^^.^-Si^ 
 
 
 HI 
 
Hntt (ttoUcgc of Agriculture 
 
 At (Uornell ImwEraitg 
 
 Hibrarg 
 
Cornell University Library 
 S 633. V72 1879 
 
 On artificial manures; their chemical sel 
 
 3 1924 000 243 679 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000243679 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANUEES 
 
LONDON : PRINTED BY 
 
 BPOXTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUABE 
 
 AND PABIilAMENT 6IEBET 
 
THE POWER OF PRODUCTION OF 
 
 PASTO]lAL SYSTEJr. 
 
 CONTINUAL EOTATION. 
 Stable Manure only used. 
 
ON 
 
 AETIFICIAL MANUEES 
 
 THEIR CHEMICAL SELECTION AND 
 SCIENTIFIC APPLICATION TO AGRICULTURE 
 
 A SERIES OF LECTURES GIVEN AT THE 
 EXPERIMENTAL FARM AT VINCENNES DURING 1867 # 1874-5 
 
 BY 
 
 M. GEORGES VILLE 
 
 TEAUSLATED AND EDITED BY 
 
 William ceookes, f.e.s. 
 
 AUTHOR OP 
 
 •SKLHCT METHODS IN CHBMICAL ANAI^TSIS' *A TREATISE ON BEET- ROOT SUGAR* 
 
 'HANDBOOK 01' DTEESG AND CALICO PEDTriNQ' ETC. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTY-ONE ENGRAVINGS 
 
 LONDON 
 
 LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 
 
 1879 
 
 All rights reserved 
 

 ^i37e>l 
 
PEEFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE ENGLISH EDITION, 
 
 It is important that both England and France should 
 be alive to the fact that the agricultural crisis from 
 which both countries are now suffering, as well as 
 the more serious troubles which threaten civilised 
 nations, are only the prelude to the economic struggle 
 between the Old World, bound in the trammels of tra- 
 dition, and the New World, pressing onward free and 
 unrestrained ia the path of progress. Guided by a 
 practical spirit, which the Americans appear to 
 possess in an imrivalled degree, they have at their 
 disposal natural resources superior to those of any 
 other country, as well as the advantages assured to 
 them by a constitution which renders the land 
 accessible to all. What the outcome of this struggle 
 wUl be it is difficult to foresee. We can only define 
 the present state of affairs, and place the results of 
 science at the service of our respective countries. 
 
 English economists have taught us that free trade 
 is a certain and unalloyed blessing to the future of 
 nations; that under the stimulus of competition 
 
Vi PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. 
 
 manufacturing operations would everywhere be 
 brought to perfection, tbat one country would obtain 
 an advantage over another only so far as the pro- 
 ducts for which its climate, natural richness, and 
 native fitness give it a legitimate pre-eminence; 
 and that cheapness of living, or, in other words, 
 the interests of the people, would be the reward of 
 this balance of competition. How little does the 
 experience of to-day confirm these anticipations of 
 future prosperity. 
 
 After a civil war almost unparalleled in history, 
 the United States of America found itself suddenly 
 face to face with a debt whose weight few nations 
 of old Europe could have thrown off. Obliged to 
 provide immediate resources, they could not wait for 
 the theories of classical economists. Without regard 
 to existing opinions as to custom-house duties, they, 
 without hesitation, and contrary to all expectation, 
 levied an almost prohibitory tax on all foreign 
 products. The effect of these measures was imme- 
 diate. The new taxes enabled America to remain 
 master of the situation and to fulfil her pecuniary 
 engagements. Her manufactures, protected from 
 foreign competition, have sprung up into life and 
 vigour which have placed her at one stroke in the 
 highest rank, as was shown by her display at the last 
 Paris Exhibition. In short, the United States are not 
 only ceasing to be tributory to the Old World, but are 
 becoming its rivals, both in the far East and in our 
 own markets ; this is not only the case in manufac- 
 tures but even in agriculture itself, thus affecting 
 
PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. VU 
 
 our most important interests. What would be the 
 consequence to France and England if the United 
 States were to offer us permanently their corn and 
 meat at a price lower than that at which we can pro- 
 duce it ourselves? As far as wheat is concerned, 
 there is no doubt that in the United States it can 
 be obtained at about 2s. 6d. or 3s. per bushel. In 
 fact France, in the year 1878, actually received twenty 
 or thirty millions of bushels at this price ; and 
 Canada, entering the lists also, is offering meat of 
 prime quality at 2^d. per lb. The whole problem is 
 now reduced to a simple question of freight and 
 carriage. 
 
 In the face of such contingencies as these, we 
 cannot allow ourselves to remain indifferent. It is 
 manifest that the struggle in which we are engaged 
 is carried on under conditions the gravity and extent 
 of which wUl increase rather than lessen in the future. 
 In such a situation our duty is plainly marked out 
 for us. "We must first protect ourselves, and then as 
 far as possible regain the market for the goods we 
 formerly exported. 
 
 It remains for me to say by what means I con- 
 ceive this double end may be achieved, so far as 
 agriculture is concerned. 
 
 It is an undeniable fact that, except under rare 
 and altogether exceptional circumstances, farming 
 operations carried on solely with manure produced 
 on the farm itself, have for a long time ceased to be 
 remunerative. To obtain certain profit we must 
 have recourse to manufactured manures. In the 
 
VIU PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. 
 
 present work will be found an explanation of this 
 fact, and all the necessary information for preparing 
 the chemical manures best suited to the different 
 crops. 
 
 Chemical manures are more used in England than 
 in 'France ; but the French are better acquainted than 
 the EngUsh with all that relates to their action, and 
 also to the conditions under which their beneficial 
 eiFects are most felt, a fact which costs England 
 several millions annually; but if farmers prepare 
 their own chemical manures, they will escape both 
 the adulterations of which they are too often the 
 victims and the high prices which they have to pay. 
 I will quote as one example amongst many a 
 manure very largely used ; in 1 cwt. of which there 
 are : — 
 
 Phosphoric acid, soluble in water, 12 per cent. 
 
 atSff?. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, insoluble, 4^ per cent, at l|i. . 
 Nitrogen in the form of amnionic sulphate, 
 3 per cent, at Is. . 
 
 Eeal value 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 7i 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 In all, including the sack, and leaving a margin 
 for minor expenses, the cost will be 7s. 2d. the cwt. 
 Now, this manure is sold at 12s. the cwt. Why do 
 English farmers consent to pay so high a price? 
 Because they pay too much attention to the practical 
 side of the question, and have not applied themselves 
 to the theoretical study of the laws of vegetation. 
 
 If, instead of confining myself to this example, I 
 were to analyse in the same way the manures from 
 
PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. IX 
 
 the best English manufactories, I should be led to the 
 same conclusion. They are all burdened by high 
 profits, paid by the too credulous and, in many 
 cases, too confident practical agriculturist. Eng- 
 lish farmers possess an infallible means of becom- 
 ing enlightened ia this respect. Let them consent, 
 if only once, and by way of experiment, to com- 
 pound for themselves the artificial manures they 
 require, according to the formulae I have laid down, 
 and then try them side by side with those they have 
 been in the habit of buying. I know beforehand 
 what the verdict will be. If the agriculturist of the 
 present day wishes to resist successfully the danger 
 which threatens him, he must manure his land plenti- 
 fully, whether he is cultivating grain, root or fodder 
 crops, and he must procure manure whose composition 
 may be rehed upon. With this object there should 
 be formed in every county one of those co-operative 
 societies, now becoming so common in England, to 
 the success of which there are few obstacles. The 
 difficulty of manufacture may be suggested. But it is 
 only a question of making simple mixtures of the dif- 
 ferent salts, for which there are machines equal to 
 every requirement. Calcic superphosphate is rather 
 more difficult to manufacture, on account of the 
 necessity of procuring the sulphuric acid. But when 
 a co-operative association has secured the services of 
 a practical chemist, this difficulty vanishes. The 
 result is well worth the trouble. The farmer. wiU for 
 2^d. per lb. obtain a soluble phosphoric acid, fot which 
 manufacturers have been charging him about 6d. 
 
X PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. 
 
 The more I reflect on the condition of agriculture 
 in France as well as in England, the more fuUy con- 
 viaced I am that these co-operative societies for the 
 manufacture of chemical manures would be of the 
 greatest benefit to both countries, especially if they 
 were under the management of a small select com- 
 mittee, chosen from those scientific chemists who are 
 the greatest authorities on the subject, and who 
 would act as the disinterested advisers of the manu- 
 facturer. The establishment of such associations 
 would result in the annual saving of millions of 
 pounds ; and through that economy and the general 
 use of chemical manures of superior quality, the 
 increase in production would amount to from forty to 
 eighty miUions sterling. 
 
 If any doubt exists as to the correctness of this 
 calculation, we have only to reckon what a saving of 
 20 per cent, in the cost of manure, and an increase of 
 10 per cent, on the production of crops, will represent 
 annually. 
 
 Amongst the substances which influence plant 
 hfe, ammonic sulphate is one of the most important ; 
 and, unfortunately, the sources from which we obtain 
 our supplies are at present limited and inadequate. 
 Now there exist within our reach inexhaustible quan- 
 tities of nitrogen for producing ammonic sulphate, 
 viz. the nitrogen of the atmosphere. Many experi- 
 ments have been made with the view of utilising this 
 nitrogen ; but, unfortunately, the results hitherto ob- 
 tained have only been of theoretical interest. And 
 yet no discovery would be more useful or important. 
 
PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION, XI 
 
 Ammonic sulphate at Id. per lb. means cheap bread 
 and cheap meat. What is to be done to hasten 
 forward this state of things? The best way seems 
 to me to be to offer a prize of 100,000/., collected by- 
 international subscription, for the discovery; and if 
 the English farmers regard this proposition with 
 favour, I beg to have the honour of placing my name 
 at the head of the first list for 40/. 
 
 With large quantities of chemical manure at a 
 reduced price, agriculture both in France and Eng- 
 land will be able to hold its own against the com- 
 petition of the United States. But in order to make 
 the best of this advice we must take another step in 
 advance, and break through the worn-out tradition 
 which mistook the true function of water in irrigation. 
 If in the future we recognise that the universal 
 practice of irrigation is only a supplement to the 
 beneficent action of rain, by maintaining the earth in 
 a constant state of moisture equal to that of the most 
 fruitful years, agriculture will be second to no other 
 branch of industry in the large profits which it 
 yields. 
 
 With respect to manures and the questions 
 connected with them, the United States have not 
 remained behindhand. The book which I now offer 
 to the EngHsh public has been translated more than 
 once in America, and I now quote the terms in which 
 the Georgian Society of Agriculture has been good 
 enough to express its appreciation of the character 
 and utility of my work: — 
 
Xll PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. 
 
 ' Mr. Barnett, of Wilkes, offered the following 
 preamble and resolution : 
 
 ' " WJiereas, the exceedingly interesting work of 
 Georges Yille has done so much to advance the 
 science of agriculture among mankind, and to promote 
 it almost to the rank of an exact science by its 
 author's wonderful combination of skill, knowledge, 
 and common sense. . . . this society earnestly re- 
 commends its circulation, as furnishing the means of 
 enlightenment to the most advanced farmers, both in 
 the knowledge of facts and of the principles of in- 
 vestigation and experiment, leading to the further 
 increase of knowledge." 
 
 ' The resolution was adopted by a unanimous 
 vote of the Convention. 
 
 ' Mr. Fannin, of Troup, offered the following reso- 
 lution, which was adopted : 
 
 ' " Resolved, that we, as representatives of the 
 County Agricultural Society, will endeavour to pro- 
 mote the circulation of the work of the distinguished 
 agricultural writer, Greorges Yille, and will recommend 
 to the societies to subscribe liberally, and to take not 
 less than six copies each ; that, in addition to this, the 
 County Societies, instead of offering cups for premiums 
 will offer a copy of this work." ' 
 
 I hope that the reception of this book in England 
 will not be less favourable than in America, for it has 
 the good fortune to have for its translator a scientific 
 man, who at this time has become conspicuous by 
 his brilliant discoveries and profound researches — 
 Mr. William Crookes, a FeUow of the Royal Society, 
 
PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. XIU 
 
 whose friendship I am proud to possess, and to whom 
 I take this opportunity of rendering my most sincere 
 thanks. 
 
 GEOEGES VILLE. 
 
 Februaj-y 22nd, 1879. 
 
 NOTE BY THE TRANSLATOR. 
 
 To prevent unnecessary fractions, the English ton has been 
 taken in large quantities as equivalent to 1,000 kilos, but the 
 lb. in smaller quantities has been reckoned at "4545 kilos, and 
 the £ sterling at 25 francs. The hectare has been considered 
 eqnal to 2^ acres, and the hectolitre to 2| bushels. 
 
PEEFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE FRENCH EDITION. 
 
 Science in the present day pursues a double object, for 
 not satisfied with enlarging the bounds of our knowledge 
 in all directions, it also adds continually by its discoveries 
 to the welfare of the world at large. 
 
 Amongst the results which have been obtained by 
 science in this respect we ought to place in the first 
 rank the discovery of the laws which regulate the lives of 
 the people and determine the conditions of their exist/- 
 ence. In this way science has thrown a strong light on 
 the intimate connection which exists between the popula- 
 tion and its system of agriculture, a matter which is easy 
 of explanation, seeing that plants spring from the soil, 
 that animals live on these plants, and that man feeds on 
 both. 
 
 Formerly the whole principles of agriculture were 
 reduced to a single rule, which was accepted as an axiom 
 and entered as such into the farmer's daily practice. Di- 
 vide the land into two nearly equal parts, set one aside for 
 grazing purposes or for growing forage plants, and reserve 
 the other for cereal crops. From this axiom was deduced 
 the following formula, which became in some sort sacra- 
 mental : in order to grow cereals there must be meadow 
 land, cattlejL and manure. 
 
XVI PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION. 
 
 But science, by revealing to us the nature of the con- 
 stituents of which plants are formed, has proved most con- 
 clusively that this maxim was directly antagonistic to the 
 result at which the farmer proposed to arrive ; that it led 
 irrevocably to the exhaustion of the soil to such an extent, 
 that if its teachings were rigorously carried out, agricul- 
 ture would not have satisfied the wants which have 
 sprung from the increase of the population. 
 
 I repeat that the farmer who uses nothing but farm- 
 yard manure infallibly exhausts his land, for the manure 
 has the soil for its source, and if he only diminishes the 
 loss which the soil has suffered he cannot in the end repair 
 it. When cattle are exported the loss is not so great as 
 when graia is sold, but still there is always a certain 
 amount of loss. Therefore this axiom, which has hitherto 
 formed the basis, and as it were the supreme law of 
 farming, is in reality nothing more than an expedient. 
 
 It must also be remarked that with farm manure only 
 it is impossible to obtain maximum crops, which are alone 
 remunerative. We must not therefore deceive ourselves ; 
 the traditions of the past are not sufficient for the neces- 
 sities of the present. We want more rapid, more econo- 
 mical, and more powerful processes. These processes, 
 however, are already discovered and are described in a 
 single maxim: give back to the soil by the permanent 
 importation of chemical manure an amount of fertilising 
 material larger than that lost by the growth of the crops. 
 Thanks to these new fertilising agents, instead of being 
 stiU obliged to grow meat in order to have corn, we may 
 now grow corn for profit's sake in the first place, and 
 afterwards for straw, cattle-feeding, and manure. 
 
 When farmyard manure only is used, the improvement 
 of the land requires length of time and an enormous out- 
 lay of capital. With chemical manures the result is more 
 
1>REFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION. XVU 
 
 rapidly arrived at. We may almost immediately obtain 
 large crops from the most barren lands, and realise a profit 
 at the very outset. 
 
 This is reversing the order of things practised and 
 recognised up to the present time. But it may be 
 asked, is it really certain that the new agents which 
 science has discovered for us possess the sovereign pro- 
 perties attributed to them? Without anticipating the 
 proofs, which I intend adducing further on, I will mention 
 a single example, which is so significant that it must 
 needs be satisfactory. 
 
 M. Ponsard, president of the Agricultural Committee 
 of d'Omey, in Champagne, made two parallel experiments 
 on a piece of waste land in one of the most barren districts 
 of a proverbially barren portion of that province. He 
 manured one half of the ground with about 32 tons of 
 farmyard manure per acre, and the other with about half 
 a ton of chemical manure per acre. With the farm 
 manure he obtained about 14 bushels of wheat, whereas 
 with the chemical manure the land yielded about 36 
 bushels, there being a loss of 19Z. in the former case, and 
 a gain of 17L in the latter. 
 
 It may be objected that the farmyard manure had not 
 exhausted its action in a single year, whereas the chemical 
 manure had done so. I can only reply that this idea is 
 contrary to all the known facts. Let us, however, admit 
 it ; the result will not be less striking. The worst that 
 could happen would be that the field would have to be 
 manured afresh in order to grow a new crop, but the first 
 result furnishes us with the means. 
 
 By the aid of these new methods of ctiltivation, agri- 
 culture then acquires a liberty of action formerly Unknown. 
 There need be no longer any question of wearisome de- 
 lays, of the enormous expenses which are attached to 
 
 a 
 
XXVIU PREFACE TO THE PEENCH EDITION. 
 
 from one to another, and also the symbols by which they 
 are expressed and defined. 
 
 Notwithstanding all that has been said against expe- 
 rim ental fields, it is now clearly proved that their testi- 
 mony is the only one that can be relied on ; the only 
 practical method of fixing with certainty the composition 
 of the soil with respect to the requirements of agriculture. 
 I have therefore dwelt with particular care on the rules 
 that must be followed in interpreting their results, and 
 have shown that, thanks to the ideas they have given us, 
 all the crops on a farm become a source of exact in- 
 formation as to the fertilising agents in which the soil 
 may be deficient. 
 
 I then turned my attention to the question of cattle. 
 The subject is an important and complex one, and cannot 
 be approached with too much method and caution. There- 
 fore I first set myself to determine the true place of cattle 
 on a farm, so that I might be able to show with more cer- 
 tainty under what conditions they may become the source 
 of operations, capable of yielding a handsome profit. For 
 this purpose I have given a complete and severe analysis 
 of all the results obtained on the Bechelbroun Farm at 
 the time when it was managed by M. Boussingault, care- 
 fully separating the three branches of farming crops, 
 cattle and meadow land, in a series of balance-sheets. I 
 have thus been able, by the aid of reliable figures and 
 positive results, to show what that branch of farming had 
 been in the past when 133?. 6s. 6d. per year had been 
 gained, and what it might become if recourse was had to 
 chemical manures, and if the cattle instead of receiving 
 insufficient food were allowed an abundant daily ration, 
 determined according to the rules that physiological 
 science has laid down during the last few years. 
 
 It seemed to me advisable also to explain how manu- 
 
PEEFACE TO THE EEENCH EDITION. XXIX 
 
 facturing industry might become the handmaid of farm- 
 ing, and how in certain cases it depended on the proper 
 cultiTation of the soil. I have already treated this 
 subject in my series of lectures given in 1864, but its 
 importance is so great that I have again alluded to it. 
 The cultivation of beetroot taken as an example has fur- 
 nished me with the means of giving this portion of my re- 
 searches a much more practical character than formerly ; 
 in one word, this new series of lectures wiU extend and 
 complete all those which have gone before. We can now 
 tell with certainty to what extent cattle-breeding may be 
 united with ordinary farming, and how it may be made 
 to yield an increased profit, more especially if carried on 
 in conjunction with the cultivation of plants used in 
 manufactures. 
 
 This leads me to the consideration of several questions 
 of a new description. 
 
 In the course of the last three years I have studied 
 certain branches of industrial chemistry with a view to 
 discover their connection with farming operations. For 
 this purpose I had to consider a large number of interests. 
 These researches were the source of more than one mis- 
 take on my part ; but I was fully repaid by the fresh 
 information which I gained, and which was hitherto quite 
 unknown to me. 
 
 In spite of the efforts, most of them praiseworthy, of 
 large and powerful companies, manufacturing chemistry 
 has not yet succeeded in allying itself with farming in a 
 way that I should like to see. Before this can be accom- 
 plished an entirely new order of things must prevail, and 
 I have not the slightest doubt tha,t whenever this shall 
 happen the efforts which I have already made will not be 
 without their value. 
 
 But the point upon which I have by preference con- 
 
XXX PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION. 
 
 centrated all my endeavours for the last three years is the 
 econoraical and financial part of the agricultural question. 
 
 Hitherto agriculture has existed by saving. What is 
 called profit is too often the price of the farmer's own 
 labour and that of his family ; but this so-called profit 
 disappears if we assimilate the management of a farm 
 to that of a manufactory, and charge so much for the 
 labour of the chief and of his subordinates in proportion 
 to the amount of capital sunk in the venture. 
 
 Let us take Bechelbronn and the Institute of Roville 
 as our examples. Setting aside certain exceptional cases, 
 such as vine-growing, I know but few farming operations 
 which can be carried on at a profit without some manu- 
 facture is connected with them, that is to say, if the 
 operations performed are of a purely agricultural nature 
 and nothing is used in the way of manure but that sup- 
 plied by the farm itself. Of all the attempts which have 
 been made to throw a light on this problem those of 
 Lavoisier are undoubtedly the most important. First of 
 all, it must be remembered that nobody ever fulfilled all 
 the conditions necessary for working out the problem in 
 so high a degree as this great man. 
 
 He was more learned than any of his contemporaries, 
 a thorough man of business, with a mind full of the eco- 
 nomical and social problems of the day on account of the 
 peculiar nature of his work, and he moreover foresaw 
 the true terms of the great equation which was to solve 
 the agricultural problem. 
 
 It was just these very requirements which were want- 
 ing in two otherwise most estimable men, who with less 
 extended views than Lavoisier, entered upon the same 
 path, I mean the late MM. Mathieu de Dombasle and 
 Bella. Read the celebrated paper entitled ' Success and 
 Failure in Agricultural Improvements,' which was, so to 
 
PESFACE TP the FRENCH EDITION. XXXI 
 
 speak, the last will and testament of Mathieu de Dom- 
 basle, and which will always remain his highest work. 
 An inexpressible feeling of depression pervades the whole 
 paper. Everything is foreseen, defined, and analysed, but 
 with what result ? Simply that saving gives the apparent 
 profit. Nothing is to be found of a nature to raise agri- 
 culture to the rank of a true industry. 
 
 But without quitting the domain of the most moderate 
 practical considerations, I would ask you to tell me, if it 
 were absolutely determined that farming without the help 
 of any manufacturing adjunct would yield a profit of 
 from 10 to 15 per cent, on the capital sunk at the rate 
 of from 161. to 24?. per acre, would this demonstration be 
 a great fact in economic science capable of influencing the 
 public and private welfare of the country to an unlocked 
 for degree ? 
 
 Without adding to what I have already said con- 
 cerning the obstacles thrown by the land laws in the 
 way of the farmer, and our defective laws of inheritance, 
 they nevertheless oppose the establishment of a truly 
 economical system of agriculture. I have endeavoured to 
 find out a way of getting over these obstacles which at 
 first sight seem insurmountable. The obstacle in this 
 case is the law. Not being able to change it, we must 
 rely on the initiative and goodwill of the interested parties, 
 who, by coming to a mutual understanding, may place 
 themselves, so to speak, above the law, and guard their 
 interests by means of properly drawn up agreements and 
 leases, protecting themselves by means of those generali- 
 ties which form the backbone of all commercial enter- 
 prises, at the same time reserving to themselves that 
 liberty of action without which it is impossible to succeed. 
 After Article 2102 of the Civil Code we met with the 
 various customary restrictions upon leases which are still 
 
XXXU PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION. 
 
 in use. First of all leases are granted for too short a 
 period, so much so that the farmer has not sufficient time 
 to recoup himself for the outlay which he has made in 
 improving the property. The prohibition of the sale of 
 straw and fodder, the obligation of following a prescribed 
 order in the rotation of crops, and to have a certain 
 amount of land lying fallow at the expiration of the lease, 
 are only so many restrictive clauses which tie the farmer's 
 hands without any compensation whatever. We can 
 hardly be surprised, therefore, if capitalists look shyly on 
 farming speculations, and that for want of capital the 
 agricultural industry of the country remains in the hands 
 of a class which cannot make any progress in it. So 
 much, however, for a superficial view of the question. 
 Eoutine, that is to say, rule of thumb, is for the farmer 
 who lacks the necessary capital a guarantee of the small 
 amount of success which he obtains. His life is unceas- 
 ing work, his method saving all he can in the way of 
 expense, but he risks nothing. In his place you would 
 do the same as he does. 
 
 Let us imagine this state of things to be changed. The 
 landlord consents to a lease of thirty years, he executes at 
 his own cost all permanent improvements on the property, 
 such as drainage, roads, farm buildings, &c., and these 
 improvements are made with as little delay as possible 
 and on a combined plan. As for Article 2102, he annuls 
 that by giving the farmer entire liberty to sell his fodder 
 and straw, and even to raise money in advance on his crops. 
 In exchange for this unexampled liberality he requires 
 certain guarantees. In the first place, the farmer must 
 not be a single individual, but with several others must 
 form a joint-stock company, able and willing to provide 
 capital at the rate of 91. or 101. per acre, with a guaran- 
 tee fund of 3L 4s. to 61. 8s. per acre. In the second, the 
 
PREFACE TO THE FEENCH EDITION. XXxiii 
 
 landlord must interest himself directly in the speculation, 
 and participate in it by having an ex-officio seat at the 
 board of management. As for the acting manager, he 
 must give guarantees of two kinds, personal qualities in 
 the first place, and after these he must show that he has a 
 capital of from 400L to 8001., according to the size of the 
 farm whose management he undertakes, which capital 
 must form part of the common stock during the whole of 
 his management. Beyond this the lease should determine 
 the kind of crops to be grown during the last three years 
 only, the proportion to be observed in the growth of 
 forage, crops to be consumed on the farm, and crops to be 
 sold in the open market. Above all, it should state the 
 quantity and quality of the manure to be brought in from 
 outside ; and, finally, in order to facilitate the liquidation 
 of the company's affairs, when the lease ends the standing 
 crops should be valued by a kind of committee of arbitra- 
 tors, so that the speculation should end at a certain fixed 
 date, and that the interests of everyone concerned should 
 be guarded. 
 
 With such a lease the tenant need no longer be in 
 dread of the landlord. If the rent is behindhand, it is 
 guaranteed by the company's capital. If the manager 
 acts wrongly, the commercial code will soon set matters 
 right. If he dies no harm is done, for his affairs are 
 liquidated by his shares being distributed amongst his 
 legal heirs, care being taken that the interests of the com- 
 pany have been duly considered. In this concurrence of 
 interests the landlord has his proper place and his lawful 
 portion of influence on the board management, the chair- 
 manship of which might be bestowed on him in the 
 majority of cases. 
 
 I know exactly where the great difBculty lies in carry- 
 ing out such a scheme. It is the choice of the manager, 
 
 h 
 
XXxlv PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION. 
 
 but this you will allow is a delicate matter in all kinds of 
 business. Contrast with a system of farming thus carried 
 out the old method, a.nd you will find great advantages on 
 the side of the new. From the very first the necessary 
 capital for carrying on the operation will have been pro- 
 vided ; and the day on which it can be stated with truth 
 that the shareholders are in the receipt of 10 or 12 per 
 cent, on their capital, the farm labourer having within 
 his reach a more profitable method of investing his spare 
 cash than by putting it in the Savings Bank, will take 
 part in the speculation to the success of which he can 
 contribute with his own hand. When we look at the 
 warfare that has been carried on since the beginning of 
 this century between labour and capital, and the attempts 
 which have been made, more especially in England, to put 
 an end to the struggle, and at the excellent results which 
 have been obtained, as is now acknowledged, by allowing 
 coal workers to participate in the profits of the mine, 
 what results may not be expected to accrue from the 
 innovation which I have proposed. 
 
 I said a few words just now about the part which 
 ought to be played by the landlord. It seems to me 
 advisable that I should complete my observations on this 
 point. The landlord ought to carry out all those improve- 
 ments which are calculated to give an increased value to 
 the property. The most important of them are irrigation, 
 drainage, and the construction of buildings ; but it mnst 
 be allowed that all advances for such purposes ought 
 to bear an interest of at least 8 per cent., 5 of which 
 should go to form a sinking fund for the purpose of 
 reconstituting the capital in fifteen years. The capital 
 which the landlord expends being worth 3 per cent, the 
 surplus should be devoted to the above purpose, so that 
 when the capital is once more reconstituted the 3 per cent. 
 
PEEPACE TO THE EEENCH EDITION. XXXV 
 
 contributed by tbe concern remains bis property, and tbat 
 of bis descendants in tbe form of profit. 
 
 In tbis way tbe farmer benefits by the rapidity witb 
 wbicb tbe expended capital is made up, wbicb is anotber 
 of tbe good results of the method of farming I have just 
 described. 
 
 But you will very possibly ask bow it is tbat I can 
 propose a system of drainage for instance which is to be 
 paid for at tbe rate of 8 per cent, when tbe Credit Foncier 
 is content with 6^ per cent. ? The answer is very simple. 
 By paying 8 per cent, for fifteen years, tbe interest taken 
 by tbe landlord being reduced to 3 per cent., tbe operation 
 is more advantageous to tbe farmer than if be paid 
 6^ per cent, for 31 years, with the prospect of having his 
 rent raised at the end of that time when he renewed his 
 lease. 
 
 But tbis is not all. If we fix the amount of capital 
 spent in drainage at, say 41. per acre at 8 per cent., tbe 
 amount paid for interest and sinking fund is about 6s. 5dt 
 per acre, At the rate of 6^ per cent, it would be 6s. 2d. 
 per acre, a difference of say Is. Sd^ per acre, which is an 
 insignificant difference when we consider tbat after the 
 fifteenth year tbe interest paid to tbe landlord would 
 fall from 6s. 6d. to 2s. 6d., and that the landlord secures 
 the money be has advanced, and will most likely be 
 ready to readvance it for tbe execution of fresh improve- 
 ments. 
 
 In England there is a clause inserted ili the charters 
 of companies wbicb advance money forbidding them to 
 lend money on any agricultural operations which are cal- 
 culated to yield a profit of less than 10 per cent, on 
 the capital laid out. By means of a rapid sinking fund 
 tbe operation always shows a profit no matter bow small 
 it may be, and is, therefore, equivalent to a safe invest- 
 
 b 2 
 
XXXvi PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION- 
 
 ment. In my proposal you will find nothing but wliat 
 daily commercial practice has taught from time imme- 
 morial, namely, never to discount the future. 
 
 What I have desired to lay before you is the nature of 
 the solutions of the various questions which I am investi- 
 gating, and if my confidence in this respect required any 
 encouragement in support, I may say with pride that I 
 have found it in the fact that my ideas hare been adopted 
 almost before they were made public. Two well known 
 members of the financial world are engaged at the present 
 time in working a farm of 1,500 acres upon the system 
 which I have already explained. But this innovation is 
 destined to bring about another of still greater importance, 
 which seems to me to be rendered inevitable by the force 
 of circumstances. 
 
 The great evil from which we suffer in France is the 
 excessive subdivision of land; this, it is true, may be 
 diminished by uniting together by means of exchanges 
 a number of very small plots under the direction of a 
 committee of arbitrators, but this proceeding is only a 
 palliative of the evil, and merely an approach towards a 
 more important method of solving the difficulty. Sup- 
 pose for instance that a large estate were to be divided into 
 shares similar to those of a commercial enterprise carried 
 on on joint-stock principles, the shares bringing in, say 
 from 2 to 3 per cent., and terminable in 90 years. What 
 a strong position would not such an estate occupy if the 
 savings of the country were invested in operations of this 
 nature instead of being devoted to speculating in foreign 
 loans, and if, as I affirm, the agricultural shares bearing 
 a rate of interest of from 10 to 12 per cent, allowed us to 
 mortgage two-thirds of the property at the average rate 
 of 6 per cent. 
 
 Under this system France would in less than fifty years 
 
PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION. XXXVU 
 
 be superior to England in her social condition ; for pro- 
 perty, while still preserving its democratic character, would 
 form the basis of important enterprises spreading over 
 lengthened periods, its creation being protected from the 
 disintegrating action of our law. Inheritance would be 
 by the division of capital instead of by the division of the 
 land. You will see by this rapid sketch that the agri- 
 cultural question is quite capable of being solved in the 
 way we have been discussing. Let us hope that the rulers 
 of the nation and the owners of the soil, seeing their own 
 interests, will join in this movement. In view of this 
 happy day we may look forward to all those eventualities 
 which our faults and dissensions have bequeathed to our 
 children, with the calm serenity of a nation which, having 
 had great disasters to recover from, nevertheless under- 
 stands that her soil, combined with a climate like that of 
 France, ought to be her greatest riches. 
 
 GEOEGES VILLE. 
 
 Lb Grand Bilbaetbault : 
 January 23, 1876. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PEEFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION 
 PEEFACE TO THE FEENCH EDITION 
 
 PAET I. 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 PLANTS, THEIR COMPOSITION, GROWTH, NUTRITION AND 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 Elements entering into the composition of plants — Organic and in- 
 organic elements — ^Each orE;an of plant has composition peculiar 
 to itself — ^Distribution of mineral matter — Distribution of organic 
 elements — Transition products of plant life : carbo-hydrates ; 
 albuminoid bodies — Transformation of transition products into 
 tissues and organs of plants — Conditions regulating plant life ; 
 the climate, the nature of the soil and choice of manure, the 
 choice of seed 
 
 LECTURE 11. 
 
 ASSIMILATION OP CARBON, OXYGEN, HYDROGEN AN5) NITROGEN. 
 
 Plant respiration — Composition of wheat — Combustion of carbon — 
 Heat unit — Action of sun's rays — Absorption and decomposition 
 of carbonic dioxide — Source of oxygen and hydrogen — Absorption 
 
xl CONTENTS. 
 
 of nitrogen — Proportion of nitrogen in manure for lucern — Ex- 
 cess of nitrogen in plants — Theory of Mgli cultivation — Part 
 played by nitrogenous matter in plant economy — Secret of good 
 farming ........... 20 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 FUNCTION OF MINEEAL MATTER IN PLANT PRODUCTION. 
 
 Cultivation in calcined sand and natural soils — Assimilable consti- 
 tuents of the soil ; active assimilable constituents and assimilable 
 constituents in reserve — Mechanical constituents of the soil ; clay, 
 sand, himius— Experiments in testing richness of soil ; M. Payen, 
 M. de Matharel, and M. le Chevalier Mussa . . . .38 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 TYPICAL FEETILISETiS. 
 
 Analysis of farmyard manure — Comparative value of chemical and 
 farmyard manure — Experiments with beetroots by M. Peyrat, 
 Marquis de Verien, M. Leroy, M. Cavallier ; on wheat, MM. 
 Masson and Isarn, M. Bravay, M. Ponsard, M. Payen, M. de 
 Matharel ; on potatoes by the Marquis d'Havrincourt, M. Ville, 
 M. Lavaux ; on sugar cane by M. de Jabrun — Abundant use of 
 fertilising agents — Fixed expenses — Variable expenses — Continu- 
 ous cultivation of wheat — The autumn cultivation of wheat- 
 Manure for alternate crop of colza and wheat ; for rotation of 
 four years ; for rotation of five years ; for rotation of six years 
 — Manner of using chemical manures — Natural sources of supply 
 of the four ingredients in normal maniu-e ... .60 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 . COMPAKATIVE COST OF FAPMYAHD AND CHEMICAL MANURE. 
 
 Proportion of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime in farm- 
 yard manure — Amount of chemical products equal to 16 tons of 
 farmyard manure — Advantages of chemical over farmyard man- 
 ure — Composition of chemical manures, unlike farmyard man- 
 ure, may be varied — Theory of dominant constituents — Cost of 
 farmyard manure at the Thier garten Farm, at the farm of 
 Mesnil-Saint-Nicaise, and at the farm of Bechelbronn — Cost of 
 
CONTENTS. xli 
 
 PAGE 
 
 equivalent quantity of chemical manure — No proEt without 
 copious manuring and aid of chemical manures — Example of M. 
 OavaUier — Sugar refinery as adjunct to farm . . . .85 
 
 LECTUEE VI. 
 
 WASTE PORTION OF OKOPS IMPORTANT AS PEaTILISERS. : 
 
 Animal labour indispensable in farming on large scale — Oomhination 
 of farmyard and chemical manure in series of crops grown for 
 five years — Cost for five years — Yield of potatoes, wheat, oats, 
 and clover with farmyard manure only, and with chemical 
 manure added — Series of crops grown for five years when colza 
 precedes beetroot — Series of crops grown for six years — Rules for 
 cultivating same soil with chemical manures with uniform suc- 
 cess — ^Haulm and pods of colza as manure — Farming accounts . 104 
 
 PART n. 
 
 PRACTICE EXTENDED BY THEORY. 
 
 LECTURE VII, 
 
 PAST AND PRESENT SYSTEMS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Nature and extent of progress in agriculture in past times ; Irriga- 
 tion ; Grazing of cattle ; Fallow land — The triennial system — ■ 
 "Yield of cereals under triennial system — Quantity of farmyai-d 
 manure required for similar crops — The system of alternate rota- 
 tion — Analysis of farmyard manure — Analysis of crops — Restitu- 
 tion by manure only partial — Primitive plants , . . . 129 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 PLANT PRODUCTION. 
 
 Cultivation in calcined sand — Addition of carbonaceous matter of 
 oxygen and hydrogen — Sand of the Landes — Nitrogen — Phos- 
 phorus — Sulphur — Chlorine, lime, silica — Nitrogenous combined 
 
xlii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 with mineral matter— Principle of collective force — Phosphates — 
 Potash — Magnesia — Oonstituenta of normal manure — Obtaining 
 maximum crops 146 
 
 LECTURE IX. 
 
 ANALYSIS OP THE SOIL BY THE PLANTS THEMSELVES. 
 
 Analysis of soils, by Sir Humphry Davy — Analysis of soil, by M. 
 Rivet — Soil at Fontainebleau — Insufficiency of present methods 
 of chemical analysis — Proving fields — The testimony of the 
 plants themselves — Experimental fields attached to village 
 schools — Experiments at Vincennes and at Rothamsted — Allu- 
 vial soils of recent formation the most favourable conditions of 
 existence — Rye-eaters — Ohalklandei's. ^ . . . . 165 
 
 LECTURE X. 
 
 FARMING WITH FARM MANURE ONLY. 
 
 The aim of agriciilture viewed in the light of social interests — 
 Yield with farmyard manure only — Profit of Lavoisier's re- 
 searches and farming experiments — Small amount of profit — 
 Mathieu de Dombasle^Results at Roville — M. Bella's financial 
 results at Grignon — M. Bousaingault at Bechelbronn — Annexa- 
 tion of a distillery or a starch factory — Example of M. Houel 
 ■ — Necessity of importing manures — High farming system — 
 Balance sheet drawn up by Oambrai Chamber of Agricultursr:- 
 Advioe to young farmers . . . . » . . 107 
 
 LECTURE XI. 
 
 FORMULAE FOR MANURES, AND RULES FOR THEIR APPLICATION. 
 
 Discovery of the dominant constituent — Plants divided into three 
 categories — Manures classified into five distinct groups ; normal 
 manure, normal homologous manures, stimulating manures, in- 
 complete manures, manures with special functions — Proportion 
 of dominant constituents to be employed — Proper proportion of 
 subordinate constituents — Dividing nitrogenous material into two 
 doses — Quantity of nitrogen for colza and hemp, wheat, barley, 
 rye and oats, beetroot — Suppression of potash diminishes yield of 
 potatoes and vines — best method of applying chemical manui'es 
 — Comparison between normal and homologous manures — Rela- 
 tive cost of farmyard and chemical manures .... 224 
 
CONTENTS. xJiii 
 
 LECTUEE XII. 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF FARMYARD MANURE COMPARED WITH 
 CHEMICAL MANURE. 
 
 PA.SB 
 
 Defective principles adopted by M. Bnussingault— System of Book- 
 keeping — Cost of horse manure— M. Oaillet's estimate of acces- 
 sory cost — Chemical and farm manure — Experiments with wheat, 
 beetroot, potatoes, oats, barley, maize, rye, buckwheat, colza, 
 
 flax — Experiments in farming — School of Beyne, in the Landes 
 
 Agriculture in France 265 
 
 LECTURE XIII. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Organisation and production of animal matter — ^Proximate principles 
 common to animals and plants — Comparative composition of the 
 egg and the seed — Identity of substance and of active principles 
 between animals and plants — Cattle-feeding — Pigs' rations . . 285 
 
 LECTUEE XIV. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Fattening of cattle — Composition of lean meat compared with fat 
 meat — Raising of cattle — Progressive increase in the price of meat 
 — Income and expenditure — Balance-sheets of the farm at 
 Beehelbronn — Example of M. Wolf — ^Exhaustion of the soil . 310 
 
 LECTURE XT. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 Beetroot distilleries — Starch factories — Manufacture of hemp and 
 flax — Extraction of oil from seed — Oilcake as manure — Plantations 
 of resinous pines — Extraction of resin from pines — Selection of 
 seed for beetroot by sugar manufacturers — manure for beetroot — 
 Analyses of beetroot . . i . , . i , , 340 
 
xliv CONTENTS. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 PAOS 
 
 Description of tlie ingredients whicli enter into the composition of 
 chemical manures — Instructions for the preparation, preservation, 
 and use of chemical manures — List of manures, in order of suc- 
 cession, best suited for the principal alternations of crops — In* 
 structions for the estahlishment of experimental fields for the 
 analysis of the soil — Tables for calculating the exhaustion of the 
 soil and for regulating the feeding of live stock — Comparative 
 action of the diiferent fertilising agents on the growth of plants — 
 Illustrations — Comparative action of constituents of plant pro- 
 duction — Classified list of chemical manures . . . , 377 
 
 INDEX 441 
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 The pEODUcaiVE PoWee oi' the Chief Systems 
 
 OF Cultivation in theie Historical Oedee Frontispiece 
 
 EXPEEIMENTAL FlELD AT ViNCENNES. HaeVEST 
 
 OF 1863 ....... To face page ii 
 
 Seeies of Expeeiments made on Potatoes in 
 
 1869 Page 434 
 
 Seeies of Expeeiments made on the Vine in 
 
 1875 Tofacepage 436 
 
 Theoeetical Expeeiments on the Gkowth of 
 
 Plants in Calcined Sand ••••„„ 438 
 CoMPAEATiVE Action of Constituents of Plant 
 
 Production To follow „ 440 
 
ON CHEMICAL MANUEES 
 
 PART I. 
 
 THEORY AND PEACTICE 
 
 J 
 
LECTURE I. 
 
 PLANTS — THEIR COMPOSITION, GKOWTH, NUTRITION, AND 
 CULTIVATION CH0IC3E OF MANURE. 
 
 It has been my annual custom since the year 1861 
 to give a course of public lectures on the results of 
 my researches into the newest and best methods of 
 maintaining and increasing the fertility of the soil. 
 The information thus gained is essentially scientific 
 both in its character and origin, but I have en- 
 deavoured to render it as clear and practical as 
 possible by omitting theoretical formulae, except m 
 those cases in which it is absolutely necessary for 
 the perfect comprehension of the subject. 
 
 Free trade having now become part of the econo- 
 mic system of almost every nation, the importance 
 of agricultural questions is every day more keenly 
 felt. For a country can only obtain lasting prosperity 
 by excelling all other countries to which its com- 
 merce is open. It must of necessity produce more, 
 and that too, with greater economy. 
 
 The object of the present course of lectures is to 
 consider the means by which this end can be attained. 
 
 In approaching the subject my thoughts revert, 
 not without emotion, to the time when an august 
 personage deemed my first labours worthy of en- 
 couragement. Many then doubted these results, 
 because they were founded only on laboratory experi- 
 
 B 2 
 
4 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. r. 
 
 ments, an I they could not be convinced that it was 
 possible, as I had stated, to regulate the effects of 
 vegetation by means of the elements which chemistry 
 discovers in plants, and to found on their use a new 
 system of agriculture. 
 
 The late Emperor Napoleon III., however, judged 
 otherwise, and the fact of a field at Yincennes being 
 set apart for experiments, was yet another proof of 
 the enlightened solicitude of that sovereign for our 
 agricultural interests. 
 
 To attain the end I have in view, I must first ex- 
 plain the actual elements of which plants are com- 
 posed, since it is to these elements that agriculture 
 will in future have to resort in order to increase its 
 returns. I must, as it were, decompose the actual 
 substance of the plant, and demonstrate that it is 
 possible to analyse it with perfect precision and 
 exactness, and this in spite of the varied forms it 
 affects, more than 200,000 different plants being 
 known to exist. 
 
 This leads to the mention of facts of a different 
 order, one of which is that, in plants, nothing is 
 stable or constant, their elements are subject to cer- 
 tain transpositions in the heart of the various organs, 
 and these displacements follow a permanent law of 
 order of succession. 
 
 We must, however, go still farther : the vegetable 
 kingdom is dependent for its growth on certain im- 
 ponderable agents, light, heat, and chemical affinity, 
 and it is absolutely necessary to possess a knowledge 
 of the nature of their effects if we wish to avail our- 
 selves of their aid. 
 
 Useful results and advantageous applications must 
 be the chief end we have in view, and this will be 
 
LECT. I. COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 5 
 
 attained with greater certainty if our deductions and 
 precepts, exempt from -all empiricism, are borne out 
 by the theoretical data which have preceded them. 
 
 Chemical analysis shows that fourteen elements 
 enter into the composition of plants : they are divided 
 into organic and inorganic elements, the former being 
 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the latter, 
 phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, silicon, iron, man- 
 ganese (?), calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potas- 
 sium. This limited number of elements possesses such 
 an infinite power of combination, that they are capable 
 of forming the enormous variety of plants to which I 
 have already aUuded. They resemble, iu fact, the 
 letters of an alphabet — ^few in number but suflicient 
 to form all the words of a language. 
 
 It must not, however, be thought that the com- 
 position of plants is the same throughout the various 
 organs, differing only in form ; that the stem, the 
 bark, the leaves, and the fruit are only different 
 phases or developments of one and the same sub- 
 stance, which can at all times be identified. Each 
 organ has to a certain extent a composition peculiar 
 to itself, but, as will presently be seen, these dissimi- 
 larities are a consequence of the conditions needed 
 for the reproduction of the species and may be re- 
 duced to very simple proportions. 
 
 It may be laid down as a general rule that the 
 foliaceous or fleshy parts of plants contain more 
 mineral or inorganic matters than the woody and 
 fibrous portions. These variations are caused by the 
 aqueous portion of the sap evaporating more quickly 
 in the former than in the latter parts. In fact, the 
 less compact the tissues are, and the more direct 
 their communication with the atmosphere, the more 
 
ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 rapidly does this evaporation proceed. Further, more 
 mineral matter is found in herbaceous plants than in 
 trees, more in the leaves than in the bark of a tree, 
 and more again in the bark than in the sap wood and 
 heart wood. 
 
 In leguminous plants there are two distinct parts, 
 the pod and the seed. The pod, which is in im- 
 mediate contact with the atmosphere, lends itself more 
 readily to the evaporation of the sap : consequently it 
 contains more mineral matter. In the same way I 
 may mention that the leaves of evergreens, which are 
 renewed in the winter — a season less favourable to 
 evaporation than the hot summer — contain on this 
 account less mineral matter than those of other trees. 
 
 The following table exhibits in a more exact form 
 proof of what I have stated : 
 
 Herbaceous plants 
 
 
 
 Mi 
 oi 
 
 aeral matter in 100 parts 
 vegetable substance in 
 dry state 
 
 7-84 
 
 Trees . 
 
 
 
 0'99 
 
 Wood . 
 
 
 
 
 0-55 
 
 Sap wood 
 Bark . 
 
 
 
 
 2'65 
 
 7-47 
 
 Leaves . 
 
 
 
 
 14-20 
 
 Fallen leaves 
 
 
 
 
 6-60 
 
 Persistent leaves 
 
 
 
 
 2-00 
 
 Pea shells 
 
 
 
 
 5-50 
 
 Peas . 
 
 
 
 
 3-10 
 
 If to each inorganic element in particular we apply the 
 researches we have just made of the whole, we shall 
 arrive at an analogous conclusion, and shall find that 
 by a sort of election each of these elements is concen- 
 trated by preference in certain parts of the plants • 
 thus more silica, lime, ferric oxide, sulphates and 
 chlorides, are found in the stalks and leaves than in 
 the fruit and seeds, in which phosphoric acid and 
 
U3CT. I. COMPOSITION OP PLANTS. 7 
 
 potash ^nd magnesia become on the contrary the pre- 
 dominant elements. 
 
 We will take wheat for example : — in the ash of 
 the grain there is 46 per cent, of phosphoric acid ; in 
 that of the husk 2'54, in that of the straw, 2"26, and 
 only 1"70 in that of the root. 
 
 What I have said of phosphoric acid applies 
 equally to magnesia and potash, the proportions of 
 which vary in the different parts of the plants in 
 which these salts are found, as wUl be seen by the 
 following table : 
 
 
 1 
 
 [n 100 parts ot ash of 
 
 
 Boots 
 
 Straw Grain 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 1-70 
 
 2-20 46-00 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 1-97 
 
 3-92 13-77 
 
 Potash . 
 
 2-87 
 
 16-18 32-59 
 
 Lime 
 
 0-88 
 
 3-00 1-19 
 
 Similar differences to those found in wheat also occur, 
 without exception, in. aU plants. 
 
 The distribution of mineral matter is not, there- 
 fore, left to chance, but is on the contrary subject to 
 a fixed law. All kinds of mineral matter participate 
 indiscriminately in the formation of plants, but each 
 is concentrated by preference in an organ, or in a de- 
 termined system of organs. It remains for us to find 
 the reason for this unequal distribution. 
 
 In the economy of nature all the functions of 
 living beings, however varied they may be, tend to- 
 wards the same end, viz., to assure the reproduction 
 of the species, that is to say, to ensure its permanence 
 for aU time. They are regulated with a view to this 
 important result, but that this condition may be ful- 
 filled the embryo contained in the seed must find 
 within reach of its vital power those elements which 
 are indispensable to the first acts of plant life. This 
 
8 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. LEOT. I. 
 
 is why the seed is so abundantly provided with 
 phosphoric acid, potash, and magnesia. It is a sort 
 of reserved force provided for the first evolution of 
 the embryo. An examination of the preceding table 
 shows the difference between potash and phosphoric 
 acid. Phosphoric acid is in almost uniform propor- 
 tion in all the organs except the seed : it is not so 
 with potash ; the concentration of the phosphoric 
 acid in the seed takes place suddenly ; the proportion 
 of potash, on the contrary, increases by degrees, and 
 the closer the parts approach to the seed the more 
 considerable this proportion becomes. 
 
 A very old observation of Theodore de Saussure 
 will explain this sudden passage on the one hand and 
 the gradual progression on the other. The reason is 
 that the calcic and magnesic phosphates are inso- 
 luble in water, but a double phosphate of potash and 
 lim^e, and a double phosphate of potash and magnesia, 
 exist, which are both soluble. 
 
 AlkaUne phosphates favour, if they do not deter- 
 mine the transport of earthy phosphates to the heart 
 of the tissues. Now as at the time that the seed is 
 formed, vegetation slackens and the organs begin to 
 dry up, it is manifest that the superabundance of 
 alkaline salts must assist in the displacement of 
 earthy phosphates. It foUows that the nearer we get 
 to the seed, the greater the proportion of salts of 
 potash required to set free the last portion of earthy 
 phosphates. 
 
 In speaking of the distribution of the organic 
 elements we are struck with the fact that, although 
 only four in number, they represent at least 95 out of 
 100 parts of the substance of plants. It must not, 
 however, be imagined, that because the inorganic 
 
i^T. i> GROWTH OF PLANTS. 9 
 
 elements figure less largely than the organic, tliat 
 therefore their function is a less important one. In 
 their absence vegetation is impossible, and as soon 
 even as the soil is insufficiently provided with them 
 it becomes languid and puny. 
 
 In their distribution in the economy of plants, 
 the organic elements present yet another contrast to 
 the inorganic elements. Three of them, carbon, hy- 
 drogen, and oxygen, are present in almost iuvariable 
 proportions. AU plants and all the various organs, 
 without distinction, contaiu them in the same quanti- 
 ties. Trees, bushes, simple plants, roots, stems, 
 barks, branches, leaves, fi-uits, and seeds, show an 
 invariable proportion of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen. 
 
 This is not the case with nitrogen : it varies in 
 a similar way to the phosphoric acid and potash. 
 Fruit and seeds contain more than other organs, 
 because during the whole process of germination 
 the embryo lives at the expense of the seed, and 
 therefore requires to find in the circumscribed limit 
 of its activity not only mineral matter, but also 
 nitrogen. 
 
 We have seen then that the substance of plants 
 contains carbon and oxygen in the proportion of from 
 40 to 45 per cent., hydrogen from 5 to 6 per cent., 
 and nitrogen from 1 to 2 per cent. 
 
 In looking further into this subject, I would point 
 out that it is not enough to be able to teU of what 
 plants are composed, we must also discover how they 
 are formed, and in what manner their elements com- 
 bine in the interior of the organs, whose evolution 
 and growth they determine. Here the method differs 
 entirely fi^om that suited for mineral matter. When 
 
10 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. l. 
 
 a solution of sea-salt is exposed to the heat of the 
 sun, crystals are deposited as the liquid is evaporated, 
 which at first are so minute that they can be dis- 
 tinguished only with a magnifying glass ; soon, how- 
 ever, their isolated forms become visible to the naked 
 eye, and we can watch their growth from day to day, 
 and note that this development takes place with a 
 geometrical regularity that reveals the existence of a 
 primordial law which governs them, and from which 
 they cannot deviate. 
 
 In this case the increase takes place by the suc- 
 cessive and continuous deposit of new layers of salt ; 
 the layers being added to all the surfaces of the first 
 crystal, which constitutes a sort of attractive centre 
 for the molecules of salt diffused in the liquid. 
 
 The process of vegetation is not equally simple : 
 the phases through which a plant passes before attain- 
 ing its full development are nevertheless of so fixed 
 and permanent a character, that it is evident that a 
 plan exists, the economy and constancy of which ex- 
 clude all ideas of chance : a plan which, though 
 very different from that governing the formation of 
 minerals, depends upon no less inflexible laws, which 
 are equally well known to us, both in principle and 
 in detaU. I have said that plants owe their forma- 
 tion to fourteen different elements : I may now add 
 that some of these elements originally existed in the 
 air in the gaseous state, whUst the others, whether 
 liquid or solid, emanated from the soil. 
 
 The former are absorbed by leaves, the latter by 
 roots : hence plants are formed and developed by 
 means of many and diverse priaciples derived from 
 various sources, but these principles do not all at 
 once assume the form of tissues and orgkns: they 
 
LECT. r. GROWTH O^ PLANTS. 11 
 
 first pass througli the more simple or preparatory 
 stages, in which, although they have not completely 
 assumed the peculiar characteristics of organised 
 bodies, they can no longer be regarded as belonging 
 to inorganic nature. 
 
 The growth of a plant is then in reality an 
 operation consisting of two distinct stages. The 
 unstable compounds by the formation of which plant 
 growth begins may be divided into two groups — one 
 including those compounds composed entirely of 
 carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and the other those 
 in which we find, in addition, nitrogen, sulphur, and 
 phosphorus. Below is a list of these products, to 
 which I have given the name of transition products of 
 vegetable life, as this title denotes at the same time 
 their origin, their principal characters, and their chief 
 uses : 
 
 Insoluble in water . 
 Partly soluble in water 
 
 Soluble in water 
 
 All these products of the first group, to which we 
 shall give the generic name of carbo-hydrates, or 
 hydro-aerial products, have a common character : 
 their composition is the same, or if not actually 
 identical, is near enough for us to express it generally 
 by the symbolic formiila, Cg (HgO)^. 
 
 In all these compounds there are always six com- 
 bioing proportions ' of carbon in combination with 
 hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion required to 
 
 ' In chemistry a combining proportion is the proportion expressing 
 
 Transition Products 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 
 
 Nitrogeuised 
 
 Cellulose 
 Starch 
 
 
 Fibrin 
 
 r Gum Tragacanth 
 
 
 - Pectin 
 
 
 Inulin 
 
 Casein 
 
 ' Arabin 
 
 
 Mucilage 
 
 
 1 Grape sugar 
 
 
 (_Cane sugar 
 
 Albumen 
 
12 (JX CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. r. 
 
 form water. Although dissimilar ua appearance, all 
 these bodies are ia reality only a reproduction of the 
 same type ; this is proved by the impossibility of 
 establishing a precise line of demarcation between 
 them. A closer study of these remarkable products 
 will plainly show the poiut beyond which all precise 
 and absolute distinction is impossible. 
 
 I have placed at the head of the first group cellu- 
 lose, which forms the structural tissue of plants ; 
 immediately after which comes starch, then the gums, 
 and lastly sugar. The diflPerences between cellulose 
 and sugar are so numerous and important, that unless 
 we were acquainted with the other terms of the series 
 pectin, inulin, gums, &c. — we should never dream of 
 any similarity of composition existing between two 
 bodies apparently so unHke. Cellulose, for instance, 
 is insoluble, while sugar is soluble in water. Cellu- 
 lose is neither affected by cold dilute acid nor by 
 slightly dilute alkaline solutions, while sugar is acted 
 upon by both. Sugar has a sweet taste — cellulose is 
 tasteless. 
 
 The identity between these two bodies, however, 
 becomes manifest, and in a measure forces itself upon 
 us, when, instead of limiting the comparison to cellu- 
 lose, we consider the properties of the other terms of 
 the series, and the gradations of which cellulose is 
 itself susceptible. Cellulose in the state of ligneous 
 tissue is insoluble in cold, and even in boiling water ; 
 but in Iceland moss — a variety of Uchen pecuhar to 
 
 the weight, or quantity by weight, of any substance which combines with 
 another substance to form a definite compound. 
 
 The combining proportion of hydrogen is 1 
 „ „ oxygen „ 16 
 
 ,) „ carbon „ 12 
 
 ). „ nitrogen „ 14 
 
lECl. r. PLANT NUTEITION. 13 
 
 regions of the north. — the cellulose is much less com- 
 pact, and when boUed is converted iato jelly. It is 
 as hard as ivory m the stones of certain. fruits, but is 
 so soft as to become edible in the mushroom. There 
 is no more difference between the sugar and the 
 cellulose of lichens than there is between the fleshy 
 part of a mushroom and a piece of oak. 
 
 Between starch and cellulose there would seem 
 to be little analogy, for starch in the potato exists 
 in the state of isolated granules, each granule 
 being formed of concentric layers fitting one over the 
 other like the layers of an onion ; yet starch swells 
 in boiling water ; its granules lose their structure 
 and form like Iceland moss a true jelly, so that an 
 incontestable analogy does exist between these two 
 products. 
 
 Iniilin, which is found in the Jerusalem arti- 
 choke, and which is a variety of starch, is dissolved in 
 hniling water, from which it is separated as the water 
 cools m the form of distinct granules, whUe, as we 
 have seen, starch swells in boUing water, but does not 
 dissolve. 
 
 Gum tragacanth (Bassorin) too, forms a jelly in 
 cold water without dissolving, while arabin swells and 
 dissolves, and has moreover a sweetish taste. Thus 
 the passage from gum to sugar becomes manifest, and 
 the analogies which connect sugar with cellulose are, 
 I hope, more apparent. I may, however, add that 
 cellulose, even when it is in its most compact state, 
 can be converted into gum and into sugar by treating 
 it with sulphuric acid. This may also be done with 
 all the other terms of the series. Such transforma- 
 tions are incessant in plants : indeed the economy of 
 plant nutrition depends upon them. 
 
14 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. i. 
 
 The second group of transition products are the 
 albuminoid bodies, "which are three in number : they 
 are distinguished from the carbo-hydrates by contain- 
 ing nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus, which are 
 lacking in the first group. 
 
 Their composition, then, shows them to be a 
 degree higher and more complicated. What we have 
 said of the carbo-hydrates, however, holds good for 
 the albuminoids, notwithstanding their dissimilarity ; 
 they are in reality the same bodies in three different 
 states. Their empirical formulae are expressed in a 
 very complicated manner, no two authorities agreeing. 
 
 It, may be objected that fibrin is insoluble, while 
 casein and albumen are soluble in water. I have, 
 however, already remarked that it is only necessary 
 to raise the water to boiling point to render these 
 two last bodies also insoluble. The question may 
 also arise : how is it that heat does not act on 
 solutions of albumen as it does on solutions of casein, 
 and further, that while albumen coagulates in a mass, 
 casein only partly coagulates by forming pellicles on 
 the surface of the liquid ? To answer this we need 
 only say that it only remains for us to communicate 
 to either of these three bodies the properties of the 
 two others. 
 
 Fibrin is insoluble. To render it soluble it must 
 be beaten in a mortar with potassic nitrate, adding to 
 it a fiftieth part of its weight of caustic soda. The 
 solution thus produced possesses all the properties of 
 albumen, including its most distingmshing character- 
 istic, viz. that of coagulating in a mass by the action 
 of heat. If a few drops of caustic soda be poured 
 into a solution of albumen, it immediately acquires 
 the property of coagulating like casein in the form of 
 
lECT. I. PLANT NUTRITION. 15 
 
 pellicles. Like the carbo-hydrates, these bodies are 
 incessantly being transformed into each other at every 
 period of plant Hfe, thus showing that they are only 
 variable forms of the same type. A little considera- 
 tion will show that these transformations form the 
 very essence of plant life. 
 
 Wheat, before it germinates, contains from ten to 
 fifteen per cent, of fibrin, and at most, only one or 
 two per cent, of albumen. As soon as germination 
 begins, the proportion of fibrin diminishes, and that 
 of albumen increases. Beans and lentils contain 
 casein, but no fibrin, and very httle albumen, but 
 during germination the casein disappears and albumen 
 takes its place. The same thing occurs with starch, 
 which seeds contain in abundance ; it is changed into 
 gum and sugar, which, in their turn, undergo a fresh 
 transformation, passing into cellulose in the leaves, 
 stems, and roots. 
 
 A plant in its earliest stage is nothing more than 
 seed transformed. After germination, when vege- 
 tation properly speaking begins, more albumen is 
 formed continually, untU the plant blossoms, when the 
 albumen is changed to fibrin in wheat, and to casein 
 in beans and lentils. 
 
 Returning to the carbo-hydrates, I may quote the 
 example of beetroot, which contains from eight to 
 ten per cent, of sugar before blossoming, but none 
 when the seed is formed, the sugar having again 
 taken the form of starch. 
 
 I repeat then that plant nutrition is a phe- 
 nomenon consisting of two stages, the first being the 
 formation of transition products, the second the 
 transformation of these products into the tissues and 
 organs of plants. 
 
16 ON CHEMICAL MANUEES. leot. l. 
 
 We have now considered both the composition of 
 plants and their mode of growth. To complete the 
 general sketch it remains for me to refer to the con- 
 ditions which regulate plant life, which in the practical 
 order of things, renders the culture of the soil 
 prosperous or precarious, expensive or remunerative. 
 These conditions are three in number : 
 
 1. The climate. 
 
 2. The nature of the soil, under which head we 
 may also consider the choice and quantity of manures. 
 
 3. The choice of seed. 
 
 The influence of cUmate is incontestable. Who has 
 not noticed the difference in the growth of vegetation 
 at the foot and at the summit of a mountain ? Upon 
 the slopes of the Alps, for instance, stretches of 
 verdure may be observed at only one or two thousand 
 yards' distance from each other, but differing, not 
 only in luxuriance and colour, but also in the nature 
 of their flora. 
 
 The same fact is reproduced upon a larger scale 
 from the Equator to the Poles. You know that at the 
 Equator vegetation is marked by a vigour and gran- 
 deur which calls forth the admiration of the European 
 traveller. The number of trees as compared with 
 herbaceous plants is more considerable than in 
 Europe ; they are remarkable also for their greater 
 elevation and the size of their trunks, as well as for 
 the richness and variety of their foliage. 
 
 Beyond 70° of latitude trees, shrubs, and her- 
 baceous plants are, on the contrary, very small, 
 and in the neighbourhood of the Poles vegetation is 
 represented solely by a few powder-like byssi and 
 some crust-like lichens, which creep over the surface 
 of the soil. 
 
MCI. t. PLANT CULTIVATION. 17 
 
 Climate, then, exercises a wonderful influence on 
 plant production, and we should indeed be unwise 
 if we failed to take this into account. Would it not, 
 for instance, be foolish to try to cultivate the viae 
 at Dunkirk, maize at Valenciennes, or ohves in the 
 plains of la Beauce ? No one would of course 
 attempt this ; but the agriculturist of our day ought 
 to try more and more to specialise and to turn to 
 account the favourable chances of climate. With free 
 trade and facility of exchange every country and 
 province ought to create for itself the monopoly of 
 products in which it can defy competition. Why 
 should the south try to grow com when it can be 
 obtained more cheaply from the north in exchange 
 for wine and olive oU ? The English, who are a 
 prudent and thrifty people, have, for a long time, 
 understood this, and wherever the climate is too 
 damp for corn to be grown with profit, they substitute 
 meadow land for arable, and devote their energies to 
 cattle-grazing. 
 
 Amongst the conditions that influence vegetation 
 we have placed in the second rani?: the composition of 
 the soil and the choice of manures. Now two con- 
 tiguous portions of land frequently differ greatly in 
 fertility. Such diflferences may be accounted for by 
 the presence or absence of certain agents which 
 abound in the one place and are lacking in the other. 
 By adding to the less favoured soil the elements in ' 
 which it is deficient it immediately becomes fertile : 
 therefore, by means of proper manures, we acquire in 
 a case of this kind an almost limitless power ; man 
 in fact commands Nature. It is to the study of the 
 second condition, the choice and use of manures, that 
 
 c 
 
18 ON CIIF.MICAL UrAXURES. LECT. r. 
 
 the course of instruction at Vincennes is specially- 
 devoted. 
 
 The third condition regulating plant production, 
 viz. the choice of seeds, differs from the two pre- 
 ceding ones, which belong to the exterior world, 'n 
 that it has its origin in the plant itself. 
 
 All the different species are susceptible of certain 
 changes which are capable of becoming hereditary. 
 Races and varieties have no other origin. Unim- 
 portant in a botanical point of view, these deviations 
 often become of great importance in agriculture, be- 
 cause under the same conditions of soil and manure 
 one variety often produces twice as much as another. 
 
 For three years I grew two parallel patches of 
 wheat, one being English red wheat, the soil and the 
 manure were the same in both cases. The English 
 wheat throve wonderfully, whilst the other, notwith- 
 standing the great care taken with it, turned out 
 badly. During the autumn it always showed a 
 marked advantage over the English sort ; but in the 
 spring, although some late frosts occurred, it was 
 attacked by a red rust, whilst the English corn being 
 less advanced took no harm whatever. 
 
 There is then a course of action open to us which 
 depends mainly upon ourselves, and which has not 
 hitherto received all the attention it deserves. I firmly 
 believe our vegetable species to be susceptible of as 
 great improvements as have been effected in the 
 different breeds of domestic animals. 
 
 It is to the second of the three conditions which 
 regulate the growth and products of vegetation — 
 that which governs the choice and quantity of manure 
 — that our attention will now be specially directed. I 
 have only mentioned the other two, for the thorough 
 
IFCT. I. CHOICE OF MANURE. J.9 
 
 definition and comprehension of our subject in all 
 its aspects. It is possible that I may be reproached 
 with the too scientific character of these researches, 
 but it must be remembered that if practical results 
 are to be our aim, science must be our guide and its 
 principles the fundamental basis of our deductions. 
 
 Till withia the last twenty years it was thought 
 that farmyard manure was the only fertilising agent. 
 We maintain that this is wrong, and that it is pos- 
 sible to compose artificial manures superior to and at 
 the same time cheaper than farmyard manure. 
 
 It has been said again and again that pasture land 
 is necessarily the starting point of all good farming, 
 on account of the cattle raised and the manure pro- 
 duced, but in our day farmyard manure has irretriev- 
 ably lost the character of being absolutely necessary 
 to agriculture as artificial manures have been proved 
 to be unquestionably more remunerative. 
 
 In attempting to prove the truth of the above 
 statement, we must first define the degrees of utUity 
 of the various elements of which plants are composed, 
 search out the forms under which their assimilation 
 is most easy and their useful efifect the most certain, 
 and, finally, we must lay down the rules according 
 to which they must be combined, in order to form 
 powerful and efficacious manures. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 ON CHEMICAL MANUKES. leci. ri. 
 
 LECTURE 11. 
 
 ASSIMILATION OF CARBON, OXYGEN, HYDROGEN, AND NITROGEN. — 
 NITROGENOUS MANURES. 
 
 In my first Lecture I stated that the elements are 
 very unequally distributed in the various parts of 
 plants, in which many of them form temporary com- 
 binations before becoming converted into tissues and 
 organs. It is necessary, in order to complete this 
 somewhat preliminary inquiry, to consider in what 
 state the elements are found in Nature, under what 
 form the plants absorb them, and in what measure 
 it is possible by their aid to act on the products of 
 vegetation. 
 
 I will begin with carbon. The quantity of carbon 
 that enters into the composition of plants is, in 
 round numbers, from 40 to 45 per cent. : it therefore 
 plays an important part in vegetation. When I state, 
 however, that to the agriculturist it is absolutely un- 
 important, and may be excluded fi-om manures without 
 the fertility of the soU being affected, I shall appear 
 to be contradicting myself. To prove, however, that 
 the contradiction is only apparent, I need only re- 
 mark that the carbon of plants has its origin in the 
 carbonic dioxide of the air, and that the atmosphere 
 furnishes an inexhaustible supply. 
 
 I might, then, abstain from speaking of the as- 
 similation of carbon, and in many respects the omis- 
 sion would cause no inconvenience. I have, however 
 
lEcr. n. ASSIMILATION OF CAKBOX. 21 
 
 resolved to go rather deeply into the subject, and 
 this for two reasons : — First, because the explanation 
 of this phenomenon marks an epoch ia the history 
 of science ; and, secondly, because its study will 
 help us in bringing to light that which forms essen- 
 tially the distinctive character of plant production. 
 
 The assimilation of carbon is effected by a very 
 simple process. Carbonic dioxide formed by the 
 union of carbon and oxygen, is absorbed by the 
 leaves in the substance of which it is decomposed, 
 the carbon being absorbed by the plant whilst the 
 oxygen is set free. This simple but wonderful phe- 
 nomenon is one which can only be produced in the 
 chemist's laboratory by the aid of the most compli- 
 cated methods of analysis ; yet it is effected by the 
 delicate tissue of a leaf without its fragile organisa- 
 tion being in any way impaired. 
 
 It will be observed that the system of plant 
 respiration is the reverse of that of animal respiration. 
 Plants breathe in carbonic dioxide and give back 
 oxygen, whilst animals, on the contrary, breathe in 
 oxygen and return carbonic dioxide. This explains 
 why the composition of the atmosphere does not 
 change notwithstanding the incessant supplies drawn 
 from it by both animals and plants. 
 
 But there is a deeper and perhaps a stiU more 
 mysterious order of phenomena, the study of which 
 tends to reveal the true character of agricultural pro- 
 duction. As a general rule, all labour, to be produc- 
 tive, presupposes two things, both alike indispensable, 
 \dz. a raw material and a source of strength, and 
 notwithstanding all our efforts the raw material is 
 subject to waste which we can endeavour to lessen, 
 but which cannot be entirely prevented. This obser- 
 
22 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. II. 
 
 vation applies also to the force expended wliich is 
 only partially utilised. Take for example such 
 industrial arts as metallurgy, weaving, manufactures. 
 The labour is always accompanied with a double loss 
 of raw material and of force. This loss is caused by 
 the friction of the machinery used as well as by its 
 imperfection. 
 
 In agriculture, however, the character of the pro- 
 duction is quite different. The earth yields a harvest 
 ten times greater than the fertihsing agents employed, 
 and each harvest involves an expenditure of strength 
 at least five hundred times greater than is actually 
 exerted. The principles on which the assimilation 
 of carbon depends wUl show how these two appa- 
 rently irreconcilable facts can be explained. 
 
 It has already been stated that all plants 
 contain from 40 to 45 per cent, of their weight of 
 carbon. Now, if carbon is absorbed from the air 
 and forms part of the fertilising agents used in agri- 
 culture as well, it is at once evident why it is that 
 the soil yields more than it has received. The same 
 remark apphes to oxygen and hydrogen, which repre- 
 sent more than 50 per cent, of the weight of plants, 
 and which both have their origin in water. It 
 follows from this that 95 per cent, of the substance 
 of plants is derived from sources foreign to the 
 soil, and that the portion which human industry has 
 to furnish to the earth is only a fraction of that which 
 is yielded by the crops. This fraction is, however, 
 indispensable, for without it the carbon of the atmo- 
 sphere, and the oxygen and hydrogen of water, would 
 not have been able to enter into plant life. 
 
 The excess in the earth's produce then is due to 
 the air and rain. 
 
LECT. ir. 
 
 ASSUnLATION OF CARBON. 
 
 23 
 
 The following table, which applies to other plants 
 as weU as to wheat, is a conclusive proof of this 
 fact : — 
 
 Composition of Wheat {Straw and Chain.) 
 
 
 In 100 parts 
 
 Carbon 
 
 47'b9 
 
 Hydrogen . 
 
 5-54 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 40-32 
 
 Soda . 
 
 0-09 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 0-20 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 0-31 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 0-03 
 
 FeiTic oxide 
 
 0-006 
 
 Silica . 
 
 2-75 
 
 Manganese . 
 
 (?) 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 1-60 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 0-45 
 
 Potash 
 
 0-66 
 
 Lime . 
 
 0-29 ; 
 
 These 93-65 parts are derived from the air 
 and rain. 
 
 Total 3-296. The soil is superabundantly 
 provided -with these constituents, which 
 it is quite unnecessary to add to it. 
 
 Total, 3-00. These the soil possesses only 
 to a limited extent, and the deficiency 
 is supplied by artificial manure. 
 
 99-93 
 
 The second characteristic of agricultural products, 
 although of the same order as the preceding, is more 
 difficult to understand. 
 
 Till within the last twenty years it was held that 
 natural phenomena were due to different causes be- 
 cause they affected different organs. 
 
 A more correct method of observation has, how- 
 ever, taught us that this multiplicity of causes was 
 only apparent, and that in reality all physical pheno- 
 mena are only the manifestations of a single cause, 
 viz. motion. The combustion of a body is followed 
 by an increase of temperature. The combustion of 
 1 lb. of carbon produces a degree of heat sufficient to 
 raise 14,400 lbs of water 1° F. The quantity of heat 
 necessary to raise 1 lb. of water 1° F. is termed a 
 heat unit, so it may be said that 1 lb. of carbon pro- 
 duces 14,400 heat units. By heat, mechanical force is 
 engendered, and between th^ body burnt, the tempera- 
 
24 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. ii. 
 
 tnre produced, and the force derived therefrom, there 
 is an invariable relation. 
 
 It is known with certainty that a heat unit is 
 equivalent to an effort necessary to raise 1 lb. to a 
 height of 772 feet, and the effort necessary to raise 
 1 lb. 1 foot is called a foot-pound or dynamic unit. 
 Hence one heat unit, or the quantity of heat which 
 causes 1 lb. of water to rise 1° F., is sufficient to 
 elevate that same pound to a height of 772 feet, or, in 
 other words, one heat unit is equivalent to 772 foot- 
 pounds. 
 
 The work of a horse is estimated at 1,951,100 
 foot-pounds per hour, that is to say the strength he 
 exerts is sufficient to raise 1,951,100 pounds one foot 
 high. Estimating the day's work at 8 hours, he will 
 therefore have raised 15,608,800 lbs. to the height of 
 1 foot in that time. 
 
 But if a heat unit is equivalent to 772 foot-pounds 
 or dynamic units, and if the combustion of 1 lb. of 
 carbon produces 14,400 foot-pounds, it follows that 
 the combustion of 1 lb. of carbon corresponds to 
 2,510,256 foot-pounds, or, in round numbers, to 1^ 
 day's work for a horse, the day being reckoned, as I 
 have already said, at 8 hours. 
 
 Now it is clear that the combustion of carbon 
 generates carbonic acid, and produces heat, which 
 may be expressed in dynamic units. If it were re- 
 quired to undo the work of combustion, viz. to 
 separate the carbon from the oxygen in the carbonic 
 dioxide, it would be necessary to restore to these 
 elements a quantity of heat equal to that resulting 
 from their combination. 
 
 These calculations show that, as the yield of one 
 acre may be fixed at 8,800 lbs. of vegetable matter. 
 
LECT. ir. ASSIMILATION OF CARBON. 25 
 
 containing on an average in round numbers 4,400 
 lbs. of carbon, the fixation of which required over 
 3,000,000 of heat units, that quantity of heat corre- 
 sponds to nearly 8,000 millions of foot-pounds, that 
 is to say, to the work done by a horse in 2,664 days : 
 therefore the harvest of 1 acre is obtainable at this cost. 
 
 If, then, the preparation of one acre by ploughing, 
 harrowing, &c., requires from man and beast only the 
 amount of labour equal to that of a horse for six 
 days, it follows that where man expends four-tenths 
 in mechanical efforts, nature adds to it 177 by the 
 imperceptible action of heat and light. The source 
 of this enormous consumption of active and inex- 
 haustible force is to be found in the rays of the sun, 
 in the absence of which plants do not assimilate car- 
 bon. The heat given out by wood and other vege- 
 table products, when they are burnt, is nothing more 
 than the heat which they themselves have drawn 
 from the sun, and which passes, by combustion, from 
 the latent to the free state. It is then in reahty only 
 an act of restitution. 
 
 This explanation will, I think, show clearly what 
 are the characteristics of plant production. Nature 
 alone possesses the privilege of adding to the raw 
 material, which in other cases suffers a loss ; and 
 of yielding a relatively enormous product, the forma- 
 tion of which shows that an invisible force has been 
 at work, and one which is quite independent of our 
 efforts. 
 
 It is in this that we discover the marvellous 
 instinct of those nations who, anticipating the dis- 
 coveries of science, have believed that the pros- 
 perity of a state can not be lasting except its agri- 
 culture is in a flourishing condition. We may also 
 
26 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. u. 
 
 see why certain economists of the last century — 
 Quesnay amongst others — conceived the idea of im- 
 posing taxes solely on the products of the soil, be- 
 cause they alone showed a surplus on the net 
 l)roduce. 
 
 I have entered fully into this matter, because I 
 am convinced that in order to thoroughly compre- 
 hend the best agricultural methods, it is first neces- 
 sary to have a clear idea of the principles upon which 
 they are based. 
 
 Now the assimilation of carbon resolves itself, as 
 we have said, into two facts. Plants absorb car- 
 bonic dioxide from the air and decompose it. 
 
 To show that leaves absorb carbonic acid, it is 
 only necessary to put a branch of vine-leaves into a 
 glass receiver, and to pass into it a current of air. 
 Before entering the receiver the air contained from 
 three to four thousandths of its volume of carbonic 
 dioxide, but when expelled it contains only two- 
 thousandths at the most. The leaves have therefore, 
 in this instance, acted as a true sieve. 
 
 The same effect is produced by the foliage of all 
 plants and trees, but it must be borne in mind that 
 to obtain this result three conditions are necessary. 
 1st. The plants must receive the direct action of the 
 sun. 2nd. The surrounding temperature must not be 
 lower than 50° to 53.^° F. above zero. 3rd. The 
 plants must not be stripped of their leaves. 
 
 The absence of either of these three conditions 
 would stop the phenomenon and tend to render the 
 plants inert. When deprived of light, leaves, instead 
 of absorbing carbonic dioxide and setting free oxygen, 
 absorb oxygen and set free carbonic dioxide. 
 
 Lastly, I wovild add that the leaves are essentially 
 
LECT. ir. ASSIMILATION OF CAEBON, 27 
 
 the seat of the assimilation of carbon ; neither the 
 roots, nor the trunk, nor the branches participating 
 in this important function. 
 
 We win pass to considerations of a more practical 
 nature, and more nearly allied to agriculture. 
 
 The quantity of carbon which plants absorb in 
 the course of a season may reach to nearly four tons 
 per acre. 
 
 But all plants are not equally favoured in this 
 respect on account of the difference in the surfaces of 
 their leaves. If, for instance, we compare wheat, 
 Jerusalem artichokes, beetroot, potatoes, &c., we find 
 in the case of the Jerusalem artichoke, which fixes 
 3 tons 4 cwt. of carbon per acre, that the surface of 
 the leaves represents fifteen times that of the soil cul- 
 tivated. Beetroot, which absorbs only 16 cwt. of 
 carbon,-^ presents a surface of leaves not more than 
 five times that of the soil. The same observations 
 apply to the potato and also to wheat, which absorb 
 respectively only 1,496 lbs. and 1,232 lbs. of carbon 
 per acre, and whose leaves present a stiU more re- 
 duced surface. 
 
 To complete the study of the assimilation of car- 
 bon, it is only necessary to say that if the atmo- 
 sphere is the principal source from which plants derive 
 their supply of this element, they nevertheless draw 
 a certain quantity from the deeper layers of the soil, 
 the carbonic dioxide contained in which is absorbed 
 by the roots, and afterwards decomposed by the 
 leaves into oxygen and carbon, the latter element 
 being assimilated. The carbonic dioxide of the soil 
 
 ' The figures here given are deduced from the returns obtained at the 
 farm of Bechelbronn. Having regard to the smallness of these returns, the 
 data mentioned must be considered as the ininima. 
 
28 ON CHEMICAL MANURIOS. leot. u. 
 
 is formed by the decomposition of vegetable detritus. 
 The mode by which carbon is absorbed by plants 
 may be summed up in three facts, "viz. : 
 
 (1) It is always absorbed in the state of carbonic 
 dioxide. 
 
 (2) The leaves effect the decomposition of tlie 
 carbonic dioxide. 
 
 (3) The solar raj^s are the active agents in caus- 
 ing the leaves to effect this decomposition. 
 
 Oxygen and Hydrogen. 
 
 As far as the source of oxygen and hydrogen is 
 concerned, plants receive more of these elements from 
 rain than they can utilise. 
 
 It may perhaps be asked if it is quite certain that 
 the oxygen and hydrogen have their origin in water. 
 This may be proved by attempting to cultivate plants 
 in calcined sand : the plants during their growth are 
 given oxygen and hydrogen only in the form of dis- 
 tilled water, yet the water in some way undergoes 
 change and enters into the composition of plants. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Xitrogen is assimilated by plants in three different 
 forms, viz. : 
 
 In the form of ammonia. 
 
 As the nitrate of some base. 
 
 As nitrogen gas. 
 
 One or other of these forms is found specially 
 suited to certain kinds of plants, for instance, 
 nitrogen enters as ammonia into wheat, as nitrates 
 into beetroot, while leguminous plants absorb it in 
 the form of free gas. 
 
lECT. ri. ABSORPTION OF NITROGEN. 29 
 
 It has been ascertained that crops always con- 
 tain more nitrogen than the manure supplied to them. 
 
 Boussingault, for instance, has shown that in the 
 case of the Jerusalem artichoke, there is an increase 
 during growth amounting to 38 lbs. per acre and 
 150 lbs. during the growth of lucern. 
 
 This excess of nitrogen is derived, not from the 
 soil, but from the air ; but the question now arises, 
 In what state has the nitrogen been absorbed ? Is 
 it in the state of ammonia, of nitrates, or of free 
 nitrogen ? 
 
 There is no doubt that the air contains both 
 ammonia and nitrates, but only in infinitesimal 
 quantities. The proportion of ammonia is between 
 0-000000017 and 0-000000032, or from 17 to 32 lbs. 
 of ammonia to 1,000 million lbs. of air, and the pro- 
 portion of nitric acid is scarcely equal to that of 
 ammonia. 
 
 In face of these minute quantities, it is evident 
 that the enormous amount of nitrogen cannot be 
 attributed to them. Rain-water contains on an 
 average half a pound in a million pounds of ammonia, 
 and the same of nitre. Now, these quantities repre- 
 sent a contribution only of 5^ lbs. of nitrogen per 
 acre annually, which is evidently insuflicient to ex- 
 plain the excess of 38 lbs. in the case of the Jerusalem 
 artichoke, and still less so the excess of 150 lbs. in 
 lucern. 
 
 We are thus led to attribute to the free nitrogen 
 of the air the excess which otherwise would remain 
 unexplained. This opinion is not, however, uni- 
 versally accepted. The following are some of the 
 objections raised against it. 
 
 It is unanimously admitted that a part of the 
 
30 ON CHEMICAL MAXURKS. lect. ii. 
 
 nitrogen contained in the crops has its origin iii the 
 atmosphere, but the assimilation of free nitrogen is 
 denied ; it is supposed that before being absorbed by 
 plants the nitrogen passes into the form of a nitrate 
 in the soil : the soU would thus become the seat of 
 universal and permanent nitrification. 
 
 Now, if ■ the nitrogen is assimilated in lucern 
 only in the state of nitrate, we ought evidently to find 
 in the crop a certain amount of the bases correspond- 
 ing to the nitric acid, the supposed source of 
 nitrogen. None, however, are found to exist. In 
 a crop of lucern grown in the field at Vincennes, 
 there was a quantity of nitrogen amounting to 119 
 lbs. per acre, which, fi'om the absence of the corre- 
 sponding bases, could not possibly have penetrated 
 into the plant in the state of nitrate. This 119 lbs. 
 is only a third part of the actual quantity of nitrogen 
 that an acre of lucern absorbs from the air, for in the 
 case I have named, nitrogen, in the forms of potassic 
 and sodic nitrates, had intentionally been introduced 
 into the manure, and it has since been proved that 
 yields quite as large can be obtained by substituting 
 potassic carbonate for the nitrates. 
 
 I will suppose that sodic nitrate is used as, 
 manure for peas, trefoil, or lucern. This is attended 
 with no good results. How then are we to insure 
 for these plants the good effects of spontaneous nitri- 
 fication in the soil ? To endeavour to discover this 
 we will institute two parallel experiments. In one 
 the grounds should receive a dressing composed of 
 calcic phosphate — potash and lime without nitrogen. 
 In the other nitrogenous matter must be added to 
 those three agents. Under these two conditions very 
 diflferent efi"ects will take place according to the 
 
lECT. n. ABSORPTION OF NITROGEX. 31 
 
 nature of the plants. Trefoil, peas, and leguminous 
 plants thrive quite as well in the land which has 
 received no nitrogenous matter as on any other. 
 With wheat, colza, beetroot, and tobacco, the results 
 would be quite different. Where the nitrogenous 
 matter is absent the yields would be very moderate, 
 whUst it would be greatly increased in the ground 
 which had been dressed with it. 
 
 It may be concluded from this that plants form 
 two totally distinct groups, the one comprising those 
 which absorb their nitrogen from the soil, the other 
 those which obtain it from the air. 
 
 It is well known that crops without manure be- 
 come very scanty, but the yield is never absolutely 
 nil, and the quantity of nitrogen corresponding to it is 
 still sufficiently considerable; it would in fact, accord- 
 ing to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, rise to 
 
 Wheat 
 
 . 24J lbs. per acre 
 
 Barley . 
 
 ■ . m 
 
 Grass . 
 
 ■ ■ m 
 
 Beans . 
 
 ■ ■ m 
 
 From this table it will be seen that grass land and 
 beans absorb more nitrogen than barley and wheat. 
 Can it be said that the nitrogen of the beans and 
 grass comes from the soil ? This gives rise to another 
 difficulty. If we sow wheat after beans the yield is 
 larger and the quantity of nitrogen fixed is greater ; 
 but on the other hand we have just said that beans 
 contain more nitrogen than wheat ! Is it not evident 
 that if they had taken it from the earth the yield of 
 wheat would have been affected by it? 
 
 To conclude — nitrogen is absorbed under different 
 forms. For leguminous plants free nitrogen is the 
 most suitable ; for wheat and colza, ammonia ; for 
 
32 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. LECT. ir. 
 
 beetroot, nitrates. But when the crop shows an 
 excess of nitrogen, neither the manures nor the soil 
 can account for it — it can only be due to the free 
 nitrogen of the air. 
 
 I will sum up this question by some indisputable 
 figures designed to fix with precision the quantities 
 of nitrogen that various plants draw from the air: — 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Excess of nitrogen in crop 
 
 over that furnished by 
 
 the manure 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 . 52f lbs. 
 
 Peas 
 Oolza . 
 Beetroot 
 Lucern . 
 
 ■ • 64 „ 
 • . 114i „ 
 
 ■ • 114* „ 
 . . 264 „ 
 
 In these examples the manure contained from 44 
 to 52f lbs. of nitrogen per acre for lucern. I took 
 the excess from a purely chemical manure and from 
 a yield fixed at 3 tons 2 cwt. These examples prove, 
 then, that if all plants show an excess of nitrogen, 
 that excess is far greater in some than in others. 
 There is still one distinction to be made with respect 
 to the condition under which it is produced. 
 
 There are indeed some plants the crops of which 
 contain a great deal of nitrogen without it having 
 been furnished at all by manures. For example, 
 peas, beans, trefoil, and lucern. There are others 
 also which show a considerable excess of nitrogen, 
 such as beetroot and colza, but only on the express 
 condition of having received nitrogenous manures ; 
 lastly, there is a third class of plants which require 
 a great deal of nitrogen in the soil and of which the 
 crop gives only a relatively slight excess ; an instance 
 of this occurs in the case of wheat. 
 
 These differences are so important in practice that 
 
lEci. II. ABSORPTION OF NITROGEN. 33 
 
 they cannot be overlooked. There must be a great 
 advantage both with respect to the crops and the 
 improvement of the soU in alternating wheat with 
 beetroot and leguminous plants, that is to say, the 
 plants which obtain their nitrogen from the soil with 
 those which obtain it from the air. 
 
 These conjectures are fully confirmed by expe- 
 rience. Wheat grown in succession to clover yields 
 a larger crop than that which preceded it, and it is a 
 well-known fact that beetroot leaves dug into the soil 
 greatly favour the cultivation of wheat. 
 
 But with regard to those plants which, lilte beet- 
 root, require large quantities of nitrogen in the 
 manure, there is yet one important remark to be 
 made, viz. that the excess of nitrogen in the crop 
 is in some sort proportional to the quantity received 
 by the soil. 
 
 It follows from this that the most improving 
 methods of culture are not those which require the 
 least nitrogenous manure to ensure fertility, but 
 those in which the greatest excess of nitrogen is 
 employed, an excess which is supplied by the atmo- 
 sphere alone. This connection and mutual dependence 
 between the richness of the manure and the decided 
 improvement in the plant which has received it, and 
 of which science furnishes the true explanation, has 
 long since been verified in practice, as will be seen 
 from the following observations of Mathieu de Dom- 
 basle: — ■ 
 
 ' It is a generally observed fact,' he saj^s, ' that 
 the functions by which plants appropriate the nutri- 
 tive elements contained in the soU and in the air are 
 corresponding functions, so that an increase in the 
 quantity of the active principles which they draw 
 
 D 
 
34 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. ieci. ir. 
 
 from the earth will ensure a still larger quantity of 
 atmospheric nutrition. It is for this reason that those 
 plants which improve most rapidly, that is to say, which 
 take most from the air, make still greater improvement 
 when groicn in a more fertile soil.' 
 
 This theory of high cultivation may be explained 
 in a more striking and scientific manner. Let us 
 take for instance a plant cultivated in calcined sand, 
 depending for its nourishment upon air and water 
 alone, and producing in the first five days of germi- 
 nation twenty leaves. If the part played by a leaf 
 in the nutrition of a plant results in the production 
 of a new leaf every fifteen days, at the end of three 
 and a half months the plant will have produced 
 2,460 leaves. 
 
 Suppose, on the other hand, another plant culti- 
 vated in a manured soil, and admit that the effect 
 of the manure will be the production of five fresh 
 leaves every fortnight in addition to those which were 
 formed when an- and water were its only food. After 
 the same lapse of time the plant will have produced 
 3,475 leaves, or nearly twice as many as in the first 
 case, and yet the manure apphed to the soil has by 
 itself resulted in the formation of only thirty-five 
 leaves. This result which we may consider rather 
 extraordinary is, however, explained very easUy if 
 we consider that the first leaves which owe their 
 origin to the manure, assist in the increase of the 
 crop, not only by then- number, but also by the leaves 
 subsequently formed, of which they are the begin- 
 ning and which owe their subsequent nourishment 
 solely to the atmosphere. 
 
 I have said that it is necessary to vary the 
 quantity of nitrogenous manure according to the 
 
lECT. II. NITROGENOUS MANURES. 35 
 
 nature of the crop to be grown. I will now give the 
 yields which a distinguished agriculturist, M. Caval- 
 lier, has obtained at the farm of Mesnil-Saint-Nicaise. 
 The case is one in which beetroot was grown 
 under four different conditions : with chemical manure 
 without nitrogen, and with the same manure to which 
 were added increasing quantities of ammonic sulphate. 
 
 Boots, tons per acre 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Witli chemical manure without nitrogen the yield was 14 14 
 
 Same manure with 176 Ihs. of nitrogen . . . 19 
 
 „ 220 „ ... 20 8 
 
 „ 264 „ ... 23 16 
 
 If we take as the starting point the yield of 14 
 tons 14 cwts. obtained by manure without nitrogen, 
 we shall find that, the price of ammonic sulphate 
 being subtracted, there remains a surplus of profit. 
 
 Increased Profit 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 With 176 lbs. of nitrogen . 
 
 . 2 14 2 
 
 „ 220 „ . . 
 
 .468 
 
 „ 264 „ . . 
 
 .926 
 
 It is thus seen that nitrogenous matter plays a 
 most important part in plant economy. In prac- 
 tice it is found a great advantage to employ ammo- 
 niacal salts and sodic nitrate ; the fixity of their 
 composition, the certainty of their action, and their 
 ready assimilation giving to them a marked superiority 
 over all other nitrogenous compounds. 
 
 I have been in the habit of employing these pro- 
 ducts in quantities of fi:om 53 to 80 lbs. of nitrogen 
 per acre for wheat, for colza and beetroot fi'om 
 88 to 105 lbs. per acre can be used without incon- 
 venience. It may be added that ammonic sulphate 
 contains in round numbers 20 per cent, of nitrogen 
 and sodic nitrate 15 per cent. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. ii. 
 
 As these products are endowed with great power, 
 we cannot be too careful in distributing them equally ; 
 this may be easily effected by mixing them with four 
 or five times their weight of fine and dry earth. 
 When this has been done, the mixture is spread on 
 the land after the ploughing is completed. It is 
 afterwards harrowed to ensure their mixture with 
 the surface soil. 
 
 If we reflect on the foregoing ideas we shaU find 
 that between the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen on 
 the one part, and the nitrogen on the other, there 
 is, from an agricultural point of view, this great 
 difference — that nature always provides plants with 
 a superabundance of the three first, whUe she only 
 furnishes nitrogen exceptionally and under certain 
 conditions. The secret of good farming consists in 
 alternating those plants which derive nitrogen from 
 the air with those which obtain it from the soil, and 
 taking care to supply the latter with manures com- 
 posed of nitrogenous compounds. 
 
 The nitrates and the ammoniacal salts are not the 
 only nitrogenous compounds to which we can have 
 recourse. Animal matter can also be employed, pro- 
 vided that it enters readily into a state of putrefac- 
 tion, when it acts like ammoniacal salts. 
 
 I, however, prefer the latter, because they are 
 directly assimilable, and also because that for every 
 100 parts of nitrogen, which the organic matter con- 
 tains, there are at least 30 parts lost to vegetation. 
 This loss is the result of the decomposition to which 
 these matters are subjected, 30 per cent, of the total 
 nitrogen being evolved in the state of free gas, in 
 which form the atmosphere contains more than vege- 
 tation is able to utilise. 
 
1.ECT. ir. NITROGENOUS MANURES. 37 
 
 It cannot be too ojEten repeated tliat it is one of 
 the secrets of profitable farming, to draw from the 
 air as much nitrogen as possible by the alternation 
 of crops. All the efforts of agriculturists must be 
 directed to this end, and one of the most valuable ser- 
 vices rendered to agriculture by science has been the 
 setting forth of this fact. 
 
 If science is a guide which must sometimes be 
 followed with reserve on account of the financial 
 questions with which agricultural operations are com- 
 plicated and sometimes impeded, it must not be for- 
 gotten that all that has been done in agriculture is in 
 conformity with its laws, and that if we are on the 
 eve of seeing improvements accomplished superior to 
 aU that has been done in the past, it is to science that 
 our thanks will be due. 
 
 In the next lecture we shall treat of the function 
 of mineral matter in the economy of plant production. 
 
38 ON CHEMICAL MAXURES. leci. hi. 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 MINERAL MATTER IN MANURES NORMAL MANURE — MECHANICAL 
 
 CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL HUMUS AS A FERTILISER TESTING 
 
 RICHNESS OF SOIL. 
 
 The inorganic elements ordinarily entering into the 
 composition of plants are ten in number, viz. phos- 
 phorus, sulphur, chlorine, silicon, calcium, magnesium, 
 potassium, sodium, iron, and possibly manganese. 
 But it is a surprising fact that we are almost entirely 
 ignorant of the state in which they enter into the 
 organisation of vegetable tissues. We know that it 
 is in that of binary or tertiary compounds, but we 
 cannot exactly determine their nature and composi- 
 tion. Our imperfect knowledge in this respect will 
 be less astonishing if I add that, to acquire the 
 slightest notion of their presence we must begin by 
 burning the tissues which contain them. 
 
 But if science presents in this respect a gap that 
 is to be regretted, we know at least with certainty in 
 what form, and under what conditions, minerals may 
 become extremely efficacious in agriculture as ferti- 
 lising agents. If the inorganic element in question is 
 phosphorus, it is in the state of calcic phosphate 
 that it must be employed ; if it is potassium, in the 
 state of carbonate, nitrate or silicate, and in the case 
 of calcium in that of carbonate or sulphate. This 
 second poiat, which is more important than the first, 
 viz. the most favourable form in which to employ the 
 
LECT. HI. MI^-^KRAL MATTER IN MANURES. 39 
 
 inorganic elements, in order to ensure good results, is 
 then quite settled. But here an unexpected ques- 
 tion presents itself. 
 
 I have just said that ten diiferent inorganic or 
 mineral elements enter into the composition of plants, 
 and now I am obliged to add that with the help of 
 nitrogenous matter, three only are stifficient to in- 
 crease and maintain the fertility of the soil, and that 
 the agriculturist need not concern himself about the 
 remaining seven. 
 
 It must not, however, be thought that the 
 latter have no effect on plants. They are no less 
 necessary than the three first, and if they can be 
 practically dispensed with in artificial manures, it is 
 only because the worst soils are superabundantly 
 provided with them.^ 
 
 ' I may be allowed, apropos of the composition of normal manure, to 
 reproduce the declaration I made in my fifth Conference at Vincennes. 
 
 ' In limiting the composition of normal manure to calcic phosphate, 
 potash, lime, and nitrogenous matter, I do not intend to deny the utility 
 of the other products which analysis shows to be present in plants. I 
 suppress them only because the soil is already sufficiently provided with 
 them. 
 
 ' It may be that more efficacious compounds of iron and manganese 
 exist than those which the soil contains naturally, and whose presence in 
 manures would be followed by an increased yield. When experience has 
 proved the correctness of this principle we shall zealously conform to its 
 prescriptions. But till then we shall persist in excluding from normal 
 manure any additions the value of which has not been fully proved. 
 
 ' Science is not immutable. Quite the contrary. There are some 
 few primary facts which have become established laws, but the interpre- 
 tations of secondary facts are changing incessantly, in proportion as their 
 number increases, and as the conditions of their manifestation are better 
 known. No one can pretend to be possessed of every scientific fact and 
 principle connected with vegetation. In the transition state through 
 which we are passing, the wisest course is to rely on the testimony of 
 facts, neither neglecting their teaching nor going beyond it, and above all 
 to avoid fixed ideas. Faithful to this principle, which it has always 
 been our aim to follow, let us compose a manure which may be as readily 
 perfected as the science which teaches us its composition. Let us con- 
 
40 ox CHEMICAL .MANURES. lect. in. 
 
 If the observations I have just made are correct, 
 the conclusion is obvious. It ought to be possible 
 by their aid to obtain as luxuriant a growth in cal- 
 cined sand, which is inert in itself, as in the most 
 fertile alluvial soU. AU that is necessary for this is 
 a due proportion of the ten inorganic elements and 
 of nitrogenous matter. 
 
 It foUows equally from these fundamental data, 
 that in natural soil the same result may be obtained 
 with a nitrogenous material and three compounds 
 only, calcic phosphate, potash, and lime. These two 
 theoretical principles are confirmed by experience. 
 
 We may follow this order of ideas still further. If 
 it be true that each inorganic element plays a part 
 peculiar to itself, and that the beneficial effect of the 
 whole is to a certain extent dependent upon the 
 presence of each of these elements in particular, we 
 ought, by the suppression of one or more components 
 of the fertilising mixture, to be able to form a series of 
 gradations progressing from the most precarious to 
 the most abundant crop. This new principle is also 
 borne out by experience. But as a question of 
 great importance is here at stake, and in order that 
 our results may be beyond dispute, let us work out 
 these suppositions in a soil composed of calcined sand, 
 in the composition of which there is nothing that is 
 not definitely known. 
 
 In calcined sand, without any addition, but 
 soaked with distilled water, wheat acquires only a 
 
 tent ourselves with combining those products whose action is at present 
 well defined, and whose most serviceable form is thoroughly understood. 
 Such a manure will be the most perfect that can be obtained in the 
 present stage of our knowledge. It wiU suifice for all practical require- 
 ments, and if the future reveals useful additions to it, we can at least 
 affirm that nothing will have to be taken away.' 
 
LECT. ni. 
 
 MINERAL MATTER IN MANURES. 
 
 41 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 rudimentary development, the straw being hardly as 
 large as a knitting-needle. Under these conditions, 
 however, vegetation follows its ordinary course, the 
 plant blossoms and bears seed, but in each ear there 
 are only one or two small and imperfectly developed 
 grains. Thus in a soil as barren as can possibly be, 
 wheat finds in the water with which it is irrigated, 
 and in the carbonic dioxide of 
 the air, means whereby it can per- 
 form the entire cycle of its evolu- 
 tion, though of course in a feeble 
 manner. 
 
 With twenty -two seeds of 
 wheat weighing about fifteen grains 
 in weight, a crop weighing over 
 ninety grains is obtaiaed (Fig. 1). 
 Add to the calcined sand the ten in- 
 organic elements, excluding nitro- 
 genous matter, and the result is 
 scarcely, if any, better. Under 
 these new conditions the corn is 
 rather more developed than in the 
 former case, but the crop is still 
 very feeble, amounting only to 
 about 123 grains (Fig. 2). Re- 
 versing this second experiment, we 
 
 leave out all the mineral matter ^^.^^^.^^..^^ 
 
 and add a nitrogenous matter only 
 to the sand (Fig. 3). The vegetation still remains 
 very poor and stinted ; the yield, however, is some- 
 what larger, amounting to about 138 grains. The 
 gradually increasing yield should be carefully noted. 
 In pure calcined sand the yield was ninety-two 
 grains ; with the mineral matter, but without nitro- 
 
 izzJt 
 
42 
 
 ON CIIKJIICAL MANURES. 
 
 genous matter, 123 grains ; with nitrogenous matter, 
 138 grains. In the last case a fresh phenomenon is 
 developed. As long as we use mineral matter alone, 
 the plants are etiolated, and the leaves are of a yellow- 
 ish green colour : but as soon as a nitrogenous 
 matter is added to the sand, the leaves change their 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Tig. 3. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 t. 
 
 
 
 ! r-i 
 
 
 
 
 i'l/i:)/. 1 i iki 
 
 '\ 
 
 
 
 ^ IW 
 
 ~^MW-m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 $--' 
 
 
 if'i; 
 
 \f 
 
 1 / 
 
 „iiiii 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 - 
 
 \»\wlM''^/ 
 
 !/ 
 
 Pv 
 
 Mwih"'" ™K 
 
 J) 
 
 \\ 
 
 ^S^r'-'f~ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 — "^^SiidBSt^'^v 
 
 — — w'si^rs 
 
 ^'j — 
 
 '^i ll«ffl!l^^w\ 
 
 
 h 
 
 nlwlMm^' 
 
 
 u 
 
 f^m. 
 
 ,f^^^i\ 
 
 — ■<g**» ..^B^r (^ 
 
 «_;*i^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 1 J 
 
 K» jj 
 
 hue and become dark green, and it seems as if the 
 vegetation was about to assume its ordinary vigour ; 
 it is, however, only a deceitful appearance, for the 
 crop remains as poor as ever. 
 
 Up to the present time we have not exceeded 
 the most rudimentary returns : we wUl now try a 
 
lECT. III. 
 
 NOBMAL MANURE. 
 
 43 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 fourth experiment, which is, in some sort, the syn- 
 thesis of the three preceding 
 ones. We wiU add to the cal- 
 cined sand both the mineral 
 and nitrogenous matter. The 
 result is almost magical, so 
 greatly does this pheno- 
 menon contrast with those 
 that have gone before. Pre- 
 viously the growths were lan- 
 guishing, precarious, and etio- 
 lated ; but now the plants 
 spring up rather than grow, 
 the leaves are beautifully green, 
 the stem, straight and firm, 
 terminating in an ear filled 
 with good grains, and the 
 harvest weighs fi-om 327 to 
 383 grains (Fig. 4). 
 
 We have thus succeeded in 
 producing plants artificially 
 without using farmyard manure 
 or any unknown substance. You 
 will agree with me that this 
 is an important fundamental 
 point. There is no mystery or 
 undeterminated force ; a few 
 chemical products of definite 
 purity, some distilled water, 
 perfectly pure in itself, a few 
 seeds to start with, and the 
 result is a crop that will in 
 every respect bear comparison 
 with those obtained on thoroughly good soil. 
 
44 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. LECI. 111. ' 
 
 We are consequently justified in saying that the 
 problem of vegetation has here received its absolute 
 solution, for we have not only defined the conditions 
 that govern the production of plants, but also the 
 degree of importance of each of the agents that con- 
 tribute to it. Thus the nitrogenous matter produces 
 by itself alone a greater effect than all the mineral 
 matters put together. But a good crop is not ob- 
 tained until these two kinds of matters are united. 
 
 I will again remark, that in passing from cal- 
 cined sand to natural soils, the number of inorganic 
 elements used as manure may be reduced from ten 
 to three without inconvenience. If under these new 
 conditions two parallel experiments are made, the 
 one with a nitrogenous matter and all the ten in- 
 organic elements, and the other with a nitrogenous 
 material and three mineral substances only, viz., 
 calcic phosphate, potash, and lime, the yields will be 
 equal. 
 
 In calcined sand this abstraction of seven ele- 
 ments would render vegetation impossible ; but as 
 such curtailment is not injurious in natural soUs, it 
 is manifest that these seven elements exist m. them. 
 
 The conditions most favourable to fertility con- 
 sist therefore in the union of these four substances : 
 nitrogenous matter, calcic phosphate, potash, and lime; 
 and I have therefore given this mixture the name of 
 normal manure. 
 
 In order to confirm what I have just said, I will 
 place before you a series of crops grown in the open 
 air with chemical manures only. (Plate 1.) The 
 inequalities seen in them are occasioned by nothing 
 else than by leaving out one of the four substances 
 composing the normal manure, so true is it that the 
 
LECT. Til. MECHANICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 45 
 
 union of the four is indispensable in order to obtain 
 luxuriant crops. Altbough the ten elements of which 
 we have just been speaking alone participate in the 
 production of plants, yet in order to play their part, 
 these elements require the assistance of another class 
 of substances, which the soU also contains, and of 
 which we will now speak. 
 
 These substances, which are three in number, 
 namely, clay, sand, and humus, differ from the pre- 
 ceding elements, inasmuch as the part they play is 
 purely passive. They serve, in fact, as a support to 
 plants, but do not by themselves contribute to the 
 maintenance of plant life. To distinguish them from 
 the first, which are called assimilable constituents of 
 the soil, these have received the name of mechanical 
 constituents. 
 
 But this is not all : the assimilable constituents 
 are themselves divided into two groups, the active 
 assimilable constituents and the assimilable con- 
 stituents in reserve, so called because they cannot 
 contribute to the production of vegetation until they 
 have undergone a prehminary decomposition, by 
 which means the plant is enabled to absorb them. 
 A single example will be sufficient to point out the 
 necessity for this distinction. 
 
 Nitrogenous matters of animal origin produce, 
 on being decomposed, ammonia and nitrates, and to 
 that formation they owe their useful effect ; the 
 excreta and skin of animals are a case in point, as 
 they are speedily decomposed with great readiness. 
 
 But if the skin is submitted to the process of 
 tanning by which it is transformed into leather, it is 
 decomposed with extreme slowness and difficulty, 
 thus losing a part of its immediate activity. 
 
46 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. iir. 
 
 In ,the first case skins belong to the group of 
 active assimilable constituents, while in the second 
 instance they enter into the group of assimilable 
 constituents in reserve. 
 
 Now there are in the soil organic and inorganic 
 products which, like the last example, do not exercise 
 any useful action until they have undergone a pre- 
 liminary decomposition produced more or less slowly. 
 It is then necessary to mark the distinction between 
 these two states of assimilable constituents. 
 
 Thus clay has the power of absorbing and retain- 
 ing a great deal of water, a most important property, 
 since it preserves a sufficient amount of humidity in 
 the soil, without which vegetation would become im- 
 possible. But in time clay will dry up and harden 
 when it is exposed to the action of the sun : it then 
 becomes so compact that the roots of plants cannot 
 penetrate it. In this case sand, which by itself is 
 unsuitable for vegetation, because it forms too shift- 
 ing a soil, and one which is moreover incapable of 
 retaining water, intervenes most opportunely. Formed 
 of isolated grains perfectly independent of each other, 
 sand, when mixed with the clay, diminishes its com- 
 pactness and communicates to it the character of a 
 porous and mobile medium, as permeable to the air 
 as to water — a condition essential to vegetable life. 
 
 Clay possesses another property worthy of remark 
 — that of fixing in the soil the nitrogenous and mine- 
 ral matters by which its fertility is essentially deter- 
 mined. This fixation is not complete and definite, it 
 is only in a manner exterior and transitory, for in 
 the end the clay gives back to vegetation the active 
 principles of which it seemed to have obtained pos- 
 session. 
 
LECI. m. MECHANICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 47 
 
 To enable the character of this property to be 
 clearly comprehended I will give an example : — 
 
 If a piece of clay be steeped in liquid muck, the 
 liquid is decolourised, and an analysis shows that at 
 the end of a certain period it has lost a part of the 
 ammonia as well as some salts which it hitherto con- 
 tained. Let us then reverse the experiment. Steep 
 the same clay in distilled water, and it will, little by 
 little, yield up the products which it had extracted 
 from the liquid muck. Finally, if the active princi- 
 ples of the soil are not drawn off by the rain-water, it is 
 again owing to the clay, which, in addition to the pro- 
 perty of retaining the fertilising principles of the soU, 
 also unites that of afterwards regulating their solution. 
 
 The absorbent property possessed by clay is more 
 or less great in proportion as the solutions upon 
 which it acts are more or less concentrated. In a 
 solution containing four per cent, of potash or am- 
 monia, the clay absorbs more of these two alkalies 
 than in a solution containing only one or two per 
 cent, of them. Hence it follows that if periods of 
 drought occur, the only thing to be feared is that the 
 soluble part of the soil may acquire a degree of con- 
 centration which is dangerous to the plants ; but the 
 clay prevents this. If a prolonged rainfall occurs the 
 clay yields to the water the substances which it had 
 previously absorbed. It follows from these actions 
 and reactions that clay acts on the assimilable ele- 
 ments of the soil as a sort of regulating material, re- 
 taining or yielding them by turns as the earth passes 
 from a state of drought to one of excessive humidity. 
 It is clear then that although clay and sand do not 
 contribute directly to plant growth, they fulfil a most 
 important office. 
 
48 ox CIIEJIICAL JIANURES. LECT. III. 
 
 Before leaving this point I will say a word on 
 the nature of these two bodies. Clay is a hydrated 
 aluminic silicate, in which the proportion of water is 
 very uncertain, seeing that it varies from ten to 
 twenty per cent, of its weight. Clay has its origin 
 in the silicates of eruptive rocks. It is perhaps 
 difficult to beUeve that granite and porphyry, which 
 are considered as symbolical of resistance and hard- 
 ness, alter with astonishing facility. When the cooling 
 of these rocks has taken place too quickly they 
 undergo, by the action of time, a sort of internal ex- 
 foliation, after which their alkaline and earthy bases 
 — potash, lime, &c., are dissolved out by the action 
 of rain-water, whilst the alumina remaining in combi- 
 nation with a part of the silica forms the clay with 
 which we are so familiar. 
 
 Sand is of a much more simple nature : it is 
 essentially formed of silica in the state of quartz, and 
 belongs to the great family of sandstone rocks, which 
 themselves have their origin in the eruptive or vol- 
 canic rocks which have been carried away and pul- 
 verised by the action of water. Thus clay owes its 
 origin to the chemical decomposition of these rocks, 
 and sand to their trituration, resulting from their 
 being displaced by the action of water. An example of 
 this is found in the alluvial soils found by our rivers. 
 
 The soil contains another substance which is very 
 dijfferent from the preceding ones, viz., ' humus,' to 
 which agriculturists have hitherto wrongly attributed 
 a very important function. 
 
 Heath mould, which is formed principally of sand, 
 contains a black substance, which is insoluble in 
 water, but is soluble in a solution of caustic potash. 
 This black substance, which is also found in farmyard 
 
LECT. III. nUMUS AS A FERTILISER. 49 
 
 manure, and in most natural soils in very unequal 
 proportions, is humus. Its composition is doubtful, 
 but it is supposed to contain carbon combined with 
 hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions requisite to 
 form water, and according to this view it enters into 
 the category of the carbo-hydrates, cellulose, sugar, 
 starch, &c., which represent ninety-five per cent, of 
 the weight of plants. 
 
 Humus has its origin in the actual substance of 
 plants, which, by a kind of spontaneous decomposition, 
 has lost a certain quantity of hydrogen and oxygen 
 in the form of water. 
 
 I have said that many intelHgent men place 
 hum.us in the foremost rank as a fertilising agent, but 
 if we ask them for proofs in support of their opinion, 
 they are not forthcoming. Plant nutrition is an 
 extremely complex phenomenon, the thorough in- 
 vestigation of which can scarcely be traced back for 
 twenty years. When sufficient data were wanting to 
 explain, hypotheses and words supplied their place. 
 Humus had the honour of serving as an explana- 
 tion for everything that could not be understood. 
 Thanks to this concurrence in explanation, men 
 appeared to agree upon the subject, when in reahty 
 they were far from doing so. 
 
 Faithful to our programme, we will try to avoid 
 this snare. Let us lay aside words and go to the 
 root of the matter, gaining our light and information 
 from experience. How, and under what circum- 
 stances, does humus act favourably? 
 
 The first of its good eifects is, that like clay it 
 possesses the property of absorbing a great deal of 
 wat^r, thus contributing to the maintenance of hu- 
 midity in the soil. If, however, we remember that 
 
 E 
 
50 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. iir. 
 
 the soil contains only a very small percentage of 
 humus, it is very difficult to allow that such small 
 quantities have the power of modifying the physical 
 condition of the soil. 
 
 Humus possesses a more useful property, that of 
 fixing the ammonia in the soil so as to prevent it 
 from being carried oflp by the rains. It afterwards 
 gives back this ammonia to vegetation. Its functions 
 in this respect are analogous to those of clay. Up to 
 the present these functions have not appeared very 
 important, but now the utility of humus begins to be 
 evident. It absorbs the oxygen of the air, and after- 
 wards undergoes a slow, inapprecialjle, but real com- 
 bustion. It thus becomes the source of a gradual, but 
 uninterrupted formation in the soil of carbonic dioxide, 
 which is less useful on account of the carbon it fur- 
 nishes to vegetation than for the solvent power which 
 it exercises with regard to certain minerals, and espe- 
 cially calcic phosphate and limestone. 
 
 We shall prove the truth of this fact by a very 
 simple experiment. 
 
 Grow two plants in calcined sand, one with the 
 aid of humus, and the other without, giving to both 
 the same quantity of chemical manure. In both cases 
 the yield will be exactly the same, but analysis wiU 
 show that there is more calcic phosphate in the crop 
 obtained by the help of humus than in that grown in 
 the sand alone. Humus therefore helps to supply 
 the plants with phosphate. 
 
 Humus can in certain cases produce a stiU more 
 useful effect, for in a measure it increases the yield. 
 This happens when the humus is associated with 
 calcic phosphate. 
 
 To prove this we will make four fresh experiments. 
 
lEOl. m. HUMUS AS A FERTILISER. 61 
 
 In the first place we will grow some plants in cal- 
 cined sand, the soil being provided witli nitrogenous 
 matter, and all the necessary mineral matters which 
 must be employed in these conditions with the ex- 
 ception of calcic carbonate. If twenty-two grains of 
 wheat are sown, the crop will weigh from 307 to 337 
 grains. This yield is not altered by adding hmnus. 
 Add humus to the sand and the crop does not change. 
 Substitute calcic carbonate for humus, and still there 
 is no change. Add at the same time both humus 
 and calcic carbonate and the yield is increased in 
 weight to 475 grains. These facts being practically of 
 fundamental importance, I subjoin the following table : 
 
 
 
 Yield 
 
 
 Nature of soil 
 
 Grains 
 
 1. Normal manure . 
 
 . Calcined sand . 
 
 337 
 
 2. 
 
 . Limed sand 
 
 337 
 
 3. 
 
 . Sand and humus 
 
 337 
 
 4. 
 
 . Sand witli lime and humus 
 
 475 
 
 The increase in the yield obtained in the last case 
 is due to the combined action of the humus and calcic 
 carbonate. But what is the cause of this favourable 
 action of humus ? Is it by reason of its absorbing 
 power ? No. Its r61e is limited to assisting in the 
 solution of the calcic carbonate, and to prove this we 
 have only to make a fifth experiment in which the 
 calcic carbonate and humus are replaced by calcic 
 sulphate, or better still by calcic nitrate, which is far 
 more soluble, when we shall again obtain a yield of 
 475 grains. It is unnecessary to add that when 
 calcic nitrate is employed, we take into consideration 
 the nitrogen that it contains, and that it is reckoned 
 in the sum of the nitrogenous matter. It is thus 
 proved by unimpeachable experiments that the good 
 eflfects of the humus are due in this case to its solvent 
 
 E 2 
 
52 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. LECT. i I. 
 
 action on the calcic carbonate, which is proved by its 
 being fomid possible to arrive at the same result by 
 the aid of a salt of lime more soluble than the car- 
 bonate. I will even add that it was this that decided 
 me to substitute calcic sulphate for the carbonate in 
 the manufacture of normal manure. 
 
 But it will be said — these are laboratory experi- 
 ments, and in the matters of cultivation it is always 
 dangerous to accept such testimony. You may ask 
 me to give you proofs obtained from cultivation on a 
 large scale. I am happy to be able to furnish you 
 with them. 
 
 On some land in Champagne, tilled for the first 
 time with 32 tons of farmyard manure per acre, 14 
 bushels of wheat were obtained, while with normal 
 manure the yield rose to 36 bushels. On an acre of 
 silicious earth in the department of the Aisne, with 
 16 tons of farmyard manure, 8|- bushels of wheat were 
 obtained ; but with the chemical manure the yield 
 was increased to 31 bushels per acre. The same land, 
 without being manured at all, produced 2f bushels. 
 Finally, in the department of the Dr6me, on a stony 
 hill-side cleared for the express purpose, the land 
 without manure yielded 3^ bushels per acre ; ma- 
 nured with 15^ tons per acre of farmyard manure, it 
 produced 9 bushels per acre, and with normal che- 
 mical manure the yield was 33 bushels per acre. 
 
 M. Payen in the department of the Aisne, M. de 
 Matharel in the department of the Oise, and M. le 
 Chevalier ^lussa in Italy, obtained similar results. In 
 the case of some fields chosen from among the poorest 
 land, where a large quantity of farmyard manure only 
 produced from 9 to 11 bushels per acre, the use of 
 chemical manure increased the yield from 27}, to 
 
LEC1. m. TESTING RICHNESS OP SOIL. 53 
 
 33 bushels per acre. Now, if we observe that in these 
 experiments, in which the land was of very inferior 
 quality, manure which contained compounds analo- 
 gous to humus proved to be much less efficacious 
 than chemical manure, it is clear that we can, strictly 
 speaking, do without humus and still obtain very fine 
 crops. A small number of experiments will thus have 
 served to define the functions of all the fertilising 
 agents which the soil ought to contain, or with which 
 it must be provided by means of manure. 
 
 It might be believed that chemical analysis, which 
 has done so much in our time, and which has attained 
 such a high degree, both of dehcacy and certainty, 
 ought to enable us to test with certainty the richness 
 of the soil, and by so doing to serve as a guide in the 
 choice of manures best suited to its nature. It is not 
 so, however, and I defy the cleverest chemist to tell 
 beforehand what will be the yield of any land sub- 
 mitted to him, and what manure ought to be used. 
 
 A few words will explain why chemistry is 
 powerless to fiimish these indications. We must 
 here call to mind the distinction which we have 
 allowed to exist between the diflferent constituents of 
 which the soil is composed. 
 
 Let us suppose some land containing amongst its 
 mechanical elements quartzose and felspathic sand. 
 For plants these two sands are equally valuable, 
 although the first is silica only, while the second is a 
 sihcate with a lime, potash, and soda base, containing 
 also small but very appreciable quantities of calcic 
 phosphate. 
 
 Here, then, are two bodies whose composition, 
 notwithstanding their outward similitude, is not at 
 all analogous ; yet they are of equal value fi:om an 
 
5-1 ON CHEMICAL JIANUEES. leot. hi 
 
 agricultural point of view, because the felspathic sand 
 being insoluble in water, the part it plays with re- 
 spect to vegetation descends to the rank of that of 
 quartzose sand, that is to say, that of a simple me- 
 chanical material. But for the chemist there are no 
 insoluble bodies, so he ranks the potash, Kme, and 
 calcic phosphate contained in the felspathic sand, 
 and which are of no use in increasing vegetation, in 
 the same category with the products of a similar 
 nature which we have arranged in the class of active 
 assimilable agents. 
 
 This shows the insufficiency of the information 
 we receive from chemistry alone. 
 
 We have in the case of the Vincennes land a 
 striking proof of the dangers of this confusion by 
 which we may too often be led astray. According to 
 an analysis of this 1-and. made by me with the greatest 
 care, I found that in over 400,000 tons of soil, which 
 about represent the weight of the vegetable mould 
 distributed over the surface of an acre, there was — 
 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Phosptoric acid 
 
 14 per acre 
 
 Potash . 
 
 . 18 „ 
 
 Lime 
 
 . 15 15 „ 
 
 This constitutes a considerable amount of fertUity. 
 Now if corn were to be grown on this land for four 
 successive years, a nitrogenous material being used 
 for manure, the yield at the end of the fourth year 
 would be not more than 5.^ to 6.^ bushels per acre. 
 
 The soil therefore shows a great scarcity of 
 mineral matter, and these four crops take away from 
 the soU only — 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 . 75 lbs. per acre 
 
 Potash 
 
 • 81 
 
 Tiime 
 
 ■ 35 
 
lEOT. 111. TESTING RICHNESS OE SOIL. 55 
 
 These quantities are far removed from those indicated 
 by chemical analysis. It may be said that there is a 
 mistake in my analysis ; but this is not so, for the soil 
 indeed contains what I have quoted ; but this indica- 
 tion can be of no practical utility to us, because in 
 calculating the proportions of these inorganic ele- 
 ments, we have not distinguished between what are 
 active and what are inert. 
 
 What use is it for us to have put ourselves to the 
 trouble of discovering the elements to which plants 
 owe their formation, and to define the conditions of 
 their efficacy, if after all we are powerless to recog- 
 nise their presence in the soil, in the special condition 
 which assures that efficacy? Happily we are not in 
 such a situation. We have other means of acquiring 
 the information with which chemistry cannot furnish 
 us, and these methods are not only within the reach 
 of agriculturists, but enter in a measure into the 
 routine of their daily labour. 
 
 I said in the last lecture that plants are divided 
 into two classes. With reference to the different 
 forms under which they assimilate nitrogen — some 
 obtaining it from the air in the form of free nitrogen, 
 while others derive it from the soU in the form 
 of ammonia and nitrates — ^you can appreciate the 
 result of this distinction. Those plants which 
 derive nitrogen from the .air flourish exceedingly 
 well in a soil which is destitute of that elettient as 
 long as they find in it the three mineral constituents 
 of the normal manure, potash, calcic phosphate, and 
 lime. Plants which derive nitrogen from the soil 
 become, on the contrary, etiolated and yield only a 
 scanty crop. It follows from this that by the aid 
 of two experiments on a small scale we may always 
 
56 ox CHEMICAL MANURES. LEcr. in. 
 
 know if tlie land contains the necessary nitrogenous 
 and mineral matter. 
 
 If we cultivate side by side peas and wheat, or 
 peas and beetroot, and the peas yield well whilst the 
 wheat turns out badly, we are able to conclude 
 unhesitatingly that the land is provided with the 
 mineral, but lacks the nitrogenous matter ; on the 
 other hand, if the wheat succeeds equally ^yell, we 
 may be certain that the land contains both the 
 mineral and nitrogenous matter. Can you conceive 
 a method which is more practical and yet at the 
 same time simpler and more conclusive? 
 
 At Yincennes nothing succeeds in the land if we 
 discontinue the use of manure, neither peas nor wheat 
 nor beetroot will flourish — which proves that it is desti- 
 tute both of nitrogen and the necessary mineral matter. 
 
 These indications, although very useful, are not, 
 however, sufficient for all practical requirements in 
 order to act with safety. We need more precise data 
 with regard to the presence or absence in the soil of 
 each constituent of the normal manure, that is to say, 
 of potash, calcic phosphate, and nitrogenous matter. 
 
 These new indications are as easy to obtain as the 
 former, and in the following manner. Suppose we 
 grow seven specimens of the same plant — beetroot or 
 wheat, whichever we prefer. To the first we apply 
 normal manure ; to the second the same, but with 
 the nitrogenous matter excluded ; to the third we 
 apply normal manure, but with the calcic phosphate 
 left out ; to the fourth the normal manure without 
 the potash ; to the fifth the normal manure without 
 lime ; to the sixth nitrogenised manure from which 
 all mineral matter is excluded ; and to the seventh 
 no manure at all. 
 
lECT. Jii. TESTING RICHNESS OE SOIL. 57 
 
 It is very evident that if in the normal manure 
 the proper effect of each ingredient is only mani- 
 fested when it is combined with the other three, the 
 comparison of the yields obtained on the seven 
 allotments of the little field must indicate what the 
 soil contains and what it lacks. 
 
 In this system of investigation the cultivation by 
 means of normal manure becomes in some sort the 
 invariable standard of comparison with which the 
 yields of the other allotments must be compared, and 
 as they approach or are distant from it, so the soil 
 does or does not contain the element which has been 
 purposely excluded from the manure. 
 
 In order to put the value of this method beyond 
 doubt I will relate the results arrived at under three 
 different conditions. In the experimental field at 
 Vincennes we obtained with wheat in 1864 the fol- 
 lowing yields:- 
 
 
 Bushels per acre 
 
 Normal manure 
 
 . 43 
 
 Manure -without lime 
 
 . 41 
 
 „ potash . 
 
 . 31 
 
 „ phosphate 
 
 . 26^ 
 
 „ nitrogen 
 
 . 14 
 
 With no manure . 
 
 . 12 
 
 The conclusion is evident. At Vincennes normal 
 manure is needed. At the same time what is espe- 
 cially wanted in the soil is nitrogenous matter. 
 An eminent agriculturist in the department of the 
 Somane has furnished me with my second example, 
 which relates to beetroot: — 
 
 
 Tong 
 
 Cwt 
 
 Normal manure . 
 
 . 20 
 
 16 
 
 Manure without lime , 
 
 . 18 
 
 16 
 
 „ potash 
 
 . 16 
 
 16 
 
 „ phosphate . 
 
 . 14 
 
 16 
 
 „ nitrogen 
 
 . 14 
 
 8 
 
 With no manure . 
 
 . 10 
 
 
 
58 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. m. 
 
 Here again the soil is wanting in nitrogenous matter, 
 and in order to put it in a fit state to obtain good 
 crops we must have recourse to normal manure. 
 This experiment was made at Mesnil-Saint-Nicaise 
 by M. Cavallier. My third example is taken from 
 an experiment on the cultivation of sugar-cane carried 
 on at Guadeloupe by M. de Jabrun, an old settler in 
 that colony: — 
 
 
 Tons 
 
 C\vt 
 
 Normal manure . 
 
 . 23 
 
 
 
 Manure without lime . 
 
 . 20 
 
 
 
 „ potash 
 
 . 14 
 
 
 
 „ phosphate . 
 
 . 6 
 
 
 
 „ nitrogen 
 
 . 22 
 
 8 
 
 "With no manure . 
 
 . 1 
 
 4 
 
 If I add that the cane obtains its nitrogen from the 
 air, you will conclude from these figures that the soil 
 is very defective in potash and calcic phosphate. We 
 have here, then, two methods of testing the richness 
 of the land. The first is founded upon the cultiva- 
 tion of two different plants without any manure, and 
 the second on the cultivation of the same plant with 
 five different manures. 
 
 These two apphcations of the same principles lead 
 to results which reciprocally verify and complete 
 each other. 
 
 It is not necessary to add that for these trials to 
 have their fall value the experiments must be made 
 when the last manure placed upon the land has 
 become quite exhausted. 
 
 We have then not only determined all the ele- 
 ments which enter into the composition of plants, 
 but we have also distinguished between those of 
 which Nature offers to vegetation inexhaustible sup- 
 plies and those which our industry must, on the 
 
LECT. in. TESTING EICHNESS OF SOIL. 59 
 
 contrary, famish to the soil. Further, by the aid of 
 our experiments in calcined sand and with chemical 
 products only, we have realised a theoretical scale of 
 culture, the progressive yields of which have demon- 
 strated to us the laws which regulate plant growth. 
 By the light of these discoveries we have been able' 
 to invent and to realise practical methods of analysis 
 accessible to all, the proof of which is almost abso- 
 lutely certain, and by means of which we may always 
 know what the soil contains and in what it is defi- 
 cient, thereby enabling us to determine the nature 
 of the fertilising agents that must be employed. 
 
 In the next lecture we shall follow the results of 
 these principles, giving special attention to the yields 
 that may be obtained in practice by the aid of che- 
 mical manures. 
 
60 
 
 ox CHEJIICAL JIANURES. 
 
 LECT. lY. 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 TYPICAL FERTILISERS — ADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL MANURE FREE 
 
 USE OF MANURE — CULTIVATION OF WHEAT REGULATION OF 
 
 QUANTITY AND COMPOSITION OF MANURE FOR ALTERNATE CROP 
 OF COLZA AND -WHEAT, FOR ROTATION OP FOUR YEARS, FOR ROTA- 
 TION OF SIX YEARS — SOURCES OP POTASH, LIME, AND NITROGEN. 
 
 If it be true that calcic phosphate, potash, and lime, 
 in combination with some sort of nitrogenous matter, 
 form the essential constituents which produce plant 
 life, farmyard manure, which till recent times has 
 been the only means by which the farmer could keep 
 up the fertility of the soil, ought necessarily to con- 
 tain aU these four ingredients. 
 
 Here are three analyses of farmyard manure. 
 They fully bear out the proposition just laid down, 
 for they show that nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, 
 and Kme are all present: — 
 
 
 
 InlOO 
 
 parts of dry manure 
 
 
 From the 
 
 From the 
 
 From the 
 
 
 farm at 
 Yiucennes 
 
 farm at 
 . Bechelbromi 
 
 farm at 
 Thicr-Garten 
 
 /Carbon 
 
 
 
 (Bae-Rhin) 
 
 
 
 
 Organic Hydrogen , 
 
 59-65 
 
 65-50 
 
 64-67 
 
 Elements ' Oxygen 
 
 
 
 
 \Nitrogen . 
 
 2-08 
 
 2-00 
 
 2-56 
 
 
 ' Phosphoric acid . 
 
 0-88 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-26 
 
 
 Sulphuric acid . 
 
 traces 
 
 0-63 
 
 0-82 
 
 
 OUoiine . 
 
 0-70 
 
 0-20 
 
 0-32 
 
 
 Alumina, ferric oxid . 
 
 0-68 
 
 2-03 
 
 1-51 
 
 Jlineral 
 
 Lime 
 
 5-23 
 
 2-83 
 
 3-70 
 
 Constituents 
 
 Magnesia . 
 
 0-32 
 
 1-20 
 
 1-88 
 
 
 Soda . . . . 
 
 traces i 
 2-46 i 
 
 2-60 
 
 f 0-87 
 t 3-87 
 
 
 Potash 
 
 
 Soluble silica 
 
 1-45 1 
 25-66 f 
 
 22-13 
 
 ( 6-25 
 (10-77 
 
 
 Is Sand . . . . 
 
lECT. IT. TYPICAL rERTILISERS. 61 
 
 Tliis table sliows that besides the four consti- 
 tuents wbicli must necessarily form part of a normal 
 manure, ordinary farmyard manure contains carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen. But our knowledge of the 
 origin, of these three bodies will have led us rightly 
 to infer that their presence in manure does not in any 
 way increase its value. The same remark applies to 
 the sodic chloride, magnesia, soda, silica, ferric oxide, 
 &c. contained in farmyard manure, which must be ex- 
 cluded from forming part of the normal manure, seeing 
 that they are abundantly contained in the poorest soils. 
 Farmyard manure is therefore, so to speak, the 
 incontestable type of a fertilising material, containing 
 as it does the four constituents which are the founda- 
 tion of plant growth, and consequently the only ones 
 with which agricultural industry is in any way con- 
 nected. I repeat that we have here an undeniable 
 proof of the value of our previous inquiries. In 
 order, however, that this proof should be complete 
 and without question, the identity of result must be 
 placed side by side with the identity of composition. 
 In this respect practice once more confirms our theo- 
 retical information. With our normal manure the 
 yield is always larger than when ordinary farmyard 
 manure has been used. The value of these data is 
 aU the greater because they are founded on opera- 
 tions carried out on a large scale. I have obtained 
 them from farmers, who, at my request, have been 
 good enough to try certain experiments on the com- 
 parative value of artificial and farmyard manure. 
 Throughout all these experiments the advantage has 
 always been on the side of the former. 
 
 The first result which I shall point out to you is 
 that which was obtained by M. Peyrat, the assistant 
 
62 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. iv. 
 
 manager of the Educational Farm, at Beyrie, in the 
 Landes. 
 
 Three crops of beetroot were grown in ordinary 
 soU ; the first without any manure, the second with 
 normal manure, and the third with 32 tons of farm- 
 yard dung. 
 
 Roots per acre 
 On unmanuied land the yield was . . 3 tons 5 cwt. 
 
 With 32 tons of farmyard manure it reached . 19 „ 13 „ 
 With chemical manure it amounted to . . 21 „ 4 „ 
 
 The chemical manure which was applied in the 
 proportion of 13.^ cwt., was found to be superior to 
 32 tons of farmyard manure. 
 
 On the farm belonging to the Marquis de Verieu, 
 in the department of the Ishre, a similar result was 
 arrived at : — 
 
 Per acre 
 With 20 tons of farmyard manure the yield was 18 tons 14 cwt. 
 With 11^ cwt. of chemical manure . . . 20 „ 
 
 At M. Leroy's farm, at Varesnes (Oise), with 10|- cwt. 
 of chemical manure the yield was 24 tons 18 cwt. per 
 acre. With 20 tons of farmyard manure supple- 
 mented by 6 cwt. of guano the yield only amounted 
 to 16 tons per acre. 
 
 In the island of Gruadeloupe, on one of the poorest 
 soUs of the colony, farmyard manure produced 12 tons 
 16 cwt. per acre, while chemical manure produced 
 22 tons 8 cwt., and unmanured land yielded only 1 ton 
 4 cwt. per acre. These are significant facts, and, as I 
 have already said, they have been communicated to me 
 by eminently practical men, who are animated with a 
 desire to progress, who work out the experiments 
 without preconceived notions, and who at the 
 present time are affording me the most valuable aid. 
 
 At M. Cavallier's farm at Mesnil-Saint-Nicaise 
 
LECT. IV. TYPICAL FERTILISERS. 63 
 
 (Somme), with. 20 tons per acre of farmyard manure 
 applied to a field of beetroot, tlie yield was 14* tons 
 per acre. With 15^ cwt. of clieimcal manure, the 
 yield was 24 tons per acre. 
 
 The same results are obtained in. the case of wheat 
 and potatoes. At the farm of MM. Masson and 
 Isarn at Evreux, chemical manure gave 44 bushels 
 per acre, while 12 tons of farmyard manure only 
 yielded 21 bushels per acre. 
 
 At M. Bravay's farm in the department of the 
 Dr6me, on a piece of stony barren land, which was 
 taken into cultivation for the purpose, the produce ia 
 the case of chemical manure was at the rate of 33 
 bushels per acre. With about 11^ tons of farmyard 
 manure per acre, the yield was 12 bushels, and on un- 
 manured land, 2^ bushels, or about as much as the 
 seed sown. 
 
 With wheat the most remarkable result is that 
 obtained by M. Ponsard on an uncultivated piece of 
 land in Champagne which was scarcely worth 21. 15s. 
 per acre, which yielded when sown with wheat — 
 
 Per acre 
 With 9J cwt. of chemical manure . . 36| bushels 
 
 With 100 tons of farmyard manure . . 14^ „ 
 
 M. Ponsard, ia reporting the result of his experi- 
 ments to me, writes : — 
 
 ' The land upon which I experimented was a 
 piece of waste ground which had never seen the 
 plough, and which was barely worth 21. 15s. per 
 acre. Before the winter of 1865 had run out, the 
 wheat sown was in full growth, and during the whole 
 season it was always superior to the neighbouring crop, 
 which was grown on farmyard manure. Being so 
 
64 ON CHEJIICAL lIANUIiES. LEOT. IV. 
 
 strong, it ripened much earlier, which enabled me to 
 reap it before the rainy weather set in. I was able to 
 sell it as seed corn at a very high price, for it was of 
 a very superior quality. At the market rate the acre 
 would have yielded as follows : — 
 
 With Chemical Manure. 
 
 Per aci'e 
 & s. li. 
 1 ton of wheat, at 12s. 'd\d. per cwt. . 12 16 3 
 Cost of manure 5 2 6 
 
 Profit 7 13 9 
 
 With Farmyard Manure. 
 
 40 tons of farmyard manure at 6s. . . 12 
 8 cwt. of wheat at 12s. 9M . . .626 
 
 Loss 6 17 6' 
 
 There is no need for me to remark that in this 
 report - M. Ponsard has not thought it necessary to 
 go into detail, but has simply put forward the two 
 results, which show a difference of some 11^. or 13/., 
 or more than four times the value of the land. The 
 crop grown by M. Ponsard is really so astonishing 
 that it is difficult to beheve. It will therefore be 
 well if possible to confirm these data by analogous 
 results, which will deprive them of the exceptional 
 character which one is tempted to give them. For 
 this purpose I quote the following results. Upon 
 an acre of sandy soil of very inferior quality, M. 
 Louis Payen obtained during the same year, 1865, 
 with artificial manure — 
 
 Per acre 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 30J hushels of wheat at 7s. Vi\d. (the current price) 12 2 1 
 
 2 tons 8 cwt. of straw at Is. 'dd. per cwt. . .440 
 
 Chaff 015 
 
 16 7 6 
 
TYPICAL FERTILISERS. 
 
 65 
 
 while 15 tons of farmyard manure applied to the 
 same land produced only 
 
 8J bushels of wheat at 7s. lO^d. . 
 
 Per acre 
 £, s. rf. 
 . 3 8 11 
 
 13 cwt. of straw at Is. Qd. per cwt. . 
 
 . 12 9 
 
 Chaff 
 
 . 6 
 
 4 12 2 
 
 The same soil without manure produced barely 
 3 bushels per acre. If it is necessary to add to M. 
 Payen's testimony, I am enabled to do so through 
 the kindness of M. de Matharel, Inspector-General 
 of Finance. On July 26 he wrote to me, that from 
 a piece of land which had never produced anything 
 but rye, he had obtained 28 bushels of wheat per 
 acre. 
 
 Let us compare the four results — 
 
 Culture of Wheat — Yield Per Acre. 
 
 Chemical mauure 
 Farmyard manure . 
 Without manure 
 
 M. Ponsard 
 (Champagne) 
 
 M. Bravay 
 (DrSme) 
 
 M. Payen 
 (Aisne) 
 
 M. de Matharel 
 (Pay de D6me) 
 
 Budhels 
 
 36 
 14 
 
 Bushels 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 Busliels 
 81 
 
 9 
 2| 
 
 Bushels 
 
 29 
 )) 
 
 We have here four sets of results obtained in 
 diiFerent parts of France, always on bad soil, which 
 are so much alike, that one might almost be taken 
 for another. 
 
 The results obtained in the case of the potato are 
 not less significant. At the farm of the Marqms 
 d'Havrincourt, chemical manure produced 6 tons 
 8 cwt. per acre. With 13 tons 2 cwt. per acre of 
 stable dung, only 3 tons 4 cwt. per acre were ob- 
 tained. At Vincennes I myself obtained from 1 to 
 12 tons per acre. 
 
66 ON CHEKICAL MANURES. lect. iv. 
 
 M. Lavaux, at his farm at Choisy-le- Temple, on 
 a piece of ground measuring 47^- acres, obtained 
 
 Per acre 
 First year, wheat . . .44 bushels 
 Second year, colza . . . 36 „ 
 Third year, wheat . . . 29 „ 
 
 The third year the corn was lodged. 
 
 In 1867 the beetroot crops varied from 22 to 28 
 tons per acre, while with 16 tons per acre of farm- 
 yard manure the yield barely reached 14 tons per 
 acre. 
 
 Taking the sugar-cane as our next example, M. 
 de Jabrun in 1867 produced in the island of Guade- 
 loupe. — 
 
 stripped canes 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 With chemical manure . . . 33 18 
 Farmyard manure . . . . 24 18 
 No manure 10 12 
 
 Our experiments are therefore unanimous in testi- 
 fying to the value of growing alternate crops when 
 farmyard manure is used ; it remains to be seen 
 whether we gain the same advantage by adopting 
 the same system when we use chemical manure. 
 
 Wheat grown Per acre 
 
 After peas, gave . . . 60^ bushels 
 „ beetroot, gave . . 381 ^^ 
 „ wheat, gave . . . 36| „ 
 
 Chemical manures, therefore, act precisely the 
 same in this respect as farmyard manure : we find 
 that in spite of their general want of resemblance, 
 they depend for their effect on the same course, in 
 fact that they are the same in their nature. 
 
 We now come to a series of questions which, if 
 possible, are more important than the preceding ones. 
 In farming operations the source of profit lies in the 
 
lECT. IV. ADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL MANURE. 67 
 
 abundance of manure, but when tbis manure is pro- 
 duced on tbe farm itself, it is not always available for 
 use when it is required. The amount of manure 
 produced on a farm depends on the system upon 
 which it is managed, on the number of animals which 
 graze on the land, the quantity of land devoted to 
 pasture, and, lastly, on the amount of floating capital 
 in the hands of the farmer. 
 
 It needs a great deal of time, prudence, and judg- 
 ment to change the whole system on which a farm is 
 managed, so as to bring the production of cereals 
 and manure into prominence. 
 
 With chemical manure, on the other hand, the 
 farmer acquires almost perfect liberty of action, and 
 is enabled to regulate the quantity to be used at will, 
 his operations being only limited by the amount of 
 capital at his disposal. 
 
 By the use of chemical manure he may, so to 
 speak, almost in a single day, pass from a precarious 
 to a thoroughly trustworthy system of farming, and 
 thereby obtain a large amount of profit as. compared 
 with his former mediocre gains. 
 
 It will be seen that this is the most important 
 point connected with the agriculture of the future. 
 As I have already said, in farming, the profits ob- 
 tained depend on the quantity of manure that is 
 spread over the land. With a small amount of 
 manure the crops are small, and the profit is nothing, 
 if even there is not an absolute loss. With generous 
 manuring, the yield is increased, and the profit is cer- 
 tain, for the excess in expenditure is not more than one- 
 half or one-third of the excess of the yield. To make 
 this truth plainer, I may mention that the cultivation 
 of the sou necessitates two kinds of expenditure. 
 
68 ON CHEJIICAL MAXURES. lect. iv. 
 
 First of all, there are fixed expenses which never 
 change, no matter whether we adopt a good or a bad 
 system of farming, such as rent, taxes, rates, cost of 
 seed, &c. Then come expenses which change accord- 
 ing to circumstances, such as carting, threshing, and 
 manure. I hold, then, that the system of farming which 
 is sparing in manure is always a losing speculation, 
 while with an abundant use of fertilising agents profit 
 is certain. How can it be otherwise, seeing that 
 manure is the raw material from which our crops are 
 produced. But these questions are of too serious a 
 nature to be simply stated dogmatically. Let us 
 analyse the facts, and examine the figures showing 
 the amount of produce which is obtained as the result 
 of so much expenditure, so as to leave no doubt upon 
 this point. 
 
 I wUl take as an example the case of a piece of 
 land yielding 14i bushels per acre, which is the 
 average yield of French corn land. According to M. 
 Mathieu de Dombasle, the minimum expenditure for 
 such a yield is 41. 14-5. per acre, which is reduced to 
 81. 18s. per acre by deducting the value of the straw, 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ <,. 
 
 d. 
 
 fRent . . . . 14 5 
 
 
 
 Fixed General expenses . . 16 10 
 
 
 
 expenses 1 Farm labour . . . 13 10 
 
 
 
 ISeed . . . . 14 8 
 
 2 19 
 
 9 
 
 Variable ( Manure . . .13 8 
 expenses 1 Reaping', tkreshing, &c. 10 8 
 
 
 
 1 14 
 
 4 
 
 Total expenses . 
 
 4 14 
 
 1 
 
 Deduct for straw, say 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Balance 
 
 3 18 
 
 1 
 
 for 14^ bushels, which makes the price per bushel 
 5s. od. nearly. 
 
 Suppose, that without in any way changing the 
 system carried on at the farm of Roville, without 
 
usci. IT. FREE USE OF MANURE. 69 
 
 changing tlie number of sheep and beasts, or altering 
 tbe succession of the crops and the method of cultiva- 
 tion, we suddenly increased the expense for chemical 
 manure by 11. ISs. Ad. per acre, without increasing 
 any of the other expenses, in this case we should 
 find the yield would jump from 14^ bushels to 34^ 
 bushels per acre, so that the cost of producing a 
 bushel of corn would fall from 5s. 5d. to about 3s. 8d. 
 
 ^^f } As above ... 
 expenses' 
 
 Variable ( Maniire . . .321 
 
 expenses ' Reaping, &c. . . 19 2 
 
 Per acre 
 £ .. d. 
 
 2 19 9 
 4 13 
 
 Deduct for straw 
 
 7 10 
 1 10 4 
 
 5 10 8 
 
 for 34 bushels per acre. 
 
 I have already said that the superiority of this 
 system of culture lies in the fact that any increase in 
 the sums expended on manure is always less than the 
 value of the increase in the crop. In the first case, 
 where the yield was 14^ bushels, and the cost 5s. 5d. 
 per bushel, if we fix the selling price at 16s. 5d., we 
 shall find the crop represents a value of Al. ds. Id., or 
 a profit of 10s. %d. per acre. 
 
 In the second case, with an increased expense of 
 11. 18s. 4rf., which is reduced by the value of the 
 straw to 1/. 4s., the crop is worth 9^. 10s. Ad., the 
 profit being Al. 8s. instead of 10s. 2d. 
 
 There is another result derived fi:"om these too 
 little known data, namely, that it is better to farm 
 well on a small scale by being generous with our 
 manure than to waste our efi'orts over a large plot of 
 land manured with parsimony. For instance, if a 
 farmer has a capital of 1200/., he will, by adopting 
 
70 ON CHEMICAL JIANUEES. leot. iv. 
 
 the system carried out at Roville (where the ex- 
 penses amount to 4/. 16s. per acre), be able to culti- 
 vate 250 acres, the result of which would be that he 
 would gain : — 
 
 £ 
 
 By straw, at 16s. per acre 200 
 
 By corn, at 15"4 bushels per acre, i.e. 3,850 bushels, and 
 
 at a fraction less than 6s. M. per bushel . . . 1120 
 
 1320 
 
 the profit on the 1200^. being therefore 120/. 
 
 With the same capital, by using chemical manure, 
 he would reduce his land to 136^ acres, but these 
 136^ acres would yield him 1950/, lis. id. instead of 
 1320/. 
 
 In other words he would gain 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 By straw, at a fraction over 11. 10s. 4c?. per acre . 259 3 2 
 By wheat, at the rate of 31'1 bushels per acre for 
 136^ acres, or a little less than 6s. 5d. per bushel 1691 8 2 
 
 1950 11 4 
 
 or a profit of 750/. instead of 120/. 
 
 These are no rash innovations or revolutionary 
 proceedings, but actual improvements, the benefits of 
 which are felt daily by practical men. I maintain 
 that corn may be grown at from 3s. 2d. to 3s. Ad. 
 per acre. If this is a revolution, at least it is one 
 about the reality of which there is no dispute, a revo- 
 lution which must in time be accomplished, because 
 truth always triumphs over routine and its pre- 
 judices. 
 
 After having made clear the more immediate 
 results that may be expected fi:om the use of chemical 
 manures, I will justify these facts by the exactness 
 of my calculations. I will take for my first example 
 the continuous cultivation of wheat. 
 
lECT. IV. CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. 71 
 
 In a period of four years there have been obtained 
 from a certain field an average yield at the rate of 2 
 tons of straw per acre and 34 bushels of corn. I 
 specially call attention to these results, because it will 
 enable me to poiat out certain dangers with respect 
 to the loss of nitrogenous matters. When relying 
 upon my laboratory studies, I began to make experi- 
 ments in open air cultivation at Viacennes ; and 
 having only my theoretical views to guide me, I 
 asked myself first of all how long a certain amount 
 of chemical manure applied to a field of a certain size 
 would last. 
 
 The chemical manure experimented upon was 
 used ia the following proportions: — 
 
 Calcic phosphate . . . 352 Ihs. per acre 
 
 Potash Ill „ 
 
 Lime 264 „ 
 
 Sal ammoniac . . . 572 „ 
 
 representing 150 lbs. of nitrogen per acre. 
 
 The land was delivered to me too late to be sown 
 with autumn wheat : I had, therefore, to sow it with 
 March wheat. The wheat grew most luxuriantly, 
 so much so that a great deal of it was lodged, the crop 
 being thereby injured. Nevertheless, after everything 
 iiad been taken into consideration, the yield was at 
 the rate of 34 bushels of wheat and 1 ton 14 cwt. of 
 straw per acre. 
 
 The next year the same accident occurred through 
 a still more luxuriant growth, and the wheat lodging 
 still earlier, the yield was correspondingly diminished, 
 falling to 26 bushels of wheat and to 1 ton 11 cwt. 
 of straw per acre. 
 
 The third year autumn wheat was sown instead 
 of March wheat, and the whole aspect of affairs 
 
72 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. iv. 
 
 changed. This time the growth of the wheat was 
 most luxuriant, and the yield reached 53 bushels of 
 wheat and 2 tons 15 cwt. of straw per acre. Finally, 
 the fourth year there was obtained 26 bushels of 
 wheat and 1 ton 16 cwt. of straw per acre. 
 The whole of the four crops amounted to 
 
 Wheat .... 140 bushels 
 Straw .... 7 tons 17 cwt. 
 
 Or a mean of 
 
 Wheat . . . .34 bushels per acre 
 Straw . . , . 2 tons per acre 
 
 Two conclusions may be drawn from this experi- 
 ment. The first is that for wheat, we must not use 
 our nitrogenous material in too large a proportion at 
 once, i.e. at the rate of 150 lbs. per acre. Unless 
 this rule be attended to, accidents are sure to occur. 
 If the corn escapes being lodged it is rarely free from 
 smut, and even if both these evils are avoided the 
 straw grows so fast that the yield of wheat is inter- 
 fered with. 
 
 As a general rule it is much better to divide our 
 nitrogenous material into two portions, one-half to 
 be used in autumn and the other in spring, but 
 always as top-dressing. The first should be used 
 when the wheat is about 4 or 5 inches high, the 
 second in spring, from the 10th to the 30th of March. 
 It is hardly necessary to observe that the second 
 portion of amnionic sulphate need only be used 
 should occasion require it. Six times out of ten a 
 dressing of from 48 to 96 lbs. per acre in the spring 
 will be sufficient. 
 
Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 £ t. . 
 
 176 
 
 7 i 
 
 88 
 
 6 { 
 
 171 
 
 1 11 i 
 
 93 
 
 i 
 
 LECT. IV. MANURES FOR WHEAT AND COLZA. 73 
 
 The Autumn Cultivation of Wheat. 
 
 Normal manure, No. 1 A, 528 lbs. 
 
 Calcic super-phosphate . , 
 JPotassic chloride at 80° . 
 t Ammonic sulphate at 1° . 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 2 5 11 
 
 In the Spring. 
 
 Ammonia sulphate, 44, 88, or 132 lbs. per acre 14 
 
 3 9 11 
 
 On condition that these dressings are repeated 
 yearly an average yield is obtained of 33 bushels 
 of wheat per acre, at a maximum expenditure of 
 SI. 9s. lid. per acre. 
 
 For an alternate crop of colza and wheat I should 
 recommend the following: — 
 
 I^irst Tear. 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 Per acre Price 
 
 lbs. S, s. d. 
 
 Normal manure, No. 1, 1,056 lbs. 
 
 Calcic super-phosphate . . . 352 16 4 
 
 Potassic nitrate .... 176 1 18 5 
 
 Ammonic sulphate . . . 220 2 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 308 023 
 
 4 16 
 Second Year. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 264 280 
 Ashes of haulm and pods of colza . , nil, nil. 
 
 Total expenses 7 4 
 
 „ per annum, say . . 3 12 
 
 In this case we begin the rotation with the colza, 
 which must be kept clear of weeds. After the crop 
 has been gathered the pods and haulm of the colza 
 
74 ON CHEMICAL MANUEES. lect. iv, 
 
 are burnt on the spot and ploughed in, so that the 
 soil may lose as little of its potash and calcic phos- 
 phate as possible. A dressing of amnionic sulphate 
 is given in the spring. 
 
 I now pass on to a rotation of four years, which 
 is greatly approved of by practical men, as it has the 
 merit of substituting alternate and continuous rota- 
 tion for triennial rotation. It is carried out accordiag 
 to the following plan: — First year, potatoes ; second 
 year, wheat ; third year, clover ; fourth year, wheat. 
 The following are the manures to be used: — 
 
 First Year. 
 
 ■ POTATOES. 
 
 Per acre Price 
 
 lbs. £, s. i 
 
 Normal manure, No. 3, 880 lbs. 
 
 Calcic super-phospliate . . . 352 15 4 
 
 Potassic nitrate .... 264 2 17 7 
 
 Calcic sulphate . . . .264 2 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 
 3 14 11 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 
 
 Amnionic sulphate 
 
 . 264 
 
 2 8 
 6 2 11 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 
 
 CLOTEE. 
 
 
 
 Incomplete manure, No. 6, 880 Ihs. 
 Calcic super-phosphate . 
 Potassic chloride at 80° . 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 . 352 
 . 176 
 . 352 
 
 15 4 
 12 10 
 2 8 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 7 13 9 
 
 WJtLEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 . 264 
 
 Price 
 & s. d. 
 
 2 8 
 
 Total expenses . . . 10 1 9 
 
 „ per annum . 2 10 10 
 
LECT. IV. MANURES FOR WHEAT, BEETROOT, ETC. 75 
 
 For a rotation lasting four years, and iacluding 
 beetroot, wheat, clover, and wheat, we must replace 
 the manures given above by the following: — 
 
 First Year. 
 
 BBETEOOI. 
 
 Per acre Price 
 
 lbs. £ s. . 
 
 Normal manure, No. 2, 1,056 lbs. 
 
 Calcic super-phosphate . . . 352 15 4 
 
 PotaBsic nitrate .... 176 1 18 5 
 
 Sodic nitrate . . . . .264 1 13 7 
 
 Calcic sulphate . . . .264 2 
 
 4 9 4 
 
 Second YMr. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonio sulphate .... 264 280 
 
 
 
 6 17 4 
 
 Third Tear. 
 
 
 
 CLOVER. 
 
 
 
 Incomplete manui-e,' No. 6 . 
 
 880 
 
 1 10 10 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 
 
 264 
 
 2 8 
 
 Total expenses 
 
 „ per annum 
 
 10 16 2 
 2 14 1 
 
 I now pass to a more complex system of rotation, 
 extending as it does over five years. It includes 
 potatoes, wheat, clover, colza, and wheat. 
 
 1 For composition see p. 74. 
 
76 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. IV. 
 
 First Tear. 
 
 POIAIOBS. 
 
 Per acre Price 
 
 lbs. £ J. d. 
 
 Normal mamtre/ No. 3 . . 880 3 14 11 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 264 280 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 11 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 
 
 
 CLOTEE. 
 
 
 
 
 Incomplete manure,'' No. 6 . 
 
 . 880 
 
 1 
 
 10 10 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 
 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 . 352 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Ashes of haulm and pods of colza.. 
 
 . 264 
 nil 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 nU 
 
 Total expenses . . . 13 5 9 
 „ per annum . 2 13 2 
 
 To show how very unportant it is that we should 
 regulate the quantity of manure to be employed 
 according to the nature of the plants, I will give the 
 results of the experiments made by M. Cavallier with 
 progressive quantities of ammonic sulphate so apphed 
 as to give from 70 to 105 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, 
 the proportions of the other ingredients of the 
 
 1 For composition, see p. 74. ' For composition, see p. 74. 
 
mCT. IT. ADJUSTMENT OF QUANTITY OF MANURE. 77 
 
 manure being unaltered. The following are the 
 results obtained: — 
 
 "Wittout nitrogen . , . , 
 With 352 lbs. of amnionic sulphate 
 
 Boots per acre 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 14 14 
 
 19 
 
 « 444 „ „ 
 „ 572 
 
 20 8 
 23 16 
 
 It wUl be noticed that the progressive increase in 
 the yield corresponds exactly with increase in the 
 quantity of nitrogenous material. 
 
 The manure reduced to its simple mineral salts 
 and containing no nitrogenous matter, but only 
 calcic phosphate, potash, and lime, produced 14 tons 
 14 cwt. of beetroot per acre. Now, if we take this 
 yield as our starting point, we shall find that the 
 excess in the various crops caused by the increase 
 in the quantity of ammonic sulphate shows an in- 
 crease of profit in proportion to the increase in the 
 amount which was used. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 With 352 lbs. of ammonic sulphate ' the profit was .118 per acre 
 
 „ 440 „ it was 1 14 6 „ 
 
 „ 572 „ „ 3 17 6 „ 
 
 These results, which I borrow from one of the 
 most distinguished agriculturists of the department 
 of the Somme, show: — 
 
 (1) That beetroot requires a larger quantity of 
 nitrogenous matter. 
 
 (2) That as far as 112 lbs. of nitrogen per acre 
 the profit is in proportion to the amount of ammonic 
 sulphate used. 
 
 ^ When these experiments were made ammonic sulphate was worth 
 about 11. 8s. per cwt. 
 
78 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. iv. 
 
 EOTATION OF SIX TEARS. 
 
 FLAX, BEETEOOTS, WHEAT, COLZA, WHEAT, OATS, 
 RYE, OR BARLEY. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 FLAX. ' 
 
 Per acre Price 
 
 lbs. £ 8. d. 
 
 Normal manure, No. 6, 880 lbs. 
 
 Calcic super-phosphate . . . 352 15 4 
 
 Potassic nitrate .... 176 1 18 5 
 
 Calcic sulphate . . . .352 2 8 
 
 2 16 6 
 Second Year. 
 
 BBEIBOOT. 
 
 Normal manure,' No. 2 . . 1,056 4 9 4 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 264 280 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 Normal manure,' No. 1 . . 1,056 4 16 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ashes of colza ploughed in first year . nil nil 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 264 280 
 
 Sixth Year. 
 
 OATS, BAKLBT, OE ETB. 
 
 Price 
 lbs. £ s. d. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 176 1 12 
 
 Total expenses . . . 18 9 9 
 
 „ per annum . 3 1 10 
 
 ' See note on next page. 
 ' For composition, see p. 75. ' For composition, see p. 73. 
 
ieci.it. rotation of crops. 79 
 
 This succession of crops, treated as I have indicated, 
 always gives magnificent results. 
 
 I will finish these directions by giving a receipt 
 for two manures which I think are the most fitted for 
 lucern and the vine. 
 
 Manure for Lucern for One, Year. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Incomplete manure,' No. 6 . , 880 1 10 10 
 
 Price 
 lbs. A 3. d. 
 
 Manure for the Vine for Two Tea/rs 
 
 Normal manure, No. 4, 1,320 lbs. 
 
 Calcic super-phosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Total expenses 
 
 „ per 
 
 lbs. 
 
 528 17 
 
 440 4 16 
 
 362 2 8 
 
 5 15 8 
 2 17 10 
 
 At the experimental field at Vincennes I have, 
 for the last two years, found it more advantageous to 
 manure the vine every year, and for this purpose I 
 use, of normal manure No. 3,^ 880 lbs. per acre. 
 "With this manure the crop iacreased from 1,056 lbs. to 
 1,232 lbs. per acre, equal to about 100 gallons of wiae. 
 
 G-reat attention should be paid to the manner of 
 
 ' The following letter, relating to the effects of this manure upon flax 
 has been received by me : — 
 
 ' Although my flax was sown only on May 10, in ground prepared 
 with chemical manure, it grew so beautifully, both as to size and fine- 
 ness, and took such a good colour when it ripened, that I sold it all 
 standing, the buyer paying all expenses, at about 14Z. 14s. per acre. 
 When I sowed it on May 10, 1 was far from expecting such a result, 
 knowing that the land was only moderately fertile. 
 
 (Signed) ' Ohav^e, 
 
 ' Clermont les Fermes 
 '(Aisne), 1867.' 
 ' For composition see p. 74. ' For composition see p. 74. 
 
80 OlSr CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. it. 
 
 using chemical manures. Farmyard manure may be 
 distributed unevenly without much inconvenience, 
 provided the irregularity is not pushed too far; but 
 with chemical manures, on the contrary, any irregu- 
 larity in the distribution is sure to endanger the 
 welfare of the crop. This part of the work must, 
 therefore, be attended to with particular care. Dis- 
 tribution by a machine satisfies all necessary condi- 
 tions. When, however, we do not happen to have 
 a machine at our disposal, the best thing to do is to 
 mix the artificial manure with two or three times its 
 bulk of mould, and distribute the mixture broadcast 
 between the last ploughing and harrowing. The 
 addition of the mould balances the efifect of unequal 
 distribution. This method of distribution is, it is 
 true, more expensive than any other, but any extra 
 outlay is amply compensated by the increased yield. 
 When the operation is efi"ectively performed, each acre 
 produces two or three additional bushels, in other 
 words, an increase in expenditure of from Is. Sd. to 
 2s. is accompanied by an increase of produce amount- 
 ing to 18s. lOd. In this case care is true economy. 
 
 Another question now presents itself which was 
 treated of in great detail by me in the lectures I 
 delivered in 1864. Not being able to deny the 
 results of which I have given you an account, be- 
 cause too many agriculturists have verified them, cer- 
 tain persons have made the following objection tome : 
 ' Chemical manures,' they say, ' are only a pre- 
 carious resource ; as soon as their use becomes 
 general, their exorbitantly high price will render it 
 impossible to employ them.' A few summary expla- 
 nations will, I hope, be sufficient to answer this 
 last objection. 
 
lECT. IV. SOURCES OP POTASH. 81 
 
 We will inquire into the natural sources of supply 
 of the four ingredients in the normal manure about 
 which I have spoken. 
 
 Taking calcic phosphate first, we shall find that 
 twenty years ago the only known source of this com- 
 pound was the bones of animals. It is certain that if 
 we were to be reduced to this source of supply, its 
 use could never become general. But at the present 
 time, there is no longer any danger of scarcity, for we 
 know that calcic phosphate enters into the composi- 
 tion of all eruptive rocks, and that inexhaustible 
 supplies of this mineral exist in various countries. 
 In Estramadura in Spain, for instance, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Logrosan, there are eight or ten veins 
 extending over a space of several square kilometres, 
 and containing 70 to 85 per cent, of calcic phosphate. 
 In Canada and Sweden there are also large deposits 
 of this Valuable substance. 
 
 In most marls we also find calcic phosphate. 
 Below the cretaceous strata in the departments of the 
 Ardennes and the Moselle deposits of this kind are 
 found, the exhaustion of which has become part of 
 the regular industry of this locality. This phosphate, 
 though not so rich as the Estramadura deposit, con- 
 tains fi:'om 16 to 18 per cent, of phosphoric acid. As 
 far then as phosphates go, there is no need for anxiety, 
 for their price is more likely to fall than rise. 
 
 The principal sources of potash are three in 
 number. 
 
 1. The eruptive rocks, which constitute entire 
 chains of mountains, and which often contain as much 
 as 15 per cent, of that alkali. 
 
 2. Sea- water, from which we may extract potash 
 with the greatest ease, by employing the processes 
 
 G 
 
82 ON CHEJIICAL MANURES. leoi. iv. 
 
 invented by the late M. Balard, and which alone 
 would suffice for all our wants. 
 
 3. The deposits discovered at Stassfurth in 
 Prussia some fifteen or sixteen years ago. These 
 deposits are practically inexhaustible, being from 200 
 to 250 feet thick, and covering an area, the extent 
 of which has not yet been determined. They are 
 connected with a formation of rock salt which leads 
 one to think that similar discoveries will be made 
 where similar geological conditions exist, more espe- 
 cially as geologists in other localities are on the look- 
 out for such beds. It is not, therefore, to be sup- 
 posed that this deposit in Prussia is an exceptional 
 and isolated case. But even if similar discoveries do 
 not take place elsewhere, the Stassfurth beds will be 
 sufficient to supply our wants for many centuries to 
 come, and even after they have become exhausted, we 
 still have the mountains and the sea to fall back upon. 
 
 With regard to nitrogenous matter, I must admit 
 that if we were to be obliged to employ no other 
 sources of nitrogen than ammoniacal compounds 
 and the nitrates, it might be held with a certain 
 show of reason, that at a given period the present 
 known sources of these salts would prove to be in- 
 sufficient ; to the already known sources, however, 
 others will no doubt be added. I may, for instance, 
 refer to the manufacture of coke, which is now burnt 
 in the open air. It is only necessary to carry on this 
 operation in closed furnaces to obtain large quantities 
 of ammonia. 
 
 But even if all these sources were to fad, we 
 should still have the nitrogen of the air, a point to 
 which my attention has long been directed. 
 
 I have already said that there are certain plants 
 
LECT. IV. SOURCES Oi' NITROGEN. 83 
 
 which take their supply of nitrogen from the air, 
 while others draw it from the earth. We can there- 
 fore by aid of the former come to the assistance of 
 the latter. 
 
 This process is already applied in agriculture. 
 The green manures are used on this principle, and 
 their use ought to be made much more general, and 
 plants which take their nitrogen from the air ought 
 to be much more widely grown for this purpose 
 than they are. Lucern, for instance, takes from 
 the air from 264 to 352 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, 
 which would be sufficient to supply at least four 
 times as much land on which wheat is grown. If, 
 therefore, all other sources of nitrogenous matter 
 were to become exhausted, we should always have 
 the nitrogen of the air which may be easily gathered 
 by plants themselves. But this is an extreme sup- 
 position. When humanity sets itself the task of 
 solving a problem, that problem is certain to be 
 solved. 
 
 The air being an inexhaustible source of nitrogen, 
 what are we to do to procure from it inexhaustible 
 supplies of ammonia and the nitrates ? We must 
 discover a process for cheaply combining the nitro- 
 gen with the oxygen of the air to form nitrates, or 
 with hydrogen to form ammonia. This process has 
 already been discovered. MM. Sourdeval and Mar- 
 gueritte have devised a method of converting the 
 nitrogen of the air into nitrates or ammonia at will. 
 If this process has not yet been adopted on a manu- 
 facturing scale, it is because from an economical point 
 of view, it does not satisfy all the conditions for 
 working it easily. The principle, however, is known, 
 and a second progressive step may, from one moment 
 
 G 2 
 
84 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. iv. 
 
 to another, make the solution of the problem com- 
 plete. 
 
 The supply of lime, it is well known, is utterly 
 inexhaustible. 
 
 In former lectures we defined — by the aid of ex- 
 periments which were more scientific than practical 
 — the conditions which regulate the production of 
 plants. In the present lecture, passing into the 
 domain of practice, by examining into the traditions 
 of fifty centuries, that is to say, into the composi- 
 tion of farmyard manure, we have sought to justify 
 our choice of those substances which in our eyes are 
 the symbols of fertility. 
 
 The proof has been in our favour. Manure con- 
 tains these substances, and it is to them that its value 
 is owing. To this testimony we wished to add 
 another ; Ave have submitted the question of the com- 
 parative worth of farmyard manure and chemical 
 manures to a number of practical farmers ; their ex- 
 periments proved that the latter were superior. From 
 these results we have drawn the conclusion that the 
 principles which guide us are incontestable, and that it 
 only remains for us to make this application general. 
 
LECT. T. COMPOSITION OF NORMAL MANURE. 85 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 DOMINANT CONSTITUENTS IN MANURE — COST OF FARMYARD MANURE 
 
 COST OF CHEMICAL MANURE GENEROUS USE OF MANURE 
 
 COMBINATION OP MANURES. 
 
 In practice it is considered that the application of 16 
 tons of farmyard manure per acre every two years is 
 sufficient for all ordinary purposes. Our aim on the 
 present occasion being to compare farmyard manure 
 with chemical manures, we will first inquire what are 
 the proportions of the four ingredients which enter 
 into the composition of our normal manure, in the 
 16 tons of farmyard manure. The following table 
 gives the reply, being the mean of manures used at 
 Bechelbronn, and at the farm at Yincennes: — 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Nitrogen .... 144 
 
 Phosphoric acid ... 66 
 
 Potash 132 
 
 Lime 282 
 
 Total . . 624 per acre. 
 
 If it be true, as experience seems to indicate, that 
 farmyard manure owes all its efficiency to those four 
 substances, its active portion is reduced to less than 
 a fortieth of the whole mass. In ordinary manure 
 there is 80 per cent, of moisture, which reduces the 
 solid constituents of the 16 tons to 3 tons 4 cwt., 
 in which latter figures we must count the carbo- 
 hydrates, whose utility is more than problematical, 
 at from 2 tons 8 cwt. to 2 tons 16 cwt. With 
 2,248 lbs. of chemical products we may compound 
 
86 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. v. 
 
 a manure which is equal in richness to the 16 tons 
 of farmyard manure. The following table will show 
 the truth of this: — 
 
 Calcic auperphoaphate 
 Potassic chloride | 
 Ammonic sulphate J 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Total 
 
 lbs. per aero. 
 . 528 
 . 282 
 . 091 
 
 . 747 
 
 2248 
 
 It is evident that with regard to the facility of dis- 
 tribution, cheapness of carriage, &c. the advantage is 
 on the side of the chemical manure. This, however, 
 is only a secondary matter. Their true superiority is 
 due to other causes, and is justified by other consi- 
 derations. 
 
 In ordinary manure the nitrogen is not always in a 
 favourable condition for assimilation. The contrary 
 is the case with the chemical manures. In farm- 
 yard manure the nitrogen exists in the excreta and in 
 half decomposed straw, &c., which cannot act favour- 
 ably on the plants grown until after they have under- 
 gone a process of decomposition, which completely 
 changes its condition. Nitrogen can only be assimi- 
 lated after it has been transformed into ammonia or a 
 nitrate. This previous decomposition, therefore, has for 
 its chief result the loss of from 30 to 40 per cent, of 
 the nitrogen which the manure originally contained, 
 which escapes into the air in the elementary form. In 
 the case of chemical manures, I repeat that the whole 
 of the nitrogen may be assimilated direct, and that 
 its action is thus rendered more certain. 
 
 The following is another practical advantage 
 which is still more important. In the formulge for 
 chemical manures which I gave in my last lecture 
 
LECT. V, DOMINAKT CONSTITUENTS. 87 
 
 the nature of the ingredients varied according to that 
 of the plants. The apportioning of eacli of them to 
 certain categories of plants was not an arbitrary act, 
 nor yet the result of fancy: it was simply in accord- 
 ance with an important principle, the application 
 of which is calculated to improve the quality of 
 chemical manures. If it be true that a mixture 
 of calcic phosphate, potash, lime, and a certain 
 amount of nitrogenous matter is sufficient for all 
 the wants of plants, and may therefore take the 
 place of farmyard manure in farming, it is no less 
 true that each of these constituents, with regard to 
 the three others, fulfils functions that are in turn sub- 
 ordinate or predominant according to the nature of 
 the plants to be grown. Thus in the case of wheat, 
 colza, beetroot, and tobacco, the nitrogenous matter 
 is the predominant ingredient ; while for lucern, 
 peas, haricots, and horse beans, potash plays the most 
 important part. For turnips, swedes, sugar-cane, 
 maize, and Jerusalem artichokes, calcic phosphate 
 takes the most prominent position. There is, there- 
 fore, for every description of plant one substance 
 which predominates over the three others, which may 
 for that reason be called its dominant constituent. 
 
 To show the application of this principle we will 
 suppose a field planted with the following rotation 
 of crops — beetroot, wheat, clover, and oats. With 
 farmyard manure there is no possible division. We 
 cannot alter the composition, we can only vary the dose. 
 
 There are then only two courses open to us, viz. 
 either to put all the manure on during the first year, 
 or to distribute it over a longer period. In the first 
 case we obtain a fine crop of beetroot, but to the 
 prejudice of the succeeding crops. If we spread the 
 
88 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. v. 
 
 operation over several years the yield of beetroot is 
 greatly reduced, and as this kind of crop is very 
 costly, owing to the amount of care and labour it 
 requires, it must necessarily subject the farmer to loss. 
 With chemical manures the case is very different. We 
 give to each plant the substance which is most neces- 
 sary for its growth, by which we gain the double ad- 
 vantage of reducing our expenses, and at the same 
 time obtaining the most abundant crops possible 
 under the circumstances. As a proof of the advantages 
 to be gained in practice by this mode of procedure, I 
 will give an example in the form of two crops of 
 potatoes, followed by two crops of wheat grown side 
 by side— one pair being manured with our normal 
 manure, the whole being applied during the first 
 year ; the second with the same manure, applied in 
 the following manner: — First year with mineral 
 matter only ; second year with nitrogenous matter. 
 
 First Case. — The field received the whole of the nor- 
 mal manure during the first year. 
 
 Per acre 
 Tons Cwt. £ B. d. 
 
 First Year — Potatoes . . . 10 4 . . 10 3 5 
 
 a J V -txn, ^ {straw .21 . . 364 
 
 becond Year — Wheat \ ■ lon^ii, «-.„„ 
 
 (grain . 18 = 34 bushels 9 18 3 
 
 Total . . . 23 8 
 
 Second Case. — The field manured the first year 
 with mineral manure, and the second with 264 lbs. of 
 amnionic sulphate. 
 
 Per acre Value 
 
 Tons Cwt. £ s. d. 
 
 First Year — Potatoes . . . 9 11 . . 9 10 3 
 
 Second Year — Wheats . " , » /^,', ■,', ,, „ , 
 (grain . 1 7 = 49 J bushels 14 8 1 
 
 Total . . . 29 7 
 The advantages gained by dividing the manure 
 
IJ3CT. V. DOMINANT CONSTITUENTS. 89 
 
 being thus placed beyond question, it will be easily- 
 understood tbat with a definite system of rotation 
 I do not use the ingredients of the normal manure 
 indifferently, but according to the nature of the 
 crops. Supposing we grow four crops in the following 
 order — ^beetroot, wheat, clover, and oats — we must 
 concentrate the nitrogenous matter on the beetroot 
 and the wheat, and the mineral matter on the clover, 
 which itself leaves sufficient nitrogenous matter in 
 the ground for the wants of the oat crop. Supposing 
 the series to begin with a crop of peas or haricots, 
 followed by wheat, clover and wheat a second time, 
 — the predominant needs of the haricots and the 
 clover being mineral salts, while that of the wheat 
 nitrogenous matter — we confine ourselves to apply- 
 ing the mineral salts to the land during the first and 
 third years, while we reserve the nitrogenous salts 
 for the wheat, using it during the second and fourth 
 years. "We must be careful, however, to give the 
 wheat crop a good dose of nitrogenous matter during 
 the second year. The fourth year the quantity may 
 be reduced, the clover, the third crop of which is 
 ploughed in green, being in itself a most efficient 
 nitrogenous manure. 
 
 With what remarkable facility then can chemical 
 manures be applied in practice to obtain maximum 
 crops with the greatest amount of economy, allowing 
 us as they do to concentrate on each crop the sub- 
 stances which are most necessary to its growth. 
 
 In my last lecture I confined myself to pointing 
 out those facts without giving the reasons for them. 
 On the present occasion I complete my first prac- 
 tical observations by giving you the theory which 
 acts both as their basis and justification. 
 
90 ON CHEMICAL MANUKES. lect. v. 
 
 I will now pass on to a new question, which is 
 no less important than the preceding one. I will 
 inquire into the cost of farmyard manure as compared 
 with chemical manure. It is not sufficient that the 
 latter should be superior in its useful effects or in 
 the greater facility with which it is applied: we must 
 also take the economical view of the matter and see, 
 when accounts are balanced, whether the financial 
 result is not also to the advantage of the chemical 
 manure. 
 
 The question of the cost of farmyard manure is 
 the one which has given rise to the greatest number 
 of disputes amongst farmers. Every one estimates 
 its price in his own way. There are even some who 
 maintain that it costs nothing, others, on the contrary, 
 maintain that it is a very dear commodity. It is 
 necessary to decide which of these opinions contains 
 the larger element of truth. I hope to be able to 
 succeed by basing my observations on documents 
 supplied to me by well-known farmers, whose trust- 
 worthiness is beyond question, and who have ex- 
 perimented under very different conditions. I am 
 indebted for the first to M. Schattenmann, who ob- 
 tained a grand prize at the Departmental Exhibition 
 of the Bas-Rhin, in 1867, and another at the Inter- 
 national Exhibition of the same year. I would only 
 add that M. Schattenmann is a farmer of excellent 
 position, who is placed under exceptionally favour- 
 able conditions for knowing the prime cost of every- 
 thing, no matter how complicated it may be. Ac- 
 cording to the account with which he has furnished 
 me, the production of 551 tons of farmyard manure and 
 300 tons of hquid muck did not cost less than about 
 603?., which brings the price of farmyard manure 
 
lECT. V. COST OF FAEMYAED MANUEE. 91 
 
 to about 1/. Is. per ton, if we take the cost of the liquid 
 muck at about Is. 8d. per ton. At M. Scbattenmann's 
 farm, in a carefully performed experiment, the farm- 
 yard manure was found to cost 1^. Is. per ton. I 
 must, however, remark that this price was the result 
 of exceptional causes, and certainly exceeds the aver- 
 age of similar establishments. We will, however, 
 take it as a starting point: — 
 
 Cost of Farmyard Manure at the Thiergarten Farm (Bas-BJiin). 
 
 CHAESBS. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 74 tons of straw for litter, at a fraction over 21. 9s. 2d. per ton 182 4 
 1082 lbs. of liquid phosphoric acid, at rather under 1^(?. per lb. 5 18 2 
 Binding and carriage of straw for litter . . . .400 
 
 2 tons 7 cwt., nearly, coprolites, at about 2s. 3d. per cwt. . 5 9 
 
 Pinptying closets 080 
 
 Watering manure-heaps 2 3 
 
 Loading and carriage of manure 39 12 6 
 
 Filling barrels with liquid muck 2 6 6 
 
 Loss on beasts 137 17 5 
 
 „ cows 188 17 6 
 
 „ pigs 34 4 
 
 603 
 
 PKODtrCE. 
 
 300 tons of liquid muck, at rather under Is. 8d. per ton . 26 
 651 tons of farmyard manure, at a little less than 21s. per ton . 678 
 
 603 
 
 The second example was given to me by M. Ca- 
 vallier, of the farm of Mesnil-Saint-Mcaise (Somme), 
 but the conditions are very different. In M. Schatten- 
 mann's case it was a question of the production of 
 manure in connection with all the details of a large 
 farm, the price of the manure being influenced by 
 the losses on the beast, cow, and pig accounts. The 
 document we have now under consideration is an 
 account of a much more simple case, namely the 
 
92 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. v, 
 
 fattening of some 800 sheep. The following are the 
 details : — 
 
 CHAKGES. 
 
 £ B. d. 
 
 Cost of 800 sheep 784 
 
 300 tons of beetroot pulp, at a little over 9s. 7d. per ton 144 
 
 18 tons of rape cake 108 
 
 Colza haulm and rushes 64 
 
 Shepherds, yardmen, &c 20 
 
 Interest, commission, &c 10 ■ 
 
 1120 
 
 PEODTTCB. 
 
 Sheep and wool 1000 
 
 275 tons of manure, representing the balance . . 120 
 
 1120 
 
 This brings the price of the manure down to about 
 8s. 9d. per ton. 
 
 It must be remembered that this is not a general 
 account in which each particular branch of the estab- 
 lishment has its influence, but is a special account, 
 the result of which is independent of every other 
 operation, in fact it is the fattening of 800 sheep on 
 beetroot pulp, which is a cheaper food than ordinary- 
 forage. Under these favourable conditions the 
 manure still costs about 8s. dd. per ton. 
 
 M. Cavallier observes that if instead of having 
 used colza haulm and rushes gathered from the 
 ponds on the banks of the Somme, he had used 
 wheat-straw, the manure would have cost him about 
 12s. 8d. per ton. 
 
 The third account which I shall take as an ex- 
 ample is in connection with the farm of Bechelbronn, 
 in Alsace, the details of which I extract from M. 
 Boussingault's ' Economic Rurale.' According to 
 this calculation the manures would only cost about 
 4s. 2d. per ton, which seems to justify the opinion 
 
LECT. V. COST OF FARMYARD MANURE. 93 
 
 that farmyard manure is the cheapest and costs next 
 to nothing ; but on a little closer examination an 
 objection arises which changes the whole aspect of 
 the question, and which raises the cost of the manure 
 from 4s. 2d. up to lis. lOd. per ton. 
 
 How is it that with the same conditions we arrive 
 at such different conclusions. The explanation is 
 very simple, and I insist the more upon bringing 
 it forward because it will furnish me at the same 
 time with the opportunity and means of rectifying 
 an error into which farmers too frequently fall in 
 their system of bookkeepiag. 
 
 By a kind of tacit agreement, founded on the 
 opinion that the production of manure is one of those 
 necessities which cannot be done without, the food of 
 the animals producing it is charged at its cost price 
 and not at its sale price. Is not this a radically 
 defective system to carry on? 
 
 When the farmer attaches a sugar-factory or dis- 
 tillery to his farm does he estimate the value of his 
 beetroot at prime cost? No, he reckons them at the 
 same price as those which he buys in the market. 
 When he delivers his cattle and sheep does he give 
 them at cost price? No, he is influenced by the con- 
 dition of the market. To arrive at the true price of 
 manure, it is absolutely necessary to adopt the system 
 of dividing accounts, which is so advantageous to the 
 trader by showing with certainty the origin of his 
 profits, and by indicating where he ought specially 
 to practise economy or spend more on means and 
 appliances. In a properly conducted farm there 
 should be a separate account opened for the stables, 
 which should be credited with everything that fetches 
 a real value, such as milk, butter, animals sold, in- 
 
94 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. v. 
 
 crease of weight in the reserved animals, the work done 
 by the horses ; but, on the other hand, the account 
 should be debited with those expenses, of whatever 
 nature, which have contributed to the realisation of the 
 sums which have been carried to the credit side. In 
 these expenses must be included the cost of keeping 
 up the harness and waggons, the wages of the wag- 
 goners, shepherds, stable helps, &c., and, finally, this 
 account must be debited with those commodities 
 which are consumed by the animals at sale price, a 
 deduction being made of from 10 to 15 per cent, as 
 compensation for the cost of transport had they been 
 sold off the premises. An account based on these data 
 always shows a loss, but this loss is counterbalanced 
 by the value of the manure produced. The loss 
 divided by the number of tons of manure produced 
 gives the price of the manure. If we alter the 
 account given by M. Boussingault in the manner 
 just described, we shall find that the price per ton of 
 the manure is no longer 4s. 2cZ. per ton, but ll.s. lOd. 
 As this is a very serious question, I must be allowed 
 to give you the account in two separate columns, one 
 headed ' arbitrary value,' the other ' real value.' 
 
 Cost Price of Farmyard Mam/are at the Bechelhronn Farm. 
 
 162 tons 14 cwt. of hay after gi-ass 
 
 56 tons 4 cwt. of dry clover 
 
 586 bushels of oats 
 
 29 tons 8 cwt. of potatoes 
 
 65 tons 8 cwt. of beetroot 
 
 12 bushels of peas 
 
 38 tons 10 cwt. of straw 
 
 423 12 10 692 3 7 
 Repairing waggons and harness, and drivers' 
 
 expenses 242 16 10 242 16 10 
 
 666 9 8 935 5 
 
 Arbitrary value 
 
 Heal value 
 
 & t. d. 
 
 £ >. d. 
 
 234 5 2 
 
 363 14 3 
 
 70 15 10 
 
 111 5 3 
 
 38 13 7 
 
 72 16 10 
 
 25 3 2 
 
 47 12 10 
 
 81 18 3 
 
 37 13 7 
 
 3 12 
 
 3 12 
 
 19 4 10 
 
 66 8 10 
 
lECI. V. COST OF FARMYARD MANURE. 95 
 
 PEODtrOE. 
 
 Arbitrary value Real valne. 
 
 Increased weight of beasts, &e., 13 tons 10 cwt. 229 9 7\ "' ^' 
 
 Milk not consumed on farm 28 tons 4 cwt. . 135 7 2 
 
 Increa-oe in weight of pigs 2 tons 2 cwt. . 50 8 L 618 8 9 
 1,291 days of horse labour, at little more than 
 
 Is. 7rf. a day 103 4 0, 
 
 Balance being loss . . . 148 17 41 6 12 
 
 666 10 4 935 9 
 
 Manure, produced, 710 tons 
 
 Cost 148Z. Is. 7d 416 n 2 
 
 The price per ton being about 4s. 2d. . . 11 10 
 
 It must also be remembered that the true consump- 
 tion of forage was not 162 tons 14 cwt., as given under 
 the heading of arbitrary cost, but 183 tons 14 cwt. ; 
 this remark also applies to the item of oats, which 
 ought to be increased from 586 bushels to 687 
 bushels. 
 
 It need hardly be said that the arbitrary value is 
 that which is founded on the prime cost of the com- 
 modities, while the other is based on the selling price. 
 Between these two there is a difference of 268^. 10s. 5(i., 
 which explains why in one case the manure is 4s. '2d. 
 and in the other lis. 10^. There is also no need to 
 mention that in both tables the loss in the year 
 varies from 148Z. Is. Id. to 416^. 12s. The quantity 
 produced being 710 tons, 4s. 'id. and lis. IQd. are the 
 arbitrary and true prices respectively. I have already 
 told you that the price 21s. at which M. Schatten- 
 mann arrived was an exception. 
 
 In fact, the farm in question being only recently 
 established, the proprietors were obliged, to put it on 
 the footing of an old concern, to buy immense quan- 
 tities of straw in a year when that commodity was par- 
 ticularly dear. Having made this reservation, we may 
 conclude from the figures given that the true price 
 
96 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LEOT. V. 
 
 would be from 12s. to 16s. per ton. Let us put it 
 at 125. We will now speak of the price of chemical 
 manures. 
 
 There are, we have already said, in 40 tons of 
 manure 
 
 Nitroo-en . . . 358^ lbs. 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 Lime 
 
 165 
 330 
 70Gi 
 
 To obtain the equivalent of this manure in chemical 
 substances we must have recourse to the following 
 ingredients : — 
 
 Acid calcic phosphate 
 Potassic chloride 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Cost ' 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1,320 
 
 2 17 6 
 
 704 
 
 2 11 2 
 
 1,727 
 
 15 13 11 
 
 1,870 
 
 13 6 
 
 21 16 1 
 
 ' As a general rule the prices of chemical products intended for 
 manure increase twice a year, in autumn and in spring, when crops are 
 sown. Not being able td follow all the fluctuations in the price of che- 
 mical products from day to day, we have adopted the prices current 
 for the month of May, 1878 : 
 
 Calcic Superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 
 £ s. 
 
 . 4 16 
 . 24 
 
 d. 
 
 per ton. 
 
 „ 
 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 . 14 
 
 „ 
 
 Ammohic sulphate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 Potassium chloride 
 
 . 20 
 . 16 
 . 8 
 
 „ 
 ,, 
 „ 
 
 At this rate the equivalent of a ton of farmyard manure, according to the 
 old formula, would be 11«. 2d. According to the new formulas, however, 
 in which the potassic nitrate is replaced by a mixture of potassic chloride 
 and ammonic sulphate, the price does not exceed 10s. lid. When potas- 
 sic nitrate costs 32/. per ton, as it did in 1871, the advantage of the new 
 formula is veiy evident. At the present time, according to the old for- 
 mula, the equivalent of a ton of farmyard manure Would amount to 
 12s. 5d., whilst with the new it reaches only 10s. Qd. I attribute this 
 mainly to the introduction of potassic chloride into the composition of 
 chemical manures. This depression in price of potassic nitrate still con- 
 tinues. 
 
x-ECT. V. COST OF CHEMICAL MANURE. 97 
 
 That is to say, 21^. 16s. 8d. for the equivalent of 40 
 tons of farmyard manure, which brings the cost of 
 1 ton to 10s. lid., the ton of farmyard manure cost- 
 ing 12s. It must also be remembered that the arti- 
 ficial equivalent of the 40 tons of manure contains 
 44 lbs. of phosphoric acid in addition. These are 
 important conclusions. With chemical manures the 
 yield is always greater, so that were they equal in 
 price to farmyard manure, they are not so dear. The 
 price of 12s. which I have adopted for farmyard 
 manure wUl, it is said, fall lower. I may acknow- 
 ledge at once that I am ignorant of the merits of 
 this question, but that I do not think it will. The 
 advantages of the use of artificial manure do not, 
 however, end here. Putting aside for the moment 
 all questions of profit and loss, let us see in what 
 condition the farmer is who can only manure his land 
 with the manure produced on it. I wUl take the farm 
 of Bechelbronn as an example. This property con- 
 sists of about 275 acres, being divided into 125 acres 
 of arable land and 150 of meadow land. According 
 to the ancient tradition this farm is placed under 
 excellent conditions, for just as much manure is 
 produced as the crops take away from it. But how 
 much manure is produced, and how much does the 
 land receive per acre ? The manure produced amounts 
 to 710 tons per annum, which spread over the 125 
 acres of arable land, and 25 acres of meadow up- 
 land, gives a mean, let us say, of 4 tons 16 cwt. 
 per acre per annum. But the annual application of 
 4 tons 16 cwt. per acre of manure is insufficient. 
 To farm under such conditions is to farm without 
 profit. You wUl judge of this by the crops which 
 are obtained at Bechelbronn: — 
 
 H 
 
98 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lECT. t. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Wheat . . . 20 bushels 
 
 Oats . . . . 35 „ 
 
 Beetroot . . .10 tons 8 cwt. 
 
 Meadow grass . . 1 „ 16 „ 
 
 At Beclielbronn, therefore, they grow but small 
 crops, and at a small profit ; in fact, if we calculate 
 the interest on capital at only 3 per cent., the profit 
 barely amounts to 1B21. 
 
 It may also be remarked that if the farm at 
 Bechelbronn were converted into a commercial es- 
 tablishment, out of the net profits of 132/. we should 
 have also to deduct a manager's salary. Is this to be 
 given as an example of that commercial prosperity 
 which would enable French farmers to struggle 
 against foreign importers ? We will, however, change 
 these conditions and see what could be done for Bec- 
 helbronn by the aid of chemical manures. 
 
 If only 11. 18s. Ad. per acre were expended, or 
 
 24:01. in all, this is what would happen : The yield 
 
 of each acre would jump from 20 to 33 bushels per 
 
 acre, or nearly 14 bushels increase — that is to say, 
 
 an excess of value in the crops of 3/. 16s. 8d. for an 
 
 outlay of 1/. 18s. 4d. per acre, without counting the 
 
 value of the straw. Let us reduce, if you please, 
 
 the profit by one-third, and place it at from 1/. 10s. 
 
 to 1/. 125. per acre, and there still remains the fact 
 
 that by the expenditure of 240/., the profit can be 
 
 raised from 132/. to 280/. and 320/. You will notice 
 
 that I put everything down at a low figure. This 
 
 ought not to surprise you now that the advantages 
 
 of high cultivation are familiar to you. Again, at 
 
 Bechelbronn, without changing anything in the mode 
 
 of cultivation, but by the sole use of 1/. 18s. 4rf. 
 
 worth of chemical manure per acre, the profit might 
 
LEci. V. FREE USE OE. manure; 99 
 
 be trebled. This is a striking demonstration, it seems 
 to me, of the truth of the principle, that in farming 
 there is no profit without copious manuring ; and 
 seeing that it is impossible to produce sufficient 
 manure for this high kind of culture, we must 
 necessarily have recourse to a supplement in the 
 form of chemical manure. This is a serious question, 
 and it will not do to shut our eyes in its presence, or 
 foreign imports will speedily show us what peril we 
 are in. 
 
 It may be said that this proposition may be dis- 
 puted on account of the example I have chosen, and 
 that there are farmers who set to work in a more 
 advanced manner, those, for instance, who have added 
 sugar refineries or distilleries to their farms, and for 
 whom an importation of manure is not necessary ; 
 but even under these conditions the farmer who 
 is reduced to his own resources cannot manure 
 with sufficient generosity to yield him profitable 
 crops. 
 
 M. Cavallier, whose farm has an adjunct in the 
 form of a sugar refinery, can only produce 1,000 tons 
 of manure per annum, which is hardly enough to 
 supply 125 acres with 20 tons every two years. 
 Under these circumstances M. Cavallier only obtains 
 from 14 tons to 16 tons per acre, whUst by using the 
 normal manure one year he obtained 23 tons 16 cwt. 
 per acre. 
 
 You will scarcely be surprised if in the presence 
 of such results I tell you that M. Cavallier is going 
 to permanently adopt the use of chemical manure. 
 When farmers persist in using nothing but farmyard 
 manure as their only fertilising agent, the quantity 
 which is at their disposal is insufficient for growing 
 
 H 3 
 
100 ON CHEMICAL MANUEES. leot. v. 
 
 heavy crops, the consequence being that their produce 
 is but small and their profits precarious. 
 
 In the past the following proposition was made 
 into an axiom : for good farming we must have 
 plenty of meadow, cattle, and manure. But I assert 
 that this proposition is an agricultural and economical 
 heresy. 
 
 The farmer who uses nothing but farmyard 
 manure exhausts his land. For whence comes the 
 manure but from the soil. As a fact farmyard manure 
 does not make up for the loss of the calcic phosphate, 
 lime, potash, and nitrogenous matter which it had to 
 submit to through the carrying away of part, at any 
 rate, of the crops grown on it. When meat is sold 
 away from the farm less is lost than in the case of 
 grain, but there always is a loss. I repeat then that 
 this axiom, which has hitherto been made into the 
 foundation and palladium of agricultural science, is 
 nothing more than an expedient. It can only claim 
 consideration in the very exceptional case of a meadow 
 being watered by a river which returns to the soil 
 the fertihsing agents which have been taken out of it. 
 I repeat, however, that such cases are so rare that 
 they cannot form a law. . 
 
 I have said that farming founded on the use of 
 farmyard manure alone is, economically speaking, 
 against common sense. Take the case, for instance, 
 of a piece of somewhat poor land, yielding no more 
 than from 9 to 11 bushels per acre; calculate how 
 long it would take to make it produce 2.^- or three 
 times that quantity, and you would shrink back 
 before the sacrifices that you would have to make. 
 With chemical manures the change is immediate, the 
 progress sudden, and the profit immediate also. But 
 
rECT. V. COMBINATION OF MANURES, 101 
 
 if, as we may remark, besides the profit, we increase 
 from the very first year the crop of straw, is it not 
 evident that instead of growing meat in order to 
 have corn, there is a manifest advantage in revers- 
 ing the recognised order of things, and commencing 
 to grow corn in order to gain, the earliest advantage ? 
 in fact, we get corn first and manure afterwards. 
 I repeat then that the soil cannot do otherwise than 
 exhaust itself unless we bring in from outside a 
 large amount of fertilising material. The solution of 
 this question, imposed on us by the force of circum- 
 stances, seems to be that we must increase the fertility 
 of the soil by means of chemical manures composed of 
 substances existing in the mineral kingdom, which 
 appear to us to have been specially reserved to repair 
 the depredations of the past and of the present, and 
 to guard us against the effects of such disasters for 
 the future. It is, therefore, not correct to say that 
 with farmyard manure and nothing but farmyard 
 manure, we have everything required. It is, however, 
 true to say that in order to obtain large crops there 
 is only one method at our command, and that is to 
 have recourse to chemical manures in preference to 
 all others, because their composition has been rigor- 
 ously defined, and is always identical, because they 
 are the only ones in fact in regard to which fraud 
 cannot be practised, and also because they are, accord- 
 ing to my own opinion, the most economical. 
 
 Try to discover practically the real value of some 
 of the wonderful qualities supposed to be possessed 
 by the products of certain manure merchants, and 
 you will find that you will have to pay a profit which 
 the most bare-faced usurer has never yet obtained. 
 Now that the primary conditions of fertility have 
 
10:^ ox CHEMICAL jrANURES. LECT. v. 
 
 been ascertained, we need no longer take into con- 
 sideration a tradition which belonged to a bygone age 
 of agriculture. We now govern the requirements of 
 farming instead of being governed by them. I can 
 only repeat what I have already said on the occasion 
 of a lecture delivered by me at the Sorbonne, entitled 
 ' The Agricultural Crisis and Science.' ' Farmers 
 are no longer under the necessity of providing their 
 own manure, they wiU be providers of their own 
 fertilising agents if they can make it pay in the end, 
 but if they find it more profitable to have recourse to 
 chemical manures there is nothing to prevent them ; 
 it is no longer a question of good farming, but one of 
 cost price.' 
 
 When we wish to introduce into a farm these new 
 methods of arriving at the maximum of production, 
 a change has to be made of which it is necessary I 
 should say something, seeing that it is destined to 
 give to agriculture proper an important portion of 
 those lands which were formerly devoted to forage, 
 without, however, interfering with the resources which 
 are devoted to this purpose. The change which it 
 is advisable to make in this respect consists in sub- 
 stituting as far as possible the growing of lucern in 
 place of grass. I may quote on this subject the 
 testimony of two authorities who are equally import- 
 ant, that of M. Boussingault, who acknowledges that 
 fields of lucern are more profitable than grass lands, 
 and that of M. Schattenmann, who has made the 
 substitution of which I speak with great advantage. 
 Every one can see that at Bechelbronn if the neces- 
 sary food for the cattle was provided for as well as 
 the straw for their litter, 30 to 40 per cent, of the 
 meadows on the farm which are now devoted to one 
 
LEOT. T. COMBINATION OF MANURES. 103 
 
 or other of these purposes would be at liberty. This 
 would produce a large increase of income, more espe- 
 cially if these vacant fields were devoted to the culti- 
 vation of profitable crops fertilised with strong doses 
 of chemical manure. The importance of such a result 
 is all the greater, seeiug that it can be carried out 
 immediately with a very small amount of capital. 
 
 In this lecture I have laid down the principle 
 that chemical manures, of which I at first studied the 
 exclusive use, may be associated with advantage Avith 
 farmyard manure, and I have pointed out the spirit 
 which ought to govern this new application. To 
 complete these preliminary instructions, it only re- 
 mains for me to resume the consideration of these 
 questions in detail, and to point out the best formula 
 for each special case. This complement to our pre- 
 liminary inquiries is all the more necessary, as the 
 production of farmyard manure is an absolute neces- 
 sity as soon as ever there is a question of carrying on 
 a farm on an important scale. This new subject will 
 form the groundwork of our next lecture; 
 
104 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LECTURE YI. 
 
 COMBINATION OP MANURES (CONTINUED) — WASTE PORTION OF CROPS 
 IMPORTANT AS FERTILISERS — CHEMICAL MANURES FROM A 
 FINANCIAL POINT OF VIEW. 
 
 In the cultivation of a farm of any considerable size 
 it is indispensable to have recourse to animal labour ; 
 the handwork of labourers, which is characteristic of 
 small holdings, is only possible, as soon as we begin 
 to operate on a somewhat important scale, when we 
 grow certain crops which produce abundantly, such 
 as the vine, the hop, tobacco, &c. I repeat then, 
 that as soon as we enter on the domain of large 
 farming properly so-called, the use of animal labour 
 becomes a necessity from the force of circumstances 
 under which manure is produced and must be pro- 
 fitably and regularly used. 
 
 I take up the question, then, from the point where 
 I left it in our last lecture ; and in order to complete 
 the general ideas which I have laid before you on the 
 use of farmyard manure in conjunction with chemical 
 manures, it only remains for me to point out to you 
 the practical rules to be observed in this case. Our 
 first example wiU be a series of crops grown in 
 rotation for five years as practised at Bechelbronn. 
 
 1st year potatoes. 
 2nd ,, wheat. 
 3rd ,, clover. 
 
 4th year wheat. 
 5th ,, oats. 
 
LECT. Ti. COMBINATION OF MANUEES. 105 
 
 At the beginning of the period the soil received 
 some 16 to 20 tons of farmyard manure. In 20 tons of 
 farmyard manure the four ingredients of our normal 
 manure are contained in the following proportions : 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 . 181 Ihs. per acre 
 
 Potash . 
 
 • 164 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 . 98 
 
 Lime 
 
 . 852 
 
 It should be remembered that more than one- 
 third of the nitrogen is lost to the soil on account of 
 the decomposition which the manure must first 
 undergo before it can exercise its action. This fact 
 explains the reason why we obtain such miserable 
 results when only a small quantity of manure is used. 
 To change this state of things, we must place the land 
 under the proper conditions for high cultivation, by 
 at least doubling the amount of the fertilising sub- 
 stances contained in the farmyard manure by means of 
 chemical manures, and concentrate in the case of each 
 partictdar plant that particular substance of the four 
 contained in our normal manure which is especially 
 favourable to its growth. In the case of the series 
 we are speaking of, I propose to make the following 
 subdivision of our supplementary substances : 
 
106 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. vi. 
 
 SEKIES OF OKOPS GROWN FOR FIVE YEARS. 
 
 POTATOES, WHEAT, CLOVEE, WHEAT, OATS. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Farmyard manure .... 
 Normal manure,' No. 6, 440 lbs. . 
 
 Per acre 
 Quantities Cost 
 Tons £ a. d. 
 
 . 20 
 
 1 8 5 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 
 
 lbs. 
 . 176 
 
 1 12 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 
 
 CLOVJiK. 
 
 
 
 Incomplete manure,^ No. 6 
 
 . 880 
 
 1 10 10 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 
 
 . 176 
 
 1 12 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 
 
 OATS. 
 
 
 
 Aminonic sulphate .... 
 
 . 264 
 
 2 8 
 
 Cost for five years . 
 
 7 11 3 
 
 The cost for the five years per acre was ll. lis. Bd. 
 at the annual rate of about 11. 10s. 3d. 
 
 With farmyard manure only the potato gives 4 
 tons 16 cwt. per acre ; the wheat, 20 bushels ; the oats, 
 33 bushels per acre, and the clover 2 tons of dry forage 
 per acre. With the chemical manure added, the yield 
 of potatoes gives 8 tons ; the wheat, 33 bushels ; the 
 
 1 For composition, see p. 78. ' For composition, see p. 74. 
 
EECT. Tl. COMBINATION OF MANURES. 107 
 
 oats, 49 to 53 bushels, and the clover at least 3 tons 
 4 cwt. of dry forage. 
 
 If we replace potatoes by beetroots we must sub- 
 stitute the following manure for the first year: — 
 
 Per acre 
 Quantities Cost 
 
 lbs. £ s. d. 
 
 Normal manure/ No. 2 . . 528 2 4 8 
 
 The other manures remain the same, but the 
 expense of the five years is increased to 101. Is. lOd. 
 per acre, which brings up the annual expense to about 
 21. per annum. With the farmyard manure, how- 
 ever, the crop is only about 10 tons 8 cwt. per acre, 
 while with the additional manure they reach at least 
 to 16 or 18 tons. 
 
 In districts favourable to the growth of the colza 
 and the beetroot, such as the Department of the 
 Sorome, it is found to be very profitable to precede 
 the beetroot with a crop of colza, on which is to be 
 expended all the manure possible. The ground is 
 thus better prepared for the subsequent cultivation 
 of cereals, and the farmyard manure having become 
 perfectly decomposed, contributes more eificiently to 
 the growth of the beetroots. 
 
 If we modify the preceding rotation in this way, the 
 following is the best method of dividing the manure : 
 
 1 For composition, see p. 75. 
 
108 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LTOT. VI, 
 
 SEKIES OF CROPS GROWN FOR FIVE YEARS. 
 
 COLZA, BEETROOT, WHEAT, CLOVER, AND WHEAT. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 Per acre 
 Quantity. Cost 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Farmyard manure 20 tons nil 
 
 Ammonic sulphate ..... 264 lbs. 280 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 BEBTEOOT. 
 
 Aslies from burnt colza ... — 
 
 Haulm and pods — 
 
 Normal manure, No. 2,' 628 lbs. 2 4 8 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 WHEAT, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 176 1 12 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 CLOVER. 
 
 Incomplete manure/ No. 6 . . . 880 1 10 10 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 176 1 12 
 
 9 7 6 
 
 The cost for the five years is 9/. 7s. Qd. per acre, 
 or nearly 2Z. per annum. We can always replace the 
 second crop of wheat, which succeeds the clover, by 
 a crop of oats. By doing this we save the ammonic 
 sulphate recommended for the fifth year, reducing the 
 five years' cost to 11. \bs. Qd. per acre, the annual 
 expense being reduced to 1/. lis. Od. 
 
 ' For composition, see p. 75. ^ For composition see p. 74. 
 
lEcr. yi. COMBINATION OF MANURES. 109 
 
 As a last example I will give a specimen of a six 
 years' series in which the chemical agents are em- 
 ployed alone the first year, and are only used in com- 
 bination with the farmyard manure from the second 
 year onwards. The following is the composition of 
 the series : 
 
 1st year linseed. 
 2nd „ beetroot. 
 3rd ,, wheat. 
 
 4th year colza. 
 
 5th ,, wheat. 
 
 6th ,, oats, rye, or barley. 
 
 I have said that the first year we ought not to 
 employ anything but chemical manures, their su- 
 periority for flax growing being beyond all doubt. 
 Linseed may be sown from this point of view between 
 wheat, which requires, as you know, a manure rich 
 in nitrogenous matter, while leguminous plants re- 
 (juire the mineral portions of the mixture. It suc- 
 ceeds better, therefore, with chemical manures, because 
 the nitrogenous portion may be reduced without 
 affecting their mineral constituents. I have already 
 quoted the results obtained by M. Chav^e, whose 
 crop was sold all standing at the rate of ISl. 9s. Bd. 
 per acre. 
 
110 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. uxt. 
 
 SERIES OF CROPS GROWN FOR SIX YEARS. 
 
 LINSEED, BEETROOTS, WHEAT, COLZA, WHEAT AND OATS, KYE 
 AND BARLEY. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 LINSEED. 
 
 Per acre 
 Quantity Cost 
 
 lbs. £ J. d. 
 
 Incomplete manure,' No. 6 ... 880 1 10 10 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 BEETBOOTS. 
 
 Farmyard Manure laid down in autumn . 20 tons nil 
 
 Normal manure,^ No. 2, laid down in 
 spring, 528 lbs. 2 8 10 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 176 2 3 2 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 Normal manure,' No. 1 . . . . 1,144 4 17 7 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ashes of haulms and pods of colza 
 
 ploughed in — — 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 264 2 8 
 
 Sixth Year. 
 
 OATS, EYE, OE BARLEY. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 170 1 12 
 
 Per acre for six years . . . 15 4 
 
 ' For composition see p. 74. ' For composition, see p. 75. 
 ' For composition see p. 73. 
 
LBCT. VI. COMBINATION OF MANURES. Ill 
 
 This account is a somewliat heavy one, but regard 
 must be had to the nature and value of the products. 
 Putting things at their lowest, I should say that the 
 mean value of the whole of the crops for the six years 
 would be 161. to 171. 12s. per acre. 
 
 I might multiply examples and quote instances of 
 other series of crops, but as they would all require 
 the application of the rules and principles which we 
 have already laid down, I prefer to recall to your 
 remembrance those rules and principles, by which 
 means you will be enabled to substitute your own 
 initiative for mine, and compare for yourselves the 
 formula and proportions of the manure. 
 
 I have remarked several times, and I repeat it 
 once more, that farmyard manure owes its value to the 
 nitrogen, calcic phosphate, potash and lime which it 
 contains. For if we experiment side by side with 
 farmyard manure, and with a mixture of these four 
 ■bodies of equal richness, the crop obtained with the 
 chemical will always be superior to that obtained 
 with the farmyard manure. 
 
 I have told you besides that one of these sub- 
 stances is always subordinate or predominant as re- 
 gards the three others according to the kind of plants 
 which we are growing. Thus nitrogen, which is the 
 dominant constituent in the case of wheat, descends 
 to the rank of a subordinate agent in the case of 
 leguminous plants. But notwithstanding this change 
 it is a noteworthy fact on which I cannot too strongly 
 insist, that this predominancy only manifests itself on 
 the express condition that the soU is provided to a 
 certain extent with the other three constituents of a 
 normal manure. Nitrogenous matter is the dominant 
 material in the case of wheat and colza, in a soil of 
 
112 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. iect. vi. 
 
 pure sand, however, nitrogenous matter produces 
 scarcely any effect, but add the other mineral con- 
 stituents to the sand, and the nitrogenous material 
 gives a rapidity of growth which is astonishing, and 
 within a certain limit. the crop corresponds to the 
 amount of nitrogen present. 
 
 This being so, you will understand the part played 
 by farmyard manure when used with those prepared 
 artificially. Owing to its nature and its bulk it neces- 
 sarily acts very slowly, its virtue being subordinated 
 to the previous decomposition of the carbo-hydrates, 
 which forms 95 per cent, of the whole. Under these 
 conditions farmyard manure becomes the equivalent 
 of a large amount of acquired riches. With farm- 
 yard manure only great crops are impossible, because 
 the entire amount of substances capable of being 
 assimilated is never sufiicient. But add yearly to 
 the manure the ingredients required by each crop, 
 and the crop and the consequent profit will soon 
 attain their highest hmit. If I now recall to your 
 memory the fact that nitrogenous matter predomi- 
 nates in wheat, colza, and beetroot ; potash in legu- 
 minous plants, calcic phosphate in turnips, that the 
 mineral matter so often mentioned gives without 
 nitrogen the largest lucern crops, that the same 
 mineral matter with the addition of a little nitrogen 
 is best for potatoes and linseed ; you will not only 
 understand the rules which have guided me in the 
 directions I have already given you, but you will 
 also be able with their aid to combine series of crops 
 appropriate to the circumstances under which you 
 are placed. 
 
 This, however, is not sufficient. In order that the 
 solution of the great problem of agricultural produc- 
 
LECT. Ti. CONBITION OF CULTIVATION. 113 
 
 tionmaybe thoroughly complete, it is not only neces- 
 sary to be acquainted with the agents which are the 
 source of fertility, but we must also be certain that 
 we are not impoverishing the soil by taking away 
 from it more than we put into it. The question then 
 is : — 
 
 Can we, with chemical manures, cultivate the same 
 soil with uniform success ? My answer is absolute. Yes, 
 we can ; hut always on two conditions. 
 
 (1) Return to the soil by the aid of manure 
 more calcic phosphate, potash and lime than the 
 crops have taken out of it. 
 
 (2) Restore to the soil about 50 per cent, of the 
 nitrogen of the crops. I say about 50 per cent, be- 
 cause there are certain plants which require less, while 
 others, leguminous plants for instance, seem to be 
 able to do without any nitrogen being returned to 
 the soU. We have already stated that part of the 
 nitrogen required by plants is derived from the air, 
 whUe some plants seem to draw it more particularly 
 from the soil. 
 
 With respect to the calcic phosphate, potash, and 
 lime, the quantity restored must be in excess of that 
 which has been lost, because it is exclusively from 
 the soil that plants draw them, and we must not only 
 give compensation for the losses brought about by each 
 harvest, but also for those which are due to the 
 solvent action of rain. Let us examine if the formulae 
 for manures which I have given satisfy the two con- 
 ditions which I have just pointed out. I stated in 
 the last lecture that wheat could be grown for an 
 indefinite period on the same land, provided the land 
 is manured as follows: — 
 
114 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 The Culture of Wheat. 
 
 FOR AtrlUMN. 
 
 Normal manure,' No. 1a, 528 lbs. 
 
 FOK SPKINa, 
 
 Nothing, or ammonic siilpliate, 44,88, or 132 lbs. 
 
 .?. d. 
 6 11 
 
 14 
 3 9 11 
 
 By means of this quantity of manure we may easily 
 obtain 34 bushels of wheat, and 2 tons of straw 
 per acre. If we strike a balance between what the 
 manure has given to the soil and what the crop has 
 taken away from it, we shall always find the result 
 in favour of the soil : — 
 
 Pee Acre. 
 
 
 Manure 
 
 Crop 
 
 Loss to soil 
 
 Gain to soil 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Nitrogen, 61 lbs. . 
 
 121 
 
 104 
 
 nil 
 
 17 
 
 Pbosphoric acid . 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 » 
 
 5 
 
 Potasb 
 
 44 
 
 25 
 
 }f 
 
 19 
 
 Lime .... 
 
 85 
 
 2 
 
 jr 
 
 33 
 
 In the presence of these figures we may safely 
 say that the use of chemical manures has nothing to 
 fear in the future. My experiments in calcined sand, 
 confirmed by others in the open field at Vincennes, 
 twenty-one years ago, seem to me to place this con- 
 clusion beyond dispute. In the preceding example 
 I assumed that the whole of the crops, both straw 
 and grain, were lost to the farm ; I also assumed 
 that the' land was cultivated by hand labour. By this 
 double assumption the demonstration was carried to 
 the extreme. It is to be regretted that many of the 
 
 1 For composition see p. 73. 
 
lECT. vr. CONDITION OF CULTIVATION. 115 
 
 small farmers in France are almost entirely unpro- 
 vided with manure, and thus, by the extent of the 
 interests represented, they affect the public welfare 
 to a very serious extent. 
 
 I now pass to the system of growing alternate 
 crops of colza and wheat ; taking it for granted that 
 everything is sold, wheat, straw, pods, haulm and all. 
 The distribution of manure is supposed to last for two 
 years.^ 
 
 Nitrogen, 137 lbs. pev acre, equivalent in tlie crop to . 274 lbs. per acre 
 
 Phosphoric acid 63 „ 
 
 Potash 83 „ 
 
 Lime 137 „ 
 
 ' The succession of manures was as follows : — 
 First Tear. 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Quantity Cost 
 
 lbs. £ s. d. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . . 352 15 4 
 
 Potassic nitrate . . . 176 1 18 5 
 
 Ammonic sulphate . . . 220 1 16 8 
 
 Calcic sulphate . . .308 2 3 
 
 4 12 8 
 Second Tear. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate . . . 352 3 4 
 
 7 16 8 
 or 81. 18s. id. per annum. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MAmjRES. 
 
 lECT. VI. 
 
 Tiie two crops of colza and wheat contained: — ^ 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Potash . 
 Lime 
 
 . 259 lbs. per acre 
 ■ 59 „ 
 
 • 118 „ 
 
 . 123 „ 
 
 If we now strike a balance we shall find that the soil 
 has decidedly lost in two places: — 
 
 Pee Acee. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric acid . 
 Potash . 
 Lime . 
 
 Manure 
 
 Crops 
 
 Loss for 
 the soil 
 
 Gain for 
 the soil 
 
 lbs. 
 
 274 
 53 
 83 
 49 
 
 lbs. 
 260 
 59 
 118 
 123 
 
 lbs. 
 
 6 
 35 
 
 lbs. 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 These manures seem not to be rich enough, and 
 their prolonged use would appear at last to damage 
 the fertility of the soil, yet in reahty this is not the 
 case. To simplify the discussion I admitted that 
 the preceding experiment was performed by hand 
 labour, and that everything was sold, both straw and 
 grain. But the haulm and empty pods of the colza 
 have no market, and could never under any circum- 
 stance command a sale. If, however, they are burnt 
 
 The following are the details of the crops : 
 
 .-. >» ( H anlm 
 One cix,p\ p^^^ 
 
 of colza Is^g^^ 
 n f Straw 
 of wheat Iq^^.^ 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Lime 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 2 U 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 1 15 
 
 5^ 
 
 1 li 
 
 lbs. 
 
 471 
 22i 
 86 
 
 %' 
 
 66 
 
 lbs. 
 7 
 
 4 
 26^ 
 
 ? 
 
 16 
 
 lbs. 
 
 14* 
 64* 
 
 14* 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 11* 
 
 lbs. 
 
 s* 
 f 
 11 
 
 259 
 
 59 
 
 118 
 
 1231 
 
LECT. TI. 
 
 REFUSE OF CiROPS AS MANURE. 
 
 117 
 
 in the fields, and their ashes are sown broadcast, 
 the soU will receive sufficient potash and phosphoric 
 acid to compensate it for the amount it has lost. In 
 fact this restitution is greater than necessary, and 
 instead of beiag deficient in. potash and phosphoric 
 acid the soU has now an excess of both. 
 
 To demonstrate how those waste portions of crops 
 which have no commercial value whatever may acquire 
 great importance as a source of fertility, I will once 
 more give the table containing the composition of the 
 two crops of colza, and again strike our balance on 
 the supposition that the haulm and the pods of the 
 colza have been burnt on the soil, and that only the 
 seed has left the farm. 
 
 Composition of One Crop of Colza. 
 
 Haulm . 
 Pods . 
 Seeds . 
 
 Crop 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Lime 
 
 Tons C-wt. 
 
 2 li 
 18 
 19 
 
 lbs. 
 86 
 
 lbs. 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 26^ 
 
 lbs. 
 14* 
 
 Iba. 
 
 43i 
 63 
 6* 
 
 Balance rectified hy the Burning of the Haulm and Pods of the 
 
 Colza. 
 
 
 
 Taken by 
 
 Loss for 
 
 Gain for 
 
 
 Ma,nure 
 
 the crops 
 
 the soil 
 
 the soil 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 274 
 
 259 
 
 — 
 
 15 
 
 Phosphoric acid . 
 
 53 
 
 48* 
 
 — 
 
 /* 
 
 Potash . 
 
 83 
 
 39f 
 
 — 
 
 43 
 
 Lime . 
 
 137 
 
 16* 
 
 — 
 
 120* 
 
 This new example shows the necessity, when we 
 make our calculations relative to the rotation of crops, 
 of remembering that the whole of the produce carried 
 away from the soil is not lost to it. The waste which 
 
118 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. ti. 
 
 is thrown on the dungheap returns ultimately to the 
 soil, and cannot be included in this category. 
 
 A third case may possibly present itself, leaving 
 the intervention of animals out of the question. It 
 is that in which the small grower, who being a long 
 distance from any railway town, can no more sell his 
 straw than if it were colza haulm. What is he to do? 
 He has a choice of two ways out of the difficulty: he 
 may either make his straw into a bonfire as he did 
 with his colza haulm, or he may transform it into a 
 manure heap by letting it lie until it rots. If wheat 
 straw and colza haulm be piled in a heap in alternate 
 layers and sprinkled with water into which a few 
 hundredweights of rape cake have been thrown, 
 the mixture will act like urine on a dungheap, and 
 speedily bruag about the entire decomposition of the 
 mass. At the end of three or four days the mass 
 wUl become heated in the centre, giving out a tem- 
 perature of 50° or 60° C. (122° to 140° F.), and in from 
 fifteen to twenty days the ligneous fibre will have 
 become quite disintegrated and have assumed a half 
 pasty condition, resembling that of farmyard manure. 
 
 Which of the two methods is the best? .By the 
 putrefactive process we avoid an important loss of 
 nitrogen ; there is, however, the expense of labour to 
 be considered on account of the cartage of the straw 
 from one place to another, the preparation of the 
 manure heap and its application to the land. By 
 burrung we avoid these expenses, but we lose all our 
 nitrogen, and have to supply its place by purchasing 
 ammonic sulphate or sodic nitrate. 
 
 For my own part I have no choice between the 
 two methods ; in practice they are about equally 
 valuable, and it is the comparative expense of the 
 
LECT. VI. FARMING ACCOUNTS. 119 
 
 two processes which must determine the farmer's 
 choice. If we consider cases of a m.ore general nature, 
 in which the field work is performed by animals, and 
 in which the production of manure is a matter of 
 necessity, the problem remains the same, and the 
 rules which have already guided us continue to be 
 applicable. 
 
 In fact, what is the nature of manure? It con- 
 sists of vegetable products modified by digestion. 
 The manure heap, like the refuse of crops, depends 
 for its value on the nitrogen, and on the potassic and 
 calcic phosphates which it contains. 
 
 I will not here give in detail the balance-sheet of 
 the series of rotations in which farmyard manure is 
 combined with chemical manure, because the impor- 
 tance of the real losses to which the soil is Kable 
 depends upon how completely the crops grown on 
 it are carried off to other localities, and on the keep- 
 ing of cattle ; but in. order to give you the means of 
 doing this — for being able to keep accounts intelli- 
 gently and make calculations is a necessity on every 
 well-ordered farm — I have arranged in a tabular form 
 as an appendix the average composition of manures 
 and of all the crops included in the series I have 
 already laid before you. 
 
 Let us now consider the question of chemical 
 manures from a financial point of view, taking for 
 our first example a case in which chemical manures 
 alone are employed. 
 
 Nothing is so variable as a farming account. 
 Everything affects it: the locality, the relative abun- 
 dance and scarcity of labour, and the system of 
 farming pursued. It is impossible to present such 
 an account without meeting all kinds of objections 
 
120 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. vi. 
 
 drawn from each person's own experience. To avoid 
 this inconvenience I shall confine myself to placing 
 opposite each other the cost of the manure and the 
 value of the crop, leaving everyone to draw his 
 own conclusions according to the circumstances in 
 which he is placed. The yield being 34 bushels per 
 acre and 2 tons of straw, if we fix the price of grain 
 at 5s. lOd. per bushel and that of the straw at 1^. 8s. 
 per ton, the crops will be worth per acre: — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 12 14 5 
 
 Annual cost of manure . .3105 
 
 Balance, being profit . . .940 
 
 It will perhaps be said that in this valuation I have 
 not included the cost of carriage of the manure. The 
 observation is a just one, for we ought also to add 
 the sum of 11. 4s. for this item, when there will re- 
 main 81. for ground rent, taxes, general expenses, and 
 interest on capital. 
 
 I shall now examine a second hypothesis which 
 specially applies to farming, both on a large and a 
 medium scale ; an establishment, for instance, con- 
 ducted in the old-fashioned way, the profits of which 
 are but small, the owners of which, however, have a 
 desire to change their system for something more 
 modern whereby they may increase their crops, but 
 at the smallest outlay possible. In order to give 
 greater precision to what foUows, I will again take 
 Bechelbronn as an example. 
 
 At this -farm they only use farmyard manure, and 
 out of 275 acres which compose the farm 150 acres 
 are meadow land and 125 arable. The gross pro- 
 duce obtained during the year is valued at 814/. 8s., 
 the working capital being 1,400/. 
 
tECT. vr. FARMING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Cultivation with Farmyard Manure only} 
 
 121 
 
 
 
 Yield 
 
 Produce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in culti- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vation 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Total 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 17* 
 
 4 tons 18 cwt. 
 
 85 tons 15 cwt. 
 
 8 16 
 
 164 
 
 Beetroot 
 
 n 
 
 10 „ 10 „ 
 
 78 „ 15 „ 
 
 6 14 10 
 
 50 11 3 
 
 Wheat (grain) 
 
 50 
 
 20 bushels 
 
 1000 bushels 
 
 5 15 6 
 
 288 16 
 
 „ (straw) 
 
 
 1 ton 6 cwt. 
 
 65 tons 
 
 16 
 
 64 17 7 
 
 Clover . 
 
 25 
 
 2 „ 7 „ 
 
 58 „ 15 cwt. 
 
 5 2 
 
 127 12 
 
 Oats (grain) . 
 
 25 
 
 34 bushels 
 
 850 bushels 
 
 4 17 4 
 
 120 
 
 „ (straw) . 
 
 
 15 cwt. 
 
 18 tons 15 cwt. 
 
 11 10 
 
 14 19 2 
 
 820 16 
 
 With, an increased outlay of 1/. 18.9. 4t?. per 
 acre for manure this sum of 820/. 16s. might 
 be increased to 1,254/. 1*., leaving a profit of 
 433/. 5s. instead of 132/. 
 
 Cultivation with a Mixture of Farmyard Mawwre and Chemical 
 
 Manure. 
 
 
 Acres 
 
 Yield 
 
 Produce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in culti- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vation 
 
 Peracr« 
 
 Total 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 17 
 
 8 tons 
 
 140 tons 
 
 14 8 
 
 252 
 
 Beetroot 
 
 7+ 
 
 16 „ 
 
 120 „ 
 
 10 4 10 
 
 76 16 
 
 Wheat (grain) 
 
 50 
 
 33 bushels 
 
 1650 bush. 
 
 9 7 2 
 
 468 
 
 „ (straw) 
 
 
 1 ton 16 cwt. 
 
 90 tons 
 
 1 16 
 
 90 
 
 Clover . 
 
 25 
 
 •* )> ^ j> 
 
 80 „ 
 
 7 
 
 176 
 
 Oats (grain) . 
 
 25 
 
 50 bushels 
 
 1250 bush. 
 
 6 16 10 
 
 171 5 
 
 „ (straw) . 
 
 
 Iton 
 
 25 tons 
 tion . 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 * 
 
 Total produe 
 
 1254 1 
 
 ^ These are the prices fixed in the account of M. Boussingault ; — 
 
 £ 3. d. 
 
 Potatoes . . . 1 16 per ton 
 
 Beetroot . . . 12 10 „ 
 
 Olover . . . .240,, 
 
 "Wheat straw . .10 0,, 
 
 Oat straw . . . 16 „ 
 
 Wheat . . . . 5 10 per bushel 
 
 Oats . . . . 2 10 „ 
 
122 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. Yi. 
 
 & s. d. 
 Total produce' of cultivation with mixture 
 
 of farmyard manure and chemical manure 125i 1 
 
 Total produce with farmyard manure only. 820 16 
 
 Difference in favour of the first system . 433 5 
 
 A sum of 433?. 6s. as an. excess of income 
 against an outlay of 240/., the profit being 100 per 
 cent. The working capital already being 1,400/., it 
 would be only necessary to make it 1,640/. to triple 
 the profit. I need not add that in both cases the 
 selling prices are the same. I accept without change 
 the prices which M. Boussingault has taken as his 
 basis of valuation. '^ 
 
 Is this result the greatest that can be obtained? 
 Far from it. I have estimated the crops at 20 per 
 cent, below their actual value. The following results 
 were obtained by M. Lavaux at the farm of Choisy-le- 
 Temple ( Seine-et-Marne) : — 
 
 Yield per acre 
 
 1865, Wheat . . -. . 44 bushels 
 
 1866, Colza . . . . 36 „ 
 
 1867, Spring wheat . . 37 „ 
 1867, Beetroot . . . 24 tons 
 
 The excess of profit which may be realised on the 
 125 acres of arable land on the Bechelbronn estate is 
 not the only advantage to be gained from the use of 
 chemical manures. 
 
 To obtain sufiicient manure for the 275 acres 
 comprismg the estate, 60 are given up to meadow 
 land, the yield of which hardly exceeds from 1 ton 
 12 cwt. to 2 tons of hay per acre. 
 
 By means of a suitable formula for manure this 
 
 1 I am told that Bechelhromi has been under two systems of working. 
 The whole of the above refers to the time before the change, when M. 
 Boussingault was director. 
 
IBOT. Ti. FARMING ACCOUNTS. 123 
 
 yield might be increased to 3 tons 4 cwt. ; this 
 would at once set free, without any diminution of 
 produce, some 40 or 50 acres which would then be 
 available for more profitable crops. 
 
 You loiow, of course, the result which would be 
 obtained by turning the meadows into lucem fields. 
 
 The use of chemical manures ia the present case 
 would be followed by two equally advantageous 
 results ; the whole produce would be increased, and 
 the ground used for cattle feeding might be reduced 
 in size without diminishing the number of the ani- 
 mals, or their number might be increased by 30 per 
 cent, by keeping the land in its original state. 
 
 As long as agricultural science could give us no 
 positive information about the true agents of fertility, 
 the production of manures and the growth of cereals 
 were a most important item. Farmers, therefore, 
 could not make their meadow lands less than half 
 the size of their whole farm without running the risk 
 of exhausting the soU and involving themselves in 
 inevitable ruin. 
 
 Under this system it was the duty of the meadow 
 to obtain its nitrogen from the air, while cereals were 
 expected to find it in the soil. Cattle were looked 
 upon as the providers of manure, and the hay of the 
 meadow and the straw of the wheat-field was devoted 
 to their use when it could not be sold. 
 
 By the use of chemical manures the agricultural 
 problem has become simplified, and is susceptible of 
 a much more independent solution. There was no 
 question about the matter being an absolute rule. 
 Form meadows and breed cattle in order to have 
 cereals is a dictum which now-a-days loses the cha- 
 racter of an axiom which it once possessed. I will 
 
124 ON CHEMICAL MANUEES. lect. ti. 
 
 add that at the present day this axiom would be 
 an agricultural solecism and an economic heresy, 
 seeing that with farmyard manure only crops are 
 always small, corn yielding scarcely at the rate of 
 5s. 8d. per bushel, a figure which cannot be a paying 
 one. I say, then, that this axiom need no longer be 
 imposed upon farmers as a necessity. Besides, you 
 are well aware that the true agents of fertility being 
 now known, farmers need only increase their stock of 
 manure when they find it profitable to do so ; where 
 this is not the case, the solution of the question is 
 perfectly simple : they have only to use chemical 
 manures. It is then no longer an agricultural ques- 
 tion, but one of profit and loss. 
 
 The farmer is now no longer obliged to produce 
 his own manure, but to manure more generously than 
 in the old days, no matter what material he may use, 
 whether it be farmyard manure or chemical manure, 
 either separately or together. In every case, how- 
 ever, he must remember that he has two rules to 
 follow: — 
 
 (1) Eestore to the soil more phosphates, more 
 potash, and more lime than the crops have taken out. 
 
 (2) Give back 50 per cent, of the abstracted 
 nitrogen. 
 
 You now see in what way our modern mode of 
 procedure differs from the ancient. Formerly you 
 were under the sway of a law by which you were 
 dominated ; you were obliged to make the meadow, 
 and the ox grazing in it, the means of maintaining 
 the equilibrium between the coming in and going out 
 of the manure. 
 
 In the past nitrogenous matter had its sole origin 
 in the meadow. Potash, lime, and the phosphates 
 
LECT. vr. MODEEN AND ANCIENT PROCEDURE. 125 
 
 come from the meadow and the cattle lairs, while 
 improvements were tried in the dark, and without 
 rhyme or reason. 
 
 In former times, when the meadow was the sole 
 source of manure, crops were necessarily low because 
 the sources of manure were insufficient. For instance, 
 an acre rarely produced more than 20 to 22 bushels 
 of wheat, 4 to 4 tons 16 cwt. of potatoes, and 12 tons 
 of beetroot. Under such conditions agriculture be- 
 came next to impossible. 
 
 Now-a-days there is but one thing that hampers 
 us, and that is the necessity for keeping animals for 
 preparing the soil and for traction purposes. Beyond 
 this we possess entire liberty of action, a liberty 
 without limit, and we only grow meat and manure 
 because we find it to our advantage. Even when we 
 choose to keep cattle we can do so on a much smaller 
 space than formerly, or we can produce a greater 
 quantity of meat on a given spot because we can 
 increase our meadow crops just as we do all others. 
 
 We are obliged to return to the soil more than 
 we have taken out, but this law does not impose 
 on us the necessity of making more manure than we 
 require for our own interests. We can satisfy our 
 needs with foreign manures, the nature and quality 
 of which may be determined at any time by fixed 
 rules. 
 
 Whoever tries to understand the problems that 
 agitate the present age will easUy see the connection 
 which must exist between the higher interests of 
 our country and the question we are now trying, 
 to notice. At a period when the means of commu- 
 nication had not reached the development which 
 they have now acquired, the home markets of the 
 
126 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. vi. 
 
 country afforded certain and easy outlets for agri- 
 cultural produce ; but in the present day what with 
 free trade and the facility of transport which we 
 possess, farmers are called upon even in their own 
 markets to compete with the productions of the 
 entire world. In order that the struggle should be 
 feasible and successful it is absolutely necessary that 
 crops should be made to yield to their utmost limit. 
 With old-fashioned methods this is impossible except 
 we change the whole of our agricultural system ; 
 this could not be done suddenly, and would besides 
 want such a formidable capital that it would be 
 absurd to dream of it. 
 
 With chemical manures the question is different, 
 and reduces itself to this simple proportion. Add 
 11. 18s. per acre to the amount you already expend 
 on manure, or spend from 21. 17s. 6d. to 3^. 4s. if you 
 have no manure, and the result will soon be shown 
 by increased crops, the value of which wUl be double 
 the excess of the outlay. There is no objection 
 which can be raised to this proposition. It is a 
 fact. My most earnest wish is that the methods 
 which it has been the function of the experimental 
 farm at Vincemaes to make known may receive still 
 more general application every day. I ask that they 
 may be rigidly controlled by the experience of prac- 
 tical men, and if the progress which I expect to see 
 made through this control causes my own efforts to 
 be in time forgotten, I shall nevertheless easily 
 console myself, persuaded as I shall be, that my 
 country will receive from the application of these 
 new methods an incalculable increase of wealth and 
 prosperity. 
 
PART II. 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES 
 
 PRACTICE EXTENDED BY THEORY 
 
129 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 PAST AND PRESENT SYSTEMS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 In preceding lectures we have considered the condi- 
 tions and laws which favour, determine, and regulate 
 plant life. I now propose to consider the subject 
 from a more practical point of view. I will, how- 
 ever, first refer to the nature and extent of the 
 progress which was made in agriculture in past 
 times. I also wish to show how our present efforts 
 are the continuation and the crowning, so to speak, 
 of the past. If we go back as far as possible in the 
 history of the human race, we find that wherever 
 man lived he sought for the means of subsistence in 
 two parallel methods of cultivation ; and, guided by 
 a sort of infallible instinct, he chose for the purpose 
 spots covered with alluvial soil, the slopes of hills, 
 deep valleys intersected with water-courses, or the 
 banks of great rivers. Thus the art of agriculture 
 in past times was summed up in the one word — 
 irrigation — ^the result of observing the good effects 
 produced by natural inundations. Egypt is at the 
 present day a striking example of this system, which 
 is imposing both on account of its antiquity and the 
 important results produced by it. 
 
 But this mode of culture is not the only one to 
 which infant communities have had recourse. On 
 the vast plateaus of Central Asia, and in many parts 
 
 K 
 
130 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. Tii. 
 
 of Africa, tribes live in a nomadic state. What is 
 the system of agriculture which is practised under 
 these conditions? A limited culture of barley and 
 wheat with long intervals, during which the land is 
 allowed to lie fallow, and the breeding of numerous 
 flocks and herds which roam at will over immense 
 tracts of land. Now what is the explanation of 
 these two primitive methods of culture viewed by 
 the light of contemporary science, but the tacit 
 avowal that the soil must receive back a part of that 
 which has been taken from it. 
 
 The agriculturist of past days, like the Asiatic 
 nomad, knew nothing of the reason for this ; but ex- 
 perience told him that an act of retribution was neces- 
 sary, as without it successive crops could not be 
 grown. In one place it was by irrigation that this 
 act was accomplished ; in another, by the grazing of 
 cattle, or by allowing the land to lie fallow. 
 
 By irrigation there was an importation of foreign 
 matter, and in the feeding of cattle and fallow land 
 the restitution was from the soil itself, and was the 
 result of the better utilisation of existing resources. 
 But the chief reason which dominates all the rest is 
 the implied acknowledgment that the soil is pro- 
 vided with only a limited proportion of the sub- 
 stances required by vegetation, and that to insure 
 and preserve its fertility these substances must be 
 supplied to it. 
 
 Owing to the increase of population these two 
 systems were in time found to be insufficient, and it 
 became necessary to cultivate districts where irriga- 
 tion was not possible, the system of pasture being no 
 longer practicable on account of the great space it 
 required. 
 
T,EOT. VII. ANCIENT SYSTEMS OF AGRICULTUliE. 131 
 
 It was then that one of the greatest improve- 
 ments from an agricultural point of view, that his- 
 tory has handed down to us, was effected. The 
 triennial system, which consists in the combination 
 of the two precedmg systems, was instituted. This 
 consists in dividing the land into two nearly equal 
 parts : the first being reserved for meadow land 
 which was stUl fertilised by irrigation, while the 
 second was devoted to the production of cereal crops, 
 but on the condition that the land was allowed to 
 lie fallow for one year out of every two or three. 
 The triennial system is then only the union of the 
 two primitive methods, the pasture system and irri- 
 gation, which cannot be applied separately except 
 under special conditions of place and soil. How is 
 the necessary restitution effected under the new 
 system? By the same means. The meadow land 
 receives by irrigation, and from the atmosphere, the 
 equivalent of what it has lost ; and in the portion set 
 apart for cereals the restitution is accompHshed by 
 farmyard manure, which has its origin in the hay of 
 the meadow and the straw of the cereals. From this 
 combination has sprung the celebrated formula — 
 meadow land,, cattle, cereals, a fruitful one certainly, 
 but absolute and despotic, and as antagonistic to 
 the liberty of the individual, as the feudal system 
 whose interests it served and whose character it 
 reflects. 
 
 It has been proved by universal experience that 
 
 under the triennial system the average yield of cereals 
 
 is about — 
 
 832J lbs. of grain per acre — say 15J bushels — and 
 1628 lbs. of straw 
 
 2460J lbs. for tie entire crop per acre per annum. 
 K 2 
 
132 ON OHEMirAL MANURES. lect. tii. 
 
 or to put it in round numbers 2,500 lbs. per acre per 
 annum. 
 
 If, on the other hand, we wish to know the 
 quantity of farmyard manure required for the pro- 
 duction of a similar crop, experience tells us that 
 5,860 lbs. per acre per annum will ensure an annual 
 yield of over 2,500 lbs. of grain and straw. 
 
 If the two calculations which I have just quoted 
 were absolutely exact everything would be explained, 
 for the crop would be less than the manure used, and 
 the earth would receive more than it had lost. But it 
 is not so unfortunately. In the 5,860 lbs. of manure 
 there are 4,646 lbs. of moisture, which it is abso- 
 lutely necessary to aUow for in order to have a correct 
 result, as the following figures will show: — 
 
 Harvest .... 2460 lbs. 
 Manure .... 1214 „ 
 
 Surplus of harvest . . 1246 „ 
 
 Thus, for instance, with one ton of farmyard manure 
 two tons of grain and straw are obtained.^ 
 
 It is not without a motive that I am leading you 
 to this conclusion. It is not I who speak to you, 
 but the experience of hundreds of years which has 
 everywhere constantly proved the truth of this asser- 
 tion — that a given quantity of manure will always 
 produce double its weight of grain and straw, whether 
 we use 1, 10, or 100 tons, or, in other words, that 
 twice as much is obtained from the soil as we have 
 given to it. 
 
 But agriculture in the present day is striving to 
 steer clear of the triennial system. Towards the end 
 of the last century a great improvement took place. 
 
 ^ See note on next page. 
 
THK TRIENNIAL SYSTEM. 
 
 133 
 
 Experience showed that it was no longer necessary 
 to allow fields to lie fallow, and that by alternating 
 wheat with trefoil, and beginning the rotation with 
 a crop of potatoes, a yield of superior wheat would 
 be obtained, and the amount of the crops would be 
 greatly increased ; also, that with these new com- 
 binations of culture the average crops were as heavy 
 as under the triennial system. 
 
 But how is restitution effected under these new 
 conditions? Exactly as in triennial rotation. The 
 fields of potatoes and wheat are manured, whilst the 
 meadows are fertilised by irrigation only. This 
 system is, however, far more productive than the 
 former, not only on account of the fact that the soil 
 
 ' Boussingault, Economie Rurale, vol. ii. page 187 :- 
 Triennial- Sotatimi. 
 Yield pee Aceb. 
 
 Tear 
 
 Kature of 
 crops 
 
 Not 
 ■dried 
 
 Dried 
 
 Containing 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Mineral 
 matter 
 
 1st . . 
 
 2nd and | 
 Srd 1 
 
 Fallow 
 Farm- 
 yard 
 
 manure . 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 Straw . 
 
 Ihi. 
 
 2920 
 6600 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2495 
 
 4884 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1150 
 23631 
 
 lbs. 
 
 145 
 
 258| 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1083 
 1900 
 
 lbs. 
 57 
 
 19* 
 
 lbs. 
 
 60 
 342 
 
 Total for 3 years . 
 Farmj^ard manure 
 
 0520 
 17600 
 
 7379 
 3643 
 
 3513f 
 1304 
 
 403 
 153 
 
 2983 
 940 
 
 76^ 
 73 
 
 402 
 1173 
 
 Surplus ii 
 ol the < 
 
 Sui-plus ir 
 of farm 
 manure 
 
 I favour 1 
 
 ;rop . f 
 
 favour 1 
 
 yard \ 
 
 . ' . ) 
 
 — 
 
 3736 
 
 2209f 
 
 -250 
 
 2043 
 
 ^ 
 
 771 
 
 The harvest for three years outweighs the manure by 4,506 lbs. in 
 the organic elements, whilst the manure, on the contrary, prevails over 
 the hajfveat by 771 lbs. in the inorganic elements. 
 
134: ON CHEMICAL MANURES. LECI. VII. 
 
 never remains inactive, but also because one and a 
 half, if not two, of the four crops, trefoil and potatoes 
 are consumed on the farm. The following is the 
 order in which the crops succeed each other: — 
 
 1st year, potatoes 3rd year, trefoil 
 
 2nd , , wheat 
 
 ith ,, wheat. 
 
 The land is not at rest an instant, and no longer lies 
 fallow, and yet the general average of the crops is 
 much larger. With cereals the grain crop increases 
 from 14:^ to 24 bushels, and the straw from 1,628 to 
 2,219 lbs., which brings the total yield of dry crop 
 up to 4,400 lbs. per annum, instead of 2,640 lbs. as 
 obtained under the three years system. This, then, 
 is a great step in advance of the triennial method. 
 
 The advantage of being able to grow increased 
 crops is, however, not the only one we have to 
 mention. Another, quite as important, is the produc- 
 tion of manure. 
 
 Under the triennial system the quantity of manure 
 used is 5,860 lbs. per acre per annum, represented 
 by 1,214 lbs. of dry matter. In alternate rotation, 
 on the contrary, the crops increase in four years to 
 38,720 lbs., making the annual quota 9,680 lbs., 
 which is equal to 2,006 lbs. of dry matter. If, 
 however, the rotation system is decidedly superior to 
 the triennial, there is one point on which their testi- 
 mony is unanimous. Here, again, with 1 ton of 
 manure 2 tons of grain and straw are obtained. The 
 system of alternate rotation leads us to the same 
 conclusion, for with 2,000 lbs. of manure per acre per 
 annum, we in reality get 5,000 lbs. of grain and straw. 
 
 It wUl thus be seen that by foUowmg the tri- 
 ennial system the crops are maintained indefinitely, 
 
LECT. VII. THE TRIENNIAL SYSTEM. 135 
 
 at the same time level, whilst a lilte consequence 
 results from the strict observance of the rules pre- 
 scribed by the system of alternate rotation ; whence 
 the invariable conclusion that with one ton of manure 
 you have two tons of grain and straw, or, in other 
 words, that twice as much is gathered in as there has 
 been manure used. 
 
 The conclusion to be drawn from the fact is, that 
 it is a mistake to imagine that it is necessary to give 
 back to the soil, weight for weight, pound for pound, 
 and atom for atom, that which has been taken from 
 it, for even when farmyard manure is used only a 
 partial restitution is necessary. 
 
 But although this is the case, and the original 
 fertility of the soil is nevertheless maintained, it is 
 evident that some unseen source exists from whence 
 vegetation draws thg surplus. Normal manure pos- 
 sesses only a certain value. What then is this foreign 
 source? It is to discover this, to ascertain under what 
 form it presents itself, what is the nature of the agents 
 it supplies to vegetation, and what is the amount of 
 its importance, that we must now devote our efforts. 
 Instead, therefore, of confining ourselves to a general 
 comparison between manure and crops, we intend to 
 analyse them both, and then to strtl^e an exact balance 
 between their respective elements. 
 
 In making this analysis we cannot fail to be 
 struck with the fact that whatever may be the plant 
 we are investigating we shall always find in the 
 constitution of that plant fourteen elements, never 
 more and never less. (See p. 5, Part I.) 
 
 Let us now apply the principles I have laid down 
 to the examination of the merits of the system of 
 alternate rotation which I have just touched upon. 
 
13(5 
 
 ON CHEMICAL iFANURE.S. 
 
 LECI. Vll. 
 
 On investigation we find that for the four years over 
 which the rotation extends, the farmyard manure used 
 amounts to 8,015 lbs. of dry matter, and the sum 
 total of dry crops to 17,600 lbs. per acre, the elements 
 contained ia the manure and the crops being distri- 
 buted as follows: — 
 
 Farmyard manure, 8,015 lbs. 
 
 Oarbon 
 Hydrogen . 
 Oxygen 
 Nitrogen 
 Mineral elements 
 
 Total equal to . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2,869 
 336 
 
 2,067 
 160 
 
 2,583 
 
 8,015 
 
 Harvest, 17,600 lbs. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 8,184 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 950^ 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 7,126 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 267^ 
 
 Mineral elements 
 
 1,072 
 
 Total equal to 
 
 17,6001 
 
 Boussingault, Economie Rurcde, vol. ii. page 189 : 
 Alternate Rotation of Four Years. 
 Yield pee Acre. 
 
 Year 
 
 Nature of 
 crops 
 
 Not 
 dried 
 
 Dried 
 
 Containing 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Mineral 
 elements 
 
 1st . 1 
 
 2ud and j 
 4th. t 
 
 3rd . ■ 
 
 Potatoes 
 Beetroot 
 Wheat . 
 Straw . 
 Trefoil, ■ 
 Scut- 
 tings . 
 
 lbs. 
 8800 
 
 1960 
 3198 
 7040 
 
 7040 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2121 
 2147^ 
 27.33: 
 5033, 
 
 5.501 i 
 
 lbs. 
 
 933 
 918J 
 1260 
 2436J 
 
 2636J 
 
 lbs. 
 
 123i 
 125 
 158^ 
 266a 
 
 278 
 
 lbs. 
 
 947f 
 9.32 
 1186i 
 1958 
 
 2102| 
 
 lbs. 
 
 31| 
 
 36 
 
 62* 
 
 20 
 
 117 
 
 lbs. 
 85i 
 
 135i 
 
 66 
 
 352 
 
 427i 
 
 Total for 4 years . 
 Farmyard manure 
 
 28038 
 3872 
 
 17596^ 
 8015 
 
 8185 
 28691 
 
 951^ 
 336J- 
 
 7126| 
 2068 
 
 267 
 160 
 
 1060A 
 2581 
 
 Surplus i 
 of har^ 
 
 Surplus i 
 of man 
 
 n favour i 
 'est . f 
 n favour i 
 ure . 1 
 
 — 
 
 9581^ 
 
 5315i 
 
 615i 
 
 5058i 
 
 107i 
 
 1514J 
 
 Thus, in a rotation of four years, the harvest exceeds the farmyard 
 manure by 11,096 lbs. for the organic elements, whilst the manure on 
 the contrary, prevails over the harvest by 1,514J lbs. for the inorganic 
 elements. 
 
lECT. Til. CONSTITUENTS OF FAEMYARD MANURE. 137 
 
 The signification of this analytical balance is singu- 
 larly instructive. 
 
 Between the constituents of farmyard manure and 
 those of the crop there is an important difference. Tak- 
 ing the inorganic elements for instance, we find that 
 they are present in greater abundance in the manure 
 than in the crop, whilst with the organic elements 
 the reverse is found to be the case. But if things 
 happen thus when a high system of cultivation is 
 pursued, what takes place in the case of meadow 
 land where no manure is used and everything is due 
 to irrigation ? We find that the yield is just as 
 large as from land subjected to other modes of cul- 
 ture. It wUl be interesting to discover the means 
 by which the restitution is effected. 
 
 The analysis of the water reveals nothing but the 
 existence of nitrogenous compounds like ammonia, 
 and the nitrates and different inorganic elements en- 
 tering into the composition of plants, but no trace of 
 carbo-hydrates analogous to the blackish matter con- 
 tained in farmyard manure. Nevertheless, the average 
 yield of a meadow is maintained with as much regu- 
 larity as that of manured lands. 
 
 The conclusion to be drawn from all this is evi- 
 dently that farmyard manure gives to plants a part 
 only of the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen 
 they contain. There is always in the crops produced 
 an excess of these four bodies, which is at any rate 
 equal to the amount contained in the manure, and 
 which proceeds from another source, this source being 
 evidently the air and water: the air supplying carbon 
 and nitrogen, and the water hydrogen and oxygen. 
 To confirm this view I quote the example of meadow 
 land kept in proper condition by irrigation only, the 
 
138 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. vii. 
 
 crops from them being maintained at their normal 
 amount solely by the supply of mineral and nitro- 
 genous substances held in solution by the water, and 
 representing only about 2 or 3 per cent, of their 
 total weight. 
 
 It is, therefore, practice and not science that is 
 responsible for the notion that the restitution effected 
 by manure is only a partial one ; the practice of ages 
 proves the fact, and science shows us that the resti- 
 tution is complete in the inorganic and partial in the 
 organic elements. 
 
 Three out of the four organic elements of farm- 
 yard manure, viz. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
 have only a very secondary function ; they are repre- 
 sented in the manure by the litter and those parts 
 of the plants which have not been altered by the 
 digestive action of animals, these substances possess- 
 ing scarcely any fertilising value. 
 
 A striking proof of the statements concerning 
 meadow land is furnished by geology, which tells 
 us that the first living things that made their appear- 
 ance on the surface of the globe were plants ; that 
 the immense layers of coal now being worked in 
 order to supply us with fuel, are formed from these 
 primitive plants, that in those remote ages vegetation 
 was far from luxuriant, and plants attained greater 
 dimensions than at present ; that the calamites and 
 lepidodendrons which formed the forests of that 
 vanished world, and which grew to a height of about 
 30 or 40 feet, are represented in our present flora by 
 such humble plants as mares' tails and club mosses 
 only about 2 or 3 feet high. 
 
 At the distant epoch of which we are speaking the 
 earth contained neither humus nor farmyard manure, 
 
LBCT. VII. CONSTITUENTS OF FARMYARD MANURE. 13!l 
 
 which presupposes an anterior generation. Conse- 
 quently by taking agricultural tradition in its integrity, 
 "whether farmyard manure or irrigation is employed, 
 we are led to the conclusion that the carbo-hydrates, 
 supposing them to be useful at all, play only a very 
 secondary part, as meadow land on the one hand 
 and primitive vegetation on the other unite in attest- 
 ing that it is quite possible to dispense with them 
 .entirely. 
 
 But if this really is so, how are we to understand 
 the constitution and function of farmyard manure? 
 What is the coimection between it and that law of 
 restitution which we cannot escape from, and the 
 disregard of which is fatal to the fertility of the soil ? 
 
 This question will be better answered by the 
 following table than by any long explanations : — 
 
 Farmyard manure, 100 parts. 
 
 Water. . . 80 = 80 not wanted by plants 
 
 Carbon . . 6-80] 
 
 Hydrogen . . 0-82 i = 13-29 woody fibre, the elements of 
 
 Oxygen . . 5-67 J whicb have their origin in the air 
 
 and in water 
 Silica . . . 4-32 > 
 Chlorine . . 0-04 
 
 Sulphuric acid . 0-13 ^ ^t j • i 
 
 Fen-ic oxide . o-34r"^^^t,.T°",''*''y J?'"®''*^ ™*,^*®'" ^'* 
 Soda . . a trace ^^^^".^ ^^^ ^°^^ ^^ siiperabimdantly 
 
 Magnesia . . 0-24/ Provided. 
 Nitrogen . . 0'41\ 
 
 Phosphoric acid . 0'18 i .« . .,, i- i ,i •, . -, , , 
 
 Potash 0-49 I "^ "* '^^™ which the soil is provided to 
 
 Ijlme . ' ' 0-56 ) ""'^ ^ "^^^^ limited extent, and in 
 
 which the eificacy of the manure 
 
 essentially consists. 
 
 In 100 parts of farmyard manure we find, in the 
 first place, 80 parts of water. Now water is evi- 
 dently not the cause of its efficacy. We then come 
 to 13'29 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, repre- 
 sented by the remains of the litter and that part of 
 the animal's food which has not been disorganised by 
 
140 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. vii. 
 
 digestion. The meadow land again points to the 
 fact that the active principle of manure does not 
 reside in these particular compounds. 
 
 We further find in the manure under considera- 
 tion 5 "07 of sUica, chlorme, sulphuric acid, ferric 
 oxide, soda, and magnesia, which are of very little 
 value in agriculture, for the simple reason that the 
 worst lands are almost always superabundantly pro- 
 vided with them. 
 
 There remains finally 1'64, or in round numbers 
 2 per cent, of the four bodies, nitrogen, phosphoric 
 acid, potash, and lime, of which chemical manure is 
 composed, and which we find only in the waters 
 which u-rigate meadow land, alid which alone 
 nourished the plants belonging to the early ages of 
 the world's history. 
 
 In what then do chemical and farmyard manures 
 differ? Simply in form, in volume, and in composi- 
 tion ; but this difference is of small importance seeing 
 that the excess is useless for fertilismg purposes. 
 
 Have you a doubt remaining as to what I said 
 respecting the secondary mineral substances, silica, 
 chlorine, ferric oxide, &c. ? You may perhaps think it 
 arbitrary to exclude them from chemical manures, and 
 to question their good effects in farmyard manures. 
 I must remain faithful to the plan which I have 
 traced out for myself, therefore I may not call to my 
 aid the testimony of direct experiments. I must 
 borrow all the materials of my demonstrations from 
 facts which are anterior to us, and these facts we 
 obtain by comparing the composition of the farmyard 
 manure of the crops and of the land, taking the acre 
 as the unit of comparison. Let us compare the 
 manure and crop of one acre with a layer of arable 
 
LECT. vn. FAEMYARD AND CHEMICAL MANURES. 141 
 
 land spread over the surface of an acre, and see where 
 this comparison will lead us. We learn from it that 
 the land contains the constituents of the second group 
 in enormous quantities, whilst they are only to be found 
 in small proportions in the crop and in the manure. 
 
 In suppressing the mineral constituents, therefore, 
 we are guilty of no arbitrary act ; we only do for the 
 land what we did in the case of the air and rain, when 
 we were speaking with reference to carbon, hydrogen, 
 and oxygen. 
 
 You see what we possess in common with the 
 past, in what we continue its work, and in what we 
 differ. Our common basis is the necessity of re- 
 storing certain agents to the land. In past ages the 
 intrinsic nature of these agents was not known, but 
 guided by observation our ancestors turned their 
 attention to the three great sources of fertility, 
 manure, fallow land, and irrigation. 
 
 We recognise the correctness of the principle, but 
 we dispute the necessity of adhering to the methods 
 of the past. These methods are not absolute, but 
 are correlative to a determined social condition. A 
 particular system of agriculture which is suited to 
 the ideas, the economical conditions, the price of 
 labour, the interest of money, and the burdens of the 
 population at one period, may not be found suitable 
 at another. 
 
 One point alone remains unchanged, viz. the 
 necessity of giving back to the soil a part of what 
 it has lost during the growth of the crops. As to 
 deciding whether farmyard or chemical manure can 
 be best employed is quite a secondary matter, pro- 
 vided the law of restitution be observed. However, 
 as in this matter it is necessary to be clear and 
 
142 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. tficr. vir. 
 
 precise, I unhesitatingly affirm that in the majority 
 of cases chemical manures offer more advantages 
 than farmyard manure, and that the latter ought 
 never to be used except in conjunction with the 
 former. The reason for this joint use wUl be given 
 afterwards. 
 
 I have already demonstrated in my first lecture 
 that the most valuable portion of farmyard manure 
 is the liquid part, which is almost entirely made 
 up of the animals' uriue ; we must therefore inquire 
 into its composition. 
 
 There is, in the first place, and in considerable 
 quantity, a crystallised body in which nitrogen is 
 present in the proportion of one-third of that con- 
 tained in the food of the animal. This is urea, which 
 is nearly allied in its chemical nature and fertilising 
 properties to the salts of ammonia. 
 
 Besides urea we find uric and hippuric acids, 
 both rich in nitrogen and possessing great fertilising 
 power ; also phosphoric acid combined with lime, 
 and magnesia, and potash salts. 
 
 Lastly, there is albuminoid matter which sepa- 
 rates spontaneously from the urine when it comes 
 in contact with the air, and which in decomposing 
 determines the conversion of urea into carbonate 
 of ammonia. The uric acid itself participates in 
 this transformation, and, finally, the fermented urine 
 may be represented by ammonia, phosphates, and 
 salts of potash. 
 
 Xow, of what are chemical manures composed? 
 Of ammonia, phosphates, and other salts of potash 
 and lime. There is, therefore, identity of composi- 
 tion between the most active portions of both farm- 
 yard and chemical manures. 
 
LEOT. VII. FARMYARD AND CHEMICAL MANURES. 143 
 
 There remains, it is true, the solid portion of the 
 dejections ; these are very shghtly active when first 
 produced, but they acquire great efficacy by the de- 
 composition they undergo when brought into contact 
 with the air. This decomposition is a sort of con- 
 tinuation of the work of digestion, and results in the 
 conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia, the mineral 
 matter contained ia the dejections being at the same 
 time rendered more soluble. 
 
 Consequently the last argument that could have 
 been brought in opposition to us is demolished by 
 the most rigorous analysis of the urine and the sohd 
 dejections. 
 
 No difference then exists between chemical and 
 farmyard manure, except with regard to appearance 
 and bulk ; but if this is the case why should we be 
 condemned to produce farmyard manure at great 
 cost and trouble if chemical manures can be pro- 
 cm-ed more easily? It is vain to bring forward the 
 mechanical action of farmyard manure, for the fertili- 
 sation of meadow land without its aid proves that 
 this is not indispensable. 
 
 But it may be said, if the use of chemical manures 
 finds its justification in the past, where is its novelty? 
 Here we must guard against confusion. 
 
 To record the history of the past as I have just 
 done, I have been obliged to have recourse to the 
 teaching of chemical manures in order to give their 
 true signification to certain facts which history has 
 handed down to us. It was formerly the practice 
 to comprise everything under the one watchword, 
 ' plenty of farmyard manure ; ' and the regions of 
 the south, where scarcely any fodder grows, were 
 subjected to the same treatment as the low plains 
 
14-1 ON CIIEJIICAL MANURES. lect. vil. 
 
 of Normandy and Cottentin, where pasture land 
 abounds. 
 
 The lessons we learn from the use of chemical 
 manure, on the contrary, are as follows: — Give back 
 to the land more calcic phosphate, more potash, more 
 lime, and half the nitrogen taken away from it. If 
 the district is favourable for the breeding of animals, 
 keep cattle, and return to your land by means of 
 farmyard manure what has been drawn from it. If, 
 however, the locality is unfavourable to pasture land, 
 we are told to produce only as much farmyard manure 
 as is strictly necessary for the preparation of the soil 
 and for utilising the waste parts of crops which 
 cannot be sold, making up any deficiency by laying 
 in a stock of chemical manure. The law which 
 governs profitable production obliges us to manure 
 hberally but economically, and conforming to the 
 rules which I shall hereafter point out. 
 
 In the past all cultivation depended on two in- 
 flexible conditions — a certain equilibrium between 
 pasture and cereals, and an almost invariable order 
 in the succession of crops ; but owing to the per- 
 manent introduction of chemical manure the farmer 
 need no longer be fettered with these conditions. 
 The one end and aim is to make as much profit as 
 possible ; and, free from all restraint, he can speculate 
 at will either in cattle-breeding or the sale of fodder. 
 
 Adopting the system of free rotation, no other law 
 is recognised but that of returning to the land the 
 phosphoric acid, potash, lime, and nitrogen we have 
 abstracted from it. The source of this restitution 
 matters httle ; it is a money question, not an agri- 
 cultural one 
 
 In order to prove the truth of what I have just 
 
LECI. Til. FARMYARD AND CHEMICAL MANURES. 145 
 
 said, it is only necessary to show how science has 
 succeeded in understanding the forces of which plants 
 are the seat, in defining the rdle and pointing out 
 the function of all the agents which unite in their 
 formation. 
 
 But this fresh inquiry must be reserved for the 
 next lecture. In the present one I have simply 
 wished to examine the history of the past by the 
 light of contemporary science. 
 
 I have endeavoured in dealing with this subject 
 to avoid any spirit of controversy. But my task is 
 only half-finished ; it still remains for me to lay 
 before you the necessities of practice, and show you 
 that if agriculture by its mission affects the most im- 
 portant interests of the community, the method of 
 carrying out its principles converts it into a problem 
 which the science of our time may claim to have the 
 signal honour of solving. 
 
 I have, in the above review of the past history of 
 agriculture, allowed the facts to speak for themselves, 
 without in any way forcing their testimony. But 
 another task yet remains to be done which is more 
 famihar to me, viz. to ascertain fi'om whence plant 
 life is derived, and what are the acts in which it is 
 summed up, and then to leave you to judge of the 
 proofs furnished by experience, and of the results 
 obtained by agriculture. You will then be able to 
 decide whether the new doctrine is to be condemned 
 and rejected, or whether by your suffrages you will 
 henceforth confirm and strengthen my confidence in 
 the future with a conviction equal to my own. 
 
146 ON CHEMICAL MANUKE^;. lect. viii. 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 • PLANT PRODUCTION. 
 
 We vdll now leave the traditions of the past and 
 apply ourselves to the consideration of the condi- 
 tions of plant life, its causes, remote or proximate, 
 its activity, the agents which produce it, and its 
 products. 
 
 It has already been said that plants are formed 
 of fourteen material elements. Now, whatever may 
 be the origin of these fourteen elements and the form 
 under which they are absorbed by plants, it is neces- 
 sary, in order to explain vegetation, to produce plants 
 by their aid, without any mysterious or indeterminate 
 condition. 
 
 The great problem to be solved is to manufacture 
 a plant as we manufacture soap, litharge, or sulphuric 
 acid, by making use of the pecuhar force resident in 
 the seeds, as we do elsewhere with steam or elec- 
 tricity. To render its solution positive and beyond 
 doubt, I selected for the soil calcined sand, which is, 
 as we know, pure silica ; it was watered with distilled 
 water, which, as we know, is pure water ; and filled 
 into pots of unglazed china, which, as an extra pre- 
 caution, had been previously dipped into melted wax, 
 in order to prevent the formation of those saline 
 exudations, with which the surface of all pottery 
 becomes covered when it is exposed to moisture. 
 
IBCT. viir. PLANT PEODUCTION. 147 
 
 By this arrangement a simple mechanical means 
 was arrived at, of affording a support to the roots 
 of the plants and a medium permeable to air and 
 water without, however, supplying them with any 
 nutritive element. It is, in fact, the elementary soil 
 reduced to the last degree of poverty, but surrounded 
 with numberless precautions to shield it from all 
 accidental causes which might disturb the simplicity 
 of the conditions. 
 
 In a soil like this what becomes of a grain of 
 wheat? It germinates as in good ground, but the 
 plant which springs up shows by its miserable state 
 the poverty of the conditions in which it has been 
 reared; Still this plant manifests its activity, it goes 
 through the regular cycle of its evolution, it even 
 yields seed, very poor and stunted it is true, but the 
 final result is always attained, viz. that for 15 grains 
 weight of seed a crop of 90 grains is obtained. 
 
 Thus in the calcined sand, from which all foreign 
 matter has been excluded, the plant, which has been 
 fed only with the elements contained in water and 
 the atmosphere, gives seed and produces a crop weigh- 
 ing 90 grains, showing an increase of 75 grains, de- 
 rived from the carbonic acid of the air and from the 
 hydrogen and oxygen which have their source in the 
 irrigating water. 
 
 Thus the air, by means of its carbonic acid and 
 water, through its two constituent elements hydrogen 
 and oxygen, contribute in a considerable degree to 
 the formation of vegetable matter. But they play 
 a more important part than this experiment would 
 lead us to suppose, decisive as it is, for even in fertile 
 soils it is from the air and water that plants draw 
 essentially the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which 
 
 I 2 
 
148 ON CHEMICAL JIANUKES. lect. via. 
 
 form, as I have already said, -|-|th of their vegetable 
 substance. 
 
 To confirm this result the action of all possible 
 carbonaceous substances has been tiied. The eifect 
 has always been negative. As a first attempt some 
 carbon was added to the calcined sand, and, in order 
 to obtain this carbon in a state of purity, recourse 
 was had to some crystallised sugar, which was cal- 
 cined in platinum vessels hermetricaUy sealed. The 
 result of this addition was absolutely nil. 
 
 In sand a crop of 90 grains had been obtained. 
 In the sand to which carbon was added the weight 
 of the crop was likewise 90 grains. 
 
 A piiori it was easy to have foreseen this. The 
 carbon, being insoluble in water, in no way increased 
 the fertility of the calcined sand. 
 
 We then asked ourselves what would be the 
 result of adding to the sand carbon in combination 
 with hydrogen and oxygen. 
 
 The most varied materials containing carbon and 
 hydrogen were then tried, such as straw, cellulose, 
 gums, starch, oils, and alcohol.-' None of these 
 materials showed the slightest action. 
 
 The idea then occurred to me of trying these 
 same materials after their conversion through con- 
 tact with air into the state of the blackish product 
 which essentially forms humus, to which substance 
 the ancient agricultural theories attrilmted such an 
 important part. 
 
 In order to procure humus in a pure state, and 
 produced solely from the alteration of a material of 
 vegetable origin, I repaired to the Department of the 
 Landes, and leaving the drives where the sand is as 
 
 * A moderate dose of alcohol checked the development of the plant. 
 
XEcr. viit. PLANT PRODUCTION. 149 
 
 white as snow, I advanced into the interior of the" 
 country till I reached the ancient pine forests, where 
 every year the fallen leaves produced, by the altera- 
 ation which they undergo, that blackish material, 
 soluble in potash, which is the essential character of 
 humus. The sand of the Landes was taken then as 
 representing a medium iaert in itself corresponding 
 to the calcined sand, but which, however, contained 
 humus in the formation of which no kind of manure 
 had played a part. Under these new conditions 
 what was the result ? Exactly the same as in the 
 experiment with the calcined sand : 90 grains of 
 produce. The addition of humus had produced no 
 appreciable effect. 
 
 You will remark that in all this there is no ques- 
 tion of theory or doctrine, but simply experimental 
 proofs calculated to convert abstract conceptions into 
 absolute facts. 
 
 Thus the soU, which is reduced to a simple 
 mechanical support for the plant, receives no im- 
 provement by the addition of carbon or substances 
 containing hydrogen and carbon, either intact or 
 decomposed, nor even from humus itself, which was 
 an unexpected and singular result. 
 
 The three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- 
 gen, represent in themselves 95 per cent, of the 
 weight of plants. The addition of these three elements 
 under the most varied forms was always without 
 effect. 
 
 The time had now come to try the last of the 
 four organic elements, nitrogen, thus beginning a new 
 series of experiments. To the calcined sand was 
 then added some gelatine, which contains nitrogen, 
 together with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. This 
 
150 ON niEMICAL ,MAXU1{ES. 
 
 LEOT. via. 
 
 time an important change took place in the pheno- 
 mena. 
 
 The plants, which till then had been of a pale 
 green colour, showed, by the brighter shade of their 
 foliage, an increase of activity. It had seemed for 
 the moment that vegetation was about to become 
 vigorous and active. But these hopes were blighted, 
 for the crop was only 130 grains instead of 90. The 
 addition, therefore, of the four primary elements, 
 which in themselves represent more than nine-tenths 
 of the substance of plants, had only a very insigni- 
 ficant efi"ect. Up to this point vegetation is very 
 languid and precarious, but the ])lants always go 
 through the entire cycle of their evolution, and, more- 
 over, produce a rudiment of seed. 
 
 Although surprised at the small results of these 
 first experiments, we could not stop there. The in- 
 organic elements must of necessity be submitted to 
 a similar trial. A new experiment was, therefore, 
 instituted, and this time all the inorganic elements 
 were added to the calcined sand. 
 
 Phosphorus was supplied in the state of calcic 
 phosphate and magnesic phosphate, sulphur as calcic 
 sulphate, chlorine as sodic chloride, lime in the state 
 of carbonate, silica in that of potassic and sodic sili- 
 cate, and iron and manganese as sulphates. 
 
 Again, wheat was sown, but scarcely any better 
 result was obtained than in the former experiments. 
 The plants were weak and shrivelled, the stalk not 
 larger than a knitting needle, and only about 6 or 
 8 inches in height, whilst the ear contained only two 
 small and ill-formed grains. 
 
 One last experiment still remained to be tried 
 and this was to mix nitrogenous matter with the 
 
lECT. VIII. PLANT PRODUCTION. 151 
 
 mineral matter. This was done, the contrast being 
 striking and the success complete. The plants ap- 
 peared not to have suffered in the slightest degree, 
 but attained the same development as they would 
 have done in good soil ; the leaves were broad and 
 beautifully green, and the stalk more than four feet 
 in height, whilst the ear was well formed and filled 
 with grain. The conditions of perfect plant nutrition 
 had thus been realised in calcined sand. 
 
 This experiment is one of great importance, both 
 on account of its practical result, and also because it 
 brings to light a new principle, the general applica- 
 tion of which is destined to become one of the canons 
 of agricultural art. This rule may be expressed thus : 
 a nitrogenous material, which by itself is almost with- 
 out action on vegetables, imparts a sudden activity to 
 ten other substances (inorganic elements), which with- 
 out its concurrence would have produced only a very 
 slight effect. 
 
 Here the salutary effect arises from combination. 
 It is to this that the definition principle of collective 
 force has been given, as calculated to determine its 
 true character, and prepare the mind to generalise its 
 application. 
 
 Important as this result unquestionably is, we 
 must not rest here. Having discovered the conditions 
 that insure the activity of the inorganic elements, we 
 must now proceed to enquire into the degree in which 
 they are efiicacious, and the function peculiar to each 
 of them. 
 
 It was now a question of disentangling these new 
 phenomena, and the way to do so was plainly marked 
 out. The intervention of nitrogenous matter having 
 been acknowledged necessary to insure the activity of 
 
152 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. Ylir. 
 
 the minerals, a new series of experiments in calcined 
 sand was instituted. This time a fixed and invari- 
 able quantity of nitrogenous matter was mixed with 
 the sand as a constant ingredient, and all the other 
 mineral ingredients were added by turns, except one. 
 The experiments were repeated as many times as 
 there were different mineral ingredients, in order that 
 each might be excluded in its turn : the deviation 
 between the crop obtained with the ten mineral in- 
 gredients, and those in which they were reduced to 
 nine, being taken to indicate the degree of importance 
 of the suppressed ingi'edient. 
 
 We will now proceed with these fresh experi- 
 ments. A nitrogenous material and all the mineral 
 ingredients, without any exception, are added to the 
 calcined sand. The plants prosper, and 22 wheat 
 grains yield plants weighing 337 grains, and n some 
 cases 400 grains. 
 
 A second experiment is then performed under 
 the same conditions as the first, except that the 
 phosphates were omitted. What now happens ? The 
 plants spring up, form their first leaves, which, how- 
 ever, soon become yellow, wither, and die, and the 
 yield is of course nothing. 
 
 We have proved that if the nitrogenous matter is 
 retained, the plants become miserable and stunted, 
 but they do not die. Death, on the contrary, in- 
 variably foUows the addition of the mineral matter 
 fi'om which the phosphates are excluded. This 
 proves conclusively that the phosphates fiU two dis- 
 tinct functions, viz., they aid themselves in the nutri- 
 tion of the plant, and determine the beneficial action 
 of the other mineral ingredients. Their function is, 
 therefore, more important than that of the other 
 
?iO. 
 
 LECT. Till. PLANT PRODUCTION. lo; 
 
 mineral ingredients, since to their own peculiar action 
 is added a secondary derived effect, that of deter- 
 mining the assimilation of all the other mineral in- 
 gredients. 
 
 In the next experiment potash was excluded. 
 As soon as this alkali is lacking in the soil, the plant 
 suifers greatly ; the stalk, instead of growing ver- 
 tically, bends as if it wanted solidity. It does not 
 die, however, but the yield scarcely reaches 92 
 grains. 
 
 From a chemical point of view the closest resem- 
 blance exists between potash and soda. In nearly 
 all the natural compounds which contain potash, 
 soda is also found, and in order to distinguish between 
 the two alkahes, a close acquaintance with the intri- 
 cacies of chemical reactions is necessary. But to the 
 plant there is a vast difference, for in the experiment 
 in which potash was suppressed, and where vegeta- 
 tion suffered so much, the soil was largely provided 
 with soda. It is then an acknowledged fact that 
 soda cannot supply the place of potash. 
 
 Magnesia was submitted to the same method of 
 exclusion. The effects were as disastrous as in the 
 case of potash. 
 
 There are some plants, particularly buck-wheat, 
 on which the effects of this suppression are imme- 
 diate. On wheat they are manifested a httle more 
 slowly, but are still very significant. When mag- 
 nesia is excluded from the soil, the yield falls to 
 about 123 grains instead of 337. 
 
 In a sandy soil formed exclusively of silica, but 
 in an insoluble state, the omission of soluble silica 
 is very prejudicial to vegetable activity. From 337 
 grains the yield dwindles down to about 120. 
 
l')4 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. yiii. 
 
 The suppression of the lime produces a less sen- 
 sible effect : the yield is then about 307 grains, 
 instead of 337. 
 
 For reasons which will presently be given, we 
 shall, whilst recognising in principle the utility of 
 sulphuric acid, chlorine, ferric oxide, or manganese, 
 pass over their effects in silence. Such an investiga- 
 tion would be of no practical use in furthering the 
 object we have in view. Let us stop at this point, 
 and look back along the road we have traversed. 
 
 We have seen that in the most barren soil that 
 can possibly be imagined, and with the resources 
 alone that the eml^ryo finds in the substance of the 
 grain, plants are forme 1 which go through all their 
 natural phases, although they always remain in a 
 weak and stunted state. 
 
 This first result is followed by another, viz., that 
 no appreciable effect is produced by the introduction 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen into the soil, even 
 in the state of humus, neither is the crop in any 
 degree affected. 
 
 Again, the action of all the mineral ingredients 
 combined was tried, excluding, however, the nitro- 
 genous material ; their effect was almost null ; a 
 sudden change was, however, produced as soon as the 
 nitrogenous matter was added "to the mineral ingre- 
 dients. In this artificial soil crops were then obtained 
 which would in all respects bear comparison with 
 those grown in good soil. 
 
 It is then incontestably proved that in a soil com- 
 posed entirely of sand, a few chemical products were 
 sufficient to place it on a level with fertile land. 
 
 Having arrived at this point, we analysed the 
 phenomena more closely, testing the separate action 
 
LECT. vm. PLANT rRODUCTIOX. 15') 
 
 of all the minerals — phosphates, silica, potash, &c., 
 and defining the function peculiar to each. 
 
 The fundamental conditions of plant growth being 
 cleared up and defined by the preceding experiments, 
 we advanced still another step. Leaving the culture 
 ia calcined sand, we extended our investigations to 
 various natural soils. 
 
 On submitting them to the same experimental 
 system, we found that whatever might be their dis- 
 similarity there was a distinct line of demarcation 
 between the phenomena produced in them and those 
 observed in the calcined sand, for to render vegetation 
 flourishing in the latter material a nitrogenous mate- 
 rial and ten mineral ingredients were required, whUst 
 in natural soil, however poor it might be, a nitroge- 
 nous ingredient and three mineral ingredients only — 
 phosphoric acid, potash, and lime — are suificient. 
 The yield is maintained at the same level as when 
 sulphur, silica, soda, magnesia, iron and chlorine are 
 added, which explains to you why I did not go further 
 into the effects of bodies. 
 
 Experience shows, therefore, that the four ingre- 
 dients — nitrogenous matter, phosphate, potash, and 
 lime — are the only ones that need be admitted into 
 manures. 
 
 For myself I have never found any natural earths 
 in which, with the help of these four substances, it 
 was not possible to obtain a yield comparable to that 
 obtained in the most favoured soils. 
 
 This result is possible because the poorest soils are 
 provided with the seven mineral ingredients excluded 
 from normal manure, whilst it is not necessary to 
 furnish carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, as the plants 
 receive these elements from the atmosphere. 
 
156 ox CHEMICAL MANURES. ubct. viii. 
 
 We must not therefore confound the requirements 
 of a plant grown in calcined sand, which affords no 
 nutrition, with those of a plant grown in natural earth. 
 In calcined sand or an equivalent medium, ten mineral 
 ingredients and a nitrogenous material are all required, 
 whilst, on the contrary, in natural soil a nitrogenous 
 material and three mineral ingredients are sufficient. 
 
 For practical agriculture, a nitrogenous ingredient 
 and three mineral ingredients are all that are wanted. 
 
 When in 1861, I advanced this proposition in the 
 course of my instructions at Vincennes, I accom- 
 panied it with a declaration which, to avoid all equivo- 
 cation and unfounded interpretations, I think it well 
 to reproduce. 
 
 ' I give the name of normal manure to the mix- 
 ture of phosphate of lime, potash, lime, and a nitro- 
 genous material.' 
 
 ' In so doing, I do not intend to deny the utihty 
 of the other mineral ingredients. I exclude them 
 from the manure because the soil is provided with 
 them naturally. Why, therefore, give to the manure 
 that which adds nothing to its effect, and complicates 
 what may be rendered more simple? ' 
 
 There is in all this neither system nor theory, but 
 the direct testimony of experience, to which we in- 
 variably appeal, and which I shall sum up in the 
 following table : — 
 
 Weight of crops 
 
 Calcined sand 90 grains 
 
 „ with addition of ten mineral ingredients . 12.3 
 
 „ „ „ nitrogenous matter . . 1.38 
 
 „ „ „ mineral and nitro- 
 
 genous matter . 275 to 337 „ 
 
 If we pass from these fundamental data to the 
 function of each mineral ingredient in particular, the 
 
LECT. VIII. PLANT PEODUCTION. 157 
 
 results are neither less precise nor less explicit. The 
 soil being provided with nitrogenous matter as a con- 
 stant ingredient : — 
 
 Weight of crops 
 With all the mineral matter, except phosphate nil 
 
 n !> !> potash . . 138 grains 
 
 » » „ magnesia . . 107 „ 
 
 M ,, „ soluble silica . 123 „ 
 
 ») „ without any suppression 275 to 337 „ 
 
 But in nature no earth is found formed of calcined 
 sand alone. Arable land contains sand, clay, lime- 
 stone, and humus. Xow, it would be very interest- 
 ing to know whether the phenomena which have 
 just been brought to your notice, and of which the 
 Vincennes field is a practical demonstration, would 
 also be produced with the intervention of these new 
 bodies just as they have been in calcined sand also. 
 
 There is only one way of deciding this question, 
 viz., to again have recourse to experiments, recom- 
 mencing all the series which you already know, 
 keeping as invariable ingredients the fertilising com- 
 binations before employed, but using in place of 
 the calcined sand mixtures of sand and clay, sand 
 and limestone, sand and humus, then more complex 
 combinations — such as sand, clay, and limestone ; 
 sand, clay, and humus ; and finally, combining sand, 
 clay, limestone, and humus — thus reproducing the 
 most essential characteristics of the composition of 
 natural soil. 
 
 What is the result of these fresh trials ? We 
 find that in a mixture of sand and clay, -or of sand 
 and limestone, the yield is the same as in sand alone. 
 There is only one case in which the yield is increased, 
 and that is when humus is added to the calcareous 
 element. 
 
158 ON CIIEAtlCAL MAXUKES. lect. vrn. 
 
 With the help of all the mineral matter and a 
 nitrogenous ingredient the yield rose : — 
 
 In calcined sand to 337 grains 
 
 ., sand and clay . . . ,, 337 „ 
 
 „ sand, clay, and limestone . . ,, 337 „ 
 
 „ sand and humus . . . . „ 337 „ 
 
 „ sand, humus, and clay . . „ 337 „ 
 
 „ sand, humus, clay, and limestone . „ 475 „ 
 
 It will be seen that as soon as humus and car- 
 bonate of lune are associated, the yield increases 
 from 337 to 475 grains. Whence the conclusion that 
 humus performs an important function which is 
 evidenced by a considerable increase in the crop. 
 
 But in what way does humus act ? Is it ab- 
 sorbed in kmd ? No. It simply acts in an in- 
 direct way by favotiring the solution of calcic 
 carbonate ; and this is so true, that if humus is ex- 
 cluded, and the calcic carbonate replaced by more 
 soluble calcareous salts, calcic sulphate and nitrate 
 especially (in which nitrogen is reckoned as nitro- 
 genous matter), a yield is obtained which increases 
 with the solubility of the calcareous salt until it reaches 
 475 grains. But calcic nitrate being unsuitable on ac- 
 count of its cost and extreme deliquescence, I performed 
 many experiments with the idea of substitutmg for it 
 in chemical manure a mixture of peat and calcic car- 
 bonate. But to obtain any appreciable effect, I was 
 obliged to use peat m quantities of from 2 to 4 tons 
 per acre, which rendered the method impracticable, 
 and confirmed the experiments I had previously 
 made on a small scale, inasmuch as the soil of the 
 Landes which I used contained from 4 to 5 per cent, 
 of black matter soluble in potash. 
 
 In such an emergency, my decision was quickly 
 
LECT. vrii. PLANT PRODUCTION. 159 
 
 made. Abandoning the idea of using peat and analo- 
 gous products, I not only redoubled my efforts to 
 form a perfect manure, but I also used all my influ- 
 ence in the agricultural world to institute numerous 
 experiments with chemical manure in soils notori- 
 ously devoid of humus, such as the chalky soil of 
 Champagne, the sand of the dunes of Holland, or 
 those of Campine, and everywhere I had the satis- 
 faction of seeing the crops, even in the worst soil, 
 rise to the same level as those grown in alluvial soUs, 
 noted for their productiveness, and fertilised with 
 farmyard manure, that is to say with the help of 
 humus. 
 
 I will here revert to an example given in a former 
 lecture, as it is very complete and decisive. 
 
 In the rocky part of Champagne, and on land 
 worth not more than from 51. 4s. to 41. 16s. per acre 
 which had been cleared expressly, two parallel experi- 
 ments were made, 97 cubic yards of farmyard manure 
 being given to the land in the one case, and 1,056 lbs. 
 of chemical manure in the other. To the chemical 
 manure humus was added with the following results : 
 With farmyard manure only 14^ bushels of grain per 
 acre were obtained, and with the chemical manure 
 36|. 
 
 An important and uncontrovertible fact here pre- 
 sents itself, viz., that harvests very superior to those 
 obtained with farmyard manure may be obtained with 
 pure chemical products, to the total exclusion of 
 organic matter. But here an objection presents 
 itself. 
 
 How, it will be said, is it possible that calcined 
 sand can show itself equal to a mixture of sand, clay, 
 and limestone, so that there is no difference between 
 
160 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. tui. 
 
 them in respect to crops, when the universality 
 of agricultural facts attests the contrary ? Does not 
 everybody know that the classification of land into 
 heavy land, light land, rye land and wheat land is 
 perfectly judicious ? I do not contest the legitimacy 
 of the objection, but the explanation is easy. In 
 special experiments the plant is subject to incessant 
 care, it is sheltered from the too great action of the 
 sun, it is watered several times a day, and suffers 
 neither from an excess of humidity nor drought. It is 
 not therefore grown under natural conditions. If the 
 plant is exposed to bad weather, and to all the accidents 
 arising from it, then according as the land is light or 
 heavy, the quantity of water retained in the soil 
 varies very much, and the conditions in which the 
 plant is placed are modified in a corresponding degree. 
 Hence it follows that the variations in the crop ac- 
 cording as the earth contains more or less clay are 
 not accounted for by the part which clay has played 
 in the nutrition of plants, but the more or less favour- 
 able conditions as to the humidity of the soil in 
 which this substance has placed them. 
 
 In all the facts I have previously referred to, I 
 have abstained entirely from theory. My supreme 
 ambition has been to raise plants in a soil into which 
 no foreign element was admitted by means of chem- 
 ical products, and to subject the experiments to 
 constant control and certain verification. 
 
 This has been accomplished, and the facts I have 
 just given are ' the result of sixteen years' arduous 
 work, to say nothing of the practical difiaculties 
 which for a long time stopped my path. It is almost 
 impossible to credit, except by personal experience, 
 how difiicult it is in theoretical agriculture to avoid 
 the intervention of foreign influences. 
 
LEOT. Tin. DOMINANT CONSTITUENTS OP MANURE. 161 
 
 All clays and pottery yield to water, traces of 
 salts of lime and potash, chlorides and sulphates ; and 
 slight as they are, these exudations are sufficient to 
 disturb the true signification of the phenomena. 
 
 I determined to use only pure substances, and 
 to set them to work in a soil formed exclusively of 
 silica. I formed no conclusion except from direct 
 testimony given by the plants themselves, and I did 
 not definitely accept even these proofs, until I had 
 ascertained by an analysis of the crops that no 
 foreign matter had entered into the soil or plant. 
 My statements are therefore free from any chance 
 assertion or disturbing influence, or indeed from 
 anything that might have escaped a less rigorous and 
 scientific demonstration. 
 
 This, however, is not all. Normal manure, com- 
 posed of four uigredients, phosphoric acid, lime, 
 potash, and nitrogen, is sufficient, as has been said, 
 to render the most barren soil fertile ; still these 
 four bodies are not of the same degree of utUity to 
 all plants iadiscriminately, but according to the 
 nature of the plant, one of them exercises a prepon- 
 derating influence over the other three, and thus 
 constitutes itself the regulator of the crop. For in- 
 stance, with wheat, beetroot, and hemp, it is the 
 nitrogenous matter which by preference influences 
 the crop. Were we to use double or treble the 
 quantity of phosphate, potash, or lime, the yield would 
 not change, but if we vary the quantity of nitro- 
 genous matter, the crop is immediately increased or 
 decreased in proportion ; an evident proof that with 
 respect to the three crops above mentioned, it is the 
 nitrogenous matter which really fills the most im- 
 portant office. 
 
 M 
 
162 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lbot. vrii. 
 
 But another, and equally important result must 
 not be lost sight of, viz., that if the three mineral 
 ingredients are omitted from the normal manure and 
 nothing left but the nitrogenous matter, its efficacy- 
 is almost entirely lost. We therefore see that the aid 
 of phosphoric acid, lime, and potash is absolutely 
 necessary, and if it happens that the use of the 
 nitrogenous matter without any admixture of them 
 succeeds, it is because the soil is naturally supplied 
 with these three mineral ingredients. 
 
 Passing from wheat and hemp to potatoes and 
 leguminous plants, we find that nitrogenous matter 
 is only of secondary importance ; here potash becomes 
 the most important ingredient, as is also the case 
 with trefoil and lucern. With sugar-cane, maize, 
 miUet, and turnips, calcic phosphate is the dominant 
 constituent. 
 
 We are therefore led to the following conclusion : 
 that by the aid of simple chemical products, and by 
 the exclusion of all unknown substances, a maximum 
 crop may be obtained from all plants, in any place 
 and in any condition of soU ; further, by varying the 
 quantity of these products, the work of vegetation 
 may be regulated almost like a machine, the usefulness 
 of which is in proportion to the fuel it consumes. 
 
 Vegetation imperatively demands fourteen ele- 
 ments, but it is only necessary to give four to the 
 land, as the rest are obtained fi:-om the air, the soU, 
 and the rain. Four great sources, therefore, the 
 atmosphere, the soil, raiu, and chemical manure, com- 
 bine for the maintenance of plant life, and each of 
 these has its special function. But although the 
 work of vegetation requires the co-operation of the 
 four at the same time, man has only to work with 
 
LECT. vjli. PLANT CULTIVATION. 163 
 
 two, the soil which he tills and makes light, and the 
 normal manure with which he fertilises it. 
 
 A peculiar and unique characteristic of agricul- 
 tural production is that it yields more than has been 
 expended on it, because all the forces of nature, heat, 
 light, air, dew, and rain, add their invisible aid to 
 human labour ; this indeed plays only a small 
 part in the majestic harmony of nature, still it is a 
 part that almost requnes man to possess the sovereign 
 faculty of commanding the elements, which some- 
 times would seem to be leagued against him. 
 
 There is nothing arbitrary in these conclusions ; 
 they are derived, not from supposition or theory, but 
 from the results of experience. 
 
 We win now pass from this dogmatic exposition 
 to an experimental demonstration. To this end we 
 shall be confronted with crops which have received 
 only chemical manures for thirteen years. We shall 
 judge of their condition. If we then study each of 
 those in which one of the four ingredients of normal 
 manure has been omitted, we shall see the truth of 
 the proposition, that according to the nature of the 
 plant, there is always one ingredient which fills a 
 more important function than the rest. And by these 
 means conclusive proof will be given of the two 
 fimdamental data, that in the formation of plants 
 there is no longer any mystery, but that the active 
 agents in that formation are as well known to us as 
 those used in the manufacture of chemical products. 
 
 The methods employed differ, the forces brought 
 into play are not the same, still the results are 
 identical, since, by starting with strictly defined 
 bodies, we succeed in producing, by the aid of plants, 
 other substances equally well known, such as oil, 
 
 M 2 
 
164 ON CHEMICAI> MAXi;iii:S. Lt:cr. viii. 
 
 sugar, starch, or gluten, alimentary seeds, fodder, 
 colouring or textile matters. And with what are 
 these produced? In every case with the four in- 
 gredients of which we have before spoken, the quan- 
 tity of which it is only necessary to vary. 
 
 And now that the bases of the new doctrine are 
 familiar, we will proceed to demonstrate the proofs 
 obtained by experience. 
 
165 
 
 LECTURE IX. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL BY THE PLANTS THEMSELVES. 
 
 The present lecture will be of an essentially practical 
 character. We shall not concern ourselves with 
 theories or systems, but simply set ourselves to 
 analyse the soil, and in order to acquire certain data 
 on the nature of manures, to which it is expedient 
 to have recourse under all circumstances, we shall 
 define what the soil contains and what it lacks for 
 the requirements of agriculture. 
 
 It will be remembered that in the last lecture we 
 proved experimentally the necessity of classifying the 
 constituents of the soil according to the special func- 
 tion they perform, of separating those which serve 
 simply as a mechanical support to plants, from those 
 which contribute to their nutrition, and whose sub- 
 stance at a given time becomes a constituent part of 
 the plant itself. 
 
 The following table gives, in a practical form, an 
 accurate summary of this part of our researches. 
 
1()6 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANQUES. 
 
 LECT. IX. 
 
 / Mechanical cotistituents 
 
 Soil 
 
 / Organic 
 
 Active assimilable 
 constituents 
 
 anorganic 
 
 Assimilable constituents in re- 
 ^ serye 
 
 Sand 
 Olay 
 
 Limestone 
 Grayel 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Nitrates 
 
 Pbosphoric acid 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Silica 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Ferric oxide 
 
 Oxide of manganese 
 
 Humus 
 
 Organic detritus 
 Indecomposed minerals 
 
 We see here that there are, in the soil, three 
 orders of constituents, mechanical constituents, active 
 assimilable constituents, and assimilable constituents 
 in reserve. 
 
 The mechanical constituents have in reality only 
 a passive function. They serve as a basis for the 
 plants and keep them in their places, but they do not 
 by their substance aid in their nutrition. They are 
 represented by sand, limestone, clay, and gravel. 
 
 We next have the so-called active assimilable 
 constituents, which always occur in very small quan- 
 tities, compared with the former ; for whilst the me- 
 chanical constituents represent 95 per cent, of the 
 substance of the soU, the active assimilable consti- 
 tuents represent only a few hundredths or thousandths 
 of the whole. Nevertheless it is in them that the pro- 
 ductive power of the soU is essentially vested. 
 
 We come in the last place to the assimilable con- 
 stituents in reserve ; these share the passive functions 
 of the mechanical constituents, but are also susceptible 
 
LECT. IX. CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 167 
 
 of contributing, at a given moment, to plant nutri- 
 tion ; this faculty they owe to the products resulting 
 from their decomposition. As an example I may men- 
 tion the detritus of animal or vegetable origin, which 
 can only aid in the nutrition of plants by undergoing 
 a change of nature. The same may be said of the 
 siliceous rocks, such as feldspar and feldspathic sands, 
 which belong to the category of mechanical con- 
 stituents as long as they preserve their integrity, but 
 which, by the combined action of cold, heat, and the 
 carbonic acid and oxygen of the air, are first disinte- 
 grated, and then decomposed ; which means that a cer- 
 tain portion of potash, lime, and soluble sOica is given to 
 the soil and its richness thereby somewhat increased. 
 
 If we compare an artificial soil by combining the 
 three categories of substances above-mentioned, vary- 
 ing the proportions of the mechanical constituents, 
 sand, limestone, and gravel, from 4 to 10, or even 
 20 per cent, of the whole weight, we shall find that 
 not only is the fertility of the soil not affected, but 
 that, on the contrary, if we increase or diminish by a 
 hundred-thousandth part the weight of nitrogen, 
 ammonia, and nitrates, or by a ten millionth part the 
 weight of potash or phosphoric acid, a sudden change 
 is produced, and the crop increases or diminishes in 
 proportion, just as the production of steam in the 
 boiler of an engine is regulated by the amount of fuel 
 burnt in the furnace. 
 
 The methods by which we succeeded in establish- 
 ing these distinctions and in showing the contrast 
 between the mechanical and assimilable constituents of 
 the soil were very simple. The land was not ana- 
 lysed, but artificial soils were formed with pure sub- 
 stances, and many interesting experiments performed. 
 
168 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. ix. 
 
 The of&ce of the mechanical constituents is, as 
 has already been said, to hold the plants in the earth, 
 and to form that remarkable medium, at once compact, 
 mobile, and permeable, into which the finest roots can 
 spread out, through which water can penetrate freely, 
 and air circulate without obstacle, carrjdng to its 
 remotest depths their powerful and vivifying pro- 
 perties. 
 
 The assimilable constituents have no influence on 
 the physical properties of the land, but serve to 
 nourish the plant and to regulate the activity of its 
 growth. I will add nothing to what I have already 
 said of the active assimilable constituents in reserve ; 
 they are at first mingled with the mechanical con- 
 stituents, but afterwards become hj their decompo- 
 sition a source of assimilable constituents. 
 
 By the hght of these distinctions, and by reference 
 to the table in which they are summarised, it is easy 
 to understand why the older chemists, working ac- 
 cording to the methods in use in commercial assays, 
 always failed to show the true agricultural value of 
 the various soils, and why even the most eminent 
 amongst them were baffled. 
 
 As an example of this, I may mention one of the 
 greatest names of bygone science, Su- Humphry Davy, 
 to whom we are indebted for the discovery of the 
 alkali metals, potassium and sodium. 
 
 Starting with the idea, a very correct one in itself, 
 that soils which belong to different geological forma- 
 tions often possess the same degree of fertility, Davy 
 thought that by comparing, constituent by constituent, 
 the composition of a certain number of earths pre- 
 senting this double character of being equal in an 
 agricultural point of view, and of belonging to differ- 
 
IBCT. IX. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 
 
 169 
 
 exit pieces of ground, he ought, side by side with 
 inevitable dissimilarities, to be able to find in all of 
 them the presence of certain agents, constituting the 
 source and condition of their equal fertility. Six 
 samples of earth from different sources, and all re- 
 nowned for their fertility, were analysed by Davy, 
 and the result was that he had to abandon his theory. 
 If you will examine the table in which the results 
 of these six analyses are given, you will find there 
 nothing but contrast and opposition ; it is impossible 
 to discover the slightest analogy in the composition 
 of the soils, although all six possess the same degree 
 of fertility. 
 
 Analysis of Soils by 
 
 Sir HwmpJiry 
 
 Davy. 
 
 
 
 Source of soil 
 
 ! 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 C3 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 o. 
 
 o 
 'o 
 
 O 
 
 as 
 
 ^ o 
 
 1 
 
 -2 
 
 1 
 
 m o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 § 
 
 County of Kent . 
 
 66-2 
 
 6-2' 3'2 
 
 4-7 
 
 0-7 
 
 1-2 
 
 8-0 
 
 0-6 
 
 4-7 5-2, 
 
 Norfolk . . . 
 
 88-9 
 
 1-6 1-2 
 
 6-9 
 
 
 
 0-3 
 
 0-5 
 
 
 
 0-3 — I 
 
 Middlesex . . 
 
 60-0 
 
 12-8, 11-6 
 
 11-2 
 
 . 
 
 4-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Worcestershire . 
 
 60-0 
 
 16-4 14-0 
 
 5-6 
 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 2-8 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 ValeofTeviot . 
 
 83-3 
 
 7'0; 6-8 
 
 0-6 
 
 
 
 0-8 
 
 V3 
 
 
 
 
 Salisbury . . . 
 
 9-1 
 
 12-7j 6-3 
 
 57-2 
 
 
 
 1'8 
 
 12-7 
 
 
 
 "" 1 
 
 Com.pare these six analyses constituent by con- 
 stituent, and you will see that the proportion of sand 
 varies from 9 to 90 per cent., that of soluble silica 
 from 1 to 10 per cent., calcic carbonate from 0"6 to 
 57 per cent., and so on. None of these earths resem- 
 ble those that preceded, or those that follow after — 
 all differ, and each contrasts strongly with the other, 
 and yet, as I have said before, each separate earth 
 possesses the same agricultxiral value. 
 
 Chemical analysis is then in complete disaccord 
 
170 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. li. 
 
 Avith plants which, as you have doubtless observed, 
 give a totally different result. How can we explain 
 this apparent contradiction ? Nothing is easier. It 
 will suffice if we consider the classification of vege- 
 table soils which I have given, founded upon my own 
 experience, where the ground consisted altogether of 
 mixed soils. What says this table ? That the me- 
 chanical constituents affect the degree of fertility of 
 the soil only indirectly, that their function is emi- 
 nently passive, that notwithstanding their utility, 
 they are in reality only like the coarse veinstone 
 with regard to the needs of plant life. This is easily 
 explained. What hght did the analysis of Davy 
 throw upon this question ? He took into account 
 only the mechanical constituents, gravel, sand, clay, 
 and limestone, without enquiring into either the 
 active assimilable agents which are the actual source 
 of production for the time being, or the assimilable con- 
 stituents in reserve which are the safeguards for the 
 future. The silence of Davy on these points plainly 
 shows the failure of his theory, but there is nothing 
 that can surprise us in this result. In his day only 
 the most incomplete notions were held respecting the 
 composition of plants and the agents concerned in 
 their production, and if Davy did not possess more 
 perfect knowledge it was because science was not 
 sufficiently advanced to permit of his doing so. 
 
 A fi-esh difficulty now arises. The chemists of 
 the present day are perfectly acquainted with those 
 constituents that serve to maintain plant life, and 
 whose presence in, or absence from, the soil increases 
 or lessens the degree of its fertility. 
 
 It appears, then, that what Davy was unable to 
 accomplish the chemists of our time have successftilly 
 
lECT. IX. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 
 
 171 
 
 achieved. And yet if we examine a collection of the 
 analyses of soUs which have been made during the 
 last ten years, we shall find that they have taught us 
 but little that is essential from an agricultural point 
 of view — nothing in fact that we can apply to a 
 practical purpose. This declaration from me cannot 
 fail to surprise you. Let me therefore proceed to 
 justify it. 
 
 Here is an analysis of a soil made by an eminent 
 mining engineer, M. Rivot. Everything is here in- 
 dicated, both mechanical and assimilable constituents. 
 
 Analysis of a Soil in the vicinity of Ghalons-sur-Marne, hy M. 
 
 Bivot. 
 
 Mechanicai, Analysis. 
 Sand and gravel .... 42'26 
 
 Ohbmicai. Analysis. 
 
 U^ *J\f 
 
 Organic matter . 
 Hygrometric water 
 Oonaibined water 
 
 
 
 
 . 1-80 
 
 . 2-70 
 
 5-92 
 
 Carbonic acid . 
 
 
 
 
 . 33-20 
 
 Quartzose sand 
 
 
 
 
 . 3-10 
 
 Clay . . 
 Soluble silica . 
 
 
 
 
 6-00 
 3-10 
 
 Ferric oiide 
 
 
 
 
 2-00 
 
 Alumina . 
 
 
 
 
 0-15 
 
 Lime 
 
 
 
 
 40-50 
 
 Magnesia , 
 Alkalies . 
 
 
 
 
 traces 
 0-38 
 
 Sulphuric acid . 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Nitrogen and chlorin 
 
 
 
 
 0-28 
 
 0-12 
 
 traces 
 
 Total . 
 
 99-25 
 
 This is certainly a most complete analysis. No- 
 ting is here omitted, and yet it is scarcely of any 
 toore use to us than that of Davy. The testimony of 
 
172 ON CHEMICAL .MANUHF.S. lect. ix. 
 
 agriculturists is that it does not meet any of the 
 requirements of practice. It is, for instance, impos- 
 sible by its aid to forestal with certainty the quantity, 
 for this particular soil, of wheat or any similar crop ; 
 or to tell how many years we shall be able to culti- 
 vate it without manure, or when such necessity arises, 
 what particular kind of manure we shall be obliged to 
 have recourse to. If an analysis is sUent upon these 
 points — is it of any practical utUity ? We have appar- 
 ently arrived at a strange conclusion. I have just said 
 that the natui'e of the constituents which make the 
 soU fertUe are known to us. I have shown in my 
 former lectures that by the aid of these" substances 
 we are able to obtain as fine crops from plants grown 
 in calcined sand as from those grown in the most 
 fertile alluvial soil — and I declare in the same breath, 
 that the analyses giving us the exact proportions of 
 these same substances in any given soil are insufficient 
 to throw light upon the principle of the agricultural 
 question. These statements seem strangely contra- 
 dictory, but the contradiction is only apparent. 
 
 Let us tal<;e a soil that contains two different kinds 
 of sand — feldspathic and sihceous, such as is found at 
 Fontainebleau. The siliceous sand is pure silica — 
 feldspathic sand, on the contrary, is a polybasic 
 silicate of potash, soda, Hme, magnesia, and iron. So 
 long as the latter remains in its primitive state the 
 potash and lime are useless to the plant, being unable 
 to enter into it on account of their state of com- 
 bination. 
 
 But when a chemist comes upon tlie scene armed 
 with his tests, and attacks, decomposes and separates 
 all the elements of feldspathic sand by isolating them, 
 they attain a degree of utility which, regarding them 
 
Uicx. II. ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 173 
 
 from an agricultural point of view, they did not 
 possess when they were firmly combined in their 
 primitive state. Phosphoric acid leads to a similar 
 remark. This acid may exist in the soil in three differ- 
 ent states — as calcic phosphate, aluminic phosphate, 
 and ferric phosphate. As it exists in calcic phosphate, 
 phosphoric acid is most valuable, but it has a far less 
 appreciable action when it is combined with iron or 
 alamiaa. 
 
 But of what use is it to us to know that the soil 
 contaias phosphoric acid, potash, nitrogen, &c., if we 
 consider their active and inactive parts in the hght of 
 a loose and heterogeneous mass ? No matter how 
 exact in its details an analysis of the soil may be, it 
 remains a dead letter with respect to the needs of 
 plants, seeing that their roots are not provided with 
 either acids, alkalies, or any other of the means of 
 decomposing compounds which the chemist has at his 
 disposal. My conclusion is a formal one. Chemistry 
 is powerless to throw light upon the agricultural 
 qualities of the soil, its resources and its needs, be- 
 cause it confounds in its indications the active as- 
 similable agents with the assimilable agents in 
 reserve, the active with the inert or neutral prin- 
 ciples. But I wish t-o carry my demonstration still 
 farther, and to do so with greater freedom I shall 
 choose for criticism as a last example an analysis of 
 which I am the author, that of the soil in the experi- 
 mental field at Vincennes. This analysis teUs us 
 that the quantity of available phosphoric acid amounts 
 to 1,581^ lbs. per acre, the quantity of potash to 
 2,025 lbs., and the quantity of lime to 34,674^ lbs. per 
 acre. These results are perfectly correct, and it is 
 impossible to challenge their accuracy. 
 
174 (U\ CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. ix. 
 
 Here, then, is a soil very liberally provided with 
 the three mineral constituents necessary to vege- 
 tation ; nevertheless, if we try to grow wheat on it for 
 four consecutive years, using no other fertilising 
 materials except nitrogenous matter and ammonic 
 sulphate, without any addition of either potash or 
 phosphate, we shall find that the fourth year, the 
 crops which at first were very good will be in danger 
 of being reduced almost to nothing. 
 
 The four crops of wheat have, however, only 
 abstracted from the earth 
 
 62i lbs. of phosphoric acid 
 102 „ potash 
 60 „ lime 
 
 where the analysis had shown that there existed 
 
 1,581^ lbs. of phosphoric acid 
 2,025 „ potash 
 34,674i „ lime 
 
 thus the plant finds only a poor soil when, according 
 to analysis, it should have found a rich one. We can 
 only account for this anomaly by the fact that the 
 plant shows the existence of only those elements by 
 which it is able to profit, whilst analysis in addition 
 takes cognisance of the whole of those constituents of 
 the soil which are so firmly bound together that the 
 plant is unable to separate them. 
 
 But it has been said, Why not imitate the 
 methods of nature ? Why not limit ourselves to 
 treating the soil with water alone in order to place it 
 in the same conditions as the plants ? At first sight 
 the idea appears excellent, and the method founded 
 upon the irrigation of the soil, a perfect one. It is, 
 however, nothing of the sort, and a few figures will 
 suffice to show its uselessness. It is condemned, like 
 
MCT. IX. ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 175 
 
 the first, by vegetation itself. In treating soil with 
 hydrochloric acid, we have ascertained the presence of 
 1,581^ lbs. of phosphoric acid per acre. If you treat 
 it with water the quantity of phosphoric acid found is 
 not more than 25| lbs., and the available reserve of 
 potash only 163.^ lbs. instead of 2,025 lbs. Again, 
 if you cultivate beetroot upon this same land for 
 three consecutive years — ^you will find in the three 
 crops 132 lbs. of phosphoric acid and 287| lbs. of 
 potash. What causes this fresh anomaly ? The 
 large amount of water employed in the rapid irriga- 
 tion of the soil acts in a totally different manner to 
 small quantities of water operating by simple im- 
 bibition, the roots of the plants acting as auxihafies. 
 In the first case the effect obtained is entirely due to 
 the solvent action of water, whilst in the second 
 instance it arises from three fresh influences ; the air 
 which penetrates into the interstices of the soil, where 
 it causes slow oxidation ; carbonic acid arising fi-om 
 the decomposition of organic matter, which by its pre- 
 sence exercises a solvent and decomposing power 
 which water alone is unable to exert ; and lastly, the 
 powers of suction possessed by the roots which is 
 equivalent to treating it with water under pressure. 
 
 The smallness of the quantities of phosphoric acid 
 and potash found in the solution left after washing 
 the soil with water is a very convincing proof of this ; 
 but there is something more. Make two parallel 
 experiments, and sow wheat in washed soil and also 
 in the same soil not washed. The resulting crop 
 wUl be better in the first case. Here then is another 
 apparently disheartening failure. 
 
 In pointing out the insufficiency of our present 
 methods of analyses, it must not be thought that I 
 
176 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lbct. ix. 
 
 condemn them in an absolute manner, or that I deny 
 the possibility of arriving ])erhaps one day at more 
 complete results, for nothing is further from my 
 thoughts. I simply wish to show things as they are, 
 to warn jo\\ against cherishing fallacious hopes and 
 to fully establish this one fact — that at the present 
 time the most laborious analysis is not able to throw 
 light upon the most vital and essential questions of 
 practical agriculture. But if chemical analysis is 
 powerless to help us, we ca'n always fall back on the 
 evidence of the plants themselves. 
 
 It now remains for me to show the manner of 
 applying this new test. In my last lecture I laid 
 down the principle that by means of four substances, 
 phosphoric acid, potash, hme, and nitrogenous matter, 
 it waa possible to bring the most barren soil to the 
 highest degree of fertility. We have learnt more 
 than this, viz., that these four substances, however 
 efficacious they may be, only remain so as long as 
 they are associated and united one with the other, for 
 by suppressing one the remaining three are often 
 rendered inert, and frequently lose the greater part of 
 their activity. 
 
 We have further said that these four substances 
 are not of the same degree of utility to all descriptions 
 of plants, but that each has a preponderant or sub- 
 ordinate action by turns ; that for cereals, colza, and 
 beetroot, nitrogenous matter was the preponderant 
 constituent ; phosphoric acid fulfils a similar function 
 with respect to maize, cane sugar, and swedes ; whereas 
 potash preponderates in the case of potatoes and legu- 
 minous plants. If you thoroughly understand these 
 three fundamental propositions, you will readily see 
 by what natural deductions we shall be able to found 
 
LEOI. IX. DOMINANT CONSTITUENTS. 177 
 
 upon them a practical method of analysis that will 
 be accessible to all. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, that we experiment upon 
 the same soil with five different manures ; first of all 
 a manure composed of the four substances of which 
 we have been speaking, and to which we have given 
 the name of normal manure, and next with four 
 manures composed of three ingredients only, ex- 
 cluding in rotation nitrogenous matter, phosphoric 
 acid, potash, and lime, and with these produce a 
 parallel series of crops. 
 
 With the normal manure 
 
 Manure without nitrogenous matter 
 
 „ „ phosphates 
 
 „ „ potash 
 
 „ „ lime 
 
 The soil without any manure 
 
 The result wiU be that the complete manure pro- 
 duces 43 bushels of wheat per acre ; manure without 
 nitrogenous matter produces 14 bushels ; manure 
 without phosphates 26^; manure without potash 31 ; 
 manure without lime 41 ; and the soil without any 
 manure only 12 bushels per acre. 
 
 The conclusion is evident and conclusive. The soil 
 requires above all nitrogenous matter ; it is provided 
 with Hme, but insufficiently supplied with potash and 
 calcic phosphate. What analysis, I ask, be it as 
 delicate as it is possible to conceive, will ever be 
 able to furnish us with a series of results like this ? 
 According as the crops obtained with the incomplete 
 manures differ from or resemble those resulting from 
 the use of the normal manures, the conclusion we 
 arrive at is, that the soil lacks the ingredient ex- 
 cluded from these manures, or vice versa. To place 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 ox CHEJIICAL MANURES. 
 
 LBCi. ir. 
 
 tlie matter more clearly, we will append the following 
 table, the results bemg those obtained in the experi- 
 mental field at Vincennes : — 
 
 
 Crop per aero 
 
 
 Busliela 
 
 Normal manure 
 
 . 43 
 
 Manure without lime 
 
 . 41 
 
 „ „ potash . 
 
 . 31 
 
 „ „ phosphate 
 
 • 26^ 
 
 „ „ niti-ogen 
 
 . 14 
 
 Soil without manure 
 
 . 12 
 
 I repeat, that the element lacking in the soil at Vin- 
 cennes is chiefly nitrogen. But this is not all. In 
 every soil there are two portions to be considered, 
 the surface soU and the subsoil, the upper and under 
 layers, and it is most important that we should have 
 definite ideas upon this subject. We may gain the 
 necessary knowledge very easily, by substituting for 
 wheat some tap-rooted plant ; beetroot, for instance, 
 which buries itself in the ground to a much greater 
 depth. Submit the beetroot to a similar series of 
 experiments, and you will obtain just as accurate 
 information as you did with wheat, but these results 
 relate to the under instead of the upper layers of the 
 soil. 
 
 What do we obtain ? — 
 
 
 Crop per acre 
 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Normal manure 
 
 20 16 of beetroot 
 
 Manure without lime 
 
 18 16 „ 
 
 „ „ potash . 
 
 16 16 
 
 „ „ phosphate 
 
 14 16 
 
 „ ^ „ nitrogen 
 
 14 8 
 
 Soil without manure 
 
 10 „ 
 
 With potatoes, the information gained is no less 
 instructive and precise : — 
 
. IS. DOMINANT CONS] 
 
 ^ITUENTS. 
 
 
 Crop per acre 
 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Normal manure 
 
 11 3 of potatoes 
 
 Manure witihout lime 
 
 8 4 „ 
 
 „ „ phosphate 
 
 6 6 „ 
 
 „ „ nitrogen 
 
 5 18 
 
 „ „ potash . 
 
 2 2 „ 
 
 Soil -without manure 
 
 2 14 „ 
 
 179 
 
 The potato then tells us that the soil of Yincennes 
 does not contain sufficient proportions of potash and 
 of nitrogen, and if it shows a preference for soil that 
 is rich in potash, it is because that substance is its 
 dominant constituent ; that is to say, it is the in- 
 gredient in manure that acts most beneficially upon 
 that special crop. 
 
 The evidence of these two plants is not contra- 
 dictory but confirmatory, and you will observe how 
 the preponderance of certain constituents gives an 
 additional value to the same facts. In order to 
 gather an exact idea of the richness of the under 
 layer, or subsoil, at Vincennes, it is necessary to 
 consider the result which was obtained at the same 
 time with wheat and potatoes. A series of crops of 
 wheat shows plainly that nitrogenous matter and 
 potash are present in restricted proportions, and a 
 series of potato crops confirms and ratifies this testi- 
 mony ; only with manure without potash, the crop 
 of potatoes is feebler and comparatively smaller than 
 that of wheat, because potash is a dominant con- 
 stituent in potatoes, and only a subordinate consti- 
 tuent in wheat. Here, then, is a perfectly accurate 
 system of experiments, and the information gained 
 may at once be applied to practical use. With an 
 experimental field, we always determine the nature 
 of the substances useful to plants contained in the 
 soil, and also determine in what constituents the 
 
 K 2 
 
180 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. ix. 
 
 soil is deficient, and with, this knowledge we can 
 decide what sort of manure it will be advisable to 
 employ. Perhaps it may be objected that this method 
 must necessarily lack delicacy and preciseness, and 
 that it is doubtful if a plant can show all the varieties 
 of composition presented by different kinds of soil. 
 This objection is easily answered. The quantity of 
 soil covering the surface of one acre is represented 
 by at least 1,600 tons, and with 176 lbs. of am- 
 monic sulphate and 35J; lbs. of nitrogen — ^that is to 
 say, the one hundred thousandth part of the total 
 weight of the soil, the crop of wheat will be increased 
 from 13^ to 16 J bushels of grain per acre, and the 
 straw from 2,640 lbs. to 3,520 lbs. 
 
 "With potatoes, 176 lbs. of nitrates, of which 
 82f lbs. are in the form of potassic nitrate, suffice to 
 raise the yield from 4 tons per acre to 7 tons 4 cwt. 
 
 When calcic phosphate is applied to a growth of 
 sugar-cane, the effects are not less marked. 
 
 If the manure contains 528 lbs. of calcic phos- 
 phate, we shall obtain 32 tons of cane stripped of 
 leaves ; but with 352 lbs. of the phosphate, the 
 result is lowered to 16 tons. What result, I ask, 
 obtained by purely scientific means can be com- 
 pared with this, whether as regards the delicacy of 
 the method, or the utility of the information that it 
 yields. The great value of experimental fields then lies 
 in our being able to obtain such evidence as the latter 
 by a series of proofs. I wiU briefly show you how 
 we should proceed in the formation of such fields, 
 according to the purpose for which they are to be 
 used. If the results of our experiments are some- 
 what important, we must choose a piece of land re- 
 presenting the mean fertility of the whole e.itate, 
 
LECT. IX. BOMINANT CONSTITUENTS. 181 
 
 and divide it into ten plots, each containing, say, 
 a quarter of an acre, to be fertilised as shown be- 
 neath : — 
 
 No. 1 is to receive 24 tons of farmyard manure 
 
 2 
 
 )) 
 
 12 „ 
 
 jf 
 
 3 
 
 jj 
 
 very rich nor 
 
 mal manure 
 
 4 
 
 >j 
 
 ordinary 
 
 it 
 
 5 
 
 H 
 
 nianure vyitliout nitrogenous matter 
 
 6 
 
 J) 
 
 !f 
 
 calcic phosphate 
 
 7 
 
 J? 
 
 it 
 
 potash 
 
 8 
 
 J» 
 
 jt 
 
 lime 
 
 9 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 mineral matter 
 
 10 
 
 )1 
 
 soil without 
 
 any manure. 
 
 Here is a system equal to aU the exigencies of every 
 kind of culture. Thanks to this method of growmg 
 crops side by side, we are able to follow methodically 
 the exhaustion of the soil ; that advanced guard of 
 the field of experiments indicates with certainty the 
 precise moment when the soil is ready to receive 
 nitrogenous matter, potash, or calcic phosphate, as 
 the case may be. But it will be said that on every 
 farm it may happen, as it nearly always does, that 
 there are soils of very different nature. The experi- 
 mental field of which we have just been speaking, 
 does not suffice for an extended inquiry, and in 
 order to arrive at useful results, it is necessary to 
 set aside an additional quarter of an acre, divided 
 into four parts, on which to experiment with these 
 dififerent manures : normal manure, mineral manure, 
 and nitrogenous matter, the fourth part receiving no 
 manure at all. With these four combinations of 
 manure, under the condition that if necessary the 
 trial may be repeated, we can acquire with certainty 
 all information of which, practically speaking, we 
 have need. The first field, by reason of its greater 
 
182 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. ix. 
 
 extent, and the more nnmerous and varied combi- 
 nation of manure that it receives, is, as it were, a 
 centre towards which all the others must gravitate. 
 The results given by the smaller plots are tested 
 by those of the first field, which acts as a sort of 
 touchstone, and in a certain measure completes and 
 rectifies their signification. When you are once 
 familiarised with this mode of investigation, every 
 kind of culture becomes a source of information con- 
 cerning the state of the soil — its richness or its 
 exhaustion. Here, for instance, is an example : — 
 
 On two contiguous portions of land, say of a few 
 square yards, sow peas and wheat without any kind 
 of manure. This httle experiment will amply sufilice 
 to ascertain if the soil contains nitrogenous and 
 mineral matter. We have already seen that nitro- 
 genous matter was the dominant constituent in 
 wheat, and that it was only of very secondary im- 
 portance to peas, if, indeed, its action could be re- 
 garded as of any use at aU to them ; whilst the 
 dominant constituent in peas was potash. You see 
 now, by the light of these simple facts, with how 
 much importance the experiment just quoted can 
 be invested. If the two squares of wheat and peas 
 are equally fine, it proves that the soil contains a 
 sufficiency both of nitrogenous and mineral matter. 
 
 Now if the wheat becomes small, yellow, and 
 rather soft whilst the peas flourish well, it proves 
 that the soil is lacking in the dominant constituent 
 of wheat, which is nitrogenous matter, whilst it 
 contains, on the contrary, a sufficiency of mineral 
 matter, and above all of potash. 
 
 We wiU extend the range of our observations. 
 Lucern has roots which penetrate deeply into the 
 
LECT. IX. DOMINANT CONSTITUENTS. 183 
 
 subsoil. It is from these underlayers that it princi- 
 pally obtains the mineral matter, of which it requires 
 a large quantity. Suppose that lucern prospers whilst 
 peas are weakly. What are we to conclude from 
 this ? That the superficial layers of soil are lacking 
 in potash and phosphates, whilst the deep layers are 
 provided with them ; but if the two plants progress 
 equally well, we know that the superficial and deep 
 layers of soil are well provided with mineral matter. 
 
 You see then that, thanks to the exactness of 
 the premises which we in a great part drew from 
 our experiments in calcined sand, by the aid of pure 
 substances and the exclusion of unknown agents, we 
 have succeeded in acquiring ideas of an essentially 
 practical character, which enable us to reply to the 
 two questions — what are the useful agents con- 
 tained in the soil, and what are those in which it is 
 lacking ? The more my studies are extended and 
 completed, the more my acquaintance with the prin- 
 ciples of agriculture is increased, and the more 
 convinced I am that if the facts that have occupied 
 our attention are brought down to the greatest 
 degree of simplicity, and evidence is furnished which 
 will permit any man possessing the most elemen- 
 tary knowledge of science to grasp and utilise it, 
 then wlU it be made clear that we are alone indebted 
 to the experimental field. To those who understand, 
 it ofi'ers a guide that never misleads ; and to those 
 who doubt, it affords evidence that will always triumph 
 even over the most systematic opposition. 
 
 If you beheve that in these matters I have ac- 
 quired some authority, adopt my advice, and multiply 
 your experimental fields, which the Italians justly 
 call ' proving fields,' provide them in all our colleges. 
 
184 ON CHEIIICAL MANURES. lecx. rx. 
 
 in all our elementary schools and in all our agricul- 
 tural institutions ; for primary schools f of an acre 
 or an acre of land will amply suffice, and for these in 
 particular I would advise the parallel culture of 
 wheat and potatoes alternately. The instructor will 
 find in the growth of potatoes a valuable addition 
 as a food supply for his household ; and in the crop 
 of wheat a tiny golden store that wiU recompense 
 him for his labours. 
 
 The fields of agricultural societies should be 
 equal to greater exigencies, and serve for the in- 
 struction of the neighbourhood. 
 
 Four parallel plots of wheat, beetroot, potatoes, 
 and peas, placed in rows, afford a practical example 
 of the necessity of varying the composition of the 
 normal manure for each of these four crops, not only 
 in the number of substances of which they must be 
 composed, but also in the quantities of each. These 
 experiments also bring into prominence the fruitful 
 notion that each kind of plant has its dominant 
 constituents, a principle which is but little under- 
 stood at present even amongst the learned, and show 
 the necessity of varying the manure according to the 
 description of plant we have to deal with, at the same 
 time pointing out its proper composition. Besides 
 affording this information which speaks both to 
 the eyes and to the senses, and satisfies the mind 
 the more fully because we are able to verify the 
 results, there is another not less useful, viz., the 
 determination of the natural resources of the fertilis- 
 ing agents contained in the soil as regards the prin- 
 cipal produce of the locality. An experimental field 
 of this importance would not only rouse the curiosity 
 of the surrounding population, it would excite their 
 
LECT. IX. EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS. 185 
 
 energy, and lead them to make analogous trials for 
 themselves, which would serve as a useful comparison 
 between the experimental field of the district agri- 
 cultural society or committee and those of private 
 individuals. The small farmer would assuredly 
 wish to see if his own experiments tallied with 
 those of the local agricultural society, and the 
 benefits that would arise from this exchange of in- 
 formation would result in its diffusion throughout 
 the country amongst all classes of the community 
 — amongst those devoted to science as weU as the 
 practical every-day workers — and doubtless much 
 useful discussion would be thereby provoked. 
 
 If I need quote an example in order to justify 
 my insisting upon this point, an instance that oc- 
 curred during the latter years of the Empire will 
 furnish me with one. In 1869, M. Durny, then 
 Minister of Public Instruction, who had a passion for 
 progress and the public good, conceived the happy 
 idea of extending amongst the country children the 
 ideas that I have endeavoured to make clear to you. 
 He commissioned me to put the plan into execution. 
 Being persuaded that in order to make a good agri- 
 culturist, it is most essential to place before the child 
 practical information on the causes and agents which 
 regulate vegetable production by appealing to his 
 senses, my plan was simple enough. I resolved to 
 place the children face to face with three facts that 
 would be impressed upon them. In the first place 
 to prove to them practically, that with a very small 
 quantity of a certain powder one was able to obtain 
 finer harvests than with a large mass of farmyard 
 manure. In the second place, that in this powder, 
 which was composed of four substances, the sup- 
 
186 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. usoT. ix. 
 
 pression of only one (the dominant ingredient) would 
 be sufficient to considerably reduce the good effects of 
 the other three. It appeared manifest to me, that if I 
 got certain ideas rooted in the minds of these children 
 considerable results would certainly have been ob- 
 tained, because the children who had seen the che- 
 mical manure and the crops, even if they had only 
 a faint idea of what was meant by calcic phosphate, 
 potash, or nitrogenous matter, would retain a remem- 
 brance of the experiment. They would perceive that 
 with something that was not farmyard manure, finer 
 harvests were obtained than with farmyard manure 
 itself ; and further that this fertilising powder con- 
 sisted of substances possessing variable action accord- 
 ing to the nature of the plants. Fancy an experi- 
 mental field attached to a village school, where, with 
 the aid of chemical manure, hemp has been grown 
 two yards in height, while on the same ground un- 
 manured the hemp was only 31^ inches high. What 
 amount of teaching would produce so lasting an effect 
 upon the minds of those children ? But perhaps it 
 will be said that this is pure hypothesis on my part, 
 and that it is not certain that experimental fields ■ 
 would produce such results ? The answer is easy, 
 examine the tables and you will find the products 
 of nine hundred experimental fields, classed in de- 
 partments, which will also give you the results of the 
 attempt made by M. Durny. 
 
 These tables refer to two different kinds of crops, 
 beetroot and potatoes. With 24 tons of farmyard 
 manure, beetroot produced on an average 17 tons 
 12 cwt. per acre ; with 9 cwt. 48 lbs. of chemical 
 manure, the yield was increased to 19 tons 11 cwt., 
 and this, when the soil without any kind of ma- 
 
IBCT. IX. EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS. 187 
 
 nure, had only produced a yield of 9 tons 14 cwt. 
 per acre. 
 
 This example surely does not need any com- 
 mentary : — 
 
 Per acre 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 With chemical manure . . . 19 11 
 
 „ farmyard manure . . . 17 14 
 
 Soil without any manure . . 9 14 
 
 "We have been sufficiently ambitious to add other 
 experiments to this last, which is founded upon 
 the fact that of the four materials of which the 
 chemical manure is composed, there is a parti- 
 cular one, the suppression of which is sufficient to 
 considerably reduce the good eifects of the three 
 others. 
 
 We have experimented with miueral manure with- 
 out nitrogen, composed of calcic phosphate, potash, 
 and lime, and the crop only amounted to 13 tons 
 9 Cwt. per acre. With nitrogenous matter alone the 
 crop amounted to 15 tons 14 cwt., and by mixing 
 nitrogenous and mineral matter we obtained a yield 
 of 17 tons 12 cwt. per acre. We have, then, been 
 enabled at three hundred and fifty different parts of 
 France, to put the following three results before some 
 thousands of children : (1) that it is possible by 
 means of chemical agents to obtain more abundant 
 crops than by using ordinary farmyard manure ; (2) 
 that in using these substances it is necessary to 
 follow the laws laid down by science; (3) that a 
 very slight modification of the composition of the 
 manure seriously detracts from their efficacy. With 
 potatoes the results have not been less significant, 
 though these tables were compiled at the latter end 
 of the year, and after an exceptionally dry season. 
 
188 ON CHEMICAL MANUEES. lect. IX. 
 
 The number of fields in cultivation at the time was 
 564, with the following result : — 
 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 Tons Uwt. 
 
 With farmyard manure . 
 
 . 6 4 
 
 „ chemical manure . 
 
 . 6 llj 
 
 Upon soil without manure 
 
 . 4 8 
 
 Is it possible to diffuse more useful notions than 
 these throughout the country ? 
 
 Do you believe that a child who has seen and 
 followed such experiments, when he becomes a man 
 and cultivates his own land — when he is struggling 
 with the necessities of life, do you believe, I say, 
 that the child will not remember, and that the seed 
 you have planted in his young mind will bear no 
 fruit? 
 
 You see by this example the part that it is pos- 
 sible for an experimental field to play, whether we 
 desire to know the true state of the soil with a view 
 to carrying on farming operations on a large scale, or 
 simply to instruct the coimtry labourer in the laws 
 of vegetation and the practical conditions that are at 
 the root of successful farming. 
 
 This method of teaching which has been in prac- 
 tice in primary schools, and which, had it not been 
 for the events of 1870 would have become the basis 
 of elementary agricultural instruction throughout the 
 country, has also been adopted by farming schools, 
 and in all the establishments connected with the 
 agricultural departments of the State. 
 
 The results have been the same as in the school 
 experiments. We have in fact in 34 farming schools 
 grown 15 tons 9 cwt. of beetroot with 19 tons of farm- 
 yard manure, 15 tons 12^ cwt. of roots with half a ton. 
 ol chemical manure, whilst the soil without manure 
 
LECI. IX. ROTHAMSTED AND VINCENNES. 189 
 
 has yielded only 9 tons 13 cwt. At Grignon the 
 same results were observable — beetroot with a large 
 amount of farmyard manure producing 25 tons 5 cwt. 
 of roots, and with the chemical manure 26 tons 
 1 cwt. 
 
 But the method which I have just demonstrated, 
 the application of which is so simple, is capable of 
 solving certain problems in a very unexpected man- 
 ner ; for instance, it enables us to judge the state of 
 the soil at a distance. Here is an example. In Eng- 
 land analogous experiments to those which are being 
 carried on at Vincennes are being conducted upon 
 a large scale, and in this field Messrs. Lawes and 
 Gilbert have attained a justly-merited reputation. 
 The results obtained by those gentlemen and those 
 we have obtained in France are alike in many re- 
 spects, _but differ in others. With the normal manure 
 the yields are the same at Rothamsted and at Vin- 
 cennes. 
 
 The soil at Vincennes is improved by mineral 
 manure, whilst that of Rothamsted reaps most benefit 
 from the nitrogenous matter. 
 
 The conclusion to be drawn from this comparison 
 is that the soU at Rothamsted contained more 
 mineral matter than that of Vincennes, whilst the 
 latter was originally better furnished with nitrogenous 
 matter. I say originally, because it is now in much 
 the same state as that, of Rothamsted. By com- 
 paring the results obtained with the same manures, 
 we are enabled at the same time to define the analo- 
 gies and differences which exist between the two 
 soils. 
 
 I recently stated that within the confines of pure 
 science, this mode of investigation permitted vis to 
 
190 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. ix. 
 
 arrive at conclusions which it would be impossible to 
 obtain by any other means. If I were to affirm, or 
 better still, to prove to you, that when the earth was 
 stUl young, the air of which our atmosphere is com- 
 posed had not the same composition which it has at 
 present, but that in the remote ages it contained 
 more carbonic acid than it now possesses, besides a 
 large proportion of ammonia, you would naturally 
 find this a somewhat rash assertion, and you would 
 hasten to become acquainted with the data upon 
 which a similar demonstration could be founded. 
 
 You know that coal has for its origin vegetal^le 
 growths of the early ages, and that such plants 
 belonged to the great family of vascular crypto- 
 gams. These plants, as we know by their fossil 
 remains, presented two characteristics in their organ- 
 isation — the leaves were of colossal dimensions — the 
 roots conical and disproportionately small. This 
 contrast between two systems of equally important 
 organs indicated that the plants took most of their 
 nourishment from the air and very little from the 
 soil, at the same time growing to a large size. The 
 plants of the present age in which the organisation of 
 lepidodendrons and calamites is reproduced belong 
 to the lowest class, and consist chiefly of mare's tails 
 and club mosses which rarely exceed 3 or 4 feet in 
 height. For such a change to have taken place in 
 the dimensions of these plants, a corresponding 
 change must have taken place in the media m which 
 they hved, seeing that the conditions under which the 
 calamites and lepidodendrons increased and multi- 
 plied are not the same as those which govern the 
 growth of mare's tails and club mosses in the present 
 age. What then are these conditions? First we 
 
LECT. IX. PEIMITIVE SOILS. 191 
 
 must have an atmosphere charged with carbonic acid 
 and ammonia. As an experiment, take a large leaved 
 plant, for instance a caladium, which in order to render 
 the demonstration more complete should be grown in 
 calcined sand ; place, I say, such a plant in a similar 
 atmosphere, and you will find that it will suddenly 
 attain an enormous development — the leaves will 
 become more than two yards in length ; the activity 
 of development will surpass all those plant growths 
 by which you are surrounded, and you will be almost 
 inclined to believe that you are present at the resur- 
 rection of a bygone world. 
 
 Well, from a similitude in effect, you are justified 
 in concluding there is identity of cause. In the 
 first epochs of the world the soil was formed of 
 mineral elements ; there was no detritus of any kind 
 such as we now have. Now, as it is possible in such 
 a soU. for vegetation to become extremely active by 
 the absorption of a small quantity of ammonia con- 
 tained in the atmosphere, it follows that the atmo- 
 sphere in the early ages contained a nitrogenous 
 ' compound which has since disappeared ; but this is 
 not all, for the last fifty years a timid feeling — more 
 intuitive than reasonable — has sprung up in the minds 
 of men, and has now become an openly asserted 
 doctrine, which leads us to connect the aptitudes of 
 nations and the vicissitudes they have undergone with 
 the material conditions under which they have lived. 
 
 I select the following from among the results 
 obtained : 
 
 1. The primitive soils are decidedly unfavourable 
 to the advance of life and the expansion of the moral 
 and intellectual faculties. The races existing upon 
 these lands have degenerated mainly because the 
 
192 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. ix. 
 
 climate is excessively warm and moist, and of its 
 unfavourable influence on the soil. 
 
 2. The land formed in the midst of the waters 
 during the diluvial period possessed a marked supe- 
 riority over the preceding. 
 
 3. The most favourable conditions of existence are 
 those alluvial soils of recent formation, the alluvial 
 deposits of the present period.^ 
 
 To these facts the observation of historians adds 
 some others, for instance, the regions where human 
 intelligence has attained its most complete develop- 
 ment are those which are comprised between the 
 zones, where cereals are cultivated — and amongst the 
 cereals one is able to make yet another distinction, 
 viz., between wheat, barley, and rye — the effects 
 being reproduced upon the population. These ob- 
 servations which throw a new light upon history will 
 only be susceptible of a practical and positive appli- 
 cation when we shall be able to put them into more 
 precise terms. The experimental fields, thanks to 
 the certain indications that they aiford of the richness 
 or poverty of the soil — enable us to fill up this gap. 
 
 In the department of Aveyron half the soil is 
 composed of schist gneiss and mica-schist, the other 
 half, which is ahke in many respects, is composed of 
 Jurassic earth. The physiognomy of the two coun- 
 tries is entirely opposed. We wiU call the first rye- 
 land, consisting of the rye-producing districts, and 
 the second chalkland, from the composition of the 
 
 soil. 
 
 The inhabitants of the ryeland or rye-eaters are 
 puny, thin, angular, small in stature, and ugly rather 
 
 1 Tr^meaux On the Origin and Transformation of Man, 1865. 
 
LEOT. IX. DOMINANT CONSTITUENTS. 193 
 
 than good-looking — their domestic animals resembling 
 them in most of these points. 
 
 The inhabitants of chalkland, who dwell upon a 
 chalky soil, are well built, tall, and handsome rather 
 than ugly. The domestic animals participate in the 
 contrast ; those raised in the rye-growing country 
 become fat when transferred to the chalky soil. Sub- 
 mit the soil of these two localities to chemical 
 analysis with the view of ascertaining how it is pos- 
 sible to ameliorate their condition, and you will fail 
 to obtain a satisfactory reply. Then have recourse 
 to some modest experimental plots, and you will 
 find that the soil in ryeland is wanting in nitrogen 
 and phosphates, while that in chalkland is deficient 
 in nitrogenous matter and potash. Hasten, then, to 
 carry out this teaching. Dress your land with 
 nitrogenous matter, phosphates, potash, and lime, and 
 it will soon become evident that the growth of the 
 rye is restricted, while that of barley is increased, 
 and after a time wheat will succeed the barley. When 
 we use nothing else but farmyard manure effects like 
 this are impossible, the manure always retains the 
 indelible mark of its origin; if the soil which has 
 produced it is deficient in phosphates, the same will 
 naturally be the case with the manure. A rye- 
 producing soil will always remain a rye-producing 
 soU — ^the man who inhabits such a locality is of 
 stunted growth, his existence and his faculties are 
 submitted to the thraldom of a power which weighs 
 him down, embraces and enslaves him, the effects of 
 which he is unable to withstand. By the light of 
 science such bondage ceases to exist. Once master of 
 the conditions which influence the life of plants, man 
 can, although not without effort, change the plan 
 
 
 
194 ON CHEMICAL MANUKES. lbct. ix. 
 
 which oppresses him and alter the course of his 
 destiay by modifying the organisation of the animals 
 and plants which are the source of his nourishment. 
 To soil lacking in phosphates and nitrates let him 
 add phosphates and nitrogenous matter, and instead 
 of living upon rye bread he will be able to live upon 
 wheaten bread. By this substitution he will, after 
 two, three, or four generations, rise one degree in the 
 biological scale ; his organisation will become perfect, 
 and his mental faculties will be extended. Such a 
 conquest over the native inferiority of his race will be 
 entirely due to the inductions of science and to his 
 own voluntarily excited energy and perseverance. 
 You see then, that when we lift a corner of the veil 
 that still hides from us the laws that regulate the 
 advance of life, we feel dazzled ; between man and 
 creation there was formerly an impassable barrier, 
 but now we feel intuitively that we may boldly 
 affirm that this barrier no longer subsists. 
 
 By discovering the secret springs which regulate 
 human life, man has made himself its master, as he 
 has of steam and electricity, which he uses as his 
 wind and his thunder. By this knowledge he can 
 control his own conditions of existence, and by more 
 effectually balancing them he gives greater depth, 
 unity, and prominence to those analogies of nature 
 which produce in the midst of a nation that fusion of 
 thought and feeling expressed by the magic words, 
 Our Countky. Society is a vast arena where two 
 powerful enemies, life and death, are eternally strug- 
 gling for the mastery ! 
 
 If the productive forces of the soil are increased 
 the conditions of Hfe are ameliorated, and the popu- 
 lation is increased in proportion. If the law of 
 
LECI. IX. DOMINANT CONSTITUENTS. 195 
 
 restitution be infringed and the soil weakened, an 
 inverse effect is produced, the population retrogrades, 
 and death becomes more powerful than life. 
 
 I promised you a practical lecture, but it appears 
 that I have somewhat neglected this pledge. We 
 will go back then, and I wUl with your permission 
 tell you what avlU. be the subject of our observations 
 when we proceed to the experimental field. 
 
 The night of, or the night before, my first lecture 
 a storm had laid the wheat, and the cold of the pre- 
 ceding month had arrested the growth of the maize 
 and also of the beetroot. A fortnight has hardly 
 elapsed since these accidents, but fine weather has set 
 in, warmth has returned, the sun and the chemical 
 manure have both done their work. We will go and 
 examine in detail, and discuss step by step the evi- 
 dence placed before us at the present time by the 
 experimental field. The first question that I wish 
 you to understand is this : that with the four funda- 
 mental constituents of which I have spoken the 
 maximum yield can be obtained, and that by varying 
 the proportion of nitrogenous matter for wheat, beet- 
 root, and swedes, we graduate the crops, whilst the 
 nitrogenous matter, which here is so ef&cacious, does 
 not act beneficially upon peas, the predominant 
 action being in their case most effectively produced 
 by potash. In order to gain the greatest possible 
 amount of good from an experimental field, it is 
 necessary that you should frequently visit it at dif- 
 ferent periods of the year, and follow its progress 
 from the germination of the seed till the crops are 
 ripe. Unfortunately the short duration of our lectures 
 will not permit of our going deeply into the subject. 
 I must endeavour to obviate this by showing you a 
 
196 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. is. 
 
 multiplicity of crops, some of which are commencmg 
 whUe the others are finishing. Thus, side by side 
 with wheat, the ear of which is fully formed, you 
 wUl find a crop of hemp just peeping above the 
 ground, and another of maize a little more advanced. 
 Passing from the one to the other, we shall first 
 show the efficacy of chemical manures upon all these 
 plants: then the inequalities that arise by the suppres- 
 sion of this or that element ; and so to place clearly 
 before your eyes as much as it is permitted us to 
 know with respect to the reasonable and judicious 
 application of the theory of dominant constituents. 
 
197 
 
 LECTURE X. 
 
 WHAT IS GAINED BY FARMING WITH FARMYAED MANURE ONLY 
 
 The three last lectures have produced the following 
 results : — 
 
 The first showed us that the fundamental data on 
 which the doctrine of chemical manure rests, are 
 justified by the practice of the past. 
 
 The second made us acquainted with the agents 
 which take part in plant Hfe, and the conditions 
 which determine their activity. 
 
 The third showed how the soil may be analysed, 
 by taking as a basis the testimony of the plants 
 themselves. In the present lecture we shall view our 
 subject under a new aspect, which will lead us to the 
 very root of the agricultural question. 
 
 We will first enquire what is produced and what 
 is gained by adhering to the use of farmyard manure 
 only, as was the custom in ancient times. 
 
 In the cultivation of the land there are two orders 
 of questions which must not be confounded. (1) 
 The yield of the crops, or the total amount of the 
 products obtained ; (2) the profit resulting from the 
 working. 
 
 The first of these is a question of social, and the 
 second of private, interest. Let us endeavour to 
 define them both. 
 
198 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. i-uoi. x, 
 
 The aim of agriculture, viewed in tlie light of 
 social interests, is to feed the people at the lowest 
 possible cost. It is therefore a matter of importance 
 to them whether large or small crops are obtained. 
 The agricultm-al system most satisfactory to the 
 community is that which brings most provisions 
 into the market and produces the greatest quantity 
 of meat, corn, and vegetables per acre, thereby feeding 
 the largest number of individuals. 
 
 But the farmer looks at the matter from quite 
 another point of view ; he has devoted his time, his 
 trouble, and his capital to his farm, and from his 
 point of view the best system of agriculture is that 
 which produces the largest profit ; the interests of 
 the community are respected by him only so far as 
 they coincide with his own. And who can blame 
 him? Let us take two systems of rotation for in- 
 stance. In the one the fields are allowed to lie fallow 
 from time to time, in the other they are always under 
 cultivation. The profit on being calculated, in spite 
 of the smaUness of the crop, is found to be much 
 larger in the first case than in the second. Do you 
 think, therefore, that the farmer would be likely to 
 choose the second system? He certainly would not, 
 and you can hardly blame him. But on this account 
 it frequently happens that an antagonism exists be- 
 tween the interests of the community and those of 
 the producer. The latter is naturally anxious for 
 profit, whilst the consumers, on the contrary, demand 
 the largest possible supply of food at the smallest 
 possible cost. 
 
 There are, then, two sides to the agricultural 
 problem, which, although not necessarily antagonistic 
 in their nature, may under certain conditions become 
 
XECI. X. YIELD FEOM FARMYARD MANURE. 199 
 
 SO. These two sides must be taken into consider- 
 ation if we would rightly estimate the agricultural 
 state of a country and the system of cultivation 
 upon which it is based. 
 
 We will therefore first consider the question from 
 the social point of view, and enquire what is the 
 amount produced under the system in which nothing 
 but farmyard manure is used, and in what measure 
 it satisfies the primordial requirements of the people 
 — ' life at the lowest cost.' 
 
 Taking France as an example, the answer to this 
 question is lamentable and distressing, for the average 
 production of wheat for the whole of France is only 
 14^ bushels per acre. It is true that out of the 
 whole of the departments, there are 29 or 30, those 
 of the Nord especially, where the average yield of 
 wheat reaches 21 bushels. In 13 departments the 
 yield is 15^ bushels, but iu 46 others it averages only 
 13^. In other words, France under the system by 
 which farmyard manure only is used, produces on 
 an average not more than 14^ bushels per acre. 
 It is not necessary to be very deeply versed in 
 economic science to see the danger of this state of 
 affairs. 
 
 In 48 departments the population is increasing, 
 in others it is stationary, whilst in 39 it is decreasing 
 year by year. Now, if it be true, that there is a 
 connection between the increase of a population and 
 the conditions of existence dealt out to it, and if the 
 prosperity of a country may be measured by the 
 rapidity of this increase, which is regulated by the 
 amount of food produced in that country, it is certain 
 that the state of France would now be very different 
 if the system of farming which I am advocating had 
 
20U ON CHEMICAL MANUKES. lect. r. 
 
 been long since adopted. If instead of a population 
 of only 38 millions we could have boasted of 45 or 
 50 millions, the recent struggle would have had a 
 very dijfFerent result. 
 
 A long time ago I called the attention not only of 
 the public, but of the most influential representatives 
 of the political world to this fact. 
 
 In 1846 the births exceeded the deaths by 200,000 
 in a population of 35 milhons, whilst at the present 
 time, with a population of 38 millions, they are only 
 120,000 in excess of the deaths. According to this 
 calculation it will take our country 140 or 150 years 
 to double her population, while Germany doubles 
 hers in 60 years, and England in 50. 
 
 An attempt is made to extenuate this state of 
 things, by calling attention to the wealth of the 
 country which could sustain, without sinking, the 
 weight of a formidable debt, such as that imposed by 
 the Grermans after the late war. 
 
 It is true that our financial resources are great, 
 because Providence has endowed us with a privileged 
 climate, and because no nation practises thrift to a 
 greater degree than we do, but very different is the 
 situation of a people amongst whom the spirit of 
 forethought arrests the increase of the population, 
 from that of a people whose faith in the future leads 
 them to private enterprise, by which means they 
 raise the production to meet the requirements of an 
 increasing population. Do you think that he who 
 amasses wealth at the cost of privations will be the 
 equal of him who amasses it by dint of superior 
 activity? And is it not certain that he whose phy- 
 sical, moral, and intellectual faculties attain their full 
 development, is superior to him whose faculties, 
 
LECi. X. USE OF FARMYARD MANURE. 201 
 
 obliterated by covetousness, are restricted and wasted 
 under the fetters of an exaggerated and almost crimi- 
 nal care for the future? 
 
 From the point of view of general interests, not- 
 withstanding our excessive luxuiy and our immense 
 imports, I have no hesitation, in the face of our 
 retrograding population, in declaring our agricultural 
 situation to be lamentable, and threatening in the 
 highest degree. 
 
 Is private interest, however, better divided? Is 
 much profit gaiaed by cultivating with farmyard ma- 
 nure, according to the rules of the past ? Are fortunes 
 rapidly made? The answer to this will be found in 
 the words of the celebrated Lavoisier, one of the great 
 men of whom France has reason to be proud. 
 Lavoisier was not only the first chemist of his time, 
 but he possessed in a high degree the ruling faculties 
 of a statesman, Farmer-General at a time when 
 Trance had financiers, he displayed, in the exercise of 
 his office, the greatest administrative ability. His 
 treatise on the territorial wealth of France, which was 
 printed at the expense of the State, is a manifest 
 proof of this. 
 
 Led by the nature of his work to make enquiries 
 into agricultural questions, Lavoisier determined to 
 make himself fully acquainted with the subject, and 
 to this end he became farmer himself. 
 
 He bought a farm of about 200 acres between 
 Blois and Venddme, took shares in various farms, and 
 also, in the financial sense of the word, farmed a large 
 portion of the tithes of the district, so that he inte- 
 rested himself in almost all the farming operations of 
 the country. After eight years occupied in experi- 
 ments, calculations, and researches, what conclusion 
 
202 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. x. 
 
 did Lavoisier arrive at? I will give the answer in 
 his own words. 
 
 ' After eight years of farming I obtained a con- 
 siderable increase in fodder for cattle, abundance of 
 straw and farmyard manure, but little interest for the 
 money expended. 
 
 ' Progress in agriculture is excessively slow, but 
 what I have discovered with pain and learnt to my 
 cost is that whatever attention or economy may he prac- 
 tised, it is not possible to obtain more than 5 per cent, 
 on the capital advanced. 
 
 ' Unless our attention has been called to this 
 subject, and we have closely followed farming opera- 
 tions, nothing seems more easy than to revive a 
 system of agriculture which has fallen into a state 
 of decline, and persuade ourselves that cattle and 
 money only are necessary for it. But when we 
 pass from theory to practice the result which we 
 must arrive at is, that the proprietor, at any rate 
 under the conditions in which I am placed, takes 
 away only between one-third and one-fourth of 
 the crop, while the duties and taxes swallow up 
 almost as much more — the remainder, less than 
 a third, is all that remains to the farmer for his 
 labour, food, expenses of working, reimbursement 
 of the interest of his capital, and all incidental ex- 
 penses. 
 
 ' Still the most distressing part of the picture is 
 that with a languishmg system of cultivation, such 
 as prevails for the most part throughout France, 
 there remains at the end of the year almost nothing 
 for the farmer, who esteems himself happy when he 
 is able to drag on a miserable and wretched life ; and 
 if by the strictest economy he is able to save some- 
 
LECT. X. USE 01? FARMYARD MANURE. 203 
 
 thing during profitable years, that little is soon ab- 
 sorbed during average and bad seasons.'^ 
 
 In short, Lavoisier, who worked with all the re- 
 sources given by a large fortune, who possessed orderly 
 habits and knowledge that made him one of the greatest 
 masters in the art of applying scientific methods, brings 
 us to the conclusion that a large amount of money is 
 necessary in order to attain a poor result, that the 
 agriculturist loses, and the capitalist is not able to get 
 5 per cent, for his money advanced. But you will tell 
 me, this sombre picture belongs to a state of things 
 now far removed from us. To-day it is no longer the 
 case. At the present time we gain a great deal, 
 and agricultural profits equal those of trade. I will 
 cite for your benefit a few of the most recent ex- 
 amples, and certainly they are very decisive in their 
 teaching. I will take as my second example Mathieu 
 de Dombasle. You know the history of this good 
 man, who in the full maturity of age became inspired 
 with ideas to which he was devoted, and for which 
 he sacrificed himself. An old student of the ' Ecole 
 Polytechnique,' Mathieu de Dombasle was one of the 
 first who manufactured sugar fi:om beetroot. In 
 1823 he met with a reverse of fortune, just as he 
 had commenced to cultivate clover and grass upon 
 a large scale. Exaggeratmg the importance of the 
 advantages that would accrue at a time when only 
 uncertain and vague notions were held respecting 
 the agents of plant nutrition, Mathieu de Dombasle 
 resolved to show, by an example which the most 
 humble could imitate, that by the help of a small 
 capital it was possible ia a short space of time to 
 improve the worst soils, and to raise the crops to 
 
 ' Lavoisier, Grand National edition, vol. ii. p. 312. 
 
204 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. x. 
 
 a level Avith the best. Persuaded that alternation of 
 crops was a powerful means of amelioration, he wished 
 to furnish an mdisputable practical demonstration of 
 the fact. Having the welfare of the country in view, 
 he, a man of the world, became a simple farmer 
 working with a small capital, a third part of which 
 he borrowed, thus placing himself voluntarily in the 
 position of most of our farmers in order to give 
 greater emphasis to his example. 
 
 He then took the lease of the farm of Roville, 
 which a grateful public has since termed the Institute 
 of Roville, and there for ten years he did all that 
 earnest devotion, application, carefulness, and a 
 skilful knowledge of farming economy were able to 
 realise. 
 
 And what was the result of his efforts? Taking 
 first the results of cultivation, the yields were as 
 follows: — * 
 
 Wheat . 
 Colza 
 Beetroot . 
 
 Yield per acre 
 
 . 15| bushels 
 7 tons 
 
 Hay 
 
 1 ton 5 cwt. 
 
 With such crops it is easy to forestall the financial 
 result, but I will quote the balance of profit for these 
 same crops: — 
 
 
 Outlay 
 
 Produce 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 . 4 14 
 
 4 18 4 
 
 Oolza 
 
 . 4 11 
 
 4 17 
 
 Beetroot . 
 
 . 4 16 9 
 
 6 2 6 
 
 Hay 
 
 . 2 16 9 
 
 2 5 
 
 Upon the beetroot alone is there a decent profit, 
 and the exception is due to the fact that there was a 
 distillery at Roville at which 1^. per 880 lbs. of roots 
 was paid — an inferior price to the ordinary com- 
 
lECT. X. 
 
 USE OF FARMYARD MANURE. 
 
 205 
 
 mercial tariff. With a fidelity that does him credit, 
 Mathieu de Dombasle has left us the complete account 
 of the first nine years of his administration, fi-om 
 1824 to 1832. 
 result: — 
 
 The following is a resumS of the 
 
 Expenditure 
 Receipts . 
 
 Net loss . 
 
 £ «. rf. 
 
 1,714 8 1 
 
 561 4 5 
 
 1,153 3 8 
 
 With precarious yields there is an inevitable loss ! 
 KovUle possessed a manufactory of agricultural im- 
 plements, which during the same period produced a 
 profit of 1,600^., which raised the profit of the 
 establishment to a sum of 475^. : a lucky result, but 
 which had nothing to do with the farming operations 
 carried on during the same period, which resulted, I 
 repeat, in a loss of 1,153^. 
 
 But if Mathieu de Dombasle did not succeed, 
 
 ' Extract from the accounts of tlie results of farming at Roville 
 during the first ten years : — 
 
 Annals of Roville, vol. yiii. p. 37. 
 
 Bates of 
 balance slieet 
 
 Peoi-it and Loss 
 
 The two establislmieuts 
 
 The farm 
 
 Profit 
 
 Loss 
 
 Profit 
 
 TjOSS 
 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 
 £ <.. d: 
 
 340 2 2 
 
 115 4 9 
 
 48 12 9 
 
 516 8 8 
 380 18 
 
 £ !. d. 
 
 496 16 6 
 
 283 6 4 
 
 76 17 5 
 69 14 5 
 
 £ J. d. 
 
 230 17 5 
 
 295 7 3 
 34 19 9 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 469 6 2 
 
 77 15 4 
 
 36 16 4 
 
 283 17 9 
 
 474 13 8 
 371 18 10 
 
 
 1,401 6 4 
 
 925 14 8 
 
 561 4 5 
 
 1,714 8 1 
 
 Profit £475 11 8 
 
 Loss £1,153 3 8 
 
206 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. LECT. x. 
 
 what can we think of those presumptuous persons 
 who pretend to do so by followmg the same errors, 
 by workmg only with cattle and farmyard manure? 
 You may say the available funds were too low at 
 Roville. I grant it. But to those who contend that 
 by raising the available expenditure from 41. per acre, 
 as it was at Roville, to 8^. or even 161. per acre, the 
 yield by farmyard manure alone would become remu- 
 nerative to these enthusiasts, I will quote the case 
 of Grignon as an example, and invite them to think 
 over it. 
 
 Grignon was founded in 1828, with the idea of 
 demonstrating that culture by farmyard manure alone, 
 when backed by a capital of 16/. per acre, would at 
 the same time realise maximum crops and maxin^um 
 profits. In the absence of sufficient documents I 
 need not go into the financial results obtained at 
 Grignon by M. Bella, sen., its estimable founder. 
 My argument shall be carried on indirectly, but the 
 results will be none the less plain, precise, and con- 
 clusive. I will first remind you that Grignon was 
 in an exceptional position. The farm paid no 
 rent ; the land of which it was composed — con- 
 sisting of 750 acres — had been leased for 40 years, 
 during which time the farmer was expected to expend 
 12,000/. in improvements, of which he was the first 
 to reap the profit, and which he had time to pay ofl^. 
 This is one condition of which you will readily 
 perceive the advantage. When I first stated that 
 Grignon had not furnished the demonstration pro- 
 mised by its founder, that is to say, that by the 
 use of farmyard manure alone high farming of every 
 sort could be carried on successfully, I raised a 
 veritable tempest ; yet nothing is more true, as will 
 
LECI. X. USE OF FARMYARD MANURE. 2U7 
 
 presently be seen. Let us make an abstract of the 
 financial results, and then ask ourselves what has 
 been the increase in the production at Grignon under 
 the management of its founder. The rotation of 
 crops carried on at Grignon lasted for seven years, 
 which is a long time. The first year the following 
 results were obtained: — 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Wheat 23 bushels 
 
 Spring wheat .... 24^ „ 
 
 Colza 24| „ 
 
 Oats 43 „ 
 
 For the second year: — 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Wheat 26J bushels 
 
 Spring wheat .... 28^ „ 
 
 Colza Ifl „ 
 
 Oats 56 „ 
 
 WhUst with the oats the improvement is such as to 
 yield an increase of 22 bushels per acre, we find a 
 decrease in the yield of colza and an increase of 
 3^ bushels with the wheat, that is to say, 16^. of 
 capital per acre was sunk to obtain an increase of 
 3^ bushels of grain per acre after 7 years' labour. 
 
 If I wished to invert the order of your studies, I 
 could immediately prove to you that with chemical 
 manure to the value of 21. 8s. or 21. lis. Id. per 
 acre we should arrive at a far better result, producing 
 easily a yield of fi*om 27-^ to 33 bushels per acre, 
 without risking the fluctuations of chance to which 
 large capital is always exposed. 
 
 If Grignon had been worked under the ordinary 
 conditions, and had been obliged to pay an annual 
 rent, it would have ended like RovUle ; and the best 
 proof that Grignon deserted its flag, and was untrue to 
 
208 ON CIIE.MICAL MANURES. lkct. x. 
 
 its creed, is that during the last years of Bella's ex- 
 periment, from 600^. to 8001. worth of manure was 
 annually purchased from other places. Observe the 
 terms of our argument. Must farmyard manure be 
 proscribed? Certainly not. Neither must its pro- 
 duction be made the pivot on which farming turns. 
 Xo. What then is the rule? It is always to use 
 large quantities of farmyard manure, but to regulate 
 the proportion used ac ording to its cost. If it is dear 
 use little, if it is cheap use much ; but, little or miich, 
 employ other fertilising agents, such as ammonia, 
 nitrates, and phosphates, in order to always obtain 
 the maximum results. It may perhaps be again said, 
 ' But what has failed at Roville and Grignon may 
 possibly succeed elsewhere '—in other words, you Avill 
 ask me for additional proof. It is easy for me to 
 furnish them. M. Boussingault, a singularly learned, 
 sagacious, and prudent man, has published the 
 results obtained on a farm at Alsace, which was 
 managed on the system of using farmyard manure 
 exclusively. The estate is composed of 275 acres, 
 of which 150 are grass land ; this is the proportion 
 traditionally accepted. It is impossible to do better 
 when working with fai*myard manure only, but what 
 were the yields? 
 
 Wheat .... SObusliels 
 
 Oats 35i „ 
 
 Beetroot . . .' .10 tons 8 cwt. 
 Hay 1 „ 6f „ 
 
 It is assuredly not science that failed at Bechel- 
 bronn, yet, as at RovUle, only precarious crops were 
 obtained. The balance-sheet is just as unsatisfactory, 
 for after all expenses were paid the profit was 
 1311. 18s. Id., the ground rent bemg reckoned at 
 
iTilCT. X. ADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL MANURE. 209 
 
 3 per cent. Here are some of the items of this 
 
 gloomy account: — 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Vegetable products 
 
 Animal „ . . . 
 
 & s. 
 
 . 818 8 
 . 518 8 
 
 
 9 
 
 Expenditure. 
 Rent of farm .... 
 Labourers' wages . 
 Stable expenses 
 
 1,336 16 
 
 . 396 8 
 . 220 11 
 . 666 11 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1,283 10 4 
 
 It must also be remembered that in the expenses we 
 do not find the manager's salary. Is this, then, a 
 financial result which would enable us to consider 
 the system a profitable one? The more I multiply 
 my examples the more my conclusions are confirmed. 
 I will, however, quote yet another example, which 
 appears to mfe to carry more weight than the pre- 
 ceding ones. At the time of the grand agricultural 
 inquiry in 1866 the Cambrai Chamber of Agriculture 
 resolved to settle the question by means of a farm 
 of 250 acres, which was to become the model farm 
 for one of the departments of the North. What was 
 the result? That a farm of 250 acres with 3,200?. 
 capital, of 'Which 1,600Z. was used for buildings and 
 stocking the farm, and 1,600?. invested in working 
 expenses, brought in an annual profit of only 126?., 
 notwithstanding that the farmer charges nothing for 
 his management. 
 
 Lavoisier, Dombasle, Bella, Boussingault lead us 
 to the same conclusion as the most eminent practical 
 men, giving us spontaneous, and altogether disinte- 
 rested testimony. You may say perhaps that these 
 results can be improved by the annexation of a dis- 
 tillery or a starch factory, and that by adopting these 
 
210 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lbct. x. 
 
 means a farm can always be made to pay? We must, 
 however, remember in tbe first place that this course 
 is impracticable to all but a select few, for the cost 
 of establishing a distillery cannot possibly be less 
 than 8^. per acre. One of our most eminent civil 
 engineers who has established a large farm in Nor- 
 mandy, and who this year contested for the first 
 prize, fixed the cost of material, without counting 
 either the buildings or the Working expenses, at 
 8/. 10s. per acre. 
 
 But is it certain that by the addition of a dis- 
 tillery we can raise the value of the crops in a short 
 time and realise a handsome profit? M. Houel, the 
 engineer of whom I have just been speaking, obtained 
 at the end of ten years, with great difficulty, from 
 24,640 to 26,400 lbs. of beetroot per acre, and also 
 realised from 3 to 4 per cent, upon the capital laid 
 out. and this in spite of the powerful and various 
 means he employed. 
 
 Capital IwOested. 
 
 Per acfc 
 
 & s. d. 
 
 Purchase of farm 28 12 
 
 Building and roads 28 10 1 
 
 Lime for dressing 2 16 
 
 Drainage 19 2 
 
 ImprovementB 10 8 8 
 
 71 
 
 Agricultural and Industrial Capital. 
 
 Cattle .... 
 Agricultural implements . 
 Housekold and office furniture 
 Plant for distillery . 
 Working capital i 
 
 71 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 ital. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 £ 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 27 5 11 
 
1J3CT. s. ADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL MANUEE. 211 
 
 71/. 155. 6d. on the one hand and 271. 5s. lid. on the 
 other makes a total outlay of 99/. Is. 5d. per acre, 
 being three times the price of the original cost ; and 
 in order to obtain what? 26,400 lbs. of beetroot per 
 acre, and an interest of 3 per cent. But would a 
 simple farmer of 100, 125, or 250 acres be able to do 
 this? In the first place, in order to make a distillery 
 successful, it must be conducted on a large scale. If 
 the farm itself is not able to supply the demand, it 
 becomes a mere accessory, and I ask if such an 
 arrangement can be called a solution of an agricul- 
 tural question? 
 
 What then do we learn from the example of M. 
 Houel? That farming with farmyard manure is slow 
 ia its effects, and smgularly onerous in the means 
 it employs. It is not the man, not even his example 
 that I criticise — it is the system. In farming with 
 farmyard manure then there is one radical vice : the 
 slow action and insufficiency of the real fertilising 
 agents which the soU is able to furnish. 
 
 What then is to be done if abundant crops are 
 desired with the least possible delay? The farmer 
 must apply plenty of manure, and if he has not 
 enough, he is forced to buy and give up producing 
 it. The result will be that the manure heap wUl 
 ultimately become an accessory merely. The great, 
 producer of manures wiU be the manufacturing che- 
 mist, and instead of producing it at any cost by 
 turning half of the farm into grass land, each one will 
 regulate his system of farming by the crops which he 
 is best able to dispose of One distinct locality will 
 be for cattle grazing — which will be the lot of Nor- 
 mandy, Cotentin, and similar districts ; anotlier in 
 our central departments for wheat, leaving the south 
 
212 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. ieot. x. 
 
 for the vine, oil, fruits, and early vegetables. Above 
 all farmyard manure "wUl become the accessory even 
 in the districts devoted to pasturage, for there es- 
 pecially the principle of high farming by chemical 
 manures ought to be applied. Everything calls for 
 it ; the burdens which overwhelm us and which it 
 is necessary to reduce ; our population, which is de- 
 creasing, and which must be reinvigorated ; a too 
 restricted exportation to which we must give an 
 impetus in order to benefit our mercantile marine 
 service, which in return would give us economical 
 means of transport for those raw materials which we 
 do not produce but which are needed for our manu- 
 factures. 
 
 To make the necessity of importing manures 
 instead of producing them at any cost, as plain as a 
 mathematical demonstration, I give the following 
 table, in which I have given the cost of everything 
 necessary for the production of an acre of wheat. 
 
 IEent . 
 Seed . 
 
 £, s. d. s, s. d. 
 
 14 5\ 
 
 16 10 o iQ 
 
 1.3 lOf 2 19 9 
 
 14 
 
 1 14 4 
 
 Variable cliaro-es I '^"'^^'^ • • • -13 8) 
 ° I Harvesting and thrashing .' 10 8 '' 
 
 4 14 r 
 
 Subtracting value of straw . .0160 
 Net cost ..... 3 18 1 
 
 Let us analyse the items of this calculation. Under 
 the head of culture there are expenses of two kinds : 
 fixed expenses which do not change, and variable 
 expenses. The fixed charges include rent of ground 
 cost of culture, labour, tilHng, seed, and general ex- 
 penses. At the Institute of Roville the whole of 
 these charges amounted to 21. IBs. 6d, per acre 
 
LECT. X. ADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL MANURE. 213 
 
 Under the second heading come the variable 
 charges represented by the manure, and the cost of 
 harvesting amounting to 1^. 14s. 4c?., giving a total 
 of 41. 14s., from which, however, it is necessary to 
 deduct 16s. for the value of the straw. The total 
 expenditure to produce fifteen bushels of wheat is 
 then SI. 18s. Id. This makes the cost of one bushel 
 5s. 2^d. Now if, Avithout in any way changing the 
 organisation of the estate, without extending the 
 buiLdiags, without improving the implements, with- 
 out increasing the live stock, without adding to the 
 chances of loss, we simply purchase 11. 18s. Ad. worth 
 of chemical manure per acre per annum, the ac- 
 count would stand as follows: — 
 
 £ i: d. & s. d. 
 Fixed charges, as before .... 2 19 6 
 
 4 13 
 
 Variable charges, which are {g™^j^-^ ; § jg \] 
 
 Total cost 7 10 
 
 Deduct -value of straw . . . 1 10 4 
 
 Net cost 5 10 8 
 
 The charges are increased from SI. 18s. \d. to 
 bl. 10s. %d., it is true ; but the crop has increased it; 
 proportion. Instead of 15^ bushels it is raised to 
 31 bushels, which brings down the cost of 1 bushel 
 of wheat from 55. 2^. to 3s. Q^d. 
 
 With an increase of manure, costing about 
 11. 18s. Ad., we should be able to obtain an increase 
 of 15^ bushels in the crop. Everything else remains 
 in its primitive state, farm buildings and cattle and 
 personal effects, excepting that the cattle will be 
 better provided with straw, and the yield of hay will 
 be increased ; we shall be able to restrict the ground 
 devoted to grass, and introduce certain crops of an 
 industrial kind with great profit. The farmer should 
 
214 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lbct. X. 
 
 never cultivate with a small amount of manure, for 
 manure is the first principle of agriculture. When 
 he cultivates with little manure he places himself in 
 the position of a manufacturer who, having founded a 
 manufactory at great cost, feeds it with only half the 
 proper quantity of raw material. Provided with the 
 most perfect apparatus, each portion used in the work 
 gives only half of what it is able to give, and there- 
 fore the general expenses are doubled. For the agri- 
 culturist the plant is the most important organ of 
 production, the soil is the bed on which the plant 
 rests, and manure is the raw material. With little 
 manure small results only are obtained, and the 
 general expense absorbs the profit. With plenty of 
 manure good results foUow, and the general ex- 
 penses are diminished by reason of the increase of the 
 products. 
 
 By the importation of manure we obtain large 
 yields, certain profits, abundant crops, good food at 
 a cheap rate ; for society, security ; for the producer, 
 success and fortune ; and harmony and concord be- 
 tween all classes, by reason of the progress made. 
 What becomes then of the ancient formula, grass, 
 land, cattle, cereals ? The expression of what at one 
 time was considered great progress and retained as 
 a sound legacy, is to-day regarded only as the remains 
 of a lifeless monumental fossU. But here an objec- 
 tion arises which were it not refuted would be 
 capable of destroying the new edifice. 
 
 If everybody practised the high-farming system, 
 would not the markets become glutted and prices 
 lowered? Would not profits disappear and universal 
 misery reign in the midst of abundance? Egypt, 
 for example, yields two crops to our one, yet the 
 
lEOT. X. THE HIGH-FARMING SYSTEM. 215 
 
 population after ten centuries is more backward than 
 those of the most unenlightened provinces of Spain 
 and Portugal. 
 
 Such a danger need not be feared. It is one of 
 the marvels of the new solution, that a simple dis- 
 placement in the profit of production suffices to 
 restore the equilibrium between the supply and the 
 demand, the resources and the needs, production 
 and consumption. What would cause this? A few 
 more cattle, a little less wheat, and the replace- 
 ment of inferior cereals such as rye, or barley, by 
 wheat. The smallest change in the proportion of 
 these three products is sufficient to restore the equi- 
 librium in cases of excess. For example, on an 
 equal area of soU potatoes produce four times more 
 food than wheat, and sixteen times more than grass, 
 which is afterwards converted into meat. Here, 
 then, is an excess of potatoes and of wheat, but a 
 very slight impetus given to the production of meat 
 (grazing) suffices to restore the equilibrium. 
 
 The food supply is improved for the generality of 
 consumers, and thanks to the improvement the active 
 working man accomplishes more useful labour, and 
 consequently draws an overplus of salary. Every, 
 thing in a country depends on, and all prosperity 
 arises from, the abundance and the quality of agri- 
 cultural products. Take, in the first place, the in- 
 crease and vigour of the population, compare the 
 work of a Calabrian peasant with that of a Belgian 
 navvy, and the contrast seems inexplicable ; but take 
 into consideration the diet of the two, and the expla- 
 nation is at once apparent. We will notice generally 
 the products of the soil in Belgium and in Calabria, 
 and base our statistics on the crops produced. In 
 
216 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lECT. x. 
 
 Calabria the food supply consists of fruits and legu- 
 minous plants ; the analogous products iu Belgium 
 are converted into meat, which with wheaten bread, 
 beer, and coffee forms the staple diet of the working 
 man. The method of high farming can be ex- 
 tended and generalised without risk, new methods 
 would become capable of being extended and gene- 
 ralised without perU. There will never be over- 
 stocked markets, nor a lasting lowering of price. 
 There will be transitory crises ; but in the end there 
 will be improvement in the general food supply, and 
 consequently improvement and progress in the phy- 
 sical organisation of the people, in their power of 
 labour, in their aptitude, and in their intellectual and 
 moral faculties. 
 
 Plato, Dante, and Lavoisier were not cradled 
 amongst the valleys and heights of the Jura and the 
 Valais where criticism is rife? ' Man is a microcosm,' 
 say the ancients, ' the living synthesis of all the 
 natural conditions of climate, soU, and altitude in the 
 midst of which he has lived.' 
 
 This is how the agriciiltural question ought to be 
 considered, how the problem ought to be stated, and 
 how it ought to be solved. We may again sum 
 up the whole principle in four words. Use plenty of 
 manure ! Cultivation by means of farmyard manure 
 is not equal either to the necessities of the present 
 day or to the exigencies of our social condition. It 
 is not remunerative to the farmer ; to society it gives 
 no security. Who will pretend to do better than 
 Lavoisier, and to succeed where Matthieu de Dom- 
 basle, Bella, and Boussingault failed? To pretend 
 to do this would be the height of presumption, and 
 to attempt it an act of great folly. If you wish your 
 
LECT. X. FEKE USE OF MANUEE. 217 
 
 farming to be remunerative never say, ' I am going to 
 produce manure ; ' say, ' I am going to manure in 
 larger quantities.' If you lack farmyard manure, buy 
 other kinds, bring it in from outside. Having within 
 your reach a simple practical method of discovering 
 what the soil lacks, the choice of fertilising agents 
 has nothing arbitrary or adventitious about it: it is on 
 the testimony of the plants themselves that the selec- 
 tion is made. In any case the production of farmyard 
 manure is not the starting point : it is only a sub- 
 ordinate element ia the solution of the agricultural 
 problem. The judicious and reasonable starting 
 point, the true condition of success, is to give the 
 ground such manure as is necessary in order to ob- 
 tain the maximum crops. There is the source of 
 profit and the assurance against disappointment. 
 
 With farmyard manure alone no distinction is 
 possible between manure containing substances with 
 which the plants are well supplied, and those they 
 do not require, whilst those they need are often 
 withheld. If we analyse the excreta of a sheep 
 bred on the sandy moors in Gascony, we shall find 
 only insignificant traces of phosphates ; examine the 
 skeleton, there is, properly speaking, no bony frame- 
 work, but only hardened and gritty tendons. How 
 can cereals be obtained with such manure? But by 
 the introduction of chemical manure the whole system 
 of farming becomes simple, just, economical, and, 
 harmonious, each plant receiAong what it requires. 
 
 The question of principle being settled, let us pass 
 on to the rule which it is necessary to follow in its 
 application. The rules are very simple : give manure 
 to the value of 11. 18s. Ad. to each acre of all your 
 crops ; and as grass land is included in the list we 
 
218 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. itsct, x. 
 
 must either increase the number of cattle or reduce 
 the grass, and make room for what may be called 
 industrial crops, such as hops, tobacco, hemp, or 
 colza, which must be well manured. At Bechel- 
 bronn, for instance, with farmyard manure alone little 
 was produced, and the gain was only 133^. 6s. 5d.; 
 but under the new system, by the introduction of 
 240/. worth of chemical manure, half as much again 
 was produced, and the gain was between 400/. and 
 480/. mstead of 133/. 
 
 In order to gain the 133/. odd it was necessary to 
 have a working capital of 1,400/. By raising it to 
 1,640/. the annual profit increases, as I said before, 
 to between 400/. and 480/., and it will be observed 
 that this 240/. which represents an increase of ex- 
 penditure is not lying dead ; it is, on the contrary, 
 redeemed the same year. 
 
 What can be more simple, more rational, and 
 altogether more satisfactory? The results in the case 
 of grass land are equally certain, as will be seen from 
 the following statement on this subject by a well- 
 known farmer of Calvados, M. Ad. Welbien, who has 
 treated his meadow land with chemical manure. I 
 will quote literally: — ' I was waiting to thank you 
 for your advice till I had confirmed by experience 
 the merit of your last formula for manure. The 
 success is most complete. I obtained a quantity of 
 grass which grew to the height of about 4 feet. In 
 one piece of 12^ acres (not the very best quality, and 
 only grass of the second year) I put 28 oxen, which 
 have been well fed for the last three weeks, and have 
 not yet consumed the whole of the grass and clover. 
 I spread some chemical manure over 50 acres of 
 meadow, and everywhere a luxuriant crop of grass 
 
lECT. X. RESULTS OF USING CHEMICAL MANURE. 219 
 
 is fattening my cattle. I have 61 head of horned 
 cattle on the property, of which 40 are oxen, and I 
 should be able to feed double that number with my 
 superabundant grass. I hope that after usmg your 
 new formula for two more years I shall be able to 
 raise the productive power of my land to the level of 
 the best pasturage iu the country, by combining the 
 action of the chem.ical manure with that of the cattle 
 kept on the place, the number of which I shall in- 
 crease. The farm consists of 87^ acres of land, all 
 laid down in grass, of which 50 acres have been 
 treated with chemical manure. I observe that cattle 
 prefer the grass manured with your formula, and that 
 they fatten better on it. This is very probably due 
 to the presence of potassic chloride in the grass, a 
 salt which may be considered a substitute for sodic 
 chloride or marine salt, of which they are so fond. 
 I am at this time mowing a meadow, the grass of 
 which is very remarkable ; it falls in heaps under the 
 scythe, and the mowers, who do not conceal their 
 surprise, teU me that there is two or three times 
 as much as in a good crop of excellent meadow 
 land.' 
 
 As a last g,rgument I appeal to the balance-sheet 
 of a farm of 250 acres, drawn up by the Cambrai 
 Chamber of Agriculture. The figures speak for 
 themselves: — 
 
220 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LECT. X. 
 
 Annual Charges on a Farm of 250 acres. 
 
 at 5 
 
 Interest at 5 per cent, on 2,400^,, teing tlie purchase- 1 
 money at 9/. 12s. per acre . . . . ' 
 
 Repairs and current expenses 
 
 Plant and implements, at 6i. 8s. per acre = 1,600Z., at| 
 5 per cent. ...... 
 
 Working expenses, at Ql. 8s. per acre = 1,600Z. 
 per cent 
 
 Ground rent, second class, at %. per acre 
 
 Commission on ground rent. Is. 9rf. . 
 
 Kates and taxes ..... 
 
 Farm overseer ..... 
 
 Labourers, from 20Z. to 28/. per annum 
 
 Shepherd ...... 
 
 Farm servant and assistant 
 
 Horses, 20 at Is. 4J(Z. per day . 
 
 Oows, 30 at Is. per day 
 
 Sheep, 150 at 6s. 4Jrf. per day per 100 
 
 Weeding, say, 6s. 4J(/. per acre . 
 
 Seed, say, 8s. per acre 
 
 Reaping, say, 9s. 'l\d. per acre . 
 
 Thrashing, say, 4s. 9|5. per acre 
 
 Chemical manure, say, 3s. 1\d. per acre 
 
 Farm manure 360Z. =its value as litter 
 
 Insurance of huUdings and crops 
 
 Wear and tear of general plant, at 10 per cent 
 
 Drawing lease ...... 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 511 
 
 
 
 
 
 547 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 -\c\ 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Profit 
 
 160 
 4 
 
 2,983 5 2 
 126 1 2 
 
 3,109 6 4 
 
 Some of the measures and prices in the above account are only ap- 
 proximate, but the sums carried out are exact. 
 
 What do we find here? That the yield of all crops 
 is only middling — for wheat 23 bushels of grain per 
 acre ; for rye, 22 bushels ; for colza, 20 ; for grass 
 land 4,576 lbs. of hay. But I maintain that with 
 1/. 12.5. worth of chemical manure per acre, in addition 
 to the farmyard manure actually used, by an outlay 
 of 400^., taking the crops one with another, there 
 would be a clear increase of value of from \l. 5.9. Id. 
 to \l. 12.S. per acre ; the cost of the manure being 
 
BALANCE SHEET OF FARM. 
 
 221 
 
 Annual Receipts of a Farm of 250 acres. 
 
 86 
 20 
 22^ 
 
 5 
 
 45 { 
 
 10 { 
 
 Wheat, 24 bushels per acre, at 6s. lOd. per bushel 
 
 ■ 3,620 lbs. of straw per acre, at Is. 7^d. per cwt. 
 
 Rye, 22 bushels per acre, at 3s. Q^d. per bushel 
 
 8,080 lbs. of straw per acre, at 2s. 0.^(7. per cwt. 
 
 Barle}', 60 bushels per acre, at 3s. 6|rf. per bushel 
 
 2,816 lbs. of straw per acre, at Is. Q\d. per cwt. 
 
 Oats, 60 bushels per acre, at 2s. 3|(Z. per bushel 
 
 2,816 lbs. of straw per acre, at Is. 2|(i. per cwt. 
 
 Beetroot, 1 ton 12 cwt. per acre, at 71. 12s. per ton 
 
 Oolza, 20 bushels per acre, at 8s. Id. per bushel 
 
 Haulm, at 14s. Ad. per acre .... 
 
 Flax, sold on ground at 16/. per acre 
 
 Artificial meadow grass, 4,576 lbs. per acre, at i 
 
 2s. 5^d. per cwt * 
 
 "Winter fodder, 5,720 lbs. per acre, at 2s. 5^d. \ 
 per cwt. ...... f 
 
 Potatoes, 132 bushels per acre, at Is. Qd. peri 
 
 bushel ' 
 
 Dairy produce 
 
 Sheep _ . ' 
 
 Pigs and poultry fed on waste grain . 
 
 Farm manure {niT) 
 
 Profit 
 
 595 
 
 217 12 
 
 28 16 
 
 20 19 U 
 
 172 16 
 
 25 12 
 
 190 4 
 
 42 4 9 
 
 273 12 
 
 181 8 10 
 
 16 4 
 
 80 
 
 224 12 9 
 
 62 8 
 
 57 12 
 
 657 
 
 215 4 
 
 48 
 
 3,109 6 4 
 
 126 1 2 
 
 The measures and prices in the above are only approximate, but the 
 amounts carried out are exact. 
 
 subt]*acted, this -woiild. leave a profit of 400^. to 480/. 
 instead of 126/. 
 
 The day is approaching when the only true 
 manure will never be produced on a farm, but in 
 those vast chemical manufactories, with high walls 
 and taU chimneys, where Estramadura and Canada 
 phosphates are broken up, rendered assimilable, and 
 mixed with potash from granite or from the mines of 
 Stassfarth, or with, the sodic nitrate from Peru, or 
 ammonic sulphate from the gas works, so that every* 
 one, great and small, may obtain the maximum crops 
 the earth is able to produce. 
 
222 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lbct. x. 
 
 Some time since, a gallant officer who was re- 
 tiring from the service in order to become a farmer, 
 asked me to give him some advice as to the best 
 mode of proceeding. 
 
 The following was my reply : It is necessary that 
 you should apparently be possessed of the very 
 poorest farm in the canton, while in reality you will 
 obtain the finest results. Be chary in building ; buy 
 only as many cattle as are necessary, in order to pre- 
 pare the soil and provide for the needs of the farm. 
 You tell me that wheat thrives on your land, then 
 make wheat your first object of culture. With the 
 grain you will make money, and have a good quantity 
 of straw left on hand. If you have a few acres of 
 low-lymg grass land, manure it well ; and, when to 
 your reserve of straw you add a reserve of hay, the 
 time will have come for you to think about buying 
 cattle, and to fix on the number you ought to have. 
 For a time sink no money, for ready cash is a tower 
 of strength to the farmer. Plough well and deeply. 
 Sow your cereals m lines of 7^ inches apart ; weed 
 these with a small horse-hoe. 
 
 As Lavoisier justly says, and as common sense 
 mdicates, if we insist on following the opposite 
 method and begin with cattle, risking the means of 
 supplying them with food, a dry season alone is suffi- 
 cient to ruin us ; in which case only two alternatives 
 are open : either to sell the cattle at a heavy loss, 
 or to purchase forage for them at an exorbitant price. 
 
 When, having weighed the subject well, the 
 choice is made of raising cattle in preference to grow- 
 ing crops, it is necessary first to create a supply of 
 food by means of chemical manure, so as to place 
 yourself beyond all eventualities, and to remain master 
 
lEOT. X. ADVICE TO YOUNG FAEMEKS. 223 
 
 of the situation and have nothmg to fear from the 
 future. 
 
 It is necessary to keep your capital well in hand, 
 and to risk as little as possible, in order to assure 
 freedom of action — in other words — make agriculture 
 a matter of commerce instead of being a slave en- 
 chained — bowed down and curbed by the extinct 
 feudal formula, grass, cattle, cereals. This formula 
 had its day but will never again be revived. 
 
224 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. xr. 
 
 LECTURE XL 
 
 FOEMUL/E FOB, MANURES, AND THE RULES RELATING TO THEIR 
 APPLICATION. 
 
 Three practical results are brought to light in the 
 preceding lectures. The first is that, by the aid of 
 four substances with which we are now familiar, we 
 are able, not only to prevent the exhaustion of the 
 soU, no matter how heavy the crops may have been 
 which have grown on it, but also to endow it with 
 the maximum of fertility consistent with the climate 
 and general local conditions. 
 
 The second result to which we have been led is 
 not less important than the first, viz., that farming, 
 based upon the exclusive employment of farmyard 
 manure, is never remunerative. 
 
 We must have equal growths of cereals and 
 fodder ; this is an absolute necessity, which is the 
 result of the theory of chemical manures. 
 
 This brings us to a third result, relating to the 
 rules necessary to be observed in order to manure 
 the soil well. In former days the idea was to return 
 to the soil, weight for weight, substance for sub- 
 stance, all that was taken from it. This is an error. 
 Following out the theory of chemical manure, we 
 have to return to the soil only calcic phosphate, 
 potash, lime, and half the amount of nitrogen that 
 
LECT. XI. FOEMUL^ FOE MANUEES. 225 
 
 we have taken away; under this system the soil will 
 produce maximum crops without being itself weakened 
 thereby. 
 
 These three results show the superiority of the 
 new over the ancient method. But in order to draw 
 from the new method aU the advantages that it pos- 
 sesses, it is not only necessary to know exactly the 
 substances which induce fertility in the soil ; we 
 must know also the practical rules that govern their 
 use. Here, again, everything is irresistibly simple and 
 clear. 
 
 From what we have already seen, it is evident 
 that when we wish to obtain the maximum of results 
 at the least cost, it is necessary to vary the com- 
 position of the manure in order to suit the needs of 
 each class of plants. This selection cannot be made 
 until we have first discovered the degree of richness 
 of the natural soil. 
 
 I wlU now pass on to speak of the wants of each 
 plant independently, and of the nature and influence 
 of the locality in which it is grown. It is necessary 
 to ascertain the dominant mineral constituent of each 
 plant, and find out by experience the amount of 
 manure necessary to obtain at will ordinary or maxi- 
 mum yields. 
 
 The first point — the discovery of the dominant 
 constituent — ^is not difficult. Plants are divided into 
 three categories — ^first, those in which nitrogenous 
 matter is the dominant constituent, such as cereals, 
 hemp, colza, beetroot, and general garden stuff. The 
 second group, of which calcic phosphate is the prepon- 
 derating ingredient, comprises maize, sugair-cane, Je- 
 rusalem artichokes, turnips, and sorghum. Lastly, 
 leguminous plants, clover, sainfoin, lucerij, potatoes, 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LECT. XI. 
 
 and vines have potash for their dominant constituent. 
 This first point being once established, we have next 
 to fix the most suitable quantities, both of the domi- 
 nant and the subordinate constituents. To determine 
 this point, I have since 1860 conducted many thou- 
 sands of experiments, and I am now in a position 
 to classify all manures into five distinct groups : — ■ 
 
 1. Normal manure. 
 
 2. Homologous manure. 
 
 3. Stimulating manure. 
 
 4. Incomplete manure. 
 
 5. Manure with special functions. 
 
 Let us first consider the nature and character of 
 this division. 
 
 Normal manures contain calcic phosphate, potash, 
 lime, and nitrogenous matter, and differ only in the 
 respective proportions of these four substances. By 
 varjdng their relative proportion in these manures 
 according to the necessities of the particular plants for 
 which they are required, we can apply the principle 
 of dominant constituents to every possible condition 
 which may arise, thereby meeting the requirements 
 and advancing the interests of every description of 
 farming. 
 
 Six normal manures are distinguished by their 
 number : 
 
 Normal manure No. 1 
 
 „ ,, 2 . . 
 „ „ 3 . . 
 „ „ 4 . . 
 „ „ 5 . . 
 „ „ 6 . . 
 
 Dominant constituent 
 
 Crops 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Potash 
 
 Calcic phosphate 
 No dominant 
 
 Cereals 
 
 Beetroot 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Vines 
 
 Oane sugar 
 
 Flax 
 
 Immediately after the normal manures come the 
 
EECT. XI. FORMULiE FOE MANUEES. 227 
 
 homologous manures, which form two parallel series 
 — the one designated by the letter A., and the other 
 by the letter B. 
 
 In the normal homologous manure marked No. 1 A. 
 a mixture of potassic chloride and ammonic sulphate 
 replaces the potassic nitrate ; the richness is the same 
 in either case ; the form in which the potash and a 
 part of the nitrogen occur is the only difference. 
 
 Here is an example : — 
 
 Normal Manure, No. 1. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . . . 362 
 
 Potassic nitrate .... 176 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 220 
 
 Calcic sulphate ..... 308 
 
 1,056 
 
 Normal Homologous Manure, No. 1 A. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . . . 352 
 
 Potassic chloride, 80° . . . 176 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 343 
 
 Calcic sulphate 185 
 
 1,056 
 
 "We will pass to the homologous manures of sym- 
 bol B. These diflPer from the corresponding manures 
 ia the form of the phosphatic element ; instead of 
 calcic superphosphate, CaH42P04, it contains calcic 
 phosphate with two equivalents of base Ca2H22P04, 
 which is termed precipitated or dibasic phosphate. 
 
 This is still identical as to richness, the difference 
 being only in the form of the phosphate : — 
 
 Normal Manwre, No. 1, 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . . . 352 
 
 Potassic nitrate 176 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 220 
 
 Calcic sulphate 308 
 
 1,056 
 a 2 
 
228 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. xi. 
 
 Normal Homologous Manure, No. 1 B. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 Precipitated phosphate . . .168 
 Potassic nitrate . . . 176 
 
 Amnionic sulphate .... 220 
 Oalcic sulphate 326 
 
 880 
 
 In fact, if it were found desirable to associate 
 potassic chloride with precipitated phosphate, we 
 should have to use the formula No. 1 C. 
 
 Normal HoTnologous Manure, No. 1 C. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Precipitated phosphate . . .158 
 Potassic chloride 80° . . 176 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 843 
 
 Oalcic sulphate 203 
 
 880 
 
 Lime being everywhere in excess, we are not 
 constrained to keep it rigorously to the same dose, 
 but where it is simply necessary to give a formula 
 containing sufficient manure for one acre of ground, a 
 weight that varies from 880 to 1,056 lbs. is sufficient, 
 thus the homologous manures are of exactly the same 
 composition and the same richness as the normal 
 manure. 
 
 In devising these formulae, I have had two objects 
 in view — to give greater efficiency to the manure, and 
 to realise a decided economy. In potassic nitrate 
 there is in round numbers of 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 . 14 
 
 Potash . 
 
 . 47 
 
 For two or three years this salt was worth from 
 11. 12s. to 11. 13s. Id. per cwt. Now with ammonic 
 sulphate at 1^. per cwt., and potassic chloride at 10s. 
 
lECT. XI. FORMULA FOE MANURES. 229 
 
 per cwt., it was possible for 1/. 4s. to obtain the 
 equivalent of 1 cwt. of potassic nitrate : 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 77 lbs. of amnionic sulphate . , . 14 
 1 cwt. of potassic chloride 80° . . . 10 
 
 14 
 
 It is a remarkable thing that the new manure has 
 generally shown itself to be more efficacious than that 
 previously used for cereals and grass. Originally I 
 used potassic nitrate for sainfoin, clover, lucern, and 
 the leguminosse, but experience having shown that 
 these plants do not need nitrogen — ^potassic chloride 
 alone, without the addition of ammonic sulphate is 
 found to be equally efficacious, from whence results a 
 still more important economy. Potassic nitrate at 
 the present time is worth at least 1^. 6s., and potassic 
 chloride at the most 10s. per cwt. The same obser- 
 vation applies also to calcic superphosphate. On soil 
 newly brought into cultivation the superphosphate, 
 which is, however, in the great majority of cases the 
 most efficacious of phosphatic compounds, is too 
 soluble. In special cases it is preferable to substitute 
 the precipitated phosphate for it, which to the merit 
 of more certain action adds that of being considerably 
 less expensive, for in the calcic superphosphate, the 
 phosphoric acid costs 4^d. per lb., and in the preci- 
 pitated phosphate only 2^d. 
 
 By the term stimulating manure must be under- 
 stood a normal manure in which we have increased the 
 dose of the dominant constituent in order to obtain 
 the maximum results, when the season admits of their 
 employment. I take as examples, the normal manure 
 No. 2, and the normal stimulating manure No. 2. 
 
230 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xi. 
 
 Normal Mcmure, No. 2. 
 
 Per acre 
 Iba. 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate . . . 352 
 Potassic nitrate .... 176 
 
 Sodic nitrate 264 
 
 Calcic sulphate 264 
 
 1,056 
 
 Normal Stimulating Manure, No. 2. 
 Oalcic superphosphate . . . 352 
 Potassic mtrate .... 176 
 
 Sodic nitrate 396 
 
 Oalcic sulphate 220 
 
 1,144 
 
 Nitrogen is the dominant element in beetroot, 
 therefore by raising the dose we insure an increase in 
 the crop, provided the season is sufficiently moist. In 
 the normal manure the quantity of nitrogen was 63;^ 
 lbs., in the stimulating it was increased to 75J lbs. 
 Again, there are cases where the earth, from its geo- 
 logical origin or from alluvial deposits, possesses an 
 exceptional richness in phosphates, potash, or nitro- 
 gen ; on these soUs, therefore, it is not necessary to 
 have recourse to the normal manures in order to ob- 
 tain good crops ; and we may suppress for a time that 
 particular constituent with which it is fully provided. 
 
 But here again it is necessary to avoid the uncer- 
 tainty of rule of thumb and the hard and fast lines of 
 preconceived ideas ; to avoid this double danger, I 
 have created the revised formulae for what I call incom- 
 plete manures, which are derived from the normal ma- 
 nures, but which differ from them in the suppression 
 of one of the two constituents, potash or nitrogen. 
 
 To this end I will, in passing, again call your at- 
 tention to the contrast which exists between cereals and 
 leguminous plants. Before the great value of potassic 
 chloride was known to me I advised that potassic 
 
LECT. xt. FORMUL-iE FOli MANURES. 231 
 
 nitrate, which contains 14 per cent, of nitrogen, should 
 be used for the leguminosse. Since it has been de- 
 monstrated to me that potassic chloride is quite as 
 good as potassic nitrate for peas, beans, clover, sain- 
 foin and lucern I have not hesitated to give the 
 preference to it, which effects a saving of at least 
 11. 5s. 7d. per acre. Here then are four series of 
 manures each responding to one special requirement. 
 In the one instance it is the natural richness of the 
 soil, in the other an idea of economy that determines 
 our choice, but whatever the motive of our decision 
 the result is always assured, because our formulae are 
 all derived from those of the normal manures, which 
 are the types, so to speak, of the mineral food of 
 various kinds of plants. 
 
 In the last place conies a class of manures the 
 formulae for which have not been published, which 
 we shall call manure with specific functions, or spe- 
 cial manures. These not ordy act upon the quantity 
 but also upon the quality of the crops. Let us 
 suppose it is possible to produce effects of two kinds, 
 to affect at the same time the quantity of the crop, 
 the quantity of grain in the crop, and the amount of 
 gluten in the grain. Let us suppose again that - 
 with beetroot it is possible to influence at the same 
 time the extent of the crop and the saccharine richness 
 of the roots. These effects being obtained by means of 
 special manures, would lead to the discovery of three 
 new classes of manure, namely : 
 
 Grain Manure. 
 
 Gluten ,, 
 
 Sugar „ 
 What first led me to this supposition was the hope 
 that in the future and at no very distant period we 
 
232 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LECT. xr. 
 
 may be successful m producing effects of this kind. 
 
 You wUl permit me to justify my hopes on this point. 
 Refer to the illustrations of the two cultures of 
 
 maize plants grow- 
 ing in calcined sand. 
 In one the plant has 
 attained a height of 
 50 or 60 inches be- 
 fore bearing grain ; 
 in the other the stalk 
 has stopped at 35 
 inches, and has borne 
 seed. 
 
 The contrast is in- 
 structive, and the 
 cause is not far to 
 seek. In the first 
 case the manure con- 
 tained potash in the 
 form of potassic chlo- 
 ride, and in the se- 
 cond in the state of 
 potassic sulphate. In 
 1873 two experi- 
 ments made at Vin- 
 cennes under similar 
 
 conditions gave like results. 
 
 I I ^-^^ I 
 
 ^ /jT J 
 
 _i ' Ji 
 
 _L U\ j/L __ ^ 
 
 ' ^'^ liT'Hi«~ 
 
 Manure with Potassic Chloride. 
 
 Manure with Potassic Sulphate 
 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 Tons Owt. 
 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Stalk . 
 
 . 5 16 
 
 Stalk . 
 
 . 5 4 
 
 Husk . 
 
 . 1 6 
 
 Husk . 
 
 . 1 17 
 
 Grain . 
 
 . 3 14 
 
 Grain . 
 
 . 5 
 
 Leaves 
 
 . 2 10 
 
 Leaves 
 
 . 2 13 
 
 
 13 6 
 
 14 H 
 
 or 66 bushels. 
 
 
 or 89 bushels. 
 
 
LECT. xr. 
 
 FOEMUL^ FOR MANURES. 
 
 233 
 
 Judging from these results, my first thought was 
 that the potassic sulphate exercised a specific action 
 upon the formation of the grain, but I have since 
 learnt that by slightly augmenting the quantity of 
 nitrogen as much grain is obtained with the potassic 
 chloride as with the potassic sulphate. 
 
 Here then is a first indication that deserves above 
 aU to be pointed out 
 to you. 
 
 It has for a long 
 time been known 
 that manures rich 
 in nitrogen increase 
 the proportion of 
 gluten in cereals. 
 Hermbstaedt, Te- 
 saier, Boussingault 
 have fixed this in- 
 crease at from 12 to 
 13 per cent.; I have 
 myself verified the 
 exactness of the 
 fact, although with 
 smaller results. 
 
 On one plant in 
 particular, viz., beet- 
 root, I have varied my experiments ad infinitum, in 
 the endeavour to increase its saccharine richness, and 
 have, three times out of five, obtained richer roots 
 with potassic chloride associated with ammonic sul- 
 phate than with potassic nitrate. These first experi- 
 ments justify my hope of one day seeing specific 
 functional manures practically applied. 
 
 We will pass now from the general classification of 
 
234 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect, xi. 
 
 manures and their reciprocal relations, to the study 
 of the rules to be observed in selecting the formulge 
 best suited to each kind of plant. These rules are 
 necessarily a repetition of those which I have already 
 laid before you, namely, to know the dominant con- 
 stituent of a plant, the proportion it is necessary to 
 employ, and the proper proportion of the subordinate 
 constituents. We will begin by speaking of those 
 plants in which nitrogen is the dominant constituent. 
 Colza, for example, requires from 66 to 70 lbs. of 
 nitrogen per acre, and of the subordinate elements, 
 
 lbs. 
 Phosphoric acid .... 52 
 
 Potash 79 to 97 
 
 Lime 97 to 194 
 
 With such a manure and by adopting certain 
 rules that I shall presently lay down, we are sure, 
 unless the year be unfavourable, to obtain from 33 to 
 44 bushels of grain per acre ; the total weight of the 
 yield being about 10 tons 10 cwt. 
 
 The knowledge of these requirements leads to the 
 two following formulae : 
 
 Normal Manure, No. 1. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate . . . 352 
 Potassic nitrate .... 176 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 220 
 
 Oalcic sulphate 308 
 
 1,056 
 
 Normal Homologoiis Manure, No. 1 A. 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate . . . 352 
 Potassic chloride . . . .176 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 343 
 Oalcic sulphate ... . 185 
 
 1,056 
 
LECT. II. rORMULiE FOR MANURES. 235 
 
 Here is an account of two crops obtained in. the 
 experimental field with the normal manures No. 1 
 and No. 1 A. 
 
 Normal Manure, 
 
 Normal Homologous Manure,'^ 
 
 
 No. 
 
 1. 
 
 Per acre 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 No. 
 
 \A. 
 
 Per Mre 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Stalk . 
 
 
 
 . 4 2 
 
 Stalk . 
 
 . 3 15 
 
 Husk. 
 
 
 
 . 1 18 
 
 Husk . 
 
 , 1 13 
 
 Grain. 
 
 
 
 . 1 15 
 
 Grain . 
 
 . 1 14 
 
 7 15 
 
 In each case the manure contained 67 lbs. of nitrogen 
 per acre. Let us carry our investigation still farther 
 and make two parallel experiments, one with mineral 
 manure composed of calcic phosphate, potash, and 
 lime, to the exclusion of nitrogen, and the other with 
 a norinal manure containing both nitrogen and 
 mineral matter, and then draw the conclusion that 
 must arise fi-om the results being compared: — 
 
 Grain per acre 
 BuBliels 
 
 With the normal manure .... 43 
 
 „ mineral manure, without nitrogen 16^ 
 
 Under equal conditions the nitrogenous matter had 
 sufficed to raise the yield fi-om 16-|- to 43 bushels. 
 In making a third experiment, instead of 67 lbs. of 
 nitrogen give only 35 and the yield will fall fi-om 43 
 to 27^ bushels, an excess of 11 instead of 26^. Let 
 us now look at these results fi-om a financial point of 
 view, and find out what nitrogenous matter is worth, 
 and what, on the other hand, is the value of the 
 excess of 11 and 26^ bushels of grain which we have 
 gained by its use. 
 
 ' In the autumn this crop was much the finer of the two, but the 
 winter tried it moi'e than its neig-hbour. 
 
236 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xi. 
 
 In the first case the excess of the crop is 
 11 bushels. 
 
 £ J. rf. 
 
 11 bushels of colza, at 7s. S\d., say . . .400 
 35 lbs. of nitrofren, at \\d., say . . . . 1 12 
 
 2 8 
 
 In the second case the excess is 26|^ bushels. 
 
 S, $. d. 
 
 26J bushels of colza, at 7s. S^d. . . .9128 
 
 701bs. of iiitrogeii,at IW. . . . '342 
 
 But this is not all : in order to obtain these re- 
 markable results, one precaution must always be 
 taken. It is necessary to divide the nitrogenous 
 material into two doses, giving one in the autumn 
 and the other in the spring. If we give the nitro- 
 genous material all at one time, in the autumn, the 
 plant at first acquires great development : the leaves 
 are larger and thicker, but they all fall with the first 
 frost, and the nitrogenous material that had deter- 
 mined their formation is lost to the plant. 
 
 If, on the contrary, we give the half only of the 
 nitrogenous material in the autumn and half in the 
 spring, we find, as it were, that the growth of the 
 plant is irresistibly impelled, and the addition to the 
 herbaceous parts formed at the last moment react in 
 their turn upon the importance of the grain crop. 
 
 Here is a remarkable example borrowed from 
 results obtained in 1874 : — 
 
 70 lbs. of nitrogen, in two doses 
 
 Grain per acre 
 
 Bushels 
 . 43 
 
 „ „ one dose 
 
 . 34 
 
 that is 9 bushels in excess, on account of the domi- 
 
TJiCT. XI. FORMULAE FOR MANURES. 237 
 
 nant element being better managed. In the presence 
 of such facts, who will be bold enough to deny the 
 importance of the ideas which we are investigating? 
 We win now speak of wheat, that source of wealth 
 'par excellence of nations. 
 
 Here again, nitrogen is the dominant constituent, 
 but this time it is necessary to employ it with greater 
 care and circumspection than with colza, 53 lbs. per 
 acre being generally sufficient. 
 
 If more than this quantity is used, the plant 
 becomes too green, and it is almost inevitably ' laid ' 
 by the rain and wind, which is always attended with 
 disastrous consequences. 
 
 A not less essential precaution is the further 
 division of the nitrogen iato two doses, 26 g lbs. in 
 the autunm and 26^ lbs. in the spring. This con- 
 dition is fulfilled in the two following formulae. 
 
 ATJnjMN. 
 
 Normal Homologous Mcmure, No. 1 A. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . . . 176 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . . . 88 
 
 Amnionic sulphate .... 171 
 
 Calcic sulphate 93 
 
 528 
 
 In the spring apply ammonic sulphate from 44 to 
 132 lbs. 
 
 Let us now proceed to the consideration of beet- 
 root, in which, again, nitrogen is the dominant 
 element. If the beetroot is to be used as fodder, 
 sodic nitrate is more efficaciouSj and must therefore 
 
2^8" ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xr. 
 
 be substituted for aminonic sulphate. Witb beetroot, 
 we have not to fear 'la3nLag,' as with wheat, so that 
 the dose of nitrogen may be increased to 70 or even 
 88 lbs. per acre, by successive additions of amnionic 
 sulphate, provided the summer is both damp and 
 warm. I will show by a fresh example, that the 
 increase in the crops and the profit again depends 
 essentially upon the dose of the dominant consti- 
 tuents : — 
 
 
 Besnlt per acre 
 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Mineral manure 
 
 . 12 8 
 
 Normal manure, with 70 lbs. of nitrogen . 
 
 . 18 16 
 
 „ » 88 „ 
 
 . 20 8 
 
 105 
 
 . 23 12 
 
 The profit being in proportion to the increase in the 
 crop. Now you know precisely the manures of 
 which nitrogenous material is the dominant prin- 
 ciple. I will conclude with a recapitulatory table of 
 the quantity of nitrogen that it is necessary to 
 employ for each kind of plant : — 
 
 lbs. per acre. 
 
 Oolza and hemp . . . .70 
 
 Wheat 53 
 
 Barley, rye, oats . . . .35 
 Beetroot 70 
 
 I now pass to those manures the dominant con- 
 stituent of which is potash, and I take potatoes for 
 my example. This crop, which is almost equal in 
 importance to wheat, presents an exceptional interest 
 by reason of the ill effects that attend insuflScient or 
 badly composed manure. By the following table, you 
 will see ia what degree the potato is influenced by 
 potash. In 1865 the manure contained 103 lbs. of 
 nitrogen, in 1867 only 67 lbs. 
 
lECT. IT. 
 
 FORMULA FOE MANURES, 
 
 239 
 
 
 Kesnlt 
 
 oer acre 
 
 186S 
 
 1867 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Normal manure 
 
 11 3J 
 
 9 16| 
 
 Manure -witLout lime 
 
 9 6A 
 
 8 4 
 
 „ phosphate . 
 
 7 8 
 
 ... 
 
 „ nitrogen 
 
 6 14 
 
 8 ef 
 
 „ potash . 
 
 4 4 
 
 4 4 
 
 Without any manure 
 
 3 H 
 
 3 
 
 The suppression of potash causes the crop to diminish 
 from 9 tons 16£ cwt. to 4 tons 4 cwt., the soil with- 
 out manure jdelding only 3 tons. But this is 
 not all. You will see by the preceding table, 
 that by reducing the proportion of nitrogen in the 
 normal manure from 103 to 67 lbs. per acre, we only 
 obtain 
 
 With 103 lbs. of nitrogen . 
 „ 67 
 
 Tubercles per acre 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 • 11 3^ 
 
 . 9 ie| 
 
 By suppressing the potash in the two manures, the 
 results became equal. The excess of nitrogenous 
 matter was altogether useless, and no longer exer- 
 cised any action. 
 
 Manure without Potash. 
 
 
 Potatoes per acre 
 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 With 103 lbs. of nitrogen . 
 
 . 4 14 
 
 „ 67 „ . . 
 
 . 4 4 
 
 The suppression of calcic phosphate causes the crop 
 to decrease from 11 tons 4 cwt. to 7 tons 3 cwL 
 
 If now we make another experiment, suppressing 
 the calcic phosphate and doubling the dose of potash, 
 the yield will reach 11 tons 3^ cwt. 
 
240 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. xi. 
 
 Potatoes per acre 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Normal manure, with 103 lbs. of nitrogen . . 11 3^ 
 
 Manure without calcic phosphate .... 7 3 
 
 „ „ but with double 
 
 dose of potash . . . , . . . 11 4 
 
 A remarkable example of the preponderant action of 
 the dominant constituent. The practical conclusion 
 to be drawn from all this is, that 132 lbs. of potash 
 per acre are necessary for potatoes, in place of the 
 44 lbs. which suffice for wheat, thus leading us to 
 the Normal Manure No. 3. 
 
 Normal Manure No. 3. 
 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 . 352 
 
 Potaasic nitrate . 
 
 . 264 
 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 . 264 
 
 880 
 
 But this is not all. I have announced to you 
 certain facts of an altogether new order. You know 
 that vegetables, like animals and even mankind, are 
 subject to parasitic and infectious diseases. 
 
 Who does not remember the terrible effects pro- 
 duced in Ireland by the potato disease at the time of 
 its first outbreak ? I shall say nothing of the expla- 
 nations that have been given of these formidable 
 scourges. Whether the parasites are the cause or 
 the effect of the evil, whether they owe their origin 
 to microscopic germs floating in the atmosphere, or 
 result from the evolution of cells of certain tissues 
 which become independent of the relatively superior 
 organism of which they form a part, and live 
 henceforth a life of their own ; whatever be the ex- 
 planation that is generally accepted, one certain 
 fact, inflexible in its manifestations, governs all, viz.. 
 
LECT. XI. FOEMUL.^iE FOR MANURES. 241 
 
 that the absence, or, at any rate, scarcity in the soil 
 of certain elements indispensable to the life of plants, 
 multiply if they do not absolutely give rise to those 
 diseases of which we have just been speaking. For 
 six years, these phenomena at Yincennes have not 
 changed. Wherever the soil does not receive potash, 
 or where it gets no manure, the plants are poor 
 and stunted, with withered and dry black leaves, 
 and that too in the month of June, when the other 
 plantings are still in a state of luxuriant growth. 
 As for the tubers, they become wrinkled, withered, 
 and reduced in size,^ their preservation being almost 
 impossible. 
 
 Vines are subject to similar effects ; and although 
 my experience is less extended in this direction, it 
 enables me to be equally positive. Where potash is 
 lacking, the leaves do not attain their full development; 
 in the month of July they become red and spotted 
 with black, after which they become dry and are 
 easily reduced to powder under pressure of the 
 fingers. 
 
 The stem does not reach a fourth of the dimen- 
 sions it attains with the normal manure. I have not 
 yet been able to collect evidence on the production 
 of the fruit. You see by these examples the great 
 practical importance of the questions of proportions 
 and formulae, and what care it is necessary to exercise 
 in order to discover the dominant constituents of 
 plants, and to regulate their quantity. You wUl 
 remark further, that in all this we have formed no 
 hypothesis, that our judge and guide is always 
 experience, having for her surety the leaders of the 
 
 ' See my pamphlet on the potatoe disease. {Lihrarie Agricole.) 
 
 R 
 
242 ON CHEMICAL MANUEES. leot. xi. 
 
 agricultural world. To the objections that I en- 
 counter, I oppose but one argument — Experience ! 
 
 To my opponents I say — Instead of exhausting 
 yourselves with fine talking, make a few experiments 
 on a small scale, which not only entaU no loss, but 
 which, when performed with the necessary care, carry 
 conviction to the mind, because they bring to light 
 the contrasts in growth that I have been explain- 
 ing. A small experimental field is an auxiliary that 
 defies all argument. To all the hostile arguments 
 directed against the new method the practical man 
 replies, My experimental field tells me to the con- 
 trary, e pur simuove; the plant grows and increases in 
 size in the way foretold and with the desired celerity. 
 
 Amongst manures in which potash is the domi- 
 nant constituent, those which are of service to the 
 leguminosse merit our attention. Nitrogenous com- 
 pounds have no appreciable influence upon legumi- 
 nosEe ; give sodic nitrate or ammonic sulphate to 
 lucern, clover or peas, and the eifect is absolutely 
 nil. In my lectures of 1864 and 1868, you will find 
 discussions upon this remarkable faculty possessed 
 by leguminosse of being unafi'ected by nitrogenous 
 substances. From this I immediately came to a 
 practical conclusion, which was not to give nitrogen 
 to leguminosse but to give potash instead. 
 
 Originally I employed the following manure for 
 these plants : — 
 
 Normal McmurK No. 6. 
 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate. 
 
 . 352 
 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 
 . 176 
 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 . 362 
 
MCI. II. T'ORMULiE FOR MANURES. 243 
 
 in which the nitrogen amounted to 22^ lbs., but I 
 now prefer to use this formula : — 
 
 Incomplete Manure No. 6. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate .... 352 
 Potasaic chloride, at 80° . . .176 
 Oalcic sulphate .... 352 
 
 "880 
 
 which makes a saving of 11. 5s. Id. per acre, and is 
 not less efficacious than the first. 
 
 On poor ground, or when lucern or clover is 
 concerned, it is an advantage to increase the dose of 
 potassic chloride to 264 lbs. 
 
 I now come to the last category of normal 
 manures — those in which the dominant constituent 
 is calcic phosphate. 
 
 Here the economical part of the question acquires 
 increased importance, because, the superphosphate 
 being the least expensive of the four substances form- 
 ing the normal manure, and its efficacy being in certain 
 cases very great, a slight increase of expenditure 
 suffices to obtain a large excess of the crop. 
 
 With the normal manure No. 6, M. de Jabrun, 
 of Guadeloupe, obtained 18 tons of sugar cane, 
 stripped of leaves, per acre. 
 
 With an increase of 176 lbs. of calcic superphos- 
 phate the result was raised to 38 tons, an excess of 
 14 tons of cane valued at from 11^. 4s. to 12^. 16s., 
 the increase of expenditure being about 12s. 9d This 
 seems almost beyond belief, but experience has con- 
 clusively confirmed the truth of the statement. 
 
 To regulate the composition of manures with cer- 
 tainty, three precepts will suffice. 
 
 First of all, be sure of the dominant constituents 
 
 B 2 
 
244 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xi. 
 
 and the proportions in which it is necessary to employ 
 them in order to obtain the maximum of their useful 
 effects ; secondly, know the proportion of the sub- 
 ordinate constituents which these same dominants re- 
 quire in order to bring out their action ; and lastly, only 
 draw conclusions from the testimony of experiment. 
 
 This, then, is the only method by which we can 
 determine the composition of manures and devise their 
 formulse. 
 
 Let us now speak of incomplete manures, which 
 comprise manures without nitrogen and manures 
 without potash. I have but little that is special to 
 say on this subject except, as you have already 
 been informed, they may be used for leguminosaa ; 
 in other cases their use is only possible when the 
 soil is naturally provided with nitrogen and potash, 
 which it is always easy to discover by means of the 
 practical experiments which I have described in 
 former lectures. Thus, by the aid of three series of 
 manures, viz. normal manures, stimulating manures, 
 and incomplete manures, all the wants of practical 
 agriculture can be provided for. We have, up to the 
 present time, spoken of manures with respect to the 
 wants of each particular description of plants, but in 
 practice things do not happen thus ; we very rarely 
 cultivate any particular species of plants year after 
 year on the same spot, but proceed generally by alter- 
 nation or rotation of crops. In this case, as in the 
 preceding one, do we use the normal manure for each 
 plant ? No. It is only necessary to use it every 
 other year, and to use the dominant constituent only 
 at intermediate times, as sufficient of the subordinate 
 constituents remain in the soil to insure the success 
 of the second crop. For greater precision I will quote 
 an example. This is an alternation of 4 years : — 
 
lECI.-XI. 
 
 INCOMPLETE MANURES. 
 
 245 
 
 1st year, beetroot 
 2nd „ wheat . 
 3rd „ potatoes 
 4th „ wheat . 
 
 normal manure, No 2, or No. 2 A. 
 ammonic sulphate 
 normal manure, No. 3 
 ammonic sulphate 
 
 If in tlie third year clover, wMch requires no 
 nitrogen, had been grown instead of potatoes, we 
 should have replaced the normal manure No. 3 by 
 the new incomplete manure No. 6, which does not 
 contain nitrogen, and the rotation would become: — 
 
 Ist year, beetroot 
 2nd „ wheat . 
 3rd „ cloyer . 
 4th „ wheat 
 
 that is to say, 
 
 normal manure, No. 2, or No. 2 A. 
 ammonic sulphate 
 
 manure without nitrogen (incomplete No. 
 ammonic sulphate 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Normal Homologous manure, No. 2 A, 1,056 lbs, 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 Sodic nitrate .... 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Quantity 
 lbs. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 !i62 
 176 
 123 
 264 
 141 
 
 264 
 
 CLOVER. 
 
 Incomplete manure, No. 6, 880 lbs. 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 AmmoDic sulphate .... 176 to 264 
 Expenses for four years .... 
 Mean expenses for one year . 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 1 10 
 1 
 
 2 3 2 
 
 352 15 4 
 176 14 1 
 362 2 7 
 
 2 3 2 
 9 19 8 
 2 9 11 
 
246 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. xi. 
 
 We thus supplement the system of the rotation of 
 crops by the alternation of manures. 
 
 Let us dwell a Httle on this point. 1st year 
 beetroot : with the normal manure No. 2, or its 
 homologue, No. 2 A. AU its nitrogen is absorbed, 
 but as the leaves are left to rot in the field, enough 
 mineral matter is left for one crop of wheat. Thus 
 the same year ammonic sulphate only need be used. 
 The same holds good for the two following crops, 
 clover and wheat. 
 
 Clover draws its nitrogen from the air, therefore 
 the incomplete manure, which does not contain 
 nitrogen, is aU it requires. Wheat, which succeeds 
 it, needs in reaHty only nitrogenous matter, and by 
 reason of the detritus which the clover has left the 
 dose may be restricted. 
 
 You will find in the first part of my lectures 
 (page 73) the combination of manure best suited to 
 the principal alternations of crops. To enumerate 
 them would be useless, since all the series we based 
 upon the same rules. 
 
 We will now speak of the best methods of apply- 
 ing chemical manures. I used formerly to apply 
 the whole of the chemical manure at once, in the 
 same way that it was customary to employ farmyard 
 manure, but I have been led to see the inconvenience 
 of the system. 
 
 In the first place it required a considerable amount 
 of capital in the form of ready money for the chemical 
 manure. The manure for one rotation of four years 
 would exceed the means of a large number of farmers. 
 But this is not aU ; during dry years an excess of 
 manure is more inconvenient than advantageous. Of 
 what use is it to load the soU with manure that could 
 
lECT. XT. METHOD OF APPLYING MANURES. 247 
 
 not be utilised by the first crops? Another incon- 
 venience was that with certain plants, wheat for ex- 
 ample, an excess of manure during moist seasons 
 would certainly cause the crop to 'lay.' To escape 
 this double danger I at first had recourse to alternate 
 and then to graduated and progressive manurings. 
 
 I will show by an example the difference which 
 exists between the three methods of working. By 
 the first method all the manure for two years was put 
 
 on at one time. 
 
 First Year, in Autumn. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 Calcic superphospliate .... 352 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . . . . 176 
 
 Amnionic sulphate . ... 607 
 
 Calcic sulphate . . . . . 1 85 
 
 1,321 
 Second Tear. 
 No manure. 
 
 Sbconb Method, bx Axtekstate Majj-ubing. 
 
 First Tear, in AutUTnn. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 Normal Homologous manure. No. 1 A, 1,066 Ihs. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 352 
 
 Potassic chloride 176 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 343 
 
 Calcic sulphate 185 
 
 1,056 
 Second Year, in Autumn. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 264 
 
 Third Method, Gradttated and Peookessite MAmjEnrs. 
 First Tear, in Autumn. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 Normal Homologous manure, No. 1 A, 528 lbs. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 176 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . . . . 88 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 171^ 
 
 Calcic sulphate 92J 
 
 528" 
 Same Tear, in Spring. 
 Ammonic sulphate 88 to 1 76 
 
248 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leoi. xi, 
 
 You will readily perceive the superiority of the third 
 method. 
 
 With the first method, that of using a large 
 quantity at and in one application, the outlay is great 
 and accidents frequent. The defect of the second 
 method is that the expenditure is still considerable 
 on account of the surplus mineral matter given 
 without necessity to the first crop. In the third 
 method we escape these two defects. The dose of 
 mineral matter is strictly what it should be ; as for 
 the nitrogen it is graduated according to the character 
 of the season, and care is taken to maintain proper 
 relation between external conditions and the quantity 
 of manure. 
 
 Then for cereals I never hesitate, but let there be 
 always top-dressing in the autumn as well as in the 
 spring. This time the dose of ammonic sulphate is 
 regulated according to the state of the crops, the 
 dose being increased where the growth is weak and 
 diminished where it is stronger. There is no neces- 
 sity for insisting further on this, for the precautions 
 will, as it were, be imposed upon us by their own 
 evidence. Let us now return to the homologous 
 manures, and inquire whether being equal to the 
 normal manures in richness they are also equal in 
 efficacy. I would remind you that in the homo- 
 logous manures of the No. 1 A. type, the potassic ni- 
 trate is replaced by a mixture of potassic chloride and 
 ammonic sulphate. One great advantage of these 
 manures is that they are considerably less expensive. 
 This year the difference is not great ; but last year 
 it was considerable, and I do not hesitate to attribute 
 in part the fall of the prices of nitrates to the intro- 
 duction of the new formulae. 
 
LECT. XI. 
 
 METHOD OF APPLYING MANUBES. 
 
 249 
 
 At the present price 
 
 62 lbs. of amnionic sulphate costs 
 88 lbs. of potassic chloride, at 80° 
 
 « s. d. 
 12 2 
 15 5 
 
 1 17 7 
 
 for replacing 88 lbs. of potassic nitrate, of which the 
 price is 21. 2s. Sd., while last year it was 21. 16s. Sd. 
 
 Compa/rison between ^formal and Homologous Mcmures. 
 
 WHEAT. 1 
 
 Tear 
 
 Straw . 
 Husk . 
 Grain . 
 
 Homologous Manure 
 
 No. lA 
 
 New Formula 
 
 Normal Mamire No. 1 
 Old Formula 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Per acre 
 
 1870 
 
 lbs. 
 3,902 
 
 698 
 2,399 = 37 bush. 
 
 lbs. 
 3,142 
 
 480 
 2,626 = 37 bush. 
 
 6,899 
 
 6,248 
 
 OATS. 
 
 1871 
 
 Straw . 
 Husk . 
 Grain . 
 
 5,662 
 521 
 2,516 = 76 bush. 
 
 6,519 
 648 
 2,468 = 73 bush. 
 
 8,588 
 
 8,535 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 1872 
 
 Straw . 
 Husk . 
 Grain . 
 
 6,733 
 462 
 3,978 = 62 bush. 
 
 5,044 
 597 
 3,458 = 54 bush. 
 
 10,173 
 
 9,099 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 1873 
 
 Straw . 
 Husk . 
 Grain . 
 
 3,937 
 746 
 2,233 = 34 bush. 
 
 3,511 
 661 
 1,980 = 30 bush. 
 
 6,916 
 
 6,142 
 
 Mean Result of Four Years. 
 
 Total result 
 Grain 
 
 Crop 
 
 8,144 lbs. 
 62 bush. 
 
 Total result 
 Grain . 
 
 Crop 
 
 7,506 lbs. 
 48 bush. 
 
250 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 But I must return to my first question. 
 
 Setting aside the price, are the homologous ma- 
 nures as efficacious as the normal manures? Four 
 consecutive years' experience, both with wheat and 
 beetroot, lead me to give the preference to the former. 
 
 
 
 
 BEBIEOOX. 
 
 
 Homologous Manure No. 2 A 
 
 Normal Manure No. 2 
 
 Tear 
 
 Roots . 
 
 „ . . . 
 „ . . . 
 ,, . . . 
 
 New Formula 
 
 Old Formula 
 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 21 6 
 12 18 
 16 6 
 16 10 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 18 11 
 11 14 
 
 13 17 
 
 14 
 
 Mean . 
 
 66 
 16 10 
 
 60 2 
 16 
 
 1873 { 
 
 Straw 
 Grain 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6, wltli potassio 
 ohloride 
 
 Normal manure 
 
 No. 6, with potassio 
 
 nitrate 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Per acre 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2,992 
 2,464 
 
 lbs. 
 3,520 
 2,640 
 
 lbs. 
 2,992 
 
 2,288 
 
 6,456 = 37 bush. 
 
 6,160 = 41 bush. 
 
 6,280 = 35 bush. 
 
 1873 1 
 
 Straw 
 Grain 
 
 ■With potassic 
 carbonate 
 
 Manure with potassic 
 chloride 
 
 With potassic 
 nitrate 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Per acre 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3,766 
 1,654 
 
 lbs. 
 3,824 
 1,720 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3,173 
 1,438 
 
 6,420 = 24 bush. 
 
 6,544 = 24 bush. 
 
 4,611 = 21 bush. 
 
 Soil without Ma/nure. 
 
 Straw 
 Grain 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1,280 
 762 = 11 bushels 
 
 2,042 
 
LECT. XI. HOMOLOGOUS MANURES. 251 
 
 With peas and beans the potassic chloride, without 
 the addition of amnionic sulphate, is shown to be 
 quite as efficacious as potassic nitrate. 
 
 The advantage is always on the side of the homo- 
 logous manures. It is unnecessary to add that the 
 crop of oats, being reckoned in the average of four 
 years, somewhat exaggerates the importance of the 
 crops of wheat. 
 
 I would remind you that with the homologous 
 manure, composed of potassic chloride and ammonic 
 sulphate, beetroot is generally richer in sugar than 
 with manure consisting of potassic nitrate. This 
 fact has been verified by M. Corenweider in the 
 neighbourhood of LUle, and by M. Pagnohl at Anas. 
 
 We may then consider it definitely settled, but 
 through an excess of caution I present it only as a 
 first indication. You have seen that with peas and 
 beans potassic chloride yields in nothing to potassic 
 nitrate. I bring the results before you again because 
 it is here that the advantages of the new formula are 
 particularly marked. They produced a saving of 
 from 1^. 5s. Id. to 1^. 12s. per acre. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 
 Per acre 
 Bushels 
 
 Manure, with potassic chloride . 
 
 . 37^ 
 
 „ with potassic nitrate . 
 
 . 35 
 
 For colza the new formulae are also better than the old. 
 You may perhaps say to me. So far all is well. 
 We know the formula of manures suitable to each 
 kind of plant ; we know how to vary their applica- 
 tion when we wish to have contiauous or alternate 
 crops, but we are absolutely ignorant how to proceed 
 when the chemical manures are to be used in con- 
 
252 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. xi. 
 
 junction with farmyard manure. What rules are to 
 be followed in this case, which is the one that most 
 frequently occurs? They may be deduced from 
 those I have already put before you. 
 
 If the quahty of manure that you produce is 
 very large, say 4 or 5 tons per acre per year, add suc- 
 cessively to the farmyard the dominant constituent of 
 each of the plants comprised in the alternation. If 
 the alternation is begun with a crop of barley and 
 colza, 176 lbs. of ammonic sulphate wUl be used ; 
 if it is beetroot from 180 to 250 lbs. of sodic nitrate, 
 and so on with the others. You see the cases are 
 changed, the special conditions are modified, but the 
 rules always remain the same, and suffice for all 
 necessities. Indeed it could hardly be otherwise, 
 seeing that these rules are laid down by the plants 
 themselves. 
 
 The modern system of scientific agriculture has 
 for its foundation the artificial production of plants 
 by the help of simple chemical compounds in defiance 
 of all the traditions which the old system has handed 
 down to us. From the day on which the modern 
 system was first practically adopted chemists, far 
 from forbidding the use of farmyard manure, have 
 simply advised farmers to abstain from using manures 
 which are too strong for their particular purpose, but 
 to rectify and complete the imperfect composition of 
 farmyard manure by the addition of chemical com- 
 pounds, which is a very different matter. Finally, 
 we cannot pass over in sUence the new means that 
 the association of chemical manures with farmyard 
 manure gives to the agriculturist. Let us suppose 
 a sowing of colza and of wheat well manured ; the 
 winter has been rigorous, the spring late, and the 
 
LECT. IT. ADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL MANURES. 253 
 
 plants have suffered. With farmyard manure only 
 you could do nothing, and the yield would be bad. It 
 is not possible to spread on the land more farmyard 
 manure during the month of March, besides, if it 
 could be done, its action would be radically nil. The 
 farmer is thus condemned to remain an impassive 
 spectator of an inevitable mistake. 
 
 But if, on the contrary, chemical manure be added 
 to the farmyard manure, all will be changed; 176 lbs. 
 of ammonic sulphate per acre will suffice to give a 
 sudden impulse to the colza and the wheat, and the 
 result is certain. 
 
 The last part of the question is financial : the 
 relative cost of farmyard manure and chemical ma- 
 nure. The market prices are as follows: — 
 
 
 Per cwfc. 
 & s. d. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 . 18 
 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 . 12 10 
 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 
 .14 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 
 . 8 10 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 
 . 4 10 
 
 Precipitated phosphate 
 
 .072 
 
 The price of the compound manures can be readily 
 gathered from that of simple manures ; but though 
 these indications answer to a concrete idea, it is 
 necessary to ask the cost of as much chemical manure 
 as is equivalent to a ton of farmyard manure. This 
 question is happUy no more difficult to solve than 
 the former one was. Here is the deduction. 
 
 In 1 ton of farm manure there are, roughly 
 speaking, ^^^^ 
 
 Nitrogen . . . . 8J 
 
 Phosphoric acid . . . 2| 
 
 Potash 8| 
 
 Lime 17^ 
 
254 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lbot. xi. 
 
 This, according to the price I have indicated for 
 isolated chemical products, represents a value of 
 105. ed. 
 
 Since 1867 this price has been subject to fluctua- 
 tions ; at first it was very high amd continued so, 
 because then the consumption exceeded the means of 
 production. 
 
 But in proportion as the market has kept up and 
 increased the demand, chemical industry acted on in 
 its turn, has set itself, as it were, to respond to the 
 demand, and so well has it succeeded that by an 
 inevitable reaction a general fall has taken place in 
 the price on all products, and at the present time 
 they are cheaper than they were in 1867, notwith- 
 standing that the consumption is ten times larger. 
 
LEOI. xii. RELATIVE COST OF MANURES. 255 
 
 LECTURE XII. 
 
 THE COST OF ANIMAL OB, FARM MANURE ITS EFFECTS COMPARED 
 
 WITH CHEMICAL MANURE LOCALITY OF THE FARM. 
 
 The cost of animal or farm manure lias already been 
 very fully treated in the 5tli Lecture of tins work ; but 
 tbe question being of a most important nature, it will 
 be necessary, at tbe risk of recapitulating a part of 
 what bas been already said, to go into it once more at 
 some length. It will be as well to remind the reader 
 that since 1867 the cost of an amount of chemical 
 manure equivalent to a ton of farm manure has fallen 
 from lis. 4:d. to 10s. 5d. 
 
 I have already shown in my lectures in 1867 (see 
 p. 92) the defective principles adopted by M. Bous- 
 siagault on his farm at Bechelbronn. If you wish 
 to place the' agricultural question clearly before you, 
 imitate the system of book-keeping adopted by 
 merchants and manufacturers. Open a separate 
 account for each operation, debiting it with every- 
 thing that is used or consumed at the market rate, 
 deducting from 10 to 15 per cent, which has been 
 saved by using the material on the spot where it has 
 been produced. 
 
 Under such conditions all harmonises, and the 
 true state of things is easUy and readily arrived at 
 down to the most trifling details. If you apply these 
 principles, which are the true ones, to the rectification 
 of the Bechelbronn calculations, and substitute the 
 
256 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 lEOT. xir. 
 
 real for the conventional price, all will be changed. 
 Instead of 148^. Is. 8d. the cost amounts to 
 416/. lis. Sd. for the production of 710 tons of animal 
 or farmyard manure, raising the price of one ton from 
 4s. Sd. to lis. 9d. 
 
 Here is some evidence in support of this conclu- 
 sion ; it is a calculation of extreme simplicity isolated 
 from other farming interests. It shows us that the 
 cost of fattening 800 sheep entails an expenditure of 
 1,120/., against which you have the sale of the wool 
 and of the animals themselves, realising about 1,000/., 
 that is to say at a loss of 120/. As a set-off you have 
 275 tons of manure, which costs 8s. lOd. per ton. 
 
 Cost Price of Sheep Manure on the Farm at Mesnil Saint Miaise. 
 Dr. 
 
 a-. 
 
 To cost of 800 sheep 
 
 800 tons of beetroot pulp . 
 18 tons 1 J cwt. of oil cake 
 Colza haulm and reeds 
 Shepherd and yardman 
 Interest and commission . 
 
 . 784 
 . 144 
 . 108 
 . 64 
 . 20 
 . 10 
 
 S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total cost 
 
 . 1,120 
 
 
 
 
 
 By wool and sheep . 
 
 275 tons of manure . 
 
 . 1,000 
 . 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total receipts . 
 
 . 1,120 
 
 
 
 
 
 Here we have 120/. expended for 275 tons of ma- 
 nure; that is, in round numbers 9s. per ton. This 
 is a simple account and no uncertainty or discussion 
 is possible, not an item undetermined, all is known. 
 We buy the sheep and sell them again, they pay for 
 what they consume, and we find that the value of 
 their manure comes to 9s. per ton. 
 
 There is one point in this calculation in particular 
 
LECT. XII. 
 
 COST OF SHEEP MANURE. 
 
 257 
 
 upon which I cannot lay too much stress. We have 
 not given the sheep a litter of cereal straw, but one 
 composed partly of colza haulm and partly of reeds 
 gathered, upon the marshes of the Somme, whereby 
 the expenses have been lessened. If we had employed 
 wheat straw for litter, the price of the manure would 
 be raised from 9s. to lis. 6d., or say 12s. as at 
 Bechelbronn. But perhaps you may imagirie that 
 this account is in some parts defective, and that as a 
 rule the production of manure by sheep is less ex- 
 pensive. Well, ia order to dispel all doubts upon this 
 point I append below another balance sheet more de- 
 tailed and more recent than the last, according to 
 which the cost of sheep manure amounts to 20s. lOd. 
 per ton. This increase ia price is due to the depre- 
 ciation in the price of the wool. 
 
 To Keeping and Feeding a Flock of Sheep from March 1, 1868, 
 to February 28, 1869. 
 Br. 
 
 To Purchase of 661 sheep, March 1, 1868 . 
 
 Sheepfolds and implements 
 
 Distillery pulp, 127 tons 18 cwt., at 16s. 6d. per ton 
 Sugar pulp, 57 tons, at 12s. lOd. per ton 
 Chopped straw, 23 tons, at 11. 8s. per ton 
 Green fodder (winter), 3,607 bundles, at Sd. per bundle 
 „ (summer), 21 tons 5 cwt., at 12s. per ton 
 
 Oats, in the grain, 7 tons 3 cwt., at 18«. per cwt. . 
 
 Green oats, 650 bundles 
 
 White clover (green), 6 tons 6 cwt., at 11. 12s. per ton 
 „ „ 46 tons 2 cwt., at 12s. per ton 
 
 „ (dry), 51 tons 13 cwt., at 1/. 12s. per ton 
 
 Meadow hay, 13 tons 3J cwt., at 21. per ton . 
 
 „ (second crop), 4 tons 3^ cwt., at 1/. 12s, 
 
 per ton 
 
 Vetch seed 
 
 Oil cake, 12 tons 10 cwt., at 6/. per ton . 
 Bran, bruised oats, &c., 1 8 cwt., at 6«. per cwt. 
 Vetch flour, 5 cwt., at 12s. per cwt. 
 
 Carried forward .... 
 
 S 
 
 £ 
 
 .1. 
 
 d. 
 
 920 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 85 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 40 18 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 27 13 
 
 4 
 
 82 12 10 
 
 26 
 
 6 11 
 
 6 13 
 
 8 
 
 15 13 
 
 
 
 74 18 11 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,491 4 10 
 
258 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 lECT. xir. 
 
 Brought forward 
 To Spring wheat, 12J cwt., at 1«. Id. per cwt 
 Dry lucern, 13 tons, at 2^. per ton . 
 
 „ green fodder, 3 tons 6 cwt. 
 Straw and haulm (various), 88 tons 16^ cwt, 
 
 per ton .... 
 Colza haulm, 10 tons, at \l. 4s 
 Pasture .... 
 Food for sheep dogs 
 "Washing and strainmg . 
 Cartage of manure and soil 
 Shepherd's board and wages 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Purchase of sheep and transport of flock 
 
 Purchase of Southdown ram . 
 
 Interest, at 6 per cent., on 1,006/. 9s. \Qd. 
 
 Being value of sheep and general plant 
 
 , at 
 
 1/. 8«, 
 
 £ ,!. d. 
 
 1,491 4 10 
 
 10 1 
 
 25 19 
 
 4 12 5 
 
 124 7 1 
 
 11 18 3 
 
 68 3 2 
 
 10 1 7 
 
 9 7 11 
 
 20 10 3 
 
 57 11 6 
 3 
 
 159 2 
 13 12 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 60 6 6 
 
 2,048 
 
 Cr. 
 
 To manure 
 
 Sheep killed for home consumption, 57 stone, at 3s. per 
 
 stone 
 
 Sheep sold 
 
 Wool sold . . . . 
 
 Sheepskins sold .... 
 Value of flock on March 1, 1869 . 
 Value of sheepfolds and implements same date 
 
 £ 
 114 
 
 8 
 
 8 11 
 276 9 
 215 13 
 
 4 7 
 
 997 5 
 
 88 3 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 2 
 7 
 6 
 7 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 1,704 18 11 
 
 Expenses 
 Receipts . 
 
 Loss 
 
 & s. a. 
 2,048 
 1,704 18 11 
 
 343 1 1 
 
 A loss of S431. Is. Id. on 440 tons of manure produced by 
 the sheep in the course of one year, is equal to an increase 
 in the cost per ton of . . . . . . . 15 7 
 
 Cost of manure per ton, as given in the account . . 5 3 
 
 True cost of manure per ton 10 10 
 
 The quantities and prices in the above account are only approximate, 
 but the sums carried out are exact. 
 
 We will now pass from these isolated accounts, 
 
LECT. xir. COST OF ANIMAL MANUEE. 259 
 
 taken as examples in order to give greater simplicity 
 to my demonstration, to more general accounts em- 
 bracing nearly every farming operation. 
 
 I shall take my third example from the farm 
 at the Thier Garten (Bas-Rhin), which in 1866 
 gained the first prize for its eminent owner, M. Schat- 
 tenmann. In this farm, which we are justified in 
 regarding as a veritable model farm, animal manure 
 cost, in 1866, 205. lOd. per ton. The expense of 
 producing 551 tons of animal manure and 300 tons 
 of liquid muck estimated as worth Is. Sd. per ton 
 was 603^., which brings the price of the manure 
 to about 21s. per ton. But what makes this account 
 the more instructive is that in the prize essay the 
 price of animal manure was fixed at 8s. per ton. 
 
 Why should it have been fixed at 8s. when in 
 reality it amounts to 21s.? Because M. Schatten- 
 mann, notwithstanding his great business capacity, 
 had yielded to the established usage, and separated 
 the account of the manure from that of the animals. 
 The price of the manure was reckoned at" 8s. per ton, 
 and the account of the animals was balanced at a loss, 
 whereas the price of the manure should have been 
 estimated by the price of the animals, or should 
 figure as the balance of the account. 
 
 On the debit side of the account it is necessary to 
 set down ^ — 
 
 The cost of the animals. 
 The interest of capital expended. 
 The interest on capital sunk in the stables and 
 cost of fodder at its real price. 
 Expenses of whatever nature. 
 
 ' For the details of this account see I'art I. p. 91. 
 
 s :>■ 
 
260 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. xii. 
 
 Serving-men, servants, labourers, veterinary- 
 surgeons, &c. 
 
 On the credit side place — 
 
 The value of the animals at the time the account 
 is balanced. 
 
 The animal provisions sold or consumed (esti- 
 mated at the cost price). 
 
 Labour of animals, or their manure, as the ba- 
 lance. 
 
 In order to rucrease the price of manure at the 
 Thier Garten, from 8s. to 205. lOd., it is only neces- 
 sary to add the first cost of the manure to that of the 
 animals, and group the items as I have just done. 
 
 The course I pursued was recognised by M. 
 Schattenmann as a legitimate method of rectification ; 
 in fact, the light thrown upon the comparative actions 
 of animal and chemical manures, by the experiments 
 we conducted in concert at the Thier Garten, induced 
 him to become one of the firmest supporters of the new 
 doctrine. Try for your own sakes to procure trust- 
 worthy documentary evidence relating to this great 
 question of manures, and you will find that in the 
 great majority of cases the cost exceeds 16s. per ton, 
 and you may conclude that those who maintain the 
 average price to be less have only employed an arbi- 
 trary valuation. It only remains for me to show how 
 you ought to proceed in order to fix the value of the 
 work done by the animals, and to estimate the differ- 
 ence in the economy of keeping stock, for the sake of 
 their meat or wool, instead of beasts of burden. 
 As soon as we have fixed the real value of the food 
 consumed, nothing is easier than to fix the value 
 of animals like cows, sheep, and pigs. On the one 
 
LECT. XII. COST OF HORSE MANURE. 261 
 
 side we put the expenditure, on the other the receipts, 
 the cost of the manure going to the credit account, 
 being, in fact, taken as a set-off against the deficiency 
 the account always discloses. 
 
 In the case of beasts of burden we have two un- 
 known questions to solve, viz. — the price of labour, 
 and the price of the manure. If we separate the one 
 it is to the prejudice of the other. But how are we 
 to give the exact value to each? Take horses, for ex- 
 ample. Why do we have horses upon a farm ? What 
 is their chief use ? To prepare the soil, carry the 
 crops, and perform other work inseparable from farm 
 labour, that is to say, to supply ' force.' Force being 
 their principal product, and the reason of their 
 presence on the farm, the balance may be struck as 
 follows : — 
 
 Dr. 
 
 The value of the animals. 
 
 The interest on capital and working fund. 
 
 Charges of all lands. 
 
 Or. 
 The value of the animals after deducting the sinking fund. 
 The manure estimated at its real value. 
 A s payment ; the work estimated at ten hours per day. 
 
 If we subtract the labour from the credit side, the 
 account shows a loss. To obtain exact returns it is 
 necessary, then, to have regard to the labour aiid 
 make that a set-off against the loss. This mode of 
 procedure is so conformable to the rules followed in 
 all trades and manufactures, that you will hardly 
 believe they have not yet been appHed to agriculture. 
 Two principal causes, however, account for this — the 
 one altogether a moral one, if I may so express it, 
 and the other is more specially due to an absence 
 
262 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 of sufficient intelligence to define everything in 
 farming. The moral cause is connected with the 
 exterior conditions under which farming is carried 
 on. Nothing can be concealed. Everyone acts under 
 the eye of his neighbour, and no one is willing to 
 admit that he does wrong ; add to this fact the 
 dominant idea that there can be no good farming 
 without farmyard manure, and you will have a full 
 explanation of the universal tendency to hide the 
 real cost of manure. I will refer to an account, ad- 
 mirably kept, but those who can see beyond the sur- 
 face will detect this fatal tendency in each item. 
 
 We find that the manure produced in stables 
 comes to about 6s. Ad. per ton. This information 
 was obtained from a manufacturer who became a 
 farmer, and who, after having made a large fortune 
 by commerce, was unwilling to confess that stable 
 manure was very dear, because everyone around him 
 insisted that it was the cheapest of all manures. 
 
 Horse Account.^ 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Expenses from March 1, 1868, to Febraary 28, 1869 
 
 To value of 19 horses on March 1, 1868 . 
 Stables and implements .... 
 Oats in grain, 23 tons 2 cwt., at 81. per ton 
 
 Eye 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Meal (various), 2 tons 1^ cwt., at 12Z. per ton 
 Chaff and bruised grain, 16 cwt., at 6s. per cwt. 
 Carrots, 5 tons 6^ cwt., at \l. 4s. per ton 
 Chopped straw, 2 tons 12 cwt., at 1^ 8s. per cwt. 
 Meadow hay, 43 tons 8 cwt., at 21. per ton 
 Lucern, 9 tons 7 cwt., at 2/. per ton 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 £ J. 
 
 d. 
 
 324 
 
 
 
 87 4 
 
 
 
 184 19 
 
 7 
 
 12 10 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 25 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 16 
 
 
 
 6 7 
 
 10 
 
 3 13 
 
 
 
 86 15 
 
 9 
 
 18 14 
 
 4 
 
 743 8 
 
 6 
 
 ' The quantities and prices in this balance sheet are only approxi- 
 mate, but the figures carried out are exact. 
 
lECT. XII. 
 
 COST OF HORSE MANURE. 
 
 263 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 Green clover, 7 tons, at 12s. per cwt 
 
 Straw (various), 46 tons 5 cwt., 1/. 8s. per ton 
 
 Colza iaulm, 2 tons, at 11. 4s. per ton .... 
 
 Pasture 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Advertising tlie stallion ' Houp la ' 
 
 Carters' food and wages 
 
 Extra carter 
 
 Repairs of carts, shoeing, veterinary surgeon, lighting, &c. 
 
 Interest, at 5 per cent., on 411Z. 4s., value of horses and 
 
 plant 
 
 Total 
 
 Or. 
 Receipts from March 1, 1868, to February 28, 1869 :— 
 By manure, 186 tons, at 6s. Sd. per ton 
 
 3,676^ days' work, at 3s. 2J(?. per day . 
 
 Proceeds of the sale of the mare ' Duchess ' 
 
 Horses dead or sla,ughtered . 
 
 Fees for stallion, ' Houp la ' . 
 
 Extra work by carters . 
 
 Value of horses, March 1, 1869 
 
 Stables and plant . 
 
 Expenses 
 Receipts . 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1,041 3 2 
 1,023 11 1 
 
 £ J. d. 
 
 743 8 6 
 
 4 3 10 
 
 64 15 3 
 
 2 8 
 
 4 18 
 
 3 
 
 3 10 
 
 112 12 
 
 10 19 6 
 
 77 
 
 20 11 3 
 
 1,041 3 2 
 
 48 7 2 
 
 588 4 10 
 
 17 
 
 1 16 
 
 6 16 
 
 3 16 11 
 
 272 
 
 86 10 2 
 
 1,023 11 1 
 
 17 12 1 
 The loss of 17/. 12s. Id. divided over 186 tons of manure, 
 produced during one year, gives an increase per ton of . 
 
 Price as above 
 
 Real price of horse manure per ton .... 
 
 1 11 
 6 3 
 7 2 
 
 This 
 per ton. 
 
 table shows that the manure costs 7s. 2d. 
 But in this case we estimate the labour 
 of a horse for one day at 3s. 2d., the account ought, 
 however, to show that the real cost of the manure is 
 10s., the horse's day being put down at 2s. lOd. We 
 therefore put the whole down thus : — 
 
264 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LECI. XII. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Value of the animals 
 Stable fittings 
 Oost of keep 
 Cost of repairs . 
 Carters' wages . 
 Interest on capital 
 
 Total . 
 
 Iieceipts< 
 
 Value of animals 
 
 Fittings 
 
 Sale of the mare ' Duchess ' 
 
 Serving 10 mares 
 
 Carters' work .... 
 
 Three horses slaughtered, at 12s. 
 
 186 tons of manure, at 9s. 7d. 
 
 63,76 days' work, at 3s. Id. to balance 
 
 Total 
 
 324 
 
 
 
 87 4 
 
 
 
 408 16 
 
 5 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 123 11 
 
 6 
 
 20 11 
 
 3 
 
 1,041 3 2 
 
 272 
 
 
 
 86 10 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 6 16 
 
 
 
 3 16 
 
 10 
 
 1 16 
 
 
 
 89 5 
 
 7 
 
 564 18 
 
 7 
 
 1,041 3 2 
 
 I have fixed the price of the manure at 10s. per 
 ton, because this price, which is its real cost, fixes 
 the risk on the labour done by the horses as beasts of 
 burden. 
 
 I do not insist upon the accounts of the animals 
 kept for fattening, their economy being conformable 
 to principles that I have already admitted.^ 
 
 ^ In the report that I prepared in 1868 of the results obtained, on a 
 large scale, by means of chemical manures, I estimated the price of 
 labour and manure of beasts of burden — separating the production of 
 manure from the production of force. Notwithstanding the certainty of 
 the principles upon which these calculations were founded — the justice 
 of which you will admit — and taking into consideration the time when 
 we shall employ steam ploughs more largely, I prefer the system that I 
 have just demonstrated. The truth compels me to add, and I hasten to 
 remember it, that I have been greatly influenced by the opinion of a 
 gentleman, as honourable as he is distinguished, whose name marks an 
 era in the history of chemical manures — I mean M. L. Couvreur the 
 foimder of the first chemical manure manufactory established in France 
 
LECT. xir, COST OF HORSE MANURE. 265 
 
 If I have succeeded in giving proper expression 
 to my thoughts, our common conclusion will be that 
 
 and in wHch the manm-e was made according to my formulae. M. 
 Couvreur has been brought in contact with agriculturists of all ranks and 
 conditions, and in this way he was enabled to form sound opinions upon 
 these serious and difficult agricultural questions. It seems to me that 
 no one can read, save with a lively interest, the following observations, 
 which he sent me on February 3, 1869: — 
 
 ' The question to which you call my attention has occupied me more 
 than any other since I have been brought into contact with the agri- . 
 cultural world, and in the absence of any communication from you, I 
 should have followed, with the greatest interest, the truthful considera- 
 tions and lucid calculations that you have put forth respecting the ques- 
 tion of manure. I have, in fact, been often struck by the defective 
 manner in which I think this question has been treated by agriculturists. 
 ' I do not know if I am wrong, but it appears to me that in many 
 cases that part of the working of a farm which relates to the production 
 of animal manures is one of the most important in farming operations ; 
 but above all, I do not find in any books that I light upon, any mention 
 of such charges as house expenses, taxes, life and fire insurance, nor 
 clerk's work ; in a word, no one appears to keep an account either of 
 general expenses or of risks. A cow bought to produce manure injures 
 a labourer, whom it is necessary to pension, but where is the agri- 
 culturist who would place this expense under the heading of manure ? 
 although it would be strictly logical to do so. 
 
 ' When we wish seriously to set about this calculation, it is necessary 
 to take account of the whole of the expenses concerned, and after having 
 marked, on the one hand, those that are particularly connected with the 
 production of manure, make a proportionate and reasonable division of 
 the remaining expenses, which are generally lumped together under the 
 title of general charges. 
 
 ' But to put down, as is generally done, so much for keep, so much 
 for litter, so much for the purchase of animals, and interest, &c., &c., is 
 to fall short of the truth. Yet people remain quite satisfied with such 
 results, and are consequently the victims of a most complete illusion. 
 You see by this how much I approve the successful efforts that you are 
 making to throw light upon this question. Your ideas upon the value 
 to be attached to the fodder consumed on the farm, the separation be- 
 tween the intrinsic value of manure and its cost, are most reasonable ; but 
 you win perceive from the reflections that I have just submitted to you, 
 that I urge still greater care in the reforms applicable to this branch of 
 agriculture, and that I go even so far as to put to the account of manure 
 a just proportion of the expenses of management, and further that I hold 
 there can scarcely be any exaggeration in this. 
 
266 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. ltoi. xii. 
 
 in the great majority of cases animal manure costs 
 more than it is worth. 
 
 ' In fact, when I think of all this trouble of keeping live stock, such 
 as cows, sheep, and pigs, and of the worry they bring, the risk they 
 are subject to, the space they take up ; of the connection to be made 
 for the sale of milk, butter, cheese, wool, and meat ; of the distance it is 
 necessary to travel in order to buy, to sell, and to maintain the proper 
 number of stock throughout the year ; 1 would ask whether this is not 
 the chief occupation of the live stock breeder, and whether he ought 
 not to profit by the fruits of his labours. What could be said of a coUiery 
 proprietor who, after establishing a forge to utilise his coal, would divide 
 the price of the sale of iron by the quantity of bushels of coal consumed, 
 and would give the quotient as the amount gained by the coal expended, 
 keeping silent about the general expenses of the forge and his own per- 
 sonal labour P This would be an exact counterpart of the method em- 
 ployed in calculating the cost of manure. 
 
 ' I am happy to find that I agree ao well with you on the general 
 solution of the question, and I ask your permission to make a few obser- 
 vations upon one point in particular. It is relative to the cost of manure 
 produced by beasts of burden. I think with you that we ought not to 
 carry to the credit side the rate per day of the work done, calculated 
 from the wages of the labo.urer, but I do not think that the holidays and 
 days of rest can legitimately be charged to the manure account, for that 
 would be burdening it with the cost of matters which ought not to be 
 put to its charge. 
 
 ' When too many horses are bought for the amount of work to be 
 done, when horses hurt themselves and remain in the stable, or when 
 they are made to produce more than the normal amount of work, these 
 are the kind of circumstances which ought not to be reckoned in the 
 price of manure. 
 
 ' Besides, in my opinion, the reckoning of draught horses is no 
 more able to regulate the cost price of manure than is the manufacture 
 of gas to give the cost price of the coke that remains from it ; to do so 
 would be taking the accessory for the principal. The calculation to be 
 made in order to discover the value of the work done by the horses will 
 not be obtained by the price of the manure, which is only one of the 
 elements. The account being debited with all the expenses that apper- 
 tain to this branch of service, will have to be credited with the manure, 
 being one of the products that arise therefrom, that is, its intrinsic value, 
 according to the definition that you have given as to the base of the 
 calculations. 
 
 ' Then the remaining balance on the debit side will be divided by the 
 number of days' work, by which means the cost price will be arrived at. 
 
 ' If this result estimates the day's work at a higher price than can be 
 
LECT. XII. COST OF HORSE MANURE. 267 
 
 A last argument, which cannot be left without 
 reply, is the following : — It has been said that in 
 rural experiments manure becomes a heavy item in 
 the expenditure, but in the great centres of popula- 
 tion — Paris, Lyons and Marseilles — it can be procured 
 in abundance at a greatly reduced price. Doubtless 
 if a gardener acts with discretion it is possible for 
 biTTi to obtain a few cartloads of manure at a cheap 
 rate. But when operations are conducted upon a 
 large scale, the conditions are altered. 
 
 How much then does manure cost; M. DaUley, 
 the director of the Paris Greneral Omnibus Company, 
 as well as of a large carrying agency, and who was 
 consequently in a good position to solve this question, 
 has estimated the price of stable manure delivered at 
 Trappes, near Versailles, at 10s. Id. Here is the 
 account : — 
 
 £. d. 
 
 1 ton of manure at Paria 6 3 
 
 Loading, 4rf. 
 
 Cartage to the Batignolle, Is.Td.- . . .23 
 
 Loading, Ad. 
 
 Railway charges from Batignolle to Trapps . . 1 10 
 
 Loading . . . ' 3 
 
 10 7 
 
 This is without reckoning the necessary expenses 
 
 ohtained for the day labourer, the difference must be added to the 
 arbitrary price of the manure ; since it ia in consideration of the manure 
 that this increase of expenditure has been incurred. In every other case 
 the account of the beasts of burden is not able to furnish any base from 
 ■which to obtain the cost price of the manure. Such are the reflections 
 that, in response to the great confidence that you place in me, I venture 
 to submit to you. I hardly like to say that I will add more verbally 
 when jou wish me to do so, but the fact is you have no need of me, or of 
 anyone else. Your mind, where order and method have such a prominent 
 place, must necessarily have complete intuition in questions of this kind. 
 
 'L. OOTJVKETJE.' 
 
268 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xii. 
 
 incurred in carrying it from the railway station at 
 which it arrives to the farm where it will again have 
 to be unloaded, and lastly spread over the soil. 
 
 What becomes of the flattering declarations made 
 by the advocates of stable manure in face of this in- 
 controvertible evidence ? 
 
 The conclusion we arrive at is that the cost price 
 of manure rightly reckoned is rather above than 
 below 16s. But this is not all, for in order to esti- 
 mate exactly the cost of manure it is necessary to 
 notice the last item of expenditure, viz. the inseparable 
 cost attached to handling large quantities. 
 
 A civU engineer of great merit, M. Caillet, the 
 proprietor of an important experimental field in Nor- 
 mandy, fixes the accessory cost, inseparable from the 
 production of stable manure, at about Is. 5d. per ton. 
 He calculates it thus : — 
 
 s. d, 
 Oleamng and ■washing the stable . . . . .05 
 Loading and cartage "by one man and the farm horses . 11 
 Spreading the manure 1 
 
 1 5 
 
 This puts the cost of one manuring of 50 tons at 
 31. 12s. lOd., a result that sufiiciently explains itself 
 when we know that the manure contains 80 per cent, 
 of moisture which must be carried, spread, and ma- 
 nipulated at a pure loss, for the moisture adds nothing 
 to the efficiency of the active part. You see that 
 when we go to the root of the matter the question of 
 animal manure, in a very short time, appears in quite 
 a new light, and it is impossible to maintain that it is 
 more economical than chemical manure. 
 
 If there is an agriculturist for whom I entertain 
 respect and consideration, it is assuredly Mathieu de 
 
lEOT. XII. COST OF ANIMAL MANURE. 269 
 
 Dombasle. FoUowmg the popular notion that farm- 
 ing was impossible without animal manure, Mathieu 
 de Dombasle computed the cost of feeding his stock 
 at a reduced price. The consequence of this system 
 was inevitable. The manure appeared to cost from 
 4s. to 4s. 2d. per ton. The result of this error in 
 calculation, the failure of this eminent man's career, 
 and the impossibility of discovering the real cause 
 of the slender crops at Roville, notwithstanding all 
 his efforts and his care, have already been referred to. 
 But for this mistake he would have obtained a verit- 
 able triumph instead of a nobly confessed failure, and 
 he would have inevitably discovered the new principles 
 on which agriculture is at present carried on. But, 
 following the ideas of his day that the formula — 
 meadow, cattle, cereals — ^made fruitful by the rotation 
 of crops, and believing that such was the end of 
 agriculture, Mathieu de Dombasle had only one fixed 
 idea, and that was to obtain manure at the lowest 
 price. He reckoned the cost of dry fodder for the 
 stable at 26s. per ton ; then he reckoned that he was 
 able afterwards to sell it at from 40s. to 48s. The 
 manure account was of the simplest nature. Add to 
 the price of the straw, estimated at 24s. per ton, the 
 cartage per ton of the manure, say 2s. Id., this amount, 
 expressing the value of animal excreta, being carried 
 to the credit of the live stock account. 
 
 This system represented the price of the manure 
 as 5s. 3d. per ton. Later on Mathieu de Dombasle 
 began to see that this method of calculating was 
 faulty, but, unfortunately, he perceived his error too 
 late, for he would have had to change his entire 
 system of farming. The farm at RovUle consisted 
 of high and low lands. To transport the manure 
 
270 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. xn. 
 
 to the hilly parts during the winter months etnailed 
 great expense in the matter of carriage. This was a 
 considerable difficulty in the working of the farm. 
 
 Mathieu de Dombasle, who found that it would 
 answer his purpose better to concentrate his manure 
 within a circumscribed space, resolved to employ 
 artificial manure upon the upland and to reserve his 
 animal manure for the lowland, but as he had fixed 
 the price of his manure at 5s. Sd. per ton, the cost 
 of manuring amounted to 11. 4,9. per acre. He con- 
 sequently bought a quantity of wool waste at the 
 same rate per acre, but the effect was hardly equal to 
 that of animal manure. Suppose, however, that in- 
 stead of fixing the price at 11. 4:S. per acre he had 
 taken 21. 8s. per acre, which was the real price of the 
 animal manure. Under these new conditions the 
 crops would have certainly been better than with 
 animal manure, and he would at the same time have 
 perceived two things : — 
 
 ( 1 ) That animal manure, as a rule, is very expen- 
 sive. 
 
 (2) That it is often more advantageous to bring 
 chemical manure from a distance than to produce 
 animal manure. 
 
 If he had substituted desiccated blood or powdered 
 hoof for the woollen waste, the decomposition of 
 which is a slow process, the manure, acting by its 
 nitrogen, would have produced a yield of wheat at 
 the rate of 33 bushels per acre instead of the 
 16^ bushels ; and instead of a great loss the accounts 
 would show a profit of 3^. 4s. per acre, and his 
 success would have been complete. A faulty calcu- 
 lation sufficed to snatch from this man the only re- 
 compense that he desired — that of serving his country 
 
IBCT. xir. COST OF ANIMAL MANURE. 271 
 
 by improving the condition of the labouring agricul- 
 tural classes. 
 
 The cause of this immense deception was the old 
 school formula, that there is no good farming without 
 animal manure. 
 
 You see by this instructive example how im- 
 portant it is to banish fictitious calculations. There 
 is only one way to obtain lasting success, and that 
 is to estimate each article at its real cost. To speak 
 truly, it is necessary to look upon the cattle lairs 
 and the stables — the equivalent of an annexed farm 
 industry — as being a manufactory connected with 
 the farm, and to make these cover the cost of what 
 they consume, and also to put the manure at its full 
 price. 
 
 If the animal manure does not cost more than 
 10s. per ton, well and good, but if the price reaches 
 to 12s. or 16s. its use must be restricted, and che- 
 mical manure must be used. But whatever course 
 is taken, it is necessary that agricultural products 
 should be estimated at their real price, whether they 
 are carried to market or consumed on the farm, and 
 that, convinced that no profit can be derived except 
 by using a plentiful amount of manure, the farmer 
 must seek his manures where they are cheapest. If 
 I get no credit for anything else, I hope to do so for 
 being frank and outspoken. 
 
 The question of accounts being settled by what 
 precedes, we will now pass on to other considerations. 
 Let us stop at this new question, no less important 
 than the first: Which is the most efficacious, farm 
 or chemical manure? Which has the decided ad- 
 vantage? The following is the result of more 
 than 2,000 experiments made by various farmers. I 
 
272 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 take wheat for the first example. In 138 trials the 
 chemical manure carried the day on account of the 
 larger yields and the superiority of its results in a 
 given time. 
 
 18 cwt. 1 qr. of chemical manure produced 32£ 
 bushels, while 40 tons 4 cwt. of farm manure only 
 produced 23 bushels. 
 
 In round numbers this is an excess of over 9 
 bushels per acre in favour of the chemical manure. 
 But this is not all. If these 138 results are analysed 
 in order to ascertain the exact differences between 
 the crop obtained with chemical and that with animal 
 manure, we obtaia these two parallel series: — 
 
 Times 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Chemical 
 
 stable 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 20 
 22 
 26 
 38 
 
 Bushels 
 
 51 
 
 39i 
 
 34i 
 
 30 
 
 24f 
 
 Bushels 
 
 43 
 
 29* 
 
 21i 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 13i 
 
 The following gives us the result of four different 
 growths: — 
 
 Times 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Chemical 
 
 stable 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 Bushels 
 
 38J 
 24t 
 16 
 
 Bushels 
 
 27i 
 
 16 
 
 13i 
 
 With the chemical manure you see there were two 
 very good harvests — one fairly good, and one rather 
 poor ; with the farmyard manure, two fair and two 
 rather poor results. 
 
LECT. XII. 
 
 CHEMICAL AND FAEM MANURE. 
 
 273 
 
 Beetroot. — Experiments to the number of 190 
 led to tlie same conclusions with beetroot as with 
 wheat ; but the chemical manure excelled the farm- 
 yard manure in no less proportion. Half a ton of 
 chemical manure produced 20 tons 16 cwt. of beetroot 
 per acre, whilst 20 tons 5 cwt. of farmyard manure 
 only produced 16 tons 14 cwt. of beetroot, which 
 gives an excess in favour of the chemical manure 
 of 4 tons 1 cwt. 
 
 The distribution of crops is not less significant 
 than the contrast of the average pelds. 
 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chemical 
 
 Farmyard 
 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Tons Cwt . 
 
 8 
 
 36 8 
 
 28 1 
 
 31 
 
 25 8 
 
 19 19 
 
 35 
 
 21 9^ 
 
 17 9 
 
 61 
 
 17 9 
 
 13 18 
 
 40 
 
 14 3 
 
 11 11 
 
 25 
 
 9 15 
 
 9 6 
 
 What adds singularly to the importance of these 
 results is that with the chemical manure beetroot 
 contained 20 per cent, more sugar than with the 
 farmyard manure. 
 
 Potatoes. — The same effects were observed as 
 with wheat and beetroot. In 83 experiments we 
 obtained: — 
 
 Times 
 
 Per 
 
 acre 
 
 
 
 
 Chemical 
 
 Farmyard 
 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 17 
 
 15 7 
 
 12 6 
 
 16 
 
 9 14 
 
 6 14f 
 
 26 
 
 6 18 
 
 5 19 
 
 24 
 
 4 9 
 
 4 13 
 
274 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 Per acre 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 9 1 
 
 7 8 
 
 The following shows the average: — 
 
 8 cwt. of chemical manure produced . 
 
 15 tons 19J cwt. of farmyard manure produced , 
 
 Balance in favour of the chemical 
 
 Oats. — The same superiority of the chemical 
 manure is manifested in the case of oats, 28 com- 
 parative experiments giving 
 
 7J cwt. of chemical manure produced 
 
 20 tons 4^ cwt. of farmyard manure produced 
 
 An average excess in favour of chemical 
 
 Per acre 
 Bushels 
 
 47 
 39 
 
 Barley. — Similar results were obtained with this 
 
 cereal. 
 
 9J cwt. of chemical manure produced 
 
 16 tons 7^ cwt. of farmyard manure produced 
 
 Excess in favour of chemical 
 
 Per acre 
 Bushels 
 
 35i 
 
 28 
 
 Maize. — The same results were obtained with 
 
 maize. 
 
 7J cwt. of chemical manure produced 
 
 17 tons 4 cwt. of farmyard manure produced 
 
 Excess in favour of chemical 
 
 Per acre 
 Bushels 
 
 31 
 
 Its effects were not less satisfactory or striking 
 upon rye, buckwheat, flax, hemp, and grass. 
 
 Number of 
 Experiments 
 
 Rye . 
 
 Buckwheat 
 Colza 
 Flax 
 
 Hesult per acre 
 
 Chemical 
 
 Farmyard 
 
 3 
 2 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Bushels 
 
 37^ 
 
 33^ 
 
 30^ 
 
 2t«nsl6cwt. 
 
 Bushels 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 1 ton 14 cwt. 
 
LECT. XII. CHEMICAL AND FAEM MANURE. 275 
 
 Instead of averages which it is often difficult to 
 verify, perhaps you would prefer less general profits. 
 Here is the result of 34 experiments upon beetroot 
 made by order of the Minister of Agriculture in the 
 farming schools: — 
 
 Beetroot. 
 
 Per acre 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 10 cwt. of cliemical maniiie produced . . 15 12 
 
 22 tons 16 cwt. of farmyard manure produced 13 12 
 
 Without any manure 9 12 
 
 The same conclusion was come to at the Institute at 
 Grignon. 
 
 Beetroot. 
 
 10 cwt. of chemical manure produced 
 
 22 tons 16 cwt. of farmyard manure produced . 
 
 Chemical manure ...... 
 
 Large doses of farmyard n;auure 
 
 Since 1868 I have collected more than three 
 thousand new facts, the results of which are con- 
 formable to the preceding. 
 
 Was ever a system presented that had so many 
 favourable guarantees? However, this is not all. 
 In the domain of isolated experiments I may quote 
 more decisive experiments made in the farming 
 school of Beyne, in the Landes, under the super- 
 intendence of M. Dupeyrat. The exceptionable 
 value of this experiment is due to two causes : first, 
 its long duration, for it was continued for more than 
 six years, and, secondly, on account of the doubtful, 
 not to say hostile, spirit in which it was conceived. 
 Pinning his faith more closely to the precepts of 
 bygone days than to argument, M. Dupeyrat wished 
 to prove fi'om experiment ' that farmyard manure 
 
 T 2 
 
 Per. 
 
 Eicre 
 
 Tons 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
276 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 excelled chemical manures in power, duration, and 
 in profit ; and that the union of stable manure 
 with green and chemical manures ought to excel in 
 its turn every other combiaation. 
 
 What has been the result of his trial, iaspired, as 
 I have said, by the tacit hope of proving the falsity 
 of the new doctrine? Its most peremptory and 
 decisive vindication on all points ! With respect to 
 the amount of the crops, the profit realised, and 
 the improvement of the soil, the chemical manure 
 alone came out triumphantly from the trial. I need 
 not enumerate in detail all the results obtained ; it 
 would be only recapitulating what you already know. 
 I wUl however, make an exception in one instance, 
 viz. the more lasting effects of chemical manure as 
 compared with stable manure. Afber three consecu- 
 tive years' growth, during which the chemical 
 manure had shown itself much superior, maize was 
 cultivated for a fresh period of three years without 
 the aid of any manure. And on the plot of ground 
 which had originally been treated with chemical 
 manure the increased standard of results was main- 
 tained. 
 
 Land originally manured 
 
 Crop per acre in three years * 
 
 Total weight of 
 the crop 
 
 Bushels of grain 
 
 With chemical manure . 
 
 Half chemical and half farmyard . 
 
 Stable alone 
 
 Groimd never manured . 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 7 12 
 
 -6 16 
 6 
 4 16 
 
 72i 
 64 
 58 
 50J 
 
 ' The Jouj-nal ^Agriculture, May 2, 1874, p. 171, says : — 
 'After seven years of consecutive experiments M. Dupeyrat con- 
 cludes — 
 
 ' 1. That chemical manure had had an action at least equal, and often 
 superior, to that of stable manure on the yield. 
 
LrcT. XII. CHEMICAL AND FARM MANURE. 277 
 
 These results are, however, rather lower than was 
 actually the case. 
 
 The price of lis. 2d. fixed for stable manure is 
 the result of an arbitrary estimate, and is conse- 
 quently under the mark. At the farm at Beyne the 
 cost of agricultural implements and materials, the 
 cost of stabling, the interest on the capital invested 
 in the stabhng, were all included in the general ex- 
 penses instead of being placed altogether under the 
 heading of the animals themselves, and this reduced 
 the price 4s. or 5s. per ton. The object we must 
 have before our eyes, and the obligation that it is 
 necessary to satisfy, is not to make manure, always 
 and everywhere and with no regard to price, but 
 simply to work into the soU the manure necessary 
 in order to obtain a good crop. If you lack stable 
 manure, bring in chemical manure from outside. 
 Manures made in factories are, as a rule, more 
 economical than farmyard manure. I have been 
 misrepresented and my declarations travestied, but 
 they have never been refuted ; the science of agri- 
 culture is coming to light in its entirety. This 
 revolution, which is beginning to prevail, wiU be 
 accomplished because our interest makes it binding 
 upon us, and because reason, science, and facts prove 
 its legitimacy. By the new method the interest of 
 the pubhc is satisfied in the same degree as that of 
 private individuals. To the nation living is procured 
 
 '2. Reckoning chemical manures at their market value, and stable 
 manure at lis. 2d. a ton, the annual expense of manuring was nearly the 
 same per acre ; the use of chemical manures produced a far higher net 
 profit than that obtained from farmyard manure. 
 
 ' 3. The good effect of chemical manures is prolonged beyond tho first 
 year, and in comparing the lasting effects of chemical and farmyard 
 manures the advantage is gained by the former.' 
 
278 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leoi. xii. 
 
 at a cheap rate, to the farmer a profit hitherto un- 
 known. 
 
 Progress and preservation, order and liberty, the 
 union of all the productive forces of the country — 
 this is the aim and that is the result. 
 
 Let us consider the economical conditions which 
 ought to be realised by the country and investi- 
 gate, under all its aspects, this new part of our 
 subject. 
 
 And, first, what is the true situation of our agri- 
 culture? You know it is not good. The country 
 does not draw from the native richness of the soil 
 and the mildness of the climate all the advantages 
 that it might obtain. The peasantry of France are 
 ill-fed and ignorant in the extreme. Instruction is 
 quite inadequate, and their moral sense with respect 
 to the most sacred things in life, family relations, is 
 singularly blunted. 
 
 Those who consider that I was not animated by 
 a proper national spirit and love for my country I 
 would advise to follow my example, and to examine 
 for themselves, without prejudice, the conditions of 
 the inhabitants of our villages and hamlets. But 
 that is not the point I wish to impress upon you. 
 The study of moral causes is remote fi:om my subject, 
 which is the laws of production. T will return, 
 therefore; I have said, and I again repeat, at the risk 
 of being wearisome, that to obtain good results it is 
 necessary to manure the soU well. 
 
 The question, therefore, upon which I take my 
 stand is this : In France shall we be able to manure 
 the soil weU when working only with animal manure ? 
 No : and why? Because it is too much divided. The 
 parcelling out of land, which it is necessary not to 
 
T,ECT. XII. AGRICULTURE IN FRANCE. 279 
 
 confound with division of property, lias become one 
 of the greatest evils of the present day. 
 
 It is to this that we owe the . depopulation in the 
 country parts ; this state of division paralyses us ! To 
 you who may be inclined to doubt I give the following- 
 cruel realities. 
 
 Statistics show that the cultivated land in 
 France amounts to 115 millions of acres; of this 
 number 65 millions belong to large estates, and 
 50 millions to small and medium land owners. So 
 far nothing much appears the matter, but this 115 
 millions of cultivated acres is redivided into 143 
 millions of plots according to the Government Survey, 
 and held by 14 miUions of ground landlords. 
 
 This would represent each plot as five- sixths of 
 an acre. But from this division, to be exact, we must 
 subtract 50 millions belonging to large estates; the 
 plots, we find, are reduced to five-sixteenths of an acre, 
 of which ten are grouped under one ownership. 
 Under such conditions with these aliens dispersed 
 over the whole country, what can be done? Listen 
 to the inexorable declarations of statistics. Of the 14 
 millions of plots there are 7 millions underlet at 4s., 
 2 millions at from 45. to 8s., and 2 millions at from 
 8s. to 16s. 
 
 Consequently 4 millions of land owners receive no 
 rent, and are so far in a state of indigence. 
 
 But let us restrain our feelings and look to the 
 root of the matter. What can the system of agricul- 
 ture be worth which parcels out farms in quantities 
 of ^ or ^ of an acre each? Strictly speaking, none; 
 the time which is lost in going fi-om one to the other 
 triples the expenses. 
 
 Their smallness prevents the use of animal labour, 
 
280 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. xil. 
 
 which is fifteen times less laborious than man's labour. 
 Enclosed the one in the other, these plots of land are 
 cultivated with difficulty, we are obliged to increase 
 the number of roads and vacant spaces on account of 
 their unfortiinate position. When property is divided 
 in this way, it is not only loaded with general expenses 
 but it is impossible to produce manure ; they must 
 cultivate without it, and the continuation of this de- 
 vastating system will undermine native fertility, and 
 by an inevitable reaction the pubhc prosperity will 
 suffer. This is so true that the mean yields of wheat 
 in France in the departments of the North is 15^ 
 bushels per acre, and on the other at most fi'om 9 to 
 11 bushels. Under such conditions what will be the 
 ultimate price of a bushel of wheat? Is it not a 
 state of things that must be altered? The Germans, 
 formerly placed under the same conditions as our- 
 selves, have succeeded in freeing themselves from them, 
 with some hesitation at first, for the rural populations 
 began by resisting, but now they are carrying out 
 the change with boldness, unanimity, and decision, 
 which must radically change the condition of existence 
 in that country. In all parts of Germany they have, 
 during the last two centuries, made a complete terri- 
 torial liquidation; they have joined by exchange their 
 outljdng plots, done away with the roads, and con- 
 verted straggling and barren lands into compact and 
 profitable holdings. 
 
 Do you wish to know the result of this enterprise 
 which has been so favourable to the entire nation and 
 also to the interests of each ? 
 
 I am able to give you an example, for which I am 
 indebted to M. Tisserand, Inspector-General of Agri- 
 culture, who has seen and inspected what he relates. 
 
LECT. XII. AGRICULTURE IN FRANCE. 281 
 
 ' The land belonging to the Commune of Hohen- 
 haida (Saxony),' he says, 'consisted of 1,472.2 acres 
 belonging to 35 owners. These were again divided 
 into 774 small plots of about 1^ acres each, the redis- 
 tribution reduced the number to 60 of a superficial 
 area of 24^ acres traversed for the most part by a 
 single road. This work was executed in one year at 
 a cost of 1261. Is. 3d., that is, 4s. 2d. per acre. By 
 the enclosure of surface formerly taken up by roads 
 and hedges they gained 24;| acres, that is to say, more 
 than the expense of the territorial union: the conse- 
 quence of the redivision has been the necessity of 
 enlarging all the barns and granaries in order to store 
 the increased crops 
 
 Expense 1251. 14s. 3d. 
 
 Surface gained .... 24^ acres 
 
 I know well that in France whoever proposed a 
 reform of this nature would encounter the most 
 strenuous opposition. 
 
 The law of property which came to us from the 
 last Revolution is of such a nature, has excited certain 
 false ideas with regard to the possession of the soil, 
 that almost insurmountable obstacles must be over- 
 come in order to arrive at a satisfactory result. But 
 it is for you and me and all of us to make the people 
 understand that when the land is divided to excess 
 not only is cultivation impossible, but if the land is 
 not manured the interest of all is endangered ; that 
 when the soil is divided beyond a certain point the 
 cultivator will be unable to obtain any profit ; that 
 not being able to help himself with horses he will 
 become a slave of the soil, and the property which 
 
282 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. XIL 
 
 ought to emancipate him becomes the instrument of 
 his servitude. It is necessary that we who have the 
 knowledge of these facts should convey them to the 
 poor who live by the sweat of their brow, feeling 
 confident of their final success. Heeding only 
 the voice of public interest, let us fortify ourselves 
 against all resistance, set ourselves to carry conviction 
 by example and persuasion to provoke a current of 
 public opinion that will force the Government to 
 accomplish here for us that which in Ireland as well 
 as in Germany has already been done. Let us, I say, 
 follow this up, firmly persuaded that upon its solid 
 base we can build up a new social constitution. 
 
 Suppose, for an instant, and as a simple hypothesis, 
 that in place of the 50 or 60 milKons of acres repre- 
 sented by 14 millions of small holdings dispersed 
 amongst 10 millions of people, half of whom are 
 almost in a state of poverty, this vast tract of land 
 were to be divided into small farms of 15 to 25 acres, 
 what a change would be produced in the economy 
 and moral conditions of the country ! Production, 
 family relations, the increase of population, education, 
 morality would be all changed, and the France of to- 
 day, wounded, beaten down, and divided as she has 
 been, would return to her bold attitude and follow the 
 glorious course of her destiny, and as a sign of the 
 triumph of right over might she would renew her 
 chivalrous traditions of honour and generosity. Do 
 you know that since 1826 the country has not pro- 
 duced enough for our own subsistence? Divide this 
 period of 46 years into 4 parts, and calculate the 
 deficit for each portion, and you will find that the 
 increase is hardly credible. 
 
LECT. XII. AGRICULTURE IN FRANCE. 283 
 
 £ 
 1827 to 1836 .... 920,000 
 1832 to 1846 .... 1,040,000 
 1847 to 1856 .... 3,040,000 
 1866 to 1868 .... 8,960,0001 
 
 We must not lose sight of the fact that I restrict 
 this deficit to the most essential agricultural commo- 
 dities, for if we go beyond that it would include wool 
 and wood for building, and the deficit would then 
 reach 20 millions sterling. This is affirmed by 
 M. Pouyer-Quertier. The interest at 5 per cent, on 
 10,000,000Z. only would be 500,000Z. It may be said 
 that for a country like France a deficit of ten or even 
 twenty millions is a matter of secondary importance. 
 Were this deficit only a passing one, we might look 
 on it as unimportant; but seeing that it is continuous 
 and increasing, we cannot aff'ord to ignore it. It 
 shows a gradual weakening of the resources of the 
 people, and its gravity is confirmed by the lessening 
 in the rate of increase in the population. While 
 neighbouring nations double their population in 50 
 or 60 years, France takes 130 years. At the begin- 
 ning of the century we were one of the first nations 
 in Europe with respect to population, but we are now 
 only in the third or fom-th rank. The question is 
 really one of figures and admits of no discussion. 
 
 For six years past I have unceasingly drawn the 
 attention of the ruling powers of the nation to this 
 evil, and have warned them that the true riches of a 
 country are to be found in its population. There is 
 an intimate relation between the productive power of 
 a state and the increase of its inhabitants, but of our 
 
 1 For further details see my lecture on tlie increase in the price of 
 provisions, in the Journal OJUcial of March 7, 1870. 
 
284 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leoi. xii. 
 
 ninety departments there are thirty-five where the 
 population is decreasing. The nations by which we 
 are surrounded are on the other hand increasing 
 steadily, and we shall ultimately be borne down by 
 numbers if a speedy remedy is not adopted. 
 
 Putting aside all such considerations for the pre- 
 sent, let us return once more to the practical side of 
 the question. The system of cutting up the land into 
 microscopic holdings, the legacy duty, and other 
 charges on the transfer of property to a man's heirs, 
 are so heavy that they often exceed the value of the 
 legacy itself. 
 
 In the case of holdings worth less than 201. the 
 legacy duty, &c., will often amount to 123 per cent, 
 on the value of the property. The effect of this on a 
 country which is broken up into small holdings can 
 readily be imagined. Before the war the duty pay- 
 able upon the transfer of property, by sale, legacy, or 
 exchange, was only 6 per cent. At present it is 
 10 per cent, on three years' rent. Again, the diffi- 
 culties of raising money on farming stock are very 
 great. A farmer, for instance, who holds stock worth 
 from four thousand pounds upwards, cannot raise a 
 few hundreds in case of necessity, for the law steps in 
 and forbids anything being done which may lessen 
 the guarantee possessed by the head landlord for the 
 payment of his rent, not only in the past and present 
 but in the future also. The same custom obtains 
 with regard to standing or coming crops. 
 
 The Government is too busy with other questions 
 to be able to notice these facts, but we who have the 
 most intimate knowledge of them can work great 
 good by enlightening public opinion on these vital 
 questions. 
 
LBCT. xiri. VALUE OF LIVE STOCK. 285 
 
 LECTURE XIII. 
 
 LIVE STOCK ^THEIR COMPOSITION RULES FOR FEEDING. 
 
 I NOW come to the culminating point of the agricul- 
 tural question, viz., Cattle, with which the work of 
 transformation that agriculture pursues and should 
 accomplish ceases. 
 
 What has not been said, and further what have I 
 not been made to say, respecting cattle and animal 
 manure ? So much that it has not appeared to me 
 of any use to reply, so I have left people to talk. It 
 is necessary to allow time for such questions to be 
 considered and affirmed. 
 
 Now that the doctrine of chemical manures is 
 admitted everywhere in France as well as abroad, 
 meeting only with the lowest form of opposition, 
 small personal grudges, the moment for explanation 
 is come. We wiU. speak therefore of cattle. 
 
 I take up the question at the point where I lefib 
 off last year when replying to the gaUant captain who 
 became a farmer, and who requested me to give him 
 instructions how to succeed. I said, ' Fill your barns 
 with hay and straw, manure your grass lands with 
 chemical manure, and when you have plenty of fod- 
 der then the time will have come for you to think of 
 cattle.' 
 
 We will add to this advice a few declarations of 
 principles, in order to prevent equivocation and defy 
 evil interpretation. 
 
286 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xin. 
 
 Are cattle indispensable to good agriculture ? No. 
 Since the introduction of chemical manure animal 
 manure has irretrievably lost the character given to 
 it in the past of being the exclusive means of fertilisa- 
 tion. 
 
 Without animal manure is the soil liable to lose 
 any part of its inherent properties ? No ; for chemi- 
 cal manures will give to the land more than the crops 
 take from it. 
 
 Is it true that the agriculturist who possesses an 
 equal surface of pasture and arable land is certain of 
 profit ? No ; this system gives neither profit nor 
 security, for it weakens the soil. These ensuing decla- 
 rations necessitate another on my part of a very dif- 
 ferent kind, but which is not the less necessary if I 
 would remain faithful to those habits of sincerity 
 from which I have never swerved. I have never 
 given much attention to the subject of cattle. When 
 I speak of the growth of plants, of the rotation of 
 crops, of manure, or of analysis of the soil, I speak 
 always of my own personal experience, which I am 
 able to guarantee. With respect to cattle my position 
 is widely different. I have never made any experi- 
 ments on the subject, and practically it is not in my 
 province. 
 
 However, led away by the force of circumstances, 
 I have for many years enquired into the most trust- 
 worthy researches on the subject of cattle ; I wished to 
 know the results of experiments made and pubhshed 
 abroad, and in proportion as the facts have become 
 familiar to me, considerable light has been thrown 
 upon my mind. I have found to my great surprise 
 that the laws which preside over the formation of ani- 
 mal substances are the same as those which preside 
 
lECT. XIII. VALUE OF LIVE §TOCK. 287 
 
 over the formation of plants, and that the economical 
 conditions which render culture remunerative, apply 
 equally to the raising of cattle. The beings on which 
 we work are different ; the substances which serve for 
 their production are also different ; but I repeat that 
 the laws which regulate the increase of plants and 
 animals are the same. When I attempted for the 
 first time to define the cause and effect of so complex 
 a work as vegetation, I took as a term of compari- 
 son the formation of such minerals as are subject to 
 the most simple phenomena, basing my ideas as much 
 upon contrasts as analogy, in order to determine the 
 play, of those numerous phenomena of which vegeta- 
 tion is the result. 
 
 I shall at the present time follow the same plan. 
 Knowing how plants are born, how they live and die, 
 I shall utilise them as a test to define by the aid of a 
 perpetual parallel the conditions that preside over the 
 formation of animal substance. 
 
 But allow me to repeat again that although with 
 respect to vegetation, theory and practice with me 
 go hand-in-hand, and mutually support each other, 
 stUl, with regard to cattle I am simply a theorist. 
 Having eased my mind by this declaration I shall no 
 longer hesitate to give to you the first attempt at 
 synthesis which appears to me to trace back to com- 
 mon laws the raising of cattle and the production of 
 vegetables. 
 
 We will first consider animal matter in relation to 
 its organisation and production. 
 
 The number of known animals is not so great as 
 that of plants. If we take the infusoria and micro- 
 scopic species into account they may be enumerated 
 by hundreds of thousands, but in any case we must 
 
288 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. xui. 
 
 bring the same method to bear upon animals that 
 we have upon plants. Analyse and isolate the 
 elements of which they are composed under the most 
 varied forms, and you will find that the unity of sub- 
 stance is expressed by 14 invariable ever-present 
 elements, which are moreover precisely the same as 
 those contained in plants, so that they spring from a 
 common source. The relations according to which 
 these elements are associated in the two kingdoms 
 change, it is true ; but their intrinsic nature remains 
 the same. You know that between plants which 
 have arrived at the limit of their evolutive perfection 
 and the substances which have served for their pro- 
 duction there are two remarkable series of products, 
 not completely organised, but on the way to become 
 so. The object of these transition products is prin- 
 cipally to serve as a way for the organisation of tissues, 
 and they may be called the physiological elements of 
 plant life. Chemists call them the proximate prin- 
 ciples ; they form two distinct series — carbohydrates 
 and albuminous matters. 
 
 It is a remarkable and unlooked for circumstance 
 that these same proximate principles exist iu animals. 
 
 Let us push the parallel still further. Analyse 
 the active principles common to plants and to ani- 
 mals, and you will find the same properties and the 
 same composition. 
 
 There is no appreciable difference ; the identity is 
 complete — starch, albumen, glucose and fibrin of 
 animal or vegetable origin are so closely analogous 
 as to be easily mistaken the one for the other. 
 
tECT. XIJI. COMPARISON OP ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 289 
 
 Proximate Principles Common to Animals and Plants. 
 
 Carljon . 
 Hydrogen 
 Oxygen . 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 Albumen 
 
 Casein 
 
 Kbrin 
 
 Animal 
 
 Vegetable 
 
 Animdl 
 
 Vegetable 
 
 Animal 
 
 Vegetable 
 
 63-5 
 
 7-0 
 
 23-7 
 
 16-5 
 
 53-5 
 
 7-1 
 
 23-3 
 
 16-5 
 
 63-5 
 
 7-1 
 
 23-6 
 
 15-8 
 
 63'7 
 
 7-1 
 
 23-6 
 
 15'7 
 
 62-8 
 
 7-0 
 
 23-7 
 
 15-8 
 
 53'2 
 
 7^0 
 
 23-4 
 
 160 
 
 Extend the comparisdn to the organic system in 
 which the first manifestations of life — ^the egg and the 
 grain — are produced ; both the elementary and the 
 proximate composition are the same. The following 
 table will throw more light on the subject than a 
 long enumeration would do. 
 
 Comparative Composition of the Egg and the Seed. 
 
 Albumen 
 Fatty matter 
 
 ( Sugar of milk 
 
 I Glucose 
 
 Sulphur and Phosphorus entering 
 
 into organic compounds 
 Divers salts — phosphates 
 Water, 65 to 90 per cent. 
 
 SEED. 
 
 Albumen 
 
 Fatty matter 
 
 Starch, afterwards developing 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Sulphur and phosphorus entering 
 
 into organic compounds 
 Divers salts — phosphates 
 Water, 10 to 12 per cent. 
 
 In both cases the composition is very similar ; 
 except that there is more moisture ia the egg than in 
 the seed, everything is alike. But what is perhaps 
 more unexpected is that the condition which gives 
 the first impulse to the vegetable germ is the same 
 which causes the .animal germ to spring into life. 
 What is necessary to both ? Moisture and warmths 
 The egg possessed moisture naturally ; give it to the 
 seed by placing it on a wet sponge, raise the tempe- 
 rature, and in both cases the life hitherto latent will 
 manifest its activity. 
 
 The seed absorbs the water ; its tissues swell and 
 
 u 
 
290 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. tECT. Xin. 
 
 ramify; the starch contained in the cotyledons is dis- 
 solved, and passes into the state of dextrin and glu- 
 cose ; one part of the nitrogenous matter, fibrin and 
 legumen, dissolves and passes into the state of albu- 
 men, the seed then absorbs oxygen and evolves car- 
 bonic acid ; it breathes, as it were, and the embryo, 
 assimilating the modified principles of the seed, gives 
 forth what botanists CaU the two axial systems — the 
 stalk furnished with leaves and the roots provided 
 with their capillary filaments, which are the special 
 channels of absorption of the plant. 
 
 Thus by a transformation of the actual substance 
 of the seed the plant is formed, which possesses in 
 variable degrees organic irritability, but which, de- 
 prived of the power of motion, remains fixed in the 
 soil where the seed germinated. 
 
 In the egg— a hen's egg, for example — an eleva- 
 tion of temperature is also necessary to determine the 
 evolution of the germ, and to cause it to go through 
 all the phases of embryonic life ; but to be successful, 
 this evolution requires the aid of oxygen. The egg 
 respires like the grain, and hke it evolves carbonic 
 acid. Its contents experience an extraordinary che- 
 mical and organic transformation. One part of the 
 yolk is changed into glucose, and at the same time 
 becomes the seat of a work of segmentation, the pre- 
 lude to the formation of organs by the union of which 
 the chicken is formed ; this will, at a fixed date, break 
 from the shell as the plant comes forth from the 
 grain, endowed like it, but in a higher degree, with 
 organic irritability, and further gifted with the 
 faculty of locomotion. 
 
 From whence comes the plant ? Entirely from 
 the substance of the seed. And the chicken ? Entirely 
 
lECT. xm. COJIPARISON 01" ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 291 
 
 from the substance of the egg^ the transformation in 
 both cases being due to the elevation of temperature 
 and the presence of oxygen. From this we draw two 
 legitimate and very important conclusions. 
 
 1. Plants and animals spring substantially from a 
 common base. 
 
 2. They are born by means of simil'ar actions de- 
 termined by a common cause, namely heat.-^ 
 
 But from the moment when the leaves issuing' 
 from the envelope of the seed receive the action of the 
 sun's rays, and from the moment when the chicken, 
 proceeding from the egg begins to subsist upon ali* 
 ments drawn from other sources, although their 
 activity may be referred to a series of common effects, 
 yet others are produced, the contrasts and opposition 
 of which in plants and animals, if we regard only the 
 final result, form two essentially different systems. 
 
 We will apply ourselves to defining the contrasts, 
 and when we have fixed by this study the condition 
 of life both in the plant and in the animal we will 
 descend from the heights of theory into the domairi 
 of practice, for we must not lose sight of the end 
 we have to attain, which is to obtain the largest pos- 
 sible profit from cattle. 
 
 When the leaves first issue from the seed they 
 are white or pale, but as soon as they are submitted 
 to the influence of light a sudden transformation 
 takes place in their organisation ; from a yellowish 
 white they become a deep green, and on obserAdng 
 their tissues by the aid of a microscope we find them 
 gorged with green granules. Now, these granules 
 spread in profusion over the parenchyma of the 
 
 * It must te understood that in saying they are born I mean that 
 their vital activity' is hrought into play, 
 
 V 2 
 
292 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. MCT. xirr. 
 
 leaves. Each, granule is really a vegetable atom, 
 possessing in an almost infinitesimal state of unity 
 all that the plant itself possesses of strength and of 
 activity. Each one of these granules is in fact the 
 seat of such remarkable actions as the following: — 
 When the sun appears above the horizon and its rays 
 first light upon the surface of the leaves we see the 
 granules of chlorophyll grow larger and multiply, 
 and other white granules form around them which 
 are composed simply of starch ; and when, in rare 
 cases, there is a deficiency of starch granules, then 
 the tissue of the leaf is gorged with sugar and glucose. 
 But where does this glucose or starch, which is formed 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, come from ? From 
 the carbonic acid of the air and from raiu water, of 
 which the earth is the natural reservoir. It is the 
 carbonic acid that the granules of chlorophyll first 
 absorb, and afterwards decompose to separate from it 
 the whole of the oxygen. 
 
 This extraordiuary act of reduction is itself fol- 
 lowed by the combination of the carbon with the 
 elements of water. Strictly speaking these two acts 
 are simultaneous. It is then proved that leaves, 
 whose tissues often possess the delicacy of the finest 
 lace, exceed in power all the means of reduction that 
 our laboratories afford. But in order to manifest 
 their activity the granules of chlorophyll require 
 that the rays of the sun should vivify and animate 
 them. 
 
 In fact, when the sun disappears below the 
 horizon it produces a sudden change in the functions 
 of the leaves. The absorption of carbonic acid 
 ceases, the absorption of oxygen — limited up to that 
 time to very shght proportions, first to preserve the 
 
LECT. xirr. COMPAEISON 01" ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 293 
 
 irritability of the tissues — becomes the dominant 
 feature of their activity. After this absorption a 
 transformation takes place in the composition of the 
 leaves. The granules of chlorophyll remain, but the 
 starch granules disappear — they are dissolved. Once 
 dissolved they enter into the general circulation of 
 the plant, and there encountering nitrogen, form 
 amm.oniacal compounds and nitrates ; and by a still 
 inexplicable act of synthesis, determined by the 
 return of light, they are partly transformed into 
 protein matters. 
 
 While this transformation is taking place the 
 plant is putting forth new leaves, which find in the 
 dissolved starch, glucose and protein — substances 
 whose origin we have just explained — the first ele- 
 ments of their tissues, as the embryo had itself 
 found them in the grain, and thus with aid and new 
 formations the vegetable gains each day in substance, 
 the organs which came last are the compound pro- 
 duct of part of the substance of those which have 
 preceded them, increased by agents drawn from with- 
 out. This succession of remarkable efi'ects is carried 
 on without interruption, but with variable intensity 
 up to the time of flowering. At that time a new 
 order of things begins. Plant life enters into a 
 dififerent course, which brings it back by gradations 
 to the acts of animal life. As soon as the flower is 
 in bloom and the young seeds begin to develop, the 
 growth of the plant gradually lessens and soon stops 
 completely, and the flower, instead of absorbing car- 
 bonic acid into its substance and drawing in light 
 and heat like the leaves, absorbs oxygen, sets free 
 carbonic acid, and radiates heat. There are some 
 flowers, such as certain kinds of arums, the tempera- 
 
294 ON CHEMICAL iMANURES. leoi. xiir. 
 
 ture of which, rises from 18° to 64" and even 72° F, 
 above the surrounding temperature. 
 
 An important part of the substance of the plant 
 is conveyed to the seed, the formation of which it 
 secures. Then the plant absorbs nothing more from 
 outside ; it Hves on itself in order to ensure the 
 organisation of the embryo and the grain which is 
 to reproduce it, and which remains the synthetical 
 expression of all the former efforts. 
 
 There are then in plant life three totally distinct 
 phases. 
 
 At the beginning and the end the plant absorbs 
 oxygen, and in the intermediate period carbonic acid. 
 The contrast between these three periods is very 
 marked. At the commencement, when it sprouts, the 
 plant produces heat ; at the end of its evolution, 
 when flowering, it still produces heat. In the inter- 
 mediate period, on the contrary, it absorbs heat, and 
 this heat which it receives from the sun it changes 
 by means of that chemical affinity that remains in 
 a latent state in all its productions. Now, as this 
 period excels the two others by its intensity and the 
 paramount importance of the products which were 
 born of it, it may be said with certainty that plants 
 are great consumers of heat. We may add as a last 
 trait of plant life that plants proceed from rela- 
 tively simple compounds, carbonic acid, water, 
 nitrates, ammoniacal salts, nitrogen, and mineral 
 salts, all substances whose affinities are complete, 
 and which, by an absorption of heat, it transforms 
 into more complex compounds, the affinities of which 
 are in a high state of tension, such as starch, sugar, 
 cellulose, and albuminoid matters, whose texture 
 composition, and properties are modified by the 
 
LECT. XJli. COMPARISON OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 295 
 
 slightest actions. I repeat, at the risk of being 
 wearisome, that the prime mover of vegetable activity- 
 is the sun, and the culminating characteristic of vege- 
 tation is the facility it possesses of drawing its pro- 
 ductive power from the light and warmth of the 
 sun. 
 
 But when we pass to animal life, we shall find 
 the conditions of its activity to be quite the opposite. 
 Take the chicken just emerged from the shell. As 
 long as it lives it will absorb oxygen ; it will con- 
 sume the products of unstable affinities in order to 
 form others whose afiinities are constant ; it will 
 give off heat, which heat it will obtaui from the 
 combustion of a part of its food, or from its own 
 substance, which arises from it. I repeat that as 
 long as it lives it will absorb oxygen,' and the final 
 result of its activity will resolve itself into a series 
 of acts of combustion. 
 
 If, parallel with these effects, others are produced 
 which manifest themselves by the formation of special 
 compounds, such as sugar, fats, albuminoids, muscular 
 and nervous tissues, accomplished by methods of 
 synthesis analogous to those which are set to work 
 by plants, we must not lose sight of the fact that 
 these effects have for their determinative and regu- 
 lating cause the permanent and parallel acts of com- 
 bustion, which are the source of the heat that 
 animates the animal machine, without which its 
 functions would cease. 
 
 Acts of combustion are always the first condition 
 of physiological formation. 
 
 The animal needs air and water, but does not 
 live on them. If he is provided with nothing else 
 he becomes emaciated, enfeebled, and dies. His ac- 
 
296 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xiir. 
 
 tivity depends upon his food, one part of which is 
 assimilated, and the other directly or indirectly 
 destroyed. Life in the two kingdoms, vegetable and 
 animal, exhibits a multitude of common traits and 
 similar effects ; but if we consider only the final 
 result, the preponderative and characteristic work, 
 we find that plants derive their activity from the 
 sun by processes of reduction, whilst animals exist 
 by the combustion of their food, or of the tissues 
 which are formed from it to become exhausted by the 
 renovating act of vital labour. 
 
 A man who ascends Mont Blanc consumes nearly 
 4,632 grains of carbon, whilst the most perfect steam 
 engine to do the same amount of work would con- 
 sume 18,528 grains. The animal machine excels 
 therefore in economy and perfection, but the useful 
 effect obtained is due to the same cause. 
 
 On the contrary, a plant which fixes in its tissues 
 4,632 grains of carbon gives back 2,880 heat units, 
 equal to half a day's horse-power. 
 
 On this point the opposition is radical. But 
 where the contrast between the two systems is most 
 clearly defined is that the plant which receives 
 through the medium of the sun ten fertilising units 
 gives back by the crop at least 100 units, whilst the 
 animal which receives 100 alimentary agents returns 
 at most only ten organised products. And the 
 reason is this. The sun is the motive power of 
 vegetable activity, and air and water the sources 
 from whence it draws nine-tenths of its substance, 
 whUst the animal has to obtain by food both the 
 warmth that ammates it and the substance that 
 nourishes it. Now, everybody knows that to evolve 
 the heat that is contained in the component parts in 
 
lEOX. xm.- COMPARISON OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 297 
 
 a state of chemical affinity it is absolutely necessary 
 to burn tbem and to destroy them. 
 
 We will make a short resumi of the foregoing facts. 
 
 Comparing the substance of animals and plants 
 we find that there is a complete identity between the 
 two. If the comparison be extended to the active 
 principles, the identity is stUl maintained. 
 
 With respect to the acts, into which their life is 
 divided, the similarity frequently exists without being 
 absolutely constant. But if we stretch the parallel 
 to the forces which animate the two kingdoms the 
 opposition is radical. Plants absorb light and heat, 
 which they change into chemical affinity. Ani- 
 mals, on the contrary, restore the chemical affinity to 
 the state of heat. The opposition is maintained if 
 we compare their origin. 
 
 If we accept the theoretical ideas I have just 
 presented to you in order simply to arrive at use- 
 ful and practical results, a new trait, common to the 
 two kingdoms, becomes apparent. We find in agri- 
 culture that the role of plants and of animals is 
 reduced definitely to that of simple machines. If 
 we wish to produce bread we sow wheat ; if sugar 
 we have recourse to beetroot ; and if oil to colza or 
 poppies. How do they manage in the colony of 
 AustraHa, whence tallow and wool are exported to 
 Europe ? They cultivate grass land, and the grass 
 land maintains sheep. Two successive acts of trans- 
 formation are accomplished, which acts we are able 
 to regulate and control, and the efi^ects of which, 
 though amenable to various and striking contrasts, 
 have yet their origin in the same laws. 
 
 All the art of cattle-feeding rests in fact upon the 
 principle of collective forces and the notion of the 
 
298 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. XIII. 
 
 dominants ; and the economical production of cattle 
 upon the principle of high feeding. Henceforth we 
 shall not speak of the laws of vegetation, we shall 
 call them the laws of life, and shall use every effort 
 to give you practical proof of this demonstration. I 
 shall thus hope to justify the resolution that, after 
 a good deal of hesitation, I have taken to speak 
 to you of live stock, and the means to be em- 
 ployed to deprive them of the appellation of neces- 
 sary evils which has hitherto attended their produc- 
 tion, and which will as certainly be abandoned as 
 the empirical methods of live stock rearing which 
 gave rise to it. 
 
 You know that in order to obtain large crops 
 it is necessary to give to the earth by means of 
 manure the four following substances: — 
 
 Calcic phosphate 1 Lime 
 
 Potash I Nitrogenous matter 
 
 In order to live, grow, develop, and give meat, milk, 
 wool, or strength, animals must also receive through 
 their food four substances : — 
 
 Albuminoid matter I Oarbo-hydrates 
 
 Fatty matters I Salts or mineral matter 
 
 Regarded from' a practical point of view the analogy 
 is remarkable. The products are different, the num- 
 ber is the same. 
 
 You know further that the four substances of 
 which manure must be composed have their full effect 
 only when all four are in combination ; the asso- 
 ciation is so essential that the suppression of one 
 only suffices to reduce in a considerable degree, if 
 not to annul altogether, the effect of the three others. 
 In order to leave nothing vaguely understood, I 
 
LUCT, xm. COMPARISON OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 299 
 
 will recall the example already cited of the culti- 
 vation of colza — ^where every condition being the 
 same — such as aspect, soil, and culture — ^the suppres- 
 sion of nitrogenous matter was sufficient to cause the 
 crops to fall from 43 bushels to 16 i. 
 
 With regard to animals it is precisely the same. 
 The suppression of one of the four constituents neces- 
 sary to animal life — .albuminoid matter, fatty matter, 
 carbo-hydrates or mineral matter — ^produces such a 
 check upon the work of nutrition, that after a suc- 
 cession of more or less serious indispositions, the 
 death of the animal is almost always the result. A 
 dog placed upon an exclusive diet of meat — carefully 
 washed in order to bring it back as much as possible 
 to the state of fibrin — soon shows an almost invincible 
 repugnance to the food, and these symptoms are 
 followed by intestinal irritation to which he eventually 
 succumbs. 
 
 Carbo-hydrates alone do hot succeed much better. 
 Majendie has left us his experience on this subject. 
 An ass fed only on rice will not live more than three 
 weeks. A diet of fatty matter alone is more defective 
 still. A duck fed entirely upOn butter dies from 
 inanition in less than three weeks. Butter exudes 
 from all parts of its body, and he emits a disgusting 
 odour something like that of butyric acid. The ex- 
 cretions themselves are almost entirely formed of 
 fat. 
 
 The suppression of mineral matter is the last item, 
 and of the minerals, the suppression of common 
 salt (sodic chloride) only will give rise to diseases 
 from which death is certain in time to ensue. 
 
 Regular nutrition which manifests itself only in 
 perfect health and in an increase of weight, is to be 
 
300 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LECI. xiir. 
 
 realised only by means of the association of the four 
 above-mentioned constituents. 
 
 The eiFect of each one of these four classes of 
 substances is increased, not only by association with 
 the three others, but by the proportion by weight in 
 which they are combined. In fact, if you vary the 
 proportion of each of the four constituents one after 
 the other, you wiU find that the albuminoid and fatty 
 matters have more influence over the production of 
 cattle than the carbo-hydrates. We will demonstrate 
 these two fundamental proportions by a simple ex- 
 ample, and milk which may be taken as the type of 
 animal food wUl furnish us with the means of doing 
 so. Its composition justifies the necessity for the 
 four terms. -^ 
 
 Milk contains in fact 
 
 Casein . 
 
 . Albuminoid matter 
 
 Butter . 
 
 . Fatty matter 
 
 Sugar of milk . . 
 
 . Carbo-hydrates 
 
 Salts 
 
 . Mineral matter 
 
 Mean Composition of Cold's MUh. 
 Water . . . . .87 per cent. 
 Solids 13 per cent. 
 
 Oasein .... 
 Butter .... 
 Sugar of milk 
 Salts 
 
 In 100 parta 
 
 Milk 
 
 Dried milk 
 
 3-60 
 4-03 
 5-50 
 0-40 
 
 28-00 
 
 31-00 
 
 42-00 
 
 3-00 
 
 Composition of the Salts. 
 
 Calcic phosphate 
 Magnesic phosphate 
 Ferric phosphate 
 Potaasic chloride 
 Sodie chloride . 
 Sodic carbonate 
 
 In 100 parts at milk 
 0-231 
 0-042 
 0-007 
 0-144 
 0-024 
 0-042 
 
LECT. XIII. COMPARISON OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 301 
 
 I now pass to my second proposition, namely, the 
 preponderant action of tlie albuminoid and fatty mat- 
 ters. Three parallel experiments will suffice to estab- 
 lish this fact. 
 
 Give to one calf some skimmed milk, to another 
 the same quantity of skimmed milk with the addition 
 of a little whey, and to a third the same quantity of 
 milk not deprived of its cream, and see how different 
 the results are. In the course of a week the first calf 
 will have increased 13 lbs., the second 26 g lbs., the 
 third 48 1 lbs. What has the second calf received 
 more than the first ? sugar of milk and carbo-hydrates. 
 And the third ? an excess of fatty matter and albu- 
 minoid matter. The exact details of this important 
 experiment are as follows :^- 
 
 For every 100 lbs. of living weight the three 
 calves received 
 
 1. SMmmed miUc . 
 
 2. SMmmed milk and whey . 
 
 3. Pure milk and cream . 
 
 CAsein 
 
 Fatty 
 matter 
 
 Sugar of 
 mirk 
 
 Increase 
 obtained 
 
 lbs. 
 4-6 
 4-6 
 5-1 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1-2 
 2-0 
 7-5 
 
 lbs. 
 5-5 
 7-7 
 6-3 
 
 lbs. 
 13 
 
 2ej 
 
 48^ 
 
 Note the progression^ 
 
 Increased weight 
 lbs. 
 
 1. Witli insufficient rations . . .13 
 
 2. „ more carbo-hydrates . . 26J 
 
 3. „ more protein and fatty matter 48J 
 
 Compare these results with those obtained with 
 colza, with mineral manure, and the normal manure. 
 
 Field of grain 
 Per acre 
 Bnsbela 
 
 Soil without manure . , . . . . 7J 
 
 Mineral manure without nitrogen . . . 16^ 
 
 „ with 88 lbs. of nitrogen added 27^ 
 
 ,, with 176 „ „ 46 
 
302 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. tECT. Xlir. 
 
 Here the mineral manure corresponds to the 
 ration to which carbo-hydrates were added, and the 
 normal manure with 88 or 176 lbs. of nitrogen added 
 to the ration with an excess of protein and fatty 
 matter. In the face of these proofs it is impossible 
 to deny the preponderant action of protein, and fatty 
 matter, or in the manure the preponderant action of 
 nitrogenous matter. 
 
 The notion of dominants and the principle of 
 collective forces is then applicable as much to animals 
 as to plants, and the conditions of production in the 
 two kingdoms are subject to the same laws. 
 
 The great superiority of fatty matters over carbo- 
 hydrates is explained by their heat-producing power. 
 Taking equal weights of each, the combustion of the 
 fatty matters will produce 2^ times more heat than 
 carbo-hydrates. The quantity of fatty matter that 
 can be consumed by those living in high latitudes 
 almost passes belief. The Laplander drinks train 
 oil as we ourselves drink wine and beer. The rigour 
 of the climate, agaiust which they must be protected 
 by activity of respiration, explains both the need 
 and the faculty of assimilating such quantities of 
 fatty matter. By their aid animals utilise with less 
 effort that part of their food that is to be assimilated 
 and converted iuto animal products. Never lose 
 sight of the important fact that we must think of 
 food as consisting of two parts, one which animates 
 the machine, and the other which is transformed by it. 
 
 Fatty matters occupy the first rank as heat-pro- 
 ducing aliments, then come carbo-hydrates, and lastly 
 albuminoid ■ matters ; the latter, however, take the 
 pre-eminence as physiological elements for the forma- 
 tion of tissue, and of animal products generally. Do 
 
MCI. Xlli. COMPARISON OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 303 
 
 these distinctions, authenticated by recent experi- 
 ments, justify the opinion which was at one time 
 held that animals are incapable of producing anything 
 by themselves, and that their function is simply to 
 accumulate and isolate in their tissues the various 
 substances contained in their food ? 
 
 Nothing can be more opposed to the actual phe- 
 nomena than such an opinion. The truth is, that 
 animals create their substances as plants create theirs. 
 Before taking part in the function of the animal, 
 aliments undergo complete modification, which en- 
 tirely change their nature. To quote only one 
 example, borrowed from M. Chevreul : cooked meat 
 becomes, as it were, uncooked, and in part passes 
 again, in the animal organism, into the state of flesh, 
 fat, and living tissues. 
 
 The idea that albuminoid matters have no part in the 
 production of animal heat has no better foundation ; for 
 the increasing formation of urea which is derived from 
 them by means of oxidation, is a proof to the contrary. 
 
 But it is also true that in this part of physiological 
 work fatty matters and carbo-hydrates play a more 
 important part than albuminoid matters, whilst they 
 contribute, though in a more restricted degree, to the 
 work of nutrition. In a word, sooner or later all 
 nourish and all oxidise, but in a diiferent proportion. 
 In the two kingdoms the Work of nutrition is carried 
 on by a system of analogous actions which are often- 
 times identical. 
 
 But beyond these analogies there is a difference 
 which dominates all, and finally assigns to the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms a different function in the eco- 
 nomy of animated nature. Let us recall it once more. 
 
 Plants spring from mineral compounds whose 
 
304 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. IBCX, Xlir. 
 
 affinities are complete. They absorb the light and 
 heat of the sun into their substance, where it passes 
 into a state of chemical affinity incompletely neutra- 
 lised. Animals, on the contrary, proceed from orga- 
 nic compounds in which the incomplete affinities are 
 in a high state of tension whence they draw at the 
 same time the warmth that animates, and the sub- 
 stance that nourishes them. This is the great dif- 
 ference between the two kingdoms. 
 
 But to return to the practical facts of cattle-feed- 
 ing, I will strengthen, by another example, the rules 
 that I have just indicated to you, and to these notions 
 add the proof that if high farming only is remu- 
 nerative, abundant ahmentation judiciously propor- 
 tioned will alone cause cattle to realise a profit. 
 
 The elements of the new demonstration I shall 
 borrow from the already well-known experiment of 
 M. Boussingault. Submit a young pig, 132 lbs. in 
 weight, to a diet composed exclusively of potatoes. 
 After 93 days of this treatment the pig will have 
 gained 15^ lbs. of flesh. He weighed 132 lbs. at the 
 cormnencement of this experiment ; at the end of it 
 he weighed 147^ lbs., and to produce this he was 
 made to consume 1,173 lbs. of potatoes. This as- 
 suredly is a poor result. Make another experiment 
 upon a second pig, also weighing 132 lbs. Only 
 instead of potatoes and nothing else, give him plenty 
 of rye meal, crushed peas, and hot wash, into which 
 all the leavings of the table and dairy are put. 
 
 Potatoes which are rich in carbo-hydrates contain 
 very little fatty matter, and still less of protein com- 
 pounds. 
 
 By an addition of peas, rye meal, and hog wash, 
 we pass from an incomplete and insufficient diet to a 
 
XEOT. xirr. 
 
 CATTLE FEEDING"; 
 
 305 
 
 complete, nourishing, and properly proportioned ration, 
 and approach, without however obtaining, the condi- 
 tions under which the animal is placed during the 
 period of lactation. 
 
 With the second ration the increase is more rapid 
 and considerable. In 93 days it rises to lOllbs., 
 instead of 15^1bs.^ 
 
 How much food had the pig consumed under an 
 exclusive diet of potatoes? 1,1724- lbs., "which corre- 
 sponds to 286 lbs. of dry matter. 
 
 In the second experiment the amount of food con- 
 sumed was 3,665 lbs., representing 563 lbs. of dry 
 matter, or twice as much as in the first ration, but on 
 the other hand, by doubling the ration, We have mul- 
 tiplied the product six times. 
 
 By an exclusive diet of potatoes . 
 
 By a complete and nourishing diet . , 
 
 Amount 
 consumed 
 
 Increase 
 obtained 
 
 lbs. 
 
 286 
 663 
 
 lbs. 
 
 15i 
 101 
 
 ■Pig's nations. 
 
 ¥EB -WITH P0TAI0B8 OKLT. 
 
 Undried 
 potatoes 
 
 Dry potatoes 
 
 Protein 
 compounds 
 
 Fats 
 
 Carbohydrates 
 
 Salts 
 
 lbs. 
 
 12-76 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3-07 
 
 lbs. 
 0-32 
 
 lbs. 
 0-025 
 
 lbs. 
 2-67 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-101 
 
 In 93 days to eat : — 
 
 ITndried 
 potatoes 
 
 Dry potatoes 
 
 Protein 
 compounds 
 
 Pats 
 
 Carbohydrates 
 
 Salts 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1187-78 
 
 lbs. 
 286-00 
 
 lbs. 
 
 296-67 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2-37 
 
 lbs. 
 
 239-71 
 
 lbs. 
 
 9-50 
 
 During this period of 93 days the pig gained 15-4: lbs. 
 At the end of the experiment it weighed 
 At the beginning . i t i , . . 
 
 • The increase stated refers to dead weight. 
 X 
 
 lbs. 
 
 147-4 
 
 132-0 
 
 15-4 
 
306 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LEOT. xirr 
 
 Pig's Bations. 
 
 HIGH FEEDINO. 
 
 Food 
 
 Solids 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter 
 
 Protein 
 compounds 
 
 Pats 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 
 Salts 
 
 Potatoes 
 Crushed rye 
 Rye meal . 
 Raw peas , 
 Hog wash . 
 
 Iba. 
 
 10-71 
 0-99 
 0-70 
 0-78 
 
 22-00 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2-58 
 
 0-85 
 
 0-55 
 
 0-67 
 
 1-03 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-25 
 
 0-12 
 
 0-11 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-19 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-02 
 
 0-02 
 
 0-02 
 
 0-02 
 
 0-09 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2-16 
 0-64 
 0-48 
 0-42 
 0-62 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-10 
 0-02 
 0-02 
 0-02 
 0-14 
 
 35-18 
 
 5-68 
 
 0-85 
 
 0-17 
 
 4-32 
 
 0-30 
 
 In 98 days . 
 
 3,445-388 
 
 556-640 
 
 83-33 
 
 16-66 
 
 423-36 
 
 29-40 
 
 During this period the pig gained 103-4 lbs. 
 At the end of the experiment he weighed 
 At the beginning .... 
 
 lbs. 
 
 246-4 
 143-0 
 
 103-4 
 
 If the animals are poorly fed, it is necessary to 
 have 7 pigs in order to produce 1 cwt. of pork in 
 93 days. But let the animals be plentifully fed, and 
 the same result, that is to say 1 cwt. of pork, may 
 be obtained with only a single pig ! Now, which of 
 these two methods is the better, the more economical 
 and the more advantageous? Is it better to keep 
 14 pigs or two only? With the 14 pigs it is neces- 
 sary to have large pig-styes and numerous labourers. 
 The general expenses of labour, building, and interest 
 of capital are the same whether the animals are well 
 or badly fed ; and the cost per pound of meat is less 
 in proportion as the increase is greater. Always 
 then remember the theory of high farming : Feed 
 your cattle weU, and go in for remunerative culture. 
 
 Cattle have been called a necessary evU. How 
 
LECT. XIII. CATTLE FEEDING. 307. 
 
 can they be otherwise if they are badly fed ? What 
 can be expected frotn an animal fed on straw or 
 forage? Yet what is the system to which cattle in 
 three-fourths of oul* southern departments in the 
 Landes and in the mountains of Puy-du-D&me, and 
 of Yivarais are submitted? I repeat that when the 
 diet is tmcertain and badly proportioned, though of 
 equal weight, its usefill effect is less than when it is 
 superabundant in the desired quantities, and- contaias 
 the four constituents I have already .mentioned. 
 When we feed a pig upon potatoes only 1 cwt. of 
 food produces an increase of 6g lbs., when it is fed. 
 upon a fiill and complete diet 1 cwt. of food gives an 
 increase of 20 lbs. 
 
 The same fact is shown in a more decided form 
 by three calves undef a respective diet of skim 
 milk, milk with whey added, and milk with cream 
 added, because in the latter case the diet is richer, 
 and during the period of lactation the increase is 
 more rapid. 
 
 1 cwt. of sHm milt produced . i , 68 j lbs. of tnedt 
 „ milk with wtey added produced 99 ,i 
 
 „ „ cream „ 127 j, 
 
 M. Kiihn reports that six oxen, weighing on art 
 average about 11 Cwt. each, placed under a diet rich 
 in fatty matter increased 12 cwt. 3| qrs., and that six 
 others placed upon a less rich diet gained in the same 
 time an increase of 8 cwt. 1| qrs.^ 
 
 We always come to the same conclusion: the most 
 rapid and stimulating fattening is the most economical 
 and renumeratiVe* 
 
 These analyses al*e singularly instructive, they 
 
 ' KUlin's treatise on The AMmentation of the Bovine Race, p. Si90. 
 
 X 2 
 
808 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. Mci. iin. 
 
 throw great light upon the rules which must be 
 applied to cattle feeding; abundant nourishment must 
 be given, and the rations must contain suitable pro- 
 portions of the four constituents before mentioned. 
 If a diet contains an excess of carbo-hydrates in 
 the form of starch, and lacks in consequence fatty 
 matter and nitrogenous matter, a part of the starch 
 and cellulose will be found in the excreta without 
 having undergone the slightest alteration. But the 
 starch in the manure is of no use. It contains only 
 carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen ; that is to say, the 
 elements that the plant is able to obtain from the air 
 and from water. If, on the contrary, the dose of 
 nitrogenous matter is too strong and that of the 
 fatty matter too feeble, a part of the nitrogenous 
 matter passes in its turn into the excreta. But this 
 time all is not lost, for we know that nitrogenous 
 matter of animal or vegetable origin forms the most 
 powerful manure, only the nitrogenous matter is not 
 of so much value as a manure as it is as an aliment ; 
 there is therefore some loss. Again, if the quantity 
 of fatty matter is too great it provokes more serious 
 mischief with the digestive organs, and you will find 
 both nitrogenous matter and carbo-hydrates in the 
 excreta. 
 
 It was long believed that cellulose^ was devoid of 
 aU alimentary properties, but numerous experiments 
 
 * The following, accoTding to M. Ktihn, are tte amounts of celluloaa 
 which are dissolved and digested in the case of the principal fodders : — 
 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Oat straw 
 
 . 55 
 
 Wheat straw . 
 
 . 65 
 
 Bean straw 
 
 . 36 
 
 OloTer hay 
 
 . 39 
 
 Meadow hay , 
 
 . 60 
 
lEOT.xni. CATTLE FEEDING. 309 
 
 made with, the greatest care have proved this opinion 
 to be ill founded, and that in reality 50 per cent, of 
 the cellidose contained in fodder enters into the work 
 of nutrition, doubtless with less efficacy, but as cer- 
 tainly as starch and saccharine matters. 
 
 The intervention of saline matter is not less 
 essential. It has been ascertained that in the absence 
 of potash, a dog which is otherwise well fed exhibits 
 in less than a month all the phenomena of inanition. 
 
 I have already said that the suppression of salt 
 produces serious indisposition ; practically we need 
 only concern ourselves with phosphates and salt, 
 for through water and food the animals receive 
 more of the other minerals than they can utilise. 
 The conclusion of all this is that we have a correct 
 equilibrium to establish: an equilibrium that depends 
 on two points, the amount of food proportioned to 
 the weight of the living animal and the composi- 
 tion of the ration itself. We must, however, defer 
 the further consideration of their importance to the 
 next lecture. In the present one, theory, not practice, 
 has had the precedence, but in the next lecture this 
 order of things will be reversed and -the preference 
 will be given to practice, for we shall not only fix 
 the amount of food necessary for animals, but en- 
 deavour to throw light upon the financial side of the 
 question of cattle raising, and determine the profit 
 that may be derived from it, whether it occupies the 
 foremost place or only a secondary one in the economy 
 of the farm. 
 
310 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lbot. xiv. 
 
 LECTURE XIV. 
 
 CATTLE — THEIR FOOD — THEIR IMPORTANCE IN FARMING — THE 
 PROFIT WHICH THEY GIVE. 
 
 I HAVE already told you that in the feeding of animals 
 it is necessary to take into consideration the weight 
 of the animal, the composition of the food which 
 is to form its support, and the amount of food that 
 may be given without disturbing the digestive func- 
 tions, which vary in power in different animals. 
 These weights may be fixed thus : — 
 
 Weight of Dry Food for every GwL 
 
 lbs. 
 Cows . . . . 1 to 1^ 
 Oxen for draught . . 1 „ li 
 
 „ fattening . , IJ 
 Sheep . . . . 1 „ li 
 Pigs • . . . 1* „ 2 
 
 The average weight of a cow or an ox being 
 about 10 cwt., say 1,100 lbs., if we take this weight 
 as a unit by which the various animals may be 
 measured, we obtain the following as an expression 
 of the weight of rations necessary for 24 hours: — 
 
 Dry Rations for 1,100 Iha. of Live Weight. 
 
 lbs. 
 Cows .... 26^ 
 
 Oxen for draught , , 26J 
 
 „ fattening , , 33 
 Sheep .... 26J 
 Pigs . . . . 39Jto44 
 
 I now pass to the second question. In these 
 
XECX. XIV. 
 
 CATTLE FEEDING. 
 
 311 
 
 different rations what proportion of the four con- 
 stituents, protein, fatty matter, albuminoid matter, 
 and salts, should be used? The following particulars 
 are borrowed from M. Emile Wolf, and they have 
 been confirmed both by science and practice. 
 
 For 1,100 lbs. of Live Weight per day of 24: hours. 
 
 Milch cow . 
 Draught ox . , 
 Ox for fattening . 
 Sheep not being fatted 
 Sheep fattening . 
 Pig . . . . 
 Pig fattening (last period) 
 
 Protein 
 
 lb3. 
 3-620 
 3-960 
 4-620 
 3-300 
 5-960 
 7-160 
 9-900. 
 
 Fatty matter 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-770 
 1-100 
 1-660 
 0-660 
 1-100 
 1-100 
 2-200 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 
 lbs. 
 
 17-60 
 15-84 
 14-08 
 16-60 
 14-96 
 35-20 
 29-70 
 
 I say nothiag of saline matters, because with the 
 exception of salt, which everybody knows how to 
 use, the animals would under such a system be abun- 
 dantly provided with them. 
 
 In these different rations the fatty matters are 
 almost a third of the albuminoids, and in their 
 turn the albuminoid matters oscUlate between a 
 third and a fifth of the fatty matters and the carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 It is usual to express these two relations as fol- 
 lows: — 
 
 Relation of fatty matter to protein 
 Nutritive relation of the food . 
 
 1 :3 
 1:5 
 
 Whilst remembering the utility of these summary 
 expressions, it is well, in order to have an exact idea 
 of the system, to go back to the respective quantities 
 of the three constituents of the ration, inasmuch as 
 
312 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 lECT. XIV. 
 
 when we increase the proportion of fatty matter by an 
 addition of oil cake, or that of proteia by the 
 addition of meal or peas, the carbo-hydrates which 
 these foods contain appear to be too small in the 
 diet, and seem to lessen the improvement that the 
 ration has received from the substances added. 
 
 In mUk, which corresponds to the most active 
 period of animal life, we find that the fatty matter 
 figures in the same quantity as the protein, and that 
 the latter is almost the half of the sum total of fatty 
 matter and carbo-hydrates. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 KELATIVJ!) 
 
 NXriEIMBNT. 
 
 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Protein . 
 
 , 
 
 . 1-00 
 
 Fatty matter . 
 
 « 
 
 . 1-00 
 
 Carljo-hydrates 
 
 • 
 
 . 2-60 
 
 In 100 'j^arts of Milk, 
 
 Fer cant. 
 Casein .... 3-60 
 Butter .... 4-03 
 Sugar of milk . . . 5'50 
 
 Practical cattle feeders are unanimous in the 
 opinion that for ordinary feeding purposes it suffices 
 to give as much fatty matter as is equal to one-third 
 of the protein 1 : 3, and of protein in its turn one- 
 fifth of the sum total of fatty matter and carbo-hy- 
 drates 1:5; but for fattening purposes it is necessary 
 to increase the amount of fatty matters from one- 
 third to two-thirds, and of protein from one-fifth of 
 the sum total of fatty matter and carbo-hydrates to 
 one-third. We then come nearer to the composition 
 of milk without attaining its richness. As an appli- 
 cation of the preceding rules, I give below ex;amples 
 of rations for milking cows and oxen that are in 
 process of fattening. With respect to milking cows 
 I quote from M. Kubn the progression it is best to 
 follow in order to obtain the maximum amount of 
 milk: — 
 
rECT. XIV. 
 
 CATTLE FEEDING. 
 
 313 
 
 Quantity of Food used in a Stable of Twenty Cows. 
 
 Per day per head 
 
 Bry 
 
 mattei 
 
 Protein 
 oompounijs 
 
 Patty 
 matter 
 
 Extractiye 
 matter non- 
 nitrogenous 
 
 4-4 lbs. of dry cloTer . 
 3-3 „ meadow hay 
 1-1 „ common hay 
 7-7 „ barley straw 
 6-5 „ wheat straw 
 2-2 „ chaff. 
 55-0 „ beetroot 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3-663 
 
 2-827 
 0-946 
 6-600 
 4-719 
 1-881 
 8-030 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-616 
 0-275 
 0088 
 0-495 
 0-110 
 0-099 
 0-825 
 
 lbs. 
 0-154 
 0-099 
 0-017 
 0-154 
 0-081 
 0-033 
 0-195 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1-672 
 1-265 
 1-264 
 2-519 
 1-573 
 0-704 
 4-972 
 
 28-666 
 
 2-508 
 
 0-733 
 
 12-969 
 
 Progression of Bations. 
 
 Per day per head 
 
 Dry 
 matter 
 
 Protein 
 oompouu^ 
 
 Patty 
 matter 
 
 Extractive 
 matter non- 
 nitrogenous 
 
 Normal ration 
 
 3-85 lbs. of ground rye , 
 
 Normal ration 
 4-4 lbs. of bran . 
 
 Normal ration 
 2-2 lbs. of oil cake 
 
 Normal ration 
 2-64 lbs. oil cake • 
 
 lbs. 
 
 28-66 
 
 3-30 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2-51 
 0-42 
 
 lbs. 
 
 7-33 
 0-07 
 
 lbs. 
 
 13-71 
 
 2-58 
 
 31-96 
 
 2-93 
 
 7-43 
 
 16-29 
 
 28-66 
 4-00 
 
 2-51 
 6-27 
 
 7-33 
 ■ 1-43 
 
 13-71 
 2-31 
 
 32-66 
 
 8-78 
 
 8-76 
 
 1602 
 
 28-66 
 1-83 
 
 2-51 
 0-62 
 
 7-33 
 2-09 
 
 13-71 
 0-54 
 
 30-49 
 
 3-13 
 
 9-42 
 
 14-25 
 
 28-66 
 2-24 
 
 2-51 
 0-74 
 
 7-33 
 2-76 
 
 13-71 
 •64 
 
 30-90 
 
 3-25 
 
 10-08 
 
 14-35 
 
 In these rations the quantity of protein is a little 
 less than in Wolfs formula, but the amount of fatty 
 matter is increased by way of compensation. The 
 same author gives the three foUbwing formulae as 
 applicable to oxen that are being fattened; they relate 
 
314 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 lEOT. XIV. 
 
 to three periods of the operation, the beginning, 
 middle, and end. 
 
 If these rules have neither the simplicity, strict- 
 ness, nor certainty of those that I have given you 
 with respect to plants, if the facts upon which they 
 are based are less numerous, they nevertheless con- 
 stitute extremely valuable indications. A fat ox, 
 according to the old calculation, gained at least 2 lbs. 
 
 First Period. 
 
 BBQINNINa OE FATIENINa. 
 
 Bation per day per head 1,100 lbs. 
 
 Dry 
 matter 
 
 Protein 
 compounds 
 
 „ , , 1 Extractive 
 I^atty matter non- 
 matter nitrogenous 
 
 55 lbs. of beetroot 
 4-4 „ chopped oat straw 1 
 6'5 „ ditto given before [ 
 last feed . ) 
 8-8 „ dry red clover 
 3-3 „ oat bran 
 4'4 „ oil cake 
 0-5 „ linsesd meal . 
 O'll „ salt . 
 
 lbs. 
 6-60 
 
 8-48 
 
 7-40 
 2-88 
 3-74 
 0-48 
 0-11 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-61 
 
 0-25 
 
 1-17 
 0-45 
 1'24 
 1-24 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-06 
 
 0'20 
 
 0-28 
 O'lO 
 0-42 
 0-20 
 
 lbs. 
 
 4-95 
 
 3-52 
 
 2-50 
 1'66 
 1'07 
 0-10 
 
 29-69 
 
 4-96 
 
 1-20 
 
 13-80 
 
 /Second Period. 
 
 FATTENnSTG IN PtTLL PEOflEESS. 
 
 Eation per day per head, 1,100 lbs. 
 
 Dry 
 matter 
 
 Protein 
 compounds^ 
 
 Patty 
 matter 
 
 Extractive 
 matter non- 
 nitrogenous 
 
 6-6 lbs. of beetroot 
 
 4-4 „ chopped oat straw 
 
 4-4 „ ditto given before 
 
 last feed . 
 8-8 „ dry red clover 
 3-3 „ best chaff . 
 6-6 „ oil cake 
 1-0 „ linseed meal 
 0-15 „ salt . . . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 7-92 
 
 7-54 
 
 7-40 
 2-88 
 5-61 
 0-96 
 0-16 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-74 
 
 0-22 
 
 1-17 
 0-46 
 1-86 
 0-24 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-06 
 
 0-17 
 
 0-28 
 0-10 
 0-63 
 0-40 
 
 lbs. 
 5-94 
 
 3-13 
 
 2-60 
 1-68 
 1-60 
 0-19 
 
 32-46 
 
 4-68 
 
 1-64 
 
 15-02 
 
LECT. xrv. 
 
 FATTENING OF CATTLE. 
 
 315 
 
 Third Period. 
 
 ElfD OP THE FATTESINe PEOeEESS. 
 
 Bation per day per head 1,100 lbs. 
 
 Dry 
 matter 
 
 Protein 
 compounds 
 
 Fatty 
 matter 
 
 Extractive 
 matter non- 
 nitrogenous 
 
 55 lbs. of beetroot 
 
 3-3 „ chopped oat straw 1 
 
 3'S „ ditto gi^en before 
 
 last feed . 
 8*8 „ dry red clover 
 4-4 „ ground barley 
 6-5 „ oil cake 
 1-6 „ linseed meal . 
 0-2 „ salt . 
 
 lbs. 
 6-60 
 
 566 
 
 7-40 
 3-77 
 4-67 
 1-45 
 0-20 
 
 lbs. 
 
 oei 
 
 0-16 
 
 1-17 
 0-44 
 1-55 
 0-36 
 
 lbs. 
 
 0-06 
 
 014 
 
 0-28 
 0-10 
 0-62 
 0-61 
 
 lbs. 
 
 4-95 
 
 2-34 
 
 2-50 
 2-82 
 1-33 
 0-29 
 
 29-75 
 
 4-29 
 
 1-71 
 
 14-23 
 
 live weight per day, therefore the same ox put upon 
 rational diet will gain 4 lbs. each day, or just double. 
 But in order that the practical res.ult may agree with 
 the theoretical statements, it is necessary to avoid in 
 the fonnula of rations the substitution of substances 
 that are too dissimilar, or padding any but analo- 
 gous ones, that is to say, those which possess about 
 the same degree of digestibility, volume, and rich- 
 ness. 
 
 It is plain that, supposing the quantities to be 
 equal, the protein that exists in wheat, peas, or maize 
 is more valuable than the protein found iu furze, or 
 buckwheat, haulm, and the fatty matter ia oilcake is 
 more valuable than the green substances which we 
 extract from leaves by means of ether. 
 
 If we wish to employ substitutes which we have 
 arrived at by theory, in the form of substances 
 having no likeness to each other, and draw up a 
 table of nutritive equivalents resting on a similar 
 basis, we shall be only seeking failure which a com- 
 parison of known foods of similar composition would 
 
316 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. xit, 
 
 lead us to avoid. Another recommendatioii upon 
 which I cannot insist too positively is to advance 
 gently when we wish to change the ordinary food of 
 an animal for fattening food, especially when the dry 
 fodder of wiater is changed for the green crops of 
 spring. 
 
 But this does not form a limit to our means of 
 action with respect to animals.^ All the domestic 
 species do not possess the same assimilative power. 
 For an equal consumption of food they give neither 
 the same product nor the same work. 
 
 With 1 ton 2 cwt. of fodder, according to Lawes, 
 oxen give 220, sheep 264, and pigs 672 lbs. of Hve 
 weight. This difference may be represented in 
 another way, namely by time. The following is the 
 equivalent for one month: — 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Pigs increase . 
 
 . 6 
 
 Sheep „ 
 
 . 1-75 
 
 Oxen „ 
 
 . 1-00 
 
 In the same way we are able to obtain analogous 
 effects by selecting particular breeds and the creation 
 of a more perfect stock. A Durham ox attains full 
 growth in four years, whilst if takes at least six to 
 gain the same result with French cattle. 
 
 By the crossing of merinos and Dishley sheep we 
 are able at the same time to obtain finer wool and 
 greater development of flesh. The same observa- 
 tions apply to milch cows, amongst which we can 
 foresee and even prolong the duration of the secretion 
 of milk. 
 
 But what is more remarkable in the more perfect 
 races, besides the greater precocity which enables us 
 to clear our capital more quickly and to multiply 
 
LECT. HV. 
 
 FATTENING OF CATTLE. 
 
 317 
 
 operations, is the really extraordinary development 
 acquired by the fleshy parts, the prime joints, as the 
 butchers caU. them, to the prejudice of the poorer 
 parts and offal. In the Durham breed, for example, 
 the head and bones are reduced to the smallest 
 dimensions, the legs are short, the paunch narrow, 
 the skins fine and supple, whUst the beast is bulky, 
 the space between the haunches largely developed, 
 and the muscular masses so considerable that by 
 themselves alone they form two-thirds of the total 
 weight of the animal. 
 
 The same may be said with reference to the 
 Dishley sheep ; besides a greater fineness of the wool 
 the fat concentrates in a series of layers about the 
 fleshy parts, giving a highly appreciated flavour to 
 the meat. Again, is it not a fact worthy of re- 
 mark that the flesh of well-fed animals, in good con- 
 dition when killed, contains, comparing the prime 
 parts, onerfourth more nutritive power than weakly 
 lean animals that have been niggardly reared ? 
 
 What an argument in favour of abundant and 
 rational feeding. 
 
 Composition of Fat Meat compared with Lean Meat. 
 
 Fat beef contains 
 Lean „ 
 
 Muscular 
 substance 
 
 Pat 
 
 Ash 
 
 Water 
 
 356 
 308 
 
 239 
 81 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 390 
 597 
 
 Difference in favour of i 
 fat beef . , J 
 
 + 48 
 
 + 168 
 
 + 1 
 
 + 207 
 
 Certainly no one admires more than I do works 
 of art, but is not that also to be called a great art 
 which sculptures life, which has to deal not in the 
 dead inert matter, with neither reaction nor resist- 
 
318 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 user. xiT. 
 
 
 Lean beef 
 
 I^t beef 
 
 Neck 
 
 Saddle 
 
 Tliree 
 tratribs 
 
 Neck 
 
 Saddle 
 
 Three 
 first nbs 
 
 Water . . . , 
 Fat ... . 
 Ash ... . 
 Muscular substance 
 
 77-5 
 0-9 
 1-2 
 
 20-4 
 
 77-4 
 
 11 
 
 1-2 
 20-3 
 
 76-5 
 1-3 
 1-2 
 
 210 
 
 73-6 
 
 6-8 
 
 1-2 
 
 19-5 
 
 63-4 
 
 16-7 
 
 11 
 
 18'8 
 
 60'5 
 
 34-0 
 
 1-0 
 
 145 
 
 Dry substances 
 
 22-5 
 
 22-6 
 
 23-6 
 
 26-5 
 
 36-6 
 
 49'5 
 
 ance, but with, animated marble that must be shaped 
 in life and modelled even down to the blood, nerves, 
 motion and will ? In BakeweU's day it was be- 
 lieved the choice of breeds was of more importance 
 than the system under which animals were fed, but 
 it has since been discovered that this is an error, 
 and that of the two means, high feeding is in the 
 end more effective, and attended with better results. 
 As Descartes well said, ' Nutrition is continuous.' 
 The first improvements in the organisation of species 
 are the fruit of regular and judicious feeding. The 
 influence of breeding being added to that of proper 
 feeding system, we are in reality only one degree 
 nearer perfection, because the qualities transmitted 
 by the reproducers to their descendants add by iu- 
 heritance the influence of what was good in the old 
 system of feeding to the good effects of the present 
 system. Most people know that with bees the sex 
 depends greatly upon the food that they receive, 
 and that the queens or fruitful ones owe the attributes 
 of their sex chiefly to superabimdance of nourish- 
 ment. In the same order of ideas we may mention 
 the tadpoles that William Edwards prevented from 
 passing into the state of frogs, by depriving them of 
 light, and compelling them to breathe in water. 
 
LECT. XIV. EAISING OF CATTLE. 319 
 
 What hosts of interesting facts the study of the 
 training which forms part of our regime would reveal, 
 if from the horse we extended it to man himself in the 
 various conditions occasioned by differences of climate, 
 manners, fortune, and profession. To quote only a 
 few examples. In children ' rickets ' ai'e due to defi- 
 cient nutrition, or to food which is either too rich or 
 too poor in nitrogenous matter, to the exclusion of 
 carbo-hydrates . 
 
 Nor can we pass over in silence the extraordi- 
 nary results, though in an opposite sense, produced 
 by the training resorted to by pugilists, in order to 
 get rid of superfluous fat, and give their limbs a 
 firmness, suppleness, power of stroke, and that 
 hardness of muscle which renders them insensible to 
 blows. 
 
 All these effects come under the same laws, and 
 are due to the same cause, namely, a properly regu- 
 lated system of diet, the grand modifier of constitu- 
 tions, of individuals, and of species themselves ; and if 
 I limit myself to these remarks it is because, after 
 having pointed out the extremely simple laws which 
 regulate the production of animal substance, and 
 having shown their connection with agricultural in- 
 terests, I feel that I should be carried out of my own 
 domain if I endeavoured to follow in detail the appli- 
 cation of practical facts that I have not been able to 
 check by personal experience. I will therefore con- 
 tent myself with saying that operations with cattle 
 may either be independent attempts at agricultural 
 speculation, in which case the principles of feed- 
 ing we have laid down are equal to all the exigencies 
 of the enterprise ; or, as is more generally the case, 
 live stock may enter into the lease of a farm on the 
 
320 ON CHEMICAL MANURES, 
 
 LECT. xrv. 
 
 half-profit system, and form in some sort a part of 
 the plant of the farm. 
 
 There is always one fact of pre-eminent import- 
 ance, viz., the necessity of abundantly manuring the 
 grassland, and indeed all lands devoted to the growth 
 of fodder. Now if it has been proved that farming 
 is profitable only when aided by the use of chemical 
 manures, why not put grassland upon the same sys- 
 tem as arable ? From a field that yields with difii- 
 culty 3,520 lbs. of hay per acre, it is possible, by 
 the addition of chemical manure, costing from 11. 12s. 
 to 2/., to obtam 7,040 lbs. 
 
 This addition of chemical manure is the first con- 
 dition of success and the assured means of profit. 
 
 I am therefore right in telling you that cattle- 
 raising will, like a;griculture itself, owe its greatest 
 progress to the doctrine of chemical manures, and 
 that animal manure will not command a price com- 
 mensurate with its richness and value until the high- 
 farming system is extended to grassland. 
 
 This must be my reply to those who accuse me of 
 proscribing the use of farmyard manure. 
 
 It has been well said that we cannot change the 
 nature of things. Facts are imperious and inflexible 
 in their afiirmations. When the system of culture 
 seeks to draw everything from the soil both manure 
 and crops, all the yields are feeble, and there is no 
 profit ; and when the yields are small the cattle are 
 badly fed, and are a certain source of loss. With 
 chemical manure all this is changed. If, then, we 
 adopt the use of manure from outside, at one stroke 
 the price of fodder is lessened, the cost price of 
 cereals diminished — the crops to be sent to market 
 are more considerable, and the animals being better 
 
lECT. XIV. 
 
 RAISING OF CATTLE. 
 
 321 
 
 nourished the manure is of better quality, and its 
 price advances according to the rate at which its rich- 
 ness increases. The advance ia the price of meat 
 during the past thirty years, joined to the increased 
 demand for it, appears to me to be favourable to the 
 extension of its production. 
 
 When the breeding of cattle has been made remu- 
 nerative, and occupies a higher place in the assess- 
 ment of farm products, an immense benefit will be 
 obtained. The amount of activity that each one of 
 us has to furnish is triple — at least — ^that of our fore- 
 fathers ; and in order to sustain this increased nervous 
 energy it is necessary that our food itself should be 
 improved. To show how pressing this necessity is 
 it will be sufficient to state that from 1847 to 1862 
 the price of meat rose from 25 to 45 per cent., and 
 from 1847 to 1873 from 40 to 70 per cent. 
 
 Progressive Increase in the Price of Meat since 1847.- 
 
 Year 
 
 Price per lb. 
 
 Price per lb. of 
 
 meat supplied to 
 
 hospitals 
 
 feeef 
 
 ■ Veal' 
 
 Mutton 
 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 1847 
 
 606 
 
 6-54 
 
 5-45 
 
 4-45 
 
 1848 
 
 
 ... 
 
 4-36 
 
 4'36 
 
 1849 
 
 S-92 
 
 5-26 
 
 4-39 
 
 4-40 
 
 1850 
 
 3-78 
 
 4-67 
 
 4-45 
 
 4-25 
 
 1851 
 
 3'60 
 
 4-68 
 
 4-36 
 
 4-03 
 
 1852 
 
 3'74 
 
 5-11 
 
 4'38 
 
 403 
 
 1853 
 
 4-58 
 
 5-62 
 
 5^26 
 
 4-58 
 
 1854 
 
 5-34 
 
 610 
 
 5-65 
 
 4-97 
 
 1855 
 
 5-60 
 
 6'54 
 
 6-58 
 
 5-01 
 
 1856 
 
 5-73 
 
 658 
 
 6'47 
 
 5-23 
 
 1857 
 
 5-56 
 
 7-06 
 
 6-62 
 
 6-14 
 
 1858 
 
 5-34 
 
 6-66 
 
 6-56 
 
 4'97 
 
 1859 
 
 5-30 
 
 6-88 
 
 6-32 
 
 4-36 
 
 1860 
 
 5-45 
 
 6-66 
 
 6-41 
 
 4-84 
 
 1861 
 
 5-57 
 
 7-06 
 
 6-41 
 
 6-01 
 
 1862 
 
 5-62 
 
 6'76 
 
 6-19. 
 
 4-97 
 
322 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES, 
 
 LEOT. XIV. 
 
 Tear 
 
 Price per lb. in provision markets of Paris 
 
 Price per lb. of 
 
 meat supplied to 
 
 hospitals 
 
 Beef 
 
 Cow beef 
 
 Veal 
 
 Mutton 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1866 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 
 1869 
 
 1870' 
 
 1871 » 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 d. 
 5-62 
 6-62 
 6-53 
 6-70 
 5-95 
 5'91 
 5-95 
 5-99 
 6-30 
 6'78 
 7'70 
 
 d. 
 
 6-15 
 6'15 
 4-89 
 6-15 
 6-62 
 6-45 
 6'41 
 6'58 
 5'88 
 
 e'30 
 
 7'24 
 
 d. 
 6-93 
 693 
 7-05 
 6-70 
 7-63 
 7-58 
 7-27 
 7-58 
 8'65 
 8-55 
 7-97 
 
 d. 
 
 6'19 
 6-31 
 619 
 6-50 
 676 
 6'67 
 6-28 
 6-76 
 7'20 
 7-63 
 8-07 
 
 d. 
 519 
 6'23 
 5'23 
 6'40 
 5-62 
 6-50 
 6-50 
 5-54 
 6-89 
 615 
 7-85 
 
 In summing up from 1847 to 1853 and 1862 the 
 increase has been : — 
 
 Meat supplied to hospitals of Paris 
 
 Meat sold in provision markets of Paris 
 
 Meat sold in provision markets in the Departments 
 
 Meat valued where grown (agricultural inquiry) 
 
 Per cent. 
 . 12 
 . 25 
 . 35 
 . 45 
 
 But in 1847 and 1873 the increase has been — 
 
 Rate of increase 
 Per cent. 
 
 Beef 70 
 
 Oowheef 80 
 
 Veal 40 
 
 Mutton 65 
 
 Meat supplied to hospitals , . 70 
 
 Is not the above a manifest proof that our produc- 
 tion is insufficient ? The number of our population, 
 which is retrograding in 40 departments, is also a 
 proof of this. Well, how under the old system are 
 we to increase our herds if the production of fodder is 
 not increased in the same proportion? We must look 
 forward to a continued increase in price for the people 
 
 ■ The seven first months. 
 
 The seven last monthsi 
 
lECT. XIV. EAISING OF CATTLE. 323 
 
 — an increase of distress, and to an uncertain future. 
 How in the face of the figures I have just given wUl 
 the working man be able to live if the price of meat 
 continues to progress in the same ratio during the 
 next ten years ? 
 
 But this digression into a new channel should 
 give rise to no false construction. I still maintain 
 that cattle are not absolutely necessary to agricul- 
 ture. The rdle to be assigned to them is not a ques- 
 tion of principle, but simply one of convenience, regu- 
 lated entirely by the profit that it gives. The first 
 question which has to be considered is this : In the 
 system of culture where live stock are the only- 
 source of the manure employed, it is of the utmost 
 importance to consider how far they figure in the 
 amount of capital engaged, to what risks this capital 
 is exposed, what profit it gives, and how it is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 The study to which we are devoting ourselves re- 
 quires the greatest attention^ for it is by the aid of 
 real calculations that practical facts, whose authenti- 
 city is beyond dispute, are established. 
 
 And now having fully discussed the question of 
 feeding live stock, we will consider them fi-om a finan- 
 cial point of view, and I will endeavour to show by 
 the aid of figures the place assigned to cattle in an 
 experiment made for the sole purpose of producing 
 only animal manure. 
 
 I will quote fi:om experiments made at Bechel- 
 bronn, so justly celebrated for being the place where 
 M. Boussingault gained his incontestable reputation. 
 
 On the farm of 275 acres 150 acres were occupied 
 by grassland. 
 
 T 2 
 
324 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lECT. XIT, 
 
 Acres 
 
 Arable land 125 
 
 Grassland 160 
 
 The first conclusion we draw is that if the sys- 
 tem has merit it is certainly not that of simplicity, 
 since in order to maintain the fertility of 125 acres of 
 land it is necessary to have a cumbersome addition in 
 the form of 150 acres of grass besides stabling for 
 cattle, &c. 
 
 Does the system counterbalance this disadvantage 
 by the great profit it secures ? No ; for with from 
 1,500^. to 1,600^. of capital, only 133^. 6s. 5d. profit is 
 obtained. This you can readily see is a poor result. 
 This profit was produced by the sale of vegetable 
 commodities to the amount of 441^. 8s. But in order 
 to ensure the continuance of the presumed source 
 of profit, it is necessary to obtain as a parallel 
 570/. 15s. Bd. of animal produce which only figures in 
 the account of the experiment as an ordinary item. 
 Consequently the greater part of the capital is found 
 to be absorbed by this part of the service which gives 
 no profit, for to this 570/. 15s. M. that I have just 
 indicated must be added the value of the animals, 
 which cannot be less than 520/. 
 
LECT. XIT. 
 
 INCOME AND EXPENDITUEE. 
 
 325 
 
 BAXANCE - SHEET 
 WHILE UNDEE 
 GAULT. 
 
 Br. 
 
 To lent of farm, at 11. 
 8s. 9Jrf. per acre . 
 Labour . 
 Manure . 
 Balance . 
 
 OF THE FAEM AT BECHELBEONN 
 THE MANAGEMENT OF M. BOUSSIN- 
 
 Crops Account. 
 
 180 
 213 12 
 148 2 
 108 
 
 649 14 
 
 Cr. 
 
 5 8 
 
 8 14 4 
 
 SOLD IN THE MAEKET. 
 £ 
 
 66 tons 5 J cwt. of pota- 
 toes, at 11. 16s. per ton 101 
 
 13 tons 12 J cwt. of beet- 
 root, at 12s. 9^d. per 
 ton .... 
 
 1 ton 19 cwt. of dry 
 clover, at 21. 4s. per 
 ton .... 
 
 1,022 bushels of wheat, 
 at 6s. 8d. per bushel . 289 17 
 
 21 tons ISJ cwti of 
 wheat straw, at 11. 
 per ton . . . 22 13 7 
 
 18 tons 15 cwt. of oat 
 
 straw, at 16s. per ton 14 19 10 
 441 16 8 
 
 4 6 
 
 CONSTTMED ON EAEM. 
 
 29 tons 7 cwt. of pota- 
 toes, at 17s. 2d. per 
 
 ton .... 
 66 tons 8^ cwt. of beet> 
 
 root, at 9s. 9d. per ton 
 56 tons 2J cwt. of dry 
 
 clover, at Is. 5^d. per 
 
 ton .... 
 42 tons 4 cwt. of wheat 
 
 straw, at 10s. per ton 21 2 
 894 bushels of oats, at 
 
 Is. id. per bushel . 59 5 
 
 Total consumed . 207 17 9 
 Total sold . . 441 16 8 
 
 649 14 6 
 
 25 2 7 
 
 31 18 6 
 
 70 14 3 
 
326 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES, 
 
 LECT. xiy. 
 
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LECI. IIV. 
 
 INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. 
 
 327 
 
 Meadow. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Rent of land 
 Labour 
 Profit . 
 
 £ s. 
 
 216 8 
 
 96 12 
 
 25 6 
 
 338 6 10 
 
 Or. 
 
 183 tons 14 cwt. of hay- 
 consumed by cattle, 
 at 11. 8s. Q^d. per ton 264 10 
 
 33 tons 11 cwt. of hay, 
 sold at %. 4g. per ton 73 16 
 
 338 6 10 
 
 Total Profit. 
 
 Vegetable produce 
 Live stock, nil. . 
 Meadow . 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 108 
 
 26 6 5 
 133 6 5 
 
 In wliat follows I have had constant recourse 
 to condensed balance-sheets based upon this model, 
 and in which the general results are more easily 
 followed and discussed. 
 
 EIRST CONDENSED BALANCE-SHEET OF THE EAEM AT 
 BECHELBEONN, THE MATERIALS USED BEING CALCU- 
 LATED AT COST PEICE, 
 
 A. Vegetable Produce. 
 
 Br. 
 
 
 
 Or. 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Rent . 
 
 .180 
 
 Produce sold 
 
 . 441 16 
 
 8 
 
 Labour 
 
 . 213 12 4 
 
 „ consumed 
 
 . 207 17 
 
 9 
 
 710 tons of manure, 
 
 at 
 
 
 
 
 4«. 2d. per ton . 
 
 . 148 2 1 
 
 
 
 
 Balance 
 
 . 108 
 
 
 
 
 
 649 14 6 
 
 649 14 
 
 "5 
 
 
 £. Live Stock. 
 
 
 
 Food . 
 
 .476 4 
 
 Animal produce , 
 
 . 518 9 
 
 3, 
 
 All other charges 
 
 . 242 17 
 
 Days of work 
 
 710 tons of manure. 
 
 . 62 6 
 at 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4«. 2d. per ton . 
 
 . 148 2 
 
 
 
 718 17 4 
 
 718 17 4 
 
328 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LECT. XIV. 
 
 C. Meadow. 
 
 Rent . 
 Labour 
 Balance of p-ofit 
 
 .216 8 
 . 96 12 5 
 . 25 6 6 
 
 838 6 10 
 
 183 tons 14 cwt. of hay 
 
 consumed, at 21. 8s. 
 
 Q^d., cost price . 264 10 7 
 32 tons 16 cwt. of hay, 
 
 sold at 21. 4s. per ton 73 16 3 
 
 338 6 10 
 
 Sources of Profit. 
 
 Cultivation 
 Meadow hay sold 
 
 108 
 25 6 5 
 
 133 6 5 
 
 I admitted that the entire amount of profit was 
 due to culture in order to give greater simplicity 
 to my explanation, but you can see that the grass- 
 land contributes one-fifth by the sale of hay, which 
 reduces the profit by so much (one-fifth) and gives 
 greater force to the criticisms which we have been able 
 to make upon the system. But this is not all. This 
 account, which is apparently exact, is, nevertheless, 
 an illusory one. The straw and forage are given 
 to the animals at cost price, an arbitrary and defective 
 method of book-keeping against which I have not 
 ceased to protest, with the greatest energy, since 
 1867. To support my opinion I have quoted the 
 example of distilleries and sugar manufactories. Do 
 they reckon beet-root at cost price? No. Why 
 then proceed otherwise with respect to stables ? If 
 you make this rectification, which indeed it is im- 
 possible to avoid, instead of gaining a profit of 108^. 
 the culture account wUl, on the contrary, show a loss 
 of 21/. 4.?., and, by a reversal easily understood, the 
 grassland becomes the source of all the profit. As 
 for the cattle, in the precarious and badly devised 
 system of feeding under which they are placed they 
 
LECT. XIV. 
 
 INCOME AND EXPENDITURE, 
 
 329 
 
 become an encumbrance. One thing tbat cannot 
 escape you is that the manure, which in the first 
 account was estimated at As. 2.d. per ton, now ap- 
 pears at lis. lOd., that is to say at, at least, 2s. 4c?. 
 above its real value. We will now, in a fresh account, 
 sum up the results of the experiment rectified in the 
 manner I have just shown, and afterwards we will 
 consider the lessons which may be drawn from it. 
 
 SECOND BALANCE-SHEET, THE MATERIALS CONSUMED 
 BEING RECKONED AT THE MARKET PRICE. 
 
 A. Vegetable Produce. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Eent . 
 Labour 
 710 tona of 
 11«. lOd. 
 
 manure, 
 per ton 
 
 larges 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 . 180 
 . 243 7 3 
 at 
 . 423 11 1 
 
 846 18 4 
 
 £. Liv 
 
 . 791 12 5 
 . 242 17 2 
 
 Sales .... 
 Food consumed . 
 Loss .... 
 
 e Stock. 
 
 Animals fed 
 Day's work 
 710 tons of manure, at 
 1]«. 10<?. per ton . 
 
 Meadow. 
 
 183 tons 14 cwt. of hay 
 
 consumed, at 21. 4«. 
 
 per ton . 
 33 tons 10 cwt. of hay 
 
 sold, at 21. 4s. per 
 
 ton 
 
 Or. 
 
 £ s. 
 441 16 
 383 17 
 
 21 4 
 
 d. 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Pood . 
 
 All other ci 
 
 846 18 
 
 518 9 
 92 9 
 
 423 11 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 Rent . 
 
 Labour 
 
 Balance 
 
 1,034 9 7 
 
 C. The 
 
 . 216 8 
 . 107 8 
 . 164 10 4 
 
 1,034 9 
 
 404 2 
 
 73 16 
 
 477 19 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 
 477 19 
 
 
 
 The balance of the farming account, I repeat, 
 shows a loss of 211. As. That is easily explained, for 
 the manure figures at lis. lOc^. per ton, when it is 
 
330 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. xiv. 
 
 worth only from 7s. lid. to 9s. 6c?. per ton. But be- 
 sides the manure being too dear the quantity produced 
 is too small to ensure good crops. 
 
 But we know that it is only high-farming results 
 that are remunerative. If the manure is insufficient 
 or the price is too high, there is no profit. From 
 the fact that the grassland yields a profit and that it 
 receives no manure, is it not evident that this special 
 form of manure is not an imperative condition of 
 success? On the other hand, since there is a profit, 
 is it not a proof that the grassland receives more ma- 
 nure by irrigation than the arable land receives from 
 the animal manure given to it? The conclusion is 
 then forced upon us, that in order to secure a profit 
 the land must be better manured and recourse must 
 be had to chemical manures. Let us go back and 
 examine the items of the account. You could not MH 
 to remark that in the new account expenses of all 
 kinds are found to be greatly increased. This is in- 
 evitable. From the moment that we quit the arbitrary 
 and fantastic and calculate the cost of forage, straw, 
 &c., at their real value, the price of manure rose from 
 4s. 2d. to lis. lOd., and the total charges under this 
 head from 148/. 2.*. Od. to 423/. lis. Id. • this is the 
 explanation of the loss that I have already noticed. 
 The farming charges are themselves subject to a 
 marked increase, but this time the increase of expen- 
 diture is balanced by the high price put upon the 
 day's work of the yokes of oxen with which the ac- 
 count of the animals is credited. This rigorous 
 manner of keeping accounts Is hardly consonant with 
 the habits of the agricultural world, but besides pos- 
 sessing the merit of banishing fiction it has the ad- 
 vantage of putting the farm accounts in harmony with 
 
LECT. XIT. INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. 331 
 
 the economical reality of surrounding circumstances. 
 However, in spite of their interest, these rectifications 
 have only a secondary importance. The important 
 and unexpected fact brought to light by this balance 
 sheet is presented to us by the grassland. Instead oi 
 continuing to figure in the account simply as an item 
 of expense, the grassland, on the contrary, becomes 
 the source of all the profit ; and for all thatthe hay is 
 only reckoned at 21. 4s. O^d. per ton. When all these 
 rectifications are effected the final result is not changed, 
 the profit obtained is always about 133/. 6s. 5d. 
 Before this certainty will you take objection to my 
 reasoning — that in the main you find it indifferent 
 because to you all this seems only hke playing with 
 figures ? Be careful not to yield to this temptation. 
 What, indeed, does the first account say? That the 
 arable land gave a profit, whence the conclusion that 
 the soil was sufficiently manured. You need not 
 make yourself uneasy; nobody asks or desires you 
 to do better. Increase the cattle? It is not to be 
 dreamt of. The grassland occupies more of the soil 
 than the cultivated portion which is the source of all 
 the profit. Under the mirage of an illusion like this 
 you will, therefore, continue the traditions which 
 have been handed down to you. 
 
 You will then continue to produce : — 
 
 20 bushels of wheat per acre 
 
 4 tons 16 cwt. of potatoes per acre 
 
 10 tons 8 cwt. of beetroot „ 
 
 What does the second account say? That the 
 manure costs more to produce than it is worth; it 
 says, moreover, that the soil is not sufficiently manured. 
 Is such a situation without remedy? We have one at 
 
332 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 lECT. XIV. 
 
 hand which will change all that. Procure manure 
 from outside, manure both grass and arable land 
 more abundantly, raise the produce of all cultures 
 indiscriminately. 
 
 The first account is a sedative which gives a false 
 security. The second account, on the contrary, is 
 a spur which urges us on and excites us to do better. 
 Which ought we to prefer? There is no need to 
 hesitate long. In such a matter your adhesion must 
 not be limited by a paralytic decision ; the account 
 shows a constitutional defect in the machinery of 
 cultivation ; there must therefore be no hesitation, but 
 haste must be made to remedy the evU. 
 
 Profiting by the research of science in the em- 
 ployment of chemical manures, we must give to the 
 grassland, at a cost of 1^. 12.s. per acre, superphos- 
 phate, nitrogen, potash, and lime. The result is 
 immediate, sudden, and almost magical, for every- 
 thing gains thereby, both grass and arable land. 
 Judge for yourselves by this third account: — 
 
 THIED BALANCE OE THE EAEM AT BECHELBRONN, SUP- 
 POSED TO BE SUPPLIED WITH A MIXTURE OP 
 ANIMAL AND CHEMICAL MANURE, THE PRODUCE 
 CONSUMED BEING RECKONED AT THE MARKET PRICE. 
 THE LIVE STOCK ARE BADLY PED. 
 
 A. Vegetable Produce. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 Or. 
 
 & i. 
 
 d. 
 
 £. 1. d. 
 
 Rent. . . . 180 
 
 
 
 Sales . . . . 662 15 1 
 
 Latour . . .283 18 
 
 5 
 
 Vegetable produce con- 
 
 710 tons of manure, at 
 
 
 sumed . . . 383 17 7 
 
 11«. lOi. per ton . 423 11 
 
 1 
 
 VegetaHe products for 
 
 Chemical manures . 240 
 
 
 
 soil, and for live 
 
 Profit . . . Ill 2 
 
 
 
 stock . . .191 18 10 
 
 1,238 11 
 
 ~6 
 
 1,238 11 
 
LBCT. XIV. I 
 
 NCOME AND I 
 
 EXPENDITURE. 6t 
 
 )6 
 
 
 B. Live Stoch. 
 
 
 Food . 
 
 All other charges 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 . 791 12 5 
 . 242 17 1 
 
 £ s. 
 
 Animal produce . . 518 9 
 Work done by animals 92 9 
 710 tons of manure, at 
 
 lis. \0d. per ton . 423 11 
 1,034 9 
 
 d. 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1,034 9 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 C. The Meadow. 
 
 
 Rent . 
 Lahour 
 
 Chemical manure 
 Profit 
 
 . 216 8 
 . 124 17 3 
 . 200 
 . 414 8 4 
 
 187 trans 14 cwt. of hay 
 
 for use . . . 404 2 
 25 tons, for sale, at 
 
 4s. 5d. . . . 651 10 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 
 955 13 7 
 
 955 13 
 
 7 
 
 Profit 
 
 Total Result. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 on vegetable produce . . Ill 2 10 
 
 meadow .... 414 8 4 
 
 
 625 11 2 
 
 The improvement is considerable. In fact, not- 
 withstanding an increased expenditure of 240Z., this 
 expense having been entirely incurred by the purchase 
 of manures of certain efficacy, the culture account 
 no longer shows a loss of 211. 4s. but a profit of 
 111^. 2s. lOd., which proves most positively the 
 truth of the proposition which may be raised to the 
 rank of an axiom, viz. that, in order to be remune- 
 rative, farming culture requires, above all other 
 things, that we should give to the soil the entire 
 amount of fertilising agents that the plants are able 
 to utilise. It is only thus that the crops are abun- 
 dant ; only thus that they are a source of assured 
 profit. But, besides this foremost lesson, a thorough 
 examination of the account will disclose a flaw in 
 the working of the farm which it is urgently neces- 
 sary to remedy. The cost of animal manure is de- 
 cidedly, too great. At lis. lOd. per ton it is at 
 least 2s. Ad. above its real valuCi 
 
334 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leot. xi\-. 
 
 What is tlie cause of this excessive cost? There 
 is only one — the cattle are imperfectly feci. Cattle 
 raisers of high merit affirm that in fixing the feeding 
 of animals according to certain rules, the operations 
 with cattle leave the manure as a profit, which would 
 raise the profit at Bechelbronn from 133/. 6s. bd. to 
 536/. 16s. IM} 
 
 Without denying the possibility of such a result 
 I deem it prudent to give it under slight reserve. 
 M. Kiihn, whose authority is unquestionable, affirms 
 that when the precepts I shall presently put before 
 you are applied to the feeding of animals, the gain 
 above the results obtained by the old method is 
 Is. 2^d. on every hundredweight consumed. 
 
 Well, the consumption at Bechelbronn being 
 
 ^ Calculation of the operation of fattening carried on at Haningen, 
 
 near Cologne, under the direction of M. Eisben. (See K\i)in's Enff?-aisse- 
 
 ment dea Betes d, VEngrais.) 
 
 & s. d. 
 
 Purchase of 240 oxen, at about 151. lis. Id. . . . 3,811 18 
 
 Stable charges 63 
 
 Veterinary surgeon, &c 369 
 
 General charges 47 10 
 
 Labour . , 25 16 
 
 19,200 daily feeds, composed of — 
 
 Oil-cake, 24 tons 149 11 
 
 Dry clover lucern, 48 tons 144 
 
 Bruised wheat and bran, 22 tons 7 cwt. . . . 358 19 8 
 
 Salt 8 7 8 
 
 Baw colza oil 10 11 6 
 
 Distillery waste, 10 cwt. per day fresh, or 8 cwt., for 
 
 19,200 feeds 884 
 
 Straw and chaiF, at 22 lbs. per head per day, at Is. Id. 
 
 per cwt. for 19,200 feeds 288 
 
 5,295 7 
 240 oxen sold, after eighty days feeding, at about 
 
 22Z. 2s. 2rf. per head 6,406 13 5 
 
 111 12 10 
 
 or a profit of, say, 9s. %d. per head, with the manure to the good. 
 
LBCT. XIV. 
 
 INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. 
 
 335 
 
 18 tons 74 cwt., there would, according to M. Kiihn, be 
 an increased product on the animals of 110/. 4s. 5 c?., 
 which brings the price of manure down from lis. lOd. 
 to 8s, lOd., its real value ; but this is not all, for by 
 a reaction easily foreseen, the culture account is like- 
 wise affected by this reduction, so that the profit 
 rises from 1111. Is. Id. to 221/. Gs. 5d., which leads 
 us to the fourth balance. 
 
 FOURTH BALANCE OF THE FARM AT BECHELBRONN, 
 WHICH IS SUBMITTED TO A MIXTURE OF ANIMAL 
 AND CHEMICAL MANURE. THE COMMODITIES CON- 
 SUMED ARE RECKONED AT MARKET PRICES. 
 
 A. Vegetable Products. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Bent .... 
 
 Labour 
 
 710 tons of manure, at 
 
 8«. lOd. per ton 
 Chemical manure 
 Profit 
 
 & s. 
 
 180 
 
 283 18 
 
 d. 
 
 
 6 
 
 313 6 
 240 
 221 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 1,238 11 
 
 6 
 
 a-. 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 Vegetable produce sold 864 13 11 
 ,, „ con- 
 
 sumed 
 
 B. Live Stock. 
 
 Food . 
 
 AH other charges 
 
 Bent . 
 Labour 
 
 Ohemioal manure 
 Profit 
 
 791 12 5 
 242 17 1 
 
 1,034 9 6 
 
 Animal produce . 
 Work done 
 Manure, at 8«. IQd. 
 
 383 17 7 
 
 1,238 11 6 
 
 . 628 13 7 
 
 . 92 9 3 
 
 ■ 313 6 8 
 
 1,034 9 6 
 
 C. Th0 Meadow. 
 
 216 8 
 
 124 17 3 
 
 200 
 
 414 8 6 
 
 955 13 8 
 
 183 tons 14 cwt. of hay- 
 used . . .551 10 10 
 
 26 tons 14 cwt. of hay- 
 sold, at 4«. &d. . 404 2 10 
 
 965 13 8 
 
 Profit on -vegetable produce 
 „ meadow . 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 221 6 5 
 
 414 8 5 
 
 635 14 10 
 
336 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANUEES. 
 
 LECT. XIV. 
 
 You see that the account of the animals balances 
 with neither loss nor profit. In these circumstances 
 it is, however, an advantage to foster the growth of 
 the animals, because the stables pay for forage at 
 market price, and notwithstanding this high price the 
 manure only amounts to 8s. lOd. per ton, which is, 
 I repeat, the expression of its real value. 
 
 Here a new difficulty presents itself If the increase 
 of products given by the cattle instead of rising from 
 110/. 4s. dd., attains 190/. 4s. dd., how will it be neces- 
 sary to settle the account? Will it be better to reduce 
 the price of manure to a corresponding value? No ; 
 the manure must be kept at a price of 8s. 10c?. per ton, 
 which corresponds to its richness, and the excess of 
 produce must be carried to the credit side as profit. 
 The account will then be entered as follows : — 
 
 The Live Stock. 
 
 
 Br. 
 
 Or. 
 
 
 Fodder . . .791 12 6 
 
 £ s. 
 
 Animal products . 708 13 
 
 d. 
 7 
 
 Expenses of every 
 nature . . . 242 17 1 
 
 Day's labour . . 92 9 
 702 toils of manure, at 
 
 4 
 
 Profit as balance . 80 
 
 8s. lOd per ton . 313 6 
 
 7 
 
 1,114 9 6 
 
 1,114 9 6 
 
 In order to be consistent with these principles I 
 ought in the second budget of Bechelbronn, where 
 the manure is estimated at lis. lOd. per ton, to have 
 proceeded in the same manner, viz. reckon the manure 
 at 8s. lOd. per ton, and place as surplus to the credit 
 of the animals thus: — 
 
 The Cattle. 
 
 I>r. Or. 
 
 1,034 9 6 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 JFodder . . . 791 12 5 
 Expenses of every kind 242 17 1 
 
 £ 
 
 Animal products . 518 
 Day's work . . 92 
 710 tons of manm-e, at 
 
 s. 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 d. 
 7 
 4 
 
 
 &. lOa. per ton . 313 
 Loss .... 110 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 1,034 9 6 
 
lECT. XlYi INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. 837 
 
 I have not hitherto done so, in ordel' that you may 
 the more readily perceive how, according to agricul- 
 tm-ists, the losses on cattle are miwittingly made to 
 appear as the result of cultivation. So that you 
 may better appreciate the value of the changes that 
 these several accounts reveal, and mark in a more 
 striking manner the progress to which they corre- 
 spond, I need only place the results before you 
 thus : — 
 
 Annual profit 
 
 £ J. di 
 
 Culture with farm manure only, the cattle poorly fed . . 133 6 4 
 Culture on system of mixture of farmyard and chemical 
 
 manui'es, the cattle poorly fed 525 10 5 
 
 Culture on system of mixture of farmyard and chemical 
 
 manures, the cattle weU fed 635 14 10 
 
 Then, as the agricultural question has two im- 
 portant ends to attain, viz. the interest of the pro- 
 ducer who craves a profit, and the pubhc interest 
 which requires abundant crops in order that the 
 people may live cheaply and well, let us put opposite 
 this increase of profit the increase in value of the 
 crops themselves. 
 
 Grross Value of Crops comprising Animal Products. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Culture with farm manure only, cattle poorly fed . . 1,914 11 9 
 Culture on system of mixed animal and chemical manure, 
 
 the animals poorly fed . . . . . . . 2,805 3 5 
 
 Culture on system of mixture of animal and chemical 
 
 manures, the cattle well fed 2,916 7 10 
 
 You see by this comparison that if high-farming 
 yields are the most remunerative the profit produced 
 by culture is, on the whole, greater than that given 
 by cattle ; therefore, how far from judicious it is to 
 make culture subordinate to cattle in agricultural 
 operations. 
 
 z 
 
338 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xiv. 
 
 The effect of an importation of chemical manure 
 has such great practical advantages that to pass from 
 the profitless to the profitable system I have been 
 satisfied not to admit the reahsation of excessive 
 yields, but to hold to the average crops which have 
 been confirmed by more than six thousand testi- 
 monials from all parts of the country. What is it 
 then that I have in fact presupposed? That the yield 
 of wheat increases from 20 bushels per acre to 30 ; 
 potatoes from 4 tons 16 cwt. to 7 tons 4 cwt. ; beet- 
 root from 10 tons 8 cwt. to 16 tons. 
 
 But the information gained from the last account 
 does not stop there. Besides the increase of profit 
 a new feature is produced in the organisation of the 
 farm, viz. a great abundance of forage and straw. 
 What is to be done with it? You have the choice 
 of three different solutions to this question. Are 
 you near a large town? No solution can be equal to 
 the sale pure and simple. 
 
 Are you unable to dispose of your forage, and 
 have only a limited capital at command ? Reduce 
 the surface devoted to grass land and give more 
 attention to growing vegetable products used in 
 manufactures by means of chemical manures. 
 
 A third solution remains, which under certain 
 conditions may take precedence of the two first, viz, 
 increase the live stock. Of these three solutions, 
 which is the best ? It is impossible a priori to say 
 which. 
 
 The situation of the estate, its proximity or its 
 distance from large populous centres, and the means 
 of transport are some of the conditions that must be 
 taken into consideration, for they often suffice to give 
 
lECT. XIT. INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. 339 
 
 the pre-eminence to one or other of these three solu- 
 tions. 
 
 It will not, however, escape you what unlooked- 
 for resources grassland cultivated on the high -farming 
 system by the use of chemical manure might con- 
 tribute to a farm on which the rearing of cattle would 
 be remunerative. 
 
 The production of forage at Bechelbronn, when 
 left to its own resources, is about 18 tons 17^ cwt. 
 per annum, ^ the consumption of which produces 
 710 tons of jnanure ; grown with the aid of chemical 
 manure, the grassland passes from this small yield 
 to 4 tons 9 cwt., which gives 1,600 tons of manure 
 yearly at the price of 8s. lOd. per ton, and thanks to 
 the mode of feeding, a profit of 150/. 8s. lOd. upon 
 the animals themselves. 
 
 A fifth condensed balance-sheet might easily be 
 drawn up to show the last change in the method of 
 managing the farm ; but I shall not place one before 
 you, because I do not possess any sufficiently exact 
 data as to the yield of crops under these new con- 
 ditions, and because on such important questions all 
 hypothesis must be abandoned ; but what I have 
 said on the subject will be sufficient to settle the 
 question of principle and to show you that not to 
 manure meadow land is as great a mistake as to leave 
 cereal crops unmanured. 
 
 You may be tempted to oppose to this advice the 
 results of the various industries which provide pulps. 
 
 ' The real production of forage at Bechelbronn is 21 tons 12J cwt.^ 
 of which 3 tons 5 cwt. is exported and sold. The quantity is, then; 
 18 tons 7J cwt, 
 
 z 2 
 
340 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xiv, 
 
 beetroot pulp for example, and to pride yourselves 
 on the advantages attending them. But this case 
 instead of invalidating the rule I have just laid down 
 only confirms it, inasmuch as an increase of nourish- 
 ment originating in industrial labour is practically 
 equivalent to the introduction of chemical manure. 
 But this is not all. Another effort must be made to 
 throw every possible light on this question of live 
 stock. I am in fact about to prove to you that not 
 only does farming on the old system with animal 
 manure alone give neither profit nor security, but 
 that it actually exhausts the soil. There can be no 
 doubt of this, the exhaustion is slow but it is real 
 and continuous. And after the lapse of a century or 
 two it inexorably shows itself by means of sad and 
 formidable proofs, furnished by certain regions which 
 were formerly flourishing but are now desolate. 
 
 This declaration is too serious a one for me to 
 draw my proofs of it from exceptionable circum- 
 stances. I will not therefore quote the example of 
 a small farm which is not manured, and in which 
 the devastating action is manifest. I will rather 
 draw my proofs from a privileged domain, and from 
 an author who certainly cannot be suspected of par- 
 tiality. M. Wolf has devoted much time to study 
 and researches destined to define the most favourable 
 conditions for the production and employment of 
 manure. I take then from him the example of a 
 farm situated on the other side of the Rhine, having 
 a superficial area of 292^ acres, of which 117^ acres 
 are devoted to crops for the market, 100 to per- 
 manent grassland, and 75 to artificial fodder. If I 
 prove to you in good faith that on such a farm the 
 fertility of the soil is impaired, will you deem my 
 
LECT. XIV. 
 
 EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 341 
 
 demonstration decisive ? According to M. Wolf the 
 farm loses in each year : — 
 
 Losses caused hy Crops being used for Ma/rhet pwrposes. 
 
 
 Vegetable pro- 
 dnots 
 
 Animal products 
 
 Total loss 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric acid . 
 Potash . 
 Lime . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2,281 
 
 1,003 
 
 657 
 
 145 
 
 lbs. 
 
 704 
 264 
 158 
 242 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2,919 
 
 1,267 
 
 816 
 
 387 
 
 The following distributed over 192^ acres gives 
 the expression of the loss sustained by the soil per 
 acre per annum. 
 
 16 lbs. of nitrogen 
 7 „ phosphoric acid 
 
 4J lbs, of potash 
 2^ „ lime 
 
 What resources are there to counterbalance the effect 
 of this loss? 100 acres of irrigated grassland, which 
 gives in the main 4 tons of hay.^ 
 
 ' Annual Losses gustained on a Farm of 292 acres, in which there are 
 100 am-es of Meadow Land and 30 of Artificial Grass Land. 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Ashes 
 
 Potasb 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Phosphoric 
 acid 
 
 Tons Cwt. 
 
 12 wheat . 
 
 13 2 rye . 
 
 11 5 barley . 
 8 colza 
 
 3 10 peas 
 
 4 milk 
 
 2 8 live stock 
 
 lbs. 
 
 6764 
 
 508 
 
 876 
 
 546J 
 
 275 
 
 663 
 
 141 
 
 lbs. 
 490J 
 499^ 
 540 
 664* 
 184' 
 616 
 246^ 
 
 lbs. 
 
 153 
 156 
 119 
 155 
 76 
 147 
 9 
 
 lbs. 
 
 16J 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 9Si 
 9 
 132 
 110 
 
 lbs. 
 
 60A 
 
 56 
 
 45 
 
 84 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 lbs. 
 
 227t 
 285i 
 178 
 292J 
 
 68 
 167 
 
 9H 
 
 Total . 
 
 2,985 
 
 3,231 
 
 815 
 
 386 
 
 276 
 
 1,259 
 
 This loss, divided over the whole extent of arable land, gives per acre 
 and per year : — 
 
 Nitrogen, 16J lbs. ; ashes, 16J lbs. ; potash, 4 lbs. ; lime, 2 lbs. ; 
 magnesia, 1^ lbs. ; phosphoric acid, 6} lbs. 
 
 (Emile Wolf, Etvdes pratiques sur le Fumier de Ferme, page 108.) 
 
342 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xiv. 
 
 In which there is: — 
 
 For the 100 acres 
 Tons Cwt. lbs. 
 
 Nitrogen, 44-88 Iba. . . .21 179,520 
 Phosphoric acid, 14-04 Iha. . . 12J 56,320 
 Potash, 68-08 Iba. . . . 2 12J 2.32,.330 
 Lime, 46-64 lbs. ... 22;^ 
 
 which, divided amongst the 192| acres of culture, 
 gives in its turn per acre and per year in order to 
 neutralise the loss due to exportation: — 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Nitrogen 23f 
 
 Phosphoric acid .... 7 
 
 Potash 30 
 
 Lime 24J 
 
 If the nitrogen contained in the hay was all 
 devoted to the benefit of the soU, the crops would 
 gain yearly 8 lbs. per acre. But this is in reality far 
 from being the case. The hay first serves to nourish 
 the cattle, when one-third of the nitrogen is lost in 
 the act of digestion ; and this is not the only loss ; 
 the remaining two-thirds, in their turn, undergo a 
 reduction, arising from the decomposition that animal 
 excreta undergo in the manure heap, and this loss is 
 not less than one-third of the original quantity. The 
 result is that the soil receives at most only 8 lbs. of 
 nitrogen per acre yearly. 
 
 We know by experience that in giving to the 
 soil the moiety of nitrogen contained in the crops 
 the soil is not impoverished. The loss being 16 lbs. 
 and the restitution 8 lbs. we are thus enabled to 
 admit that the two amounts balance, that there is 
 no loss and no gain, but stagnation. With phos- 
 phoric acid it is not the same, the soU loses 7 lbs. per 
 acre, the grassland returns 7 lbs.; but when the loss 
 
mci. XIV. EXHAUSTION OB" THE SOIL. 343 
 
 by rains is determined, the proportion of phosphoric 
 acid which passes into the state of ferric phosphate 
 and aluminic phosphate, both of them inactive com- 
 pounds, constitutes a real loss, the effect of which 
 must in the long run be severely felt. 
 
 It is true that the soil receives notably more 
 potash and lime than it has lost, but by reason of the 
 deficiency of nitrogen and phosphoric acid the in- 
 crease of these two products is of no avail. With 
 farmyard manure alone farming is fatally arrested at 
 the outset, and if the results which belong to this 
 system are so far removed fi-om the high-farming 
 system the explanation is at once apparent. 
 
 You will observe how carefuUy all exaggeration 
 has been avoided. This result was not obtaiaed on 
 a poor farm, but on one remarkable for the vigour of 
 its constitution. It is a grievous fact that nitrogen 
 and phosphoric acid should be deficient, when it is 
 well known that they specially regulate the produc- 
 tion of cereals. 
 
 In order to remain faithful to the moderate course 
 we have adopted, suppose that the part devoted to 
 meadow land was rather less, or that out of the 100 
 acres they had 25 or 30 not irrigated, being what we 
 call high lands, and requiring, as is generally the 
 case, to be manured, the injury suffered by the pro- 
 perty would in a very short time lead to a decrease in 
 all the crops. 
 
 If I had wished to give a more striking character 
 to this demonstration I could have taken a small 
 farm as an example, but I have not done so. The 
 estate quoted is one on which, strictly speaking, the 
 losses are only threatened, and I invite you to 
 meditate on the example ; see how well balanced is 
 
o44 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xiy. 
 
 the constitution of the domain, and yet how pre- 
 carious is the present, and how subject to inevitable 
 deterioration the future. 
 
 To sum up. Generally speaking, what the soU of 
 our old continent of Europe is deficient in is phos- 
 phoric acid and nitrogen. Hence the success obtained 
 by guano. Nine times out of ten the introduction 
 of phosphoric acid and nitrogen suffices to raise the 
 yields of cereals and the greater part of the indus- 
 trial crops. But do not lose sight of the fact that 
 this success will be only for a time, and if you wish 
 to grow crops of beetroot, potatoes, or artificial 
 grass, the necessity of potash and lime will soon be 
 felt, and unfortunate wiU be the imprudent man who 
 closes his eyes to this evidence. 
 
 If you wish to strengthen your means of action 
 by the introduction of manure, begin with nitrogen 
 and phosphoric acid, the nitrogen in the state of 
 ammonic sulphate or sodic nitrate : the phosphoric 
 acid in a state of superphosphate. Then, in the 
 second place, have potash in the state of potassic 
 nitrate or chloride, and lime in that of gypsum. 
 
 To those who reproach the doctrine of chemical 
 manures with being the enemy of hve stock, who say 
 that it condemns and proscribes them, you will be able 
 henceforth to reply that by it, and by it alone, are 
 we able to produce cattle with profit, and to obtain 
 manure at a low price, for without the introduction 
 of manure from without these two operations are 
 evidently very expensive. 
 
 You now know, moreover, that the laws which 
 govern plants are practically the same as those which 
 govern animals ; that plants and animals are in the 
 same degree veritable machines, to which must be 
 
lECT. XIV. EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL, 345 
 
 given all the raw material they are able to utilise ; 
 that to be parsimonious in this respect is the worst 
 economy, since it is being unmindful of the law that 
 ensures a profit, viz, a large production with few 
 general expenses. This result is obtainable only in 
 one way. Let the cattle be well fed. Manure the 
 soil abundantly, following the rules that you already 
 know. This can be thoroughly done only by the 
 application of manure from outside indiscriminately 
 to cereals and forage, to the crops needed for the 
 stables as well as to those needed for the market; 
 and this condition is, as you know, essentially one 
 of the fundamental rules of the doctrine of chemical 
 manures. 
 
346 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. uxx. xv. 
 
 LECTURE XV. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 In order to fill in the outline I have traced out for my- 
 self and throw light on the agricultural problem in all 
 its aspects, I must explain what is understood by agri- 
 cultural industries, so as to prevent the confusion that 
 too often arises between industries that are connected 
 with agriculture and those that directly belong to the 
 soil. Practice, guided by its marvellous intuition, 
 has outstripped theory, and it is this which gives in- 
 creased interest to the results obtained, seeing that 
 the facts it has brought to light confirm, as a general 
 rule, what I have said relative to the employment 
 of chemical manure. You know that Mathieu de 
 Dombasle had annexed to the Institute of Roville 
 a manufactory of agricultural implements, which 
 brought him in large profits. Was this an agri- 
 cultural industry in the strict sense of the word? 
 Evidently not, because a manufactory of this kind 
 has not and cannot have any connection with the 
 cultivation. What then are the industries that merit 
 the qualification of agricultural? Those which ope- 
 rate on the produce of a farm and are an indirect 
 source of manure. For example, sugar factories, 
 distilleries, starch factories, steeping-houses for hemp 
 and flax, and, what may surprise you, the cultivation 
 of the maritime pine. 
 
 Now distinct as these industries appear to us, they 
 
-tECT. XV. AGRICULTUEAL INDUSTRY. 347 
 
 have, nevertheless, by the nature of their products or 
 their method of action a common character, which 
 makes them one veritable industrial family ; in fact 
 all of them, however different they appear, tend, 
 though by different ways, to the same end, namely, 
 to restrict the exportation of vegetable products to 
 those which cause no loss to the soil. Our business 
 is now to define the character of these remarkable in- 
 dustries and to disclose the common characteristics 
 which render them subject to the same laws. 
 
 I will take distilleries as my first example. To 
 what is their function reduced, regarding them from 
 an agricultural point of view ? To consume beetroot, 
 to export alcohol, and to provide pulp for live stock ; 
 that is to say, a distillery is equal to an increase of 
 meadow land since it procures an increase of food for 
 the animals. 
 
 On the other hand, the industrial product that we 
 export is alcohol. Now I must add that the sale, for 
 exportation, of this product, however extended it may 
 be, will not in any way lessen the fertility of the soil. 
 But how can we have a considerable exportation with- 
 out real loss ? One word will suffice to explain this 
 apparent contradiction. Rain water and carbonic acid 
 contained in the air cover all the cost, provide all the 
 raw material ; for, as you know, alcohol contains no- 
 thing but carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Practical 
 farming confirms the fact that distilleries contribute to 
 the amelioration of the soil, and science explains why. 
 
 The fact is certain, the explanation is not less so, 
 and what we have just said of alcohol is equally ap- 
 phcable to sugar, fi^om which alcohol is derived by 
 means of fermentation ; the exported product is dif- 
 ferent, but the chemical composition is analogous. 
 
348 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. ieot. IV. 
 
 I extend tlie same remark to starch factories. 
 Here the basis of manufacture is not beetroot but 
 potatoes ; tbe exported product is neither sugar nor 
 alcohol but starch. But the composition is analogous, 
 if not identical. 
 
 In starch, as in sugar and alcohol, there is only 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Nothing, therefore, 
 is abstracted from the soil, and we have a residue 
 in the form of pulp, which, it is true, is inferior to 
 that of beetroot in point of nutritious value, but 
 which can, nevertheless, be used as food for live 
 stock. 
 
 The manufacture of hemp and flax, which is car- 
 ried out with such perfection in England and Ireland, 
 belongs to the same class. 
 
 Chemically speaking, flax and hemp are composed 
 of three distinct parts, the textile fibre, the stalk, 
 properly so termed, of which the textile fibre forms 
 the exterior envelope, and a gummy, resinous matter 
 which adheres to it. The object of the steeping or 
 setting process is to detach the textile fibre from the 
 stalk proper, and at the same time to deprive it of the 
 gummy, resinous matter which soils it and impairs 
 its quality. If the steeping water be utilised to feed 
 pigs, or simply as an addition to the liquid muck of 
 the farmyard to water the grass, or the manure heap, 
 the exportation is limited to the steeped and hackled 
 textile fibre, the soil stUl loses nothing, because the 
 cellulose of the finished product admits into its compo- 
 sition only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. That the air 
 was a marvellous renovator of the soil was proved 
 with marvellous penetration by practice at a time 
 when people were ignorant of what the atmosphere 
 furnished to plants. 
 
LECT. XV. EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM SEED. 349 
 
 But from this point of view science has long since 
 pointed to a solution more simple and more complete 
 tlian any preceding it, which is based upon the culture 
 of oU-yielding plants. Notwithstandiag the difference 
 between their physical state and their common pro- 
 perties, oils admit into their composition, like sugar, 
 alcohol, starch, and textile fibre, nothing but carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen. Consequently instead of sell- 
 ing the oleaginous seed the oil is extracted on the 
 farm itself and sold, and the other parts of the plant 
 being returned to the land they will help to maintain 
 the soil in a state of increasing fertility. Under this 
 system the cake that the seeds leave after the extrac- 
 tion of the oil will be the principal manure. These 
 cakes are in fact very rich iu nitrogen, phosphates, and 
 potash. Dissolved in water we can by their aid pre- 
 pare from them a sort of artificial urine, which, if 
 thrown into the manure pit effects the disintegration 
 of the haulm husks, and more especially the straw 
 itself. But in order that this system should realise 
 iu practice the advantages that are indicated by theory, 
 the whole of the oil must be extracted from the seed. 
 Afber leaving the hydraulic press the husks contain 
 from 6 to 8 per cent, of oil which can be extracted 
 by means of chloroform, or by carbon bisulphide, or 
 the light petroleum or coal oils. This process is not 
 at all difiicult. The apparatus is not costly. I will 
 not, however, enter more into detail, it is enough for 
 me to have pointed out the result. I will only add 
 that instead of treating the seed in its entirety farmers 
 should limit themselves to purchasing the husk from 
 which they can extract the remaining oU by means of 
 carbon bisulphide. Thus treated the husks used as 
 manure effect a saving of at least 21. Ss. per acre. 
 
350 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lbct. xv. 
 
 Here are some figures founded on a crop of colza, 
 which will bear out this assertion : — 
 
 Products per Acre.^ 
 
 1. SALE or THE NATTJEAI. SEED. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 38J bushels, or 18 cwt. OJ qr., at 18s. 9rf. per cwt. 17 
 
 2. EXTEACIION OP OIL BY PEESSINO (OLD SYSTEM). 
 
 18 cwt. OJ qr. of seed, giving 35 per cent, of oil = 711 lbs. of oil. 
 
 1 I had fixed the terms of the theory I have just advanced in 1860, 
 as is seen by the following extract from letters patent taken out on No- 
 vember 10, 1860 :— 
 
 'Why do I take otji Patents? 
 
 ' By my patent for the production of chloroform on a large scale, and 
 by my patent of to-day, for the extraction of oils, I have the ambition to 
 create a new system of farming — a system of industrial farming — suffi- 
 cient in itself to keep the soil in a high state of fertility without any 
 other manure than the residue of the manufacture, of which the crops 
 are the first principle, or raw material, t will explain myself more 
 clearly. By the aid of chloroform — applied for the extraction of fatty 
 matter — I wish to give to farmers the means Of extracting the oil from 
 their oleaginous seeds, more completely and more economically than is 
 done in oil-mills at present, In the future the fanner will export the 
 oil, and not the oleaginous seed. After the extraction of the oil the 
 husks and straw will serve to give back to the soil the productive agents 
 it has lost. The whole of the useful agents will return to the earth, only 
 a product that has no influence upon vegetation Will be eiported ; oil, in 
 fact, does not possess fertilising properties. Thanks to this system, the 
 cultivation of colza and poppies (which are highly productive crops, but 
 which greatly Impoverish the soil) will, indeed, be more complete than 
 in the case of beetroot. 
 
 ' With beetroot the soil only receives a part of the nitrogen of the 
 crop, namely, that which the animal excreta retain ; the nitrogen that 
 the animals assimilate, and which they breathe into the air, is lost to the 
 soil. If we work beetroot in order to extract the sugar, or to transform 
 it into alcohol, the greater part of the potash contained in the crops is still 
 lost to the soU. In the case of oleaginous plants, none of these losses 
 take place ; the husks steeped in water contain almost all the nitrogen, 
 phosphates, potash, and lime carried ofi' from the soil by the crop. 
 
 ' This manure contains the elements of a new crop under a form most 
 favourable to its assimilation by plants ; we have no need to have re- 
 
lECT. XT. EXTKACTION OF OIL FROM SEED. 351 
 
 Then :— 
 
 £ s. 
 
 711 lbs. of oil, at 21. 9s. per cwt. . . . 15 10 6 
 1,260 lbs. of cake, at 6s. Sd. per cwt. . .3110 
 
 19 1 6 
 
 3. extbaciion or the oh by mea.n3 of bisitlphide of cakbon 
 (new system). 
 
 914 lbs. of oil, at 21 9s. per cwt. 
 1,058 lbs. of cake, at 6s. 8d, per cwt. 
 
 Comparative Results. 
 
 1. Sale of natural seed .... 
 
 2. Extraction of oil by pressing 
 S. Extraction of oU by bisulpMde of carbon 
 Difference in favour of extracting the oil by 
 
 means of bisulphide of carbon . . . 5 18 3 
 
 Plantations of resinous piaes enter into the system 
 
 £ s. 
 
 19 18 
 2 19 
 
 9 
 6 
 
 22 18 
 
 3 
 
 Produce per acre 
 £ s. d. 
 
 17 
 19 1 6 
 22 18 3 
 
 course to animal digestion in order to prepare the manure, the facility 
 with which the husks suspended in water are decomposed rendering this 
 intermediate organ, the employment of which is most burdensome, ab- 
 solutely useless. 
 
 ' If, instead of employing the husks alone, we at the same time utilise 
 the dead leaves of the crops, immersing them in water, with the addition 
 of a portion of the husks, in order to favour their disintegration and de- 
 composition, the culture of oleaginous plants will become more bene- 
 ficial than theory conceives or art is able to realise, for the land will 
 profit each year by the nitrogen drawn from the air by the previous crop, 
 as well as by the useful minerals which are rendered accessible to 
 vegetation by the disintegration of the constituent rocks of the soil. 
 
 (Signed) 'G. Vime.' 
 ' 43 Kue de Buffon : Nov. 10, I860.' 
 
 'Patent for fifteen years, taken out Nov. 10, 1860, by M. G. Ville, 
 is annexed. 
 
 ' For the Minister by Authority, 
 
 ' The Director of Home Commerce, 
 
 (Signed) E. Julibn.' 
 
 'Paris: December 18, 1860. 
 
352 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xv. 
 
 of the cultivation that now occupies us. Those 
 amongst us who have passed through Gascogny know 
 how marked the contrast is between the trees and 
 plants of the district ; the latter being meagre and 
 stunted, vegetation is there represented by weeds and 
 furze, the usual tenants of waste lands. But side by 
 side we find the trees in a state of richest verdure 
 and luxuriant health. Magnificent forests of resinous 
 pines are to be seen, the trees of which are 25 or 30 
 feet in height, and we are led to ask Why do the trees 
 prosper where plants grow so badly? Because the 
 trees — the maritime pine in particular — are more de- 
 pendent for life upon air and water than plants are. 
 But this is not all. When the pine has reached the 
 age of 15 years it is cut for resin in the following 
 manner : Deep cuts are made in the lower part of the 
 trunk, and the resin which exudes is collected into a 
 hollow place scooped out at the foot of the tree. Each 
 year from 12 to 14 cwt. of resin are thus exported, 
 and experience proves that so far from being exhausted 
 the land is always improving, because resin, like 
 sugar, alcohol, and oils, is only composed of carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 
 In order to extract sugar from beetroot a manu- 
 facturing plant is required, which does not cost less 
 than from 30/. to 50/. per acre. 
 
 To utilise the pulp it is further necessary to have 
 a large amount of live stock, which means a large in- 
 vestment of capital. 
 
 With agricultural oil mills the manufacturing 
 plant is far more simple, and it is not necessary to 
 keep cattle, as the husks can be used directly as 
 manure. 
 
 In the Landes the manufacturing plant is more 
 
lECT. XV. EXTRACTION OE RESIN FROM PINES. 353 
 
 simple still, for we only need a hatchet, a shovel, and 
 a scraper, for the resin flows spontaneously from the 
 tree. On the one hand we have manufacturing in- 
 dustry at its highest degree of power, whUe on the 
 other it is rudimentary and almost pastoral. One 
 acre of land planted with beetroot produces, as a rule, 
 16 tons of roots, from whence nearly 2 tons of sugar, 
 worth at least 240Z., is extracted, giving to the state 
 in France a revenue equivalent at least to its value. 
 One acre planted with the maritime pine produced, on 
 an average, each year, from 4 to 5 cwt. of resin worth 
 from 21. As. to 3^. 8*. 
 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 1. Solid resin . . . . 770 to 1,100 
 
 2. Liquid resin .... 352 „ 440 
 
 1,122 „ 1,540 
 
 But do not let us disdain pine plantations. ^ It is 
 the industry of poor soUs and of regions where the 
 population is very scattered. Pines flourish without 
 any outward assistance, the dead leaves returning to 
 the earth aU that the tree had taken from it. They 
 enrich it even with nitrogenous compounds which are 
 drawn from the air, and the decomposition of the 
 leaves produces a sort of organic binding material, 
 which in a certain measure replaces the clay of which 
 the earth is devoid. 
 
 Notwithstanding this dissimilarity aU these in- 
 dustries come under a common law, they are all based 
 on the same fact. They only produce carbo-hydrates. 
 But if practice is unanimous in testifying that the 
 exportation of these matters in no way detracted from 
 the fertility of the soU, it at the same time justifies 
 and confirms one of the most essential principles of 
 the theory of chemical manures. What have I said 
 
 A A 
 
354 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. IBOT. xv. 
 
 in the previous chapters? That it was useless to 
 return carbo-hydrates to the soU, that it was an error 
 to believe it necessary to give as manure all that the 
 crops contained, and that those parts of the plants 
 can be suppressed that have for their origin the air 
 and the rain. 
 
 At first this proposition seemed to be totally op- 
 posed to practice, but only apparently so, for we find 
 that we are able to export with impunity what the 
 air and rain have given to the plant, that is to say, 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These two proposi- 
 tions then say exactly the same thing under two 
 difi"erent forms, giving to the principles that we 
 defend that degree of generality which belongs to 
 natural laws. 
 
 This is why I attached a particular importance to 
 fixing once for all the character of agriciiltural in- 
 dustries. Cultivation, meadow land, live stock, and 
 manufacture are now defined, and each put in its 
 proper place. You see how they attach themselves 
 the one to the other, how they react the one upon the 
 other, and the part that each one plays in the final 
 result — ^profit. 
 
 To complete the picture and to give it the neces- 
 sary prominence, I will make a thoroughly complete 
 examination of one of these industries in order to 
 show that culture and manufacture have interests 
 which are easily reconciled, and also to point out 
 how, through want of knowledge, conflicts which 
 are prejudicial to both may arise. 
 
 I shall naturally take for my example the most 
 important of aU the branches of French agriculture, 
 important both on account of the large capital it 
 requires, and fi-om its unrivalled action upon the 
 
LKCT. XV. MANUFACTURE OF BEETROOT SUGAR. 855 
 
 progress of agriculture in general. You will under- 
 stand that it is to the manufacture of sugar from 
 beetroot that I allude. What remembrances this 
 plant brings back to us ! the continental blockade ; 
 the struggle of the old world with new ideas ; 
 the advent of the steam engine ; manufacturing 
 industry on a large scale appealing timidly to the 
 system of anonymous associations of capitalists, 
 which was shortly to become the source of so 
 much private and public wealth. But whilst recall- 
 ing these memories we lose sight of the practical 
 question that should alone affect and occupy us. I 
 must here mention that though I am perfectly cer- 
 tain as to what I affirm on certain points, there are 
 others on which I am still in doubt. I have for some 
 years been collecting facts of great practical value. 
 I am in possession of most important results ; but 
 there are a number of theoretical questions that 
 embarrass me, and respecting which I still hesitate. 
 If I wished to present to you a complete and incon- 
 testable theory of the economic production of sugar 
 from plants generally, I should still have to wait and 
 study deeply- I should silently pass over certain 
 results that have great practical value in my eyes, 
 although as yet they are incomplete. 
 
 Attaching themselves to the question of beetroot, 
 there are two equally ijtnportant interests that it is 
 necessary to conciliate — the interest of the farmer 
 and the interest of the manufacturer. To sacrifice 
 one of these interests to the other would not only be 
 unjust, but it would render any lasting solution im- 
 possible. It is necessary for the farmer to have large 
 crops. If the yield is under 14 tons of roots per 
 acre, the cultivation of beetroot is not remunerative. 
 
 A A 2 
 
856 ON CHEMICAL MANURES, leot. iv. 
 
 The second interest, that of the manufacturer, is not 
 less imperious. For him it is necessary that the 
 beetroot should yield in the laboratory at least 12 per 
 cent, of sugar, for under this amount little more than 
 4 per cent, can be extracted on a large scale, and 
 at this rate there is no profit, so it is evident that he 
 who deals with beetroot must obtain sugar enough to 
 yield a profit. 
 
 If this result be not attained the works which 
 have been set up at great cost cannot subsist ; they 
 must inevitably be shut up, and the farmer at the 
 same time loses his market. 
 
 On the other hand, if the cultivator in order to 
 obtain, beetroot of good quality, such as the manu- 
 facturer requires, sacrifice the yield and produce 
 only a small crop, it is evident that it is not to 
 his interest to take the beetroot to the works. To 
 conciliate these contending interests an equitable 
 arrangement must be arrived at ; instead of looking 
 at the question in the usual way, each party trying to 
 set all the advantages to his side, the problem must be 
 defined scientifically, and each must say to himself, 
 We wiU work into each other's hands so that both 
 will be able to benefit. 
 
 By pondering on these ideas, and after many ex- 
 periments, I have found a method of obtaining beet- 
 root of high quality and also abundant in crop. The 
 theory of the result I possess only in part, but side 
 by side with the theory is the fact, and that fact I am 
 about to present to you. 
 
 What is it necessary to do in order to obtain 
 large yields of beetroot? In the first place, to 
 employ a manure containing large quantities of nitro- 
 genous matter ; this is a rigorous condition. Now, 
 
LECT. XT. MANUFACTURE OF BEETROOT SUGAR. 357 
 
 respecting the nitrogenous matter there are two very 
 different cases to be considered.. 
 
 The first of these cases is that in which the nitro- 
 genous matter is immediately assimilable because it 
 is entirely soluble ; and the second where it is in a 
 state of animal matter, which is not assimilable in its 
 natural form, but only acts by the product of its 
 decomposition. 
 
 In the first case we obtain beetroot of a superior 
 quality, and in the second the beetroot is generally 
 poor in sugar. In order to obtain a good crop of 
 beetroot it is necessary to have nearly 176 lbs. of 
 immediately assimilable nitrogen per acre. 
 
 If, instead of complying with this condition, we 
 give the soil 440 lbs. of nitrogen in the form of stable 
 manure, Flemish manure, or refiise oU cake, this 
 nitrogen which is insoluble, and of which one part 
 only acts after a time, has the iaconvenience of con- 
 tinuing its action after the beetroot is almost fully 
 developed, thus causing the formation of leaves up to 
 the last moment. This continued action, instead of 
 enriching the root, takes from it, on the contrary, a 
 part of the sugar it contains, and consequently im- 
 poverishes it. I repeat that if the beetroot puts 
 forth leaves to the end of the season, the proportion 
 of sugar is diminished. The first result, therefore, 
 for which we are indebted to experience is the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 In order to have a good crop of beetroot it is neces- 
 sary to give it a large dose of nitrogenous matter, and to 
 be of good quality beetroot requires that the nitrogen 
 should be in a soluble form. The beetroot then absorbs 
 the greater part of it in six weeks, or two months 
 before the term of its development, and at the end of 
 
358 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. xy 
 
 the season it prevents the formation of leaves which, 
 instead of enriching the root, causes it to lose a part 
 of the sugar it contained. 
 
 You will notice that I am not propounding a 
 theory ; I am adhering simply to facts. I wiU farther 
 add that chemical manures are preferable to all others 
 for beetroot ; for nitrogenous matter use potassic 
 nitrate, or ammonic sulphate, the effects of which 
 can be regulated at "will because they are entirely 
 soluble ; but when farmyard manure must be used it 
 is advisable to apply not more than 8 tons per acre, 
 burying it at the bottom of the furrows in the 
 autumn, and giving as an addition to the farmyard 
 manure a certain amount of chemical manure in the 
 spring. 
 
 I again repeat that to be of good quality beetroot 
 must, at the time of pulling, have attained its full 
 development, and the leaves should have begun to 
 turn yeUow, to obtain which result -j^ of the nitrogen 
 in the manure should have been absorbed. 
 
 The nature of the manure, the reciprocal relation 
 of the substances composing it, and their degree of 
 stability have then a considerable influence both upon 
 the amount of the crop and on the saccharine rich- 
 ness of the roots. When I commenced my experi- 
 ments at Vincermes the ground on which the field 
 was estabhshed turned out to have been formerly 
 meadow land. The first year I obtained good crops 
 of beetroot, but the roots only yielded in the average 
 fi-om 8 to 9 per cent, of sugar. The following years 
 the crop kept up from 14 to 20 tons per acre, and the 
 quaUty underwent a progressive amelioration which 
 has not yet stopped, and now the roots fi'om my 
 crops yield as a rule fi:om 14 to 16 per cent, of sugar. 
 
LECT. XV. MANUFACTUEE OF BEKTEOOT SUGAR. 359 
 
 The manufacturers of sugar all know well that 
 the beetroots grown with chemical manure are far 
 richer than those grown with animal manure. Here 
 is one testimony amongst many, the value of which 
 is increased by the position of the distinguished man 
 from whom I borrow it ; one of the directors of Fives - 
 Lille has obtained, on a farm in Normandy, with 
 chemical manure, beetroot which yielded 15 per cent, 
 of sugar, whilst with farmyard manure their richness 
 only equalled from 10 to 11 per cent. This experi- 
 ment was made during the years 1871 and 1872. Quite 
 recently I have received a pamphlet from that most 
 estimable and learned man, M. Pagnoul, Professor of 
 Chemistry at Arras, giving an account of experiments 
 of parallel crops fertilised with chemical and animal 
 manures. 
 
 On the one hand, animal manure containing 440 
 lbs. of nitrogen in the insoluble state, whose action 
 is founded upon the slow but continuous decomposi- 
 tion of the substances it contains, prolongs its action 
 up to the time of gathering in the crop. The chemical 
 manure, on the other hand, which can be absorbed 
 almost immediately, acts strongly in the beginning, 
 and very slightly at the end. What has been the 
 result of this excellent experiment? With animal 
 manure we have obtained beetroot yielding 9 per cent. 
 of sugar ; with chemical manure it was increased 
 to nearly 14 per cent. Thus two orders of facts 
 have established the superiority of chemical manure 
 for the culture of beetroot. On the one hand, the 
 practice of the experimental field at Vincennes, which 
 embraces a period of 14 years, and on the other, the 
 testimony of large growers, confirm in the main 
 the results that have been obtained there. 
 
360 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. lect. XV. 
 
 We will look at the question a little closer and 
 enquire what the increase of richness is which may 
 be produced by the choice of manures and due 
 apphcation of the substances composing them ? I 
 believe it is not less than from 3 to 4 per cent, 
 by weight of the roots ; and in a crop of 16 tons 
 an increase of 3 per cent, in richness is equiva- 
 lent to 9^ cwt. of sugar, worth from 9^. 12s. to 
 111. 4s. If we utilise only the half of this excess at 
 the sugar factory, the result will still be very im- 
 portant. But does the choice of manures exhaust our 
 means of action? No. There is still another method 
 not less efficacious than the first, and, like it, con- 
 firmed by practice, viz. the choice of the seed. A 
 manufacturer who has made some very useful re- 
 searches on the improving of plants by carefuUy select- 
 ing the seed has succeeded in obtaining beetroots 
 yielding 14, 15, 16, and 18 per cent, of sugar. But 
 then beetroots, though so rich in sugar, have their 
 drawbacks, one being that they give only medium 
 crops. Another is that they are forked, that is to say 
 the extremity terminates in four or five independent 
 roots, which retain a great deal of the soil. The 
 washing of forked roots is such a difficult process in 
 the factories that, notwithstanding their richness, they 
 are almost always refused. On the other hand, the 
 farmer cannot consent to produce such beetroot on 
 account of the scanty yields, which never exceed 10 
 tons per acre, if, indeed, they reach this figure. 
 Suppose that on one acre we obtain 8 tons of beet- 
 root at 16s. per ton; that makes 61. 8s. If we have 
 expended 41. 15s. in manure, next to nothing re- 
 mains. But some people say that the wheat which 
 succeeds the beetroot is the real source of profit, and 
 
LECX. XV. MANUFACTURE OP BEETROOT SUGAR. 361 
 
 that in truth, part of the price of the manure should 
 be placed to the account of the second year's cereals. 
 
 This amendment, which has some foundation, 
 does not, however, remove the difficulty, and cannot 
 be accepted as its solution. If the quality of the 
 beetroot is only obtained at the price of an insufficient 
 crop, it is an extra chance of loss, and seriously affects 
 the poor farmer. 
 
 It is then an absolute necessity that we should 
 obtain crops of from 16 to 18 tons of beetroot which 
 is also rich in saccharine matter, so that we may be 
 able to say to the manufacturer, ' The beetroot we 
 briag you is perfect, the shape is irreproachable, and 
 it contaias 16 per cent, of sugar, consequently you 
 can afford to pay us its real value.' 
 
 Under these conditions the manufacturer will, by 
 purchasing, promote both his own interest and that 
 of the agriculturist. It is necessary to satisfy both, 
 otherwise the solution is incomplete. 
 
 We will now see how we must proceed for the im- 
 provement of the root in order to complete the effect 
 produced by the manure. In the first place well 
 formed beetroot must be selected for seed, the irregu- 
 lar forms being rejected, as well as the very large or 
 very small varieties. Between 2 lbs. 3 ozs. and 3 lbs. 
 4 ozs. in weight is the best sort. The first choice 
 effected, a proper selection having been made, it is 
 necessary to analyse each beetroot separately. To do 
 this we take off a small portion of say 300 to 400 
 grains by means of a steel borer about a third of the 
 distance down the root ; the zone at this stage possesses 
 the mean richness of the whole root. Below 12 or 14 
 per cent, of sugar a root is of no use for seed. 
 
 The slight laceration to which the roots are sub- 
 
362 ON CHEMICAL MANUEES. leot. XT. 
 
 mitted detracts neither from their good preservation 
 nor from the production of the seed, but it is neces- 
 sary to keep them in a well ventilated pit and thus 
 avoid all desiccation. The seed thus obtained serves 
 for the production of a crop, from which a new 
 selection is made, paying attention this time to the 
 shape and weight of the roots only, and the seed re- 
 sulting from this second generation is the true seed for 
 the farmer. If you limit yourselves to using the 
 same seed always, you will find that as the generations 
 succeed each other the weight of the crop diminishes, 
 and the root, which originally was perfectly formed, 
 becomes forked. But there is one means of obviating 
 this inconvenience, and that is to continue selecting 
 fresh seed year after year. I repeat then, if you desire 
 beetroot of a superior quality it is absolutely necessary 
 to renew the seed-bearing plant every two years. 
 Thus only can the weight, the form, and richness of 
 the root be maintained to the desired degree. 
 
 When the time for getting in the crop is come, 
 select the roots one by one, class them according to 
 their degree of richness, eliminate all those of defective 
 forms and all the small ones, reject the poor roots and 
 keep as seed those of a high degree of richness and 
 whose weight ranges from 1|; lbs. to 2 lbs. 10 ozs. 
 
 With the seed of this first generation, we proceed 
 to cultivate a crop with excessive care, remembering 
 that it is the roots of this first crop that are wanted 
 to furnish the farmer's supply of seed. 
 
 In the first place it is necessary that the soil 
 should be well dug up so as to favour the action of 
 the air and of frost, leaving it to face the winter in 
 open furrows. In the spring it can be raised and 
 levelled by good harrowing. 
 
LECT. XT. MANUFACTURE OF BEETROOT SUGAR. 36S 
 
 One essential precaution if we employ animal ma- 
 nure is to lay it at the bottom of the furrows when 
 first put in. The immediate contact of the manure 
 with the inferior layers, and the absorption by these 
 layers of the soluble parts, realises the advantageous 
 conditions of subsoil manures, to which I shall return 
 in a moment. As for the chemical manure it is ne- 
 cessary in the spring to spread it over the surface of 
 the soU and harrow it immediately afterwards. 
 
 When the subsoU is heavy and the manure is un- 
 equally distributed in the upper layer the roots become 
 irregular and forked. 
 
 I have said that beetroot obtained under these 
 conditions serves for the production of the farmer's 
 supply of seed, which is consequently the seed of the 
 second generation ; but side by side with the produc- 
 tion of this it is necessary by rigorous selection to 
 regenerate the type of the seed. 
 
 By proceeding in this manner we arrive at excel- 
 lent results. The richness of the roots is excep- 
 tional and their form irreproachable. 
 
 Here a most important practical question presents 
 itself : Can the work of selection be done by farmers ; 
 are they able to undertake this amongst the cares and 
 variety of work that are comprised in the management 
 of a farm? I do not hesitate to answer, No. In 
 order that the result should be commensurate with the 
 expenditure the production of the seed should fall on 
 the sugar manufacturers, who are the most interested. 
 What is necessary for that ? To annex to each factory 
 a field, 25 or 30 acres, to produce seed of superior 
 quality, and at the same time perfect the formula of 
 manure. To this arrangement add the prohibition 
 of animal matter as manure, or at least urge the 
 
364 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. MCT. xv. 
 
 necessity of employing it only in moderate doses, and 
 the result will be to the common satisfaction of both 
 m anufacturer and cultivator, and a conciliation of in- 
 terests will thus be brought about. 
 
 It is to this end that my efforts for the last six 
 years have been directed. The gain obtained iq a 
 financial point of view may be ascertained by seeking 
 the testimony of the manufacturers, who will pro- 
 bably tell you at first that they get almost nothing 
 from beetroot. But if you enquire closer they wiU 
 perhaps allow that they obtain 6 or 7 per cent, of 
 sugar, the truth being that when the yield at the 
 factory reaches 5 per cent, the result is advantageous. 
 
 We will, however, make a more moderate suppo- 
 sition. Suppose a factory uses every year the crop of 
 2,500 acres, which now is about the amount con- 
 sumed by established factories. Let us further sup- 
 pose that the beetroot supplied contains 10 per cent, 
 of sugar, and actually yields to the manufacturer 5 
 per cent. Substitute for these roots which, when 
 tested in the laboratory, contain 12 or 13 per cent, of 
 sugar and yield in the factory 6 per cent., and you 
 will have an extra profit of 1 per cent. In a crop of 
 16 tons there is an excess of 352 lbs. of sugar per 
 cultivated acre, the increase in value being 31. 16s. dd., 
 and for the 2,500 acres that feed the factory an ia- 
 crease ia production of 9,600^. 
 
 To show you the importance of the question now 
 occupying us under all its aspects, we will suppose 
 in place of an ordinary factory a grand central factory, 
 flanked with seven or eight grating-houses, regular 
 detached forts which protect it and feed it with aU the 
 juice extracted within a radius of three or four miles, 
 like those connected with the sugar factories of Abbe- 
 
LECI. XV. MANUFACTURE OF BEETROOT SUGAR. 365 
 
 ville, Meaux, and Coulommiers. In this case it is not 
 2,500 acres of culture that must be annexed to the 
 works, but 7,500 acres at least, and the excess of 
 receipts amounts to 24,000^. to 28,000^. Reduce these 
 figures as much as the most scrupulous person could 
 desire, and the result will still remain very important. 
 Can you hesitate then to follow the system by which 
 it is obtained ? I repeat that to guarantee a profit 
 to the farmer the crops must reahse at least 18 tons 
 per acre ; and to secxire profit also to the manufac- 
 turer the roots must yield at least 12 per cent, of 
 sugar in the laboratory. 
 
 Now, this double result being obtained, how will 
 the interest of both parties be served ? Will the 
 sugar manufacturer limit himself to measure the 
 .standard of all the lots of beetroot that are deHvered 
 to him ? Evidently not, for when he knows that 
 they are grown from the seed bought from himself 
 and produced by him for the purpose, it will be quite 
 sufiicient for him to reject all roots weighing more 
 that 2 lbs. 5 oz., because beyond that weight their 
 richness is notably diminished, or if he does receive 
 them it will be at a reduction agreed upon beforehand. 
 
 But in order that the farmer should have con- 
 fidence in the seed that is sold to him, the manufac- 
 turer must raise the buying price. Beetroot that 
 yields 12 per cent, of sugar is worth 16s. 4J. per ton ; 
 above 12 per cent, it is worth 17s. lOd. at least. 
 
 To obtain this superior quality of seed each sugar 
 factory should organise a special laboratory, and each 
 year execute 8,000 or 10,000 analyses of beetroot. 
 With the methods we now possess this work presents 
 no serious difficulty, for children of ten or twelve 
 years old can execute it with rapidity and certainty. 
 
366 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. EECT. xv. 
 
 If it were a question of an academical treatise 
 I would not propose this means ; but if the analysis 
 discloses 14, 14*5, or 15 per cent, of sugar in the root 
 we need not trouble ourselves with all the niceties 
 that science demands, or that theory exacts from 
 those who wish to formulate laws ; from a practical 
 poiat of view the fractions are of no importance, 
 if the 14 per cent, that the analysis discloses is 
 correct. Common sense requires a just agreement 
 between the proposed end and the means employed 
 in order to arrive at that end. K we are desirous 
 that the manufactories should receive beetroot yield- 
 ing 13 or 14 per cent, of sugar, let us obtain 
 this result, and a few fractions more or less are 
 of no consequence. The above is, in my opinion, 
 the method that ought to be followed. The prin- 
 cipal point is the selection. It is necessary each year 
 to prepare the seed for the following season, and by 
 this selection to preserve the best form of root, to 
 insure necessary richness, to forbid too strong doses 
 of nitrogenous matter ia the form of animal manure, 
 and to guard against the disturbing causes, whose 
 dangers I have already pointed out, — dangers which 
 are increased whenever manure composed of spent oil 
 cake, Flemish manure, or animal matters are inju- 
 diciously used. 
 
 I now arrive at the most delicate part of the 
 question, namely what manure is best suited for beet- 
 root ? On this point there are two very different 
 cases to be considered : first, where chemical manures 
 only are employed to the exclusion of all others ; and, 
 secondly, where they are associated with farm manure. 
 
 In the first case I recommend the normal stimu- 
 lating manure No. 2, and the normal stimulating 
 
MOT. XV. MANUFACTURK OF BEETROOT SUGAR. 367 
 
 manure No. 2a, the last possessing in the highest 
 degree all the requisite qualities: — 
 
 Normal stimulating manure No. 2. 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Price 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Calcic super-piospliate . 
 
 . 352 
 
 16 4 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 . 176 
 
 1 18 4 
 
 Sodic nitrate , 
 
 . 396 
 
 2 8 7 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 . 220 
 
 17 
 
 1,144 5 3 10 
 
 The quantity of nitrogen contained in this manure, 
 which is excellent, is 187 lbs. 
 
 We read in all . industrial chemical treatises that 
 certain salts detract from the quality of beetroot, 
 and this is especially" the cdse with the alkaline 
 chlorides. You wUl understand that in seeking to 
 establish a theory of vegetable production from a 
 multitude of experiments instituted under the most 
 varied conditions, in artificial soils formed of calcined 
 sand, or in naturally poor soil, as I have done for 
 fifteen years at Vincennes, one is forced at least for 
 a time to admit opinions that are recognised by 
 science as demonstrated facts. 
 
 The chlorides being reputed hurtful, I began by 
 eliminating them from any formulae of manures ; 
 this was a concession to prevailing ideas. 
 
 But the late earthquakes in Peru having destroyed 
 the stock of nitrates, the price of this salt rose enor- 
 mously ; potassic nitrate especially rose in price, Jfrom 
 11. 6s. to 11. 12,s., and even to 11. 16s. per cwt. This 
 almost prohibitory price led me to employ potassic 
 chloride in manures. 
 
 I had been struck with the fact that Scheele and 
 Berthelot found that alkaline chlorides mixed with 
 calcic carbonate in a porous medium decomposed and 
 
368 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 tEOT. XV. 
 
 passed into a state of carbonate. It was, indeed, by 
 means of this reaction that Berthelot had explained 
 the formation of natron in certain lakes in Lower 
 Egypt. In obedience to these ideas I then tried to 
 use with the stimulating manure No. 2, the formula of 
 which I have just given, manures containing potassic 
 chloride, and notably the following: — 
 
 Normal stimulating manure No. 2a.' 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Price 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ J. d. 
 
 Calcic super-pltosphate . 
 
 . 352 
 
 15 4 
 
 Potassic chloride at 80° . 
 
 . 176 
 
 12 10 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 . 176 
 
 1 12 
 
 Sodic nitrate . 
 
 . 308 
 
 1 17 4 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 , 132 
 
 10 
 
 1,144 4 18 6 
 
 Like the first this manure contains 187 lbs. of 
 nitrogen per acre. But when beetroot is grown too 
 often upon the same soil, the crops have become un- 
 certain and the roots of bad quaUty, this manure is 
 then insufficient. The deep layers of the soil have 
 suffered a loss which must be repaired. In this 
 case the quantity of manure must be increased 50 per 
 cent, and divided into two portions, one for the sub- 
 soil, which is buried by a special dressing, the other 
 being reserved for the surface and spread out in the 
 usual manner. For the deep layers :— 
 
 
 Pfer afire 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 
 . 176 
 
 Potassic chloride at 80° 
 
 , 176 
 
 Ammonic chloride . . 
 
 . 88 
 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 . 88 
 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 . 176 
 
 ' See my work On the New Formulm of Chemical Manures, 1871. 
 Agricultural Library, 26 Rue Jacob, Paris. 
 
.LECT. XV. MANURE FOR BEETROOT. 369 
 
 For the surface: — 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic chloride at 80° 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 352 
 
 176 
 124 
 264 
 140 
 
 These two manures represent together an expense 
 of from 6/. 8s. to 81. per acre. But the following 
 year, with 1 cwt. more of ammonic sulphate, we 
 obtain a yield of from 33 to 44 bushels of wheat 
 per acre. In first introducing potassic chloride into 
 the manure for beetroot I was groping in the dark, 
 but it was a happy inspiration that led me to this 
 decision, for it is with manure of this kind that I 
 have obtained beetroot richest in sugar. 
 
 In going more deeply into the question I was 
 surprised to find that in proportion as the richness 
 of the beetroot increases the salts diminish. In pro- 
 portion as we improve the variety, and as we perfect 
 the manure the salts disappear ; scarcely any, or only 
 a very small quantity, remaining in the roots. 
 
 Whilst on this subject I wiU relate a circum- 
 stance which will, 1 thmk, prove interesting, and 
 prove, moreover, the truth of the assertions I have 
 made. 
 
 Last year M. Pagnoul, whose excellent remarks 
 upon the unfavourable effects of animal manure when 
 used alone I have abeady noticed, wrote to me as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 ' How far have you got with your researches 
 on beetroot, and what results have you arrived at? ' 
 M. Pagnoul was led to put this question to me 
 because the Society of Agriculture at Arras had 
 
 BB 
 
370 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 LECT. XV. 
 
 asked me in 1868 to give a lecture on the subject of 
 beetroot, on which occasion I gave the result of a 
 very decisive experiment made in Belgium by M. 
 Yerlat-Carlier, on soils that refused to produce beet- 
 root, but where I had succeeded in growing roots 
 containing 13 per cent, of sugar, at the rate of 16 
 tons per acre. I then somewhat diffidently, in a 
 less affirmative form than at present, pointed out the 
 facts which I have just laid before you. 
 
 Instead of telling M. Pagnoul of my progress I 
 sent him three baskets of beetroot, saying, ' Examine 
 for yourself and ascertain the quantities of salts and 
 of sugar, judge the quality, then get beetroots from 
 the most noted growers, analyse them and draw your 
 own conclusions.' The result of this comparative 
 study will be seen from the following table : — 
 
 Beetroot Grown in the Locality. 
 
 No. 1 
 „ 2 
 „ 3 
 „ 4 
 „ 5 
 „ 6 
 „ 7 
 
 ■Weight of roots 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 8 12 
 
 Percentage 
 of sugar 
 
 7'3 
 
 3 5 
 
 9-2 
 
 2 12 
 
 80 
 
 2 10 
 
 8-8 
 
 2 10 
 
 6-0 
 
 1 12 
 
 6-6 
 
 1 lOJ 
 
 8-8 
 
 Average, 7'8 per cent, of sugar. 
 
 Beetroot from the Experimental Field at Vincennes. 
 
 SPBCIMEir NO. 1. 
 
 
 Weight of roots 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 of sugar 
 
 No. 1 . 
 
 3 lOf 
 
 10-1 
 
 „ 2 . 
 
 3 
 
 11-9 
 
 „ 3 . 
 
 . 2 6i 
 
 14-3 
 
 „ 4 . 
 
 . 1 ^ . 
 
 16'2 
 
 „ 5 . 
 
 1 3J 
 
 16-0 
 
 A.verage, 13'3 per cent, of sugar. 
 
Mei. xr. PERCEXTAGE OF SUGAR IN BEETROOT, 
 
 ;7i 
 
 
 SPECIMEN NO. 2. 
 
 
 No. 1 
 
 Weight of roots 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 S 12 
 
 Percentage 
 of sugar 
 
 11-4 
 
 „ 3 
 
 2 13 
 
 16-4 
 
 „ 3 
 
 2 8 
 
 16-3 
 
 „ 4 
 
 1 12 
 
 15-3 
 
 ., 5 
 
 11 
 
 17-9 
 
 Aveiage, 15'1 per cent, of sugar. 
 
 
 BPEOIMEN" SfO. 3. 
 
 
 No. 1 
 
 "Weight of roots 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 4 
 
 Percentage 
 
 of sugar 
 
 123 
 
 „ 2 
 
 2 8 
 
 13-8 
 
 „ 3 
 
 1 8 
 
 15-4 
 
 „ 4 
 
 . . . 1 5* 
 
 17-2 
 
 Average, 14-4 per cent, of sugar. 
 
 I may add that these analyses were made in the 
 month of January, that is to say at a time when beet- 
 root begins to lose its richness. 
 
 I have said that as the quality of the beetroot im- 
 proves the proportion of soluble salts is diminished. 
 
 The following examples go to prove this : — 
 
 Beetroot. 
 
 No. 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Baits in 100 parts 
 of sugar 
 
 11-6 
 
 9'6 
 
 11'5 
 
 10'8 
 
 21-8 
 
 19-6 
 
 10-8 
 
 Average, 18"6 of salts in 100 parts of sugar. 
 Beetroot in Experimental Meld. 
 
 SPECIMEN NO. 3. 
 
 No. 1 . 
 „ 2. 
 „ 3. 
 
 Salts in 100 parts 
 of sugar 
 
 4-3 
 
 3-3 
 
 13 
 
 1-4 
 
 Average, 2-6 of salts. 
 B B 2 
 
372 
 
 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leoi. xv 
 
 The average results, both as regards sugar and 
 salts, are summed up as follows : — 
 
 Percentage of Salts in 100 
 
 sngar in roots parts of sugar 
 
 Beetroot /-No. 1 . . . 13'3 . 3-9 
 
 from ] „ 2 . . . 15-4 . 3-6 
 
 Vincennes 1. „ 3 . . , 14'5 . 'j-q 
 
 Beetroot of ordinary quality . 7'8 . 17-6 
 
 My experiments this year at Vincennes have en- 
 abled me to carry stiU further the discussion as to 
 whether the richness in sugar of beetroot is dependent 
 on its poverty in salts. We are almost able to judge 
 the saccharine richness of beetroot by the quantity of 
 ash left after combustion. 
 
 Here are some examples classed according to rich- 
 ness in sugar : — 
 
 Percentage of sugar Percentage of ash 
 
 in fresh beetroot in dried beetroot 
 
 20 . . . . 2'8 
 
 15 . . . . 3 6 
 
 10 .... 5-1 
 
 5 . . . . 10-0 
 
 We find by analysis, moreover, that the richer the 
 beetroot is in sugar the less abundant are the potas- 
 sium and sodium salts. The following table shows 
 that the proportion of lime is increased and that of 
 potash diminished : — 
 
 Percentage of sugar 
 in fresh beetroot 
 
 In 100 parts of ash 
 Potash Lime 
 
 20 . . . 
 
 — — 
 
 15 . . . 
 
 21 8 
 
 10 . . . 
 
 31 4 
 
 6 . . . 
 
 38 4 
 
 The beetroot poorest in salts and chlorides has 
 been grown with potassic chloride nianure. I confess 
 that this fact for a long time puzzled me. It was to 
 
tECT. XT. SALTS IN BEETROOT. 373 
 
 this that I referred when I said that notwithstanding 
 important practical results the theory presented gaps 
 that it was impossible for me to fill up. 
 
 New light has been thrown on the subject, and it 
 is to MM. Violette and Pagnoul we are indebted 
 for it : the alkaline chlorides are not localised in the 
 tissues of the roots. By a sort of natural dialysis 
 they concentrate in the collar of the root and in the 
 blades of the leaves. This then explains the excep- 
 tional poverty in alkaline salts of the beetroot obtained 
 with manure containing potassic chloride. Whilst I 
 was ignorant of the fact pointed out by M. Violette 
 I spoke of these manures with a certain reserve. 
 From the good results they had given me I was 
 bomid to recommend a trial, although it was im- 
 possible to explain the poverty of the roots in alka- 
 line salts. 
 
 In the northern provinces two extremely danger- 
 ous practices are carried on, viz. the use of ammonic 
 sulphate and sodic nitrate. It is true that eight 
 times out of ten an important increase in the crops 
 will be obtained by their use, but it is to the prejudice 
 of the quality and injurious to the fertility of the 
 soU, a double mistake, against which I would warn 
 you. 
 
 Without again reverting to the preparation of 
 the soil, I ought to point out an excellent method 
 of cultivation which is beginning to be followed at 
 Brie, where M. Belin, one of the best farmers in the 
 Department of the Seine and Mame, has been making 
 the trial according to my instructions. 
 
 The first year the soil was well ploughed, and 16 
 tons of manure per acre were spread at the bottom of 
 the furrows ; the earth was further left in this condi- 
 
374 ox CHE6IICAL MANURES. leot. xv. 
 
 tion witli the furrows open during the winter, and in 
 the spring it was harrowed, without being ploughed 
 again, and finally, 528 lbs. per acre of normal stimu- 
 lating manure No. 2a was spread upon the surface 
 of the soil. The second year beetroot was still cul- 
 tivated. But with a full quantity of the stimulating 
 manure No. 2a, the precaution was always taken of 
 leaving the earth in open furrows during the whole of 
 the winter, The third year wheat was sown. The 
 two succeeding growths of beetroot did the soil an 
 immense amount of good. What remained of the 
 nitrogenous matter from the two preceding manur- 
 ings was amply sufficient for the needs of the wheat ; 
 and the state of extreme division in which it existed 
 in the soil preventing too hasty action, it gave ad- 
 mirable regularity to the progress of the wheat, and 
 the result was an excessive crop of grain. 
 
 This year, at M. Belin's farm, the wheat was, soon 
 after the first crop of beetroot, supplemented by am- 
 moiiic sulphate, and the product was 34 bushels per 
 acre ; the same variety of wheat, sown after the second 
 crop of beetroot and without the aid of ammonic 
 sulphate, produced 46 bushels per acre. 
 
 In conclusion, I wUl recapitulate the propositions 
 I have presented to you : — 
 
 li Avoid the use of animal manure, or at least use 
 it in moderate quantities only, and then associate it 
 with chemical manure. 
 
 2. With the normal chemical manure beetroot 
 is richer in sugar than with animal manure. It is 
 necessary in the formulse of chemical manures that 
 the ■ proportion of nitrogen should be from 70 lbs. to 
 88 lbs. per acre. 
 
 3. If you wish to associate chemical manure with 
 
XECI. XV. MANURE FOR BEETROOT. 375 
 
 animal manure do not use more than 16 tons per acre 
 of the latter ; it should be laid on in the autumn and 
 buried in the deep layers of the soil ; leave the earth 
 in furrows aU through the winter, and in the spring 
 harrow it and give it a dressing of 528 lbs. of one of 
 the two chemical manures that I have indicated. 
 
 4. Pay particular attention to the production of 
 the seed. Reject as seed-plants all those that are 
 badly shaped, too large, and, as a rule, all those that 
 yield less than 14 per cent, of sugar. Renew the seed 
 every second year. 
 
 The observance of these rules will procure yields 
 of from 18 to 20 tons of roots per acre, and beetroot 
 yielding on an average from 12 to 15 per cent, of 
 sugar. 
 
 Now that we are approaching the end of our studies 
 let us for a moment look back at the road we have 
 traversed. It was customary in the past to assert 
 that the only true manures were those which con- 
 tained all that the plants theinselves contained, of 
 which farm manure was the most perfect type. We 
 have replied that to ensure the fertility of the soil it 
 is only necessary to give it calcic phosphate, potash, 
 lime, and nitrogenous matter, four substances of which 
 the united weight is equal at most to only a tenth 
 part of the weight of the crops. 
 
 In opposition to the assertion that farm manure is 
 equally suitable to all plants, we have been able to 
 prove that to obtain good crops economically it is 
 necessary to vary the nature and the composition of 
 the manures. 
 
 To those who see the perfection of art in cultiva- 
 tion by means of cattle, we reply by demanding the 
 accounts, and from these accounts we prove that the 
 
376 ON CHEMICAL MANURES. leci. xv. 
 
 system does not yield profits proportionate to the 
 actual value of the money, and does not supply to the 
 market crops commensurate with the requirements of 
 the population. 
 
 To those who call live stock a necessary evil, we 
 reply that live stock may become a source of profit 
 upon a farm ; but this can only be done by manuring 
 the grass with chemical manure. And the same laws 
 that render cultivation remunerative must be applied 
 to the feeding of the cattle ; the animals must be 
 fattened by an abundant and judiciously proportioned 
 system of feeding. 
 
 To crown this collection of facts and ideas, we 
 have the practical results, which show the advantage 
 of an alUance between manufactures and agriculture 
 with the view of obtaining more manure. Practice, 
 then, without any other guide than empirical ob- 
 servation of facts, has been able to conceive a system, 
 of which science could only give the theory and 
 explain the advantages. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 The Appendix forms a repertory of all the information 
 required in passing from the domain of theory to that of 
 practice. It consists of : — 
 
 I. A Ghemical Description of the Ingredients which enter 
 into the Composition of Ghemical Manures. 
 
 II. Practical Instructions for the Preparation, Preserva- 
 tion, and Use of Chemical Manures, 
 
 III. List of Manures, in Order of Succession, best suited 
 
 for the principal alternations of Crops. 
 
 IV. Instructions for the Establishment of Experimental 
 
 Fields for the Analysis of the Soil. 
 
 V. Tables for Calculating the Exhaustion of the Soil, 
 and for Regulating the Feeding of Live Stoch. 
 
 VI. Description and Illustrations of the Comparative Ac- 
 tion of the different Fertilising Agents on the Growth 
 of Plants. 
 
 VII. Illustrations showing the Comparative Action of Con- 
 stituents of Plant Production. 
 
 VIII. Classified List of Chemical Manures. 
 
INGREDIENTS IN CHEMICAL MANURES. 379 
 
 I. 
 
 Chemical Desceiption op the Ingrebients ■which enter 
 INTO THE Composition op Chemical Manures. 
 
 Nitrogenous Matter. 
 
 All products of vegetable or animal origin, of which 
 nitrogen forms a part, are called by this name. 
 
 Blood Muscular tissue 
 
 Albumen FcBcal matter 
 
 Hoof and horn waste Litter 
 
 Wool waste Oil-cake 
 
 are all nitrogenous matter. To act upon vegetation, 
 nitrogenous matter of all kinds must be capable of decom- 
 position in the soil ; unless this decomposition takes place, 
 it will have no action upon the plants. When nitrogenous 
 matter is decomposed part of the nitrogen passes into 
 ammonia, or a nitrate of some kind. For this reason, 
 amongst nitrogenous matter suitable for agriculture, we 
 class 
 
 Ammonic sulpliate Potassio nitrate Sodic nitrate 
 
 These substances, which are true salts, contain nitro- 
 gen amongst their constituents. In ammonic sulphate 
 the nitrogen is present as part of the ammonia, which is 
 the base of the salt; in potassio and sodic nitrates it is 
 contained in the acid of the salt. 
 
 Ammonic Sulphate. 
 This salt is formed of sulphuric acid and ammonia : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 Sulphuric acid .... 60-60 
 Ammonia ..... 25'76 
 Water 13-64 
 
 100-00 
 
380 
 
 APPEXDIX I. 
 
 And as tKe ammonia, in its turn is formed of 
 
 Nitrop-en . . . .14 
 Hydrogen .... 3 
 
 it follows that ammonic sulphate contains 21 •21 per cent, 
 of nitrogen when it is chemically pure. 
 
 The ammonic sulphate of commerce contains at most 
 20 per cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 Ammonia is procured from liquid town sewage, also 
 from the ammoniacal liquors of gasworks, but the greatest 
 source of all is volcanoes during their quiescent period, 
 when they send forth nothing but vapour. Unfortunately 
 this source has hitherto been neglected. 
 
 In France ammonic sulphate is generally pure, but in 
 England it is frequently impure and blackened with 
 tarry matters. When this is the case the amount of 
 nitrogen which it contains, instead of being the normal 
 20 per cent., sinks to 10 or even 7 per cent. It is by 
 no means unusual in commerce to meet with ammonic 
 sulphate, of apparently good quality, which contains only 
 15 or 16 instead of 20 per cent, of nitrogen. In this case 
 the salt has been purposely mixed with ammonic bisul- 
 phate in the course of manufacture. Ammonic sulphate 
 owes its ef&cacy to the nitrogen it contains, and it is 
 a product whose action is immediate if the soil be at 
 all moist, a quality which may be turned to the best 
 account, but it is one that must be used with great 
 prudence. The most suitable quantity to use is from 
 260 to 354 lbs. per acre, when only chemical manures 
 are employed. But this product is of the greatest use 
 when it is a question of saving a crop endangered by a too 
 severe winter. About 176 lbs. of ammonic sulphate, ap- 
 plied in the month of March, will cause the crop to spring 
 up as if by magic. Ammonic sulphate is, again, of the 
 greatest help in increasing the crop of grain without detri- 
 ment to the straw. To obtain this result it is only neces- 
 sary to give to cereals about half a hundredweight of the 
 
INGREDIENTS IN CHExMICAL MANURES. 381 
 
 sulphate per acre, at the end of the month of March, pro- 
 vided always that the soil has been properly prepared and 
 manured in the autumn. 
 
 In explanation of this remarkable effect, which, more 
 than any other, shows the great practical importance of 
 the quantity and composition of the manures applied, I 
 will repeat what I have already said in the course of my 
 lectures. Plant life consists of three distinct periods : — 
 1. The embryonic period, during which the young plant 
 lives fit the expense of the seed. 2. The foliaceous period, 
 which is essentially the creative period of the crop, during 
 which the plant lives on the air and soil. 8. The repro- 
 ductive period, during which the plant forms its seed and 
 lives at its own expense. This epoch in the life of the 
 plant I have also called the reabsorptive period, to mark 
 distinctly that the activity of the plant is then removed, 
 and concentrated in the flower and fruit, the formation of 
 which is brought about by means of the substances ac- 
 cumulated in the leaves and stem. Now, at the close of 
 winter, the substance of a part of the leaves has been 
 partially changed by the action of the cold, and vegetation 
 is retarded by the nutritive elements, nitrogen, phosphoric 
 acid, potash, and lime, having a tendency to withdraw 
 from the work of vegetation, when they are, of course, lost 
 to the whole vegetable system. A small quantity of am- 
 monic sulphate will be sufficient to revive the vitality of 
 the leaves, and cause these substances to contribute to the 
 production of the seed. But for this effect to be obtained 
 the proportion of ammonic sulphate which I have recom- 
 mended must not be exceeded, or the leaves will receive 
 an increase of activity, and the whole foliaceous system 
 then becomes so suddenly developed that the formation of 
 the seed is retarded and impaired and the harvest injured, 
 the seed under these conditions being never well formed ; 
 besides which, the plant is exposed to the worst accident 
 that can befall it, that of laying. 
 
 There are, then, two entirely distinct cases to be con- 
 sidered : — 1-. One in which a blighted or insufficient crop 
 
382 APPENDIX I. 
 
 has to be revived. 2. The other, in which the amount of 
 seed has simply to be increased. The rule to be followed 
 in these two cases is now known. 
 
 The judicious use of ammonic sulphate is no less bene- 
 ficial to permanent meadow land. Small quantities ap- 
 plied four or five times a year tend to promote the 
 formation of the grass, and also to render it more nitro- 
 genous, and consequently more nutritious; from 176 lbs. 
 to 220 lbs. about four times a year is a suitable quantity. 
 
 In 1866 ammonic sulphate was worth about 11. Is. Gd. 
 per cwt., now its price is nearer U. lis. &d. per cwt. Its 
 sources are, unfortunately, limited ; up to the present 
 ;ime it has only been obtained from the coal used in 
 making gas and coke, or from the distillation of urine. 
 
 The day when we succeed in obtaining ammonic sul- 
 phate from the nitrogen of the atmosphere will mark a 
 new epoch in the history of the world, and the farmer will 
 then be on a level with the chemical manufacturer, in 
 being able to produce the substances necessary for carry- 
 ing on his work at the cheapest possible price ; for this 
 reason, that nitrogen being the dominant ingredient in all 
 crops, a fall in the price of ammonic sulphate will bring 
 about a corresponding fall in the price of bread and 
 meat. 
 
 A wise farmer ought never to buy ammonic sulphate, 
 especially in England, without having it analysed to ascer- 
 tain that it contains at least 20 per cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 Sodic Nitrate. 
 
 Sodic nitrate is formed of nitric acid and soda. Its 
 exact composition is as follows : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Nitric acid 63-5.3 
 
 Soda 36-47 
 
 lOO'OO 
 It follows that sodic nitrate contains 16'4 per cent, of 
 
INGEEDIENTS IN CHEMICAL MANURES. 383 
 
 nitrogen when it is chemically pure. That of commerce 
 contains from 14 to 15 per cent. Sodic nitrate is obtained 
 from Peru, where it is found in the form of compact 
 masses mixed with sand and sea salt. 
 
 The sodic nitrate of commerce is never pure, it con- 
 tains from 4 to 5 per cent, of foreign matter, represented 
 generally by sodic chloride and moisture. Its composition 
 fluctuates within the following limits : — 
 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Average 
 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 . 94-56 
 
 96-45 
 
 95-45 
 
 Sodic chloride 
 
 0-95 
 
 3-41 
 
 1-62 
 
 Moisture 
 
 1-90 
 
 2-85 
 
 2-25 
 
 The mean standard in nitrogen is 15*7 per cent., but 
 taking into consideration the quantity of salt left sticking 
 to the bags, it is wiser not to reckon it at more than 
 15 per cent. This is applicable only to the sodic nitrate 
 the origin of which is known and which has undergone no 
 adulteration. Unfortunately this is the exception; it is 
 by no means unusual to find as much as 20 or 25 per cent, 
 of sodic chloride or sodic sulphate iu sodic nitrate. The 
 only way of guarding against this is to have the salt 
 analysed before it is purchased. 
 
 Sodic nitrate is used in the same way as ammonic sul- 
 phate, but for the proportion of nitrogen to be equal the 
 quantity of sodic nitrate must be increased one-fourth, 
 125 lbs. of sodic nitrate for 100 lbs. of ammonic sulphate. 
 With cereals sodic nitrate produces more leaves and less 
 grain, but for root crops — tui'nips, beetroot, &c. — it should 
 have the preference over ammonic sulphate. When the 
 summer has been dry, and the root crops have suffered, 
 264 lbs. per acre of sodic nitrate, applied in the month of 
 July, will restore the crop if the months of August and Sep- 
 tember are at all rainy. When sodic nitrate is used for 
 cereals it is well to give one-fifth less nitrogen than with 
 ammonic sulphate. 
 
 All these products are, on account of their great rich- 
 ness in nitrogen, very active, and therefore require to be 
 
384 APPENDIX I. 
 
 spread over the land with great care. The best method 
 is to mix them with two or three times their weight of 
 fine moist earth, making the whole into a heap, which 
 is left for two or three days, and then spread by hand, 
 or by means of appropriate machines. The cost of hand- 
 labour is largely compensated for by the excess of the 
 crop. 
 
 The earthquakes which of late years have occurred on 
 the Peruvian Coast have diminished the importation of 
 sodic nitrate, and caused it to rise in price. The Peruvian 
 Government has also levied a duty on its export, which 
 prevents exportation. This has been done with the double 
 object of increasing the revenue and protecting guano. 
 Another unwelcome fact is that being in the hands of a 
 very small number of merchants, sodic nitrate has become 
 a real object of speculation. After numerous fluctuations 
 its price is now 13s. 9d. per cwt., which brings the cost of 
 nitrogen to about lOd. per lb. At 15s. per cwt. the 
 nitrogen of amnionic sulphate comes to about lid. per lb. 
 
 Potassic Nitrate. 
 
 This salt, which is also called nitre, or saltpetre, is 
 formed of nitric acid and potash — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Nitric acid 53-41 
 
 Potasli 46-59 
 
 100-00 
 
 At the rate of fourteen parts of nitrogen to four of nitric 
 acid, it contains 13-8 per cent, of nitrogen in the pure 
 state, but that of commerce contains only from 12 to 13 
 per cent. Potassic nitrate is obtained — in large sheds 
 built for the purpose — by the decomposition of animal 
 matter mixed with clayey or marly soil, which is then 
 washed to extract the nitre. For a long time this salt 
 was obtained from waste building materials. It is now 
 made by decomposing potassic chloride by means of sodic 
 nitrate ; sodic chloride (sea salt) and potassic nitrate are 
 
INGREDIENTS IN CHEMICAL MANURES. 385 
 
 obtained at the same time, but tbey are easily separated 
 by crystallisation. Of all the products that contain 
 potash, potassic nitrate is most suitable for agricultural 
 purposes. 
 
 Potassic nitrate is one of the most ef&cacious agents 
 in the growth of plants.^ It contains nitrogen and potash 
 in a very assimilable form, and for certain plants, such as 
 tobacco, it is the most suitable in many respects. For 
 other plants, in -which potash is the dominant consti- 
 tuent, but which do not require nitrogen, such as peas, 
 beans, sainfoin, or clover, potassic chloride is to be pre- 
 ferred, whilst for other plants whose dominant is nitro- 
 genous matter, such as cereals and meadow grass, potassic 
 chloride mixed with ammonic sulphate can be advan^ 
 tageously substituted for potassic nitrate. In this case, 
 100 lbs. of potassic chloride at 80°, and 75 lbs. of ammonic 
 sulphate, are used instead of 100 lbs. of potassic nitrate. 
 Potassic nitrate is often adulterated with chlorides and 
 alkaline sulphates, or even with sodic nitrate. In the 
 latter case the salt contains the necessary quantity of 
 nitrogen, and the adulteration affects the potash only; 
 it is therefore necessary that this product should be 
 analysed by a chemist before it is used. The price of 
 potassic nitrate has varied very much of late years. It is 
 at the present time worth 11. is. per cwt. 
 
 Potassic Chloride. 
 In 100 parts, potassic chloride contains — 
 
 Per cent.. 
 Potasaum . . . . . 52'41 
 CUorine 47-69 
 
 100-00 
 
 52*41 of potassium corresponding to 63-16 of potash. 
 
 Potassic sulphate can also be used, but I have obtained 
 less favourable results with this salt than with potassic 
 chloride, and it is generally dearer. 
 
 Potassic chloride at 80° is now worth about 7s. 2d. to 
 
 C C 
 
386 APPENDIX I. 
 
 8s. per cwt. Since the discovery of the Stassfurth mines 
 the price of this salt cannot fluctuate much as the supply 
 exceeds the demand. 
 
 Calcic Phosphate, 
 
 Under the name of calcic phosphate a large number of 
 
 different products are comprehended. For a long time 
 
 nothing but the calcic phosphate obtained from bones, 
 
 mixed with calcic carbonate, was used for agricultural 
 
 purposes. At the present time the greater part of the 
 
 phosphates used as manure are obtained from the mineral 
 
 kingdom, where they are found in practically inexhaustible 
 
 quantities. A-U the phosphates used in agriculture are 
 
 formed of phosphoric acid and lime. Phosphoric acid 
 
 itself is formed of phosphorus and oxygen : — 
 
 Phosphorus . . . .81 
 Oxygen . . . , ■ 40 
 
 In phosphates it is the phosphoric acid which is the 
 active part. Chemists are accustomed to represent phos- 
 phoric acid by the symbol H3PO4. We know of three 
 principal sorts of calcic phosphate. The tricalcic phos- 
 phate has the formula — Ca32P04, and the dicalcic phos- 
 phate has the formula — 
 
 OaHPO^, 2H2O. 
 
 The most important phosphate — CaH42P04, has received 
 the name of superphosphate of lime. It is prepared, 
 commercially, by treating bones, or mineral phosphates, 
 with sulphuric acid. The acid phosphate is then mixed 
 with calcic sulphate, and uuder this form receives the 
 name of superphosphate of lime or calcic superphosphate. 
 It contains from 15 to 18 per cent, of phosphoric acid, 
 and is sold at about 4s. 9d. per cwt. 
 
 I shall not enter into any particulars as to the manu- 
 facture of this product, though it is advisable that agri- 
 culturists should know how to make it for themselves. I 
 shall devote a special manual to this subject, and for the 
 
INGREDIENTS IN CHEMICAL MANURES. 387 
 
 present look only at the effects of calcic superphosphate 
 on vegetation. 
 
 Of the various sources of phosphoric acid, the super- 
 phosphate is to be preferred, as, on account of its solubility 
 in -water, the phosphoric acid of the superphosphate is 
 most readily diffused through the soil. The proportions 
 of phosphoric acid being equal, it produces greater effect 
 than the phosphate containing either two or three equiva- 
 lents of lime on those plants whose dominant consti- 
 tuent is phosphoric acid, such as tiirnips, swedes, maize, 
 and sugar-cane, and with a smaller proportion the result 
 is at least equal. 
 
 There are, however, two cases in which bi- and tri- 
 calcic phosphates are more beneficial, viz., on newly 
 cleared land, and on damp meadows. The blackish matter 
 that the earth then contains assists the solution of the 
 phosphates so much that the superphosphate is in part 
 carried off by the waters, and the phosphates containing 
 two or three equivalents are also attacked with remark- 
 able certainty and resist being carried off by the water. 
 In the majority of instances the bicalcic phosphate 
 answers better than the tricalcic, its effect being more 
 sure and its assimilability greater. But the natural phos- 
 phates, better known by the name of coprolites, can some- 
 times be used with advantage on newly cleared land and 
 damp meadows ; in this case the phosphate must be spread 
 as a manure on animal litter, or in other words, it must 
 always be associated with animal manure. If this condi- 
 tion is not fulfilled, and the phosphates are to be used 
 by themselves or with chemical manures, the superphos- 
 phates are preferable to the two other forms. In a cold 
 and damp climate, like that of England, great advantage 
 is to be gained by the free use of phosphate. 
 
 In the state of coprolites calcic phosphate is mixed 
 with 40 or 50 per cent, of foreign matter. It is sold in 
 impalpable powder at 2s. M. per cwt. Powdered and 
 calcined bones are worth from 6s. 5d. to 7s. Id. per cwt. 
 Chemically prepared bicalcic and tricalcic phosphates, 
 
 c 3 
 
388 APPENDIX I. 
 
 with a standard of 32 or 35 per cent, of phosphoric acid, 
 vary in price from 8s. 4d. to 8s. 9d. per cwt. 
 
 Calcic Sulphate. 
 
 Calcic sulphate is nothing more than unburnt plaster 
 of Paris, and is composed of sulphuric acid and lime. It 
 is found in nature in large quantities in the form of 
 hydrate — 
 
 Per cent. 
 Sulphuric acid .... 4e'51 
 
 Lime 32-56 
 
 Water 20-93 
 
 100-00 
 
 Exposed to a temperature of 248° to 266° P. it loses its 
 water and passes into the state of anhydrous sulphate, 
 more commonly known as plaster of Paris. In using 
 calcic sulphate I prefer it in this state. It is worth about 
 8^d. per cwt. It can also be used in the form of raw 
 gypsum, only in this case the proportion must be in- 
 creased by one-fifth. 
 
389 
 
 11. 
 
 Practical Instetjotions on the Peeseevation, Peb- 
 
 PAEATION, AND EMPLOYMENT OP ChEMICAL MaNUEES. 
 
 As a general rule cliemioal manures must be kept in a 
 dry place — a barn for instance. The operation of mixing 
 the Tarious products, witbout being difficult, requires 
 some care. 
 
 It is necessary, in the first place, that they should be 
 thoroughly mixed, for if this condition be not fulfilled the 
 rootlets of the plants will not find within their reach the 
 different agents whose good effects depend partly upon 
 their simultaneous) presence. 
 
 In making the mixture the calcic superphosphate must 
 be procured some months beforehand. When it is first 
 prepared this substance has a pasty consistence that 
 renders mixing difficult, but at the end of two or three 
 months it dries and falls into powder. 
 
 The following is the mode of procedure: — The calcic 
 phosphate is first spread over the surface of a hard piece 
 of ground and covered with the gypsum. After twenty- 
 four hours the two products are mixed, with a spade, into 
 little heaps and left for a day or two. The first mixture 
 is then spread afresh on the floor, and the other products 
 are thoroughly incorporated by means of a vigorous use of 
 the spade, the effect of which is completed by beating the 
 agglomerated masses with a large-headed rammer, which 
 can be constructed by fixing an upright handle in the 
 middle of a piece of board eight or ten inches long by four 
 in thickness. The mixture being completed, it is absolutely 
 necessary that it should be passed through a sieve and 
 stirred afresh. It must, however, be understood that this 
 
390 
 
 APPENDIX ir. 
 
 applies only to small farming ; when operations are carried 
 on on a larger scale the mixing must be done by machinery. 
 With a two-horse power engine it is easy to prepare thirty 
 or forty tons of mixture. The machine is provided both 
 with stones for crushing the products and sieves to sepa- 
 rate the uncrushed parts. 
 
 We give below an illustration of a machine of this 
 
 kind,' which is largely used in France, both by manu- 
 facturers of chemical manure and also by agriculturists 
 themselves. 
 
 These directions must be strictly observed, for if a 
 manure is to produce its full effects, each filament of the 
 root must be able to absorb at the same time all the sub- 
 stances that enter into its composition, and this result 
 cannot be obtained unless the mixture is homogeneous. 
 The spreading of chemical manures also requires par- 
 ticular care. The best way is, unquestionably, to make 
 use of one of the excellent machines that we now possess 
 for spreading pulverised manure, for with them the result 
 leaves nothing to be desired. 
 
 When I add that if the dressing be properly performed 
 
 ^ These macliiiies may be procured from J. JI. Fleury, 91 Rue de 
 Crim^e a la ViUette, Paris. 
 
EMPLOYMENT OE CHEMICAL MANURES. 391 
 
 it will increase the yield by two or three bushels of grain 
 per acre, you will see how important it is to use the 
 greatest care. 
 
 For those who do not possess a machine, and who have 
 to effect this operation by hand, the best way is to mix the 
 manure with an equal amount of fine dry earth, and throw 
 it broadcast over the land like seed. When this method 
 is followed the manure must first be divided into a certain 
 number of little heaps, which are distributed over the 
 plots of ground for which they are destined. If we have 
 to deal with cereals, peas, or beans, the manure must be 
 spread after the last ploughing, and its exact division 
 over the surface of the soil ensured by means of careful 
 harrowing. 
 
 For plants with tap roots which burrow to a great 
 depth, it is preferable to spread the manure twice, half 
 after the first ploughing and half after the last. For 
 vines I have found the following method best: — The 
 manure is spread upon the soil around each vine, it is 
 then well dug into the ground with the spade or with the 
 plough. Vines ought to be manured in the autumn. For 
 hay I believe it is better to spread half the manure in the 
 autumn and half in the spring, after the first cutting. 
 When we spread the manure broadcast one precaution is 
 necessary, viz., to work in a calm day, if it is windy we 
 are apt to lose a good deal. 
 
 I will not repeat what I have already said of the ad- 
 vantages that chemical manures possess over stable 
 manures, but I ought to insist on the resources they afford 
 in combating the effects of an unfavourable year. When 
 the winter has been severe, and is prolonged beyond the 
 usual limits, wheat, and other cereals generally, are often 
 much affected. With from 330 to 440 lbs. of ammonic 
 sulphate, or 440 lbs. of sodic nitrate mixed with 440 lbs. of 
 gypsum, which is spread as a covering at the beginning 
 of March, we can in a few days change the state of the 
 culture and ensure a successful crop. The effect of these 
 manures, as a top dressing, is truly magical. 
 
392 APPENDIX II. 
 
 But here, again, certain precautions must be taken ; 
 it will not do to apply this dressing later than the middle 
 of March. Used in April or May it gives extraordinary 
 activity to vegetation, but it retards the ripening of the 
 grain, and on account of the exaggerated development of 
 the straw, the grain is ill formed, less abundant, and 
 stunted . By the certainty and rapidity of the action of these 
 manures, when used as a top dressing, they are a source 
 of inestimable value to the farmer. When the autumn is 
 wet and sowing is delayed, to save time the manure can 
 be spread as a dressing after the seed has sprung up. It 
 is certainly better to give the dressing before sowing, but 
 when unable to do that there need be no hesitation. One 
 dose of manure as a top dressing will suffice to ensure the 
 success of the crop, whilst with animal manure this ex- 
 pedient would result in a complete failure. 
 
 In the spring we need only employ as a dressing 
 ammonic sulphate or sodic nitrate. The two products 
 will be found quite sufficient. I, however, prefer to add 
 to them 440 lbs. of calcic superphosphate mixed with 440 
 lbs. of gypsum per acre. 
 
393 
 
 III. 
 
 Collection op Foemul^ tob the Chemical Mantjees 
 most used, "whether alone ok in combination with 
 Faemtaed Manuee. 
 
 In order to facilitate inquiry and comparison, I have col- 
 lected in the following chapter the best formulae for those 
 manures which are fittest for crops grown on the rotation 
 system. 
 
 I cannot too often repeat that since my experiments 
 hare passed from the region of theory into the broad 
 field of practice, I have become thoroughly convinced of 
 the value of employing chemical manures in fractional 
 dressings. By dividing the application of the manure 
 over several years instead of using it all at the beginning, 
 we gain a double advantage, as we not only reduce our 
 expenses during the first year, but we obtain an increased 
 yield. The following formulae have been devised specially 
 to suit this method of application. 
 
 I have considered the matter from two distinct points 
 of view ; one, in which chemical manure only is employed, 
 the other in which it is used in combination with other 
 manures, no matter whether crops are grown in rotation 
 or continuously. 
 
394 APPENDIX III. 
 
 First Case. 
 In ■which Chemical Manure is used alone ■without 
 
 THE ADDITION OP FaKMTARD MaNURE. 
 Single Crop. 
 
 ■WHEAT. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. £ .1. d. 
 
 Normal homologous manure, No. lA 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 176 078 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . . .88 6 5 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 171 1 11 2 
 
 Calcic sulphate 93 
 
 528 
 In Spring. 
 Nothing, or ammonic sulphate 44, 88, or 132 Ihs, . 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 6 11 
 
 1 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 3 9 11 
 
 On condition of this manuring being repeated every 
 year, a crop of 33 bushels per acre of ■wheat is obtained 
 with an expense ■which, at the most, is 7s. per acre, and 
 is often below that amount. 
 
 Barley, Oats, Rye, Natural Meadow. 
 
 Normal homologous manure. No. lA 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 rf. 
 
 176 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 88 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 171 
 
 1 11 
 
 2 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 528 2 5 11 
 
 For meadow land we may apply the manure in two 
 different ways, either all at once in autumn, or half in the 
 autumn and half in the spring, after the first crop of hay 
 has been cut. 
 
 If the oat crop appears too light, a further quantity 
 of 44 or 88 lbs. of ammonic sulphate must be added in 
 the month of April, which will involve an increase in 
 expenditure of 8s. or 16s. per acre. 
 
FOEMULiE FOE CHEMICAL MANURES. 395 
 
 Hemp and Colza. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Normal manure No. 1, 1,056 lbs 4 16 
 
 If the colza is to be followed by a wheat crop, we must 
 ■use the second year, 
 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate, 264 lbs. . 
 
 . 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 Asbes of haulTTi and pods of colza . 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 Total cost 
 
 7 4 
 
 ~0 
 
 Cost per annum 
 
 
 3 12 
 
 
 
 Beet-root, Carrots, Cabbages, Hops, Garden Stuff. 
 
 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 & s. 
 
 if. 
 
 Normal manure No. 2 
 
 
 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 
 . 352 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 Potassic nitrate ... 
 
 . 176 
 
 1 18 
 
 4 
 
 Sodic nitrate . . . , 
 
 . 264 
 
 1 IS 
 
 7 
 
 Calcic sulphate . . . , 
 
 . 264 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1,056 4 9 2 
 
 In the case of beetroot, if we wish to obtain the largest 
 possible yield, the normal stimulating manure No. 2 must 
 be substituted for the above. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 lbs. £ *. d. 
 
 Normal stimulating manure No. 2 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 352 16 4 
 
 Potassic niti-ate 176 1 18 4 
 
 Sodic nitrate 396 2 8 7 
 
 Calcic sulphate 220 17 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Normal manure No. 3 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 
 Potassic nitrate .... 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 880 3 15 3 
 
 With exhausted soils 1,056 lbs. per acre of normal 
 manure No. 2 should be used. 
 
 1,144 
 
 5 3 
 
 10 
 
 Per acre 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ «. 
 
 d. 
 
 352 
 264 
 264 
 
 15 
 2 18 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 11 
 
396 
 
 ) APPENDIX 
 
 III. 
 
 
 Vines and Fruit Trees. 
 
 
 Normal manure No. 4 
 
 Per acre 
 Ibo. 
 
 £ J. a. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 . 528 
 . 440 
 
 1 3 
 4 16 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 . 352 
 
 2 10 
 
 ],.320 6 1 10 
 
 Normal manure No. 2 gives very good results in 
 vineyards whicli hitherto have only produced grapes of 
 ordinary quality. It is as well, therefore, to begin with it. 
 
 Turnips, Swedes, Jerusalem Artichokes, Sorgho, Sugar-cane, Maize. 
 
 Normal manure No. 5 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 £ .. 
 
 d. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 . 528 
 
 . 176 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 18 
 
 
 4 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 . 352 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1,056 3 4 
 Beans, Horse-beans, Haricot, Clover, Sainfoin, Tares, Lucern. 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 . 352 
 . 176 
 . 352 
 
 880 
 
 & .. d. 
 
 16 4 
 12 10 
 2 8 
 
 
 1 10 10 
 
 I now pass on to the treatment of crops grown in 
 rotation. 
 
 ALTERNATE CULTIVATION OF COLZA AND WHEAT. 
 First Year. 
 
 COIZA. 
 
 Normal manure No. 1 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 £ J. 
 
 rf. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 
 . 352 
 . 176 
 
 15 
 
 1 18 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 . 220 
 308 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 1,056 4 15 11 
 
FORMULiE FOR CHEMICAL MANURES. 397 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. £ s. d. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 264 2 8 
 
 Ashes of haulm and pods of colza . . — — 
 
 Total 7 3 11 
 
 Per annum 3 12 
 
 The haulm and pods of the colza may be burnt on the 
 field itself, and scattered over the surface after the first 
 ploughing, the ammonic sulphate being ploughed in after- 
 wards. Instead of burning the haulm it may be thrown 
 on the dungheap, according to the directions given in the 
 sixth lecture. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS FOR FOUR TEARS. 
 
 POTATOES, WHEAT, CLOVER, WHEAT. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 lbs. £ s. d. 
 
 Normal manure No. 3 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 352 15 4 
 
 Potassic nitrate 264 2 18 
 
 Calcic sulphate _264 1 11 
 
 880 3 15 3 , 
 Second Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Anmiomc sulphate 264 2 8 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 
 
 CLOTBE. 
 
 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 
 . 352 
 . 176 
 
 15 4 
 12 10 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 . 352 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 880 
 
 1 10 10 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 
 
 , 264 
 
 2 8 
 
 Total .... 
 
 . * 
 
 10 2 1 
 
 Per annum . 
 
 
 2 10 6 
 
398 
 
 APPENDIX III, 
 
 EOTATION OF CROPS FOR FOUR YEARS. 
 
 BEETEOOT, WHEAT, CLOVER, WHEAT. 
 
 First Year, 
 
 EEEIROOT. 
 
 Normal manure No. 2 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic nitrate 
 Sodic nitrate . 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate . . . . 
 
 Total .... 
 Per annum . 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 852 
 176 
 264 
 264 
 
 880 
 
 264 
 
 15 4 
 
 1 18 4 
 1 13 7 
 1 11 
 
 Second Year, 
 
 1,066 
 
 4 2 
 
 VVHJiAl. 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 
 
 . 264 
 
 2 8 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 
 
 CLOVEK. 
 
 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 , 352 
 . 176 
 . 362 
 
 16 4 
 12 10 
 2 8 
 
 1 10 10 
 
 2 8 
 
 10 17 
 2 14 3 
 
 ROTATION FOR FIVE YEARS. 
 
 POTATOES, WHEAT, CLOVER, COLZA, WHEAT. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ *. d. 
 
 Normal manm'e No. 3 
 
 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 
 . 352 
 
 16 4 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 . 264 
 
 2 18 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 . 264 
 
 1 11 
 
 
 880 
 
 3 15 3 
 
FORMULA FOR CHEMICAL MANURES. 399 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Per aero 
 lbs. £ s. d. 
 
 Amnionic sulphate ... . . . 264 280 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 CLOTEK. 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 
 Calcic auperphosphate . . . 362 15 4 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . 176 12 10 
 
 Calcic sulphate 2^ 2 8 
 
 880 1 10 10 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 352 3 12 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 
 
 . 264 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 Ashes of colza haulm .... 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Total .... 
 
 13 14 
 
 1 
 
 Per annum . 
 
 • 
 
 2 14 10 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS FOR 
 
 TWO YEARS. 
 
 
 MAIZE, WHEAT. 
 
 
 
 
 First Year. 
 
 
 
 
 JIAIZB. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Normal manure No. 5 
 
 
 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 
 . 628 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 
 Potassic nitrate .... 
 
 . 176 
 
 1 18 
 
 4 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 . 362 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 1,056 
 
 3 4 
 
 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 
 
 
 "WHEAT. 
 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 
 
 . 264 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 Total . . . .' 
 
 , 
 
 6 12 
 
 
 
 Per annum . 
 
 , 
 
 2 16 
 
 
 
400 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 ROTATION FOR SIX YEARS. 
 
 FLAX, BEETROOT, WHEAT, COLZA, WHEAT, OATS, EYE, OR 
 BARLEY. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 FLAX. 
 
 Normal manure No. 6 
 
 Calcic superphospliate . 
 
 Potassic nitrate .... 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 BEEIEOOI. 
 
 Normal manure No. 2 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate .... 
 Sodic nitrate .... 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 ^VHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 Normal manure No. 1 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 352 
 176 
 362 
 
 880 
 
 352 
 176 
 264 
 264 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 TVHBAI. 
 
 Ashes of colza haulm ploughed in 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Sixth Year. 
 
 OATS, KTE, OE BAKLET. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Total . . . . , 
 Per annum . 
 
 1,056 
 
 264 
 
 352 
 , 176 
 . 220 
 . 308 
 
 1,056 
 
 264 
 
 176 
 
 & s. 
 
 15 
 
 1 18 
 2 
 
 2 16 4 
 
 15 
 
 1 18 
 1 13 
 
 1 11 
 4 9 2 
 
 2 8 
 
 15 4 
 
 1 18 4 
 
 2 
 2 3 
 
 4 15 11 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 12 
 
 18 9 5 
 3 16 
 
FORMULAE FOE CHEMICAL MANURES. 401 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS GROWN FOR FODDER. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Normal manure No. 1 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 
 Potassic nitrate . . . , 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Calcic sulphate 308 
 
 Ifim 4 IS 11 
 Second Year. 
 
 CLOVBR, 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 352 15 4 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . . . 176 12 10 
 
 Calcic sulphate 352 2 8 
 
 *er acre, 
 lbs. 
 
 £ ]. 
 
 d. 
 
 352 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 176 
 
 1 18 
 
 4 
 
 220 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 308 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 880 1 10 10 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate ..... 264 280 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 TARES, BEANS, AND MAIZE. 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 362 16 4 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . . .176 12 10 
 
 Calcic sulphate 362 2 8 
 
 880" 1 10 10 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 264 2 8 
 
 Sixth Year. 
 
 TARES, BEAJfS, AND MAIZE. 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 352 
 Potassic chloride^ at 80° . . .176 
 Calcic sulphate ..... 352 
 
 880 
 
 Total 
 
 Per annum .... 
 
 D D 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 12 10 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 10 10 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
40"2 
 
 I APPENDIX 111. 
 
 
 
 MANURE J'OR MEADOW 
 
 LAND. 
 
 
 Pirst Year. 
 
 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 
 Per acre, 
 lbs. 
 
 & i. d. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . . 
 
 - 352 
 
 15 4 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80" 
 
 / 176 
 
 12 10 
 
 Calcic sulphate , . , . , 
 
 , 352 
 
 880 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 1 10 10 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 
 
 , 264 
 
 2 8 
 
 Total 
 
 3 18 10 
 
 Per annum j 
 
 t i 
 
 1 19 5 
 
 Second Gase, 
 
 t^ wsica: Chemical Manitres aee ttsed in combination 
 WITH Faemtaed Manuee. 
 
 When chemical manures are used in combination with 
 stable manure we must look on the latter as a fund of 
 richness possessed by the soil, and confine our use of the 
 chemical manures to those substances which best suit the 
 particular crop grown during the year. For this purpose 
 it is important that we should know the principal mineral 
 ingredient in each plant, information which is furnished 
 in the following table : — 
 
 Crop, 
 
 
 Dominant ingredient, 
 
 Corresponding chemical 
 
 
 
 products. 
 
 Beetroot 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 Colza 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat 
 
 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Barley 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 Oats 
 Bye 
 Meadow land 
 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 
 V 
 
 Peas 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 Haricots 
 
 , > 
 
 
 1 
 
 Beans 
 
 
 
 
 Clover 
 
 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 Sainfoin- 
 
 ) totaeh 1 
 
 Purified potash 
 
 Tares 
 
 Potassic silicate 
 
 L'ucem 
 
 
 
 Flax 
 
 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^■' 
 
FOEMULiE FOE CHEMICAL MANURES. 403 
 
 Crop. Dominant ingredient. Corresponding chemical 
 
 products. 
 Turnips 
 
 Swedes 
 
 Jerusalem artichokes 
 
 Maize 
 
 Sorgho 
 
 Sugar-cane 
 
 Phosphates 
 
 Bone black from 
 sugar refinery 
 Bvurnt bones 
 Superphosphate 
 
 If we use 44 tons of farmyard manure every five years, 
 the following are the chemical isaanures ■which we must 
 select : — 
 
 ROTATION OF FIVE ^TEAES. 
 
 POTATOES, WHEAT, CLOVElR, WHEAT) OATS. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 Fannyard ma,nure » _ 
 Chemical manures 
 
 Normal manure No. 6 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate . 
 
 Fotassic nitrate .... 
 
 Oalcic sulphate .... 
 
 Seeond Year. 
 
 WHEAT; 
 Ammonic sulphate 176 1 12 d 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 CLOYEKv 
 
 Incomplete manure, No. 6 
 
 Per acra. 
 
 
 
 44 tons 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 176 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 88 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 176 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 440 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 Oalcic superphosp] 
 Potassic chloride, 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 bate 
 at 80° 
 
 k . . . 
 
 ^our^th Year^ 
 
 . 352 
 . 176 
 . 352 
 
 880 
 
 15 4 
 12 10 
 2 8 
 
 
 1 10 10 
 
 Ammonic sulphate , 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 . 176 
 
 1 12 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 OATS, 
 
 nnum 
 
 » D 2 
 
 . 244 
 
 2 8 
 
 Total 
 Per a 
 
 7 18 3 
 1 11 8 
 
404 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 ROTATION" OF FIVE YEARS. 
 
 BEETKOOT, WHEAT, CLOVER, WHEAT, OATS. 
 
 First Year, 
 
 BKETBOOT. 
 
 Normal manure No. 2 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic nitrate 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Amnionic sulphate 
 
 Per acie. 
 lbs. 
 
 176 
 
 88 
 
 132 
 
 132 
 
 628 
 
 176 
 
 £ I. d, 
 
 7 8 
 19 2 
 16 9 
 10 
 
 2 4 7 
 
 1 12 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 CLOYEE. 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 TVHBAT. 
 
 352 15 4 
 
 176 12 10 
 
 352 2 8 
 
 880 1 10 10 
 
 176 
 
 I 12 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Total . 
 Per annum 
 
 264 
 
 2 8 
 
 9 7 6 
 1 17 6 
 
POEMUL^ FOR CHEMICAL MANURES. 4(35 
 
 ROTATION OF FIVE YEARS. 
 
 COLZA, BEETROOT, WHEAT, CLOVER, BEETROOT. 
 First Year, 
 
 COLZA. 
 
 Per acre 
 tons. £, s. <L 
 
 Stable manure 44 — 
 
 lbs. 
 Amnionic sulphate 264 2 8 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 BEBIKOOT. 
 
 Normal manure No. 2 
 
 Ashes of colza haulm and pods of colza — — 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 176 078 
 
 Potassic nitrate 88 19 2 
 
 Sodic nitrate 132 16 9 
 
 Calcic sulphate 132 10 
 
 528" 2 4 7 
 Third Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 176 1 12 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 CLOVEB. 
 
 Incomplete manure No. 6 
 
 Calcic superphosphate .... 352 6 15 4 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . . .176 12 10 
 
 Calcic sulphate 362 2 8 
 
 "880 1 10 10 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 ■WHEAT. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate ..... 176 1 12 
 
 Total 9 7 5 
 
 Per annum .... 1 19 3 
 
406 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 Per acre 
 lbs. 
 
 £ o. d. 
 
 352 
 
 176 
 
 . 352 
 
 15 4 
 12 10 
 2 8 
 
 880 
 
 1 10 10 
 
 ROTATION OF SIX YEARS. 
 
 FLAX, BEETBOOT, WHEAT, COLZA, WHEAT, OATS. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 FLAX. 
 
 Normal manure, No. 6 
 
 Calcic phosphate .... 
 Potassic nitrate .... 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 BEETROOT. 
 
 Stable manure applied in autumn 
 
 In Spring. 
 
 Normal manure No. 2 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate . . . , 
 Sodic nitrate .... 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 44 tons 
 
 176 
 
 88 
 
 132 
 
 132 
 
 528 
 
 264 
 
 7 8 
 19 2 
 16 9 
 10 
 
 2 4 7 
 
 8 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 Normal manure No. 1 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 e . 
 
 . 352 
 . 176 
 . 220 
 . 308 
 
 15 4 
 
 1 18 4 
 
 2 
 2 3 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 1,056 
 
 4 15 11 
 
 Ashes of colza haulm ploughed in early . — 
 Ammonic sulphate 264 
 
 Siseth Year. 
 
 OATS, KTE, OK BAKLET. 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 176 
 
 Total 
 
 Per annum 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 12 
 
 14 19 4 
 
 2 9 11 
 
STEENGTII OF CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 407 
 
 Before beginning on a large scale it is better to make 
 a number of experiments on several small plots, thereby 
 limiting our expenses to 15s. or 20s. ; for- what is true of 
 a few square yards is found in practice to be equally true 
 of many acres. 
 
 Strength of the different Ingredients which enter into 
 Manufacture of Chemical Manures. 
 
 Sources^ of phos- ( Oaleic superphosphate . 
 phoric acid I Precipitated calcic phosphate. 
 
 Sources of f Potassic nitrate, at 95 per cent. 
 Potash 1 -P°*^sssic chloride, at 80 per cent. 
 I Potassic sulphate, at 80 per cent. 
 
 Amnionic sulphate, at 96 per cent. 
 ■ Sodic nitrate, at 05 per cent. 
 Potassic nitrate, at 95 per cent. 
 
 I Calcic sulphate (hurnt gypsum) } 
 
 KO 
 
 Sources of 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Sources of 
 Lime 
 
 Pliospboric Symbol. 
 
 Acid. 
 Per cent. 
 
 15 PO, 
 
 32 
 
 Potash. 
 
 44 
 50 
 43 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 20-30 
 15-72 
 13-00 
 
 Lime. 
 
 38 
 
 N 
 
 CaO 
 
 The nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime being 
 the ingredients which regulate the action of the manure, 
 it is interesting to know the strength- of each manure in 
 these four fundamental ingredients. The following table 
 will enable us to gain this information, so that we may 
 ascertain the strength from the formulae or vice versa. 
 
 TABLE OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL 
 CHEMICAL MANURES. 
 
 NOEMAL MaNITEB, No. I. 
 
 Fur Colza, Hemp, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rye, and Meadow Land, 
 528 lis. per acre only. 
 
 Strength per cent, in fertilising 
 matters 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 N PO, KO CaO J 
 6-6 5-0 8-0 17-0 ■ 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 33-34 
 16-66 
 20-83 
 29-17 
 
 lbs. 
 352 
 176 
 220 
 308 : 
 
 100-00 
 
 1,056 
 
408 
 
 APPENDIX in. 
 
 Chemical MANunES—eontiimed. 
 
 NoEMAL Homologous Manure, No. 1A. 
 Used for the same pit/rposes and in tlie same quantity. 
 
 Strength per cent, in fertilising 
 matters 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 N PO5 KO OaO 
 6-6 5-00 8-33 13-00 ' 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Oalcio sulphate . 
 
 33-34 
 16-66 
 32-50 
 17-50 
 
 lbs. 
 
 352 
 
 176 
 
 343 
 
 185 
 
 100-00 
 
 1,056 
 
 NoEMAL Mauuee, No. 2. 
 For CahhageSf Beetroots, Carrots, Garden Stvff. 
 
 N PO, KO CaO 
 a-5 5-00 8-00 15-00 ' 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potaasic nitrate . 
 Sodic nitrate , 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 33-34 
 16-66 
 25-00 
 25-00 
 
 352 
 176 
 264 
 264 
 
 100-00 
 
 1,056 
 
 Normal Homologotts Manttrb, No. 2A. 
 JIted for tlie same pwjwse and in the same qnantity. 
 
 N PO. KO ,CaO 
 6-5 5-00 8-83 1400 ' 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 33-84 
 1666 
 11-66 
 25-00 
 13-34 
 
 352 
 176 
 123 
 264 
 141 
 
 100-00 
 
 1,056 
 
 Normal MANnRB, No. 3, 
 For Potatoes, Tobacco, Flax, Vines. 
 
 N PO5 KO OaO 
 400 6-00 14-00 19-00 ' 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate , 
 Calcic sulphate , 
 
 40-00 
 60-00 
 30-00 
 
 362 
 264 
 264 
 
 100-00 
 
 880 
 
 Normal Manttre, No. 4. 
 For Vines, Tobacco, Flint Trees, Ornamental Plants. 
 
 N PO5 KO OaO 
 4-60 6-00 16'5 17-00 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 40-00 
 33-34 
 26-66 
 
 628 
 440 
 352 
 
 100-00 
 
 1,320 
 
STEENGTH OF CHEMICAL MANIJEES. 
 
 409 
 
 Chemical MAJSvuEB—cantiniied. 
 
 NoKMAL Manure, No. 6. 
 For Maize, Jerusalem, Artichokes, Sorgho, Twnips, Suga/r-oane. 
 
 Strength per cent, in fertilising 
 matters 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Pel- acre 
 
 N PO5 KO OaO 
 2-50 7-5 8-00 22-00 
 
 Qalcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 Oaleic sulphate . 
 
 50-00 
 16-66 
 33-34 
 
 lbs. 
 628 
 
 176 
 352 
 
 100-00 
 
 1,056 
 
 Normal Manure, No. 6. 
 For Flax for lace mahwig, Leguminovs Plants, hwcern. 
 
 N PO5 KO OaO 
 2-70 6-00 9-00 22-00 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic nitrate . 
 Oalcic sulphate , 
 
 40-00 
 20-00 
 40-00 
 
 352 
 176 
 352 
 
 100-00 
 
 880 
 
 Incomplete Manure, No. 1 (-sothoux Potash), 
 For CoUa, Cereals, Meadom Lamd. 
 
 N PO. KO OaO 
 7-00 6-00 0-00 17-00 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Oalcic sulphate . 
 
 40-00 
 35-00 
 25-00 
 
 352 
 308 
 220 
 
 100-00 
 
 880 
 
 Incomplete Manube, No. 6 (without Nitbosen). 
 Far Clover, SaAnfoin, iMcem, and Legv/minous Plants:. 
 
 N PO5 KO OaO ( 
 0-00 6-00 1000 22-00 1 
 
 Calcic superphosphate . 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 40-00 
 20-00 
 40-00 
 
 352 
 176 
 352 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 880 
 
 Seeing that the trade in artificial manures has become 
 a source of fraud against which it is difficult to be upon 
 our guard, it is best, when giving orders, to supply the 
 manufacturer with the formula and strength in fer- 
 tilising matter of the manure required. If we do not 
 take this twofold precaution, we may easily be cheated 
 either in the formula or in the effective strength of the 
 
410 APPENDIX III. 
 
 manure. If potassic nitrate, for instance, is replaced by 
 potassic cliloride and amnionic sulphate in the proportions 
 that I have given for cereals, the substitution leads to no 
 inconvenience, but in the case of tobacco the difference is 
 enormous. The tobacco will burn badly, and the ash, instead 
 of being white, will be black. This particular formula must 
 therefore be adhered to. Again, by not specifying the 
 strength the manufacturer may give you a poor product 
 for a rich one ; for instance, potassic nitrate at 80° instead 
 of at 95°, or ammonic bisulphate instead of neutral am- 
 monic sulphate, and the manure, although the formula 
 may be correctly given, does not possess the necessary 
 strength. 
 
 In order to escape from this double danger, we must 
 not only give the formula of the manure we require, but 
 the strength of all the ingredients. For instance, suppos- 
 ing we are ordering a quantity of the normal manure 
 No. 1, the order should be written out as follows : — 
 
 NOKMAL MaU"DEE, No. 1. 
 
 Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 1 Calcic superphosphate . . 33 Si 
 
 Potassic nitote . . . 16-66 
 
 Ammonic sulphate . . . 20-83 
 
 Calcic sulphate . . . 29-17 
 
 100-00 
 
 With these double instructions we can generally obtain 
 what we want ; but it would always be better for farmers 
 to mix their own manures according to the directions 
 which I have already given. By this means we not only 
 economise expense, but we are also absolutely sure of 
 getting what we require. 
 
411 
 
 IV. 
 
 Practical Instructions for the Establishment op Ex- 
 perimental ElELUS AND FOR THE' INTERPRETATION OP 
 THEIR RESULTS. 
 
 The analysis of the soil, from an agricultural point of 
 view, having been fixed and determined by what has been 
 said in the previous lectures, we will now enter on the 
 practical consideration of the question of experimental 
 fields, how they ought to be established, the number of 
 plots they should contain, and the composition of the 
 manures that should be used on them. 
 I shall consider three distinct cases — 
 
 1. The case of an elementary school. The child must 
 here be taught simple and precise notions with respect to 
 fertilising agents, and a few definite facts should be placed 
 before him. 
 
 2. The case of a newly-worked farm, the soil of which 
 must be analysed in order to ascertain exactly the fer- 
 tilisiag agents that should be used, and to determine the 
 proper quantities in which to employ them. 
 
 3. The case of experimental fields for agricultural 
 colleges and societies. In this case the experimental field 
 must become, in a measure, the living expression of the 
 laws of vegetation. 
 
 Experimental Field for an Elementary School. 
 
 Plots of about four poles — say eleven yards square — 
 are quite large enough ; they may be five or ten in num- 
 ber, according to the resources of the school. If they 
 must be restricted to five, they should be placed parallel to 
 
412 
 
 APPEKBTX IV 
 
 each otlier on the same line, each plot being separated 
 from the other by a path about a yard wide, and the whole 
 surrounded by a narrow roadway about two yards wide. 
 If there are ten plots they are placed in two rows and 
 separated as before. In this case the field is arranged in 
 the following manner : — 
 
 Fai-myard 
 manure. 
 
 
 Normal 
 manure. 
 
 
 Mineral 
 manure, 
 i.e., with- 
 out nitro- 
 gen. 
 
 
 Nitro- 
 genous 
 matter. 
 
 
 No 
 manure. 
 
 Farmyard 
 manure. 
 
 
 Normal 
 manure. 
 
 
 Mineral 
 manure, 
 i.e., with- 
 out nitro- 
 gen. 
 
 
 Nitro- 
 genous 
 matter. 
 
 
 No 
 manure. 
 
 In the first row wheat is cultivated, and in the second 
 potatoes. 
 
 What ideas is such a field calculated to impress upon 
 the young mind ? Four, all of which are of primary im- 
 portance ; — 
 
 1. By the comparison of plots 1 and 2, proof is 
 afibrded that from 22 to 26 lbs. of a simple powder pro- 
 duce a larger crop than nearly 8 cwt. of good farmyard 
 manure, and that, thanks to the composition called che- 
 mical manure, which may be procured at any time, like 
 cement, plaster, or soap, cultivation becomes a very simple 
 business, regulated in its means and certain in its re- 
 sults. 
 
 2. On comparing plots 2 and 3, it will be found that 
 the suppression of a single substance, nitrogenous matter, 
 in the normal manure, which contains four, will be suffi- 
 cient to reduce very considerably the useful effect of the 
 three others which then compose the manure. 
 
EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS. 413 
 
 3. That in the generality of soils, nitrogenous matter, 
 nsed alone, produces more effect, than the three minerals, 
 phosphate, potash, and lime contained in plot 3, put to- 
 gether. 
 
 4. That though extremely efficacious with wheat, 
 nitrogenous matter is much less so with potatoes, and 
 that with this crop the minerals have a decided ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 But if at one time it is the nitrogenous matter and at 
 another it is the mineral portion of the chemical manure 
 which is the most beneficial, according to the nature of the 
 plants, it is evident that when farmyard manure is used 
 it is very advantageous to supplement it with nitrogenous 
 matter or minerals when applied to wheat or potatoes, &g. 
 
 The conclusions drawn will be : — 
 
 That it is possible to farm without using animal 
 manure ; that a manure can be and is composed which 
 more than takes its place ; and that the action of animal 
 manure is intensified by the addition of chemical manure. 
 
 Experimental Field for a newly-worhed Farm. 
 
 In this particular case two distinct objects present 
 themselves, one of which is to ascertain the nature and 
 composition of the soil, and the other to regulate with 
 certainty the use of the fertilising agents which we must 
 bring in from outside in order to obtain a profit. 
 
 The choice of site is a very important condition.- A 
 piece of land should, if possible, be selected which, in its 
 physical nature and degree of fertility, represents the 
 average quality of the land that is to be cultivated. The 
 field ought to consist of twenty plots, each containing 
 about four poles, arranged in two parallel rows of ten plots 
 each. The first row should be devoted to the cultivation 
 of wheat, and the second to that of beetroot or potatoes, 
 according to the climate and the wants of the district. 
 The wheat furnishes indications of the richness of the 
 superficial layers of the soil, and the beetroot of the deeper 
 
414 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 layers. Whenever an experimental field admits of two 
 crops being grown, one of wheat and the other some plant 
 that requires to be kept free from weeds, such as beetroot, 
 many advantages are gained by planting them alternately, 
 so as to keep the wheat free from weeds. 
 
 Each row of allotments ought to be submitted to thff 
 following treatment : — 
 
 Nature of Manwte. 
 
 1. Farmyard manure, 24 tons per acre. 
 2- » n 12 „ 
 
 3. Normal stimulating manut«. 
 
 4. Normal manure. 
 
 5. Manure ■without nitrogen. 
 
 6. Manure without phosphate^ 
 
 7. Manure without potash. 
 
 8. Manure without lime. 
 
 9. Manure without mineral matter. 
 10. No manure. 
 
 When the farm is on a sotnewhat large scale, it will be 
 found advantageous to institute as an annex to the prin- 
 cipal field of experiments a number of trial patches on 
 a small scale scattered about indiscriminately. A few 
 square yards of surface devoted to the growth of wheat or 
 peas will generally be sufiicient, and we shall soon see how 
 the results gained by their use are to be interpreted. But 
 if the soil on the experimental farm varies considerably, it 
 is better to recur to the system of experiments that I have 
 prescribed for elementary schools, but in this case plots of 
 a;bout four poles divided into four parts will be amply 
 sufficient. 
 
 We will speak a little more in detail of these small 
 fields for investigation, which may with justice be called 
 the advanced sentinels of the principal experimental field. 
 
EXPERIMEISTTAL EIELDS. 
 
 415 
 
 No. 1. 
 Normal manure. 
 
 
 No. 2. 
 Mineral manure. 
 
 
 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Soil without any 
 
 manure. 
 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Nitrogenous manure. 
 
 We have thus three combinations of manure, the effects 
 of which are compared to the yields obtained on the soil 
 without any manure. 
 
 1. No manure. I 3. Mineral manure. 
 
 2. Normal manure. I 4. Nitrogenous manure. 
 
 A few little corners of ground devoted to these investi- 
 gations will not in any way disturb the rest of the work 
 going on on the farm, and they make known the exact 
 period at which the mineral or nitrogenous manures should 
 be resorted to, Whether they are used alone or associated 
 with farmyard manure. 
 
 These small trial patches are, I repeat, like sentries 
 placed in observation, and every intelligent grower, farmer, 
 steward, or proprietor ought constantly to consult them, 
 as a captain at sea consults the barometer and the direc- 
 tion of the wind. But in order that these trials on a 
 small scale may be of great utility, they must be begun 
 a year before the systematic use of chemical manures to 
 the whole- farm ; in this way their evidence is always a 
 year in advance of the application on a large scale. 
 
 To those who may be rather alarmed at the prospect 
 of such a number of trials, I can only point out the fact 
 that everywhere where the use of chemical manure has 
 been adopted these experimental plots are highly valued i 
 
416 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 the director likes to show them to his visitors ; the em- 
 ployes of every grade make them the constant subject of 
 discussion ; and, finally, their indications always regulate 
 the quantities of fertilising agents of which the manures 
 are composed. 
 
 Experimental Fields for Agricultural Colleges, Societies, and 
 Agricultural Committees. 
 
 Here the end proposed is a higher one. If it concerns 
 a school of agriculture, the pupils ought to find in it the 
 elements of complete instruction, both theoretical and 
 practical. 
 
 If the experimental field is under the control of a 
 society or an agricultural committee, its object is not less 
 important. It must enlighten practical men on the sub- 
 ject of the requirements of the land in that part of the 
 country, and prove to them that all plants have not the 
 same requirements, and that to obtain the best results 
 from their farming operations they must vary the com- 
 position of the manures they use, not only as far as the 
 nature of the component substance goes, but in the quan- 
 tities employed. 
 
 One point on which the directors of schools ought 
 especially to dwell is the contrast, or rather the opposi- 
 tion, which exists between leguminous plants and cereals, 
 with respect to the action of nitrogenous matters. What- 
 ever opinion may be held as to the form under which 
 plants draw the nitrogen from the atmosphere, one fact 
 stands prominently forward, viz. that the nitrogenous 
 matters, ammoniacal sulphates, and sodic nitrate have 
 no action on the leguminosae, whilst they are the essential 
 elements of the growth of wheat, beetroot and hemp, to 
 mention, only the principal crops in which nitrogenous 
 matter is the dominant component. However much op- 
 position there may be, the fact of this contrast between 
 the various crops still remains, and foolish indeed would 
 be the man who gave ammonic sulphate to lucern or 
 
EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS. 417 
 
 ■trefoil, and a mixture of lime and potassic cUoride to 
 wheat. 
 
 In both cases the result would be nugatory ; but by 
 reversing the use of the same agents, giving ammonic 
 sulphate to wheat, and lime and potash to lucern, abun- 
 dant yields will be obtained. 
 
 Further, if the experiments are extended over a greater 
 number of plants, the effects produced by the nitrogenous 
 matter may be thus classified : — 
 
 Action of Nitrogenous Matter. 
 
 Wheat .... very favourable 
 
 Potatoes .... less favourable 
 
 Peas . . . DO effect 
 
 Trefoil .... hurtful 
 
 Who would think that the nitrogen of trefoil has for 
 its origin the nitrogenous compounds, whose action in 
 certain cases is productive of harm when given to the 
 soil?i 
 
 Mineral manure Mineral manure 
 
 
 without nitrogen 
 
 with nitrogen 
 
 
 lbs. per acre 
 
 lbs. per acre 
 
 1849 
 
 . 8,470 
 
 8,404 
 
 1850 
 
 . 2,068 
 
 2,115 
 
 1851 
 
 . 4,728 
 
 3,178 
 
 I do not, therefore, hesitate to prescribe for school and 
 stations, fields containing forty allotments of about four 
 perches each, arranged in four rows of ten plots each. 
 
 The four most suitable crops are — 
 
 Wheat I Potatoes 
 
 Beetroot I Peas 
 
 In order that the indications of the experimental field 
 should correspond more closely than those of practice, I 
 propose that wheat and peas should be alternated with 
 beetroot and potatoes. 
 
 By the systematic use of experimental fields, practical 
 
 ' In support of this opinion I refer my readers to the experiments 
 performed by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert on clover, in which nitrogenous 
 m after proves absolutely hurtful. 
 
 E E 
 
418 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 men may be certain that they will learn more of the 
 true principles of agricultural production than can be 
 gathered from any books ; and when they have adopted 
 the system, and Governments have been induced to do 
 the same, they will acknowledge that agriculture ceases 
 to be an art given over to the uncertainties of empiricism, 
 but is raised to the rank of a true science, whose theoreti- 
 cal principles answer all the requirements of practice. 
 The more I prosecute these studies the more I am con- 
 vinced that a complete revolution in the traditions that 
 the practical agriculture of the past has handed down to 
 us is on the eve of being accomplished, and this revolution 
 we ought to forward with all our might, since it is des- 
 tined to secure profit to private individuals and prosperity 
 to the State by providing a large class of our fellow- 
 subjects who live by manual labour with a more whole- 
 some subsistence upon less onerous terms. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF THE MANURES TO BE USED IN THE EXPERIMENTAL 
 
 FIELDS. 
 
 Manures for Wheat. 
 Plot No. 1. 
 
 TouB pRi- acre 
 
 Farmyard manure 60 
 
 Plot No. 2. 
 Farmyard manure 30 
 
 Plot No. 3. 
 Normal stimulating manure, No. lA. 
 
 lbs. per acre 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate . . . 352 
 
 Potassic chloride at 80° . . . 176 
 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 422 
 
 Oalcic sulphate . ... 282 
 
 Plot No. 4. 
 
 Normal homologous manure, No. lA. 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate . . . 352 
 Potassic chloride at 80° . . .176 
 Ammonic sulphate .... 343 
 Oalcic sulphate 185 
 
MANURES FOR EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS. 
 
 -119 
 
 Plot No. 5. 
 
 Manure without nitrogen 
 Calcic svipei-phosphate 
 Potassic chloride at 80° 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 Plot No. 
 Manure without phosphates 
 
 6. 
 
 lbs. per aci'e 
 
 362 
 17.6 
 176 
 
 Potassic chloride at 80° 
 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 . 176 
 . 343 
 . 185 
 
 Plot No. 7. 
 
 
 Manure without potash 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 . 352 
 . 343 
 . 185 
 
 Pioi No. 8. 
 
 
 Manure without lime 
 
 Precipitated calcic phosphate 
 Potassic chloride at 80° . 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 
 . 106 
 . 176 
 . 343 
 
 Pioi No. 9. 
 
 
 Manui'e without mineral matter 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 
 . 343 
 
 Pioi No. 10 
 
 
 No manure at all. 
 
 
 Manures for Beetroot. 
 
 
 Plot No. 1. 
 Farmyard manure .... 
 
 Tons per acre 
 60 
 
 Plot No. 2. 
 
 
 Fannyard manure .... 
 
 30 
 
 Plot No. 3. 
 
 
 Normal stimulating manure, No. 2A. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 Sodic nitrate .... 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 K 13 2 
 
 lbs. per acre 
 . 352 
 . 176 
 . 176 
 . 308 
 . 132 
 
420 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 
 Plot No. 4. 
 
 
 
 lbs. per acre 
 
 Normal homologous manure, No. 2A. 
 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate 
 
 . 352 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . 
 
 . 176 
 
 Ammonia sulphate . 
 
 . 12.3 
 
 Sodic nitrate .... 
 
 . 264 
 
 Oalcic sulphate .... 
 
 . 141 
 
 Plot No, 5. 
 
 
 Manure without nitrogenous matter 
 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 . 352 
 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . 
 
 . 176 
 
 Calcic sulphate .... 
 
 . 176 
 
 Plot No. 6. 
 
 Manure without phosphates 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 176 
 123 
 264 
 141 
 
 Plot No. 7. 
 Manure without potash 
 Oalcic superphosphate 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate . 
 
 352 
 123 
 204 
 141 
 
 Plot No. 8. 
 
 Manure without lime 
 
 Precipitated calcic phosphate 
 Potassic chloride, at 80° . 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 Sodic nitrate . , 
 
 106 
 176 
 123 
 264 
 
 Plot No. 0. 
 
 Manure without mineral matter 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Ammonic sulphate . 
 
 264 
 123 
 
 Plot No. 10. 
 No manure at all, 
 
MANURES FOR EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS. 
 
 421 
 
 Manures for Potatoes. 
 
 Plot No. 1. 
 
 Farmyard manure . . . , 
 
 Plot No. 2. 
 Farmyard manure . . . . 
 
 Plot No. 3. 
 Normal stimulating manure No. 3 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 Sodic nitrate . . . . 
 Oalcic sulphate , . . . 
 
 Plot No. 4. 
 Normal manure No. 3 
 
 Oalcic superphosphate 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 Calcic sulphate . . . , 
 
 Plot No. 5. 
 
 Manure without nitrogen 
 Oalcic superphosphate 
 Purified potash . . . . 
 Oalcic sulphate . . . . 
 
 Plot No. 6. 
 
 Manure without phosphates 
 Potassic nitrate 
 Oalcic sulphate , . . . 
 
 Plot No. 7. 
 
 Manure without potash 
 Oalcic superphosphate 
 Sodic nitrate . . . . 
 Oalcic sulphate . . . . 
 
 Plot No, 8. 
 
 Manure without lime 
 
 Precipitated calcic phosphate 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 Sodic nitrate . . . . 
 
 Plot No. 9. 
 
 Manure without mineral matter 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 Tons per acre 
 60 
 
 lbs. per acre 
 
 352 
 
 204 
 
 88 
 
 176 
 
 352 
 264 
 264 
 
 352 
 1.33 
 308 
 
 264 
 264 
 
 852 
 396 
 408 
 
 370 
 264 
 264 
 
 220 
 
422 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 When potatoes are alternated with peas and beetroot, 
 or potatoes with wheat, the soil is dressed the first year 
 with all the manures I have just mentioned, and the second 
 year with 6^ lbs. of ammonic sulphate on plots 3, 4, 6, 7, 
 8, 9. Plot 1, 2, 5 and 10 receive nothing. The third year 
 the plan is the same as that of the first. 
 
 The manures I now use in the experimental fields 
 differ considerably in composition from those I used for- 
 merly to advise. 
 
 I have substituted in the two series for wheat and 
 beetroot potassic chloride for potassic nitrate. Tlianks 
 to this change I have been able to bring back the nitro- 
 gen and potash to the same form in all manures. For- 
 merly potash entered into the complete manure in the 
 form of nitrate, and into the manure without nitrogen in 
 the form of purified potash, an inconvenience which ceases 
 to trouble us in the new formulae. In the normal manure 
 nitrogen used formerly to be represented under two 
 different forms, part being in the state of nitre, and 
 part in that of ammonic sulphate, whilst in the manure 
 without potash it was entirely in the form of ammonic 
 sulphate. Now the latter generally producing more effect 
 upon wheat than the nitrates, the crop grown with the 
 manure without potash often showed itself superior to 
 that obtained with the normal manure. This superiority 
 was manifested in clayey soils naturally provided with 
 potash. 
 
 In the new formulae these disadvantages disappear. 
 The normal manure being taken as the type of the series, 
 all the secondary terms are derived from it by the sup- 
 pression of one of the four substances, phosphate, potash, 
 nitrogen and lime, without the three others undergoing 
 the least change. 
 
 As I have not, up to the present time, succeeded in 
 obtaining concordant results on potatoes with potassic 
 chloride and potassic sulphate, I have composed a series 
 of manures into which the nitrates alone enter as nitro- 
 genous matter. I have thus been able to give more sim- 
 
MANURES FOE EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS. 423 
 
 plicity to the formulae, and to the results an expression 
 more in conformity with the true state of the soil. 
 
 Before an experimental field can produce such marked 
 contrasts as that at Yincennes, it must generally have had 
 several years' cultivation, and it is especially necessary 
 that it should have received no farmyard manure for some 
 length of time, otherwise the plots of ground which re- 
 ceive the incomplete manures, supplying by their natural 
 richness the missing element, will produce a crop equal to 
 that of the plot treated with normal manure. 
 
 Indications of this nature are not of less practical 
 utility than the contrasts ; they teach us, in fact, that in 
 those conditions we may have recourse temporarily to the 
 incomplete manures, and proceed by alternate manurings, 
 limiting ourselves to the dominants, which enables us to 
 obtain maximum products at the smallest possible cost. 
 
42 I APPENDIX V. 
 
 V. 
 
 Tables for Calculating the Relative Exhaustion op 
 THE Soil by the Cultivation op Different Crops 
 AND THE Alimentary Value op Different Kinds op 
 Fodder Plants. 
 
 TJse_ of the Tables. 
 
 At the end of my lectures delivered in 1867, I gave a 
 table showing the relative exhaustion of the soil under 
 different crops, which I have now greatly extended by 
 adding to it the researches of Wolf and Kiihn. 
 
 Wolf's table, like mine of 1867, gives the quantity of 
 phosphoric acid, potash, lime and nitrogen contained in 
 the generality of crops. I have only made a single change 
 in this table. I have substituted the proportions obtained 
 in my own laboratory for those given by Wolf and Kiihn, 
 and as an addition to this information I have added the 
 proportion of elementary principles of the same products, 
 such as the protein, fatty matter, carbo-hydrates and 
 salts, contained in them, to show which relate only to 
 their fertilising nature. 
 
 As regards the fertilising constituents, nitrogen, phos- 
 phoric acid, potash, and lime, the information given in 
 the table has an absolute value. It is true, however, that 
 the composition of plants varies in a certain degree with 
 the kind of soil in which they are grown, but these varia- 
 tions have but little value as far as the interests of agri- 
 culture are concerned. 
 
 As regards the alimentary compounds, we must use 
 the tables with great judgment, and in order that they 
 should be really useful and worthy of acceptance we 
 should only compare together those products which are 
 related to each other, such as straw with straw, dry fodder 
 with green fodder, roots with roots, and grain with grain. 
 
EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 425 
 
 m 
 
 < 
 Ph 
 t-:i 
 P5 
 
 o 
 
 I— I 
 
 P4 
 
 l-H 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 en 
 O 
 Ph 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 M M 
 
 
 w 
 
 • i-H 
 
 
 
 
 •S 
 
 cn 
 
 
 "cQ *CQ 
 
 
 1 
 
 a ^ 
 
 
 g^ d ^d 
 
 
 53 
 
 W * " ' "§ " 
 
 
 M =« "k " " " " " "ig 
 
 
 <i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 o o 
 
 
 -2 
 
 o o o o-o 
 
 
 o ooooooo ooo 
 
 
 O O O O O 1 1 
 
 
 O 1 lOOOOpOO |OOp 
 
 
 a 
 
 to tb 6 tra 6 1 
 
 
 o cbr^-^eb-=t<ooo cb-^cb 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 50 «3 CO 00 «5 
 
 
 cq rH ,H .H rH rH rH rt rHrHrH 
 
 >j™ 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 
 O ooooooo OOO 
 
 
 §1 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 
 O OOOOOOO OOO 
 
 
 CO O O »h »^- 1 1 
 
 
 6 da t- CO CD CO lb CO 6 -* (jq 
 
 
 ^« 
 
 Ci CO »o o ^ ' ' 
 
 
 O ' 'l:'>:*l^coiocO05 'coiO-* 
 
 c 
 
 cq CO (?ci CO CO 
 
 
 
 «!.. 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 
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 o 
 
 §■43 i| 
 
 CO IC OS OS t- 
 
 
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 rH l-^COMcbOlb-^ rHcb^r 
 
 
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 cq ' 'oococooocooo icut^co 
 
 CO cq CO (M cq 
 
 
 rH T~^ i~^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 
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 S 
 
 O O O O O 1 I 
 
 
 p 1 ilOOOOlOlOO .OOO 
 
 
 1 
 
 o c^ lb CO do 1 1 
 
 CO CO CO CO (?^ 
 
 
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 g.3 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 
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 oooocp> 
 
 
 o ooopooo ppp 
 
 
 lO ■* Oi CO ^ 
 
 
 rH 1 lcbc5-*b-ocbib b-lb^ 
 
 
 00 CO ^ U3 ■* ' ' 
 
 
 CO ' 'corHOico-*cO"=^ 'cococq 
 
 
 ft 
 
 T-H I-H rH rH 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
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 1 
 
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 P5 
 
 
 
 
 
 O' lO O O --H O O 
 
 
 oooooooooooooo 
 
 
 
 b' I-H 'itH 00 O «0 CO 
 
 
 t-c-Tcocqcqcoco-^cqipt-rHprH 
 
 
 t- lb d) ^ lb -tH C3 
 
 
 cqc^rHrHrHcb-etH-cHcboDcb-^cbcb 
 
 
 h^ 
 
 i-( T-H tH (M T— 1 rH 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 O O O O 00 o o 
 
 
 oooooooooooooo 
 
 
 S 
 
 rH -^ cp t;- Cq OS OS 
 
 
 OCOCOCOCacOCO^lOiOCOCOCpHH 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 b- «b O lb rH b- o 
 
 
 cbrHibcb<N-^-cHcqcb-rti-^cbibTH 
 
 i 
 
 tH rH .H tH CO tH CO 
 
 
 rH 
 
 1 u 
 
 o o o o o o o 
 
 
 OOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 1 
 
 
 rH CS lO t- ^ t' ^ 
 
 
 iocqt--'!Ht-rHcoooioNooocq 
 
 EH 
 
 .3 
 
 ■^ CO C» -^ t> ■* C5 
 
 
 rHCqrHCqOrHrHCqrHrHrHCTrHrH 
 
 , 
 
 O O O O CO o o 
 
 
 oooooooooooooo 
 
 -S 
 
 2 ci 
 
 rH CO 00 m CO CO t- 
 
 
 ^Ot-COCqrHCOCOCOCqrHOOOrH 
 
 "S So 
 
 Cb cb CO -* Cq rH Cq 
 
 
 •^ibib'^cbibibibibt-ib-rHibib 
 
 Ph 
 
 ^ 
 
 rH iH c^ tN CO cq cq 
 
 
 
 
 0500 
 
 
 OOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 
 1 
 
 p p o o tp cp o 
 
 
 OOOOOOOOOOOppp 
 
 
 -^ O O O CO o o 
 
 
 oooocqcbooibcbiboibo 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ rH «o CO cq to CO 
 
 
 OOOOCOCqOrHrHlOOOCqrHlO 
 
 
 rH Cq rH rH rH rH rH 
 
 
 t-ooi>t-cocococ»cOb-l:^cocooo 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 .3 
 
 
 w 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 § 
 
 o ■ • 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 qd 
 
 
 1 
 
 @ 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 fe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■9 
 
 I. Det Fo 
 
 Meadow hay 
 Red clover 
 White clover 
 Hybrid „ 
 Lucern . 
 Sainfoin . 
 Tares 
 
 13 
 
 ^ m OJ m 
 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 
 Meadow gn 
 Young gras 
 
 Green rye 
 
 „ maiz 
 Buckwheat 
 Red clover 
 White clov( 
 Hybrid „ 
 Luoern . 
 Sainfoin . 
 Tares 
 Peas 
 Colza 
 
 
 1 
 
426 
 
 APPENDIX V 
 
 ^« 
 
 
 
 
 m to CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ,^ci?fi^ 
 
 
 ■3 - 
 
 ^ „cSJc«,:qc3 „ 
 
 
 
 -^ - a :=J CI :;3 fl - 
 
 
 k 
 
 o o o 
 & !^. ;?< 
 
 '■3 
 
 14 ^ 
 
 (^ <p <p -p I o I jO [ 
 c: o ao oD I a> I o I 
 
 o o o 
 I I ■? ^ ^ 
 
 I I cb cq ':b 
 -M i-i ^ 
 
 ■-H r: o CO 
 
 . o 
 
 Is I 
 
 o o o o o o 
 
 o o o o o o 
 
 b- o o CO [ o) I tb I I 
 
 O lO C: lO I lO I C5 ' I 
 
 -^ * I ' C5 <C Tl 
 
 o o o o 
 o o o o 
 
 M CO Ah rH 
 
 I "P I "p I I 
 
 I -H I cq I I 
 
 o o o o o o 
 
 o p o o o o 
 
 O O f^ O O I M 
 
 (M 71 r-H r-( ' T-H ' ^ 
 
 I I 6 I I I ih lb -^ 
 
 > -9 'o [^ 'o .S '^ 
 
 r> ''6 
 
 P5 
 
 n 
 
 1-^ Q, 
 
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 oo I- :^ — CO ■>! t— >— ( ; 
 cf-T o -+* A CC C'; « b- - 
 
 (Miootnotooooo 
 
 CiCOOO-— li-tCC^i— (QOlO 
 
 OtHOrHrHOwAlOrM 
 
 OOOl-OOOtMC 
 0<^CO'-^COCC--HiO^D 
 
 cqiiiioooooooo 
 
 i0C000GiC0«O.-»O»p 
 
 : O .-H O O O 
 
 ^ CQ Ct CO O^ lO I I 
 
 ^o-oooooooo 
 crappipoooppp 
 i^-ij^cbwd-. iooooo 
 
 t^t-00Q0~-OTCO0000CO 
 
 lOOl^'^OCOCOCOCO 
 C<1 b- O 7"l IC Gl O ■^ so 
 
 'g 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 sl»5 
 
 s 
 
 M 
 
 
 
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 ■" " O ,r, ^ 
 
 d o ca o ^ 
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 P^ 03C/2 O H O O 
 
EXHAUSTION OP THE SOIL. 
 
 427 
 
 o 
 
 S g g If) 
 t« y c3 
 
 
 cS|vJ 
 
 6-00 
 108-00 
 
 o o o o o o o 
 1 p p p o o o o 
 1 CT3 lb (b o oi ih CO 
 
 I— 1 <M lO lO 
 
 18-00 
 23-00 
 
 71-00 
 77-00 
 84-00 
 
 o 
 II 
 
 o 
 9 
 
 CO 
 
 
 12-00 
 
 23-00 
 12-00 
 12-00 
 
 183-00 
 150-00 
 
 47-00 
 87-00 
 
 158-00 
 110-00 
 125-00 
 
 , p 
 
 ' to 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 62-00 
 628-00 
 
 o o o o o o o 
 p p p p o o p 
 
 b- « CO o ih o -* 
 
 ' O oq OS t^ O U3 O 
 I— 1 t- «0 CO t- -^ »o 
 
 377-00 
 697-00 
 
 243-00 
 315-00 
 267-00 
 
 i 
 
 cq 
 
 o 
 9 
 t- 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 lO 
 
 =>1 
 
 1-00 
 
 o o o o o o o 
 1 p p p p p p o 
 
 1 t3i -H o lyi oo do A 
 
 I-H <M (M CO CO CQ 
 
 1500 
 235-00 
 
 95-00 
 100-00 
 101-00 
 
 o 
 
 cq 
 
 I— 1 
 
 8 
 
 I-H 
 
 o 
 9 
 
 9-00 
 78-00 
 
 o o o o o o o 
 
 o o o o o o o 
 
 « 6 b- 6 N 6 l^- 
 
 ' (M T-1 CO lO 'jH CO 
 
 63-00 
 94-00 
 
 83-00 
 83-00 
 25-00 
 
 i 
 ^ 
 
 8 
 
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 o 
 
 
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 CO W CO -^ 
 
 CO to o o 
 
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 '^ CO »> fH 
 
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 cqco I-H cqwcocqcq 
 
 o o o o o o o oo o o o o o o ooo 
 
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 cqcqAwrHODcbtbcbcqcbt-o-^fa: I I jibibw I 
 
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 CO as o 
 lb do cq I 
 
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 cpooopppopppppppp p-cw»*e*i^^p p CO p o 
 
 cqibb-t^r^cbcqooibr^Qbibcqcqocboo»bo»bcb ocb-^ncb 
 
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 >:g -S -^ §J § - - -iS p I S bl ^-3 gl g Ss-i > ^ =£, „ 
 
428 
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
 •I 
 
 o 
 
 Kiihn 
 
 No analysis 
 
 Kiihn 
 No analysis 
 
 Kiihn 
 
 No analj'sis 
 
 Kiihn 
 No analysis 
 
 Kiihn 
 
 No analysis 
 
 Kiihn 
 No analj-sis 
 
 Kiihn 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 P4 
 
 
 55-00 
 44-00 
 44-00 
 40-00 
 49-00 
 
 53-00 
 120-00 
 
 180-00 
 
 85-00 
 60-00 
 
 28-00 
 
 60-00 
 
 
 480-00 
 456 00 
 412-00 
 400-00 
 392-00 
 
 400-00 
 357-00 
 
 340-00 
 
 415-00 
 368-00 
 
 378-00 
 
 354-00 
 
 Non- 
 
 azotised 
 
 extractive 
 
 matter 
 
 287-00 
 313-00 
 35600 
 379-00 
 325-00 
 
 332-00 
 320-00 
 
 282-00 
 
 31500 
 333-00 
 
 426-00 
 
 4 6 00 
 
 M 
 
 15-00 
 14-00 
 20-00 
 11-00 
 20-00 
 
 15-00 
 15-00 
 
 15-00 
 
 13-00 
 15-00 
 
 14-00 
 
 18-00 
 
 
 20-00 
 30-00 
 25-00 
 30-00 
 73-00 
 
 30-00 
 } 45-00 
 
 40-00 
 
 29-00 
 81-00 
 
 14-00 
 
 40-00 
 
 Authorities 
 
 WolfE 
 
 G. Ville 
 
 Boussingault 
 
 Wolff 
 
 G. Ville 
 
 Wolff 
 
 G. Ville 
 
 Wollf 
 
 G. Ville 
 
 Wolff 
 G. Ville 
 
 WolfE 
 G. Ville 
 
 Wolff 
 
 a. Ville 
 
 .3 
 
 f4 
 
 a 
 3 
 
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 S, 
 
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 ibr^cbcbc»QO>b'^cbib-^M020cot^coaiwoDTH 
 
 1 u 
 
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 «irHMcb-4t<-i*'^cbrHC<l(?qr^?ClOlb<ilbcqoAlC^ 
 
 -la 
 
 |2; 
 
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 O-li— (OOCOCOi»COO"»*< lOi— (O-^OOCOOOOCC lO 
 
 cbb-05'^»b«b<beoo IciOOcb^-^cb-^c^ IrH 
 
 i-HCqi— ii— (rH T— li— 1 1— 1 1— ( 1— 1 
 
 1 
 
 OOOOOOOOIOOOOCOO^OOOOOO 
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432 APPENDIX V. 
 
 If used with judgment, tliese tables are thoroughly trust- 
 worthy guides in practice. Where a farm is conducted 
 on proper principles, the composition of the products of 
 the soil and of the fodder given to the live stock should 
 form the object of constant investigation. There is no 
 denying the fact that plants and animals can only thrive 
 upon fixed principles, so that to draw from them as much 
 benefit as possible we mxist leave nothing to chance, and 
 to this end we must continually refer to the above tables 
 as the engineer refers to his agenda or the sailor to his 
 Nautical Almanac. 
 
433 
 
 VI. 
 
 compabative action op the difpebent feetiliglng 
 Agents on the Growth of Plants. 
 
 (See Lecture XI. pp. 225-252.) 
 
 The Function of Potash in Vegetation. 
 
 I have long since pointed out the impossibility of re- 
 placing potash by soda in the formulge for artiiicial 
 manures. I have proved by direct experiments on wheat, 
 ('Comptes Eendus,' 1860, vol. li. p. 437), that in the 
 absence of potash this plant only gives precarious and un- 
 certain results. The same thing has happened with regard 
 to potatoes at Vincennes during the last twelve years. In 
 the case of manures in which potash is wanted, the use of 
 sodic nitrate produces no effect ; but when it is associated 
 with potash, sodic nitrate at once becomes valuable. By 
 the help of the illustrations at page 434, where the size of 
 each heap is in proportion to the weight of the crop, 
 some idea of this contrast is obtained. 
 
 Another conclusion which we may draw from these 
 experiments is no less important, namely that potash 
 ought to be the dominant constituent in manure for grow- 
 ing potatoes. Besides this, the lack of potash in the soil 
 is coincident with the appearance of the potato disease, 
 whence we may draw a second conclusion, that when 
 plants are deprived of their dominant mineral constituent, 
 and consequently of one of the most essential constituents 
 of their existence, they become the prey of inferior organ- 
 isms such as microscopic fungi, aphides, &c. We have 
 here a startling and unexpected explanation of the cause 
 of one of the most terrible plagues with which the farmer 
 has to fight, namely plant diseases. For many years 
 
 F F 
 
4U 
 
 APniNDix vr. 
 
 SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS MADE ON POTATOES IIST 1869. 
 
 TJie heajjs citn-fxpond to the iveiglit of the different erop». 
 
 NOEMAL MaXDRE. 
 
 Majture without Nitkogenous 
 Matter. 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE. 
 
 6 tons 8 cwt. 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE. 
 
 4 tons 14: cwt. 
 
 Without Phosphate. 
 
 YIELD PER, ACRE. 
 
 G tons. 
 
 Without Potash. 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE. 
 
 3 tons 18 cwt. 
 
 Without Lime. 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE. 
 
 .5 tons 8 cwt. 
 
 Without any Manure. 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE. 
 
 1 ton 8 cwt. 
 
ACTION OF FERTILISING AGENTS. 435 
 
 past the same phenomena have been reproduced at Vin- 
 cennes with invariable regularity. Until the end of the 
 month of May, besides the very marked differences in the 
 size of the plants in the different plots, nothing striking 
 seems to indicate the great change which is on the point 
 of taking place. This change first manifests itself about 
 the middle of the month of June, and invariably begins 
 with the plot which had received manure in which the 
 potash has been suppressed, as well as in that which has 
 received no manure at all. The plants in the plots which 
 have been dressed with normal manure are luxuriantly 
 green, but those in the plot which has received no potash, 
 and in that which has received no manure at all, a number 
 of copper- coloured spots begin to make their appearance, 
 and shortly afterwards begin to Spread very rapidly, gra- 
 dually extending themselves over the whole of the foliage, 
 and drying up the plant as if a burning wind had passed 
 over it. As for the potatoes themselves thej^ are hardly 
 larger than walnuts, have a peculiarly disagreeable smell, 
 and do not keep well. 
 
 With the normal manure the crop is from 8 tons to 
 10 tons 16 cwt. per acre, but by suppressing the potash 
 it falls to 2 tons 16 cwt. 
 
 Until lately I always thought that the leguminosse and 
 the potato were the plants which showed a special prefer- 
 ence for potash, but the vine distances them in this re- 
 spect in a most surprising manner. In the case of the 
 potato the suppression of potash manifests itself by a 
 diminution of the crop ; with the vine, however, little or no 
 fruit makes its appearance, and we virtually get no crop 
 at all. The vine itself barely sends forth two or three 
 feeble shoots, and the few shrivelled leaves are hardly as 
 large as a crown piece, whilst those of the plants which 
 have been dressed with normal manure are as large as a 
 man's hand. In the plot without potash, as early as the 
 beginning of the month of June, the leaves first turn red 
 and then black, drying up and shrivelling like those of the 
 potatoes which have received the same treatment. 
 
 r F 2 
 
436 ArPEXDix VI. 
 
 The following figures are instrv^ctive : — 
 
 CROP OF GRAPES. 
 
 Per acre grapes Must 
 
 Plot with normal manure. . 4 tons 15 ewt. ■ 848 gallons. 
 Plot without potash .. . . „ „ 
 
 Since I first began my experiments on plant growth I 
 have met with nothing to be compared with this result, 
 whether we consider the definiteness of the conclusions 
 to be drawn from or the absolute exactitude of their 
 indications. 
 
 Theoeetical Experiments on the growth op Plants 
 IN calcined sand, the teachings op which have 
 
 BEEN CONPIRMED BT PRACTICAL EeSULTS. 
 
 Soda cannot replace potash as a fertilising agent. 
 
 For many years past English agriculturists have con- 
 sumed an immense and constantly increasing quantity of 
 sodic nitrate, imported from Peru. This salt, the good 
 effects of which have been abundantly confirmed by prac- 
 tice, was first brought into notice by the researches of 
 M. Kuhlmann,' by the more theoretical experiments of 
 MM. Bineau, Boussingault and myself, and by the numerous 
 and remarkable papers published by E. B. Pusey, in the 
 ' Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society,' Vols. XIII., 
 XIV., and XV. 
 
 Whether chemists or farmers, theoretical or practical 
 men, all are at the present agreed on reckoning sodic nitrate 
 amongst the most valuable agents for fertilising the soil. 
 
 Before Lebla.nc discovered the admirable process which 
 enables the manufacturer to trausform sea salt into 
 soda, advantage was taken of the power possessed by 
 certain maritime plants of extracting soda from sea- 
 water, and of storing it up in their frail tissues. On 
 burning these plants they leave behind them a residue 
 
 ' Exx'eriences Chimiques ct Agronomes, 1847. 
 
ACTION OF FEETILISING AGENTS. 437 
 
 in the form of an ash, the principal constituent of which is 
 sodic carbonate. In fact, in former days a similar practice 
 was followed with regard to maritime plants to that which 
 now obtains in America, where as soon as the means of 
 communication and transport allow of it, the forests are 
 made to yield a supply of potash, the trees being burnt in 
 the same way as the maritime plants in order to make 
 them give up the potash which they have assimilated 
 during vegetation. 
 
 Amongst the plants most fitted for the extraction of 
 soda is the barilla, which is cultivated on the coasts of 
 Spain, which, when burnt, gives an ash capable of yield- 
 ing salts which contain from 20 to 40 per cent, of sodic 
 carbonate.* Although less rich in alkalies, the ashes 
 of seaweed still contain pretty considerable quantities of 
 potash and soda salts. The abundance of soda in the ash of 
 these plants, taken in connection with the fact of their 
 disappearance at a certain distance from the coast where 
 the soO no longer contains salt, clearly indicates that soda 
 is essential to them, and that it fulfils a primary function 
 with regard to their growth. In consequence of the close 
 chemical relationship existing between potash and soda, it 
 became an interesting question to discover up to what 
 point the two alkalies would replace each other, and 
 whether this substitution in any way interfered with the 
 natural course of their vegetable life. M. Payen states 
 that the stems and leaves of the Mesemhrianthemum crys- 
 talUnum, which is used in the Island of Teneriffe for the 
 extraction of soda, are covered with glands, filled with a 
 solution of soda oxalate, which disappears, and gives place 
 to potassic oxalate in proportion as the place of its growth 
 becomes removed from the vicinity of the sea-shore. 
 
 The venerable M, de Gasparin mentions another plant 
 in which the substitution of potash for soda takes place 
 stni more completely without any evil effects. It seems 
 that the Salsola, tragus, which is used as a source of soda 
 
 ' Thenarct ; Chimie, iii. p. 141. 
 
438 APPENDIX VI. 
 
 between Frontignan and Aignes Morts is found far up the 
 valley of the Ehone. It has just as vigorous an appear- 
 ance vphen growing in the most inland locality as on the 
 seashore, and that, too, in spite of its containing nothing 
 but potash, the soda having entirely disappeared,' It 
 would seem to result from those two examples that potash 
 is sometimes capable of replacing soda, but it remained to 
 be determined whether the converse would hold good, that 
 is to say, whether soda could be substituted for potash in 
 certain plants, and whether they would suffer by such sub- 
 stitution. With respect to corn I have no hesitation in 
 saying at once that the use of soda, to the exclusion of 
 potash, seriously interferes with the growth of the plant, 
 the crop falling to three-quarters. For this purpose I 
 invoke the testimony of two experiments executed under 
 widely different conditions, the results of which verify 
 and complete each other. For the reasons given in 
 my paper published in the ' Comptes Rendus,' of the 
 Academy of Sciences, vol. li., I selected for my experiments 
 some soil from the Landes which is naturally destitute of 
 potash, each pot receiving 155 grains of calcic phosphate, 
 If grains of nitrogen. The potash and the soda were 
 used in the state of nitrate. With the calcic phosphate 
 and the potassic nitrate the plants grew and flourished. 
 Under these conditions the wheat succeeded admirably. 
 The straw was firm, the ears well formed and laden with 
 grain which was heavy and plentiful. But let the potas- 
 sic nitrate be replaced by sodic nitrate, the character of 
 the vegetation is changed immediately. The wheat grows 
 badly, and instead of springing up vertically grows in 
 all manner of ways. The ears are few in number, and 
 the grain small in amount and size, and imperfect in 
 form. 
 
 I laid before the Academy photographs of these two 
 experiments, as well as the weight of the crops obtained, 
 
 ' De Gasparin, Cours d' Agriculture, 3rd edition, vol. i. p. 146. 
 
All the pots were dressed -with normal 
 manure, minus the two alkalies, potash, and 
 soda. These were afterwards added, alone or 
 mixed, under two different conditions, as nitrates 
 used alone, or as nitrates mixed with potassic 
 nlicate. 
 
 No, 1. 
 
 
 Potassic Nitrate. 
 
 
 
 Gis. 
 
 Straw .... 
 
 . 188 
 
 Grain .... 
 
 43 
 
 
 231 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 
 SoDic Nitrate. 
 
 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Straw .... 
 
 . 110 
 
 Grain 
 
 5 
 
 
 115 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 
 Potassic Nitrate, Potassic 
 
 Silicate, 
 
 
 Gi-s. 
 
 Straw .... 
 
 . 269 
 
 Grain .... 
 
 77 
 
 346 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Potassic Nitrate, Sodic Nitrate, 
 Potassic Silicate. 
 
 Grs. 
 Straw 243 
 
 Grain 72 
 
 31.5 
 
ACTION OF FERTILISING AGENTS. 
 
 439 
 
 Experimejits on wheat grown in soil from the Landes, the 
 gatherings heing dried at 212° F. Twenty wheat grains were 
 sown in each case. 
 
 Calcic phosphate 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 
 Calcic phosphate 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 
 Straw and roots 
 
 grains. 
 
 188 
 
 Straw and roots . 
 
 grains 
 
 110 
 
 160 wheat grains . 
 
 43 
 
 20 wheat grains . 
 
 5 
 
 
 231 
 
 
 115 
 
 In fact the difference is just double. Soda, therefore, 
 cannot, in this case at any rate, replace potash. I have 
 already said that this proportion would admit of another 
 mode of proof, which is as follows : Instead of adding to 
 the soil from the Landes a mixture of calcic phosphate 
 and potassic nitrate, or of calcic phosphate and sodic 
 nitrate only, we add to each of these mixtures 62 grains of 
 potassic silicate. In the absence of the silicate the 
 plants grown by the aid of the sodic nitrate were inferior 
 to those grown with the potassic nitrate. But the addi- 
 tion of the silicate equalises the results at once, and the 
 sodic nitrate is now apparently equal in its effects to the 
 potassic nitrate. Why, it may be asked, do the two nitrates 
 now produce the same effect ? Simply because they only 
 act by their nitrogen. The mould being fully provided 
 with potash by the addition of a silicate, the potash of the 
 nitre exerts no influence whatever. A few more figures 
 wUi help me to put the matter in a more precise way. 
 
 Uxperiments on wheat grown in soil from the Landes, the 
 gatherings heing dried at 212° F. Twenty wheat grains were 
 sown in each case. 
 
 Calcic phosphate 
 Potassic nitrate 
 Potassic silicate 
 
 Straw and roots 
 211 wheat grains 
 
 grains. 
 
 269 
 
 77 
 
 346 
 
 Calcic phosphate 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Potassic silicate 
 
 Straw and roots 
 210 wheat grains 
 
 grains. 
 
 243 
 _72 
 315 
 
 The conclusion to be drawn from these experiments is 
 that as far as wheat is concerned soda cannot replace 
 
440 
 
 APPENDIX VI. 
 
 potash; sodic nitrate, therefore when used in conjunction 
 with calcic phosphate is but a poor manure, but by the 
 addition of potash we at once raise the value of the mix- 
 ture as a fertilising agent. 
 
 The above are average results. The following are 
 the experiments from which these average results were 
 deduced : — 
 
 Calcic phosphate 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 
 Calcic phosphate 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 
 Potassic silicate 
 
 
 Potassic silicate 
 
 
 I. 
 
 Straw and roots 
 
 grains. 
 274 
 
 I. 
 
 Straw and roots 
 
 grains 
 
 236 
 
 216 wheat grains . 
 
 83 
 
 220 wheat grains . 
 
 . 69 
 
 
 357 
 
 
 305 
 
 n. 
 
 
 II. 
 
 
 Straw and roots 
 
 grains. 
 264 
 
 Straw and roots 
 
 grains 
 
 250 
 
 207 wheat grains . 
 
 72 
 
 201 wheat grains 
 
 76 
 
 
 336 
 
 
 326 
 
1858. 
 Calcined Sand. 
 
 1860. 
 Sand Humus. 
 
 Straw and roots 
 
 Grains 
 
 . 76 
 _2 
 
 78 
 
 Straw and roots . 
 
 Grains 
 
 _1 
 
 85 
 
INDEX. 
 
 AGR 
 
 AGEICULTUEAL education, 185 
 — imports, great increase in, 
 over exports, 283 
 
 — industries, what they are, 346 
 
 — instrument factory at Koville, 8i6 
 Agriculture, aims of twofold, 197 
 
 — ancient, 129, 130 
 
 — formerly depended entirely on ir- 
 rigation, 129 
 
 — in France, situation of, 278 
 
 — past and present systems of, 1 29 
 
 — pasture system, 130 
 
 — triennial system, 131 
 
 Air, carbon procured from the, 20 
 Albumen, 14, 15 
 
 — transformed into casein and fibrin, 
 15 
 
 Albuminoid constituents of plants, 
 U 
 
 — matter in liquid muck, 142 
 
 — matters produce heat, 303 
 Alternation of crops, obtaining nitro- 
 gen from the air and from the soil, 
 the secret of good farming, 36 
 
 value of, 33 
 
 Ammonia, composition of, 380 
 
 — nitrogen assimilated in the form 
 of, 28 
 
 — produced by animal manure, 50 
 
 — proportion in air, 29 
 Ammoniacal salts and sodic nitrate, 
 
 best forms in which to supply 
 nitrogen to soil, 35 
 Ammonic sulphate, composition of, 
 379 
 
 cost of, 228, 382 
 
 quantity of nitrogen in, 35 
 
 should be analysed before pur- 
 chase, 382 
 
 value as a manure, 75, 76, 77 
 
 covering an acre of land, 180 
 
 BEE 
 Animal life, four constituents neces- 
 sary for, 299 
 
 — progress, 295 
 
 Animals, efEects of diet on, 299 
 
 — and plants, both produced by heat, 
 291 
 
 comparison between, 296, 
 
 303 
 
 proximate principles com- 
 mon to, 289 
 
 spring from a common base, 
 
 291 
 
 Artificial manures, superior to and 
 cheaper than farmyard manure, 19 
 
 Atmosphere richer in ammonia and 
 carbonic acid in Coal Age, 190 
 
 ■ — the, the great source of plant food, 
 157 
 
 BALANCE-SHEET of farm of 250 
 acres, 220 
 Barley, comparative efEects of farm- 
 yard and chemical manures on, 274 
 
 — manure for, 394 
 
 — quantity of nitrogen per acre, 238 
 Bassorin, 13 
 
 Beans, efEects of potassic carbonate 
 on, 250 
 
 — effects of potassic chloride on, 250 
 
 — effects of potassic nitrate on, 250 
 
 — manure for, 396 
 Bechelbronn, balance-sheets of farm 
 
 at, under M. Boussingault, 325 
 
 — defective principles of bookkeep- 
 ing adopted at, 255 
 
 — cost of farmyard manure at, 94, 95 
 
 — system of rotation practised at, 
 104 
 
 — use of chemical maniire at, 98 
 Beetroot and wheat, experiments on, 
 
 179 
 
442 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Beetroot and wheat, comparative ef- 
 fects of farmyard and chemical 
 manure on, 273, 275 
 
 — constant analysis necessary, 368 
 
 — consumed in sugar factories, 367 
 
 — crop, when to gather, 360 
 
 — culture, conditions of, 357 
 
 — effects of homologous manure No. 
 2 A upon, 250 
 
 — • normal manure No. 2 upon, 
 
 250 
 
 — experiments on, at Vincermes, 360, 
 370 
 
 — experiments on, in Belgium, 370 
 
 — dominant constituent of, 87, 237 
 
 — experiments on its cultivation at 
 Mesnil-Saint-Nicaise, 35 
 
 — grown at Vincennes, analysis of, 
 376 
 
 — grown with chemical manures the 
 richest, 361 
 
 — industry, the, 357 
 
 — manure for, 75, 369, 395 
 
 — M. Belin's method of growing, 373 
 
 — minimum crop 14 tons, 358 
 
 — • — ■ yield of sugar 12 per cent., 358 
 
 — only produces carho-hydrates, 355 
 
 — preparation of soil for, 363 
 
 — perfect, how to grow, 363 
 
 — quantity of nitrogen per acre, 238 
 
 — requires a large amount of nitro- 
 genous matter, 77 
 
 — rich in sugar, poor in salts, 372 
 
 — seed bearing, to be renewed every 
 two years, 365 
 
 selection of, 364 
 
 — small roots to be rejected, 368 
 
 — sugar from, 352 
 
 — surface manure for, 369 
 
 — value of, per ton, 368 
 
 Belgium and Calabria compared, 215 
 Belin, M., his method of growing 
 
 beetroot, 373 
 Berthelot, M., on alkaline chlorides, 
 
 367 
 Bookkeeping, true system of farm, 93, 
 
 94, 255 
 Boussingault, M., defective principles 
 
 of bookkeeping adopted by, at 
 
 Brechelbronn, 255 
 experiments"by, 208 
 
 — — on pigs, 304 
 
 Buckwheat, comparative effects of 
 
 farmyard and chemical manures 
 on, 274 
 
 — requires magnesia, 153 
 Buildings to be but few, 222 
 
 CAT 
 
 CABBAGES, manure for, 395 
 Calabria and Belgium compared, 
 215 
 Caladium, experiments on a, 191 
 Calcic phosphate, its composition, 386 
 
 sources of, 81 
 
 the whole to be returned to the 
 
 soil, 113, 224 
 varieties of, 386 
 
 — sulphate, its composition, 388 
 its price, 388 
 
 its sources, 388 
 
 — superphosphate, how made, 386, 
 389 
 
 necessary to sugar cane, 243 
 
 to dry, 389 
 
 Calcined sand, growth of wheat plants 
 
 in, 41 
 
 with mineral matter, 41, 42 
 
 with mineral and nitrogenous 
 
 matter, 43 
 Calves, experiments on, 301 
 
 — experiments on feeding, 307 
 Cambrai Chamber of Agriculture, ex- 
 periments, 220 
 
 Carbo-hydrates, 11 
 
 — alone not nourishing to animals, 
 299 
 
 — and fats, 302 
 
 — not necessary to the soil, 356 
 Carbon, how assimilated, 21 
 
 — leaves essentially the seat of the 
 assimilation of, 27 
 
 — may be excluded from manures, 
 20 
 
 — procured from the air, 20 
 
 — quantity in plants, 20 
 
 — quantity of, absorbed by plants in 
 one season, 27 
 
 Carbonaceous substances inactive as 
 
 manure, 148 
 Carbonic dioxide breathed by plants, 
 
 21 
 
 decomposed by plants, 21 
 
 Carrots, manure for, 395 
 
 Casein, 14, 15 
 
 Cattle at first to be few, 222 
 
 — breeding, 316 
 
 — fattening food for, 312, 314 
 
 — feeding, 285 
 
 principles of, 308 
 
 — food, proportion of nutritious ele- 
 ments in, required in one day, 311 
 
 — lairs and stables really a manu- 
 factory, 271 
 
 — not absolutely necessary to agri- 
 cultOTe, 323 
 
INDEX. 
 
 443 
 
 Cattle said to be a necessary evil, 
 306 
 
 — their food, 310 
 Cellulose, 12 
 
 — amount of, digested in different 
 fodders, 308 
 
 — proved to be digestible, 308 
 Cereals and fodder, equal growths 
 
 necessary with chemical manures, 
 224 
 
 — yield of, under triennial system, 
 131, 132 
 
 Chalkland and ryeland compared, 192 
 Chalilanders tall and handsome, 193 
 Champagne, agricultural experiments 
 
 in, 52 
 Chemicals, cost of, 96 «., 253 
 Chemical analysis teaches us little, 
 
 172 . 
 
 — and farmyard manure, active parts 
 identical, 142 
 
 comparative cost of, 97 
 
 cultivation with, 121, 402 
 
 — manures, application of, to be 
 spread over several years, 88, 393 
 
 best mode of applying, 80, 89, 
 
 246, 384 
 
 conditions of cultivation with, 
 
 113 
 
 cost of, 96, 394 
 
 different kinds of, 87 
 
 — doctrine of, universally ad- 
 mitted, 285 
 
 dominant constituents of, 85, 
 
 87 
 
 effects more lasting than those 
 
 of farmyard manure, 276 
 
 employment of, 389 
 
 facilities for use, 89 
 
 formulae for, 393 
 
 from a financial point of view, 
 
 119-122 
 
 gives more to land than crops 
 
 take from it, 286 
 
 good effects of, 276 
 
 improvement of poor land rapid 
 
 with, 101 
 
 list of, 379 
 
 machine for mixing, 390 
 
 must be thoroughly mixed, 389 
 
 not constant in composition, 87 
 
 plants grown entirply with, 44 
 
 preparation of, 389 
 
 strength of different ingredi- 
 ents in, 407 
 
 — table of composition, 407 
 
 to be applied on a calm day, 391 
 
 COW 
 
 Chemical manures, use of, leaves the 
 farm unfettered, 144 
 
 used in conjunction with farm- 
 yard manure, 253 
 
 value of, in beetroot gTowing, 
 
 359 
 
 Chemistry alone powerless to aid the 
 farmer, 173 
 
 GhlorophyU, 292 
 
 ChoIsy-le-Temple farm, results ob- 
 tained, 122 
 
 Clay, absorbent powers of, 46 
 
 — composition, 48 
 
 — effect on liquid muck, 47 
 
 — importance in vegetation, 47 
 Climate a condition of plant growth, 
 
 16 
 Clover and its congeners draw nitro- 
 gen from the air, 246 
 
 — manure for, 74, 396 
 
 Colza and wheat, alternate cultivation 
 of, 396 
 
 — comparative effects of farmyard 
 and chemical manure on, 274 
 
 — experiments on, 235 
 
 — haulm should be burnt and ashes 
 used as manure, 117 
 
 — homologous manm-e better for, 251 
 
 — manures for, 73, 395 
 
 — nitrogenous matter to be divided 
 into an autumn and spring dose, 
 236 
 
 — quantity of potash, lime, phos- 
 phorus, and nitrogen required by, 
 234 
 
 — requires large quantity of nitrogen, 
 234 
 
 Composition of different parts of 
 plants, 5 
 
 — of normal chemical manures, 86 
 
 — of principal chemical manures, 
 table of, 407 
 
 Constituents of manure must act 
 simultaneously, 153 
 
 — of soil, assimilable, 45 
 
 mechanical, 45 
 
 Coprolites, their composition, 387 
 Cost of Paris stable manure, 267 
 
 — ■ spreading fifty tons of stable ma- 
 nure, 268 
 
 Couvreur, M. L., first manufacturer 
 of chemical manure in France, 264 
 
 — his opinion on farm bookkeeping, 
 265 
 
 Cow, average weight of, 310 
 Cows, amount of food required, 310 
 
 — milk, composition of, 300 
 
Ui 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 cow 
 Cows, composition of salts in, 300 
 
 — quantity of food given to, 313 
 Crops, conditions of producing large, 
 
 298 
 
 — loss to land by selling, 376 
 
 — refuse of, as a manure, 116, 117, 
 118 
 
 DISTILLEEIES attached to beet- 
 root farms, 347 
 Dominant constituents in chemical 
 
 manures, different plants require 
 
 different proportions of, 87, 88, 89, 
 
 326 
 
 of plants, 162, 225 
 
 Dressing, proper, large crops depend 
 
 on, 391 
 Dynamic unit, 24 
 
 EGG, comparative analysis of, and 
 seed, 289 
 
 — hatching of, 290 
 
 Elementary agricultural education in 
 France, 188 
 
 Elements entering into the composi- 
 tion of plants, 5 
 
 — necessary for the nutrition of 
 plants exist in the air and soil, 10 
 
 — organic, constitute 95 per cent, of 
 plants, 8 
 
 Evils of using manure all at once, 
 269 
 
 Excess of manure often disadvantage- 
 ous, 246 
 
 Experiment shovring absorption of 
 carbon by plants, 26 
 
 — superior to argument, 242 
 Experimental fields established in 350 
 
 schools in France, 187 
 
 manures for, 393 
 
 practical instructions for esta- 
 blishing, 411 
 
 should be established at all 
 
 schools, 184 
 
 Experiments at Grignon, 189, 206 
 
 — at Bothamsted, 189 
 
 — at Vincennes, 4 
 
 — in farming, by Mathieu de Dom- 
 basle, 204 
 
 — of Cambrai Chamber of Agricul- 
 ture, 209 
 
 — on barren land, 159 
 
 — on carbonaceous substances as fer- 
 tilising agents, 148 
 
 — on constituents of soils, 157 
 
 Experiments on nitrogenous sub- 
 stances as fertilising agents, ] 49 
 
 — on phosphorus as a fertilising 
 agent, 151 
 
 — • on various manures, 177 
 
 FAILURE of Mathieu de Dombasle 
 as a farmer, 205 
 Farm bookkeeping defective at the 
 Thier Garten Farm, 259 
 
 — the proper system of, 255 
 Farmers, advice to young, 222 
 
 — no longer obliged to produce their 
 own manure, 124 
 
 Farming, school at Beyne, in the 
 Landes, experiments at, 275, 276 
 
 — with farmyard manures only, 197 
 Farmyard manure, cause of its effi- 
 cacy, 139 
 
 • — and chemical manure, comparison 
 
 between, 272 
 constituents of, 253 
 
 — and chemical manure, cultivation 
 with, 101, 121, 253 
 
 exclusive use of, wrong in prin- 
 ciple, 100, 101 
 
 cost of, 90, 91, 92, 255, 260 
 
 large crops impossible with, 112 
 
 liquid part the most valuable, 
 
 111, 140, 142 
 
 loss of nitrogen before it is fit for 
 
 use, 105 
 nitrogen in, not easily assimila- 
 ble, 88 
 
 not equal to the requirements of 
 
 the present day, 217 
 
 not necessary to agriculture, 19 
 
 not the only fertilising agent, 19 
 
 only, cultivation with, 121 
 
 proximate analysis of, 139 
 
 solid portion only slightly active, 
 
 143 
 trials of, against chemical ma- 
 nure, 271 
 Fat meat, composition of, 317 
 Fattening cattle, cost of, at Hanin- 
 gen, near Cologne, 334 
 
 principles- of , 314 
 
 Fats and carbo-hydrates, 302 
 
 — and oils, their value as food, 302 
 
 — combustion of, in body, 302 
 Fertility, the great sources of, 141 
 Fibrin, 14, 15 
 
 Fields, experimental, practical in- 
 structions for establishing, 41] 
 manures for, 393 
 
INDEX. 
 
 445 
 
 Fields, experimental, should be es- 
 tablished at all schools, 184 
 
 Flax, compajative efEects of farmyard 
 and chemical manures on, 274 
 
 — growing, 348 
 
 — manure for, 78 
 
 Fleshy parts of plants contain most 
 
 mineral matter, 5 
 Fodder and cereals, equal growths a 
 
 necessity with chemical manures, 
 
 224 
 — ■ crops, rotation of, 401 
 
 — land must be abundantly manured, 
 320 
 
 — to be grown before cattle are bred, 
 285 
 
 Forces of nature help the farmer, 163 
 France, amount of cultivated land in, 
 279 
 
 — average size of small holdings in, 
 279 
 
 ■ — ■ cattle feeding in the South of, 
 307 
 
 — depopulation in country parts ac- 
 counted for, 279 
 
 — difficulty of raising money on 
 stock in, 284 
 
 — enormous legacy duty in, 284 
 
 — evil of parcelling out land in, 279 
 
 — laws of property in, 281 
 
 — mean yields of wheat per acre in 
 the North of, 280 
 
 — population of, retrograding- in forty 
 departments, 322 
 
 — prosperity of, dependent on in- 
 creasing the size of holdings, 282 
 
 — state of agriculture in, 278 
 
 — state of landholders in, 279 
 French farmers, many small ones en- 
 tirely unprovided with manure, 115 
 
 Fruit trees, manure for, 396 
 
 GAEDBN STUFF, manure for, 395 
 Gascony, pine forests in, 354 
 
 Germany, state of agriculture in, 280 
 
 M. Tisserand on, 280 
 
 Gilbert and Lawes, Messrs., experi- 
 ments at Eothamsted, 189 
 
 Gluten manure, 231 
 
 Grain manure, 231 
 
 ' Grass, cattle, cereals,' an extinct 
 formula, 223 
 
 Grass land must be abundantly ma- 
 nured, 320 
 
 Grignon, cultivation with farmyard 
 manure at, 206 
 
 INO 
 Guadeloupe, experiments on the 
 
 growth of the sugar cane in, 58 
 Gums, 12 
 
 Gum into sugar, conversion of, 13 
 Gum tragacanth, 13 
 
 HARICOTS, manure for, 396 
 Harvests from chemical manure 
 superior, 159 
 Heat necessary to plant growth, 26 
 Heat-producing foods, 302 
 
 — the common cause of germination 
 and animal birth, 291 
 
 — unit, 23 
 
 — units produced by combustion of 
 carbon, 23 
 
 Hemp growing, 348 
 
 — manure for, 395 
 
 — quantity of nitrogen necessary per 
 acre, 238 
 
 High farming alone remunerative, 
 
 380 
 can be extended without risk, 
 
 216 
 
 most profitable, 298 
 
 successful results of, 330 
 
 systems, 215 
 
 Hippuric acid in liquid muck, 142 
 Homologous manures, 227 
 
 — and normal manures compared, 
 249 
 
 of two kinds, 227 
 
 efficacious for cereals and grass, 
 
 229 
 Horsebeans, manure for, 396 
 Horse manure, estimated cost of, 263 
 real cost of, 264 
 
 — power, 24 
 
 Horses on a farm, how to estimate 
 
 the real value of, 261 
 Houel's experiments, 210 
 Humus, action of, 48, 49, 158 
 
 — experiments on, 51, 149 
 
 — its uses in manuring, 50 
 
 — not fertilising, 49 
 Hydrogen provided by rain, 28 
 
 IMPROVEMENT of human race ef- 
 fected by use of suitable manure, 
 193 
 Incomplete manures for leguminosse, 
 
 244 
 for soil rich in phosphates, pot- 
 ash or nitrogen, 230 
 Inorganic elements in plants, 38 
 
446 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Inorganic elements in plants, most 
 
 favourable form for manure, 39 
 Invdin, 13 
 Italy, agricultural experiments in, 52 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, ma- 
 nure for, 396 
 
 LAVOISIER as a financier, 201 
 — as an experimental farmer, 
 201, 203 
 Law of nutrition must be observed in 
 
 agriculture, 141 
 Lean meat, composition of, 317 
 Leaves absorb elements of nutrition 
 from air, 10 
 
 — necessary to plant growth, 26 
 
 — the seat of the assimilation of 
 carbon, 27 
 
 Lime must be restored to soil, 113 
 
 — necessary in chemical mauuxe, 85 
 
 — quantity of, in farmyard manure, 
 85 
 
 — sources of, SI 
 
 Liquid muck, its constituents, 142 
 Live stock, conditions of producing, 
 
 298 
 from a financial point of view, 
 
 304 
 high feeding most profitable in 
 
 breeding, 298 
 how to estimate the real value 
 
 of, 260 
 
 their composition, 285 
 
 Lucern, manure for, 79, 396 
 
 MACHINE for mixing chemical ma- 
 . nures, 390 
 Magnesia necessary to plants, 153 
 Maize, comparative eiiects of farm- 
 yard and chemical manure on, 274 
 
 — manure for, 396 
 
 — plants, results of experiments on, 
 232 
 
 Man and the steam engine, compari- 
 son between, 296 
 Manure, amount necessary per acre, 85 
 
 — artificial, superior to and cheaper 
 than farmyard manure, 19 
 
 — chemical, advantages of, over 
 farmyard manure, 67 
 
 — constituents of farmyard, 60 
 
 — fallow land and irrigation three 
 great sources of fertility, 141 
 
 Manure, farmyard, chemical manure 
 superior to and cheaper than, 19 
 
 not absolutely necessary to agri- 
 culture, 19 
 
 not the only fertilising agent, 
 
 19 
 
 only partially utilised by crops, 
 
 137 
 
 — free use of, profitable, 69 
 
 — must contain four constituents, 44, 
 155 
 
 — surface, for beetroot, 369 
 Manures and foods, comparison of, 302 
 
 — carbon may be excluded from, 20 
 
 — chemical, description of the in- 
 gredients which enter into their 
 composition, 379 
 
 practical instruction on pre- 
 paration, preservation and employ- 
 ment of, 389 
 
 — classification of into groups, 226 
 
 — cost of for four years' rotation, 
 245 
 
 — f ormulfe for. Appendix VIII. 
 
 — experiments on diflEerent fertilising 
 powers of, 181 
 
 — mode of alternating, 247 
 
 — must be distributed evenly, 80 
 
 — necessity for importing demon- 
 strated, 212 
 
 — recapitulation of views respecting, 
 375 
 
 — special, 231 
 
 — specific will be discovered, 233 
 
 — to be adapted to system of rota- 
 tion, 245 
 
 — yields of different kinds of, 57, 58 
 Mathieu de Dombasle as a farmer, 203 
 
 — his fallacious estimate of the cost 
 of stable manure, 269 
 
 — on the nutrition of plants, 33 
 
 — reasons why he failed in farming, 
 270 
 
 ' Meadow land, cattle, cereals,' the 
 ancient agricultural formula, 131 
 
 manure for, 394, 402 
 
 successfully treated with che- 
 mical manures, 218 
 
 Meat, continual rise in the price of, 
 323 
 
 — increase in price of since 1817, 321 
 Mechanical constituents of soils, their 
 
 functions, 168 
 Mesnil-Saint-Nicaise, cost of farm- 
 yard manure at, 91 
 
 — results obtained at farm of, 35 
 Milk, nutritive matters in, 312 
 
INDEX. 
 
 U7 
 
 MIN 
 Mineral compomids to be used in 
 manures, 38 
 
 — constituents in plants, 38 
 
 — • — just as important as organic, 8 
 
 subject to a fixed law, 7 
 
 three only necessary in manures, 
 
 39 
 seven of them found in worst 
 
 soils, 39 
 
 — matter, animals, like plants, re- 
 quire, 299 
 
 in mature useless without ni- 
 trogenous matter, 151, 187 
 
 "VTAPOLEON m., his encourage- 
 JA ment of scientific agriculture, 4 
 New method, superiority of, over old, 
 
 225 
 Nitrogen, animal manures owe their 
 
 value to, 45 
 
 — animal matter may be used as a 
 source of, 36 
 
 — assimilated in the form of gas, 28 
 nitrates, 28 
 
 — dominant constituent in beetroot, 
 230 
 
 — in wheat, 237 
 
 — manures rich in, increase gluten 
 in cereals, 233 
 
 — necessary in chemical manure, 85 
 
 — only half to be returned to the 
 soil, 224 
 
 — partly derived from the air, 29 
 
 — quantity of, drawn from air by 
 different plants, 82 
 
 — in farmyard manure, 85 
 
 — required by different plants, 238 
 
 — some plants absorb it from air, 
 others from the soil, 31 
 
 — sources of, 82 
 Nitrogenous matter, 379 
 
 a necessity in beetroot culture, 
 
 359 
 
 fixed in soil by clay, 48 
 
 its importance in plant eco- 
 nomy, 35 
 
 — manures have no influence in le- 
 guminoSEe, 242 
 
 — salts used for manures, 379 
 Normal and farmyard manures com- 
 pared in their results, 61-65 
 
 — and homologous manures com- 
 pared, 249 
 
 — manure, definition of, 156 
 
 No. 6, effect of, on sugar-cane, 
 
 243 
 
 PLA 
 
 Normal manures, six in number, 226 
 
 will fertilise the most barren 
 
 land, 161 
 Nutrition of plants and animals an- 
 alogous, 303 
 
 OATS, comparative effects of farm- 
 yard and chemical manures on, 
 274 
 
 — effects of homologous manure No. 
 1 A upon, 249 
 
 normal manure No. 1 upon, 249 
 
 — manure for, 394 
 
 — quantity of nitrogen necessary per 
 acre, 238 
 
 Oil extraction from seed, 349 
 
 — from colza, balance sheet of profits, 
 350 
 
 Oilcake, 349 
 
 Oise, agricultural experiments in the, 
 
 52 
 Ox, average weight of, 310 
 Oxen, amount of food required for, 310 
 
 — effects of given quantity of food 
 on, 316 
 
 — experiments on feeding, 307 
 Oxygen provided by rain, 28 
 
 PAGNOUL, M., on beetroot culti- 
 vation, 361 
 
 — remarks on animal manure, 369 
 Peasantry of France ill-fed and ig- 
 norant, 278 
 
 Peas, effects of incomplete manure 
 No. 6 upon, 250 
 
 normal manure No. 6 upon, 250 
 
 Phosphate, bicalcic, use of, 887 
 
 — tricalcic, use of, 387 
 Phosphates, varieties of, 386 
 
 — in plants, 8 
 
 Pigs, amount of food required by, 310 
 
 — experiments on, 304 
 
 — effects of given quantity of food 
 on, 316 
 
 Pine forests in Gascony, 354 
 
 Pines only produce carbo-hydrates, 355 
 
 Phosphoric acid, its composition, 386 
 
 necessary in chemical manures, 
 
 85 
 
 quantity of, in farmyard ma- 
 nure, 85 
 
 sources of, 887 
 
 Plant growth, choice of seed a con- 
 dition of, 16-18 
 
 climate a condition of, 16, 17 
 
448 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 TLA 
 Plant growth, heat necessary to, 26 
 
 leaves necessary to, 26 
 
 soil a condition of, 16, 17 
 
 ■ sunlight necessary to, 26 
 
 • — life, conditions regulating, 16 
 
 three distinct phases of, 294, 
 
 381 
 — ■ nutrition consists of two stages, 15 
 Mathieu de Dumbasle on, 33 
 
 — production of, li6 
 
 comparative action of consti- 
 tuents of, illustrated. Appendix VII. 
 
 — progress of the young, 291 
 
 — substance, nine-tenths drawn from 
 air and water, 296 
 
 Plants, action of sun on, 292 
 
 — albuminoid constituents of, li 
 
 — and animals, comparison between, 
 296, 303 
 
 proximate analysis of, 289 
 
 spring from a common base, 291 
 
 — carbonic acid and water the prin- 
 cipal food of, 292 
 
 — carbon dioxide breathed by, 21 
 decomposed by, 21 
 
 — composition of, 5-8 
 
 — agricultural composition of prin- 
 cipal, 425 
 
 described, 292 
 
 — divided into three categories as 
 regards manure, 225 
 
 — fleshy parts of, contain most 
 mineral matter, 5 
 
 — growth of, comparative action of 
 fertilising agents on the, illus- 
 trated. Appendix VI. 
 
 in calcined sand, illustrated. 
 
 Appendix VII. 
 
 — how they feed, 292 
 
 — mineral matter in, subject to fixed 
 law, 7 
 
 — more numerous than animals, 287 
 
 — • 95 per cent, of substance of, de- 
 rived from air and rain, 22 
 
 — only contain 5 per cent, of mineral 
 matter, 8 
 
 — phosphates in, 8 
 
 — proportions of carbon, oxygen, hy- 
 drogen, and nitrogen in, 9 
 
 — quantity of carbon in, 20 
 absorbed by, in one sea- 
 son, 27 
 
 — really manufactured by the far- 
 mer, 146 
 
 — table of constituents of different 
 parts of, 6, 7 
 
 — table of transition products of, 1 1 
 
 ROT 
 Plants, the first living beings on (he 
 earth, 138 
 
 — the only true analysts of the soil, 
 179 
 
 — their chemical constituents, 5 
 Ploughing to be deep, 222 
 Population in France increasing in 
 
 some districts and decreasing in 
 others, 199 
 Potash a dominant constituent in 
 potatoes, 179 
 
 — a necessary element in food, 309 
 
 — as a fertilising agent not replaced 
 by soda, 385 
 
 — effects of exclusion from soil, 153 
 
 — function of, in vegetation, 385 
 
 — must be restored to soil, 113, 224 
 
 — necessary for leguminosae, 243 
 
 — quantity of, in farmyard manure, 
 85 
 
 — sources of, 81, 82 
 
 Potassio chloride as good as potassio 
 nitrate for leguminos^, 231 
 
 best for beetroot, 369 
 
 favours production of sugar in 
 
 beetroot, 233 
 
 its composition, 385 
 
 its price, 228, 385 
 
 — nitrate, composition of, 384 
 how made, 384 
 
 its value as a manure, 385 
 
 often adulterated, 385 
 
 percentage, composition, 228 
 
 price of, 228, 385 
 
 Potato, dominant constituent, potash, 
 179, 238 
 
 — famine, Irish, its causes, 246 
 Potatoes, comparative effects of farm- 
 yard and chemical manure on, 273 
 
 — effects of want of potash on, 241 
 
 — experiments on, 239 
 
 — manure for, 74, 895 
 Precipitated phosphate, price of, 229 
 substituted for calcic super- 
 phosphate, 229 
 
 Problem of vegetation solved, 44 
 
 EBSIN collecting in Gascony, 354 
 — growing, 351 
 — growing fitted for poor soils, 355 
 Boots absorb elements of nutrition 
 
 from earth, 10 
 Rotation of crops, experiments on, 73- 
 80, 106-110, 244, 245, 397-406 
 
 needs alternation of manures, 
 
 246 
 
INDEX. 
 
 449 
 
 EOT 
 
 Eotation of crops, siTperior to trien- 
 nial system, 134 
 
 Eoville, experiments at, 69, 70, 204, 
 207 
 
 Eye, comparative effects of farmyard 
 and chemical manure on, 274 
 
 — eaters pmiy, ugly, and small, 191 
 
 — manure for, 394 
 
 — quantity of nitrogen necessary per 
 acre, 238 
 
 Eyeland and chalkland compared, 
 192 
 
 SAINFOIN", manure for, 396 
 Sand, composition of, 48 
 
 — importance in vegetation, 47 
 
 — -why unsuitable for vegetation, 46 
 Scientific agriculture, principles of, 
 
 252 
 Seed and egg, comparative analysis 
 of, 289 
 
 — choice of, a condition of plant 
 growth, 16-18 
 
 — germination of, 290 
 
 Sheep, amount of food required, 310 
 ■ — breeding, 316 
 
 — cost of feeding and keeping a 
 flock of, for one year, 257 
 
 — Dishley, 316 
 
 — effects of given quantity of food 
 on, 316 
 
 — manure, cost of, at the farm of 
 Mesnil St. Nicaise, 256 
 
 Silica, effects of exclusion from soil, 
 
 153 
 Soda cannot replace potash in manure, 
 
 153 
 Sodic nitrate and ammoniacal salts, 
 
 best forms under vfhich to supply 
 
 nitrogen to soil, 35 
 
 how used, 383 
 
 composition of, 382 
 
 moisture in, 383 
 
 nitrogen in, 35, 383 
 
 often adulterated, 388 
 
 price of, 384 
 
 unfitted for beetroot, 373 
 
 Soil, assimilable constituents of, 116 
 
 — assimilable constituents in reserve, 
 166 
 
 ■ — at Vincennes and Eothamsted com- 
 pared, 189 
 experiments on the, 178 
 
 — exhaustion of, 342 
 
 ■ — relative tables for calculat- 
 ing, 424 
 
 Soil, from Chalons-sur-Marne, analy- 
 sis of, mechanical and chemical, 171 
 
 — loss of phosphoric acid per acre 
 with colza and wheat, 116 
 
 potash with colza and wheat, 
 
 116 
 
 — mechanical constituents of, 166 
 
 — nature of, a condition of plant 
 growth, 16, 17 
 
 — of Europe, deficient in phosphoric 
 acid and nitrogen, 344 
 
 — results of increasing productive 
 forces of, 195 
 
 — richness of, how discovered, 179 
 
 — the plant the best analyst of the, 
 53, 56, 165, 179 
 
 Soils, Davy's analysis of, 169 
 
 — how to test, 182 
 
 — poor, best adapted for resin grow- 
 ing, 355 
 
 Sorgho, manure for, 396 
 
 Stable manure, price of, produced in 
 
 Paris, 267 
 Starch, 12 
 
 — factories attached to farms, 348 
 
 — structure of, 13 
 Stimulating manure, 229 
 Sugar-cane, manure for, 396 
 Sugar manure, 231 
 Sugars, 12 
 
 Sunlight necessary to plant growth 
 
 26 
 Swedes, manure for, 396 
 
 TABLE of transition products of 
 plants, 11 
 constituents of different parts 
 
 of plants, 6, 7 
 Tares, manure for, 396 
 Test fields, 183 
 Thier Garten Farm, cost of farmyard 
 
 manure at, 91, 259 
 Thrift of the French, 200 
 Trial-fields, mode of establishing, 411 
 Triennial system, yield per acre, 133 
 Turnips, manure for, 396 
 Typical fertilising, 61 
 
 UEEA as a fertilising agent, 142 
 Dric acid in liquid muck, 142 
 
 YEGETABLE species as susceptible 
 of improvement as breeds of 
 cattle, 18 
 
 G a 
 
450 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Vegetation more luxuriant in the 
 
 Coal Age, 138 
 Village school experiments, 186 
 Vine manure, 79 
 
 — experiments made on the, in 1875, 
 Appendix VIII. 
 
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 nures to, 391 
 
 — effects of want of potash on, 2-41 
 
 — manure for, 396 
 
 — to be manured in the autumn, 
 391 
 
 Viiceunes, analysis of soil at, 54 
 
 — experimental field at, 4 
 
 — experiments at, 71 
 
 WASTE STRAW, what to be done 
 with, 118 
 "VYelbien on chemical manures, 218 
 
 ^V1 1 cfit and oolza, alternate cultivation 
 of, 396 
 
 — becomes too green with an excess 
 of nitrogen, 237 
 
 — composition of, 21 
 
 — cultivation for beginners, 222 
 
 — eSEects of homologous manure No. 
 1 A upon, 249 
 
 — effects of normal manure No. 1 
 upon, 249 
 
 — manures for, 7.3, 394 
 
 — quantity of nitrogen necessary per 
 acre, 238 
 
 — nitrogenous matter to be divided 
 into an autumn and spring dose, 
 237 
 
 — too much nitrogen injurious to, 
 2.37 
 
 — will ' lay' with too much nitrogen, 
 237 
 
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INDEX. 
 
 Ahhey &' Ovcrloti's English Cliurch Histoiy 15 
 
 's Photography 11 
 
 A cion'sMoAtm Cookery at 
 
 Alpine Club Map of Switzerland 18 
 
 Alpine Guide (The) 18 
 
 ^moj'j Turisprudence 5 
 
 Primer of the Constitution 5 
 
 Fifty Years of the English Con- 
 stitution S 
 
 Anderson's Strength of Materials 11 
 
 Armstrong' s Orgamc Chsmstxy 11 
 
 ArnolcCs (Dr.) Lectures onModem History 2 
 
 Miscellaneous Works 7 
 
 Sermons 15 
 
 (T.) Enghsh Literature 6 
 
 W>-«(i/A Elements of Physics 10 
 
 Atelier (The) du Lys 19 
 
 Atherstone Priory 19 
 
 Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson ... 7 
 
 ^j're'j Treasury of Bible Knowledge 21 
 
 ^acow'j Essays, by Whaiely 6 
 
 Life and Letters, by S/srfi?M/^ ... s 
 
 Works s 
 
 fia^if^of J Economic Studies 21 
 
 Literary Studies 6 
 
 Bailey's Festus, a Poem 19 
 
 Bain's Mental and Moral Science 6 
 
 on the Senses and Intellect 6 
 
 Emotions and Will 6 
 
 Baier'sTvio Works on Ceylon 17 
 
 Sa/A Alpine Guides 18 
 
 Barry on Railway Appliances 11 
 
 BeaconsfieW s (Lord) Novels and Tales 18 & 19 
 
 Becker's Charicles and Gallus 8 
 
 Beesly's Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla 3 
 
 5/ac/j'j Treatise on Brewing 21 
 
 Blackley's German-Enghsh Dictionary 8 
 
 Blaine's Rural Sports 20 
 
 BloxaTn! s yield's 11 
 
 Bolland and Lang's Aristotle's Pohtics 6 
 
 Boultbee on 39 Articles 15 
 
 's History of the English Clrarch... 15 
 
 Bourne's Works on the Steam Engine 14 
 
 Bawdier s ¥a.rm\y Shakesfeare 19 
 
 Bramley-Moore' s Six Sisters of the Valleys . 19 • 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, 
 
 and Art 12 
 
 Brassey's Sunshine and Storm in the East . xj 
 
 Voyage of the Sunbeam 17 
 
 Browne's Exposition of the 39Articles 15 
 
 5«?WKZW.^J Modern England 3 
 
 Buckle's History of Civihsation 2 
 
 ^^^— • Posthumous Remains 7 
 
 BucUon's Food and Home Cookery 21 
 
 Health in the House 13 
 
 Town and Window Gardening... 12 
 
 BuUs Hints to Mothers 21 
 
 Maternal Management of Children . 21 
 
 Burgomaster's Family (The) ig 
 
 5a?v6e'i Vicissitudes of Families 4 
 
 Cabinet Lawyer 21 
 
 Capes' s Age of the Antonines 3 
 
 Early Roman Empire 3 
 
 Cay/«yj Iliad of Homer 19 
 
 Cetshwayo's Dutchman, translated _ by 
 
 Bishop Colenso '. 7 
 
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