obtained by the presence of the forest itself. This fact has assuredly been established in the case of the broadleaved plantations in the neighborhood of Nancy; it would seem also certain in the case of the plantations of Scotch pines and larches, and it is probable even for those of spruce pine. One can therefore affirm that, in spite of the screen afforded by the treetops, generally speaking, the forest soil receives more water than does the neigh- boring soil under cultivation. (3) The forest causes an enormous diminution in physical evaporation, and prevents surface flow almost entirely. Moreover in numerous cases where one of these phe- nomena — and a fortiori when both simultaneously — play a preponderating part, as often happens in hot countries and on sloping ground, it is unreservedly admitted that the forest is favorable to the feeding of the subterranean sheet, and in consequence to that of springs. (4) So far as our researches have actually progressed, we cannot be sure that the forest is favorable or unfavorable to the feeding of subterranean waters in level ground or in cold or temperate climates. As a matter of fact we are ignorant as to whether its vegetation does not abstract more water from the soil than do agricultural vegetables, as the lowering in the level of the phreatic waters observed under the woodlands would seem to indicate. It may be that such an increase in the communication is compensated by the increase in the watering of the soil, and the reduction in physical evaporation when these two last factors are unimportant (as for example at low altitudes and in cold climates). For the rest, the facts noted are contradictory; cases of springs are quoted which have dried up in conse- quence of clearings as, on the other hand, superficial dryings up of the soil have been observed, where replanting has taken place. Doubt is therefore forced upon us in this special case; the action of the forest on the feeding of the springs remains uncertain, and it is probably variable according to circumstances which, as yet, remain unelucidated. (5) Nevertheless it must be observed that springs a.re only numerous and important in mountain regions, and there certainly the forests are favorable to them. In the plains the springs are infrequent, and have a feeble output. We are therefore justified in repeating, as our fathers declared, that the forest is the mother of the rivers; the labors of modem science have served only to establish the parentage, universally and at aU times recognized, which coimects the spring with the tree which shades it. APPENDIX B THE FOREST, FROM A PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL VIEWPOINT i (By Jacquot) To-day there is strong sentiment in favor of forests. Newspapers defend, Congress discusses and prepares laws for them, associations organize for the protection of existing ' La Forfit, A. Jacquot, pp. 287-305. Digest and part translation made with a view to preserving Jacquot's picturesque language. According to scientific research Jacquot exaggerates, but it must be borne in mind that he is presenting the subject of forest influences from a popular viewpoint. 382 APPENDIX stands as well as for the forestation of uncultivated lands. The Touring Club of France should be cited as a special example. Nvunerous governments are instituting Arbor Days. In solemnly planting trees with their own hands, the kings of Spain, Italy and England, and high government officials in the United States are merely imitating an example given by our societies or by the ancestral custom, observed in certain com- munes of Alsace, of planting at least one tree at the birth of each child . There also, newly married couples plant two fir trees on the day of their marriage. . . . The tree which grows in humanity which is increasing. The instinctive cultivation and reUgious admiration of primitive peoples for the trees is based on science and reason. Physical Role of Forests. — Humidity. — Forests increase the degree of humidity in the air. Not only are the arid zones sheltered by forests . . . but furthermore, in the majority of cases, the presence of a vegetative mantle on the mountains is of importance in the yield of crops and favors life and populations. Here the forestation, true talisman of life, becomes a work of safety, and a question to be or not to be. All floods have their rise on the bare ground created by the destructive felling of timber which protects it. In these regions the forest disappears even though it is indispensable to agricultural crops, the foundation of human life. It is on account of aridity alone, and not for any other reason, that there have been terrible famines in Russia, in India, and in China. Deforestation dries up a country. Without water there can be no hfe, without humidity the ground will become as dead as the moon, and forests are necessary in order to have water. Since their deforestation . . . Columbia, the Islands of Maurice, of Reunion, and of Ascension, Sicily, Asia Minor and all other denuded regions have experienced terrible droughts. These droughts immediately stopped in localities where tree growth has been reestablished. In Porto Rico and in Jamaica, the phenome- non is doubly verified in recent times. The rains disappear with the trees but return with them. Above the forests there are light clouds, and after the shower the branches drip onto the soil. . . . During the night the trees water the heather as if the urns of the sky were thinking of the earth in order to fill up the divine springs. We have seen all that and have concluded that the forest is the mother of the waters. But figures will suffice to give an idea of the strength of the forest: an acre of high forest pumps every day into the soil 10,000 to 12,000 quarts of reserve water; its evaporation can be placed at 2,616 cubic yards per year representing a stream 20 inches high or almost three- fourths the total rainfall falling in France. The quantity of liquid emitted by the same area of water, mineral substance or vegetable substance are in the proportion of 1, 3, and 60. The forest is certainly a reservoir of humidity. It is also a regulator. While running water is often dangerous, its infiltration is desirable for the hfe of springs. This infiltration attains its maximum imder forest stands. The cover of trees (doubled by a brush imder story) largely reduces evaporation. Under the forest the soil is better irrigated than on bare soil. On the other hand, the snow falls more slowly, consequently the absorption of the forested land is perfect. The forest tends to make the temperature more uniform by reducing the extremes of heat or cold. It exercises the same action as does the sea at the seashore. On hmestone soil, which forms the major part of our planet, the running water digs out the soil and is then hidden by these very fissures. Drought is accentuated, increasing the intensity of burning sands, the bare steppes, and the arid deserts. It is a war of thirst, which menaces the twenti- eth century. The forest alone by the shelter of its thick layer of humus is capable of making a successful fight against the bankruptcy of the waters. Hail. — The trees diminish the storms, lessening electric discharges and rendering less frequent and less dangerous the fall of hail, which in the deforested regions cuts and damages the crops. Numerous examples have been estabUshed. In eighteen departments, where the hail is usually the most damaging, fourteen are the least forested in France. PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 383 Frost. — Around the forest, but not in it, one finds the white frosts which are so common in dry climates. The upper story protects the lower vegetation like a tender blanket. It replaces, after a fashion, artificial shelter. Wind. — Without the trees in numberless countries, the violence of the wind lays low the plants or dries them up. . . . The smallest shrub or the simple hedge of cypress of the Provence exercises a beneficial protective cover. In Russia, when the June vegetation of the steppes is in full bloom, the squares enclosed with planted hedges remain green, and furnish half again as much revenue. In Algeria, they say that nothing can resist the sirocco. Nevertheless, it has been conquered by the trees. Look at the delicate plants in the experimental gardens at Algiers and the rich plantations of the Mitidja. . . . Springs, Avalanches. — All the world to-day bears witness to the benefit of the vegetable cover for the maintenance and conservation of springs (see Appendix, p. 361). This is also true of the value of forests in protecting against avalanches. Floods. — The forest is the sovereign regulator of waterflow. On the denuded slope, the rain rushes along carrying the material eroded from the loose soil. This mass, increased by the mixture of debris, and with its increasing speed, communicates a tremendous live force to these thousands of little streams. It becomes a furious tor- rent which carries off the slopes, bears rocks along and even fields and houses. Gravel fills the bed of the rivers and hinders shipping. It covers the plain with blocks of stone and sterile sand. What would happen, on the other hand, with a wooded slope? A large proportion of the rain will have been stopped by the foUage and branches to be given back to the atmosphere. The remainder, broken up by the foUage, strikes the soil as if it had passed through a sieve. The layer of dead leaves and humus which carpets the forest floor is a soft sponge with an extraordinary capacity for absorption. It absorbs five, six, and even nine times its liquid weight before saturation, when it lets the water seep, drop by drop, to the surface and to the interior of the soil to feed subterranean streams which result in springs. The small surplus water, which is not retained, encounters in its flow innumerable obstacles, trunks, roots, moss, herbaceous flora, dead branches, dead leaves, and the inextricable lacework of roots. The flow is divided slowly up and does not erode the soil. It arrives at the foot of the slope slowly and in small quantities. . . . Against the heat of the sun and the drying winds of the south the branches serve as a screen. In the spring they diminish the damaging effect of warm rains on the snow and prevent too rapid melting. The regularity of the run-off is determined by the state and extent of the forests which cover the basin. Numerous experiments in valleys, some forested and others bare, have proved this. These comparisons have given rise to the adage: "He who wishes to master the waters, must first master the forests.'' Thus to the trees crowning the mountains the soil is held in place. The slopes are maintained and erosion ceases. Its action can thus be summarized: "The presence of forest stops the formation of torrents. Its development extin- guishes it. Its destruction delivers the soil as a prey to erosion. All the fundamental laws recognize the absolute necessity of reforestation. In the denuded countries, what ravages! The torrents attack the moimtainsides like a 'pieuvre,' eat them out, dis- integrate and carry them piecemeal to the plain. High up the rock is bared, lower down they cause the fields to become barren and covered with d6bris. The roads are interrupted. The railway lines cut and the bridges demoUshed. One sees the opening up of abysses, the cut of railroad lines, and the engtilfment of entire villages. Each year, in France, the floods cause an average damage of $5,790,000. With the expense, which has been caused by such floods during the 19th century, all Europe could have been reforested. These catastrophes have been the result of excessive deforests^ 384 APPENDIX tion — a veritable social crime. It is the rmnation of the mountaineer. . . . More- over, the man that deforests assassinates the plain. The damage is far reaching. . . . The waterfall which directs our turbines and produces the power for heat and light may be done away with and rendered useless by deforestation. If you lull the forest, you kill the brook which is the friend of mechanics. Thanks to electricity. . . . water has become (as the ancients said) the most precious of gifts. ... By enor- mous dams, engineers have hoped to avoid the terrible results of deforestation. . . . How much inferior is this inert masonry, hmited to a single valley, in comparison with the strength and value of forests, Uving, supple, growing forever, which cover the valleys as they do the plain. Free accumulator of water, ideal, green, cool, which man removes and cuts like grain! In every deforested basin, the difference between the low-water mark and the flood waters is formidable. For example, in the Loire, the CheUff, the Seybouze, the Vidourle, the Verdon, it is 900, 1,500, 6,600, 1,500, and 2,000,000 times the ordinary flow. The flow of the Ardeche is usually reduced to 6.5 cubic yards, whereas it sometimes amounts to 10,500, when it has the size of a Mississippi, or an Orinoco, or a Danube. The flood that comes with the rapidity of a galloping horse and throws into the Rhone such a volume of water that the flood level rises 16.4 feet. If there is no stand of trees to stop the erosion of storm floods, every deluge ravages slopes aU the way to the plain. . . . The damage done by the Garonne means an annual loss of $1,544,000. This same amount spent only once, but properly applied, that is to say for reforestation in the Pyrenees, would permit the suppression of every cause of the damage. . . . One now commences to reaUze that the forest is a two- faced army to fight for or against water. The same water which is not stored by the forest may be transformed to mechanical energy or . . . may suddenly pre- cipitate itself in a formidable, devastating mass. The impoverishment of the world, erosion, the transport from the mountain to the sea, the frightful loss of water . . . the forest alone can stop it. . . . Deprived of their cover of wood or of grass, the slopes erode, waste away, and fall in ruins. On the forested slopes, on the contrary, everything remains. The roots fix the humus to the rocks. Everywhere the forested mountain changes a foolish water into a wise one. It renders the typhoon inoffensive by dividing up its floods and distributing its monstrous mass in milUons of drops which flow slowly over the old surface of the earth. We must then recognize that the water being everything and life being impossible without it, the tree which holds the water is everything itself. If the forest was held sacred by religion, it should be held still more sacred by reason of its social necessity. To plant a tree is to accompUsh a good deed, to create a forest is to enrich the coimtry by a conquest which does not cause a tear or shed a drop of blood. " Economic Role — Utility of Wood. — From the beginning of the world wood has been a prime necessity. The prehistoric people Uved in the forest and on the forest. Coal, gas, and electricity have modified the use of wood but without abohshing or diminishing the demand. Imagine the enormous volume used by the thousands of trades which must have wood products for the innumerable objects manufactured, from the great steamship to the Uttle doll. Alone, paper mills could devour all the forests of the world and only to assure the printing of 70,000 newspapers of 200 volumes which are pubhshed daily. For France alone it represents the annual production of 1,235,000 acres of high forest. The coal mines use each year 24,000,000 cubic meters (about 5 million thousand feet board measure) in their galleries, about nine and a half times the volume of the greatest pyramid in Egypt. Finally the world uses more wood than it produces. The excess of use over normal increase is about 2,620,000 tons per year. The deficit is momentarily made up by the destruction of forests. It is an expedient of which the fallacy is clear. A dearth of timber menaces us. Our country PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 385 imports annually from 39.5 to 42.5 million dollars worth. Plant new stands with the utmost ardor, since the operation is profitable.'' The pineries, for example, yield 5 to 10 per cent. There does not exist any other more advantageous investment. Forestation enriches the planter and makes our country stronger. " Social R&le — Climate. — Following excessive deforestation, the local climate be- comes worse. The prosperity of agriculture, the health of inhabitants, the public fortune itself, depends upon normal proportion of forest. This per cent is itself an element to regulate the world's circulation of cloud, rain, snow, flood, and even the ocean. The denuded zones in the mountains must be restocked in order to re-establish order in nature, without which aU economics are profoundly upset; it is partly due to the absence of forests that one must attribute the burning climate of the interior of Asia, Africa, and Australia. The destruction of stands has produced disastrous chmatic changes in Greece, in Russia, ... in Asia Minor, and in certain regions of India. All history agrees on this point. It shows clearly the disastrous effects of great de- forestation on climate. Aristotle, Phny, and Strabon predicted to their contemporaries the sterility which would follow deforestation . . . which, in lowering the humidity necessary for vegetation, . . . has brought on something more terrible than any war, namely, the decadence of the most powerful empires, . . . those great coun- tries which were the founders of the human race — Mesopotamia, Turkestan, Bactres, the splendor of the Greek civilization under Alexander the Great, Palestine, Syria, deprived of forests made the water, the vegetation, and the inhabitants disappear. Desert and sterile, the jaded country once so populous, deforestation has driven away life itself. Deforestation has even permitted the sea to recover land once cultivated — the Pomeranian shore, the Zuyder Zee. At the middle of the seventeenth century, the Chinese had transformed Tartary into a desert by removing the trees which protected it. Because of deforestation, the temperature of the winter season is even lower than it was in Norway. On the plateau of Iran, the temperature passes in several hours from 60° C. to 7° C. (140° to 44.6° F.). The air is so dry that nothing can withstand it. We must go back to the old tradition and realize that it is a scientific fact that the ancient veneration for trees shown by our fathers is because the forest is completely indispensable to creation. " Hygiene. — Under the majority of cases, hygiene is intimately linked with forests. From the Roman times it has been recognized that the excessive felling of forests exerts an unfortunate effect upon the physical condition of the country and compromises the health of the inhabitants. Swamp fevers follow deforestation everywhere in the subtropical zones. On the other hand, forestation accompanied by drainage dries up the marshes and diminishes sickness in fever regions such as the Roman Campagna certain steppes of Russia, Tuscan Maremme, in the Landes, in Poitou, and in other places less known. The difference between sickness and health, between prosperity and extreme misery, coincides with the appearance or disappearance of the arborescent mantle. Such are the contemporary facts. The Belgians celebrate by an official fiesta the social r61e of silviculture, proclaiming that the forests exercise the most healthy influence on climate and public hygiene. It is not necessary to have great areas of forest to manifest its curative strength. A single eucalyptus tree may dram the excess water from one-quarter of an acre. In Algeria, a hedge several yards in length . . . may guarantee all the occupants of a house against swamp wet soils so conducive to malaria. Thousands of examples prove it. The marsh of Bonfarick, one of the un- healthiest looaUties in Algeria, has been transformed by planting into one of the health- iest colonies in France. In 30 years the pineries have made healthy, fertile, and rich 2 This, of course, is an exceptional instance of profitable private forestry. Here worth- less sand wastes were made to yield a handsome revenue (see p. 183). 386 APPENDIX the Sologne which exaggerated deforestation had reduced to a state of pestilential fever. Formerly unsalable, the Landes of Gascogne are now worth 193 million dollars or more. A region formerly imhealthy because of fever has to-day the name which is doubly merited of C6te d' Argent; formerly devastated by sickness, the population now lives in perfect health in what is actually a health resort. Forests are a potent obstacle to the spread of certain diseases. Not only is the air free from deleterious gas, but there is no dust or nocturnal dampness, but the acid of forest soil kUls the germs of cholera, tjrphus, the bacilU of tetanus. . . . The forestation of watersheds gives a guarantee of purity. Often a sequence of deforestation is a decrease in population. It is some- thing that has happened in most of the Mediterranean islands, as well as in the Azores and in the Canaries. When the Venetians ruined the forests of Dalmatia, three-quarters of the inhabitants were compelled to leave. In France, the thirty departments where there is the most deforestation have a depopulation seven times as rapid as the fifty- seven departments where the forests are maintained. Not only does the birth rate diminish and the mortaUty increase in the deforested departments, but the inhabitants still emigrate. They go in search of a living. . . . Forests precede people, deserts succeed them. . . . Deforestation has transformed Turkestan into a desert, where it was formerly fertile. Deforestation has destroyed its equable climate, its former ferUity, and, in consequence, its population. . . . Since the planting near Sologne, the local population has increased 2,250 per cent. The examples are too numerous to enumerate. A Servian proverb summarizes the problem: 'He who kills a tree kills a man.' ".Esthetic. — That is, the material side of the forest; but that is not the only question to consider. ... In the spring the forest is an enchantment for the eyes. One sees the bare forest clothe itself from branch to branch. . . . Nature is irre- sistible. Artists feel the seduction of the forest and found colonies in it as at Barbi- zon. . . . The first homage of man was addressed to the great forests, eternal and immovable, which cover all parts. . . . The forests, according to Chateaubriand, were the early temples. This reUgion was that of all the peoples of antiquity: The forest is sacred. . . It was worshipped by numberless tribes. . . . The disappearance of the forests on the plateau of Central Asia made it so uninhabitable that whole tribes and races who occupied it were forced to emigrate. . . . Manon had in his laws (the most ancient of the world) : ' Defend the forest against destruction. One finds in any of the old religions, the myth of the sacred tree, the gods assembled under its shade. . . . The imagination of the Greeks and of the Romans was peopled with sylvan deities. . . . Almost always the temples were surrounded by sacred forests. It was often in the forests that the gods spoke through oracles. ... In Ceylon, in Spain and Persia, and in Manila, the trees are still worshipped. Saint Valery, fighting against paganism, turned his anger against the nymphs of the forest and the fountains. . . . We know now that the disappearance of the forest de- stroys the equilibrium of natural forces and makes for disastrous climatic changes, sub- stituting steriHty for richness, the desert for abundance, death for life. As though crazy, mountaineers often say: 'After us the deluge,' without realizing that the forest means water and freshness so necessary for pasturage. . . . The existence of man is coupled with the existence of the forest, moreover the forest is the index of public welfare and the richness of a people. It is necessary, then, that each man become a friend of the trees and that our laws and our hearts protect this arborescent vegeta- tion without which our civilization would perish. Against the savage violence of the torrent or the deadly menace of the avalanche we must oppose the serene strength of our great benefactress — the forest. Child of Nature itself, it shields, with its pro- tective cover, children of humanity. The present children need it with its living force IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 387 which maintains the activity of the entire world under the beneficence and splendor of its shade. "As the centuries roU by, let us unite in reflecting on the instinctive sentiment of the ancients for inviolable forests and the cultivation of the tree." APPENDIX C SILVICS OF IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES. LISTS OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND PLANTS USED IN REFORESTATION IN THE MOUNTAINS FRENCH SILVICS OF PEDUNCULATE OAK {QitercMS peduncidaiay Size. — Quercus robur.^ Under this name Hooker, De Candolle, and other eminent authorities include Quercus pedunculata (peduncled oak) and Quercus sessiUflora (EngUsh oak), the British representative of the species. Pedunculate oak is a species which reaches considerable dimensions. During youth, and up to 40 to 50 years of age, it has an irregular bole but later on the shaft becomes straight, cylindrical, sometimes with a clear length of 65 feet. This tree may reach a height of from 131 to 147 feet and even 190 feet in a few instances; thanks to its very great longevity it reaches large diameters. The Montravail oak, near Saintes (Charente Inferieure Department), is between 6.6 and 7.6 feet in diameter at breast height; its main branches have a diameter of 3.3 feet at their base; the total height is 65.6 feet, the crown width 131.7 feet, and it is estimated to be some 2,000 years old. Habit. — The crown of pedunculate oak is formed of a few irregularly bent and twisted main branches; the fohage is very unevenly distributed in tufts with wide and numerous openings. . . . The foliage is incomplete and less thick than that of sessile oak. Leaves. — Pedunculate oak leaves (more so than those of Quercus sessiliflora) dry up at the end of autumn and drop off immediately, except those of coppice shoots and suckers which are semi-persistent. Of a Ught green color, sometimes reddish or yellow- ish at the beginning of summer, the leaf is moderately shiny or quite dull; it is of a somewhat sea green (glaucous) hue; frequently it is undulated, more seldom flat. . . . If green and gathered during September, it has an average weight as compared to sessile oak leaves as 34 is to 40. (A. Mathieu.) When used dry as agricultural manure 300 to 350 pounds is equal to 100 pounds of straw. Pedimculate oak is . . . much less suitable than sessile oak for pure plantations, since it has a lighter fohage and yields less htter. This is why coppice-under-standards composed of pure sessile oak yields a fair stand while the same cannot be said to be true of pure pedunculate oak. This species seems eminently suitable for coppice-under-standards on clayey, moist soils and for high forests when mixed with tolerant species; sessile oak, however, should be preferred to it whenever . . . ptire forestation is attempted. Seed Capacity. — Pedunculate oak bears acorns from 60 to 100 years of age, accord- ing to whether grown single or in close stand. Sprouts bear acorns as early as 20 years, and even before; but plentiful seed crops occur only 3 to 4 years and even 8 to 10 years according to whether the cUmate is more or less favorable. An absolute failure of acorns, such as happens with beech between crops, is rare; some few are always to be found on isolated or border trees. ' Based on a free translation from French authors. ^ See also Chapter V. 388 APPENDIX Germination. — The gennination of acorns is quick and takes place at a low tem- perature, from 3 to 4 degrees C. (37 degrees to 39 degrees F.) above zero; they are difficult to preserve even till spring. A bushel weighs about 40 pounds on an average and contains approximately from 8,000 to 9,300 seeds. Rooting. — The tap root of pedunculate oak is developed first; at one year of age it is often 12 inches in length. Only when about 6 to 8 years old does it produce a few laterals; but at 60 to 70 years the laterals are dominant and the tap root becomes of secondary importance and seldom reaches below 3 to 5 feet. Stump and root wood, with 12-inch stumps, represents 14 per cent to 17 per cent of the total cubic volume. Shoots and Suckers. — Dormant buds keep alive a long time and retain great reproductive power to an advanced age; per contra, it means that standards are hable to have numerous root suckers after the coppice has been felled. Pedunculate oak is therefore more hable to have epicormic branches than its associate sessile oak. Adventitious buds are but rarely formed and only in very fertile soils; they produce poorly attached shoots which wind, snow, and hoarfrost easily cause to break. Stump shoots root but superficially and do not require deep soil. Bark. — The bark is smooth, shiny, and silver-gray up to 20 to 30 years . . . after that age, a brown bark with longitudinal flakes which becomes thicker and thicker. . . . Geographical Distribution. — The habitat of pedunculate oak is very extensive. It is foimd between east and west longitude 65 degrees, from the Ural Mountains and the coast of the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Its southern limit is from southern Spain, at a point in the Sierra Morena, south of Sicily, Italy, Greece, thence through Minor Asia as far as the Eastern Caucasus. The northern limit starts from Scotland, goes to 63d latitude in Norway and thence southeastward through St. Petersburg to Orenburg, in the Ural. It thus extends through about 26 degrees of latitude. Location. — The pedunculate oak prefers the plains and the valley bottoms, but it is found in the hills and even reaches as high as 3,280 feet in the Eastern PjTenees. Soil. — Pedunculate oak does not show any particular preference as regards the mineral nature of the soil provided it is sufficiently moist, and deep. Sandy-clay soils, even if occasionally flooded, suit it especially well; it is a serious error to drain them. Tolerance. — Pedunculate oak is a light demanding species. In order to grow, it requires at least four months of uninterrupted vegetative activity with a mean tempera- ture of 12.25° C. (54° F.), provided no protracted drought intervenes; in order that acorns may mature a total temperature varying (south to north) from 28.75° to 20.20° C. (83.75° to 68.50° F.) is necessary. The maximum temperatures that it can stand are, in the south, 44° C. (111° F.); in the north, 37° C. (98° F.). When in vegetative ac- tivity, it is easily affected by cold; young shoots, leaves and flowers will usually die if, during spring, the thermometer falls below 0° C. (32° F.). Timber. — It sdelds primarily building timber. The sapwood is white and clearly defined; the more active the vegetation the wider is the sapwood. According to the Nancy Forest School collection the total thickness of sapwood is from 0.63 to 3.0 inches; the total number of annual rings 36 to 7. The density for timber completely air dried is from 0.647 (Forest of Haye, Nancy) to 0.906 (Adour oak), with average yearly incre- ments of 0.186 of an inch. Uses. — . . . The wood is especially prized for ship building. Fuel Value. — Its fuel value (based on calorific power) averages, as compared with beech, 91/100, according to G. L. Hartig; 85/100, according to Worneck. The market value of firewood is below this because pedunculate oak crackles while burning, requires a strong draught, and the coals do not hold the fire well. There is a great difference as to quality in this respect. Bark from matxu"e trees, on the other IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 389 hand, has a very high calorific power; as compared with beech wood, the ratio is 108 to 100 and it bums slowly, with a short flame to be sure, but producing live embers that last till entirely burnt out. Oak charcoal is valued as compared with beech as 91 is to 100. By-Products. — The bark yields tannin of good quality, inferior, however, to that of the other species of the same genus. Yoxmg pole stands (coppice) between 20 to 30 years of age yield the best tannin. Silvicultural Characteristics. — (See sessile oak.) SESSILE OAK (Quercus sessUiflora) Climate and Soil. — The sessile oak, as well as the pedunculate oak, is dependent upon the texture, depth, and fertility of the soil rather than on its mineral composition. It prefers loose clay. For some time foresters considered that the sessile oak could be substituted for the pedunculate oak, or vice versa. Now, they realize that the pedun- culate oak requires a moister, or, at least, fresher soil; sandy loam, even inundated at certain seasons of the year, is considered very favorable since it is a species of the plains or valleys. On the other hand, low wet clays are less favorable to the sessile oak. It is distributed almo.st all over France, except in the high mountains and in the hotter regions bordering the Mediterranean. The pedunculate oak is very abundant in the southwest where it forms almost pure stands in the Landes and the Adour Basin. The sessile oak is the dominant species in the center of France and in the hilly coimtiy, where it extends to 3,281 feet of altitude and slightly above. Both the species attain their maximum development in the temperate zone where they are of characteristic abundance in the region which corresponds to that cultivated for grapes. Above the oak comes the fir. Tolerance. — Both species are hardy when young. They have a light foliage, often incomplete, as in the case of the pedunculate oak. They resist heat as well as the cold of winter, but their leaves are very liable to spring frost. The pedunculate oak, which begins growing later than the sessile oak, is less liable to frost damage. They are both good sprouters. Root System and Seeding. — Both species have long tap roots. The fruit is a heavy acorn and the seed j-ears are usually frequent in the southwest where it is possible to collect seed almost every year; as one advances toward the north, seed are less frequent. In northern France they come every 10 to 15 years. Growth Longevity. — The growth of these oaks, slow at the start, soon becomes quite rapid on good soil and continues to an advanced age, for their longevity is very considerable and exceeds 200 years. The growth in height in a dense stand, as well as isolated individuals, slows up towards 100 years. Utilization. — Oak wood must take the first rank for its general quality but its strength depends more or less on whether the growth is rapid or slow. Generally speak- ing, the wood of the pedunculate oak is denser than that of sessile oak and is better for construction purposes. Sessile oak is more highly valued for wood working and for cabinet work; but the pedunculate oak of Hungary is highly esteemed for that purpose. By-Products. — The bark is used for tanning purposes. The bark of sessile oak is generally richer in tannin than is pedunculate oak when it grows in warm situations and in the open. Silvicultural Characteristics. — " The chief value of oak for the private owner," says Broilliard, " is because it is abundant, because it grows on almost every kind of soil, because it flourishes whether growing alone or in dense stands, whether in high forest 390 APPENDIX or as coppice and grows to such an old age that almost every tree can reach large di- mensions." The oak is well adapted to treatment as simple coppice and tenishes excellent fuel, besides tannin bark, but its chief value is in dimension timber of large size. Treated as high forest it flourishes in the plains, but does not reach its maximum value before 200 to 300 years of age. It requires early thinning and, since it impoverishes the soil, it should not be gro^-n pure, but in mixture with the beech or hornbeam. If these ac- cessory species are lacking, it is indispensable to preserve undergro^'th to protect the soil from drying out. From this standpoint, grazing in an old high forest does a good deal of damage. On the whole, the thicker crown of the sessile oak enables its treatment as a pure stand easier than does the pedunculate. . . . Kspecially the pedunculate oak is adaptable to standards in a coppice-under-standards forest. It yields, however, a smaller proportion of timber when grown as coppice-under-standards than it does as high forest. When grown in an open stand, it formerly furnished ribs highly valuable for ship construction. These two oaks, and especially the sessile oak, possess the faculty of adapting themselves to divers conditions which different methods of treatment pro- pose. On the driest and thinnest soils, the sessile oak will merelj' grow into a bush and, while both species prefer rich soil, they often give satisfactory results on soil of moderate quality. BEECH {Fagus sylvatica) Size. — Beech is one of the most widely distributed and important of forest trees; it attains great size but is smaller than oak or fir, owing to much shorter longevity. It rarely Uves more than from 300 to 400 years and only occasionally grows to 131 feet in height with a maximum diameter of 6.5 feet. Habit. — The straight stem is remarkably cylindrical up to a great height and the bole remains clear to the crown. . . . The clear length is often 66 feet. When grown in the open or under other species it branches at from 33 to 49 feet. . . . Up to 10 years of age, the shoots are a dark ohve-green; beyond this age, stems and branches are ashy gray. Bark. — ... The white coloring of beech bark is not natural, but results from numerous hchens (Verrucaris Beformis et Epidermis; graphis scripta; Opegraphia varia, etc.) which coat its surface as early as the 10th year with their very thin thalli. Buds. — ... Beech buds are longer, more tapering, and more angular than those of any other species; they are covered with a large number of stipulate scales that are brown, dry, hairless, and shiny. . . . The strongest buds produce normal shoots, the internodes of which are well de- veloped; but there are many less vigorous ones . . . which only give rise to short- ened shoots, the leaves of which are not numerous, almost fasciculated, lack buds at the apex, and produce a single terminal bud. Resulting boughs . . . do not ramify, lengthen with extreme slowness, and contribute, on account of their great number, to increase the beech's foliage and cover. After 15 to 20 years boughs of this kind attain at most 4 J to 6 inches in length with a diameter of from 0.16 to 0.2 inches. A few of the weakest produce neither shoots nor leaves. . . . Tolerance. — Beech requires shelter during youth and cannot endure protracted exposure to the sun; it is very sensitive to spring frosts on account of its tendency to early growth. . . . Foliage. — The consequence is that its crown is dense and foliage heavy. Aspect. — It prefers north and northwest exposures. Reproduction. — ... Sprouts come more frequently from adventitious buds IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 391 . . . beech, especially if mixed with other species, is unsuitable for coppice; it rarely grows suckers. Leaves. — Leaves are alternate . . . they vary' in size according to altitude; the higher the altitude, the smaller the leaves. At 3,900 feet the leaves are one-half the size they attain at sea level. An acre of high forest, fuUy stocked, produces as early as the 30th year practically equal quantities of Utter until the end of the rota- tion — a yearly average of 3,664 pounds of air-dried leaves (to be reduced 20 per cent if oven dried). (Ebermayer.) This weight in Utter is a good deal greater than that of the kilndried timber grown on an acre in the same time and under identical condi- tions. The above quantity of leaves would cover ten times the area they are grown on; decomposition is fairly slow and the accumulated leaves would form a thick layer on the ground. Seeding. — Beech produces seeds only at an advanced age, about 60 to 80 years in closed stands, 40 to 50 when in thS open; it bears abundant masts only every 5 to 6 years under the most favorable circumstances, but sometimes only every 15 to 20 years. In the latter case, between full seed crops partial ones take place. A remarkable fact about seeding is that, in certain years, there is such a scarcity of beech nuts that one could not gather a liter full even on a considerable area. FuU seed crops are more common in the plains and on moderately sloping ground than in mountainous districts. Flower buds are formed as early as August and are easily distinguished from foliage buds by their more plump shape. The abundance, scarcity, or lack of flower buds in- dicates almost to a certainty what the next mast crop will be. Consequently, the effect of spring frosts is not a satisfactory explanation of the irregular seed crops observed for this species. Obviously, the temperatures during the year when the buds start have a preponderating influence on bearing capacity. Beech nuts are very difficult to preserve even until the next spring; therefore it is better, as a rule, to sow them in the autumn; they keep perfectly in pits, however, if they are properly established. A kilogram contains about 1,600 seeds. Germination. — When sown in autumn, beech nuts germinate very early in the spring, toward the end of April. The tigella extends immediately under the cotyledon, pushing the latter about 4 inches above the ground. The two cotyledons, folded irregularly one over the other, develop into two wide, opposite, pulpy, reniform, full leaves (the upper side of these leaves is green and the under side silky white). This early germination, coupled with a rapid development of the tigeUa and cotyledon, and the tenderness of these rapidly grown tissues, render the young plant very hable to be affected by temperature variations, especially by spring frosts. Growth. — During the first years after sowing the plant grows slowly (about 4 inches in height a year) but after 5 years it shoots up. At 40 to 45 years it reaches its maximum annual growth; but when 100 years old the tree does not increase appreciably in height. Each annual ring is from two to three times thicker near the top of the bole and at the beginning of the main branches than at the base; this fact, which is true to a lesser degree for all the other species, enables beech to keep its cylindrical shape to a con- siderable height. Root System. — During the first few years of growth the tap root grows below the ground to about the same extent as the stem grows above it. At about 3 years from two to three obUque laterals, well provided with root hairs, are developed; at about 12 to 15 years they grow rapidly (at the expense of the tap root, which remains in- active); at 30 years of age the laterals cease growing and are gradually replaced by superficial, shelving roots, which sometimes protrude out of the ground for some dis- tance from the base of the tree. In rocky soil these roots frequently interlace with 392 APPENDIX one another. To sum up, the whole root system is of no considerable depth (from 1 to 1.6 feet) but widely extended; the volume of the root wood equals one-fifth the total contents of the bole and branches. Geographical Distribution. — The beech extends south and north from Mt. Etna in Sicily to the sixtieth degree, beyond Christiana in Norway, over a length of about 24° of latitude; east and west; from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Coast, over about 65° of longitude. France is included in this area, but the greater part of Spain and the whole of Algeria is excluded. Beech becomes a lowland tree only in the northern latitudes, on the North and Baltic seacoasts. Its limit of altitudinal distribution naturally increases the farther south you go; its maximum is not over 850 feet in Norway, but as high as 7,087 feet on the slopes of Mt. Etna. In France the Umit of growth is 4,541 feet in the Vosges, 5,223 feet in the Jura, 5,381 feet on Mont Cenis, 5,462 feet on Mont Ventous, and 5,577 feet in the Pyrenees. The lower limits of the beech zone are less accxwately known; it extends into the vine region but does not reach the vaUey bottoms where the soil as a rule precludes beech forests. Climate. — Toward the north and in the higher altitudes, cold limits the extension of beech, which ceases growing when the January mean temperature falls below 5° to 6° C. (41° F. to 42.8° F.) in the plains and 6° to 7° C. (42.8° to 44.6° F.) on slopes. The southern limits are fixed by an excess of heat and consequent drying out due to an insufficient rainfall. Thus beech ceases to grow when a maximum of 44° C. (111.2° F.) or when the sum of the temperatures during the vegetative season exceeds 5,750° C. And yet, in order that beech may reach the above extreme limits, it requires from seven to eight rainy days during the summer months — June to August. Soil. — Porous, light, and even rocky ground is suitable for beech provided rains keep the soil fresh; compact, moist and marshy soils are absolutely harmful; this is why it does not generally grow in the rich alluvial soil of the broad valleys. The mineral character of the soil seems of no great consequence, since fine forests are found in sand, sand and rock, granite, porphyry, and pure clay; they seem to thrive best in the latter. Yet beech is one of the most exacting species in respect of mineral nutrition; accord- ing to the averages arrived at by Ebermayer after numerous experiments, a high forest takes from the soil 476 pounds of mineral elements, 70 of these only for timber and 406 for leaves in order to produce 14,400 pounds of completely air-dried matter (timber and leaves) ; under the same conditions and to produce an equal solid volume, a forest would absorb only 139 pounds, in all about 37 for timber and 102 for leaves. The requirements of beech as regards mineral elements are, therefore, as compared with those of pine, in the ratio of 3.4 to 1. No doubt, as compared with some other species, the ratio would not be so great. Competition with Other Species. — Favored by its thick fohage and its ability to endure shade, beech . . . has taken the place of such light demanding trees as oak, pine and birch. This was the case in Denmark, Holland, and other countries where (as proven by the numerous charcoal pits found there) this tree did not formerly grow, while pine, judging from the amount of the pine debris, was plentiful. Beech is nowadays the dominant species of the forests of those countries, while pine has dis- appeared from them. Julius Caesar found no beech in England where to-day it is plentiful. Timber. — Despite morphological analogies, beech yields a timber very different from that of oak or chestnut. It is white when cut; it becomes reddish through exposure to air, and after seasoning becomes a uniform light red, without any well-marked IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 393 distinction between the sapwood and heartwood. The heart of the old trees . . . colors a brownish red . . . with rather prominent but moderately close medullary rays. It lacks pUancy and easily becomes twisted and cracked; it is Uable to rot and does not polish; when subjected to alternate drying and wetting it does not last long but is fairly durable under water and when constantly wet. Beech is not therefore a building timber; but, being easily worked, it is frequently used by a number of trades, such as wheelrights for felloes, by basket makers, shoe- makers, joiners, mechanics, turners, etc. It is one of the easiest woods to be thoroughly treated with preservatives; when so treated it makes good railway ties. Density, one of the most important properties of beech, depends on several circmnstances such as altitude, latitude, aspect, soil, and whether grown in open or dense stands. It is in no way proportional to the thickness of the rings which vary from 0.27 to 0.36 of an inch. Fuel Value. — The most important use of beech is for fuel. The calorific power has been taken as a unit by the best authorities (G. L. Hartig, Werneck, I. Hartig) not on account of its having the highest fuel value, for some other species (yoke elm and sorb tree) exceed it, but because it is the best known and the most frequently used. As a matter of fact, the fuel value is proportional to and as variable as the density of the wood. Beech wood burns with a bright clear flame and gives embers which remain incandescent until completely burnt out. . . . Beech charcoal is highly prized for domestic purposes and for treating ores. By-Products. — The kernel of the beech nut contains from 15 to 17 per cent of its weight in a fat (non-siccative) oil which is edible raw, when extracted, and is quite suitable for Ughting purposes. A heavy mast is for this reason an important source of profit both for the owners of the beech plantations and for those who buy the right to gather the fruit. An acre of 150-year-old beech high forest yields, in years when there is a mast, up to 57 bushels of beech nuts (Retz forest, according to Fortier) from which 409 poimds of oil may be extracted. Silvicultural Characteristics. — The beech is best grown in high forest, and because of its dense crown and abundant litter it fertilizes the soil. ... It is usually regenerated from seed and the tolerance of the seedUngs makes complete natiu-al regeneration all the easier. While it can be grown pure, it is advantageous to mix it with species of more rapid growth, since beech exerts a most favorable influence on their good development. On the other hand, it is necessary to guard against the tend- ency of the beech to again become dominant instead of remaining in the understory. . . . Beech can be managed imder the selection system and then the trees furnish less wood than in the high forest. It does not retain its sprouting capacity long enough to permit advantageous management as simple coppice. Under this form of treat- ment the stand does not remain fully stocked except on open slopes and provided it is cut very young. Of all the forest species it is almost the only one which accommodates itself to treatment as selection coppice (furet6). Retained as standards in the coppice- under-standards system, the beech has such a thick, full crown that it shades out aU vegetation underneath; only short-bole trees are obtained which yield a small amount of sawlogs of mediocre quality. To simi up: The beech is a species that is especially valuable in shallow soil and where the ground has been impoverished by grazing or by destructive treatment. . . . HORNBEAM (Carpimis betidus) Climate and Soil. — The hornbeam is a tree of the plains and valleys. In the mountains, such as the Vosges, Jura of the Central Plateau, it disappears abruptly and hardly becomes more than a bush. It is found throughout the entire part of France 394 APPENDIX situated north of a line drawn between Grenoble and the mouth of the Gironde. It is very common in the northern and eastern departments. While it wiU grow on all kinds of soil, it shows a marked preference for fresh and deep ground. Tolerance. — The hornbeam, although it becomes quite hardy, has need of a nurse tree during its youth, because of its shallow rooting and the consequent danger if the soil dries out. It demands considerable Ught but not too much. On dry rocky soil, it usually succumbs to exceptional drought. On the other hand, in all regards it shows remarkable resistance to spring frosts. Its root system is weak and shallow. It is composed of numerous lateral roots, but the tap root soon disappears and the root system, as a whole, rarely extends deeper than 20 inches. Despite the shallow root system suckers are rare, but it sprouts from the stump with great facility. In the forest of Champenoux thickets of this species are so abundant that it is a serious obstacle to the natural regeneration of oak. The hornbeam begins to bear seed at an early age, at 20 years or before. . . . The fruit of the hornbeam is a small nut which, on account of its lightness, is easily distributed. It only germinates the second spring after it matures. Growth Longevity. — Its growth is always slow, being much less than that of the oak or the beech. Sprouts, on the other hand, are quite rapid in growth for the first 20 or 30 years, when it slows down quite materially. Whatever its origin, whether from seeds or sprouts, the hornbeam is always a secondary tree. It can live to 100 or 120 years and even exceed 150 years under favorable conditions, and when it is silviculturally desirable to retain it in the stand. Wood Uses. — It furnishes firewood of the first quality, but it is not used for con- struction purposes. . . . Notwithstanding its hardness ... it is useful for the manufacture of miscellaneous utensils. . . . Silvicultural Characteristics. — Hornbeam is only found pure in high forest because of silvicultural errors. Due to its slow growth it is always dominated by species in mixtures; as a secondary tree it is quite valuable as soil cover. Treated as coppice it produces up to quite an advanced age (50 to 60 years) very abundant sprouts which give good results. In proper situations it sprouts well, even under unfavorable condi- tions, and it is thus owing to its presence that certain coppice on almost sterile soil yields a considerable return. Its growth is too slow and its crown too low to enable it to form with profit a standard in coppice-under-standards. ... It has the same value as the beech as ground cover, but, of course, does not produce the same bole in high forest. HOLM OAK {Qiiercits Hex) Climate and Soil. — This southern species is rare on the Pacific Ocean but very common on the shores of the Mediterranean from Menton to Ceret, from the sea, as far inland as Digne, Sisteron, and Montelimart. It even extends as far north as Valina. It seems to prefer, in France at least, calcareous soils and is abundant along the Medi- terranean, except in the granite areas on the Maures and Est^rel. . . . It is found in the Alps and in Provence up to an altitude of 2,460 to 2,600 feet, and in the P3Tenees up to 2,000 feet. Tolerance. — Holm oak is quite hardy and thrives on the hottest south slopes. Its evergreen foliage is quite light and it sprouts up to an advanced age. Root System and Seeding. — It is anchored soUdly in the boU and has strong lateral roots. Is an early seeder; seed years occurring every 8 to 10 years; production con- tinues abundantly and regularly up to an advanced age. Growth Longevity. — Its growth is very rapid during youth, but it never reaches beyond the size of a third-class tree. It lives to be 300 years and more. IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 395 Wood Uses. — The wood of holm oak is very hard, heavy, and extremely compact. It is difficult to work and its heavy wood and small size limits its use as construction wood. It makes excellent fuel. By-Products. — The bark yields excellent tannin; better than that of oaks that shed their leaves. The acorns, when they are fresh, have an agreeable taste and make excel- lent food when they are properly cooked. In several departments they are collected as an edible food. Silvicultural Characteristics. — Since it does not reach a large size, it is only suitable for simple coppice. It is often foimd in mixture with aleppo pine and with this species it forms an excellent understory, since it is fire-resistant. CORK OAK' (Quercus suber L.) The cork oak is an oak with persistent leaves like the holm oak. . . . Both belong to the southern part of France where the first forms high forests, the second coppice. The economic importance of cork oak is considerable in the south of France, in Corsica, and especially in Algeria. Spain and Portugal also furnish cork which competes with our own in the markets. The botanists distinguish cork oak, properly called Quercus suber, and the western cork oak, Quercus suber var. occidentalis; the former being found in the Mediterranean (Algeria, Corsica, Provence, Pyr6n6es-Orientales), and the second belonging to the Atlantic flora (Gascogne, where towards the north it is of especial im- portance, beginning with the point of L6on). From our point of view it does not appear to be necessary to make this distinction, the two forms having the same requirements, furnishing the same product — cork — and being treated the same way. Both of them avoid calcareous soils and are confined to sandy soil. The length of their tap roots makes it necessary to have deep soils if they are to develop properly. The cork oak, although an xerophytic species, without doubt requires more moisture than does the holm oak. In Algeria it is infinitely more common in the province of Constantine, where the climate is quite rainy, than in Oran where it is very dry; in France it is foimd at the Maures and Esterel hills, which have a sufficient altitude to produce enough rain- fall, and in Gascogne where the climate is very hot but also quite humid. Regeneration. — When the cork oak forms pure stands they are always very open and usually even incomplete. (These pure stands, while common in Algeria, are rarely met with in the Maures and Esterel and do not exist at all, naturally at least, in the Gascogne.) On the other hand, the fohage of the tree is quite light. It therefore results that everywhere in the forest the soil is sufficiently open to permit the seed to germinate and develop, since the species is light demanding first of all. When cork oak is found in mixture with another species the stand becomes denser, but, since this other species, in France at least, is almost always maritime pine, whose cover is extremely light, the situation remains about the same from the point of view of regeneration. While this species exists in every part of the forest, without regeneration fellings it has to be favored and assisted. Systematic fellings are not made in cork-oak stands, but the fell- ings tend to realize old cork oak whose production of cork has ceased to be remunerative. Freeing the Young. — One cannot say that the regeneration of cork oak can be left to itself. On the contrary it is necessary to give it cultural aid. In those forests in reality where the soil is sandy and quite open, there exist thickets of evergreen shrubs in which tree heather often dominates and which is called maquis (similar to the term chaparral). Numerous species of small heather increase the density still more near the soil and make it so thick that it is not easy to penetrate. The acorns fall here and there ' Traite Pratique de Sylviculture, par A. Jolyet. Paris, J. B. Baillere et Fils, 1916. 396 APPENDIX in this brush and the young oak, overwhehned by such a thicket, does not receive the quantity of Ught which one would expect in such open stands. Seeds are often scattered by the birds, chiefiy by the doves; in mixed forests of oak and pine often the oak seed- lings are found in the neighborhood of the pine trees because the doves love to perch on the branches of the pine, which are the largest trees of the stand, and from there let fall the acorns which they have transported. Often seedlings are so suppressed by the heather that they cannot develop, remaining poor and stunted and finally often dis- appearing altogether. It is therefore necessary to take care to search out the oak seedlings in the midst of the brush and free them. Cutting Back the Young Poorly Formed. — The seedling which appears to have suffered from the heather cover to such an extent that its vitahty is injured should be cut level with the ground, and after this operation the heather should be cut for a distance of 1 to 2 feet around the shoot. The sprouts which develop on this little stump will have even more vigor than do seedlings. Moreover, if in a stand of cork oak which has already attained a height of 4j to 6 feet, but whose growth appears slow, it is much better to cut them back in order to obtain good sturdy shoots in their place. These shoots have just about the same value as seedhngs. This cutting back, it is true, has the objection of encouraging the formation of sprouts; the collection of cork oak being difficult on sprouts, it is better to choose between them when they have attained the height of about 6 feet and leave the best sprouts and cut the others. Division of a Forest of Cork Oak into Compartments. — Work such as this enables the improvement of cork-oak stands to favor whose regeneration there is no other method applicable. To execute the freeing and cutting back of seedUngs syste- matically the forest should be divided into some fifteen compartments so that each one can be gone over every year to free the seedlings, cut back the poor sprouts, and thin the sprouts when they are too numerous. It would be a good plan to have this work coincide in each compartment with the removal of the mature oak. The cost of this work is small in comparison with the benefits received and the owner should pay for it without doubting its advisabihty. Precautions to Take against Fire. — The existence of brush is a perpetual danger of fire. ... It should be remarked, however, that the cork is an excellent insula- tion and that the violence of the fire is rarely enough, in France at least, to kill the cam- bium of the oak when they are protected by a sufficient thickness of tissue. The oak recently peeled, however, is very susceptible to the slightest fire. ... To avoid fires in any part of the forest becoming veritable disasters, it is therefore necessary to make sure that the trees recently peeled should not all be grouped in the same range. In order that the cork of a tree should attain the thickness demanded by commerce (27 to 29 miUimeters), the period varies according to the cUmate: 12 years in Algeria, and 15 to 28 years in France. Taking for granted that the period of 15 years should be the one indicated by investigation, the forest should be treated as follows: Divide it into fifteen compartments and the first year bark all the oak in Compartment No. 1, the second year all those in Compartment No. 2, etc., and the fifteenth year all those in Compartment No. 15. In the sixteenth year the oak in Compartment No. 1 will have had 15 years of growth and reached the proper thickness. One can then pro- ceed with new felling operations on trees of this compartment and continue indefinitely. But if, by misfortune, fire has broken out in a compartment where the bark has been removed from aU the trees, every one will be destroyed and the compartment will be ruined without hope even of natural regeneration. Under such circumstances it would have been better to adopt another combination. The number of years necessary for the growth of the bark is divided by 3. For example 15/3 = 5; if the forest is divided then into the number of parts given in this quotient, each compartment would be IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 397 divided into 5 parts. This being done, one-third of the oak of the first compartment is barked the first year, choosing the trees here and there over the whole extent of the compartment. The second and third years the work is continued similarly in Compart- ments Nos. 2 and 3. The sixteenth and seventeenth to the thirtieth years the second third of the trees is barked in Compartments Nos. 1 to 15. The thirty-first and thirty- second to the forty-fifth years the third third is barked in each compartment. In the forty-sixth year the bark has reached the proper thickness on the trees in Compartment No. 1 which was peeled the first time. . . . This method appears to be more con- servative than peeling the trees in the entire compartment at one time. It is nearly the same idea that is expressed in the treatment of the Corsican pine when the selection system was adopted because of the fire danger in yoxmg even-aged stands which foUow the use of the shelterwood compartment method of regeneration. SILVER FIR (Abies pedinata) Size. — Silver fir is a tree of first-class size; it may, when from 180 to 200 years of age, reach 131 feet in height and 6.5 feet in diameter breast-high. Its longevity is very great, and some trees 800 years old have been observed in the Pyrenees. . . . A silver fir 207 feet high and 10 feet in diameter has been discovered in a Bohemian virgin forest (Hochstetter). In France itself ... on the best soils, 131 feet in height is often exceeded. A silver fir in the G^rardmer State Forest is 164 feet high. Habit. — The straight, slender bole branches regularly. . . . At an advanced age . . . the crown becomes more and more flattened; this is the period when full seed crops are produced. . . . The loss of the leader or main shoot is more serious with fir than with any other species. Often this leader cannot grow out again, particularly if the tree is a veteran. . . . Root System. — The tree is well rooted. There is a tap root, 3 or more feet deep, which divides into long, stout laterals. When cut flush with the ground the stump and root wood is about 16 per cent of the total volume. Crown. — The foliage of fir is abundant and leaves may be persistent for 8 to 10 years. . . . These leaves and young shoots are readily browsed by cattle and game. Bark. — Silver fir bark . . . is in most cases a characteristic silvery gray color . . . the thickness increases with age but rarely exceeds 1.18 to 1.57 inches. . . . Natural Grafting. — Silver fir has a growing bark up to an advanced age. This allows the bole, branch, or roots to easily grow together when the parts happen to remain in contact for some time. From this numerous vegetative phenomena arise. One of the most frequent and interesting phases is when the stump (after the tree has been felled) . . . continues to increase in diameter, and produces an excrescence which gradually covers the surface. . . . This growth ... is due to the extensive adhesion of one or more roots of the tree that has been cut down with those of a neighboring unfelled fir. The latter . . . acts as a wet nurse for the stump and causes a continuation of growth. Seeding. — Seeding is fairly regular and constant, having none of the irregularities that are so common with certain other species, such as pine, oak, and beech. The seed is easily distinguished by its irregular, truncated shape, its shiny brownish- yellow color, and its size which is larger than most other firs. It contains a great deal of turpentine which gives it a pungent, hot taste; it is covered by a brownish opaque husk, some remnants of which always remain, even when cleaned. There are 10,450 398 APPENDIX fresh seeds, and 14,090 clean seeds to the pound, or 8,063 to the quart. It will not stand packing nor shipment and keeps only from autumn until the following spring. Gennination. — The germination of seed sown in the spring takes place in 3 to 4 weeks. After the young plant sprouts ... it has from 4 to 8 cotyledons (generally 5). They are twice as long as and broader than ordinary cotyledons. . . . Seedling. — During the first 2 to 3 years all the vegetative activity concentrates in the deep-reaching tap root and in stem diameter increase. From about 3 to 4 years the seedUng begins to ramify by producing annually from 1 to 2 lateral branches, first in one and then in the other direction . . . after the tenth year ramification becomes normally verticillate, and from that time vegetation is rapid if there is sufficient light. Tolerance. — Silver fir will bear protracted shade better than any other species. Under dense cover, saplings, 3 feet high and 0.79 to 1.18 inches in diameter, are often found which are no leas than 60 to 70 years of age and which, if given space and Ught, will develop vigorously . . . and become splendid trees. Early vegetative activ- ity makes young fir liable to suffer acutely from spring frosts; they often lose their lateral shoots (the first to be developed). Timber. — Fir timber is formed only of tracheids and jneduUary rays and is almost entirely devoid of resiniferous channels . . . consequently it has no pronotmced odor, and the resin is well disseminated. . . . The timber is white, though often tinted a very fight reddish-brown. . . . There is no very appreciable difference, especially when dry, between the sapwood and the heartwood. The sapwood does not possess the quality of the heartwood and is more subject to rot. On the other hand, the sapwood is easily injected with preservatives, while the heartwood is very difficult to impregnate, as is the case with other similar resinous timbers, such as spruce, larch, cedar, and pine. The annual rings are very clearly defined on account of the great difference in color and in hardness between the spring and autumn tissues. The lack of homogeneity in fir timber (formed of cyUndrical zones of alternately soft and hard wood) is evident when it is being cut into firewood. It has a distinct tendency to split in a circular direction. ... In fir timber, as in all those of non-homogeneous structure . . . breaks will occur in the direction of the less resisting tissues, which . . . correspond to the soft spring rings . . . (ring shake). ... Its shade-enduring quaUty means that rings close together may be followed by wide rings of annual growth — obviously a defect. . . . Specific Gravity. — The density of fir wood is extremely variable and seems to increase with southern latitudes, or as the trees have more space in which to develop their crowns; on the whole it is superior to that of spruce and varies from 0.381 to 0.640. The horizontal strength and resiliency of fir timber are considerable and have been ascertained by numerous tests. ... It was found that fir from the Aude Depart- ment was superior to any indigenous and exotic timber except the longleaf pine (of the United States). . . . Fir timber will not last very long if exposed to moisture. Uses. — The large size, good quality, and abundance of fir timber make it one of the commonest building materials for planks, boards, beams, laths, etc.; it is even used for masts. It splits easily and is good for basket making, shingles, and roofing. Fuel Value. — According to G. L. Hartig the average fuel value of fir as compared with beech is as 69 is to 100, and is inferior to spruce. It is poor fuel, burning with a bright flame but crackling a great deal and smoking badly. It should be pointed out, however, that the branch-wood (Vosges) which is formed of very thin rings (the density is therefore higher) makes far superior cordwood than the stump or bole. . . . IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 399 Habitat. — Silver fir does not extend beyond the limits of Europe except to the East, where it penetrates for some distance (beyond the Sea of Marmora) into Anatolia. Its somewhat restricted area is in the shape of an irregular elUpse, whose main axis rests east and west, reaching from the western Pyrenees, in the neighborhood of the Gulf of Gascony, to beyond Constantinople, over a length of about 32° of longitude; the smaller north and south axis, from Cologne to Mt. Etna, extends over 14° of lati- tude. Ireland, England, Belgium, Holland, Northern Germany, Sweden, and Norway, and the whole of Russia are beyond the northern and eastern natural limits of this species . . . also Spain, exclusive of the Pyrenean slopes, Sardinia, southern Sicily, and Greece. There is a possibility that silver fir may be found in the Caucasus. In France, it is found only east and south of a zigzag line, which starts from fipinal, and passes by Bourg, Clermont, Aurillac, Careassone (to reach along the Pyrenees) and down to Bayonne. The distribution of fir within its habitat area is most irregular; eastwards it is scattered amongst beech and spruce, but, as one goes westward, it becomes more plentiful so that it reaches its maximum development about the western hmite of the area and forms pure stands or is the most important species. It may be seen piire (in France) in the Pyrenees, Upper Corsieres, C^vennes, the Auvergne, Forez and Loire Mountains, the Dauphine Alps, and principally the Jura and Vosges; (Germany) in the Schwarzwald (Black Forest) and the Franconian Hills. Situation. — Silver fir (Frigoris comes et causa, as Linmeus put it) is essentially a species of the mountains . . . above the vine and oak but below the spruce. Coming almost into the plains at northern latitudes ... it reaches between 1,300 and 4,250 feet altitude in the Vosges; 1,500 to 1,960 feet in the Jura; up to 4,900 feet in the Monts-Dore, 5,590 feet in Corsica, 6,390 feet on Mt. Etna group, and 6,397 feet in the French Pyrenees on northern exposures. Soil. — It seeks deep, cool, fertile soils, avoiding compact, marshy or peaty ground. The mineral nature of the soil is of minor importance, provided its physical require- ments are met. In the Jura, on Umestone soil, the fir forests are equal if not ■superior to the best grown in the Vosges on silica or granite. Conditions of Vegetation. — There must be a mean August temperature of at least 15° C. (59° F.), with a maximum of not over 39° C. (102.2° F.); mean January temperature not below 5° C. (41° F.), nor above 27° C. (80.6° F.), with a vegetative rest of at least 3 months, and plenty of moisture. Silvicultural Characteristics. — The fir, like other indigenous conifers, should be treated as high forest. It forms very dense stands. A fir forest, left to itself, is always many-storied. ... A thick cover results in retaining the fertihty of the soil, as well as its freshness. ... In addition the fir can be treated in selection stands. Moreover, in all forests which have been injured by grazing or by excessive exploitation, the natural regeneration is never lacking, even under a complete canopy. Unless local climatic conditions prevent it, the fir forms a regular high forest. . . . When it has stopped its height growth its crown becomes open, exposed, and thin, so the soil, insufficiently protected by the cover . . . runs wild. . . . This makes natural regeneration often difficult and sometimes even impossible. . . . The fir forms excellent pure stands, but it is preferable to mix it with other species, notably beech or spruce. The mixture depends on the conditions of the altitude. . . . The fir makes an excellent mixture with broadleaved trees or shrubs which protect the ground. 400 APPENDIX SCOTCH PINE (Pinus sylvestris) Climate and Soil. — Scotch pine is the tree of the plains and sandy hills. In France it is found growing naturally in the Vosges up to an altitude of 3,600 feet, in the Central Plateau up to 4,900 feet, in the Alps up to 5,600 feet, and in the Pjrrenees up to 6,560 feet. It ordinarily prefers southern exposures. Except in the aleppo and maritime pine areas, Scotch pine has been extensively used in reforestation; both in the plains and in the mountains its range has been widely extended by artificial means. While it will grow on compact soils, it much prefers those which are loose and porous. Tolerance. — Scotch pine has a Ught, open crown, even up to advanced age; seed- lings are light demanding and will not develop in very dense stands. It requires plenty of space to develop its crown. . . . While this species withstands winter and spring frosts, more than any other tree, it is Uable to damage by insects and fungus, especially when growing outside its natural habitat. The tree also avoids the summits that are exposed to violent winds; nevertheless it appears to resist the rigour of winter, but after its crown exceeds the usual depth of snow it may suffer damage. . . . Root System and Seeding. — The root system varies according to the ground. In a light, deep soil the tap root develops and is the essential part of the root system up to 30 or 40 years. After this period the laterals increase in vigor and have a tendency to replace the tap root. On other soils the tap root stops growth quite early and the later- als soon replace it. Scotch pine begins early to bear seed, and isolated trees produce cones with good seed as early as 15 years. Ordinarily, in stands, it does not bear until about 50 years and even after. On the whole, some cones are borne every year, but seed is abimdant only every 3 to 5 years. Growth Longevity. — When adapted to the situation, the Scotch pine is a tree of large size, which reaches 98 to 131 feet in height, but rarely exceeds 3.2 to 6.5 feet in diameter breast-high. ... Its growth, quite slow in the North, is infinitely more rapid in the southern zone. Its longevity is very great. In the plains, where it has been introduced, it lives a much shorter Ufe. Wood and Its Uses. — The wood is of first quaUty in the northern climate and in the mountains, but becomes of secondary value, as the growth increases, in the milder zones. In the latter case the proportion of sapwood is considerable as compared with heartwood. This heartwood, while of good quality, is far less valuable for lumber . . . than the Scotch pine of Norway and Finland. As fuel it is better than the fir and spruce and is much sought after by bakers. ... It is much used for paper pulp. By-Products. — Scotch pine is not tapped for turpentine, but the stumps, when distilled, yield tar and charcoal of good quality. Silvicultural Characteristics. — The Scotch pine should be treated as regular high forest. In pure stands, in suitable localities, the young stand maintains the soil up to 25 or 30 years; afterwards, when the stand becomes more open, natural regeneration becomes quite difficult under the pure veterans. This explains why, in run-down forests, one is often obUged to resort to artificial regeneration which, however, is quite easy, either by plantations or by seeding. Scotch pine grows well with beech, fir, or spruce, and, tha,nks to its rapid growth, remains dominant and furnishes an excellent yield. These mixtures are unfortunately, much too rare in France, and, under the circumstances, it would be valuable to create mixed stands artificially. In the high mountains it is possible to treat it under the selection system. ... On low-grade soil ... it is indispensable to retain every kind of vegetation (as a soil cover). Whether it is pure IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 401 or mixed, Scotch pine is easy to manage. All that is necessary is to give the best trees plenty of light in order that they may develop their crown with freedom. ... It is a valuable species for valleys and low mountains. MARITIME PINE (Pirnis maritima) Root System. — Maritime pine develops a strong tap root and laterals; this makes it absolutely wind-firm and suitable for forestation on the so-caUed "moving sand" of the Landes. As with silver fir, sometimes roots of felled trees graft with those left standing, thus furnishing nourishment to stumps. Seed Capacity. — Seed crops begin early (sometimes at 15 years of age), yield abun- dantly, and are almost continuous through middle age. . . . The seed is usually of good quality and retains its germinating power for 3 to 4 years. It sprouts 15 days after spring sowing and produces hardy plants with eight cotyledons which grow rapidly when fully exposed to the direct rays of the sun. There are 10,000 seeds to the pound and 12,080 to the quart. Habitat. — Maritime pine occupies an area somewhat similar to that covered by aleppo pine, but is somewhat more restricted and extends farther to the west. It is found west and east from Portugal to Greece, over 30° of longitude; north and south from Dalmatia and the Maures and I'Est&el (at Cannes) to Sicily and Algeria, a distance of some 10° of latitude. Within this area it occupies essentially shore and insular sites, never reaching far from the sea. In Corsica, however, it ascends to 3,280 feet on hills facing the sea and to 4,265 feet in Grenada. Its maximum yield is in the west, where, in Gascony, it forms extensive pure forests. As you proceed eastward the tree becomes smaller and is more scattered. Its optimum region is the opposite of that of aleppo pine. There is but little maritime pine in Algeria, it is common in Corsica, on the shore of the Mediterranean, especially in the Maures and I'Est^rel, in the Almeres hills, and along the foot of the Pyrenees. It is especially dominant from Bayonne to the Sables d'Olonne. Its habitat has been considerably increased by artificial means. It has been used suc- cessfully in central France in mixture with the Scotch pine in reclamation work in the Sologne marshes. Soil. — Its optimum growth is on sandy soils; it does not thrive on clay. . . . Its failure to grow on clay soils is explained by the fact that it absorbs too much lime and does not get enough potash and iron. If this mineral requirement is met it will grow on almost any soil, except clay, but prefers light, deep, fresh soils; it will, however, grow on rock soils, such as granite, porphyry, and schist. Tolerance. — While it will stand cold (even the climate of Lorraine), in central and western France, it is seriously damaged by severe winters. In 1879 to 1880 whole forests in the Sologne were frost-killed. North of Paris its growth is slow, since it demands a mean annual temperature of at least 12° C. (54° F.) with a winter average never below 6° C. (43° F.), but, given suitable climatic conditions, its growth is remarkably active; it often forms two whorls of branches a year. Timber. — The sapwood is white; the heartwood varies from light red to more or less dark red-brown. The grain is coarse and the annual rings wide and very conspicu- ous. It is quite hard, heavy, and pUant, and yields more resin than any other conifer. The numerous and large resin ducts, which radiate longitudinally, appear in the heart- wood a brownish-red on accoimt of being impregnated with resin. Its specific gravity, when air dried, is from 0.524 to 0.769. It is employed somewhat for ship building, construction purposes, railway ties, telegraph poles, piling, and mine props. It is sawed into boards, planks, staves, lath, and boxboards. When used as fuel it gives a 402 APPENDIX bright, clear flame, but does not hold the fire. It crackles a great deal when burned and throws out innumerable sparks. Trees that have been tapped last longer in the ground than imtapped timber. The tapping, however, slows up the increment. . . . Tapped trees have less sapwood than those which have not been tapped, and the wood is heavier, harder, richer in resin, more durable, and of greater fuel value. The method of tapping maritime pine is described in detail in Chapter VII. By-Products. — It yields turpentine paste, spirits of turpentine, colophony, rosin, pitch, grease used for machine and axle lubricant, lamp black, fire lighters, basket ma- terial, etc.; the needles are sometimes woven into a sort of cotton wool. A great many mine props are exported annually. NORWAY SPRUCE (Picea excdsa) The Norway spruce is a tree of very large size, with a straight, cylindrical bole that may reach up to 131 feet and more in height. Wessely asserts that in the Carpathian Mountains some trees of this species are 223 feet high and 3.5 feet in diameter at breast height. Its longevity is from 400 to 500 years. Habit. — Spruce . . . has slender persistent branches . . . that form a bushy, pyramidal, narrow, elongated, pointed non-truncated top up to the most ad- vanced age. . . . Of all (European) forest species, spruce probably forms the densest stands and yields the largest amount of wood. . . . Spruce can be readily pruned and makes close and impenetrable hedges. Root System. — Its root system is shallow, without a tap root, but with somewhat slender laterals; consequently this tree cannot withstand wind pressure. The stump yields on an average of 16.5 per cent of the total volume when cut flush with the ground; 14.7 per cent for the stump itself, and 1.8 per cent only for roots. (T. Hartig.) Seed. — Seed crops are more intermittent and irregular than with pine, and, accord- ing to the locality, are abundant only every 2 or 6 or even 8 years; normally seeding begins at 30 years of age. If cones are sometimes seen on trees which have not reached this age (chiefly in plantations), care should be taken not to gather them, for, almost always, they only yield sterile seeds. The least heat is sufficient to cause the cones to open and release the seed. . . . The abundance of seeds and the ease with which they are extracted account for the low price. When fresh, with the wings on, they run 56,360 to the pound and 62,660 to the quart. Spruce seeds retain their germinating vigor for from 3 to 4 years. If sown in the spring they will germinate after 4 or 5 weeks; they contain a non-siccative oil fat (instead of turpentine) and consequently have a pleasant taste. The Seedling. — The seedling . . . usually has nine cotyledons; within a year it elongates its plumule into a young shoot with one to three very small laterals . . . by the end of the first year the cotyledons have already dried up and the plant is from 2 to 3 inches in height. ... At 5 years of age it is, under good conditions, from 10 to 12 inches tall. Tolerance. — With its shallow root system the spruce requires shelter during youth, so that the surface of the ground, where it is planted, should not become dry; but it requires light and has not the same vigor that pine has under partial cover; it dies out rapidly under complete shade. If, in mixed spruce and pine forests, the soil often reproduces to pine under spruce stands, no other reason need be given, other than the ability of the pine to endure heavy shade where spruce could not exist. . . . The tap root stops growing after the first year and produces numerous very slim laterals that spread in all directions. . . . Spruce bark is reddish-brown in color. . . . IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 403 Distribution. — Spruce does not extend as far south as does pine, but it reaches much farther north, and its range is far more extensive. It is irregularly distributed; its narrowest zone is southwestward. The region occupied by spruce broadens as you go through Central Europe in a northeasterly direction, from the Maritime Alps, a little below 44°, on the one side, to near the Iceland Sea, not far from Cape North (69°) . In France, there is little spruce west of a line drawn from the Alps to the Vosges; nor in Belgium, Holland, lower North Germany (up to the Vistula River), Denmark, and the British Isles. To the south, Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy (except the Lom- bard Alps and Venetia), Greece, and the greater part of Turkey are all outside the spruce zone. So it is with southern and eastern Russia where Norway spruce does not extend beyond Moscow and Archangel (39° longitude). . . . (The Siberian Picea, which goes farther north, is, as yet, inaccurately delimited). Habitat. — In the north (in Norway for example), spruce comes to sea level, but, as regards its upper limit, scarcely reaches higher than 655 feet. ... In the Tyrol (at 46° 45' north latitude), spruce grows up to 6,807 feet; in the Engadine (at 44° 40'), up to 6,926 feet; at Mont Ventoux (44°), up to 5,643 feet. As the upper limit extends, the tree leaves the plains and valley bottoms. . . . The lower limit is about 2,000 feet in the Vosges and Jura. Mountains, and 2,600 feet in the Maritime Alps. In France, therefore, spruce is distinctly a mountain species which reaches up to the Alpine region and is characteristic of a higher vegetative zone than is the silver fir. . . . Soil. — Any moist soil, no matter what its geological and mineralogical formation, is suitable for spruce, provided it is neither too compact nor too porous. A peaty soil, while not favorable, is not absolutely objectionable. In dry and arid soil spruce can sometimes Uve, but it does not prosper. Under such conditions the foUage is yellow rather than a dark green color (so generally characteristic), the needles short, the cones plentiful but half grown (one-third or one-fourth the usual size). Vegetation. — Spruce requires a mean July temperature of at least 10° C. (60° F.), but not more than 18° 75' C. (66° F.); a mean January temperature not below 12° 5' C. (54° 5' F.) (Willkomm). It requires, above all, a moist atmosphere, frequent rainfalls, and heavy dews so that the surface soil may be kept fresh — absolutely necessary for such a shallow-rooted species. Timber. — Spruce wood is generally whiter than pine; some spruce from northern Europe, however, is very light red (like Scotch pine) and is indicative of inferior quality. This reddish spruce timber comes from trees grown in marshy soils, chiefly of the Siberian variety. . . . The sapwood has the same value as the heartwood; as a matter of fact, it is scarcely distinguishable. . . . Spruce boards generally have smaller but more numerous knots than pine. In most cases, these branch knots are loose. . . . Density varies according to the growth conditions; for air dried timber the specific gravity varies from 0.337 to 0.597. Uses. — Spruce timber is lighter and weaker than pine but serves the same uses. . . . It is soft, spongy, and of inferior quality at lower elevations because of too rapid growth. Near the upper limits of habitat, however, it . . . may be worth from one-quarter to one-fifth more than pine timber. To sum up: it is a first-rate building and manufacturing timber. . . . The straight, clear boles make excellent masts. . . . The regular fiber makes splitting very easy . . . it is prepared for baskets and for shingles . . . and almost exclusively (imder the name of "sounding wood"), for sounding boards of musical instruments — pianos, violins, etc. . . . Match factories also use considerable quantities of spruce wood. Reduced by machinery to a soft paste or pulp it supplies, besides, the raw material for high quality papers and pasteboards. Fuel Value. — The fuel value of spruce, as compared with beech, is as 70 is to 100. 404 APPENDIX . . . According to T. Hartig the fuel value of spruce, as compared with other species under identical vegetative conditions, is as follows: Spruce Scotch pine Beech Oak Birch Alder Fuel value 6,110 3,600 3,500 3,150 2,890 2,200 By-Products. — Spruce is tapped for rosin by . . . means of long, narrow, longitudinal incisions or slashes clean through the bark; the large radiating channels in the Uber allow the turpentine to ooze out abundantly. Those slashes need only be widened from time to time, through the new Uber layers, in order to secure the gum product up to a very old age. This operation is quite profitable and is practiced on an extensive scale in the North; but it weakens the trees and decreases their size. In France it is all the more objectionable since in most cases . . . instead of just gashing the bark, deep cuts are needlessly made into the wood. . . . Turpentine, colophony, "Bm-gundian" tar, and lamp black are manufactured. The bark contains some tannin and is used (in higher Jura, for instance) for curing leather; for this purpose the bark of trees from 60 to 80 years of age is preferred. In some countries the natives pulverize the inner Uber (freed from its rhytidome) and obtain a kind of flour which, either pure or mixed with barley flour, is used to make bread. The seed contains from 20 to 25 per cent of fat, non-siccative oil. Silvicultural Characteristics. — Like the fir, the spruce should be maintained in a dense stand. . . . More than any other conifer it can survive in very dense stands which enable it to return very large yields. It is advantageously managed as high forest, but when it is very exposed or Uable to wind-fall it is better to mix it with beech, fir, or larch. ... On account of its hardiness it is a good species for natural re- generation by clear cutting. No other species is so easily transplanted. It is adaptable to most any soil. . . . EUROPEAN LARCH (Larix europea) Larch is a large-sized tree, with a slender, straight bole 98 to 115 feet in height and up to 27 inches in diameter. ... In Silesia, a larch has been measured which is 178 feet high and 3.3 feet in diameter, breast-high. Habit. — The crown is shaped like a narrow, long acute pyramid. . . . The branches are numerous, tapering, thin and generally pendant; the branches of forest- grown trees form only one-sixth the total volume (stump wood included). Root System. — There are several main roots. These penetrate to a considerable depth at oblique angles, and from these spring a large number of rootlets; the tap root is obliterated within the first few years. The actual stump and root timber comprises about 10 per cent or 11 per cent of the total volume. Leaves. — The first spring leaves of the larch are ahnost exclusively in bundles; one month later soUtary leaves appear and also the young shoots. . . . The leaves form a somewhat thin crown that is light demanding. Seeding. — When grown in temperate regions the larch may seed early; but seeds are then sterile and it is only in middle age that fructification is regular. The cones IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 406 sometimes open in autumn, but usually during the following spring. They are per- sistent and, when empty, are brownish-black in color; they are readily distinguishable from the new reddish-gray cones. Seed. — Larch seed falls in March; if the ground is then covered with crusted snow seeds in the hoUows where they have been carried by the wind are easily gathered with a broom. Another way of gathering seed in March is by beating the branches with a pole and collecting them in sheets at the foot of the tree. Seeds so gathered are better in quality than those obtained by artificially opening the cones by heat. The suc- cessful extraction of seeds is diflScult if the heat is at aU above the normal 15° C. to 17° C. (59° F. to 62.6° F.). The rosin contained in the cones becomes fluid and seals the scales. Seeds pmrchased in the market are rarely more than 34 per cent to 45 per cent good; sometimes much less. An easy test may be made by putting the seeds into water; those that float are usually sterile. . . . When seeds are fresh they average 58,000 to the pound, 56,300 to a quart. If fresh, germination is rapid — within 3 to 4 weeks. They may be preserved for 3 to 4 years, but in the latter case the germination is propor- tionately slower. Seedlings may not sprout until the second or even the third year. In the lowlands a good plan is to soak the seeds in water for 10 to 15 days before spring sowing; the softening greatly facilitates and hastens germination. Seedlings. — Seedlings have five to seven cotyledons (generally six) and immediately produce a shoot with soUtary unindented leaves (leaves of silver fir and pine are indented at the edges). At first small and slender, the seedling reaches, under favorable condi- tions, some 4 to 5 inches in height at the end of the first year; its tap root is then from 6 to 10 inches according to the soil. The seedUng grows to 2 to 3 feet in height at the end of 2 or 3 years. Bark. — The bark is somewhat similar to that of the pines, both on account of its creviced, scaly surface and because of its structure and method of growth. There are, however, some differences. . . . Distribution. — Its habitat coincides with the high mountains of Central Europe forming a narrow strip westerly and southwesterly, from the Maritime and Dauphine Alps to the North and South Carpathians, about 20 degrees, from the third to the twenty-third degree of longitude. Its southern Umit is beyond Nice; its northern hmit does not reach in the Carpathians beyond the fiftieth degree of latitude. This species thus is confined to the high mountain areas of middle latitudes and does not extend (like the spruce or silver fir) to the northern plains. Perhaps it would not find there the sum of the temperature, that is 1,672° C, that it requires during the vegetative period. Spruce is less exacting, being satisfied with 1,450° C. Larch grows naturally in France only in the Savoy, Dauphind, and Provence Alps, where it begins at an altitude of 3,281 feet in the North, 3,940 feet in the South, and reaches up to 8,200 feet (and with cembric pine, the extreme limits of vegetation, in the Alpine pastures). The vegetative requirements are: At least 1° C. (33.8° F.) and at most 8° C. (46.4° F.) annual temperature with a rest of at least 4 months. Larch prefers well-sheltered coves at high altitudes but does well on calcary, dolomite, schist, or sandy soils, if they are sufficiently light, fresh, and deep. Larch will not stand crowding; the forests are therefore always open, with fine grass which can be regularly cut or grazed. It even helps to restore the range where impoverished by overgrazing. Endeavors have been made to grow larch outside its natural habitat. ... It will often grow with remarkable vigor during youth, but shows early signs of premature de- chne. In these cases its timber is of poor quality (but very useful ... for hop poles). Timber. — Larch timber has a very conspicuous and well defined light yellow sap- wood, containing six to twenty annual rings which form as a rule a very thin layer. 406 APPENDIX This is especially so with slow-growing veterans. The heartwood is reddish-brown, veined with rings of darker colored fallwood. . . . When completely air dried wood from momitain-grown trees has a specific gravity of 0.557 to 0.686 — 0.456 to 0.531 if grown at lower elevations. Uses. — Larch is the " mountain oak." Its timber is one of the most valuable to be found in French forests; its complete hgnification and its great richness in rosin make it very durable and the regularity and thinness of the annual rings, as well as their ar- rangement in alternate soft and hard zones, give it remarkable strength and resiliency. It does not crack; it is not attacked by insects, and is suitable for . . . mast and ship building. In Russia it is even used for ship-ribs . . . shingles, staves, and barrels made of this wood have the advantage of allowing very little evaporation; vine props and water pipes made of larch will last almost indefinitely. Fuel Value. — As firewood larch crackles and throws sparks, even more so than other resinous woods. On the other hand it has a fairly high fuel value. Charcoal obtained from larch, as compared with beech, is of good quality and better than that from pine or spruce. Tapping for Resin. — Turpentine is fairly abundant in larch. . . . There are various methods of tapping for resin; the following is practiced in the VaJais by the Lombardians: With an auger 1.2 inches in diameter holes are bored 2 feet from the ground. These holes are inclined upward a Uttle . . . point to the center of the tree but do not reach it. . . . The openings are fitted with wooden or bar gutters and a trough placed underneath. A tree may yield on an average 85 to 100 grams of turpentine a year for 40 to 60 consecutive years if care is taken to plug thoroughly the holes during winter; the total quantity may reach 5.5-|- pounds (Varchland). ... It seems that larch trees so tapped . . . are fit only for firewood. . . . In the southern Tyrol another method is used. In the spring a horizontal (1.1 inches in diameter) hole is bored at the base of thrifty trees right to the centre; if the tree stands on a slope the hole is bored into the upper side. The aperture is securely plugged with a wooden stopper. Turpentine gathers in the hole during the summer and in the autumn it is scooped out with a specially shaped spoon; then the plug is put back. At the end of a year another quantity of turpentine is scooped out and so on from year to year (Hugo Vohl). This method, though infinitely less productive, does not injure the trees and there is no deterioration in the quality of the timber (Wessely). Larch turpentine is known as "Venetian Turpentine" . . . it is purer and better quality than that distilled from pine. By-Products. — Larch leaves secrete a peculiar resinous substance, which solidifies in the shape of small whitish grains, and which is prescribed by doctors as an aperient under the name of "Briangon Manna." Young bark is used for tanning, and in some German States larch is extensively cultivated on account of the excellent quality of its bark; it is used also for brown dyeing. Silvicultural Characteristics. — In the high mountains where the larch is found the stands must combat the rigorous climate, the rough soil, steep slopes, and grazing. Moreover, the management of any forest is always a delicate matter because the least error may possibly occasion irreparable disasters. Because of its extreme intolerance the larch does not grow well in more than one story. Rather open stands composed of trees of the same height is preferable to any other method. To continue such a condition it is necessary to favor it in every way, not only when young, but even toward the end of the rotation when regeneration is necessary. If there is sufficient hght the natural seeding is possible in the grass which usually covers the ground in larch forests. At its lower limits of growth the larch can be advantageously mixed with spruce, mountain IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 407 pine, and Scotch pine. It can even be treated under the selection system adapted to these other species. In pastures at high elevations, when retained in groups, it protects the cattle and at the same time furnishes excellent products. . . . ALEPPO PINE (Pimts kcdepensis) Soil and Climate. — This Mediterranean species is very liable to damage from winter frosts. . . . It is confined to the limestone soils of the temperate Provence. It grows satisfactorily on rocky slopes stripped of vegetation and scorched by the sun. Tolerance. — The seedling is very hardy but intolerant. On account of its drought- resisting quahties it is a very valuable tree. Root System and Seeding. — The tap root is the dominant root, but the laterals are well developed and, unfortunately, remain shallow. Aleppo pine bears abundant seed at an early period and it is characterized by the persistence of the open cones, which remain attached to the branch for an indefinite period. Growth Longevity. — The aleppo pine has quite a rapid growth, nevertheless it does not exceed the size of a secondary species. Toward 20 years it forms a tree with a slender, sweeping bole; when the growth slows up at an advanced age the crown increases in size and becomes umbrella-shaped like the stone pine (Pinus pinea). Wood and Its Uses. — The wood, of mediocre quality, is, nevertheless, used con- siderably by carpenters, and furnishes quite a good deal of saw timber for packing boxes and crates. As a fire wood it is valuable for certain kinds of factories. Silvicultural Characteristics. — Aleppo pine is usually not found pure. Ordinarily it forms forests where grazing is allowed, in mixture with holm oak and other broadleaf trees. These are managed as coppice, with the aleppo pine reserved until it reaches merchantable dimensions. Under these conditions the tree regenerates very early. TREES, SHRUBS, AND PLANTS USED IN REFORESTATION IN THE MOUNTAINS TREES ^ Large-leaved linden (TUia platyphyUoa). Sycamore maple (Acer psevdo-platarms). Tree of heaven {AUanltms glandidosa). Locust (Robinia pseudacacia)'. Scotch labumimi {Laburnum wlgare). Sweet cherry (Cerasus avium). Mahaleb cherry (Cerasus mahaleb). Whitebeam (Sarbus aria). Mountain ash (Sorbvs aucuparia). Common ash (Fraxinus excelsior). Scotch elm (JJlmus mmUana). Beech (Fagvs sylvaiica). Chestnut (Castanea sativa). Sessile oak (Qv£rcus robur sessUiflora). Holm oak (Qy^rcus Hex). Hop-hornbeam (Ostrya carpinfolia). Silver birch (Betula vemuMsa). Black alder (Alnus glviinosa). Grey alder (Alrms incana). Green alder (Alnv^ viridis). Willow (Salix). White poplar (Popvlus alba). Aspen poplar (Pop/idus tremula). Black poplar (Poptdus nigra). Upright cypress (Cupressus sempervirens). Silver fir (Abies pectinata). Norway spruce (Picea excelsa). European larch (Larix europea). Mount Atlas cedar (Cedrvs allantica). Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). Corsican pine (Pinus larido). Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca). PjTenees black pine (Pinus larido mMir speliensis) .* Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis). Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster). Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra). * See page 68^ Vol. I, Restauration et Conservation des Terrain en Montagnes. ' Salzmann nrst published this form as Pimis monspeliensis. Later Dunal published it as Pinus salzmannii, probably not knowing that Salzmann had previously described and published it as P. monspeliensis. Salzmann's name must, of course, have prece- dence over Dimal's P. salzmannii, and this fact would prevent the use of the common name "Salzmann pine." 408 APPENDIX SHETJBS Common clematis {Clematis vitaMm). "Tamiers' smnac" (Cariaria myrtifolia). Rest-harrow (Ononis fnUicosa). Kidney vetch (the species used was probably A. mdneraria, "sand clover," or "wound- wort"). Smooth-fruited apricot {Prunus hrigantiaca). Sea buckthorn (HippophcB rhamnoides). Filbert {Corylus avellana). Common jimiper {Juniperus communis). PERENNIAL HBRBACEOtJS PLANTS Alpine poppy {Papaver alpinum). Yellow pansy (Viola lutea). Alpine flax (Linum alpinum). Alpine clover (Trifolium alpinum). Sainfoin; Holly clover (Onobrychis saliva). (Now known as O. vicicBfolia). Creeping avens (Geum reptans). Laserwort (Laserpitium gallicum). Pyrenean valerian (Valeriana pyrenaica). Alpine plantain (Plantago alpina). Feather-grass (Stipa calamagrostis) . (L. is antedated by stipa, which is now very gen- erally recognized.) Perennial oats (Avena sempervirens). Common false-oat (Arrhenalherum avenaceum). Sheep's fescue (Fetuca ovina). "Fenasse brun" (probably a species of heather). PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS 409 APPENDIX D STATISTICS ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS OVER FIVE THOUSAND ACRES IN AREA The following is a summary of State and communal forests over 5,000 acres in extent. It has been arranged by departments and shows for each forest the arrondissement, the area in acres, chief species, treatment, and the rotation. Department Arrondissement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief species * Treat- ment t Rotation Ain L'Aisne. . L'Aisne. L'Aisne. L'Aisne . L'AUiSr. None Soissons.. Hautes-AIpes Hautes-Alpes Hautes-AIpes — Alpea-Mari times L'Ard^he Ardennes Laon Laon Vervins Montlugon. . . . Barcelonnette. BrianQon Embrun Embrun Ardennes.. Ardennes., L'Aridge... L'Ari^ge. . . L'Ariige. . , L'Aridge . L'Aube... L'Aube.., Ratz St.-Gobain-Coucy . Coucy-Basse St. Michel Trougais M^lans, Revel... Nevache. . Ceillac.... Guillestre. None Privas M^zieres. Rocroi Sedan Foir Foix Saint-Girons Saint-Giro ns. Bar-sur-Aube Bar-sur-Seine L'Aude L'Aveyron. None Espalion. 31,128 10,376 S,323 7,569 25,785 8,481 6,580 5,723 6,521 Bourg-Saint-Andeol Signy-l'Abbaye. . Revin., Sedan. . I'Ancien Ck>nBulat de Foix Hares Seix. d'Ustou., Clairvaiix. Rumilly... 4,972 7,860 8,463 10,497 7,631 7,173 5,733 6,563 10,502 5,656 Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. IvB. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Fir, spruce, larch, Scotch pine, cembric pine Larch, Scotch pine, mountain pine Larch, Scotch pine, mountain pine Larch, Scotch pine, mountain pine Sessile oak, holm oak Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, birch, mis. bd. Its. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Beech, fir, mountain pine Beech Beech, fir Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs, d'Aubrac., 5,859 Beech, mis. bd. Ivs. C. Conv. H.F. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. C. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. Conv. C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. C.U.S. 'H.F. H.F. C.U.S. Conv. H.F. C.U.S. Conv. C.U.S Conv. H.F. C.U.S. C.U.S. 150 Unknown 160 35 35 30-33 Unknown 180-200 180 180 180 180 20-25 30-32-36 25 25-30 Unknown 30 30 120-144 40 140 Unknown 20 Unknown 144 36 Unknown 30 175 162 30 15-18 * Mis. bd. Ivs. = Miscellaneous broadleav&s. t C. == coppice; Conv. = conversion; H.F. = high forest; C.U.S. °^ coppice-undei.standarda. 410 APPENDIX Department Belfort Bouches-du- Rhdne Calvados Cantal Charente Charente- Inf6rieure Cher Cher.... Corrfize.. Corse Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corae.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse.. Corse Corse C6te-d'Or. C6te-d'Or. C6te-d'0r. Arrondissement None. . None. . None None AngoulSme.. Marennes.. Bourges. Ajaccio. . Ajaccio.. Ajaccio. . Corte... Bourges. None. Ajaccio.. Corte., Calvi.. Calvi., Calvi.. Calvi.. Calvi.. Corte.. Corte.. Corte,, Corte., Corte. Corte. Sartene.. Sartene. . Beaune.. Ch&tillon-sur- Seine Ch&tillon-sur- Seine Name of forest Bragonne. . Coubre Vierzon. . . d'Allogny . . Bastelica. . . Bocognano . d'^visa Zicavo Corte Marmano.. Calenzana. d'AIbertacce, Cala- cuccia, Casamac- cioli, Corsica, Lozzi (dite du Fango) Fango Tartagine-Melaja. . . Valdoniello d'AIbertacce soumise d'Asco., Area (acrra) Chief specie * Ghisoni . Tova.... Vivario.. Carbini, Figari, Le- vie (massif de Cagna) Zonza,. Barocaggio- Margbese Citeaux Ch&tillon., Chaume... 9,803 9,808 13,099 5,459 8,555 5,743 5,424 9,780 11,048 5,439 7,445 15.839 9.862 6.877 10,954 5,555 6.299 10,052 6,012 5,221 10,129 6,768 8.626 21,550 6,368 Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. Maritime pine Oak. beech, hornbeam, birch. Scotch pine Oak, beech, hornbeam Holm oak, mis. conif. and bd. Ivs. Mis. beech Corsican pine, maritime pine, holm oak Beech, corsican pine Beech , Corsican pine , Maritime pine Beech, Corsican pine Maritime pine, Corsican pine, holm oak Holm oak, maritime pine, Corsican pine Holm oak, maritime pine. Corsican pine Holm oak, maritime pine, Corsican pine Corsican pine, fir, beech Corsican pine Corsican pine, maritime pine Holm oak, Corsican pine, maritime pine Maritime pine, Corsican pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Beech. Corsican pine, maritime pine Holm oak, maritime pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Maritime pine, Coraican pine Maritime pine, Corsican pine Oak, beech, hornbeam mis. bd. IvB. Oak, beech, hornbeam mis. conif. and bd.lvs. Oak, beech, hornbeam mis. bd. Ivs. Treats ment t H.F. C.U.S. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. C. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. C. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. Rotation 120 25-30 Unknown 160 35 12 180 30 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown 70 280 360 120-360 Unknown 46 120-360 Unknown Unknown 160 Unknown 100, 140 300 120-300 Unknown' 80,150 H.F. 125 H.F. 90 Conv. Unknown C.U.S. 36 Conv. 140 C.U.S. 80,35 C.U.S. 32 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS 411 Department Arrondissement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief species * Treat- ment t Rotation C6te-d'0r. Cdte-d'Or. Dijon. Dijon. C6tes-du-Nord. Creuse Dordogne Doubs Doubs Drdme None None None , BesanQon.. Pontarlier. Di6 Drdme. Drdme. Di6. Dig. L'Eure., L'Eure.. Les Andelys., Louviera D'Eure^t-Loir. . Dreuz.. Finist^re Gard Haute-Garonne Gets Gironde Gironde Gironde Gironde None None None None Bordeaux. . Bordeaux.. Bordeaux. L^parre... Gironde L'Herault D'lUe-et-Vilaine L'Indre. L'Indre. L^parre Montpellier.. Rennea CMteaurouz . Isaoudun D 'Indre-etrLoire D*Indre-et-Loire L'ladre L*Isdre L'lsdre Jura Jura Jura Jura Landes Landes Landes Landffl Landes Chinon. . Loches Grenoble.. Grenoble.. Grenoble. . Dole Poligny. PoUgny. Poligny. Val-Suzon d'ls-aur-Tille. Besangon.. Levier Vercora Lua-larCrox-Haute. Lente Lyons., Bord. . . Senonch^. Teste Lege, Garonne. . . Lacanau Soulac-Flamand- Hourtin Careans Puechabon Rennes Ch&teauroux . Bommiers Chinon.. Loches Grande-Chartreuse Grease 5,199 7,527 5,078 6,714 6,576 8.135 14,920 8,649 10,554 5,817 10,230 12.353 12,835 7,537 5,019 7,360 12.704 11,021 d'Autrans. Chaux Moidons. Joux PoUgny. Dax Dax Mont-de-Maraan Mont-de-Marsan Mont-de-Maraan Litret-Mixe Vielle-Saint-Girona . Mimizan Sainte-Eulalie Biscarrosse 16,306 5,550 5,550 31,998 7,705 6,534 7,344 8,058 6,395 8,175 18.123 16,131 Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mia. bd. Iva. Oak, beech, mia. bd. Ivs. Fir, spruce Beech, fir, spruce, mis. bd. Ivs. Beech, fir, Scotch pine Beech, fir Oak, beech, hornbeam Oak, beech, hornbeam, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. conif. and bd. Ivs. Maritime pine Maritime pine Maritime pine Maritime pine Maritime pine Holm oak Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, mia. bd. Ivs. Oak. hornbeam, mia. bd. IvB. Oak, Scotch pine, mari- time pine, mis. bd. IVB. Oak. beech, hornbeam, mia. bd. IvB. Beech, fir, apruce, mis. bd. Iva, Beech. Ifir, mia. bd. Ivs. Beech, fir, spruce Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Fir, apruce Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Maritime pine Maritime pine Maritime pine Maritime pine Maritime pine C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. H.F C. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. Conv. H.F. Conv. C.U.S. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. C. Conv. Conv. C.U.S. Conv. H.F. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. C, H.F. C.U.S. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. 28.30 32 30 160 180 180 160 160 150. 180 90. 150 Unknown 180 150 25 60 60 70 66,67 60 20 120 180 25-30 Unknown Unknown 150, 180 150-180 162 30 117 30 Unknown Unknown 30 Unknown 75 Unknown 70,75 60 412 APPENDIX Department Arrondissement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief species ^ Treat- ment t Rotation Loir-et-Cher., Loir-et-Cher . Loir-et-Cher , Loire Haute-Loire Loire-Inf^rieure Loiret.. Loiret., Lot Lot-et-Garonne . Loz^re Maine-et-Loire . La Manche Marne Blois. Russy., Blois. Blois. Blois Boulogne.. 7,855 6,798 9.884 None None Paimboeuf. Orleans.... Montargis. Gavre d'Orl^ns. , Montargis. 11,033 84.618 10,262 None None None None None fipernay.. Marne Haute-Marne . Haute-Marne. Haute-Marne.. Mayenne Meurthe-et- Moselle Meurthe-et- Moselle Meurthe-et- Moselle Meurthe-et- Moselle Meuse Meuse Morbihan Nidvre Ni^vre Nord Nord Nord L'Oise L'Oise L'Oise Vitre-ie-Francoii Langres Tragonne Trois-Fontainea . Auberive Wassy., None . Briey.. Roches and Bet- taincourt Doulaincourt 6,051 12.384 13.386 5,577 5,352 Luneville . . . Luneville... Nancy Bar-Ie-Duc. Bar-Ie-Duc. None Cosne Moyeuvre . filieux Parroy de Haye... Beaulieu . . Lisle 5.216 5,145 6,435 15.913 6,467 6.674 Bertranges . Nevers.. Avesnes . de Guerigny. Mormal Hazebrouck . . Valenciennes . Compidgne. CompiSgne. Senlis Nieppe St. Amand. Laigue Compidgne. ChantiUy. . . 9.795 5.644 22,650 6.215 8.192 9.439 35.650 13,299 Oak, beech, hornbeam, Scotch pine, mis. bd. IVB. Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, birch, mari- time pine Oak, hornbeam, birch, Scotch pine Oak, beech, hornbeam, Scotch pine Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beechf hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, fir, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, mis. bd. Ivs, Oak, beech, hornbeam mia. bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, mis. bd. Ivs. and conifers Oak, beech, mia. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mia. bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. ivs. Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mia. bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, mis. bd. Ivs. and conifers Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. conifers and bd, Ivs. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. Conv. C.U.S. C.U.S. Conv. C.U.S. C.U.S. Conv. H.F. C.U.S. Conv. C.U.S. C.U.S. Conv. C.U.S. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. Conv. H.F. C.U.S. C.V.F. H.F. H.F. 150 150-180 150 30 80.90 30 36 150 25 160 144 40 120, 144 150 140 40 35 180 30 Unknown 150 30 30 25 144 150 35 30 Unknown 72 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS 413 Department Arrondisaement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief species " Treat- mentf Rotation L'Oise Senlia d'Ermenonville 7,337 10,605 18.610 13,460 6,000 5,258 5,019 Oak, hornbeam, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. and conifers Oak, beech, birch, Scotch pine Oak, beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, birch, Scotch pine Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. H.F. C.V.F. Conv. C.U.S. H.F. C.U.S. Conv. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. P. C. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. Conv. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. H.F. Un- known H.F H.F. H.F. C.V.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. C.V.F. C.V.F. C.V.F. C. H.F. H.F. C.V.F. H.F. H.F. C.V.F. H.F. 80 L'Oise Senlis 30 125, 130 L'Orne 20-30 L'Orne Domfront Mortagne Mortagne Boulogne None . 180 30 L'Orne Unknown 200 L'Orne 150 Pas-de-Calais.... Boulogne 30 Puy-de-D6me . . Ba3ses-Pyr6nees . Bayonne Maul^n Maul6on Saint-Pee-sur- Nivelle Cize 5,834 7,794 19,091 5,609 14,621 5,612 9,133 6,407 5,123 5,683 Ped. oak, pyr. oak Beech Beech, fir Beech, fir, mis, bd. Ivs. Beech, fir Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Beech, fir Beech, fir, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, fir Fir, mountain pine, mis. bd. Ivs. 15 18 132-144 Basses-Pyrenera . Soule 135 Arette 153 Basaes-Pyren€e3 . Basse3-Pyr£n€es . 144 Oloron Sainte-Marie Saint-Savin Saint-Pie 120 Hautes-Pyrdnees Hautea-Pyr6n6ea Hautes-Pyrfineea Pyrfinfies-Orien- tales Du Rh6ne Argftles-Gazost. . Arg^Iea-Gazost. . Bagneresrde- Bigorre 120 Unknown 20 Vall&de Barouase. Unknown Unknown None St. Antoine 6,630 6,356 13,403 12,513 5,172 Beech, fir, spruce, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, Scotch pine, maritime pine Oak, beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Fir, spruce 128 128 144-150 Saint Calais 40 216, 150, 60 180 Albertville 162-180 201 Seine-et-Marne . . Fontainebleau.. Fontainebleau Villetermoy S€nart 41,659 5,506 6,177 32,316 5,088 9,187 16,455 Oak, beech, hornbeam, birch, Scotch pine Oak, hornbeam, mis bd. Iva. Oak, birch, Scotch pine mis. bd. Iva. Oak, beech, hornbeam Scotch pine, mis. bd Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, chest- nut, mis. conifera am bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, Scotch pine, Austrian pine mis. bd. Ivs. Beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Unknown 56 30 32 Corbeil 30 Seine^t^Oise. . . . Seincvet-Oise Hambouillet Versailles Versailles Rambouillet Marley 30 90 150 Seine-et-Oise Saint-Germain d'Eawy 25 120 Unknown 30 150 414 APPENDIX Department Arrondissement Name of forest Chief species ' Treat- mentt Rotation Sein&-Inferietire, Seine-Inf erieure , Seine-Inf erieure . Seine-Inf Erieure . Seine-Inf 6rieure Deux-Sevrds.. Neufch&tel . Rouen Lyons Roumare. Rouen.. Londe. , Rouen. Couronne. Yvetot., Trait-Saint-Wan- drille Niort. Chize. Somme. . Abbeville, Cr^cy. Tarn. Tarn. Castrea . Gaillac . . Saint-Amans-Soult Gresigne 11.293 10,025 5,318 8.011 16.697 11,406 10.406 5,258 8.053 Tarn-et-Garonne Var Var Var. None Brignoles Draguignan. Draguignan. Rians Bagnols . . rEsterel. Var Vaucluse . Vaucluse. Toulon Avignon Carpentras . Pierrefeu. Luberon.. B£doin.. . Vendue. Vend^ . Vienne. . Fontenay-le- Comte Sables-d 'Olonne Poitiers Vouvant Barre-de-Monts . Moulidre 5,943 6,630 14,226 6,968 7,967 15,568 5.721 6.395 8.320 Haute- Vienne . Vosges None.., £pinal. Spinal Mirecourt. d'fipinal Ramber-villers . Martinvelle. . . . Vosges . Vosges. Vosgra . Vosges . R€miremont . R€miremont . Saint-Di£. Saint-Di€. Saint-Di€. Bresse Buaaange.. GSrardmer Bois-Sauvages., S^nones 5,602 13,679 13.064 7.101 6,874 11.809 5.310 10.332 Beech, oak, hornbeam Oak, beech, hornbeam, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam. mis. bd. Iva., Scotch pine Oak. beech, hornbeam, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, hornbeam. Scotch pine. mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Iva. White oak. holm oak Cork oak, maritime pine Holm oak, cork oak, aleppo pine, maritime pine Cork oak, maritime pine Holm oak, aleppo pine White oak, beech, mountain pine Oak, chestnut, mis. bd. Ivs. Maritime pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, hornbeam, maritime pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, fir, spruce, Scotch pine Oak, beech, fir, Scotch pine Oak, beech, hornbeam, Scotch pine Oak. fir, spruce Oak. fir, spruce Oak, fir, spruce Oak, fir Fir. mis. bd. Ivs, Yonne. H.F. C.V.F. C. Conv H.F. H.F, H.F. C. Conv. C.V.F. C.V.F. H.F. C.V.F. H.F. C. H.F. C. C. H.F. H.F. H.F. C. H.F. C. H.F. H.F. C.V.F. H.F. H.F. Conv. H.F. C.V.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. H.F. 180 30 150 75 120 90 150 150-90 30 120 30 Unknown 30 150-156 20 Unknown Unknown Unknown 25-30 Unknown 25-30 Unknown Unknown 25-30 144 Unknown 180 None.. 144 30 144 144 160 150 138 Unknown 150 150 150 Unknown IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 415 IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS As of 1912 (statistique des Forets de France) the important private forests of France (over 5,000 acres or 2,024 hectares in area) are listed below, with statistical data for each unit: Department Arrondissement Name of forest (acres) Chief species * Treat- ment t Rotation L'Ain. , Aisne. . Aillier. AUIier. Bourge.. Vervins. , Gannat . , MouTins . Hautes-Alpes Alpes-Mari times . . None , . . None. . Grasse. Arddche... Ardennes.. Ardennes.. Ardennes . L'Aridge. . L'Aube... Largentidre . Mezi^res Sedan L'Aube. L'Aube. Vouzidrs Foix Bar-sur-Aube. . Bar-sur-Aube and Troyes Bar-sur-Aube and Troyes L'Aube. . Troyes. L'Aude L'Aveyron Belfort Bouches-du-Khdne Bouches-du-Rh6ne None. None. None. Aix.... Aix.. Bouches-du-Rhdne Aiz Bouch^-du-Rhdne Aix.. Couvandidr^, Prince, Genou, Priay Nouvion Montpensier, Charmeil Vendat Chapeau, Leyde Farticulidre. Lagorce (ou bois d'Ajude) Mazarin, d'^nelle. Sauton, etc. . Boux, Bas, Bourgogne, Chesne, Voncq. Monts€gur d'Hugemenil, Soulaines, Chantecoq, Fulvy, FerriSres, Pute-BSte, Bouron. ArrSt, Rothi- ^re, Beaulieu Grand-Orient, Larivour Rumilly, Aumont, Cha- ource, Praslin, Cus- sangy, Perchois, Cha- moin d'Othe 7,883 9.234 6.311 5,585 6,919 5,251 7,030 5,169 17,223 5.879 6,049 13,191 13,640 24,214 Oak. hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Beech, oak, spruce Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Ivs, Holm oak, aleppo pine, maritime pine Sessile oak, holm oak Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. co- nifers and bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Beech, fir, mis. bd. IvB. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak. hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Vitrolies Sainte-Victoire . I'Estaque. . Saint-Paul . 6,116 24,587 8,154 5,498 Aleppo pine, holm o&k. Sessile oak, holm oak, mis. bd. Ivs. Aleppo pine Sessile oak, holm oak C. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. C. C. C.U.S. c. C.U.S. H.F. C. C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. C. H.F. C. 12-25 30,35 25 20 10-50 18-20 10-20 25 16,17 20-25 Unknown 20-30 30 70 20-25 20-25 25 50-60 20-25 50-60 20 50-60 20 * Mis. bd. Ivs. — Miscellaneous broadleaves. t 0. = coppice; Conv. — conversion; H.F. = high forest; C.U.S. = coppice- under-standards. 416 APPENDIX Department Arrondissement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief species * Treat- ment t notation Bouches-du-Rbdne Bouches-du-Rh6ne Bouches-du-Kh6ne Bouches-du- Rhone Marseille Aix and Mar- seille Aries Marseille r^toile.... Regagnas. Alpilles Roussargues. Calvados. Cantal Charente Charente-Inf^ri- enre Cher Cher. Cher. Cher. Cher. , Cher. , Cher., Corr^ze. Corse. . . C6te-d'0r. Cated'Or. Cfited'Or. Pont-l'fivdque. Touques (ou de St. Gatien) 10,625 8,525 5,180 22,832 8,108 Aleppo pine Sessile oak, holm oak, aleppo pine Holm oak Aleppo pine, holm oak Oak, beech, fir, mis. conifers and bd. Ivs. H.F. H.F. C. C. H.F. c.u.s. H.F. None AngoulSme., Rochefort. .. Rochechourart. Benon Boxirges Saint^Amand. Saint- Amand. . Saint- Amand. . Saint- Amand. . Sancerre Sancerre None. . . Sartene. Ch&tillon-sur Seine Dijon. Semur. C6tes-du-Nord. . C6tes-du-Nord. . Cteuse Dorgne Dordogne Dorgne Dorgne Doubs Loud&o.. Saint-Brieuc. None. . . . Bergerac. Bergerac. Bergerac. Sarlat.... Castelnau, Civray, etc. . r!^coron, Primelles, Lu- nerette.Thoux, Balay, Efle, Ch&teauneuf Painay, Meillant, Grail- ly, Fleuret, Poudy, Chaillouz, Centres d'Apremont, Boucard, Les Bouranis d'Aubigny, Fournay. . . d'lvoy-le-PrS Boucard, Sens-Beaujeju Villegenon 7,413 5,931 6,178 12,239 17,792 17,297 8,402 6,445 5,881 Toga Rochefort, Thonreau. Marey, Cussey, Man- champs, et Brun Lacour-d' Arcenay . Loud^ao. Lorge. Montclar. Lajudal . Bessdde. Barade.. 6,301 6,425 5,046 9,390 6,585 6,425 5,189 5,436 11,614 7,660 Oak, chestnut Oak, mis. bd. Iva. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. Holm oak, mari- time pine Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. oo- nif. and bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, mis, conifers and bd, Ivs. Oak, beech, mis bd. Ivs., Scotch pine C. C. C.U.S. C.U.S. c.u.s. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. Unknown C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. Oak, chestnut, maritime pine Oak, chestnut, maritime pine Oak, chestnut Oak, chestnut, maritime pine None., C. C.U.S. H.F. C. and C.U.S. H.F. C. C.U.S. C. C.U.S. H.F. 50-60 50-60 18 18 50-60 12-30 Unknown 15-20 10 20 18-20 20 20 20 16-20 15-20 15-20 Unknown 20-25 30 24-25 20-30 IS Unknowi^ 15 26 25 15 IS 25 IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 417 Department ArrondiBsement Name of forest Area Chief species* Treat- ment t Rotation Drdme. . Drdme. . Drdme. . Drdme. . Drdme. . Drdme. . Drdme. . L'Eure.. L'Eure. . L'Eure., L'Eure. , L'Eure. L*Eure. Gard.. Haute-Garonne. , DuGers Gironde L'H^rault D'III&«t-yilaine. Di6. Die. Di6. Valence . Montellmar . Valence . Valence. Bernay.. fivreux.. fivreux. . :fivreux.. ^vreux. . Louviers . D'Eure-et-Loir. D'Eure-et-Loir... D'Eure-etnLoir... Finistdre . Gard Nogent-Ie-Ro- trou Dreux.. Dreux. Hochecourbe. Condamines., I'^charasson, Larps, Goulets et I'Allier 6,079 6,146 3.350 Raye. Rochas, rUfernet. Grands, Rigauda, Mont- pourchier Muzan Beaumont-le-Roger. . Conches . Breteuil . d'lfiv d'lvry, Roseiu.. d'Acquigny, Mesnil- Jourdain, Canappe- ville, Feuguerolles Champrond Dreux.. Ferte-Vidame, Saucelle 5.078 11,271 5,782 18,194 15,528 7.883 6.981 7,932 5,436 8.031 9.857 Oak. beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, fir, spruce, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Sessile oak, holm oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Sessile oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. coni- fers and bd. Ivs, Oak. beech, horn- beam, mis. coni- fers and bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. coni- fers and bd. Ivs, Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. coni- fers and bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. coni- fers and bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. coni- fers, bd. Ivs. Oak. beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Ivs. None. Alais. . Ntmes. M^jannes. . Lens 6,351 5.931 Holm oak, sessile oak Holm oak Kermes-bear- ing oak, mis. pine C. and C.U.S. H.F. C. C.U.S. H.F. C. and C.U.S. H.F. C. H.F. C. C. H.F. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C. and C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. C. and C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. None None None None Montf ort . Paimpont . 16,593 Oak. mis. conifers and bd. Ivs. C.U.S. H.F, 5-40 100-150 10-20 60 60 10-30 80-120 15-25 60-80 10-25 10-25 12-30 60-80 20-25 22-28 18-28 18-25 15, 20-25 15-18 Unknown 15-20 20. 25-30 15-30 20-25 16-20 18 Unknown 418 APPENDIX Department Arrondissement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief species " Treat mentt Botatioa D 'lUe-et- Yilaine. Rennes Ch^vre (ou de la Vall^) 5,634 7,250 9,390 5,357 10.337 6,178 10,013 21,004 14,826 7,907 11.275 8,669 5,140 6,771 5,931 5,683 11,120 18,854 5,436 7,858 5,683 Oak, beech, horn- beam, min. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, chest- nut, mis. bd. Its. Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. and conifers Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. Fir, spruce, Scotch pine Oak. beech, chest- nut, mis. coni- fers and bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, chest- nut, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, chest- nut, mis. bd. Ivs. C.U.S. C.U.S. CU.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. H.F. C . H.F. C. Conv. H.F. C C.U.S. C. C.U.S. c.u.s. c.u.s. H.F. C.U.S. c.u.s. H.F. H.F. C.U.S. H.F. Cand C.U.S. H.F. c C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. 18-20 Vitre 18 Ch&teaurouz-.. Ch&teauroux. . . Tours 20 Gatines 25 d'Amboise 25 Tours . . ChAteau-larVallifire Unknown 18 L'Isdre Grenoble Saint-Marcellin. Saini-Marcellin 60-150 L'ls^re 15-30 VIsSre 60-100 60-100 15 L'lsfire 15-25 12-18 18-30 Landes None Loir-et-Cher Blois rihftmbnrfl Oak. Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, mis. bd. Ivs., Scotch pine, maritime pine Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Beech, fir, Scotch pine Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Fir, Scotch pine 20 Loir-et-Cher Blois Marchenoir 18-30 Romorantin.... Vend6me Roanne Roanne Saint-lfitienne . . None 130-140 15-20 Loir-et-Cher Loire Greteval (la Gaudi- nidre) 15-25 120 60-120 15-26 Loire Mont Pilat 60-120 Haute-Loire Loiret Orl&ins None FoIIeville, Donjon, Qua- tre-Vents, Concyr, Maison-Fort, Bois- Gibault, MeziSres, Bois-le-Roi, Bouri, Villefallier. d'Aunay. Gachetidres, Cendray Pully, Francs-Bois Oak, Scotch pine, mis. conifers and bd. Ivs. 9-18 60-60 Lot Lot-et-Garonne. . . . Loz^re None Marche Mortain Saint«-Mene- hould Sainte-Mene- hould Oak. beech, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam Oak, hornbeam, beech 15 20-25 25 Marne Belval Marne IMPOKTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 419 Department Anondiasement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief apecies • Treat- ment t. Rotation Marne Sainte-Men©- hould 7,117 Oak, beech C.XJ.S. 20-25 Haute-Marne Chaumont &x>t, Champ-Briot, 6,718 Oak, beech, horn- C.U.S. 25-30 Grandes-Bois, Flo- beam mis. bd. H.F. Unknown rainville, Bosse, Jard. Iva. Charmoy Haute-Marne Chaumont £toile, Marchat, B^Iau- vaux, Boia Charrue 8,436 Beech, oak, horn- beam, mia.bd.Iva. C.U.S. 20-25 Haute-Marue Chaumont d'Aro et de Chftteauvil- lian 21,181 Oak, beech, horn- beam, mia. bd. Ivs. and conifers C.U.S. 25-30 Haute-Marne Wassy du Val g,5S0 Oak, beech, horn- beam, mia. bd. C.U.S. 25-30 Ivs. Haute-Marne Wasay Cirey TAiUemont, Bellevaume, Com- 6,220 Oak, beech, horn- beam, mia. bd. C.U.S. 25-30 manderie, Grands- Iva. Ordona Waasy Der 12,101 Oak, beech, horn- beam, mia. bd. C.U.S. 25 Iva. 13,097 Oak, beech, chest- C.U.S. 18 nut, mis. bd. Ivs. Mayenne 9,316 Oak, beech, chest- C.U.S. 18 nut, mis. bd. Ivs. and conifers Mayenne Pail 6,573 Oak, beech, mis. C.U.S. 24 bd. Iva. Meurthe-et-Moselie Luneville Ban-Lemoine, Grand- Br£heux, Vala, Alem- combe, Herbaville, Charaille, Baase-Scie, Taurupt,Ton, Moyen- Sapinot, - Fontaine Voirhage, P6t-d6-Vin, Folie, Gagere, Trou Marmod, Grandea et Petites Moiaes, Grand Retour, Voincheres, Chatillon, Zoinique, Rupt-de-Laro, Petit et Grand Rougimont Martimont, Guindri- mont 11,589 Oak, beech, fir, mia. bd. Iva. H.F. 80-100 Ploermel Pontivy Chateau-Chi- non 9,192 6,178 5,931 Oak, mia. bd. Iva Oak, mia. bd. Iva Oak, beech, mis bd. Iva. C. C. C. C.U.S. 20 18 NiSvre Remaches Fromage Breugnet, Sanclergea 9 18-20 Jacob et Pierre NiSvre CMteau-Chi- non Vandeneaae Deffend Morillon 6,425 Oak, beech, horn- beam, mia. bd C.U.S. 18 Ivs. NiSvre Chateau-Chi- non OuraiSres, Montaauche Gouloux, Beauvernoif 5,066 Beech c. 8-10 NiSvre Chateau- Chi non and Cla Montreuillon, Boule Cuy, Baume, d'Ouasy 11,144 Oak, beech, horn beam, mia. bd C.U.S. 18-23 mecy Montraute Iva. 420 APPENDIX Department Ni^vre Nidvre Nidvre Nidvre Nidvre Nifivie Nifivre Nidvre Nifivre Nifevre NiSvTe L'Orne L'Orne L'Orne L'Orne Puy-de-D6me. . Puy-de-D6me. . Pyrinfefl (Hautes-) Pyrenees (Hautes-) Sa6ne-et-Loire.. Sa6ne-et-Loire.. Sarthe Arrondiasement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief species * Tieat- mentt notation Ch&teau - Chi- non and Cla- mecy CMteau - Chi- non and Nev- ers CMteau - Chi- non and Nev- Blin, Dame, Crots, Mouches, Vauz, MouiUes-Verr^es Fours Buremont, Maxilles . Clamecy. Clamecy. Nevers and Coane Nevera and Coane Nevers and Cosne Coane Nevers Nevers AienQon Argentan Argentan and Mortagne Mortagne Riom Thiers Bagnerea-de- Bigorre Bagneres-de- Bigorre Chalon-siir- Sa&ne Chalon-aur- Safine Mamera and Mans Chambery Bazoches, Graviers, Ra- pidres, Ferlees, Chev- ridre Dames, Tremble, Grand-Piece, Carrfr des-Courg€onneries, Mineral, Pare Tronaay, Saint-Franehy 7,413 1,212 8,673 3,707 Beaumont-Ia-Ferri^re. Beaux, Soueilles, Tremone Vaux, Donne, Gros Buissona, Cdteauz Donzy, valine de I'Epeau, Forts, Vaulu- rins Perray, Chabet, Mussy, d'Ye, Loges-Fraillous, Cordes, Fonda, Nor- mand Nolay, Mauboux, Saint- B^nin Foliea, Lichy Ballu, Goult, Montgom merles SiJIl-en Gouffern Saint-Evioult. deLongny. Randan Bois Nolrs (ou de Mon- toncel) Baronnies Noston Chagny, Lessart. Rombois Le Sille Montague d'Hauterens, Joigny 3,19S 3,605 6,548 17,792 8,649 5,510 8,248 7,447 6,425 6,771 5,896 6,410 11,713 8,649 5,313 6,672 Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Iva. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Jva. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Iva. Oak, hornbeam, mia. bd. Iva. Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. Iva. Oak,beech, Scotch pine Oak, beech, bd. Ivs. conifers Oak, beech, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. mis. and fir. Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, beech, fir, Scotch pine Oak, beech, fir Beech, fir Oak, hornbeam mis. bd. Ivs. Oak, hornbeam mia. bd. Ivs. Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. and conifers Oak, beech, mis. bd. Iva. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. CU.S. cu.s. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. C.U.S. c. C.U.S. H.F. C.U.S. cu.s. H.F. C. C. H.F. C. H.F. CU.S. cu.s. C.U.S. c. 18-20 18 20 18-26 18-20 18 20-22-16 20-26 18 15-20 15-20 8-12 16-25 56 15-20 15 and 20 80-120 Unknown 10-40 50-150 10-40 50-150 16-22 15-20 16-18 10-20 IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 421 Department Arrondissement Name of forest Area (acres) Chief species • Treat- ment t Rotation Seine-BtrMarne Coulommiers, Meaux, and Melun Grange, Lechelles Beau- rose, d'Attilly, d'Ar- mainvilliers, d'Her- mifires, Motte, Fau- vins, Cr&y, Croiaay, Guette 28,417 Oak, hornbeam mis. bd. Ivs. C.U.S. 18-25 Seine-et-Marne Fontainebleau Commanderie, Bourron 9,360 Oak, Scotch pine, mis. bd. Ivs. C. C.U.S. 15-20 Seine-«t-Marne Fontainebleau Charme, Sucrement 9,143 Oak, Scotch pine. C.U.S. 15-20 and Melun Croix-Saint-Jerome, FouTche, Bois-Rond mis. bd. Ivs. H.F. 20-40 Seine-et-Marne... Fontainebleau and Melun Valence, Saint-Martin, Fresnay, Graville, I'Argentarie, Garenne, Champigny 11,367 Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. C.U.S. 20-25 Seine-et-Oise Corbeil Mont^Griffon, Grange, Camaldules, Pare, Gros-Boia, Ndtre- Dame, Pontillaut 6,425 Oak, hornbeam, mis. bd. Ivs. C.U.S. 16-25 Seine-et-Oiae Pontoise Montmorency 5,436 Oak, cheatnuti C. 12 mis. bd. Ivs. C.U.S. H.F. 15 Unknown Seine Inf6rieure. . . Dieppe and NeufcMtel d'Eu 22,711 Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. C.U.S. Conv. 30 120 Ivs. H.F. 120 Var Brignoles Dra- guignan Tou- Nine private forests of little value Total- ing c 15-20 oak, sessile oak. C.U.S. 18 lon 499,151 white oak (ch6ne blanc), aleppo pine, maritime pine, chestnut H.F. 40-60 L'Yonne Pomard, Chateau, Char- bonnais, Grand-Val- 6,299 C u s 20-25 bd. Ivs. Ue, d'Arnua Merry, Vaux, Bois-Bon- tin 6,054 C.U.S. 17-25 Joigny bd. Ivs. L'Yonne Avallon Souche-Noire, Vaux- 10,554 Oak, beech, horn- C.U.S. 20-25 lanes, Garenne, Fon- beam, mis. bd. teaux, Foruches Ivs. L'Yonne . . . 6,919 16,714 C.U.S. 17 and 25 L'Yonne Joigny d'Otlie Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. C.U.S. 20-25 L'Yonne Tonnerre Maulnes, Villon, Bour- ciSre, CJommissey 9,266 Oak, beech, horn- beam, mis. bd. C.U.S. 20-25 Ivs. 422 APPENDIX APPENDIX E TYPICAL REFORESTATION AREAS IN THE MOUNTAINS Alps Region (Department of Haute-Savoie, Arc Superieur Forestation Area.) — The valley of the Arc (which corresponds to the ancient province of Maurienne) has a length of 79 miles from the Girard Pass to the Royal Bridge. It divides into two parts : the High Maurienne from the som'ce of the Arc to St. Jean de Maurienne, and from the Lower Maurienne to the St. Jean at Isfere. The average slope is 2.7 per cent . . . the higher part of the valley of the Arc extends to Modane on the Italian frontier, from the summit of Gin, 11,529 feet, to Thabon, 10,517 feet. . . . The Arc is fed by the waters of vast and numerous glaciers which occupy an area of more than 9,884 acres. Important secondary valleys bring to it the waters of other glacial groups. These are, on the left, the valleys of Avarole and of Ribon, and, on the right, the valley of Doron de Termignon. . . . Geological Conditions. — The high Maurienne is almost entirely included in the Briangonnais and Preniont zones. The axis of the zone of Briangonnais is formed by carboniferous soil which extends from Modane to Saint-Michel. . . . The glacial deposits and drifts are of common occurrence on the slopes and help feed the torrents with material. Climate. — The climate of the Arc VaUey is very much Uke that of the Haute-Alpes. It is the continental cUmate rendered severe by the enclosure of the valleys and by the high altitudes. The rainfall, however, is less frequent and less abundant than in the rest of the department. . . . During the winter of 190S-1904 the average snow- fall recorded was from 3.6 feet at St. Jean de Mam-ienne, 2,195 feet altitude, to a maxi- mum of 12.6 feet at St. Jean d'Arves, 4,908 feet altitude. The nimiber of days of rain- fall and the amount of rainfall diminishes as you proceed from the Isere toward Modane which has quite a dry climate. This dry cUmate is due to the absence of mists and fogs. In the autumn fog rarely passes Chamberg. Moreover, the intensity of the Ught is more considerable in the Maurieime than in the rest of Savoie. . . . Production. — ■ Vineyards extend to an altitude of about 3,280 feet in the western part of the region. . . From Modane to BeUeval the dominant crop is almost exclusively rye. At Modane rye fields are found between 3,280 to 4,590 feet and at Branmas they reach 4,920 to 5,250 feet. ... In the valley of the Averole certain fields extend up to 6,560 feet. . . . The high pasturage is grazed by sheep. . . . The forests under State control in the Haute-Maurienne have an area of 27,230 acres. The larch, the cembric pine, and the spruce occupy the best soils, the mountain pine and Scotch pine being found on the gypsums and the hot slopes. The fir, the beech, and the elm are in mixture with the other species on the better soils. Administrative Situation, Area, Population. — The basin of the Arc Superieur includes 26 communes of the District of St. Jean de Maurienne and a portion of the communes of Albiez-le-Jeune and Saint-Jean. The total area is 308,216 acres, some of the communes being the biggest in the department. The population includes 23,980 inhabitants. State of Soil Erosion. — Little or no grass, arid, steep slopes, burned by the sun, cut by ravines and torrents — such is the aspect of the Haute-Maurieime entirely on the right side of the Arc. The erosion, once started in the mountains, increases from day to day and includes bordering surface soil in good condition. This erosion is due to the nature of the ground, to the steepness of the slopes, and to the small area of the forest cover (10 per cent of the basin area), to the excessive grazing and to too abundant irrigation. Because of this situation avalanches slide without hinderance and continue REFORESTATION AREAS 423 to work deforestation, removing little villages, farms, herds, and too often menace lite itself. In four winters avalanches have destroyed 700,000 board feet of timber, cut sixty-seven roads and trails of all kinds, destroyed fomleen houses, killed seventy sheep, and injured sixty-seven people, of whom eight died. Dangerous torrents, such as Envers, St. Martin, and St. Julien have eroded the mountains, covered the cultivated fields with debris and overturned houses. . . . The Arc Sup6rieur area was estab- lished by the law of July 26, 1892, and includes 7,801 acres, of which 6,422 acres belong to the State. Work. — The work of restoration is about finished in nine of the thirteen working groups. The torrent of Envers . ... rises in the mountains of Petie-Mont-Denis (10,269 feet) . After leaving the schists of this higher basin it flows into a deep gorge hedged in by gypsum. The ravines have been corrected, embankments have stopped the avalanches from destroying the forestation, and drainage canals (by drying the soil) have been effective in holding the snow and assuring the stability of the slopes. Cembric pine has been soum at an altitude of 6,560 to 8,200 feet and spruce, larch, and mountain pine planted between 5,900 to 7,200 feet. The torrent of Saint-Antoine, communes of Villarodin-Bourget and Modane, flows from the little glacier of Belle- fenier (10,140 feet). Its upper basin is a vast funnel with very steep slopes formed of schists. . . . The torrent passes through a steep gorge of eroded gypsum and, cut by a bank of compact limestone, its floods are very dangerous. The correction has been effected by means of dams or drainage canals and avalanche walls. Moreover, at an altitude between 5,900 and 7,550 feet, cembric pine has been sown and there have been plantations of spruce, larch, and mountain pine. In the working group of OreUe and of Thyl, the Pousset runs through sand and carboniferous schist. The deforestation of its basin, the very steep slopes of its bed, the erosion and soaking of the soil, make its floods frequent and violent between an altitude of 4,920 and 7,870 feet; here an area of 395 acres has been reforested with spruce, larch, and mountain pine. When the young forest is sufficiently developed the various branches of the torrent will be improved and it will be possible to gradually take up the other work of necessary correction. In the working groups of Beaum6, Saint-Michel, Saint Martin la Porte, the GroUaz (see page 168) is bounded entirely by schists and carboniferous sand. The correction work took place from 1880 to 1892 and from 1895 to 1905, and the foresta- tion has extended over most of the basin. A complete stand of 124 acres of mountain pine, spruce, and larch has modified the aspect of the mountain. Lower down in the gorge, Scotch pine and alder are growing well. During the past few years the pine in favorable localities has grown more than 2.3 feet per year. The forest already established finishes the final working plan. The torrent of St. Martin in the com- mune of the same name runs from the little pass of Encombres. Two branches eroded in the gypsum have been corrected by means of dams and drainage canals. The left slope of the torrent (for the most part carboniferous in character) is an entire area of moving earth of about 3,700 acres. It is hoped to stop this important slide by drainage work which so far has given excellent results. Between 3,280 and 4,260 feet of altitude very complete forestation has been finished. The Scotch pine looks well but the in- stability of the soil makes the results as yet uncertain. The material eroded by the torrent is sluiced to the river in a masonry canal. This important work has not as yet been finished and is not maintained by the Waters and Forests administration. The Rieu-Sec torrent, conmiunes of St. Martin and St. Juhen, flows from the rock of Beaum6 to the south extremity of the Encombres, through compact Umestones and from the badly eroded black schists. The characteristic of this torrent is the very steep slopes of its basin. . . The dams of enormous blocks of stone constructed from 1897 to 1900 constitute the absolute correction of the torrent and have suppressed the lava floods (of stone, mud, water, etc.), which might have formed in its basin. 424 APPENDIX The forestation of the two slopes and part of the cone have very much improved matters, but, with such a topography, it is certain that it will always produce dangerous and sudden floods. The Daret, commune of St. JuUen, flows from north to south to a point southwest of the Rieu-Sec. On the left it is joined by three ravines which originate in the Croix des Tetes. Its basin is formed by gypsums, limestone, and schists. As in the case of the Rieu-Sec, the dams have been constructed of blocks of stone each about 1 cubic yard in volume. Several drainage canals and forestation of spruce, larch, and mountain pine complete the control work started by the dams. The St. JuUen torrent (see page 156), commvmes of St. Julien and Mont Denis, is a vast and complex torrent. Its basin comprises some 4,940 acres and is cut by ravines eroded in the schists, glacial muds, and marls. AU this kind of soil is easily eroded. The floods and lava flows of St. Julien have been very numerous and have caused tremendous damage. The diversion canal, cut in the rock, has stopped a vast landshde which threatened the viUage of Mont Denis. Dams below and above the source of the damage have fixed the bed of the torrent and its waters are now conducted to the Arc by a drainage canal. Forestation of Scotch pine, oak, and ash has been completed in the sUde area and plan- tations of poplar, willow, and alder have been made in the gorge. It appears that considerable damage has been reduced to the minimum. The torrent of Rieu-Bel, communes of Albiez-le-Jeune and Villergondran, rises in the commune of Albiez-le- Jeune at an altitude of 5,085 feet. It runs north for a length of more than 2 miles. Its circular upper basin is cut by little ravines which reunite in one big torrent below 3,600 feet altitude. The soil comes from the disintegration of schists, usually saturated with water and shows a tendency to slide. By its floods and rockfall the torrent of Rieu-Bel menaces the village of Villergondran. Rough dams have been constructed to fix the bed of the torrent and drainage canals have been established with a view to draining the soil. Plantations of spruce and larch, not yet thrifty, completed the work, which, however, must be continued. The torrent of Roches Noires, communes of Villergondran and St. Jean de Maurienne, is cut in the black schists and in the glacial drifts. The steep slopes and the sterility of the soil have rendered the forestation difficult and uncertain. Everywhere the bed had to be fixed with wattle work but even then vegetation could not be introduced. Forestation is more important in this perimeter than in those which have already been described. The area forested includes some 1,599 acres. The corrective work, which remains to be finished as soon as possible, is Umited to the construction of dams at the base, and the estabhshment of Uttle accessory dams. Forestation Area of la Blanche. — The torrent of the Blanche is a tributary of the left branch of the Durance which rises in the southeast of Sejnae at the summit of Roche Close. It runs from the east to the west to the hamlet of Chardavox, when it turns to the northwest and follows into the Durance after a course of 19 miles. From the hamlet of Vi^rard (commune of Saint-Martin-les-Sejme), or until it joins the Durance, this stream follows through narrow rocky gorges and b called the torrent of Rabious. Its drainage area belongs to the sub- Alpine region; it is bounded on the east by a very high chain of mountains, called la Blanche, whose altitude varies from 7,220 to 8,860 feet. . . . Taking the basin as a whole, the Blanche has no important tributaries, but several of them, because of the tremendous slopes, are dangerous torrents. The greatest altitude is that of the Pic de la Blanche (9,075 feet) and the lowest is at the confluence with the Durance and Rabious (2,149 feet). Geological Conditions. — The bottom of the Blanche basin is occupied by glacial deposits from which emerge black marls. ... At the extreme southeast of the valley there is a great deal of limestone soil. ... On account of the predominance of the glacial deposits under the black marls which form soil very susceptible to erosion, this basin is, on all sides, composed of deep ravines and sharp hills. . . . EEFORESTATION AREAS 425 Climate. — The climate is very cold in the upper valley and cold in the lower parts. On the summits the snow begins toward the end of October and persists imtil June. In the bottom of the valley it generally Hes from December to April. Because of its ex- posure and its altitude the Blanche valley receives more rain than the south part of the department of Basses-AIpes. Long droughts are rare. Storms are frequent in summer on account of the nearness to the very high mountains. They have even the character of veritable waterspouts and are very disastrous to the crops which occupy the lower slopes and the bottoms of the valleys. Basins. — The mountains are covered with grazing ground and in many localities are damaged on account of overgrazing. Every summer the ground is overstocked by sheep and the easily erodable soil is bared and forms deep ravines. Coniferous stands cover large areas and have a tendency to seed the neighboring bare ground. The Scotch pine forms pure stands on south exposures and is associated with fir and spruce on the moister slopes. On cold exposures these two species are frequently pure or in mixture with beech. The mountain pine is also found. Beginning with 3,280 feet altitude, there are stands of larch on the drier ground on north slopes. At very high altitudes the cembric pine appears. The forests which are not subject to Federal con- trol are exposed to destructive cutting and to intensive grazing, so that the soil becomes impoverished and the stands become more and more open. The lower slopes and the bottoms of the valleys are used for agriculture. Fruit trees are not over-abundant. The cultivated land yields cereals and potatoes; the natural prairies occupy large areas and produce a very valuable forage grass. Administrative Situation, Area, Population. — The Blanche basin extends over one commune (la Brdole) in the district of Barcelonnette and five communes in the dis- trict of Digne. State of Soil Damage. — On aU sides, but especially on south and west slopes, the Blanche basin is cut by ravines of a torrential character, all more or less dangerous. This damage has been caused by excessive grazing by cattle which has been too intensive on all the uncultivated land. On account of its geologic constitution, the sub-soil, formed either by black schists or by glacial deposits, is easily eroded after the cover has been removed by sheep grazing. Besides, because of the very long and steep slopes and on account of the abundance and frequence of snowfall and the rigor of the climate, it often happens in spring that in the higher areas avalanches contribute to the destruc- tion of the slopes. On certain areas the water filters into the soil and produces dangerous landsUdes. Composition and Area. — The Blanche forestation area includes five working groups according to the law of August 7, 1910. The total area amounts to 6,835 acres, of which 3,623 actually belong to the State. Work. — The Seyne working group is composed, for the most part, by the old Seyne area and some of the Colle, the reforestation of which aimed at preventing the recur- rence of floods (produced by the overflow of the Blanche river) and at the extinguish- ment of the torrents of Faut, Chateau, AUevar, Combanniere, and "Terre rouge." They extend over the west slopes of a high chain of mountains which separate the Blanche basin from that of Ubaye and are situated at altitudes varying from 4,590 to 8,200 feet. The work of control and reforestation was begun in 1862 and is still in progress. At the beginning they proceeded simultaneously with sowing and planta- tions of conifers and broadleaf trees, but it was not long before they found out that the sowing generally gave poor results. . . . Accordingly plantations became the rule except in special cases. The species used for the most part were larch, spruce, cembric pine, mountain pine, Scotch pine, and Austrian pine. The larch was used in mixture with the cembric pine in the highest zone, at an altitude between 6,560 and 8,200 feet, on very steep slopes, covered with snow for the greater part of the year, and often 426 APPENDIX subject to slides; in the zone immediately below, between 5,580 and 6,500 feet, mountain pine, pure or in mixture with Scotch pine; below 5,580 feet, there were Scotch pine and Austrian pine, sometimes mixed with mountain pine. Spruce has been introduced on south slopes as an understory for the pine. The plans provide for Httle nurseries estab- lished all over the area in order to avoid the cost of transport. These plantations have produced quite variable results. The lower parts of the working group are generally covered with a good sapUng or low pole-stand of larch and pine,- but the higher areas, because of the rigor of the climate, the nature of the soil, and short growing seasons, have resulted in general failure. Willows, poplars, alders, etc., have been planted and layered at the bottoms and on the slopes of ravines in order to fix the soil and decrease the violence of the water wherever it has been possible. Beginning with the year 1862 the sodding of the soil has also been started either by sowing the seed of "fenasse," "luzerne," or "sainfoin," indigenous to the locaUty, or by planting tufts of "fettique." Results have been very satisfactory. The corrective work undertaken simultaneously with the reforestation and sodding is very important. It consists in the construction of a large number of dams and of sills in dry stone in the bottoms of the ravines, in order to help maintain the mountain sides, in order to diminish the steepness of the valley bottom, and to decrease the speed of the running water. Between these dams fascines and wattle work barriers have been established. Since 1876, wherever possible, the ravines and the bottoms of the brooks have been thinned where the stands were too dense. This work, which aims at stopping the action of the water on the erodable soil, has given excellent results. The work as a whole has succeeded in almost entirely stopping the action of the torrents in eroding the Seyne working group, with the ex- ception of the torrents of Allevar, Ch&teau, and Faut, which rise in very steep ground and at high altitudes, and where the growth is very slow, and which do not seem sus- ceptible of correction for some time yet. The working group of Montclar is formed for the most part by the old area of Lachaux, the reforestation of which aimed at preserving the grazing plateau of Lachaux from the danger of floods and avalanches. It extends to the extreme north of the slope, where the Seyne working group is at an altitude which varies from 6,400 to 8,200 feet. The reforestation work, which began in 1864, has con- sisted in sowing and planting larch and cembric pine in the higher areas, and larch, moimtain pine, Scotch and Austrian pine lower down. After sowing forage seed and planting willow (as nurse trees) the area has been completely restocked to conifers. Quite a number of sills of dry stone were estabhshed in the chief ravines at the same time the work of covering the slopes began. The restoration of this working group is just about completed. The total area reforested is approximately 3,539 acres. According to my original notes: "At Barcelonnette, there had been a veritable de- population on account of the damage from erosion. The work of forestation and erosion prevention was started shortly after 1862, and began in the so-called " terre noir," where the damage was the worst. After six years of practice the local inspector re- ported that a large nmnber of small dams were preferred to a few large expensive dams, as was formerly the practice. Below 5,900 feet of altitude white alder was generally preferred along stream beds and green alder at higher altitudes. In this region the annual rainfall is about 43 inches, but during July, August, and September there are very few storms. The torrents seem to have started on slopes 30 degrees or steeper. On slopes up to 20 degrees bad erosion rarely starts in. The main damage at Barcelon- nette seems to have been caused by grazing an average of 2.4 to 3 sheep per acre whereas the grazing ground woiild only support 0.8 to 1.6." Central Plateau Region (Puy-de-D6me Department, La Sioule Forestation Area). — La Sioule, which flows into the AUier, rises in the forests of Mont Dore at the ServiSres Lake, which occupies an old crater, at an altitude of 3,937 feet. It flows with a rapid slope for 7J miles through narrow and deep gorges with an average descent of 3.5 per cent. . . . The basin occupies a vast undulating plateau sUghtly inclined REFORESTATION AREAS 427 torthe north and formed, for the most part, by gneiss and mica schists with granite on about half its drainage area. . . . The upper basin of la Sioule occupies about 25 miles of circumference. . . . The highest altitudes are those of the Puy-de- D6me, 4,806 feet. The lowest altitude is where the Sioule leaves the department, 1,037 feet. Climate. — The climate of the region is severe, despite the moderate altitude of the plateau, and is characterized by rapid changes in temperature. The spring rains are very abundant and result in sudden floods. During the summer violent storms are succeeded by prolonged droughts. The winter is long and vigorous and is marked by heavy falls of snow in the mountain forests. Basins. — The basin of the Sioule is divided into two regions (the grazing area ex- tends over about one-fourth of the total area). The natural mountain zone, which bounds the basin on the southeast and comprises all the volcanic soil from the D6mes chain to Mont Dore. The agricultural area occupies the plains. It extends into the plateau region and produces fruit, rye, barley, grain, oats, and potatoes. A considerable proportion (about 20 per cent) of the imcultivated land belongs to the State and is covered by heather, which is open to sheep grazing. The forest occupies about 10 per cent of the area and comprises simple oak coppice and pole stands of conifers. Administrative Situation. — The part of the basin included in the department of the Puy-de-D6me extends over twenty-one commimes of the Clairmont district and fifty-six communes of the Riom district. The area is about 339,769 acres and the popu- lation about 72,600. State of Soil Erosion. — The soil erosion as yet is not very important. Because of the solid nature of the rock the surface water flows from the gentle slopes without cut- ting in. Once in the bottom of the thalweg, it ... is almost unerodable. The solidity of the rock facihtates the different correction work; forestation aims almost entirely at forming a cover. Composition and Area. — The Sioule area was laid out by Art. 16 of the law of April 4, 1882. It includes eight working groups, but a total of only 1,453 acres. Work. — The forestation undertaken under the law of July 18, 1860, had as its first objective the creation of important forests capable of retaining the soil on the slopes and of regularizing the general waterflow . . . the work has been both by means of sowing and of plantations. In the case of the Scotch pine the seed has been sown broad- cast on land covered with a short growth of heather (see page 133). The pedunculate oak has been sown in seed spots. The species used in plantations have been the fol- lowing: Scotch pine, spruce, pedunculate oak, beech, and birch. Usually the two methods of forestation — sowing and planting — have been employed together. The work has been finished for some time and the stands obtained are now making excellent growth. Cevennes Region (Lozlre, Arddche Departments Chassezac Forestation Area). — The Chassezac is much the most important tributary of the Ardlche. With a total length of about 47 miles it rises in the Lozere and extends to Alfigfere, but it flows in to the Ardeche River at the Sampzon rock, not far from the confluence with the Beaum6. It flows, to start with, in very narrow but extremely deep gorges, then in a valley of increasing width. It hajs a length of 27 miles in the Arddche department with an average slope of 2 per cent, and an average width of 148 feet. Its flow per second in the lower parts of its course is 1.5 cubic yards at low water, 8 cubic yards under average condi- tions, and 2,500 cubic yards during floods. Bounded on the north by the Cevennes (which separates it from the AUier basin) and by Mt. Tanargue (which separates it from the upper Ardfeche), this basin reaches at the hamlet of Bez an altitude of 4,072 feet; in the State forest of Tanargue, 4,462 feet; and on the plateau of the Borne work- ing group (near Tanargue), 4,951 feet. 428 APPENDIX Adjnuiistrative Situation. — Entirely in the Largentifere district, it includes a total area of 100,633 acres with a popvilation of 16,791 inhabitants scattered through twenty-eight communes. Destruction of the Soil. — The Chassezac was established by the law of July 18, 1906. It includes 4,774 acres, of which, 1,315 actually belongs to the State. Work. — There is only one working group, that of Laubresse, exappropriated in 1886. Others are now being acquired. This working group, situated on the mica schists at an altitude varying from 3,280 to 4,167 feet, forms (on the Laubresse plateau) several isolated cantons covered with superb stands of pine from 18 to 20 years old. In the purchases in the working circles of Borned, Saint Laurent les Bains, Mont Selgues, there is also at the same altitude on the same plateau and on the same kind of ground a very complete thrifty stand of pine from 24 to 28 years old. The total area actually reforested is 1,594 acres. Pyrenees Region (Department of Haute-Pyrenees, Gave de Pau Forestation Areas). — The Gave de Pau is the most important water course in the Hautes-Pyr6n6es. When it flows into the Adour at Peyrehorade, after a length of 109 miles, its volume has increased fourfold. . . . The highest altitudes vary from 7,487 to 10,673 feet. Geologic Conditions. — The high basin of the Gave de Pau only includes stable ground, with the exception of the watershed of Gararie, formed of white hmestone, and the Blanc and Gavieton, which are formed of gravel, marls, and limy marl. The granite occupies the higher basin of the Gave de Cauterets. . . . The glacial deposits and detritus are frequently mixed with the original soil on the slopes. Climate. — The climate of the valley of the Gave de Pau is similar to the general Pyrenees chmate, that is to say it is temperate and humid. In the high areas there are considerable changes in temperature. The northwest winds, which always bring rain, give rise to erosion on the slopes. The aspect is without influence on the forma- tion of avalanches, since they are produced on both north and south slopes of the Cau- terets valley. Fogs and mists are frequent. The snow and the rain are very abundant, but the river is chiefly dangerous in spring when the winter snow is not yet melted, or sometimes in autumn after the first snowfall. HaQ storms are quite frequent but their effect is very localized. Production. — The basin of the Gave de Pau was formerly more heavily forested than it is to-day. . . The forests have been cut so as to give place to pasturage, which is often mediocre in character. Outside the forests and the grazing ground the cultivated fields are very limited and only occupy the bottom of the yalleys and the foot of the slopes. They consist of meadows for fattening beef, or are in grain and po- tatoes used by the agricultural or pastoral population of tlie region. Administrative Situation. — The upper basin of the Gave de Pau is situated in the District of the Argeles. Its area is 244,633 acres and its population about 31,000. State of Soil Erosion. — The causes of erosion are: The steepness of the slopes, the abundance of erodable deposits, the climate, and the occupation. Too often the forests are destroyed and the sod broken. Occasionally, in the more inaccessible areas, the forest cover has been perfectly maintained and there are no avalanches. Overgrazing results in landslides or erosion. Composition and Area. — The area includes five working groups, comprising 2,832 acres, of which 917 belong to the State. Work. — This area included the P^guere sUde and the torrent of Lizey. The fixation of the P6guere slide is worth a special visit. The Lizey torrent, which used to be an apparently inoffensive brook, quickly changed its character in 1895. From the 22d to the 27th of April a flood cut the national highway for a distance of 1,970 feet and to an average depth of 5 feet. . . . The volume of the material deposited has been estimated at 40,000 cubic yards. All this debris came from slopes covered with glacial SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 429 deposits. This danger has now been corrected. The State lands of the Pfiguere and Lizey are partly forested. The stands have been fully stocked and the openings filled in by means of local species, beech, pine, and fir, and to a lesser extent, the larch, spruce, birch, and alder. The total area forested amounts to 734 acres. APPENDIX F SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING MARITIME PINE AND FOR FIXING SHIFTING SAND DUNES The rules and si>ecifications governing the tapping in (o) France, (6) British India, and (c) the United States are given in full. According to the conditions for sales for the extraction of resin (cahier des charges), approved May 17, 1912, by the Secretary of Agriculture, the work will be ordered as follows: Arts. 1-17 cover the method of sale, terms of payment, and various technical costs. Beginning with Part III, Exploitation, the instructions are: Art. 17. — The permit to cut will be delivered by the Waters and Forests agents, chief of service, on the presentation (a) of certificates showing that the contractor has furnished his sureties or his security and fxilfilled payments called for by Art. 12 of the current cahier des charges; (6) for State woods ... as provided by the law of July 18, 1907. The Waters and Forests agent will sign these papers. He will also deliver to the contractor if demanded: (a) A copy of the record of sale which will be certified to by the secretary at the place of sale; (b) a copy of the advertisement data with the articles, clauses, and conditions which concern it when this advertise- ment is a part of the record of sale. All these papers will be stamped. Art. 18. — The contractor will dehver the permit to the head ranger and inform him of the day when he expects to commence exploitation. In any case this cannot be before January 1 of the first year of the cutting period. Art. 19. — Unless otherwise indicated (see p. 190) or contrary to the special contract clauses, the extraction of resin must conform to the following provisions: (A) Tapping without Killing (Gemmage a vie). — The tapping will have either one or two faces, according to the directions of the Waters and Forests Service. Trees to be tapped with two faces are only those which have been so designated and indicated in the record of sale. The faces will be begun above the root collar, but will be raised vertically, following the grain of the wood. If the period of tapping is for 5 years the face may be raised 23.6 inches during the first year and 25.6 inches during the follow- ing years, in such a manner that the total height will not exceed 10.5 feet. If the tap- ping period is 4 years (now the current practice, but see p. 193 for latest sizes) the face may be raised 23.6 inches during the first year, 25.6 inches during the second year, 33.5 inches during the third, and 39.4 inches during the fourth, so that the total height of the face shall not exceed 10.2 feet. In any case the width of the faces must not exceed 3.5 inches the first year, 3.1 inches the second, 2.7 inches the third, and 2.4 inches beginning with the fourth. The decrease in width must take place gradually so that the width of the face at the end of a year will equal the width of the face (pre- scribed) for the beginning of the next year. Their depth must not exceed 0.4 inches measured with a string stretched from one side of the gash to the other, beginning at the red part of the bark. The tapping will take place in accordance with the direc- tions from the Waters and Forests Service; either on four faces (au quart), all faces being made as far as possible two by two on opposite diameters; or by three faces of 430 APPENDIX three made by dividing the circumference of the tree into three practically equal parts, the second having been cut at the right of the first when facing it. Unless specially provided for in the sale contract, the tapping will be done on four faces. The former faces will be abandoned no matter what their height. The contractor may, on his demand, be authorized by the conservator to replace a 5-year tapping period by a 4-year period, adopting for the faces the sizes prescribed for the 4-year period. This request may be made during the course of exploitation but must be before the face exceeds the dimensions prescribed for the year corresponding to the chosen period. (B) Tapping to Death (Gemmage a mort). — If the trees to be tapped to death form part of the sale or are marked for the contractors, the latter can work them as they think best. On the other hand, contractors cannot tap trees so as to diminish their value as sawlogs or firewood. The size of the faces should be such that their whole area never exceeds the Umits of a regular face. Art. SO. — Any tree worked contrary to the principles described in the preceding article or the special clauses wiU be considered as having been mutilated, thus falling under the penalty of Arts. 192 and 196 of the Forest Code. The contractor will be Uable to the same penalties, if at any time, in order to lead the resin into the cup, he shall have made at the foot of the trees tapped alive circular incisions suflSciently deep to damage the wood. Art. $1. — Tapping operations shall be Umited to between March 1 and October 31 of each year, but the contractor may commence to bark the pine to be tapped and to place the cutters after February 1. He may also collect the scrape up to December 1 of each year of the tapping period, except that the last year (of the period) must be terminated by November 15. If, by any reason of local conditions, other periods must be adopted for the aforesaid collection, mention will be made of it in the special sales clauses. Art. 22. — The contractor may prune the trees to be tapped alive up to a height of 13.1 feet. Unless stipulations have been made to the contrary, he may dispose of the products of this operation. Art. 23. — The feUing of trees sold to be tapped to death cannot commence before July 1 of the year before the final year of the feUing period. The contractors who wish to anticipate the felling ot all or a part of these trees shall ask authorization for it from the Director-General of Waters and Forests, who will fix the new conditions of exploitation and, if there are any, for the payment of annuities. In any case this author- ization wiU not be necessary for trees unfit for tapping that measure less than 6 inches in diameter at breast height; the contractors will have the privilege of varying them at any time during the exploitation period on condition that they notify the local agent when they commence felling. Dead standing trees designated at the time of the mark- ing shall be felled either in the first month of the period of exploitation or within one month from the day of the auction, if this took place after the beginning of the exploita- tion period. Art. 24- — Trees sold shall be cut with the axe or with the saw as near as possible to the stamp on the stump without injuring it. In no case and under no pretext may the imprint of the State marking hatchet be erased from trees tapped alive or, with equal force, those which are to be tapped to death; these marks must remain intact through the entire period of exploitation and to this end all necessary precautions shall be taken from the first cutting of the faces; it shall even be carefully seen to that these marks are not covered by the resin. Every tree on which the aforesaid marks shall have disappeared will be considered as not forming a part of the sale and will render the contractor liable to the application of Arts. 34 and 196 of the Forest Code. The method of marking will be indicated in the advertisement and in the sale record. Art. 2d. — If, because of unforeseen circumstances, such as patrol paths, fire lines, SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 431 working-plan improvements, work for the protection of the coast hne, alienation, and resale, or for any other cause of this sort, trees tapped alive, felled, or diverted from felling an indemnity equal to the average new revenue produced by each tree aUve shall be allowed to the contractor for each year remaining. When, under the same condi- tions, trees to be tapped to death should be felled or included in compartments out- side the felling area, a like indemnity shall be credited him for these trees if the priva- tion of tapping occurs before the third year of the exploitation period. Under such con- ditions the contractor shall be bound to exploit them and remove them within the period which shall be allotted; in default of which the owner of the forest may dispose of the trees as he hkes. These indemnities shall be arranged between the head ranger and the contractor or his representative after a hearing and approval by the conservator. Art. 28. — When the plan of sale authorizes or requires felling by extraction of stumps, the contractors shall fill up and level the holes made by the uprooted trees as the cutting proceeds. AH. 27. — The contractors shall only be required to brand and top trees (before felling) marked for exploitation which shall be so designated by the Waters and Forests Service; the number of such trees and how they are marked shall be indicated in the advertisements and sale data. The wood resulting from these operations as well as that from the removal of branches and tops (done at the contractor's option) shall be immediately removed, and especially before f eUing, when they cover either young growth or seedlings. Art. 28. — Trees shall be cut in such a way as not to damage those reserved and felled so far as possible upon areas where there is no reproduction. Art. 29. — The twigs and branches shall be removed and piled as the cutting proceeds so as not to hinder access to the felling areas. Art. SO. — Unless otherwise stipulated in the special clauses of sale, the felling of all wood shall be terminated by April 15 of the last year of the period, whether the wood has been tapped or not. Art. 31. — Every contractor who cannot finish felling or cording according to the prescribed periods and requires an extension of time shall be bound to make the demand of the conservator on "stamped" paper at least 20 days before the expiration of the cutting period. This request shall include information as to the amount of wood re- maining to be cut or the amount and quality of the wood remaining to be corded, the causes of the delay in felling, and the extension which it is necessary to grant. It will be judged on its merits by the conservator. The contractor, simply by making such a request for an extension of time for felling, obligates himself to pay the costs fixed by the administration. The extension runs from the day of the expiration of the periods fixed in the preceding article. When the contractors have not profited by the exten- sions which they have been granted, they cannot obtain any refund of the indemnity fixed except by a report of the Waters and Forests agent or head ranger, dated at the latest on the day of the expiration of the term of exploitation, and showing clearly the;' have profited by the benefits of the decision. This report is exempt from stamp and registry fees. (Law of May 15, 1818, Art. 30.) Art. 32. — The contractor is forbidden: (o) To pile or allow branches, chips, sawdust, bark, etc., to remain (on the ground) except on areas designated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative The contractor may be required to scatter these remnants if it is considered necessary; (6) to place or pile wood on young growth or against reserved trees; (c) to place the material of exploitation outside the hmits of the felling except at depots specially designated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative. Art. 33. — As cutting proceeds the contractor must remove wood which falls in the paths separating the felling areas. 432 APPENDIX Art. S4- — The roads must be continually kept free in the felling areas so that wagons can pass at any time. Art. 35. — The contractor must not injure any reserved trees, whatever their quaUty or number. Under no circumstances, except as specified in these rules, can the con- tractor have reserve trees marked, even when he finds the number of trees sold less than those recorded in the auction estimate sheet. This difference cannot give the contrac- tor any right to an indemnity. When, during the course of felling, the trees to be tapped aUve or reserved trees are burned, die, are overturned or damaged by the wind or by any other cause over which the administration has no control, the contractor will notify the local Waters and Forests agent, so that reconnaissance of these trees can bo made without delay. The contractor must, upon demand, fell such trees within 15 days, except those burned. He will have the right to receive the stocktaking sheet and esti- mate, which shall be drawn up by the local agent and which, signed by the contractor, and approved by the contractor, shall be executed without further formality under the conditions prescribed in Art. 59. The contractor shall be considered as having re- nounced his preemption right, if within 15 days of the time he was formally notified he has not returned this paper to the local agent showing his acceptance. Said notification shall be made in the discretion of this agent either by the intermediary of an employee or by registered letter but no indemnity, restitution, nor decrease in price shall be granted the contractor for any loss which he may occasion from trees destined to be tapped aUve. Art. 36. — Trees to be tapped to death and sold, which die during the course of the feUing period, must be immediately felled by the contractor and at the latest within 15 days after notification of their death has been made by the local agent. If the trees tapped to death are not sold, the same procedure shall be followed during the course of the felling period as has already been described for the trees to be tapped alive and for the reserves. The contractor cannot claim any indemnity for loss of resin. Art. 37. — When any tree marked for feUing shall lodge on a reserve, the contractor cannot fell this reserved tree until after the local Waters and Forests agent or his repre- sentative acknowledge the necessity for the felling. Arts. 38-39. — When, despite the observations of the rules relative to the fellings, re- serves are knocked down or damaged by felling, or knocked down under the conditions described in the preceding article, the local Waters and Forests agent or his representa- tive shall proceed in company with the contractor for a reconnaissance of this wood, and, after an estimate of the damage caused, the contractor shall pay to the owner of the forest an indemnity equal to the. total damage. When reserves are knocked over or felled the indemnity will not be less than the following minimum: Stumps less than 7 inches in diameter at — 3.3 feet above the soil $0.03 per inch of diameter 7 to 14 inches 0.06 per inch of diameter 14 to 24 inches 0.08 per inch of diameter 24 to 35 inches 0.10 per inch of diameter Over 35 inches 0.12 per inch of diameter This minimimi will be equally appUcable to reserves damaged, which the local agent beUeves cannot thrive or remain standing, and the contractor will be bound to fell these trees within 8 days after notification by the aforesaid agent. . . . Until the pay- ment of said indemnities the reserves overturned, damaged, or felled will continue to belong to the owner of the forest; but the contractor will have the right to acquire the trees overturned or felled according to the method and conditions indicated in Art. 36. Art. 40. — The Waters and Forests Service will have the right to sell, without wait- ing for the final inspection of the cutting area, the windfall, wind damaged, burned or SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 433 dead trees, as well as reserves overturned, felled, or broken, which the contractor refuses to take under the conditions specified in Arts. 46 and 39. Under these circumstances the contractor will be bound to allow the lumberman to bring his workmen and tools into the felling area. . . . Art. 41- — All collection or removal of cones, where the trees are standing or felled, is strictly forbidden. These products are not part of the sale and their removal will be prosecuted in accordance with the provisions of Art. 44 of the Forest Code. Art. 42. — The contractors may establish in the interior of the felling areas workshops for the manufacture of wood, huts, charcoal pits, forges, distillation outfits, and steam sawmills only after making a demand (free from stamp rights) of the local Waters and Forests agent who shall designate in writing the location and areas where leaves, moss, stones, brush, and sod considered necessary (for construction purposes) shall be removed. This material shall be granted free of charge, but the holes caused by the trees' removal shall be immediately filled up and leveled. Charcoal pits shall be surrounded at 4.4 yards from their base by a ditch 4.9 inches wide at the bottom. The ground between the base of the charcoal pit and the ditch surrounding it shall be entirely cleared. Fire cannot be Ughted before October 1 and will be put out before March 1 of each year. The chimneys of steam engines and other similar apparatus must be covered with metal screens, fine enough to prevent the ejection of sparks. The contractors must, besides, take all precautions prescribed by the Waters and Forests agent and shall be bound to conform to the laws and rules in force. Under any circumstances they shall be held responsible for damage resulting from the use of these machines and apparatus and from fire which occurs in consequence. Art. 43. — The contractor shall have the privilege of constructing, in the cutting area, on areas indicated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative, huts for the lodgement of the resin workers. These huts shall be required to be demol- ished and the material removed within two months after the period fixed for the com- pletion of the removal of the timber or of the tapping. In default, or beyond this period, the houses will become the property of the owner of the forest. Art. 44. — Existing houses which can be put at the disposal of the contractor will be suitably maintained during the period of exploitation and rendered in perfect state of habitation. . . . Other special rules which bind the contractor are as follows: He can build new roads where necessary. He is forbidden to drag wood on carriage roads, to sUde or roll wood down steep slopes or to graze work animals in the forest. The removal of all products must be finished by November 15 for improvement cuttings and by April 15 for regeneration fellings. The other rules are similar to those given under timber-sales clauses, p. 438 of the Appendix. RULES FOR TAPPING IN THE NAINI TAL DIVISION AS AT PRESENT IN FORCE The following revised tapping rules are circulated for guidance: 2. Attached is a statement showing the areas so far set aside for tapping. Early in the year the trees in the areas set aside for tapping will be numbered with a serial number as the numerator and the numbers of the channels as the denominator, e. g., 2674/2 which means that 2,674 is the serial number and 2 the number of pots the tree is to carry. Each compartment will have a series of its own. The forester or a trusty forest guard can number the compartments to be light tapped and the range ofiicer those 434 APPENDIX compartments to be heavy tapped. Heavy tapping will be only carried out in those areas to be felled for firewood within the next 5 years and only those trees in them will be heavy tapped that are to come out at the felling, the remaining trees in the coupe being light tapped. NUMBER OP POTS PER TREE 3. lAght tapping. — One pot for trees between Sj feet and 4-J- feet in girth. Two pots for trees between 4J feet and 7 feet in girth. Three pots for trees over 7 feet in girth. Heavy tapping. — One pot for every foot in girth of bark. METHOD OP tapping: HANGING OP THE POTS 4. Having arranged for pots, tools and lips, the pots will be hung on the trees as follows: Choose places for the pots at the base of the tree, taking care that when two or more pots are prescribed that they are equidistant from each other, then cut a channel 4 inches wide by 1 inch deep and about 6 inches long at the base, so as to allow a free ' hang to the top, place the lip (a piece of thin iron sheet 5 inches by IJ inches) in a curved incision (made by a special chisel with that curve), care being taken that the lip slopes downward from the tree and underneath toward a side drive in a nail on to which the pot wiU be hung. The channel when first cut should be 4 inches to 6 inches long above the Up. For the cutting of a channel an ordinary sharp adze is required. When commencing work for the year on trees already tapped, the old lip will be extracted and inserted at the head of the previous year's channel, the pot being hung below it as before. FRESHENING 5. For this a very sharp adze (Basula) is required. As the flow ceases, which, accord- ing to the time of year, may be after one, two or three weeks, a point on which the range officer and beat guards must be particularly careful, the channel will require freshening at the top. This is done by the removal of a thin shaving not more than 2i inches of the vertical length of the tree. The flow has ceased because of the clogging of the outlet of the resin ducts, and all that is necessary is to remove those clogged and to open out other ducts — the ducts more or less ramifying through some 2 inches or so of outer wood in a vigorous first-class tree. No hard-and-fast rule can be fixed as to the length of the channel to be cut each year, as this depends on the extent of the freshening necessary and on the tree itself as a resin-producer. A maximum of 15 inches, however, is fixed; but the less the better, as the longer the use of the ladder is postponed the more quickly can work be done. The cutting of the bark on the sides of the channel is not allowed; simply remove the old pieces of loose bark by hand and put a piece of bark over the pot itself to pre- vent foreign matter faUing into the resin. COLLECTION 6. As the pots become full they must be emptied of their resin. Here again no fixed period can be fixed, but during the season of greatest flow once every fifteen days is necessary, but otherwise not less than once a month. As a rule, the resin should not be allowed to reach within i inch of the nail hole or the top of the pot, whichever is lowest. The collection will be made by means of wooden spoons, the resin being put into kerosene oil tins fixed up with a handle, which will be emptied into other tins at con- venient centers for transport to BhowaU. 7. Tapping will go on for five successive years between about March 15 and Novem- ber 15, according to season and then a rest of 10 years, so that during 14 years the 4-inch channel should be closed over by callous formed on the sides. SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 435 United States Forest Service — Florida National Fobest SAMPLE TURPENTINE PERMIT December 11, 1911. In consideration of the granting to us of this permit to work for turpentine certain longleaf and slash pine timber on an area to be definitely designated by a forest officer before cupping begins, located in Sections 14, 24, and 26, T. 2 N., R. 21 W., Talla- hassee Meridian, within the Florida National Forest, estimated to contain 19,000 cups more or less, we do hereby promise to pay to the First National Bank of Albu- querque, New Mexico (U. S. Depository), for said permit at the rate of $86 per thousand cups in two payments of at least one-half of the total amount due, credit being given for the sums, if any, hitherto deposited with the said First National Bank of Albuquerque in connection with this permit; and we further promise and agree, should this permit be granted to us, to work said timber in strict accordance with the following and all other related regulations governing the National Forests and prescribed by the De- partment of Agriculture: 1. Timber on vaUd claims and timber under other contract is exempt from this permit. 2. No tree will be cupped, chipped, raked, or worked in any manner until the first payment has been made. 3. No gum or other product of the timber will be removed before the cups on the area have been counted and recorded. Title to the product of the timber included in this permit wiU not pass to the permittee until it has been paid for as herein prescribed. 4. No timber will be cupped except that on the area designated by a forest officer; and no marked trees or trees under the diameter Hmits will be cupped or chipped under any consideration. 5. No tree 10 inches or less in diameter will be cupped; not more than one cup will be placed on trees from 11 to 15 inches inclusive in diameter; not more than two cups will be placed on trees from 16 inches to 25 inches inclusive in diameter, and not more than three cups will be placed on any tree. All diameter measurements are to be taken at a point 2i feet above the ground. 6. So far as possible, the depth of all streaks will average one-half inch or less, and in no case will the depth of streaks exceed three-quarters of an inch not including bark. The width of the streaks will be so regulated that no more than one-half inch of new wood will be taken from the upper side with each streak and so that the total height of the faces shall not exceed fifty inches during the life of this permit. Bars or strips of bark no less than 4 inches wide in the narrowest place will be left between faces, and the edges of faces will be parallel with each other and be placed vertically up the tree. So far as possible, where more than one face is placed on a tree, one bar between them will not exceed 6 inches in width. No more than one streak will be placed on any face during any one week. The chipping will be uniform in depth from shoulder to peak. Faces not chipped in accordance with these specifications may be marked out and the cups removed by the forest officer. 7. One of the modem cupping systems will be used, and the cups and aprons or gutters will be so placed that the shoulders of the first streak will not be more than 12 inches distant from the bottom of the cup and the cups will be placed as near the ground as possible. No wood will be exposed on any tree by removing the bark below the gutter or aprons. 8. No imnecessary damage will be done to cupped trees, marked trees, or to trees below the diameter Umit. Trees that are badly damaged during the life of this permit, when such damage is due to carelessness or negUgence on the part of the permittee, 436 APPENDIX shall be paid for at the rate of 85 per 1,000 feet b. m., full scale, and the forest super- visor shall decide as to the presence and extent of damage. 9. No cups will be placed later than March 1, 1912, without written permission from the forest supervisor, and all timber embraced in this permit will be cupped before said date. 10. Unless extension of time is granted, all timber will be cupped, chipped, dipped, scraped; the product and all cups, aprons, gutters and nails removed and each cupped tree thoroughly raked to the satisfaction of the forest officer, on or before and not later than January 1, 1915. 11. No fires shall be set to the timber, underbrush or grass on the area included in this permit without the written permission of the forest supervisor, and every effort will be made by us, our employees, sub-contractors and employees of sub-contractors, to prevent the burning over of said area from any imauthorized cause; and during the time that this permit remains in force and effect we and all our employees, sub-contrac- tors and employees of sub-contractors, without any charge whatsoever to the Forest Service, wiU do all in our power both independently and on request of forest officers to prevent and suppress unauthorized forest fires. 12. All cupped trees will be raked in a workmanlike manner for the space of 2J feet aroimd each tree before January 1 of each year of the life of this permit; and a fire line not less than 3 feet wide in the narrowest place shall be hoed or plowed around the area covered by this permit in such a manner as to completely isolate it from adjoining lands. Natural fire brakes, such as creeks, swamps, roads, etc., may be utiUzed with the consent of the forest officer. These fire Unes must be made and receive the approval of the forest officer before any cups are placed the first year or new streaks made at the beginning of the second and third years. 13. Special-use permits will be obtained for such cabins, shelters, camps, telephone lines, etc., as may be required on Government land in carrjring out the terms of this permit. 14. The first payment shall be made before the cups are placed the first year and the second payment shall be made on or before December 31, 1912. The decision of the district forester shall be final in the interpretation of the regula- tions governing this permit. Work may be suspended by the forest supervisor if the regulations contained in this permit are disregarded, and the violation of any one of said regulations, if persisted in, shall be sufficient cause for the district forester to revoke this permit and to cancel all other permits for other privileges. "No member of or delegate to Congress, or resident commissioner, after his election or appointment, and either before or after he has qualified and during his continuance in office, and no officer, agent, or employee of the Government shall be admitted to any share or part of this contract or agreement, or to any benefit to arise thereupon. Noth- ing, however, herein contained shall be construed to extend to any incorporated com- pany, where such permit or agreement is made for the general benefit of such incorpora- tion or company. (Section 3741 R. S. and Sections 114-116, Act of March 4, 1909.) " No person imdergoing a sentence of imprisonment at hard labor can be employed in carrying out the terms of this permit. (See Executive Order of May 18, 1905.) Refund of deposits under this permit will be made only at the discretion of the district forester, except when the amount of such deposits is more than the total amount re- quired under this permit. This permit is non-assignable. (See Section 3737, Revised Statutes of the United States.) The conditions of this permit are completely set forth herein, and none of its terms can be varied or modified except with the written consent of the forest supervisor. SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 437 No subordinate forest officer has, or will be given authority for this purpose. If re- quired as a guarantee of a faithful performance of the conditions of this permit we will submit a bond in the sum of $500, which bond, together with all moneys paid or promised under this contract, upon failure on our part to fulfill all and singular the conditions and requirements herein set forth, or made a part thereof, shall become the property of the United States as hquidated damages and not as penalty. CONTRACT STIPULATIONS In the dunes of the Gironde and the Landes, the following contract stipulations must be followed by contractors: Chapter I. — General Rules. — Fixation and Maintenance of Dunes. AH 1. — The dunes are fixed according to plans by the director of works, (o) by sowing with groimd cover or (6) by the plantation of maram grass (Psamma arenaria), and (c) by broadcast sowing or transplanting in the waterholes between the dunes. SOWINQ WITH COVER AND TRANSPLANTING Art. Z. — Contractors shall use per acre of dune: (o) The amounts of maritime pine seed, genista or gorse, and maram specified in the plans; (6) the number of brush fagots properly called "bourses " Ukewise to be determined by the plan (80 to 400 per acre) and according to the conditions detailed in Art. 9 which follows. The transplanting of the water-hollows between the dimes shall be at the rate of (except upon contrary stipulation) 3.5 pounds of pine seed and 1.7 pounds of genista or gorse seed per acre. PLANTATION OP MARAM (GOUEBET) Art 3. — When maram is planted the tufts are placed in quincunx, spaced 1.6 feet apart; the spacing of the clumps may be, however, on order of the director of works, reduced to 8 inches or increased to 3.3 feet. The maram shall be planted in conformity with the rules in Art. 10. PALISADES, BAHRIERS Art. 4. — Contractors shall use for each 328 linear feet (109 yards) of palisades an average of 500, 5.2 feet in length, 1.2 inches thick, and between 6.7 and 8.6 inches in width. The stakes for the woven barriers shall, according to the orders of the local agents, have a length between 8.2 feet and 29 inches. For each 328 linear feet of barrier the following stakes and fagots shall be set: 200 stakes 8.2 to 4.9 feet in length, 80 fagots; 200 stakes 4.1 feet in length, 60 fagots; 200 stakes 3.3 feet in length, 40 fagots; 200 stakes 29 inches in length, 20 fagots; per 328 linear feet of simple barrier (cordon), 70 fagots. EXCAVATIONS Art. 6. — The fagots for excavations shall be set in holes 16 to 20 inches in circumfer- ence with a depth of 16 inches, and separated 12 to 16 inches from circumference to circumference, according to the instructions of the director of works. The height shall vary from 8 to 24 inches above the soil according to the locality. LEVELING Art. 6. — The places to be leveled shall be worked to a depth of 14 inches and the ground shall be cleared of all vegetation and debris whatsoever which could stop the movement of the sand. The green maram susceptible of being replanted will be care- fully taken out, made into bundles, and heeled in; the maram which cannot be used and debris of all kinds will be placed in the nearest excavations. 438 APPENDIX THINNING THE MARAM Art. 7. — The maram, where it is too thick, will be thinned in conformity to the pre- scriptions of the director of works. The stumps which are removed will be dug out and deposited where specified by the foreman. Chapter II. — Places of Extraction. — Nature and Quality of the Material. — Fagots and Stakes. Art. 8. — The fagots and stakes will come from the places indicated by the agents in the State forest and situated at the average distance specified in the plans. Without special authorization from the supervisor (chef de service) they cannot be removed from the so-called protection zone. The thinnings will be under the direction of a forest em- ployee and conducted without interruption, as the work proceeds. When the work is stopped at any point the boundary of the area thinned shall be regularized so far as possible by straight lines. If the brush and the stakes cannot be secured in sufiicient quantities, or are completely lacking in the Federal forest, the contractor must procure them at his expense in private forests, provided, however, that the average distance of transport shall not exceed the average distance specified in the plans. Art. 9. — The brush and the stakes shall be used green. The fagots shall not include cones or branches with a diameter of more than 1.2 inches. Maritime pine, genista or gorse, shall be used for their manufacture instead of heather, unless specially stipulated in the plans. The brush fagots must weigh at least 44 pounds from September 1 to May 31 and 33 pounds from June 1 to August 31; those which do not come up to the proper weight shall be rejected and immediately rebundled. No account shall be made for the contractor for the fagots which exceed the stated weight. The stakes . . . 4.9 to 8.2 feet shall have a minimum diameter of 2.4 inches at the small end. Those 4.1 feet and less shall not be less than 2 inches in diameter at the small end. Art. 10. — The maram to be transplanted shall be secured in the areas designated by the director of works at the average distance indicated in the plans and extraction shall be made by . . • APPENDIX G STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE REGULATIONS The regular contract conditions and clauses were issued by the administration at Paris, Jime 22, 1903, and revised May 27, 1909, and again May 11, 1912. The following translation of Part III — Exploitation, is given in full since it is basic for all timber sales throughout France unless exceptions are made in the special clauses issued by the local conservators. PART III. — EXPLOITATION i AH. 17. — Every successful bidder who, before the delivery of the cutting permit, shall demand a recount because of an alleged deficit in the number of trees indicated in the record of the trees reserved and marked for cutting binds himself, merely by his request, to pay at the depository of the collector for the local Canton an indemnity of 10 francs per day's work for each agent and 3 francs per day's work for each guard, if there is found to be no deficit. ' Part I describes the routine of the auction; Part II explains payments, charges, stamp rights, and registry. See page 292. STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 439 Art. 18. — The permit to cut will be delivered by the agent of Waters and Forests service, chief of service, on the presentation of certificates showing that the purchaser has put up his securities or security, furnished his remittances, promissory notes, or cash and made the payments required under Art. 12 of this circular. The Waters and Forests agent wiU sign these papers. He will besides give to the pur- chaser if he asks for them: (a) A copy of the minutes of his auction, as soon as they have been verified at the Secretary's oflBce at the place of sale; (6) a copy of the sales circular and of the special clauses; (c) a copy of the special circular for the articles, clauses, and conditions which concern him when this bill of sale is added to the auction circular; (d) a copy of the survey notes and, if there is one, a map of the felling area. All these papers shall be vised for stamps. Art. 19. — The contractor shall send the permit to the ranger in charge and inform him in advance of the day he plans to start cutting. Art. 20. — Unless otherwise indicated or supplementary to the special auction clauses the wood shall be cut: In the coppice fellings: " a tire et aire " with the axe as close to the ground as possible, and so that the water cannot remain on the stumps. The roots must remain intact. In the high forest fellings : level with the ground, with the axe or saw. Conifers marked for cutting in coppice felling areas may also be sawed down. Art. 21 . — When the sales circular authorizes or prescribes felling with stump ex- traction, the purchasers must fill up and level the holes made by the uprooted trees as the cutting proceeds. Art. 22. — The purchasers shall be bound to Umb and top before felling only those trees marked for cutting which have been previously designated by the Waters and Forests Service. The number of these trees and how they have been designated shall be given in the sales circular. The wood resulting from the operations including that from the preliminary work of limbing and topping undertaken voluntarily by the suc- cessful bidders shall be immediately removed, and especially before further felling, when it covers young growth or seedlings. Art. 23. — The trees shall be felled, so far as possible, so as not to damage those reserved and cut areas where there is no young growth. In feUing areas on a rapid slope the trees shall be felled, unless otherwise authorized, in the direction of the slope, with the crown up hill. Art. 24- — As cutting proceeds, the purchasers in coppice feUings shall be bound, unless waived in the sales circular, to remove old stumps and to cut level with the ground the boles bent or broken, the brush, brambles, weeds, shrubs, and injurious imdergrowth. This cleaning is not obhgatory in high forest fellings unless prescribed in the contract. Art. 25. — The small branches and limbs shall be removed and piled, as the cutting proceeds, so as not to obstruct hauling in the feUing areas. Art. 26. — The material resulting from cording the small branches and hmbs shall be stacked or placed in piles as cutting proceeds. Art. 27. — The cutting of wood shall be finished by April 15 after award. The wood peeled by virtue of the contract shall be cut before July 1. The cording of small branches and limbs, including piling or stacking the material resulting from this cording, shall be finished by June 1 following the award. As regards the small branches and limbs resulting from wood peeled by virtue of the contract, this period is extended to July 15 following. If local conditions necessitate other terms they will be given in the special clauses of the contract. Art. 28. — Every purchaser who cannot finish felling or cording during the pre- scribed period and who requires an extension shall be bound to make the request of 440 APPENDIX the conservator, on stamped paper at least 20 days before the expiration of the afore- said period. This request shall explain the area or the amount of timber remaining to be cut, or else the amount and kind of wood remaining to be corded, the causes of the delay in the logging, and the extension that it is necessary to have. It will be judged on its merits by the conservator. The purchaser, solely by his request for an extension of time for logging, obhgates himself to pay the indemnities fixed by the administration. The extension will run from the day of the expiration in the periods fixed in the pre- ceding article. In case the purchasers do not make use of the extensions which they have been granted, they cannot obtain a refund of the charge made, except after a report from the agent of Waters and Forests local officer in charge, dated at the latest on the day of the expiration of the felling period, stamped and registered at their ex- pense and showing unmistakably that they could not profit by the extension. Art. S9. — The purchaser is forbidden, at least unless the sales circular contains an expUcit authorization, to peel or bark standing any wood in his sale, under the penalties prescribed by Art. 36 of the Forest Code. Art. SO. — It is also forbidden: (a) To leave branches, twigs, chips or bark on areas stocked with seedlings; (6) To place or pile wood on seedlings, Uve stumps, or against reserved trees; (c) To notch these trees on the bole or roots or to drive naUs; (d) To pile the products of logging outside the boundaries of the feUing area, except on land- ings specially designated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative. Art. 31. — The purchasers must remove, as the cutting proceeds, the wood which falls into the lanes separating feUing areas. Art. 32. — They must always keep the roads open in the felling areas, so that wagons can pass at any time. Art. 33. — The purchaser wiU protect all the reserved trees, whatever their quality and number. In no case, nor under any pretext whatever, can any reserved tree be marked for the purchaser, even when it may be found that there are more than recorded in the marking and sales report. He will protect (coppice) standards of every age class and other reserved trees, even if they may be broken, or overturned by the wind, or damaged by an act of Providence independent of the logging. He will be bound to preserve them, as well as their crowns and branches. Art. 34. — When a tree marked for cutting shall lodge in its fall on a reserved tree, the purchaser cannot fell this reserve until after the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative shall have recognized the necessity for felling. Art. 36. — Whenever, despite the observance of the felling rules applicable to the cutting areas, the reserves shall have been overturned by logging, or when the reserves shall have been knocked down under the conditions anticipated in the preceding article, the purchaser shall be bound, if the Waters and Forests agent considers it necessary, to replace these reserves by trees taken from those marked for felling. These trees shall be chosen by the aforesaid agent and marked with his special marking hatchet. Under no circumstances can the value of the tree thus designated exceed that of the trees replaced. If the restitution is not required or if it is effected by trees less valuable than those reserves overturned or knocked down, the purchaser will pay as damages the value of these reserves or the difference between their value and that of the trees marked to replace them, after a check valuation has been made. The valuation of the reserves can never be less than the following established minimum: COMPOUND COPPICE FELLING AREAS Standard of the first rotation, S0.03 per 3.9 inches of circumference.* Standard of the second rotation, 0.06 per 3.9 inches of circumference. Standard of the third rotation, 0.09 per 3.9 inches of circumference. * These figures are for circumferences made 3.3 feet above the ground. STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 441 HIGH FOREST FELLING ABEAS Saplings 20 inches in circumference — $0.03 per 3.9 inches of circumference.* Trees 24r- 43 inches in circumference — 0.06 per 3.9 inches of circumference. Trees 47- 75 inches in circumference — 0.08 per 3.9 inches of circvunference. Trees 79-114 inches in circumference — 0.09 per 3.9 inches of circumference. Trees 118 inches in circumference and over, 0.11 per 3.9 inches of circumference. * These figures are for circumferences made 3.3 feet above the ground. When reserves are damaged the same procedure shall be followed as for reserves overturned or knocked down, if the local agent decides that they cannot thrive if left standing. If, on the contrary, the local Waters and Forests agent believes that the damaged reserves may conveniently be left standing the purchaser will pay the amount of damage caused the reserve in accordance with the estimate which shall be made by the aforesaid agent. A record of these estimates and charges shall be prepared, which shall be signed by the contractor or his agent, and addressed to the conservator, who, after having checked and approved it, will see to the collection of the amounts due. This certificate is exempt from stamp rights and registry. (Art. 80 of the law of May 15, 1818.) Notwithstanding all replacements or payments made by the purchaser in accordance with the provisions of this article, the reserves overturned, knocked down, or damaged, will continue to belong to the owner of the forest. Art. 36. — After violation of the clauses and conditions of the sale, relative to the method of felling and cleaning of the cutting areas, shall be punished in conformity with Art. 37 of the Forest Code. Art. 37. — The purchaser can establish within the cutting area, huts, charcoal pits, or pitch and tar pits, temporary lime kilns, and yards for the sawing and sale of wood provided the request is made to the local Waters and Forests agent who will designate in writing the areas to be occupied and these where the leaves, moss, stones, cinders, and necessary grass be removed. These products will be granted free, but the holes resulting from their removal must be immediately filled and leveled. Art. 38. — The purchasers will have the right to install portable sawmills in their felling areas, for the manufacture of the wood, on areas designated by the local Waters and Forests agent. They must cover the furnace smokestacks with a metallic screen, fine enough to prevent any cinders from coming out, and must take every precaution which is prescribed by the Waters and Forests agent. They are besides bound to conform to the relating laws and regulations. They will in any event be held responsible for damages which may result from the use of these machines. Art. 39. — If it is recognized that the pm'chasers cannot find a sufiicient quantity of withes among the products which they have purchased, and provided the stand allows it, they can be granted free on the authorization of the local Waters and Forests agent in charge. They will be cut on places designated by the local agent or his repre- sentative by workmen agreed upon by him, and cannot be removed until after having been counted by the aforesaid agent or his delegate. PART IV. — LOGGING Art. 40. — The hauling shall take place along roads designated in the sales report or sales circular. Nevertheless on the purchaser's request the conservator may, while the logging is in progress, designate other logging roads or authorize the estabUshment of new ones. Merely by his request the purchaser will be bound to pay the indemnity or to complete the work at his own expense, unless he gives up the privilege. Art. 41. — Unless otherwise stipulated it is forbidden: (a) To skid timber on wagon 442 APPENDIX roads; (6) to slide or roll wood down the slopes; (c) to graze work or pack animals or allow them to pastm-e in the forests and even to lead them unmuzzled into felling areas stocked with seedlings or young growth. Logs or squared timbers cannot be skidded on the surface of felling areas except under unusual circumstances, which the local Waters and Forests agent will decide upon. Art. 4^. — When the purchaser wishes to dispense with the removal of small branches and other logging debris, he must burn them on areas which will be designated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative imless the sales circular contains an explicit authorization to scatter them on the felling area. He must take every necessary precaution that this (brush) burning does not damage either the new growth or reserved trees, and he will be held responsible for any damage which may result even when carried out in the presence of and under the supervision of Waters and Forests officers and employees. Art. 43. — The sawdust and bark from manufactured wood will be removed, spread on forest roads, or burned under the conditions specified in the preceding article. Art. 44. — Unless the special sales clauses specify other periods, the logging must be completed within one year dating from April 15 following the auction. Art. 45. — The provisions of Art. 28, relative to feUing delays, are (also) applicable to logging delays. Art. 4^. — The provisions of Art. 35 are appUcable to the reserves which, despite the observance of the rules governing the removal of the wood, shall be overturned or damaged by logging. Art. 47. — The piirchasers on Federal sales must pay to the communes the special subsidies, to which they must be entitled, under Art. 14 of the law of May 21, 1836, and under Art. 11 of the law of August 20, 1881, for extraordinary (exceptional) damage caused by hauling sales products on roads, classed as parish or rural. Art. 48. — Unless waived by the Waters and Forests officer in charge the purchasers must, three days before the date fixed for the check (of the sales area) : Surround with a conspicuous band all standing trees in the felling areas where reserved trees have been marked; place visible stakes near the stumps of trees felled in the felling areas where the trees were marked for cutting. They will see to it that these stakes are protected up to the date for the check. If the purchasers fail to fulfil the above requirements, it can be done at their expense in accordance with the provisions of Art. 41 of the Forest Code. PART v. — CHECK (OF SALES AREA) Art. 4S. — Under penalty of the law the purchasers must show the imprint of the Federal marking hatchet on all wood and trees reserved, and in the felling areas marked for cutting, on the stumps of trees cut, at the time the felling area is checked over. Art. 50. — In the felling areas, where the trees were marked for cutting, and when the stumps are removed in logging, the root bearing the imprint of the marking hatchet must remain intact in the ground. Art. SI. — The purchaser who wishes to obtain, after the stump check, the certificate mentioned in paragraph 4 of Art. 8, must present to the Waters and Forests agent in charge receipts showing that he has made the payments required imder Arts. 59 and 61. He must besides prove payment for the products sold on the vinit of product basis when his felling area requires it. PART VI. — ACCESSORY SALE ON THE UNIT BASIS Art. 62. — When the sale contract binds the purchaser to make within the boundary of his felling area, in addition to the main logging, accessory fellings with the obhgation STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 443 of taking the products of these operations at a fixed price, the purchaser must complete this logging within the period fixed by the special sales clauses or as shall be indicated by the local Waters and Forests agent. Art. 63. — The purchasers cannot, under the penalties given in Arts. 33 and 34 of the Forest Code, fell or cord wood other than that which has been designated by the local agent or his representative. Art. 54. — He must manufacture the wood into material corresponding to the specifi- cations established in making the (imit) price and must pile this material by classes. Art. 55. — The scaling of the products wiU first be made in a preliminary report which will be checked jointly by the local Waters and Forests agent and the purchaser and approved by the conservator. Art. 56. — The purchaser cannot remove the wood, or dispose of it, until he has obtained a permit, which will be deUvered to him by the local Waters and Forests agent in charge, after the approval of the inventory by the conservator. In case this rule is violated the piurchaser must pay as damages double the value of the products unduly removed, besides the cost of stamping and registering the record of proof, and without prejudicing the pimitive fines which may be levied. If the amount and grade of the wood removed have not been estabhshed, the value then shall be fixed by the officiating conservator. Art. 67. — The purchasers of national fellings shall pay at the depository of the federal collector: (o) For an extension of three months the total amount inventoried; (6) for an extension of 10 days 1 franc, 60 per cent of the total amount inventoried (not yet logged), the proportional registry charges, and, if there are any, the proportional surety charges. The piu-chasers of communal or pubhc institution felling areas shall pay for extensions the amounts indicated above: (o) At the depository of the collector for the commune or pubhc institution, the total amount inventoried; (6) at the depository of the registry collector, the proportional registry charges, and, if there are any, the proportional surety charges. The extension shall run from the date of the approval of the inventory by the con- servator. Art. 58. — All the conditions of the present circular which are not modified by the provisions of this section are appUcable to the accessory sales which form a part of it. PART VII. — LABOR AND MATERIAL Art. 59. — The purchasers must deduct the amount of wood given in the sale circular from the material felled and furnish it to the Waters and Forests employees, communes, public institutions, and right holders. The employees' wood and, unless otherwise stipulated, that due the communes, public institutions, and right holders, must be of good merchantable quality and put up in accordance with local usage. It must be ready for receipt on the cutting area by the dates given in the sales circular and handed to the places designated in the advertisement within 15 days counting from the time it is re- ceived. The local Waters and Forests agent's report accompanied by the acquittance of the receivers will suffice as a release for the purchasers. Art. 60. — In fellings comprising a sale on the unit basis, when the wood to be de- livered, in accordance with the preceding article, cannot be whoUy secured from the material sold on this basis, they can complete it from an additional sale on the unit basis, but the wood thus levied will be included when the material is scaled, and will be paid for by the purchaser. Art. 61. — The labor and materials levied on the felhng areas shall be completed up to the values given in the sales circular, under the direction of the local Waters and For- 444 APPENDIX ests oflScer in charge by contractors and workmen agreed upon and when he chooses. The purchasers will pay the contractors and laborers on sight of the certificates which will be issued by this agent, and which, duly receipted by the assignees, wiU form a release. The payment must be made by the purchaser within 15 days counting from the delivery of the reported receipt of the labor and materials. Art. 62. — Nevertheless, so far as communal felling areas are concerned, the sales circulars can require the inmiediate payment for all material and labor at the depository of the communal collector, and the receipts for these payments must then be presented to the Waters and Forests officer in charge along with the papers enumerated in Art. 18. The mimicipal collector will pay the assignees directly upon sight of any order issued by the mayor upon the production of a receipt showing the material or labor has been received, signed by the local Waters and Forests agent, and coimtersigned by the officer in charge. Art. 63. — The purchasers are also obfiged: (a) To dig, level, replant or sow areas occupied by their huts or workshops; (6) to repair the lanes or ditches crossing or bound- ing the felling areas; (c) to reestablish boundary pillars, enclosures, posts, walls, fences, etc., damaged or destroyed because of logging or hauling wood. Art. 64- — If the purchasers fail to Uve up to the obligations enimierated in Arts. 59, 61, and 63 of Part VII it will be done at their cost under the direction of the Waters and Forests Service, in conformity with the provisions of Art. 41 of the Forest Code. PART VIII. — MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS Art. 65. — The sales agent which the purchaser may have, in conformity with Art. 31 of the Forest Code, cannot be the kinsman or related by marriage to the guard of the beat, nor to the local agents. He must be agreed upon by the Waters and Forests officer in charge and sworn before the justice of the peace. Art. 66. — The: purchasers must: (o) Refrain from working laborers, lumberjacks, and teamsters Sundays or hoUdays; this rule may be waived in virtue of an authorization given by the Waters and Forests officer in charge. (6) Not employ foreign workmen except in the proportion which shall be fixed by the special sales clauses. Each (original) purchaser must besides when working Federal forests, place or cause to be placed under the regime of the law of April 9, 1898, all lumberjacks working in the felhng areas either when they are doing the logging themselves, or when it is being done through contractors or when the felling areas may have been resold before ex- ploitation began. When repeated violations of the provisions of this article may have been proven against any purchaser, the Waters and Forests director general may decree his temporary or permanent exclusion from the auctions of felling areas of State wood, without prejudic- ing suits which may be brought against him. Art. 67. — The purchasers as well as their foremen, employees, lumberjacks, work- men, and teamsters cannot let their dogs run loose in the forests. Dogs guarding huts, workshops, or yards must always be tied or shut up. Art. 68. — The purchaser will conform, besides, to the special provisions of the Forest Code and to the ordinance of August 1, 1827, which concerns him. Art. 69. — Every violation of the conditions of the sale, for which an exemption is not given by the present "circular" or the Forest Code, will require the payment of 10 francs by right of civil damage, besides the stamp costs and the cost of registering the brief of proof, without prejudicing civil pimitive suits which may be entered. Approved May 29, 1909, by the Secretary of Agriculture. STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 445 SALE OF FELLING AREAS ON THE STUMP BY UNIT OF PRODUCT CONTBACT CLAUSES Part 1. — Auction. — Art. 1 . — Sales by unit of product take place under the clauses and conditions of the genera] sales circular, except as modified by the provisions which follow. Art. 2. — The sale includes, without guarantee as to area, number of trees or amount, all the timber designated in the felling area at any time during exploitation by Waters and Forests officers and employees, on condition that the purchaser fells it and works it up and pays the price based on the valuation survey approved by the Waters and Forests conservator, in accordance with the rate established by the auction record. Art. 3. — The ownership of the wood will be conveyed to the purchaser from the date of approval by the conservator of the valuation survey. Commencing with this date, the wood counted will be at the risk and danger of the purchaser, without prejudicing the right of reservation in case of bankruptcy or of delayed payment and of the right of claiming by means of seizure in case of removal or resale. Art. If.. — The auction will take place either by decreasing or raising the prices. It will be on all the various units of product of which the basis and method of appraisal shall be indicated in the advertisement. The lowering or raising of the prices will be regulated at so much per cent in accord- ance with the basis or method of appraisal. Fractions in hundreds will not be permitted. Art. 5. — The auction by lowering the price will take place in the following manner: The figure announced by the crier wiU be successively lowered, in accordance with a tariff established in advance and advertised in the auction room, until someone an- nounces the words : " I take it.'' If several people are bidders simultaneously, the feUing area is drawn by lot, at least unless one of them does not bid a higher price; the competi- tion is then open between them as indicated in the following article. Art. 6. — The auction by raising the price will be decided after the extinction of three tapers lighted in succession. If the dilation of the last of the three tapers outlasts the increases in price, the auction will not be judged until after the extinction of a final fire without increase in price. Art. 7. — In conformity with the provisions of the first paragraph of Art. 8 of the general sales circular, the purchaser will be bound to furnish security and a surety. These securities will be received subject to the approval of the federal collector in the case of felling areas of federal wood, and subject to the approval of the mayors and municipal collectors, administrators, and pubhc institution collectors for the felling areas of communal and pubUc institution wood. In case of the insolvency of securities, proven by bankruptcy or otherwise, all the amounts due shall become immediately demandable, unless the purchaser produces a new security acceptable by the collector interested. (Code CivU, Art. 2020.) Part n. — Exploitation. — Art. 8. — The cutting permit will be deUvered to the purchaser by the local Waters and Forests officer in charge, on presentation of the certificate showing he has furnished his securities. Art. 9. — Under penalties carried by Arts. 33 and 34 of the Civil Code, the purchaser cannot fell trees other than those which shall have been designated by the local agent or his representatives. Art. 10. — AH the wood, which shall be considered suitable for building timber or in- dustrial manufacture by the Waters and Forests officers, shall be left in the log and can- not be cut off below the point where the local agent or his representative shall have placed his hammer mark for regulating the cutting into logs. 446 APPENDIX The advertisement will show the minimum sizes for this wood, if there are any. Art. 11. — Wood which has not been classed as fit for building timber or manufacture by the Waters and Forests agents shall be worked into minor construction material (small logs, spUt wood, poles, mine props, etc.) or into firewood (fuel, charcoal, fagots, fagot bundles, etc.) so that the commodities manufactured can enter the classes given in the sales circular used for the estabUshment of the price. Art. 12. — The minor construction material will be left separate in the log, or laid out in lines of ten each, or piled between stakes according as they are regularly placed by the purchaser in a class sold by the cubic meter, by the piece, or by the stere. Art. 13. — Unless otherwise stipulated in the special sales clauses, the firewood and charcoal will be stacked according to local usage. The piles must always contain even steres unless there is insufficient material. Art. l/f.. — The fagots, bimdles of fagots, etc., will be stacked in piles of 10, 20, or 25 or multiples thereof. Art. 15. — When the bark is sold separately it will be bound in bundles; it will then be stacked as fagots or bundles of fagots. Art. 16. — The roots and chips from chopping wiU be stacked in round piles. Art. 17. — All the piles will be made according to the commodity class and in each class by lengths. Art. 18. — If during the logging the purchaser desires to make a class of commodity other than those recited in the sales circular, he will make the request in writing of the conservator, who will fix the bases of price for the new product units and will give notice to the aforesaid purchaser in writing. In case this rule is broken the price of the new commodity classes will be fixed officially by the conservator, without prejudicing the appUcation of Art. 69 of the general circular. Art. 19. — At any time during logging the agents can check the wood to make sure of its quantity and class; the piles which shall have been broken will be at once restacked by the purchaser. Art. 20. — The purchaser will convert and arrange for inclusion in the scaling: (a) The wood resulting from windfall, windbreak, and from surveying lines, situated within the feUing area. However, he will not be held to this obhgation if the value of the aforesaid wood exceeds by 10 per cent the total amount of the felling area. (6) The wood from lopping if there is any. Art. 21. — As the conversion proceeds, wood of all kind, except the trees in the log, will be (if there is any) collected at the areas indicated by the special sales clauses. In any case it will be arranged for scaling as directed by the Waters and Forests agents or their representatives. Art. 22. — The purchasers can have the special clauses waived for the conversion of branches having at the large end a maximum circumference, determined according to local usages and indicated in the advertisement, on condition that they conform to the prescriptions of the aforesaid clauses governing the destination for these products. Art. 23. — The time for felling and converting (including the grouping, piling, or stacking) will be established by the special sales clauses. Art. 24. — The withes for the fagot bundles, fagots and bark, resulting from the sale, will be given to the purchaser free of charge, who will gather them at his expense under the superintendence of the local guard in the places designated by the range officer. If the Waters and Forests agents judge that this removal cannot take place, or that it should be limited to certain species, mention will be made in the sales circular. Art. 25. — Before the permit for removal is given the workmen cannot help them- selves, for their own use, to anything except brambles, parasitic plants, or renmants designated by the local guard. The removal of this wood and the use of any other kind STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 447 of product will be treated as trespass, and prosecuted in conformity with the provisions of the Forest Code. Part m. — Scaling. - Art. 86. — As soon as the felling area shall have been made ready for receival imder the conditions above determined, a scale report will be drawn up and checked with the purchaser, who wiU be duly notified. The report will be signed by the officers and em- ployees present and by the piirchaser or his representative; if he does not want to sign or if he is absent this will be noted. This certificate will be submitted for the approval of the conservator. Thus approved it will govern the amount due from the purchaser. Partial scaling can be authorized by the conservator under exceptional circumstances of which he will be the sole judge and under the official conditions of pohcy which he shall determine. Art. ^. — Eight days before the date fixed for the scaUng by the local Waters and Forests officer the purchaser must furnish this agent an inventory of the products to scale. Art. 28. — The wood classed by the Waters and Forests agents as building material and for manufacture shall be cubed as cylinders having a height equal to the length of the log and a base equal to the circvunference (or diameter of the circumference) or aver- age diameter at the middle of the log. The allowances on the length, circumference, and diameter shaU conform to the methods of measurement and volumetric tables used locally and indicated in the advertisement. Circumferences and diameters will be measured outside the bark for broadleaves and inside the bark for conifers. When the butt (cule6) of the tree is not cut (level with the grass) the point to measure the length (of the butt log) from will include two-thirds the stump height. Art. S9. — The minor construction wood kept in the log, as stated in Art. 12, shall be scaled as wood for building or manufacture. Art. 30. — All the other products shall be counted in the class to which they naturally belong according to method of conversion, grouping, and piUng. Art. 31. — The stacks of wood piled between stacks shall be treated as rectangular prisms having the same length as the wood, and the width and height of the pile. Art. S3. — The minor construction material designed for the mines can be partially peeled according to custom without any increase in value on account of the loss in volume. Part IV. — Removal of the Wood. — Art. 33. — The purchaser cannot remove any wood until he has obtained a permit which will be delivered to him by the local Waters and Forests officer in charge, after the approval of the scale report by the conservator. In case of violation the purchaser will be bound to pay as damages twice the value of the wood removed, in accordance with the price fixed by the auction record. If the amount and quaUty of this wood can- not be regularly proven, its value will be fixed officially by the conservator. The re- moval of the wood before the approval of the scale report by the conservator will besides involve the application of Art. 388 of the Penal Code. Art. 34. — Unless otherwise stipulated in the special sales clauses, the removal must be completed within a period of one year counting from April 15 following the sale. Part V. — Price of Sale.' — Cost of Auction. — Registry and Stamp Rights. — Art. SB. — The purchasers of felling areas of Federal wood will pay at the Federal collector's depositories: (a) Within a term fixed by the special clauses, which cannot exceed six months, the main price of the sale regulated by the scale report duly ap- proved; (6) within a period of 10 days, 1 franc, 60 per cent of the amount of the sale so far as the fixed stamp rights and registry of the certificates relating to the sale as for 448 APPENDIX all other costs, and the proportional rights of registry and of surety on the amount of the sale increased by the tax of 1 franc, 60 per cent. (Decision of the Minister of Finance, April 7, 1883.) The fixed right of the surety certificate will be paid besides within the same period after the first scaling. The terms will run from the date of the approval by the conserva- tor of the scale report. Art. 36. — The purchasers of felling areas of communal and pubUc institution wood , will pay within the terms indicated in the foregoing article, (o) At the communal col- lector's depository or that of the public institution owner, the principal price regulated by the scale report duly approved. (6) At the registry collector's depository, the fixed stamp rights and for the registry of the deeds relating to the sale and for the surety certificate, the proportional rights of registry and surety on the total sale, and, if there are any, also the fixed stamp rights and registry of the deeds before or after the sale, that is to say, for the marking standards report and survey notes. Art. 37. — The total of the charges of all kinds, for work or materials to be furnished by the purchaser, and whose valuation in money is given in the advertisement, will be deducted as a whole from the total of the sale on the scale report; the amount remaining win form the chief price of the sale. In case of partial scaling this deduction wiD be made from the first scale report. June 18, 1903. APPENDIX H FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE (1870-1912) (a) FORESTRY PROPER, ETC. Title Etude sur la production du chSne et son emploi en France Etude sur la carbonisation des bois (syst^me Dromart) Etude sur les for^ts du Kisoux Cri d'alarme sur les hais d'industrie, de Chauffage et le char- bon de terre Mise en Valeur des sols pauvres au moyen de la culture de Resineux Le Mont — Boron Les bois employes dans 1 'Industrie De rinfluence des for^ts sur le climat Etudes siu- ramenagement des forSts Service forestier de I'Alg^rie (Rapport) Notice sur les bois de la Nouvelle-Cal£donie Notes sur le rdle €conomique des associations pastorales (Pyrfin^es) Histoire du ch6ne dans TaDtiquit^ et dans la nature Histoire de la fordt de Fontainebleau Petit manuel du garde particulier des bois et for^ts La greffe k la port^e des classes populaires Manuel de sylviculture Enqugte sur les incendies dans les landes de Gascogne Des rapports entre les racines et les branches des arbres Ecorcement des bois par la chaleur Carbonisation des bois en vases clos Exposition collective des produits d'^conomie rurale et foresti^re du royaume de Boh^me Observations sommaires sur le progr^ rural (region des Pyr^n^es) Experiences forestiires 1871-1874 La sylviculture au Coneeil g'' d'Auxerre (Reboisement) Author Place Date Bagneris Paris 1870 Desnoyers Roux Fontainebleau 1870 Gurnaud Besanpon 1870 Boutroux Gien 1870 raion Paris 1870 Guiot Nice 1871 Noerdlinger Paris 1872 Rousseau Carcassonne 1872 Tassy Paris 1872 Tassy Paris 1872 Sebert Paris 1872 Calvert Tarbes 1872 Coutace Paris 1873 Domet Paris 1873 Dommanget Paris 1873 Fandrin Marseille 1873 Bagneris Nancy 1873 Fare Paris 1873 Regimbeau Nimes 1873 du Roscoat Paris 1873 Vincent Paris 1873 de Dombrowski Prague 1873 Calvet Pau 1873 Le ChauS Moulins 1874 de Kirwan Auxerre 1874 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 449 Title Traits aur lea arbres r^ineiix L'amenagement des for^ts (2*^ Edit.) Calepin d'amenag^ de la fordt domanl^ des Reelas Les for^ts k TExposition de Vienna 1873 Notice forestidre but les landea de Gascogne Notes sur les associations pastorales dans lea Pyr6n6es Les bois indigenes et Strangers Dictionnaire des f or^ (2<* tirage) Le reboisement et le regazonnement des Alpes (2<^ Edit.) Des arbres resineux et de leur utilit6 particuliSre pour le boisement dea frickea L' Administration des forSts au concours r6gional de Troyes Les forSta et les pHttiragea du ComtS de Nice Les for^ts du Charollais sous les dues de Bourgogne Souvenir d'une excursion foresti^re dans I'inspection de Loris Nouvelle methode d'exploitation des futaies Le d^boisement et le reboisement dans les Alpes (Mon- tague d'Aurouse) For6t domaniale de Chinou, Repeuplements (de 184&-1875) Considerations et recherches sur I'^lagage des essences foresti^res Memoire sur la carbonisation des bois en for^ Examen des noveaux appareils pour I'^corcement des bois sous Taction de la chaleur De I'ecorcage du ch3ne-les ^corces k tan Lea torrents des Alpes et le pftturage (2*^ Edit.) Herbier des fermes plants provenanta de la p^pinicre d'Arpa- jon (Caubal) Le reboisement dans I'Ardfiche Rapport sur I'ecorcage A la vapeur pr^sent^ au Congr6s des tanneurs Les forSts communales en 1877 De ras86chement du sol par les essences forestiSres Du deboisement des campagnes dans les rapports avec dis- parition des oiseaux utiles k I'agriculture Considerations g^n^rales sur ram^nag*' dea bois Calepin d'amenag*' de la for^t communale Urbacke Compte de la gruerie des baillagea d'Autun et de Mont Cenis pour l'ann6e 1419 Determination du revenu annuel des forSts taillis sous futaie Manuel de I'economie alpeatre (trad, de I'allemand) Melanges forestiers (Expos, universelle de 1878) La forSt Manuel de sylviculture (2*1 Edit.) Note sur deux proc^d^s pour activer le dfiveloppement des racines lat^rales du ch6ne en p^pinigre Rapport sur le reboisement des terrains en pente de Tarron- dissement de Chaumont Outils pour semis et plantations Notice sur Velagage des arbres Ecimage des fennes peupliers de la vall6 I'Ourcq Notice sur le d^bit et les emplois du ch6ne romre et du ch^ne p6doneul6 Notice BUT les divers emplois du h6tre Notice sur le d6bit et lea emplois du sapin de r^pic^a et du m^Idze Notice sur le d^bit et les emplois des principales essences de Fine Author Place Date Bouguinat Ch&lons S. Sa6ne 1874 Futon Paris 1S74 Crouvizier Epinal 1874 Mathieu Paris 1874 Croizette- Clermont 1874 Deanoyere Calvet Paris 1874 Dupont Paris 1875 Rousset Paris 1875 Mathieu Paris 1875 Renault Mirecourt 1875 Croizette- Troyes 1875 Desnoyers Guiot Paris 1875 Picard Autun 1876 Le Griz Paris 1876 Vaulot Langres 1876 Cardot Paris 1876 Thomaa Paris 1876 Martimet Paris 1876 Dromart Paris 1876 Tissot Paris 1876 Perrault Paris 1876 Marchand Paris 1876 Blackere Arpajon 1877 Blackere Paris 1877 Negociants Tours 1877 tanneurs Jacquot Pithiviers 1877 Burger Paris 1877 Burger Paris 1877 Houba Arlon 1877 Crouvizier Epinal 1877 Picard Autun 1877 Futon Paris 1877 Schatzmann Lausanne 1877 Divers Paris 1878 Muller Paris 1878 Bagneris Nancy 1878 Leveret Paris 1878 Arbeltier de Chaumont 1878 les Boullage Prour« Dieppe 1878 Martinet Paris 1878 Burger Meaun 1878 Gallat et Gast Paris 1878 Croizette- Paris 1878 Desnoyers Gallot Paris 1878 Croizette- Paris 1878 Desnoyers 450 APPENDIX Title Notice aur lee etaia de mines en France Notice sur rinduatrie du Sabotage dans le d€part^ de la Notice BUT le debit des bois de fen, lux mode vente et les proc^^s de carbonisation employ^ en F^nce Recherces ezperimentales but les €corces & tan du ch^e Yeuse Notice sur I'industrie des 6corees k tan Notice sur I'emploi du bois dans la fabrication de la p&te k papier Notice sur le genunage du Pin maritime Notice BUT le contrdle et les comptabilit6 relatif k lea gestion des for^ Met€rologie compares agricole et forestiSre Notice BUT les dunes de la Coubre Couis d'am6nagement des for^ts Du partage des affectations en un mSme nombre de divi- sions dans les amenagements de futaie Cahier d'amenag^. — M^thode par contenance expos6 sur la f or^ des Ep£rons Un peril d'eau I'Algerie — le d€boiBement Catalogue des produitB et exploitations forest'^ de la Hongrie (Exposition univereelle de 1878) Catalogue des collections exposees par le service des for^ts de TAlgerie k I'Expoaition de 1878 Catalogue des collections exposes par rAdmizustration des for^ Notice sur le d6bit et les emplois du ch&taignier des Arables, du itkne, etc. Le p&turage but les terrains gazonnes et bois^ L'art forestier frangais k I'Exposition de 1S7S L'art forestier k I'Exposition de 1878 La culture des osiers Esaai pratique du reboisement des montagn^ Le ch6ne-lidge en Alg^rie Am6nagem^ des for^ts-Estiniation Calepin d'am^nag^ de la forSt doman^^ de Montagne Statistique foresti^re (texte et atlas) Bibliographic de I'Exposition forestidre de 1878 Determination du revenu des futaies jardin^es Am^nagement des for^ — Estimation en fonds et Superfici^ Restauration des forSts et p&turages du Bud de la province d'Alg6rie Traits sur les di£F€rents Cubages des bois en grume Procda-verbal d'am6nag^ de la for6t doman*® de Darney — Martinvelle Rapport sur le materiel et les proc€d£8 des industries agri- oules et f orestidres Une exposition forestidre improvis^e en Auvergne Restauration des for^ts et des p&turages du sud de I'Algerie Vingt ann^es d'6conomie alpestre Suisse Traite pratique de la culture des Pins k grandes dimen- sions (3d Edit.) Le traitement des bois en France k I'usage des particuliers Traitfi de sylviculture pratiqu^ en Sologne Conf6reDce sur le reboisem^ des terrains Vagues Drainage des for6ts Essai des engrais chimiques stir la vegetation forestldre Culture du chgne-lidge — (Rapport) Author Th61u GroBJean Larzillidre Rousset Place Paris Paris Paris Paris Date 1878 1878 1878 1878 de Kirwan Paris 1878 Jolivet Paris 1878 Croiiette- Paris 1878 DefinoyeiB Boppe Paris 1878 Mathieu Nancy 1878 Vasselot de Paris 1878 R£gn£ Broilliard Nancy 1878 de Schwartz Paris 1878 Gurnaud Paris 1878 de Metz-Noblat Paris 1878 Guiot Paris 1878 Eiposit. univer- Alger 1878 selle Expoeit. univer- Paris 1878 BeUe Bruant, Paris 1878 Lazilli^re Roufiset Nice 1878 de Kirwan Bnisselles 1879 Bouquet de Paris 1879 la Giye Coaz Beme 1879 Tanoriou Beaune 1879 Zamey Alger 1879 Fallotte CarcasBonne 1879 Colnenne Epinal 1879 AdminisO" des Paris 1879 fortts de Kirwan St. Quentin 1879 Puton Paris 1879 Tallotte Carcassonne 1879 Reynard Alger 1880 Zemee Angers 188C Bocquentin Mirceant 188U Durand-Claye Paris 1880 Reynard Alger 1880 Schwartzmann Lausanne 1880 Delamarre Paris 1881 Broilliard Nancy 1881 Girard Romorantin 1881 Muel Epinal 1881 Houba Besancon 1881 Muel Epinal 1881 Chasin Paris 1881 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 451 Title De I'influence dea f orSts but le climat et I'origine des Bources Projet d'am^nagt des bois de Rochefort Forfit commu*® de St. Martin Lautasque. — Projet de r^glemt d'exploitation Calepin d'amenag^ de la forfit Commul^ de Gemaingoutte A travera la Grande — Bretagne L'Bzposition forestiSre au concours regional d'Amiens Une exposition forestidre en Tourraine Calepin d'amenag** de la for6t du Valse Senones Etude BUT I'econoniie pastorale des H*^-Alpes Culture et exploitation des Arbres Essais de rebois** dans la Montagne Noire Note BUT le sartage dans I'arrond* de Rocroi Traits pratique du boisement et reboisement des mon- tagnes, landes, etc. Essai BUT les repeuplements artificiels et la restauration des Tides et clairi^rea des f orSts Rapport BUT me nouveau proc6d6 de culture du Ch^ne-li^ge Petit manuel forestier Manuel d'economie foresti^re (Notions d'amenagement) De rinfluence des forgts Bur les pluies, I'alimentation des sources Memoire sur I'am^nag*^ de la Commune de Syam Calepin d'amenag^ de la forSt Commu'^ de Fraize Etude sur les causes du d^boisement en Algerie et les moyens d'y rem6dier L'impdt foncier des for€tB — determination du revenu imposable Note BUT r^stimation des saillis en cruissance Vad€-m€cum du forestier Des plantations qui bordent les Loudes Expose des faits g6n6ral relatifs ^ la production foreBtiSre BOUB le climat de la France Notions de sylviculture enseignees & TEcoIe normale desVosges CouTB ^lementaire de la culture dea bois (6^ Ed.) Cr^tion de peuplementB artificiels et boisement des ter- rains nus Reboisement et amenagement des eaux dans I'Aude L'art de planter (Arond. de I'allemand) Etude BUT les vices du bois La question des reboisements et le role dea Eucalyptus en AIg€rie Calepin d'am6nag^ de la for^t de Raon I'Etape Catalogue des collections expos^es k I'Exposit^^ internat^^ d'Amsterdam en 1883. Service des forfits de I'Alg^rie Les for^ts Bois et For^ta Philosophie but la sylviculture Sur la regeneration naturelle dea futaies Etude sur r6xp€rimentation foreati^re en Allemagne et en Autriche Manuel du cultivateur de Pins en Sologne Achat, analyse et preparation des graineB r^ineusea em- pl(^ees par rAdministration des fordts Lea repeupl** artificiels dans les forfits d'Arques et d'Eaux Conaiderationa aur la production et le traitement des plantes sur la creation et Tentretien des forSts RechercheB experimentalea aur la desiccation artificielle des boia Notes sur les boisements artificiels des Vosges. Acclima- tatJon du cb^ne rouge d'Am^rique Author Place Date Maifitre Montpellier 1881 Houba Liege 1881 Burel Nice 1881 Crouvizier Epinal 1881 Boppe Nancy 1881 Vion Amiens 1881 Martines Paris 1881 Crouvizier Epinal 1881 Briot Paris 1881 Rousset Valence 1882 Cormouls- Mazamet 1882 Hautes Cornebois Paris 1882 Levavasseur Talaise 1882 Noel Puton Paris Paris 18S2 Chasin Paris 1882 Vaulot Langres 1882 Galmiche Grenoble 1882 Dicky Itrasbourg 1882 Gurnaud Besangon 1882 Gurnaud Epinal 1882 Chitier Miliana 1882 1882 Devarenne Andelot 1882 Caquet Paris 1883 Houba Berne 1883 Boppe Nancy 1883 Muel Nancy 1883 Lorentz et Paris 1883 Parade Boppe Nancy 1883 Cautegril Nancy 1883 de Manteuffel Paris 1883 Marchal Paris 1883 Naudin Paris 1883 Crouvizier Epinal 1883 Crouvizier Alger 1883 Lesbazeilles Paris 1884 Robinson Paris 1884 Guinier Toulouse 1884 Guinier Paris 1884 Rensset et Paris 1884 Bartet Cannon Orleans 1884 Thil. Paris 1884 Prouv6 Paris 1884 Parisel Bruxelles 1884 Marcus Metz 1884 Gazin Besanjon 1884 452 APPENDIX Titie Author Place Date De ram^nagement des f utaies Brenot Arlon 1884 La sylviculture francalse Gurnaud Paris 1884 Calepin d'amenagt de la forfit de Danipaire Crouvuier Epinal 1884 ProcSs-verbal d'amenag' de la forgt domaniale de Haye Bagneris Nancy 1884 Notes sur la statistique forestiSre de I'ouest de la France Noel Paris 1884 Catalogue raisonne des collections exposfies au Concours Direction des D61e 1884 regional de D61e 1884 forSts Questions alpestres Briot Paris 1884 Les droits de bandite dans le Comte de Nice Guiot Nice 1884 Vad4 mficum forestier Caquet Paris 1885 Guide du forestier — Elements de sylviculture (8° Ed.) Bouquet de la Paris 1885 Giye Le furetage'en Chalais Puton Nancy 1885 Notice sur la pepiniSre de Koyat Bertrand Moulins 1885 Notice sur les reboisements du Puy-de-D6me Bertrand Moulins 1885 Programme gen6ral du reboisement du gouvern* g^n^al de Tirman et Alger 1885 I'Algerie Mathieu Du reboisement des propri£t& particuli^res Moureton Paris 1885 Etude sur le resinage Blanc Paris 1885 La m^thode franpaise et la question foresti^re Gurnaud Besancon 1885 Etude sur les taillis composes Burel Paris 1885 La mfthode du contrdle de Gurnaud Grandjean Paris 1885 3**, Memoire sur I'am^nag' des bois de la commune de Gurnaud Besanpon 1885 Syam Notice sur la carte foresti^re de la region de Nancy Henry Nancy 1885 Statistique forestidre du d6pt de I'Allier de Guiny Moulins 1885 Considerations ginirales sur les forfits I'AlgMe de Guiny Alger 1885 Concours regional de Nancy — Catalogue de rEzposltion Direction des Nancy 1885 foresti^re forfits Convention internationale de reboisement Burger Meauz 1885 A propos des d^frichements et inondations Pissot Paris 1885 Forfit domaniale de Haye — Procte-verbal de revision de Bartet Nancy 1885-86 la possibility au dSbut de 1885 Les forgts de la France Depelchm Tours 1886 Les forets lorraines jusqu. en 1789 Guyot Nancy 1886 La sylviculture ^ I'Ecole primaire Caquet Nevers 1886 Etude sur les plantations Bert Alger 1886 Les reboisements par I'acacia Caquet Nevers 1886 La restauration des montagnes Benardeau Paris 1886 Guide pratique du rebois^ h I'usage des particuliers Rousseau Carcassonne 1886 Reboisements et repeuplementa de Kirwan Bruzelles 1886 Situation au 31 d^cembre 1886 des trav^ de reboisement Service du Barcelonnette 1886 des environs de Barcelonnette reboisement Etudes calorim^triques sur la combustion de bois Petit Notice siu" I'emploi de la sciure de bois et I'usage de la Jolivet tourbe comme lit^re dans les ^curies La sylviculture fran^^ise et la m£thode de Contrdle (R£- Gurnaud Besangon ponse k M. Grandjean) Les plans d'exploitation de courte dur^ Gurnaud Besangon Missions foresti^res en Grande Bretagne, Autriche et Bavidre Boppe et Reuss Paris Les produits forestidrs k TEzpositioD de Budapest 1885 Boppe Paris L'Exposition internat^^ de 1884 k Edinboiu-g (Forfits) Reuss Paris Estimations concernant la propri^t^ forestidre Puton Paris Les forSts de I'Abbaye de Citeaux Picard Autun Les pares forestieiB Caquet Nevers Notes sur les orangeries et les irrigations de Blida Joly Paris La forSt k travers le monde Caquet Nevers Extraits du rapport sur le reboisement de la c6te de Make- Munich et Nancy ville prte Nancy Bremeau Le propri^taire planteur. Manuel pratique des reboise- Cannon Orleans ments Du boisement des sols pauvres Pruvost Troyes Cours de Technologic forestiire (Nouv. Edit.) Boppe Paris Lyon 1886 Vitry le Frangois 1886 1886 1886 1886 1886 1886 1886 1887 1887 1887 1887 1887 1887 1887 1887 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 453 Title Resistance des bois k la flexion et £k la complexion Des formations du bois rouge et du bois gras dans le sapin et r€pic€a Les Landes de Gascogne L'art forestier et le contr61e Economie forestidre — Principes g6n6raux — le jardinage — Estimation Variations et €quilibre de raccroiss* en forfit De I'exploitabilit^ de la possibility et de leurs differents modes L'amenagement des forfits (V. Edit.) Les for^ts de la Meuse et leurs produits A travers la Tunisie Le Tarif des douanes et les produits forratiers Exposition internal*® de Toulouse (Forfits catalogue) La culture forestiSre dans la r6gion du Chablais Etat des forSts de la France — Travaux d. faire — Mesures k prendre Le Sapin des Voages — Etude d'estimation Statistique forestiSre de Meurthe-et-Moselle Etude sur la constitution normale des f utais jardin^es Recherches but la production ligneuse pendant la phase des coupes de regeneration St. Memoire De I'influence des ^claircies sur I'accroissement diametral des aspins I^a restauration des montagnes Destruction de la larve d*u hanneton par le pal et la Ceuzine Des emplois chimiques du bois dans les arts et I'industrie L'Industrie de la carbonisation des bois en France et la denaturation des alcools Trait6 d'economie foresti^re La dune littorale Cours d'am6nagement profess6 k I'Ecole forestiSre (1885- 1886) 2 cahiers Les forfits de I'arrond* d'Embrun La sylviculture dans les Vosges BufFon et la for^t communale de Montbard Les Alpes-Maritimes — Considerations au point de vue forestier pastoral et agricole Concours regional d'Autun — Esposit°° f orestidre De la situation des fordts d'essences m€lang6es dans d'le de la Reunion Influence des ^claircies (p^ st 2<^ M^moires) Traite de sylviculture Considerations diverses k propos de taillis Premiere 6tude sur les peuplements reguliers Sapin Recherches sur le traitement des sapiniSres vosgiennes Etude sur la place de production N<^ 2 forM domaniale de Haye (St. Mfimoire) Causerie sur les bois de la Guyane Diagrammes et calculs d'accroissement Influence de la fordt et la consistance des peuplements Influence du d^boisem^ au point de vue de Taction torren- tielle dans la H*®-Ari6ge Economie resum^e de la for6t Froc^-verbal de revision de la possibility et de Tam^nag^ St. Scire — St. Jean — Fontaine p'® p^riode 1887 Atlas forestier de la France par d6partements Statistique forestiSre du d€part^ du Cautal Les forSts de I'AlgSrie Author Place Date Sergent Paris 1887 Mer Paris 1887 Chambreleut Paris 1887 Gurnaud Besangon 1887 Vaulot Paris 1887 Gurnaud Paris 1887 de Kirwan Bruxelles 1887 Tassy Paris 1887 LarzUlidre St. Mihiel 1887 Baraban Paris 1887 Puton Nancy 1887 Miuistdre de Foize 1887 I'agrioulture Gazm Paris 1887 Tassy Paris 1887 Puton Epinal 1887 Huffel Nancy 1887-88 Burel Paris 1888 Bartet Nancy 1888 Mer Paris 1888 de Courson Paris 1888 Croisette- Paris 1888 Desnoyera Petit Lyon 1888 Petit Lyon 1888 Puton Paris 1888 Grand] ean Poitiers 1888 ReuBB Nancy 1888 Gouget Paris 1888 Claudot Epinal 1888 Perdmet Dijon 1888 Boye Lille 1888 Adon des for6ts Autun 1888 Goizet St. Denis 1888 Bartet Nancy 1888-89 Boppe Paris 1889 Suckauz Paris 1889 Bartet Paris 1889 Mer Paris 1889 Bartet Nancy 1889 Duprfi Melun 1889 Bartet Nancy 1889 Ebermayer Nancy 1889 Vautrin Foixe 1889 Vaulat Paris 1889 Bartet Nancy 1889 Benardeau et Paris 1889 Cuny Gebhart Aurillae 1889 Combee Alger 1889 454 APPENDIX cantoDnement Jerdrizet Title Author Place Statistique des forSts de la province d'Oran (Alg^rie) Mathieu Alger Les forSts du depart' de I'Yonne Kcard Auxerre Statistique forestiSre du depart' du Loiret Domet Orl&na Notice sur les forCts de la Tunisie LeMbore Tunis Le Var — Coneiderations au point de vue forestier Boye Lille Quelques considerations sur les for€ts vosgiennes Gazin Epmal Mission foresti^re en Roumanie Huffel Nancy Exposition univeiselle — Algerie, — Catalogue des colleo- Goizet Alger tions de bois exposees Le Pavilion forestier au Trocadero. Exposition universelle de Kirwan Bnixelles de 1889 L'inventaire des massifs forestiera (trad' de I'allemand) Fankanser Neufohatel Traite forestier pratique Gumaud Paris L'art de planter avec succ^ et economie Bouquinat Laignes Les boisements productifs en toute situation Fillon Paris Guide pratique du reboisement Rousseau Paris Moyen d'activer Tallongement des jeunes sapins Mer Paris Trente jours k la Reunion. — Notes et impressions foresti^es Girod-Gen6t Alger Guide th6orique et pratique de cubage des bois Frockst Paris Compte Rendu des observations met^orologiques concern- Bartet Paris ant les onze annees 1878-1888 Les dunes de Belgique Baiaban Paris Les dunes mourantes d'AIn Sebue (Alg&ie) Riston Paris Mise en valeur des terres incultes du massif central de la Gebhart Paris France La methode du contr61e si I'Exposition de 1889 Gurnaud Paris Note sur une nouvelle methode forestidre dite du contr61e de Blonay J^usanne de Gumaud L'amenag' des for^ts communales et du forestier de Montbard Notice forestidre sur le depart' de TAude Rousseau Le bois de Sadne et Loire Gaudet Les forfits de la Roumanie Hufiel Congrte international forestier de Vienne Boppe Les Forfits de Venel Notice sur les plantations de bois r^neuz dans la forSt de Gurnaud Culonusay (Jura) De I'influence exerc^e par I'^poque de I'abatage sur la pro- Bartet Nancy duction et le d6veloppement des rejets de souches Exposition universelle de 1889 — Materiel et procedes des Divers Paris exploitations rurales & forestidrcs Notice historique sur la forSt Ck>mmun'B d'Epinal Claudot Epinal Une excursion f brestidre dans I'Est Cannon Paris Les hauts plateaux oranais Mathieu Alger Les forSts et le commerce des bois en France M^lard Paris Un reboisement dans les Indes anglaises - — ._ U8s§le Paris Les f or^ du Japon ^ ~~ ~ - de Kirwan Bnixelles Forestiers et Bdcherons Reiner Chatelles A travers le Japon Usset^ - Paris Les for€ts et le commerce des bois en France M^lard Paris Trait£ d'^conomie forestidre. Am^nagment Puton Paris Decadence de la propriety boisSe et souffrances des popula- Boneard Paris tions forestidres Sur les causes de variation de la density des bois Mer Paris Note sur raccroissement et le rendement en matidre et en ar- Mongenst Grenoble gent d'une parcelle peuplee de bois resineux Recherches sur le couvert des arbree de tallies sous futaie Bartet Paris Traitement des bois taill^ Bertrand Clermont- Ferrand Sur quelques experiences effeotu^es h la p^pinidre des Bartet Nancy Belief ontaines De I'influence des sols bois^s sur les climate Loze Toulouse Notice Bur les inondations de 1888 k 1891 et sur le d^boise- de Boixo Perpignay ment dans le Roussillon Troyes Carcassonne Paris Paris Paris Paris Paris Date 1889 1889 1889 1889 1889 1889 1889 1889 1889 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891 1S9I 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891 1892 1892 1892 1892 1892 1892 1892 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 455 Title Influence des foists but la production de la plains Histoire de la for6t d'Orleans Guide du forestier (9^ Edit.) La Sapinidre id^ale Lea f orSts de chSne vert Etude BUT la place de production N° 1. (ForSt de Cham-, penouz) Breviaire du Hgueur Etude sur la sylviculture Notes sur la dur6e des traverses en bois (Comp^^ des chem. de fer. P. L. M.) Le chSne-lidge, sa culture, son exploitation Plantations r^ineusea de la Champagne Nature et utilisation des produits forestiers des Pyrene^-Or' ienteles Les arbr^ et les peuplements forestiers La for^t et la disette du fourrage Du calcul de la possibility dans les futaies jardinees Une question de methode La question forestiSre alg^rienne devant le S€nat Le Haut-Perche et des forSts domaniales Note Bur les for^ts et le rebois^ dans les Pyrfinees-Orien*^ Le chene li^ge, Sa culture, Son exploitation 3* M^moire sur I'infiuence des eclaircies Le traitement d^ bois en France Deboisement et rebois* dans les Ba8se8-Pyr6n6eB Etude ^conomique sur le rebois^ des montagnes Semer et planter (2^ Edit.) Les for^ts & le reboisemt dans les Pyr6nees-Orient*^ L'extinction des torrents en France par le reboiee- ment La methode du controle, son application k une partie de la forfit de Champenoux (p' p'®) Estimations et exploitabilit^s forestidres Insuffisance de la production du chSne en France Les forfits des Pyr6n^es Statistique des for§ts soumises au regime forestier Quelqu^ conseils aux sylviculteurs du Chablais Petit manuel du proprictaire sylviculteur Ch^nes-lidges — Notice sur les for€ts de TAlg^rie Lee forSts de C&dre Les forSts et le rebois' dans les Fyrfinfies-Orient*^ Union landaiee des propri£taires et fabricante de produits r^ineux Exposition internat^^ de Chicago — Commissariat Special de I'AgricuIture L'art d'etre proprietaire de bois Culture intensive des f orfits Recherches sur la production ligneuse pendant la phase des coupes de r^g^ngration (Forfit domaniale de Haye) (place d'expces N© 1) Du prix du bois r6sineux dans le Doules Influence des for^ts sur le climat Le double du P^rigord L'Algerie et la commission s6natoriale De la depreciation des bois de feu Le commerce des bois en Europe Traite des plantations d'alignement et d'ornement Traitement de TepicSa dans lea Alpes Les taillis sous futaie des Vosges Author Place Date Jeannel Nice 1892 Domet Orleans 1892 Bouquet Paris 1893 de la Grye Schaeffer Besan^on 1893 de Larminat Troyes 1893 Claudot Paris 1893 Trolard Alger 1893 de I'Estrange Chateaumont 1893 Conard Paris 1893 Lamey Paris 1893 de Faillasson Seus 1893 Galas Perpigoan 1893 Huffel Nancy 1893 Grandeau Paris 1893 de Liocourt Nancy 1893 Biolley Besan^on 1893 Trolard Alger 1893 de Tregomain Nancy 1893 de Boizo Perpignan 1893 Lamez Paris 1893 Claudot Paris 1894 Broilliard Paris 1891 Benevent Pau 1894 Dfimontzey Lyon 1894 Cannon Paris 1894 de Boixo Paris 1894 Dimontzey Paris 1894 Claudot Besangon 1894 Bizot de Jontena 1 Gray 1894 Mflard Bruxelles 1894 de Gorsse Paris 1894 de Gorsae Paris 1894 Schaeffer Annecy 1894 Sarcf Le Mans 1894 Charlemagne Alger 1894 Level Alger 1894 de Boixo Paris 1894 Puton Mont de- Marsay 1894 Lez«, Tetet Paris 1894 Ringelmann de Kirwan Bruxelles 1895 Scarsez de Bruxelles 1895 Locqueneuille Claudot Paris 1895 Brcnot Besanjon 1895 HuSel Besangon 1895 Gumaud Besancon 1895 Mathieu Paris 1895 Claudot Poitiers 1895 Matkey Poitiers 1895 Charguerand Paris 1896 Guinier St. Jean de Maurienne 1896 Watier Paris 1896 456 APPENDIX Title Rapport de la CommiBsion chargee de faire dee exp€rieDces BUT la resistance des bois r^sineux Exploitation technique des for^ts Exploitation conunerciale des levis Influence des forSts but les chutes de grSle Influence des forSta sur l'humidit€ du sol Les retenues d'eau et le reboisement dans le bassin de la Durance Les arbres geants du Portugal Projet d'amenagement et de mise en valeur des forfits de Chfines-lidge Notice sommaire but les forfita de gastes S*^ Eulalie mizni- zan H. La f or6t de la Grande Chartreuse Notes sur le d^veloppement et la gestion des for^ts Com- munales dans le d6part^ du Gard 1800-1S95 Statistique forestidre de Tarrond* de Pontarlier Le f or6t des Ardenn^ Description forestiere du royaume de PruBse L'evolution forestiere dans le Canton de Neuf cbatel (Suisse) Description economique et conunerciale des forSts de I'Etat hongroia (2d Edit.) Etudes sur I'^conomie alpestre Etude d'arch^ologie foresti^e Du reboisement et de la fertilisation des forSts Contre les incendies des fordts en Alg€rie De I'elagage des arbres forestiere Les merrains et la fabrication des tourmeaux Influence des f ordts sur les eaux souterraines Les Landes et les dunes de Gascogne Etudes sur la cdte et les dun^ du M€doc Methode nouvelle d'exploitation forestiere Sapini^res Etudes sur les forets r^sineuses de la Champagne Etat des forets resineuses du Poups Les forets du Canada Forets, chasse et peche (Ezposit. de Bruxelles) Forets, chasse et peche — Exposit. internl® de Bruxelles Notes pour la vente et Tachat des forets L'art de greffer La surveillance des forets (10® Edit.) Les v6getaux producteurs de Caoutchouc k Madagascar Sur I'abatage des bois en Sologne Notice sur le quarrimetre Les forets et les eaux souterraines dans les regions des plains Les vieux arbres de la Normandie Etude sur I'amenagement des bois de chene dans le canton de Geneve Etude sur les landes de Gascogne Etude sommaire des taillia sous futaie dans le bassin de la Sadne La foret des brocheres k la ville d'Auxonne Des funeates effets du deboisement dans les Pyrfinees Les meilleures plantes fourrageres alpestres Plantation et culture des sols contre les inondations Notes forestieres — Cubage, estimation, etc. Utilite de I'introduction du Sapin et Ue I'^pic^a dans les saillis m^diocres du Jura Author Thiery et Pebibcollot Vanutbergke Vanutbergke Claudot de Kirwan Demontzey Gebhart Lafond Demorlaine Margin Rouis Place Paris Paris Paris Nancy Paris Aix Blois Alger Paris Grenoble Avignon Cardot Besanpon Mejrrae CharleviUe Huffel Paris Service forestier Neuch^Ltel Budapest de Bedo Date 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896 Briot Paris 1S96 Weyd Poitiers 1897 Th&ard Compi^gne 1897 Marchand Dijon 1897 Crakay Bruxelles 1897 Mouillefert Paris 1897 Ototzky Nancy 1897 Grandjean Paris 1897 Buffaut Servigny 1897 de Blonay Gray 1897 de LiBcourt Gray 1897 Lafond Reims 1897 Brenot Besanf^on 1897 Melard Paris 1897 Mioifit^re de Bruxelles 1897 ragrioulture Lezd, Tetet Bruxelles 1897 Rmgelmann Galmiche Besancon 1897 Ch. Baltet Troyes 1898 Bouquet de la Paris 1898 Grue Girod-Genfit Alger 189S Croizette- Fontainebleau 1898 Desnoyers Demorlaine Comp^gne 1898 Henry Nancy 1898 de Kerville Paris 1898 Borel Geneve 1898 Dromart Charlcville 1898 Mathey Besan^on 1898 Picard Dijon 1898 Gu^not Paris 1898 Briot Chamb4ry 1898 Vadas Troyes 1899 Devarenne Chaumont 1899 Rumacber Besangon 1899 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 457 Title Coupea d'am^lioration coupes interm^dialres dans les futaies et les taillis De I'utilite des reboisemente dans le midi de I'Europe et en Algeria Influence de respacement des plantes sur la vegetation de quelques essence? resineuses Regeneration par plantation des coupes de futaie Les for^ts d. Madagascar Nouveau moyen de preserver les bois de la vermoulure Mise en valeur des sols pauvres par le reboisem* De la possibilite par contenance superficlelle substitute k la possibilite par volume dans les for^ts traitees en futaie • Les for€ta de I'Aube La question des f orfits en Afrique Socifite moscovite d*€conomie forestidre Histoire de la societe forestidre nationale hongrdise Rapport sur les bois du Canton de Geneve Le regime pastoral Congr^s international de sylviculture ForSts, chasse, Pfiche (Exposit. de 1900) La prochaine disette dea bois d'ceuvre dans I'univers Les arbrea de la Suisse Du progr^ en Sylviculture et dans rutilisation des pro- duits forestiers La defense des forSts contre Tincendie (dunes et landes de Gascogne) La processionnaire du Fin Un reboisement a bon marche Influence desavantageuse produite sur I'avenir d^ peuple- ments principalement sur ceux de I'epic^a De quelques essences exotiques int€ressantes pour les reboisements Les essences et les travaux de boieem* (Arifige et H*'^-Gar- onne) Les essences et les travaux de boisem* (AriSge et H**-Gar- onne) Etude sur les fractures des bois dans les essais de r^istance Senilisation raplde des bois et des matigrea fibreuses par I'electricitfi Gemmage du Fin maritime (Landes et Gascogne) Gommes, r£sines d'origine exotique Observations de ph^nomSnes cons€cutifs k la plantation de conif^rra Fixation des dunes Fixation des dunes (Cbarente et Vendue) Notes sur les dunes de Gascogne Fordt domaniale de Blois. ProcSs-verbal d'am6nagement Insuffisance de la production des bois d'ceuvre dans le monde Notice sommaire sur la for^t de Fontainebleau Les forSts de I'Algerie Nomenclature des ^chantillons de bois de la Cochin chine du Tonkin k I'Exposition univeraelle de 1900 Notice sommaire sur les for^ts domaniales du department des Vosges La production agricole et forestiSre dans les colonies fran- Author Place Date Guinier Annecy 1899 Maistre Clermont 1899 Jolyet Paris 1899 Irouvd Paris 1899 Girod-Genit Alger 1899 Mer Paris 1899 Henry Nancy 1899 de Kirwan Bruxelles 1899 Arbeltier de la Troyes 1899 Boullage Wachi Tunis 1899 Miniature de Moscow 1899 I'agriculture MiniBtdre hon- - Budapest 1899 grois de I'agri- culture Borel Gendve 1899 Guyot Poitiers 1899 Teissier Paris 1900 de Kirwan Paris 1900 de Kirwan Paris 1900 Inspection i6d - Berne 1900 £mle Claudot Epinal 1900 Delassasseigne Paris 1900 Paris 1900 Henry Paris 1900 Reuse Vienne 1900 Henry Nancy 1900 Watier Paris 1900 Banby Paris 1900 Chil Paris 1900 Montpellier Paris 1900 Violette Paris 1900 de Cordemoy Paris 1900 Servier Paris 1900 Demorlaine Paris 1900 Lafond Paris 1900 Bert Paris 1900 Croizette- Blois 1900 Desnoyers M3ard Paris 1900 ReuBS Paris 1900 Lef^bre Alger 1900 Boude Alger 1900 Mongenot Paris 1900 Lecomte Paris 1900 458 APPENDIX Title Description g€n£rale de la for^t de Krasnostauekala. (Trad- uit du Russe) Les for^ts domaniales en Autriche Notice sur les for^ts de la Roumanie Les forSts de la Rnssie (trad, du Russe) Le dSveloppement de la sylviculture en Bosnie-Herz6- govine Catalogue des objets expos^ par la direction des forgts de Russie & TExposition univer^l*^ de 1900 Catalogue special, Forgts de la Hongrie k rExposition univerelle de 1900 Congr^s international de Sylviculture. C. Rendu. Catalogue des collections exposees par radminist^'^ des eaux et for§ts (Exposition de 1900) Catalogue raisonne, section foresti^re russe Les ameliorations pastorales dans I'Aridge, la Haute-Gar- onne Les fruiteres de la H** Garonne Des pS.turage6 de montagne Le piLturage en f orSt Traite pratique de sylviculture Traits de Sylviculture (Gayer, traducteur) Traitement du Sapin Traitement des Sapinidres Introduction dans les cultures for^tiSres d'essences ^trang^res k la r€gion Essais de reboisement en Meurthe et Moselle Introduction des resineuz dans les taillis Restauration des peuplements d'epic6as ayant souffert d'un etat trop serrfi Ije domaine forestier colonial de la France sa decadence Le bois Le champignon des maisons en Lorraine Des divers moyens propres k preserver de I'attaque des insectes les £corces et les bois Observations sur les arbres a caoutchouc dans le z6ne amazonienne L'Industrie des resines Le Lidge InJSuence de I'^claircie des c6p6es sur le rendement en mati^re et argent dans le traitement des taillis Sur le r6Ie de la for^t dans la circulation de I'eau k la sur- face des continents De I'influence des forSts sur le regime des eaux Observations m6t€orologiques 1867-1899 Calepin d'am^nag^ de la forSt des Hoepices de Nancy Du r^glement des exploitations dans une petite sapini^re Excursion forestidre en Morvan - La for6t d'Oloron-S^ Marie ^ Les for^ts et le regime forestier en Provence Rapport sur la 3^ reunion de rassociation Internationale des stations de recherches foresti^res & Zurich Le d6frichement et la culture des terrains en pente Quelques notions forestidres k Tusage des ^coles Petit manuel k I'usage des sooi£t£s scolaires pastorales, forestiSres de Franche-Comt6 > L'Id6e forestidre sur le versant septentrional des Pyr^n^es Le Traitement des sapiniSres basS sur la notion d'espace- ment des tiges Author Place Date Jachnoff St. P^tersbourg 1900 Minist^re de Vienne 1900 ragriculture Service des Bucharest 1900 forSts MinisWre de Paris 1900 I'agriculture PWraschek Vienne 1900 Minist^re de Paris 1900 ragriculture Gouvt. KongroiB Budapest 1900 Daubree Paris 1900 Vaney Paris 1900 JachnoS St. Pitersbourg 1900 Campardon Paris 1900 Bruisaon Paris 1900 Cardot Paris 1900 Matkey Besan^on 1900 Boppe et Jolyet Paris 1901 de Bocarme Bruges 1901 Huflel Paris 1901 Mer Paris 1901 Jolyet Paris 1901 Claude Paris 1901 Garzin Besangon 1901 Mer Paris 1901 Girod-Gen6t Paris 1901 Frochot Paris 1901 Henry Nancy 1901 Mer Paris 1901 Huber Paris 1901 Rabate Paris 1901 Martignat Paris 1901 Mer Paris 1901 Henry Nancy 1901 Guinier Besancon 1901 de Drouin et Paris 1901 de Bouville Bazaille Epinal 1901 Broilliard BesanQon 1901 Roy Nevers 1901 Duchesne Oloron 1901 AUard Paris 1901 Huffel Paris 1901 Rousset Paris 1901 Rabutte Vouziers 1902 Cardot Besangon 1902 Fabre Bagneres de Bigorre 1902 Gazin Paris 1902 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 459 Title Ia regeneration naturelle dra coupes de futaie La mise en valeur des terres communales incultes Amelioration k introduire dans le traitement des taillis Le bois, le ligge Etude BUT la p€n6trabilit6 des arbres forestiers par lea projectiles des armes & feu La lutte contre le champignon d^ maisons Sechage rapide, imputrescibilite et inflammability des bois Influence de la eouverture morte sur I'humidite du sol fores- tier For^ts et navigabilite en Gascogne Les fordts de plaines et les eauz souterraines (Experiences faites dans la forSt de Moudon 1900-02) L'architecture forrati^re Rapport BUT le concours forestier entre lea instituteurs organise par la Soc*^ franc^^ des Amis des Arbres La sylviculture k I'Exposition de 1900 La disparition du chdne et I'introduction des resineuz dans les taillis sous futaie — Le Bouleau Principales essence foresti^res La methode experimentale en sylviculture Le forestier — Experiences et Conseils Sylviculture Propagation du ch^ne, Sa substitution dans les futaies de hetre Les plantes k caoutchouc et k gutta Degats causes aux forSts par les balles des fusils de I'armee La vrillette Incendies des for^ts — evaluation des dommages Lea arbres et les bois La richesse forestidre, son dedin, son reUvement Forets et industrie des bois Des divers moycns propres k preserver de I'attaque des insectes les ecorces et lea bois par resorption de leur reserve amylacee La liberie du travail et le droit de propriete Prolongation du delai de vidange et d'exploitation Exploitation et amenagement des bois Causerie f orestiSre Coupes jardinatoires De redaircie chez les particuliers Lianes caoutchoutif^res de I'Etat du Congo L'arbre Q.^^ Sine) La houille blanche et Tarmature vegetale du sol Gisements de houille blanche et protection du sol Les debuts de la fixation des dunes Promenades, pares jardins payBages L'amenagement des resineux en montagne De la posaibilite par contenance dans les sapinidres Forfit domaniale des Elieux — 3^ Serie Revision de I'Amen- agement Les taillis de rinapection de Dijon — Bud A Madagascar, Aper^u sur les fordts et leura produits Commission d'etudes forestiSres — Compte rendu La greve des bCtcherons de la Nidvre k la chambre Author Place Date Prouvfi Poitiers 1902 Cardot Poitiers 1902 Mer Paris 1902 d'Hubert Paris 1902 Demorlaine Paris 1902 Henry Nancy 1902 Dumesny Paris 1902 Henry Nancy 1902 Fabre Bordeaux 1902 Henry Nancy 1902 de Liocourt Nancy 1902 Cardot Orleans 1902 Bouquet de la Paris 1902 Grye Hosemont Paris 1902 MouiUefert Paris 1903 Mer Paris 1903 Morange Geneve 1903 Fron Paris 1903 Prouvfi Paris 1903 Jumelle Paris 1903 Georges Paris 1903 de Fonvert Paris 1903 Jacquot Paris 1903 de Kirwan Nancy 1903 Carimintrand Paris 1903 Flahault Paris 1903 Mer Paris 1903 Journal de la Nevers 1903 Ni^vre Journal de la Nevers 1903 Niivre Mouillefert Paris 1904 Desjobert Besan^on 1904 ScbaeSer Besan^on 1904 Broilliard Bruxelles 1904 de Vildemann Bruxelles 1904 Reynard Clermont- Terrand 1904 Fabre Bagneres de Bigorre 1904 Fabre Paris 1904 Buffaut Bordeaux 1904 Guinier Auncey 1904 d'Alverny Besanfon 1904 Broilliard Besancon 1904 Cuif Nancy 1904 Galmiohe BesanQon 1904 Girod-Genet Paris 1904 Gouv' G^n^ral Alger 1904 d I'Alg^rie Journal de la Nevers 1904 Ni^vre 460 APPENDIX Title Lee incendies pastorauz et les associations dites " forestidres" dana les Pyr^n^es-Orient*^ Economie f oresti^re L'id^e forestiSre dans rhistoirie Frojet d'association foresti^re Lettre k un propri^taire de futaie jardin6e Influence des ^claircies dans lea peuplements rSguliers de sapin Les friehes de la H^Mame Les essences forestiSres du Soudan propres a la construction Lebois Le regime des cours d'eau du depart** de rAveyron et la question du reboisement La vegetation spontanee et la salubrite des eauz Coup d'oeil d'ensemble sur les forSts coloniales de la France Prix des bois dans le Maine en 1904 La question foresti^re en Soudan La question foresti^re en Algerie Notice sur les forSts de la Kroumirie (Tunisie) La richesse forestiSre du Canada confeder€ La question forestidre en Espagne hea friehes de la H^Mame, leur mis een valeur par des travaux forestiers Nos arbres Restauration d'une sapinidre Mathematiques et Nature Aide k la gestion d^ bois particuliers Les insectes dans les for€ts resineuses des Vosges Essai sur le p&turage dans les bois Les reboisements facultatifs dans la region 80U8-pyr6nienne Le reboisement des terres en friche dans rarrondissement de Neuf chateau Analyse et contrdle d^ semences forestidres Les gairigues conununales des environs de Carcassonne et de Narbonne Etude sur la question du reboisement dans le Sud-est Pyren^en De reiagage des sapins et ^pic^as Guide pratique du fonctionnaire se rendant en Indo-Chine La question foresti^re en France La deforestation — Peril mondial Memoire relatif ^ un projet de loi sur lea fordta d'utilit£ publique D6boisement et decadence La Dordogne debois6e Les f or^ts et les pluies Gironde et Pyrenees La marche envahissante des dunes de Gascogne avant leur fixation La for^t de Laroque des AlbSres Rendement des for^ts domaniales de pin maritime dans les dunes landaises Soumisaion volontaire au regime foreatier Exposition coloniale de Marseille — Catalogue des collec- tions du Service forestier alg6rien Repertoire des arbres, arbustea, etc., composant la collection d'ensemble des ressources foreatidrea de Madagascar — k I'Expoait. Coloniale de Marseille Ptojet d'association forestiSre (2^ article) Traite d 'exploitation commerciale des bois Sylviculture (diverses questions) Manuel de sylviculture k I'usage des instituteura For^ts, p&turages, pres-bois Author Place Date Fabre Besanson 1904 HufEel Paris 1904-07 Teissier Paris 1905 de Liscourt Besan^on 1905 Galmiche Beeangon 1905 Cuif Paris 1905 Cardot Paris 1905 Constancia Paris 1905 Beauverie Paris 1905 Buffault Rodey 1905 Fabre Paris 1905 Girod-GenSt Nice 1905 Roulleau Paris 1905 Jolyet Paris 1905 Demontes Paris 1905 Desgreaux Tunis 1905 Leymarie Paris 1905 Cavaill^B Paris 1905 Cardot Paris 1905 Correvon Paris 1906 Broilliard Besancon 1906 Broilliard Besan^on 1906 Desjobert Besan^on 1906 deGaU Besancon 1906 Desjobert Besangon 1906 Bauby Bordeaux 1906 Pard« Besangon 1906 Fron Besancon 1906 Rouis Carcassonne 1906 de Boizo Toulouse 1906 Mer Besancon 1906 Lambert Paris 1906 Pard£ Poitiers 1906 Duffart Paris 1906 Reynard Besancon 1906 Regnault Paris 1906 BroilUard Bergerac 1906 Henry Bergerac 1906 Broilliard Bordeaux 1906 Buffant Paris 1906 Buffault Bordeaux 1906 de Lapasse Poitiers 1906 Broilliard Besancon 1906 Gouvernt G»l Alger 1906 de I'AlgSrie Gouvernt G^ Marseille 1906 de I'Algirie de Liscourj Besancon 1906 Mathey Paris 1906-08 de Kirwan Paris 1907 Cardot Paris 1907 Fron Paris 1907 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 461 Title Aide m^moire du f oreatier — Sylviculture Quelques mots relatifs k Tassurance des forgts en cas d'in- cendie Du reboisement dans Tarrond^ de Mirecourt lie reboisement et les conditions ^conomiques en montagne L'obstacle au reboisement Deboisement et reboisement Le reboisement dans la region des C£veunes La question de I'elagage Les r^ources agricoles et forraticlres des colonic francaises Preservation des bois contre la pourriture par le sol, les champignons les insectes L* Industrie de la rSsine en Sologne La culture des arbres et les id€es des anciens sur le rdle des f or^ta La restauration des montagnes et la navigation int^ieure Action de la f orSt sur le sol et le r6gime des eaux Embellissons nos bois Vingt^cinq ann€es dans le service des am^nagements Forfit domaniale d'Amance — Revision de TAm^nagement AmSnagement et amelioration des for^ts particuliers Evolution des methodes d'amenag^ appliqu^es en France aux for^ts d'essences feuillues Conferences foresti^res 1^ For^ts et friches particulidrra — 2° — am6nagcment La ville d'Oloron et sa For6t du Bager La defense d^ montagne Les richesses forestidres de la Russie L'Australie, ses ressources forestidres Exposition internat^^ de St. Louis — Rapports des groupes 112, 113, 114. Forfits Nouvelles 6tudes sur I'^conomie alpestre L'utilit^ de Tam^nag^ des montagnes, etc. 3^ Congrds de I'amenag^ des montagnes tenu k Bordeaux les 19-20-21 Juillet 1907 Etude sur la condition forestidre de I'Orleanais Etude sur les deux places de production des f or^s domaniales de Haye et d'Amance Accroissement d'un massif jardin^ Conservation des taillis en futaie Livre vert du syndicat forestier de France Le reboisement par I'initiative privfie De I'mpdt foncier appliqu6 aux forSts La forM, son rdle dans la nature et la 80ci€t€ Manuel de I'eau Le deboisement et les inondations Le problSme de I'infiuence de la for^t sur I'inondation Les plantations de pins dans la Champagne crayeuse Des essences pour lea reboisements Foists particuli^res La Sologne en 1850 — Souvenirs Le Haut-Beaujolais La deforestation de la France Livre vert du syndicat forestier de France (Notice) La feuille au le revenu foncier lie revenu imposable aux forSts L'evaluation du revenu imposable aux forfits Le revenu imposable aux for^ts A propos des ameliorations pastorales Le probldme pastoral et forestier Author Place Date Demorlaine BeaanQon 1907 Decoppet Besan;on 1907 de Rozi^res Mirecourt 1907 Bauby Bordeaux 1907 Bufiault Bordeaux 1907 de Kirwan Paris 1907 Buflault Rodey 1907 Mer Besangon 1907 Jumelle MarseUle 1907 Henry Nancy 1907 de Larnage OrUans 1907 Buffault Rodey 1907 Fabre Dijon 1907 Fron Paris 1907 Broilliard Bruxelles 1907 Brenot Morteau 1907 Cuif Nancy 1907 Viardin Neufchateau 1907 Huffel Neufch&teau 1907 de Liocourt et Neufch&teau 1907 Viardin Buffault Toulouse 1907 Descombes Bordeaux 1907 Direct de I'agri- Bordeaux 1907 culture Buffault Bourges 1907 Hugo Paris 1907 Briot Paris 1907 Descombes Bordeaux 1907 Descombes Bordeaux 1907 de Maulde Orleans 1908 Cuif Poitiers 1908 Schaeffer Besangon 1908 Socift* Forestre Besancon 1908 de Franche- Comt« de Rozieres Paris 1908 Deacombes Bordeaux 1908 Schaeffer Besangon 1908 Jacquot Besangon 1908 Reclus Paris 1908 Teissier Lyon 1908 Teissier Poitiers 1908 Lapic Reims 1908 Broilliard Besangon 1908 Deffert Paris 1908 Martin Paris 190S Hulin Besangon 1908 de SaiUy Besangon 1008 de Liocourt Paris 1908 Broilliard Besangon 1908 RouUeau Besangon 1908 Arnoult Paris 1908 Jacquot Besangon 1908 Seurre Besangon 1908 Descombes Bordeaux 1908 462 APPENDIX Title Guide pour la cr&tioii de Soc*®^ foresf^ Scolaires Futaie regulidre d'S.ges gradues et jardinage cultural controle Le martelage an debut de I'ere Merovingienne La Conservation en futaiea des for§ts traitees en taillia sous futaie Du traitement des boia feuilles Du traitement des bois feuilles Considerations sur le traitement des for^ts en taillis ou futaie Les immeubles forestiers et les C*^ d'assurances Essai en grand du Carbolineum avenarius Preservation des bois par des proc6de8 simples Le gemmage du Pin noir dans le N-E de la France Influence du couvert de la forit sur la temperature du Sol Amenagement d'une for^t coloniale Les eau2 et forSts en Lorraine au XVIII^ Si€cle Choses f orestidres coloniales fran^aises Les bois et les forSts du Perigord Les atteintes legislatives i la propri^tfi forestidre — La coupe rase et la loi des cinq possibilites Compte-rendu des excursions faites a I' occasion du Congr^s de Nancy, dans les forSts d'Amance, de Haye, des Elieux Association centrale pour I'amenag^ des montagnes La 1" etape de I'association pour I'am^nagemen^ des mon- De I'e^loitation des futaies A propos du Pin sylvestre — Valeur des graines et plantes franpiases Le choix des semences en culture foresti^e Guide poiu- la creation de soci^tes foresti^es scolaires Fullulation du lapin en AUemagne Invasion du Taret dans le port de Marseille Statuts du syndicat forestier d'Eure & Loire Guide pratique pour les propri^taires de bois (b) FOREST LAW Des f or§ta et le projet de code rural Dictionnaire General des For€ts Cours d'appel de Nancy — Conclusions pour M. M. Mohr et Haas, contre M. Haldy Cours d'appel de Nancy —Conclusions pour M. Haldy, contre M. M. Mohr et Haas (6 Nov. 1873) Lachasae et la louveterie Author Place Date Descombes Bordeaux igos Ducamp Besancou 1909 Huffel Poitiera 1909 Huffel Besancon 1909 Vttulot Besan^oQ 1909 Algan Besanpon 1909 Gurnaud Paris 1909 Deecombes Bordeaux 1909 Henry Nancy 1909 Heniy Besancon 1909 Cuif Besancon 1909 Cuif Nancy 1909 Jolyet Paris 1909 Boye Paris 1909 Ducamp Besancon 1909 Bufiault Bordeaux 1909 RouUeau Le Mans 1909 Cuif Besangon Descombes Bordeaux 1909 Descombes Bordeaux 1909 Broilliard BruxeUee 1910 Hickel Paris 1910 Guinier Nancy 1910 de Boizo Bordeaux 1910 Henry Nancy 1910 Mathey Chartres 1910 Roulleau Paris 1910 Puton Paris 1870 Rousset Nice 1871-72 Hisserant Nancy 1873 Lombard Nancy 1873 Petitbien Nancy 1874 Note presents au CriCunal de Mirecourt pour M6mvire au Consel de Prefectured T*® et Vilaine La Section des Chanoines de Dombasle, contre La Com- mune du dit Questions de droit forestidr Dictionnaire G€n6ral des forfits Nouveau code du Chasseur Lettre & M^* Lallement (affaire de I'ancienne pr£rdt£ d'Hugier) De I'Administration et de la Jouiasance des forSts com- munales Manuel de legislation forestidre De la prescription de la peine en matidre de d£lits forestiers Etude sur le projet de loi sur la restauration des montagnes Code de la Chaase et de la louveterie Contre les Commas de Laimpont et de S*" P6ran Conclusions motiv^es pour Monseig. le Duo d'Aumale con- tre la Commune de Rigniowez (Ardennes) Puton Nancy Puton Paris Rousset Paris Yiel Paris Meaume Nancy Laralliire Paris Puton Paris Puton Paris Tassy Paris Leblond Paris Thibaud. Nantes Nicoli^re et Puton Meaume Nancy 1874 1875 1875 1875 1875 1876 1876 1876 1876 1877 1878 1878 1880 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 463 Title Contrainte pour Corps en matidre foresti^re Le droit p6nal forratier Du jugement dee infractions en mati^re for^tiSre La Chasse Lot du Hanil 1882 — Restauration et Conservation terrains en montagne Commentaire de la loi du Harril 1882 but la Conservation des terrains en montagnes Le regime forestier appliqu6 au bois des communes et 6tab- lissements publics Code de legislation f orestidre £tude sur la revision du code forestier Code Forestier (codes annotfe) La Question des fordte en Alg6rie Du droit de Chasse dans ses rapports avec la propri6t6 Notice sur le projet de pfirimfitre de TArc Superieur Essai de Commentaire Pratique de la loi du 4 Avril 1882, Conservation et R^tauration des terrains en montagne Projet de loi sur le code forestier Les cours d'eau — Hydrologie, 16gislation Projet de loi sur la chasse Des d^hts et des peines en matiSre f orestiSre au moyen-age dans le Ducb^ de Bourgogne Essai sur le regime des Canaux La reforme du code forestier Code des cours d'eau non fiottables ni navigables De I'usufruit des pr6ts en droit romain et frangais Manuel judiciaire de la chasse La reforme du code forestier Du pontage de I'affouage dans les bois communaux Loi sur la p^che fluviale Code Nouveau de la pSche fluviale Les confiscations des forSts d'^migr^ dans les Droit de pSche des proprietaires d'€tangs Departements de Vaucluse, du Gard et de I'ArdSche Cours de droit forestier enseigng k TEcole Secondaire des Barr^ Etude sur I'application de la loi du 4 Avril 1882 Du droit de chasse et du droit de chasser le gibier Usagers de Dabo Principes de ISgUlation f or^tiSre Loi du 19 Avril 1901 sur TaSouage communal Conservation des f ordts et des P3-turages dans les Pyrfinfies — Le regime pastoral L'rapoir des cours d'eaux non navigables ni flottables La P^he dans les cours d'eaux Code de legislation forestiSre (2® Edit.) Commentaire de la Loi forestidre Alg^rienne Une qu^tion de droit d'usage en forSt Etude historique sur la propri^te des dunes de Gascogne Deux Questions forestifires — La nationalisation du sol for- estier — 1^ forSts de protection Le projet du code forestier de I'an IV Legislation et reglementation de la p6che fiuviale Observations sur la n^cessit^ de reformer nos lois foresti^res Guide du forestier — Surveillance dra for^ts (11® Edit.) Nouveau regime forestier resultant des lois du 18 juillet et 31 deere 1906 Aide m6moire du forestier — Sciences juridiques Author Place Date Guyot et Puton Paris 1880 des Ch6nes Paris 1882 Meaume Paris 1882 Girandeau et Paris 1882 Leffivre Tassy Paris 1883 Tftreau Paris 1883 Bouquet de Paris 1883 la Grue Puton Paris 1883 Doumenjou Paris 1883 Palloz Paris 1884 Wachi Oran 1885 Barthelimy Nancy 1885 Chapelam Chamb^ry 1886 des Chines Paris 1886 Viette Paris 1888 Lechalas Paris 1890 Clav« Paris 1891 Picard Autun 1891 Carpentier Paris 1892 Prudhomme Paris 1892 Boul6 Paris 1893 Chancerel Paris 1893 Dumont Paris 1894 Guyot Nancy 1894 Germain Salins 1895 Bertrand Paris 1896 Martin Paris 1897 Kouis Autun 1898 Pardd Les Barr^B 1900 Moujin Poitiers 1901 Barthflemy Nancy 1901 Pfister Mctz 1901 Michel et Paris 1901 Lelong Germain Paris 1901 Guyot Toulouse 1904 TisBerand Paris 1904 Del Pdrd de Toulouse 1904 Cardaillac Puton et Guyot Paris 1904 Guyot Paris 1904 de Kirwan Paris 1905 BufiFault Bordeaux 1905 Guyot Besangon 1905 Weyd Poitiers 1905 Mersey Paris 1906 Buffault Toulouse 1906 Bouquet de la Paris 1906 Grue Guibourg Paris 1907 Deroye BesauQon 1907 464 APPENDIX Title Author La Boumission volontaire au regime foreetier Desjobert SuT les soumiasions facultatives au regime forestier de Kirwan Code forestier suivi des lois sur la p6che la chasse et le Falloz code rural Notes sur les propositions des lois liberales pour le reboise- Descombes ment lia regime administratif et juridique de la p^che fiuviale Kaux Place Be8an9on Besangon Paris Bordeaux Paris Date 1908 1908 1908 1908 1909 (c) FOREST EDUCATION Ftogramme de renaeigement, de r£cole foresti^e Programme des etudes d'amenag^ defutaies 4 faire par les gloves de I'Ecole forestidre dans la forSt des St. Gobain- Coucy Programmes de I'enseignement Ordre General pour I'ex^cution du r^glement de police et de discipline du 15 Nov. 1876; (I'Ecole Nat*^ des Eaux et Forets) Reglements et programmes d'enseignement de I'Ecole forrat- idre La sylviculture & I'Ecole primaire Ecole pratique des Barr^.'-Programmes et conditions d'ad- missions pour les pr€p<»e8 k I'Ecole secondaire Notices SUT I'Ecole forestidre et la station de Recherches Reglements de I'Ecole f orestidre (12 Octob. 1889) Personnel — Administration — Surveillance Arr^t du Ministre de I'Agriculture concernant I'Ecole forest- i^e — Personnelle Ordre general — Organisation de I'Enseignement Notice sur I'instaUation de TEcole forest'^ de Nancy L'Enseignement forestier en France (Ecole de Nancy) L'Ecole fOrestidre de Nancy Ecole des Barr^R^gime, Discipline, etc. Rapport sur la visite des collections et du fardin de I'Ecole nat*®3 des Eaux et ForSts Arrfites et reglements concernant I'Elcole N*^ des Eaux et ForSts ArrStes et reglements de I'Ecole N'^ Ecole forestiire Paris 1876 Boppe Nancy 1876 Ecole foresti^re Paris 1876-82 Puton Nancy 1883 Direction des Paris 1887 fortts Caquet Nevets 1887 Ministtre de Paris 1888 ragriculture MinistSre de Paris 1889 I'agriculture Direction des Paris 1890 fortts Ecole Forestidre Paris 1893 Boppe Nancy 1894 Guyot Nancy 1896 Guyot Nancy 1898 Nesmy Paris 1904 Direction Gl« Paris 1904 Guimer Paris 1909 MinistSre de Paris 1910 ragriculture Ecole Forestifire Paris 1910 (d) ENGINEERING (REBOISEMENT) Les torrents dea Alpee et le pt&turage Etude sur les torrents des H^^^^Alpes Les torrents, leurs lois, leurs causes Notes BUT I'extinction des torrents Etude d'xm Systeme g6n€ra1 de defense contre les torrents Lea torrents des Alpes et le p&turage (2^ Edit.) Notice sur les cartes, dessins, modules, etc. relatifs aux travaux de reboisement dans le bassin de la Durance Etude sur les travaux de reboisement et gazonnement des montagnes Monographies de travaux ex£cut£s dans les Alpes, les Civ- ennes, et les Pyr£n£e8 Le reboisement des Alpes Trait6 pratique du rebois*, et du gazonnement des mon- tegnes (20 Edit.) Etude sur la construction des barrages De I'am^Dagement des Eaux en Stiisse Marchand Arbois 1872 Surell Paris 1872 Coetade Paris 1874 Bastellica Tassy Toulouse 1874 Breton Paris 1875 Marchand Paris 1876 Dimontiey Paris 1878 D6montsey Paris 1878 Administration Paris 1878 des f or«tB Clav« Paris 1881 DSmontzey Paris 1882 Vaultrin Paris 1884 deSalis Berne 1884 * R^glement et conditions d'admission. FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 465 Title Etude 8ur la restauration et la conservation des mon- tagnes dans le D€pt. de I'ls^re Note BUT les Bardges curvilignea P^rimfitre de restauration de I'UIage R6veil instantane d'uQ torrent 6teint.-Le Signer (Aridge) La Kestauration des terrains en montagne au Pavilion des forSts Le reboisement des montagnes et I'extinction dee torrents Restauration des montagnes Note Bur la catastrophe de St. Gervais Questions forestidres et de defenses contre les inondationa, etc. La correction des torrents en Suisse Etude sur Grenoble —Les reboisements et les transformations L'Extinction des torrents en France Rapport d'une mission en Suisse (Torrents) Travauz de Correction — Torrent du Riculet H**^ Pyr^n^es Eboulements, gli^ements, barrages Les torrents et 1^ paysages torrentiels Consolidation des berges par I'^rivation d*un torrent Travaux des defenses contre les avalanches dans la vallee de Bardges Correction des ruines de Pellafol (^re) Les torrents glaciaires Les terrains et les paysages torrentiels (Pyrenees) Restauration et conservation d^ terrains en montagne. C. Reude Sommaire des trav. (1S60-1900) Notice historique sur G. G. inondations dans la Savoie La vall6e de Bardges et le Reboisement La correction des torrents en Savoie Les deb&cles glaciaires Les effete de I'eroeion Une excursion dans la vall^ du Ven^on (Isdre) (e) FOREST ADMimSTRATION De Tutilit^ d'une reorganisation de TAdministration des for^ts La question des for^ts devant I'assembl^e Nationale (Lettre & M. M. les Deputes) Reponse au rapport de M. Fare contre la translation de I'Administration des forSts au Ministdre de TAgriculture Reorganisation du Service forestier, r^formes de la loi du 9 Juin 1S53 sur Ics pensions civiles Douaniers, forestiers, etc., organisation en armes Essai sur la reorganisation du Service forestier en France Etude sur la reorganisation de TAdministration forestidre Les r6f ormes f orestidres Etude sur la reorganisation de TAdministration des forSts Etudes f oresti^^ Annexe d I'etude sur la reorganisation de TAdministration des f or^ts Reorganisation du Service forestier (4 face.) Le Corps des forestiers et le projet de M. M. Tassy et Lorentz De vis d'une maison de Garde (Type No. 1) Reorganisation du Service forestier (M. de Mahyer MeUne) Notes sur le recrutement du corps forestier La gration de for^ts au Ministdre des Finances Le Dernier Directeur General de fordts Author Place Date Charlemagne Grenoble 1887 ThiSry Paris 1888 CarriSre Barcelonnette 1888 Vaultrin Toixe 1889 D^montzey Paris 1889 Dtoontzey Paris 1891 Thiery Paris 1891 D^montzey Paris 1892 NicoUet Grenoble 1892 de Sails Berne 1892 Heurteloupe Grenoble 1892 D^montzey Paris 1894 Thi&y et Paris 1896 Petiscollot PeUon Paris 1900 KUSB Paris 1900 Champsaur Paris 1900 Moujin Paris 1900 CampagDe Paris 1900 Bernard Paris 1900 Kuss Paris 1900 de Gorsse Paris 1900 Ministire de Paris 1900 I'agriculture Durandard Paris 1900 Campagne Pau 1902 Mougin Besanson 1904 Rabot Paris 1905 Pinner Marseille 1908 Hulin Besan;on 1908 ATION Mer Provins 1871 Turot Bars aube 1872 Turot Bars aube 1873 Wiast Paris 1875 Caiee Paris 1875 Caise Paris 1875 Meaume Paris 1878 Bouquet de Troyes 1878 laGrue Bertin Lille 1878 Bertin Lille 1879 Bertin Lille 1879 Tasay Paris 1879-80 Deupion Charleville 1882 Administration Paris 1882 Forestier Tassy Paris 1884 M^Une Paris 1884 de Venel Paris 1884 de Venel Paris 1884 466 APPENDIX Title M. ^ette et le budget des forSts au 1885 Queiques conaid^rationa sur rorganisation de rAdminislTa- tion des for6ta Rapport sur les modificationB inteoduites dans rAdmiziis- tration f oresti^re Une page d'faistoire foresti^re L'Oeuvre de M. Viette au minist^e de rAgricultiire Discussion du budget de 1891 — discoure prononce par M. le Comte de Youffroy d'Abbans Le Service forestier dans le Dept. d'Oran (Aglerie) Calendrier forestier (Tabl. des pieces k foumir) Dictionnaire Gal des forSts (2*^ Edit.) Guide du chasseur forestier 4 1'usage des agents et preposea Historique admioiatratif du Cant^ de Cirey-e-Vezouze Les anciennes circulaires de rAdminist**^ des eaux et for€ts Tournee de Vente d'un Grand Maltre des eaux et foists Etat des Services des El^ves de I'Ecole foresti^e (1825 k 1888) Les sceaux des forestiers au Moyen4ge Societe de Secoiurs mutuels des preposea forestiers du Doubs Les gardes cn inTn nna inr-H n man i nliaft ti nn Memoirs sur les ref ormes k spero dans le Service Forestier Notice historique sur le recrutement de rAdministration des forets et sur I'enseig^', forestier en France Author Place Date TaiUis Paris 1885 Taillia Paris 1886 Welche Poitiers 1888 Suchauz Vesoul 1888 Suchauz Vesoul 1889 de Youffroy Paris 1891 Matiiieu Alger 1892 Demaret Alper 1892 Rouaset et Digne 1894 Bauer Bauer Paris 1894 Weyd Nancy 1899 Weyd Poitiers 1904 Desjobert Besangon 1905 Weyd Poitiers 1905 Roman Paris 1906 Roman Besan^n 1907 Chambeau Pau 1907 Volmerange Commercy 1896 Guyot Nancy 1898 (f) MISCELLAKEOUS La Republique oiientale de I'Uraguay k TExposition de Vienne Republique de Salvador — Notice historique et statistiqiie. (Exposit. Univeraelle, 1878) Republique de Salvador — Catalogue des objeta exxxses a I'Exposition uoiverselle 1878 Notice sur les objets exposes de la Republique de Guatemala Catalogue dc la collection exposee par la Chine k I'Ezpoei- tion universelle Catalogue de la section anglais Queensland Australie — Guide de la Colonie Le Japon k rExposition Catalogue des produita des colonies frangaises Catalogue officiel — Liste des recompenses Catalogue d'^chantillons de bois du jardin botanique de St. Peterabourg envoys k TEzpoeition univeraelle de 1878 Notices sur les mod^es. desseins. etc., rdlatifs auz Travauz des Fonts et Chaussees et Mines Exposition universelle de 1889 — Comites d'admiasion — Membres du Jury — Recompenses Les Expositions de I'Etat au Champ de Mats et aux Invalides L'Exposition universelle de 1889 Conferences de I'Exposition universelle de 1889 Catalogue de la section franpaise k I'EzpoBition de Vienne — 1890 Rapport general — Rapport du Jury (Exposition universelle de 1889) 27 volumes Exposition Univer***® de 1889 — Produits de la chasse, pdche, etc. VailJant Montevideo 1873 Vaillant Paris 1878 Gusman Paris 1878 Boucard Paris 1878 Boucard Shanghai 1878 Eipodt. UmveUe Louvre 1878 del878 Id. Louvre 1878 Id, Paris 1878 Id. Paris 1878 Id. Paris 1878 de Loverdo Paris 1879 Ministdre des Paris 1889 Trav' Publics Id. Paris 1889 deParville Paris 1890 deParville Paris 1890 Minist*res des Paris 1890 Commerces, de rindustrie, etc de Loverdo Vienne 1890 Picaid Paris 1891-96 de Clermont Paris 1892 FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 467 Title Exposition UniverseUe — Groupe de 2'Economie sociale Exposition TJniver^^^ Agriculture, viticulture, pisciculture, horticulture L'horticulture fran^aise k Chicago et aux Etata-Unie Vi® Congr^ internat** d'Agriculture Congrds internat^ de I'Enseignement agricole Congr^ internat** de Sylviculture (C. rendu sommaire) Exposition univ^Ue de 1900 — Senegal et Soudan Exposition univ®**^ de 1900 — Notice but le Congo fran^aie Exposition univ®**e de 1900 — Notice sur la Nouvelle Caledonie Exposition univ^^s de 1900 — Les fitabUss*^ fran^ais de TEtude Exposition univ^l^^ de 1900 — St. Pierre et Miquelon Exposition univ®'*^ de 1900 — La Reunion Exposition uniyeUe de 1900 — La C6te d'lvoire Exposition univ*"^ de 1900 — La C6te des Somalis Exposition xrniv^® de 1900 — La Guin^e frangaiee Exposition univ®^® de 1900 — La Guadeloupe et dSpendances Exposition univCUe de 1900 — Tlndo-Chine Exposition iiouv®^® de 1900 — Etabliaa^ frangais de rOc6anie Exposition univ^Ue de 1900 — Notice sur la Guyane Exposition univ^® de 1900 — La Martinique Exposition univ®**^ de 1900 — Notice sur Mayotte et les Comores Exposition univ^Ue de 1900 — Madagascar Exposition univ®^^ de 1900 — Le Dahomey Congrds internat^ de viticulture (C. Rendu) Actes de Congr^ international de botanique Congr^ international d'Horticulture Compte-rendu du CongrSs international de rAlimenta- tion du b6tail (Juin 1900) lime Congrte apicole (pc« Verle* des Stances) Congr^s interoat*! de surveillance & de sficuritfi en matiSre d'appareils k vapeur Exposition universelle de 1900 — Congrds international de Sylviculture (compte'rendu) Aperc£e sommaire des objets expos^ par 1 'Administration gen6rale des apanages imp^riauz de Russie k TEzposition universelle de 1900 Les produits du sol d^ Colonic frangaises k I'Exposition Fan-Am^caine de Buffalo L'Alimentation en eaux et rassainissement des villes h Texpoeition universelle de 1900 I^' Congrds du Sud-Owest navigable tenu k Bordeaux 12-14 Juin 1902 (C.-rendu des travaux) IV® Congr^ internat^ de Chimie appliqu6 Congr^ international de rAlpinisme Rapports divers — (Exposition universelle de 1900) 66 vol- umes Le second congr^ du Sud-Qurat navigable tenu k Toulouse en 1903 Exposition universelle de 1900 — Rapport G6n^ral adminis* tratif et technique 9 volumes — Preliminaires — Plan d^- finitif Palais et Edifices — Admission Catalogue — Recompenses Congrds — Concours, Services divers, etc. Concours internationaux d'Exercices physiques et des sports Le Bilau d'un Si^cle (Expoeit. Universelle) Author Place Date Say, Lavall^e Paris 1892 MinisMreB Paris 1892 divers de Vilmorin Paris 1894 MinistSre de Paris 1900 I'agriculture de Lagorse Paris 1900 Daubree Paris 1900 Eiposit. Umve"« Paris 1900 Guillemot Paris 1900 Exposit. Univel'o Paris 1900 Guy Paris 1900 Caperon Paris 1900 Garsault Paris 1900 Mille Paris 1900 Vign&as Paris 1900 Fameebon Paris 1900 Guesde Paris 1900 Nocolaa Paris 1900 Exposit. Uniyelle Paris 1900 Bassi^res Paris 1900 Expoeit. UniveUe paris 1900 Vienne Paris 1900 Exposit. UniyeUe Paris 1900 Exposit. Univ®^^ Paris 1900 Exposit. de Paris 1900 1900 Perrot Paris 1900 Bergmann Paris 1900 Expoait. Umv«Ue Paris 1900 Caillas Paris 1900 Exposit. UniyeMe Paris 1900 Exposit. Uniy®**^ Paris 1900 Administration Paris 1900 Gen^rale des apanages im- pfriaux M^derlin Paris 1901 Imbeaux Paris 1902 Moissan Paris 1902 Moissan Paris 1902 Moissan Clermont (Oise) 1902 Picard Paris 1902-07 Moissan Poitiers 1903 Exposit. Uniyelle Paris 1903 Picard Paris 1903 Exposit. Uniyelle Paris 1903 Picard Paris 1903-07 468 APPENDIX Title Le V6 Congrds du S. Quest navigable tenu & Bergerac du 6 au 9 Juillet 1906 Premier et 2<^ Congr^ de ram6iiagemeut des montagnea (Compte-rendu 1905-06) Premier Congr^ international du froid Author Place Date Exposit. Univ«Ue Bergerae 1906 Eiposit. Univ^Ue Bordeaux, 1906-07 Pau de Loverdo Paris 1908 (g) BOTANICAL AND SILVICAL Herbier forestier de la France Pin Sylvestre Notes SUP le pin Cembro Manuel de botanique forestidre Etude des differents sols du depart^ de la Gironde Les cendres des essences prindpales de la for€t de la Haye Notes BUT le sorbus latifolia L'Eucalyptus et les applications iuduatrielles Flore foresti^re (3d Edit.) Remarques sur deux Varietes d'^picea Catalogue des vegetaux ligneux indigenes et exotiques ez- istant sur le domaine des Barrte Le Ch^ne vert ou le ch6ne yeuse dans le Gard L'EucalyptuB, sa culture Les essences foresti^res du Japon Memoire sur les eucalyptus introduits dans la r^on M^- terran^enne Les bois industriels, indigenes et exotiques Notes sur les Eucalyptus grants de I'Australie Observations sur la monographie des Pins sylvestres Les reboisements par I'Acacia Notes sur les arbres g^nts du Portugal Etude sur le pin pinier Les chines de rAmerique Septen^® en Belgique La vegetation des Gausses Les Hybrides du Quercus suber Causerie sur les bois de la Guyane Arboretum de I'Ecole d* Agriculture de Grignon Le Pin maritime des Landes et de Gascogne Le Sapin de Douglas Revue des travaux de botanique foreatiSre Le pin & Suere Recherches sur la d^omposition des matidres organiques Traits des arbrra et des arbrisseaux Illustrations des chines de TEurope et d'Orient Arboretimi National des Barr^ Nature et utilisation des produits forestiers dee Pyr^n^es- Orientales Sur les formes accidentales du pinus laricio Sols forestiers et sols agricoles Le Chfine de Juin Les Sapins sans branches de Chaumont Poids et composition de la converture morte des fordts, etc. Du reboisement et de la fertilisation des fordts Flore forestidre (4® Edit.) Remarques sur le Juniperus Hiuriferea et espdces voisines du bassin de la M6dit£rran6e Nomenclature des principales essences forestiftres de la Co- chin Chine Le Chdne de Juin Le Pin Laricio de Salzmann Note sxir le PiriM Cordata Le ch^ne de Juin (notes complimentaires) De Gayffier Paris 1868-73 de Morogues Orl&ns 1873 Tassy Digne 1873 Flicke Nancy 1873 Baudrimont Bordeaux 1874 Heniy Paris 1876 Godron MontpeUier 1876 Martin Paris 1877 Mathieu Nancy 1877 Brenot Paris 1878 Ad"" des fortta Paris 1878 Begimbeau Ntmes 1879 Pelagand Lyon 1880 Dupont Paris 1880 Naudin Paris 1883 GriBard Paris 1883 Joly Paris 1885 de Morogues Orleans 1885 Caquet Nevere 1886 Joly Paris 1886 Flicke Nancy 1886 Houba Hasselt 1887 Ivolas MontpeUier 1889 Frabut Paris 1889 Dupr6 Melun 1889 Mouillefert Paris 1889 Dupr6 Melun 1889 Zeiller Paris 1890 Henry Paris 1890 Hickel Rennes 1890 WoUny Trad Nancy 1892 Heniy Mouillefert Paris 1892-98 Kotschy Vienne 1892-98 Pard4 Paris 1892-98 Galas Perpignan 1893 de Vilmoris Paris 1894 HuSel Nancy 1894 Gilardoni Nancy 1895 Moreillon Neufchatel 1896 Heniy Nancy 1896 Thezard Compi^gne 1897 Mathieu Paris 1897 de Coincy Paris 1898 Richard Satgon 1S98 Jolyet Nancy 1899 Galas Perpignan 1899 Flicke Paris 1900 Gilardoni Nancy 1900 GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 469 Title Arbres forestiere etrangers (notes) Notes BUT les v€g6taux ligneux exotiques Les principaux vegetauz ligneux exotiques au point de vue forestier La decompositioQ de matidres organiques et les formes d'humus Notes sur les hybrides du genre "sorbus*' dans le Jura fran^ais Influence de la converture morte sur Thuinidit^ du sol for- estier L'Epicea de St. Eustache Acclimatation du chgne rouge aux environs de Rouen Les arbres etrangers du Domaine d'Harcourt Les cypres chauves Condal (Sadne et Loire) £)tude sur I'epicea compar6 au Sapin Les saules, determination, description, etc. Lianes caoutchoutif^res de I'Etat du Congo Descriptions de Sections transversales de 12 espSces des bois indig^n^ ct exotiques Classification et monographie des Saules de France et d'Eu- rope (Texte et Atlas) Quelques vieux arbres de la contr^e (Aisne, Mame, Ar- dennes) Les peupliers au point de vue cultural pratique Emploi des essences forestidres indigenes et exotiques pour le boisement des differents sols Les vieux arbres int^ressants des environs d'Autun Les arbres du pare de Baleine Remarques sur quelques abies m^dit^rran^eiis Les sols forestiers Essai de Geologie foresti^re La for^t accumulatrice d'azote Note pour servir k la determination des Arbietin6es Author Place Date de Vilmoriz Paris 1900 Pard« Paris 1900 Pard^ Besancon 1900 Wollny Trad. Paris 1901 Henry Flicke Paris 1901 Henry Nancy 1902 Guinier Annecy 1902 Hickel Elbeuf 1902 Hickel Eennes 1902 Gillot Autun 1903 Guinier Besancon 1903 Guinier Anncey 1904 Vildermann Bruxelles 1904 Thil Paris 1904 Camus Paris 1904-5 Jadart Reims 1904 de Kirwan Autun 1904 Pard^ Besanpon 1905 Gillot Autim 1907 PardS Moulins 1908 Guinier Paris igos Henry Nancy 1908 SchaefFer Besan^on 1908 Henry BesanQon 1908 Hickel Paris 1909 APPENDIX I GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY Dr. Martin, of Tharandt, with a party of German foresters, made a critical study of French forest conditions in 1900 and reported upon them in 1906. This technical critique and appreciation of French methods is of unique value to a student of forestry in France. It is, therefore, reproduced as a reference, to represent the best German views on French methods. The 1878 statistics, now out of date, cited by Martin, have been omitted, as have his generalities on French forest trees. MANAGEMENT OF THE OAK UNDER THE HIGH FOREST SYSTEM i Occurrence and Growth. — In order that we might obtain an idea of the oak high forest we were shown several large forests in the catchment area of the Loire, the forests of Bell^me, Berc6, and Blois which serve as representative examples of the French system of oak culture. The first-mentioned ranges (Reviere) have the character of a pure oak forest with only here and there a greater or lesser intermixture of beech; while in the forests of Blois entire stands occur which have been converted from coppice with standards and coppice stands. 1 Translated for the writer by F. W. Haasis in 1913. 470 APPENDIX That a proper value may be placed on the following information, which may, in part, seem remarkable to the German forest owners, it is not out of place to remark that in the forests mentioned we perhaps did not see mean conditions as would appear in an average of the whole country. By far the best conditions ' of site and stand of the French government forests are there represented. If we would avoid an utter misconception we must be careful not to regard foreign conditions too favorably, and not to undervalue our own system of management. Ranges (Reviere) with good condi- tions of site and stand are, indeed, as a rule, the best adapted to stud3dng critically principles of management and their appUcation. Farts of ranges which, as far as the minor resources of the soil and stand are concerned, are to be managed differently from the predominating stands were also found, so that an idea can be gained from these of other conditions where the poorer stands occur in greater numbers. The site factors of the forests visited are very favorable for the oak. The soil is a deep loamy sand, for the most part sufficiently fresh. From ansdyses conducted in various stands of the Berc6 forest the soil contains 0.23 per cent nitrogen, 0.12 per cent potash, 0.04 per cent lime, 0.045 per cent phosphorus. In the pole forests and mature stands there is very frequently found a cover of holly {Ilex, L.) which, in connection with the beech which occius normally as an imderstory, improves the soil and prevents the growth of other cover. The elevation above the sea reaches 328 to 656 feet. The topography is mainly level or gently sloping. The climate, in accordance with the geographical location and the altitude, is mild and suitable for the oak. The mean rainfall is given as 27.6 inches. The greatest part occurs in summer so that ejctreme drought is not to be feared. Late and early frosts, which have so disastrous an in- fluence upon the height growth of the oak and the character of its wood, occur very infrequently. All these circumstances work together to produce favorable conditions for the growth of the oak. Optimum site conditions for the oak are here presented. "Everything concurs to render the climate humid and essentially favorable for tree growth," says Boppe, referring to this forest region. Of the two species of oak the sessile-flowered is of the more common occurrence in the forest under discussion. Its growth and form are very good. The stands are characterized in a general view by straight form, clear bole, and high (according to our estimate); averages 65 feet from the ground, often higher. The crowns are very narrow; the boles have a form like that of our softwoods (Gymnosperms). If an accu- rate representation could be made of the proportions of crown and stem diameters a result would be attained entirely different from that found in the case of the German oaks. It is corollary to this that the basal area per hectare is very high. In certain stands, running 180 to 220 years old, which were examined in this connection, a basal area was determined of 474 to 485 square feet per acre, which is 50 per cent greater than given for corresponding stands on first-quahty sites in the new German yield tables.' The number of trees per hectare in mature stands 180 to 200 years old amounts to about 200 (80 per acre) which is double the corresponding count in the tables cited; the mean diameter 20 to 22 inches, the voltmie of a trunk 125 to 160 cubic feet. The height of the older stands is mainly between 100 and 120 feet, individual trees being even higher. It follows from this that the volume, also, of the stands must be very high. Stands of more than 11,430, 12,860, and 14,290 cubic feet per acre, or about 67,500 feet board measiu-e per acre, with 50 cords per acre in addition, such as can almost never occur in Germany because of the natural conditions of growth, are here met with over large, continous areas. ' Dr. Martin was shown exceptionally favorable conditions. — T. S. W., Jr. 'Schwappach, Untersuchungen iiber die Zuwachsleistungen von Eichen-Hochwald- bestanden in Preussen, 1905, S. 66. (Studies on the growth of stands of oaJ£ high forest in Prussia, 1905, p. 56.) GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 471 The root habit of the oak, which could be very readily and very thoroughly studied on fresh blowdowns, seemed to us remarkably superficial. The observations which were made do not warrant the suggestion of an adequate explanation for this. Owing to the shallow root system, the remarkable height, the growth in fully stocked, dense, compact stands, the oak in those localities is more resistant to atmospheric influences, especially to wind, than is the ease under other circumstances. A storm which had occurred the winter before our visit had wrought heavy destruction in the compart- ments under regeneration. This is no unusual sight. To anticipate, we were often to see the same thing in the future. The conditions here found are similar to those presented by the fir in the Vosges. The causes of breakage and damage by storms are far more often to be found in the conditions of growth than in the species. Under the conditions described, it is necessary, therefore, in the management of the oak, to employ methods which elsewhere are considered necessary only for shallow-rooted species. The ultimate strength of the crown and the distance from the ground of a crown which begins too high are of especial significance in their effects. Establishment of Stands. — Natural regeneration is the general practice in estab- lishing oak stands. The conditions for this are exceptionally favorable. The soil, after the removal of the encumbering growth of beech and hoUy, which is incumbent upon the buyer, is rich in humus, loose, and well adapted to the germination of the acorn. Yet more favorable is the second factor which is necessary for natural repro- duction, namely seed production. Full seed crops are frequent, at intervals of about 4 to 5 years, with extraordinarily rich production. Between these, on the other hand, half crops occur, which, however, under the circumstances, are Ukewise sufficient for a complete seeding up of the reproduction area. Nowhere can the influence of cUmate conditions upon the possibUity of reproduction be more definitely recognized than here. The chief advantage of the full mast is to be found in the ease of supplementing the preceding seeding. In the 2 to 3 year intervals between seed years the mast (following the major reproduction) falls, indeed, upon favorable soil. In the remaining gaps the young growth first established seeds in a new advance growth of its own. Since they are but little different in age and seldom suffer from frost, the trees so established close with the reproduction previously established to form a uniform stand, while with longer intervals between two mast years the soil becomes overgrown with grass. The seedlings following this are retarded a greater and greater extent, while at the same time they suffer continually from frost and suppression. From the management standpoint the frequency of seed years and the favorable cUmate have the important effect that there is great freedom allowable as regards the time and manner of forming the seeding stage. Natural reproduction is generally effected through three cuttings in a manner similar to that usual in Germany imder G. L. Hartig's system. The first aims to bring about seeding, the second to strengthen the young growth estabUshed, the third the isolation of the young stand. A preparatory cutting for the benefit of the soil is unnecessary. The cutting of standards (Hieb aits dem Vollen), which has given such good results in Hesse, has proved satisfactory in France also. It would seem that a preparatory cutting would be of value only for stimulating crown development and for effecting a better distribution of income. This object is better attained, however, by repeated, vigorous thinnings applied at the proper time, which would in addition result in a lessening of the long rotation period. The first of the cuttings mentioned (seed cutting) is as a rule made when a mast has occurred. However, this first cutting furnishes an example of the fact that, as we have seen, under the favorable conditions prevailing, it is not necessary to confine operations too strictly to seed years. A seed cutting had been made in a part of the 472 APPENDIX stand the year before our visit which was not a seed year, another part was to be so treated the coming year which gave promise of a rich mast. The marking was of that type where the trees which are to be left standing are marked at breast height and at the base with a marking hammer. This had been done some time before, and at the time of our visit the marking had been completed. Since the number and diameters of the trees which were to be felled were recorded in printed directions, which served as a basis for the sale, the marking and measiiring had to be done very accurately. Subsequent variations in the formation of the seeding stage, such as sometimes seem desirable, are not permitted. In making the seed cutting about one-third of the volimie of the stand is removed. In good 200-year-old stands this amounts to 10,000 to 11,430 cubic feet per acre. The cuttings following this one are yet more severe. The seed cuttings which we saw had 7,150 to 8,575 cubic feet per acre of standing timber. In mixed stands the first trees to be marked for cutting are the beech which are overtopping the oak to a considerable extent and whose reproduction is at the same time imdesirable; next those oaks which have poorly-formed, one-sided, faulty crowns. As contrasted with the Ught-seeded conifers especial value is placed upon imiform reproduction. A dense reproduction is given preference over a uniform crop of seed. Any incidental disadvantages to the natural advance growth are not considered. Obser- vations made on the light reqiiirements of young oak in most German forest regions prove entirely inappUcable to the sites under consideration. It is astonishing to what degree they are able, under favorable conditions, to endure a complete cover during the seeding stage. Reproduction, which for a considerable time continues to thrive under an almost complete cover, can be seen in stands in which no reproduction cuttings have been made. Later, when such advance growth has reached a height of 3.3 feet the thickly crowded young stems begin to die off. But they are still abundant even after that, so that they are depended upon for the stocking of the stand. The second cutting, la coupe secondaire, is ordinarily made about 3 to 5 years after the seed cutting. The young growth is given first consideration in deciding upon the exact time for this. This requires as vigorous and heayj' an opening up as the first cutting was Ught. After that attention is given to distributing the income. There is taken out at]this cutting about half the volume of the stand. In mixed stands, what- ever beech are still present, they are the first to be removed. The last cutting, la ampe definitive ("the final cutting"), is made when it would be detrimental to the growth to leave the stand any longer. The period for natural reproduction (on such soils) is 10 years. However, when it is necessary to do so, reproduction can be secured in an even shorter time. Great freedom of management is allowable in this regard because of the favorable conditions for growth. The causes which under other conditions indicate a delayed reproduction cutting are here absent. Damage from late and early frosts is not to be feared; and competition with weed reproduction, which is one of the most universal and important factors considered in locating cutting operations, can be endured safely by the oak even from an age of 3, 4, or 5 years and up. The second cutting is not absolutely essential; it can be made earUer or later, or entirely omitted. The cuttings afforded abtmdant evidence that the young growth shows the best development in those places where the stand had been opened up quickly. In other forest regions also experience indicates a hastening of the final cut. As a general proposition a gradual reduction of the pro- tection afforded by the stand through a number of cuttings (in the marking of which due regard is given to the development of the seedling oaks, the distribution of income, and the damage caused in felling) is to be preferred to a single feUing. In view of the damage done in feUing and bringing out the heavy lo^, a longer wait than 10 years is, GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 473 however, not to be recommended. It can be justified only by circumstances which he within the realm of practical management and which in a discussion of general technical and economic principles can be left out of consideration. Under the favorable conditions of site in the forests which we are discussing artificial regeneration of oak stands is not even considered. Cultural operations are undertaken only to a very Umited extent. Under the favorable conditions of site and stand found in central France the oak behaves just as the beech does in the best German locaUties where its reproduction likewise occurs to a sufiicient degree without artificial aid. Woimding the ground is necessary where it has become hardened as is especially Uable on the edges of reproduction (areas). Replanting, hkewise, is only occasionally neces- sary. It will, however, be necessary in small patches, especially where loggers' huts and skid yards have been located. For that purpose 2-year-old nursery-grown seed- lings are used. When the weak stems show poor growth they are fastened to sticks. Under certain conditions — but as far as we saw, not very frequently — the beech also is used for the artificial completion of the stand. It is planted as 2-year seedlings. Such plantings are the rule when cuttings of old oaks are made in pole stands such as is especially necessary in stands which are in process of conversion from a former coppice with standards or selection stand. Such cuttings can be very profitable finan- cially. In one oak pole forest which we were shown there were cut out thirty-nine old oaks with 675 cubic feet which gave a money return of $2,641. The marking of such a cutting is facilitated by the general custom of a preUminary marking of the trees to be felled. Everywhere in France there are differences of opinion as to the value of the oak or beech of the same age. That this mixture has both advantages and dis- advantages is a matter of common knowledge. This idea is definitely substantiated by the French forests. Oaks are seen which continue to grow faster in height but which, because of the influence exerted upon them by the beech, are retarded in the lateral development of their crowns, and exhibit a much weaker growth than would be the case otherwise. On the other hand the condition of mixed stands leaves no room for doubt that the beech, in moderate mixtme exercises a very favorable in- fluence upon the condition of the stand as a whole. The boles grow very clear of knots and the ground is rich in humus and free of weeds. Under the conditions described, therefore, where the oak is readily kept in the lead the plan of even-aged mixed stands is highly to be recommended. The German forest officers who formed part of our party were of the opinion that in France, where the conditions for the oak are very favorable, the system deserves more extensive appUcation. Of other planting in general, the completing of oak stands upon poor soil with planted or seeded pine is effected in a manner similar to that^ practiced on many German operations. Following the development of the two species the pine either persists, reduced to the r61e of an auxiliary species and is removed early, or it changes over into the dominant portion of the forest. The most important question of what kind of a comparison can be made between the French method of managing oak and the corresponding practice customary in Germany reduces itself to a question of, in how far, relatively, natural reproduction, which is there used with such excellent results, can find application under German conditions. In France natural reproduction is usually regarded as imiversal. The handbook of the Paris Exposition begins with the words: "In France forest silvics . . . has as a fundamental principle that the forest ought to reproduce itself indefi- nitely through its natural resources." Artificial estabUshing of stands is imdertaken only in exceptional cases, notably when the object of the management is the reforesta- tion of moimtains, the afforesting of waste lands, to increase the timber for the agri- culturist, the afforestation of clearings, the introduction of species which do not occur 474 APPENDIX in the stand, "the introduction of valuable species into the stands whose mixture is unsatisfactory." Hence, the French forest management is seen to be in that position to which it is assigned in the newer German literature, especially by Borggreve.* In the French forests which we visited, natural reproduction was doubtless the best method of establishing the stand. It demanded a minimum expenditure of money; the young growth grew in a good close stand; the maintenance of that species best suited to the site is assiu'ed. Even in German practice natural reproduction has, under corresponding conditions, been looked upon as by far the preferable method since the time of G. L. Hartig. But the conditions necessary for natural reproduction of the oak very frequently do not occur in Germany. In the first place its profitable application is impossible because of the fact that stands do not occur which are adapted to the establishing of seeding compartments. Near young stands the oak occurs chiefly as isolated veterans in pure beech. Stands of middle age suitable for repro- duction are rare in most of the larger forest regions. These are mostly beech stands into which the oak has been artificially introduced. Next it is to be noted that in Germany the chmatic conditions are far less favorable than in France, where optimum sites are foimd. The system of management apphcable, therefore, would seem to be artificial regeneration of the stand if the oak is to be grown in sufficient quantities. As having a direct bearing upon the status of the question under consideration there may be mentioned the excellent stands of oak reproduction on the Oherforesterei (forest) of Eichelsdorf which were described before the Meeting of German Foresters in Darm- stadt (1905) by Forstmeister (Supervisor) Trautivein, who has for many years been manager of that forest. Sowing in strips not too far apart imder the protection of the succeeding beech-mast is the method used in estabUshing the stands. In most of the other southern and central German forest regions also, especially in Spessart, in Nassau, etc., sowing is the prevailing method of reproduction.' On the other hand, in North Germany natural reproduction can hardly be considered the common method. Satis- factory reproduction over large areas, instead of merely in groups, is not really practi- cable because of the scarcity of mast. The foregoing discussions apply, in so far as they are of general appUcation, to other species as well as to the oak. For all, natural reproduction is to be recommended where suitable conditions of site and stand occur, and where it is desired to grow the species which occurs on the site. With all, however, a greater or lesser relation exists to the existent chemico-physical and ecological conditions. In the case of beech G. L. Hartig's amount of reproduction was diminished by the requirements of the conver- sion of the beech or the invasion of intolerant species. In the case of spruce it is im- practicable on many sites because of the danger from storms (windfall). In the case of pine the trials which have been made of natural reproduction have been very unsatis- factory in their results. Judging by our observations, it seems that, contrary to the principles set forth in the Handbook of the Paris Exposition the artificial regeneration of stands under French management is increasing ° in amount and importance. It * Die Forstreinertragslehre, 1878, close of the book "Die principcditer — man ver- steherecht — ah Kegel verlaugte naiurliche Verjungung (which chiefly — it can readily be understood — as a rule requires natural reproduction," etc.); Die Holzzucht, 2d edition, p. 117, Die Naturbesamung (Natural seeding). ' Of course, where suitable conditions of stand and site occur (oak seed trees abund- ant over large areas) natural reproduction with simple artificial aid {NachhUfe) is still a very satisfactory method of establishing oak. It is therefore practiced by preference and with good results by forest owners with broader experience, as the author has had opportunity of seeing on a trip made some months ago (August, 1906) through the Forstamt (Forest office) of Rohrbrunn and the Oberforsterei (forest) of Salmiinster. ° This prediction is certainly erroneous now that labor is so scarce and so costly. — T. S. W., Jr. GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 475 is never safe, however, to formulate universal rules for the establishing of stands — on the contrary account must always be taken of the site factors. Care of the Stand, and Thinning. — In France due emphasis is laid upon the retention of the oak. The necessity for their regular and continued examination becomes more insistent the more, beech takes part in the composition of the stand. In general, this is true to a greater extent in the northern and eastern parts of the country than in the southern and western. In mixed stands the cleaning axe should be apphed every 4 to 5 years. The disastrous effects of too long an interval are strongly emphasized in the literature: "In fact a few years of neglect or oversight in this work, so expensive and tiresome to the force, is sufficient for irrevocably losing all the oak" (Boppe, Sylvicultxu-e). The hornbeam gives little trouble in mixture with the oak because of its slower growth; the oak is always the faster grower. Wherever this thrives, however, other faster-growing species come in, namely, birch (Betula, L.), aspen {Popidus, L.), alder (Alnus, Ehrb.), round-leaved willow {Scdix caprea, L.), etc. At first valuable as nurse-trees and auxiUary species in effecting the closing of the stand, they soon become harmful. With the removal of softwoods (Weichholzer) poorly grown oaks are likewise disposed of. Because of the dense stands and the favorable site factors there is less of this work necessary here than in many German forests where the condi- tions for the growth of the oak as compared with those for its associates are less favor- able. As far as thinnings are concerned we are not aware of anything which would indicate that the methods are in any way different from those at present practiced in most of the German forest regions. The eclmrde par le haul (thinning in the upper story), which is considered typical of French management, was seen in pure stands far less than had been anticipated. ^ As in Germany, it is practiced everjrwhere in mixed stands. As to the age for beginning the thinnings, the appearance of epicormic branches (branches gourmandes), not only upon the suppressed but also on the dominant trees, is regarded as an indication of crowding ("the upper story is, on the whole, too crowded"), and therefore enlargement of the crown space of standing trees which are too much sup- pressed is indicated. In general the thinnings are repealed less frequently than is con- sidered necessary in Germany. In the juvenile stage it is considered usual to return in 8 to 10 years at the most; later, the intervals are longer. "Thinnings are repeated at intervals of 6 to 12 years during the stages from saphng {gavlis) to large pole {haul perchis), that is from 12 to 20 years of age up to the size of standards. ... As far as we have been able to determine the actual practice corresponds to these theories in the literature (Boppe). In the forests of BellSme and Berc6 which we visited the working plans provided for two thinnings within a period of 24 years. This plan was strictly carried out. Any variation requires the approval of the conservator. The grade of the thinnings made in the forests imder consideration can, in general, be designated as "moderate." The yoimg stands of oak which we had opportimity of going through or of looking at were denser than we would consider desirable for the oak. Later on, the object will be the strengthening of the trees with good crown development which have been overlooked. "The thinnings should be conducted with the sole object hardiment (unhesitatingly) of favoring those trees which are judged to be the best, gradually giving them sufficient room for a free crown development. They begin as soon as the trees to be preserved have been definitely decided upon'' (Boppe). In accordance with this direction in French silvicultural literature the best trees in the 60-year or older pole-wood stands shown to us, which were to be favored in the thinning. Were marked by white streaks of paint (Fdrbstriche) . Even in the older stands the cover is not to be appreciably interrupted. Therefore the increase in the growing space most desirable for the individual tree is often considerably too small. ("Care must always 476 APPENDIX be taken not to break the leaf canopy.") The oaks in the understoiy should, for the most part, be widely spaced; there is no particular need of keeping them in the stand either for their sale value or for the benefit of the soil. " The oak cannot be expected to constitute both upper and lower stories at the same time." Just that much more pains is taken to preserve that part of the understory which is suitable for soil protection. The retaining of such species will, of course, be considered all the more necessary the milder the cUmate and the better the soil. For this reason it has been emphatically directed "to take particular pains to leave all woody undergrowth (suppressed trees, shrubs, etc.) which is capable of persisting in place of a lower story. This lower story- must never be touched in making cuttings." Only when preparing for reproduction is the understory to be removed. In stands where beech occurs in the mixture the thinnings retain the character of cleanings from the sapling age well up into the higher pole-wood and standard classes. ("During this long period the thinnings must always take the form of hberation cuttings if the successive crowding out of all the oaks is to be avoided.") In general, however, the raising of mixed stands of beech and oak of approximately the same age presents no difficulty if at the time of the regeneration the faster growth of the oak is encouraged. Owing to the climatic conditions this proposition is entirely feasible. In the northern part of the country the conditions are different. It has been established that here the beech is a faster grower than the oak at all ages. For such stands, therefore, the mixing of the two species by distinct groups, is directed. ("These difficulties are overcome by practicing regeneration in compartments in which each species, maintained in a pure stand . . . receives proper care throughout its entire life.") In France an inten- tional underwood, through which the needs and requirements of both species can best be met, is seldom formed. The special cases mentioned of the underplanting of open spaces in the stand are not, in oiu' estimation, to be looked upon as examples of forming an underwood. This also is denounced in the literature. At least Boppe refers to the Bavarian (Spessart and the Palatinate) system of forming an imderwood as a local pecvdiarity. The earher operations of thinnings can best be understood from the present condition of neighboring older stands. An examination of these leaves no room for doubt that in France as in most German States thinnings have not been conducted in strict accordance with the needs of the management. The formation of stands as described above — with a volume of 11,430 to 14,290 cubic feet per acre, a clear length of 65 feet and a diameter of 20 inches — was effected by moderate thinnings. HIGH FOREST REGULATION' As admirably as the management of the French State and administered forests is ex- hibited in everything which relates to the technical side of the subject (estabUshment and care of stands, thinnings, feUing operations, etc.) the conditions of the forest organiza- tion and the regulation of revenue will meet with but httle favor in the eyes of the Ger- man visitor. We did not, on the present trip, see any operations from which the methods of regulating income and the form it should take could be judged. But the principles of the forest regulation were so evident in the condition of the stands and from the economic maps that we could get an idea of them even without the working plans of the general form of those which may be seen for the State forests. The most important consideration characteristic of the French forest regulation has to do with the local estab- lishment of the working groups and the choosing of the places where cuttings are to be made, with which there must at the same time be combined an establishment of the rotation period. ' Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1908, pp. 530-47. GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 477 Local Establishment of Working Groups. — The French State and State-admin- istered forests are divided into '^ series" (working groups). These are adjacent areas with like markets and requirements for continued management, which frequently corre- spond to Schutzbezirken (triages) (protection forests). They are somewhat similar to the Prussian Bloken. "By series or working group is understood a portion of the forest which is designated to be placed under a special working plan ' in accordance with the provisions of which it will form a series of annual cuttings." There is a further division into sections which correspond somewhat to the German Betriebsklassen (working units). "By section is understood a portion of the forest which is distinguished from the rest of the forest (surplus) by the method of management (taillis, futaie regvliere, futaie jardinie, etc., coppice, even-aged high forest, selection high forest, etc.)." The working units are subdivided into "affectations" which are the same as our Periodenflachen (periodic blocks). In the forest of BeUfeme which we visited there had been established eight periodic blocks of 25 years. In locating the working units the French aim has been, as far as practicable, to so place the affectations that they will form an iminterrupted whole, and not be separated from one another by bodies of other periodic blocks. The idea of consolidating the areas of periodic blocks has been developed in France probably to a greater extent than in any other country. That there are efforts to effect this is indicated by L. Tassy, conservateur de forUs (conservator of forests). It is very characteristic of the French system of management, and we will therefore translate verbatim. The location of age-classes and feEing series is given by Tassy ' as follows: "1. From the viewpoint of the progress of the cuttings in that periodic block. "2. From the viewpoint of the relative position of the periodic blocks. "While the progress of the cuttings in each periodic block should be in accordance with the principles of cutting series, it is at the same time desirable that the felling areas have a regular form so that they shall present the narrower side to the most violent winds, so that they may be traversed and bounded by rides but especially that they may form separate and distinct blocks. I especially recommend that a periodic block never be broken up unless there are very especial reasons (motifs majeurs) for it. The continuity (contaquite) of the several compartments constituting a periodic block is expedient, not alone for the orderly regulation of cutting series, but also from the standpoint of the economic results of the working plan." The regulation of the French State forests is conducted in accordance with the prin- ciples here set down. The periodic blocks are systematically grouped on the maps and in the field. It is evident, however, that it is frequently utterly impossible to adhere strictly to the system of such continuous periodic block without a great sacrifice of growth and a decided variation from the time of maturity. To avoid serious loss in this latter regard the management often seems to leave imused younger stands within the periodic block in the several periodic blocks. On the other hand, however, stands of a later periodic block will, under certain conditions, be brought to reproduction. In the high oak forests which we saw there were seed and removal cuttings in periodic blocks 1 and 2. The importance to the management in all the larger adjacent forests as to whether and how far the age classes shall be considered in making divisions for the regulation of in- come is not to be minimized. Such a grouping of periodic blocks as described by Tassy and actually practiced in France results in too extensive reproduction cuttings and too great areas of the same age class. Its practice will result in conditions similar to those formerly frequent in most of the German forests. In virgin forests similar stands are 'L. Tassy, Etudes sur I'aminagement des forets (Studies on the Organization of Forests), p. 385. » Tassy is rather out of date. Dr. Martin should have consulted Huftel. 478 APPENDIX always formed under like conditions of site. G. L. Hartig ■" himself noted this tendency. The areas of natural reproduction which he estabUshed have, because of the infrequency of seed years combined with a lack of systematic distribution, often resulted in extensive even-aged stands. The first result of increasing artificial regeneration has been a clear- cut sjrstematic arrangement of stands according to species and age classes. As is well known, the opposite system to the French plan with its establishing of age classes, is practiced in the kingdom of Saxony. The formation of short cutting series has for a long time been a characteristic feature of the Saxon management. Judeich, in his writings, emphasized its superiority; the establishment of Saxon forest organization put it into practice. To promote the systematic arrangement of the working groups there were dehberately made severance cuttings and fellings which were intended to make possible the independent management of areas located near one another. In the boundaries of surveying, and regulating the Austrian State and institution (Fond-) forests, also the establishing of short cutting series is emphasized. Which, then, of the two opposed systems is right, or, since both have weaknesses, the better? In Germany the French system has rarely been developed to such an extent as the visitor to the French forests finds it. In the main the degree of maturity is given first consideration in the location of the cutting areas. The strict regard for the maturity leads to the maintenance of the existing form of the stand. The beginning of maturity, however, and, to a yet greater extent, the actual time of overmaturity of individual stands allow of more or less extension. Many stands could, without seriously interfer- ing with the economic results, be changed one or two periods one side or the other. A fixed policy, therefore, of separating or combining stands at the time of regeneration is inapphcable even in German practice. If we investigate the rules for establishing stands which must, in the direction proposed, be considered the most weighty the French system does not give a very favorable im- pression. There are always certain dangers connected with the grouping of even-aged stands, in coniferous forests at least. Many insects, the Maybug {Maikdfer) in par- ticular, appear in greater numbers. The increased fire danger is yet more prominent. The relation of the stands to storms must, however, be regarded as the fundamental and general basis for deciding the proposed question of retaining the stands. And even in this respect we can concede no superiority to the French system, at least not when natural reproduction is reUed upon, which, as the Handbook of the Exposition empha- sizes, is regarded as the rule in France. No other form of silvicultural management is so destructively visited by storms as large symmetrically arranged reproduction cuttings. The danger from storms is especially great in the case of old stands, as in the oak and fir stands of the French State forests in which it is no longer possible to strengthen the trees through reproduction cuttings, and to accustom them to a subsequent open position. As a matter'of fact damage by storm has recently occurred to a very considerable extent in forests managed in accordance with the French method of regulating forest organization. The wind-breakage in oak reproduction cuttings under the nuld conditions of the Loire plains has already been mentioned. In the fir stands in the Vosges such severe storm damage has occurred of late that many forest owners are no longer willing to concede the fir any superiority over the spruce as far as resistance to wind throw is concerned. When we come to consider the employment of clear cutting there is rather more to be said in favor of the French system. If the principal face presented to the prevailing '" In the Instrttktion of 1819, in which (p. 20) we find: "Since the plan for the artificial regulation of forests must be so arranged so that the compartments decided upon for every periodic block shall close on one another as fast as possible, it is necessary . . . {Da der Plan zur kunftigen Bewirischaftung des Forstes so eingeriehtet werden rmisz, dasz die fur jede Periode zum abtrieb heslimmien Jagen sotdel wie moglich sich einander scMieszen, so must . . . )." GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 479 stonns were equally well protected in the case of large and small cuttings, differences in the conduct of the storm which are due to other causes would be apparent. In the case of a large number of small cuttings there are formed more openings in the stand in which a storm can attack. However, there are many other serious results of larger cuttings which become evident by trial. Many insects appear in destructive numbers. The damage from weeds, frost, and heat is greater the larger the cuttings. For tender species which grow slowly in the juvenile stage it is an acknowledged principle of management to avoid large clear cuttings. The method of managing the Saxon State forests seems much better in this regard. It has the great advantage that the cuttings are kept small and gradually arranged to- gether in rows. The young growth has the benefit of the protection from the standing trees. In relation to market conditions, also, and other factors which must be taken into consideration in practical management, the method of small cuttings with the possibUity of a change in the manner of utilization is a desideratum. As far as storms are concerned the superiority claimed for the Saxon method by its advocates is not to be accepted without qualification. If the direction is known from which destructive storms are to be expected in the future it is possible to protect the stand by means of the methods of felling and making severance cuttings which are peculiar to the Saxon system. But this cannot be determined. Storm statistics " recently published show that even easterly storms have frequently done considerable damage. If, in spite of this fact, future efforts in forest management shall still be directed to protecting against westerly storms as far as possible, the chance of damage by storms coming from the opposite direction must also be reckoned with. Openings made in the stand by sever- ance cuttings and feUings for the strengthening of borders exposed to western winds would, however, appear hazardous. The undesirable consequences which may be bound up with a system of severance cuttings are truly pointed out by the advocates of the Saxon method of managing State forests. Oberforster (Supervisor) August a few years ago wrote an article on the effect of southeast storms in the Olbernhau Revier (range) (Erzgebirge). He made the comment that: "The damage (which the south- east storms have caused) would not be so great if it were not for the fact that on the Olbernhau Revier one of the chief objects of the Saxon method of forest management, the creation of a large number of short cutting series, had been practically attained. Over large areas cuttings have been made in every division (Abteilung) within a decade; and as desirable as these are for establishing regeneration areas, for replanting, etc., yet in this case many reproduction cuttings begun at the eastern side have proved dis- astrous." The relation that tearing the stand to pieces bears to damage by storms can- not be more strikingly presented. It is to be added, however, that the damage caused by storm under the Saxon management will never have such great dimensions as is the case under the French method of making cuttings. Any careful investigation wiU substantiate this. Communications from Saxony have often confessed to damage from storms. But their effects are on a smaller scale than in the Vosges and other forest regions with extensive homogeneous areas of veteran forest. The favorable results of Saxon management are not to be accounted for by the physiological characteristics of the species — in Saxony the non-storm-resisting spruce predominates — but by the conditions of growth secured by the forest organization. If the foregoing arguments are, in the main, susceptible of proof, yet it must not be forgotten that in this, as in most other forest regions, the extremes are necessarily the best methods. The proper economic management is often to be found nearer the mean. The French method of grouping must be unconditionally discarded. But even in regard to too strict a separation of age classes it is worth while making the observations men- " Bargmann, AUgem. Forst- und Jagdzeitung, 1904, p. 84. 480 APPENDIX tioned. The most essential definite problems of practice have to do with establishing the universal fundamentals through the appUcation of which there will be effected a greater safety of the system from damage by storms. These rest, first of all, upon the way in which the forest is divided up for management. In mountainous regions, with spruce predominating, where the sequence of the cuttings is of the greatest importance, divisions must be based on the topography. Natural features — not only main ridges and valleys, but also the secondary ridges where the slopes change their direction — afford the best boundaries for the fixed working division {Wirtschaftsfiguren), and for the cutting series. In many cases cuttings have to progress away from them in both direc- tions. In broken (kupiert) topography the extension of uniform working groups will often be definitely prescribed by the relations of the topographic features. In level country a good network of rides with their principal direction northeast — southwest or eastwest has the same effect. A good distribution not only facilitates the breaking up of larger areas but also constitutes the best framework for similar grouping into manage- able working areas. The second method of reducing the danger consists of the estab- lishing of sufficiently broad division fines. Only rides of sufBcient width are suitable for forming belts which shall be sufficient for protecting the stands against storm. It should be noted in this connection that the extension of these increases the area of un- productive soil. However, it must be remembered that many of these wiU be changed to the character of roads, and some, at least, of the rest used for dragging up and piling the wood. Broad rides serve, also, as a means of protection, especially for the preven- tion and fighting of fires. For feeding grounds for game, also, and for the raising of grass and straw for the use of those who work in the woods, rides are valuable only when of sufficient breadth. Silvicultural measures are another instrument of forest organization or regulation which can be used for placing the stand upon a firm basis. All injuries due to the mani- festations of inanimate nature will be aggravated by unsymmetrically developed roots and twigs, as well as by long clear length. Everything which works for a symmetrical development of the roots and against a long clear length renders the stands more capable of resisting storms and their consequences. Among these may be mentioned the selec- tion of good individuals for planting, the restoring of regular spacing, timely decision upon severer thinnings, and careful closing of the borders of the stand. By the employ- ment of such measures there will be a far greater certainty of the stands surviving than there can ever be under the French system of grouping age classes together. Determination of the Cut, and the Rotation Period. — The most general and important problem of working plans is the determination of the yield. The basis for this has an intimate connection with studies of maturity which are always of significance in choosing the type of management and the direction it shall take. Dependent upon it, also, is the amount of forest capital which is regarded as normal and which it is desired to estabUsh. No other subject is of more importance for the condition of the French State forest policy and the directions it will take. In the forests of BellSme and Bercd the rotation period has been fixed at 200 years. Eight periodic blocks of 25 years each have been formed. The actual utilization amounts in the 6,000-acre forest of BeU^me to 173,050 to 282,525 cubic feet in all, an average of 28.6 and 46.0 cubic feet, respectively, per acre. This on good soil and with the good condition of, the stands, which were about 120 feet high, is a very conservative cut, far short of the annual increment. The effects of this exceedingly conservative management applied for long periods are clearly evidenced in the condition of the stands. The trees are full-boled and of great cubic contents. The thinnings, however, are far more moderate than is necessary with the conditions of growth which have been de- scribed (good soil and mild climate with a long vegetative period) . GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 481 No basis for the rotation period in the forest under discussion has been described by the advocates of the French State forest policy, at least not definitely enough to be repeated here. We can get an idea of it only from the condition of the stand and the information given in the Uterature. Tassy,"* discusses the determination of the cutting age (exploiiabilite) in the following words: "The volume of the wood which has been produced, its economic value (utility), its sale value (vaieur venale), and the ratio between its value and that of the capital from which it comes are the various factors which, individually or collectively, must be borne in mind if it is desired to make the greatest profit from the management of the forest. These several factors correspond to four objects of management: First, management for the greatest volume production; second, that for the highest technical value; third, that for the greatest money revenue; fourth, that for the largest interest on the investment.'' As is everywhere the case, the rotation periods in the French forest management, as well, are dependent upon the progress of volume and value increment and the interest paid on the forest capital. The question of rotation periods in France cannot be understood and discussed further without entering into discussion of the peculiar conditions whose influence upon the condition of the forest is nowhere more pronounced than here (a fact which is not brought out in the foregoing quotation). (o) VOLUME INCREMENT This is everywhere a fundamental determining factor of the length of the rotation period. G. L. Hartig's teaching, that upon given areas there is always a maximum increment which should be produced, may always be accepted as essentially correct. Even if the value of the product and the intwest paid on the capital be taken into consideration yet the volume increment is still an essential determining factor. If it be reduced the volume and value of the product from which revenue is obtained will likewise both suffer a diminution. The mean increment (accroissement moyen) is looked upon as that which shall decide the age of maturity under the French system of forest management. "The rotation period giving the greatest volume production {exploiiabilite ahsolue) is indicated by the age at which the greatest mean increment is produced." According to that the proper rotation age occurs in that period when the current increment is falling off. It corresponds to that age when the ciu'rent increment is equal to the mean increment. We have but little definite information which bears upon the problem of current incre- ment or upon the principles of mean increment. In the forest region of Belllme and Berce exact studies were available chiefly for a 200-year-old oak stand with an admix- ture of a few beeches and a ground cover of young beech, giving its increment and previous utiUzation. The number of trees per hectare amoxmted to 198 (80 per acre), the volume of wood larger than 28 inches at the small end (Derbholz) 13,875 cubic feet per acre. The actual utilization is given as 6,200 cubic feet per acre, the total possible as 20,080 cubic feet per acre. According to this the mean increment amounts to 96 cubic feet per acre. As a matter of fact the actual volume production was greater because during the 200-year period it is very Ukely that wood was utilized of which partial or no accounts were kept. The current increment in stands more than 200 years old has doubtless heretofore not been determined because of the falling off in growth occurring at this time. The principal cause of this falling off is evidently the abundant flower- and seed-production. Otherwise the plant foods of the soil are completely utilized by the roots, and the air space by the crowns; hence any very great reduction in that increment which corre- sponds to the site is not to be expected. This supposition is substantiated by studies " I. c. Deuxihne itvde: de I'exploitahiliti (Second article: on the age of maturity). 482 APPENDIX made on test trees from time to time during the course of our trip. These indicate that for a dominant tree with annual rings 0.04 inch in breadth there is an annual increment of 0.9. According to this the current annual increment at present amounts to 130 cubic feet per acre and if that proportion holds true for only three-quarters the volume of the stand — the dominant trees — to (in round nimibers) 100 cubic feet per acre. This is almost the same as that which is determined from complete volmne tables and yield statistics as the mean annual increment. The two kinds of increment are seen — contrary to the commonly accepted belief — at the age of 200 years to be at the point of crossing and agreement. If the foregoing propositions'cannot, because of the lack of suflBcient data, be definitely proven, yet enough observations have been made to justify the conclusion that the current annual increment of the oak under the existing conditions of the site and the indicated character of the stands exhibits a uniform decline. The falling off in current annual increment has taken place very gradually; far more gradually than most yield tables indicate for German forests, where the oak is much less crowded in the older age To a yet greater extent is this evident in the case of mean annual increment. This, in the case above cited, has not changed appreciably for a full century. That sort of maturity known as exploUabUiU absolue gives entirely too indefinite results, in that account; it may be placed at as early an age as 80 years or as late as 200. (b) QUALITY INCREMENT Of greater importance than the volume increment as a determining factor of the age of maturity is the value increment. The French management shows conclusively that in their own forests especial importance is attached to the prodMction of good quality of product. The less private individuals are inclined to grow heavy timber, the more does the State find itself confronted with the necessity of producing this economically indispensable product. The best way to get an idea of the progressive increase in value is to study the average prices paid for wood where the trees of varying size are valued separately. The approximate selling price of trees of various girths are as follows: Trees of 200 cm. circumference (65 cm. diameter), 65 francs per cu. m." Trees of 100-200 cm. circumference (33-36 cm. diameter), 45 francs per cu. m. Trees under 100 cm. circumference (under 33 cm. diameter), 30 francs per cu. m. These classes are too indefinite to afford any precise idea of the value increment. They show, however, that the increase in value bears a direct relation to the increase in size. Trees whose diameter increases from 20 to 24 inches increase in value about 40 per cent. With annual rings 0.05 inch in width about 35 years are required to produce a diameter increment of 3.9 inches. Hence the yearly increase in value can be placed at a good 1 per cent. (c) THE INTEREST PAID ON THE GROWING STOCK It is not really possible to fix the length of the rotation period intelligently without a study of the economic principles upon which the practice is based. The kernel of " According to Schwappach's yield tables : On first quality site at the age of 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 The current annual in- ] Wood more than crement amounts to . . 10.2 9.2 6.8 5.2 4.6 3.8 3.4 2.8 m.» 7 cm. in diameter The mean annual incre- at the small end ment 4.6 5.9 6.3 6.2 6.0 5.8 5.5 b.Zm? (Derbholz) "26-inch trees, $12.55; 13-26-inch trees, 88.70; under 13-inch trees, J5.80. GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 483 this in its practical bearing is expressed in the questions of whether and how high a rate of interest should be expected on the forest capital invested. This question is, indeed, thoroughly discussed in the French Uterature. Its^treatment is of particular interest to the German forest owner, who is occupied with the theory of net income. A very clear discussion of the theoretical and practical problems and objects of the same is given by Tassy, I. c. He lays special emphasis on the nature of forest capital, offers explanations of the differences which exist in the relation of revenue to value of the wood in comparison with other branches of domestic economy, and advances the following propositions: "The rotation period which gives the greatest interest on the investment is almost always shorter than that which corresponds to the greatest mean annual increment. The less valuable the species concerned and the less likelihood there is of its increasing in technical value and in price as it grows older, the earlier does this age occur. The lower the rate of interest the more closely does the rotation yield- ing the greatest interest correspond to the rotation which produces the most valuable product." As opposed to this idea, however, it should be noted that not the greatest, but a suitable interest on the forest working capital is demanded by the German advo- cates of the theory of net returns. From these three propositions are drawn defin^e policies for economic management (I. c). Among these it is of special interest to note that by proper thinning the age of maturity is advanced while at the same time the production of the stands is increased, and that the capital, upon which the income is dependent, is diminished by the same. The increasing value of timbers justifies more intensive utilization. The question of underwood and the increased length of rotation are justified by that fact. The in- fluence of the rate of interest is exhibited in the fact that a reduction of it results in a longer financial rotation in such a way, however, that the rotation period corre- sponding to the highest mean value increment, and that corresponding to the greatest net revenue are equal only when the rate of interest is equal to zero. In spite of the simphcity and clarity of the arguments whose chief points have been rehearsed, no adequate basis can be derived from the literature cited, for the rotation period which can be considered correct for a given forest region and given species. The examples cited rest mainly upon hypothetical suppositions; they give very in- definite results. The first of these three propositions, namely, that the rotation corre- sponding to the maximum yield culminates just before the culmination of the mean annual increment, allows very wide variation. For the maximum mean annual incre- ment occurs, as has been mentioned under (a) not at any one definite age, but somewhere within a long period comprising or exceeding an entire century. More definite inferences as to the rotation period for the French State forests can be drawn from' the actual condition of the forests themselves than from the Uterature. The oak stands under consideration, in the forests of Bellime and Berc6 as well as the stands of fir in the Vosges, can serve as admirable examples from which to deduce more definite economic principles. Both are typical of the kind of stand to which a consistent observance of the principles of the greatest net forest revenue or of the greatest mean value increment will lead; moderate degree of thinning, dense stocking, long rotation period. The volume and value resulting from this system are of a definite amount. Restricted to the revenue at maturity the mean value increment of the stands men- tioned, which consists of 34,255 cubic feet valued at 40 francs ($7.70), amoimts to 39,000 -5- 210 = (in round numbers) 180 francs per hectare ($14 per acre) ; this is one of the highest which has hitherto resulted under management anywhere, or been ex- tensively described. The figures given above, however, indicate that, in spite of this, the mean value increment has not yet attained its maximum. Even when the annual volume increment amounts to only 0.5 per cent, and the annual increase in value like- 484 APPENDIX wise to only 0.5 per cent the stands, if they remain uncut, increase in value in a larger 39 000 ratio than is indicated by the increase in age. The numerator of the fraction ' - , which represents the mean annual value increment, at that per cent increases in the ratio of 100 to 101, while the denomination becomes larger only in the ratio of 210 to 211. From the standpoint of the greatest net forest revenue the stands under consideration have been properly managed; if the standard for their management, however, is to be the greatest mean value increment, they should not be cut yet but should be retained as capital imtil the per cent of volume and value increments correspond approximately to the ratio between the annual increase in age and the present age. Of course, as soon as it is demanded in forestry that the remaining growing stock shall yield interest, even at only a moderate per cent, the factors concerned in the economical production of stands are entirely changed. From the standpoint of the theory of net profits on the land which this suggestion is equivalent to, it would have been impossible to grow such stands as the mature oak we are discussing, or even the French fir stands in the Vosges. Accurate citations as to the time and severity of thinnings, the amount of growing stock, and the length of the rotation cannot be made without detailed computa- tions and voliuninous material. The opinion presented can, however, readily be proved as one of general acceptance. In connection with the determination of the results of applying the theory of net in- come to oak high forest with long rotation period it should be mentioned that for this only moderate rates of interest (2.5 to 3 per cent) are to be used. It should be borne in mind, in addition, that under permanent management, the forest and its contained growing stock constitute a uniform entity. A part of the growing stock is also embraced within the younger and the middle-aged stands; hence the rate of interest on the growing stock may be suificient even though that of the oldest age classes of a given working unit have fallen below that required on the entire capital. But even by appljdng this conservative supposition the stands tmder discussion would be unable to satisfy the demands for payment of interest. In contrast to management for the greatest mean value increment which would leave those stands to grow for a yet longer period, the theory of net income from the land requires that they be thinned and opened up earUer and more heavily. The number of trees per hectare must be reduced to a greater extent in the course of gradual thinnings so that at the age of 200 years only about half (40 instead of 80 per acre) shall be present. As a result of such management the working capital will be diminished, the increment of individual trees is increased, and the interest influenced favorably by both. Under such conditions and with the favorable site factors present the miscellaneous stock, upon the production of which such importance is rightly attached in administering the French State forests, could be raised with rotation periods of 160 to 180 years. (d) OWNERSHIP OP THE LAND The conditions of property ownership have hitherto had a great influence in France in deciding upon the age of maturity and the characteristic form of forest which shall be regarded as normal and whose establishment shall be sought. Nowhere are the differ- ences in the character of the forest, according to the ownership of the land, more clearly emphasized than in France. Even in the literature this is stated definitely, though not without exaggeration. Tassy says in reference to this: "It is not to be hoped that pri- vate owners will ever find it to their interests to manage their forests as high forest. For in such a case not only will the rate of interest on the money fall off considerably, but which are conditions far more difficult of attainment, the imposisibility of predicting future conditions, immediate needs, the uncertainty of the immediate future, would all GEKMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 485 have to cease to play a role in human activities." This general conception was discussed more in detail in the Handbook of the Paris Exposition where it is said: "The private owner seldom manages broadleaves (Angiosperms) as high forest. They prefer coppice and coppice with standards with short rotation periods. The conifers (Gymnosperms) they use as soon as they seem available, without letting them reach that size which quaUfies them as valuable economic species." The actual condition of the forests con- firms these descriptions in the literature. It is also granted that as a rule the State is different in the matter of management, that other working systems are chosen, and that other rotation periods are employed, than is true for the private individuals. In addition to the Government's high forests, characterized by large capital and long rota- tion periods, there are the communal coppice with standards stands, characterized by a small stock of overwood, and the extensive sprout lands of private owners. The question as to what influence the conditions of ownership exercise upon the condi- tion and management of forests is of considerable general importance. While perhaps to a lesser extent than in France, similar differences are found in all countries, even in the German forest regions. Adjoining the great areas of most of the German State forests in mountainous regions (Harz Mountains, Thuringian forests, Spessart, etc.), and on the plains, there are often found poor forests, owned by peasants, upon essentially similar soil. The causes of these differences are to be found partly in poor management. By the removal of too much of the forest litter, irregular cutting, deficient superintend- ence, the demands for a good condition of the forest are by no means met. The destruc- tion of forests in nearly all countries is directly traceable to private ownership. But even under good management (which must be assumed if questions of principles are to be discussed) there are notable differences dependent upon the conditions of ownership. Government forests are always more conservatively managed than those belonging to private owners. The recognition that there are differences depending upon the conditions of ownership, which make themselves felt in the condition of forests and their management, has led to the assumption that there are in forestry — just as in business in general — two different systems of management dependent upon the ownership of property, a system for private owners which leads to short rotation periods and extensive management, and a system for public owners which is characterized by long rotation periods and large forest capital. Not merely the advocates of extreme socialism have inscribed upon their banners the contrast between private and cooperative management, but champions, also, of a more moderate economic course have had recourse to the double system mentioned, in ex- plaining the differences in the condition of forests which we are discussing, and in char- acterizing the resulting problems of future management. Diverse, however, as are the forest conditions and the objects of organization in the State and private forests that is no reason for trying to establish different systems of management. The causes of this diversity must be sought in other conditions. They are to be found in forest history than which the history of no other branch of eco- nomics has more far-reaching results. The distance of the forest from the consumer is another guiding factor. The forests which are in the possession of the State are prefer- ably the more remote forests, the forests located at the interior of large wooded areas of mountain and plain. The greater the distance from the market, the longer does the rotation period become. The financial conditions, also, have an influence upon the rota^ tion period. Those owners, alone, are in a position to manage their forests on a long rotation (ignoring the interest), who have sufficient means, who are independent of the immediate reahzation of income from the capital, and who have a permanent interest in the condition of the forest. No other owners fulfill these requirements to so great an extent as the State. Finally, it must be taken into consideration that the State has, 486 APPENDIX besides its efficiency as a manager, also to take into consideration problems of political economy, not only in regard to production, but also economic relations. It is desirable that it should exert a favorable influence in that direction upon all the forests of the country. But it stands to reason, and is in accord with the status of legislation in all countries, that this shall be most emphatically done in its own forests. Even in time to come there will still be differences of the kind mentioned — not merely in forest management but also in economic life in general. Even in future times the State forests will, as a rule, be more conservatively managed than most private forests. It is not an inevitable result of this, however, that under State or communal management a portion of the cost of production cannot be taken into account — which is the present point of difference in economic principles. Forest owners (State, commimity, etc.), even if they favor communal interests, need not, as the champions of all socialistic tendencies demanded, renounce the interest on a portion of the capital invested (Pro- duktionsgrundlagen). On the contrary, the most general rule apphcable to all kinds of forest ownership demands that in regulating management all costs of production in labor, capital, and land must be reckoned at their fuU value. But there could well be differences in the cost of production depending on the character of the forest ownership, resulting from variations in the size of the growing stock and the rate of interest charged. An analogous condition exists in agriculture. Indeed, the inter-relationships of labor, capital, and land vary according to the character of the ownership even if the objects of management be identical. The greater conservatism which characterizes State forest management cannot, however, be regarded as an indication of self-sacrifice on the part of the treasury department or of a readiness to give up claim to a part of the investment. The State does not need to give up all claims to the interest on the capital and on the value of the land in the interests of either present or future generations. The advocates of management for financial returns may expect, rather, that the woods which the com- ing political economy needs most urgently will best be paid for on the basis of their cost of production with which must be included the discounted value of the cost of cultiva- tion, and the interest on the investment. In that case it is demanded of State manage- ment, however, that the rotation period shall not be longer than is required, in accordance with silvicultural principles, for the production of that particular kind of product which constitutes the object of the management. The French forest management which, because of its moderate thinnings and long rotation period, is characterized by very small interest on the investment, is susceptible of radical improvement along just these lines. As opposed to the demand for an acceleration of production and a shortening of the rotation period which must be demanded of the French management of State forests, intelligent private owners have of late seen fit to change their hitherto extensive manage- ment to a more intensive sjrstem, and to lengthen their rotation periods. This is the direct result of the market conditions for the various grades of product. The prices of the smaller products (twigs, bark) have declined because of the competi- tion by charcoal and other substitutes, while those of the higher grade lumber have risen not only actually, but relatively, in comparison with other commodities. Furthermore, as was evident from the great number of the cross sections exhibited at the Paris Exposi- tion, it has become a matter of common knowledge in Prance that properly conducted thinnings and openings exercise a very favorable influence upon the progress of diameter increment, upon which the rotation period is dependent. Mention is made, also, in the Handbook of the Paris Exposition of the changes wrought by this in the viewpoint of private owners, in the following words: "A change is imminent in the conditions which have hitherto existed (profitableness of the coppice system, and of short rotations). The rise in wages and the absence of a market for charcoal have reduced the value of coppice GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 487 stands. Private owners are finding themselves forced to lengthen the rotation periods in the same. ... At the same time the declining rate of interest and the increase in the price of wood are leading forest owners, to a greater and greater extent, to increase the amount of capital invested in forests and to defer the utilization of the stands until a more advanced age." As in France, so in many German forest regions, we find factors which determine the sort of management which shall be practiced by the Government and by others. Even here many private owners may, in view of the present conditions and future possibilities, well increase the length of their rotations. Even for private management the rule holds good that those prodiicts must be grown which best meet the requirements of economic conditions. That this demand frequently is not met, that many private forests are left unutilized and reverted to waste lands — evident from the poor, careless management and unsuitable working units ("dwarf management" (Zwergbetriebe)) — is the cause of the financial position of many forest estates. Very often private owners are not in a position to maintain their resources in the unavailable form of standing forest capital, because they need them for very definite purposes; they have to have it in a more readily available form and for that reason often clean-cut the stands even when the increment in volume and value would be greater than the interest on the readily avail- able capital. For leading the way toward better conditions in this regard it is desirable that renting of forests be facilitated in a manner similar to the measures of the German Forestry Association (Deutscher Forstverein). From what has been said it can be seen that it is desirable at present in France, and in other countries as well, that the systems of management in private and in State forests be brought into closer accord. The economic laws and principles upon which manage- ment depends are restricted neither to State nor to private forests, but are of universal appUcation. For this reason, also, the claim that there are opposed principles of manage- ment — a private and a social — is not to be accepted absolutely, in spite of the great influence upon management of consideration for the community and for the future. As a matter of fact they are not sustained under the economic conditions which, hyiwthetic- aUy, they favor. COPPICE WITH STANDARDS, AND SIMPLE COPPICE"' Coppice with Standards. — Coppice with standards is a system of management found in almost every part of France. It is most strongly advocated for the communal forests. According to the statistics cited '' the State forests comprise 269,707 hectares (666,465 acres) of coppice with standards which equals 26 per cent of the entire forest area; the communal forests 936,305 hectares (2,313,694 acres), 49 per cent. Since the French forests of coppice with standards comprise only a little overwood, and the sprout lands are stocked mainly with reserved standards, it is not always possible to draw a sharp distinction between the two. Both systems belong to the rigime du iaillis which is characterized by sprout reproduction as distinct from the rigime de la ftUaie where reproduction is secured from seeds. Within the same rSgime further distinctions are made according to the method of handling (mode de traitment). In the case of coppice with standards the group system (mode de idairdes) is looked upon as different from the selection system (mode de jardinage). Similar distinctions are made within the rigime du taillis: he taillis simple, "exploite entih-ement & hlanc 6toc ou sans autres reserves que des baliu- « "Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt," 1908, pp. 655-65. " In the Handbook of the Exposition of 1900. The figures in the staUstique forestikre of 1870 differ considerably because in the interval extensive changes have occurred. 488 APPENDIX eaux de I' age qui seront abbaltus & la rioolution suivante" (coppice "cut entirely, or with- out other reserves than of an age which will be felled at the next cutting"). Le taiUis composb ou taillis sovis futaie "dans leqiiel les baliveaux reserves sont destines & Tester sur pied pendant au mains trois reoolviions" (coppice with standards, in which the reserved trees are intended to remain standing for at least three rotations) . (Definitions from the official Statistique Joresiikre, Forest Statistics.) Since, however, no binding definitions can be applied to the question of reserving standards in private forests, essential variations occur in practice. The peculiarity of the coppice with standards system, consisting of the juxtaposition of isolated uneven-aged seedlings and even-aged sprouts, has persisted much longer and more definitely in France than in most German forests. Their management has been extraordinarily conservative for centimes. Even now the visitor to the forests comes across the old monuments and bounded areas reserved in determining upon the manage- ment and working limits, which were established in accordance with the ordinances of Colbert. The communal forests, likewise, have been imder management for more than two centuries. In Germany, coppice with standards, which was formerly extensively employed in well settled regions of hardwood forest, has tmdergone far greater changes. In many cases it had already developed into irregular transition forms by the 17th and 18th centuries. In the 19th century it lost its original character, even in the case of well-regulated management, because of the fact that systematic efforts were being made in the direction of establishing a generous forest capital of overwood. With such a stand of overwood as most of the German advocates of coppice stands with standards recommended " — doubtless rightly, considering the increased revenue — the advanced reproduction of the underwood could not maintain itself vigorous over the entire area; it was partly destroyed. This is true to a yet greater extent when the overwood is held over in the form of groups as is frequently looked upon as the rule. Similar condi- tions exist respecting regeneration, which likewise is conducted mainly in the form of groups. In a group the growth of the young stuff is in accordance with the laws of growth characteristic of the high forest. The following notes on the French system of managing coppice with standards (apart from stands which were observed from time to time in the course of the railroad ride) apply, chiefly, only to a small forest of 193 hectares (476 acres), belonging to the hospital at Blois which we were permitted to inspect very minutely at the point where it ad- joined a high forest on a similar range under the management of a forest manager. In spite of its small acreage it was, nevertheless, very well suited for giving a person an idea of the features which characterize the French system of managing coppice with standards. The condition of this forest affords excellent data on the history of the standards, the political measures of the French administration, and the technical principles of management. Moreover, the revenues from the management for a decade, which were told us, afford a very good basis for forming an estimate of the economic value of the system of coppice with standards. The organization under consideration is of general interest, first with regard to the technical management, and, secondly, with regard to a review of the system of coppice with standards from the economic standpoint. (a) TECHNICAL ASPECTS OP THE TREATMENT OP THE COPPICE WITH STANDARDS The standard in accordance with which the management of coppice with standards is regulated is in France, on the whole, very uniformly maintained. The unforeseen " E. G. Schuberg. Zur Betriebsstatistik im Mittelwald (Statistics of management for coppice with standards) (city forest of Durlach, with 250-350 m.' (8,830-12.360 cubic feet)); Lauprecht, Aus dem MUhlhailser Mittelwald (250 m.') (8,830 cubic feet). (From the coppice with standards forest of Muhlhaus.) GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 489 difficulties in determining the yield which have led, in Germany, to the proposing of special formulas have not been prominent in France. The regulation of income and the extent of the cuttings conformable to condition of the system of management being employed are upon' the area basis. In the forest region under consideration the greater part (three-quarters) of the forested area was divided into 25 regeneration compartments of 5.75 hectares (14.2 acres) each. A quarter of the entire area was excluded from this classification and constituted a reserve to be included in the utUization only in case of unusual demand. Such exceptional demands always occur, however, some time within the course of the 25-year periods so that the establishment of such a reserve does not involve a permanent change of the rotation period. The estabUshing of such reserves is a pecuUarity of the French communal forests, which are under the strict supervision of the State. Even Colbert ordere'd their forma- tion: "The celebrated ordinance of 1669 commands that a fourth of all woodlands belonging to the clergy, to ecclesiastical corporations, to the pubhc, etc., be constituted a reserve. The rest of the area had to be included in the regular cuttings." The reserves are either permanently located in some definite place, "reserves d, assiette fixe, dUimiUe et marquie sur le terrain"; or they are shifting reserves, "reserves d assiette mobih," "of such a sort that instead of cutting each year the area or volume which expresses the annual yield only three-fourths of this yield is left over for the meeting of unforeseen necessities." In the hospital forest at Blois the method of fixed reserves was used; and this seems, also, to be the general practice. Of 8,775.13 hectares (21,684.10 acres) of communal forest which were seen here, the arrangement of permanently located reserves was applied over 7,550.68 hectares (18,658.40 acres). The 25-year rotation practiced in the hospital forest of Blois is somewhat below the average for forests under Government administration. According to the department of agriculture's statistics the figures for the coppice with standards for the entire country are as follows: they are managed under a rotation period of — 10-19 20-29 30 years and up In Government forests In communal foieats 7,071 hectares = 4.1% 24,605 hectares = 2.7% 81,557 hectares = 49.9% 707,803 hectares = 77.5% 75,521 hectares = 46% 181,949 hectares = 19.8 of the area The rotation period for the underwood is, according to this, even longer than is customary in Germany. Its choice is the result of economic considerations. The aim of the management, especially in the communal forests, is directed constantly to the production of better firewood (fagots). The most important problem of forest adjustment in the coppice with standards is the regulation of the overwood which constitutes the peculiar characteristic of this system of management. The overwood is classified by age classes determined on the basis of the rotation periods in the underwood. They are distinguished: (1) Baliveaux de I'dge (reserves), which are a rotation period older than the sprouts of the underwood; (2) Modemes (standards of two rotations), which have been twice reserved; and (3) Anciens (veterans), which are in the fourth rotation of the underwood. Eventually there is added to these yet a fourth class, la vieille icorce (old standards). According to this the age of maturity for the overwood under a 25-year rotation period for the underwood would be 100 years; in the case of a 30-year rotation for the under- 490 APPENDIX wood, 120 years. The system is not followed mechanically, but vigorous trees are, rather, left standing longer without, however, practicing this to so great an extent as is customary in many German forests. As to the number of trees per hectare in the several age classes, tolerably definite rules were given. The closeness of the stands is astonishing. In the forest at Blois the numbers in the various age classes, for the annual cut, amounted to: Baliveaux — total, 287; per hectare, 50 (20 per acre). Modemes — total, 81; per hectare, 14 (6 per acre). Anciens — total, 34; per hectare, 6 (2 per acre). According to this, very light cuttings are made. The 25- to 30-year-oId baliveaux contain only a very small volume; even the modemes are mainly trees with a content of less than 35 cubic feet. And the few anciens with about 35 to 70 cubic feet could have no great influence upon the total volume of wood taken from the entire cutting area. In the cutting areas which we saw, in which final cuttings had been made not long since, the entire overwood was estimated at 1,410 to 1,765 cubic feet. It is true that many advocates of the French system of forest management recommend a larger amount of overwood capital. But actually the maximiun amount retained at the beginning of the rotation amounts to only 1,145 cubic feet per acre. This is far less than correspondents testify is the practice in the German management of coppice with standards. The hospital forest of Blois does not vary much, in its composition and in the pro- portion of overwood, from the figures which are cited for the entire country. Accord- ing to the department of agriculture's statistics the following relative figures per hectare were obtained for the fiscal year (Wirtschaftsjahr) 1876: Baliveaux Modemes Anciens Government forest Communal forest 39 (16 per acre) 64 (26 per acre) 11 (4 per acre) 18 (7 per acre) 2 (1 per acre) 5 (2 per acre) In individual parts of the country there are, of course, great differences. Individual conservations (districts) (Dijon, Rouen, Nancy, Amiens, etc.), contain over 100 baliveaux and over 30 modernes per hectare (40 and 12, respectively, per acre). The details of the management of the coppice with standards belonging to the State and administered by the State are worked out in accordance with the fundamental principles of the system far more systematically than in Germany. Here it is always looked upon as a difficult sort of management which makes special demands on the tact and activity of the organizing and executive officers. "Im Mitldwalde der Zu- kunft," is observed in the papers of the convention of German foresters at Dresden in 1889 "musz die intensivsie Bemrtschaftung, reine Baumwirtschaft Anwendung findem, wenn derselbe den an seine ProdukticU'dt, an seine Geldertrage und Nachhaltigkeit zu s(ei- lenden Aufforderungen entsprechen soil" ("In the coppice with standards of the future the most intensive management, pure forestry, must find application if the same is to meet the demands placed upon it, in its productivity, its money revenues, and its per- manence"). Nevertheless, it will only be very seldom that such a goal will be sought and attained in the future. It leads to a very large capital of overwood and to the death or degeneration of the underwood. Such a tendency results in a gradual chang- ing of the coppice with standards to a regulated selection forest which is a yet better system of management for attaining the objects proposed. In most German forest regions this change has already commenced; in Prussia the coppice with standards is scarcely represented at present. Its distinguishing characteristic, the reserving of GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 491 vigorous sprouts, demands an extensive management for the overwood, and hence it is thus that it is managed in the French State and communal forests. The predominating species in the French coppice with standards stands is the oak. It, alone, is recorded in the statistics. In Blois it occupied 95 per cent of the forest area. The oak, under the favorable conditions of site in central France, is characterized by good sprouting capacity and abundant seed production. The renovation of over- wood and underwood is effected, therefore, chiefly by natural regeneration and sprout- ing in a very satisfactory manner. In most instances, artificial regeneration is to be considered when large oaks, of which there are only a few per hectare, are rooted out. The rooting out of trees of a specified size is required of the buyer. AAThen such root- ing out has taken place the buyer is required to plant such places with oak or deposit the amount required for this planting. The places on which the wood has been worked must also be planted up by the buyer. He, moreover, is required to prune the reserved trees and this must be done to a height of 20 feet from the ground. These regulations are not mere matters of pen and ink; they are skilfully, carefully, and thoroughly carried out so that the visitor to the cutting areas receives the most favorable impression of the system. The impression one receives of the care of the underwood is not so favorable. Thiimings are not made in the underwood in the Blois forest — and the conditions at Blois are not exceptional — although, with the long rotation period,ithey would be just as much in order as in the coppice stands for which their importance is demonstrated by the numerous tree sections at the Paris Exposition. The maintenance, also, of volun- tary seedlings and the preparation of the poles of the overwood for isolation indicate timely appUcation of cleanings and thinnings in the underwood. The form of the purchase, however, makes for difficulties in this respect. The buyer, who has to get out the timber itself, has no interest in the small wood resulting from thinnings. (b) ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OP COPPICE WITH STANDARDS Of most importance for the future of coppice with standards in France is not a well- developed technique, but its relations to economic conditions. The question as to whether coppice with standards, which comprises some 3,000,000 hectares (7,413,270 acres) in France, yields profits commensurate with the best utilization of the land is of great influence upon its future management and the methods of regulation. The answer is dependent, on the one hand, upon the volume and value of the material which it furnishes, and on the other, upon the cost and working methods which are existent or which would have to be introduced in order to produce this volume and value. The production of volume in the French coppice with standards stands can be very well indicated. On the basis of economic results a much more trustworthy judgment can be found for it than is possible in the case of the high forest. Utilization in the coppice with standards stands has long been much more uniform. In the forest at Blois which we visited the income corresponding to the increment amounts annually to large cuts on the 5.74 hectare (15-acre) cutting areas: In the year 1891, 548; 1892, 554; 1893-1894, 931; 1895, 540; 1896, 547; 1897, 501; 1898, 517; 1899, 547 m.». Accord- ing to this, the average volume of the annual cut on the 5.74 hectare (15-acre) amounts to 91 m.' per hectare (1,300 cubic feet per acre). This is equivalent to a yearly utilizar tion of 3.6 m.' (127 cubic feet) for a 25-year rotation. In the adjacent high forest, occupying a smiliar site, the annual jdeld amounts to 3.3 m.' (117 cubic feet). The volume actually used in the two systems, therefore, differs but slightly; but the coppice with standards system is in the lead. If the conditions throughout the country are compared this difference is seen to be even more favorable to the system of coppice with standards. According to the statistics of the department of soils and commerce (Aeker- und Handehministerium) there were used per hectare of forest area in the year 1876: 492 APPENDIX In the State high forest, 2.91 m.' (41.6 cubic feet per acre); communal, 1.73m.' (24.7 cubic feet per acre). In the coppice with standards, 4.26 m.' (61.0 cubic feet per acre); communal, 4.00 m.' (57.2 cubic feet per acre). If that kind of figures were to be re- garded as decisive the coppice with standards would obviously be the more profitable type of management. But such a conclusion is probably unjustified. Statistics must not be perverted to overthrow accepted existing facts. In view of the fundamental principles of increment the production of wood, other things being equal, cannot be greater in coppice with standards stands than in high forest, but really must be less. In the large amount of brushwood itself, constituting almost half the entire cutting, in which is contained much more of the soil nutrients than in the wood more than 2.8 inches in diameter at the small end (Derbholz) or in an abtmdant seed crop of isolated trees ofjthe overwood, there are two fundamental impulses which, as far as sustained an- nual increment is concerned, act on the negative side of the balance. Moreover, stock- ing is seldom as complete in the stands of coppice with standards as in the regulated high forest. To understand the conflict of the French statistics of income with the actual inevitable conditions, it must be remembered that in coppice with standards stands, which are conducted very uniformly as far as rotation period and growing stock are concerned, the entire increment is used and is used earUer, so that income and increment are, at least approximately, equal. In the high forest this is not true. In the case of these, especially in the State forests, utilization has remained very much lower than increment. Moreover, in France as in other countries, coppice with standards stands are located preferably on the more favorable sites. High mountains, rugged sites, stony soils, are no sites for the coppice with standards. In many German States there have likewise been evident results similar to those in France. The grand duchy of Baden's statistics show the revenue from stands of coppice with standards as earlier and greater than that from the high forests. But more recent statistics demonstrate that the results obtained from the management of the high forest there are really superior to those from coppice with standards, under similar treatment especially when thinnings are properly conducted, and in spite of the imfavorable sites it occupies. This view is, indeed, shared even by the exponents of the French system of forest management, who have at their disposal a comprehensive knowledge of conditions throughout the country. In Chapter 4, Part 2, of his work, "De I'exploitahiliti dans ses rapports avec I'inUrit public" (The age of maturity in its bearing upon the pubUc interests), Tassy summarizes the results obtained with high forest and with coppice with standards. He arrives at the conclusion that under average conditions of growth the high forest under good management could yield 6 m.' per hectare (86 cubic feet per acre) — "chiffre irks modirS (a very conservative figure)." The average yield from stands of coppice with standards is, on the contrary, estimated at 4.30 m. (63 cubic feet per acre). This unfavorable showing of the absolute production of the coppice with standards cannot be compensated for even by the ratio of increment to capital, or the growth per cent. Compared with the high forest managed on a very long rotation period with a proportionately large number of trees per hectare, the system of coppice with standards does, it is true, present a very favorable appearance in the connection. But it is easy to deceive one's self in that regard by measurements of single trees. The com- parative annual increments of the coppice with standards are very unequal. Especially, after the felling of the underwood and openings in the overwood, the growth per cents, of the yoimger age classes in particular, are very high, far higher than is necessary for meeting the demands made on the production by the stands. Later^ these conditions are changed. They result more unfavorably than is the case in the high forest where the decline in increment in the pole and standard ages can be far better met by means of vigorous thinnings and openings. GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 493 The work prepared by certain French forest owners for the Paris Exposition affords information on the increase of volume which occurs in the course of a rotation period. It deals fundamentally with stands of coppice with standards with moderately large growing stock of overwood and four age classes the numbers of whose trees per hectare stand in the ratio of 8 (baliveaux) to 4 (modemes) to 2 (anciens) to 1 {vieille Scarce). The effect of the increased volume is that with a 25-year rotation period the volume of the stands increases in the ratio of 1 to 2; with a 30-year rotation in the ratio of 1 to 2.5. The system of coppice with standards seems the poorer form of management as compared with the high forest, more because of the poor quality of the wood produced than because of its small volume. It does not satisfy the demands which have been made for the most important technical properties (clean full boles). The reduction in the number of trees per hectare to about 50 (20 per acre), which occurs at the age of 25 years, has the natural result that the twigs which are present at a height of about 3 to 5 m. (10 to 15 feet) remain and develop. Corresponding to the formation of large, deep-rooted twigs is the formation of broad annual rings which are laid on for a longer time until decreased under the influence of the underwood growing up about them and of the increasing seed production. Branchy tapering trees of imequal height are the natural result in coppice with standards stands tmder the conditions of growth described. The influence of the type of management on the quality of the wood is clearly shown by presenting yield statistics. In the forests of Blois the volume and financial returns in the past decade were as foUows: Year Yield Auction prices m.» Total franca Per m.>, francs 1891 1892 18931 1894/ 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 543 554 931 540 547 501 617 547 8,500 8,100 12,200 6,300 7,350 6,150 6,275 7,500 15.65 14.62 13.10 11.67 13.44 12.28 12.14 13.71 Total 4,680* 62,376 t 13.33 t * 165,276 cubic feet. t $12,048.40. J $0.07 per cubic foot. The average cubic meter is thus seen to be valued at 13.33 francs, while the adjacent Government high forest has yielded almost double this price for the average cubic meter. Relative figures similar to those given us for the forest region which we visited at Blois exist likewise for the entire country. According to the department of agriculture's statistics, in the fiscal year 1876: The value of the average cubic meter amounted in the Government forest to 16.26 francs (9 cents per cubic foot) ; in the communal forest to 8.42 francs (5 cents per cubic foot) ; the yield per year and hectare in the Govern- ment forest to 38.59 francs ($3 per acre); in the communal forest to 22.70 francs ($1.82 per acre). The chief cause for the difference per cubic meter and in the annual revenue is to be found in the preponderance of coppice with standards in the communal forests. In 494 APPENDIX individual parts of the country figures on the conditions of site stand, and market will be found very different. For the conservation of Tours, which forms part of the forests visited, the yield per hectare was: in the State forest, 40.59 francs ($3.17 per acre) for coppice with standards; 44.83 francs ($3.50 per acre) for conversion stands; 64.35 francs ($5.13 per acre) for broad leaf (Angiosperms) high forest; in the communal forest, 44.21 francs ($3.45 per acre) for coppice with standards, 63.68 francs ($4.98 per acre) for high forest. How little timber the French coppice with standards produces as a whole is evident from Tassy's summary, where he says of it: "In a normal coppice with standards stand the overwood constitutes not more than a third of the volume of the annual cut; and if we grant that in the overwood a half yields timber we are giving it just as much as possible. So if I place the timber at one-sixth the volume cut I need not be accused of trying to reduce the ratio." The following estimate, based on this, shows that of 13 million cubic meters (460,000,000 cubic feet) produced by French coppice with standards stands, only 2} million cubic meters (88,000,000 cubic feet) can be sold as timber. In the department of agriculture 's statistics the per cents of timber for the fiscal year 1876 are given as foUows: For State coppice with standards, 23 per cent; for commimal, 12 per cent; for State high forest, 51 per cent; for communal, 42 per cent. From what has been said there can be no question that the system of coppice with standards does not meet the economic demands which must be made of forest manage- ment in France. It was, as in Germany, of importance in the past. As long as fire- wood was a prime necessity for the entire population wood was needed in proportionately small sizes, and since in most forest regions there were insurmountable difficulties in the way of timber traffic it formed a very good system of management for those woodlands located near the consumers. Hence we find the following note to the department's statistics, concerning communal forests: "It must be appreciated that for this kind of forest ownership, it is a very suitable system. Furnishing the inhabitants, as it does, with a variety of species and kinds of wood it meets their requirements better than does the high forest." But the character of the demands made upon the woodlands has suffered a radical change in the course of the 19th century. In all essential respects coppice with standards is inferior to the high forest; in its relations to the soil as well as in its bearings on yield. For maintaining soil fertihty coppice with standards is not an especially commendable silvicultural system. The mere fact that those species which form the best soil cover do not occur in it is a factor of unfavorable influence. Likewise the difficulty of amalgamating overwood and underwood into a uniform canopy. More important yet are its economic shortcomings. It stands in opposition to the general economic principle that with progressive development of the cultivation of the land, all management must be more intensively conducted, and at a greater outlay of labor and capital. The kinds most demanded by the French economic conditions, loppings and wood for splitting (Schneide- und Spaltholz), are produced only in very small quantities. It is, therefore, to the general economic interests of the country that the stands of coppice with standards be changed over into high forest as quickly as the financial condition of the owners permits. This is recognized as the right principle even m France. As far as the State forests are concerned the change has already been effected over large areas, and is to a great extent in progress elsewhere. The 1876 statistics give the stands in process of conversion in the State forests as 290,227 hectares (717,170 acres), the Handbook of 1900 as 124,374 hectares (307,340 acres). For the communal forests this change can proceed only very gradually because of the financial sacrifice involved. FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE 495 APPENDIX J THE FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORKAINE » Area. — The forests of Alsace-Lorraine cover 1,085,520 acres; this is 30.3 per cent of the total land area, and 47 per cent of the area in agriculture, and corresponds to 0.6 of an acre of forest per inhabitant. Therefore Alsace-Lorraine with 30.3 per cent has ahnost twice the proportional forest area that France proper possesses — 18.7 per cent; and it is even above the average for Europe which is 28.8 per cent, but below that of the Vosges Department — 36.9 per cent. Since 1871 the average in acres under forests, divided according to ownership, has been as follows; Year State Undivided Communal Public institution Private 1871 330,652 330,930 337,016 337,112 343,119 44,469 42,472 40,273 40,162 40,053 487,574 490,295 491,958 494,184 491,342 1881 1891 1901 1913 5,966 208,069 This makes a grand total of 1,088,549 acres in 1913 but (to check with the correct total area) from this total must be subtracted 3,029 acres, probably due to incomplete statis- tics on private forests, which gives a net total of 1,085,520 acres. From these statistics it is evident that the area of State forests was increased 12,467 acres and the commimal forests 3,768 acres under German management. About half the increase in State forest area was due to piirchases and half to transfers from forests formerly in imdivided owner- ship. It is of interest that there were no less than 1,123 communes owning communal forests, or about 438 acres average per commune in 1913. A very much larger propor- tion of the forest area is in public ownership than in France proper as may be seen from the following table: Class of ownership Per cent owned by classes ot owners Haute-Alsace Basse-AIsace Lorraine • State Per cent 17.85 Per cent 25.73 10.14 * 45.85 0.77 17.51 Per cent 47 62 Undivided Communes 65.38 0.18 16.59 27 57 61 Private 24 20 Totals 100 100 100 * The most important forest in undivided ownership is Haguenau, with 35,313 acres. This is one of the most interesting forests in Alsace-Lorraine. 1 Digested from Les Forfits d' Alsace et de Lorraine, par H. Lafosse, Vol. II, Traveaux et Notices publids par TAcadfimie d'Agriculture de France, 1919. Based on 1913 statistics collected by the German Forest Service. A literal translation of the subject headings of the above monograph is as follows: "Area of forests, Methods of treatment and distribution of species, Free use. Forest administrative organization. Management 496 APPENDIX Only one-fifth the forest area is in private hands and in Haute-Alsace two-thirds the forests are in the hands of the communes. Deforestation is rare; from 1871 to 1912 only 2,923 acres of State forest, 6,642 acres of communal, and 9,768 acres of private forest (total of 19,333 acres) has been cleared — a negligible per cent for a period of over 40 years. Since Alsace-Lorraine was annexed by Germany a total of 13,919 acres has been reforested, or about 331 acres per year. There is only about 74,000 acres of barren land, of which at least 49,000 is excellently adapted for grazing, leaving perhaps 25,000 acres to be restocked. This compares most favor- ably with France proper, where there is perhaps 15 milhon acres of unused soil, at least two-thirds of which could be forested. Important Species. — " Besides, in the forests of the recovered territory there are found the best species (fir, pine, oak, beech) and the production of timber, favored by a climate suitable for growth, reaches the average figure of 4.1 cubic meters per hectare per year" (perhaps 250 to 300 board feet per acre per year). According to Lafosse: "The forests are located for the most part in the Vosges Mountains and on their lower slopes; the Lorraine plateau is also stocked with forests and they are foimd in the valley of the Rhine as islands (of forest), some very important stands, notably Haguenau and Hardt (Mulhausen)." The fir and beech (high forests) are foiind chiefly on the Vosges sands (gres vosgien) and the granites, while the oak-beech (coppice and coppice-under- standards) is on the marls and limestone. The area, by species, in the high forests is as follows: Beech 34 J per cent, fir 32 J per cent, pine 18 per cent, oak 12 J per cent, and birch-alder 2J per cent. There are only 586 acres of larch andabout one-eighth as much spruce as fir. Counting all species the broadleaves comprise seven-tenths of the stand and the conifers three-tenths. Silvicultural Systems. — The method of treatment for (o) the broadleaves and (6) the conifers is as follows: Per cent of total forest area Broadleaves: Coppice 6 Coppice-under-standards 26 Protection forests A of 1 Under conversion 4J Selection tt of 1 High forest 30 Total broadleaves 67^ CoNiPEHs: Selection 1 High forest 31J Total conifers 32J Grand total 100 For all species the high forest systems occupy 64 per cent of the area but comprise 73 per cent in the State forests and 60 per cent in the communal and public institution forests. The age classes, both for conifers and broadleaves, are well distributed, but Lafosse (in keeping with French conservatism) argues that the older stands (over 100 years of age) of the forests, Exploitation of the timber, Material cut. Money yield of the forests, Wood prices. Money value of the State forests of Alsace-Lorraine, Expenditures of the Forest Service, Wood industries. Movement of the exchange of forest products. Shooting in Alsace-Lorraine, Pohcy of shooting, Damage caused by game." These data have been summarized and rearranged. Lafosse is one of the most distinguished French foresters and holds the rank of In- specteur G6n6ral des Eaux et Forfets, and after the armistice was appointed Diiecteur GfoSral des Eaux et ForSts et de 1' Agriculture d' Alsace et de Lorraine. FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE 497 are deficient, occupsring only 14 per cent of the area. The 47,007 acres under conversion are a most noteworthy achievement in economy and are really the feature of the German forest administration, but, according to Lafosse, "The method used was not scientific and was often brutal," there having been according to French technique, too abrupt changes. Administrative Organization. — In 1871 the Germans placed oberforsters (cor- responding to supervisors) in charge of definite units instead of continuing the French system of forest organization which provided for inspectors supervising a considerable area, subdivided and under the immediate charge of assistant inspectors. In addition to the usual duties the oberforster had charge of logging because the product was sold in the log instead of as standing timber as in France. In addition all road improvements were directly under the oberforster as well as the building of ranger stations, and game control. Under the oberforster were the rangers and guards. Over the oberforster was the forstmeister, but in 1881 this position was abolished for poUtical reasons.^ Instead, two or three advisors (or general inspectors) were attached to the ofiice of the ober- forstmeister, who corresponded to the French conservateur or American district forester. The entire service was under a director or landforstmeister. There were about 817 officers in the entire organization of whom 740 were local and 77 overhead. The ober- forster and subordinate force were lodged or given an allowance for quarters. Just how this organization will be modified by the new French administration it is too early to predict but it is fairly certain that the number of ofiicers and employees will be largely reduced (and French officers entirely substituted) ; if sales of timber are again made on the stumpage basis instead of as manufactured products the present organization will be totally changed. Working Plans. — Working plans during the German administration were pre- pared by a commission composed of the oberforstmeister (conservateur) and the ober- forster of the forest concerned and were approved by the landforstmeister (the ranking forester of Alsace-Lorraine), on the advice of the technical working plan bureau. The forests were divided into working groups, sub-working groups, sections, and compart- ments. The timber was divided into age classes and the soil into quality classes, and the periods were usually 20 years or less. The yield was given in cubic meters — never by area or by number of trees. The local officer in charge was boimd to the prescribed yield vnlh a leeway of 10 per cent for overrun or imderrun. It is of interest to read the critique of these plans by Lafosse: "The working plans were very rich in many columned tables; the work was quite com- plicated. At first glance, the French methods, because of their suppleness and simpUcity — where the last word has not yet been said — seem much better. However there is one point in the former working plans which shows real progress over the French system. It is the program of logging roads. The price of timber is closely linked with logging facilities — an elementary truism which need not be further emphasized. The working plan should not only prescribe the best rules for cultural treatment, but it must also dis- close the means of assiuring a handy and economical removal of the products. This principle was applied by the foresters of the former organization." Even the detailed plan of road work was incorporated in the working plan, the de- tails being drawn by'specialists, so that when the working plan was finally approved the supervisor could go ahead with his program. Automatically the necessary credits were included in the budget. * It is of historical interest to note that the difficult and troublesome questions of free- use rights in the old "Cornt^ de Dabo (Lorraine)" were not settled by the Germans. From 1882 to 1908 the value of the free-use privileges nearly doubled. They attempted settlements but for political reasons " withdrew the projects." No wonder they had difficulties when it is recalled that there was a "veritable revolt" in 1848 when French records were burned and foresters shot. 498 APPENDIX The rotations were much shorter than in France. For oak the rotation was rarely over 160 years, beech and fir 120, pine 70 to 80, spruce plantations 80 years — "As we have said before there are no old trees in Alsace-Lorraine." The former method of clear cutting followed by planting, so generally followed, has "during the last ten years . . . shown a tendency toward the natural regeneration methods o] the French." With French control unquestionably natural regeneration will largely replace clear cutting and planting. Logging. — The German administration did its own logging. " The felled timber was transported near the roads. The oberforsters hired the lumberjacks and based their wages on price schedules issued by the conservators. The workmen were super- vised by the guards and especially by the Ivunberjack foremen. The latter were really the ones to direct the logging." The manufactured product was classified according to species and class of product and was auctioned in small lots so as to fill the small local requirements; and with small sales there was better competition and hence higher prices. Sales could not be made by mutual agreement imless the product in question had first been offered at public auction; nor could timber or cordwood be sold at less than 10 per cent of the Tninimum rate (established by the landforstmeister) nor could more than $25 worth be sold, without an auction, to the same purchaser in one fiscal year. No money could be received by forest oflBcers or employees- — it was paid to the "forstkrass" or "caisses forestilres" corresponding to the American fiscal agent's office. Yield Data. — It is of interest to compare the total yield per hectare in Alsace- Lorraine with border departments: Claas of forest Location Year Total yield per hectare, cubic meters Per cent saw timber (bois d'ceuvre) State State Communal State State State Communal Communal Communal Alsace-Lorraine . . . . Alsace-Lorraine . . . . Alsace-Lorraine Haute-Saone Vosges Me urthe-et-Moselle Haute-Saone Vosges Meurthe-et-Moselle 1882 1913 1913 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 3.97 4.29 4.75 4.0 4.4 3.6 4.5 3.4 3.2 36.1 47.3 (88 per cent bois fort)* 4 average 3 . 7 average 47.5] 56.8 [44.1 average 28.0 20.0 41.2 25.6 average 15.6 * It shovild be noted that according to German usage Derbholz or "bois fort" in- cludes some wood which the French statistics do not class as saw timber, namely, " quar- tiers" and "rondins" of the French fuel classes (that is, everything over 2.7 inches at small end). From the above table it appears that the communal forests in Alsace-Lorraine have a lighter yield than the State forests and that the French State forests in three border departments in 1911 averaged 4 cubic meters per hectare per year as compared with 4.29 for the State forests in Alsace-Lorraine; the relative production of saw timber was 44.1 per cent as against 47.3 per cent for Alsace-Lorraine. The French communal forests in these departments were very inferior as regards saw timber because of the high proportion of coppice and coppice-under-standards. Extremely interesting figures on the cost of logging and gross receipts are given for the communal forests. In 1913 there were 487,967 acres cut over (chiefly thinnings of varying degree) removing 862,352 cubic meters (about 107,785,000 board feet and 44,910 cords). In addition, 45,759 cubic meters of dead leaves were removed for local use as bedding, etc. The FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE 499 cost ' of logging to point of sale was $591,738 and the gross receipts $2,232,480. This signifies that stumpage secured almost three-fourths the value of the delivered log or cord excluding overhead. The total net receipts from State forests (and State forests held in undivided owner- ship) was $1,175,764 or $7.78 per acre forested; in 1913 the net total was $1,186,626, and the net per acre $7.65 or 13 cents less than in 1873. In 1918 the receipts had almost doubled owing to war inflation. The revenue has been constant except in 1892 and 1902 when there were losses from windfall due to an overstocked market and con- sequent low prices. There are no reUable data on the returns from private forests. Stumpage Prices. — Stumpage prices have fluctuated with the economic conditions, since forestry is a key industry in Alsace-Lorraine. The prices in 1913 and 1919 for the different classes of product are of interest: Class ot Product Minimum length, feet Minimum diameter, inches Dollars per cubic meter 1913 1919, February (1) Logs 59.0 59.0 52.5 45.9 32.8 under 32.8 "Rondins" 11.8 8.7 6.7 5.5 4.7 5.5 6.31 5.71 4.76 3.81 3.57 3.10 1.67 (stere) 11.90 (2) LoKS 9 52 (3) Logs 8.33 (4) Lo£s 4 76 (5) Logs 4.76 (6) Logs 4.29 4.76 (stere) For 52.5-foot trees, 6.7 inches at small end outside bark, these prices (for class 3) are equivalent to about $19 a thousand board feet in the log along the roads and $33 in early 1919. This means about $14 and $24 on the stump for medium-sized trees in 1913 and 1919. It should be noted that the inflation was much greater in France, for just across the border at St. Di6 the last auctions of 1918 yielded about $47 per thousand board feet for good fir on the stump, or almost double the price in Alsace-Lorraine. Miscellaneous Data. — From 1907 to 1917, 304,895 acres of the State forests (about five-sixths of the total) were valued by the German service and totaled with the actual growing stock, $78,735,237, or about $254.37 per acre. Taking five-sixths of the net revenue of $7.65 per acre this means a return of 2| per cent on the assessed capital invested. But Lafosse estimates that France secures State forests with a round total sale value of 154 million dollars and that the return on this higher valuation has been only 1.26 per cent — "a low return." For all public forests the ''coefficient of exploita- tion . . . was about 50 per cent " . . . but almost $96,500 was spent anni«iZZj/ on road and railroad development. The building of Government forest railroads has proven especially profitable. For example, the Abreschwiller paid for itself in 6 years through higher prices for the timber and cordwood. The Germans put 4.7 per cent of the total money spent each year into planting and sowing; this amounted (for the State forest area) to $4.87 per acre for sowing labor and $7.65 per acre for planting labor. The planting stock averaged $3.17 per thousand transplants, which is certainly not a high cost compared with the costs on National Forests in the United States. Wood Industries. — The chief wood industries are: Sawmills, furniture, flooring, wooden shoes, implement handles, shoe trees, vehicle bodies, biUiard tables, etc. In 1907 Alsace-Lorraine imported 50,000 tons (a deficit of about one-twentieth the total production) of wood products mostly from Austria, Sweden, and the Rhine "Pala- ' The normal value of the mark 23.8 cents was used in converting marks to dollars. 500 APPENDIX tinat," so the return of the "lost provinces" to France will not help her timber shortage. Considering that 30 per cent of the country is forested it is especially surprising to find that 70,000 steres (about 20,000 cords) of fuel are imported and in addition 7| million tons of coal. Granting that Alsace-Lorraine cannot export wood to France, France must reforest with rapidly growing species her 15 million acres of land which is not now producing, and the low production of French private forests must be increased. "The owners must be persuaded to give up their short rotations (in coppice and coppice- under-standards) and must be shown the necessity of producing saw timber" — for the benefit of the pubUc. Judging from the data now available the German administration of Alsace-Lorraine pubhc forests has been honest, efiicient, and along correct lines. France receives back a valuable property which has been wisely developed during the 41 years of ahenation. APPENDIX K ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA Translations from original French Government working plans give a further insight into management methods and policy. The original French metric system has been retained. The following extracts are given: (1) Digest of Grande Cote (Jiu:a) working plan revision illustrating a working plan by Devarennes. (2) Extract from working plan revision of State forest of Ban d'Etival, by Cuif, showing error in stocktaking in 1898. Masson method of yield calculation used ex- perimentally as a comparison with the method of 1883 and regulation by number of trees. This is one of the most interesting forests in France for detailed study by those interested in forest management. (3) Forest of Mont Glore. An example of errors in early jdeld calculation which resulted in an overcut. (4) Forest of Hardies (near Oloron, Basses-Pyr^nSes). Forestry on alluvial land subject to flooding, and therefore unsuited to agriculture. (5) Forest of La Joux (Haute-Jura). Yield calculation where there is an excess growing stock. Graphic of growing stock compared with an empirical normal stand. (6) Forest of Fillinges (Haute-Savoie). Recovery of a forest after forest management. (7) Forest of Burdignin (Haute-Savoie). Example of yield regulation by the method of 1883. (8) Forest of Pare et St. Quentin (Gise). Example of yield regulation by periods, with the provision that the silvical needs of the regeneration fellings (which wiU be de- pendent on the seed crops secured) should be subordinate to the sequence of fellings laid out by the working plan. (9) Forest of Thiez (Haute-Savoie). Example of a complete working plan by Schaef- fer, the foremost working plans officer in France. (1) STATE FOREST OF GRANDE COTE (JURA) PART I "All the available statistics concerning the state forest of Grande C6te are given in detail in the management plan of February 26, 1858, and in the revisions of March 31, 1884, and April 27, 1897. Since this latter date there have been no actual changes in area. This area given in the revision of 1897 was 381.61 hectares." . . . Minor additions and substitutions have been made because of roads. . . . ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 501 PART II. — MANAGEMENT IN FORCE FOKMER MANAGEMENT PLANS Art. 1. — Digest of the bases of management. — The State forest of Grande C6te before it became State property belonged to the order of Citeaux, Abbey St. Marie. It was originally cut under the selection system, while the yield was regulated by the number of trees in accordance with the former usage. The decree of August 23, 1858, substituted the shelterwood system. The rotation was placed at 150 years and divided into 5 periods of 30 years each, corresponding to 5 periodic blocks on the ground. During the first period 1858-1887, the principal felling areas had to be laid out in the first periodic block and in certain compartments of the fourth and fifth periodic blocks with a yield of 2,919 steres or 1,883 m. c. All the compartments not subjected to the main fellings were run over by biennial selection fellings to commence with and controlled by volume (310 steres or 200 m. c), but dating from 1864 (decree of June 25) by area and every four years. The improvement cuttings were imlimited in volume and the local executive oflScers were free to propose them as they saw fit. At the time of the 1884 revision (approved by decree of June 6, 1885) the rotation was 160 years dating from 1858 and divided into 4 periods of 40 years each, corre- sponding to the same number of periodic blocks. During the last 14 years of the period (1884-1897), the yield of 1,668 m. c. was secured in the first and fourth periodic blocks. Timber of 0.60 m. in circumference (7 inches d. b. h.) cut in the first, second, or fourth periodic blocks (except c.*) was subtracted from the prescribed yield. Improvement cuttings in places selection in character, elsewhere thinnings and cleanings were carried out on a cutting cycle of 14 years in the fourth periodic block. MANAGEMENT ACTUALLY IN FORCE In 1897 (decree of September 3, 1897) the permanent periodic blocks were suppressed and the compartments readjusted in two groups. The first group including the compartments to be cut over under regeneration fellings by volume, the second comprising the remaining compartments and the object of the felhngs both for improvement and mere extraction by area. These latter fellings extended also to the first group, but they must not be confounded with the main feUings. The yield recruited on the entire area of the forest was fixed at 3,200 m. c. The volume of all conifers 0.80 m. in circumference (10 inches d. b. h.) and above, no matter how reaUzed, on the entire forested area was subtracted from the yield. During a period of 16 years, from 1897 to 1912, they carried out: (1) Regeneration fellings in the compartments 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, and 23; (2) improvement cut- tings and extraction on a cycle of 8 years on the entire surface of the forest. Art. 2. — Results obtained. — The various fellings have left the forest in the following condition: (1) Compartments of the first group, subjected to regeneration fellings (188.69 hectares). The compartments 1 and 23 may be considered as entirely regenerated; they com- prise poles and young standards over a complete young growth with which there is some old timber which should be cut without delay. On the other hand regeneration must be continued or secured later on in: compartments 2, 3, 4, and 7 which comprise fuU crowned veterans, regular and dense, over advance growth and saplings in groups usually well started: 500 m. c. per hectare on the average of which 41 per cent is timber 1.8 m. or more in circumference. Also compartments 8, 12, 13 which comprise rather 502 APPENDIX open veterans over quite dense seedlings: 340 m. c. per hectare on the average of which 35 per cent is ripe timber. Compartments 5 and 9 comprise standards and large poles, dense, regular, and in very fine condition, over seedling growth. (2) Remaining compartments cut over by improvement fellings (192.92 hectares). The compartments 6, 11, 16, 17, 18 which are in the sapling and pole stage, with several veteran stands regular and dense. Compartments 10, 14, 15, 19, 22 are mature, in fully stocked stands; dense with a promising growth of a certain number of poles. The compartments 20, 21, 23, 24 comprise irregular poles and veterans with a certain amount of scattering large timber over thick seedling growth and saplings. Generally speaking the stands are growing well. While continuing to cut the mature timber there should be no hesitation in thinning the poles so as to increase their growth. Art. 3. — Application of the yield. — The f oDowing table gives (in accordance with the records at Pontarher) the volume and the value of wood products realized in the State forest of Grande Cote during the 15 years from 1897 to 1911. VOOTW Fellings Accidental products* Total volume per year Value of the Begeneration Improvement products 1897 in.» m.» m.' 3,461 1,148 904 978 764 1,133 1,097 1,159 1,215 1,040 966 1,316 765 3,063 1,337 m.' 3,461 2,940 3,176 3,224 3,200 3,319 3,080 3,200 3,200 3,202 3,219 3,302 3,118 3,063 4,086 Francs 51,600 1898 1,792 2,272 2,246 2,436 2,186 1,983 1,025 1,985 2,162 2,022 1,986 2,353 51,150 57,950 66,600 65,150 52,700 59,970 70,250 57 400 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1,016 1906 53,070 60,840 71,730 1907 1908 231 1909 64,120 57,670 84,760 1910 1911 1,992 757 Total 3,239 216 25,205 1,680 20,346 7,356 48,790 3,252 924,960 61,664 Average ... * Note large and varying amounts of "accidental products" — chiefly windfall. The loss in timber, where a large area is cut over and then left for 40 or 50 years, as in the western United States, must be very great, m. c. and also m.' = cubic meters. From the preceding figures it seems that during the 15 years, the average ».nniiftl jdeld per hectare has been: 3 252 In material „',a, = 8.52 cubic meters. dS,lDl 61 664 In money ' = 161.58 francs ($12.47 per acre). Exploitation Balance Sheet. — In the 15 years 1897 to 1911 there should have been cut 3,200 X 15 or 48,000 m. c; there was actually realized 48,790 or an excess of 790. This excess provided for the windfall of 1911. In order to include a period sufficiently long, we have compared the inventory of 1883 and the results of stocktaking of 1911, excluding the old compartment, 25 (now 27), which was not enumerated in 1883. ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA The results obtained are shown in the following table: 503 Date of In- ven- tory Number of trees Total Per hec- tare 214 203 Volumes Total Average timber 0.80 to 1.20 Interme- diate timber 1.40 to 1.60 Exploitr timber 1.80an881 +1,902) -12,196 34.01X10 = 4.6 cubic meters per hectare per year. In the words of the author (M. Cuif) : "There is no reason for modifying the exploitable size: that of 0.60 of a meter is still acknowl- edged to-day, as gi\'ing the maximum utihty. ... It is still best to fix at 150 years the time necessary for the fir to reach this size. Consequently the total growing stock taken at the end of 1908, in the Corne de Lisse working group, being 13,560.8 cubic meters, the yield in main products determined by Masson's method is 13,560.8 X 2 rvjr = 180.8 which corresponds to an average annual yield per hectare of 5.3 cubic meters." The plan approved November 23, 1889, provided that in applying the selection system the oldest timber should be chosen as well as the trees decluung in vigor, rotting or dry, and others still in good condition but needed by the owner. Care was taken to preserve the selection type of forest, but the entire working group, divided into ten parts, had to be completely cut over by the end of each 10-year period. The volmne of all wood from 0.15 meters up in diameter was subtracted from the prescribed yield, whether from ordinary feUings or from windfall. Actually during the 10-year period 1890 to 1899 on the 34.01 hectares, 1,902 cubic meters was cut as against 1630 pre- scribed, an average per year of 190 as against 160, or 5.6 cubic meters per hectare as against 4.8 cubic meters. It is quite likely that the stocktaking made in 1898 was in error for some reason un- known because the measurements carefully made under the personal direction of M. Cuif showed, as follows: Cubic meters End of 1908 growing season 13,560.8 Cut 1900-1909 1,967.8 Total 15,528.6 Growing stock counted in 1898 11,880.9 Production 3,647.7 or Q^ ni V 1 n ~ ^^'^ cubic meters, an inadmissably high rate of growth. To make doubly sure of accuracy in 1908, M. Cuif adopted the plan, which he recom- mends for all future stocktaking in this working group, of having each tree measured, blazed at 1.30 meters above the ground, and at the point measured the guard made a vertical scratch so at the next measurement the same point could be caUpered. In reality the area is a sample plot to determine the value or errors in the Masson method of regulating the growth. A comparison between the stocktaking of 1888 and 1908 shows that in 1888 the average was 358.8 cubic meters per hectare as against 398.7 cubic meters in 1908 and that during the 20 years 3,870 cubic meters were realized as against 3,220 cubic meters prescribed by the working plan. This enrichment to the extent of 40 cubic meters per hectare for the 20 years is welcomed because there was insufficient growing stock on a number of areas. M. Cuif remarks: "Must one think, after what we have seen, that the calculation of the yield by the Masson method always leads to too small a figure? No, because such a conclusion would be contrary to a strongly entrenched theory which admits that the use of the Masson per cent certainly brings a forest to the normal, provided that the entire stand is promising. To what, then, can be attributed the results which fail to corroborate this principle? Simply to the special clause in the recruitment of the yield which prescribes the calculation of the volume of all the wood cut inclusive of 0.15 in diameter." 510 . APPENDIX During the 20-year period the total production was 7.7 cubic meters per hectare per year and of this total amount 5.8 was in wood 0.45 and above in diameter and only 1.9 in wood 0.15 to 0.40 inclusive. During this same period the wood cut totaled 5.7 per hectare per year of which 4.3 was from trees above 0.45 in diameter and 1.4 fronx trees 0.15 to 0.40 inclusive. M. Cuif decided to allow the yield to be taken from sound trees 0.45 in diameter if necessary to supplement the volume of those over 0.60 to make up the 3deld. The calculation of the jdeld for 1909-1910 which by the way varies with each compart- ment, gives 5.3 per hectare per year as against (a) 5.8 and (6) 7.7, the figures of the amount produced (o) in 0.45 meters and over, and (5) total for the last 20 years. The improvement fellings in the wood 0.15 to 0.40 in diameter are estimated to yield about 1.4 per hectare per year. It is interesting to note that the average prices for the period 1889-1898 were 18.34 francs per cubic meter as compared with 23.14 for the years 1899-1908. The new regulation of felling then prescribes the year of felling 1910-1919 inclusive the number of the cutting area, the area in hectares, and the total amount in cubic meters. Only wood from trees 0.45 and over are to be counted against the yield. (B) Naufrogutte working group, Forest of Ban d'Etival. Same as Come de lisse but volume of fir is 19/20 and beech only 1/20. The area is 34.48 hectares. Method of 1883 Yidd ReguUUion. The old wood here includes trees 0.45 and over; the average wood 0.25 to 0.40 and the small wood below 0.25. A comparison of the stocktakings in 1888 and in 1908 (that of 1899 appeared inaccurate) shows that: Total volimie in m. c. (1888), 10,794.1; (1908), 12,363.6; total volume in m. c. cut (1888-1909), 3,404.6. This signifies a pro- duction of 7.2 per hectare per year as against 4.9 actual cut. This production was 4.7 cubic meters in wood 45 and over, and 2.5 in wood 0.15 to 0.40. The actual cut was 3.6 and over 0.45 and 1.3 in wood 0.15 to 0.40. The new cut for 1910 to 1919 is put at 1,822 for the 34.48 hectares and windfalls and dead wood 0.20 and over wiU be deducted from the yield. The selection felling is accompanied by an improvement felling to increase the growth of promising trees and to clean or free young stands. In the calculation of the yield it is explained that the volume of the large wood (over 0.45) in 1909 was 7,917 c. m. and the average wood (0.25-0.40) 3,984 c. m. making a total of 11,900 of which five-eighths is 7,438 and three-eighths 4,463 c. m. To counter- act this excess of large wood Cuif subtracts 479 from the large wood and adds it to the average wood and proceeds with the calculation of the yield as given below aft^r obtaining a growth per cent for the large wood based on the differences in volume of this class of wood in 1888 and 1909 (allowing however for the passage of trees from 0.40 to the 0.45 class) equal to 0.9 per cent. 7 ,438 X 0.009 X 50 ^ ^ g^^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ (one-third the rotation) 7,438 plus 1,673 or 9,111 equal to -~- = 182.2 cubic meters per year or 5.2 per hectare. No allowance is made for the growth of the average wood since that will merely fill the place left by the removal of the large wood. It is interesting to note that the cut for 1888-1899 was calculated at 4.5 c. m. and for 1899 to 1908 at 4.4 c. m. per hectare and per year. Figures which are clearly below the growth as is also the current figure of 5.2 but a comparison of the curve showing the estimated normal number of trees per hectare for each diameter class (based on averages of a number of (empirically) normally stocked selection stands) shows that the forest is poor in trees 0.15 to 0.35 in diameter and that consequently the economy win be welcome. ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 511 (C) Working group Rein des Boules, Forest of Ban d'fitival altitude of 510 meters, 37.04 forested. Species by volume, fir 69 per cent, beech 31 per cent; selection. Yield by number of trees. By the decree of October 15, 1885, approved November 27, 1886, the working group was divided into ten approximately equal felling areas and an annual yield of 41 trees at least 0.30 in diameter at 1.30 c. m. (about 16 fir and 25 beech) was established includ- ing the provision that windfalls 0.30 and over would count as part of the yield. The 41 trees to be cut were based on the estimate that the growth was 4.5 c. m. per hectare and per year and that the fir of 0.60 meters in diameter contained 3.7 c. m. and the beech of the same size 4.4. On the basis that four fir would be cut to every six beech the average volume per tree was taken at 4.12. Owing to windfalls, etc., they cut 38 fir and 12 beech or 50 trees per year during the years 1886 to 1895, but as a matter of fact the average volume was only 2.8 per tree. During the second cutting cycle the cut was actually 54.9 trees and over per year (8.9 accidental) with an average volume of 4 c. m. per tree. Actually during the first 29 years the production was 9.4 cubic meters per hectare and per year or 8 in wood 0.45 and above and 1.4 in wood 0.15 to 0.40. The working plans officer quotes what is considered an average selection hectare for the locahty, namely, a total of 434.5 trees cubing 388.2 cubic meters. In the calculation of the new yield the author, M. Cuif, proceeded as follows: During the 20 years 1885-1905 the average production was 58 trees — 31 fir and 27 beech. "The 31 fir and 27 beech have been furnished actually by the trees 0.40 in diameter whose average number may be valued as follows, taking 771 as existing in 1885 (429 fir and 342 beech), 1,004 in 1896 (392 fir and 612 beech) an average of 412 fir and 463 beech; 412 fir 0.40 in diameter have given each year, 31 fir to be counted against the yield or 7.5 per cent and 463 beech, 27 beech or 5.8 per cent." Similarly the per cent passing to the next diameter class is figured, and the following results obtained: Diameter Average per cent of passage (cm.) to next diameter class 40 6.6 50 7.7 60 8.2 70 9.6 80 10 90 12 Finally the writer calculates for each compartment or cutting area the normal number of trees to cut, and in addition one-quarter the excess over the normal stand also to be cut, in order to reduce the growing stock, namely, 540 normal cut plus 160 trees as one-quarter the excess or 700 in all on 37.04 hectares. This is then divided between beech and fir on the basis of their per cent in each compartment. One cannot but ask the question: "Why regulate the yield by number of trees if it has to be checked by a volume computation?" But it must be recalled that these three working groups are really large scale experiments on yield regulation; the con- clusions will probably be available by 1921 or 1931. (3) COMMUNAL FOREST OF MONT GLORE (SAVOIE) The working plan of 1885 quotes from a report dated 1842 which alludes to this for- est as "Abused, impoverished in 1835 by a cut every three years of 150 fir trees." In other words, the yield was by number of trees (and probably the best were unfortunately selected) instead of by volume. This report spoke of this forest as having 90 hectares stocked with fir, 90 with beech with a fir under-story, and 145 pure beech coppice, making a total of 335 hectares of forest. The management prescribed thinnings on one-fifteenth 512 APPENDIX of the area each year. There were, in addition, regular fellings and cleanings. In 1885, selection fellings were prescribed because of "the altitude, the rigorous chmate, and the slowness of regeneration of the important species." The cut was placed at 202 cubic meters per year, but 5 per cent was reserved for betterments. The diameter limit for the exploitable tree was 0.6 meter (23.6 inches d. b. h.) on a rotation of 140 years. According to the working plan now in force, the selection method will be continued and the yield prescribed at 144 cubic meters. In other words the resvlls of past cuttings show an over- ciU and it is now necessary to economize in order to bring the forest to a better producing capacity. Before the yearly cut is marked, the forest is reconnoitred in the spring for windfall and the total amount of windfall is subtracted from the total saeld which is then secured, first, from dry and dying trees and from trees which must be felled to free fir seedlings or to establish or start reproduction when it does not exist. The best trees are favored. Fir over 0.6 meter in diameter are cut, taking the best first. The cutting is especially conservative along very steep slopes, and where too heavy cutting might encourage the formation of torrents and thus destroy agricultural land lying below. The following improvement work is planned: A scenic road, a house for a guard, numerous plantations, and, according to the working plan, "there is much left to be done — there is a considerable danger from floods." (4) COMMUNAL FOREST OF LARDIES (NEAR OLORON, BASSES-PYRENEES) This communal forest comprises 88.35 hectares at an average altitude of 130 meters. There is pedunculate oak growing on an alluvial soil with a nuld climate. From 1883 to 1905, inclusive, 215 cubic meters were cut, valued at 1,381.10 francs. From 1886 to 1905, inclusive, the improvement cuttings covered 1.8 hectares annually and netted 249.40 francs. The sales from windfall, aggregating 133 cubic meters, netted 530.90 francs and the secondary products 702.2 francs. This gave a total revenue of 348 cubic meters or 2,865.6 francs. The normal yield was estimated at 309 cubic meters or 2,614.7 francs. In this forest the soil value is very small because it is often flooded; it is esti- mated at about 60 francs per acre. The local market is for firewood and the timber is sold at Pau. There is communal grazing by 300 head of cattle, 50 horses, and 2(K) hogs, yielding 100 francs per year. According to the inspector: "The up-keep of a nursery in a small forest is relatively dear." This points to the advisability of district nurseries where transport is possible and where the planting is on a small scale. Here the exploitability is based on economic factors rather than physical. At 20 years of age, trees are about 5 meters apart. Shortly after 70 years of age, there is a heavy thinning so as to keep the trees about 10 meters apart until the final cutting. The yield of this regular high forest of oak is calculated by volume for the regular fellings, by dividing the total volume of the area to be cut over by the number of years in the period and subtracting 25 per cent for reserve. The yield of thinnings is fixed by area. There were cleanings in 1912, 1920, and 1922. The revenue for the next period is estimated at 2,805 francs. (6) STATE FOREST OF LA JOUX (JURA) Contains 2,644.34 hectares; 700 to 930 altitude; fir, 91 per cent; spruce, SJ per cent; beech, f of 1 per cent. Highest yield in the Jura. The following figures on the first working group are quoted from the working plan for the State forest of La Joux, by Inspecteur Brenot, which is dated April 29, 1896. ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 513 From 1884 to 1895 the increment per hectare and per year has been 11.97; the volume for the average hectare, 385. The increment per cent, 3.11. In 1883 the volume analjrsis of trees 0.30 in diameter and above was: Logs, 206,058 cubic meters; branches, 18 per cent, 37,090 cubic meters; total, 243,148 cubic meters. This being true it is possible to make the following conclusions from a comparison of the stocktaking of 1883 and 1908: Volume of trees 0.30 in diameter and above, inven- tories in 1883, 243,148 cubic meters; in 1908, 325,675 cubic meters; increase, 82,527 cubic meters. Volume of trees cut from 1884 to 1908: 1884 to 1885, 60,280; 1896 to 1908, 100,731; total of 161,011 cubic meters. Total growth from 1883 to 1908 = 82,527 + 161,011 = 243,538 cubic meters or average per year of 9,741 cubic meters. A . . , 243,148 + 325,675 „. . .„ , . Average growmg stock — '- 5 '- — • = 284,406 cubic meters. Average volume per hectare 284,406 _ ^„ . . , 640.89 ~ 243 538 Growth per hectare and per year „.. _ ' „- = 15.2 cubic meters. 040.00 X 460 Increment per cent — ^-775 = 3.4 per cent. It results from the analysis of the preceding stocktakings (the volume per hectare was 380 cubic meters in 1883 and 500 cubic meters in 1908 (wood 0.30 and over)) that the growth per hectare and per year estimated at 11.97 cubic meters for the first 12 years of growth is between 3.11 and 3.40 per cent. These figm-es prove . . . that we have a working group overstocked with old wood, where for the past 25 years the material has been increasing in spite of the annual cut (jaeld). . . . In view of this rather abnormal situation, it is felt that in order to prevent a further accumulation of excess growing stock it is best to base the yield upon the growth per cent of the working group during the last period of 25 years by multiplying the estimated growing stock by the mean annual growth per cent. Material enumerated in 1908 = 301,260; growth per cent from 1883 to 1908 = 3.4; yield = ?»^*= 10,242. Note. — For the comparison the same volume table was used to obtain both volumes, i.e., in 1883 and 1908. If we should only cut as in the past, the average annual growth of the working group, it would be impossible to realize with sufficient rapidity the overmature material and it is feared the present state of affairs would continue indefinitely. It is therefore felt to be absolutely necessary . . . during two periods ... to add 10 per cent of the volume to the yield obtained and to fix (the cut) at 10,242 + 1,024 = 11,266 cubic meters, or, roughly, 11,270 cubic meters equal to 17.585 per hectare and per year and 3.7 per cent of the total growing stock. According to Inspecteur Devarennes "the State forest of La Joux • is one of the richest and most productive fir stands in France, and perhaps even of all Europe." The stock- taking made in 1908-1909 gave the following figures: 642,138 trees from 7.9 to 55.1 inches in diameter (245 trees or 463 cubic meters per hectare or about 4^,400 feet board measure per acre, average on 6,531 acres). This is equal to 15.8 cubic meters per hectare per year (a yield per cent of 5.3) or about 1,200 board feet and 1.6 cords per acre • This forest was logged by the Canadians for the French; the cutting started in 191Y before the A. E. F. arrived in France. 514 APPENDIX per year, worth $12 per acre. The total annual revenue from timber is 406,730 francs ($84,500) and the soil and growing stock are estimated to be worth 20 million francs ($3,860,000). Deducting 50 cents an acre for taxes and administration, this gives a net of $81,235 or about 2 per cent on the invested capital (see p. 322). A comparison of the normal (empirical) number of trees and stand per hectare with the actual stock is given in the graph which follows: 85 f . NUME E R }F TREES PER HECTARE Normal — — — ,_ i Actual \ \ ^ o .Srr *"'no -L i L_ \ 1 *^.in\ \ 1 \ 1 1 \ r 1 ; ; 1 J35 - ^ — V 1 ^^ ^ it ^^^ ';^: i 9(\ - \- S5 1 , ^\ ; : 1 1 ^ ^^ ^^ - in - i ^ i ^^- ;•-=. -_ 0- -- - - -- 02 0.^ 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 O.C D 0.65 O.TO 0.75 0,80 0.^5 OM 0,95 1.00 1.0 B.H. in Centimeters 1.10 L15 i.aoijas X 1 I 2 V( Uir E l>E I il lOTAEE / ^s ^ l-i 7 s r, J — ., S ^'-^ ^ \ 1 "40 ,t t \ ^ f K ,' 4 A •^^ : ^ t -^ \ Sao .' 1 ■s JS •*" T !^ "s 1 ^ S a-'* t k. ^ fe 9I\ 1 V ^v. gUl 5; ^s. « |C y S 5» ylS V S \ '^^ olO ^, ^^ ^s. ==->. \ -^^ ■* ^ 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 O.SO 0.65 0.70 0.7S 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 LIS 1.20 Va D.B.H. in Centimeters ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 515 (6) COMMUNAL FOREST OF FILLINGES (ECAUTE-SAVOIE) In the revision of the working plan for the communal forest of Fillinges, there is pre- sented an excellent example of what recovery a forest can make during a period of 19 years. The inventory in 1891 and 1910 follows: 1891 1910 Age classes Number of trees Volume, cu. in. Age classes Number of trees Volume, cu. in. Average wood Old wood 5,337 694 2,117 1,386 Average wood Old wood 8,527 2,397 4,213 4,785 Totals 6,031 3,503 Totals 10,924 8,998 According to the above table the percentage of volume increase was 157 per cent in 19 years. The growth in this case, of course, was exaggerated because many trees just below 20 centimeters in diameter passed into the merchantable class which was caUpered in the revision. Taking these figures, however, as correct, it means an average growth of 8.7 cubic meters per hectare per year for a forest which had been mismanaged in the past. According to the original working plan: "The working group has been completely transformed in the course of a period. The stand formerly very broken, open, often formed of sparse groups of conifers or isolated trees as it existed in 1891 has given place to a thrifty young selection forest sometimes even dense, which is rapidly beginning to suppress the broadleaf understory with which the conifers are still in mixture at certain points. It is to be regretted, however, that the small yield did not allow cutting over the entire working group by selection feUings during the period and that consequently several compartments are crowded with over- mature and deformed trees." In the second working group, the recovery (for average and old wood) was from 12,265 cubic meters to 27,452 cubic meters in 19 years; 124 per cent. In five compartments of the first working group, the growth averaged 8.7 cubic meters per hectare per year, and in 14 compartments of the second working group the same average rate of growth was maintained, varying from 4 to 11.5 cubic meters per hectare per year. It is interest- ing to note that the yield was formerly fixed at 157 cubic meters per year for the entire forest of 166.45 hectares. According to Schaeffer's revision of 1910, the entire forest was thrown into one working group. He figured the old wood at 16,048 cubic meters 32 802 X 5 and the deficit of old wood was — ^ — 5 or a total of 20,501, meaning a deficit of O 4,453 cubic meters. The average wood amounted to 16,754.2, an excess, since ' P = a total of 12,301. Therefore, in accordance with the procedures ex- o plained on page 234, trees 0.35 meter in diameter were transferred to the old wood, thus justifying still further economy of yield. Since the rotation was fixed at 162 years, the yield under this formula would be 16,048, the volume of the old wood divided by 54, one-third the rotation, would be 297.1 plus 1 per cent of the growth of the average wood (i.e. 1 per cent of 16,754, or 167.5) making a total estimated cut of 464.6 which equals 1.41 per cent of the volume, or 3.2 cubic meters per hectare per year. In the working plan, Schaeffer pointed out that the growth, according to Pressler's formula, would have been 654.16 cubic meters per year. This working plan is an example of how the French are rehabiUtating worn out forests; one-quarter of the 516 APPENDIX theoretical cut is held in reserve to provide for such emergencies as windfall and other damages so that the actual cut is prescribed at 348 cubic meters per year, which is obviously much less than the actual growth. The working plan provides that the whole area be cut over by improvement fellings every 17 years. (7) COMMUNAL FOREST OF BTJRDIGNIN (HAUTE-SAVOIE) The working plan for the communal forest of Burdignin, written by Schaeffer in 1897, presents another interesting example of French yield regulation. This forest comprises 67.11 hectares, is situated at an altitude of 1,300 meters and the stand is composed of spruce, 80 per cent; fir, 18 per cent; beech, 1 per cent; Austrian pine and larch, 1 per cent. Schaeffer calls it a model of regularity especially as regards the second and third periodic blocks. The yield was formerly fixed at 136 cubic meters per year. A period of 18 years was found too short to get satisfactory and complete regeneration in the first periodic block. The yield from thinnings has been irregular. In 1881 it was 15 cubic meters; in 1882, 22 cubic meters; in 1890, 222 cubic meters; in 1891 and 1894, but 75 cubic meters. The rotation was 120 years and the diameter limit was 0.40; the period was fixed at 20 years in the 1897 working plan. The cut prescribed was 280 cubic meters by volume with the addition of the improvement fellings yield on 5.63 hectares each year. According to Schaeffer, care was to be taken not to open up the stand too fast and the thinnings had to aim at developing the stand without making sacrifices to regularize it. Trees without a future were removed, but he aimed at keeping the top cover complete. In the older stands the thinnings were essentially crown thinnings. (Par le haut.) The following analysis of the stand was made in Schaeffer's working plan: "To determine the yield, it is necessary to first divide the stand enumerated in three groups or classes (young wood, average wood, and old wood). We consider the coni- fers 16 inches and over in diameter 'old wood' and the beech 12 inches and over . . . the conifers 8 to 14 inches, and the beech 8 to 10 inches 'average wood,' and the trees 6 inches 'small wood.' This division has been made in the following table: Species Volumes Young wood Average wood Old wood Totals Conifers 405.10 9,205.60 91.80 8,564.70 87.10 18,175.40 178.90 Beech Totals 405.10 9,297.40 8,651.80 18,354.30 "It is evident from this table that the normal proportion of five to three which should exist between the large wood and the average wood is far from being attained. To obtam it one must transfer 2,567 cubic meters (or about two-thirds the conifers 14 inches in diameter) from the average wood class to the old wood. We consider this transfer justified because a 16-inch tree is considered merchantable in this region and most of the 14-inch stems will reach this size during the period. We, moreover, propose (to avoid any disaster) not to count the future growth of the old wood . . . prudence and moderation. "The volume to be cut during the one-third of the rotation will then be: 8,651.8 + 2,567 = 11,219 cubic meters in round figures, when the yield will be: ' = 280 cubic meters. "The thinnings are already ordered (September 18, 1880), by nine year cycles: they have given good results and we propose to continue them. Since the periodic blocks ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 517 to be run over by thinnings are three in number, each will continue to form three felling . .,, . 17.02 + 16.79 + 16.86 50.67 ,^„. , areas whose average area will be: g = — — = 5.63 hectares. "There are four periodic blocks; one is cut over for regeneration, and the other three are cut over for thinnings, etc." (8) STATE FOREST OF PARC-ET-ST. QDENTIN (OISE) The State forest of Parc-et-St. Quentin has had working plans made in 1869, 1884, and 1905. As a result of experience a rotation of 120 years was found too short, because of the large proportion of oak. It was, therefore, increased to 150 years. According to the most recent working plan, there are two classes of stands: (1) Regeneration areas over 100 years old; (2) imder 100 years old, not under regeneration. "One observes at once that, after this classification, the group of old wood will be totally deficient and that there exists a deficiency in the age sequences between the ripe wood and that which comes next ." According to the 1905 revision (page 47, original working plan) : "The jrield of the principal felUng areas will be obtained by dividing the volume of the stand in compartments 7, 8, and 9 (to be regenerated 1904 to 1923) by 20. This 26 739 29 volume amounts to 26,739.29 cubic meters and the yield will be fixed at — '-7^ — or 1,337 cubic meters. During the same period of 20 years the yield of the improvement 674 27 hectares fellings by area will cover '■ — r^r or 67.43 hectares because the cutting cycle is 10 years." Where there is difiiculty in regeneration, the cuttings should be regulated according to seed crops rather than to the sequence of fellings as developed. According to the plan : "The density of the seed fellings will be regulated so as to allow for the requirements of the species — oak and beech — which should be forced into the proper mixture, (about half and half). The existing imderstory must be completely removed above this size and under no pretext whatever should it be allowed to form part of the future stand. The seed fellings will be followed by secondary and final fellings laid out exclu- sively according to the cultural needs. The improvement cuttings should aim at the establishment of a high forest with a suitable mixture of species and as fully stocked as possible; they will be carried out by the use of regular normal thinnings, the removals limited to trees already dead or almost wholly so. ... In the young stands the valuable species will be carefully freed, and in accordance with their needs the soft woods and species of secondary value will be sacrificed." (9) COMMUNAL FOREST OF THIEZ (HAUTE-SAVOIE) " PART I Record op Management. — General Data Art. 1. — Name. — Communal Forest of Thiez. Art. 2. — Area. — In 1866 the area of the forest was 152.7669 hectares; it was reduced to 119.51 hectares by the revised decree of January 31, 1872. A decree dated Jime 28, 1889, authorized the sale of 22.08 hectares and put the area under manage- ment at 97.43 hectares. Finally a new decree. April 11, 1900, reduced the area to 65.14 hectares. Our recent survey gives an area of 61.54 hectares, divided as foUows between the two cantons which compose the forest: sSavoie was formally ceded to France in 1860 and prior to this date communal forests were badly overcut and mismanaged. 518 APPENDIX Canton Area Blanks* Forested La Vuardaz 26.74 34.80 1.70 3.60 25.04 Le P^raj-^ 31.20 Totals 61.54 5.30 56.24 * Most of the blanks are rocky and consequently could hardly be forested. The disparity in area of 3.60 hectares (65.14 — 61.54 = 3.60) is due to the inaccurate data upon which the original area computation was based; it has not been corrected imtil now. Art. 3. — Boundaries. — Except bordering the Commune of Ch^tillon (Haute- Savoie) a boundary established when the working plan for that forest was made, the boundaries were very indefinite. We have made a general survey of the boundary and have established comers for the two stands in accordance with the map of 1730 which is sufficiently accurate. Every comer and boimdary rock marked with a cross has its numerical order carefully chiseled as given in the working-plan map. These 39 boundary marks are divided as foUows: Le P6ray, 18 (3 of these coincide with the num- bers for the communal forest of Ch&tiUon); La Vuardaz, 21; Total, 39. Art. 4. — Rights and servitudes. — None. Art. 5. — Topography and drainage. — Occupjdng the summit of Mt. Orsay ("Orchez" according to the army map) a point at which the range ends which separates the valleys of Giffre and Arje and dominates their heads, the forest therefore lies on north and south slopes. The extreme altitudes are 620 meters (lower part of the P6ray Canton) and 1,346 meters (summit of Vuardaz), or an average of 980 meters. The slopes are often very steep and occasionally precipitous near the summit; within the forest there are cliffs 100 meters in height. Art. 6. — Soil. — Despite its small area the forest stands on a number of different geological formations which can be classed as follows: Calcaire Uasque du Chablais (5^) Bathonien et Bajocien (7) Malm (12) Cr6tac6 sup^rieur dit couche rouge (17) Moraine Alpine (21) The figures enclosed in parentheses show approximately the area occupied by each (geologic) soil. Because of this diversity of mineral bases soils of very different character have resulted. Marls deep and fresh, occasionally actually wet, arid detritus, bare limestones or only slightly covered with a thin layer of humus are found side by side; the fertUity itself is extremely variable. One must admit that the poor or mediocre areas are the rule rather than the exception and that the really rich soils are scarce. Art. 7. — Climate. — Since the two stands are situated in different valleys it naturally follows that the climate is also dissimilar. On the one hand the Canton of Vuardaz, with a northern exposure, is in a rainy valley where the snow Ues four months each year, while the vineyards still flourish just below in the Pfiray Canton. Art. 8. — Stand. — The chief species are spruce, fir, Scotch pine, and beech. Spruce, which is easUy the most important, varies a great deal. From the straight, cylindrical long-boled well-pruned tree 36 meters in height (115 feet!) in the well watered valley of Vuardaz, which one cannot help but admire, to the branchy imstable stem which clings to the rock on the Orsay peak. In the P^ray Canton it is represented by sapling stands, dense and regular, but because of the dry soil and climate these do not ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 519 appear to have much of a future. The fine quality of timber at the Vuardaz bridge makes it a prize for the lumberman; yet on the moist soils there seems to be a tendency to early decay. The fir perhaps is a more rapid grower, and notwithstanding that its wood is less sought after in the region, it is a valuable species because it is easy to re- generate. The Scotch pine, introduced artificially, when found in the P6ray Canton in mixture with scattering larch, seems well suited to the situation; but the stock which has come in naturally, often very defective, has suffered a great deal from caterpillars and the wood has httle value. The beech is quite important in the understory, but with the exception of a few poles, it is not represented in the young stands; yet, because of its cultural value, it ought to have a place in the mature stands. Its Utter can alle- viate the acidity of the humus produced imder the spruce and also assists the natural regeneration of this latter species. The oak is at its extreme elevation and is not im- portant, except in the rocky areas, where, with the maples (sycamore, etc.), it serves to protect the soil. One sees a few linden, service trees, and hazel, which have some value. To sum up, the importance of the species is shown by the following figures: Spruce, 62 per cent; fir, 2 per cent; pine, 11 per cent; oak, 10 per cent; beech, 10 per cent; miscellaneous, 5 per cent. Art. 9. — Chief and accessory products. — The following table shows the amount and value of the products reaUzed during the last 10 years: YIELD DURING THE LAST 10 YEARS WOOD PBODTTCTS Regular fellings Extraordinary fellings Windfall, Years Coppice ue, 1C3 High forest (Coppice) Improve- ment High forest Emergency wood dead wood and tres- pass Totals Vol- ume, m. c. Val frai Vol- ume, m. c. Value franc Vol- ' ume, m. c. Value, francs Vol- ume, m. c. Value, francs Vol- ume, [m.c. Value, francs Vol- ume, m. c. Value, francs Vol- ume, m.c. Value, francs 1901.... 2 20 30 375 32 396 1902.... 8 128 21 212 29 340 1903.... 4 64 23 166 27 229 1904.... 10 174 20 250 30 424 1905.... 136 1525 4 64 29 270 169 1859 1906.... 6 90 45 435 51 525 1907.... 21 273 38 300 59 573 1908.... 1 20 1 20 1909.... 65 130 104 1237 169 1367 1910.... 115 2290 17 175 132 2465 Totals.. 65 130 251 3815 55 813 328 3439 699 8197 Average annual . 6.5 13 26.1 381.5 6.5 81.3 32.8 343.9 69.9 819.7 Price p er cu b cm Bter 2 15.20 14.8 10.5 11.7 520 APPENDIX ACCESSORY PRODUCTS Years Extension of cutting period Miscel- laneous concessions (springs, rights of way, stone, sand, etc.) Minor products, value of day's labor Grazing, value Hunt, rental Trespass, civic damages Totals 1901 4 37.50 37.50 37.50 25.00 62.50 30.00 42.50 35.00 40.00 40.00 4.00 45 50 1902 37.50 1903 3 13.80 40.50 1904 .... 38.80 1905 26 26 26 11 U 11 88.50 1906 13.50 93.00 28.00 56.00 1907 82.00 1908 139.00 1909 79 00 1910 51.00 Totals 7 387.50 111 152.30 657 80 0.7 38.75 11.1 15.23 65.78 Art. 10. — Roads, trails, and means of removal. — There are no regular roads in the forest (only a few trails traversing the stand), but at the bottom of each canton there is a mule trail. That part which borders the Canton of Vuardaz joins the national road No. 202; this enables the hauling of wood to the Taninges station (narrow gauge), 4.6 kilometers away. The area bordering the P&ay Canton almost touches the main road from the pass of Ch&tillon to Bonneville via Marignier (P. L. M. station, 4 kilo- meters). Art. 11. — Markets. — The fire wood is used locally, while the logs (owing to the railroads in each valley) have a wide market. Art. 12. — Grazing, etc. — None. Art. 13. — Patrol. — The patrol is done by two guards, one belonging to the Tan- inges ranger district, the other to Cluses. Their residences are at Taninges and Cluses. PART II Chapter I. — Statement and Critical Review of Treatment in Force By a decision of the director, dated June 13, 1873, the forest of Thiez was divided into two working groups, one coppice, the other high fore.st. The coppice working group having been entirely disposed of since 1873 there is nothing to report. The high forest working group has been cut over during a period of 15 years by improvement cuttings amounting to 4.34 hectares each year. This period of 15 years ended in 1888. Since this date the forest has only been cut imder emergency fellings except for an improve- ment felling in 1909 of 8.68 hectares, and in two or three selection cuttings only windfall or overmature timber was removed. While the regular fellings have been few in number, the same cannot be said of the trespass cuttings, for almost all the stock of the Pdray Canton has been cut by trespassers. It is essential to regulate the fellings and to deter- mine a yield based upon an exact estimate of the forest's resources. This is the object of this work. Chapter II. — Basis op Proposed Management A conifer stand with such a small stock can only be treated by the selection system. We propose to put the entire area into a single working group of selection high forest. ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 521 PART III Special Study op the Working Group Art. 1. — Compartments. — It has been laid out according to natural boundaries such as roads or ravines following current usage. Each compartment has been marked and designated with capital letters. Their area varies from 2.11 hectares to 8.46 hectares, an average of 5.28; this is in keeping with the size of the forest. The forest description follows: (Sample given on pages 532 and 633). Art. 2. — Exploitability, rotation, periods. — A tree 0.60 meter (23.6 inches d.b.h.) in diameter is best suited to the sale requirements. A smaller size would not be adapted to all uses, while a large size would make lumbering too diflScult. We shall therefore adopt 0.60 meter as the exploitable size. To reach this size a tree requires at least 140 years. If you glance over the curves inserted in the Appendix (page 528) it is evident that the spruce and fir take on an average 16 years to pass from one diameter class (2 inches) to another; it follows that to pass through the diameter classes from 6 inches to 24 inches takes 144 years. In fixing the rotation at this figure we are overlooking the length of time that a tree takes to pass from the understory, and recent studies have shown that this method of pro- cedure is legitimate. It seems logical to choose 16 years as the period since it takes that length of time to pass from one diameter class to another. Art. 3. — Regulation of felling. — The compartments A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M only carry a growing stock which can be inventoried. These are the only com- partments to be cut over by selection cuttings based on volume. The compartments H and K, stocked solely with young growth, wiU be run over by improvement cuttings based on area. On the formal request of the commune (which, while wishing to sell the principal cuttings, desires to provide for the residents a small right to gather hard- wood fuel) these shall be filled by improvement cuttings in the compartments C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M. The table below gives a r6sum6 of these plans: Canton Compartment Area Extent of selection Improvement fellings La Vuardaz Le P6ray A B C D E F G H I K L M 6.11 5.24 2.17 4.70 2.95 3.46 2.11 6.78 7.74 4.68 7.14 8.46 6.11 5.24 2.17 4.70 2.95 3.46 2.11 7;74 V.U 8.46 2]i7 3.00 1.00 2.00 1,00 6.78 7.74 4.68 7.14 8.46 61.54 50.08 43.97 A. — FELLINGS BY VOLUME Art. 4. — Determination of the yield. — The yield wiU be calculated in accord- ance with the method given in the circular of July 17, 1883, which consists in dividing the wood in three groups in accordance with their size: (1) The young wood whose diameter is less than one-third the exploitable size. (2) The average wood whose diameter is included between one-third and two-thirds this size. (3) The old wood whose diameter is more than two-thirds this size. 522 APPENDIX If the volume of old wood and that of average wood are to each other as 5 is to 3 it is a normal proportion, and if not it is possible to decrease or even the difference by approximate transfers. Then the final volume of old wood plus its growth is divided by one-third the number of years in the rotation. The trees have been calipered by 2-inch diameter classes, commencing with 8 inches, and the volumes figured with the volume table made by M. Algan (No. 11 for the fir and spruce and No. 5 for the pine and broad- leaved trees). The following table gives the division by groups and diameter classes: Diameters (d. b. h.), centimetera Volume of average wood Volume of old wood Spruce and fir Pine Total Spruce and fir Pine Total 20 (7.8 inches).. 25 348.4 486.8 523.2 639.9 7 6 356.0 491.0 528.9 642.9 4 5 3 2 7 30 35 40 (15.7 inches). 45 . 895.2 684.8 399.0 249.6 160.0 2.8 898.0 684.8 50 399.0 55 249.6 60 (23.6 inches). 160 65... 72.2 36.0 20.8 18.0 72.2 70 36.0 75 20.8 80 (31.5 inches). 18 Totals 1,998.3 20 5 2,018.8 2,535.6 2.8 2,538.4 The normal proportion should be: Old wood 4,557.2 X 5/8 = 2,848.31 . -„ , Average wood 4,557.2 X 3/8 = 1,708.9 J*'*'^'-''- For the transfer as prescribed by the method the only change which is justified is by the abundance of overmature timber in the lower diameter classes which means that the yield would be: n 2,848.3 „ , . , P = -'-rs — = 59 cubic meters. 48 But on the other hand in this forest the growth cannot be overlooked (see table of growth per cent in the Appendix) and we intend to count that of the old wood during half of the period (conservative estimate of growth at 1 per cent per year). The jdeld will thus become: P = 2,848.3 + jJT, X 24 X 2,848.2 48 = 73.58 or 74 in round figures. This yield, which corresponds to 1.62 per cent of the calipered material and is 1.6 cubic meters per hectare per year for the forested area, is not too large but fully provides for the small growing stock (and the consequent necessity for economy). B.-AREA FELLINGS The area to be cut over by improvement cuttings being 43.97 hectares, the yield will be: P = —^ = 2.75 hectares. 10 ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 523 A. — FELLINGS BY VOLUME Art. 6. — Method of getting the yield. — The principal fellings are all for sale, and since the commune actually needs all its resources, it also desires that no reserve should be made, but that the whole yield should be auctioned each year. This request does not seem to be contrary to the spirit of the law and we believe it is correct. If the principal yield were entirely reserved each year the commime would ask for an emergency felling and the result would be the same. B. — AREA FELLINGS The improvement cuttings, because of the necessity for special firewood allowances, will form two distinct felhng areas, each located at the nearest hamlet. The cutting will then be worked in two lots: The first for special firewood allowances ... in compartments H, I, K, L, and M (average area 2.18 hectares). The second for special firewood allowances . . . in the compartments C, D, E, F, and G (average area 0.57 hectare). However, since this second lot is so small it will only be worked every two years and its area will be 1.14 hectares. A. — FELLINGS BY VOLUME Art. 6. — Location of fellings for the first period, 1911-1926. — The selection fellings will be marked one after another and will cut over the compartments alpha- betically. No division will be left imtil it has been entirely cut over. The following table gives for each compartment the estimated yield. Since the windfalls which may take place during the period must be counted (against the yield) it is recommended especially at the start to keep well below the (yield) figures given: Canton Compartment Area Growing stock Per cent to cut* Estimated yield La Vuardaz Le P^ray A B C D E F G I L M 6.11 5.24 2.17 4.70 2.95 3.46 2.11 7.74 7.14 8.46 741 1,164 254 1,151 464 485 52 63 121 62 22 35 30 25 22 22 40 10 10 10 163 406 76 288 100 107 20 6 12 6 Totals 50.08 4,557 26 1,184=74X16 * In realizing each year 1.62 per cent of the total stand there will be cut during the period 16 X 1.62 = 26 per cent. This is the average per cent cut. We have varied it for each compartment in accordance with the cultural requirements. B. - FELLINGS BY AREA The table which follows shows the sequence and size of improvement fellings to mark each and every year in the first class of fellings and every two years in the second. The areas are somewhat unequal from one .year to another; to assure an approximately sustained yield so far as practicable it was necessary to allot felling areas unwersdy proportional to the abundance of broad-leaved trees in each of them, dividing up the cmrv- partments, however, as liltle as possible. 524 APPENDIX Year of the felling Serial No. of the cut Compartment Area Of parts to be cut over each year Of cutting Age of broadleaf trees In 1910 At time of felling Canton of Le Peray — (First series of cuttings) 1911 1 1 1.75 15^30 16-31 1912 2 I 7.74 2.25 15-30 17-32 1913 3 1.90 15-30 18-33 1914 4 1.84 15^30 19-^ 1915 5 2.27 40 45 1916 6 H 6.78 2.45 15-30 21-36 1917 7 2.06 15-30 22-37 1918 1919 8 9 K 4.68 1.61 3.07 10 10 18 19 1^0 10 2.50 10-15 20-25 1921 11 L 7.14 1.64 10-15 21-26 1922 12 1.96 15-20 27-32 1923 13 1.04 15-20 28-33 1924 14 1.68 10-20 24-34 1925 15 M 8.46 2.28 4.50 10 24 1926 16 10 24 Totals 34.80 34.80 Canton of La Vuardaz — (Second series of cuttings) 1911 1 1 C 2.17 ' 1.08 1.09 20 21 1913 2 18 21 1915 1917 3 1 4 ' D 3.00 1.50 ^ 1.50 18 18 23 25 1919 5 i F 2.00 1.00 17 26 1921 6 ^ 1.00 15 26 1923 7 G 1.00 1.00 15 28 1925 8 E 1.00 1.00 15 30 Totals 9.17 A. — VOLUME FELLINGS Art. 7. — Application of the yield. — Cultural rules. — The fellings shall be on the whole entirely selection (in character) favoring (for removal) dry topped trees, those decayed or overmature of all diameter classes whose removal will fill an important part of the yield. Next cut trees which have reached or passed the exploitable size (23.6 inches or 60 c. m. in diameter) and whose retention does not seem to be necessary in order to maintain the canopy. Do not forget that on the whole the growing stock is deficient and that all young trees which are sound and vigorous should in theory be retained; yet at the bottom of compartments A and B where there is a half-grown high forest, quite regular thinnings must be carried on in order to favor the devel- opment of the best stems. B. -AREA FELLINGS The aim of the improvement cuttings should be the creation of a mixed forest of conifers and broadleaves. In theory they should be exploited by cutting back (rec^ page) ; this cutting back shall be complete when it concerns the softwoods, but on the ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 525 contrary with the hardwoods there should be reserved (1) all the trees with freed crowns and in good condition; (2) a certain number of stems chosen from those with the longest boles on the areas where the conifers are lacking. However, at the time of the regular feUings one can clean out the saplings where they are too dense by removing the dead trees or those clearly suppressed, although these last will be conserved, in theory. Art. 8. — Deduction (from the yield). — The volume of conifers, from 20 cm. (8 inches) up, cut in any felling whatever in the compartments calipered shall be counted against the yield. PART IV Betterments General Map. — Compartment Map. — The topographic map was drawn on a scale of ij^V^ which corresponds to the scale used in the former map of Savoie, then reduced to ^^ in order to obtain the complete map given in the Appendix. Twenty- meter (66-foot) contours have been used. It is hoped that this map can be reproduced by the helographique process so that it can be sent to each agent as an example. Management Divisions. — All compartments are bounded by natural lines, trails, or canyons; there are no ditches to open up. But in order to avoid all confusion it is advisable that the compartment letters be marked on the boundary trees. A method which has given excellent results consists in lightly scraping the bark so as to make a smooth square which will take two coats of white zinc on which the letter can be painted in red or blue. Boundary Posts. — As has been seen, the boundary has been marked by posts and "crossed" rocks while the working plan data were collected, but it would be well to make this still plainer by opening up ditches or paths between the pillars or rocks. If the commune cannot afford this work along the entire boimdary it would be a good plan to commence ditches on each side of comers pointing to the next ones. Reforestation. — The removal of overmature material, especially in compartments B and C, will necessitate openings which must be restocked to enrich the soil. The best method consists in working seed spots about 2 meters apart upon which excess wild stock can be planted; the cultivation thus given the ground has the effect of mixing the soil with the acid humus, freely worked in, thus aiding the rooting of the seedhng. Communications. — It is chiefly outside the forest that means of communication are lacking, especially in the Canton of Vuardaz, but the study for road improvements below the stand at the hamlet of Bois and Chdtillon is out of our hands. Improvement Tax on the Sales. — To permit the execution of the improvements here enumerated as well as those found later on to be useful a tax of 3 per cent should be levied on all wood sales and allotted for expenditure to the local forest service. Patrol. — The trespass (timber cutting) which has taken place and which still con- tinues in the Canton of Peray requires vigorous measures. The isolation of this separate stand from the rest of the forest by a rocky ridge and the distance from the ranger station makes patrol difficult; to assure patrol it appears that cooperation will be necessary between the Canton of Bonneville and Taninges. It will not require too much work of the two districts to prevent the abuse of this wretched canton. It goes without saying that legal proceedings must always.. be_pressed with the utmost _vigor. 526 APPENDIX PAET V COMPAEATTVE REVIEW OP THE REVENUE BEFORE AND AfTER THE (PROPOSED) Working Plan The average annual yield of the forest during the last 10 years (1901-1910) is as follows: Wood products (70 m. c.) 820 francs; (minor) accessory products, 66 francs = total of 886 francs. From this must be deducted: (1) cost of guard, 110 francs; (2) adminis- trative costs, 41 francs; (3) taxes, 102 francs, or 253 francs, leaving a net revenue of 633 francs (equal to 80 cents per acre per year). The receipts to be realized after the appli- cation of the working plan proposed can, on the other hand, be valued as follows: Princi- pal felling (74 m. c.) 962 francs; improvement cuttings (20 m. c. at 2 francs), 40 francs; (minor) accessory products, 66 francs, or a total of 1,068 francs; from which must be deducted: (1) cost of guard, 122 francs; (2) administrative costs, 50 francs; (3) taxes, 102 francs, or 274 francs costs, leaving a net revenue of 79J^ francs. This net revenue would thus be 161 francs more than the former, or a 25 per cent increase (about $1 per acre per year). (Signed) A. Schaeffer, Inspector of Waters and Forests, Chief of Management. Chamb6iy, November 25, .1910. ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 527 VOLUME TABLE * Diameters Spruce and Fine, B.H.. fir, cubic Bemarks inches cubic meters meters 8 0.2 0.1 S 10 0.4 0.2 12 0.6 0.3 14 0.9 0.5 g 16 1.2 0.7 18 1.6 1.0 7^ 20 2.1 1.3 s^i 22 2.6 1.6 II 24 3.2 2.0 26 3.8 2.4 g » 28 4.5 2.8 II 30 S.2 3.2 ii 32 6.0 3.7 s 34 6.8 4.2 o 36 7.7 4.8 1 38 8.6 5.4 40 9.6 6.0 5 Graphical repr^entation of the growing stock. Upper line indicates normal growine stock. Lower line indicates actual growing stock. TABLE SHOWING THE NORMAL HECTARE (SELECTION FOREST) D. B. H., inches Number of trees Volume per tree, cm. Volume for the diameter class, c. m. 8 114 0.2 22.8 10 73 0.4 29.2 12 65 0.6 33.0 14 44 0.9 39.6 16 35 1.2 42.0 18 27 1.6 43.2 20 21 2.1 44.1 22 17 2.6 44.2 24 14 3.2 44.8 400 342.9 32 80 26 24 22 20 18 16 Diameter Breast High in Inches 14 12 10 * In the original working plan the volumes for (c) the spruce, fir and (I) the pine were graphically shown by 2-inch diameter classes and cubic meters of volume. 528 APPENDIX RESULTS OF BORINGS WITH PRESSLER'S INCREMENT BORER Number of years to pass from one diameter class to another D. B. H., inches 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 19 17 10 11 12 11 8 40 16 14 21 8 21 28 21 10 6 17 16 7 22 25 25 10 14 17 11 17 17 16 5 24 8 9 6 Time in years to grow 2 inches Totals 69 19 56 129 153 45 21 41 6 Averages . . . 13.8 9.5 28.0 16.1 17.0 15.0 10.5 13.6 6 The 35 trees take in the aggregate 539 years to pass from one diameter class to an- 539 other or an average of -^ = 15.4; that is to say in 16 years aU the stems should pass oo through one diameter class (2 inches); the length of the cutting period is therefore justified. The curve given below brings out this point even clearer: 1 35 1 30 ■^^25 §1 20 J s. / \ —/ \ S g 16 1 5 2 / ■^ ^ — . . 10 14 16 18 20 22 24 Diameter Breast High in Inches 28 30 32 ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 529 AVERAGE GROWTH PEE CENT BY DIAMETER CLASSES D. B. H.. inches 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 2.86 2.86 .5.83 3.67 4.00 2.67 5.33 0.53 1.67 2.28 1.43 3.81 1.04 1.43 1.43 2.86 4.75 1.67 2,00 4.16 1.11 0.83 0.83 2.50 1.43 2.00 1.78 1.27 1.11 1.14 4.00 0.61 1.82 1.82 2.67 Totals 19.22 8.00 2.20 19.03 16.53 4.16 5.14 4.25 2.67 Aven 3.84 4.00 1.1 2.38 1.83 1.39 •2.67 1.42 2 67 Ev ene d off by curve. \ 4 \ -^ \ 3 \ \ V ^ ^ \ /' \ \ / / 1 ^ v^ / \ ^ \ / -A "^ — 1 n 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 26 28 30 32 530 APPENDIX The table below gives the per cents evened off by a curve; by applying them to the volumes of the different diameter classes resulting from the valuation the probable growth of the forest as it stands is obtained: D. B. H., inches o Total volume in cubic meters Growth per cent read from curve Growth in cubic meters 8 356 X 4.75 ^ 16.9 10 491 X . 3.25 = 16.0 12 529 X 2.75 = 14.5 14 643 X 2.0 = 12.9 16 898 X 1.75 = 15.7 18 685 X 1.62 = 11.1 20 399 X 1.50 = 6.0 22 255 X 1.32 = 3.3 24 160 X 1.20 = 1.9 26 72 X 1.15 = 0.8 28 36 X 1.10 = 0.4 30 21 X 1.05 = 0.2 32 18 4,558 X 1.00 ~ 0.2 99.9 " This column was not given in the original plan. The average yearly growth per cent would equal 99.9 4,558 2.19 per cent. It is there- fore evident that in reducing the per cent to be cut to 1.62 a considerable saving will be made so essential to complete the (deficient) growing stock. 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