i nfGH mnaBimfuunwwmwnBH tarnmmma; TRUE NEK'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIE1 o •*. '""o'wonwuiwwoaJiBHiaftReiBtwa^irWk -^irWi.-.mBJiniBivwii. Vl 'J 2 QJarnell Untorsttg Uihrarg 3ttjats, Sfetu IJartt PL 3611.J22 e " Un ' VerSi,y Library 3 1924 026 914 188 .»„ Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026914188 TRUBNERS COLLECTION SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Ph.D. VII. TIBETAN. BY H. A. jASCHKE. TRflBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Ph.D. I. HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN, AND ARABIC. By the late E. H. Palmer, M.A. Price 5s. II. HUNGARIAN. By I. Singer. Price As. Gd. III. BASQUE. By W. Van Eys. Price 3j. 9>d. IV. MALAGASY. By G. W. Parker. Price 5s. V. MODERN GREEK. By E. M. Geldart, M.A. Price 2.T 6d. VI. ROUMANIAN. By R. Torceanu. VII. TIBETAN. By H. A. Jaschke. Grammars of the following are in preparation: — Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, Burmese, Chinese, Cymric and Gaelic, Danish, Finnish, Hebrew, Malay, Pali, Polish, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian, Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, Turkish. London: TRUBNER & CO., Ludgate Hill. TIBETAN GRAMMAR H. A. JASCHKE MOKAVIAH MISSIONARY. SECOND EDITION PREPARED BY Dr. H. WENZEL. LONDON: TRUBNER & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL. 1883 K | | v [All rights reserved^ ' "Vffi > /i-/JZ6>4-7 A ., rn i». if! s Vi ft '■ "i t".. iU, 1* .3 &*i*-e Writ u s; * Sf Preface. Ihe present new edition of Mr. JaSCHKe's Tibetan Grammar scarcely needs a word of apology. As the first edition which was lithographed at Kyelan in 1865 in a limited number of copies has long been out of print, Dr. Rost urged the author to revise his grammar for the purpose of bringing it out in an improved form. The latter, prevented by ill-health from undertaking the task, placed the matter in my hands, and had the goodness to make over to me his own manuscript notes and additions to the original work. Without his personal cooperation, however, I was unable to make any but a very sparing use of these, add- ing only a few remarks from Gyalrabs and Milaraspa, with some further remarks on the local vernacular of Western Tibet. Indeed, special attention has been paid throughout to this dialect; it is the one with which the author during his long residence at Kyelan had become most familiar, and with which the English in India are most likely to be brought into direct contact. Besides the above mentioned additions, I have taken a number of examples from the Dzanlun, to make clearer some of the rules, and, with the same view, I have altered, here and there, the wording of the lithographed edition. VI Preface. — Abbreviations. The order of the paragraphs has been retained throughout, and only one (23.) has been added for completeness' sake. The system of transliteration is nearly the same as in the Dictionary, only for ny, n is used, and instead of e, a (respectively a) has been thought to be a clearer represen- tation of the sound intended. For the niceties of pronun- ciation the reader is referred to the Dictionary, as in this Grammar only the general rules have been given. Finally I must express my warmest thanks to Dr. Rost, to whose exertions not only the printing of this Grammar is solely due, but who also rendered me much help in the correcting of the work. Mayence, May 1883. H. Wenzel. Abbreviations. act. = active. C or CT = Central Tibet, espe- cially the provinces of IJ and Tsah. cf. = confer, compare. Dzl. = Dzanlun. e. g. = exempli gratia, for in- stance. ET = East Tibet. fut. = future. imp. = imperative. inf. = infinitive. i. o. = instead of. Kbpp. = Koppen. Kun. = Kunawur, province under English protection. Ld. = Ladak, province. Mil. = Milaraspa. neutr. = neuter verb, perf. or pf. = perfect, pres. = present, s. = see. term. = terminative case. Thgy. = Thar - gyan , scientific treatises. v. - vide, see. vulg. = vulgar expression. W or WT = Western Tibet. Contents. I. Phonology. Page 1. Alphabet ... . ... ... 1 2. Remarks ... 3 3. Vowels .... . . .3 4. Syllables . .4 5. Final Consonants . 5 6. Diphthongs . . . . 6 7. Compound Consonants . . ..... 7 8. Prefixed Letters .... 11 9. Word; Accent; Quantity . . 12 10. Punctuation 14 II. Etymology. I. Article. 11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan Article . 17 12. Difference of the Articles ... . . 18 13. The Indefinite Article 19 II. Substantive. 14. Number 20 15. Declension .21 III. Adjective. 16. Eelation to the Substantive ... 25 17. Comparison ... 26 IV. Numerals. 18. Cardinal numerals 28 19. Ordinal numerals . . . . . 31 20. Remarks . ... 31 21. Distributive numerals . ... 33 22. Adverbial numerals ... .... . . .33 23. Fractional numerals . ... . . . . .33 VIII Contents. V. Pronouns 24. Personal pronouns .... 25. Possessive pronouns . 26. Reflective pronouns . . 27. Demonstrative pronouns 28. Interrogative pronouns . . 29. Relative pronouns VI. Verb. SO. Introduction . . . . 31. Inflection 32. Infinitive . 33. Participle . .... 34. Finite Verb . 35. Present 36. Preterit 37. Future . ... 38. Imperative 39. Intensive ... 40. Substantive Verbs 41. Gerunds and Supines . . , 42. VII. Adverb . . 43. VIII. Postposition . 44. IX. Conjunction . . 45. X. Interjection . XI. Derivation: 46. Derivation of Substantives . 47. Derivation of Adjectives ■. III. 48. Arrangement of Words 49. Use of the Cases 50. Simple Sentences 51. Compound Sentences . Syntax. Appendix. Phrases . Reading Exercise . Verbs .... Page , 34 . 36 . 37 37 . 38 38 40 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 54 65 67 74 76 80 81 82 83 86 92 99 Errata. Page 3, line 13 read at instead of in. 4, V 2 V respectively. 4, y> 7 „ which instead of whom. 4, „ 9 „ under particular. 4, » 14 » »j*S> instead of '»jj*$>. 4, r> 20 „ exertion. 4, ■» 21 ( lele to. 5, V 5 dele down. 7, „ 4 read . succession instead of conjunction. 7, „ 5 M each instead of either. 7, „ 11 JJ subscribed instead of subjoined. 8, „ 11 » foot for food. 8, n 12 „ subscribed for subjoined. 8, V 16 » homonyms. 8, » 19 *) language. 8, „ 23 » over instead of above. 8, i) 24 fl consonants. 9, „ 10 „ case. 10, n 4 » judgment. 11, n 9 w except. 12, » 21 w it instead of is. 13, » 1 » which serve to denote. 13, „ 7 •n preceding. 14, » 6 , exclamation. 20, n 3 „ indiscriminately. 20, n 5 i) superseded. 20, „ 19 » But. 21, » 5 „ adds. page 23, line 1 read motion. 26, V 13 „ terminations. 26, „ 24 n precedes. 26, „ 27 n higher than. S3, 7) 6 ■» to denote. 34, n 14 letter-writing. 36, 7> 1 ■t The terms most &c. 36, » 16 » high person speaking of himself. 38, „ 11 y, ghan. 39, T) 14 „ you may. 40, n 7 » verbs. 40, ■B 21 V an Accusative. 40, » 25 fl neutre. 41, „ 10 „ form instead of shape. , 41, r> 11 „ forms instead of shapes. 41, „ 22 n the Perfect prefers. 42, rt 1 „ Perfect. 42, „ 16 15 recognises instead of acknowledges. 43, „ 20 )) idea instead of notion. 45, n 14 „ with the exception. 46, „ 6 " which will always be. 46, „ .10 »> to one. 52, „ 15 „ it expresses. 53, „ 11 n found. 53, >1 24 » passive, sense, opposed to &c. 55, „ 7 » affixes. 58, „ 12 5) that it. 61, >■> 12 " king's. 64, n 8 M intended. 66, » 15 " ^^5 , principally, very'; Part I. Phonology. 1. The Alphabet. The Tibetan Alphabet was adapted from the Lahca (™f&) form of the Indian letters by Ton- mi-sam-bhp-ta (Ipr&T^W^TR) minister of king &ron-tsqn- gam-po (^ZR^^ffi) about the year 632 (s. Kopp. II, 56). The Indian letters out of which the single Tibetan characters were formed are given in the following table in their Nagari shape. surd. aspir. sonant. nasal. gutturals. . T|" 3i ka PT *3 Ma ST|" T #a £' ^ «a palatals. . . ■5" ^T ca cB" W ca E' W ja ft" »f na dentals. . . y H ta % ^ fa ^ ^ da 31" 1 wa labials. . . CJ" ■"? pa 5J" ^ pa q' *l 6a 5J" T »ia palatal si-1 bilants. .} ■5' tea i ch fsa E; a"sa Ql' ^ wa (3" 2« 3" za ^ ,a semivowels »T *ya ^' T »"« GT »T Za ■jT TJ sa $T * sa J " W. b) The sonant aspirates, by putting J o' under the sonants: thus, ^ ^T, E' ?J 7" 5 i?) ^ fc ' *) A very clear exposition of the ramification of Indian alphabets by Dr. Haas is to be found in the Publications of the Palaeo- graphical Society Oriental Series IV, pi XLIV. '2. Remarks. 3. Vowels. 3 2. Remarks. 1. Regarding the pronunciation of the single letters, as given above, it is to be born in mind, that surds IT W CJ" are uttered without the least admixture of an aspiration, viz. as k, t, p are pronounced in the words skate, stale, spear; the aspirates [ZJ' ^' 5J" forcibly, rather harder than the same in Kate, tale, peer; the sonants SIT ^* ^' like g, d, b in gate, dale, beer. 2. The same difference of hardness is to be observed in -5' &>' ET or c, c, } (c oc- curs in church; c, the same without aspiration; ) in judge) and in -3" cb" K or ts, t's, ds. 3. (3' is the soft modifica- tion of s or the s in leisure (French -j in jamais, but more palatal). 4. C is the English w# in sm#, but occurs in Tibetan often filf the commencement of a syllable. 5. "h" n is the Hindi 5f, or the initial sound in the word new, which would be spelled V hu. 6. In the dialects of Eastern or Chinese-Tibet, however, the soft consonants ^Tj" ^' ^" ET E;', when occurring as initials, are pronounced with an aspi- ration, similar to the Hindi tet, ^, v(, ^j, or indeed so that they often scarcely differ from the common English k, t, p, ch; also (3' and 5' are more difficult to distinguish from 4T and $J' than in the Western provinces (Exceptions s. §§ 7. 8). 3. Vowels. 1. Since every consonant sign implies, like its Sanscrit prototype, a following a, unless some other vowel sign is attached to it, no particular sign is wanted to denote this vowel, except in some cases specified in the 4 4. Syllables. following §§. The special vowel signs are — , — , — , ^, pronounced respectivily as e, i, o, u are in German, Italian and most otter European languages, viz. -^- like ay in say, or e in ten; ^- like i in machine, tin; — like o in so, on; -^ like u in rule, pull. It ought to be specially remarked that all vowels, including e and o (unlike the Sanscrit vowels from whom they have taken their signs) are short, since no long vowels at all occur in the Tibetan language, except particular circumstances, mentioned below (s. § 9. 5, 6). 2. When vowels are initial, I?J is used as their base, as is t in Urdu, e.g. l?J"SJ" ama, , mother'. 3. (^ is originally different from l?J", as the latter denotes the opening of the previously closed throat for pronouncing a vowel with that slight explosive sound which the Arabs mean by I (j^j*^), as the a in the words: the lily, an endogen, which would be in Tibetan characters Gf Of l?K"; Q" on the contrary is the mere vowel without that audible opening of the throat (as Arabic I without *), as in Lilian, frj'&TOdi' In Eastern Tibet this difference is strictly observed ; and if the vowel is o or u the intentional exercion for avoiding the sound of l^T makes it resemble to wo and wu: Q.'5J" ,the milk', al- most like wo-ma, <^|'£J" ,the owl' = wug-pa. In western Tibet this has been obliterated, and R," is there spoken just like l^' 4. Syllables. The Tibetan language is monosyllabic, that is to say all its words consist of one syllable only, which indeed may be variously composed, though the 5. Final consonants. 5 component! parts cannot, in every case, be recognised in their individuality. The mark for the end of such a syllable is a dot, called SsPft t'seg, put at the right side of the upper part of the closing letter, such as TI" the syllable ka. This t'seg must invariably be put down at the end of each written syllable, except before a sad (§ 10), in which case only £' na retains its t'seg. If therefore such a dot is found after two or more consonants, this will indicate that all of them, some way or other, form one syllable with only one vowel in it: Tj'*,' ka-ra, T|^' kar (cf. §§ 5. 8). 5. Final consonants. 1. Only the following ten: *Tr C ^' 5" Cf' £|" Q^ ^" OJ" ?f (and the four with affixed ^J , v. 5) occur at the end of a syllable. 2. It must be observed, that ^1' ^' CJ' as finals are never pronounced like the Eng- lish^, d, b in leg, bad, cab, but are transformed differently in the different provinces. In Ladak they sound like k, t, p e. g. §P|' = sock, *TK" = ,90^, 1JCJ'= top. 3. In all Central Tibet, moreover, final ^" and <3T, sometimes even GJ", modi- fy the sound of a preceeding vowel: a to a (similar to the English a in hare, man), into (French eu in jeu), u into w (French u in tow). In most of the other provinces c n" and ^" are uttered so indistinctly as to be scarcely aud- ible, so that ^FH\ °TS" become so', go'. In Tsang even final ftj" is scarcely perceptible, and final ^|", particularly after 0, is almost dissolved into a vowel sound = a: ^tt]'^' so-wa, g (i. Diphthongs. ^TJ5>'Sf5=n' kon-choa*) 4. Final 5f is sounded as s only in Northern Ladak; elsewhere it changes into i or dissappears entirely, prolonging, or even modifying at the same time the preceding vowel. Thus the following words: 3K\' , barley', 3$J" ,know', ^Sf ,figure', elsSf ,religion', Q?J" ,body', are pronounced in Northern Ladak: nets, ses, ris, cos, Ivs; in Lahoul: nai, shei, rt, co, lit; in Lhasa, and consequently by everyone who wishes to speak elegantly: nq, se, /v, co, Up. 5. In some words final $J" occurs as a second closing letter (affix), after Z T|" C^ £f r 5J", as in 3PW ,forest', ^M ,glacier-ice', £^W ,means', ^5J$J" ,indigo'; these are pronounced in N. Ladak : nacks, gans, taps, rams, elsewhere nack (in U: no), gan (ET ghang), tap, ram. 6. 5* before £J" and SJ" is especially in ET very often pro- nounced to, e.g.^'CJ" ham-pa, ^\"^I* «6'wi-pa,5j5J"C]" nevi-pa. 6. Dipthongs. 1. They occur in Tibetan writing only where one of the vowels i, o, u have to be added to a word ending with an other vowel (s. §§ 15. 1; 33. 1; 45. 2). These additional vowels are then always written (3" Q" 5 f^' never t^" etc. (cf. § 3.3); and the combinations at, oi, ui (as in £J r n^', ^n\ <\, ^^") ar e pronounced very much like u^>") are pronounced in rapid conjunction, but either vowel is distinctly audible. In prosody they are ge- nerally regarded as one syllable, but if the verse should require it they may be counted as two. 7. Compound consonants. 1. They are expressed in writing by putting one below the other, in which case several change their original figure. Subjoined consonants. 2. The letter y subjoined to another is represented by the figure ^, and occurs in connection with the three gutturals and labials, and with m, thus JTV FT fj S" 9T S' 5T- ^e former three have preserved, in most cases, their original pronunciation kya, Kya, gya (the latter in ET: ghya s. § 2. 6). In the Mongol pronunciation of Tibetan words, however, they have been corrupted into c, c,j respectively, a well known instance of which is the common pronunciation Kanjur i. o. kangyur, or eleg. ka-gyur (QfV^OM^), V\ 5J" ? O are almost everywhere spoken without any difference from -5, eS, E (except in the "Western dialect before e and i, where the y is dropped and C] , S^ , ^ alone are pronounced). 5J is spoken ny = *h. 3. r occurs at the foot of the gutturals, dentals, labials, of <3> , 5J , $f , and *o , in the shape of _j. In some parts of the country, as in Purig, these combina- 8 8. Compound consonants. tions are pronounced literally, like kra, khra etc., but by- far the most general custom is to sound them like the In- dian cerebrals, viz. ^1 , 5 » 9 indiscriminately = ~z t; |^, gj, 5|= s ih; PJ, ^. g = T5 d (in CT: f%); only in the case of Q the literal pronunciation br is not uncommon. In <3\ and 5J both letters are distinctly heard ; ^ sounds like shr in shrub, and so does 5J generally. In U this r is dropped nearly in all cases: thus, 5f pa, 5J sa etc. 4. Six letters are often found with an ^J beneath: £T rQ' j§T (fT §* of; in these the GJ alone is pronounced, except in J3', which sounds da. 5. The figure -4 , sometimes found at the food of a letter is used in Sanscrit words to express the subjoined ^f, as in $|"5S" (cf. § 9. 6) for ^T^Tj aric ' i s now pronounced by Tibetans = 0: soAa; in words originally Tibetan it now exists merely as an orthographical mark, to distinguish homonymes in writing, as <3> fsa , hot' and &>' fsa, salt'; but, as it is spoken, in some words at least, in Balti (e. g. §" < rtswa , grass', it must be supposed that, in the primitive form of the lauguage, it was generally heard. — Note. Of such compounds, indeed, as 2f ,lot' it is difficult to under- < stand,, how they can have been pronounced literally, if the v was not, perhaps, pronounced before the y. Superadded consonants. 6. r above another con- sonant is written " r , and 11 contonants have this sign: 'f[' cf|" C £j" 5" 3T S[ $|" %' §f, above ^" it preserves 7. Compound consonants. — Examples. 9 its full shape, as better adapted to the form of that letter: thus, &'. In speaking it is seldom heard except provincially, and in some instances in compound words after a vowel thus, l^J'zSdi' Urgydn, Urgyen, ancient name of the country of Lahore; *s"§;" dorje ,va)ra\ Ladakees often pronounce it =s: £' sta ,horse' elsewhere ta. 7. Similar is the usage in those with a superadded ^ (namely: the surds and sonants of the first four classes, the guttural nasal, and ^), which latter is often softly heard in WT, but entirely dropped else- where, except in the ease of §f, whieh is spoken = 0^ in WT, but with a distinct aspiration = hla or lha in ET. 8. ?J is superadded to the gutturals, dentals and labials with exception of the aspiratae, then V and \$". It is, in many cases, distinctly pronounced in Ladak, but dropped elsewhere*). 9. Of]' SJ" CJ' E" E; with any superadded letter lose the aspiration mentioned in § 2. 6 and sound = g, d, b, j, ds 10. g:" .§" g' often lose even the inherent i-sound in pronunciation and are spoken like ), s, z. *) This -will be indicated in the following examples by including the s in parentheses, as (s)kom. m^-m^- kyir-kyir, round, -=£ -=> circular. §• tfyi, dog. gdTflJ' gyen-la, upwards. Sp]$J' cug(s), U: cu, cattle. Examples. HTj" kyu, hook. ffi Uyod, C: %o", you. 3^rH" cug-po, rich. |^' W: ped, C: ce\ half. 10 Examples Cr$f W: )a-mo, C: Ja-mo, ■» hen. hen W: na-ndn, C: -mot, misery. TKJ" torn, cabbage. R5W fim(s), judgement. ZTlC'^f ^ : dan-mo, C: rZ'°- -I cold. ^=Tr*T|' fug-gu, child. NS No $J<5"$T sran-ma, srdn-ma, ^ l pea. jSn* fo, wages. §^'(^0 lun(-po), wind. ^■q- Ja-'wa (s. § 11 note), ^ moon. "fi'ZT non-po, C: ngm-po, i> sharp. I^'P' /««-& (Ld. Z/ ), green. NO rH&T' (s)kom, thirst. ff|' fs.)#0, door. !"$J" ^' be-ma, C: je-ma, sand. f^'rr (s)gyur-wa, to alter, turn. si |J3j' W:.(8Jlpm, C: cw, glue. SHj' te-u, Ld: sj'e-w, monkey. C: man. m W: (s)man, medicine. 3^"S" nur-du, quickly. |jpi" jfaZ, tax. ^ W: A', ^' (Pur: #n), -J knife. ^C'cf ^ : dan-po, C: rf* , H straight. j^j" tfojr, d'ag (brag), rock. ^RJ'CJ" srul-po, ragged. No 3'SI" ld-ma, priest. §J'5J" la-mo, easy. ?f|CCJ" kan-pa, foot. g-j- W: 2wi, C: cfc/m, lie, ^i untruth. (jK'SSf «a^» (Ld. &°), C: 5 i ta'-mo, spectacle. Sf W: */■«*), C: to, hair. |j' c'«(vulg ;■>•«), sound, voice. ^}" (s)pu, small hair. No fzrq- W: (s)cod-pa, C: co'- pa, to behave. SHT W: (sb)rul, C: ^irf, ^ snake. f"i-q- W: non-pa, C: «o«- ' £>a, mad. *) Tlie concurrence of superadded ?f with a consonant already 8. Prefixed letters. 11 8. Prefixed letters. 1 The five letters =T|' y q' 5}' 0^ frequently occur before the real, radical initials of other words, but are seldom pronounced, except in similar cases as § 7. 6. qj" occurs before 3' ?f y ^ 3f tf (=}' 3' If -Q' $|* ; q before the gutturals and labials with exception of the aspiratae; q' before TV qi", the palatals, dentals and palatal sibilants with the same exception as under ^, then (3" 3' ^ -Pi' $T; &7 before the gutturals, palatals, dentals and palatal sibilants, excepted the surds; (^ before the as- piratae and sonants of the five classes. In C.T., to pro- nounce them in any case, is considered vulgar. 2. The ambiguity which would arise in case of the prefix standing before one of the 10 final consonants, as single radical, the vowel being the unwritten a, — e. g. in the syllable S^T, which, if ^ is radical, has to be pronounced dag, if prefixed ga, — is avoided by adding an OJ in the latter case: thus, ^fTlR'. Other examples are: TK'^ad (g'a) and^l 2 ^" da; q$J" bas (bq, bq) and q$J(V set; 5K" mad (ma') and 3^0." da; R^lf-V ga- This Q,' is added, though the radical be not one of the mentioned letters; as, qT|(^' ha. 3. ^" as a prefix and q* as first radical annul each other, so that only the following sound is heard, as will be seen in the compound produces in W. T some irregularities, which cannot all be specified here (see the diction,. The custom of C.T., according to which the $f is entirely neglected is in this instance easier to be followed. 12 9. ^ r ord; Accent; Quantity. following examples (^^R" etc.)- 4. Another irregularity is the nasal pronunciation of the prefixed &" in compounds after a vowel, which is often heard e.g. WTO^3T pronounced gen-dun, gen-dim, but eleg. : ge-dun, , clergy'; ^TTO'(^CJ5J' kam-bum, eleg. ka-bum, ,the 100 000 precepts' (title of a book). — Note. With regard to the aspiration of the soft consonants in ET the prefixed letters have the same in- fluence as the superadded ones § 7. 9. Examples. ZTTOZTj" yag, bos grunniens. r£j-x- pe-ca (Ld: spe-ca)., I book. £[3Q'£r zdn-po, good. Q^W^J' bab-pa, to descend. *\^C wan, vulg. C: an, power. roxr- it name of the Lhasa >3 ^ U> district. ^S'CJ" en-pa, solitude. ^^W yib( & ), ib, figure. ^Tj^"£J' kdr-po, white. ^ETj'C!' dd-wo, enemy. SJC^'SJ" ndr-mo, sweet. ^ M fourteen. ^CJ" m, resp. head. T3 P N breath. ^9^"T y ar '^ a i summer. ^^'^'.y^""" 2 ! fi-wffl, difference. 9. Word; Accent; Quantity- 1- The peculiarity of the Tibetan mode of writing in distinctly marking the word- syllables, but not the words (cf. § 4) composed of two or more of these, sometimes renders is doubtful what is to be regarded as one word. 2. There exist a great number of 9. Word; Accent; Quantity. 13 small monosyllables, which serve for denoting different shades of notions, grammatical relations etc., and are post- poned to the word in question; but never alter its original shape, though their own initials are not seldom influenced by its final consonant (cf. § 15). 3. Such monosyllables may conveniently be regarded as terminations, forming one word together with the preceeding nominal or verbal root. 4. The accent is, in such cases, most naturally given to the root, or, in compounds, generally to the latter part of the composition, as: £FTT mig, ,eye', SCT' 1 !]* mig-gi, ,of the eye'; OCT' lag, ,hand', ap|«/K[^' lag-sub(s), ,hand- covering, glove'. — 5. Equally natural is, in W.T. , the quantity of the vowels: accentuated vowels, when closing the syllable, are comparatively long (though never so long as in the English words bee, stay, or Hindi L>|. etc.), otherwise short, as 5f ml ,man', 5f 1J" mi-Id ,to the man', but £J^' mar, ,butter'. — In CT, however, even accentuated and closing vowels are uttered very shortly: ml, mi-la etc., and long ones occur there only in the case of § 5, 4. 5. and 8,2., as PW la ,work'; e&3T cVJ ,religion'; SJ^" da , arrow'; ^H-V ««, planet'; and in Lhasa especially : S^H^J" na ,forest'; Sf]$T£]' le-pa ,good'; *£J]$T ri , class, sort'; OOT^J" Id ,side c ; PCT^' lu ,manner'. — In Sanscrit words the long vowels are marked by an 0\ beneath the conso- nant, as: 3j'5J" i^JV() ,called', SfOT (^f) ,root' (s. § 3). 14 10. Punctuation. 10. Punctuation. For separating the members of a longer period, a vertical stroke: J, called 4^J sad (sa), is used, which corresponds at once to our comma, semicolon and colon; after the closing of a sentence the same is doubled; after a longer piece, e g. a chapter, four sack are put. No marks of interrogation or exlamation exist in punctuation. — 2. In metrical compositions, the double sad is used for se- parating the single verses; in that case the logical partition of the sentence is not marked (cf. § 4). TJ-Jn' or pr^' A list of a few useful words. kd-ra, Kd-ra, sugar. [£]£"£]" Ran-pa, house. jTir-- W: gait, C: (fan, I which? ZTj^' W: gur, C: gur, tent. CW nal, fatigue. ■5' ci, what? •rr-n- W: cad-pa, C: ca- i pa, punishment. i5CCJ" cun-wa, little. E" W: j a, C: )' a, tea. $"5J" id-ma, sun; day. ^C"5J" nun-ma, turnip. ^q'^Of tib-ril, tea-pot,kettle. T]<3T W: few, C: few, all. pm' llun, hole. NO =n"^' or 2T|-s:- ^- ga-ru, gar, M R 01 H P C:. 9% where? D5"£T 9tan ~P a i C: >'iam-pa, i bad. <3K' t r aw, beer. (5^'^J' cdr-pa, rain. eb<£ w q' cen-po, great. $* ?7a, fish. ^Cq' iiu/i-wa, little, few. $"*|" he-mo, near. ^f^ %-£se (W), hoe. SpTCJ' fag-fa, rope. "Hc'rr W : t'od-pa, C : fo-pa, *n H skull ^C daw, rfaw, and; with. <3pl N nag-po, black. oK' nor, wealth, property. nis'ry pan-pa, pam-pa, use, ™ S benefit. ^' ba, fia, cow. ^' &w, 6m, son. 5f me, fire. &K' med, me\ there is not. cfc'SJ* fsan-ma, whole. (oT zo, so, curdled milk. Cfc" od, wo\ light, shine. cXj'^j' yi-ge, letter. WK* 3/orf, ?/o', am, is, are. ^" ri, hill, mountain. &J" Z«, mountain-pass. PCT* ?M^r, sheep. Useful words. 15 S^' faw, the plain. ^' W: da, C: (/'a, now. S^'^T dud-pa, ctii' -pa, smoke. 3K nad, na\ disease. rtx-xr par -ma, a printed book. Spr^T p'ug-ron, -ron, dove. ^flj' bal, Hal, wool. ^"*J" bu-mo, 5°, daughter. 5fc" wi«Ve, name. x55T fecwra, how much? (3WT zag, C: s«^, day. R"5f o-ma, wo-ma, milk. t&J£" i/aw, also. rS*' y^ n i am > i s ' are (°f- ^n §39). ^"5J" ra-ma, goat. ^<5" rm, price. GJ5J" fow, road. -£T sa, flesh, meat. 16 Useful words. «Ak sin, tree, wood. $J" su, who? l?f£f a-p'a, (vulg.) father. xxi- (Ld: ras) ra, cotton cloth. ^sr (Ld: gos) go, go, cloth- ing. $J5J$T sem, soul. Ppi" fag, blood. SW'^T leb-pa, to arrive. g' W: sa, C: fea, grass. < W$\H non-po, nom-po, blue. £(1(3" 2M, bow (for shooting). rquTn- gun-ka, gun-ka, \J I I winter. &Ieb" fee, lake. ("V\' |£ T di-ioa, to ask. ?]" sa, earth. ^s&T so-ma, new. l?J'5J" «-«fl (vulg.) mother. ^^T (Ld: ~^ write. 11. Article. 17 Part II. Etymology. Chapter I. The Article. 11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan article. 1. What have been called Articles by Csoina and Schmidt, are a number of little affixes: CJ" R' 5J" £]" ^' 5J", and some similar ones, which might perhaps be more adequately termed denominators, since their principal object is undoubtedly to represent a given root as a noun, substantive or ad- jective, as is most clearly perceptible in the instance of the roots of verbs, to which CJ" or ^' impart the notion of the Infinitive and Participle, or the nearest abstract and nearest concrete nouns that can possibly be formed from the idea of a verb. These affixes are not, however, — except in this case — essential to a noun, as many substantives and adjectives and most of the pronouns are never ac- companied by them, and even those which usually appear connected with them, will drop them upon the slightest occasion. 2. Almost the only case in which a syntactical use of them, like that of the English definite Article, is perceptible, is that mentioned § 20. 3; a formal one, that of distinguishing the Gender, occurs in a limited number of words, where SJ" denotes the female, 2j" the masculine. Thus: iS^'^f gydl-po ,king', zSftJ *f gydl-mo ,queen'. Or, Jaschke, Tibetan Grammar. 2 18 11.-12. Article. if the word in the masculine (or rather common) gender has no article, *f is added: ^fc^n" sen-ge ,lion', ^C^TTSJ ,lioness'. 3. In most instances, by far, their only use is to distinguish different meanings of homonymous roots, e.g. ^jMi'CJ" (s)ton^pa (ton-pa) , teacher'; ^5"5J' (s)ton-mo (tgn- mo), ,feast'; ^Tp* (s)ton-Ea (ton-ia) ,autumn'. Even this advantage, however, is given up, as soon as a composition takes place, and then the meaning can only be inferred from the context, or known from usage: 5JC"^s<3T (from ^K'&J') ,name feast' (given on the occasion of namiDg or christening an infant) ; ^Ti?' (from ^'pi') , autumnal month'. In some instances the putting or omitting of these articles is optional; more frequently the usage varies in different provinces. 4. The peculiar nature of these affixes is most clearly shown by the manner in which they are connected with the indefinite article § 13. Note. The affixes CJ' CJ' are after vowels and after the consonants C ^" 0^' always pronounced icu and wo, instead of ba and bo; thus, ^Tn'CJ" ka-iva , difficult'; ^T re-wa ,hope'; ^Q'^" gaii-ica (gh°) ,i'ull'; ^• 5 v'^' zer-wa (ser-wa) , to say'; 5J1]'^' nyal-wa ,hell'; ET R' jo-wo (jho- wo) ,lord, master' 12. Difference of the Articles among each other. 1. The usage of £J" ^' 5|" is the most general and widest of all, 13. Indefin. Article. 19 as they occur with all sorts of substantives and other nouns. CJ" is particularly used for denoting a man who is in a certain way connected with a certain thing (something like tsSSj and .1^ in Hindustani and Persian: ^T da , school', < ^rj'CJ' (literally: scholar) , disciple, novice'; c&' %u, ,water', eS'C]' ,water-carrier' (^ ^Li); 6" , horse', £'£J', horseman'; S5!^' '^ e P 10 "™ 106 of US ^3^ '^" ' a man f rom US n^' Jcyeu ,boy', dj" fo .year', ^ro^T ni(s) ,two', hence: R'S,' QT^l'ft^f CT >a two years' boy'. If the feminine is required 5}" is either added to, or — more commonly — used instead of, the former: ^SJ'SJ' ,a woman from U'; g'sfBfqj^T 5]" ,a two years' girl'. The performer of an action is more frequently denoted by fcj" (or, in more solemn language, CJ'Sf V though, in conversation at least, 5]pj<3T lean (Men), is preferred; g^'^T jed-pa ,to do, make; doing, making': §^f , g^'CT^f, §^'51^" ,the doer, maker' 2. The appendices TT HT ^Tj" occur with a limited number of nouns only, especially the names of the seasons, with numerals, and some pronouns. (TT seems to be a vulgar form of pronunciation for T|"). 13. The indefinite Article. This is the numeral one (§13), only deprived of its prefix, viz: S 1 ^', which form it retains, if the preceding word ends with *TT ^" C[',as: PR'-S^* 2* 20 14. Number. Kab-big, a needle; it is changed to ■$ n T after $J* ? ^,$JVW|" ras-sig, rd-sig, a cloth; to @KV zig (sig) in all other cases. Some authors use &W after any termination indisrimina- tely. It is, of course, always without accent. The articles CJ" CJ" etc. are not thrown out by the indefinite article e.g. ^<3i'CJ' , teacher, the teacher', ^J3TCJ"(3CT* ,a teacher'. It is used even after a plurality: thus, ^'^"^"(^'^'ftf^' ,there were some four wells', and even: S^'fepT^TKO."^!" ,there being a multitude of them' (from Mil). Very often it is placed after the interrogative pronouns (v. 27), and sometimes its original meaning is obscured so much that it occurs even after known and definite subjects, where one would expect the demonstrative (see f. i. Dzl. 25, 1. 28, 6. 128, 14). Chapter II. The Substantive. 14. The Number. The Plural is denoted by adding the word ,5&W nam, or, more rarely, ^71* dag (dag), &\ or a few other words, which originally were nouns with the common notion of plurality. Bus this mark of the Plural is usually omitted, when the plurality of the thing in question may be known from other circumstances, e. g. when a nu- meral is added: thus, ^' ,man', i)'(f&J$J' ,men', §^$151' ,three men'. When a substantive is connected with an ad- jective, the plural sign is added only once, viz. after the 15. Declension. 21 last of the connected words: l^aC^SflSJ^J' ,the good men'. Note. The conversational language uses the words ^ Inst. o^t)^-^-%^ z *-%*; ajsHfor ^ m -gy^, -gy~ l ; ^° ~& lus-si, lui -^ lam-ml Dat. OpT^T lus-la, lu-la 0^^'Q^ lam-la Loc. ^pj' 1 ^" lus-na ftJ5J'<3T lam-na Abl. Rpj'<3i$J"J lus-na Oi^'tW' lam-na Term. flj$|*^]' lus-su °W^' lam-du 3. 4. N. Ace. S^TT mig TO" Ha; PT^' Ma-wa Gen. SJEfjw mig-gi W"\' #<"'; P'^^" Ka-wai 24 15. Declension. Inst. $^'*TBT mig-gis, -9 s p5|* fa; PT^T fa-w« Dat. Spn'flJ" mig-la PTOTilfa-Za; F^'OT ^ a " 1 1 wa-la Loc. frp^K mig-na War Ua-na; Wtt Ka ~ 11 1 1 wa-na Abl. cs SJEjy&^J" mig-na PT<3^' Afa-wa; P'CJ'^T Ua^wa-na Term. SpJ" 1 }" mig-tu PT^' , PR' Afa-rw, Afar; Ka-wa-ru. Ica-war. Plural. As the plural signs are simply added to the nouns, without affecting their form, we here only give examples of declension with the two most frequent plural particles. As example for ^Tj'the plural of the pron. ^' ,that' has been chosen. N. Ace. (^STJjSJSr lus(lu-)-nam(s) ^"^T de-dag Gen. ^J'JjSWJTT lus-nam(s)-kyi S'^T^' de-dag-gi Inst. OjSJ'jprJjST l ™-™ m ( s > ^-^' de-dag-gis Dat. f-^rapWOT lus-nam(s)-la ^=Tj"ftT de-dag-la Loc. f^" ^'^ *-<%-«« Term. ^JPTJISW^" lus-nam(s)-su ^^F]'^' de-dag-tu 16. Adjective, 25 Chapter III. The Adjective. 16. In the Tibetan^language the Adjective is not form- ally distinguished from the Substantive, so that many nouns may be used one or the other way just as circumstances require.*) The declension, likewise, follows the same rules as that of substantives Only two remarks may be added here. 1. The particles £J" 5J" H *J' ai 'e not very strictly used for distinguishing the gender, since even in the case of human beings CJ" and CJ' are not seldom found connected with feminines, e. g. : CJ'onJ'SJE^'CI' just as well as ^'3T £|E&J'5|" ,a fine girl'. 2. The Adjective stands after the Substantive to which it belongs: thus, ^'SJI^'^r ri-fdn- po, C : ri-t'gn-po, ,the high hill', when, of course, the case- *) But the vulgar language has a predilection for certain forms &ft of Adjectives 1. those -with the gerundial particle C", as for the more classical c(fo" ',warm'; these seem to be particularly in use in Tsan: 5|E;Q'%" ,friendly', less so in U. 2. compound ad- s'* °v jectives either by simple reiteration of the root: ^flJ'^OJ' for •^f^'^f ,round', or changing the vowel at the same time: rqrn'rcxrr ,complicate', cn^t'Cn^t' awry etc Often they are quadrisyllables after this form: $10^0^0^' Mewarm', ^En-En-Jjcn-:^ ,medley'. 26 17. Comparison. signs are joined to the Adjective: **'£JS^'tI (^' ,of the high hill', ^3$$3f*f jp*T ,the high hills' etc. Or the Adjective may be put in the Gen. before the Substantive: ^ji^f 0^' , and then the latter only is de- clined: SJ^Sfc^^' , siSfjf^f^'jpKT. In the vulgar speech both of C and WT the adjective sometimes pre- serves, even in this position, its simple form (Nominative). A third way of expression, when both are joined together, without any article, as Q5J"$T ..instead of $|"fjW H the dry land, is rather a compound substantive, with the same difference of meaning as , highland' and ,a high land' in English. 17. Comparison. 1. Special endings, expressive of the different degrees of comparison, as in the Aryan languages, do not exist in Tibetan. There are two particles, however, corresponding to the English than: ^^', after the final consonants C ^T QJ" and after vowels (CJ?J*, after C T1' ^" <3T ^' 5J" ^J"*)), and OJ5J"; these particles follow the w,ord with which another is compared (like the Hind. ^^S) and this then preceeds the compared one, finally follows the cv OS adjective in the positive: t'Cf^T (or GQffl") PJ"<3&C^*WJ3T , horse — than dog small is', just as in Hindustani: J> lo _^> Ltf" ,_w (_5j_j^. But also the position usual in *) Some Mscr. and wood-prints, however, prefer, even after these consonants, the form ^^J\ 17. Comparison. 27 our European languages occurs, thus: Xj^KQ^^S^ q^'^^^-^q-^-CJ-q^-^C:^'^'^ ,the merit of becoming a priest is relatively higher that mount Meru'; ^'S'f^'^'^^'^^'^'^'^'T ' the kin § of Tibet is greater than the other ones'. The particle ^^J" (^W) may be put, in the same manner, after adverbs. Thus, S^v* ^'^^'^'Sf^'SR'^P^ , (their eyes) became more keen-sighted than before'. Or, after infinitives, ^n^'^fC q"q$J'<3!'2^f ?J^'<5*5J(5* ,it is better (for him) that his younger brother should go (with him) than another'. GJ$J' for it- self has the meaning of ,more than', with the negative: ,not more than', , only'; thus: ^'^^^''W^'SI'^JSJ" ,more than two ounces I do not want' (cf. vulg.WT: ^^J^J" £H'<3T£K" .there are not more than (only) three') ; or ,noth- ing but', ,only', ^qp^TTtW^^T^' ,there is no pleasure (for us) but hunting, h. is our only pi'. 2. An Adverb which augments the notion of the ad- jective itself, is gpj'CJ^' ,more'; this can be added ad li- bitum: i^'JI^'CF^'qT^. 3. Another adverb, E" means: , more and more', .gra- dually more', e. g. E'$'E'^'?fc^ ^ §' , ,going nearer and nearer'. 4. , The elder — the younger' e. g. of two brothers, is 28 18. Cardinal Numerals. simply expressed by: ,the great — the little'. 5. The Superlative is paraphrased by the same means: TIS'RJ^I' ^"2f or ^r^'CW'SafZf .greater than all'. Or it is expressed in the following manner: U^" c j]'S^''fcJC^'<3K" | 3!' zSOTCf'EnC^b ,of (among) the kings of the country which one is the greatest (prop, great)?'. Adverbs for expressing high degrees are: ■w"'}" or ^^'^ ,very', Tj^'S" ,all', 1 So No N= 'no U^$f'?J* ,quite', ^JcB^n"^* exceedingly' etc. No Note. The colloquial language of WT uses ?JC in- stead of ^$J' or ftJ^J", and 5J' (ma, always with a strong emphasis, perhaps a mutilated form of 5JR?J" ,much') or &JCCJ' instead of "W* 1 )', whereas that of CT employs GJ$J' in the former case, but repeats the adjective in the latter, so that ,very large' is expressed in books by ■3<3!'^*el5<3! H , in speaking, in WT by ma cen-po, in CT by cem-po cem-po. Chapter IV. The Numerals. 18. Cardinals: 1 9 STK&j" cig 2 3 BT^T ni(s) 3 3 ZT 1^' SM ™ 18. Cardinal Numerals. 29 4 e? q®" *:* 5 V Of na 6 ^S 5^' W: <%, C: dhug 7 2/ q^S' W: dun, 0: cfflpn 8 L q^' W: gyod, C: ^a' 9 © Wl" #m 10 ?° q§" cm, or qjI'S^'q' cu-fam-pa 11 ?? q^&Tj' cu-lig 12 ?3 q^'^^" Zu-fti, vulg: cug-m(s) 13 ?? q§"^|^W cm-smw, vulg: bug-sum 14 ?c q^'q^' c«-2tf, vulg: cub-zi 15 ?V* q^g' co-rca 16 9S q^'S 2 ^]' cm-c%, C: -dhug 17 ?# q^q^" in-dun, C: -dw«, vulg: cub-d° 18 ?/C q^qgjS' vo-gydd, C: -#i/d", vulg: co&-#° 19 ?Q R§*F\ cu-gu 20 3° ^V3 m-JM 21 2? I'^T^^l' ni-su-sarcig, or ^ - Cf|%=r|' «f" 30 18. Cardinal Numerals. 30 5° ^W<§" sum-cu 31 3? SW^'-g"^^* sum-cu-sa-Ug, If ^x^T]' so-c^f 40 c^° qfS'q^' 2i-cw, vulg: zib-cu 41 c*? ^§'^"-§" c ']5 :: n' zi-cu-sa-cig, ^'^3^" ze-«y 50 V" 13'CJig" na-cu, vulg: nab-cu 51 V^ grq^'g'^ls^' na-cu-sa-Ug, t'^S 2 ^' rca-et# 60 nS° 5^"^' dug-cu, C: dhug-cu 61 sS? ccn-^'^f-rn^cn- dug-cu-sa-cig, ^'=03*71' «?-«# NO 70 ^° q^"§' dun-cu, C: dun-cu 71 W? q^-§-^5q|'dMm-cM-sa-c^, "^'=11^'^" 80 >L° q^^'^' gydd-cu, C: gya-cu 81 £? qg^'^^'^a^-CM-sa-^, 2J'=T|^=T]'^" 90 ©° ^Tq^" gu-cu, vulg: gub-cu 91 ©? S^'qC^T^^l" gu-cu-sa-cig, S^t^T]" ^o «# (C: £0-ci£) 100 ?°° qg"(£JSrq') gya(fdm-pa) ioi ?°? qa^-qjl^- or qzjjT 2 ^' *y° v^* (° r 200 3 00 ^'q^S' fii-gya, vulg: hib-gya 300 2>°° ^3^"q*' swm-^a 18.— 20. Numerals. 31 400 4^°° ^(Sraft" zi-gya, vulg: zib-gya etc. 1000 7^° ^C,' (s)ton 10 000 9 00CO j§f fi 100 000 7 00000 Q^'bum 1000 000 ?°°°°°° ^'Vf sa-ya 10 000 000 9° ooocco g'q' je-wa There are, as in Sanscrit, names for many more powers of 10, but they are seldom used. 19. Ordinals. *$$$' W: dan-po,C: d'° , the first', the rest are simply formed by adding CJ'to the cardinals, as : ^H^^J'^I', the second etc.; the 21. is *\/Xg' - cn§qj'q' ? the twenty- oneth', not, as in English, ,the twenty first'. 20. Remarks. 1. The smaller number postponed indi- cates, as is seen in § 18, addition, the reverse — multipli- cation: CJ^'^^J&J' 13, ^5J'§' 30; but in the latter case the three first numerals are changed to cCT', "h\ ^W; and RQ , as the second part of a compound after conso- nants, is spelled ^'. 2. The words ^5J'£]' (after full tens up to one hundred), 5pj' (after hundreds and thousands*)), *) 5pTT is used especially if the number counting the hundreds, 32 20. Numerals. * (with still greater numbers), are optional but frequent additions. .§" is common instead of ^C ,and', to connect units with tens (s. § 18), but it occurs also with hundreds and thousands, and not seldom together with ^C, e.g.^K' 2X'.g"Er|?&r, 1002. It is used also instead of ^'CJ',as: ^§'-§" ten ' y ""TS" twent y; °^ ten it ^ s standing alone for No y""^T-§"' as: ■S" c ny^"' twerit y two - This latter custom may have caused the belief, common even among educated readers in C and WT, that .§" must mean twenty, even when connecting a hundred or thousand to a unit, as they will usually understand the above mentioned number in the sense of 1022 instead of 1002; but the authority of printed books, wherever the exact number can be verified from other circumstances, does not confirm this, which would in- deed be a sadly ambiguous phraseology. 3. TJ" added to a cardinal number means conjunction: ^jft^J'TT, the two together, both; ^l^JSJ'TT, the three together, all three etc. £j" means either the same, or represents the definite article, indicating that the number has been already mentioned, e.g. SJ'ijH q^-^| l^'^faljT^""' five men were sent . . . The five men arriving etc. 4. £]" is used, besides thousands etc. follows: thus, ^fc"5JE|T'RV|C| ,of thousands: twenty, 20 000'; nracn-C-^- ,many ten-thousands'. 21.— 23. Numerals. 33 forming Ordinals, to express the notion of containing', e. g. ^"mI'S^'^I' ,that containing six letters', viz. the famous o formula: &]'5ffc'Q' £$)' om tnani padme hum; $J&J'v§"£J', ,that containing thirty (letters)', the Tibetan alphabet. 5. Such combinations as ^ft^J'^n^JrSJ' etc. are frequently used in common life, so denote a number approximately, ,two or three or so' (cf. § 14 Note). 21. Distributive numerals. They are expressed by repe- tition as in Hind: ^^'S^' eacn ^ me s ^ x ' s ' x ^ or eac ' 1 etc * No N3 In composed numerals only the last member is repeated, thus SW^'-g"^^!'^^" each time thirty two. 22. Adverbial numerals. 1. Firstly, secondly etc. are formed from the ordinals as every Adverb is from an Ad- jective, viz. by adding the letter ^', Sf/tfK', ^*J'£F" etc. (s. § 41). 2. Multiplicative adverbs, ,once', ,twice' etc , are expressed by putting QJ<5" , times' before the cardinal: flJcfT^TyTT, ^"^Tl'W", W: lan-cig, lan-di(s), C: lan-cig, Idn-ni ,once, twice' etc. ; seldom $F\\ cb^', SjWT with the same meaning as GH . 23. Fractional numerals are formed by adding £>' ,part' : thus, ^W."e&' ,a hundredth part' etc., but also: ^C'SJE;^" ^^JSJ'c&'toR" ,o ne third of the treasury'. Jaschke, Tibetan Grammar. 3 34 24. Personal Pronouns. Chapter V. Pronouns. 24. Personal Pronouns. First person: C na; C^ ned, nf; "E^T nos (Ld); pf 2f lfo-wo, masc, and R'SJ" £o-»w>, fern.; ^^l' c% ,self — ,1'; Second person: PjK' Kyod (tfyd'), Pfc" %ed C%«') ,thou, you'; Third person: R' £o, pt' few — ,he, she, it'. The plural is formed by adding -S^T jj&W, 5^|'j!5W or $,' , but very often, if circumstances show the meaning with sufficient certainty, the sign of the plural is altogether omitt- ed. The declension is the same as that of the substantives. Remarks: C is the most common and can be used by every body; K" seems to be preferred in elegant speech (s. Note); C^J" is very common in modern letter writing, at least in WT; ^^^H" ,self', when speaking to superior persons occurs very often in books, but has disappeared from common speech, except in the province of Tsan (Tasi- Ihumpo) as also the following; pT^T, P"5J" in easy con- versation with persons of equal rank, or to inferiors. 2. person, 1^' is used in books in addressing even the highest persons, but in modern conversation only among equals or to inferiors; g^" is elegant and respect- ful, especially in books. — 24. Personal Pronouns. 35 3. person. PT seldom occurs in books, where the de- monstr. pron. s' (§ 26) is generally used instead; wt' is common to both the written and the spoken language, and used, at least in the latter, as respectful. But it must be remarked that the pronoun of the third person is in most cases entirely omitted, even when there is a change of subject. — Instead of C^'xS^' and nS '^^1' tne people of WT use CT(3" and pf(=T; the vulgar plural of p' is pVj-. _ To each of these pronouns may be added: ^^ ran or W" Rid, m' ,self, and in conversational language C^K", nS' J ^", pT^CT are, perhaps, even more frequently used than the simple forms, without any difference in the mean- ing, "h^ is more prevalent in books, except the compound ftK' 3 ^' fii-ran, which is in modern speech the usual respectful pronoun of address, like ,Sie' in Grerman. Note. The predilection of Eastern Asiatics for a system of ceremonials in the language is met with also in Tibetan. There is one separate class of words, which must be used in reference to the honoured person, when spoken to as well as when spoken of. To this class belong, be- es ~N -s^ sides the pronouns ft^'^sC, rF\, P^'i all the -respect- ful terms by which the body or soul, or parts of the same, and all things or persons pertaining to such a person, and 36 24.-25. Pron. — Respectful and Elegant Terms. even his actions, must be called. The notions, most fre- quently occurring, have special expressions, as f^(s)ku,in- stead of QSJ" lus, lu, ,body'; SA' u, i. o. 5!^ g ,head'; Sp]^' fug(s) (IT: fa), i.o. ^fSfST sem(s) ,soul', or ttj^" yid, yt, ,mind'; U^" yah, i.o. 5J" (vulg: W^f"), ,father'; Sv'CJSn" na-za, i. o. c fW" <70 )hf-pa ,to make' and many others. If there is no such special word, any substantive may be rendered respectful by adding S" or -Spi?!" re- spectively (so, §}'£' i.o. 3>' ,lifetime'; ^|*r|-f^'i.o.jj^T , anger') any verb by adding SJK'CJ*, according to 39, 1. Another class of what might be called elegant terms are to be used when conversing with an honoured person (or also by a high person himself in his own speech), such as ^3S'^' 9yid-pa, ffl/t-p a )to do'; 5|cB^"C]' cl-pa, ,to be'; 5R"^" lad-du, la-du i. o. Q^'^T ,for the sake of, with- out reference to the said person himself. Even uneducated people know, and make use of, most of the ,respectful' terms, but the merely , elegant' ones are, at least in WT, seldom or never heard in conversation. 25. Possessive pronouns. The Possessive is simply 26.-27. Pronouns. 37 expressed by the Genitive of the Personal, Q^', RSTT etc. ,His', ,her', ,its', when referring to the acting subject (suus), must be expressed by ■^,C" C T[" or ^'[Jj ^ s own'; otherwise (ejus) by R^', j^R'^j', ^'- In C, in the latter case, Cs"'53J", n^'^\ p &\ are used. 26. Reflective and Reciprocal pronouns. 1. The Reflec- tive pronoun, ,myself, ,yourself etc. is expressed by ^C, Wl', also ^^ C H'- But in the case of the same person being the subject and object of an action, it must be paraphrased, so for ,he precipitated himself from the rock' must be said ,he precipitated his own body etc' *£wflJ$T; for , he re- buked himself — ,he rebuked his own soul' ^C^TOSW — 2. The reciprocal pronoun ,each other' or ,one another' is rendered by ,one — one', as Cfjl^'^j^r *TJ§q|'q5J^' ,by one one was killed', ,they killed one another'; ^^TTO' ^S 1 ?]'^"'^' ,to one one said', ,they said to each other'- 27. Demonstrative pronouns. 1. Q^ di, ,this'; ^' de, dhe ,that' are those most frequently used, both in books and speaking. The Plural is generally formed by ^Tj", but also by f£W and <$' . More emphatical are G^ 7 ^", n^'cn^ O^'^f, f^'^f) J ust tnis '' ' tnis same'; 'yTJ etc. ,that same'. — The vulgar dialect also uses ^"h[" ha-gyi 38 28.-29. Pronouns. and SJ'ETj' pd-gyi for ,that', .yonder 1 , and, in WT, {£f, BN'n for, this' and l^' for ,that'; 5f3* occurs even in books. • — 2. It is worth remarking that the distinction of the nearer and remoter relation is, even in common lan- guage, scrupulously observed. If reference is made to an object already mentioned, K is used; if to something fol- lowing, Q^'; e.g. ^"fjK'^fH^T^J" i tnat speech he said', ,thus he said'; R^"S^"{5?ffJ?f£r ,this speech he said', ,he said thus, spoke the following words'. 28. Interrogative pronouns. They are ^'isu ,who?'; ^C" gan, gh. , which?'; -5" hi ,what?'; to these the indefi- nite article (SHY is often added, ?J'(epT etc. The two former can also assume the plural termination ^FY, $T^T, *TK* ^FY- — In CT ^jC is frequently used instead of x5' 29. Relative pronouns. These are almost entirely want- ing in the Tibetan language, and our subordinate relative clauses must be expressed by Participles und Gerunds, or a new independent sentence must be begun. The parti- ciple, in such a case, is treated quite as an adjective, being put either in the Genitive before the substantive, or, in the Nominative, after: (^•qQ^t'CJ'J&JSJ" ; the merchants who would go (with him)'; Wl'^n'^pj'^ft^'CJ" ,the cord on which turquoises are strung'; QTO^"5J'3^C^"'2f5|t'^"(SjH]" 29. Relative Pronouns. 39 ,ODe who gets (unto whom come) many presents'. Cf. also 33. Only those indefinite sentences which in English are introduced by ,he who', ,who ever', ,that which', ,what' etc. can be adequately expressed in Tibetan, by using the in- terrogative pronouns with the participle (seldom the naked root) of the verb, or adding &'■ (,if — ' v. 41, A. 4.) to the latter. Instead of \5' in this case E;" is written more cor- rectly. Thus: ^•q'^-q^-^-^*rq-q^=T|'a^-£R' 3^'^T ,if anybody who possesses the good faith teach it me ' ; i^'^'^^^'^'S^^H^' > wlien those °* y° u who wish to go are assembled'; d^'^'^S'Cfc&'RX'R'QX^' CJ'^SI^'-5^"(5^'CI^'^'^^^'?f ,this jewel (cintamani) will make come down like rain whatever is wished for'; j^'3'i^'j^'E'||^'q^(5}<3r^"CJ(^ ,whatever you way say and ask of me according to that I will act, or I will grant you whatever you ask 1 . q^'^'^'t"^"^'*' 5JeS R'c&'^l^rS' ,having scooped the water of the sea with what force I have'; ^'^S'l'^'^'l^"^^'^' q^i5'^'cn^jfll' ,1 beg you to show me what sort of jewel you have found (got)'; ^■§)-|^-qp^^^-q|^'g|- 5 '^J^'S^'T 5 n ' s footprints, in what place soever they fell cs (v. lex. s. v. ^n^T), became gold-sand'. 40 30. Verb. — Introduction. But the participle is treated as if no relative was pre- ceding, thus ^■t'jjra^rci'oj^rsr^pr^f > did not recede from (recall) the word he had spoken before'; vulg., WT, C;2Tpq^'qa^-|)=T|' ,the room where I sat'. Chapter VI. The Verb. 30. Introductory remarks. The Tibetan verb must be regarded as denoting, not an action, or suffering, or con- dition of any subject, but merely a coming to pass, or, in other words, they are all impersonal verbs, like taedet, miseret etc. in Latin, or it suits etc. in English. Therefore they are destitute of what is called in our own languages the active and passive voice, as well as of the discrimi- nation of persons, and show nothing beyond a rather poor capability of expressing the most indispensable distinctions of tense and mood. From the same reason the acting subject of a transitive verb must regularly appear in the Instrumental case, as^the case of the subject of a neutral verb, — which, in European languages, is the Nominative — , ought to be regarded, from a Tibetan point of view, as Accusative expressing the object of an impersonal verb, just as ,poenitet me' is translated by ,1 repent' But it will perhaps be easier to say: The subject of a transitive verb, in Tibetan, assumes regularly the form of the in- strumental, of a neutral verb that of the nominative which is the same as the accusative. Thus, C^'flfc"?^' is pro- 31. Inflection of Verts. 41 perly: ££' a beating happens, flfc' regarding you, C$J' by me = I beat you. In common life the object has often the form of the dative, nS'l^T, to facilitate the comprehen- sion. But often, in modern talk as well as in the classical literature, the acting subject, if known as such from the context, retains its Nominative form. Especially the verba loquendi are apt to admit this slight irregularity. 31. Inflection of verbs. This is done in three different ways : a) by changing the shape of the root. Such different shapes are, at most, four in number, which may be called, according to the tenses of our own grammar to which they correspond, the Present-, Perfect-, Future-, and Imperative- roots; e.g. of the Present-root CTKC^" ,to give' the Perfect root is ^C, the Future-root ^^C^", the Imperative root 3jC"; of O^Tj'C]', to filter, bolt' respectively: CJxfc]^' tsag(s) (U: tsa), ^x^TT tsag, cCT' fsog. The Present root, which implies duration, is also occasionally used for the Imper- fect (in the sense of the Latin and Greek languages) and Future tenses. It is obvious, from the above mentioned instances, that the inflection of the root consists partly in alterations of the prefixed letters (so, if the Perfect likes the prefixed £J , the Future will have ^ or retain the ^), partly in adding a final $J" (to the Perfect and Imperative), partly in changing the vowel (particularly in the Impera- tive). But also the consonants of the root itself are changed 42 32. Infinitive. sometimes: so the aspirates are often converted in the Perfet and Future into their surds, besides other more irregular changes. Only a limited number of verbs, however, are possessed of all the four roots, some cannot assume more than three, some two, and a great many have only one. To make up in some measure for this deficiency : b) some auxiliary verbs have been made available: for the Present tense WJ3T Q^]', ^*T and others, all NO of which mean ,to be' (§ 39); for the Perfect c6^", 35", Z$Q' ; for the Future R^) 1 ^", ^v^"> an ^ the substantive S* c) By adding various monosyllabic affixes, the Infini- tive, Participles, and Gerunds are formed. These affixes as well as the auxiliary verbs are connected partly with the root, partly with the Infinitive, resp. its terminative, partly with the Participle. Note. The spoken language, at least in WT, acknow- ledges even in four- rooted verbs seldom more than the Perfect root. 32. The Infinitive mood. The syllables CJ" pa or, after the final consonants £" ^' Of and vowels, SJ" wa are added to the root, whereby it assumes all the qualities and powers of a noun. In verbs of more roots than one, each of them can, of course, in this way be converted into a substantive, or, in other words, each tense has its Infinitive, except the Imperative. From one-rooted verbs the different In- finitives may be formed by the above mentioned auxiliaries: thus, the Inf. Perf., by adding tt^CJ' to the Infinitive of 33. Participle. 43 the verb in question, or db^'R' , 3^'^T, ^IfT to the root, and the Inf. Fat. by adding Q^p,"CJ" to the Supine (terminative of the infinitive, 41. B) thus, &JSjE;"C| 2 \OT]*.'CJ" visurum esse, visum in. Note. The spoken language uses, in WT almost ex- clusively, a termination pronounced bets in Turig and Balti, ces, ce in Ladak, ce in Lahoul etc., ja in Kunawar, ie in Tsan etc., the etymology of which is doubtful, as it is not to be found in any printed book. Lamas in Ladak and Lahoul spell it b^T. 33. The Participle. 1. This is in the written language entirely like the Infinitive Ufa'S]' ,being', ^C^'CJ' , giving', CKC"C[" ,having given'. — 2. Whether the meaning is active and passive, however, can only be inferred from the con- text, e. g. fiKC^'^GiXCftJ* 1S °^ course jthe money given', but ^Cpj"^SCCJ(3,"5J" ,the man having given, or, that has given, the money'; the Tibetan participle means nothing but that the action or condition is connected in some way with a person or thing. But it is natural that in the pre- sent participle the active notion should be the more frequent one, as well as in the preterit the passive. — 3. In the instance of Intensive verbs (formed with 3^'^' 38. 1) the usage of scientific authors has strictly connected the active sense with those formed with R^, as ^HSC^S' ton-jed, ton-je', instead of ^KCCFT^'C]", doing give, giving, 44 33. Participle. giver, and the passive to those with g', as *V^'Q' ton)a, ton, ja i. o. ^C'^'g'^' ,to be given' (dandus), Q'R'^f*' a"q"^'C*ta'CJ"^J n the most Western provinces, by: sad £as-si lug, Lad.: sdd-ces-si lug, Lah. etc.: sad bei lug, Tsan: so-st J -kyi lug ^^'-H^TT^n', and, most like the classical language, in Kun. : sod )a lug. 34. Finite Verb. 45 34. The finite verb. 1. The principal verb of a sentence, which always closes it (48.) receives in written Tibetan in most cases a certain mark, by which the end of a period may be known. This is, in affirmative sentences, the vowel (called by the grammarians: q|^'?'' c 7")) i n interrogative ones the syllable am. Before both the closing consonant ot the verb is repeated, or, if it ends with avowel, CC" and R5J" are written. The Perfect of the verbs ending in <3i' ^' flj'^ which formerly had a ^' as second final — S'5^1" — ■> as ~ sume Gj and ^3^'. — 2. These additional syllables are omitt- ed a) in imperative sentences, b) in the latter member of a double question, c) when the question is expressed al- ready by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, d) in coor- dinate members of a period, with exception of the last one, e) commonly, when the principal verb is the verb substan- tive wfcj-, B^' etc. (40. 1.). Examples, a) ?fc ,go!', Q^"^"3eT1" ,come here!'. — b) Si^'CSI'^'S}^' ,do you see or not?' — c) *y^'^' ,who is there?', <3\&P^W" , when did (he, you etc.) arrive?'. ,the houses were destroyed, the men killed, the whole town annihilated'. — e) ^^^"§'3^'=^'^ | ,in the sand of the river is gold'. Note. In conversation the is generally omitted, and 46 35. Present. the m of the interrogative termination dropped, so that merely the vowel a is heard, e. g. the question SJsp'CSJ' ,do (you) see' and the answer SJs^'C" ,(I) see', are com- monly spoken in WT: fori-ria? fori. 35. Present Tenses. I. Simple Present Tense. This is the simple root of the verb, which always will be found in the dictionary; in WT, as mentioned above, of verbs with more than one root, only the Perfect root is in use ; if, therefore, stress is laid on the Present signification, re- course must be had te one of the following compositions, (s. 31. and Note). Thus, 5J5JC ,(I, thou, he etc.) see, seest etc.', ^5^" »C- e *°0 give' through all persons; in the end of a sentence: 5JiS!^f | z WTcf| 2. Compound Present Tenses, a) R^F\' (s. 40, 1) is added to the root: S^'Q^' ,(I) see', q^a^' ,(I) give'. This is common in the dialect of WT especially. — b) The Participle connected with ttk", SJ^'qrdk" ,(]) see'. In WT this, of course, is changed to SJSp'STOS'&Jdi" — c) One of the Gerunds (41, A) with 3fe" or A^', as 5$fc$t (or SfiC or §)' or (^'), a«|' or 3fc ,(I) see,' am seeing'; it must, however, be remarked that both ways of expression, b) and c), are not very frequent. — d) ^^ '^NS" or ^S^T is the proper form for the compound 36. Preterit. 47 English present: sf^fc'TOTq^' ,(I) am seeing', <^§"%T ^S^T ,(I) am writing (just now)'. 36. Preterit Tenses. 1. Simple Preterit, Perfect or Aorist Tense; this is the Perfect root: £J^C, at the close of the sentence ^C'C* | ,gave, have given, was given' ; in one- rooted verbs it has, of course, the same form as the present: &ji^C,YQ') ,saw, have, or was, seen 1 . This is the usual narrative tense like the Greek Aorist or French Parfait dpfini. — 2. Compound Preterit Tenses. — a) The root with ?fCT, ^R'^fc" ,have given, gave, was given', 5J£p*$fC" ,have seen, saw, was seen'; rarely met with in books, but in general use in the conversation of WT. In CT ^C jun is used in a similar way : n^rS^T^^" ,the dog has bit'. — b) The root with 3<3T (more in books), or S^" (more in common language), the true Perfect as the tense of accom- plished action: CR^'i**', ^TC'eb^' ,have given etc.', ,the action of giving is past', SJ'^Ccb^' ,the man has already left. — c) The Participle connected with U^&' occurs more, frequently in the past sense than otherwise. Here, in the common talk of WT, CJ" is used, even in those cases where the books have C[", tt)'qj'qTJOJ'CJ'tt^" yi-ge kdl-pa ym, or, contracted, kdl-pen, ,the letter has been sent off', in books: qTprq'Wjaj- (s. 11, Note), even gj'q^-q^ 48 37. Future. la tans-pa yin, tans-pen, ,the wages have been paid' i. o. q^-q-y^\ - d) Gerunds in ^ (WT) or dj5T (CT) with U^' or ^^T (the same as 35. 2. c); also (in U Tsah and later books) the mere Perfect root with S*K', the y or <3^T being dropped: ?JC^'C*K" ,has gone'. 37. Future Tenses. 1. Simple Future. The Future-root, E TKCYC*) , shall, will give, be given'. — 2. Compound Fu- ture, a) The auxiliary verb (V^'^T ( t0 8 row > become) No added to the Terminative case of the Infinitive: E T]sC''^,' ^g^*(^) > shall > wil1 s ive > be s iven '> si^wc'gFc^) NO No , shall, will see, be seen'. This is the most common, and, together with the Simple Future and the Intensive (o9.), ' "^s^k", the only one in use with the early classical authors in all cases where a special Future-root iswanted, and even where this exists. It dissappears, however, gradually from the literature of the later period, and is replaced by the two following compositions. — b) zS'CJH" connected with the root: S^C'g - ^" ,shall, will see', ^"^"^p^' No No , shall, will give' etc. (zft" is originally a substantive, mean- No ing material, cause, occasion). — c) the root with £fe" or WsC", j^P'^NC ,will arrive', or, i. o. the root, the Term. Inf., ||W'£J J V(^C. — Both b) and c) are even now in common 38. Imperative. 49 use in CT, whereas in WT: — d) V^S" connected with the root is the general form: &ji^"y^<3;" ton yin, vulg.: f6nin ,shall, will see', CJ^'ttk' tdnin , shall, will give', SpjOfwk' kdllin ,will send', c^"^5i" ca yin, IcCin, can ,will go'. — e) In books the Participle with ttk" (35. 2. b, 36. 2 c) oc- curs sometimes also as Future. 38. Imperative mood. 1. This is usually the shortest possible form of the verb, which often loses its prefixed letters, though in some instances a final ?\[" is added. In many verbs with the vowel a, and in some with e these vowels are changed into 0, besides other alterations of the consonants. Particularly often the surds or sonants of the other tense-roots are changed to their aspirates in the Im- perative. Thus, ^' ,give!', from ^"^'T; 1^'Ld: Itos, CT: ft? , look!', from f^'q - ; Ijq' , throw!', from Q^q^'CJ-. In one-rooted verbs it is, of course, like the Present, but it can always be sufficiently distinguished by adding the C\ cv c\ particle xS^H" (^PPY or (^TT, according to 13). Ihisisused in the classical literature indiscriminately in addressing the highest and the lowest persons (or, in other words, as well to command, as to pray), but according to the modern custom of OT only when addressing servants and inferior people. — 2. In forbidding, the Present-root is used with the negative particle SJ", ^J' C 'T^" ,donot give!', S]"^" ,do Jaschke, Tibetan Grammar- 4 50 38. Imperative. — 39. Intensives. not look!', SfR^W ,do not throw!' — 3. In praying or wishing (Precative or Optative) either the same forms as under 1. are used, or the Imperatives of Q^]^"^' ^o come' or QC' ,to come' (the latter, «A C ']', of a quite diffe- rent root) are connected with the Termin. Infin. SJJK'q^ 1 ^^'■S^' or .Jjqr^qr ,may (I, you, he etc.) see!' — 4. In none of the three a person is indicated, but it is natural that in commanding and forbidding the subject will be the second, sometimes the third person; in the precative also the first person can be understood. Note. The common language of WT, acknowledging only the Perfect- root, changes nothing but the vowel: q^' ,give!' from q^T&T; Fit. 3" Imp. 2j*J") ,to do', elegantly qJj^T (Pf. q§pT, Fut. ^Fj", Imp. §)$f), respectfully SJ^'q' (Imp. SJfe^') with the Term. Inf. of another verb, to intensify the action of the latter. By this means not only one-rooted verbs can be made to participate in the advantages of the four-rooted, as 5J$W!^" ,see\ S^R^^V ,saw', Sf^q^Cf , shall, will see', 5J£|Cq^ w q$r ,see!', but also several other periphrastical phrases are gained for speaking more pre- cisely than otherwise would be possible. The Future tense 5(P\ )' serves ) besides its proper notion of futurity, par- ticularly to express the English auxiliaries ,must, ought etc.': thus, q^'^FsSj'qR* ,must not be uttered, ought not to be uttered', sometimes it may be translated by the Im- perative mood. The spoken language, at least of WT, is devoid of this convenience, and possesses nothing of the kind except the above mentioned intensive form of the Imperative, formed by q~^" (s. 38., Note). — 2. Another class of intensive verbs are formed by connecting two synonymes, as Q^TjST^pi'q" ,to be afraid', literally ,to be fear-frightened', and other similar ones. 40. Substantive and Auxiliary Verbs. 1. To be a) ufo" CJ", in elegant and respectful speech ftCT^J'q" lag-pa, U: la-pa (the latter word never used in WT) is the mere means 4* 52 40. Substantive Verbs. of connecting the attribute with its subject, as: £)'Q^'QJ* ^ErjSJ-CJ'CA^' ,this man is a Ladakee', ^'jz^app-^- ,i s it you, Sir?'. Therefore the question $J'&|<3j" is to be under- stood ,who are you' or ,who is he' etc., the personal pronoun being often let to be guessed. — 5AH' itself is often omitted in daily life inWT as well as in poetry, e.g. JJs'P^'^'^f <|<9^' ,this load (is) very heavy' WT. Negatively: SJ'ttk', S^' vulg. SJ3J', resp. ^"0|q|^J-. — b) Bf^'Cr yod-pa, yd' -pa, eleg. 5|e5$J'CJ" ct-pa, resp. ^(^n^J'SJ" zug(s)-pa,XJ: su-pa, negat.: &K", SJ'SJcB^", cH'^f^W' means ,to exist', or ,to be present', ,to be found at a place', therefore the question $Tt*K' is to be understood : ,Who is here? Who is there?' — ttK" and CftSEfl^J'CJ" are in general use, 5Jeb$J" £f is seldom heard. When connected with the Dative of a substantive it replaces the English ,to have, to have got', as: CGT^J'Bf^' ,[ have money'; C'^=rj'Dsf^' ,1 have pain'. In this case the respectful term is not ^(Spi^T^]" but SJCQ^' na-wa: ^p^'O^^S^'S^CP^Q^' ,has not the King an indisposition?' i.e. ,is Your Majesty ill?' — c) Ai^l'CJ' dug-pa (eleg. CfKQ^" is seldom heard), resp. ^ffl^'^l", ,to be present, stay, be found at a place'; negat. 40. Substantive Verbs. 53 ifa^T. Both R^'CJ' and 2fc"CJ' can be used instead N= No of WH'CJ", though not this instead of them. — d) ^\XJ" re' -pa = (^TTCJ', negat. 3\!'*^' in Spiti and CT, seldom in books. — e) SK'CJ" mod-pa, mo'-pa has a somewhat em- phatical sense: ,to be (something) in a high degree', ,to be (somehow) in plenty'. It occurs most frequently in the Gerund with fij' (41.), when it frequently has the sense of , though', but never with a negative. — /) §CT nan-wa, originally ,to appear, to be visible, extant', negat. 5)"fsC Sometimes in books, and common in certain districts. — g) In books the concluding (34.) is, moreover, found to represent the verb ,to be' in all its meanings, and is capable of being connected with words of all classes besides verbs, e. g. *\C'CJ O^ ,is the first' = ^'£J"WK*. In a similarmanner also the Wl' of the Imperative (38.) implies the verb ,to be'. — K) The Preterit root for all these verbs is ^f son ,was, has been', and besides also ,has gone, become', which is its original meaning. — For the use of these verbs as auxiliaries s. 35. sq. 2. GWp'C!' originally ,to be changed, turned into some- No thing' then ,to become, to grow', auxiliary for the Future tense in the old classical language, as mentioned in 37. Since this can be considered as the intransitive or passive notion, opposite to SS'^I' ,to make, render', the connection 54 40. Subst. Verbs. — 41. Gerunds and Supines. of QtTJ^'CJ' with the Term. Inf. of another verb must, in many cases, be rendered by the passive voice in our languages. In WT the verb c6N5$J" ca-ce ,to go' is used in the sense of ,to become, to grow' The Perfect root for both is 5^' ,(went), grew, became, bas become, is' (s. above). — In CT and later books QQC^T is used instead. 3. ,must' is expressed by ^^I^'CJ" ,to be necessary' (s. 38. Note). In WT this is used in a very wide sense for any possible modification of the notion of necessity: ,1 must, should, want to, ought' and even ,1 will, wish, beg (for something)' is nothing but CRI'^tf^J" ,to me is necessary" which maybe, in the last mentioned case, rendered somewhat more politely by adding (3* zu ,pray!' f (l|'l^'(^'^^l^|'(S ,1 want potatoes, pray!' is as much to say as ,Will you kindly give me some potatoes'. In books and more refined language several other verbs are used in the same sense, viz. ^cn^J'CJ" ,it is right to' (usually with the Genit. Infin.), *£ZR' ,it is meet, decent', QSS'C]" ,to wish, desire', both with the Supine; ^snO^'CJ" ,to like' with the Dat. Inf. The popular substitute of the last, especially in use in WT, is C^£]^"CJ", of similar meaning, added to the root. 41. Gerunds and Supines. We retain these terms, em- ployed by former grammarians, but observe that they do not refer to the form, but to the meaning, as well as that Gerund is not to be understood in the same signification 41. A. Gerunds. 1. 55 as in Latin, but as the Gerondif of some French gram- marians, or what Shakespeare calls Past conjunctive parti- ciple in Hindi. These forms are of the greatest importance in Tibetan, being the only substitutes for most of those subordinate clauses 'which we are accustomed to introduce by conjunctions. They are formed by the two monosyllabic appendices ^" (so after the closing consonants <3T *\ Of ^J; ^' after S, ^' after OTI' Q' CJ" &J and vowels and -5^' (■$£' or T^' ,giving% ^C^3' , having given', and stands for all clauses beginning with when, as, since, after etc. Also in the spoken language of WT it is used most frequently. — Examples: 5f' E n'<5$J'H^" l V>MQ^ ,the child, having been car- No ~^> ried away by the water, died'; ^^ H ^'^'j^^'^^'!]]^' ;SflJ'^J'^3r^"tf ,the king having died, the prince occupied 56 41. A. Gerunds. 2.-4. the throne (kings-place)'; §^"^{^'^#^^^'ST S^^T ,as there is a great water, we cannot go'. 2. -SC (*mC" etc.), of a similar sense, chiefly used for smaller clauses within a large one ; ^"^^Q."(3C'pfcj"y ,when, being displeased, he became angry', or ,growing displeased and angry'. Often it denotes two actions going on at the same time, or two states of a thing existing together, and then can only be translated by ,and', thus, 5J5n'£K"-5C g"5K' , without end and boundary'; ^'0|'3"(3[;'raqrara£}C;' £T ,to eat flesh and drink blood'*). It stands also in a causal sense: ,by doing etc.', as: 3'CM^'(3£'Q^S C\' ,(we) live by catching fish'. These two (1. and 2.) can also, like the closing o, as mentioned in 40. 1. g, be added to every class of words, in the sense of being: p^'^^^rc&'^fc'Sjlf' ^*^T ,as you are high (-born), being of a great family' In conversation, \5C is scarcely ever heard. 3. ut does not occur so often except in imperative or precative sentences, when it is added to the Imperative root of the subordinate verb, just like other gerunds: $m*fl| -f |J$J' , going look!', ,go and look!' GJCQJ' •$JC ,rise and go!'. This particle, like the above-mentioned, implies the verb ,to be', especially when added to adjec- tives denoting a personal quality. ^'SWj'dl'^'C'ufaTr , being ugly and short'; ^^^^^'^af^or^r 58 41. A. Gerunds. 5. 6. R' , pretty, being of a good figure and nice to behold'. When added to the Infinitive, it denotes: a) of course, the real Dative, or the usual meanings of the postposition G|" with a substantive; thus, W$K*£f(3J'Wp,"q" ,to rejoice at killing, be fond of killing', fr) nearly the same as S" or ,as' in English, e. g. q^'|fq^'^'^T|^-Craj'^C;^'Q^- qq H ,as there was an idol -shrine in the middle of the way, (she) alighted from (her) chariot'; fflftJN^3p\"q(«j<5" ^"^'ig^'fS'S'^pT^' ,as the king went there daily to bathe'; a^^-g-^^^'q^-^^'^-q-S'^' , M (it) does not occur in the (whole) world, what is (its) oc- curring here, or, how is it that is occurs here?'. Finally, in the language of common life Of is added to the repeated root in order to express the English , while, whilst': C^f ^'^q'^qWJ^'^f^C'jzp na la tub-tub-la Jcyod-di (15., Note) sin Kyon WT, or j^'j^\^qrT]^CJ=n- % d "- kyl sin kur-sog CT ,while I am cutting the meat into pieces, bring you (some) wood'. 6. °W added only to the Infinitive, literally ,out of (the doing)'. This may mean a) , after', Mfq'OJ^fOJt" q" ,to rise from lying, after having lain'; «'JC l^'qT^'g^'B'^N'^C'SJ^f' ,out of my walking i.e. when walking along, (I) met with a brahman'; £\£I"£nTO'^K^" q-0|^|'gs:-^'^C;-qrT|^ ; c-^fq|- (the above mentioned example (s. 0^"\ translated into classical language); c) also the English , being about to' is, in books, often expressed by this Gerund: ap^^'qUl^f^S^ ,when (1) was about to enter, the door was shut'; */T^'^^'5p\?W£F\ 3^'y ,when (I) was going to die, (I) was restored to life again'. Which of the three is the real meaning, will in most cases be clear from circumstances. This gerund is not used in talking, at least in WT. 7. frfa' (§$!" etc.) or JT)' (% etc.), or the Instrumental and Genitive cases of the root, mean a) ,by doing some- thing' or ,because', e.g. ^fj?ff JT^'Q^C'Cf' ,we come (here), because it is necessary 1 . pf^'^^I"^"^^"^"^'^' (oW|' ,since I am resolved to help you, do not be depressed!' This, originally, is a function of the Instrumental only, but in later times the other cases also are used in this mean- ing. — b) more frequently they are used adversatively, ,though', especially when connected with SK" (40. 1. e), S™^ 1 5^T%^^"^"«I^'fl^" ,though (you) did 60 41. A. Gerunds. 8. 9. — B. Supines. say so, by what shall (I) believe (it)?' In other cases it may be left untranslated when the next sentence will commence with ,but': a^'qaC'^f^Q^^'S^'^SJOr q'a^'^J" ,not liking delicate food, he ate vulgar food' or ,he did not like d. f., but preferred v. f.'. This Gerund is scarcely used in talking, at least in WT. 8. q$J" (q$J")i the Instrumental of the Infinitive, ,by (doing something)' is, of course, the proper expression for , because', but also very often used indiscriminately for S' or <3i$J' only for the sake of varying the mode of speaking: ■^•y^Tp^q-tt^qsr , because it is very difficult'; §f > T> T ( Terminative )' Their use will be best seen in the following examples: 1! °r 1! sj^arsfarq"^- WT, gc;*r5fai'q(sp|' (inst. of ^T|' 38, Note) CT ,put the degchi on the fire!'. qCg'^TG^. vulg: O^fe^f, Tsang: qq-=T]-?|W ^^3* 1^' ' tne ass ro ^ s n i mse ^ on the ground'. g'OJ'Qk'y (or fiffl") C^T ,having mounted on the horse (he) goes', or ,(he) goes on horseback'. ^3^'Sm^'C^Q^fK', vulg(WT): 5'CJ' (corrupted from gg 43. 1. Simple Postpositions. 5$nrsr) ap'^jp^'oro^'a^, CT: g-^rsjp; OTI^^'^'AW ,the bird flies in the sky'. «i«3feror*^ wt, ^rom^f*"^" CT >( we ) siaU set out at night'. ^ar^a^erp^ (books and CT), ^■flrsjC-Sfafl^ WT ,being very glad at this'. |j<3faj'Sjp!^rcr ,skilful in medicine'. cBR'QI'^'lf , vulg: cfcj'?ft ,invited him to beer'. ^3ra"^j'W=r|' WT, q^'^p" CT ,is (there) ache in (your) head', ,have you head-ache?' || «f, J etc. || gSTar (or «?■) Vfc, vulg: pCq-Of (or $") 3^ ,(he) is "NO in the house, at home'. H&r^'Sfc', vulg: prCJ"^" (or O]") Ut , go into the house, home!'. ^Jx^l'di', vulg: (°RT-5^r ,at a (certain) time, once'. NO C'§"(3prCK<3r3r (books) ,from to-day in (after) seven days'. Si^-g-qC-q^-ga^; WT: BT^^'^'^'OTp^^jCT: ^"S]?f CI'C]C">T]^"P^"^C' ,the mother carried the son in (her) arms'. ^■C^f^T, vulg: ^'^T ,at that time'. N3 -S3 flI'C[^5i'^ w (books, for vulg. see Compound adv.) ,for seven years'. 43. 1. Simple Postpositions. 69 ^'^F^'^'^f (orq^'^f), W: gBJ'2fq-q^q|- ,(they) made (or selected, raised) that man to (be) king'. sfg^fKr^S^'Sf , ct: ajg^' (or «-ojnj-) ^-or ^CT" ,(they) made (their) luggage into a pillow, used it as a pillow', qp^' (or *]•§■) 0$j, WT: s^S'S^ (s. 35. 2. b, ^ omitted, 40. 1. a), CT: =Tj'q'Q^§)^"^' (q'or q*T, provincial irregularities 35. 2. c) , where are (you) going?' C*ffis (or pq^'flT) ^aj-q^STj' (vulg.) ,1 am going to Tino (or K'oksar)'. jrq'q:S^'<3i$J' ,after eight months'. J'q'qS^'q"^' ,from (after) the eighth month'. ^j'SI'dpr (books and CT), WT: S^fsT^' ,from the beginning'. H w ii ^T]*nWC"QW ,from the window, through the window'. qp^'q-Oj^ajorq-, vulg: •'■^■q^q-q' ,to deliver from the circulation (transmigration)'. q-srj-a!$rpcq-|=rj-Cr, WT: 3^, Tsang: cr^^'l^ q* ,to build a house out of brick (Ts: a house of brick)'. SJ^a'SI^n'RI^" ,from the sutra Zamatog'. 70 43. 1. Simple Postpositions. j§jq-5rai*r«TJ&TT (vulg: ffls^SftSfl^Rf) ,one of (from among) the pupils' Tj^OWSIJBRJ-q- (books and CT), WT: efc'S^SJC'SjpftJ' CJ" ,wiser than all, the wisest, most skiltul of all'. qj^J'QJ^J'Sn^J'^f ,more than two are not left'. .OS. i CI3J$J"5P^WV ,more than myself are not'. Besides these ^Q" ,with' is to be mentioned as Simple Postposition: thus, ^'^C'S^'y, WT: j^j'ljC^C;- Gjq'^' , speaking (conversing) with the youth'; C^C ,with me', or, in fuUer form, C'^C"^-pjSp|y, r^WT^f vulg: E^**sR'SJ^5Jfc!f" ,together with me'. In WT it is even used for the instrumental when the real instrument (tool) of an action is meant, e. g. gaj'l^'^'l^aj'En^J'q^" so in books, but WT: ^aj^'^'q^' ,the king killed the minister with the sword'. It is, moreover, added to many Adjectives and Verbs, when we use the Accusative or Da- tive or other Prepositions, e.g. s'^Q'Q^'q" ,like (with) that, similar to that'. With an Infinitive it denotes the synchronism of the action with another one, $"5|VA^*q* ^C" ,with the sun rising, at sunrise'; STj'^'^fcq'^' ,with (on) their going to sleep, when they went to sleep'; T&J'fJ^I'q'^'pW^'^Cs' ,(with) sayiDg so he went home' or also ,he said so, and went home'. Often it is found with 43. 2. Compound Postpositions. 71 an Imperative, without any perceptible signification, if it is not to be regarded as a substitute for t^TT (38): ^"3^C ,now eat!' For its use as a conjunction see the next chapter. 2. Compound Postpositions. These may con- veniently be grouped in two classes: a) Local Compound Postpositions, which are virtually the same as the Local Adverbs specified in 42.3.: thus, <3\C<3T ,in (the midst of)', 5>C\" ,into' also ,in', dC'dWJ" ,from, out of. The most usual ones will be seen in the following examples: ^■qfapaj" (or ^') jgsrg^'Cr ,to bathe in a pond'. i$(3.'3C'^"^sn^J' ,he entered into the water' (both in books and common talk). S!Q^5[;" CT: ^c'°r > to sit on a lotus-flower'. 72 43. 2. Compound Postpositions. fSCJ^cnS!"^' (or fl}', or <3Q (books and talk) ,beside,near the door'. ^jr^'5^', vulg.: SJ^'q-, ^', g*; , under a tree' (literally: ,in front, by the side, of a tree'). (spi'^-qS"5C;"^' (5J^"^") ^fK"^' , to take before the ~S3 nJ >J "S3 judge'. 3'q"q^'^-|^'a}- CT, £Q'OJ' WT ,after eight months'. J'q'qi'?^' rrraaraj" (or SJS'GJ') vulg. ,before two months, two months ago'. ^a^iysT^-j^J- books and CT, WT: *rS^qpr ^n^>"$PT ,to hide a treasure below the ground'. SVtfSftspTQgptq' CT, WT: 5J^tXp|-^'Q^3j'Cr ,to emerge, come out, from below the ground'. ^■5rX0J'^' books and CT, in CT also: q^'g^'q* , WT: ^"jimr, 5f^'^|'0|- , beyond the water, river'. ^4^'^' books and CT ' WT: ^"P" 1 ^' > on this side of the water'. ^Tj-qj^ST^ (or^T) ^^a;-5j ; Take this! Take this with (you)! Bring this! How shall I do this? You must not do it in this way. 88 Phrases. W nd-la da-run 6-ma zig I want some more milk. gos, C nd-la d'a-run wo-ma sig go- W i lag-mo do, C di leg- Clean this! mo ) a. W he-ma dan tu n )-ce, Wash it with sand! ) e-ma fu. W na-la cu cu-ii zad(Csa) Give me some water, cig nan 12 ) zig (C sig). please! W lag-pa lag-mo yod-da, Are (your) hands clean? C lag-pa leg-mo (la-mo, or tsan-wa) e yo\ W o-ma fsag-rd-la fsag Filter the milk through the ton, filtering cloth! C wo-ma - - fsag sog. W fab cun-se de cog-la bor- Put the little stove there! ton, C d'e cog (co)- la zag ls )-cig. W pan - dil sd-la p'ob 1¥ ) Put the pot (degbi) down on (pab-ton), the ground! san 15 ) sd-la pdb-lig. W zan(-bu) me dan ne-mo Put the pot near the fire! bor, C san me d'an ne-mo zag. W pog ton. Take it off! W ni-ma gds 16 )-sa (gs-a) As soon as the sun sets, tsdm-zig-gamepu 11 ), light a fire! - - ga tsam-sig-la W kar-yol Kyon-na son. Go to fetch the china! len-na §og. Come to take away - -. Phrases. 89 W cu ddn-mo lv ) dan tu-na kar-yol 1 ®) mi dag (or kar-yol lag-ino mi ca- yin); fsdn-te big Xan- te gyal-la tu gos (go), C cSi dan mo tu na kar-yol mi dag; fsdm-mo sig gi leg (la) -pa- tu sog. W Ids (la)-ka fsan-ma fsar- na mdn-na ma ca, C mam-pa do 1 ®) mi cog. W sol-cog 21 ) fal-dig 22 ) co-a, C )e* gyu yin-na(m). W o-nd; cog-tan tin 2i ) ton, C yd-ya; cog-tan tin-cig. W tib-ril li nan-na cu mdn- po yod-da hun-nu ydd, C gyi-nan-na cu mdn- po yo-d'am nun-nu yd'.' W nun nu zig yod (a-fsig man-na med), C nun nu sig yo'. W tib-ril cu kan M ) - te Eyon, C - cu kdn-na Eur sog. W tib-ril dzag dug. W kdr-yd 25 ) dan jar 26 ) gos (96), C kdr-ya(ovsa-kar-gyl) jar go. W gar-wq 21 ) tsar 28 ) Eyer, C Eur son. If you wash with cold water, the china does not become clean; wash it well with some hot (water)! Unless all the work is done, don't go! (or) you must not go. Shall I make the table ready ? Yes; lay (spread) the cloth f Is there much water in the teapot, or little? (But) a little. Fill the teapot with water, and bring it! The kettle leaks. It must be soldered (fastened with pewter). Take it to the blacksmith's. 90 Phrases. W sel-kor gas (ga) son, C sel-por ga son. W namazer-nasinmakyon, C - - ser-na — kyal 29 ). W sab mol-na kyon yin, C sa-hib sun^-na kyalgyu yin. W sab gd-zug mol, C sa- hib g'an sun wa yin. W 7napan 3l );budmabvg 32 ), C ma b'or-wa je"; bit ma dug. WC rig -pa dim 33 ), W ka- dar co. W nan 34 ) -be man, C nan gyu min. W dds 3b )-si (da-i) lag -ma ti 36 )-te bor, C da-kyi Ihdg-ma fs ag ja. W lag -ma mi dug, can ma lus (lu). W o-ma lud ma bug, C wo-ma lu' ma bug. W cm-pa 31 ) ma tub 39 )-te son-te kyon, C - - - tsdn-ma (or g 'an -mo) Kur-sog. W a-lu su-te tub ton, C kyi-u (or do- ma 39 ) su- te tub-big. man-po (or yun rin-mo) ma gor. The tumbler (glass-cup) has got a crack. Unless I tell you, do not bring wood! When master commands, I shall bring. What did you say, sir (did the gentleman say)? Don't cast it away! Do not let it slip! Take care! Cautiously! You must not press! Put by the remainder of the There is no remainder, nothing is left. Do not let the milk run over! Not cutting the liver, bring it as a whole! Peel the potatoes, and cut them in pieces! Don't tarry much! Phrases. 91 W gyog-pa (C gyog-po, gyo- po) sog. W ma jed 4 ®), C ma )e\ W y id-la zum iV ) fub-ba, C sem-la ne fub-ba. W yid-la zum gos (go), C ne-pa /e" go. nan-du son; nan-du hog. W nan-du kyod®), C nan-du peb. W ^■q' gjCSr §p SjCY^J), SJ^' take. few-ce, Zara-« Ijq'q - qtjq(^)' ^gp" §**" learn; teach. lab-ce V) Three- rooted verbs. Pres. Perf. Fut. Imperv. WT G^'q' q 7 ^' p^' carry. fi/r-«V 0,gC - q- fel' Pfc" bring. %°«- (V y y w forog^q" Verbs. 101 Pres. Perf. Put. Imperv. WT aq-q- q*q' Sq- throw, cast. . &&-&* \J v H imp. gyob for q^qsrcr NO N3 No =n^=n-q- qsqy gfrr break. . ^-^' 11 i i imp. cot? (^cB^'q" q^" -^" tell, explain. sai-ce ^■q- q^ laj- hold. fe»-ce Q$ imp. |:s g'q' fwr |pr say. s. i^q* OJC'q" OJQ^I" KfC rise. Zaw-ce c) Two-rooted verbs. Pres. Perf. Imperv. WT S'q* ifl^" ^ e born. skye-ce fjfc'q" q^|^" bear, beget. skye-ce Qin^'q' ra^" ra^' carry. Myer-ce Imperv. WT 3*' become. gyur-ie ^ sfc go; become. do-ce [only in certain sentences. 1^' alter. gyur-ce No weep. nu-ce die. si-de flee. sor-ce <&w enter. zug-ce 102 Verbs Pres. Perf. ^' ^' no no crq - wr NO NO %'q* ft^J' buy. «o-ce ^■q- q^' ^ sit; stay. .^^ aqo^'q* qu]' increase (nentr.). pel-ce SFF §W SW p° ur - ^ e No Nj No Q^q^'q' q^' blow (neutr.). pu-ce ajfcq- 7fa q% call. 6o ;^> ( 1 imp. 60s (001, 00). QqCq' qC appear, originate. jurl-ce No No SC'q* &JC en joy. iian-ce |=J]-q- qf=T]^' q|=I]^' build up. !%-ce 3 -q- yr g*r ask. ^ i^q'q' q^q^l' arrive, leb-ce Verbs. 103 d) One-rooted verb. WT CEfra'q' be glad, to like. Ld. ya-be, W besides Q^K'CJ" a^'R' fall, drop. dil-ce, QgfcT, sjferq- leap, jump. con-be ywr lie down. nal-be spfq- meet. fug-be N3 be able. tub-be $r«r find, get fob -be ^r«r hear. (fsor-be) 5^"«r see. ton- be W^" be glad, to like. fad-be, sfrp;q- and o^'«T QJSra'q" come out, go out. ton-be, usual for Q.qCq" Qsf^'q' wish, like, desire. rare. J|> ^JgJ Q^q^'q" burn. bar-be ^•q- perceive. fs x?a James Burgess, LL.D., F.R.G.S., &c. Royal 4to, pp. " x. and 140, with 86 Plates and Woodcuts ; half -bound. Report on Elura Cave Temples, and the Brahmani- cal and Jaina Caves in Western India. By James Burgess, LL.D., F.R.G.S., &c. Royal 4to, pp. viii. and 90, with 66 Plates and Woodcuts ; half-bound. / BURMA — The British Burma Gazetteer. Compiled by Major H. R. Spearman, under the direction of the Government of India. 2 vols. 8vo, pp. 764 and 878, with 11 Photographs, cloth. 1S80. £2, 10s. BURNE.— Shropshire Folk-Lore. A Sheaf of Gleanings. Edited by Charlotte S. 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