fr^fWiVfWtff^^ M i iiffiW i n iiMi rti i B i i i tr Jii;. C-1 TV- MS::iil iiirisT 1 ■;i 01 fcL\^J»« — Couiston Moor Head, . ... 10 6 — Coniston Out-Moor, . 21 15 13 9 — Cracoe and Elbolton, ... 5 19 4 6 — Craven Moor or Coop, . . . 32 6 21 — Grassington 451 2 357 6 — Grassington Royalties, 39 19 19 2 — Hebden Moor, .... . . 88 12 57 12 — Old Providence, 192 5 120 10 — SUver Kake or Brakeuthwaite, . . . 18 10 — Sharbotton Moorend, or Wharfedale Mine, 2 16 1 7 — Sundry Mines 25 4 6 8 — AlEEDALE — Cononley, 270 16 188 14 — Cowling, . . ... 20 5 13 8 — NiDDEEDALE— Yorkshire Mine, . . ... 90 15 59 — Nidderdale, 26 5 15 15 Prosperous and Strong Groves, Sunside (Cockhill), 292 6 190 — Swaledale— 1 Blaketbwaitejf^flj^l^J .... 155 114 — Arkendale, .... 1,596 4 1,257 — [ Old Gang, . . . 2,172 1,596 i Aekendale— Surrender,. . . ... 57 4 42 18 i Risdon, 6 15 5 1 — Hurst or East Swaledale, . . 704 18 528 13 — Muher Side or South Swaledale, . 233 19 175 — Merrybent, — — • — — — Yorkshire Mine, . . ... 86 9 64 10 — Wensleydale— Bolton Park, . 15 10 16 Keld Heads, . . . 432 340 — Woodhall,. . 6 11 4 16 — Askrigg Moor, Total of Yorkshire, .... 12 3 8 — 7693 16 5654 12 2500 20 YORKSHIRE •. The Strata of the Yorhshire Lead Mines.— We find the following particulars as to the veins in which the deposits of lead are found, in the report on the lead mining district of Yorkshire read before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at the meeting held at Leeds, 1858, by Mr. Stephen Eddy of Carlton, Skipton. Speaking first of the Grassington mines in Wharf ed ale, he says : — " The greatest thickness of limestone yet proved at Grassington is sixty-six yards, whereas at the Cockhill mines, near Pateley Bridge, only about six miles distant, it is found to be at least 180 yards thick. In the metalliferous portion of the carbon- iferous rocks we have the rake vein, the pipe or tube vein, and the lateral embedded or flat vein. The first has the appearance of a rent or fissure in the strata, extending to a great length, and generally to an unknown depth. The second, or pipe vein, has the form of an irregular tube, is met with in certain strata, generally limestone, and dips with the beds, or passes more or less diagonally through them, for a great length. The flat vein is seldom met with, except in connection with some rake vein, but has always a position conformable to the stratum in which it is embedded. " The rake veins are by far the most numerous in every district, and the phenomena presented by them the most varied and com- plicated. The greater portion of our lead ore likewise is obtained from them. The longitudinal coiu'se, or ' bearing,' of a rake vein is seldom, if ever, a perfectly straight line ; but, for the most part, it gives a tolerably direct bearing throughout its enthe length. The downward course of these veins varies considerably in the angles formed with the vertical. The ' hade,' or inclination, is likewise more toward a horizontal position, in the soft or argil- laceous beds, than in the more hard and sohd rocks; and sometimes in passing a seam of coal or of soft clay, it takes the direction of the stratum for a greater or less distance. " The width of the vein is not uniform throughout its whole length, it frequently opens out from a width of a foot or two, to one of as many yards, and then contracts until it becomes a mere thread or joint. "At the Cononley mine in Airedale, the vein is frequently found to vaiy from an inch or two in width, to five or six yards, and that within a longitudinal distance of a few feet. The width of a vein varies also with a change of strata; it is much greater in the hard strata where it has a more erect position than in the PAST AND PRESENT. 21 soft; it is generally more open in the limestone than in the gritstone, and very much contracted in the plate or shale. Fre- qtiently we find the vein to be four or five feet wide in the grit or the limestone, when it is scarcely perceptible in the plate. The beginning or termination of a vein longitudinally is seldom explored; where this has been done, the vein is found to ramify at acute angles, and the branches quickly terminate. "A remarkable instance of this occurred at the Grassington mines. In thoae mines three levels were driven eastward on the Cavendish vein, at the respective depths of twenty, thirty-seven, and fifty fathoms from the surface. The twenty fathom level was in a stratum locally known as the top grit; the thirty-seven, in the ' bearing or main grit; ' and the fifty fathom level, in the limestone. Each level was at that time yielding from six to nine tons of rich lead ore from every fathom driven. Many parties who went underground in this mine, after some length of such rich ground had been explored, and while the levels continued to yield at that rate, concluded that ground was being laid open from which immense profits could be made for many years to come, and they were correct, so far as they had an opportunity of judging; for, had the levels continued to open out such rich ground, no difficulty would have been found in making a profit of £40,000 or £50,000 a year from these mines. " Unfortunately a change soon took place. The first cause for apprehension noticed, was the wedge-like point of thin beds of plate, introduced in different parts of the ' bearing grit ' in the thirty- seven fathom level. As these became more numerous, and of greater thickness, the vein began to throw off branches on either side; and in the course of a few fathoms there was not a trace of the vein to be seen. As the upper and lower levels (the twenty and fifty) approached the same perpendicular point eastwards, the vein in each case ramified into numerous strings. First one branch was followed, and then another, until they disappeared entirely. At about sixty fathoms eastward from where all trace of this vein was thus lost, a 'crosscut,' that is, a level at right angles to the general bearing of the veins, was driven to some considerable distance both north and south of where it should have been iater- sected, had it continued eastward; but vdthout discovering the slightest symptom of a vein. " The rake veins are generally found to be ' fault veins.' As a 22 YORKSHIKE : rule, the strata are lower on that side to which a vein 'hades' or inclines, called the hanging wall, than on the one upon which it rests, known as the foot-wall of the vein. Thus a vein with the beds on the north side thrown up, will ' hade,' or underlie, to the south." The Brimham Rocks. — The wilder moors of the millstone-grit formation, though thinly inhabited, little cultivated, and chiefly visited by the shepherd and the sportsman, present some natural objects of extraordinary interest. Amongst these are the weather- beaten rocks at Brimham, between Harrogate and Ripon, but nearer to the town of Ripley, which are not only objects of extreme interest to the lovers of the grand and the wild in scenery, but are also amongst the most remarkable evidences of the working of those wonderful powers which Providence has employed, and still continues to employ, in forming and changing the aspect of the earth. Various causes have been assigned for the extraordinary diversities of form presented by these Brimham rocks. The following is the latest theory on the subject, formed by an eminent geologist who has turned his especial attention to the action of the waves of the ocean, not only on the existing sea-coasts, but also on the action of the same powers in past times, in districts covered in remote ages by the sea, but now far distant from its waves. The Brimham rocks are thus described and their origin is thus accounted for by D. Mackintosh, Esq., F.G.S., who has recently published a work on the geological causes which have given to Enghsh scenery its present extraordinary variety and beauty of form. He says that amongst the most remarkable objects in Yorkshire are those presented by the Brimham rocks in the West Riding, the remarkable forms of which have hitherto been attributed to the action of the elements, through a long course of ages, or to the hands of man in ancient times; but which he believes to have been produced by the action of the ocean, at a time when the levels of land and sea were altogether different in this part of England. He says that " these rocks are situated about nine miles from Harrogate and Ripon, five from Ripley, and two from Dacre Banks Station. On gaining the summit of the first eminence, the rocks present a very imposing appearance, as they rise up with the sky for a background, and are very liable to be mistaken for an irregular clump of trees on the top of the hUl. On approaching nearer, what appeared as one of the trees is seen to be a huge PAST AND PRESENT. 23 pillar of rock, with a projection on the left side. On viewing them from a small knoll on the right side of the road, and about three- quarters of a nule distant, the geologist familiar to sea-coast scenery at once looks upon them as the north-west portion of an island which has been partly wrecked by the sea at a former period. A smaller assemblage of ruins may be seen ramifying from the eastern coast of the island; but these are little visited. The Brimham rocks (millstone grit) are of the same nature, and many of them of the same form, as those described by Mr. Hull in the Quarterly Geo- logical Journal (August, 1864) as occurring in the Peak district of Derbyshire in groups or multitudinous assemblages. The table shape and anvil shape are common in both localities. Mr. Hull justly calls them 'sea-shore rocks,' and they are due to the same cause, namely, 'old marine denudation.' Ordinary observers are very liable to err in attributing to man what is chiefly or solely due to nature. Many of the cromlechs and most of the rock basins and rocking-stones referred to human workmanship, exhibit the clearest traces of the undermining action of water. It is possible, if not probable, that Druids, or pre-historic Fins, or other races, may have used the Brimham rocks as a temple, and may have increased the resemblance which some of these rocks bear to parts of the human form and other objects. But the evidence that they have been materially altered by human hands is to be sought for in vain. It has been asserted that the marks of tools have been seen on the pedestal of the Idol rock, I have not detected them ; but allowing their existence, it would not foUow that the general or sea- worn form of this rock was the result of art.""' The point or line of junction of the carboniferous and Permian strata in this part of Yorkshire, has been the subject of a very careful examination by some of the most distinguished geologists of the present age. Professor John Phillips, in one of his many valuable contributions to the knowledge of the geology of Yorkshire, his "Notes on the Geology of Harrogate," says, "Few rocks are more variable in composition, while regular in sequence, than the Lower Permian sandstones and shales. When the sequence is immediate from the upper coal measures to the Permian beds, as in Durham, North Staffordshire, and part of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, the ana- logy of the two sets of strata is considerable, even if they do not * Marine Denndations, illuatrated by tlie Brimham Rocks, by D. Mackintosh, F.G.S. Geological Magazine, vol. ii p. 155 ; 1866. 24 YORKSHIRE : exchange beds. But in this part of Yorkshire the Permian beds are in no sense or manner conformed to the coal system, or any part of it. They are strictly transgressive, and very much so, resting on extremely different members of the great carboniferous system, and of very different age. In this particular district, the millstone grit probably underwent enormous waste after the anti- clinal was formed, and before the Permian beds were deposited. These Permian beds of coarse and fine purple sandstone are full of the detritus of miUstone grit. The felspar is rolled, but quite recognizable, and the mica appears in ferruginous patches. The rock is quite undistinguishable from miUstone grit in hand speci- mens ; even the purple colour (due to decomposed ferruginous mica) fails sometimes ; and, as at Plumpton, great and lofty cliffs of soKd rock appear, such as may have yielded the Devil's Arrows, those massive monoliths of the British settlement which preceded ancient Isurium. As we proceed to the south, and reach the Leeds coal- basin, the Permian beds. lose their similitude to millstone grit; and as we pass to the north and encounter the mountain limestone, so also the resemblance to millstone grit is lost, nor is it recovered in Durham and Northumberland, nor does it occur in any other part of the kingdom, though quartzose pebbles and coarse sand accompany it in many parts. From this we may draw a confir- mation of the opinion, very probable on other grounds, that the Lower Permian beds were of littoi-al aggregation, by currents operating on the waste of the neighbouring coasts." In a paper by Mr. E. W. Binney on the geology of that part of the country which lies between Bramham Moor and Fountains Abbey, the author observes. that he had lately had an opportunity of taking a hasty examination of that part of Yorkshire, for the especial purpose of examining the "Lower Bed Sandstone," so carefully described by Professor Sedgwick many years ago, and lately alluded to by Professor John Phillips, in a paper read before the Geological Society. Having of late years devoted considerable attention to the Whitehaven, Astley, and Moira sandstones — rocks lying above all the higher coal measures containing the spirorbis- limestone, on the western side of the Penine chain, and under the soft red sandstone of Permian age, of CoUyhurst, near Man- chester, and Kirkby-Stephen, and HUton, and which sandstones very much resemble some of the millstone grits — ^he was prepared to find the Bramham Moor, Plumpton, and Knaresborough sandstones to PAST AND PRESENT. 25 be Permian sandstones ; but instead of it he found millstone grit, most probably the upper millstone of Halifax, as described by Pro- fessor PhUlips, and adopted by the Geological Survey, but more commonly known and described in Lancashire as rough rock, and by Mr. Farey as his "third grit." The districts chiefly examined were the quarries on Bramham Moor, the Plumpton rocks, the rocks lying between the latter place and the escarpment under Knaresboroiigh Castle, and the gritstones and flagstones of the Skell, west of Foun- tains Abbey. Mr. Binney states that the rock at Knaresborough contains common coal-plants ; it is confined to the millstone-grit district^ and has been found in that district alone, and lying upon the same rock ; and that it has never been met with in sinking through Permian beds to profitable coal measures like the Whitehaven, Astley, and Moira sandstones ; and, although doubtless like those rocks in its characters, it ought not to be confounded with them without further evidence.'" Progress of Fopulation during the present Century in the Districts of the West Riding lying on the Mountain-limestone and Millstone- grit Formations. — Nothing can afford stronger evidence of the great influence which the geological formation of the various strata, of the soils by which they are covered, and of the minerals which they con- tain, has upon the prosperity of whole nations, and of the districts of which those nations are composed, than a comparison of the different amounts of population and different rates of increase which prevail in districts resting upon different strata. In most countries in which accurate accounts are kept of the amount of the population, and of the rates at which it is increasing in different districts, it is possible to show the degree of influence that is exercised by what are called natural causes ; that is to say, by the distribution of the bounties of Providence in different districts. Thus, in a country like that in which we live, where all are under one government, and where intelhgence is widely diffused, in all districts, there are great variations in the population, the wealth, the means of employment, which can be clearly traced to what are called natural causes. In the West Kiding of Yorkshirei for instance, which we are now describing, we have one rate of increase in the mountainous or lofty region of the * A few remarks on the so-called Lower New Red Sandstones of Central Yorkshire, by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Magazine, vol. iii. p. 49 : 18S6. 26 YORKSHIRE : west partly covered with heath, but chiefly with high-lying grassy pastures ; we have another rate of population in richly cultivated arable districts, where the plough and other instruments of agriculture, which follow in its train, are constantly at work ; whilst we have a third, and altogether different rate of increase, in those districts in which, in addition to the resources furnished by rich pastures and a skilful system of agriculture, there are also the endless sources of employment furnished by abundant supplies of coal and iron, creating the means of generating steam for smelting the metals, and of working them up into every machine or implement which facilitates production or adds to the con- veniences of life. In the extensive county of York we find all the forms of society, and all the rates of increase, which exist m any part of England. In portions of the North and "West Riding we have thinly-peopled districts, in which the people live by tend- ing cattle or sheep, or by forming the products of the dairy. In the greater part of the East Riding, and in large portions of the West and North, we have a population equal in numbers to the average population of England, maintained by the practice of a skilful agriculture. In a considerable portion of the West Riding we have every mineral that is serviceable in creating modern industry, and almost every branch of industry to which those minerals can be applied. In the latter districts the population is already extremely large, and it continues to increase with great rapidity. The grazing or pastoral districts of the West Riding, by which are meant those in which pastoral pursuits form the chief sources of wealth and employment, include the census districts or Regis- tration Unions of Sedberg, Settle, Skipton in Craven, Otley, and Pateley Bridge. These districts extend over many hundred thou- sand acres. They are generally very lofty, consisting of mountains and hills, in some places covered with heath, in others with grass ; and with rich grassy valleys running through them. The census returns which have now been carefully taken every ten years, from the commencement of the nineteenth century to the year 1861, enable us to trace the increase of population in these, as well as all the other districts of Yorkshire, during the first fifty years of the present century, and during the first ten years of the second half of the same century. During the first fifty years, the average increase of population of the whole of England was such as very PAST AND PRESENT. 27 nearly to double the population of the kingdom. We mention this to give an easy method of comparing the increase of popula- tion in different districts with each other, and with that of the kingdom at large. The following particulars will show the area of each of these districts of the West Riding in statute acres, the amount of the population at the first census of the century, taken in the year 1801 ; the population and the amount of increase at the middle of the century, as shown at the census taken in the year 1851 ; and the amount and increase at the last census taken in the year 1861. The Sedherg District — This district, which is partly in Yorkshire partly in Westmoreland, is one of the wildest and most mountain- ous of the districts of the county. It extends over an area of 52,882 acres, of which the town of Sedberg is the principal place. The sub-districts included in it are Sedberg, Garsdale, and Dent. The town of Sedberg stands upon the Silurian rocks, and is surrounded by lofty mountains. Of these the White Fell rises to the height of 2220 feet, whilst the Swarth Fell rises 2250 feet. The greater part of the land included in the Sedberg district belongs either to the SUurian rocks, or the mountain limestone of the carboniferous system. Grazing and pasturage are amongst the chief resources of this wild and lofty district. At the census of 1801 the Sedberg district contained only 3983 inhabitants. In the fifty years between 1801 and 1851, the population increased from 3983 inhabitants to 4597. In the first ten years of the latter half of the century, between 1851 and 1861, the population shghtly decreased, having been returned at 4391 at the census of 1861. This decrease is attributed in the census returns, chiefly to the dying-out of hand-loom cotton weav- ing at Dent, which it appears had continued in this district up to the year 1851.* The population of the Sedberg district in the year 1851 was at the rate of 55 persons to the square mile, the average population of England at the same time being 332 persons to the square mile.t The Settle District. — The Settle district is of very great extent, stretching over an area of not less than 154,591 acres, and including the sub-districts of Settle, Bentham, Long Preston, Kirkby-Mal- * Census Relnrns of England for 1851 and 1861, and Geological Map of England and Wales, by Andrew C. Ramsay, F.R.S. and G.S., local director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and professor of Geology in the Government School of Mines. f Census Returns, 1861 . Number of persons to a square mile in registration districts of England and Wales. 28 "SOKKSHIRE : liamdale, and AmcliiFe. It is in general a hUly, and in many places a lofty and mountainous district, cHefly resting on the mountain limestone, or detached portions of the millstone grit, which is found on the top of Ingleborough, ArnclifFe, and some other of the highest points of this district. The valley of Ribblesdale is well watered and fertile, and many of the pastures of this district are very rich. It abounds with beautiful scenery, and with objects of curiosity in its caves and subterranean streams. The population of the Settle district at the census of 1801 was 11,248 persons. Fifty years later, at the census of 1851, the population of the same district had increased to 13,762. Ten years later, at the census of 1861, the population had slightly decreased, and was returned in the census of that year at 12,528 persons.'^' In the year 1851, the average population per square mile of the Settle district was 57 persons. The District of Skipton in Craven. — This beautiful district extends over an area of 150,165 statute acres, and includes a large portion of the finest grazing land in the Craven district, with the upper part of the valleys of the Aire and the Wharfe. . The sub-districts of the Skipton district are Skipton, Gargrave, Kettlewell, Barnoldswick, KUdwick, Grassington, and Addingham. The town of Skipton stands upon limestone rock, which is the case with nearly the whole of the Craven district. From the great facility for communication with the more thickly-peopled portions of Yorkshire the population of Skipton district is steadily increasing. The population of the Skipton district at the census of 1801 amounted to 18,084 persons. In the fifty years which intervened between the census of 1801 and that of 1851 the population increased to 31,274. In the ten years between 1851 and 1861 it still further increased to 31,343 persons.! In the middle of the present century, at the census of 1851, the population of the Skipton district was 123 persons to the square mile. The Otley District. — This district includes a large portion of the finest part of the delightful valley of the Wharfe; and also extends on the southern side into one of the populous districts of the West Riding. It includes the subdivisions of Otley, Hare- wood, Fewston, Yeadon, and Baildon. Below Bolton Abbey the river Wharfe flows over the rocks of the millstone-grit formation, ' Census Returns for England, 1851 and 1861. A. C. Ramsay's Geological Map of England. t Census Returns for England, 1851 and 1861. A. C. Ramsav's Geological Map of England. PAST AND PRESENT. 29 through a charming grassy valley, the sides of which rise rapidly into lofty, and, in many places, heath-covered hills. The Otley district extends over 77,473 statute acres, and in 1801 contained a population of 16,636 persons. This population increased during the fifty years which intervened between the census of 1801 and that of 1851 to 28,644. At the census of 1861 this district was subdivided into the Otley district, containing 43,254 statute acres, with a population of 18,669 persons, and the Wharfedale district extending over an area of 30,798 acres, and containing 15,453 inhabitants, making a total of 34,122 persons. The number of persons to the square mile in 1851 was 237. A small portion of the area was also added to other districts. The Pateley Bridge District — The last district which belongs almost exclusively to the mountain-limestone and millstone-grit formation, is that of Pateley Bridge. It is of great extent, covering an area of 67,828 acres. The general aspect of the country is very hilly, and in some places mountainous. Around Pateley Bridge are many valuable lead mines, which create considerable employment, and produce considerable wealth to the district. The sub-districts included in the registration district of Pateley Bridge are, Pateley Bridge, Kamsgill, Thornthwaite, and Dacre Banks. The Pateley Bridge district, at the census of 1801, contained 5920 inhabitants. In the fifty years which intervened between that time and the census of 1851 the population had increased to 9334. At the census of 1861 the population amounted to 9534 persons.'"' The population of the Pateley Bridge district at the middle of the present century, in the year 1851, was 72 persons to the square mile. It will be seen that the mountain-limestone districts and the millstone-grit districts are both of them very thinly peopled, but that there are considerable difiFerences in the amount of popu- lation in different portions of the two. It arises chiefly from the fact, that the pastures of the former are much better than those of the latter, and that the former has some valuable minerals, whilst the latter has scarcely any. The following table wUl show the amount and progress of population in the grazing or pastoral districts of the West Biding of Yorkshire from the commencement of the present century to the last census taken in the year 1861 : — * Census Returns of England, 1851 and 1861. A. C. Ramsay's Geological Map of England. 30 YORKSHIRE : PROGRESS OF POPULATION IN GRAZING AND PASTORAL DISTRICTS OF WEST RIDING. District. Area in acres. Population. Number of per- sons to square mile in 1851. 1801. 1851. 1861. Sedbergh, Settle, Skipton, Pateley Bridge, . . . Otley, Wharfedale, . . . 52,882 154,591 150,165 67,828 77,473 43,254 3,983 11,248 18,084 5,920 16,636 4,574 13,761 31,274 9,334 17,572 14,946 4,.391 12,528 31,343 9,534 18,669 15,453* 55 57 123 72 237 The Coal Formation of the West Biding of Yorkshire. — We pass from the most thinly peopled portion of Yorkshire to the wealthiest and most crowded districts of the West Riding. The chief physical cause of the great contrast in the wealth and population of these different districts, is that the former are almost entu'ely dqstitute of fuel, and of the means of sustaining fire and creating steam, the great promoters of modern industry; whilst the latter possess an incalculable and, it is hoped, inexhaustible supply of coal, the remains of primeval forests, stored up within their wealthy strata. Since the invention of the steam-engine, the presence or absence of coal has been the circumstance that has had the principal influence in fixing the amount of employment which each district of England can supply, and the amount of population which it can sustain. It might, in the first instance, have appeared that the discovery of a stupendous power, capable of superseding the strength of men, as well as that of horses and of flowing streams, would have had the effect of superseding the demand for labour, and of narrow- ing the field of employment ; and this may have been the case, so far as relates to the most slavish and the worst remunerated forms of labour. But as relates to every variety of skilled and of well remunerated labour, the discovery of steam, and its appHcation to the propeUing of machinery and to other useful purposes, have prodigiously extended the demand for labour, along with the power of production. Thus the large towns and the flourishing villages of the West Riding owe then- greatness, and in some cases their existence, to the rich' supplies of coal stored up in remote ages, in the recesses of the earth, by a bountiful Providence. The Formation of Goal. — The circumstances under which the enormous masses of vegetable life that form the coal-fields existing in different parts of the world, were originally produced, were • England and Wales :— Registration District. Number of persons to a square mile in Registration districts. Census of Great Britain, 1851, vol. i. table 21, p. cxi. PAST AND PRESENT. 31 converted into a fossil state capable of resisting the waste of ages, and were deposited in the strata in which they are now found, have long been subjects of discussion amongst the most eminent geo- logists of this and other countries. In that extraordinary and most interesting review of aU the wonders of nature, contained in the " Cosmos " of Alexander Von Humboldt, the various circumstances under which the innumerable plants and trees, whose remains form the coal-beds of modern times, were formed, are very clearly traced. In one point, however, more recent researches, both in England and North America, have greatly shaken the opinion formerly prevalent, that the trees, the canes, the reeds, the grasses, and the mosses found in the present veins of coal, were brought from a distance by the action of the currents of great rivers, and deposited in the strata in which they are now found. It has been clearly shown by Mr. E. W. Binney, and other eminent geologists, that a very large portion of the coal discovered in the north of England and other countries, consists of the remains of vast forests and mosses, which originally grew in the earth beds on which they still lie, and on which they were successively swallowed up and buried by immense masses of sand and clay, since turned by compression into sandstone and shale, by which they are now covered. The question of the manner in which numerous plants possessing all the qualities of the plants grown in tropical regions, were produced in regions in which the present climate is not only temperate, but even intensely cold in the winter months, is explained by Hiimboldt and others, by the supposition that the earth itself was much hotter in those remote ages than it is in the present times ; and that the heat which produced this profuse vegetation was not derived from the solar rays, but from the remains of volcanic fires, still burning under the greater part of the earth's surface. The following extract from the first volume of " Cosmos " contains the views of some of the most distinguished geologists as to the circumstances in which the present coal-fields were deposited, in countries in which every variety of summer's heat and winter's cold now prevails. " Having thus," says Humboldt, " viewed the series of inorganic formations which compose the crust of the earth in combination with the animal remains interred in them, we have still to consider the vegetable kingdom of the earlier times, and to trace the epochs of .the successive floras which have accompanied the increasing extent of dry land, and the progressive modifications of the atmo- 32 YORKSHIRE : sphere. As we have already remarked, the oldest strata contain only marine plants exhibiting cellular tissue, the Devonian strata being the first in which some cryptogamic forms of vascular plants are found (Calamites and Lycopodiaceae). It had been inferred from certain theoretical views concerning the simplicity of the primitive forms of organic life, that in the ancient world vegetable had preceded animal life, and that the former was in fact always the indispensable condition of the latter. But there do not appear to be any facts to justify this hypothesis ; and the circumstance that the Esquimaux, and other tribes who live on the shores of the Polar Sea, subsist at the present day exclusively on fish and Cetaceae, is alone sufficient to show that vegetable substances are not absolutely indispensable to the support of animal life. After the Devonian strata and the mountain limestone, we come to a formation in which botanical analysis has recently made the most brilliant progress. The coal measures contain not only cryptogamic plants analogous to ferns and phsenogamous monocotyledones (grasses, yucca-like Liliaceae, and palms), but also gymnospermic dicotyledones (Coniferse and Cycadese). We have already distin- guished nearly four hundred species in the coal formation; but of these I will here merely enumerate arborescent Calamites and Lyco^ podiaceee ; the scaly Lepidodendron ; the Sigillaria, sixty feet long, distinguished by a double system of vascular fascicles, and some- times found upright and apparently having its roots attached ; the Stigmaria, approaching in some respects the Cactacege'"' — an immense number of fronds and sometimes stems of ferns, which, by their abundance, indicate the insular character of the dry land of that period ; Cycadeai, and especially palms, though fewer in number than the ferns ; Asterophyllites, with verticillate leaves, allied to Naiades; and Coniferse, resembling Araucarias, having some faint traces of annual rings. "All this vegetation was luxuriantly developed on - those parts of the older rocks which had risen above the surface of the water, and the characters which distinguish it from our present vegetation were maintained through all subsequent epbchs up to the last of the cretaceous strata. The flora of the coral formation,, comprising these remarkable forms, presents a very striking uniformity of distribution in genera, if not in species^ over all the parts of the surface of the earth which were then • The Stigmaria have since been shown by Mr. Binney to be the roots of Sigillsriav -3 uu-.,oX3 PAST AND PllESENT. 33 existing, as in New Holland, Canada, Greenland, and Melville Island. " The vegetation of the ancient world presents forms which, by their affinities with several families of living plants, show that in their extinction we have lost many intermediate links in the organic series. Thus, for example, the Lepidodendra find their place, accord- ing to Lindley, between the Coniferse and the Lycopodiacese ; whilst the Araucarise and the Pines present difiPerences in the junction of their vascular fascicles. Even limiting our consideration to the present vegetable world, we perceive the great importance of the discovery of Cycadeae and Coniferse, in the flora of the coal measures, by the side of Sagenariae and Lepidodendra. Coniferse are allied not only to Cupuliferae ^nd Betulinse, with which they are associated in the lignites, but also to the Lycopodiacese. The family of the Cycadese in their external aspect approach palms, while in the structure of their flowers and seeds they present material points of accordance with Coniferse. Where many beds of coal are placed one above another, the genera and species are not always intermingled, but are .more often so disposed that only Lycopodiacese and certain ferns are found in one bed, and Stigmaria and Sigillaria in another. To give an idea of the luxuriance of vegetation in the primitive world, and of the immense vegetable masses accumulated in particular places by streams or currents, and transformed into coal, I will notice the coal measures of Saarbruck, where a hundred and twenty beds are found one above another, exclusive of a great number which are not more than a foot thick ; and there are beds exceeding thirty, and even exceeding fifty feet in thickness, as at Johnstone in Scotland, and in the Creuzot in Burgundy. In the forests of the temperate zone, at the present period, the carbon contained in the trees which grow upon a given surface would hardly sufl&ce to cover it with an average thickness of seven French lines in a century." The circumstances under which plants requiring an intense heat to stimulate their growth, and which at the present time are only foimd within the tropical regions of the earth, were produced not only in England but in Melville Island, the coldest region existing in the world, are thus explained by the same great writer: — " Of gaseous emissions, those of carbonic acid are, as far as we yet know, the most numerous and the most abundant. In Ger- many, in the deep ravines of the Eifel, in the vicinity of the Laachen-See, in the crater-like valley of Wehr, and in Western TOI. I. E 34 YORKSHIRE : Bohemia, exhalations of carbonic acid gas appear as a last effort of volcanic activity, in and near its ancient foci in an earlier state of the globe. With' the high terre'strial temperatures of that period, and the numerous fissures which were not then filled up, the processes which we have here described, and in which carbonic acid gas and hot steam mingled in considerable quantities with thg atmosphere, must have acted far more powerfully; and then, as Adolphe Brongniart has shown, the vegetable world must have attained everywhere, almost independently of geographical posi- tion, the most luxuriant development and abundance. " In this constantly warm and moist atmosphere, loaded with carbonic acid gas, plants must have found both the stimulus and superabundant nourishment, which prepared them for becoming the materials of those nearly inexhaustible stores of coal, on which the physical power and prosperity of nations are based. Beds of this fuel are accumulated in basins in particular parts of Europe, in the British Islands, in Belgium, in France, on the Lower Bhine, and in Upper Silesia. At the same early period of generally dis- tributed volcanic activity, there also issued from the earth the enormous quantity of carbonic acid, which, in combination with lime, has formed the limestone rocks, and of which the carbon alone, in a soHd form, constitutes about the eighth part of their absolute bulk. " The portion of carbonic acid which was not absorbed by the alkaUne earths, but stOl remained in the atmosphere, was gradually consumed by the luxuriant vegetation, and the atmosphere being thus purified by the vital action of plants, retained only that extremely minute portion which we now find, and which is not injurious to the present condition of animal Hfe. More abundant exhalations of the vapours of sulphuric acid, in the inland waters of the ancient world, appear to have occasioned the destruction of the numeroiis species of fish and moUusca which inhabited them, and the formation of the contorted beds of gypsum, which have doubt- less been subjected to the frequent action of earthquakes."* In the coal measures, says Mr. A. C. Ramsay, the beds of coal are numerous, and under each bed of coal there is ar peouHar stratum which often, but not always, is of the nature of fire-clay. Coal consists of mineralized vegetable matter, chiefly the remains of a fossil tree named Sigillaria, and of Stigmaria, which Mf . Binney * Humboldt's Cosmos, vol. i. p. 269. PAST AND PRESENT. 35 discovered to be the roots of Sigillaria. With this are included many other fossil remains. In England the coal measures usually consist of alternations of sandstone, shale, coal, and ironstone.* c The produce of the rich coal-fields of the United Kingdom, which are, however, almost exclusively confined to Great Britain (Ireland being as poor, as England and Scotland are rich, in this description of mineral wealth), now amounts to upwards of 100,000,000 tons every year, and is increasing rapidly with the extension of mining operations. The present yearly supply of coal, if all employed for the purpose of generating steam, would give a power equal to that of many thousand millions of horses, or of a number of men so vast that we can scarcely venture to mention it. But the coal raised on the different coal-fields of Great Britain is applied to a variety of useful purposes ; and the manner and purposes to which it is applied have almost as great an influence on the amount of employment and v^ealth which it serves to create, as the amount of the fuel employed. The principal purposes to which coal is applied are, first, domestic use, in the production of warmth and comfort; second, the exporting of coal to other countries and the British colonies, as an ai-ticle of merchandise ; third, the illuminating of cities with gas; fourth, the smelting of the ores of iron, copper, and lead, and the production of those metals in such a form as renders them useful in the arts ; fifth, the manufacturing or forming of railways, iron bridges, iron steam-ships, steam-engines, and machinery of all kinds, and of tools, implements, and the most dehcate cutlery; sixth, the effecting of chemical changes and new combinations of substances, as in the cases of alkali, soda, and the numerous and most .valuable products of modem chemistry; and seventhly, the generating of steam for the purpose of draining and working mines, of propeUiug locomotives by railway on land, and steam-vessels on the ocean, and for working machinery employed in the spinning or weaving of cotton, wool, flax, hemp, jute, silk, and every other fibre now used for textile purposes. All these modes of applying the immense, amount of fuel produced by the coal-fields of Great Britain, have the effect of creating both local and national wealth, and of giving employment to a large amount of labour. But the amount of employment given to the labouring classes, and also of the public and private wealth accumulated, varies very .greatly on the different coal-fields of this and other countries, with • A. C. Ramsay's Physical Geograpliy and Geology of Great Britain. 3G YOfiKSHIKE : the various purposes to which the coal raised in those districts is apphed. It Avill be seen from the details given in this and subse- quent chapters, that there is no district in England in which the coal produced or imported is applied to a greater number of valuable purposes than in the county of York. It wlU also be seen that this county, besides possessing large supplies of coal within its own bounds, has' during the last thirty years succeeded in obtaining additional supplies from the great coal-field of Durham and North- umberland ; and has thus been able to turn to purposes of the highest utility immense masses of iron ore, produced in the North Riding of Yorkshire, whose existence was quite unknown until the present generation, and which would have been comparatively useless even when discovered, if it had not been for the proximity of the great northern coal-field. All the coal-fields of this county share the advantage of supplying fuel for the purposes of warmth and domestic comfort, and the illumination of cities and towns, not only within their own hmitsj but in extensive districts and to large populations which are desti- tute of fuel. The introduction of steam as a motive power, both on railways and along our own coasts, and even on the shores of distant countries, has had the effect of adding immensely to the rrieans of communication by sea and land, and to the power of locomotion. For many ages the inhabitants of London have obtained their suppHes of fuel from the coal-field of Northumberland and Durham, which lies close to the sea, and possesses every facility both for a great coasting and a great foreign trade, even in this cheap and bulky article. But it is one of the most remarkable proofs of the facilities created by steam-power and by railways, that coals are now being conveyed by land from Yorkshire to London, a distance of 200 mUes, and are able to compete with coals conveyed by water carriage. On aU the coal-fields of England the practical range of sale and consumption has greatly increased since the introduction of the railway system, and this has joined with the increase of the local population to give a great impulse to this most valuable branch of national industry. WhUst all the coal-fields of the kingdom are used to supply fuel for domestic purposes and to enliven our streets, a very large portion of their produce is also used to furnish the means for smelting iron copper, lead, and other ores, and for the working of the metals thus produced. This is especially the case on the Staffordshire and PAST AND PRESENT. 37 Worcestershire coal-fields, on those of Shropshire, Gloucestershire, Monmouthshire, South and North Wales, and the West of Scotland. It has also become the case within the last thirty or forty years on the coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland, which^ beside furnishing fuel to smelt the lead and iron ores of those two counties, are used for the same purpose in the great iron district of Cleveland or North Yorkshire. A certain portion of the coal of the West Riding is also used for the smelting of the very fine class of iron ores found in that district. But the great characteristic use of the coal supply of Yorkshire, like that of Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire, is the generating of steam to be used in impelling the machinery by which the great textile manufactures of this country are produced. In the year 1868 there were in the United Kingdom 6403 manu- factories employed in spinning and weaving cotton, wool, flax, hemp, jute, and silk into manufactured goods. In these factories there were at that time no less than 11,100 combing machines, 40,993,244 spinning spindles, 2,975,626 doubling spindles, 546,619 power looms worked by 247,286 power-loom weavers, 1,148,561 billy spindles, 1403 condensers, 2784 gigs, and 3981 fulling stocks. The amount of moving power for working this prodigious quantity of machinery was 336,730 horse-power, supplied by steam generated by coal, and 29,320 horse-power supplied by water. The number of persons employed in the whole of these factories was 330,699 males, and 523,544 females, making a total of 854,243 persons. The yearly value of all the products of the industry and skill produced in these great industrial establishments is at least £150,000,000 sterhng. The portion of these products manufactured in the county of York, is probably from one-fourth to one-fifth of the whole. The number of factories of all kinds existing in the county of York in 1868, was 1896 ; the number of combing machines was 2165; the number of spinning spindles was 6,067,868 ; the number of doubling spindles was 1,052,855 ; the number of power looms was 88,591, worked by 65,047 power-loom weavers; the number of biUy spindles was 1,008,118 ; of gigs, 3849, and of fulhng stocks, 3309. The amount of moving power supplied by steam was 72,767 horse-power, and by water 5139 horse-power. The number of the male population employed in the factories was 92,290, and the number of the female was 133,252, making the total of male and female 225,542. All the particulars with regard to these vast 38 YORKSHIRE : trades will be found in other chapters of this work. These few general results are mentioned here, to show how vast an amount of employment and production depends upon the steam-power supl- plied by the coal-field of Yorkshire.* Yorkshire is one of the English counties which are the most enriched by the possession of extensive beds of coal. The produce of the Yorkshire coal-field at the present time is about 10,000,000 of tons per annum, and it is with the„ imrnense mass of fuel thus furnished by the mineral strata of the county, and with the fire and steam produced from it, that the chief branches of the industry of the county are conducted. The following account of the number of collieries in Yorkshire, and the manner in which they were dis- tributed through the West Riding in the year 1868, with the produce of each district in the same year, is supplied by Frank N. Wardell, Esq., the inspector of coal-mines in the Yorkshire district, to the official returns of the "Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland," published in 1869 : — THE COLLIEHIES OF TOEKSHnSE AND THEni PKODUCE, 1868. Me. Fkank N. Wakdell, Inspector. X- „f n 11- • Cojls Produced. Ivo. of Collieries. Tons. 6, Bingley, . ... 41,250 42, Bamsley, . • . 1,799,500 60, Bradford, . . . 1,175,270, 34, Dewsbury, . ... 395,850 33, Halifax, . . . . 36, Huddersfield, . 13, Holmfirth, . . ... 102, Leeds, . . ^ 4, Normanton, ) ' 5, Penistone,. ) 6, Pontefract,. > ' ' 23, Eotherham, . . 35, Sheffield, . 49, Wakefield, .... ■ 3, Saddleworth and Settle, 450,500 300,500 87,470 2,505,000 75,000 570,250 1,075,500 1,258,470 5,450 9,740,510 441 Total produce of Yorkshire, . . Before we proceed to give a fuUer account of the Yorkshire coal-field, it may be well to bring before our readers the last official return of the produce of the whole of the coal-fields of the United Kingdom, as shown in the same official returns. * Factories. — Return of the number of Cotton, Woollen, Worsted, Flax, Hemp, Jute, Horse Hair, Elastic Hosiery, Laco, and Silk Factorici, subject to the Factories Acts in the United Kingdom, muVed by Mr. Baines, 22nd July, 1868. No. 453. PAST AND PRESENT. 39 SUMMAET OF COAL PKODITCE OF - THE UNITED KINGDOM FOE 1868. Tons. Durham and Northumberland, 24,394,167 Cumberland, Torksbire, . . . . Derbyshire, ... ... Nottinghamshire, . . . Leicestershire, . . . Warwickshire, . . . . . Staffordshire and Worcestershire, . Lancashire, Cheshire, . ... Shropshire, . . . Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, Monmouthshire^ ... . . . South Wales, .... North Wales, . . Scotland, Ireland, . . 1,378,026 9,740,510 4,957,879 1,508,439 608,088 624,859 12,294,780 12,800,500 937,500 1,495,500 1,969,000 4,250,500 8,959,500 2,385,000 14,709,959 126,950 103,141,157 . - Total produce of the United Kingdom, . The workable coal-field of Yorkshire may be said to commence Dorthward on the northern side of the valley formed by the river Aire. The town of Bingley, and Pottemewton, near Leeds, may be considered the two northern points of this coal-field, according to the geological map published by Mr. A. C. Ramsay, one of the local directors of that survey. The extreme breadth of the York- shire coal-field at its northern extremity is from Wilsden, some miles to the west of Bradford, to Garforth near Leeds. To the north and west the coal-field is bounded by the millstone grit, and to the east by the conglomerate sandstone and red marls of the magnesian formation. These formations bound the Yorkshire coal- field from its extreme northern to its extreme southern point. The total length of this coal-field, within the limits of the county of York, is from thirty-five to forty miles ; that is to say, from Potter- newton, near Leeds, to the neighbourhood of Sheflield, or from Bing- ley to the same place. The extreme breadth is about twenty-five miles ; that is, from Halifax or from Huddersfield, to the most easterly coal-mines between Norraanton and, Pontefract. Within the limits thus described are included the greater part of the mineral riches and the manufacturing wealth of the West Riding. The towns on this portion of the Yorkshire territory are amongst the largest and wealthiest in England; and the means of employment which .they_ afford to every description of labour, and every exercise of ingenuity and skill, are so great that it is impossible to fix any 40 YOKKSHIEE ; limit to their future progress. Amongst the towns on the coal formation of Yorkshire are Leeds, Bingley, Keighley, Bradford, Halifax, Dewshury, Elland, Wakefield, Huddersfield, Batley, Barns- ley, Penistone, Rotherham, and Shefl&eld. All these places are rapidly increasing, and in this district, at every census, places which had previously been described as vUlages, rise above the minimum population of 2000, which now constitutes a town, and are returned amongst the towns of England. The geological survey of the coal-field of Yorkshire is now in progress, or rather the pubhcation of the results of that survey, by the eminent geologists who are acting with the Board of Ordnance. We have already a good outline of this survey in the geological map of England and Wales, recently published by Andrew C. Bamsay, F.E..S. and G.S., local director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and professor of geology in the Government School of Mines. We have also some of the maps of the more southern parts of the Yorkshire coal-field, and a very interesting account of the sinkings made through the Permian strata at Shireoak, on the borders of Nottinghamshire and Yoi'kshire. The result of these sinkings was the discovery, at a depth of about 1500 feet, of the great and rich coal-beds generally known as those of Barnsley, and of numerous beds of coal above that great stratum. The follow- ing particulars are supplied in the memoir of the geology of parts of Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, and Derbyshire, to illustrate the quarter sheet, number 82 N.E. They are from the pen of Mr. W. Talbot Aveline, F.G.S., and accompanied with lists of fossUs by J. W. Salter, F.G.S. This memoir states that the coal measures of this district form a small portion of the eastern border of the Yorkshire coal-field. Although none of the thick coal-beds of the south Yorkshire coal- field come to the surface here, they, or many of them, must lie below, but at a considerable depth. It was from the knowledge of this superposition of the strata, coupled with good geological measurements and calculations, that that public-spirited and most intelligent nobleman, the late duke of Newcastle, undertook the important enterprise of sinking two pits in his property at Shireoak, under the superintendence of Mr. John Lancaster. The sinkings were commenced in March, 1854, and after meeting with considerable difficulties, the first thick coal of four feet six inches, and of good quality, was cut at a depth of 346 yards. This coal is PAST AND PRESENT. 41 supposed to be the Wathwood coal of the Derbyshire and south Yorkshire districts. On the 1st of February, 1859, the "top hard coal " was reached at a depth of 510 yards. This well-known coal, generally called the "Barnsley coal," was the one sought after; and the fact that the calculations of Mr. Lancaster agreed within a few feet with the actual depth, reflects great credit on his geological knowledge and mining skill. Sinldng of the SMreoah Mine. — In sinking the Shireoak mine, and in the operations connected with it, the total depth reached or proved by borings was 547 yards. After sinking through the Permian marls and sandstone to a depth of 18 yards, 2 feet 6 inches, the strata encountered were as follows : — Yellow limestone, 18 yards, 2 feet 8 inches; grey limestone, 15 yards, 1 foot; blue shale and rock, 6 yards, 2 feet 3 inches ; blue shale, 1 1 yards, 9 inches ; sand-rock, 1 foot 8 inches ; warren earth, 1 yard ; blue and red bands with ironstone, 1 yard, 2 feet 1 1 inches ; ironstone, 1 foot 4 inches; black shale, 2 inches; shale and rock, 10 yards; the manor coal, 2 feet ; blue shale, 5 yards ; grey and red rock, && yards. This rock is believed to represent the Rotherham red rock. The base of this rock was found at a depth of 156 yards, 2 feet 3 inches below the surface. The succession of the strata in the Shireoak pit, from the gray and red rock (believed to represent the Rotherham red rock) to the hard or Barnsley coal, was as follows : — STEATA IN THE SHLREOAKS PIT. Description of Strata, The Manor coal, Blue shale, Grey and red rock, ..... Coal, Rock and shale, . . . . Black shale, .... Fire-clay, Coal and black shale, .... Shale, Coal, Fire-clay, Shaly coal and ironstone, 4 inches, Shale, Coal, . . Fire-clay, Shale and coal, . ... Eock, .... Coal, Thickness. Yds. Ft. In. 2 5 66 14 13 8 2 6 2 3 2 1 1 5 2 2 1 2 2 2 10 1 4 3 6 3 9 7 4 Depth. Yds. Ft. In. 85 2 3 90 2 3 156 2 3 157 7 170 1 3 171 2 9 173 2 11 173 2 3 177 2 1 178 5 180 1 8 181 2 186 2 5 187 2 187 2 9 188 9 191 1 191 9 VOL. I. 42 YORKSHIRE : STRATA m THE SHIEEOAKS PIT (Contwiued). Description of Strata. Blue shale, ... Shaly coal, . . . Eook and metal, ... Coal and black shale, Shale, ... Eock bands Black shale and ironstone, 5 inches, Fire clay and shale, Coal, . . . Shale and rock. Coal, . . . Shale and rock. Coal and shale, Shale, . . . Bands of rock. Shale and ironstone bands, . Shale, Coal, . . . Rock and shale, . . . ... Coal, ... Eock and shale, ... Coal, Shale and ironstone, . . . Inferior coal, ... Shale, Coal, Eock and shale, Shireoaks, Melton clown, or Wathwood coal. Shale ' . . . ■ ' Inferior coal, . . . . Warren earth, Strong rock, Measures, (with thin beds of coalj,. Furnace coal, . Measures, . . Coal, Fire-clay, . . Coal,. . . . Shale and rock, Coal, Shale and rock, . Coal, ... Shale and rock, . Hazles coal, . . Dirt in coal, . . Eock and shale, . Shell bed, . Shale, . . . Coal, .... Shale and rock, Coal, . Shale, . . . Hard coal, . . . Dark warren earth Blue shale, . . PEOVED BY BORING. Eock and shale, . Coal and shale, . Tliickness, Yds. Ft. In. 6 8 3 8 2 4 1 11 12 9 2 3 10 4 2 1 18 1 13 8 4 2 2 5 1 4 3 3 10 2 10 2 8 1 8 1 23 1 10 7 16 2 1 2 7 1 6 5 15 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 15 2 1 2 2 18 2 1 1 7 10 2 19 2 1 42 2 5 1 3 2 1 6 14 1 4 7 Depth. Yds. Ft. In. 197 9 197 1 206 206 2 208 2 219 1 223 1 226 1 2 268 268 276 408 408 428 428 439 459 459 502 502 507 226 231 232 235 2db 11 238 1 4 249 8 260 2 277 300 2 301 317 2 2 8 1 1 5 6 318 324 1 324 2 339 2 340 1 1 358 359 361 2 365 7 380 1 381 8 389 9 389 2 390 390 1 404 404 2 427 1 10 1 11 2 6 439 1 10 1 18 1 1 5 6 1 8 509 5 509 8 511 2 2 526 6 526 1 1 PAST AJSTD PRESENT. 43 STEATA IN THE SHiiffiOAKS PIT (Continued). Description of Strata. Thickness. Depth. Blue shale and ironstone bands, . . . Ironstone, ... Rock and shale, . Black shale, . . . Warren earth, . ... Yds. Ft. In. 11 7 8 1 5 2 5 1 2 Yds. Ft. In. 537 1 1 537 1 8 546 1 646 2 6 547 6 The following are the points of greatest interest proved by this unusually deep sinking : — 1. The existence of a soft sand rock at the bottom of the Permian beds in this district, which seems to be the equivalent of the quick sand of the NortL 2. The absence of any workable seam of coal in this district, at least in the 340 yards of coal measures above the Wathwood or Shireoak thick coal. Thirty-seven feet of coal were passed through in the sinking, but only four seams were of a workable thickness. 3. The existence of a red ironstone in the upper measures, which promises to be of great value. 4. The top hard coal seemed to thin out towards the east, under the magnesian limestone ; for at Killamarsh and near its outcrop, six miles west of Shireoaks, it is six feet thick, whilst there it is only three feet nine inches. The Wathwood coal being found within one yard of the depth calculated upon, from the dip of the strata, would lead to the suppo- sition that the new district is remarkably free from faults; and this supposition is still further borne out by the large bodies of water met with. The dip decreases considerably towards the east, the strata coming more into a basin-form. On examining the section of the Shireoaks pit it will be seen that the coal measures are made up of numerous beds of sandstone rock, shale, clay, ironstone, and coal. Few of the softer beds of the coal measures are exposed at the surface of this district. The nearest good section is that exposed in the cutting of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln Eailway, just without the western border of the quarter sheet, 82 N.E., where may be seen sandstone, clays, and thin beds of coal, like those mentioned in the pit's section. It appears from these researches that the soft grindstone beds are in the coal measures. Besides being used for grindstones the soft sandstones are worked into cisterns, troughs, and pillars. The best exposures of these 44 YORKSHIRE : beds are in the quarries near Wickersley, west of this district, in which are found the common coal-measure fossil plants.'^'" The Worhing of the Yorkshire Coal-mines. — The official returns of the inspectors of coal-mines laid before Parliament, throw much light on the working of the Yorkshire coal mines, from the year 1852 to the present time. During much the greater portion of that time the Yorkshire coal-mines were inspected by Mr. Charles Morton, who seems to have spared no pains in urging and encouraging the adoption of every means which could avert accident, and secure the safety of the very valuable, but not very provident class of workmen, who spend their lives in working those mines. Since the retirement of Mr. Charles Morton, the inspection of the Yorkshire mines passed into the hands of, first, Mr. Southern, and afterwards of Mr. Frank Wardell, who holds that important office at present; both of whom have laboured assiduously to insure the same objects. A few notes from these reports will throw light, both on the nature of the Yorkshire coal-field, and of the circumstances under which it is worked. In Mr. Charles Morton's Report for the year 1852, he stated that the number of coal-mines in Yorkshire at that time was 265. He further stated that the Yorkshire coal-mines, though very numerous, were in general shallow and of a small area, many of them being less than 100 yards in depth, and few exceeding 250 yards. The beds of coal were numerous and of very difierent degrees of thickness; the thinnest being about eighteen inches, and the thickest ten feet. In subsequent reports he mentioned that the Sheffield seam of coal was more than five feet thick, at a depth of 160 yards; at the Warrendale colhery, near Rotherham, there was one bed of coal nine feet thick, and another five feet; that the Barnsley coal was nine and a half feet thick, and at the lower Elsecar coUiery, near Barnsley, was found at a depth of 164 yards. With regard to the Yorkshire collieries Mr. Morton states in his Report of 1852, that some of the coal strata contained much fire-damp, others much choke-damp; that some were liable to spontaneous combustion and gave off mixed vapours, and that a few of them were nearly free from gas. From the various nature of the coal-beds and of the roof and floor, it had been necessary to adopt different plans of mining. The pillar and stall method * Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, &o. 82 N.E. 1861. PAST AND PRESENT. 45 of excavating the mines so generally adopted in the county of Durham was not much used, nor the long-work system which prevails in the midland counties; but a modification of the two systems was adopted in Yorkshire. The contrivances for supporting the roofs of the mines were also various. In some collieries wooden props were employed; in others piles of wooden blocks assisted the props ; whilst in a third class of pits portable iron props were used. In the year 1855 Mr. Charles Morton reported that the collieries m Yorkshire were more than 300 in number. In 1857 he stated that the number of the Yorkshire collieries had increased to 343- He also stated that the quantity of coal drawn from these collieries was 7,750,000 tons, and that the number of Hves lost in gaining that quantity of coal was sixty-six, being at the rate of eight and one-sixth to each million ton of coals. In February, 1857, there occurred the greatest and most terrible accident that ever was known in the coal-mines of Yorkshire, namely, that caused by the explosion of fire-damp at Lundhill ColHery, near Bamsley. It appears from Mr. Charles Morton's report for 1858, that the Lundhill Colhery is between the villages of Wombwell and Elsecar, about five nules S.E. from Bamsley. The pits were sunk on the north-eastern and dip-side of the Eotherham and Bamsley coal-field, and were almost the deepest in South Yorkshire. The workable seams at Lundhill were stated to be the Wathwood, at a depth of about forty feet, and nearly four feet in thickness; the Abdy, about seventy -five yards in depth, and nearly three feet thick; and the Bamsley coal, about 214 yards deep, and from seven three-fourths to eight feet thick. In the evidence respecting the Lundhill accident, Mr. Nicholas Wood, of Hatton, one of the most experienced mining surveyors in England, said that there was no difl&culty what- ever in Durham and Northumberland about using safety lamps; that coal-mining in Yorkshire was becoming dangerous, as the pits were sunk deeper ; and that unless naked lights were excluded, there would be frequent accidents. The number of lives lost in the Lundhill accident was stated by Mr. Morton to be 187. The effect of this accident was to sweU the number of deaths in the Yorkshire coal-mines in the year 1857 to 245, being much the greatest number ever known. In the report for the year 1857 Mr. C. Morton stated, that 46 YORKSHIRE : the number of coal-mines in the Yorkshire district was then 383, and that Yorkshire at that time produced the eighth part of the coal raised in England. In the year 1860 Mr. Morton reported that the quantity of coal drawn in Yorkshire that year exceeded eight and a half millions of tons, and that the number of persons killed in the collieries of that county in the same year was fifty, or in. the ratio of one death to every 170,000 tons of mineral raised. In the report of 1861 Mr. Morton entered somewhat more fuUy into the history of coal -mining ia Yorkshire during the preceding ten or eleven years. He stated that the number of working col- lieries in Yorkshire had increased during the preceding eleven years from 260 to 390 (being an increase of fifty per cent); and although the quantity of coal produced during the same period had advanced from 6,750,000 tons to 9,750,000 tons, being an increase of thirty- seven per cent, yet the number of deaths in the Yorkshire coal- mines had diminished from 106 in the year 1851 to fifty-eight in the year 1861, being a decrease of forty-eight per cent. Unfortunately the number of deaths was considerably greater in 1861, amounting to 115. But the year 1863 was comparatively a favourable year, although the number of deaths in 1863 was forty-eight in the Yorkshire coal-mines, to which were to be added five in ironstone mines, and two in experimental or trial shafts. According to a statement of Mr. Morton in this year's Eeport, the number of lives lost annually in the Yorkshire collieries, excluding those lost in ironstone mines and new sinking pits, were 106 in the year 1851 ; 61 in the year 1852 ; 51 in the year 1853; 64 in the year 1854; 66 in the year 1855; 52 in the year 1856; 245 in the year 1857 (the year of the LundhiU Colliery explosion); 47 in the year 1858 ; 63 in 1859 ; 50 in 1860 ; 55 in 1861 ; 104 in 1862 ; and 48 in 1863. In the year 1867, Mr. Charles Morton was compelled by ill health to resign the office of inspector of coal-mines in Yorkshire, and in the succeeding year the Keport of the Yorkshire mines was made by George WiUiam Southern, Esq., the present inspector of mines in the Northumberland, North Durham, and Cumberland district. His report on the Yorkshire mines is for the year ending the 31st December, 1867. In the following year Frank N. Ward ell, Esq., was appointed inspector of the Yorkshire district, and his Report, pubHshed in the course of the year 1869, is the last of the PAST AND PRESENT. 47 series. It appears from Mr. Southern's Report that the number of deaths in the Yorkshire coal-mines in the year 1867 was ninety, and that the number in 1868 was eighty. In Mr. WardeU's first Report, dated Pontefract, 27th February, 1869, he states that he had much satisfaction in being able to report a diminution in the number of accidents by seven, as compared with the year 1867, resulting in a reduction of eleven in the number of deaths. He adds that there was, at the same time, an increase in the number of collieries, those opened out during the past year being in excess of those worked out, or for other reasons closed. Several were still "winning." That the total quantity of coal raised was less than that of the preceding year by nearly 150,000 tons was, Mr. Wardell said, owing chiefly to the general depression of trade in the year 1868. The total produce of coal in the United Kingdom during the year 1868 was 104,600,000, and the number of lives lost 1011, or one life lost per 103,461 tons. In the Yorkshire district the total produce of the coal-mines in 1868 was 9,705,000, and the munber of lives lost eighty, or one life lost for 120,312 tons. This comparison, Mr. Wardell observes, is very favourable to Yorkshire.* General View of the TorJcsMre, Derbyshire, and Nottingham Coal- field. — The Yorkshire coal-field also extends over a considerable portion of the adjoining counties of Derby and Nottingham, the coal-fields of those three counties being physically one, though separated by political divisions. Taking it as a whole, it is the largest coal-field in England, though about 150 square miles smaller in area than the great coal-field of South Wales. The extreme length of this coal-field, from the river Aire on the north to the river Trent on the south, is 66 miles, and its breadth varies from 5 to 20 mUes, the total area being 760 square miles. The middle coal measures of this coal-field are 2500 feet thick ; the lower coal measures or gannister, 1000 feet thick. The Black Shale coal represents the Arley mine of Lancashire, and the Kilburn coal and the Low Moor coal of Yorkshire are nearly identical. The lower beds of the ironstones are very, valuable. The succession of strata in the Barnsley district, which may be taken as a good specimen of this coal-field, is stated by Mr. Edward HuU and the Rev. W. Thorpe to be as follows : — Magnesian lime- " Mines. — Reports of the Inspectors of Mines to Her Majesty's Secretary of State for the year 1868; London, 1869. Report on the Inspection of Mines in the Yorkshire District for the year ending the 31st December, 1868, by Frank N. Wardell, Esq., page 147. 48 YORKSHIBE '. stone, 75 feet ; Lower Permian sandstone, 54 feet ; Ackwortli rock, ,54 feet; strata, 510 feet; Shafton coal, 5 feet; strata, principally sandstone (Chevit rock), 393 feet; Muck coal, 3^ feet; strata, 219 feet; Woodmoor coal, 3 feet; strata in half yard coal, 45 feet ; "Winter coal, 4 feet ; strata, Beamshaw coal, 3 feet ; strata with Kent coal, 1 foot, and Mapple coal, 4^ feet (inferior quality) ; strata, 216 feet; Barnsley coal, 9^ feet; strata, 198 feet; Swallow Wood coal, 3 feet ; strata, 234 feet ; Joan coal, 2 feet ; strata, 60 feet; Flockton top coal, 6^ feet; strata, 120 feet; Parkgate coal, 5 feet ; strata, 78 feet ; ThornclifFe thin coal, 2^ feet ; strata, 123 ; Four feet coal (variable), 2^ feet ; Strata, 108 feet ; Silkstone coal, 5 feet; strata, 195 feet; Whinmoor, or Lowmoor, 2-| feet; strata (about), 150 feet; gannister flagstone (about), 36 feet; strata, principally shales, 495 feet ; Halifax coal. If foot ; strata (shales and flags), 81 feet; Halifax soft coal, 1-| foot; strata, 150 feet; millstone grit.* In the veins of coal, the most valuable are the Silkstone and the Barnsley thick coals. The former is said to be identical with the Arley mine of Lancashire, and thus this fine bed of coal, which seldom exceeds five feet in thickness, has spread over a tract embracing not less than 10,000 square miles. The quantity and duration oi the workable seams of the middle coal measures in this coal-field is estimated by Mr. Edward Hull to be as follows : — The average number of workable beds of coal above two feet, 15 ; giving a vertical thickness of 46 feet of coal. The original quantity of coal (corrected for denudation), 17,656 millions of tons ; deducting one-fourth for the quantity worked out, and one-fourth for waste, we obtain for future use 8,828 millions of tons. This at the rate of consumption of 12-| million tons yearly, would last 705 years. In addition to this, there is an area of about 400 square miles overspread by Permian (Magnesian limestone) and Trias, under which several of the workable beds of coal lie at a smaller depth than 4000 feet. These are estimated to contain 12,390 millions of tons of coal, which, added to 8,828 millions of tons already given, would make the total quantity of coal, at a depth of less than 4000 feet deep, 21,215 millions of tons, a quantity sufilcient, at the present rate of consumption, to last about 1500 years. t • The Coal-fields of Great Dritain, their History, Structure, and Duration, by Edward Hull, Esq., M.A. of tlie Geological Survey of Great Britain ; Fellow of the Geological Society of London, 1861. f The Coal-fields of Great Britain. E. Hull, B.A , Esq., page 131. PAST AND PRESENT. 49 Amount and Increase of Population in the Goal and Iron Districts of the West Biding. — The coal and iron district of the "West Riding is subdivided into fifteen districts, in the returns made by Mr. Frank N. Wardell', inspector of coal-mines in the Yorkshire district. The names of these fifteen colliery districts are as follows — the Bingley, the Barnsley, the Bradford, the Dewsbury, the Halifax, the Hudders- field, the Holmfirth, the Leeds, the Normanton, the Penistone, the Pontefract, the Rotherham, the Sheffield, the Wakefield, the Saddle- worth and the Settle districts. These districts do not exactly correspond in extent of area with the districts employed in taking the decennial census ; but they agree sufficiently to enable us to show how great an influence the mineral wealth of each district has on the numbers of its population, and on the rate at which that population has increased during the present century. Rich beds of coal are found in all these districts, but the number of coal-mines varies very greatly, and the number of iron-mines also. It may be stated in general terms, that the population of the whole of these dis- tricts is very much above that of the avei'age popiolation of districts of equal area throughout the kingdom; and also that the population of the whole of those districts is increasing much more rapidly than the average population of England. But in the different districts of the coal-field of the West Riding there are great differences both in the amoimt of the population per square mile, and in the rate at which the population has increased during the present century. Various causes no doubt combine to produce this variety of results ; but it may very safely be stated that amongst the most powerful of those causes have been the amount of mineral wealth existing in each of them ; the extent to which that mineral wealth has been developed; and also the uses to which the fuel raised in the different districts has been applied. The number of coal-mines in the different districts of the West Riding varies from two or three as the smallest, to 102 as the largest, and the quantity of coal produced in the year 1868 varied from 5450 tons, in what is called the Saddleworth and Settle district, to 2,505,000 tons in the Leeds and Normanton district. There is also a great difference in the purposes to which the coal raised in the different districts is apphed. Thus in the Leeds, and also in the Bradford, the Dewsbury, the Halifax, and the Huddersfield districts, the principal purpose to which the immense supplies of coal raised in those districts is applied, is the VOL. I. G 50 YORKSHIRE : working of machinery employed in producing textile manufactures. In the Rotherham and Sheffield districts the principal purpose to which the coal raised is applied, is the working of iron in its various states, and the forming of machinery, iron plates, tools, implements of industry, and cutlery. In the Barnsley district, on the other hand, a very considerable portion of the coal raised is either sent to London, or other places, for domestic use, or is used in locomotives or steam-vessels. If we take the various districts of the coal-field of the West Riding, and examine the quantity of coal raised in each, we shall see how closely it is connected both with the numbers and with the rate of increase in the population. The District of Bingley and Keighley. — The towns of Bingley and Keighley stand on, or close to, the most northern part of the Yorkshire coal-field. There is no coal of any importance in the mOlstone grit and the mountain limestone lying to the north of these places, except a smaU quantity at Ingleton, near Settle, until we come to the great coal-field of Durham and Northumber- land. The whole of the coal-beds north of this line, if they ever existed, have been swept away by the process to which geologists give the name of denudation. But in that part of the valley of Aire, near which Bingley and , Keighley stand, the coal formation shows itself, and extends southward from the valley of the Aire, not only to the southern, limits of the county of York, near Sheffield, but through the counties of Derby and Nottingham, to Belper and to the banks of the Trent, near the town of Nottingham. The number of collieries in the Bingley district, in 1868, was six. The position of the collieries is in most cases indicated by their names, as given in the official returns. The names of the collieries in this district were the Cullingworth, the Denholme, the NorhUl (Wilsden), the Shipley Moor, and the Wilsden. The total quantity of coal produced by these six colheries in the year 1868 was 41,250 tons. The registration district of Keighley, according to the decennial census of the people, includes the subdivisions of Keighley, Bingley, and Hamworth, and extends over an area of 46,052 acres. At the commencement of the present century, this district contained 16,489 inhabitants. In the first fifty years of the century, the population of the district more than doubled its niimbers, having increased to 43,395 persons. At that time the number of persons on each square mile in the Keighley district, according to the official return, was 638, PAST AND PBESENT. 51 which is in round numbers nearly twice the average rate of popula- tion throughout the whole of England, which then was 332 persons to the square mile. But during the next ten years this increase was not fully sustained, the population of the Keighley district having amounted, in 1861, to not more than 43,122. The decrease, how- ever, was confined to the rural district, the population of the two towns of Keighley and Bingley having continued to increase. The Bradford District. — The mineral riches of the Bradford district are very much greater than those of the Keighley district, including large quantities of very superior iron, as well as much greater quan- tities of coal. The number of collieries in the Bradford district was fifty in number, in the year 1868. Their names, as given in the official returns, were, the AUerton collieries, 2 ; the Ayclifie Hill (Horton), Birkby Lane, Bolton Wood, Booth Holme Field (Tong), Bowling, 4 ; Bradford, Broom Hall, Bunkers HUl, Clayton, Cleck- heaton, 2 ; Clifton, Cotton Hole (North Bierley), Butler Height, Dog Lane, Eccleshill, Haycliff Hill (Horton), Heaton, Heaton (Shipley), High Bank (Shipley), Holme Bank, Hunsworth, Leister Dyke, Little Horton, North Bierley, 2 ; North Cliff, Norwood Green, Rockwell, Scholes, Seventeens (CHfton), Shelf, 2 ; Shipley, Shipley Moor, Smedles (Bowling), Thornton, 4 ; Tong, 3 ; Wibsey and Wike. The total amount of coal produced by the fifty collieries of the Brad- ford district in the year 1868 was 1,175,250 tons; and it may be stated that the great mass of this large supply of fuel , was applied either to the smelting and working of the very valuable iron ores of the district, to the making of machinery, or to the generat- ing of steam to carry on the various branches of textile industry for which the Bradford district is so much celebrated. The Bradford registration, or census district, extends over an area of 40,334 acres, and includes the greater part of the mineral district above described. The Bradford census district comprises the subdivisions of Bradford East and Bradford West, Bowling, Calverley, Cleckheaton, Drigh- lington, Idle, North Bierley, Horton, Pudsey, Shipley, Thornton, and Wilsden. The population has increased with extraordinary rapidity during the present century. In 1801 the population of the Bradford district amounted to 42,790 persons. In the first fifty years of the present century it had increased more than four fold, the population having amounted to 181,964 persons at the census of 1851. At that time the number of persons to each square mUe, in the whole 62 YOEKSHIRE : of the Bradford district, was 2887. During the next ten years there was a still larger increase, and in 1861 the population of the Bradford district was 196,475 persons. The Leeds District. — Leeds is the principal seat of the woollen manufactures of England, and the most populous town in Yorkshire. It stands in the midst of one of the richest mineral districts of the West Riding, containing no less than 102 collieries. These collieries, with the four in the Normanton district, produced 2,505,000 tons of coal in the year 1868, which is rather more than the fourth part of the whole quantity of coal produced in the county of York. The names of the coal-mines, most of which are local, will serve to show how completely they are scattered over the whole district around this ancient capital of the manufactures of Yorkshire. These names are: — Adwalton Moor colliery, AUerton Main; Ditto, Haigh Moor, Astley, BaUdon Moor, Balaclava (Morley), Beeston, 3 ; Beeston Lodge, Beverley (Armley), BirkhUl (Birkenshaw), Blakeley, Blue Hills Lane (Wortley), Britannia Main (Adwalton), Brookhouse (Gom- ersal), Brown Moor, Burmantofts, Bushy (Drighlington), Calverley, Churwell, 5 ; College (Birstall), Cross Green, Crow Trees (Gomersal), Dartmouth, Dean House (Morley), Doles Wood (Drighlington), Dye House (Gomersal), Elland Road, Ellerby Lane, Farnley, Farnley Wood, Farsley, Foxholes (Methley), Garforth, Gelder Road, Gilder- some, 3 ; Green Man (Hunslet), GreviUe (Rawdon), HarehUls, Hol- beck, Howden Clough, Howley Park (Morley), Hunslet, Lanes Wood (Gomersal), Kilhngbeck (York Road), Little Gomersal, Lamb Wood, Manston, Manston Lodge, Micklefield, Middleton, Morley, 2 ; Morley Main, Nethertown, Neville HiU, Newmarket (Adwalton), New Hall (Middleton), Oakwell Osmondthorpe, Owlet Hall, Potter Newton, Primrose Hill (Liversedge), Quaker Lane (Liversedge), Robert Town, 2 ; Robin Hood, Rock (York Road), Rothwell Haigh, Scotland (Gomersal), Scratch Lane (Gomersal), Seacroft, Smithies (Birstall), Smithy Hill (Liversedge), Spring Gardens, Stanley Main (Liver- sedge), Strawberry Bank (Liversedge), Sykes (Drighlington), Tan- house Mill (Liversedge), Toftshaw Moor, Tong Moor, Waterloo, Waterloo Main, Water Loose (Adwalton), Wellington, West York- shire (Birstall), ditto (Manston), White Horse, (York), White Lee, Wortley, 2 ; Victoria (Morley), Victoria (Adwalton), Victoria. It wUl be seen from these names that the veins of coal extend over the whole of the Leeds and Hunslet districts. Their richness is proved by the fact of their yielding upwards of 2,505,000 tons of PAST AND PRESENT. 53 coal per annum. This immense supply of fuel, besides answering all domestic purposes, and illuminating the town and neighbour- hood with gas (in which, within our recollection, darkness was made visible by glimmering oil lamps), also suppHes the means of working every variety of machinery, and of carrying on the varied textile manufactures for which Leeds has been celebrated for so many ages. The increase of population in the Leeds registration district, and in the adjoining registration district of Hunslet, which includes a large portion of the neighbourhood of Leeds, has been extremely rapid during the whole of the present century. The Leeds regis- tration district only includes a portion of the borough, and extends over an area of 2100 acres. The Hunslet district, however, which includes the suburban districts, is of much greater extent, covering an area of 39,921 acres. At the commencement of the present century, at the census of 1801, the population of the 2100 acres included in the Leeds registration district was 30,669 persons. During the first fifty years of the present century, the population of this district increased more than three fold, having risen at the census of 1851 to 101,343 persons. At that time the number of persons on each square mile amounted to no less than 30,886. The population continued to increase rapidly to the census of 1861, when it amounted to 117,566 persons. The Hunslet registration district includes the subdistricts of Wortley, Kirkstall, Chapeltown, Whitkirk, Rothwell, Holbeck, and Himslet, and extends over 39,921 acres. At the beginning of the present century, this extensive and populous district contained 32,340 persons. In 1851 the number had increased to 82,437. At that time the number of persons to the square mile, in the Hunslet district, was 1422. Since that time there has been a continued increase in this populous district, which at the census of 1861 contained 102,649 persons. The Dewshury District. — Dewsbury, on the river Calder, is another very rich mineral district. The number of coal-mines in the Dewsbury district was thirty-four, and the quantity of coal produced by those mines amounted to 395,850 tons in the year 1868. The names of the mines in the Dewsbury district were as follows: — ^ The Batley, the Babes-in-the-wood, the Beggarington (Hartshead), Bunker's HHl (Whitley), Calder (Mirfield), Chickenley 54 YORKSHIRE : Heath, Cowmes (Thornhill), Cross Bank (Batley), Crossley Lane, Dewsbury Bank, Dewsbury Moor, 2 ; Dogleach, Fall House (Whit- ley), Gregory Spring (Mirfield), Hartshead, Heeley (Briestfield), Hagg Wood, Hopton, Hostingley (Thornhill), Ings (Thornhill), Lane Dyehouse, Legard Bridge (Mirfield), Liversedge, Mirfield Moor, Northorpe (Mirfield), Park Farm, Raven's Lodge, Soothill, Syke Ing, Warren House, Whitley Wood, Upper Batley, and Upper Crossley. The coal produced by the thirty-four mines in the Dewsbury colliery district, besides answering domestic purposes, and that of lighting the town and many large establishments, is chiefly applied to the generating of steam, in the numerous manufactories of the district. The population of the Dewsbury district has increased rapidly during the present century; it extends over an area of 24,456 acres, and includes, besides the town of Dewsbury, the populous villages and districts of Morley, Batley, Gomersal, Liversedge, Mir- field, Soothill, Ossett, and Thornhill. At the commencement of the present century, at the census of 1801, the population of the Dewsbury district amounted to 29,730 persons. In the first fifty years of the century the number increased to 71,768 ; and at that time the number of persons on each square mile of the Dewsbury district was 1878, or in round numbers five times as great as the average population of England. At the census of 1861, the popu- lation of the Dewsbury district had increased to 92,883 persons. The Wakefield District. — Wakefield is also the chief place in a rich mining district. The number of collieries in the Wakefield district is forty-nine, and in 1868 they produced 1,258,470 tons of coal. The names of the collieries in the Wakefield district were as follows in 1868: — Ardsley Fall, Alverthorpe, Bottom Boat, Bretton, Dewsbury Lane (Ossett), Dirtear, East Ardsley, 2 ; Emley Moor, Emley Park, Emroyd, Field Lane, Flockton, 3 ; Flockton (Overton), Flockton Moor, Gawthorp (Ossett), Gawthorp, Grange, Grange Moor, 3 ; Hollingthorp, Hunt Royal (Upper Whitley), Low Laiths, Lupset, Manor, Milnthorp, Needle Eye (Denby Grange), Newmarket, NosteU, Ossett, Park Lane (Ossett), Providence, Ravens- thorp, Roundwood, St. John's, Sharlston, Snapethorp, Stanley, Star (Netherton), Stocksmoor, Victoria, West Ardsley, West Field (Ossett), Woodmoor, Wrenthorpe, Winney Moor. The fuel supplied by these forty-nine mines is chiefly used for manufacturing purposes, but a portion of it is sent southward and to the seaports. PAST AND PllESEXT. 55 The census or registration district of Wakefield is very extensive, covering an area of 42,060 acres. Besides the town of Wakefield, it includes Bretton, Sandal, Stanley, Horbury, Alverthorpe, Ardsley, and Oulton. At the beginning of the present century, at the census of 1801, this extensive district contained 27,617 persons. During the first fifty years of the present century, to the year 1851, the population of the Wakefield district increased to 50,014. At that time the number of persons to the square mile in the Wakefield district was 781, or more than twice the average of England. The population continued to increase during the next ten years, and in 1861 amounted to 55,049 persons. The Halifax District. — The Hahfax district stands on the western edge of the Yorkshire coal-field, and is very rich in minerals. The number of mines in this district is thirty-three, and in 1868 they produced 450,500 tons of coal. The mines of this district, as given in the official returns for 1868, were as follows: — Alderscholes (Thornton), Banks, Bank Bottom, Binns Bottom, Brackens Lane End (Shelf), Bradshaw (Ovenden), Bradshaw Lane, Clayton, Crooked Lane, Dickey Steel (Elland), Dove House (EUand), Harp Bottom, (Queensbury), Highfield, Lightclifie, Lime House, Mountain End, Park Bottom, Peep Green, Quarry House, Queensbury, Books (Hipperholme), Shaw Lane, Shivden, Shivden Dale, Shivden Hall, Shugden, Shugden Head, 2 ; Soil Hill (Ovenden) Stoneyhall, Swan Bank, and Thornton. The quantity of coal yielded by the above thirty- three mines in the year 1868 was 450,500 tons. It will be seen that the collieries are scattered over the whole of the district. The great mass of the minerals produced in this district is applied to manufacturing purposes — the woollen and worsted manufactures of Halifax having now flourished for more than three hundred years. The parish of Halifax is of immense extent, stretching over an area of 79,200 acres. The area of the census and registration district is less extensive, but still covers 51,784 acres. The Halifax district inchides the subdistricts of Halifax, Brighouse, South Owram, North Owram, Elland, Bipponden, Sowerby, Ludden- den, and Ovenden. At the commencement of the present century, at the census of 1801, the population of the Halifax district amounted to 52,027 persons. In 1851 it had increased to 120,958. At that time the average population per square mile was 1495 5-6 YORKSHIRE : persons over the whole district. Since then the population has continued to increase, and at the census of 1861 amounted to 128,673 persons. The Huddersfield District. — The Huddersfield district also stands on the western edge of the Yorkshire coal-field, and produces large supplies of fuel. The number of coal-mines in the Huddersfield district is thirty-six, and that in the Holmfirth district thirteen, and in the year 1868 the quantity of fuel produced in the Hudderfields district was 300,500 tons, and in the Holmfirth district 87,470 tons. The names of the collieries in the Huddersfield district, as given in the official returns, were : — Box Ings, Bradley, Brockholes, California (Shelley), Clayton Common (Clayton West), Close Hill, Common Side (Cumberworth), Cowmes, Cumberworth, Duke Wood (Clayton West), Ellen Tree, Fartown, Fieldhouse, Grangehouse, Grimscar, Helm, HoUinghouse, 2 ; Kirkburton, Kirkheaton, Kirk Style (Cumberworth), Lane, Lane Side (Shelley), Linfit, Lockwood Common, New Ground, Pease Close, Redhill (Shelley), Rowley, Shelley, Sinking Wood, Taylor Hill, Toppit (Clayton West), Upper Bradley, Whitley (Kirkheaton), and Wood. The mass of the fuel produced in this district is used in the woollen and worsted manufactures, which are its great sources of industry and wealth. The Holmfirth colheries are given separately in Mr. Wardell's returns. They are thirteen in number, and in 1868 produced 87,470 tons of coal. The names of these colheries are : — The Barnside (Hep worth), Brickworks, Carr Wood (New Mills), Forster Place (Hepworth), Foxhouse, Fulstone (Mew MQls), Gatehead, Hepshaw, Holling House (New Mills), Hepworth, Meltham, Tlmrstonland, and Wood. The Huddersfield registration and census district is of great extent, covering an area of 66,560 acres. It includes the subdi- visions of Huddersfield, Slaithwaite, Meltham, Honley, Holmfirth, Newmill, Kirkburton, Kirkheaton, Almondbury, Lockwood, Golcar, and Bastrick. At the beginning of the present century, at the census of 1801, the Huddersfield district contained 47,079 inhab- itants. These numbers increased rapidly during the first half of the present century, and at the census of 1851 the population of the Huddersfield district was 123,860 persons. This was at the rate of 1191 persons to the square mile. During the next ten years the numbers continued to increase rapidly, and at the census of 1861 amounted to 131,336. PAST AND PRESENT. 57 The Barnsley District. — This district is remarkably rich in coal, being situated very near the centre, and in one of the richest parts of the Yorkshire coal-field. The number of coal-mines in the Barnsley district was forty-two, and in the year 1868 this district produced the very large quantity of 1,799,500 tons of coal. The names of the mines, as given in the official returns, are, Agnes, Blacker Main, Bloomhouse Green, Church Lane (Dodworth), Dar- field, Darley Main, East Gawber, Ellis Laith, Edmonds Main, Furnace Main, Gawber Hall, Haigh, HaU Boyd (Silkstone), High Boyd, Elsecar, Hoyland and Elsecar, Lundhill, Moor House, Monk Bretton, Mount Osborne, New Gawber HaU, North Gawber, Oaks, Old Mill, Old Silkstone, Old Silkstone Main, Pindar Oaks, Kockley coal and ironstone, Silkstone Fall, Silkstone New, or Higham, Swaithe Main, Strafford, Swallow Hill (Darton), Victoria, West Gawber, West Silkstone, White Hill or Penny Pie (Dodworth), Wharncliffe Silkstone, Willow Bank, Wombwell Main, Woolley, Worsborough Park. A large portion of the coal raised in this district, being of excellent quahty for domestic ptirposes, is sent to London, or is consumed over a wide range of country between Yorkshire and the metropoHs. The Barnsley district extends over an area of 35,376 acres, and the population has steadily increased during the Avhole of the present century. It includes the subdistricts of Barnsley, Darton, Darfield, and Worsborough. At the commencement of the present century, at the census of 1801, the Barnsley disti'ict contained 11,345 inhabitants. In the first fifty years of the century, at the census of 1851, the number was found to be 34,980. This gives the population of 633 persons for each square mile. Since that time the number has increased rapidly, and at the census of 1861 amounted to 45,797. The Rotherham District. ■ — This district abounds in coal, which is chiefly used in the manufactures of cutlery, hardware, and for the purposes of machinery. The number of coal-mines in the Rotherham district in 1868 was twenty-three, and the quantity of fuel which they produced amounted to 570,250 tons of coal. The mines in the Rotherham district were as follows : — Aldwark Main, Aston, Carhouse, Denaby Main, Elsecar, Fence (Woodhouse Mill), Grange, Grange (ironstone), Greasbrough, Old Park Gate, Greenfield (Rawmarsh), Holmes, Kilnhurst, Kimberworth, Manvers Main, Park Gate, Rawmarsh, 2; Albany and Royal Oak, Scholes, vol.. I. H 58 YORKSHIRE : Thorp Common, Tinsley Park, Warren Vale, Waleswood, and West Melton. The Rotherham registration district extends over an area of 50,591 acres, and includes the subdivisions of Rotherham, Beighton, Kimberworth, Wath, and Maltby. The population of this district in the year 1801 was 17,072 persons. In 1851 the number had increased to 33,082. At that time the number of persons on each square mile of the Rotherham district was 419. Since then the population has increased rapidly, and in 1861 amounted to 44,350. The Sheffield District. — -The Sheffield district abounds in minerals as well as in water-power, and finds abundant application for both in its extensive manufactures of cutlery, machinery, iron plates, and steel. The number of collieries in the Sheffield district in 1868 was thirty-five, and the quantity of coal yielded by those collieries was 1,075,500 tons. The names of the Sheffield collieries are as follows: — Base Green (Gleadless), Beighton, Birley, Bracken Moor (Deepcar), Brightside, Carbrook, Castle, Deepcar, 3 ; Dung- worth, East Field (Thurgoland), Eder Clifi" (Deepcar), Handsworth, Haywood, Henholmes, Hunshelf, 2 ; Kiveton Park, Lee Wood (Thurgoland), Manor, New Winning, Orgreave, Sheffield, Sim HUl (Thurgoland), Stocksbridge (Deepcar), St. David's, Oughtibridge, Tankersley, Thornclifie, Thurgoland, WharncliflPe (Oughtibridge), Whamcliffe Wood, Woodhouse (Handsworth), Woodthorpe, and Wortley Silkstone. The Shefiield district, and the district of Ecclesall Bierlow, have now joined each other, and are both increasing with great rapidity. The Sheffield district extends over an area of 10,590 acres. It includes the subdivisions of West, North, and South Sheffield, Sheffield Park, Brightside, Attercliffe, and Handsworth. ' The popu- lation in 1801 amounted to 39,049. During the first fifty years of the present century the population increased to 103,626. At the middle of the present century, at the census of 1851, the population of the Sheffield district was 6263 persons to the square mile. Since that time it has rapidly increased, and at the census of 1861 amounted to 128,951 persons in the district. The Ecclesall Bierlow district extends over an area of 20,860 acres. It includes Upper and Nether Hallam, Norton, and Eccles- all Bierlow. At the commencement of the present century, at the census of 1801, the population of this district was 10,259. The increase was rapid during the first few years of the present PAST AND PRESENT. 59 century, and in 1851 the population had increased to 37,914. Subsequent to that time the increase was still more rapid, and at the census of 1861 the population of the Ecclesall Bierlow dis- trict had increased to 63,618 persons. The number of persons to the square mile was 1163 in 1851. The District of Worthy. — This beautiful district is on the edge of the Yorkshire coal-field, and possesses considerable mineral wealth, as well as great natural beauty. The number of coal-mines within the Penistone district is five. The quantity of coal produced in 1868 in the Penistone and Pontefract districts together was 75,000 tons. The names of the collieries in the Penistone district are Berry Moor, Bullhouse, Crow Hedge, Denby Dale, and Middlecliife- The registration district named from the village of Wortley is of great extent, covering an area of 85,790 acres. This district includes Wortley, Penistone, Canthome, High Hoyland, Ecclesfield, and Bradfield. In 1801 it contained 18,266 inhabitants; this number had increased in 1851 to 32,012, and stUl further in 1861 to 38,511. The Todmorden District. — This district, which abounds in wealth and population, as well as in mineral resources, stands on the eastern edge of the Lancashire coal-field, which is separated from the York- shire coal-field by a great range of mountains and moors formed of the mOlstone grit. It is closely connected, however, with the manu- facturing district of Yorkshire, by the river Calder, which rises on the Lancashire side of the hills, but flows westward down the rich and beautiful vale of Todmorden, into the river Aire at Castleford, and ultimately into the river Humber and the German Ocean. The coal-field of Lancashire has already been fully described by the author of this work, in his account of " Lancashire and Cheshire, -' Past and Present." All that is necessary to say about it here is, that that portion of the Lancashire coal-field which extends to Todmorden belongs to what is called the Lower, or most ancient, portion of that great coal-field, and is found through the whole of the hilly or mountainous region, by which the Middle coal-field of Lancashire is encircled. The Yorkshire division of Todmorden extends over an area of 26,920 acres, and includes the subdivisions of Todmorden and Hebden Bridge. At the beginning of the present century the whole district contained 15,530 inhabitants. In the first fifty years of the present century, at the census of 1851, the number GO YORKSHIRE : had increased to 29,727. At that time the populatioQ per square mile in the Todtnordea district was 707 persons. Between the census of 1851 and that of 1861, the population of the Todmorden district increased to 31,118. The Saddleioortli District. — This extensive district is much more closely connected with the Lancashire than with the Yorkshire coal- field, although it has two coal-mines on the Yorkshire side of the hUls. Their names are, the Ashes and Strinesdale. There is also a vein of coal at Ingieton, near Settle, which is worked at the present time. The Ingieton mine, with the Saddleworth mines, produced 5450 tons of coal in the year 1868. Originally the mills of the Saddleworth district were chiefly turned by the stream of the river Tame, which flows down from the higher part of the Yorkshire hills into the river Mersey, joining it at Stockport. The Saddleworth district extends over an area of 18,280 acres. It includes the subdivision of Delph and Upper MUl. At the commencement of the present century the population- of the Saddle- worth district was 10,605. In the first fifty years of the present century the number increased to 17,799. In 1851 the population of Saddleworth was 623 to the square mile. The number continued to increase to 1861, when it amounted to 18,631 persons. Normanton, near Pontefract, is on the eastern edge of the Yorkshire coal-field. The number of collieries in that district is six. Their names are AUerton Bywater, Featherstone, Glas- Iloughton, Newton Main, Snydale, and Wheldale. The above districts include the whole coal-field of the West Riding, so far as it has been at present explored. But there can be no doubt, after the successful sinking of the Shireoaks pit through the Permian strata, that much coal also exists below that formation. Whether it will be found profitable to work it can only be proved by experiment. The question of the probability of finding beds of coal in other parts of Yorkshire, has been ably discussed by Sir Ptoderick Murchison. But his remarks relate rather to the North Biding than to the West, and shall be con- sidered when we have given some account of the rich iron district of Cleveland. The coal-field of the West Riding, which we have above described, is the great manufacturing district of Yorkshire. It will be seen that the population has increased in this district, during the whole of the present century, with a rapidity that can only be equalled PAST AND PRESENT. 61 111 a few districts of England similarly situated, in London, and in the newly peopled regions of America. There is no reason why this district should not continue to increase to the close of the present century, and even to a much more distant period; for neither its mineral wealth, nor the industry and ingenuity of its inhabitants, are in any degree exhausted ; and wherever profitable employment increases, population increases in a similar ratio. The following table will show the progress of population in the districts on the Yorkshire coal-field during the present century : — rEOGEESS OF POPULATION ON THE COAL-FIELD AND IN THE MANUFACTUEING DISTEICTS OF TEE WEST EIDING. District. Area in acres. Population. Num. of persons to square mile. 1801. 1851. 1861. 1851. .Bingley & Keigliley, 46,052* 16,489 43,395 43,122 638 Todmorden, . . . 26,920 15,550 29,727 31,113 707 Saddleworth, . . . 18,280 10,665 17,799 18,631 623 Huddersfield, . . 66,560 47,079 123,860 131,330 1,191 Halifax, 51,784 52,027 120,958 128,673 1,495 Bradford, . . . 40,334 42,780 181,964 196,475 2,887 Leeds, 2,100 30,669 101,343 117,566 30,886 Hunslet, 39,921 32,340t 82,437 102,649 1,422 Dewsbury, . 24,456 29,730 71,768 92,883 1,878 Wakefield, . . . 42,060 27,617 50,014 55,049 781 Barnsley, . . . 35,376 11,345 .''4,980 45,797 633 "Wortley, . . 85,790 18,266 32,012 38,511 239 Ecclesall-Bierlow,. 20,860 10,259 37,914 63,618 1,163 Sheffield, .... 10,590 39,049 103,626 128,951 6,263 Rotherham, . . 50,691 17,072 33,082 44,350 419J * The area of the Keighley district, which includes Bingley, is given in tlie Census Ketnrns of 1861, vol. i. p. 698, at 39,144 acres. t At the Census of 1851 and 1861 the area of the Hunslet division is given at 35,272 acres. J England and Wales: — Registration district, number of persons to a square mile in registration district. Census of Great Britain, 1851, vol. i., table 21, p. cxi. The Iron mines of the West Biding. — We have already stated that the iron-mines of Yorkshire produce a larger quantity of that valuable metal than those of any other district of England, and that the quantity of iron yielded by them has increased vdth extraordinary rapidity during the last thirty years. Much the largest quantity of the Yorkshire iron is now obtained in the North Riding, from the strata of the Lias formation ; but in the West Riding the coal measures have always yielded a considerable supply of iron of excellent quality. We shall speak of the iron trade of the North Riding in a subsequent part of this chapter, but 62 "YORKSHIRE : we must briefly notice the iron trade of the West Biding before proceeding any further. The quantity of iron ore produced in the West Riding in the year 1868 was 785,628 tons. The Low Moor mines are muf;h the most productive, yielding in that year 596,628 tons of ore. There are also extensive mines at Farnley, ThornclifFe, and other places. The value of the iron ores of the West Riding in 1868, was estimated at the sum of £196,407. The number of iron furnaces in. the West Riding in the same year was thirty-eight, of which twenty- two, producing 100,050 tons of pig-iron, were in blast. The iron furnaces were situated at Ardsley, Leeds, 2 ; Beeston Manor, 2 ; Bowling, 6 ; Elsecar and Milton, Barnsley, 6 ; Farnley, 4 ; Holmes and Parkate, 3 ; Low Moor and Bierley, 8 ; Thorncliffe and Chapel Town, Sheffield, 2 ; Worsborough, 1 ; Whitehorse, Leeds, 2 ; Hep- worth, 2 : thus making a total of thirty-eight furnaces, of which twenty-two producing 100,050 tons of iron were in blast in the year 1868, a year of unusual depression. The iron-producing district of the West Riding of Yorkshire may be divided into two parts — the northern or Bradford, and the southern, which ranges from Leeds, through Barnsley, to Sheffield and Rotherham. In the Bradford district are found the beds of coal and iron- stone which have given rise to the ironworks of Low Moor, Bierley, and Bowling, celebrated for the production of the best irons made in Britain ; and those of Farnley, which are following in the same steps. The castings from these works are largely em- ployed for special purposes, where strength and tenacity are required, as for mortars and sea-service guns. Their wrought iron, the quality of which is attested by its bringing nearly twice the price of ordinary English iron, has the peculiarity of a granular structure with a uniform, small, and brilliant grain, which closely resembles the character of the Swedish bars. Coal-measure ironstones are alone employed in this district, and principally from two ranges of strata called the White Red Mine and the Black Red Mine, respectively ; a third, the Brown Rake, was formerly worked. Neither their quality nor their abundance have much contributed to the celebrity of the Low Moor iron, as the result of analysis and comparison with other coal-fields wUl show. The superiority appears to proceed from the care and attention bestowed upon the various processes, and from PAST AND PllESKNT. 63 the admirable character of the seam of coal, termed the " better bed," which lies beneath the ironstone, and attains a thickness of only one foot eight inches to two feet. It differs, however, from ordinary coal, in its remarkable freedom from iron pyrites and other impurities, and is exclusively used for smelting, refining, and puddling. You may pass through the thick smoke of the coking heaps or ovens without the least inconvenience from the sulphurous gases, which, in the coking of most coals, are so freely liberated. These ironstones, as usual with their class, are exposed for many months to the weathering action of the atmosphere, in order to free them from the shale ; they are then calcined previously to smelting, and unusual care is taken to pick out every kind of refuse or impurity. The higher band, the white bed, is characterized by the pale, drab colour which pervades most of its courses, although inclosed in a darker shale or bind. The black bed is of the blackish grey tint, more usual with clay ironstones, and occurs in detached nodules of various sizes, but, taken as a whole, smaller than those commonly worked in coal-fields. "The extension of these rows of nodules and their accompanying coal-seams over other portions of Yorkshire," says the author of the ' Essay on the Iron Ores of the North and North Midland counties of England,' in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, "is a question of much interest, when we know how persistent some similar beds are over very large areas. But the quality of coal in the same seam will often vary within a small distance ; and ironstones, either by running smaller, or by their courses being separated by a thicker band of shale, may become unworkable. Several trials already made in search of the Low Moor series have proved this deterioration ; and although it may be predicted that the same strata may be followed up on the dip, far beyond where they are at present known, it is by no means certain that they would retain the qualities which have given them celebrity." In the South Yorkshire or Barnsley district, the ironworks are situated between the North Midland Railway and the line of high ground, which, abounding in gritstones and flags, marks the oat- crop of the lower portion of the coal measures. A beautiful district by nature, the West Riding of Yorkshire has not yet 64 yoekshire: been despoiled of all its picturesque character; and specially in the iron-bearing districts are the hUls well clothed with wood, the valleys deeply cut and adorned by rapid streams. From the banks of the river Don which flows past Sheffield, rise in bold masses the Wharncliffe rocks, which may be followed along the out-crop in a north and south direction, dipping with the rest of its measures towards the east, and forming the base of that portion of them which yields the ironstones and coals of the tract under consideration. From Park Gate, near Rotherham, over Lord FitzwUliam's fine property of Weutworth, to Tankersley, and on to the west of Barnsley, may be traced in succession many of the more important bassets of ironstone, the value of Avhich, added to a particular method of worldug, has imparted a strange aspect to the sm^face, which is reflected in the well executed shading of the Ordnance map. Wherever the courses of ironstone nodules come up to within a short distance of the surface, they are worked in the small shafts termed hellpits, disposed in great numbers along the line of strike, at a distance of a few feet only each from the other. The result of the Jjolling, and the open work which not uncom- monly accompanies it, is to leave long lines of irregular holes and pits often so considerable as to unfit the land for agriculture, and to induce the planting of belts of trees. The ironstone bind, or shale, appears not to be prejudicial to their growth, and the strips of plantation thus ofier to the eye, even from a distance, a clue to the arrangement of the strata beneath the surface. The beds of coal and of ironstone frequently change their appel- lation in passing from one part of the district to another, so that it becomes difficult to identify them in distant localities without a very accurate study. The Rev. Mr. Thorpe has published a valuable aid in this direction, in his section of the Yorkshire coal- field, where he has united the sinkings and borings over a very large area. The more important of the ironstones employed in the West Riding are inters tratified in about 1000 feet thickness of measures, which intervene between two well-marked beds of coal — the Barnsley thick coal and the Silkstone — and are known as the Swallow Wood, the Lidgate, Tankersley, Thomclifie Black Mine, ThornclifFe White Mine, and Clay Wood Mine. PAST AND PRESENT. 65 The Thorncliffe, or Old Black Mine, yields about 1500 tons of ironstone to the acre. The Tankersley, or " Musselband," ironstone yields on the average about 2000 tons to the acre, although as much as 3400 tons has been exceptionally produced. It is so called musselbed from the great number of fossil shells (Unio) which characterize it.'"' The following is an analysis of Thorncliffe or Old Black Mine, Parkgate, and of Thorncliffe White Mine, Parkgate, Yorkshire : — RESULTS TABULATED. Thorncliffe, or Old Black Mine. Thorncliffe White Mine. Protoxide of iron, 41-77 Protoxide of iron, - . . 39-38 Peroxide of iron, . . . 1-96 Peroxide of iron, . . 1-24 Protoxide of manganese, 1.13 Protoxide of manganese, 0-95 Alumina, . . 0-58 Alumina, . 0-82 Lime, . . 2-55 Lime, . 2-26 Magnesia, . . • 371 Magnesia, . 3-72 Carbonic acid, . 31-39 Carbonic acid. 29-38 Phosplioric acid. 75 Phosphoric acid, . 0-47 Sulphuric acid, 1 traces. Sulphate of baryta, | tr&cGS Bisulphide of iron, ^ ' Bisulphide of iron, f ' Water, hygroscopic, . • 0-55 "Water, hygroscopic, . 0-68 Water in combination, 1-15 Water in combination. 1-41 Organic matter, . 0-86 Organic matter, 0-54 Insoluble residue, 14-16 Insoluble residue, ... 19-35 100-56 100-20 INSOLUBLE EESIDUE. Thorncliffe, or Old Black Mine. Silica, .... Alumina, . . Peroxide of iron, Lime, . . . Magnesia, Potash, . . Iron total amount. 8-93 4-21 043 trace. 0-14 0-43 14-14 34-61 Thorncliffe White Mine. Silica, . . . . Alumina, Peroxide of iron. Lime, . . Magnesia, Potash, . . Iron total amount. 12-16 5-00 0-43 trace. 0-17 0-37 18-75 31-82 None of the metals precipitable by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution, were found in 500 grains of ore. In the Thorncliffe White Mine a minute trace of copper was detected in 450 grains of the ore.t The following is the analysis of the iron ores of the White Bed Mine, Bierley, and the Black Bed Mine, Low Moor, according to the report published in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain : — * Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, &c. ; the Iron Ores of Great Britain, part 1, page 30. f Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain : The Iron Ores of Great Britain, part 1 p. 66 to 74. VOL. I. I (30 YOBKSHIRE : EESULTS TABDLATED. White Bed Mine, Bierley. Black Bed Mine, Low Moor. Protnxide of iron, . . . 35-38 Protoxide of iron, ... 36-14 Peroxide of iron, . . 1-20 Peroxide of iron, ... 0-61 Protoxide of manganese. 0-94 Protoxide of manganese. 1-38 Alumina, . 0-80 Alumina, . . . . 0-52 Lime, . . . 278 Lime, . 2-70 Magnesia, . 2-22 Magnesia, . 2-05 Carbonic acid. . 25-41 Carbonic acid, . 26-57 Phosphoric acid, 0-48 Phosphoric acid, 0-34 Sulphuric acid, trace. Sulphuric acid, . . trace. Bisulphide of iron, . 0-18 Bisulphide of iron, . . 010 Water, hygroscopic. 0-74 Water, hygroscopic, . 0-61 Water, combined, . 1-11 Water, combined, 1-16 Organic matter, . . 0-23 Organic matter, ... 2-40 Insoluble residue, 28-00 Insoluble residue, . 25 27 99-47 99-85 IXSOLUBLE HESIDDE. Wiiile Bed Mine, Cieiley. Black Bed Mine, Lnw Moor. Silica, . 19-13 Silica, 17-36 Alumina, . . 6 83 Alumina, 6-22 Peroxide of iron, 0-57 Peroxide of irun, 0-84 Lime, . . Oil Lime, . trace. Magnesia, . 007 Magnesia, . 0-12 Potash, . 078 27-49 Potash, . . 0-66 25-20 Iron total amount, 28-76 Iron total amount, 29-12 In the White Bed Mine, Bierley, a distinct trace of copper -was detected in 500 grains of the ore. In the Black Bed Mine, Lo-w Moor, none of the metals preolpitable by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution, -were found ni 600 grains of ore. Building Materials on the Coal-field of the West Riding. — The great increase of population, and the rapid development of industry, in the manufacturing districts of Yorkshire, have been much promoted by the abundance of building materials which exists throughout the -whole of them. Amongst these materials are building clay and stone of many varieties, and large quantities of flags and slates suitable for roofing and other purposes. Without these abundant supplies of materials for building it -would have been very diflicult, and still more costly, to have erected the numerous large towns which have sprung either from nothing, or from com- parative insignificance, during the present century ; to have built the numerous mills and workshops in which so large a number of the people find employment ; and to have constructed the railways, bridges, viaducts, reservoirs, and other great public and private PAST AND PEESENT. 67 works, which have given fresh life and energy to personal com- munication, and to every branch of industry. Each district of the West Riding possesses its peculiar advantages as to buUding mate- rials. Those portions of it which stand on the coal measures generally possess clay, suitable for bricks, iu great abundance near the siu-face ; and some of the varieties of clay found in those districts have great value for other purposes besides that of building, such as the making of earthenware, tiles, and pottery. In the same dis- tricts, as at Bramley Fall and other places, are also found buUding stone of extraordinary hardness and durability, from which many great public works have been constructed, not merely in Yorkshire, but in the metropolis and other parts of the kiagdom. To the west and north of the coal-field, building stone is found everywhere, and there the mills and factories, as well as the towns, are formed of stone. This is the case around Halifax, Huddersfield, and Sheffield, and generally to the north of Bingley, Keighley, Otley, and Harewood. The varieties of building stone and of flags in these districts are very numerous, and are found to answer every purpose of construction. Amongst the flagstones found in the West Riding, some have been very carefully examiaed by geologists, and the mode of their formation has been traced. The following is a summary of some inter- esting observations on this subject, from a paper, on the Yorkshire flagstones and their fossils, read by Mr. William Baines at the meet- ing of the British Association at Leeds, in the year 18.58: — On a bleak moor side, in the shelving formation of a fine sandstone, was a hollow dammed across, for the accumulation of rain-water for scouring purposes. In a few years the hollow was filled up by a gradual deposit of sand from the water. When dug out there were pre- sented finely laminated strata. In noticing these depositions, the author found that each layer was the deposit of one shower; and in proportion to the quantity or time of each succeeding rain did the thickness of the deposit depend; each layer was the effect of one flood, a time intervening when the sand was all accumulated at the bottom, and the water had smoothed its surface by a very gentle action, so that the smoothed bed would not allow of the next flood's deposit mixing with it. The laminae of the rock may be as thin as paper, or one inch thick for roofing slate ; or two or three inches thick, which is the Yorkshire flag ; or an uninterrupted deposition of ages, when it 68 YORKSHIRE : becomes the cutting stone or ashlar, a number of square yards in one mass without any cleavage. This Yorkshire flag, then, is but the pond deposit above noticed, on a larger scale, and the deposit of some ancient estuary, v^hose waters washed the finer particles of the carboniferous sandstone from the Halifax and Todmorden districts. But the deposition must have taken place, if not in deep water, certainly in still water ; for the smallest, even the faintest breeze of wind, produced ripple-marks, as thousands of the freestone slabs show in the strata overlying the flag formation : and the uppermost strata must have been formed in shallow water, and at times completely dry, as there are hundreds of acres which 'bear impressions of rain or hail drops having impinged upon the strata in process of formation. There are great quantities of the tracks and depositions of Annelides, or, as they are locally termed, the " earthworm." It is a formation extremely barren of animal remains. The Flora in the Yorkshire flag are not so numerous as in the ragged or crooked stone above and below, simply from its being a quieter deposit than the other strata. The most common fossil found in this formation and its kindred shale is the Calamite, some shales between the different strata being literally composed of its impressions. The next most common plant is the Stigmaria in profuse abundance ; but very rarely the trunk, or Sigillaria. It is quite evident that the tuberous appendages or roots denote it to be a mud plant. Some of the most magnificent and perfect specimens of the Lepidodendron are found in this stratum There are also Pecopteris nervosa and Neuropteris, &c. ; as also a few fossil fruits, similar to Trigonocarpum ovatum. The Agriculture of the Coal-field of Yorkshire. — The coal- field of Yorkshire has the advantage, as an agricultural district, of being varied by hill and valley, and of being drained by several rapid rivers and numerous small streams. Towards the west of this region, along the line of the mountains, the rainfall is very heavy, but from the steepness of the land, the water flows rapidly down into the brooks and rivers, or sinks into those clefts in the rocks from which the flow of the streams is maintained in the summer months. Mr. Charnock, in describing the agri- cultural resources and the scenery of the Yorkshire coal-field, says, that the undulation of the surface which it exhibits forms a constant succession of hill and dale ; and rising, as the back grounds occasionally do, to more than ordinary altitude, a varied land- PAST AND PKESENT. 69 scape of tnucli beauty and richness is constantly presented to the eye of the traveller. Commencing at Harrogate, where the indications of the mineral wealth of the formation seem first to manifest themselves, there is a succession of steplike configurations of surface gradually ascending into Derbyshire and Cheshire ; the general dip of the strata being to the north-east, until it reaches the comparatively narrow belt of the magnesian limestone, separat- ing it from the lower levels of the Vale of York and the confines of the eastern boundary of the Riding. By far the largest portion of the soil on this formation is of a strong character, resting on the ordinary subsoil of yellow clay so general in the coal districts. In those parts, however, where the sandstone beds and shale approach the surface sufficiently near to render it naturally dry, a good, and in many cases very productive, soil is found. Of the agriculture of the district Mr. Charnock says, "Unlike some of the more northern coal districts, where the immense value of the underground product seems to have operated rather as a reason for the almost total disregard of the siufaee, than as an inducement for any cultivation of the soil, the more grateful sons of this locality have bestowed upon mother earth a culture which, if not of the highest order, is at least perhaps commensurate with the time that could be spared from more immediately profitable occupations."* From Harrogate, proceeding southward to Harewood, is a strong clay soil, and most of it thin and poor. At Harewood, where the lise occurs, and the rock approaches nearer the surface, the land is somewhat less strong, and of superior quality. The clay, however, soon appears again, and with it a much less fertile soil, until we come to Potter Newton and Chapel AUerton, where the rock comes to the surface, from the pounding of which a yeUow sand is made, and sent into Leeds in considerable quantities. Leaving Leeds, which is situated in the vaUey, and where we again have the clay and stiff soil, the ground rises to Rothwell Haigh, at which point there is a tract of fine dry land, which by good management and an abundant supply of manure from Leeds, produces heavy crops of swedes, barley, clover, and wheat. Many coal-pits are at work over this district. Passing Rothwell, we have the clay again over Wake- field Out- wood, and to the town itself, where the sandstone rock, with a thick covering of shale and some clay at the surface, gives to * Prize Report, fin the Agriculture of the West Riding, bj John H. Cliamock, Esq. 70 YORKSHIRE the soil the character of a strong yet productive loam, which by tolerable care and tillage produces heavy crops of grass, corn, and vegetables. A large portion of the land in this immediate vicinity is in market gardens, from which many of the more densely popu- lated manufacturing towns of the Riding are almost exclusively supplied. Passing from Wakefield we find, as the ground gradually ascends, a greater proportion of dry and good land, and that, as the contour becomes more marked, the transitions from the friable soils of the sandstone to the stronger ones of the clay subsoUs are more abruptly noticeable — the clay occupying its place in the valley, and the sand- stone up the rise. With few exceptions, the dry land lies to the north-east, on the back of the strata ; whilst that on the face-side of the rise to the south-west, is wet and springy, and of a much less fertUe description. At WooUey, Staincross, and Barnsley these features are very perceptible ; after which we meet with exceptions to this order in a considerable tract of clay subsoils, interspersed with a saturated subsoil of light-coloured aluminous sand, very wet, extending to Sheffield and up to Wortley, and thence forward, with but little variation, to the prominent point of Wharncliffe Brow. From these rocks there is a most magnificent prospect towards Derbyshire and Lancashire, with the gorgeous carpet of Wharncliffe Wood spread out at the foot, and covering with its varied shades an undulating area of about 2000 acres. There are, of course, many gradations in quality, both on the strong and lighter lands of the coal measures, from the poor thin soils of its strongest clays to the eight and ten inch loams of the sandstone ; but the same general order of succession occurs with much uniformity over the whole breadth of the formation, as is well known on the route selected for its illustration, the reason for selecting which has been, that it is, probably, the one most immediately within the recognition of the general reader. The great defect on the strong lands of the coal formation is the want of systematic and effective drainage. Where this has been properly attended to, fine crops of every kind are obtained, and even the hedges and young trees show a vigorous growth. After thorough drainage, green crops of every kind can be grown with great advantage. Throughout the whole of this district there are abundant supplies of manure of every kind, and attention has been recently turned at Bradford and other places to the application of PAST AND PRESENT. 71 sewerage of large towns to the fertilizing of the soil. This mode of improvement is comparatively new, but when fully developed it promises to render all the towns in the district much more healthy, and the country about them much more fertile. Currents Prevalent at the Time when the Yorkshire Coal-field was Formed. — In a paper on the thickness of the carboniferous rocks of the Pendle hills, read before the Geological Society in the year 1868, Mr. Edward Hull expresses his concurrence, founded on recent examination, in the opinion which Professor Phillips had previously expressed, in his " Geology of Yorkshire," as to the nature and direction of the currents which prevailed at the time when the carboniferous beds and the millstone rocks of Yorkshire were originally formed. The constitution of these two formations is so extremely different, as to render it impossible that they should have been derived from materials of the same nature. On this subject Professor Phillips observes, " that the thickness and purity of the argillaceous deposit being in the west, and the same qualities belonging to the gritstones in the north, we may venture to suggest, as an explanation, the entrance of two distinct currents or primeval rivers ; one on the west, bearing sediment from the surface or region of argillaceous slate ; the other from the north, bearing almost wholly the granular detritus of regions abounding in gneiss and mica slate."* In a paper on the currents present during the deposition of the carboniferous and Permian strata in South Yorkshire and North Derbyshire, read at the meeting of the British Association for the advancement of Science, held at Leeds in the year 1858, by Mr. H. B. Sorby, F.RS., the same subject was also discussed ; and the chief conclusions derived from numerous observations on the coal-field of Sheffield and South Yorkshire was, that during the period of the deposits of the millstone grit there was a very uniform general current from the north-east, shghtly interfered vdth by a tide setting from the north-west, and by the action of surface-waves ai;id wind-drift currents, produced by the powerful westerly gales. This general north-east current was also present during the depo- sition of the gritstone beds in the lower part of the coal strata, in the shales associated with which genuine marine shells are found, but ceased towards the central portion, more productive in coal, where such marine shells do not occur. In that part of the series, * Professor Pliillips' Geology of Yorkshire, new edition, vol. ii. p. 188. 72 YORKSHIBE : in different localities and beds, the currents were from all parts of the compass, but on the whole, chiefly from the west, as if in some way or other connected with the prevailing westerly winds and wind-drift currents, which here prevailed independent of the tide or general north-east current, on account of the connection with the main sea having been cut off. During the deposition of the magnesian limestone the sea appears to have been subject to a very decided tide, rising and falling with great uniformity, from west-south-west to east-north-east, amongst a number of shoals on which surface-waves stranded, chiefly produced by easterly winds. The millstone grit and lower coal measures, therefore, present us with an admirable example of the action of a simple current, flowing only in one direction ; whereas the magnesian limestone is a very excellent illustration of the effect of oscillating currents moving backward and forward in a particular line, like the currents produced by the rise and fall of the tide. The Magnesian, New Bed Sandstone, and Alluvial Districts of the West Riding. — To the east of the carboniferous formation of the West Riding lies a fertile and extensive district, resting on the Magnesian and Trias formations, and the deep alluvial deposits which overlie the latter formation. This is one of the best asfri- cultural districts in the north of England ; but contains very few minerals, with the exception of limestone and building stone, both of which are found in great abundance in some portions of the district, though they are entirely wanting in others. This district extends from the borders of Nottinghamshire, near Tickhill and Bawtry on the south, to the neighbourhood of Ripon in the north; and from Pontefract on the west, to Selby, York, and the Ouse and Derwent on the east. It includes the southern part of the vale of York and the lower portion of the valleys of the Don, the Aire and Calder, the Wharfe, the Nidd, and the Ure. It is almost exclusively an agricultural district, but its cultivation is considerably modified by the proximity of the large towns and the great markets of the manufacturing districts, which render it profitable to attend to some branches of cultivation, which are not worth following in districts where the population is thin and the markets are comparatively poor. The Permian or Magnesian Limestone. — The first of these forma- tions is the magnesian limestone, the southern part of which has recently been examined, in the course of the Geological Survey of PAST AND PRESENT. 73 England. This formation, which extends from Nottingham on the South toNewcastle-on-Tyne on the north, enters Yorkshire on the south, between Tickhill and Rotherham, and runs northward in an unbroken Hne by way of Pontefract, Castleford, Wetherby, Knares- borough, and Ripon, to the neighbourhood of Masham and Bedale. Speaking of this soil, Morton in his work on soils says, " From state- ments which have been repeatedly copied, that magnesian lime is pernicious to the growth of vegetables, we should naturally expect the soil of this formation, if it partakes in the smallest degree of the nature of the substance of the rock, to be sterile and barren ; this, however, is not the case, for although the soil is in general thin on the magnesian hme, yet it is a good hght soil for arable culture, and with manure produces good crops. From Nottingham to Boroughbridge this soil is profitably cultivated as arable land, and produces good turnips, potatoes, barley, and wheat." In the recent Memoir on the subject of that part of the Geology of southern Yorkshire to which we have already alluded, it is stated that the lower magnesian limestone generally forms high and dry ground, with a hght arable soil. It rises from the coal-measure strata with a steep escarpment, and then slopes down gradually to the ground occupied by the middle sandstones and marls, which form a wet and heavy soil, when not too thickly covered by drift. The upper magnesian ground rises, Hke that of the lower magnesian limestone, with a steep escarpment to the west, and also forms good arable soil, having its more gentle slope to the east. The pebble beds form another steep ridge with a westerly face, and this ground, with many undulations, slopes towards the valley of the rivers Idle and Trent. The Permian strata in the southern part of Yorkshu'e are divided into two chief parts, the former known as the lower red sandstones and marls, or Eothe Liegende of the German geologists; and the second, the magnesian limestone series. The former con- sists, sometimes of red marl, sometimes of purple grit, sandstone, or shale, and sometimes of uncon^ohdated sand. The purple grit and sandstone attains a considerable thickness in this district. In the higher part of the Shireoaks pits' section may be noticed some grey and red rock, sixty-six yards in thickness, which is believed to represent the Rotherham red rock — a rock which is well known as affording the hard grindstones used in the Sheffield cutlery works. The red rock is well exposed in a quarry at Harthill, VOL. I. K 74 YOElKSHIRE : where it is worked for scythe-stones. Here, in a face of forty feet, may be seen thick irregular beds of purple grey grit, much cut up with joints and lines of false bedding. West of Harthill Grange there is another quarry of these grits, but of a lighter colour. The grits in this quarry are overlaid by sandy shale and purplish marl. A little way south of this quarry the red rock disappears, being overlapped by the magnesian limestone. In most of the quarries fragments of fossd. plants occur, and the following list, by Mr. Salter, is from specimens collected at Harthill : — . Lepidodendron aculeatum, L. alveatum ; Sigillaria, large indeter- minable fragments ; Calamites Suchovii. The ground occupied by the Harthill sandstones and red rock of Rotherham forms a strong contrast to that of the coal formation; for while the latter makes a heavy clay sod, very wet, and of a dark-brown colour, the former is covered by a light sandy sod, very dry, and coloured red. Springs of water are everywhere thrown out round the base of the red rock, which help to mark its lower line of boundary. Mr. Talbot Aveline says, in his report on the geology of this part of Yorkshire, that a careful survey of this district convinces him that the Rother- ham rock is the equivalent of that of Harthill and South Anston, being a large outlier, resting unconformably on the coal measures. Between Maltby and Roche Abbey, the hmestone forms the steep sides of the vaUey, with red beds at the bottom, while the brook that flows through the valley has cut down to the coal measures. This shows that the red beds here formed a thin regular band at the base of the limestone. In describing the lower magnesian limestone, it is stated that it consists of two great bands, separated from each other by marls and sandstones. It is extensively quarried for building stone, and for being converted into lime. In the Streetly quarries, near Work- sop, the rock consists of a highly crystallized limestone. Some beds are of a very white colour, and others vary from white to grey and yellow. This stone is quarried in tolerably regular blocks, from two to three feet thick. It takes a smooth polish, and is largely used as a building stone. St. George's Church, Doncaster, was built with this stone. At Shireoaks quarries there occurs a hard compact limestone, of a light cream colour. The surfaces of the beds are rough, and display a sort of fretted structure, which, in a hand specimen, might at first sight be mistaken for weathering. This has been described by Professor Sedgwick, who remarks, " In PAST AND PRESENT. 75 passing into a solid state some of these beds have penetrated each other, so that their separation is not represented by a plane super- ficies, but by a number of imperfectly crystalline points and pro- tuberances, which give to the surface of the blocks an appearance resembUng artificial rustic work. These natural surfaces have been occasionally used in ornamental architecture." From the North Anston quarries much of the stone used in building the houses of Parliament was brought; the lower part only of the palace at West- minster being built of the Bolsover and Mansfield Woodhouse stone, which was chosen by the royal commissioners. The North Anston rock has rather a close grain, and is very hard, and both bedding and joints are very regular, so as to produce large rectangular blocks, measuring eight feet by three feet, and one and a half feet. The stone of the Roche Abbey quarry is a beautifully white, fine crys- talline rock. It has been extensively quarried for building stone and sculpture work. A fresh fracture of this stone shows a surface white as chalk, with a sparkling lustre, more resembling lump sugar than anything else. From the southern border of Yorkshire to the northern extremity of the West Riding, some miles to the north of Ripon, the lower magnesian limestone, with its valuable beds of hmestone and build- ing stone, runs in an unbroken line. Along the whole of this great deposit of building stone and limestone there are almost innumerable quarries, lime pits, and lime kilns. The limestone when burnt is very extensively used in the cultivation of the soil ; and the build- ing stone has furnished the materials for erecting most of the finest churches, castles, and mansions in the central parts of Yorkshire. In an account of the Permian formation of Yorkshire, published by Professor PhilHps so long ago as 1828, it is stated that the Permian formation is a long and narrow shp of land running north north-west, and south south-east, with a maximum width of five miles. It usually forms a well-marked escarpment, often of com- paratively great elevation above the low-lying vein of coal measures to the west, as at Barnborough Chfi", Hooton Pagnall, and several other places, where the view westward is magnificent. A splendid section is seen in the valley of the river Don, near Conis- borough. For architectural purposes this limestone is, perhaps, unequalled in England. It is found in large-sized blocks, with a texture and hardness suitable for delicate masonry, and wiU with- stand almost any amount of weathering. The small-grain dolomite 76 YORKSHIRE : is found at Warmsworth, Levit Hagg, Cusworth, Outbore, Cockhill, Sprotborough, Roche Abbey, and Brodsworth. The cliffs are seen to great advantage in the vale of the Went, and on the banks of the Don. The quarries are seen in the neighbourhood of Pontefract, and along the whole line of this formation, from the northern to the southern limits of the West Riding. The magnesian limestone, running through the more exclusively agricultural districts of the Riding, is much less subject, in the cultivation of its soils, to those varieties and peculiarities in cropping, which are induced by circumstances over the more variable and densely populated localities of the coal measures. Being of a naturally dry and friable nature, this soil is well adapted for turnip husbandry. The usual rotation is the four course of turnips, barley, seeds, and wheat, varying the grain crops occasionally, and substituting red clover for seeds. Peas are also grown on the deeper portions of this soil, and are a judicious and profitable adjunct in the rotation, large quantities being pulled green, and sent to Leeds and other surrounding markets. The six- course shift is sometimes followed, and when conducted with skiU and judgment is suitable for this land. Mr. J. H. Charnock says: — "I am indebted to Mr. Charles Chamock for the following account of his Holmfield House farm, near Ferrybridge, to which I would direct attention as one of the best specimens of thoroughly good farming that is to be met with, amongst the many which exceed mediocrity, on this formation. The farm contains 520 acres; 400 being arable, and 120 grass. The general rotation is turnips, barley, seeds, wheat; varied by 20 acres each year out of the 400 being subjected to the following cultivation: — After the wheat the stubble is cleared, manured, and sown with tares, which are cut for the horses the following spring. The land is then prepared and driUed on the flat with stone turnips (manured with about ten bushels of bones per acre), which are eaten on with sheep. And the following year, it is prepared and sown in the same way with swede turnips, manured in a similar manner. " The wheat crops are always manured with rape-dust, at the rate of about one and a half quarter per acre. Mr. Charnock says he finds guano on this soil does not answer for com crops, and but very indifferently for turnips. He has grown good crops of turnips with nothing but sulphuric acid, mixed with the ashes of the PAST AND PEESENT. 77 burnt weeds. Hed clover has been grown here for fourteen years, and in the adjoining township of Ferrybridge for thirty years, without the land becoming what is commonly called clover-sick. It is also worthy of especial notice that the whole of this farm, although the sod. is within a few inches of the limestone shale, has been subsoded and trench-ploughed with the greatest advantage — even to the doubling of the produce. Previous to this operation the crops were burnt up with a very moderate degree of drought; but during the last two dry seasons, not a failing spot has been visible in the corn crops." Mr. J. H. Chamock gives the following account of the culti- vation of liquorice in the neighbourhood of Pontefract : — "There is in this locality the cultivation of one plant which, although of limited use, may be properly noticed here, inasmuch as it seems to be grown wholly on the Hmestone soil of this forma- tion. I aUude to liquorice, which, as every one knows, is peculiar to the neighboiirhood of Pontefract, and requires a considerable depth of soil to produce it in perfection. For the information of those who are unacquainted with it, I may state that in general appearance it very much resembles a bunch of young ash saplings, growing in slender upright twigs of four or five from the same root, to about two feet in height. It is the roots only that are used ; and as these are generally from two to three feet in length, an idea may be formed of the depth of soil necessary for their perfect growth. This suitable thickness of sod is met with at the side and foot of those numerous short rising grounds surrounding the town of Pontefract ; and it is pretty manifest that the excess of depth has arisen either from the soU slipping down from the rise above, or from artificial causes. The mode of management, too, favours the necessary depth : when first planted it is set in a tolerably deep trench, and is subsequently earthed up, like celery, to a height of eighteen inches and two feet in the last year of its growth. It is the practice to plant cabbages in the furrows, which, from the facilities of earthing up, and the protection thus afforded them, come to perfection some weeks earlier than those in ordinary market-garden grounds. Large quantities are thus grown, and sent to Leeds and the other large towns for sale, where they meet with a ready market." The Trias or New Bed Sandstone Formation. — To the east of the Permian formation, but with a much wider development. 78 YORKSHIRE. is the Trias, or new red series, including the new red or hunter sandstone, and the new red or keuper marls and sandstone. This formation commences on the eastern side of England near Hartlepool, in the county of Durham, enters Yorkshke on the banks of the river Tees, rans southward through the vale of York to the Humber, and thence extends into the great central plain of Eng- land. It has generally a fine grassy soil, abounds in rather soft buOding stone, and contains beds of rock salt in the neighbourhood of Middlesborough. It consists of beds of red sandstone and conglomerate more than a thousand feet in thickness, and above them red and green marls, chiefly red, which in Germany go by the name of the keuper strata, and in England are called the new red marl. In the "Geological Keport" on the new red sandstone of South Yorkshire it is stated, that the pebble beds form a steep ridge with a westerly face, and from this the ground, with many undulations, slopes towards the valley of the Idle. All the ground occupied by the hunter beds has a light sandy or gravelly sod, and that of the keuper strata, when not covered by the drift, is a stiff red clay. The pebble beds and conglomerates of the hunter sandstone consist of coarse sand with pebbles, consohdated, unconsolidated, and in aU stages between. The pebbles are for the most part quartz, small and well-rounded, and of various colours, white and red predomuiating; but besides the quartz there are pebbles and fragments of other rocks. The soU over this formation is light and poor, bein^ chiefly sand or gravel; and part of the country over which it spreads is well known as the Forest lands, being a part of the Forest of Sherwood. The lower soft red and mottled sandstone of this district is semi-consolidated fine sand, chiefly of a red colour, but sometimes mottled. The sand is often so fine and free from impurities as to be very valuable as a moulding sand. This formation gets very thin towards the north, on the borders of Yorkshire ; its lower boundary being very uncertain, owing to the country being covered either with peat or drift sand and gravel. The keuper formation occupies but a very small area in the southern part of the county of York. The marls and sandstones composing it are much used for brick and tile making. The new red sandstone enters the county of York from the south in a comparatively narrow stripe, between Bawtry and Tickhill, PAST AND PRESENT. 79 and intersects the whole county from north to south, forming the great vale or plain of York, down which the river Ouse carries all the waters of the other Yorkshire rivers into the Humber. The soil at the southern extremity of the new red sandstone plain, up to Doncaster, partakes, for the most part, of that sandy-loam character which, without very much colour, sufficiently indicates the substrata. From Doncaster by Hensall, and in parts of Haddlesey, it is of a stiU more sandy description ; so much so as, at Hensall and Heck, to drift into the hedges and ditches like snow, on a dry windy day. After leaving Tadcaster it assumes more decidedly its distinctive nature, both in colour and substance ; and in the district around Goldsborough, Whixley, Green Hammerton, Ousebum, and Boroughbridge, is marked by very superior land — both grass and arable. It is here of a much firmer and more loatny character than in the southern portion of the Riding ; and being at the same time dry, and containing a large proportion of colouring — the peroxide of iron, so beneficial to vegetation — it produces the most luxuriant crops of turnips, barley, seeds or clover, and wheat. The pasture-lands, too, of this district are of a superior order, possessing feeding properties of great value, and carrying a more than usual number of stock. As respects the cultivation throughout the range of the new red sandstone, it may, like the soil itself, be appropriately described as generally very good ; without, perhaps, at the same time, having any of those more marked peculiarities of culture which would seem to call for any special notice. The usual rotation on the lighter portions is the ordinary four- course turnip culture ; the great facility which these sandy soils offer for the easy and rapid spread of twitch or couch grass, making the turnip crop every fourth year essential for the periodical eradi- cation of this weed. Where the soil possesses more stamina, as at Bawtry and Tadcaster, and more particularly around Whixley, Green Hammerton, and Boroughbridge, a longer rotation is practised. The barley from these latter districts is usually of very fine quality, and is consequently much esteemed by the better class of maltsters, and realizes the highest market value. The Alluvial Lands of the West Riding. — The alluvial lands of the West Riding are of great extent, and though formerly an almost impassable wilderness, have been rendered in modern times 80 YORKSHIRE one of the most valuable districts in England. The alluvial soils include nearly the whole of the land along the banks of the rivers Ouse, Don, Idle, and Trent, from Selby on the Ouse to Bawtry on the Don, and from Bawtry to the point where the river Trent enters the Humber. They also include the lower part of the valley of the Derwent in the East Riding. On those alluvial soils bordering on the new red sandstone, and within the influence of the rivers which have been previously men- tioned as forming the limits of the West Biding, in addition to the usual corn and green crops, flax, teazles, woad, and carrots enter largely into rotations. Mustard is also frequently grown, and in a favourable season, when well housed, is not only a paying crop in itself, but an excellent preparative for the succeeding wheat crop. In the neighbourhoods of Goole and Selby, potatoes are cultivated very extensively on the better portions of the warp soils; and as these inland ports afford great facilities for shipping this produce to the manufacturing districts, as well as to London, and also for the return of manure, this root alternates on the same land with an oat or wheat crop, and is not unfrequently grown many years in succession. Mr. J. H. Charnock gives the following interesting information of the warp lands of the West and East Bidings. He says : — " The really warp soils of the West Biding are not so extensive as is supposed. The great proportion is in the East Riding. Much error, I believe, exists as to the true origin of this soU. It is usually supposed to be the aluminous earth washed from the bottom ; but it is now proved by the observations of Ehrenberg, corroborated by English microscopists, to be the deposit of immense quantities of infusorial animalcules. In all rivers whose course is slow and deep, animalcules breed in immense myriads ; and as both the salt and fresh water have each their distinct inhabitants, which cannot live in the other water, so, on the flow of the tides, and the mingling of -the salt water with the fresh, the animalcules of both are destroyed, and their bodies, with their sUicious coverings, deposited in such masses, as, in many of the continental rivers, almost to render the mouths of them unnavigable in a short time." Mr. Charnock adds: — "I was informed, by a respectable person at Selby, that for some years past his annual profit from potatoes, out of one field of nearly four acres, has been about £100; and his is no solitary instance. Two crops a year are grown, and the plan adopted PAST AND PRESENT. 81 is this: — When the crop from which the sets are selected in the autumn is lifted, care is taken to house the seed-sets, and when indications of sprouting begin, to encourage the growth of the germ in a healthy state by spreading them out in a dry place. The land being well prepared and highly manured, the sets are carefully planted in February, without rubbing off the sprouts, and this forms the early and principal crop, which is ready for market in June. From this crop a sufficient number of the smaller potatoes are reserved, and the land is again set with these as soon as the first crop is off, which produce the sets for the main crop of the succeeding year. " The early crop usually reahzes from £20 to £30 per acre, accord- ing to circumstances, and is generally sold for the supply of Leeds. Carrots are occasionally grown in these districts but being esteemed a more precarious crop than potatoes, and more troublesome to manage with equally satisfactory results, their cultivation is, of com'se, not so extensive. It must not, however, be inferred, that the bulk of the land forming this alluvial tract is of equal quality with that just alluded to. On the contrary, a very large propor- tion of it is strong and wet, and, from its own level, greatly dependent on the suitableness of the season for the yield of its crops."* In the very able report in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England in the year 1861, "On the Improvements in the Farming of Yorkshire, since the date of the last report in the Journal of Agriculture," Mr. WUHam Wright observes, that the warping of the large district extending from the Trent, and Ouse, to Goole, Crowle, Thorne, and Selby, exhibits remarkable effects of skill and improvement. Some of these extensive warping works had been brought to a conclusion about that time ; but another clough of larger dimensions had been put down, about eight miles above Goole in the Dutch river, by which a large area has been improved between Thorne and Rawcliffe Common ; besides several other doughs in the Dutch river, and in the rivers Aire and Ouse, annually re-warping and enriching the neighbouring lands." Mn Wright states that a great improvement in the mode of warping was made between the years 1848 and 1861. The difficulty lay in equalizing the deposit of fertilizing mud from the river, the irregularities of which, both in depth and quality, diminished the * Mr. Chadwick's Prize Report ol the Agriculture of the West Riding. VOL. I. L 82 YORKSHIRE. value of the land, as the surface was raised. On the land lying nearest the drain sand predominated, in consequence of the greater sLze and weight of its particles ; further on, sand and mud were so mixed as to make very firm soils ; and the furthest portion a low-lying tenacious clay. Under the improved system, formed by changing the lines and forcing the water at the outset to the lowest and furthest portion of the land intended to be warped, the soil is equalized in quality ; for wherever a low and strong deposit has been formed, the mischief is in a great measure rectified by directing the water over it with a rapid current. The land, as Mr. Wright informs us, takes from two to three years to re warp, accordmg to the state of the weather in different seasons. If wet, the strong freshes in the river are unfavourable for the deposit ; if dry, the deposit is great ; but after a long drought it sometimes becomes of too solid a nature, and in that case acts injuriously on the crops, when the land is under cultiva- tion. He mentions as an illustration of this fact, that the lands which were warped in the dry season of 1826, never cropped favourably for fifteen years afterwards. The best security against this defect, is to finish the warping of the land soon after the winter season is over. Mr. Wright informs us that these works are carried out on different terms ; by hire at from £12 to £24 per acre, according to the height of the land, the distance of embankment required, and the probable time during which it may be necessary to keep the land under the process. When the doughs are the property of the landlord, in some instances the improvement is carried on entirely at his expense, the land being re-let at an improved rent when finished ; in others, the rent nominally remains the same, the proprietor undertaking to raise the embankment, for the cost of which the tenant pays five per cent. During the process of warping, however, the landlord remits one-half of the rent of the land, the tenant sacrificing the other half and levelling the embankment when it is completed ; but this is a very expensive mode for the tenant, and is only carried out when the most perfect confidence exists between the landlord and tenant ; and no part of the county furnishes stronger proofs of the necessity of this confidence than the district where extensive works and improve- ments like these are carried on. After the warping is finished drainage follows. The vast extent to which the system of warping PAST AND PRESENT. 83 has been carried out on the banks of the Humber, the Ouse, and other Yorkshire rivers, is a striking proof of the energy of the district.* On the Fens and Submarine Forests of South Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. — In a paper on the origin of the fens of South York- shire and Lincolnshire, read before the British Association at its meeting at Leeds in the year 1858, by the Eev. Edward Trollope, the author attributed their fonnation to small and slow changes in the level of the land, produced by internal action of a volcanic character, such at that which is gradually raisuig the level of the land in a great part of Sweden and some other countries. In the case, however, of the Yorkshire fens, he discovered evidence of a double action, at one time raising, and at another depressing, the level of the land. The author observed, that a great contest between sea and land, leading to frequent changes in their respective boundaries, had certainly been in progress upon these coasts for centuries before the arrival of the Romans in Britain, and at a period before vmtten records began to be kept. The ocean had from time to time swept far beyond its present limits ; and yet, little by httle, it had by its very fury aided to form a future barrier against itself by the accumulation of the silt left upon its retreat, in concert with the earthy deposits caused by the continual flow of the inland waters. At one time the sea had lorded it over a considerable portion of the eastern coast ; but afterwards fresh water became in the ascendant, and has left the mark of its reign behind it in the form of a soapy blue clay, varying in tint, and abounding in fresh-water shells. The ocean, however, occasionally gave battle to the fresh water, as was shown by the existence of channels filled vdth marine sUt, running up into the blue clay. In this stratum grew trees of various kinds, as oaks of vast size, firs, alders, birch, and hazels, whose roots were yet firmly fixed in the soil, while their innumer- able trunks lay prostrate beneath the black peaty earth, composed of decayed vegetable matter. It might safely be assumed that the period of the growth of these trees lasted for five centuries. How long these fen districts continued to be covered with stagnant fresh water after they had wrought such terrible ruin upon thou- * Journal of the Agricultural Society, vol. xxi., 1861, article v., "On the Improvements in the Farming of Yorkshire since the date of the last Reports in the Journal." By William Wright, Sigglesthorne Hall. 84 YORKSHIRE : sands of acres of the finest forest lands, was not deducible from any internal evidence ; but they certainly were for the most part still prevalent when the Romans appeared upon the scene. They proceeded to encircle the coast with a vast sea bank, to deepen and defend the outfalls of the rivers, and to construct drains. But besides the coastal line of fen-lands, there were vast tracts in the interior of Lincolnshire of a similar character, forming, in the aggregate, 522,000 acres, lying from four to sixteen feet below high- water level. The largest of these extended from the Trent, through the Isle of Axholme, into Notts, and far into Yorkshire, in the direction of Doncaster. It might fairly be assumed that, during the Roman occupation, this vast tract of fen-land bore quite a different character to what it had since done : that it had a gravelly subsoil, and an ordinary earthy surface, covered with trees ; not usually, if at all, subject to floods ; but that, sub- sequently, it became more or less constantly submerged, so as to destroy its previous forest growth, and to cover the bodies of the former vegetable giants of the district beneath an earthy deposit. This great change had usually been attributed to the burning of the forests by the Romans, on account of the covert which they afforded to swarms of suffering Britons. There were apparent signs of burning about the stumps of some of the trees, but others had clearly been cut down, and many had been torn up by the roots. The felled trees would never have so impeded the flow of the inland waters as to convert an immense district of previously dry land into a permanent swamp, as had been suggested ; he would, therefore, endeavour to find another solution of this diffi- culty m connection with a still more remarkable fact, namely, the existence of the remains of a submarine forest off the present Lincohishixe coast. Along the shore of that country, from Sutton to Cleethorpe, many banks or islands were from time to time exposed to view. These were usually covered with silt ; but when occasionally stripped of that marine deposit, they were found to possess a substratum of moory vegetable soil, filled with the roots of prostrate trees of very large size, accompanied by their berries, nuts, and leaves. Two questions arose in connection with these facts, namely. When were these districts severally submerged by fresh and salt water ? — and by what agency ? Various theories had been advanced for the purpose of solving these problems, the principal of which were : — 1st, The interference of the Romans PAST AND PRESENT. 85 with the natural drainage ; 2nd, a change in the coastal line through the action of the sea ; 3rd, the agency of earthquakes, or rather slow internal movements, causing subsidence of the earth. The author examined in successsion each of these theories, and gave his opinion in favour of the last. He referred to the existence of other submarine forests at various points of the shores of Scotland, England, and Wales. He observed that this theory might seem to be more marvellous than the pre- ceding ones, and therefore less likely to be true in the opinion of those who were unacquainted with geology ; but when, from the study of that science, they found that certain strata, the undoubted deposit of water, were now upheaved far above the reach of that element, and that large tracts of land had sunk beneath it, they cotdd only regard such changes as one of the usual, but always won- derful, operations of nature. The author cited other instances of similar phenomena, and in conclusion said that he was inclined to think, that a slow upward movement had begun to take place in large districts of Lincolnshire long ago, and that by means of carefuUy conducted scientific obser- vations this would hereafter be certainly proved and accurately measured. The filling up of channels and estuaries of large size that for- merly existed, and the rapid growth of its coast at various points, apparently indicated this ; while the known gradual, but continually increasing elevation of the Danish coast and parts of Norway greatly strengthened such a supposition. General View of the Agriculture of the West Hiding, and of its Progress since the previous Eeport o/l799. — Mr. Charnock makes the following observations on the subject of the progress of agriculture, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, in the earlier half of the present century. He says: — "Remembering how considerable a portion of the West Riding is within the influence of the several large towns, it will readily be conceived that the average size of holdings will be small. In their immediate vicinity the occupations seldom exceed from ten to fifty acres, and throughout the manufacturing portion of the Riding generally, from thirty to fifty acres may be considered about the usual quantity in one hand. In the more agricultural parts, farms of from 300 to 500 acres are occasional; but more commonly they run from 100 to 200 acres; the majority, however, being from eighty to 100 acres. Notwithstanding the 86 YORKSHIRE : average annual value of the Riding is computed at only about 17s. Id. per acre, a great portion of the better land realizes a much higher price. In the neighbourhood of the towns — a rental of from £3 to £5 per acre is paid ; and even in the rural districts, the better land fetches from 25s. to 30s. per acre. Much even of the strong and wet low land realizes from 15s. to 20s. per acre, though very dear at that rent, in its present state. The moorlands probably bring from ] s. 6c?. to about 5s. per acre, accord- ing to the condition of the land. But even in these districts the dry and inclosed lands will let for from 18s. to 25s. per acre. Thiis I esteem 17s. *Jd. per acre rather an under average value. " The improvements effected in the farming of the West Riding since the report of Mr. Robert Brown in the year 1799, is the next head of our subject. And when we reflect that since the commencement of the present century, the population of this important Riding has more than doubled, it certainly is neither an uninteresting nor unprofitable matter for inquiry, in what proportionate ratio the cultivation of its sod has improved within the same period, in order to provide an adequate increase of supply for such an increase of consumers. Speaking of the farming of the West Riding at the time when he wrote, Mr. Brown says, 1st, ' From Ripley to the western extremity of the Riding, nearly the whole of the good land is kept under the grazing system, and seldom or never ploughed ; while corn is raised upon the inferior or moorish soils. During the time we were in that part of the country w^e hardly ever saw a plough, and a stack of corn was a great rarity. Upon the higher ground there are immense tracts of waste, which are generally common amongst the contiguous possessors, and pastured by them with cattle and sheep. 2nd, The land in the vicinity of manufacturing towns : the greatest part of the ground is there occupied by persons who do not consider farming as a business, but regard it only as a matter of convenience. The manufacturer has his inclosure, wherein he keeps milch cows for the use of his family, and horses for carrying his goods to market, and bringing back raw material. 3rd, The com districts, or those parts of the Riding where tillage is principally attended to, and grass only considered as a means of bringing the corn husbandry to perfection : if we run an imaginary line from Ripley, southward by Leeds, Wakefield, and Barnsley, to Rotherham, we may affirm that the greatest part eastward of it, tUl we come to the banks PAST AND PRESENT. 87 of the Ouse, which separates the West from the East Riduig, is principally employed in raising corn. About Boroughbridge, Wetherby, Selby, &c., about one-half of the fields is under the plough ; farther south, about Pontefract, Barnsley, and Rother- ham, there are two-thirds ; and to the eastward of Doncaster to Thorne and Snaith, three-fourths of the land are managed in a similar way. 4th, The common fields : these are scattered over the whole of the last division, but are most numerous in that part of the country to the eastward of the great North Road from Doncaster to Boroughbridge. It is impossible even to guess at the quantity of land under this management ; in general, it may be said to be extensive. 5th, The Moors : these, besides the large tracts in the first division, lie in the western part of the Riding, and perhaps contain one-eighth part of the district. Upon them sheep are chiefly bred, and afterwards sold to the graziers in the lower part of the country.' "Mr. Brown further adds, 'Betwixt Hatfield and Thorne there are great quantities of waste land, and much under water. Upon the whole, the land we have seen to-day stands in the greatest need of improvement, which cannot be done without a previous division.' This was very true, and in due time these suggestions were carried into practice. This very district, by an Act in 1811, was inclosed, and an extent of something like 15,000 acres of excellent land brought into profitable cultivation. " Since that period, too, almost every other open common in the Riding has been inclosed, as well as most of the low waste lands, which at that time were very considerable. Attention has more recently been turned towards the inclosure of the moor- lands, and especially in those districts where population has settled and manufactures have been established. And, thanks to the General Inclosure Act, a few more years, and a few more mouths requiring to be filled, will conduce not only to the remaining lowland commons being divided, but to the inclosure of a very large proportion of the moorland districts. Every year adds some additional example. " Thus it is clear that, with this greater area under cultivation, the gross product of the Riding must have materially increased, if only from this cause; but it is equally manifest that improved cultivation of much of the old inclosed lands has added very con- siderably to the general increase of production; and it is not, I 88 YORKSHIRE : think, any exaggeration to estimate the average increase of wheat per acre on these lands at present from eight to ten bushels, since the period of Mr. Brown's report. Taking the total area of the Hiding at 1,648,640 statute acres, it is probable that the following apportionment will, in round numbers, approximate sufficiently near to the actual quantities under the respective heads, viz. : — Acres. Grass land, . . 720,000 Arable land, . . . .... 680,000 Moor and waste land, .... . 200,000 Woods and commons, 48,640 1,648,640* " Of these 680,000 acres of arable it will, perhaps, be within the mark to affirm that 100,000 have been brought into cultiva- tion since 1799. If then we compute the produce of wheat at that period, on an area of one-third of the 580,000 acres then under the plough, at an average yield of twenty-two bushels per acre, we shall get a total produce of about 4,250,000 bushels per annum ; against a produce now, computed in the same manner, with an average of thirty bushels per acre, of about 6,800,000 bushels. When, however, we take into account that wheat is now being grown upon the lighter lands, many of which at the earlier periods of cultivation were not considered capable of growing it at all, we may fairly estimate the increased produce of wheat now at two-thirds more than at the commencement of the present century. " The increase, too, in the other corn crops will bear a propor- tionate ratio, or even perhaps somewhat exceeding this. There is also a considerable increase of animal food, consequent upon improved cultivation ; but I do not think that it is to a propor- tionate amount, or that it at all bears such an adequate ratio to the improved culture as it ought to be." Beclamation of Waste Lands in the West Biding. — On the subject of the reclamation of waste lands of the West Riding, Mr. Charnock observes, in his report, that it has already been noticed that on lands of the millstone-grit formation abundant evidence exists, in the productiveness of those inclosures that have already been subjected to cultivation, of what a large portion which is yet unreclaimed is capable. He says : — " I know many instances * These are merely approximate estimates j tlie official returns for the last two years will be found at the close of this chapter. PAST AND PRESENT. 89 where tracts of this higher land are to be seen growing nothing but heather, and not realizing more than about Is. 6d. per acre (shooting included) ; whilst immediately adjoining, on the same level, are cultivated plots that let for 20s., 25s., and up to 30s. per acre, and produce excellent crops. As I have already said, there is no great proportion of peat on these lands in the West Riding, and conseqxiently their reclamation would be the sooner accomplished. After the drainage work is completed, which is the first thing to be done, probably the best plan of proceeding is to plough the land, turning down as much of the ling as possible (without paring and burning it, as is too often practised), lime it and sow it with rapes, and eat them on with what sheep you can get ; after which, plough it and prepare it as thoroughly as possible, burning, if you like, at this stage, any stalks of ling that may come to the surface, and plant it with potatoes ; after this, with a further liming (for it is generally deficient in this mineral), sow it with oats or wheat, as you may find suitable, and clover or seeds to be eaten on. There is nothing expensive in this mode of proceeding, and the potato crop wUl, in most instances, fully repay all the previous outlay; nay, even occasionally including a considerable proportion of the cost of drainage. No doubt, for a time, you have an inferior cUmate to contend with; but were it possible at once to drain the whole of these districts, this objection would, in a very manifest degree, disappear. " The badness of the climate arises from an excess of exhalation, consequent upon an excessive surcharge of water in the land. The fact of the climate being made good by drainage has been often exemplified in the low lands, in the Fens, for instance, where ague — once so prevalent — is now never heard of; and many instances of the same efiect might be given in more limited localities. " I heard an intelligent farmer state that, since he entered on his occupation, the whole has been thoroughly drained ; that on his first coming he found most of his neighbours' crops, on the higher ground around him, reached maturity a full fortnight before those on his farm ; but that since the drainage has been completed his crops are invariably a week or two earlier than those in the immediately adjoining district. I refer to Mr. Moor, of Ackworth, near Ponte- fract, whose farming is an example to that locality. " After taking a course or two of corn crops from the reclaimed land of these moor districts, so as to bring it into a proper tilth, VOL I. M 90 YORKSHIRE: and to completely eradicate the heather, it would, if well laid down with a proper selection of permanent grasses, make good pasturage for young stock ; and probably, with a little attention, in a few years become really good grass land, and capable of carrying a considerable number of both beasts and sheep." With regard to the cultivation of high lands of the West Riding, Mr. William Wright observes, in his Report on the farming of York- shire in 1861, that these lands, when improved, are chiefly devoted to pasture ; they are limed and manured from the populous districts of the vaUeys, and have attained a surprising fertility, which would put to the blush many farraers who have far better land, in situations more favourable to the growth of grasses and cereals. Mr. Wright says, " Some excellent farming is foiind about Sheflield, and we have noticed great improvements about Harrogate ; but the high land in the West Riding available for agriculture is limited in extent. Operations are commenced by draining, without which ploughing would be vain ; roads are then made over these hitherto wild tracts, fields inclosed, farmhouses built, and where a few years ago the sportsman wandered in quest of wild game, crops of com are now found, with the usual accompaniments of cultivation." On the limestone hills in the Craven district, great attention is given to the improvement of the grass land. The consumption of animal food, milk, butter, bread, and other necessaries of life, is very large and rapidly increasing in the West Riding. Wake- field, Leeds, Rotherliam, Doncaster, and Pontefract, furnish the chief weekly markets, where the corn, cattle, and sheep from the other Ridings find ready purchasers; the railways offering great facilities for the conveyance of these articles from the most distant farms and districts.* Cattle and Sheep of the West Biding. — As respects the stock and breed of cattle generally throughout this Ridmg, it has been much less attended to than in either of the others. In the middle and eastern parts the horses are of a pretty good size, and in one or two localities which are favoured by circum- stances, some better animals are bred. The districts around Don- caster, Wetherby, and Ripon are those chiefly to be noticed,* for the production of horses, particularly hunters, of good breeding and power. The draught horses, which are usually employed both for • Journal of the Agricultural Society, vol. xxi., 186], article v., "On the Improvements in the Farming of Yorkshire since the date of the last Reports in the Journal " By William Wright. PAST AND PBESENT. 91 agricultural and commercial purposes, are of mixed breeds, and not unfrequentlj selected without much regard to their appropriateness for the work. Those in the western parts are commonly small, yet active and hardy, but are of no distinct breed. Of horned cattle, the short horns and the Craven long horns are the only distinctive breeds — the first, in the middle and east parts of the Biding; and the other, almost wholly confined to their native district in the west. There are, however, a great variety of cross breeds of a most incongruous character spread over the whole Riding ; and when we consider the great number of Irish beasts that have of late years found their way here, and how many of these have been domiciled and bred from, there cannot be much surprise at the melange that exists. It has for some years, too, been the practice of the resident landowners, and the better class of farm.ers, to keep in their herds one or more Channel Island cows ; and the fashion has also prevailed to some extent amongst the wealthier manufacturers, who, having their residences in the suburbs of the towns, have deemed their domestic arrangements incomplete without an Alderney cow or two. The West Riding, when Mr. Charnock wrote his Report in 1848, possessed some few breeders of short horns, whose stock was deserving of notice. Amongst these were Earl Fitzwilliam, Mr. Wentworth, Mr. Fawkes, Mr. Cator, Mr. Stansfield, Lady Ramsden, and Mr. Crawshaw of Byram. More attention of late years has been given to the breed of sheep, particularly in the turnip districts of the Riding, by the introduction of the Leicester, the. improved Lincolnshire, and South Down breeds; and also by a breed between the Leicester and Lincolnshire, from the Yorkshire wolds. A better description of moorland breed has also been estab- lished. Perhaps the most prevalent system is to purchase the Border or Bamboroughshire ewes, or the Cheviot, and cross them with a good Leicester tup, sell the lambs fat to the butcher, take the clip, and fatten the ewes in the autumn. Where a regular flock of sheep is not kept, this plan is probably as good and profitable as can be pursued ; the peculiarly good suckling properties of the ewes, and their aptitude to fatten, making both the lambs and themselves early fit for market. Many of the half and better bred moorland sheep are annually fattened on the pastures of the lower lands ; and from the general desire of the richer classes, both in the country and the towns, to procure this smaller description of mutton, they usually command a somewhat higher price per head to the butcher in pro- 92 YORKSHIRE : portion to their weight. The breed of pigs in the Riding is particu- larly good, both of the large and small kinds, many of the best breeders Hving within its limits. Some of the more celebrated of these are, Dr. Hobson, of Leeds, Mr. John Hannam, of Deighton, Mr. Nutt, of York, and others. Very few, if any, of the black kind are bred. Agricultural Labourers in the West Eiclivg. — With regard to agricidtural labourers of the West Riding, Mr. Charnock observes, "If in alluding to the condition of the agricultural labourer of the West Riding, we say that there is, perhaps, no district in the kingdom in which he is better paid, better housed, and better cared for, it would only be doing common justice both to him and his employers; but, I believe, if we go one step further, and say that he is in many respects better off, and more completely independent than they are, the truth will not have been exceeded. The general wages of the common labourers are from 14s. to 16s. per week; and in those occupations requiring somewhat more of judgment and sldll in manipulation — in drainage, for instance— they expect to earn 18s. per week, and upwards. In the cheapness and excellency of fuel throughout almost the whole Riding they possess a very great additional comfort and advantage over those of their class in many of the more southern counties ; and which certainly fully compensates for the higher house rents which they pay in the north. The women and the older children generally obtaui as much employment, both on the farms and in other ways, as they can spare time from their domestic occupations to attend to. Their wages are usually from 8c?. to Is. per day, most commonly the latter. " From the number of applications from this Riding, and from the county generally, for advances under the Drainage Acts, there is every probability of the able-bodied, who are capable of such work, being fully employed for some years to come. And it is not only these drainage-works, but many other proprietors are draining extensively, and all who desire to let their land or retain good tenants must do the same ; for the time is at hand when the first question asked by those about to occupy strong land wUl be, ' Is it thoroughly drained?'" Agricultural Resources of the West Biding. — The agricultm-al returns of Great Britain laid before Parliament by order of her Majesty, in the year ISJ'O, furnish us with much information as to the cultivation of each of the three Ridings, and of the whole PAST AND PRESENT. 93 county of York. From the great variety in the soil, the climate, the markets, and the amount of population of the three Ridings, the systems of cultivation vary very greatly in different districts, as will be seen from the following summary of the agriculture of the West Riding, and the subsequent accounts of that of the East and West Ridings. Agriculture of the West Riding, according to the Returns Published in 1870. — The total area of the West Riding in statute acres is given in this return, as 1,709,307 acres. This is somewhat less than the area as ascertained in the Ordnance survey, which amounted to 1,768,380. The difference arises from the circumstance of the registration unions on which the agricultural returns are founded, not corresponding exactly with the boundaries of the county. In the West Riding the total number of acres of land which were under all kinds of crops, bare-fallow, and grass, amounted in 1868 to 1,128,211 acres, and in 1869 to 1,140,871 acres. The remaining part of the land of the West Riding consists either of heath or mountaia pasture ; or of very small holdings chiefly around towns and populous vUlages ; of the land on which those towns and villages are built; or of space in bays and estuaries, which is returned along with the land of the district, though usually covered with water. Each of these kinds of land covers a considerable area; but no doubt much the largest portion of the land not given in these returns, consists of the heath-covered hUls and mountains on the western side of the Riding, many of which rise to an elevation of from 1000 to 2500 feet above the level of the sea, and are exposed to the storms and the heavy rains of the Atlantic. Very little of this land is suitable for arable purposes, and over a considerable portion of it the natural herbage consists of heath, and not of the finer grasses. In addition to the heath and mountain land, there is in the West Riding a large quantity of permanent pasture or grass land, which feeds large quantities of stock, and is never broken up in any rotation of crops. The whole quantity of permanent pasture or grass land of this description is given in the returns for 1868 at 659,333 acres, and in 1869 at 685,438 acres. Thus it will be seen that pasture land of this description forms upwards of a third part of the area of the West Riding, whilst heath and mountain land forms not much less than another third. Including the per- manent pasture, the total acreage under all kinds of crops, bare 94 YORKSHIRE fallow, and grass, in the West Elding, amounted in 1868 to 1,128,211 acres, and in 1869 to 1,140,870 acres. Nearly two thirds of the land of the West Kidlng being thus taken up with pasture, the quantity of arable land is necessarily small. The extent of land under corn crops in the West Riding in 1868, was 254,131 acres, and in 1869, 268,154 acres. The quantity of land under green crops was 95,979 in 1868, and 104,643 in 1869. The quantity under clover and grasses in rotation was 91,261 acres in 1868, and 59,034 in 1869. The falling off in the extent of clover and other artificial grasses in 1869, was pro- bably owing to the excessive and almost unparalleled dryness of the summer of 1868, which rendered it impossible for the seeds to germinate after they were sown. The grain most extensively cultivated in the West Riding is wheat, though only about a fourteenth or fifteenth part of the land of the Riding is sown with that grain. The acreage of wheat in 1868 was 109,236, and in 1869, 114,119 acres. In the same two years, the quantity of barley sown in the West Riding was 66,406 and 66,281 acres; the quantity of oats was 59,850 and 60,859 acres; the quantity of rye was 1474 and 2171 acres; the quantity of beans was 11,892 and 15,160 acres ; the quantity of peas was 5273 and 9564 acres. Including the whole of the above varieties of corn, the total quantity of land under corn crops in the West Riding, in the year 1868, was 254,131 acres, and in 1869, 268,154 acres. These returns do not give any averages of the yield of the corn crops per acre, and we are therefore unable to speak with confidence as to the number of persons whom the corn lands of the West Riding serve to maintain. Fortunately, we have better data as to the number of the domestic animals which are sustained by the produce of the soils. Every kind of root cultivated in the fields of England is grown in the West Riding. The number of acres of potatoes raised, in 1868, was 23,483 acres, and in 1869, 28,778. The breadth of turnips and swedes grown in the former year was 64,330, and in the latter, 62,221. The quantity of mangold in the former year was 950 acres, and in the latter, 1819 ; of car- rots 83 acres in the former year, and 143 in the latter; and the quantity of cabbage, kohl-rabi, and rape was 1723 acres in the former year, and 2683 in the latter. In addition to the above, there was raised in the same two years, of vetches, lucerne. PAST AND PE-ESENT. 95 and other green crops, except clover or artificial grasses, 5410 acres in 1868, and 8899 acres in 1869. There was also grown, in the West Riding, a larger quantity of flax than was raised in any other district of England; namely, 3355 acres in 1868, and 4074 in 1869. In addition to these, there were grown of clover, sainfoin, and grasses, under rotation, 91,261 acres in 1868, and 59,034 in 1869. The whole of the produce of the West Riding, together with an immense quantity of grain and other articles produced elsewhere, was required for the support of the inhabitants of the Riding, with their cattle, sheep, horses, and other animals. The number of sheep in the West Riding of Yorkshire was very large, amounting in the year 1868 to 823,214, and after the terrible drought of 1869 to 735,900. The number of cattle was also large, amounting in the former year to 231,996 head, and in the latter year to 222,789. The number of horses was also very large, amount- ing in the year 1869 (the first year for which the return was made) to 60,742, in the possession of farmers alone, and in the whole county to upwards of 140,000; being the seventh or eighth part of the horses in England, as shown in the parliament- ary return. PEOGRESS OP POPULATION ON THE AGEICHLTUEAL DISTEICTS OF THE WEST KmiNG, ON THE MAGNESIAN, NEW KED SANDSTONE, AND AXLTJYIAL FOEMATIONS. District. Area in acres. Population. Num. of persons to square mile. 1801. 1851. 1861. 1861. Pontefract, Hemsworth, Doncaster, . Thome, . Goole, . Selby, . Tadoaster, . . . Knaresborough, . Ripon, . 66,135 33,870 109,031 71,946 40,908 53,764- 78,301 39,942 84,214 17,967 6,198 20,757 10,583 6,700 10,252 14,523 19,403 13,145 . 29,937 8,158 34,675 15,886 13,686 15,672 17,983 15,473 18,648 34,794 7,793 39,388 16,011 15,153 16,001 18,118 17,176 16,041 290 154 204 141 214 184 163 205 142t * The limits of the Selby district in the census of 1861 were altered to 56,014 acres ; those of Tadcaster, to 63,796; and those of the Ripon, to 70,590. New districts were also made of Great Ousehurn, extending over 51,808 acres, containing 12,167 persons in 1851, and 11,534 in 1861; also a new district of Wetherhy, extending over 32,459 acres, and containing, in 1851, 6518 persons, and in 1861, 6668 ; and also a new district of Kirk Deighton, extending over 6941 acres, containing, in 1851, 1012 persons, and in 1861, 978 persons. See Census Return, 1861, England and Wales, vol. i., pp. 598. t England and Wales : — Registration district, number of persons to a square mile in registration district. Census of Great Britain, 1851, Table 21, p. 111. 96 YOUKSHIRE : Value and Increase of Property in the West Riding of Yorkshire, from 1860 to 1870. — We have shown in the above details what are the principal sources of wealth and employment at present existing in the West Riding of Yorkshire. These, it has been seen, are derived from the cultivation of the soil; from large supplies of coal, u'on, lead, and other metals and minerals extracted from its bosom; and from extensive manufactures, giving employment to many hun- dred thousand persons, together with a large portion of the machines and implements which give so vast a productive power to the indus- try of the British manufacturer. In concluding this account of the natural resources of the West Riding, and of the industrial purposes to which they are applied, it may be well to show what portion of the wealth of the country is derived from these resources, and how far the wealth and employment supplied by them have increased during the last ten years. One of the best methods of exhibiting these results is to give a comparative view of the income and pro- perty of the West Riding, as shown by the official returns of the Income and Property Tax under the three great schedules, A, B, and D. These show the whole of the property derived from incomes of £100 and upwards. The amount derived from smaller incomes can only be matter of estimate, as there are no returns which show it ; but the aggregate annual amount must reach many milhons, and must be highest in those districts in which labour is best rewarded. Fortunately there is no distinct and no extensive occupation in Yorkshire in which the amount of wages earned is not sufficient for the comfortable support of the people. Annual Value of Property in the West Biding of Yorkshire in ike Year 1860. — A parliamentary return was made in the year 1860 of the gross annual value of property assessed under the Property and Income Tax Acts, for the three great schedules. A, B, and D, in each parish in England, and Wales, and in Scotland, for the year ended the 5th day of April, 1860. Under Schedule A was included an account of the value of lands, messuages, tithes, manors fines, quarries, mines, ironworks, fisheries, canals, railways, gas- works, and all other property and profits not comprised in other schedides. Under Schedule B was included farming profits ; and under Schedule D, the profits derived from trade and commerce. The aggregate sums returned under each of these headings, from the different collecting districts of the West Riding of Yorkshire, were as follows, in 1860 : — PAST AND PRESENT. 97 A STATEMENT OF THE ANNUAL TALtTE OF PEOPEETT AND PEOFITS ASSESSED UNDEE SCHEDBLES A, B, AND D, OF THE INCOME TAX IN THE WEST EIDINO OF TOEKSHIEE. IN THE TEAR ENDING 6tH APEIL, 1860. Total Gross. Annual Value of Property Assessed under Schedule A. Agbrigg, Lower, .... Agbrigg, Upper, Barkston Ash, Claro, Doncaster, Borough, .... Division of Leeds, Borough, Morley, East, Morley, West, Osgoldcross, Lower, .... Osgoldcross, Upper, .... Pontefract, Borough, . . . Eipon, City, Ripon, Liberty, Sheffield, Borough, .... Skjrrack Staincliffe, East, .... Staincliffe, West Staincross, StrafiForth and Tiokhill, Lower, Strafforth and TickhUl, Upper, Total, .... 409,380 456,583 162,654 288,083 62,499 683,668 774,834 515,588 113,176 104,675 18,521 20.031 57,031 666,525 238,407 237,580 190,958 277,072 155,526 426,104 5,758,895 Gross. Annual Value of Property Assessed undur Schedule B. 117,696 109,981 122,900 225,020 17,458 38,215 90,801 111,633 88,750 74,300 5,260 4,143 43,374 27,8-68 122,705 150,374 167,792 108,435 130,724 162,926 Net. Amount of Profits Charged under Schedule D. 1,940,544 254,252 501,092 38,550 76,351 58,807 1,104,416 907,638 531,807 24,717 27,787 20,319 25,745 7,301 783,901 113,813 100,648 31,539 138,658 22,240 145,507 4,924,088 TOTAL PEOPEETT EETTIENED IN THE WEST RIDING IN THE TEAR 1860. Property returned under Schedule A, J5,758,895 Property returned under Schedule B 1 940 544 Property returned under Schedule D 4,924,088 £12,623,527 The total annual value of property in the three Ridings of Yorkshire vras as follows, in 1860 : — Property returned under Schedule A £9,620,962 Property returned under Schedule B, 4,127,601 Property returned under Schedule D, 6,147,149 Total value, £19,895,712 Increase of Property of Yorkshire, from 1860 to 1869. — The increase of the value of property and profits in the West Riding of Yorkshire, as well as in tte whole county, was extremely rapid in the nine years which intervened between 1860 and 1869. The following table will show the amount of increase in each of the collecting districts of the West Riding during the same period, as well as the increase in the whole of the coimty of York : — VOL. I. N 98 YORKSHIRE A STATEMENT OP THE ANNUAL TALTJE OP PKOPERTT AND PROFITS ASSESSED UNDER SCHEDULES A, B, AND D, OP THE INCOME TAX IN THE WEST EIDIIfG OP YORKSHIRE POR THE TEAR ENDING 6tH APRIL, 1869. Names of Divisions. Gross Annual Value of Property assessed under Schedule A. Gross Annual Value of Property assessed under Schedule B. Net amount of profits charged to duty under Schedule D. Agbrigg, Lower, . Agbrigg, Upper, . Barkston Ash, . . Glare, Doncaster Borough, Leeds, Borough, . Morley, East, . . Morley, West, . . Osgoldcross, Lower, Osgoldcross, Upper, Pontefract, Borough, -Ripon, City, . . . Eipon, Liberty, . . Sheffield, Borough, Skyrack, .... r, 512,417 620,671 187,917 330,719 79,020 929,644 985,573 652,273 135,068 127,780 19,450 24,801 56,635 811,637 316,669 268,189 221,386 227,939 172,293 364,723 137f308 117,575 138,261 252,056 18,439 42,472 118,735 114,152 102,377 78,822 5,132 4,775 47,892 24,689 140,297 150,377 193,725 113,927 141,296 175,262 556,858 820,465 50,823 89,655 84,425 2,087,738 1,942,690 995,490 38,388 31,444 27,689 31,349 9,256 1,374,499 246,813 193,063 56,600 307,073 27,174 356,317 Staincliffe, East, . Stainclifl'e, West, . Staincross, . . . Strafforth & Tickhill, Strafforth & Tickhill, Lo we pe Total, . 7,050,804 2,117,569 9,327,810 • It is to be observed, that, under the provision of the Act 29 Vict, c, 36, the profits of Railways, Mines, Ironworks &c., were, in the year 1866-67, transferred from Schedule A, to Schedule D. TOTAL PROPERTY RETURNED IN WEST RIDING IN THE YEAR 1868-69. Property returned under Schedule A, £7,050,804 Property returned under Schedule B, 2,117,569 Property returned under Schedule D, 9,327,810 £18,496,183 The total annual value of property in the three Ridings of York- shire in the year 1868-69, was as foUovps : — Property returned under Schedule A, £11,048,384 Property returned under Schedule B, 4,592,609 Property rctm-ncd under Schedule D, 13,540,589 £29,181,582 INCREASE OP PROPERTY IN THE WEST RIDING. Property in 1868-69, £18,496,183 Property in 1860, 12,623,527 Increase from 1860 to 1869, £5,872,656 INCREASE OF PROPERTY IN THE COUNTY OP YORK. Property in 1868-69, £29,181,582 Property in 1860, 18,496,183 Increase from 1860 to 1869, £10,685,399 PAST AND PllESENT. 99 OFFICIAL LIST OF THE YORKSHIRE COLLIERIES AND THEIR OWNERS, 1869-70. BY HER majesty's INSPECTOK, FEiNK N. WARDELL, ESQ. Name of Colliery. Where situated. Owner's Name. Cullingworth, Bingley, Edward Townsend. Denholme Thomas Horsfall & Co. Do. tt Edward Townsend. Norr Hm (Wilsden), (( Baxandall & Co. Shipley Moor, it Briggs & Sons. Wilsden, (£ Wood & Son. Agnes, Bamsley, WiUiam Day. Blacker Main, 11 Blacker Main Coal Co. Bloomhouse Green, 11 Henry Lodge. Church Lane (Dodwortli), . . . It Messrs. Charlesworth. Darfield, 11 Darfield Main Coal Co. Darley Main, 11 Croft & Co. East Gawber, 11 Craik & Co. Ellis Laith, 11 Leather & Littlewood. Mitchell & Co. Edmund's Main, Furnace Main, tt Adshead & Co. Gawber Hall, IC Messrs. Greaves. Haigh 11 It Fountain & Son. Haynes & Co. Hal! Royd (Silkstone), .... High Royd and Elsecar, .... 11 Hall & Co. Hoyland and Elsenar, 11 Wells & Co. LundhiU, 11 Lund Hill Coal Co. Moor House, . . .... 11 Fountain & Son. MonkBretton, 11 Monk Bretton Coal Co. Mount Osborne 11 WiUiam Day. New Gawber Hall, 11 Sturges, Paley, & Co. North Gawber, 11 Thorp & Co. Oaks, .... 11 Barber & Co. Old mill, It William Day. Old Silkstone, If R. C. Clarke. Old Silkstone Main, ... 11 Cooper & Co. Finder Oaks, " Croft & Co. Rockley Coal and Ironstone, . . 11 Cooper & Co. SUkstoneFaU, " Adshead & Co. Silkstone New, or Higham, . . 11 Messrs. Charlesworth. Swaithe Main 11 Sutcliffe & Co. Strafford, 11 Mitchell & Co. Swallow HiU (Darton), .... 11 Smith & Co. Victoria, It Pickles & Co. West Gawber, 11 Joseph Emsley. West SUkstone, 11 Kirsop & Bainbridge Brothers. White Hill or Penny Pie (Dodworth), Messrs. Greaves. Whamcliffe Silkstone, .... " Whamcliffe Silkstone Coal Co. Willow Bank, tt Thorp's Executors. Wombwell Main, tt Wombwell Main Coal Co. Woolley, tt Woolley Coal Co. Worsborough Park, " Cooper & Co. AUerton, Bradford, Bowling Iron Co. Do Wood & Son. Aycliffe Hm (Horton), .... IE Rushworth & Co. BirkbyLane ft Robertshaw & Co. Bolton Wood, If Handforth & Co. 100 YORKSHRIE. YORKSHIRE COLLIERIES.— ConfowMed Name of Collier)-. Where silualed. Owner's Name. Booth Holme Field (Tong), . . . Bradford, HoUiday & Clough. Bowling, iC Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Joseph Beanland. Do. ii Do u Bow ing Iron Co. Do. . . <( E. Gittins. Bradford, .... (( Bowling Iron Co. Thomas Pitts. Broom Hall . Bunkers Hill, . . a a Bowling Iron Co. Clayton, . . , a Barstow & Co. Oleekheaton, it Bowling Iron Co Do. . (< Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Clifton, it it Do. B. Collingham. Cotton Hole (North Bierley), . Cutler Height, n Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. G. Mortimer. Dog Lane " Eccleshill, (I Thomas Tomlinson. Haycliife Hilt (Hortou), . . ^' John Bottomley. Heaton, '* Briggs & Sons. Do. (Shipley), . . . (( George Heaton. High Bank (Shipley), . a Beck & Co. Holme Bank, u Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Bowling Iron Co. Huns worth, . . . it Laister Dyke, . . (1 Joseph Cliffe & Son. Little Horton, . . u Charles North. North Bierley, u Bowling Iron Co. Do. . ... t( Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. North Cliff, . . . Norwood Green, t( Shipley Fire Clay Co. t( John Baistow. EockweU, ... it Smith & Co. Scholes, .... it Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Seventeens (Clifton), . . (( Bowling Iron Co. Shelf, .... tt Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Do. . . . " Bowling Iron Co. Shipley, . . t( Airedale Brick and Tube Co. Shipley Moor, . . (( William Frith. Smedles (Bowling), . . (( John Crowther. Thornton, (( William lUingworth. Townsend & Co. Do. '. . . . : tt Do. . . . . " Wood & Son. Do. Road, .... tt Charles North. Tong, tt Hird, Dawson, & Hardj'. Do tt S. Broadbent. Do. . . ... t( Bowling Iron Co. Wibsey, it Charles North. Wike, it Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Babes in the Wood, . . . Dewsbury, Crawshaw & Blakeley. James Critchley. E. Crowther & Co. Batley, Beggarington (Hartshead), . <( Bunkers Hill (Whitley), . . it Luke Kitson. Calder (Mirfield), . . . it Charles Wheatley. Chickenley Heath, . Cowmes (Thomhill,) a Crawshaw, Blakeley & Co. tt Capt. Joshua C. Ingham. Cross Bank (Batley), it John HoUiday & Brothers Crossley Lane, . . tt Benjamin Barraclough. Crawshaw & Blakeley. Dewsbury Bank, . (t Dewsbury Moor, . tt Wroe & Co. Dewsbury Moor, . it Messrs. Haigh. Dogloach, .... (t Crawshsaw & Blakeley. Joseph Bedford. J. Sheard. Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Falhouse (Whitley), (( Gregory Spring (Mirfield), . Hartshead, tt it PAST AND PRESENT. 101 YORKSHIRE COLLIERIES.— Cojiiirewed Name of Colliej-y. Where situated. Owner's Name. Heeley (Briestfield), DewslDury, Hamath Fell. HaggWood, u Charles Wheatley. Hopton, ii Joseph Sheard. Capt. Joshua C. Ingham. Hostingley (Thornliill), . (C Ings (ThomMU), . . . ii Do. Lane Dvehouse a J. Wheatley. Charles Wheatley. Ledgard Bridge (Mirfield), a Liversedge It David Wroe & Co Mirfield Moor, .... ii Messrs Marriott Northorpe (Mirfield), . . ii Benjamin Barraclough. Park Farm, a Park Coal Co. Ravens Lodge, . . . a Messrs. Haigh. Soothill, a Crawshaw & Co. Svke Inff a Syke Ing Mill Co. Messrs Walker Warren House, .... it Whitley Wood, .... a Charles Wheatley. Hardy & Co. Upper Batley, .... a Upper Crosley, . . . " Benjamin Barraclough. Aldersclioles (Thornton;, . . Halifax, Michael Pearson. Banks, (( " Messrs. Pitchforth. Bank Bottom, . . t< W. H Rawson. Binns Bottom, .... ii ii Hebblethwaite & Co. Topham & Co. Brackens Lane End (Shelf), Bradshaw (Ovenden), . . u Lassey & Co. Bradsbaw Lane, . . ii Spencer &Co. Clayton, . . . (C Briggs & Sons. Crooked Lane it Michael Stocks. Dickey Steel (Elland), . ii Henry Hawkyard. Dove House, .... ii Holt & Co. Elland, a li Robinson & Co. Joseph Metoalf & Co. Harp Bottom, (Queensbury) Highfield, 11 Holmes & Holt. Lightcliflfe, ... ii Barraclough & Sons. Lime House, . . ii Holt & Co. Mountain End, a Foster & Son. Park Bottom, a George Wilson. Peep Green, . . " Sheard & Co. Quarry House, a Holmes & Co. Queensbury, ... a Joseph Briggs & Sons. Rooks (Hipperholme), ii Tordoflf & Sons. Shaw Lane, . . tC Michael Stocks. Shibden, . • . . a Holmes & Co. Shibdendale, . a R. Woodhead. Shibden Hall, . . 11 John Lister. Shugden a Michael Stocks. Shugden Head, . . . i( T. S. Walsh. Do 11 Spencer & Co. Soil Hill (Ovenden), . . . it Lassey & Co. StonyhaU, a M. Sheard. Swan Bank, . ... ^ Swan Bank Coal Brick works Co. Thornton, (C Briggs & Sons. Box Ings, . . . . Huddersfield, Seth Senior & Sons. Bradley, , . (( ' Charles Wheatley. Brockholes, ii Messrs. Haigh. CaUfomia (Shelley), a Matthews & Co. Clayton Common (Clayton West), li Norton Brothers & Co. Close Hill, a James Wheatley. James Peace. Common Side (Cumberworth), ii Cowmes, (C J. Sheard. Cumberworth, a Abel & John Addy. Duke Wood (Clayton West), . . it Norton Brothers & Co. 102 YOEKSHIKE YORKSHIRE COLLIERIES.— Cowimwed Name of Colliery. Ellen Tree, Fartown, Fieldhouse, Grangehouse, Grimescar, Helm Hollinghouse, .... Hollinghouse, .... Kirkburton, Kirkheaton, Kirk Style (Cumberworth), . Lane, Lane Side (Shelley), . . . Linfit, Lookwood Common, . . . New Ground, Pease Close Redhill (Shelley), . . . . Rowley, .... . . Shelley Sinking Wood, Taylor' Hill, Toppit (Clayton West), . Upper Bradley, Whitley (Kirkheaton), . . Wood Barnside (Hepworth), . . . Brickworks, Carr Wood (New Mills), . . Forster Place (Hepworth), . Foxhouse, Fulstone (New Mills), . . . Gatehead, Hepshaw, Hollin House (New Mills), . Hepworth, Meltham, Thurstonland, Wood, Ingleton, . . . . Adwalton Moor, Allerton Main, Do. Haigh Moor, . . Astley, Baildon Moor, . . Balaklava (Morley), . . . Beeston, Do Do Beeston Lodge, Beverley (Armley) Birkhill (Birkenshaw), . . Blakeley, Blue Hills Lane (Wortley), . Britannia Main (Adwalton), Brook House (Gomersal), . Brown Moor, Burmantofts, Bushey (Drighlington), . . Calverley, Churwell, Where sitnated. Huddersfield, Holmiirth, Settle, Leeds, Owner's Name. John Alderson & Son. James Wheatley. Edward Brooke. C. Sutclifife. Jones & Waterhouse. Charles Wheatley. Messrs. Haigh. James Robinson. W. Rhodes. Messrs. Cardwell. Henry Ellis & Co. James Whitley. Messrs. Kenyon. Hey & Carter. James Whitley. Do. J. Sheard. Matthews & Co. J. Sheard. Copley & Co. Messrs. Haigh. James Whitley. John Hargrave & Co. John Cookson. Messrs. Cardwell. Messrs. Haigh. William Shaw. Uriah Tinker. Charles Lockwood. Ebenezer Haley. Mrs. Wagstaff. Charles Lockwood. Uriah Tinker. Do. Hepworth Iron Co. Uriah Tinker. James Whitley. Uriah Tinker. Hunter & Co. William Bower & Brothers. Joshua Bower. Locke & Co. Joshua Bower. William Midgley. West Yorkshire Iron & Coal Co. The Farnley Iron Co. Harding & Co. Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. J. Clarke. W. H. Chapman. Messrs. Harrison. J. Scott & Son. Benjamin North. Barraclough & Co. Thomas & John Tattersall. Manston Coal Co. HeptenstaU & Co. Newmarket Coal Co. Woodhead's Executors. Knowles & Co. PAST AND PllESENT. 103 YORKSHIRE COLLIERIES.— Confonwed Name of Colliery. Where situated. Owner's Name. Churwell, Do Do Do College (Birstal), . . . , Cross Green, Crow Trees (Gomersal), . . Dartmouth, Dean House (Morley), . Doles Wood (Drighlington), Dye House (Gromersal), . Elland Road, Ellerby Lane, .... Famley, Farnley Wood, .... Parsley Foxholes (Methley), . . Garforth, Geklerd Road Gildersome, Do Do. Street, . . Green Man (Hunslet), . . Greville (Rawden), ... HarehiUs Holbeck, Howden Clough, . . . Howley Park (Morlej'), • Hunslet, Lanes Wood (Gomersal), . , KiUingbeck (York Road), , Little Gomersal, . . . , Liunb Wood, , Manston Manston Lodge, . . . . Mioklefield, Middleton, Morley, Do Morley Mam, Nethertown, Neville HiU, Newmarket (Adwalton), . . New Hall(Middleton), . . OakweU , Osmondthorpe, Owlet Hall, Potternewton, Primrose Hill (Liversedge), . Quaker Lane (Liversedge), . Robert Town, . . . . , Do. Robin Hood, Rock (York Road), . . . , RothweU Haigh, . . . . Scotland (Gomersal), . . , Scratch Lane (Gomersal), , Seacroft, Smithies (Birstal), . . . , Smithy Hill (Liversedge), Spring Gardens, . . . Leeds, Harding & Co. Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. William Ward. The Famley Iron Co. Rhodes' Executors. Bowling Iron Co. Rhodes Executors. William Ward. Bedford & Co. Drighlington Coal Co. Knowles & Co. Messrs. Towler. Bowling Iron Co. The Farnley Iron Co. A. Rogers & Son. William Sharp. William Wood. Gascoigne & Co. William Ward. The Farnley Iron Co. Do. John HoUiday & Brothers. Robinson & Co. Smith & Co. The Farnley Iron Co. Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Asquith, Brothers, & Co. Howley Park Coal Co. Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Samuel Jackson. Messrs. Garside. Crowther & Co. Drighlington Coal Co. Edward Waud. J. B. Ackroyd. Manston Coal Co. Tetley & Co. Harding & Co. The Farnley Iron Co. William Ackroyd & Brothers. W. Gledhill. Norwegian Titanic Iron Co. Newmarket Coal Co. Grosvenor & Son. William Ackroyd & Co. The Farnley Iron Co. Mason & Co. Farnley Iron Co. Thomas Hardy Jackson. John Sheard. Mann & Co. Parkin & Co. Messrs. Charlesworth. Incrock & Co. Messrs. Charlesworth. Messrs. Harrison. Messrs. Jackson. Manston Coal Co. Baslow & Crossley. Thomas Parkins. Drighlighton Coal Co. 104 YORKSHRIE. YORKSHIRE COLLmRlEB— Continued. Name of Colliery. Where situated. Owner's Name. Stanley Main (liiversedge), . . . Strawberry Bank (Liversedge), . Sykes (Drighlington), Tanhouse Mill (Liversedge), . . Toft Shaw Moor, TongMoor, Waterloo, Waterloo Main, Water Loose (Adwalton), . . . Wellington, West Yorkshire (Birstal), . . . Do. (Manston), White Horse (York Road), . White Lee, Wortley, ... .... Do. . Victoria (Morley), ... Do. (Adwalton) Do York Road, Haigh Moor, Methley Junction, West Riding, Whitwood, Berry Moor, BuUhouse, Crow Edge, Denby Dale, MiddleclifFe, AUerton Bywater, Featherstone, Glass Houghton, Newton Main, Snydale, Wheldale, Aldwark Main, Aston, Carhouse, . . .... DenabyMain, Elsecar, Fence (Woodhouse Mill), . . . Grange, Grange (Ironstone), GreasWough Old Park Gate, . . Greenfield (Rawmarsh), .... Holmes, .... ... Kilnhurst, Kimberworth, Manvers Main, . ... Park Gate, Rawmarsh, Do. Albany and Royal Oak, Scholes, Thorpe Common, Tinsley Park, Warren Vale, Waleswood, West Melton, Ashes, Strinesdale, Base Green (Gleadless), .... Leeds. Norm anion, Penistone, Pontefract, Rotherham, Saddleworth, Sheffield, Stanley Coal Co. Liversedge Coal Co. Rooles & Dolb}'. Tanhouse Mill Co. Healey & Pettey, Do. Clay & Co. John T. Leather. Ellison & Co. John Jackson & Son. George Ellison. Manston Coal Co. Messrs. R. (fe W. Garside. Baslow & Crossley. Ingham & Son. Joseph Cliffe & Son. Messrs. Haigh. George Ellison. John Holmes. Robinson & Clayton. Pope & Co. Briggs (& Co. Pope & Co. Henry Briggs, Son, & Co. Messrs. Hinchliil'e. Do. Do. Thomas Haigh. Thomas J. Tinker. Thomas Carter & Co. Featherstone Coal Co. Wilks & Co. H. K. Spark. Rhodes & Co. Holt & Co. Shaw & Co. George Law. Rhodes & Co. Denaby Coal Co. Earl Fitzwilliam. Fence Coal Co. Chambers & Son. Do. Sellars & Co. Masborough Coal Co. Messrs. Charlesworth. Beale & Co. Manvers Main Co. Earl Fitzwilliam. J. Knapton. Messrs. Charlesworth. Beale & Co. Potter & Co. Benjamin Huntsman. Messrs. Charlesworth. Skinner & Holford. Laws. Leeses & Co. Chadwick & Co. Joseph Rhodes. PAST AND PRESENT. 105 YOKKSHIEE COLLl'ERl'ES.—Continued. Name of Colliery. Where situated. Owner's Name. Beighton, . . . Sheffield, Skinner & Holford. Birley, Jeffcock & Dunn. John Helliwell. Bracken Moor (Deepcar), . . Brightside, (( TJnwin & Co. Carbrook, . (( Pitsmore Coal Co. Castle, ... it Jeffcock & Dunn. Deepcar, . (I John Armitage. Do. li Joseph Grayson. Do ii Benjamin Coldwell. Dungworth, .... . . " Haigh & Co. Eastfield (Thurgoland), . . ii Jonathan Jowett, Elder Cliff (Deepcar) ii Thomas Grayson. Handsworth, '* Benjamin Huntsman. Haywood (Deepcar), a John Armitage. Henholmes (Do.) .... it Do. Hunshelf, a Joseph Jubb. Do. ii Thomas Peace. Kjveton Park . ... (( Harrington & Co. Wilcock & Co. Lee Wood (Thurgoland), .... (( Manor, (( Benjamin Huntsman. New Winning, . . . (( Do. Orgreave, t( Mrs. Sorby. Sheffield, (C Benjamin Huntsman. Sim Hm (Thurgoland), . . (( Messrs. Wilcock Stocksbridge (Deepcar), . . " Samuel Fox & Co. St. David's (Oughtibridge), . (( Russell & Co. Tankersley, " Newton, Chambers, & Co. Thomcliffe, ... it Do. Thureroland li George Darwent. Jim ^^%M^ ^\JX%MlX\JLm . > . ■ . ~ . Wharncliffe (Oughtibridge), ■ a J. Beaumont. Whameliffe Wood l£ Silver Fire Brick Co. Woodhouse (Handsworth), it Herring & Co. Woodthorp, .... "/ John Rhodes. Wortley Silkstone, . . Andrews, Burrows, & Co. Ardsley Fall, ... Wakefield, Mrs. Ann Hudson. Alverthorpe, ... li Messrs. Haigh. Bottom Boat, ... 11 Messrs. Charlesworth. Bretton, ..... ... u Messrs. Jagger. Dewsbury Lane (Ossett), .... '* W. Gartside. Dirtcar (t Moore & Co. East Ardsley, . li J. Roberts & Co. Do. *' East Ardsley Co-operative Coal Co. Emley Moor, . . . t( Messrs. Jagger. Emley Park, . . " Edward Stringer. Emroyd, " Stansfeld & Co. Field Lane, " George & John Haigh. Flockton, . .f . . Sir J. L. L. Kaye, Bart. Do. . . Stansfeld & Co. Do. .... Lockwood & Co. Beacher & Co. Flockton (Overton), Flockton Moor, . Messrs. Jagger. Gawthorp (Ossett), . Wilson & Co. Do. George & John Haigh. Grange, .... Sir J. L. L. Kaye, Bart. Grange Moor, . ... Stansfeld & Co. Do. Lockwood & Stockwell. Do Wood & Stockwell. Hollingthorp, Cliff Coal & Fire Clay Co. Hunt Koyal (Upper Whitley), . . John Roberts. Low Laiths, J. Roberts & Co. Thomas Yates & Co. LuDset ,KjtA^f*jy-ivj VOL. 1. 106 YORKSHIRE ; YORKSHIRE COLLIERIES— Cowimwerf. Name of Collierj'. Where situated. Owner's Name. Manor, Wakefield, Woodhead & Co. Milnthorp, U Messrs. Charlesworth. Needle Eye (Denby Grange), " Wormald & Eastwood. Newmarket, . . iC Messrs. Charlesworth. NosteU, . . . il Charles Winn. Ossett, . . li Messrs. Haigh. Park Lane (Ossett), " Cliffe & Co. Providence, . . . (( Joseph Marsland. Ravensthorpe, (( Messrs. Haigh. Roimdwood, . (( Terry, Greaves, & Co. Saint John's, . t( Burnley's Executors. Sharlston, . (C Pope & Co. Snapetliorp, . il William Hargreaves & Co. Stanley, . . " Hudson & Co. Star (Netherton), (< Joseph Rhodes. Stocksmoor, li Sir J. L. L. Kaye, Bart. Victoria, . . . i. Hudson & Co. West Ardsley, . . ii J. Roberts & Co. West Field (Ossett), . " Joshua Wilby, Winney Moor, . . iC Hargreaves, Hargreaves, & Naylor. Woodmoor, . . " Messrs. Charlesworth. Wrentliorpe, .... cc Daniel Micklethwaite & Co. PAST AJSTD PKESEJST. 107 CHAPTER II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTY OF YORK. Natural Eesources and Products of the East Riding of Yorkshire. — We pass from tlie great mineral and manufacturing region of the West Biding to the rich soils, the skilful agriculture, the fine ports, and the extensive commerce of the East Hiding. We shall first describe the resources dependent on soil and climate, and after- wards, in another chapter, speak of the harbours, rivers, and commerce of this and other portions of the county of York. The systems of agriculture adopted in different parts of England are greatly varied by the numerous variations in the nature of the soil, the elevation of the land, the amount of rainfall, and the average temperature of the atmosphere, both in the winter and the summer months. These may be considered as the principal natural causes which affect the cultivation of Yorkshire, in common with that of other parts of England, and cultivation in general. There are also a number of economic causes, which have a great effect in fixing the mode of cultivation in this extensive county. The most important of these are — ^the amount of capital and of skill appHed to the cultivation of the soil ; the nearness or the distance of good markets, for the sale of every variety of produce ; and the cheapness or deamess of the supplies of mineral and vegetable manures, which are required to maintain the undiminished fertility of the soil. All these causes enter intimately into the consideration of the modes of cultivation which are best suited for different districts ; and in the densely-peopled parts of this county, in which there is an unlimited demand for aU the productions of the soil, and where the large towns supply abundant means of restoring and maintaining the fertility of the surrounding districts, the systems of cultivation are chiefly decided by those two causes. This is especially the case in the more popu- lous districts of the West Riding, in which the resident population is not only able to purchase and consume all the crops of every kind that can be grown on the land, but where it also requires and 108 YORKSBIKE : receives large supplies of all those kinds of agricultural produce, which from their nature and value admit of being brought from the more distant parts, not only of Yorkshire, but of other English counties, and even from foreign countries. In the more fertile parts of the North Kiding, and in the East Riding, which is almost everywhere fertile, in both of which districts the population is com- paratively small, the cultivation possesses less of a local character, and belongs to what may be considered as the general system of agriculture adopted throughout England. There the natural causes dependent on soU, climate, temperature, and the elevation of the land, have a preponderating influence in determining the modes of cultivation. The Agriculture of the East Riding. — The agriculture of the East Riding of Yorkshire differs greatly from that of the West, and is in general very much superior to it. It much resembles the cultiva- tion of the finest districts of Lincolnshire and Norfolk — a circum- stance attributable to the fact that the East Riding resembles those two great agricultural counties in the nature of its soils, in its freedom from excessive rains, and in the heat of its summer months. The only soils which the East Riding of York has in common with the West Riding are those resting on the new red sand- stone, on the eastern side of the vale of York, and the alluvial soils along the banks of the Ouse and the Humber. But these two soils form a small portion of the farming lands of the East Riding. Those consist chiefly of the Chalk, the Lias, and the Oolite, the first of which is the main stratum of the Riding, and of the alluvial soils of Holderness, which differ greatly from the diluvial deposits on the banks of the Ouse and the Humber. Commencing at the point at which our account of the West Riding and its agriculture closed, we proceed eastward, taking first, the vale of York ; second, the chalk or wold district ; and third, the alluvial land of Holderness. These may be considered as the great divisions of the East Riding; but in addition to these there are other formations which run in narrow winding lines along the northern and western edge of the chalk formation, commencing on the sea-coast at Filey Bay, and winding round the northern and western sides of the wolds until they reach the river Humber, under which they pass into Lincolnshire. These narrow bands consist of the upper greensand along the edge of the chalk, the Portland limestone and Kimmeridge clay, the Oxford clay, the PAST AND PRESENT. 109 coral rag, and the Lias clay. Most of these formations are still more extensively developed in the North Riding of York- shire, whence they run southward through the East Riding, in narrow bands ; and after passing under the Humber, again expand both east and west, and form the larger part of the eastern and southern districts of England. This is the great corn-field of England, which commences on that part of the coast of Yorkshire where the Chalk, the Oohte, and the Lias rise above the sea, and continues southward, eastwai'd, and westward, imtil those strata sink again under the waters of the British Channel. The whole of the East Riding of Yorkshire is a fine agricultural district, and much the greater portion of it is suited to the four- course system of agriculture, which may be regarded as the most perfect system of cultivation existing in Great Britain, if not in the world. It is only within the last sixty or seventy years that this system, which gives a green crop and a white crop every alternate year, has become generally established in the East Ridmg. Until drUl and turnip husbandry were discovered or brought to per- fection by Tull, Dawson, and other skilful agriculturists, the greater portion of the land of the East Riding was of very little value, some portions of it being too stifif, whilst others were too light, for profitable cultivation. The latter defect existed throughout the whole of the chalk formation, which forms the central and the larger portion of the East Riding. The natural herbage of this district is a short, sweet grass, suited to the feeding of the lighter breeds of sheep and young cattle ; but the land was quite unfit for the plough, and more especially unfit for the production of wheat and other exhausting crops. The effect of introducing turnip husbandry, of the growth of clover and artificial grasses, and of consuming the Avhole of the green crops on the land on which they are grovsm, has been to render the light chalk downs or wolds of the East Riding capable of bearing corn crops every second year, in a continual rotation of grasses, wheat, turnips, and barley. It is very doubtful whether there is any other system of cultivation under which even the best lands in England could be made to produce a corn crop every second year, without a serious decrease in the productiveness of the soU ; but under the four- years' rotation, as it is practised in the East Riding, and in other districts of England equally well cultivated, large crops of wheat and barley are secured every second year, without any 1 10 YORKSHIRE : diminution in the fertility of the land, even on the lightest soils. Large as is the present produce of the soU, in the best cultivated districts of England, it is not too much to say that the introduction of a system equally good, in every part of the country, would go far tovi^ards doubling the present produce of the soU of this kingdom. Whilst the light chalk lands in the central districts of the East Riding are especially suited for turnip husbandry and the breed- ing of sheep, the stronger lands of the new red sandstone, the Oolitic, the Lias, and the alluvial formations, may also be regarded as amongst the best formations in the kingdom for agricultural purposes. In general they are sufficiently dry, wherever attention has been paid to thorough drainage, to produce large crops of grain, roots, and grasses. Almost the only exceptions are in what are called the car or marsh lands, in the lower part of some of the valleys of the East Riding, which are liable to be flooded by the rapid flow of water from the high lands after heavy rains. This is the case to a considerable extent along the course of the river HuU, the feeders of which stream flow down from the eastern side of the chalk hiUs of the East Riding ; and also on the lower part of the banks of the river Derwent, which brings down a large portion of the waters of the East Riding, and even a larger portion of those of the North Riding. On the subject of the drainage of this and other parts of York- shire, Mr. Wmiam Wright observes, in his Prize Report on the Agriculture of this county (1861) — that Yorkshire may be said to be about two-thirds drained with two-inch pipes, and parallel drains of a depth of four feet ; but in some places, such as the vale of Der- went, and the lands on the banks of the river Hull, between Beverley and Driffield, the main drains and outfalls not being sufficiently lowered, the drainage is necessarily less complete. Indeed, from the insufficiency of the outlet, the backwater often causes great destruction to the standing crops, particularly in wet summers, like that of 1860. The want of a sufficient outfall renders four feet drainage impossible in these districts, and an injurious efiect is produced on the climate. Were all the impediments removed and the natural drainage of the country allowed to flow freely, the agricultural produce would be augmented, the stock of sheep and cattle improved and increased, and the healthiness of the low- lands considerably promoted. As a further proof of the insufficiency PAST AND PRESENT. Ill of the drainage of this part of the county, he extracts a paragraph from a local paper published after the November rains: — "The recent heavy rains have caused the Derwent and its tributaries to overflow their banks, and on Friday and Saturday the vast tract of country watered by that river and the smaller streams was laid xmder water. In many places the water rose to a height of four feet or more, the hedges having for miles quite disappeared. The consequence of the inundation will prove most destructive to the lowland farmers. The unusually rainy season had done much injury in retarduig the sowing of the wheat crop, which will now be rendered quite impos- sible; many thousands of acres vpill thus be thrown under spring crops. The aftermath in the grasslands will be spoilt by the deposit of sand and mud, and the cattle will be totally dependent upon the scanty root crops. Several stacks are floating down the stream ; one farmer alone having been said to have lost twenty acres of oats. In the marshes several beasts are reported to have been found drowned." Means have since been taken to remedy the evil. At an influential meeting of landowners held at Howden, the following resolution was unanimously passed, " That the renewal of the com- mission of sewers for the limits of Howdenshire, and the west parts of the East Riding (the last commission having expired 12th July, 1843), would be of considerable benefit and advantage to the owners of lands situate within such limits, and their tenants." In giving an account of the agriculture of the East Riding of Yorkshire, we shall chiefly follow the Prize Report on the Farming of the East Riding of Yorkshire, by Mr. George Legard, published in vol. ix. of the " Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England," continuing it nearly to the present times, from Mr. WUUam Wright's "Prize Essay on the Improvements in the Farming of Yorkshire" since the date of Mr. Legard's Report. Mr. Legard states that the topographical features, as well as the geological construction of the East Riding, seem to require that it should be separated into three districts : — namely, 1st, the Wold district, occupying the central high lands of the Riding; 2nd, Holderness, stretching out in a south-easterly direc- tion, from the Wold Hills to Spurn Point; and 3rd, the Vale of York, extending from the west escarpment of the wolds to the rivers Derwent and Ouse. We shall make the same division, but shall follow the order of the strata, beginning with the new red sandstone, the Lias, and the lower portions of the Oolite ; then 112 YORKSHIRE: taking the chalk formation and the greensand, in the centre of the county ; and concluding with the alluvial district of Holder- ness, which extends far into the sea, and along the northern bank of the river Humber. The Vale of Yorh and its Strata. — Commencing on the banks of the Ouse and the Derwent in the vale of York, the greater part of which rests on the new red sandstone, that rock lies so low and is so thickly covered with diluvial matter, along the course of those rivers, as to have very little influence on the cultivation of the district. The north-eastern portion of the vale of York is crossed by beds of the Oolitic system, and here consequently great diversities of soil and cultivation exist. The Lias clay extends in a band averaging about two miles in breadth from the river Der- went to the Humber, and furnishes extremely tenacious soils, more suited for pasture than for tillage. The remainder of the vale of York district, which constitutes three-fourths of the whole, extending south and south-westward from Garrowby Street, may be considered as practically level. It is crossed, as has been stated, in two or three places by beds of drift, gravel, and clay; these, however, are too unimportant in extent to merit any detailed description. The soUs throughout this level tract, being for the most part dUuvial, are various in depth and quality. Descending from the wold hills near Pocklington, and passing over the narrow beds of Lias clay which here form their base, we find a tract of chalky gravel extend- ing from this town nearly to Market Weighton. Cultivation and the progress of agricultural knowledge have conduced to convert this, which was probably formerly a very hungry soil, into profitable arable land. Beyond these gravels, which do not extend far from the parent hills, whence they have evidently derived their origin, we next arrive at a very barren tract of land, which forms rather a remarkable variety in the vale of York. This belt, for so it may be termed, runs nearly parallel to the Lias clay. It is about two mUes broad, and extends almost continuously from within a mUe or two of the Humber to the north-western confines of the Riding, near Stamford Bridge. The surface soil is throughout a poor, blowing, ferruginous drift sand, chiefly covered with ling and furze, and distinguishable here and there by a few stunted Scotch fir plantations. Attempts at cultivation have been made from time to time in various parts of this unpromising tract ; but all such attempts were aban- PAST AND PRESENT. 113 doned almost as soon as made, until of late years. Recently, however, it has been discovered that beneath tHs barren surface there lie beds of clay and marl; and that wherever these beds approach near to the surface, great benefit may be derived from the practice of digging out the clay and spreading it largely over the land. In some cases from 100 to 150 cubic yards per acre have been thus spread ; and in no case has it been found advisable to apply less than eighty yards per acre. In this way, upon an estate belonging to Mr. Denison, near Pocklington, between 200 and 300 acres have been reclaimed, and converted from a mere rabbit warren into very good farming land, which may now be worth nearly twenty shillings per acre. Indeed, it is probable that the whole of the tract now described, containing not less than 15,000 acres, more than half of which is entirely uncultivated, and the rest extremely infertile (with the exceptions above named), is equally capable of reclamation. Upon the sandy and gravelly beds which occur in that part of the vale of York, which rests immediately on the new red sandstone, the four-course system of husbandry, namely, turnips, barley, seeds, and wheat, is generally practised. The sandy zone of land previously described produces good crops, both of turnips and potatoes, after being properly drained. Mr. Denison showed, in a paper which he published in the Transactions of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, how great were the benefits which his estate had derived from draining, marhng, and subsoiling. He calculated that the expense of subsoiling was not more than 28s. per acre, and stated that by those means land which two years previously had been let for not more than 2s. 6d. per acre, was made to produce ten quarters of oats per acre. The Howdenshire Warpsoils.^~U^on the Howdenshire warpsoils, as at Saltmarsh, SandhaU, &c., there is some extremely good farming. For many years the potato has been largely and profit- tably cultivated on these deep rich lands. The mode of cropping is this: 1st year, potatoes; 2nd, wheat; 3rd, clover or beans; 4th, oats or barley. The preparation of the land for potatoes here is equivalent to a turnip fallow elsewhere, and a similar process is followed. The land is set out in ridges thirty inches apart, and heavily manured. The time for taking up the crop immediately succeeds that for the housing of the corn, and to the people of this district has all the importance of a second harvest. In a good VOL. I. p 114 YORKSHIRE potato year the produce per acre amounts to 400 bushels. When Mr. Strickland wrote his Report on the Agriculture of Yorkshire, in the year 1812, during the great French war, he remarked that in Howdenshire, and on the eastern bank of the Derwent, flax was grown in considerable quantities, and that is the case still, not only in this district, but on the warplands of the West Riding. The general course of cultivation is, on the stronger lands, fallow, wheat, and beans, which is sometimes extended into a four- years' rotation by sowing a mixture of clover and rye grass in the wheat crop in spring. The farms of this district are not large, few of them exceeding 200 acres, and the average being about 150 acres. The land is generally level. From the foot of the wolds the rivers Derwent and Fouldney, and other small streams, run with a south-westerly course into the river Ouse. The fall of the waters is very slow, and after heavy rains the lower levels are very much inundated. The Cultivation of Flax. — Flax is more extensively cultivated in the East and West Ridings of Yorkshire than in any other pa,rt of England. On this subject Mr. William Wright, in his Report of 1861, observes that — "The cultivation of flax in this county has been steadily increasing during the last twelve years, the variety of fibrile textures into which it is introduced and its high price giving an impulse to growers. Yorkshire has long been known for the fine quality of this plant, which under the new system of management is considerably improved. The quantity sown is much influenced by circumstances, such as the price it realizes, and the value of other kinds of agricultural produce, and fluctuates with each particular season. On the banks of the Ouse and Trent, where the cultivation is considerable, the importance of this crop increased with the occasional failure of the potato. Improved machinery for scutching flax by steam instead of hand-power, has contributed to make this a more profitable crop than formerly. Considerable prejudice still exists among some landowners against it, as an exhausting crop ; but the discoveries of science have done much to dispel the feeling, although some persons devoid of experience still cling to the notion that it is baneful to the land. The repeated growth of flax on the same land is unprofitable, because quahty is then sacrificed ; but, taken in due course, this does not interfere with the production of other crops satisfactory both in quantity and quahty. It seldom, if ever, occupies the ground more PAST AND PRESENT. 115 than four months, and therefore allows sufficient time in average seasons for a good fallow previous to the wheat crop, which experience proves to be its best successor." The Lias and Oolite Soils. — The Lias clay extends in a band, averaging about two miles in breadth, from the river Derwent, near Howsham, to the Humber, at Brough. It furnishes extremely tenacious soils, which would perhaps be more profitably devoted to pasture than to tillage. The Inferior Oolite may be seen immediately underlying the chalk at the village of Acklam, where it occupies rather high ground. Thence it descends, but still forms a ridge of some elevation, and may be traced by Gaily Gap to Howsham, Weston, and Firby. Passing along the range of the Wold hUls in a southerly direction, no trace of the oolites can be found from Acklam until they reappear near the village of Sancton ; they then trend away in narrow beds lying parallel to the chalk, until they are lost and overlaid by the alluvia of the Humber banks, Where- ever the beds of the Lower Oolite are near the surface a fine friable soil is found, well adapted for the growth of turnips and barley. The Upper Oohte beds are also well defined. Beginning at the north-western edge of the wolds, they are first met with about halfway betwixt North Grimston and Wharram- le-Street. From this point these tabular hiUs range, by Langton Wold, to Welham and Malton. Like the inferior members of the series, the disintegration of this rock produces good turnip and barley soils. The same distinguishing characteristic of these soils, however, which was pointed out by the late Sir John Johnstone, in a paper in the first volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, is noticeable here also ; viz., that the soil formed by them is equally well fitted for pasturage and for arable culture. At North Grimston this may be seen in some very superior grazing land lying west of the vUlage. Langton Wold also, though partly covered by aboriginal heather, is in other parts distinguished by the fineness of its herbage ; and if we step beyond the limits of the Hiding, and observe the grass-land in the neighbourhood of Castle Howard Park, we shall find ample testimony to the truth of this observation. The Wold and Chalk Formations. — One of the most interesting parts of the agriculture of the East Riding, as we have already stated, is that presented by the reclamation and culture of the chalk hUls and wolds, which first make their appearance on the 116 YORKSHIRE: English coast at Flamborough Head, as lofty precipices, and then run into the interior in the form of extensive downs, stretching in a south-easterly direction as far as Bishop- Wilton Beacon ; whence they run nearly due south almost to the banks of the Humber. The chalk formation is the central part of the East Riding, and its reclamation and present very superior cultivation may be regarded as amongst the greatest triumphs of British agriculture. Till near the commencement of the present century the wolds were almost entirely uncultivated, and presented the aspect of wild upland moors. Sheep and turnip husbandry have converted these lofty moors into one of the most fertile districts that is to be met with in England. The following particulars with regard to the wolds of the East Riding, and their cultivation, are chiefly from the Prize Report of Mr. George Legard on the Agriculture of the East Riding. "The area occupied by the chalk hills," says Mr. Legard, "maybe illustrated by comparing it to the letter L inverted, in Roman character, placed rather obliquely ; the upper limb representing the northern division or high wolds, which extend from Acklam Brow to Flamborough Head, a distance of thirty miles ; the stem indicating a tract of land which may be termed the lower wolds, and which extends from near Huggate to Hessle on the Humber, in a south-easterly direction, being about twenty-nine miles long by five or six broad. The outer sides of the diagram correspond in some degree with the abrupt escarpments of these hUls on their north and west sides— the one towards the vale of Pickering, the other towards the vale of York; whilst, in the angle formed by the limb and stem may be imagined the surface of the chalk gradually sloping towards the south-east, until it dips altogether beneath the diluvial soils of Holderness. These hUls attain their highest elevation at Bishop-Wilton Beacon, where they are 812 feet above the level of the sea. From this point southward they gradually decrease in height, untU, at Brantingham, the southern- most brow of the wolds in Yorkshire, they do not exceed 500 feet. Throughout the whole of the high wold district the eleva- tion of the summits of the hOls is pretty uniformly maintained. The dip of the strata is to the east, and is stated by Professor Phillips to be about sixteen feet per mile. This high district may be generally described as consisting of two or three long parallel ridges, running east and west, having on their summits a consider- PAST AND PBESENT. 117 able breadth of flat table-land. Upon these elevated plains there is uniformly found a covering of diluvial matter from eighteen inches to two feet in thickness ; which consists of a deep and dark-coloured loamy soil, occasionally having an admixture of clay. The soil of the lower wolds answers tolerably well to the description given by Henry Strickland, Esq., who pubHshed "A Survey of the East Eiding of Yorkshire, by order of the Board of Agriculture," in the year 1812. He says (p. 14) : — 'The soil of the wolds is, with little variation, a light, friable, calcareous loam from three to ten inches in depth.' Marshall, who, in the year 1788, pubhshed a work entitled 'The Kural Economy of Yorkshire' says, (vol. ii p. 244), 'The material which forms the natural construction of the Yorkshire wolds is probably a uniform rock of hard chalk, rising in most places to near the surface. . . . The prevailing soU is a calcareous loam, varying in depth and productiveness.' " Recent researches have shown that the soils resting upon the chalk do not partake so much of the nature of the rock beneath as was formerly thought. An analysis made by Mr. Spence of York, and published in the Transactions of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, in the year 1841, proves that five per cent, of calcareous matter is the utmost that these soils contain, and some of them Kttle more than two per cent.'"' "The reason of the variety of the soil of the wolds (says the Rev. Mr. Thorpe, in the Transactions), is easily explained by a consideration of the diluvial beds of Holdemess, which he upon the chalk. Enormous masses of water have brought these beds of clay and boulders, not only over the Penine chain of England at Stainmoor, but over the Hambleton hills and western escarp- WOLD SOILS ANALYZED BY SPENCE. Water of absorption, Matter soluble in water, . Matter destructible by heat (vegetable_), . Siliceous sand, Alumina, ... . ... Oxide of iron, . Carbonate of lime, ... Phosphate of lime, Carbonate of magnesia, . . , . , Potash, Loss, , . Total, Deep Wold, Keplinghani. . 4 - 1 . 5 74 6A .. 2A . Shalloir 'Wold, Bishop-Wilton. 100 TO 10 62 4 5 3 A I TO 100 118 -yORKSHIRE : ment of the wolds, furrowing the latter into deep east and west valleys — the degree of inclination of the chalk determining the velocity of these currents, and together with it their motive power. " Upon the more level and elevated portions their influence has been feebly exerted, and the original debris of flints yet remains as the basis of the sod of the deep wold land ; but upon the more inclined portions, not only has the original debris of flints been removed, but along with it great bodies of chalk, and by the degradation of the rock thus laid bare the present sod of the shallow wold land is formed. Indeed, the position of the shallow wold land, which is often found reposing at the steep angle of 30° upon the sides of the valleys, affords an additional proof of its being the result of the decomposition of the chalk rock ; for it cannot in these locahties be a sedimentary, neither is it a portion of any of the tertiary beds which may formerly have existed." As much greater progress has been made in the cultivation of the wold district during the present century than in almost any other part of Yorkshire, it may be well to give a slight sketch of the system adopted in this district. The surface soil of the York- shire "Wolds is a chalky loamy soil, generally suited for the four- fold or alternate course of cropping, in which light and portable manures are easdy brought upon the land, even to an elevation of 500 to 600 feet, and in which the fertility once attained by means of artificial manures is carefully kept up, partly by means of occasional top dressings of similar manures, but chiefly by consuming on the farms, by means of large flocks of sheep or house- fed cattle, everything that is raised from the soil, except the grain raised and the animals fed on the green crops. The four-years' rotation on the Wolds is formed as follows : — 1st, Turnips, raised with various kinds of artificial manures, and eaten on the ground by sheep ; 2nd, barley ; 3rd, clover and seeds ; and 4th, wheat. This course may be said now to prevail universally, and the steady and successful pursuance of this system has at length led to the abandonment of the opinions formerly prevalent, that the Wolds were only adapted for sheep pastures, that the sod. was unproductive, and that the returns were not equal to the expenses. This was no doubt the case during the great French war, when the high price of grain held out a strong inducement to raise corn crops, but when the means of procuring artificial manures were very deficient. It was near the close of the French war, about PAST AND PRESENT. 119 the year 1812, when Mr. Strickland wrote his Survey, and when the light lands of this and other districts were in the most exhausted state, that he lamented the havoc which the plough had been suffered to commit on these beautiful and verdant sheep walks and pastures. At that time, however, the system adopted was the old outfield course, under which three crops of com and a bare fallow were adopted. Even after the Wolds had been inclosed, and the present four-years' rotation had been introduced, it was for some time difficult to carry it on successfully for want of a light and portable fertilizer, such as bones or guano. But at the close of the war, bones began to be introduced in large quanti- ties from the Continent, into Hull ; and subsequently there have been introduced large quantities of guano from South America, together with artificial manures manufactured in this country. To the turnip cultivation is attributable the large increase of produce, and the gradual amelioration of the soil. Between 1819 and 1844, the exports of wheat from this district by the Driffield Canal increased from 8000 quarters to 26,000 quarters yearly, and the sacks of flour from 8000 to 23,000 ; from that time to the present, the improvement of the district has been stUl more rapid. In the growing of turnips, which is the foundation of the whole system of the four-course husbandry, drilling is universal, no such thing as a field of turnips sown broadcast being now seen. Great pains are also taken in the thinning of the plants. Although the turnips are generally eaten on the land by sheep, the practice of winter feeding cattle has also been introduced. This has afforded the wold farmers the means of converting their straw into manure, which they did not before possess. Although it is stated that deep soil is chiefly a characteristic of the high wolds, yet in the lower wolds it is also found occasionally, but only in a limited extent. The average breadth of this latter district has been said to be six miles. The direction of the valleys is the same here as in the other parts of it, viz., east and west, but the ridges are seldom prolonged so as to become flat table- land, and therefore, according to Mr. Thorpe's theory, they have not afforded a resting-place for the deposition of diluvial sediment so much here as elsewhere. In parts of the Wolds extensive gravel beds occur ; they are chiefly found distributed along the line of the valleys of denudation. In two of the most remarkable of these valleys, viz., in that of the 120 yoekshibe: Dale Towns and in Thixendale, the surface soil consists almost entirely of gravel, which, is composed chiefly of chalk and flint. In the broad valley of the Dale Towns this gravel bed is in some parts nearly a mile broad, and being thinly spread forms very useful con- vertible soil ; but in the narrow Thixendale vaUey, the accumula- tion of gravel amounts in some parts to thirty feet in thickness ; and, being finely comminuted and covered with a very thin coat of soil, is rendered incapable of holding tillage ; hence, unless copious and frequent dressings of manure are applied to crops on this soil, the cultivation of it is found to be unremunerating. Under the general term Wolds is included a tract of land lying at the foot of these hills at their northern border, and extending from Speeton CKffs to Malton, a distance of twenty miles by two. It is in reality a portion of the vale of Pickering, but, being of inconsiderable extent, has been classified with the Wolds ; to which, however, it has no other affinity than that of being immediately contiguous ; for the soil, geologically, belongs (as will be seen by the map) to the Kimmeridge clay. The Highland or Wold Farming of the East Riding. — Mr. William Wright in his excellent Report on the Agriculture of Yorkshire (1861), gives the following interesting particulars as to the progress of cultivation in what he caUs the Highland district of the East Riding. "This," he says, " includes a large district called the Wolds, extending in a north-easterly direction from Hessle to Flamborough Head, and embracing some of the best farming to be found in this county, or perhaps in any other. Caird says of this district : ' It presents a very uniform and gradually inclined plane, joining the low land on the south-east, and rising to its greatest elevation on the north about 800 feet above the level of the sea, whence it gradually falls southward to an altitude of about 500 feet. The country is generally well inclosed by thorn hedges and planta- tions every where grouped over its surface, which add beauty to the outline, while they shelter the fields from the cutting blasts of winter and spring. Green pasture fields are occasionally intermixed with com, or more frequently surround the spacious and comfortable homestead ; large and numerous coi'n ricks give an air of warmth and plenty ; whilst the turnip fields, crowded with sheep, make a cheerful and animated picture. The neatly trimmed hedges and weU-built ricks show that the labourer is expert, and that the farmer likes to have his work well done.' PAST AND PRESENT. 121 " There is no decline to record in the superior style of farming so long pursued by the spirited farmers in this district ; and if we are unable to mention many improvements, it is because, comparatively, there was but little room left for them. A few, however, have come under our notice, of which perhaps the greatest has been effected by the free expenditure of the tenants' capital in the purchase of artificial manures. The able work of Liebig, now used as a text- book, has greatly increased the use of these manures, by imparting the knowledge required for their proper application ; indeed, the recent researches of scientific men have clearly proved the inaccuracy of many principles which had previously been received as correct, and discovered many defective points in the management of manure, besides bringing to light those valuable artificial manures, with their use, to which the wold district is especially indebted for its present high cultivation. Under their guidance the use of bones, formerly bestowed with lavish extravagance, has been regulated, and hand tUlages supplied in such quantities as to combine efliciency with due economy ; many of them containing those elements which, when applied on the soil, retain the moisture or the gases of the atmos- phere, thereby assisting the growth of the plant, as well as enrich- ing the soil. Many tenants in this district expend annually, in artificial manure and oil cake, a sum equal to their rent. "The improvements required of the landlord in this district have been limited to improved house accommodation, and to the erection of those new farm buildings which the requirement of the times made almost compulsory. There is yet much to be done in these respects, which it is hoped will ere long be fully carried out." We add a few miscellaneous particiilars connected with the natural history and the agriculture of the Yorkshire wolds. The Supply of Water on the Wolds. — On the chalk wolds of the East Eiding of Yorkshire, where there are no land springs, and where the fall of rain is much less than in the "West Riding, the water used by cattle, animals, and to a great extent by man, is collected in ponds, so constructed as to retain the supply of the precious element even in the dryest seasons. These ponds are usually circular in form, and generally from eighteen to twenty yards in diameter, though there is one in Sledmere Park thirty yards in diameter. When the diameter of the pond is twenty yards, the central depth ought to be eight feet ; and so in Hke proportion, the VOL. 1. Q 122 YORKSHIBE : slope being gradual. The place usually selected for a pond is by the side of a road, in. order to catch the water flowing down the ruts in heavy rain. This plan, however, is said to be condemned by experienced men, who consider it a better way to construct the pond where there is no such influx, and where its filling is made depen- dent entirely upon the fall of rain and snow from the heavens. It is said that the land floods bring with them large quantities of the larvae of insects of various sorts, and worms, which eventually penetrate through the clay bottom and destroy the pond. The spot selected should be such as to make the pond available for three or four fields ; if possible, on the tableland of the hills. When the necessary excavation has been made and the proper depth been obtained, the first thing is to cover the whole surface with clay, well rammed down to the thickness of four inches ; then covered with an inch of quick lime, then a layer of straw, and then broken chalk over the whole, from eighteen to twenty-four inches in thickness. In general ponds thus made are considered complete. An improvement, however, has been made in them lately which may be mentioned ; viz., the making a trench or case, as it is termed, round the external circle, of broken chalk, three feet deep, and three broad. This trench must be filled with chalk rubble ; and the object is to give a firm standage for cattle drinking at the pond, and to prevent the ill effects of their trampling and displacing the edges. It is thought that the wold ponds made in this way, and once filled, will never again be empty. Mr. Legard says that the large pond in Sledmere Park was apparently little affected by the drought of 1847 — a year in which less rain fell than in any previous year of the present century. Snow-storms on the Wolds. — Subject as these hills are to heavy snow-storms frequently as late as April, and destitute of shelter as some parts of them are, the lambing season is a very anxious time to the farmers, and requires the greatest care and attention on the part of the shepherd. Those ewes which are nearest to lambing are brought every night into the stackyard, or some sheltered part of the homestead, and are served with cut turnips. The ewe and her produce run together upon the summer pastures of clover, until the middle or end of July, when the lambs are weaned. Great losses are apt to take place amongst the lambs at these times. Nothing is found to be a better weaning pasture for young lambs than the aftermath of either sainfoin or clover. PAST AND PRESENT. 123 On the Chalking of the Wolds. — Although the Wolds are almost entirely formed of chalk, it is found to be very advantageous to dress them with some eighty to a hundred cubic yards of chalk per acre, laid on in the autumn or winter, and dug from pits in the centre of each field. This practice has been adopted on the deep wolds, and is said to have been found beneficial in correcting the so-caUed sour- ness, to which those soils are liable. On the northern range of the Wolds — viz., on that long range which extends almost tmbroken from Settrington Beacon to Hunmanby — the crops are found to suffer much from two causes ; first, from a noxious weed, locally called "perry" [Spergula arvensis), which so infests the com crops as almost to destroy them, and also from the well known disease which attacks turnips, called "fingers and toes." In both these cases chalking has been found a complete remedy. It is said to be desirable that the chalk should be dug up at a time when it is most saturated with water, that the frost may the more readily act upon it, and reduce it to powder. Sainfoin. — This plant, which has been cultivated at several places on the chalk soils of England, and which was said by Mr. Strickland to be an object of great and increasing cultivation on the chalk lands of Yorkshire, is now not much grown. At times when winter provender was obtained with difficulty, when turnips were scarcely known, a plant that flourished where scarcely any other plant would vegetate, seeking its nourishment from the tap root, and therefore adapted to porous calcareous soils, was highly esteemed ; and its introduction into the East Riding was hailed as a great pubHc advantage. It is said to have been introduced by the Osbaldistons, of Huamanby, about the year 1740. Now, however, that turnip husbandry has become established, and the alternate system of cropping universally adopted on the Wolds, sainfoin has lost its original value. A field or two of it may here and there be seen, distinguishable from afar in the month of June by its beautiful scarlet flowers; but it is of rare occurrence, and now only sown either on very gravelly soil or on bare and craggy knolls. Mr. Legard mentions in his Report on the Farming of the East Riding, that the late Sir W. Strickland was an extensive sainfoin grower, and a zealous advocate for its extended cultivation. By his treatment of it, he was in the habit of obtaining as much as two tons of sainfoin hay per acre. He greatly deprecated the practice of eating the after- growth of it bare in the autumn, either by sheep or any other 124 YORKSHIKE : animals ; because it was found that by this means the crown of the plant was exposed to winter frost, and that the crop would not then survive more than for seven years ; but that, on the other hand, by being content with the produce obtained from the scythe only, it would flourish for twenty years, or more. On the east and south-east of the chalk downs or wolds of the East Eiding lies the level and fertUe district of Holdemess, which forms the south-eastern extremity of Yorkshire, and runs along the sea coast and shores of the Humber to Spurn Point. The following are the most important and interesting particulars with regard to the district of Holdemess, and the modes of cultivation adopted in it. The Alluvial Lands of Holdemess. — Holdemess is generally, as its name implies, a low level tract of country. The name, however, implies somewhat more than this ; and, in truth, an accurate survey of the district fully justifies its etymology, for this long projection of flat land is more hollow in the interior than at the line of coast. This the watershed proves, all the water- courses in Holdemess falling westward and south-west-ward from the coast towards the river Hull. The annual encroachments which the sea makes upon the clay cliffs have been accurately ascertained and measured, and several towns or villages have within the period of history been washed away, such as Auburn, Hyde, Ravenspurn, &c. ; so that, as the sea barrier then extended farther eastward, it was probably higher ground than it is at present ; and perhaps, therefore, when our Saxon ancestors named it, the title of Hollow- der-Ness was even more appropriate than it is now.""" The declina- tion, however, from the east is inconsiderable, and thus in times when drainage was unknown, and the waters were permitted to flow as nature dii'ected, an extensive swamp, called the Cars, was formed at the union of these sluggish streams with the river Hull. It appears that no attempt whatever was made to drain these Cars until a comparatively recent period, but that they were per- mitted to remain a profitless morass, producing ague to the neighbour- ing district, and only afibrding shelter to the bittern and the heron. In the year 1761 an Act was passed, called "The Beverley and Barmston Drainage Act," by which powers were given for straighten- ing the river Hull, and confining it within an artificial embankment ; * Another derivation, however, is Hol-deira-ness, or the promontory of the hollow land of Deira. In the Anglian times the province of Deii-a extended to the river Hnmber. PAST AND PRESENT. 125 and also for making a subsidiary drain at a lower level, for the purpose of carrying off the flood waters of Upper and Middle Hol- demess, and for discharging them into the river Hull near to its mouth, by means of floodgates. This tidal drainage, however, proved insufficient after very heavy rains, and the Cars were inundated, notwithstanding. Another outlet, therefore, has been subsequently made, and the waters have been conveyed by a cut of some magni- tude into the river Humber, about three miles below the town of Hull. Most of the soils of Holderness belong to that portion of the tertiary formation, which was deposited during the glacial epoch. The alluvium of the eastern side of England extends, under many forms, from the south side of the chalk rocks of Flamborough Head over the whole of Holderness, and then appears to the south of the Humber, running along the Lincolnshire coast, as far as the Wash and the Fens, at the mouth of the Cambridgeshire Ouse, and on the coast of Norfolk. Most of the soils of this formation are very valuable for agricultural purposes, but the richest of them is the tiU or boulder clay, which is widely extended over this formation, and is found in a scattered form on many others. This soil is supposed by modern geologists to have been intimately connected in its origin, and the time of its formation, with what is called the glacial period. At that time a vast number of immense icebergs, like those which are still found floating every summer both in the Atlantic and the Southern oceans, and which frequently reach the Tropics before they are entirely dissolved, are supposed to have carried down portions of the soils and the rocks of ancient northern lands, and to have deposited them on the shores of warmer countries, or in the depths of seas, which have since become dry land by the gradual rising of the strata. Rich earths resembling or identical with what is now called the Till or the boulder clay, and vast numbers of boulders of granite, and other rocks, are now found scattered over many parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In some places the soil and boulder clay preponderate ; in others the granite boulders are so numerous and large as seriously to interfere with cultivation. Nearly the whole of Yorkshire is covered, more or less thickly, with them boulders. Some of them are supposed to have been carried on floating icebergs from the mountains of the lake district, or more elevated regions ; whilst others, and probably the greater part of them, have been borne to their present positions 126 YORKSHIRE by the violence of ocean currents. The deep rich soils which form so large a portion of Holderness, generally belong to this period. This boulder clay is said to be the lowest member of the northern drift. It is largely interspersed with fragments of shells and rocks derived from older formations, and is of considerable thickness. It may be studied with advantage along the whole line of coast, from Burlington to Spurn Point. Occasionally, as at Barmston and Hat- field, a thin covering of drift sand is found reposing on the clay ; and in one locality, viz., near Brandes Burton, there is a hill of gravel, which, though not of much agricultural importance, forms a rather singular feature in this district. There are several isolated hills in Holderness; none, however, attain a higher elevation than 100 feet. The glacial drift of the East Riding has distinctive characters from those of central and south Lincolnshire. In the former, the coast sections exhibit the glacial clay separated into two portions. Of these the lower, identical with the ordinary (or upper) glacial clay of the south, contains abundant chalk debris; but the upper or purple portion (which is in places divided from the lower by sand or gravel beds) contains no chalk in the upper, and but little in the lower part of it, the place of the chalk being taken by swarms of palseozoic fragments. The latter of these clays extends over the Wold top at Speeton, and occupies the valley along the northern Wold foot, and so away northwards to Scarborough and the Tees' mouth; from which it is inferred that the north of Eng- land did not subside beneath the glacial sea until after the south had been submerged. The so-called Bridlington 'crag' is said to be an intercalated bed in this purple clay. Both these clays are found to be denuded, and their denuded edges to be everywhere covered by a much thinner boulder clay, that of Hessle, which wraps Holderness like a cloth, extending to altitudes of 150 feet, and running down the east of Lincolnshire to the Fen border. This post-glacial boulder clay of Hessle is again cut through, and in those places covered by posterior beds of gravel, one of which (at Hornsea) contains fluviatile shells. At Hull, this clay sup- ported a forest, which is now submerged thirty-three feet below the Humber ; the same submerged forest also occurring at Grimsby. It is supposed that the position of the sea during the post- glacial period, was principally on the west of the Yorkshire and north Lincolnshire Wolds until the formation of the gravel troughs, cutting through the Hessle clay; and that its present PAST AND PRESENT. 127 position is connected with a recent westerly elevation and easterly depression. The glacial clay of central and south Lincolnshire belongs to the chalky portion, from which all the superior or purple part of the formation has been denuded ; and the valleys of central Lincolnshire are cut out of the cretaceous series and glacial clay, as a common bed, the hUls formed of the clay rising to elevations equal to the Wold in that part. The glacial clay of both areas is seen to be denuded westwards, and the denuded edges occupied with sands and gravels, termed denudation beds, which at first were supposed to be a portion of a tertiary stratum. The whole of the soils and formations of Holderness lie above the chalk formation, and belong to one or other of the tertiary strata. Much the greater part of Holder- ness, as already stated, is covered with the till or boulder clay belonging to the lower drift, which has been described as wrapping Holderness like a cloth, and running down the east of Lincolnshire to the borders of the Fens. It may be well, however, to give a brief description of the strata lying above the chalk, though they are very unequally developed in this part of Yorkshire. The crag, or mammalian crag, is the lowest of these deposits. Some doubt exists whether what is called the Norwich crag is found in Holderness, and this has been a matter of dispute among geologists. It is stated, however, that this formation is found upon the Yorkshire coast at Bridlington, where it is said to have become visible after high tides had exposed the lower strata on the northern side of the harbour, and near the pleasure-ground called the Esplanade. Its appearance is that of a shelly bed, resembling the London clay ; but the fossils are said to have the character of those found in the crag formation. The crag consists of a marine or fluvio-marine deposit, of very irregular thickness, containing the bones of elephantine and other mammoths of extinct species, accompanied by marine shells, mixed in some places with fresh-water shells, a large portion of which belong to existing species. Its most constant member consists of a collection of large chalk flints, two or three feet thick, embedded in a base of ferru- ginous gravel and sand resting on the chalk, and mixed with marine shells. It is in this part of the deposit that the bones and teeth of elephants and other mammaHa found in the Norwich crag principally occur. In other parts it consists of beds of sand and 128 YORKSHIEE : gravel varied in depth to more than twenty feet. In a paper on this formation by Mr. S. P. Woodward, F.G.S., A.L.S., it ia stated that " investigation has led to the somewhat unexpected result that the Bridlington deposit can no longer be considered the exact equiva- lent of the Norwich crag in age or in clitnatal conditions." Of the sixty-three shells found by Mr. Leckenby and Mr. Bean at Bridling- ton, only thirty-five are common to the Norwich crag. In order to compare the Bridlington shells with those of the northern drift, Mr. Woodward prepared a Hst of 134 species, chiefly from the Clyde beds, and belonging to the close of the glacial period. Of these only forty-two were common to Bridlington, a resemblance scarcely exceeding that of the Norwich crag; whilst only twenty-nine of the Clyde shells were found to be Arctic, a proportion nearly the same as in the iast-mentioned deposit. It follows that the Bridlington shells are almost equally distinct from those of the last pre-glacial and the first post-glacial deposits, and are much more Arctic than either, as if formed during the climax of the last great age of cold in Britain. The fresh-water beds are not extensively developed in Yorkshire, but the subterranean forest beds occur along the coast of Holderness. More recent than the crag is the forest bed which is found lying underneath the glacier drift on the eastern side of England, especially at Cromer in Norfolk, and at some other points along the eastern coast. This bed has been traced for miles between high and low water mark, and contains numerous stumps of the trunks of Scotch fir, spruce, yew, alder, oak, together with remains of three varieties of elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, pig, and other mammaha; the whole, according to A. C. Eamsay, speaking of a past physical geography, at least during part of which a mild chmate prevailed, and this country may have been joined to the Continent. In concluding this brief notice of the geology of this part of Yorkshire, we add the following particulars with regard to the granite boulders which are found scattered over nearly the whole of the county, chiefly from the pen of Professor John Phillips. He states that for more than thirty years his attention has been earnestly fixed on the remarkable facts which have been observed by Professor Sedg- wick and himself in regard to the dispersion of granite blocks, from Wasdale Crag, over high and low ground, across Yorkshire and certain tracts of neighbouring counties. While in the drainage of the Eden and the large tracts embraced by the northern and eastern PAST AND PRESENT. 129 branclies of the Humber, and the long depression on the western side of the carboniferous chain of Yorkshire and Lancashire, these blocks occur even plentifully, they are quite unknown in every part of the country to the westward of the parent rock. In tracing the course of the blocks from the extreme south-east of Yorkshire back to their origin, it is found that they by no means follow the valleys and avoid the heights, but that on the contrary, with little or no difference, they occur alike on hills and dales, though not on the very highest, until on Stainmoor, at the extremity of Yorkshire, they appear on surfaces raised 1400 feet above the sea. Through this pass of Stainmoor, which, though so much elevated, is, in fact, a great transverse depression in the carboniferous chain, the blocks have passed on through a strait of an ancient sea. At no other point have the blocks crossed the chain. Turning now to the 'west, he remarks that in all the intermediate country, whether elevated to about 1000 feet above the sea, or only to about 500, the blocks of granite are frequent ; and on approaching the site from which all have passed, they grow so numerous as even to be counted by hundreds and thousands. The blocks are often of very large size ; some within two or three miles of the Crag are twelve, fourteen, eighteen feet, and even more, in the largest dimensions ; and at Thirsk, seventy mUes off, a block was found thirteen feet in diameter. They seldom appear to have been roUed, but yet, perhaps by ordinary surface waste, they have often become blunted at the angles. On the whole, the author is convinced by his frequent examination of the phenomena, 1, that their distribution to such great distances, in directions not conformed to natural courses of drainage, can be best explained by the agency of ice. 2. That it cannot have been effected by glacier movement on the land at its present absolute elevation. 3. That it cannot have been produced by iceberg flota- tion in an ocean, if the present relative elevation of the country was then the same as now. 4. That the excessive abundance of blocks near the Crag, and in the region fronting it to the east, seems to require the supposition of a considerable disturbing force, which greatly shattered the Crag, and provided a large quantity of removable blocks before the ice action came on. On the whole, the author supposes that during the glacial period such a disturbance took place; that the Lake district was depressed ; that icebergs formed from shore ice, and at moderate depths in the 130 YORKSHIRE sea, carried away many of the loosened blocks over the region far away to the east, while that was relatively lower than it is at present, and that afterwards the distribution of the blocks near Wasdale Crag took place while the land was rising. He computes roughly, that if the blocks now visible in the region round Wasdale Crag were restored to it, and placed in the granitic area now exposed, they would cover it in every part to the depth of about three feet. The blocks of stone now seen to be loosened around the Crag, and lying against its steeps would not amount to one-thou- sandth of this quantity ; from which the author draws an argument in support of his views of the preparatory concussions necessary to provide enough masses for the ice to transport. On another point of some difficulty he observes that near the Crag, and at small distances from it, the quantity of other stones distributed with the granite is relatively very small, and the masses are of small magnitude. At very great distances, as sixty or eighty miles away in Yorkshire, this disproportion as to quantity is less remarkable ; but the granite blocks are stiU usually the largest. The Agriculture of Holderness. — The southern part of Holderness, bordering on the river Humber from Hull to Spurn Point, and comprising many thousand acres, is entirely alluvial, and the soil is of great fertility. That part of it which is still called Sunk Island, though no longer isolated, was first noticed and reclaimed from the tidal waters of the Humber, in the time of Charles I. It appears that at first 1600 acres were embanked, and leased to certain individuals ; and that in 1848 Sunk Island contained within its banks 4700 acres, having a chapel and several farm-houses erected upon it. There were persons recently living who coiild remember vessels sailing betwixt the island and the mainland, to which it is now united by a bridge across a very narrow channel. In Mr. "William Wright's Prize Eeport on the Farming of York- shire, we find some additional particulars as to the regaining of land from the sea, near the mouth of the river Humber. Writing in the year 1861, he says, that considerable additions have been made to the crown lands by embanking, inclosing, and converting the land into farms. The improvements have been made by the Com- missioners for the Woods and Forests, and have been carried on by them in a most spirited manner, both as regards farm biiildings and drainage. About the year 1850, nearly 700 acres of excellent land were added to the estate by means of embanking. The new PAST AND PRESENT. 131 land is most valuable, and reqiiireB little manure for many years; showing, by the natural and luxuriant growth of white clover, the richness of the soil, and its capacity for producing the largest crops. In addition to Sunk Island, about 400 acres of new accretions have been added to Patrington, and a considerable portion to Ottringham, Welwick, and other' places in the immediate neighbourhood. Up- wards of 10,000 acres had been so reclaimed and converted into valuable farms, between the years 1668 and 1850, when the embankment was completed. The quantity of land between IIuU and Patrington protected by embankments, and entirely formed of soil deposited by the waters of the Humber, is not less than from 20,000 to 30,000 acres. An extensive farmer, whose farm is situate on this land, says — "The only variation which appears to exist on my farm is in the mechanical division of the soil, caused by the various currents of the Humber when the waters have deposited the warp ; where the coarser particles of soU are left, composed of siliceous and calcareous sand, vrith broken shells, there the soU is freer and very much superior for cultivation, though for grazing some of the other parts are quite as good. The rest of South Holderness is undulating, mostly good land, composed of gravelly hUls, and reddish brovra. clay soil, mixed with rounded stones and pieces of white marl or soft chalk. Nearly the whole of this land is under the plough, at least eight-tenths of it ; whUe the warp land, vdthin the last few years, was nearly half of it in grass. But the losses caused by epidemic diseases amongst cattle and sheep have been so great, that a large quantity of this grass has been ploughed up. The size of the farms varies upon the warp lands from 200 to 800 acres ; but upon the higher land there are many farms of less than 200 acres." The author of this description, Mr. Mansfield Harrison, of Keyenham Marsh, says — " In the cultivation of my farm I have endeavoured to keep three objects in view, viz., to cross my crops as much as possible ; to avoid dead fallows as long as I could keep my land clean without them ; and never to sow a crop when the land was out of condi- tion. Upon the freest, and what I consider my best land, I have usually fallowed, with a plentiful dressing of manure, for rapeseed to stand for a crop, which is generally off the ground by the beginning of July. I immediately plough the land up, and work it well vsdth the drag, and, if it requires it, give a second ploughing for wheat. This is almost always my best wheat crop. The next 132 YORKSHIRE. year I sow beans, about fifteen inches apart in the drills, horse- hoed twice and hand- weeded twice ; indeed, as long as we can get amongst the crop without doing harm. I give the bean -stubble a light dusting of newly-slaked lime, whUe the dew is on, to kUl the grey slugs ; then plough for wheat ; then afterwards fallow again. On another portion of my farm I fallow for wheat without any manure, as I commonly get far too much straw ; then clover seeds, to pasture and mow ; then wheat. I manure the wheat- stubble well for oats ; then beans and fallow. The next time, I take wheat, oats, beans, wheat, beans. I have sometimes taken after fallow, wheat, beans, wheat, beans ; but the bean crop is so extremely hazardous that I do not find this a profitable course. I have tile-drained the greatest part of my farm, and find it to answer well. The land will evidently bear greater extremes of both wet and dry without injury. In the cultivation of the higher land in South Holdemess, wherever it is light enough to grow turnips, the four or five course system is adopted ; but by far the greater part is too strong for turnips. The usual course on stronger land is to dead fallow for wheat, with a dressing of foldyard manure or lime — say, from three to five chaldrons to the acre; then seeds, wheat, oats, beans, where the land is good; but on the inferior land the oat crop is not taken. TUe-draining upon this land, when carefully done, and where the drains are laid in two and a half to three feet deep, has done more to increase the produce than anything that has been before introduced. Although there is no more grass land to break up, the produce has been very much increased, prmcipally by deep ploughing and better draining." The writer adds — " I have no hesitation in saying that the land, where properly cultivated, is improving every year. I cannot help feel- ing surprised at the prejudice which a great number of landed proprietors, in some districts, have to the breaking up even of inferior grass land, from the fear of having their estates deterio- rated. Let them secure and encourage a good tenant, and their estates will improve instead of getting worse; while the wealth produced in the country from an acre of well cultivated land, is at least four times greater than from the same land under inferior grass." On the higher land of Holdemess wherever it is gravelly, or light enough to grow turnips, the four or five course system is adopted. On the stiffer lands the rotation consists of seeds, wheat, oats, and beans. PAST AND PliESENT. 133 Cattle, Sheep, and Horses, of the East Riding. — Cattle, sheep, and horses form a most important portion of the wealth and of the products of the East Riding. It is by means of sheep and turnip husbandry that the rich cultivation of modem times has been rendered possible on the more elevated parts of the Wold district. The following particulars with regard to the cattle, sheep, and horses of this district, are chiefly from Mr. George Legard's " Prize Essay on the Agriculture of the East Riding:" — With regard to the cattle of the East Riding he observes, that although the subject of cattle cannot be said to belong ex- clusively to this section of the Riding, yet it will be more con- venient to treat of it here. In Mr. Strickland's time (1812), "the Holdemess or short-horned breed, remarkable for their large size and abundant supply of milk," were said to prevail universally throughout the East Riding. This breed of cattle does not seem to have been indigenous, but to have been introduced at some early period from Holland and the north-western parts of Germany. Their colour is described as being generally red and white, or black and white, and in some cases mouse or dun colour, on a clear white ground. The great improvement, however, which began to be made about sixty years ago in the class of short-horned cattle, on the banks of the Tees, has now extended into the East Riding. BuUs and cows of a finer description, of the stocks of the accredited northern breeders, have found their way hither, and have caused the old Holdemess breed to disappear. It may, perhaps, have been remarked, that the cattle of this Riding, especially of Holdemess, are of a large frame, and have a disposition to milk rather than fatten. It is to be doubted, however, whether this has not proceeded from the taste of the stock-owners, rather than that any remnant of the old stock stUl exists. No part of the East Riding can be called, as it was in 1812, "an entirely breeding and grazing country." In Holdemess two-thirds are probably under the plough. The vale of York possesses very little land with grazing qualities. The Wolds, as must be known to aU who are conversant with chalky tracts, are more adapted for sheep than cattle. Con- sequently it is found that few farmers keep a larger dairy than is sufiicient for the wants of their family. The advantage of economiz- ing the straw of a farm, and of converting it into good manure, has been alluded to, and the defect observable in this particular in wold farms has been pointed out. This defect, however, is not 134 YORKSHIKE : confined to the Wolds. The manao'ement of strawfold cattle throughout the Riding is capable of great improvement. If a small allowance of turnips, or of oil-cake, or of the linseed com- pounds so much in vogue now-a-days, were given in addition to the straw, a very important benefit would be conferred, not only upon the fertility of the individual farm, but also upon the resources of the whole community. On the subject of Sheep, Mr. Legard observes, that the Wolds have no doubt, from time immemorial, been considered a sheep- breeding district, and it is probable that the quality of the animal fed and bred upon them was proportioned to the prevailing condition of the district; for we find, according to Arthur Young, in the year 1777, when open downs and pastures were its characteristic, that the wold breed of sheep was a small, hardy, compact animal, accus- tomed to travel far for its food, and producing a short, thick, close fleece of wool, which enabled it to resist the cold of the climate; that when fat (which was not till four years' old) it weighed twelve or fourteen pounds per quarter, and the fleece weighed three pounds at a medium, worth, at the price of the period, about two shillings. Subsequently an attempt was made to increase the size and wool of the animal by introducing a cross from Lincolnshire: the two races, however, were so dissimilar in qualities, that the admixture of blood did not succeed; and the breeders soon found out their error, and substituted the Leicester for the Lincolnshire ram. By this means they improved the wool and produced a finer form, with a greater aptitude to fatten. At the present day the breed of wold sheep may be said to be essentially Leicester. " The late Sir Tatton Sykes, from his early and zealous attention to agricultru-al matters, and especially to sheep breeding, may be said to have fixed and established the character of the wold sheep. His own flock were rather small in size, but highly symmetrical, with a great inclination to fatten. Mr. Robinson's sheep were of a larger mould, and they were held in high estimation, not in this Riding only, but were sought after from distant parts of the country. An attempt was made several years ago, by the late Mr. Osbaldiston, of Hunmanby, and by Sir William Strickland, of Boynton, to introduce the breed of South Downs, and it was persevered in by these gentlemen for many years. It did not extend, however, to others; and at present this description of sheep is not to be found within this district, except in the hands of a few amateurs." PAST AND PRESENT. 135 The Horses of the East Riding. — With regard to the horses of the East E-iding, Mr. Legard states that this part of Yorkshire has been long celebrated for its breed of horses, and this celebrity, in some measure, continues. The Yorkshire bays are stiH in request for London carriage-horses, and most of these are bred in parts of Holdemess, in the neighbourhood of Bridlington, &c. Formerly a large, powerful, long animal was required for carriage purposes ; the fashion of the present day has, however, changed in this particular, and now it is necessary that the London carriage- horse should be three parts, at least, thoroughbred. Consequently, aU traces of the original pure coaching breed, or Cleveland bay, as it was termed, are nearly obliterated. At Howden Fair, which is amongst the largest in England, three-year-old colts of this description are brought forward in considerable numbers to meet the demands of the London and other dealers. There is nothing peculiar in the draught horses of the East Riding. Some farmers adhere to the black cart breed, a stout, large-framed animal, as being the best adapted for drawing heavy weights in single-horse carts. In general, the draught-horses are of a mixed character, and on the Wolds they are not without some infusion of blood, or at least of coaching blood, the chief desider- atum on the light soils being activity in stepping. Howden great April Horse Fair, 1870. — These great horse fairs fully maintain their high reputation to the present time. At the April fair of 1870, there was a large muster of horse dealers and breeders, who were met by a large supply of well bred and superior classes of horses. Young horses suitable for breaking for private harness were in active demand, and many stables were sold at 65 and 85 guineas each horse ; whilst horses broken and settled down to work, and well matched pairs of handsome young carriage horses, reahzed 220 to 300 and 350 guineas. Small horses and second-rate horses of this class brought 50 to 60 guineas ; riding horses brought 50 to 75 guineas, and those of superior stamp 80 to 120 guineas ; neat-going cobs, 35 to 45 guineas ; trotters, 30 to 60 guineas ; and seasoned harness horses, roadsters, &c., 20 to 30 guineas. Hunters sold at 60 to 80 guineas, and those of a high pedigree at 90 to 150 guineas; horses suitable for carriers, railway, and town work, 40 to 55 guineas, and common sorts, 25 to 30 guineas ; horses for omnibus and hackney work, 30 to 45 guineas ; cart horses of high class, 50 to 60 guineas ; secondary horses and 136 YORKSHIRE: colts, 28 to 40 guineas. This great north country horse show was kept open on Thursday and Friday. Many strings of horses were intended for London, and the unsold horses were sent forward to the Lincoln April horse fair. Condition of the Agricultural Labourer in the East Biding. — Mr. George Legard in his Report on the Agriculture of the East Riding, says, that there is no part of the kingdom where the wages of the agricultural labourer rule higher than in the East Riding, and quotes the following rates of wages as prevailing in the year 1848. Since that time there has been a considerable advance of wages, to which we shall refer more fully in a subsequent chapter. Yearly servants, with board and lodging — foreman, from £22 to £25; waggoner, from £14 to £16; shepherd, from £21 to £23; ploughboys, from £8 to £12. Day labourers, with board, from Martinmas to Candlemas, 75. to 7s. 6(f. per week; from Candlemas to Harvest, 7s. ^d. to 8s. %d. per week. Day labourers, without board, from Michaelmas to Candlemas, 12s. per week ; from Candlemas to Harvest, 13s. to 14s. per week. Harvest wages, with board, best mowers, 1 7s. per week ; binders and stookers, 1 4s. ; gatherers, 12s. to 13s. Harvest work per acre — wheat, 7s. Gd ; grass mown per acre, 2s. 9 J. to 3s., with beer. Thrashing per quarter of grain by hand — wheat, 3s. . Holderness, Middle, Holderness, North, Holderness, South, Holme Beacon, Howdenshire, . . Hnnsley Beacon, Noi Hunsley Beacon, Sou Kingston-upon-Hull, Ouse and Derwent, Wilton Beacon, . rthj '. th. • 132,021 87,362 94,332 76,778 59,963 88,589 178,791 261,1.32 86,662 69,072 91,410 600,841 82^035 76,593 85,041 67,684 49,530 59,815 70,062 21,698 72,871 59,522 77,893 5,328 £ 34,310 4,084 5,176 5,622 12,367 41,865 100,488 413,301 5,145 4,317 7,453 211,860 York, Ainsty, . . . York, City, Total, . 2,202,604 1,066,667 899,211 TOTAL PROPERTY RETURNED IN THE EAST RIDING IN THE YEAR 1860. Property returned under Schedule A, Property returned under Schedule B, Property returned under Schedule D, . ,£2,202, 604 . 1,066,657 899,211 Total, 4,168,472 Increase of Property in the East Biding from 1860 to 1869. — The following table vrill show the amount of increase of property and profits in each of the collecting districts of the East Ptiding during the same period, as well as the increase in the whole of that Riding, Gross Annual Value Gross Annual Value Net A mount of Profits Divisions. of Property Assessed of Property Assessed Charged to Duty under Schedule A. under Schedule B. under Schedule D. Sainton Beacon, . £ 148,543 £ 120,501 £ 33,148 Buckrose, ... 122,951 107,299 6,515 Dickering, 158,446 117,424 26,649 Holderness, Middle, 164,720 93,325 42,985 Holderness, North, ... 76,999 64,176 4,374 Holdemess, South, . . 102,266 89,948 6,409 Holme Beacon, . . 70,454 61,616 5,867 Howdenshire, ... . . 78,143 65,968 11,327 Hunsley Beacon, North,. . . 117,497 81,505 60,577 Hunsley Beacon, South, . . . 218,427 78,365 176,638 Kingston-upon-HuU, . . 382,484 31,265 816,275 Ouse and Derwent, . . . 98,874 80,666 5,605 Wilton Beacon, . . . . 112,016 98,536 7,728 York Ainsty, 95,270 84,465 7,043 York City, . Totals, 148,029 5,289 2,264,742 2,095,118 1,180,348 3,474,882 * It is to be observed, that, under the provision of the Act 29 Vict. c. 26, the Profils of liidUvays, llines. Ironwoiks, &c., were, in the year 1866-67, transferred from Schedule A to Schedule ]). 150 YORKSHIRE: TOTAL PROPEETT EETTJENED IN EAST EIDING IN THE YEAR 1868-69. Property returned under Schedule A, . . £2,095,118 Property returned under Schedule B, . 1,180 348 Property returned under Schedule D, 3,474,882 Total, . . . 6,750,348 INCREASE OP PROPEETT IN EAST EIDING. Property in 1868-69, £6,750,348 Property in 1860, . . . . 4,168,472 Increase, ; . . 2,581,876' PAST AND PBESENT. 151 CHAPTER III. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OE THE COUNTY OF YORK. Natural Besources and Products of the North Riding of York- shire. — The North Riding of Yorkshire extends from the moun- tain range forming the western boundary of the North and of the West Ridings, to the German Ocean, which forms the eastern hmit both of the North and of the East Ridings. It includes most of the geological formations and many of the soils that are found in the "West and the East Ridings ; but with the very important exceptions of not possessing a coal-field, like that of the West Riding, chalk downs, like those of the East Riding, or alluvial and diluvial lands, such as those which exist in both those Ridings. With these exceptions the North Riding has nearly all the soUs that are to be found in either of the other two Ridings. Taking the strata and the unstratified formations in the order usually given to them, and beginning with the lowest, the North Riding has a basaltic dyke, running from the sea at Robin Hood Bay, in a north-westerly direction, to beyond the river Tees. With this exception, all the rocks of the North Riding are stratified. It tdso possesses, on its western side, the carboniferous rocks of the upper limestone shale, or Yoredale series ; the millstone grit, inter- mixed with and overlying the mountain limestone ; a small portion of the magnesian hmestone, and a considerable development of the new red sandstone. To the east and north of the last-named forma- tion the Lias of Cleveland, rich in ironstone, first appears. Still further to the east are all the principal rocks of the oohtic series, which emerge from the sea on the Scarborough coast, between Robin Hood Bay and Filey Bay. None of the formations of a more recent date than the new red sandstone exist in England to the north of the county of York ; and their presence has a great influ- ence both on the agriculture and on the mineral wealth of the North Riding. The climate of the North Riding varies greatly in proceeding from its western to its eastern limit. Amongst the moiintains 152 YORKSHIEB : on the western bovmdary, the rainfall is much above that of the average of England; whilst in the eastern part of the Riding it is below the average of the kingdom. This circumstance has great influence on the agriculture of the district. The North Riding of Yorkshire, with this great variety of soil and climate, presents many differences in the modes of cultivation ; and there are few parts of England in which the details of farming are more modified by the climate and the geological character of the strata on which the soil rests."' To the extreme west of the Riding, the valleys and hill sides of the mountain limestone present grass land so valuable, as to let for as much as four pounds per acre in that isolated district. Proceeding eastward, there is an ungenial belt of the millstone grit and limestone shale. Next, a broad belt of the new red sandstone, with a light intervention of the magnesian limestone ; then another belt of the Lias, curving over to the north-east ; and last, a similar and almost parallel belt of the Oolite. The whole may be described as a series of wavy stripes, in some cases broader, in some narrower, but much modified by aspect and situation. The soil divides itself, with these modifications, much in the same manner. Thus, the new red sandstone presents the "turnip and barley soil," almost precisely co-extensive with the stratum on which it rests ; and there one systematic and uniform management prevails, unpractised only from want of skill, or, far more generally, from want of capital. The Lias, co-extensive with the district called Cleveland, but still bending away at the foot of the Hambleton Hills — is cold and heavy, and designated " two crop and fallow land : " and the Oolite presents a finer arable soil on the lower lands, but rises into mountain pastures in the centre of the district. The Dales of the North Riding. — At the extreme west and north of this Riding are the beautiful valleys and the mountain lime- stone districts of Wensleydale, Swaledale, and Bishopdale — the hills between which are wide expanses of bleak, barren moorland, lying too high for cultivation. These valleys have a climate which is too cold to admit of the cultivation of much grain ; and the land is so profitable in grass that there is little inducement to withdraw it from that mode of production. The valleys of the Ure and the Swale appear to have been formed or greatly deepened by those " Prize Rejjort on tlie Farming of tlie North Riding of Yorkshire, bj JI. M. Milburn. — Journal of the Royiil Agricultural Society of England, vcd. ix p. 490. PAST AND PRESENT. 153 streams, which have their source at the extreme north-west of the Riding ; and as the limestone is abraded, and carried by the rills down to the bottom of the valleys, this deep accumulation presents a soil richer, perhaps, than in any other part of the county, though less valuable than some, in consequence of its being far removed from the traffic and population of the West Riding. Nearer the hill tops the rock is more lightly covered with soil and the grass of a poorer quality, but it is, nevertheless, very valuable ia producing cheese. On the lower and more productive portions cattle are grazed and fed for the markets of the West Riding of Yorkshire and Lanca- slure ; pigs are fed on the milk after the cheese has been made : and thus the exports are fat cattle, sheep grazed on the steeper uplands, bacon, lard, and cheese, richer, perhaps, than even the Derbyshire or Cheshire, but destitute of the peculiar flavour of the latter, and mUder generally than the former. The calves are partly reared in the valleys, and partly sold off; and the cattle are purchased at the Falkirk and other trysts of the north. It is no uncommon thing for one beast to be fatted on an acre of land. The main duties of the dairy devolve upon the females of the house ; and as there are no green crops, and no corn, the cattle have to depend through a long winter, usually severe, upon the hay crop ex- clusively ; hence, the hay-time is the busiest season of the year, and a more critical time, in this rainy chmate, it is hardly possible to conceive. In Mr. William Wright's Prize Report on the Agriculture of Yorkshire, he gives a very favourable account of the recent progress of agriculture in this beautiful part of the North Riding. He observes that — " Of the high lands in the North Riding it may be said, that more improvements have taken place here, since the report given by Mr. Milburn in the year 1848, than in any other part. Nearly all the draining there required has now been done effectually, either by the landlord and tenant jointly — the one find- ing the materials, and the other the labour ; or by Government loans, the tenant carting aU. the materials, and paying seven per cent, on the money expended. These improvements have been made at a cost which cannot be estimated with accuracy ; but three- fourths of the outlay has been expended by the tenant. We must, however, mention that tenants have not always had the benefit of a landlord's assistance in carrying out their improvements. When draining has been done with Governm.ent money they have carted VOL. I. u 154 YORKSHIRE : all tlie materials, stubbed up old fences, planted new ones, filled up ditches, and made new roads, at a considerable cost. In some districts more improvement has taken place during the last few years than during tbe previous half century, by manuring more heavily, by cropping more frequently, by economizing horse and manual labour, and by means of improved implements ; yet the ungenial belt of millstone grit and limestone shale is still a barrier to profitable or extensive cultivation, although the beds of iron- stone lately discovered give a value to the Cleveland hills which was little anticipated." The Millstone Grit. — Mixed up with the rich limestone soUs of the North Riding, and generally forming the highest hUls of the district, is an extensive development of the millstone grit. The hills of this formation usually run in long lines, from the western boundary of the North Riding to the edge of the vale of York, terminating eastward near Ripon, Masham, and Richmond. These hUls are usually covered with heath, and not with grass ; are very thinly populated and scarcely at all cultivated. Their general appearance is wild and romantic, but their products, whether vege- table or mineral, are of little value, except about the above- named towns, where a good soil has accumulated along the banks of the rivers. The Magnesian Limestone. — The magnesian limestone is slightly developed in the North Riding, along the eastern edge of the carboniferous rocks, in the neighbourhood of Bedale, Middleton Tyas, and the banks of the river Tees. It does not form a continuous line as in the West Riding, but breaks off in the neighbourhood of Bedale, appears in patches near Catterick Bridge and Middleton Tyas, and is again developed in a continuous line at a short distance south of the river Tees, whence it extends northward in a broader line to the sea at Hartlepool, and along the sea-coast to the mouth of the Tyne. Its general characteristics are much the same as in the West Riding. It supphes lime and building stone, and the soil is very favourable to cultivation. The New Bed Sandstone. — The new red sandstone is much more fully developed, and is seen in the North Riding chiefly in the form of a wide valley or plain, generally covered with the richest grass, and extending from the carboniferous formations of the West, to the Lias plains or the Oolitic hills of the East. The system of cultivation adopted on the new red sandstone PAST AND PRESENT. 155 formation, when it is not allowed to lie in grass, is the four- course system, already described in the account given in this work of the cultivation of the same formation in the West and the East Ridings. There is much excellent land on the new red sandstone plain in the North Riding, and the cultivation is generally very good. To the east of the new red sandstone plain is a comparatively narrow breadth of the Lias formation, extending from Redcar inland to the neighbourhood of Thirsk, and from Thirsk to the neighbourhood of Sheriff-Hutton. The Lias Formation. — The Lias formation succeeds conformably to the new red sandstone. It commences at its northern extremity on the coast of Yorkshire, and runs with a south-eastern course, from that point through the rest of England, to Lyme Regis on the Dorsetshire coast. It consists of beds of clay, shale, and limestone, with extensive deposits of iron ore, and occasionally layers of jet. Its escarpments generally face west and north-west. The marl- stone is the most prominent of these, and overlooks the broad meadows of lower Lias clay that form much of the plain of York, and indeed of central England. ''' T?ie Oolitic Formation. — Conformable to, and resting upon the Lias, are the various members of the Oolitic series. That portion termed the inferior Oolite occupies the base, being succeeded by the great or Bath Oolite, cornbrash, Oxford clay, coral rao-, Kimmeridge clay, and Portland beds. These and the under- lying formations, down to the base of the new red sandstone, constitute what geologists term the older secondary formations, which generally extend from the north of Yorkshire to Dorsetshire.! The following is Mr. Milburn's account of the cultivation of the Lias and Oolitic districts, in which a mixed system of husbandry prevails. — "We have now the difficulty of describing the farming of a variety of soils, altitudes, and situations, scattered over the moorlands of the Oolite series, and the valleys traversing them, some, in a degree greater or lesser, covered with diluvium of a mixed character, and each division or subdivision being modified so as to present no great distinctive outline. In general, we may say that the Oolite of the east, and the magnesian limestone of the south- west, are under the four-course or convertible system, with more or less modification; the, valleys of the Lias partake of the strong Cleve- land soil, while the vale of the Derwent from its source, and the * A. C. Kamsay, Pliysioal Geography and Geology of Great Britain, p. 62. f A. G. Ramsay, p 63. 156 YORKSHIRE : vales of the Rye and the Esk, are more or less of a peaty character, and grow hardly any grain but oats, while the great elevation of the eastern moorlands leaves their valleys of the same character. "The general course pursued is, 1, turnips; 2, oats; 3, 4, seeds (kept two years in pasture); 5, oats. Some of these regions are much exposed, and the wildness of the climate above, and the nearness of the water below, render, in some years, the securing of the crops very difficult. The eastern moorlands lie at a considerable height above the level of the sea: Black Hambleton, 1246 feet; Brotton Head, near Stokesley, 1485; Eoseberry Topping, 1022; and the quantity of uncultivated hills and moors rising from 1000 to 2000 feet is said to amount to some 400,000 acres. The turnips are chiefly consumed by sheep on the land, and the seeds are often eaten by ewes from the lowlands, in summer when the lambs are taken from them. The coolness and pasturage are favourable to sheep, and they usually return in September or October in very excellent condition. " Mr. Mauleverer showed a specimen of what might be done in rendering productive even this moorland district, with all the disadvantages of soil and climate, in his little model ' Ladye Chapel Farm,' where the sheep are being fed on what used to be the haunt of the wUd mouse and the mole; and the luxuriant oats are waving before the wind, that used to whistle through the whins and the heather. There are many spots, however, where science and skiU have rendered various portions of this miscellaneous district, near Kirby Moorside and Helmsley, highly productive. The estates of Earl Feversham are well cultivated, on a strict alternate rotation, which, if it has a fault, is in adhering somewhat pertinaciously to the sowing of clover, and to one uniform adherence to the Norfolk system. In the lowland portion, embracing the south-eastern part of the Riding, there are not a few instances of excellent farming on the farms about Brandsby and Sheriff- Hutton; Colonel Croft, of Stillington, and many of the superior farmers, set a noble example of thorough draining, high cultivation, large and weedless crops, and great numbers of excellent sheep, their farming verging on the well-understood and weU-acknowledged system of ' crop green and crop gray.' " Draining in the North Riding. — Speaking of the practice of drain- ing in the North Riding, Mr. William Wright states, in his Report on the Farming of Yorkshire, that no district offers greater advan- PAST AND PRESENT. 157 tage for deep drainage than the vale of Cleveland, where the work has been carried on with great vigoiu- for several years. Previously nearly the whole district was farmed under the old ridge and furrow system, with water grips and open ditches ; no crop was ever expected to grow in the furrow, and the consequent deficiency in the yield was very considerable. Draining the furrows and fiUing up the ditches increased the breadth of available soil, besides greatly improving the quality of the grain. Another result of this improve- ment has been an increased growth of roots, whilst a gradual ameli- oration of the stronger lands was effected, which will enable the farmer to adopt other improvements practised in those districts that have been longer under the influence of effective drainage. Mr. Wright states, that six per cent, is charged by many landlords on the cost of drainage in the North Riding. One great difficulty with regard to draining, both in the North and the East Riding, is the want of good outfalls. Some works have been commenced on the river Rye, and on the river Derwent, which receives the waters of the Rye, and of most of the rivers of the North Riding ; but they require to be much extended to render them effectual. The Derwent, which is almost the only outlet for the floods of the East and of part of the North Riding, is tortuous ; and its outlet is so bad, that the immense body of water which it gathers in its course floods a vast area of land, for miles in extent, and for weeks together. The only outlet of the waters of the North Riding is through the Pass in which Malton stands ; and the only outlet for the accumulated waters of the North and East Ridings is through the mouth of the Derwent. Mr. Wright states, that the waters of this large district should be made to fall more directly into the Ouse and the Humber, which might be made amongst the finest outfalls in England. He speaks more particularly of Howden- shire in the East Riding, which includes a circuit of fifty miles. But there are other defects in the course of this great natural outlet, which might be amended with great advantage to both the Ridings. Cattle, Horses, and Sheep of the North Biding. — Mr. Milburn gives the following account of the cattle, horses, and sheep of the North Riding: — "The 'Yorkshire cow,' so celebrated, and more prized when milking and dairy qualities were more esteemed and more admired than early maturity or disposition to feed, is losing caste. As the dairies and grass began to disappear, the distinctive breed has given way, and the celebrated breed of the 158 YORKSHIKE : banks of the Tees, the short-horns, is spreading with more or less purity, and a greater or lesser degree of alloy — spread by the excellent landlords, who, patronize breeding by purchasing the stock of the first and most judicious breeders, and allowing their tenants the free use of those superior animals. Hence the short-horns have spread so far that it is no unusual thing to find animals of twelve to eighteen months old sold fat to the butcher. To enumerate the breeders of the North Kiding were therefore to name the greater part of the landed gentry and aristo- cracy; but even the professional breeders are numerous, and stand so high that it were invidious to name a few of them." On the subject of Yorkshire cattle Mr. "Wright observes, that the short-horn is now almost the only breed of cattle which is much esteemed in Yorkshire. He also mentions that between the yeai'S 1848 and 1859 inclusive, Yorkshire breeders, or cattle bred in the county of York, took twenty first class and twenty-five second class prizes in six classes of cattle, shown in twelve exhibitions of the Royal Society of England. With regard to short-horns Mr. Wright says, that the most eminent breeders reside in this county. It is no xuicommon thing for a leading breeder to receive 200 guineas a year for the use of a single animal; and there is such a competition for bulls that many of the highest personages in the land are glad to enter their names on the list, for a supply when their turn comes. The breeders of the highest class of animals justly merit the reputation they have acquired; for it is not without much care and expense that the animals have been brought to such perfection. When one is calved of the right colour, free from blemish and of good pedigree, no expense is spared in the rearing. It is fed on new milk twice or thrice a day, and in ample qviantity. Cream is even said to be sometimes added. A lump of chalk is left in the crib to prevent acidity ; plenty of the best hay, ground oats, beans or malt, and linseed cake are given as soon as possible, so as to insure rapid growth, and the development of those points of excellence which alone bring success to the careful breeder. The Horses of Yorkshire. — -Yorkshire and especially the North and East Ridings, and a portion of the West, have been famous for their horses for more than three hundred years. The race-horses which are bred and trained in the neighbourhood of Malton, Beverley, Doncaster, Middleham, and in many parts of the North Riding, stand in the first rank for swiftness and powers of endur- PAST AND PRESENT. 159 ance. The hunters of this district are also extremely fine. Some of them are well made, with good bone and sinew, well up to twelve to thirteen stone, and able to keep up in a good run ; and the fortunate owner may demand from 200 to 300 guineas for such an animal. Mr. Wright says, that they surpass the hunters of former days, being more enduring throughout a hard day, carry heavier weights, come home fresher than formerly, recover themselves sooner, and are superior in every respect to their predecessors in the hunting field of twenty years ago. In the lighter breed there is no great difier- ence. The old-fashioned strong and heavy riding horse is not so much required as formerly, but when perfect is still very valuable. The genuine cob which can trot fast and safely, was never in better demand than now, nor realized higher prices. Carriage horses are of a lighter make than formerly, the old family coach having given way to the lighter brougham, and the old Cleveland bay to a lighter animal. The hunter class is now required for harness, and demands the same attention in the choice of the size as the true hunter. The cross between the Cleveland bay and the small compact thoroughbred keeps up its reputation, and brings high prices, ranging from 100 to 200 guineas. They are most prized when about or under sixteen hands, with fight step and quick high action. The North Riding, Howdenshire, and Holder- ness, are the chief breeding grounds for hunting and carriage horses. The principal horse fairs, namely, Howden, Boroughbridge, North Allerton, York, and Beverley, continue to maintain their reputation for excellent horses, and have of late years been much resorted to by foreign dealers, who give large sums for first-rate animals. "Sheep. — Few better specimens of excellent sheep exist than in this Riding. The long-wooled, or improved Leicester, are the general favourites ; and bone, wool, and mutton seem to be rather the desiderata, than mutton alone. The favourite sheep on the turnip soils is that which weighs, when fat, some twenty-eight or thirty pounds per quarter, and nearly the whole are fed in winter on tiu'nips, and kept until they are two years' old ; some attempts at selling them at thirteen and fourteen months old have been made, and in some cases with profit to the owners, but the system is far from being general. " Some farmers graze and winter the Northumberland sheep, and sell them early ; but so fatal has been the epidemic of late years on aU travelling animals, and the injury inflicted on the 160 YOKKSHIRE : farmers by introducing disease, that the practice seems to be losing ground. " Pigs. — The long-eared and large breed are rapidly falling into disuse ; they are still preferred in the Dales, where they are kept long on hand ; but the small breed are chiefly in favour, and are found to be on the whole the most profitable, being easily fed, and producing a greater return for the food given." The Recent Improvements of Farming in Yorhshire. — We are indebted to Mr. WilHam Wright for the following general summary of the recent progress of farming in Yorkshire. He observes, that to assert that the improvements made by the landlords of Yorkshire have in all respects kept pace with the requirements of the present day, would be a bold assertion. But those who have performed their duty in the widest sense of the word are far too numerous to particularize ; and were a just tribute paid to their worth, we should exceed the limits prescribed. Suffice it to say, Yorkshire is proud of her landlords, and their tenants respond to their efforts. On many farms an outlay of £4 to £5 per acre has been made on new buildings, . erected on plans combining comfort, convenience, and healthiness ; a similar amount on drainage, and a consider- able sum in making roads, enlarging the fields, filHng up ditches and planting new hedgerows — amounting to a total of £12 an acre thus added to the wealth of the country, and enabling the tenant to produce a yearly increased supply for the wants of the community. In carrying out these improvements, it is usually required of the tenant that he should pay an annual interest, or increase of rent equivalent to five per cent., on the sum expended — an understanding mutually beneficial. The landlords' attention has also been directed to the manufacture of tile and pipe machinery ; to their efforts we chiefly owe the valuable and superior machines now in use. In order to obtain a good supply, many landlords have been compelled by their distance from the tUe-yards, or the inferior quahty of the goods there sold, to establish works for themselves; and thus a better article is substituted for the partially-burnt and Hi-made tile of former days. Within the limits of the period to which this notice extends is to be dated the perfecting of implements for digging the arterial and parallel drains, and the reduction of expense of draining to the minimum consistent with good workmanship. PAST AND PRESENT. 161 Mr. Wright observes, "that, in some parts of the county, con- siderable care has been bestowed in erecting buildings with regard to effect. We hail this commencement with pleasure, and doubt not but that shortly architecture, in the proper sense, will fully assert her claims, and picturesque beauty be combined with utility. The good feeling which exists between the improving landlord and his intelligent tenant, springing mainly from a just estimate of their mutual interests, has prompted the former to co-operate witb his tenant in the purchase of guano, and in the introduction of improved stock, implements, seeds, fencing, &c., thus enabling him to have a supply of the best materials to aid his efforts. On some farms, held by the landlords in their own hands, much service is thus rendered to the surrounding tenantry, of which we might cite instances that strongly tempt us to depart from our determination to speak of improving landlords only as a class, rather than do but partial justice by selecting individual cases. Much alteration has been bestowed of late on the im- provement of cottages, an object which the prizes for the best plans lately awarded by the Yorkshire Society vdll do much to promote. "In the demand for timber and wood, which the landlord reserves to himself, there have been important variations. The great increase in the consumption of iron for shipbuilding, by diminishing the use of wood, has caused a considerable fall in the prices of English oak within the last fifteen or twenty years. The reduction in the duties on foreign timber and deals has diminished the demand for some kinds of Enghsh woods. On the other hand, our expanding energies have opened out new sources of demand from our mines, factories, buddings, and agricultural implements, &c. ; and prevented that general decline in prices, which was anticipated on the removal of the timber duties. Many landlords make more money per acre by grow- ing wood, than by letting land in farms. Fewer ash and more elm are now planted ; but a rise to the value of fifty per cent, has taken place in osiers for basket-makers ; and a great demand exists in the West Riding for coal-pit wood, for props, baskets, &c." Mr. Pusey, in his admirable paper on the Progress of Agricultural Knowledge, during the eight years from 1842 to 1850, sums up the improvements demanded at the hands of the landlords, under the twelve following heads, all of them applicable to Yorkshire {Agri- cultural Journal, vol. xi. page 381) :— VOL. I. X 1 62 YORKSHIRE 1. Drainage — (1) Trunk drainage — (2) Under-draining. 2. The removal of useless fences — (1) Fences— (2) Trees. 3. Diminution of four-footed game. 4. Burnt clay — (1) Border burning— (2) Clod burning. 5. Marling or claying — (1) Sands — (2) Peat. 6. Lime ; burning grass-lands. 7. Boning pastures. 8. Chalking. 9. Irrigation or catch meadows — (1)— HiU side — (2) Flat — (3) Flood. 10. Breaking up grass land. 11. Improvement of farm buildings. 12. Warping. The list is at first sight sufficient to appal any man whose pocket is not inexhaustible ; but examination proves them all to be valuable, if not indispensable to the development of agriculture. Have the Yorkshire landlords responded to these requisitions 1 We fear to press the inquiry. If we except Nos. 4, 9, and perhaps 10, of these twelve heads, an estate is not perfect unless the other requisitions are comphed with. On the hills, liming, chalking, and marling ; on the lowlands, draining, removing fences and trees, diminishing game, claying sand and peat ; warping where practicable ; liming and boning grass-land — are required. Mr. Pusey justly and considerately says, " these are the improvements which it is in the landlords' power to effect ; in other words, we place the standard before you ; we invite you to examine it and to follow it on your own estates, for the full development of the resources of the land." Yorkshire, having a moister climate than many of the southern counties, derives the greatest benefit from covered yards for cattle, which are equally applicable to high and low districts, combine shelter with warmth, preserve those elements in the manure which are apt to be lost when exposed, and are invaluable for the economical feed- ing of cattle and horses. Mr. Wright observes, "We did not venture to urge this on the attention of landlords and tenants before we had fully tried the effect, and, having satisfied ourselves of the advantage of the shed system, we recommend it with confidence ; it is as superior to box-feeding, as that was to the old-fashioned cattle-house. The manure is always excellent in quality, ready for use at any time ; nothing is lost, no liquid-mantire tanks are wanted. Our shed has repaid its cost once, if not twice, and on no consideration would we return to the old-fashioned system of open yards. When new buildings are wanted, the covered yard is not more costly than the old-fashioned open range of buildings, and excellent materials in iron or timber can be procured at a moderate outlay. PAST AND PllESENT. 163 " No more acceptable or convincing proof of the improvement in agriculture can be given, tban the fact of the increased value of land — an increase, not fluctuating with the price of grain, but permanent and steady. When an estate is in the market, which occurs but seldom, the land makes, at a moderate computation, fuUy ten per cent, more than it would have brought twelve years ago. The im- provements effected by the landlords naturally command a high rental. This state of things must be satisfactory, and has fulfilled the anticipation expressed by an able writer, in a time of the greatest depression ; ' That the hereditary owners of land would, by the con- tinued exertion of that energy and prudence which carried those from whom they inherit their possessions through all changes, con- tinue to maintain their social position.' — (Gisborne's "Essay on Agriculture," p. 255). " The list of non-improving landlords is happily small in this county; but as long as any remain, these observations would be incomplete if they were not briefly brought under notice. On the estates of such owners are found the ancient hedge rows existing in wild luxuriance ; ponds, often occupying large spaces, sometimes in small inclosures of not more than six or seven acres ; headlands tmploughed ; roads and drainage neglected, or, if attempted, done very inefficiently ; farm buildings small and ill-contrived, and the farm house, of one story high, with a sledge or pitch roof, small and incommodious ; the tenantry low-rented, but poor and spiritless, exhausting stiU more the already impoverished soil, neither benefiting themselves nor the com- munity at large. Such a picture is neither imaginary nor overdrawn ; we could mention several large estates to which it accurately applies. " The aim of the landlord should be to maintain his estate in an ' improving condition ;' that is to say, the deposit of fertilizing elements in the soil should always be in excess of the aggregate of those abstracted in the marketable produce. The warning voice of Liebig urgently calls our attention to the maintenance of this progressive fertility. No county offers so many advantages as York- shire for a sufficient and permanent supply of solid manure, and nowhere can the efficacy and economy of sewage manure be more favourably tested than near such towns as Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Halifax, Huddersfield, York, and HuU. We trust that the present generation will find means to stay the vast waste of our sewage, as effectual as those already applied to the supply of gas and water." The Value of Liquid Manure. — Mr. Wright observes that the 164 YORKSHIRE. application of liquid manure, brought in large quantities and from a great distance, is not a tenant's but a landlord's question. "A tenant cannot be expected to take up a scheme of such magnitude, though he might and would essentially aid its working. With regard to the expense, let us instance the cost of supplying with fertilizers a well cultivated farm of 200 acres of ordinary land. To keep up a regular supply of manure, such a farm requires ten tons of linseed cake, or in lieu thereof an equivalent in corn ; also in artificial manures, either ammoniacal or phosphoric, a further average annual outlay of £80, which will make a yearly cost of £200, or £1 per acre. Such an estimate is not a high one for manure only; lime, &c., not being included. We propose to replace this outlay by offer- ing 20s. per acre, for a jet of 'sewage supply,' and we think the experiment would be a boon to the farmer, and present to the con- tractor an ample profit on the outlay for interest and working expenses. Charnock gives some pertinent remarks on this subject. He mentions {Journal, vol. ix. p. 309.) a case of land growing wheat in succession many years, and producing thirty-nine and forty-two imperial bushels per acre. He says, 'now this land adjoins the river Calder, the floods from which have proved a sufficient manur- ing to maintain its full fertility, and yet grow successive crops of wheat year after year ; and this field is by no means a solitary instance of the richness of this, and many other of the West Riding valleys, that are watered by its rivers.'" Mr. Wright gives the following particulars as to his own experiments with liquid manure: — "We have during the last ten years collected reliable data of the money value of sewages; and we wiU give our experience in the hope of stimulating the interested parties, landlords in particular, to commence operations in this county, which offers such peculiar facilities. We com- menced operations at Sigglesthome by building underground two cisterns, each capable of holding from 3000 to 4000 gallons ; they were made watertight. Into one of these the contents of two water closets are collected, into another a third water closet, and all the slops of the house. The family averages fourteen persons, and, for the last ten years, the whole sewage of the house has been carefully preserved and applied — first, to a flower garden of three acres, a moderate-sized vinery, shrubbery, and kitchen garden, and the remainder put on a grass field of about seven acres, which from an almost barren waste has become PAST AND PRESENT. 165 SO fertile that we have ceased to irrigate it, and are now dressing another field. No solid dung, such as stable or foldyard manure, has been applied to the vinery for the last ten years, yet the vines have produced an abundance of fruit, and in the greatest perfection ; and, with regard to fruit, the strawberries are more than usually prolific. Two common Uft pumps are fixed to the cisterns ; the liquid is pumped by hand, and wheeled away in a barrel suspended on a convenient barrow. When applied to the grass-land, one of Crosskill's liquid manure distributors is used. We estimate its yearly value on our farm and garden at thirty tons of good dung, £12. The facility with which hquids are now dealt with is shown in the Report on the Drainage of Whittlesea Mere by Wells (Journal of Agriculture, vol. xxi. p. 134). Such a scheme, which involves the lifting of 6000 gallons of water six feet a minute, could only have been carried out by the use of steam power ; and many a town presents facihties for draining off its sewage, and conveying it to the surrounding land, which would render the task as easy as that of reclaiming the Mere. But where shall we find such spirited men as accomphshed that task 1 England has stood foremost in other improvements of late years ; let her lead the van in this great modern experiment." The Produce of ike Land in Yorhshire. — Although we have no oflicial estimates of the quantity of grain, or any other article, yielded by the soil of Yorkshire, there is no doubt that the aver- age is high in the finer districts of all the three Ridings, but low amongst the mountains and hills. This is inevitable with such great varieties of soil and climate. The following, however, is the estimate formed of the yield of the principal crops, by Mr. William Wright, in his recent Report on the Agriculture of Yorkshire. He says : — " On well drained and properly managed farms the produce of wheat varies from thirty-six to forty bushels per acre : in some instances a higher estimate may be taken ; while twenty to twenty-four bushels is the yield on those less cultivated or ill-managed. The yield of oats is frequently eighty bushels, against thirty-five or forty on the old-fashioned system ; and of barley, sixty bushels." Agriculture of the North Hiding, according to the Returns published in 1870. — The agriculture of the North Riding differs considerably from that either of the East or of the West, partly on account of the loftier and wilder character of the land, as compared with 166 YOEKSHIEE : that of the East Riding, and partly from the thinness of the population, as compared with that of the West. The North and the West Ridings are both included in the agricultural returns as amongst the grazing districts of England, whilst the East Riding is returned along with the corn-growing districts. The North Riding is much larger ia extent than the East Riding, but not so extensive as the West, covering an area of 1,350,121 statute acres. About one-half of the whole acreage of the North Riding is Tinder various kinds of crops, or bare fallow and grass. The land thus occupied amounted in 1868 to 786,825 acres, and in 1869 to 798,699. The quantity of permanent pasture or grass not broken up in rotation, in the North Riding, was 382,833 acres in 1868, and 397,846 in 1869. This was exclusive of the heath and mountain land, which is more extensive in the . North Riding than it is in the East, OAving to the much greater elevation and much wider extent of the mountains and hills, both in Cleve- land and in Richmondshire. After deducting this large quantity of pasture-land, seldom touched by the plough, there remained in 1868 under corn crops 225,064 acres, and in 1869, 230,082; under green crops 73,886 in 1868, and 79,353 in 1869; and under clover, sainfoin, and grasses under rotation 67,291 in 1868, and 56,960 in 1869. The various kinds of grain and com grown in the North Riding, in the years 1868 and 1869, were as follows: — Wheat, 83,584 acres and 86,686 acres ; barley or here, 54,376 and 55,545 ; oats, 70,701 acres and 69,031 ; rye, 1578 acres and 1689 ; beans, 10,867 acres and 11,178 ; peas, 3958 acres and 5953 ; making the total under corn crops 225,064 in 1868, and 230,082 in 1869. The quantity of green crops grown in the North Riding, in the years 1868 and 1869, was as follows: — Potatoes, 10,017 acres and 12,826; turnips and swedes, 57,364 acres and 57,984; mangold, 533 acres and 983 ; carrots, 74 acres and 99 ; cabbage, kohl rabi, and rape, 3248 acres and 3877; vetches, lucerne, and other green crops, except clover or grass, 2650 acres and 3584 ; making the total under green crops in the North Riding 73,886 acres in 1868, and 79,353 in 1869. The quantity of flax in the same two years was 1063 acres and 994 ; the extent of bare fallow or uncropped arable land was 36,688 acres and 33,458; the quantity of clover and sainfoin, and other grasses under rotation, was 67,291 acres and 56,960. In PAST AND PRESENT. 167 addition to these crops, the permanent pasture, meadow, or grass not broken up in rotation, exclusive of heath or mountain land, as already mentioned, was 382,833 acres in 1868, and 397,846 acres in 1869. With so large a quantity of grass land, the North Riding abounds in cattle, horses, and sheep. The total number of cattle in 1868 was 148,256, and in 1869 146,190; the total quantity of sheep in 1868 was 744,744, and in 1869, 698,279. The number of horses in the North Eiding was 41,991 in 1869, in the hands of occupiers of land only. The number of pigs was 52,058 in 1868, and 46,085 in 1869. The farms of the North Riding, on the average, contain fifty-one acres each, against seventy-eight acres in the East Riding, thirty- seven acres in the "West, and sixty acres in. the whole of England. They are thus considerably less than the farms of the East Riding considerably larger than those in the West Riding, and rather less than English farms are in general. Agricultural Labourers' Earnings in Yorkshire. — One of the most interesting questions connected with the agriculture of this county, as well as with all the other great branches of national industry, is what is the amount of remuneration, and of the means of domestic comfort which the cultivation of the soil supplies to the multitudes of families dependent upon it. The security and the happiness of all states, especially in an inquiring age like the present, depend chiefly on the condition of the labouring classes ; and as that portion of the labouring population which is dependent on the cultivation of the soU is much greater than that which is dependent on any other branch of national industry, it is especially interesting to ascertain what is the condition of that class as to the amount of its earnings, which forms the measure of its share of the comforts of life. Although it is somewhat difiicult to form a correct average of the amount of wages paid to a population which is scattered over the whole of the three kingdoms, yet the attempt to obtain this informa- tion has been made by Parliament during the last and the present year ; and though the returns are very imperfect as to their extent, they appear to be impartial, and to have been made on the spot, by disinterested persons. The few returns which have been made from the registration districts of Yorkshire may be regarded as very favourable, showing a general rate of farm wages as high as exists in any part of England, and sufficient to insure a fair amount of comfort in the cottages of the farm labourers of Yorkshire. Their 168 YORKSHIRE : great defect is that they contain no particulars from the East Riding, which is the finest agricultural district of the county. In the North Riding the returns are, from the Malton district, containing 112,407 acres and a population of 23,483 in 1561; the Leybiirn district, containing 84,918 acres and 10,105 inhabitants in 1861 ; and the Richmond district, containing 78,569 acres and 13,457 inhabitants in 1861. The Malton district is a fine agri- cultural district, and may be taken as a specimen of the corn- growing districts of the North and East Riding, being situate in the former, but very near to the latter. According to this return, the wages of men employed in farm labour in the Malton district, in the quarter ending Michaelmas 1869, were 19s. 9d. a week, without food, or lis. dd. with food; while those of women were 8 s. a week, without food ; and those of children under sixteen 5s., also without food. It is stated, however, in this return, that the average wages of men is greater in the quarter ending Michaelmas than at any other portion of the year, on account of the harvest and the turnip hoeing season. At other seasons of the year the average wages of men would be 15s. 6d., without food, or 8s. with food. The same observation applies to women and children, the wages of the former being 6s. a week at other seasons of the year, and those of children 3s. a week. The Leyburn district is chiefly a grazing district, and does not afford much employment either for women or children, except in time of hay-making. In the Leyburn district wages are given at 15s. a week for men, without food; those of women at 6s., also without food; and it is stated that there are no wages for children under sixteen. In the Richmond district, the wages of men are said to be 15s. to 18s. a week, without food, and the earnings by taskwork 18s. The wages of women are 6s. to 9s. ; and those of children under sixteen, 3s. to 6s. It is added that the general average wages of men are 2s. 6d. per day, and that on some farms a pint of beer is allowed to each man during harvest. The general average wages of women are from Is. to Is. 6d per day. The latter are harvest wages, and on some farms a giU of beer is allowed to each woman ; wages of children from 6d. to Is. per day. In the West Riding there are returns from the Settle, Pateley Bridge, Doncaster, and Thorne districts. Settle is a grazing district, extending over 154,591 acres, and containing a population of 12,528 persons in 1861. It is stated that there the wages were 15s. to PAST AND PRESENT. 169 18s. in the quarter ending Michaelmas, 1869; the day labourers generally earn from 15s. to 18s. a week, without food; whilst farm servants under a yearly hiring, with food and lodging, earn from 7s. to 10s. a week. The earnings of women, and of children under sixteen, are set down as "None." In the Pateley Bridge district — extending over 67,828 acres, and containing a population of 9534 persons in 1861 — the wages of men are returned at 15s., those of women at ^s., and those of children under sixteen at 5s. ; and it is stated that weekly earnings by task- work are not known in that union. In the Doncaster Union — which is a very fine agricultural dis- trict, extending over 109,031 acres, and containing 39,388 persons in 1861 — it is stated that the average weekly wages in the quarter ending Michaelmas, 1869, were for men, 14s.; women, &s.; children under sixteen, 6s. During four weeks in harvest the wages of men were from 20s. to 24s. per week, and those of both women and children from 12s. to 14s. per week. In the fine agricultural district of Thome, extending over 71,946 acres, and containing a population of 16,011 in 1861, the wages of men in the Michaelmas quarter are said to be 21s. per week, those of women 9s., and those of children under sixteen years, 7s. Qd. During harvest bread and cheese, or other food, with beer, are generally allowed in addition to the money earnings ; but this allowance may be safely estimated at Is. per head daily for both men and women. In the Thome Union taskwork is rarely resorted to, except during harvest, when a labourer, with his wife and one child, wiU earn about £2 10s. per week, but without extra allowance for food or drink. If there be more than one child in the family capable of working, the earnings are propor- tionately increased.* It is to be regretted that the information suppHed by this return does not extend to a greater number of unions ; but stiU it serves to show the rate of wages in several important districts. As a general rule the rate of wages is considerably higher in the corn-growing districts than in the grazing districts, employment being much more abundant in the former than in the latter, and the creation of wealth very much greater. One great difference * Return of the Average Rates of Weekly Earnings of Agricultural Labourers in the Unions of England and Wales, in respect of the Michaelmas and Christmas quarters, 1869, and the Lady Day and Midsummer quarters, 1870 ; Quarter ending Michaelmas, 1869 (Mr. Goschen). Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 29th July, 1869. No. 371. VOL. I. V 170 YORKSHIRE between the corn-growing districts, especially when cultivated on the four-course system (in which wheat, barley, turnips, and clover are grown in succession), or any similar rotation, and mere pasture and grass land, is, that they employ the labour of men, women, and children nearly aU the year round in one occupation or another, whilst mere grass land affords little employment for men, and scarcely any for women and children. In addition to this, the produce of the soil under the former system is said to be four times as great as it is under the latter. In comparing the weekly wages, without food, of men working as agricultural labourers, in several unions of England and Wales, for the quarter ending Michaelmas, 1869, we find the following results: — In the county of Surrey, the weekly wages of men are 14s., in the Epsom and Godstone districts ; in Kent, they are 15s., in the Faversham and Romney Marsh districts, and 14s. in the Eastry district; in Sussex they are 13s. 6d. in Ticehurst, 13s., or 13s. 6d., in West Humpnett and lis. in Midhurst; in Hampshire they are lis., in Broxford and Andover; in Berkshire they are 12s. in Hungerford and lis. in Farringdon; in Hertfordshire they are 17s. lie?., in Hitchin, and lis. Sd. at Royston ; in Northampton- shire they are 13s., at Peterborough and 12s, at Blis worth and Oundle ; in Huntingdonshire they are 1 6s., at St. Neots ; in Bedfordshire, they are lis., at Bedford and Woburn; in Cambridge- shire they are from 10s. to 12s. at Chesterton; in Essex they are 15s. at BUlericay, 12s. at Tendering and 10s. at Dunmow; in Suffolk, they are 9s. to 12s. at Stowmarket and about lis. at Sanford and 10s. at Blything; in Norfolk wages are 10s. to 12s., at Aylsham, 10s. at Depwade and 10s. at Downham ; in Wiltshire wages are lis. 6d. at Devizes and 10s. to 12s. at Alderbury ; in Dorsetshire 9s. 6d. ; at Winburne, and Cranboume, 10s. at Wareham and Purbeck, and 9s. at Cerne; in Devonshire wages are lis. at Oak- hampton ; 9s. at Tiverton and 8s. to 9s. at Axminster ; in Cornwall lis., at Camelford ; in Somersetshire, 10s. to 12s. at Shepton MaUett, and lis. at Axbridge; in Gloucestershire, 13s. 6c?. at Newent, 10s. to 12s. at Stroud, and 12s. at Cheltenham ; in Herefordshire, 10s. at Hereford and Bromyard, and 10s. 6d. at Ledbury; in Shropshire lis., at Shiffnal, and 10s. to 12s. at Hatcham; in Staffordshire 13s., at Burton-upon-Trent ; in Worcestershire 13s. 4c?. at Stowbridge, and lis. according to one return, and 13s. 9c?. according to another, at Evesham; in Warwickshire, 12s. at Warwick, and lis. at Stratford- PAST AND PRESENT. 171 on- Avon; in Leicestershire, 13s. to 15s. at Market-Boswortli, and 13s. at Melton Mowbray; in Lincolnshire 14s. at Louth; in Derbyshire 12s. to 15s. at Ashbourne; in Cheshire 15s. at Runcorn, and Hawarden, and 12s. at Nantwich; in Lancashire, 15s. at Ormskirk and Clitheroe ; in Yorkshire 15s. to 18s. at Settle, 15s. at Pateley Bridge, 14s. at Doncaster, 21s. at Thorne, 19s. 'dd. at Malton, 15s. at Leyburn, and 15s. to 18s. at Richmond; in Durham, 15s. at Darlington, and 18 s. at Sedgefield ; ia Northumberland 16s. to 18s. at Morpeth; 15s. at Berwick-on-Tweed and Glendale; in Cumberland 15s. at Bampton and Wigton; and in Westmoreland 14s.' 6c?. in East Ward, and 18s. at Kendal. These are stated to be the wages paid in the Michaelmas Quarter, and are no doubt higher than the average wages, owing to the extra employment in the harvest months. Summary of the Agricultural Products of Yorhsliire in 1870. — Until very recently there was no information that could be relied upon as to the nature and produce of the agriculture of this county, or any other part of the United Kingdom. It was not known what portion of the land was in grass, what was in tillage, how much grain, or what quantity of roots or clover was grown, what numbers of sheep and cattle were fed, or how many persons were employed as farmers in carrying on the cultivation of the soil. HappUy this want of information no longer exists, the official returns now laid before Parliament every year showing at once the greatness and the nature of the agricultural wealth of the United Kingdom, and of every county in the three kingdoms. These valuable returns enable us to ascertain the agricultural produce of each of the three Ridings of the county of York, and of the whole of Yorkshire, and to compare it with that of other counties, and also with that of the kingdom generally. The following facts, from the returns for the years 1868 and 1869, show what was the position of each of the three Ridings, with regard to the number of its inhabitants, to its mode of cultivation, and to the cattle and animals reared on its soU, in the two last years for which returns have been made. The population of England in the year 1869 amounted to 20,658,599 persons ; that of Great Britain to 25,075,088 ; that of the United Kingdom to 30,759,555 ; and that of the county of York to 2,224,831. The population of each of the three Ridings, and of the whole county of York, was as follows : — ■ 172 YORKSHIRE : East Eiding, including city of York, 297,989 North Riding, . . 269,740 West Riding, . . ... . • 1,657,102 Total, . . . ..... 2,224,831* The total area of England in statute acres is 32,590,397; that of Great Britain is 56,964,260 acres; and that of the United Kingdom, 77,513,585 ; whilst the areas of the three Ridings of Yorkshire and of the whole county of York are as follows, according to the returns of the Registrar-general : — statute Acres. East Riding, including the city of York, 771,139 North Eiding, . . 1,350,121 West Riding . . 1,709,307 Total, . . . . . 3,830,567 The above is the number of acres in the county of York, according to the Registrar-general's Return ; but this is what is merely called the " Registration County," and excludes considerable quantities of Yorkshire territory which are given in other counties. The real extent of this great county, as ascertained in the recent Ordnance Survey, is 3,923,697 acres. The number of occupiers of more than five acres of land, owning live stock, or of occupiers of land only, of the same extent, in England, amounted in the year 1868 to 385,577, and in 1869 to 405,264 ; whilst in the three Ridings of Yorkshire it was as follows : — 1868. 1863. East Riding, including the city of York, 8,330 ... 8,703 North Riding, . 15,332 ... 15,592 West Eiding, . . 30,174 ... 31,709 Total 53,836* ... 56,004 The average acreage returned as held by each occupier in Eng- land, in the year 1868, was sixty acres, and in 1869, fifty-eight; in the East Riding of York it was seventy-eight acres, and seventy- seven; in the North Riding, fifty-one acres; and in the West Riding, thirty-seven acres. The total number of acres of land under all kinds of crops, bare fallow, and grass in England, in the year 1868, was 23,038,781 * Agricultural Eeturns of Great Britain ; with Abstract Returns for the United Kingdom, British Possessions aud Foreign Conntries, 1868 and 1869. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty. PAST AND PRESENT. 173 and in 1869, 23,370,502. The quantity in the county of York, in the same years (1868 and 1869), was as foUows : — 18C8. 1869. East Riding, 646,465 ... 668,712 North Riding, 786,825 ... 798,699 West Riding, 1,128,211 ... 1,140,871 Total, 2,561,501* ... 2,608,282 The quantity of land under corn crops of all kinds in England in 1868 was 7,499,218 acres, and in 1869, 7,785,033. The number of acres of corn grown in the coimty of York in the same years was as foUows : — 1868. 1869. East Riding, 274,800 ... 288,493 Nortt Riding, 225,064 ... 230,082 West Riding, 254,131 ... 268,164 Total, 753,995 ... 786,729 The quantity of land under green crops, such as turnips, mangolds, potatoes, carrots, and other roots, in England in 1868, was 2,585,019 acres, and in 1869, 2,759,098. The quantity in Yorkshire was as follows : — 1868. 1809. East Riding, 100,318 ... 109,641 North Riding, 73,886 ... 79,353 West Riding, 95,979 ... 104,643 Total, 270,183 ... 293,637 The total number of acres of land under clover and artificial and other grasses under rotation in England in 1868 was 2,370,638 acres, and in 1869, 2,004,902. The total in Yorkshire was as follows : — 1868. 1869. East Riding 87,117 ... 77,363 North Riding, 67,291 ... 56,960 West Riding, 91,261 ... 59,034 Total, 245,669 ... 193,357 The amount of permanent pasture or grass land not broken up in rotation (exclusive of heath or mountaia land) in England in 1868, was 9,703,884 statute acres, and in 1869, 10,096,094. The quantity of permanent grass land under pasture in Yorkshire is extremely large, as wUl be seen by the following figures : — * Agricultural Eetnrns of Great Britain j with Abstract Returns for the United Kingdom, British Possessions, and Foreign Countries, 1868 and 1869, Presented to hoth Houses of Parliament hy command of Her Jfajesty. 174 YORKSHIRE. 1868. 1869. EastEiding, 153,008 ... 166,396 Nortli Biding, 382,833 ... 397,846 West Riding, 659,333 ... 685,438 Total, 1,197,174 ...1,249,680 The quantity of cattle and sheep kept on the extensive and, in many cases, rich grass lands of Yorkshire, and even on the heath-covered mountains and moors, is very large, and forms a chief item in calculating the results of the agricultural production and the agricultural wealth of this county. The total number of cattle in England, in 1868, was 3,7/9,691, and in 1869, 3,706,641 ; whilst the number returned as kept in Yorkshire was : — 1868. 1869. EastEiding, 77,206 ... 76,886 North Eiding, 148,256 ... 146,190 WestEiding, . . . 231,996 ... 222,789 Total, 457,458 •• 445,865 The number of sheep returned as existing in England on the 28th June, 1868, was 20,930,779, and in 1869, 19,821,865, The number in Yorkshire was as follows: — 1868. 1869. EastEiding, 593,056 ... 539,981 North Eiding, .... 744,744 ... 698,279 West Eiding, . 823,214 ... 735,900 Total, 2,161,014 ... 1,974,160 Yorkshhe is the great county for horses, containing more than the tenth part of all the horses in England, according to the return for 1869. There were no returns of horses previous to that year, but in 1869 it was found that the number of horses, returned by occupiers of land only, in the whole of England, was 1,141,996. There are also immense quantities of horses in all the large towns, and in the smaller towns, and even in many villages, which are used for other purposes than those for which they are used by the occupiers of land. But we have no means at present of stating their number. With regard to the horses returned by the occupiers of land in the county of York, their numbers were as foUows : — 1868. 1869. EastEiding, No return ... 40,622 North Riding " ... 41,991 WestEiding, " ... 60,742 Total, " ... 143,355 PAST AND PKESENT. 175 Yorkshire being one of the principal counties for the breeding of horses, the number of young horses, under two years of age, is very great, amounting in 1869 to 25,133 in the whole county. The number in each Riding was rather more than 8000. The number of pigs in England on the 25th June, 1868, was 1,981,606, and in 1869, 1,629,550 ; whilst the number in Yorkshire was as follows : — 1868. 1869. EastEiding, 45,879 ... 40,064 North Eiding, . . . . 52,058 ••■ 46,085 West Eiding, 60,200 ••• 52,171 Total 158,137 ... 138,320 Summary of the Agricultural Produce of YorhsJiire in the Years 1868 and 1869. — It may be weU to show in a single table the agricultural produce of the whole of Yorkshire in the years 1868 and 1869; estimating the quantity of grain per acre according to the numbers given in Mr. William Wright's Prize Report: — SDMMAET OF THE AGKICITLTIIRAL PRODTTCE OF TOEESHniE. Wheat, Barley, Oats, . Eye, . Beans, Peas, . CoEN Crop. Total com, Roots, Grasses, &c. Potatoes Turnips and Swedes, . . . Mangold, . Carrots, Cabbage, kohl, rabi, and rape Vetches, lucerne, &c., ... Total under green crops, . Flax, Hops, - . . . Clover, sainfoin, and grasses under rotation, .... Permanent pasture, meadow, or grass not broken up in ) rotation (exclusive of heath or mountain land), . . ) Woods and wood lands, heath or mountain land, lakes, " estuaries, rivers, towns, villages, roads, and land not otherwise accounted for, Animals. Cattle Sheep, Pigs, Horses in hands of farmers, Statute Acres. 1868. 316,088 166,770 210,726 5,279 35,129 18,003 753,995 43,527 196,388 3,283 335 12,910 13,640 270,183 6,310 6 245,669 1,197,174 1,450,366 457,458 2,161,014 158,137 No return. Statute Acres. 1869. 331,579 169,949 208,497 6,332 42,893 27,479 786,729 53,669 196,385 5,735 443 16,124 21,281 293,637 7,746 5 193,367 1,249,680 1,392,537 445,865 1,974,160 138,320 143,355 176 YOEKSHIKE. THE MINERAL WEALTH OE THE NOBTH RIDING. The mineral wealth of the North Eiding is exceedingly great, especially in the two chief articles of iron and lead, which are amongst the principal means of modem industry. The production of iron ore and of iron, in the county of Yorlr, is much larger than that of the same articles in any other English county ; and there is every reason to believe that it will continue to increase with undiminished rapidity. It appears from the Mineral Sta- tistics of the United Kingdom, for the year 1868, that the quantity of iron ore produced in the county of York that year was 3,570,935 tons, of the value, at the pit's mouth, of £898,240. The quantity of pig u"on produced in the same year, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, was 699,494 tons, and in the West Riding, 100,050 tons, making the total production of pig iron in Yorkshire in that year 799,544 tons. In the same year the quantity of lead ore produced in the county of York was 7693 tons 16 cwts.; the quantity of lead was 5654 tons 12 cwts.; and the quantity of silver was 2500 ounces. The whole production of iron ore in England, Scotland, and Wales, in 1868, amounted to 10,169,231 tons 10 icwts., of the value of £3,146,600, of which Yorkshire supplied 3,570,935 tons; and the whole production of pig iron in Great Britain in the year 1868 amoimted to 4,970,206 tons, of the value of £12,425,515, of which the quantity produced in Yorkshire was 799,544 tons, of the value of £898,240. The quantity of iron pyrites or sulphur ores produced in Yorkshire, in the same year, was 3000 tons, of the value of £1450. Ironstone of the YorTcsMre Lias. — In the account of the Iron Ores of Great Britain pubhshed in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain in the year 1856, we have one of the best accounts that has been published of the great discoveries of ironstone in the Lias formation of the North Riding of Yorkshire. In this work we are informed, that not more than eight years had then elapsed, since attention was accidentally directed to loose masses of a ferruginous substance, which were strewn over the beach on the north-eastern coast of Yorkshire ; and experiments made at the furnaces of Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan, near Bishop Auckland, proved it to be worth smelting as an ore of iron. Yet some little time elapsed before it was observed that these loose blocks had fallen from the higher ground, in which a massive bed of the same material might be PAST AND PRESENT. 177 traced by its outcrop, for miles and miles along tlie escarpment of the Cleveland hills. On the coast line, and again at a small elevation above the flat land which extends from Eedcar to Middlesborough on Tees, there crops out to the surface a solid stratum of no less than fifteen feet thick of an ironstone, which, although said to contain on an average about thirty per cent, of iron, presents such an appearance as readily to account for its value being so long overlooked. Situate about the middle of the Lias formation, in a position corresponding to the marlstone, it would easUy pass muster for an ordinary sandstone, with only its external surface more or less rusted by the peroxid- ation of iron. It is, in fact, a sometimes massive, at others inter- laminated with shaley bands, deposit of a greenish or gray colour, divided by a system of nearly vertical joints, having a structure generally oolitic, and in the spherules of which Mr. Bowerbank recognizes, under the microscope, concentric coatings. It contains numerous well known fossils of the marlstone, especially Belemnites and Pecten sequivalvis, many of which are in a very fine state of preservation. This remarkable seam extends over a region of some hundreds of square miles, although with a gradually diminishing thickness as it is traced southward to Guisborough, and then to Thirsk, where it appears to thin out. It is capped by sandy shales containing scattered nodules of ironstone, and ultimately, above the marlstone series to which it belongs, by the Upper Lias shale, so well known along the Whitby coast for its fossils, jet, and the application of some of the beds to the manufacture of alum. The Upper Lias shale, although 200 feet thick on the coast, is much less towards its western limit ; and thus in the Thirsk district the marlstone is succeeded, within a very small distance, by the Lower Oolite series, which there acquires practical importance from containing several bands of workable ironstone. The great Lias bed is nowhere better developed than at Eston, near Middlesborough, where, as well as for some miles to the south- ward, it is now actively worked, Self-acting inclined planes have been carried up the lower slope of the hill and lead into the work- ings, which are conducted in a series of chambers and massive pillars, generally to the full height of the seam. Such was the origin of the discovery of the Cleveland iron field, now the richest in England. The following account will show both vol.. I. z 178 YORKSHIRE : the nature of the field and the progress which has been made in developing it : — The Cleveland ironstone, at its outcrop, where it has been for centuries exposed to atmospheric influences, has become a brown oxide ; but from the interior of the mine it is a lightish blue carbonate, porous, granulated, and oolitic where the bed is thick and undivided towards the north ; but a carbonate of a lighter colour, more compact, less oolitic, and approaching more to clayband iron- stone towards the south. In the deposition of the ironstone beds, nature appears to have scattered more iron in some localities than in others ; and as a general law, with some exceptions, where she has laid down a thick and undivided bed, it is not only larger in quantity, but generally a Httle richer in iron, than where the same bed southward is divided and split into thicknesses of three or four feet each by wedge-shaped shale beds, with their points to the north. The thick parts of the bed yield thirty-one to thirty-two per cent, of iron ; while the thinnest parts, worked many miles away, yield from twenty-six to twenty-eight per cent. As a httle compensation for the poorer parts of the bed, it yields a some- what better quality of iron. At Eston the bed attains its greatest thickness, being in some parts of this mine nearly twenty feet of undivided ironstone. From Eston the bed gradually but slowly decreases in thickness to the south-east, but more rapidly so to the south-west. It has been said that the 'Great Whin Dyke,' which passes to the south side of Roseberry, and down the valley of the Esk, has been the cause of the splitting and deterioration of the ironstone bed to the south ; but this idea can scarcely be supported when we know that the Lias strata, with the ironstone beds, were deposited long anterior to their having been split asunder, and the cavity filled up with basaltic matter. The Cleveland district may be divided into three parts or ranges of hills ; the first comprising Normanby, Eston, Upleatham, and Hobhill mines, and at the present time (1870) yielding about 29,000 tons of ironstone per week. The mines in the second range of hills yield about 29,280 tons of ironstone per week ; and the yield of the third range of mines will, probably, be 1400 tons per week. We have thus about 59,680 tons per week of ironstone pro- duced from the main bed at the present time, equal to about 3,000,000 tons per annum. Hitherto the main bed of ironstone only has been named. There is, however, another of some importance in a com- mercial point of view. This is called the " top bed " of Cleveland PAST AJSTD PRESENT. 179 ironstone. Its geological position is about 230 feet above the main bed, and is found on tbe top of the Upper Lias or alum shales ; and although the main bed varies in thickness and quality in different localities, the top bed has a much greater range of variation. Here it will be found thinned out to two or three bands of clay ironstone, from two to six inches thick ; there expanded to a thickness of twenty-four feet ; but the additional matter it contains is nearly all sand, and the bed at such places can be called little else than a ferruginous sandstone. In one locality it is thick and rich in iron; in another thin and poor ; and these are often reversed, so that the deposition of the top bed appears to have been governed by an eccentric law: generally it is most valuable when the bed is frojn four to six feet thick. At present it is worked in three places only in Cleveland ; that is. Port Mulgrave on the coast, Glaisdale, and Rosedale. At the first-named place it is worked by Messrs. Palmer & Co., and is even richer in iron than the bottom bed, which this company work also, below sea-level ; and when the two are smelted together it is said they produce a good quahty of iron — the alumina of the bottom bed correcting the silica of the top. It is probable that, at some future time, the better parts of the top bed will be more generally used as a mixture with the bottom bed, to the advan- tage of the iron manufacturer. At Glaisdale the bed is worked about six or seven feet thick, but has only lately been opened out. In Rosedale the top bed is worked very extensively, supplying ten or eleven blast furnaces of gigantic size. It is about twelve feet thick, and said to contain a large percentage of iron. The top bed, however, is generally too silicious for making first-class iron when smelted alone ; and unless it is very skilfully treated in the blast furnace, a silicate of iron is found in the pig, which makes it somewhat brittle.'"' Description and Analysis of the Cleveland Iron Ore. — It is chiefly a carbonate of protoxide of iron ; lustre, earthy ; colour, greenish gray ; streak, similar ; fracture, uneven, showing here and there small cavities, some of which are filled with carbonate of lime. Throughout the ore are diffused irregularly a multitude of small oolitic concretions, together with small pieces of an earthy substance resembling the ore, but lighter in colour. When a mass of this ore is digested in hydrochloric acid till all carbonates and soluble sihcates are dissolved, there remains a residue having the * T. Allison, in Transactions of South Wales Engineers. 180 YOEKSHIEE : form of the original mass of ore. It is extremely light, and falls to powder unless very carefully handled. It contains the oolitic concretions, or else skeletons of them, which dissolve completely in dilute caustic potash, showing them to be silica in a soluble state. Under the microscope some of them are seen to have a central nucleus of dark colour and irregular shape, but none of them present any indication of organic structure, or radiated crystal- lization. If the residue, after having been digested in caustic potash, be washed by decantation, there remains a small number of microscopic crystals ; some of these, which are white, are quartz, and others, which are black and acutely pyramidal, consist chiefly of titanic acid. Professor MiUer of Cambridge succeeded in measur- ing some of the angles of the crystals containing titanic acid, and found that they corresponded to similar angles in anatase. The green colour of the ore seems to be due to a sUicate containing peroxide and protoxide of iron, but this could not be exactly determined, because it was not found possible to dissolve out the carbonates without acting at the same time upon the silicate of iron. EESULTS TABULATED. Protoxide of iron, 39-92 Peroxide of iron, ... ... 3-60 Protoxide of manganese, . . .... 0'95 Alumina, 7-86 Lime, ... 7-44 Magnesia, 3-82 Potash, ... . . . . • 0-27 Carbonic acid, .... 22'85 Phosphoric acid, .... i-86 Silica, soluble in hydrochloric acid, 7-12 Sulphuric acid, ... trace. Bisulphide of iron, O'll Water, in combination, . . . 297 Organic matter, trace. Insoluble residue (of which 0-98 is soluble in dilute caustic potash), and consists chieily of oolitic concretions, 1-64 100-41 Iron, total amount, 33-62 INSOLTTBLE RESIDUE. Silica 1.50 Alumina, with a trace of peroxide of iron O'lO Titanic acid, about q-q^ I'™e trace. 1-63 PAST AND PRESENT. 181 No metal precipitable by sulpliuretted hydrogen from the hydro- chloric acid solution of about 1200 grains of ore was detected. With a special view of showing the great extent of the iron trade of Yorkshire, as well as of exhibiting the manner in which the pro- duction of iron is distributed in the different districts of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, it may be well to bring together, in a single table, the amount of the production of iron ore in every part of the United Kingdom. The last report of the Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom, published in the autumn of 1869, enables us to bring this interesting information very nearly down to the present time. The following table, taken from that work, shows how widely this great industry is now distributed, and at how many points in the British Islands this most useful of metals is found. QUAHTITT AOT) VALUE OF THE lEON OKE PKODUCED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTIES OF ENGLAND, AND IN SCOTLAND, IRELAND, AND WALES, IN THE TEAK 1868. Counties, &c. Quantities. Value. Corn-wall, ... Devonshire, ... Somersetshire, . Gloucestershire, . . ... Wiltshire, .... NorthamptonsLire, . .... Tons. Civts. 8,310 5 11,178 1 32,450 10 167,288 75,084 449,116 8 205,699 6 278,541 14,795 786,881 340,578 368,440 125,000 767,625 926,628 3,570,935 36,313 712,680 220 1,250,000 41,469 £ S. D. 2,460 11 6 3,667 19 1 12.168 75,333 18 30,033 112,278 18 51,424 16 6 69,635 3,698 13 214,446 86,908 91,860 31,250 383,812 10 610,370 8 898,240 10,536 1 182,897 15 66 12 305,000 10,492 5 Shropshire, . Warwickshire, Staffordshire (North), (South), Northumberland and Durham, .... Lancashire, ' Cumberland, Yorkshire, North Wales, South Wales and Monmouthshire, . . . Isle of Man, Scotland, Ireland, .... Total _ Iron Ore Production of the United Kingdom, j 10,169,231 10 £3,196,600 7 1 One of the principal causes of the rapid increase of the iron trade of England, during the last twenty years, has been the dis- covery of iron ores similar to those of Cleveland, not only in those districts of Yorkshire which rest upon the Lias and Oolite formations, but at many other points along the same formation from Yorkshire, through the midland counties of England. Iron, like all substances which are necessary or highly conducive to 182 YORKSHIEE : human use, is very widely diffiised, and especially in this country, in which nearly all the strata existing throughout the world are found in considerable quantities. Originally the iron ores most used in England were found in the Wealden formations of Sussex and Kent, and were smelted by the fuel supplied by the great forests, which in early times covered the principal part of these two counties. After those forests had been consumed in the iron furnaces, the iron trade was transferred to the carboniferous formation, in which iron is found on nearly all the coal-fields of England, and at several points on the mountain limestone. These are stUl the principal sources of supply in Great Britain. During the last thirty years new and extensive supplies of iron ore have been found in the Lias and Oolite, which extend through the greater part of England, from the coast of Yorkshire to the coast of Dorset- shire. Much the largest portion of the iron ore of these formations is obtained in the North Riding or Cleveland district, where the yield amounted to 2,785,307 tons, in the year 1868. But large quantities of iron ore are also obtained in the Lias or Oolite forma- tions of Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and Wiltshire, and smaller quantities in Bedfordshire and Oxfordshire. In the year 1868, Lincolnshire supplied 205,699 tons, Northamptonshire 449,116 tons, and Wiltshire 75,084 tons; making the total quantity yielded by these new sources of supply more than 3,250,000 tons annually. According to Professor Phillips, the area under this bed which may be worked in Yorkshire, measures in the North Biding of York some hundreds of square miles, with an average produce of 20,000 to 50,000 tons per acre. It dies out southward, and vanishes about Thirsk ; but there are other ironstones of considerable value found in the oolitic series above. We have already given an account of the several points at which the iron ores of the West Riding are found. Those of the North Biding are now worked at numerous points in the Cleveland district, and it is the opinion of some geologists that they are not confined to that district only. One great advantage of the Cleveland district is its proximity to the sea, and to good seaports ; and another not less important advantage is its proximity to the rich and great coal- field of the county of Durham. The following are the principal points at which the iron ores, both of the North and the West Riding, were worked in the year 1868, and the quantity and the value of the ores yielded at each point, as well as the character of the ore. PAST AND PKESENT. 183 mON ORE EETUKNS FOB YOEKSHIKE. District or Mine. Cliaraoter of Ore. Quantities. Value. North Riding, or Olbve- liAND District. Eston and IJpsal, Upleatham, .... (Hob Hill), Lofthouse Normanby, . . Margrave Park, Cliff Mine, . Skelton, . . . Port Mulgrave, . Belmont, .... (South), Glaisdale (Yarm), . Grosmont, Eskdale, . . Rosedale,* Total of Cleveland, "West Riding. Low Moor, . . Farnley, Thornoliffe, . Sundry Mines, . . Total of "West Riding, Total of North Eiding Total of Yorkshire, ' Argillaceous Carbonate. (C ti a u u u u u it u it fC u u .i u 11 ti u U (( Magnesio. Argillaceous Carbonate. u u Tons. Cwts. 715,248 573,566 298,769 243,903 169,769 90,417 155,950 127,372 60,394 69,672 200 67,443 2,522 210,082 £. B. D. 178,812 143,391 5 74,692 5 60,975 15 42,692 5 22,604 5 38,987 10 31,843 15,098 10 17,418 50 16,860 15 630 10 57,777 701,833 2,785,307 596,628 Of 21,000 18,000 150,000 149,157 5.250 4.500 37,500 785,628 2,785,307 196,407 701,833 3,570,935 898,240 See Nortli Eastern Railway Return, Ferryhill. t Raw Stone. The number of iron furnaces in all parts of Yorkshire amounted to upwards of one hundred in the year 1868. Of these furnaces sixty- nine were in the North Riding, and derived their suppUes from the ores of the Lias formation; and thirty-eight were in the West Riding, and obtained their supplies of ore from the coal formation. Some of the latter are of great antiquity, iron having been made in the West Riding at least from the time of Henry VIII. The former are all very modern, and nearly the whole of them have been erected in the reign of Queen Victoria. From the great success, and the magnifi- cent fortunes that have been realized in working the mines in the Lias and Oolite of Cleveland, these strata will no doubt be carefully examined in all those districts of the North and East Ridings through which they pass. Some of these researches will probably fail to discover iron ore in sufficient quantity to render it profitable to work, especially at so great a distance from the fuel both of Durham and the West Riding. Some of them, however, are very- likely to be successful. 184 YORKSHIRE, DETAILS OF BLAST FDENACES IN BLAST, AHB OF THE MAKE OF PIS IRON IN 1868. Names of Works. NOETH ElDING OR CLEVE- LAND District — Beck Holes, . . . . Cargo Fleet, Clay Lane, Eston Junction, Cleveland, Middlesboro'. . . . WittonPark; . . . Glaisdale, Yarmouth, Grosmont, . . . Newport, ISTormanby, Middlesboro', Ormesby, " South Bank, Tees, Tees Side, Linthorpe, Total of North Hiding, West Eiding — Ardsley, Leeds, . . Beeston Manor, . Bowling, .... Elsecar, ) r. i MUton, P^™«ley, Farnley, . Holmes, . Pargate, . Low Moor, Bierley, . Thorncliffe and Chapel i Town, Sheffield, Worsborough, . . White Horse, Leeds, Hepworth, ... Total of West Riding, Owners. Whitby Iron Co., Swan, Coates, & Co. Clay Lane Iron Co. Bolokow, Vaughan, & Co., (Limited.) Firth & Hodgson. Chas. & Thos. Bagnall, jun. B. Samuelson & Co. Jones, Dunning, & Co. Cochrane & Co. South Bank Iron Co. Gilkes, Wilson, Pease, & Co. Hopkins, Gilkes, & Co., ) (Limited.) ) Lloyd & Co. j West Yorkshire Iron and ) 1 Coal Co. 1 A. Harding & Co. The Bowling Iron Co. W. H. & G. Dawes. Farnley Iron Co. Pargate Iron Co. (Limited). Hird, Dawson, & Hardy. Newton, Chambers, & Co. Worsborough Iron Co. R. & W. Garside. Hepworth Iron Co. Furnaces Furnaces Built. in Blast. 2 2 2 6 5* 18 12 3 2 1 5 5t 3 2 3 3 9 9 8 3 4 4 4 4 69 50 2 1 2 1 6 3 6 4 4 2 3 2 8 5 2 2 1 2 2 2 38 22 Pig Iron Made. 699,494 100,050 * Ttoee furnaces for six months only. f Seven for nine months, and sis for three months. The quantity of iron yielded by the different iron ores worked in this country, varies very greatly; some of the ores being so rich as to contain seventy to eighty per cent, of pure iron, whilst others do not contain more than forty-five per cent., and some not more than thirty-three per cent. The general result is, that 4,970,206 tons of iron are yielded by 10,283,170 tons of iron ore of all kinds smelted in Great Britain. The question of whether the ores are worth smelting depends almost as much on the price of fuel, and the cheapness of access to a good market, as upon the percentage of iron contained in the ores. The foUowmg tables will show the quantity PAST AND PRESENT. 185 of pig iron produced in the year 1868 in all parts of the United Kingdom, together with its value at the place of production. StTMMAEY OF PIG HION PEODUCB IN 1868. Number of Number of Number of Tons of Pig Iron Made. Connties. Iron-works Active. Furnaces built in District. Furnaces in Blast. England— Northumberland, .... 1 18 1 17,495 Durham, 10 72 35i 499,592 Yorkshire— North Kiding, . u 69 50 699,494 WestKiding, . 9 38 72 100,050 Derbyshire, 11 42 28 159,312 Lancashire, . 5 28 22J 325,367 Cumberland, 3 18 8 116,864 Shropshire, .... 8 29 24 145,154 North Staffordshire, . . . 7 36 25 229,910 South " ... 41 172 89 532,234 Northamptonshire, . . . 3 8 6 35,584 Lincolnshire, 3 6 5 33,999 Gloucestershire,. . . 3 10 5] Wiltshire,. . . 1 4 3 75,847 Somersetshire, Total, Wales— 1 2 n 117 552 325 2,970,905 North Wales. Denbighshire 3 9 4 37,046 South Wales. Anthracite Furnaces, . . 4 23 11 38,148 Bituminous ( Glamorganshire, 9 75 48 399,291 Coal < Brecknockshire, 1 14 5 29,000 Districts. ( Monmouthshire, Total, Scotland— 10 72 44 427,821 27 193 112 931,306 Ayrshire, . 8 50 34 — Lanarkshire, 14 91 77 — Fifeshire, 3 13 3 — Stirlingshire 1 4 2 — Haddingtonshire, .... 1 1 1 — Argyleshire, Total, 1 1 1 — 28 160 118 1,068,000 QUANTITY AND VALUE OF PIG lEON MANUFACTUEED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1868. Ieon Gee. — The Total Quantity of Iron Ore raised in the United Kingdom, as shown in the preceding Eeturns, amounted to . 10,169,231 tons. Foreign Ores imported, , . , 114,439 " Total of Iron Ore smelted in Great Britain, 10,283.170 " Estimated Value of the Iron Ores of the United Kingdom, .... £3,291,220. Number of Furnaces in Blast, . . 560 Pig Iron produced in England, . . . 2,970,905 tons. Wales, . 931,301 " Scotland, ... . 1,068,000 " Total production of Pig Iron in Great Britain, . 4,970,206 " VOL I. 2 A 186 YORKSHIRE : This quantity estimated at the mean average cost at the place of production would have a value of . . ^12,425,515 In addition to iron, a bituminous shale, or brown shaley coal, occurs in the Kimmeridge clay under the name of "Kim coal," and has been used in extracting paraffin. Seams of coal, likewise, which are sometimes workable, occur in the Oolite, as at Gristhorpe in Yorkshire ; at Brora in Sutherlandshire ; at several places in Germany ; in the East Indies, and at Richmond in Virginia. Several of the Oolitic strata, as those of Bath and Portland, and some found in Yorkshire, yield excellent building stone. Both the Lias and Oolite limestones are extensively employed for mortar. The pyritic clays and shales of the Yorkshire Lias yield sulphate of alumina (the alum of commerce), which at one time was also obtained from the Kim- meridge clay. Fullers' earth, composed chiefly of sihcum, alumina, and water, and possessing in a high degree the property of absorbing grease, is a product of the Upper Oolite, and was at one time extensively used in the cleansing and scouring of woollens. It may also be well to give the few figures which are required to show the quantities and values of the metals obtained from the various ores raised in the United Kingdom, in the last year for which we possess an official return, viz., 1868 : — METALS OBTAINED FEOM THE GEES RAISED IN THE UNITED KINSDOM IN 1868. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Iron, Pig, . . 4,970,206 12,381,280 Tin,. 9,300 901,400 Copper, . 9,817 761,602 Leac, 71,017 1,378,404 Zinc, . 3,713 Ounces, 75,435 Silver, . . 835,542 229,773 Gold, 1,012 3,522 Other metals (estimated)^ . . . . Total value of metals produced, . . 5,000 £16,736,416 The following particulars with regard to the value of the whole of the minerals produced in England, are of interest in connection with this account of the mineral wealth of Yorkshhe. It will be seen that coal is the most valuable of the mineral products of England. But the greatest security for the progress of any district in industry is that combination of coal and iron, which exists in Yorkshire and a few other favoured couiities. PAST AND PRESEMT. 187 TOTAL QrAUTITT AND VALDE OF THE MINEEALS RAISED IN THE UNITED EINGDOJI IN THE YEAE 1868. Coal, Iron Ore, Tin Ore, . Copper Ore, . . . . Lead Ore, . Zinc Ore, Iron Pyrites (Sulphur Ores), Gold Quartz, Arsenic, Gossans and Ochres, . . Wolfram, .... ... Fluor Spar, . . . . Manganese, ... . . Barytes, Coprolites, . . .... Salt, Clays, fine and fire, Total Value of Minerals produced in the United Kingdom, Quantities. Tons. 103,141,157 10,109,2.31 13,953 157,335 95,236 12,781 76,484 1,191 3,300 6,692 9 60 1,700 14,235 37,500 1,513,840 1,012,479 Value. 25,785,289* 3,196,600 770,205 642,103 1,150,768 39,191 53,636 1,000 9,710 6,372 67 42 7,650 8,728 71,500 ■ 927,227 650,000 £33,637,858 * Calcnlated at the actual cost of raising, before any charges for movement are added. Unexplored Coal-fields. — At the meeting of the British Asso- ciation held at Nottingham in the year 1866, Sir Roderick J. Murchison, K.C.B., Director-general of Geological Survey, read a paper " On the parts of England and Wales in vs^hich coals may and may not be looked for beyond the known coal-fields." After discussing the probabilities of finding coal in some other parts of England, he made the following observations as to the probabilities of finding it in Yorkshire, to the north and the east of that portion of the West Riding in which it has been so long found. He observed : — " To widen the application of the inferences respecting those tracts where coal cannot reasonably be sought for, I may extend the reasoning to parts of Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire, as well as to a large portion of the North Riding of the latter county. On this head I will first aUude to the south side of the valley of the Tees, a tract which I have long known, extending from Croft, by Middleton-on-Row, to the tovm of Middlesborough, where the new red sandstone, of enormous thick- ness, is covered by detritus and northern drift. At Middles- borough the ironmaster, Mr. Vaughan, being desirous of obtaining 188 YORKSHIRE : subterranean water for the working of his engines, sunk an artesian well to the depth of 1800 feet, and at length reached a body of rock-salt, subordinate to the new red sandstone, in fact, without reaching even the surface of the magnesian limestone, through which the deep coal-pits of the east coast of Durham are sunk to the extreme depth at which they have hitherto been worked in that county. " If, then, the coal measures should be prolonged under ground to the south of the Tees (which, from my observation of the rocks between Seaton Carew and Hartlepool, I greatly doubt, as there are symptoms of a basin-shaped arrangement of the strata), and should pass under the vale of Cleveland, and the hills of the eastern moorlands, what, I may ask, would be the vast depth at which they could be won, by passing through the Oolites and Lias, in addition to the new red sandstone and magnesian limestone? " In the excellent work on Yorkshire by Professor Phillips, and indeed on aU geological maps of England, it is shrf)wn that throughout a distance of many miles the lower or unproductive carboniferous rocks of limestone and millstone grit of the York- shire dales are at once surmounted by the magnesian limestone of the Permian group. " On the bank of the Tees, west of Darhngton, wherever the magnesian limestone forms the upper stratum, as at Conscliffe, it is at once underlaid by unproductive millstone grit, which on the west lies upon mountain Umestone, the productive coal measure which ought to lie between the millstone grit and the Permian rocks being entirely wanting, owing either to great denudation, or to an ancient elevation of the tract after the lower carboniferous period. This uprise of the older rocks seems also to form a southern border of the great Durham coal basin. In fact, no valuable coaly matter has ever had an existence in the tract extending from Bar- nard Castle, on the Tees, to the south of Harrogate. At the latter place and its environs we have, further, the clearest possible proof of the omission of all the productive coal strata; for the Plumpton rocks and conglomerates underlying the magnesian limestone, and forming, in my opinion, the base of the Permian system, are seen to repose directly on unproductive millstone grit, which, in its turn rests upon the mountain limestone of the western dales of York- shire. But whilst I give this as not merely my opinion, and that also of Professors Phillips and Sedgwick, who have surveyed the PAST AND PRESENT. 189 tract in question, and also that of many sound geologists, 1 may state ttat Mr. Lonsdale Bradley, acting for my friend Mr. Webb, of Newstead Abbey, is conducting experimental borings througb tbe red sandstone and magnesian limestone between Northallerton and the Tees, in the persuasion that, as the mountain or carboni- ferous limestone disappears rapidly beneath the superjacent deposits to the east of Middleton Tyas, there may be found a productive coal-field, like that of Durham or Leeds, between the strata which they are now piercing, and the subjacent carboniferous limestone. "This view is well explained in the diagrams which Mr. Lons- dale Bradley has allowed me to exhibit on this occasion. I must, however, declare that I think the probabilities are entirely against the success of this enterprise; though, as geologists, we commend Mr. Webb for making this trial, by which he will have done good service to our science. " To the south of Harrogate the great coal-fields of Leeds and the West Riding appear with a well-defined boundary of millstone grit on the north and west. To the east, however, of the known boundary of these fields there is a fair probability that some coal may be found to extend under the magnesian limestone and new red sandstone. " As we proceed southward along the escarpment of the mag- nesian limestone, in its range from Yorkshire into Nottinghamshire, and thus flank successively the Sheffield and Derbyshire coal-fields, we find a progressive thickening of the coal which lies beneath the Permian rock. Whilst thin and poor beds only have as yet been worked in the south of Yorkshire, beneath the magnesian lime- stone, we now know, thanks to the spirit and energy of the late duke of Newcastle, that at Shire Oaks good seams of coal, the prolongation of the Sheffield field, are worked to profit." Progress of Population in the North Riding of Yorkshire. — The North Riding is on the whole a thinly peopled country, partly owing to the great extent of the moor and mountain land which it contains, on both sides of the vale of York and Mowbray. Nearly one half of the North Biding consists of grazing land, and the other half of arable land ; and it is only within the last twenty years that those rich beds of iron ore have been discovered, which must in course of time bring together a large population in the district in which they exist. Already Middlesboro', which is both the chief town and the seaport of the iron district of Cleveland, has grown up in about 190 YORKSHIRE. twenty years from the position of a mere fishing village, to that of a populous and well built town, possessing all the requisites of modern civilization, and returning a member to the House of Commons. Stockton, which borders on the northern limits of the county, is also advancing rapidly, and has likewise become a parliamentary borough. The other towns of the North Eiding are chiefly the seaports along the sea-coast. The most ancient, as well as the most celebrated of these, are Scarborougb and Whitby, both of which were places of note in tbe Anglian period. In the interior, Malton, which stands on the site of an old Roman station, is the most important town, and, like Thirsk, North AUerton, and Richmond, returns a member to Parliament. The most thinly peopled portions of the North Riding are the grazing districts, which include nearly the whole of the mountain limestone and the millstone grit; the average population is found on the arable land of the new red sandstone and the Oolite; and the more thickly peopled districts are on the Lias formation, rich in iron ore, or about the seaports and watering places along the sea- coast. It will be seen the largest population is around Middlesboro', Scarborough, Thirsk, Whitby, Bedale, and Richmond. The follow- ing table will show the progress of population in the different districts of the North Riding of Yorkshire during the present century : — PEOGBESS OF POPULATION IN THE NOETH EIDING OF TOEKSHIEE. District. Area in Acres. Popnlation. Num. of persons to squi.re mile. 1801. 1851. 1861. 1851. Scarborough, . . Malton, .... Easingwold, . , Thirsk, .... Helmsley, . . . Pickering, . . . Whitby,. . . . Guisborough, . . Stokesley, . . . Northallerton, . . Bedale, .... Leyburn, . . Askrigg, . . Keeth, . . . Eichmond, . . . 81,460 112,407 63,603 62,444 131,516 88,062 90,371 96,862 79,345 68,342 44,588 84,918 77,308 70,267 78,569 13,673 14,837 8,512 9,595 10,539 7,133 18,217 9,954 7,580 9,633 7,503 8,220 5,205 5,739 11,366 24,615 23,128 10,211 12,760 11,734 9,978 21,592 12,202 9,387 12,460 8,980 10,057 5,635 6,820 13,846 30,425 23,483 10,148 12,299 11,832 10,549 23,633 22,128 10,381 12,174 8,650 10,105 5,649 6,196 1.3,457 193 132 107 131 53 73 153 81 92 67 126 76 47 62 113 Middlesboro' is not one of the registration districts of the North Riding, but the great and rapid increase of population in the PAST AND PRESENT. 191 Guisborough and adjoining district, of wHch it is the port, is caused by tbe sudden growth of the iron trade of Cleveland. North Biding of Yorhshire. — Scarborough, the most beautiful and fashionable watering place in the north of England, is situated in the wapentake of Pickering Lythe, and the liberty of Scarborough. Its castle is a place of great natural strength, and it possessed a strong castle even before the Norman conquest. It is mentioned ia the early wars between the Saxons and the Danes, but was afterwards much more strongly fortified by the Normans, and was for many ages considered one of the strongest places on the coast of England. The fisheries of Scarborough have always' been cele- brated, and in very early times collected around it an active population of seamen. For the accommodation of the seafaring population of the town and port, and of the vessels sailing along their rock-bound coast, a pier was constructed at Scarborough in the reign of Plenry III., in the year 1252, which, from being named the New Pier, was no doubt built in the place of a pier of stUl earher date. From the time of Henry III. to the present there has been a succession of piers, constructed at various times- In the 5th of George II. an Act was passed for enlarging the pier and harbour of Scarborough, under which the then existing pier was extended to a length of 1200 feet. But these piers have been greatly extended and improved in recent times. The great cause of the rapid growth and the present prosperity of Scarborough is its many attractions as a bathing place. The town is situated in the recess of a beautiful bay on the shore of the German Ocean, in a central situation between Flamborough Head and Whitby, and has excellent communication by railway v/ith all parts of England, though there must be many persons stUl living who well remember when the only communication into the interior was by means of the royal mail and three or four stage coaches. The registration district of Scarborough extends over 81,460 statute acres. In 1801 the population was 13,673; in 1851, 24,615; and in 1861, 30,425. The average population per square mile of the Scarborough district, at the census of 1851, was 193 persons, and it has continued to increase rapidly to the present time. Scarborough is one of the very few English seaports which stand upon the Oolite formation, which is almost everywhere remarkable for its fine scenery, and more especially at Scarborough 192 YORKSHIRE : and Portland, the principal points at which it is exposed to the action of the waves of the sea. Malton. — Malton, in the wapentake of Eydale, eighteen miles from York and twenty-two from Scarborough, stands on the site of an ancient Eoman station. It is on the river Derwent, at the foot of the Wolds, and seems to have been the point at which several Eoman roads joined each other. Six of these roads have been traced, and numerous Eoman coins have been discovered near the point of junction. It afterwards became a residence of the Anglian kings of Northumberland, whose capital was at York. Malton has been a parliamentary borough and a municipal corpor- ation from very early times. The river Derwent has been made navigable up to Malton, and the railway from York to Scarborough connects it with those places, and with the general system of English railways. The registration district of Malton is very extensive, covering an area of 112,407 acres. The population of this district in 1801 was 14,837 persons; in 1851, 23,128; and in 1861, 23,483. Malton stands on the Oolite formation, and is the centre of an extensive district of land of the best quality. Easingivold is a market town about ten miles from Thirsk, pleasantly situated on a rising ground commanding an extensive view over the ancient forest of Galtees and the vale of Mowbray. The reigistration district of Easingwold extends over an area of 63,603 acres. The population in 1801 was 8512 persons; in 1851, 10,211 ; and in 1861, 10,148. Easingwold stands on the Lias formation, which is everywhere remarkable for its strong soils and ts extensive pastures. Thirsk. — Thirsk is a market town, and an important railway junction, in the wapentake of Birdforth, pleasantly situated in the vale of Mowbray. It sends one member to Parliament. Its principal trade is in agricultural produce. The registration district of Thirsk covers an area of 62,444 acres. The population of this district in 1801 was 9595; in 1851, 12,760; and in 1861, 12,299. Thirsk stands at the point at which the Lias and the new red sandstone formations meet each other. It is the chief placein the vale of Mowbray, one of the finest and most fertile portions of the great central valley of Yorkshire. Helmsley — in the wapentake of Eydale, six miles from Kirkby Moorside, sixteen from Malton, and twenty-three from York — is a TAST AJSTD- PBBSENT. 193 small market town situate on a gentle declivity, sloping towards the banks of the river Rye. The adjacent country is very fertile, and the scenery amongst the most beautiful in England. This is the Helmsley which is spoken of by Pope as " Buckingham's delight," and here it was, in his magnificent castle, that George Villiers, the second duke of Buckingham, lived in great splendour, whilst it was only a few miles distant, at Kirkby Moorside, that he died in poverty, deserted and abandoned by all his parasites. Duncombe Park, the seat of the earl of Feversham, is the great ornament of this district, which is also enriched by the rains of RivauLx Abbey and of Byland Abbey, the latter at the entrance of the vale of York. The registration district of Helmsley is very extensive, covering an area of 131,516 acres. In 1801 it contained 10,539 persons; in 1851, 11,734 ; and in 1861, 11,832. Helmsley stands on the Oolite formation, near the point at wliich the Portland limestone and Kimmeridge clay meet the coral rag and Oxford clay. The higher parts of this district belong to what is called the Inferior Oolite. Pickering. — In the wapentake of Pickering Lythe, eight miles from Kirkby Moorside, nine from Malton, and eighteen from Scarborough, is a country town pleasantly situated on an eminence, at the bottom of which runs a brook called Pickering Beck. The dukes of Lancaster had an ancient castle here, and the duchy of Lancaster still owns property in Pickering. It was probably the influence of the powerful dukes of Lancaster which obtained for Pickering the right of returning members to Parliament in ancient times, but which it has long since lost. The registration district of Pickering extends over an area of 88,062 acres. In 1801 it contained 7133 persons; in 1851, 9978; and in 1861, 10,549. Pickering stands on the Oolite formation, and near the point at which the Upper joins the Middle Oolite. It is in the centre of a fine agricultural district. Whitby, — Whitby, in the wapentake of Whitby Strand, is a very ancient port and town, and returns a member to Parliament, under the Reform Act of 1832. The town was built by the Angles, who named it Streanshalh, or the bay of the watch tower ; but it Avas named Whitby, or the white town, by the Danes when they conquered and settled in this district. The Anglian King Oswy, one of the earliest of the Christian kings of Northumberland, built the celebrated abbey of Whitby. VOL. I. 2 b 194 YORKSHIRE : The abbey of Whitby deserves to be famous as the place which produced the first Anglian, or, if we may use the term, the first English poet. This was Csedmon, a servant in that abbey, who, according to the venerable Bede, was the author of several poems on sacred subjects, which were considered miraculous in those times, and are very interesting even at the present. A number of these poems were preserved by the venerable Bede, and by King Alfred the Great. In our times Csedmon's paraphrase of parts of Scripture, and other poems on the subject which Milton afterwards sang in his "Paradise Lost," have been given to the world, and show the author to have had something of the sacred fire of poetry. The registration district of Whitby covers an area of 90,371 acres. In 1801 this district contained 18,217 inhabitants ; in 1851, 21,592 ; and in 1861, 23,633. The town stands at the mouth of the river Esk, on the sea-coast, along which are high cliffs containing all the fossils found in the Lower Lias formation, as well as large quantities of iron ore, alum, shale, and beds of jet. Guishorough, in the wapentake and liberty of Langbargh, in the district of Cleveland, a country rich in minerals, especially in iron- stone, vast beds of which have been discovered during the last forty years. The town is pleasantly situated in a narrow but fertUe vale, and the town has a neat and pleasant appearance. A handsome town-hall of freestone was buUt in the year 1821, in the market place. There is a mineral spring about a mile south-east of the town. The first alum works formed in this kingdom were erected here in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and were solemnly cursed and anathe- matized by the pope of that day, who had alum works of his own, and did not wish to have any competitors. The works belonged to Sir Thomas Chaloner, who had learnt the art of manufacturing alum whilst travelling in Italy. The registration district of Guisborough covers 96,862 acres. In 1801 it contained 9954 inhabitants; in 1851, 12,202; and in 1861, 22,128. The rapid increase between 1851 and 1861 was owing to the wonderful increase in the iron manufacture. Middleshorough is the port of the Cleveland iron district, and has in a few years become a large and populous place, returning one member to Parliament. Stolcesley, in the wapentake and liberty of Langbargh, nine miles from Guisborough, is a small market town of Cleveland, situated on the principal branch of the river Leven, which is a very fine trout PAST AND PRESENT. 195 stream. The beautiful and majestic chain of mountains known as the Cleveland hills, and of which Roseberry Topping is the most commanding point, range at a distance of from four to six miles from the town of Stokesley, with a bold and romantic outline, and form a semicircular amphitheatre, of which Stokesley is the centre. The registration district of Stokesley covers an area of 79,345 acres. In 1861, this district contained 7580 persons; in 1851, 9387; and in 1861, 10,381. Northallerton^ in the wapentake and liberty of Allertonshu-e, on the main line of railway from York to Newcastle, is a brisk market town, pleasantly situated on the side of a rising ground gently sloping towards the east. The market is held on Wednesday, and there are four fairs. There was formerly a strong castle at North- allerton, belonging to the bishops of Durham. The great battle of the Standard was fought at Northallerton, on the 23rd August, 1138. Northallerton has been represented in Parhament from the commencement of the parliamentary system in England, in 26 Edward I., and still returns one member to Parliament. The regis- tration district of Northallerton extends over 68,342 acres. In 1801 this district contained a population of 9633 persons; in 1851, of 12,460; and in 1861, 12,174. Bedale. — Bedale, in the wapentake of Hang-East and liberty of Richmondshire, is situated in a fine valley, about two miles to the west of Leeming Lane, in a fertile country, equally rich in corn and grass. There was formerly a castle here, built by the Fitzalans, earls of Arundel, but no remains of it now exist. The registration district of Bedale extends over an area of 44,588 acres. The population of the whole district in 1801 was 7503 ; in 1851, 8980 ; and in 1861, 8650. Leyhurn, in the parish of Wensley, wapentake of Hang- West, and liberty of Richmondshire, is pleasantly situated, and the neighbourhood presents much picturesque scenery. The remarkable walk called Leyburn Shawl, which passes along the edge of a ridge of rocks to the village of Ruston, is one of the finest natural terraces in England, and presents many beautiful views. The ruined castles of Bolton and Middleham, and the remains of Jerveaux and Coverham abbeys ; the celebrated waterfall and cataracts of Aysgarth, and the noble mansion of Bolton Hall, with the winding course of the beautiful river Ure — render this district one of the most interesting in Yorkshire. The registration district of Leyburn extends 196 YORKSHIRE : over 84,918 acres. In 1801 it contained 8220; in 1851, 10,057; and in 1861, 10,105. Askrigg, in the parish of Aysgarth, the wapentake of Hang- West, and the liberty of Richmondshire, is situated in the centre of AVensleydale, near the northern bank of the river Ure, in a district abounding with romantic and beautiful scenery. The waterfalls near Askrigg, known by the name of Milgill Force, Whitfields Force, and Hardow Force, the latter five miles above the town, are all beautiful objects. The registration district of Askrigg extends over an area of 77,308 acres. The population in 1801 was 5205 ; in 1851, 5635 ; and in 1861, 5649. Reeth, in the parish of Grinton, wapentake of Gilling West, and liberty of Richmondshire, eight miles from Leyburn, ten from Richmond, and ten from Askrigg. Reeth is situated about half a mile above the conflux of the rivers Artie and Swale, on an eminence sloping to the south, and commanding a view of much beautiful and picturesque scenery. In this district are the rich lead mines of Swaledale, Arkengarthdale, and Redhurst, which enrich* the neighbourhood. The registration district of Reeth extends over an area of 70,267 acres. In 1801 it contained 5739 persons; in 1851, 6820; and in 1861, 6196. Richmond is situate in the wapentake of Gilling West and the liberty of Richmondshire. The town stands on an eminence, boldly rising from the river Swale, which winds with a semicircular sweep at the base of a rock on which the castle stands. It was the ancient residence of the earls of Richmond and Bretagne, or Brittany, close connections of William the Conqueror, Avho gave it to Earl Alan, his nephew, along with the other Yorkshire estates of the Saxon earl, Edwin. It became the feudal capital of an extensive district extending over the north-western angle of Yorkshire, over the two most northern hundreds of Lancashire, and over a portion of Westmoreland. The registration district of Richmond extends over an area of 78,569 acres. The population in 1801 amounted to 11,366 ; in 1851 to 13,846 ; and in 1861 to 13,457. Annual value of Property in the North Riding of Yorhshire. The annual value of the property of the North Riding assessed under the property and Income Tax Acts for the three great schedules, A, B, and D, for the year ended the 5th April, I860, was as follows, in the several collecting districts of the North Riding. As already mentioned, under Schedule A was included a return of the value of PAST AND PRESENT. 197 lands, messuages, tithes, manors, fines, quarries, mines, ironworks, fisheries, canals, railways, gasworks, and all other property and profits not comprised in other schedules. Under Schedule B was included farming profits, and under Schedule D the profits derived from trade and commerce. Total Gross. Gross. Net. Annual Value of Property Assessed under Schedule A. Annual Value of Property Assessed under Schedule B Amount of Profits Charged under Schedule D. Allertonshire, . . . Bulmer, . . . Birdforth, . ... Gilling, East, . . Gilling, -West, Hallikeld, . . Hang-East, . Hang-West,. . . . Langbaurgh, East , . Langbaurgh, West, . Malton, .... 73,366 162,748 108,230 82,717 141,735 64,813 83,576 133,660 151,613 215,990 56,582 69,968 52,936 16,499 78,900 78,157 87,973 62,664 135,373 87,345 74,441 111,730 61,762 73,109 112,994 68,804 91,047 41,796 64.982 48,514 3,508 71,024 4,590 46,917 15,178 13,760 13,167 5,046 5,854 2,480 13,790 17,435 19,455 57,963 21,613 2,599 3,547 26,703 5,012 64,047 45,003 Pickering Lythe, East, Pickering Lythe, West, Richmond, Borough, Ryedale, Scarborough, Borough, Whitby Strand, . . Totals, . £1,669,503 1,160,600 332,652 TOTAL PEOPEETT EETUENED IN THE NOETH EmiKG IN THE TEAE 1860. Property returned under Schedule A, Jl, 669,503 Property returned under Schedule B, . . . ... 1,160,600 Property returned under Schedule D, . 332,652 Total, ^3,162,755 Increase of Property in North Biding. — The increase in the value of property and profits in the North Riding of Yorkshire, between 1860 and 1869, has not been so rapid as the increase either in the East or the West Riding, and yet it has been very considerable. The North Riding does not possess any great commerce with foreign nations, like that of Hull, which has been growing up into great- ness during many hundred years, and has recently taken a new and extended development, under the influence of steam navigation and of a wise and comprehensive commercial policy. Neither does the North Riding possess, at least within its own limits, any of those supplies of coal which have given so wonderful an impulse to the manufactures of the West Riding, during the present century, without which manufactures seem incapable of flourishing in modem 198 YORKSHIRE times. Yet the North Biding, in addition to a greatly improved agriculture, and to the finest breeds of horses, cattle, and sheep that exist in England, also possesses a larger amount of rich iron ore than is to be found in any other equal space in Great Britain, rich as this kingdom is in that most useful of all the metals. As we have already stated, the development of the iron mines of the North Biding has been greatly promoted by the proximity of the coal-fields of the county of Durham, which have supplied, in great abundance and at a moderate price, the means of smelting the iron ores of this district. Had it not been for the early formation of the Stockton and Darlington Bailway, by which the coal-field of Durham was brought into cheap and easy connection with the trade and commerce of Yorkshire, by means of improved internal trans- port ; and had it not been for the rapid growth of the commerce of Hartlepool, which furnishes large supplies of fuel from another part of the Durham coal-field — the greater portion of the iron ore of the North Biding would have still remained buried in the Cleveland hills. By those admirable means of communication the iron of the North Biding and the coal of Durham have been brought together, under such conditions as fuUy to develop the benefits of both. This, indeed, is one of the greatest advantages that Eng- land possesses over most other countries, as a producer of minerals. The fuel and the ore are in many instances close to each other, and when that is not precisely the case, the admirable inventions of the steam engine and the railway render it possible to bring them together, without destroying their value by the cost of too long a transport. Amongst the greatest results of the railway system has been that it renders it possible to convey heavy articles, like coal and iron ore, ten times as far, at the same cost at which they could be conveyed in former times. From this circumstance the development of the iron trade of the North Biding has been rapid beyond almost all previous example, and from the same cause there will be little difiiculty in rendering available any supplies of the ores of iron, lead, copper, or any other minerals which may be discovered in future. As a general rule, minerals are discovered near the lines at which different strata join each other, and in the North Biding of Yorkshire most of the metal-bearing strata come into close conjunction with each other. The commerce of the North Biding, though to a great extent of recent origin, has increased rapidly during the last twenty years, PAST AND PRESENT. 199 and there is no want of good ports to carry it on. Within that time Middlesboro' has become the seat of a great trade, and the principal outlet of the valley of the Tees. During the same period Stockton-on-Tees and Yarm have also increased very rapidly. Further to the south, Whitby, the port of the Esk, has also received an increase of prosperity, from the mineral riches which have been discovered in the interior of Cleveland. Scarborough has also increased with even greater rapidity, from its numerous attractions, and now stands in the first rank amongst English watering places. Along the east coast of the North Hiding the fisheries of the German Ocean furnish another source of employment and of wealth. The increase of property in the North Riding, between the year 1860 and the year 1869, will be seen by comparing the following return for 1868-69 with that of the year 1860, already given : — ANNtTAli TALUE OF PEOPEETT AND PEOFITS ASSESSED UNDEE SCHEDtTLES A, B, AND D, OF THE INCOME TAX ACTS FOE THE TEAE 1868, ENDED 5tH APEIL, 1869, IN THE NOETH EIDING OF TOEKSHIEE. Divisions. Gross Annual Value of Property Assessed under Schedule A. Gross Annual Value of Property Assessed under Schedule B. Net Amountof Profits Charged to Duty under Schedule D. Allertonshire, Birdforth, Bulmer, ... Gming, East, . . GUling, West, Hallikeld,. . Hang-East, . . Hang- West, . . . Langbaui'gh, East, ... Langbaurgh, West, Malton, Pickering Lythe, East, . . . Pickering Lythe, West, . . . Eicbmond Borough, . Eyedale, Scarborough, Borough, Whitby Strand, . . Totals, . £ 96,264 137,425 194,562 93,290 145,079 74,816 90,739 139,561 129,626 252,823 64,011 79,838 64,300 17,247 93,495 135,422 93,954 £ 72,659 108,648 162,309 79,060 125,897 67,343 78,671 123,786 73,861 95,032 40,317 74,050 55,945 4,554 81,402 4,345 46,813 £ ; 25,020 18,387 18,366 3,367 13,124 3,065 13,945 23,246 80,336 303,149 31,106 2,598 7,029 26,735 18,391 100,433 49,600 ^1,902,452 1,294,692 737,897 TOTAL PEOPEUTT EETUENED IN THE NOETH EIDING OF YOEKSHIEE, 1868-69. Property returned under Schedule A, Property returned under Schedule B, Property returned under Schedule D, £1,902,452 1,294,692 737,897 £3,935,041 200 YORKSHIRE : In 1860 the yearly value of property and profits in the North Riding was £3,162,755, showing an increase in 1868-69 of £772,286. The total value of property in all the three Hidings of Yorkshire in the year 1868-69 was £29,181,582. But great and varied as are the natural resources afforded by the soil and the minerals of Yorkshire, it would have been im- possible to develope them, especially in early times, without the assistance given by an abundant supply of water-power for manu- facturing purposes, of rivers for the purposes of internal transport, and of ports and harbours for external commerce. In all these respects this county is greatly favoured, and by their assistance it had attained a high position amongst the manufacturing and com- mercial districts of England, before the power of steam, for manu- facturing purposes, was discovered. Even now, although steam has taken the lead of previously existing powers, a considerable portion of the machinery of Yorkshire is impelled by falling streams ; whilst navigable rivers and canals still vie with railways in the conveyance of minerals and merchandise. We shall therefore pro- ceed, in the next chapter of this work, to describe the rivers streams, water-power, and ports of Yorkshire. PAST AND PRESENT. 201 CHAPTER IV. THE CLIMATE, RAINFALL, RIVERS, SEAPORTS, AND COASTS OF YORKSHIRE. The climate of Yorkshire varies greatly in different parts of the county, depending chiefly on the elevation of the land, and the amount of the rainfall, which is much greater in the western than in the eastern parts. From the eastern aspect of the county it is colder in winter, owing to its exposure to the dry, sharp winds of the continent of Europe, than the western districts of England in similar latitudes, such as the county of Lancaster, which face the Atlantic Ocean. On the other hand, the heat of the summer months in Yorkshire, and on the eastern side of Great Britain generally, is greater than it is on the western side of the island in corresponding latitudes, from its being less exposed to the moist winds of the Atlantic. Hence, the wheat and barley grown on the eastern side of the island, both in England and Scotland, generally, as well as in the eastern districts of Yorkshire, are finer in quahty and more certain in return than those grown on the west ; whilst, on the other hand, the grasses, which generally delight in moisture, are, with equal conditions of soil and elevation, finer in the west than the east, and retain their freshness through the greater portion of the winter months. The climate of the different parts of Yorkshire varies still more in the quantity of the rainfall, than in the amount of summer heat and winter's cold. The great rainfall of England is along the western side of the island, and more especially along the summits and sides of that range of mountains which is generally known as the Backbone of England. This, as we have stated, extends nearly from the lake district and the borders of Scotland, as far south as Derbyshire, Cheshire, and Staffordshire, and forms the western boundary of the county of York. In the lake district of Westmoreland and Cumberland, where the mountains are nearer to the Atlantic Ocean than in any other part of their course, and where their eleva- tion, is higher by some hundred feet, rising in several cases to more VOL I. 2 c 202 YORKSHIRE : than 3000 feet above the level of the sea, the rainfall is much the heaviest in England, amounting in wet seasons to seventy, eighty, ninety inches, and in a few narrow valleys of great elevation, lying fully open to receive the immense masses of cloud brought from the Atlantic by the south-western winds, to even upwards of one hundred inches per annum. On the other portions of this lofty range, which rise on the western borders of Yorkshire to an ele- vation, at their highest points, of 2000 to 2500 feet, and seldom sink below 1000 to 1500 feet, the rainfall is also very great, owing to the large masses of clouds which stUl discharge their contents on the summits or the higher parts of the mountains. Along this range, on the western side of Yorkshire, the yearly rainfall is often from forty to fifty inches, and at exposed points even sixty inches, which is nearly twice the average rainfall of England. This is the source from Avhich the innumerable springs and brooks of the West and North Eidings, and the numerous rivers which intersect their valleys, draw their never-ceasing supplies. In proceeding inland, from the western range of hills towards the middle of the county of York, the average rainfall diminishes every ten or twelve mUes. On the lofty western moors, extending from Settle, Dent, and the hills of Craven to Saddleworth and Sheffield, the average yearly rainfall is from forty-five to fifty inches. Proceeding eastward to Halifax and Huddersfield, the rainfall decreases to twenty-seven or twenty- six inches. Proceeding still further eastward to Leeds, it decreases to from twenty-three to twenty-five inches. And on the eastern limit of the West Eiding, the average rainfall diminishes to twenty- two to twenty-three inches. Thus the difierence between the amount of rainfall on the hills which form the western boundary of the West Riding and the great plain to which they stretch in the vale of York, varies from fifty to twenty-five inches. There is a corresponding difierence in those districts of the North Eiding which extend from the western boundary of the county to the vales of York and Mowbray. In the whole of the East Eiding, and in that part of the North Eiding which lies to the east of the Ouse and Derwent, the rainfall seldom exceeds from twenty- five to thirty inches. The annual rainfall of Yorkshire, taking the whole county, is not more than the average rainfall of England; but the rainfall of the higher parts of the West Eiding is considerably greater than that of England generally. The following are tables of the rainfall PAST AND PRESENT. 203 of the eleven districts into wHcli England and Wales are divided, and of the different districts of Yorkshire for the years 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865; being a sufficient period to give a fair average in the amount of rainfall. ATEEAGE KAIRFALL OF THE ELEVEN DISTKICTS OF ENGLAND AHD WALES FOE THE TEARS 1862, 1863, 1864, AND 1865. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. T — Middlesex . Inches. 26-877 29-468 24-622 23-424 40-620 29-645 23-908 44-331 30-403 53-278 40-129 Inches. 21-133 26-234 20-234 18-604 38-632 24-640 21-338 43-312 31-656 53-899 39-489 Inches. 17-280 21-764 17-461 15-690 26-859 21-761 20-746 36-569 25-624 44-925 33-274 Inches. 28-612 35113 28-389 26-950 41-088 29-874 25-861 33-476 27-940 41-957 38-579 II. — South-eastern Counties, III.— South Midland Counties, IV — Eastern Counties v.— South western Counties, VI.— West Midland Counties, VII.— North Midland Counties, VIII.— North-western Counties, X. — Northern Counties, XI.— Wales, &c. avebage kainfall at diffeeent points in toekshiee in the teaes 1862, 1863, 1864, aud 1865. Height ot 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. Raingange Above Sea Level. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Feet. Broomhall Park, Sheffield, .... 30-87 31-62 24-36 28-69 337 Kedmines, Sheffield, . . . 40-96 40-70 31-88 32-47 1,100 TickhUl, 18-76 18-15 19-36 25-26 61 West Melton, . . 21-99 21-95 19-08 20-04 172 Penistone, ... 2909 29-09 24-80 26-73 717 Saddleworth, . . . . 43-02 47-94 34-75 33-05 640 Longwood, Huddersfield, 34-08 42-08 24-39 26-08 600 Wakefield 26-84 32-22 25-52 37-58 22-59 23-64 21-71 27-96 115 487 WeU Head, Halifax, . Ovenden Moor, Halifax, 50-00 53-70 38-70 35-00 1,375 Bradford 33-52 33-52 — — 370 Manor Road, Leeds, . 21-18 23-30 17-04 25-78 90 Eccup, Boston Spa, . 26-11 25-18 18-95 22-66 340 25-63 25-09 23-75 26-54 74 York, 23-11 22-23 21-13 23-19 50 Harrogate, 32 58 34-76 26-48 27-70 420 Settle 42-77 44-28 32-60 35-38 498 Amoliflfe 6405 66-43 45-78 47-26 750 Beverley Eoad, Hull, . . . Holme, on Spalding Moor, . 23-70 24-63 18-27 23-80 11 24-17 24-55 21-14 25-16 30 Malton 26-29 27-95 27-84 25-76 22-85 29-09 23-32 28-55 73 200 Beadlam Grange, . . Ganton, Scarborough, 19-83 20-90 23-10 28-35 99* * The Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Bath, 1864. Report on the Rain- fall of the British Islands, p. 377. Ditto, Nottingham, 1866, p. 288. It "will be seen from the above tables that the amount of rainfall 204 YORKSHIKE : varies very greatly in the different districts of England, and in different parts of the county of York. These variations appear to depend chiefly on two causes. The first is, that the rainfall is most abundant in those counties or those districts which lie along or near to the western coasts of England, and which thus first receive the clouds of the Atlantic; gradually diminishes in the inland counties; and becomes least in those eastern counties which are furthest from the Atlantic Ocean. There is also another prin- ciple shown in these tables, which is, that the rainfall is greatest in those districts in which the land rises highest. From the effect of these two causes united, the rainfall in the mountainous districts on the western borders of Yorkshire, in which most of the Yorkshire rivers rise, is nearly twice as great as that of England generally. Hence the number of streams and of rivers in that district is very great, and the supply of water and of water-power is unusually large. This was the principal cause of the manufacturiilg pros- perity of the West Kiding, in times when water-power, and not steam, was the great manufacturing power of England; and it is still a great element of wealth, for manufactures cannot be carried on successfully, even in modern times, without an abundant supply of water. The Bivers of Yorkshire. — The waters of the numerous rivers which add so much to the beauty of Yorkshire ; which spread wealth and create industry, in their progress to the sea ; and whose outlets form the most important seaports of this great county — are thus drawn from the evaporation of the Atlantic Ocean, of which the Irish Sea is a great gulf; and from the rainfall produced by the condensation of the vapours of that great ocean. The amount is, no doubt, somewhat increased by the clouds raised by the evaporation of the German Ocean, and carried by the easterly winds into the interior of Yorkshire, where they are discharged on the hills of the East Riding, and the eastern part of the North Riding. But this supply is compara- tively small, and only serves to sustain the flow of one consider- able stream, namely, the river Derwent. The other streams of the East Riding, and of the eastern part of the North Riding, including the Hull, the Esk, the Leven, and the Wiske, are very small in size, though most of them are remarkable for their picturesque beauty ; and one of them, the Hull, has for centuries been the chief seat of the external commerce of the county. The rainfall, which is PAST AND PRESENT. 205 the original source from which these and all other streams are fed, does not amount to more than about twenty-five to thirty inches per annum in the East Biding, and as far west as the city of York. Hence, after allowing for the constant evaporation from the earth, in the form of visible or invisible vapour, the quantity of moisture remaining for the supply of brooks and rivers is comparatively small on the eastern side of the vale of York. But the numerous rivers of the West Biding of Yorkshire, and of the western part of the North Biding, are fed by the evaporation of the Irish Sea and of the Atlantic Ocean. These together form an expanse of water infinitely larger than that of the waters of the German Ocean, and the evaporation of the Atlantic is greatly increased by the Gulf Stream, and the other streams of warm water derived from the tropical seas. These encounter the ocean streams from the icy regions of the north, and fill the air with vapour which rises in the form of clouds. The clouds are borne by the westerly winds against the mountain regions which form what is called the Backbone of England, the western boundary of the county of York. Amongst the rivers which draw their supplies from the rainfall on the western mountains are the river Tees, which forms the northern boundary of the county of York, and discharges its waters into the German Ocean ; the rivers Swale and Ure, which join with the river Wiske, flowing from the north-eastern side of the county, to form the river Ouse ; the river Nidd, which discharges its waters into the Ouse above York, at Nun Monkton ; the rivers Wharfe, Aire, and Calder, which flow into the Ouse below the city of York ; the river Ouse itself, which is formed by the waters of the rivers named above, with those of the smaller streams of the Ousebum and the Foss ; together with the river Don and its numerous tributaries, which enter the Humber near to the point where it receives the river Ouse. Much the largest portion of the fresh water v^hich is discharged into the estuary of the Humber, and which principally assists in keeping open the navigation of that great stream and harbour, on which the com- merce, not only of Yorkshire, but of the valley of the Trent, depends, is originally brought by the western winds and the clouds of the Atlantic to the mountains on the western borders of York- shire, whence it is carried by streams and rivers to the German Ocean. The rivers of Yorkshire, together with the streams which flow 206 YORKSHIRE : from the south into the great Yorkshire estuary of the Humber, furnish as great, if not a greater, amount of natural inland navigation than is to be found in any other part of England. The city of York, built by the Britons before the arrival of the Romans, but at once selected by that most intelligent and practical people as the capital of their dominions in this island, owed its chief advantage of position to the circumstance of its being situated at the head of this great natural inland navigation. In the Ouse the lowest tides rise to within a few miles of the city of York, that is, to Naburn Lock, close to Acaster Malbis, the name of which place leaves no doubt that the Romans had a camp and fortress there. York was thus the principal port of a system of inland navigation, extending sovithward to the river Humber, by the river Ouse, and then still further south by the river Trent to the site of the present town of Nottingham, up the Derbyshire Derwent, to the present town of Derby, and further up the Trent, into what is now Staffordshire. The whole course of the Humber was also connected with this internal navigation, whilst the river Don was navigable to Danum, the modern Doncaster. In addition to the rivers which have been navigable from the earhest ages, the other streams which have been rendered navigable for comparatively large vessels in modern times must always have been useful for floating down cargoes of timber, grain, hides, lead, iron, and other produce, even when they were not regularly used for navigation, up and down the stream. Very little labour has been required to render the river Ouse, and its chief tributary the Ure, navigable as far as Ripon. The Aire and the Calder have easily been made navigable to Leeds and to near Halifax ; and in the East Riding, the Derwent has been made navigable as high as Malton. All these rivers must have had great value for the purpose of transporting produce, from the earliest times; and must thus have had their share in developing the prosperity of Eboracum or York, and of the towns and villages which have for ages existed on their banks. At the time when the Domesday book was drawn up in the reign of William the Con- queror, travellers, on their way from London to the north, took boat at Nottingham, and were floated down the Trent into the Humber, whence the tides carried them up the river Ouse to Acaster Malbis, a few miles below York. This great line of internal navi- gation was at a very early age connected with another, by the Foss Dyke, cut from the Trent in Lincolnshire, at Torksey, to the PAST AND PRESENT. 207 Witliam, at Lincoln ; from whicli city there was a water communi- cation down the river Witham to Boston, in Lincolnshire, which was then one of the principal ports of the eastern coast of England, and greatly frequented by Flemish and German merchants. The rivers of Yorkshire flowing from the western mountains are the Tees, the Swale, the Ure, the Nidd, the Wharfe, the Aire, the Calder, and the Don. The chief rivers that flow from the eastern mountains and hills are the Derwent, the Wiske, the Esk, the Leven, and the HuU. These rivers receive a multitude of smaller streams, some of them also described as rivers, but much the greater part of them described as becks, or burns, or brooks. The following is an alphabetical list of the rivers of Yorkshire, showing then- length, and the rivers or seas into which they flow. The lengths of the rivers are taken from the Ordnance maps, wherever they are stated on that authority, and in other cases they are approximations founded upon the data supplied by the Ordnance survey. The lengths include the windings of the streams. THE NAMES, LENGTHS, AND OUTLETS OF THE TOEKSHTKE EnTEES. Names of Rivers. Aire, . . Balder, . Bain, . . Bum,. Calder, . Colne, . Cover, . Deame, . Dee, . . Derwent, Dibb,. . Don, . . Don (Little), Dove, Esk, . . Ewden, . Foss, . . Foulness, Greta, . Greta, . Hebble, . Hertford, Hodder, . HuU,. . Humber, Laver, . Outlets. Ouse, . Tees, . Ure, . Ure, . Aire, . Calder, Ure, . Don, . Lune, . Ouse, . Wharfe, Ouse, . Don, . Rye, . Length of Course in Miles. . . 87 about 13 " 6 " 10 . . 47 about 20 " 20 . . 26 . . 13i . . 72 about 10 . . 68 about 12 " 10 German Ocean, . 29j Don, . . Ouse, . . Humber, Tees, . . Lune, . Calder, . Derwent, Ribble, . Humber, about 12 . . 17 atout 15 . . 16 . . 13i about 10 " 15 . . 25i . 28| German Ocean, . 37 Nidd,. . . about 12 Names of Rivers. Outlets. Length of Course in Miles. Leven, . . . . Tees, . . . 23 Lune ^YorkshLre) Tees. . . . . 121 Lune (Lancashire), Irish Sea, . . . 53i Nidd Ouse . . . . 55 Ouse, . . . Humber, . . . 59i Eawthey, . . Lune,. . . about 15 Kibble, . . Irish Sea, . . . 61 Rve, . . . . . 12 Eivelin, . . Don, . . . about 15 Eother, . . Don, . . " 20 Rye,. . . . Derwent, . " 25 Seven, . . . Rye, . . . " 10 Sheaf, . . . Don, . . . " 15 Skirfare, . . Wharfe, . . " 10 Swfllp Ouse, . . . . 7li Tame, . . . Mersey, . . about 25 Tees, . . German Ocean, . 95 Thorne, . Don, . . . about 20 Ure . . . 6lJ Washburn, . . Wharfe,. . about 10 Wharfe, . Ouse, . . . 75i Wenning, . . Lune, about 15 Went, . Don, . . " 20 Wiske, . . Swale, . " 25 Worth, . . . Au-e, . . . " 10 208 YORKSHIRE : The area of the county drained by the above rivers is as follows, in square mUes : — - Ouse and its tributaries, Humber, Tees, Eibble, . . . Esk, . 4,207 1,229 744 501 136 6,817 The BecJes, Brooks, and Burns of Torhshire. — The number of small streams which flow down into the Yorkshire rivers is extraor- dinarily great, and many of them have had a great influence on the development of the manufacturing resources of this county. In fact, in former times almost all that was required to establish one of the small woollen manufactories of those days, was a plentiful supply of water in the neighbouring brook, and a good supply of wool from the downs of the district. It is only in modern times that manu- factures have been confined to large towns, and to districts possessed of large supplies of coal. Even now three of the largest manufac- turing towns of the West Riding, namely, Bradford, Halifax, and Huddersfield, are situated on brooks and small streams, and not on the principal rivers of the district. The Biver and Estuary of the Humber. — The Humber is thirty- seven miles in length, and the area of the country which it drains extends over a surface of 122.9 square miles, from the junction of the Ouse and the Trent to the sea. The point of union of the Humber and the river Ouse is at Faxfleet Ness. The average width of the Humber is three to four miles. The area of the country- drained by the river Ouse and the streams which flow into the Ouse above its junction with the Humber, is 4207 square miles, which, added to the country drained by the Humber itself, gives an area of 5436, for the country drained into the northern or Yorkshire side of the Humber. If we add to this the country drained into the Humber by the river Trent, and other smaller streams which enter it on the south, the whole area discharging its waters into the Humber is not less than 9550 square miles, or very nearly the fifth part of the area of England. No other river or estuary in Eng- land drains so large a territory, not even the Thames. The Humber receives and carries into the German Ocean at least four- fifths of the waters of Yorkshire, and it is a remarkable fact that the greatest port on the eastern side of the island, with the exception PAST AND PRESENT. 209 of London, is to a great extent protected from the encroachments of the sands of the German Ocean, by the copious flow of water from th.e innumerable streams which are fed by the evaporation from the Atlantic, and the rainfall on the western hUls. The only good ports on the eastern side of England are those situated at the mouths of great rivers, such as the Thames, the Humber, the Tees, and. the Tyne ; and those owe their depth of water in a great degree to the scouring of their entrances, by the large amount of water flow- ing from the interior, and strengthening the force of the receding tides. The Humber is one of the very few rivers of England, wMch has a sufficient depth of water at its entrance to admit the large ships in which modern commerce is carried on. A fair depth of water continues far into the interior, though winding among sandbanks, and even extends above the Humber into the Ouse, at Goole and Selby. In ancient times, when vessels were comparatively small, even the city of York was returned amongst the free boroughs on the sea, being easily accessible from the sea by the vessels of those early times. Eise of the Tides in the Humber, Ouse, and Trent — We have recently obtained very accurate information as to the rise of the tides in these rivers, at the most important points to which the influence of the tide extends. A number of observations were made on the rise of the tides of the Humber, and the rivers Trent and Ouse, in the year 1864, by a committee appointed for that purpose by the Britisb Association for the Advancement of Science. The points at which these observations were made were Hull^ Gainsborough, on the Trent, Goole, and Nabum Lock, a point on the Yorkshire Ouse, a little below the city of York. The observa- tions at Hull were obtained by the committee from the Dock Company's gauge at that place ; those at Goole, from that of Aire and Calder Navigation Company ; those at Nabum Lock, from measurements made with the tide-gauge of the commissioners of the Kiver Ouse Navigation ; and those at Gainsborough, from mea- surements made on the town side of the river, about 300 yards below the bridge, by means of a gauge which was procured and erected by the committee to which the inquiry was intrusted by the British Association. The observations at each of the four points were made at intervals of fifteen minutes, and extended over fifty-four tides, commencing at twelve o'clock at noon on the ninth of May, 1864, and ceasing at twelve o'clock at noon on the sixth VOL. I. 2d 210 YORKSHIRE : of June of the same year. During the whole time in which the observations were in progress, the weather was not unduly influenced by either rain or wind, and therefore the tides were natural and regular. The following were among the points ascertained as to the rise of the fifty-four tides in reference to the zero of each gauge. The mean or average rise of the tides during the fifty-four observa- tions was as follows : — At Naburn Lock, a little below the city of York, 6 feet, 4 inches ; at Goole, 1 1 feet ; at Gainsborough, 5 feet 8 inches ; and at Hull, 16 feet 3 inches. The highest tides observed showed the following results above zero of gauge : — Naburn Lock, 1 feet 1 1 inches ; Goole, 1 6 feet 9 inches ; Gainsborough, 8 feet 1 1 inches ; and Hull, 26 feet 4 inches. The lowest tide showed the following rise, namely, Naburn Lock, 4 feet 10 inches ; Goole, 10 feet 3 inches ; Gainsborough, 3 feet ; Hull, 20 feet 3 inches. The highest low water above zero of gauge was at Naburn Lock 4 feet 3 inches ; at Goole, 3 feet 10 inches ; at Gainsborough, 3 feet ; and at Hull, 10 feet 4 inches. The lowest low water was at Naburn Lock, 1 foot 3 inches ; at Goole, 2 feet 3 inches ; at Gainsborough, ^ of an inch ; and at Hull, 4 feet 5 inches. The further results obtained from the above observations were, that the mean rise of the tide at Hull in 1862, was 16-95 feet, and inl86416-25 feet. In the same years the mean rise of the tides at Goole was 11-67 feet in 1862, and 11-00 in 1864. In the above years the extreme rise of the tides at Hull and Goole were as follows : — At Hull, in 1862, 27-92 feet, and in 1864, 26-33 feet. At Goole the extreme rise of the tides in 1862 was 15-33 feet, and 16-75 feet. These interesting and import- ant figures, showing the different depths of water at Hull, Gains- borough, Goole, and Naburn, which was the ancient port of York, under the name of Acaster, throw a strong light on the causes which have given both its ancient and its modern development to the trade and commerce of the Humber.* In ancient times, when the vessels employed were very little larger than the barges of these days, there was depth of water sufficient to carry them up the river Ouse to Naburn and York, and up the Trent to Torksey, which was then the port of the city of Lincoln. In modern times, when the vessels are of many hundred, and in some cases, of from one to two thousand tons burthen, it requires the depth of water which is found at Hull * Report on tidal observations made on the Hnmbcr and rivers Trent and Ouse, 1864, by a committee consisting of James Oldham, C.E. ; J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S.; John Scott Russell, C.E., F.R.S. ; and Thomas Thompson. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. 1804. Page 129. PAST AND PRESENT. 211 to conduct the great traffic of the Humber with foreign countries. Goole, though not possessed of the same depth of water as Hull, has still sufficient water to have become an important point of communi- cation with the interior, as well as with the continent of Europe, and the coasts of England. This is also the case with Selby, and was in former times with Hedon, Barton, and other places on both sides of the river Humber. But all these in the present age have yielded to the natural advantages, and the great public improvements, of the port of Hull. The River Fisheries of Yorkshire. — After a long period of neglect, considerable attention has again begun to be paid to the salmon and other fisheries in the rivers of this and other English counties; and a commission, with official conservators, has been appointed to watch over these rivers, with a view of protectiug the salmon and other fresh-water fish with which they formerly abounded. This is an object which is difficult to effect in a thickly-peopled district, and perhaps impossible in rivers whose banks are covered with numerous manufactories. Yet there are many reasons, besides that of preserving the breed of salmon and trout, why persevering efforts should be made to save the beautiful rivers of this country from being converted into mere sewers for the discharge of the refuse. There is no doubt that the liquid refuse of towns is itself a very valuable article, and capable of being rendered a great source of fertility; and there are at all events strong reasons con- nected with the public health why it should not be allowed to become a public nuisance. If we may believe a calculation made in the Report on the Salmon Fisheries of England and Wales for the year 1870, the refuse which is discharged into the rivers of this country, and which is at least useless even when it does not become a nuisance, would, if the whole of it could be applied to the fer- tilizing of the soil, increase its produce to so great an extent as to enable it to furnish food during the whole year for more than five millions and a half of persons. We are told in this Eeport that the sewage of the towns of the United Kingdom, which con- tain in round numbers fifteen millions of inhabitants, would, if properly applied to the soil, produce no less than 3,750,000 addi- tional quarters of wheat, or 7,500,000 quarters of oats; that each quarter of wheat would furnish flour sufficient to make 108 quar- tern loaves of bread, or in the whole 405,000,000 loaves, a sufficient quantity of bread to feed 5,547,945 persons for an entire year. 212 YORKSHIRE Without holding ourselves responsible for these figures, it is impossible to doubt that the refuse of our large towns, properly- applied to increase the fertility of the soil, might be rendered a great source of national wealth.* But it is only in a portion of the West Riding that population and manufactures have increased to such an extent as to render it dLfi&cLilt to keep up the breed of salmon and other river fish, with ordinary attention to their habits and their wants. The power of reproduction, both among river and sea fish, is great almost beyond belief According to a table given in the Report on the Salmon Fisheries of England and Wales for the year 1870, the number of eggs or germs found in the ovary of a salmon of 12 lbs. weight is 10,000; in a trout of 1 lb. weight, 1008; in a carp of 14^ lbs., 633,350; in a perch of 3 lbs. 2 oz., 155,620; in a jack or pike of 32 lbs., 595,200; in a roach of | of a lb., 480,480.t With this wonderful reproduction of the germs of life in our rivers, it is evident that nothing but great carelessness, and a total dis- regard of the habits and natural requirements of the fish which frequent them, can cause the total destruction of these prolific breeds in any rivers in which the waters are pure enough to sustain life. Yet in many English rivers, including some of those in this county, the salmon and other river fish have been nearly destroyed, although some progress has been made towards their restoration, owing to the efforts made with that object during the last ten years. In the account which we are about to give of the rivers of Yorkshire we shall bring together such facts as are necessary to show the natural advantages of the several streams for the breeding of salmon and other fish, and what is necessary again to fill them with the beautiful and useful creatures which formerly occupied their waters in incalculable numbers. The Fisheries of the Humher. — The Commissioners on the Salmon Fisheries of England (1861) make the following observations respecting the fisheries of this magnificent estuary in their Report, page 5 : — " The estuary of the Humber, from thirty to forty miles in length, and averaging a breadth of from three to four mUes, drains the largest basin in all England. On the one side, the Ouse and its • Salmon Fisheries (England and Wales). Kinth Annual Eeport of tile Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries (England and Wales) ; presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty, p. 35, 1870. f Report of Salmon Fisheries (England and Wales), 1870, p. 54. PAST AND PHESENT. 213 large tributaries, and on the other the Trent, flow conjointly from an area of 9550 square miles. The estuary is nearly unobstructed by fixed engines, and a very large body of fresh water is at all seasons poured into it from the two main feeders already mentioned. But these rivers, for a considerable way inland, are deficient in the requisites for salmon, being sluggish in their course, and the Trent in many parts during summer is much choked up with weeds. The upper parts, however, of nearly all the tributaries into which these rivers branch out, are rapid, and afford a large extent of excellent spawning-ground. In these, salmon were formerly plenti- ful. Some of the Yorkshire rivers have suffered greatly from the effect of manufactures, and the salmon are nearly gone ; but a few still find their way to the upper waters. The condition of the Trent is rather better, notwithstanding the sluggish and weedy character of the lower parts. In spite of the disadvantages which now attach to them, these large rivers, with their unobstructed estuary, are well worthy of attention, and if a free passage were opened through them, the fiisheries would be of great value." The River Ouse. — There are four rivers of this name in England ; namely, the great Ouse in Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and Northamptonshire ; the Little Ouse, which flows out of Norfolk ; the river Ouse in Sussex ; and the Ouse, the great receptacle of the rivers of Yorkshire. The Yorkshire Ouse, of Avhich we now speak, is fifty-nine and a half miles in length. The area of its catchment basin is 4207 square miles from its commencement, at the junction of the Swale and the Ure, to the point where its waters are lost and mingled with those of the Humber. In the whole of its course it flows through a wide and fertile plain. Its course is slow and tranquil, compared with that of most other Yorkshire rivers. It is navigable through the whole of its course, the inland navigation commencing at Eipon in the Ure, which is one of its chief tribu- taries, and extending by Boroughbridge and Aldborough to York, Selby, and Goole, to the Humber. The river Ouse commences below Swale Nab, at the junction of the rivers Swale and Ure, near which point it also receives the bum, or brook, known as the great Ouseburn, which no doubt has taken its name from the river, although by some it has been supposed that the river had been named after the bum, or brook, which is at least highly improbable. The river Ouse, after collecting the waters of the Swale, the Ure, 214 YORKSHIEE : and some smaller streams, flows southward by Linton-on-Ouse, where the waters have been deepened by the erection of a weir. Thence it passes Newburn-on-Ouse and Bembrough Park to Nun Monkton Park, where it receives the waters of the Nidd. These flow down from the western moors by Ripley, Kiiares- borough, and Kirk Hammerton, into the river Ouse. From the junction of the Nidd the Ouse flows, with a somewhat wider stream, on to Overton, Nether Poppleton, the new water works, and Clifton, to the ancient city of York. The Ouse flows through the ancient and famous city of York, the capital of the county, which owes its long-continued prosperity, and perhaps its existence, to the advantages afibrded by the navi- gable streams of the Ouse and its tributary the Foss, the latter of which streams is seventeen miles in length and navigable for small vessels. Below the city of York the river flows through Fulford and Middlethorpe to Bishopthorpe, the ancient residence of the archbishops of York. There the depth of water is somewhat increased by the Naburn lock and weir ; and Naburn lock is the point to which ordinary tides flow up the river Ouse. Close to Naburn lock is Acaster Malbis, no doubt a Roman station, formed at the head of the tide water of the Ouse. From Acaster the river Ouse flows down by Moreby Park, Hales Hill, and Escrick Park, to Cawood, near which it receives "the river Wharfe from the west. From the junction of the Wharfe the river Ouse flows down by Riccall, which is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as one of the landing places of the Danish invaders, in the reign of King Harold. Thence the stream becoming wider and deeper, and bending eastward, flows on to the ancient tovra of Selby, and the modern port of Goole, situated in the parish of Snaith. Near Goole the river Aire, bringing with it the waters of the river Calder and of numerous smaller streams, joins the river Ouse. In the same neighbourhood, but on the opposite side of the river, the river Derwent joins the Ouse at Derwentmouth near Barmby, bringing down with it much the larger portion of the waters of the East Riding, and of that part of the North Riding which lies to the east of the vale of York. Not far from its junction with the Aire and the Derwent, the artificial course of the Don, known as the Dutch River, enters the Ouse, conveying the waters of the Don, the Dearne, the Rother, the PAST AND PRESENT. 215 Sheaf, and the almost, innumerable streams and brooks of the south- western district of Yorkshire. From that point the Ouse flows on with an easterly course to Faxfleet, where it joins and mingles its waters with those of the Humber : — The Salmon Fishery of the River Ouse. — The following evidence with regard to the salmon fishery of the river Ouse, and of those of its tributaries which do not flow through the manufacturing districts of the West Riding, but preserve their waters in their native purity, was given at York on the 7th November, 1860, before Sir William Jardine, Bart., chairman, and J. W. Ffenell, and G. K. Rickards, Esqs., commissioners appointed to inquire into sahnon fisheries for England and Wales. The first witness examined was Thomas Ashworth, Esq., an extensive owner of salmon fisheries both in England and Ireland, who gave the following evidence as to the natural advantages of the river Ouse for salmon fishing. We quote his views from page 395 of the evidence taken before the commission. " Question 13,339 (Chairman). Where do you reside f in Yorkshire ? At Poynton in Cheshire. "13,340. Do you know Yorkshire ? I have an estate at Selby, and a fishery upon it. " 1 3,341. Do you know the rivers of Yorkshire ? I know something of them. " 13,342. Will you be good enough to state what you know of the salmon fisheries in the Yorkshire district ? I own a salmon fishery on the Ouse at Selby, and my brother and I have another in Ireland. The fishery of Selby produced a rent of £2 this year ; but for five previous years I think I only got a rent of one salmon each year. From the best information I have been enabled to collect, there appear to be about fifteen places on the Ouse between York and the Humber, at which salmon are caught, and the rent for these fishings amounts, to .£122 15s. The witness read the following list : — Ouse Kivee. fishery eents. £ s. d. Linton Lock Fishing, about, 10 Naburn Lock, West side, Mr. Etherington's tenant, . . ... 50 Ditto, East side, Mr. Leaf, . 25 Wharfemouth, John Turner, ...600 Cawood Fishing, .. .200 Cawood, three or four fishings, J. T. Lund, .... . . 10 Cawood, William Varley, . 4 10 Hemingborough Landing Fishing, 100 (There are fishings below, but they are fished by the owners, no rent.) Eoman's Farm to Newing Ferry Fishing place, .400 Eoman's Farm Fishing, . . 2 10 Barlby Bank, Selby, .. ... 200 Wistow Fishing, . . 2 10 Barlby, 1 15 Turn head Fishing place, rent, 2 10 Total .... X122 15 216 YORKSHIKE " In connection with that list I may add that R. H. Reed, Esq., fishes part of the Derwent, a tributary of the Ouse, but only caught three fish this year. Lord Wenlock has part of the Derwent, but he does not sell the fish. Salmon go up to Stamford Bridge on -the Derwent, and the miller there catches a few at his own weir; and there are two locks for vessels to pass through below that weir. I could not ascertain that any fish passed the miller's weir. I calculate there are upwards of 600 miles of river and tributaries flowing into the Ouse, including the Derwent, from agricultural districts of upwards of 900 square miles. I have not taken the small tributaries, but only such as I could find upon a large map. If I had taken them more minutely, I have no doubt that the extent of salmon breeding ground would have been vastly increased. I have divided the county into two districts; the upper district we will assume to take in the river Derwent, and to extend to within a few miles of Wetherby. Then, next to the Derwent, I take the river Wharfe- which is on the opposite side, that extends to the hilly districts in the north of Yorkshire; and in continuation of that we will take the Ouse, with the Swale, the Ure, the Nidd, and all the various tributaries in that system. Most of those rivers, to my own certain know- ledge, are as pure from adulterations and foul water, or anything of that kind, as most of the rivers in either Ireland or Scotland. The southern part of the county — that is, a considerable portion of the West Riding of Yorkshire — is embraced within the rivers Aire, the Calder, and the Dun: and all that district extending from Settle, in the north, down to Keighley, Leeds, Halifax, Huddersfield, Wakefield, Barnsley, Pontefract, and so on, down until- it joins the river Humber. In order to simplify the thing as far as possible, in any calculations I have made I have omitted the whole of that series of rivers as being to a certain extent impregnated with foul water; and therefore, what I have to deal with is the upper district. I have estimated the rivers that I have endeavoured to describe, arising from the district, as 900 miles; and I attribute the small produce of those rivers to the weirs, placed across them, which prevent the fish from ascending to the small streams, where alone they can safely deposit their spawn. The Irish fishery law prohibits nets from being placed across a river, and enables parties to erect salmon ladders over all weirs, and to protect the salmon from poachers at all seasons, and to remove all natural obstructions from the beds of rivers; whereas, in this country, we find permanent mill weirs placed across rivers without the possibility of the fish ever passing over them: and we know that salmon spawn deposited in the lower parts of a muddy river like the Ouse must perish, and the species become extinct, unless the fish can ascend to the small tributaries, or to beds of gravel, where the water is not deep, and is pure, and beyond the reach of their natural enemies. The young fry cannot exist in deep pools; they must have air; and this can only be obtained in small streams of pure water, say, six inches in depth. I proved this by hatching salmon ova in garden wells, where I have seen scores of them die in a day in a stream of pure spring water only eight inches in depth, with a constant amount of pure water passing through it, arising from the want of air. The young fish in its early stages is about half an inch in length, and is so constructed that it cannot swim any great distance; it can only get air, which is indispensable to its existence, by coming to the surface, which they cannot do in a deep, muddy river, such as the Ouse. Unless they can rise to the surface of the water for air they must be drowned, and from this circumstance all the young salmon produced in deep water must die; besides which, they are liable to be carried away by heavy floods into deep pools, where they perish, if they are not devoured by larger fish. " Salmon are very prolific, and for every pound in weight the parent fish produces a thousand ova. I conceive, if similar laws and appliances could be brought into operation in England that are now in use in Ireland, our rivers would become equally productive. The Irish Fisheries Commissioners, in their report of 1857, state that the value of the salmon caught in Ireland is J300,000 and more annually, whereas in England I have never seen any calculation that made the annual produce amount to .£10,000 in value. We have in England and Wales about one-fourth part more rivers in extent than there are in Ireland; consequently it is reasonable to assume that the English rivers may become equally productive, with similar laws and appliances. I may state that in our own fishery in Ireland I have had PAST AND PRESENT. 217 salmon ladders made over all the mill weirs; and I have had natural obstructions, rocks and waterfalls, made accessible to the salmon, over which they had never before been able to pass; and thus, with jirotection to the fish, the quantity has increased to at least nine times the number that existed previously. These ladders are simple in construction, and not very expensive, and they enable the salmon to pass over any weir without the loss of any mill power, or injury of any kind to the proprietors of the mills. It is during the time when there is surplus water, and during floods, when the miller does not require the water, that the salmon migrate; and by placing a board on the top of a weir four inches in height, and leaving an opening of eight feet wide at the entrance into the stairs, you obtain a current of water through the stairs of eight inches in depth, and this enables the fish to get up at all times when there is any surplus water. By means of similar contrivances, I see no reason why many of the English rivers should not become equally productive with those in Ireland and in Scotland. I have only four things to state: two of those are in reference to salmon fisheries in Scotland, and two in reference to salmon fisheries in Ireland. By calculation we find that the river Shannon contains an area of 7200 square miles, and produces salmon of the annual value of J80,000. The river at Waterford contains an area of 4000 square miles, and produces salmon of the annual value of ^40,000. Then I will take two Scotch rivers. The river Spey, as proved by the duke of Richmond, produces a net annual income of more than £12,000 a year, and it contains an area of about 1050 square miles. The river Tay contains an area of 2800 square miles, and produces salmon which I estimate of the annual value of about £30,000, the fishery rents this year having been increased to £14,000. The river Ouse and its tributaries contains an area of 2400 square miles, and probably produces salmon of an annual value of about £400, the rent, as I have shown, being £122 I5s." (The witness pro- duced and explained a model of a salmon ladder, and also a plan for a ladder by Mr. Roberts, the engineer of the Board of Works in Ireland). Having given a brief sketch of the Humber and the Ouse, which are the great receptacles of the waters of Yorkshire, we proceed to describe the numerous streams that flow into them from the west, the north, the east, and the south. We shall com- mence with, those that flow from the western hills and mountains, being the most numerous and the most abundant in their suppHes of water; and along with them we shall describe the streams which enter the Ouse from the north. Afterwards we shall give a sketch of the streams which enter the Ouse and the Humber from the south and east. We shall then describe separately the Yorkshire streams which do not discharge their waters either into the Ouse or the Humber, beginning with those which flow into the Irish Sea, and concluding with those that discharge their waters into the German Ocean. The Eiver Swale. — The river Swale, the first great tributary of the Ouse, is formed by the union of numerous becks, or brooks, rising in the high crescent of moorland described in the last Geological Survey of Yorkshire as Birkdale Common, Angram Common, and Ravenseat Moor, and sweeping from Water Crag, by Nine Standards, Fell End, High Seat, Lady Pillar, and Shun- nor Fell. These flow down from the western mountains through VOL. I. 2 E 218 "yORKSHIRE deep gills or ravines, and unite at the head of Swaledale. Most of the mountains from which the waters of this river flow, are of the height of more than 2000 feet. Amongst them are Stoneybank, at the head of Long gill, 2224 feet high ; High Seat, at the head of Brockholes gill, 2327 feet; and Lodge Hags, at the head of Uldale gill, 2100 feet. The range of mountains, of which these are amongst the highest points, separates the waters which flow into the rivers Eden and Tees, from those that flow down Swale- dale, into the river Ouse. The summits of the mountains at the head of Swaledale belong to the millstone-grit formation, and dis- play the wild and barren moors which form its usual scenery, whilst in the valley the Yoredale rocks and upper limestone shales present grassy pastures on the surface, and numerous veins of lead beneath. The lead-mines of this district form its principal natu- ral wealth, and are worked to a considerable elevation amongst the mountains and hills, as they have been for many hundred years. The river Swale is formed chiefly by the two large streams named Sleddale beck and Birkdale beck, which join their waters at Stone- house, near Lane End lead-mines. Flowing east, it receives the Whitestundale beck from the north, near the Little Moor Foot mines, and rather lower, the Stonesdale beck. Each of these streams rushes down a deep ravine, and after heavy rains they pour great floods of water into the river Swale. Below the junction of Stones- dale beck the valley begins to widen, and at Muker, Swaledale assumes the form of a winding valley, watered by a bright and lively river. ■'^ Muker is a market town, small in size, but much frequented by the mining population at its markets and fairs. In the descent of these streams from the mountain tops and sides, numerous rapids and several small waterfalls are formed, some of which are very beautiful, especially after the heavy rains which turn every brook into a mountain torrent. From Muker the river Swale flows by Gunnerside to Eeeth, which is the principal town in this neighbourhood, and the chief place of the mming district. Eeeth stands near the point where Arkle beck pours into the Swale, a stream which, after heavy rains, is not much less abundant than its own. The town is situated about half a mile above the conflux of the Arkle with the Swale, upon an eminence sloping to the south-east, and presenting many beautiful and highly picturesque views. It is the capital of the mining * Ordnance Survey of Yorkshire, 1847-1863. PAST AND PRESENT. 219 districts of Swaledale and Arkengarthdale, and has also a manufac- ture of knitted stockings, for which these dales have always been famous. To the west of Healaugh. are the remains of a mansion, which is said to have belonged to John o' Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, who, as earl of Richmond, was lord of all this valley. Below Eeeth the valley opens, though still bounded both to the north and the south by rugged hills and cliffs, rising to the height of 1000 to 1500 feet. At Grinton, which is the most ancient parish of Swaledale, the river winds round the parish church and an ancient camp, probably of British or Roman origin, and soon after passes the monastic ruin of Marrick Priory, on the north side of the river, and Ellerton Abbey or Priory, on the south side of the stream. Some Roman remains have been found at Fremington, near Reeth, although the great line of Roman communication, from Eboracum to the west- ern end of the Roman wall, was through the valley of the Tees, and not through that of the Swale. Flowing past Marske, the ancient seat of the Huttons, with its deer park and its extensive woods, it is there joined by Marske Brook. Below Marske the river Swale flows through woods and inclosures to Whitcliffe paper mills, and thence to Richmond, with its ruined castle, built in 1071. This ancient feudal fortress rises on the north bank of the Swale, and the town of Richmond, so named by its Norman lords from the beauty of its situation, stands at the foot and on the sides of the neighbouring hills. In ancient times this was the seat of a most powerful earldom, known by the name of Richmondshire, and extending over the north-western portion of Yorkshire, the two northern hundreds of Lancashire, and tlie southern part of West- moreland. It is a place of great historical interest, and no doubt derives its name, the Rich Mount, from the richness of the scenery amongst which it stands. We shall trace the history of Richmond in a subsequent part of this work. Behind the town the race- course extends over a lofty plain, at a height of 847 feet above the level of the sea, commanding magnificent views of the surround- ing country. From Richmond to Catterick Bridge, the river Swale winds through a green valley, whose sides are covered with numerous remains of antiquity, most of them formed by the ancient earls of Richmond. A little below the town are the remains of Easby Abbey, and near Brompton-on-Swale the remains of St. Giles' Hospital. On the high grounds to the south of the river is Brough 220 yOKKSHIRE : Hall, the seat of Sir John Lawson, Bart., in an extensive well- wooded park. We shall describe this and the many other noble mansions of Yorkshire in the second volume of this work : our present object is to trace the course of the Yorkshire rivers. Between the hill on which Brough Hall stands and the Swale, is the old Roman station of Cataractoninm, which was a British town in the time of the Brigantes, and is mentioned by Ptolemy as Katarakton. Catterick Bridge, a little lower down the river, has superseded the ferry by which the Romans crossed the stream. The line of the Roman road can be traced for many miles, both on the north and south side of the river Swale. To the south it corresponds very nearly with the well-known course of the great northern road, known as Leeming Lane ; and north of the Swale the Roman road, there known as High Street, runs between Gilling and Sedbury Park on one side, and Middleton Tyas and Middleton Lodge, to the banks of the river Tees. Below Catterick Bridge the river Swale loses all appearance of a mountain stream. Between its sources and Catterick Bridge it flows with extreme rapidity over a rocky bed, and falls more than 1000 feet in a course of about thirty miles. At Catterick Bridge the Swale reaches and flows gently across the new red sandstone formation, and the vales of Mowbray and York, which are nowhere much more than 200 feet above the level of the sea. In passing down this great plain it leaves Hornby castle and park, the residence of the Osbornes, dukes of Leeds, on the right ; also Kiplin Park, recently the seat of the earls of Tyrconnel, but now belonging to the ancient house of Talbot, the Hon. Walter Cecil Talbot having taken the name of Carpenter, on succeeding to the estate in June, 1868 ; and Baldersby Park, belonging to Lord Downe. From this point to the neighbourhood of Boroughbridge the stream has cut its way, with innumerable windings, through the soft soil. From its source to Catterick Bridge the general direction of the river Swale is from west to east. From that point it flows in a south-easterly direction, until it strikes the Lias formation at Topclifie, by which its course is turned almost due south, to the point at which it joins the Ure to form the river Ouse. In its course south-eastward through the plain of Mowbray the Swale winds through a very fertile grassy country, and receives Grimscar beck, flowing down from Bedale and the hills, of no great PAST AND PRESENT. 221 elevation, which separate the southern part of Swaledale from Yore- dale. Near Breckenborough the Swale receives the river Wiske, which rises in the Cleveland hills near Ingleby Arncliffe, and flows down towards the vale of York. The streams that flow from the northern side of the same hills run into the river Tees, and those which flow from their eastern side discharge themselves, through the valley of the Esk, into the sea at Whitby. Near Topcliffe, where there was an ancient castle of the Percys, earls of Northumberland, the river receives a considerable stream, known as the Coldbeck or Codbeck, which rises in the Osmotherley moors, and flows down by Thirsk, into the Swale. Here the high and rising grounds turn the course of the Swale to the south and west. Leaving the edge of the Hambleton hills, the Swale flows through a comparatively level and very fertile country, to Myton-on-the-Swale, a little below which place it joins the river Ure, and takes the name of the Ouse. The name of the Ouse, like those of the Wisk, the Esk, and the Usk, is probably derived from the very ancient Gaelic word uisg, which simply means "the water," and gives name to many English streams, including several large rivers. The geological formation of the country watered by the river Swale is as follows: — The numerous brooks or becks which unite to form the Swale, rise in lofty mountains of the mUls tone-grit formation. Its course, from the point where it becomes a single stream down to the town of Richmond, is over the carboniferous rocks known as the Yoredale rocks, or upper limestone shale. Between Kichmond and Catterick Bridge it flows for a short dis- tance over the millstone grit. Below Catterick it enters the great Yorkshire plain, and flows over the New Red or Trias formation, bending round a projection of the Lias formation at Topcliffe, and joining with the river Ure to form the river Ouse at Aldborough. The water-power of the river Swale is very considerable, though somewhat liable to be interrupted by floods in the winter months, and by drought in summer. It is chiefly used in working corn mills, and in preparing the lead ore in the higher part of Swaledale. From the great distance of the district traversed by the Swale from the sea, the water-power has never been much used for manufac- turing purposes. There is no coal at present worked in any part of the country over which the river Swale flows. But, within the last few years, it has been thought worth while to search for coal both in the neighbourhood of Thirsk and Northallerton, 222 YORKSHIKE : whicli are the principal towns in this district. Hitherto, however, the trials have not been successful. The River TJre. — The river Ure, the second great tributary of the Ouse, rises in the mountains on the western border of York- shire. Ure Head, the spring or source from which it flows, is on the summit of Abbotside Common, at an elevation of about 2186 feet above the level of the sea. The rill, which forms the commencement of the river, winds rapidly down the side of the mountain, descending more than 1000 feet in the first two or three miles of its course. It runs parallel with the ancient road across the mountains, known as the Highway, down the valley; and leaving the moors of Abbotside Common to the north, and those of Widdale Fell to the south, it flows past Shaw Paddock Inn (1137 feet), to Lunds Church and Ure force. Passing Appersett Scar, the Ure receives the brook of Cotterdale from the north, near Holme Heads Bridge. Thence it flows down to Hawes, the highest town in the valley, receiving nimierous becks from the right, and Hardraw beck from the north. Hardraw force, on the latter stream, is a fine waterfall, springing at a single leap ninety-nine feet, from a limestone ridge into a rocky basin, whence the waters flow down rapidly into the river Ure. Cottar force is also another pretty waterfall on the stream of the same name, which flows down from Shunnor Fell and Lovely Seat. One great charm of the principal waterfalls of Uredale and Wensleydale is that they are nearly all overshadowed or fringed by luxuriant trees, shrubs, or creepers issuing from the crevices of the mountain-limestone rocks, and giving softness to the scenery of the wildest fells. Wensleydale commences to the east of Hawes, and follows the windings of the river Ure. The situation and the scenery of Wens- leydale are delightful. It stands at an elevation of about 900 feet above the level of the sea ; but the soil resting on the limestone is generally fertile, and the dale is sheltered by a long ridge of hills, alternately wood and rock, on the north. Rising gently abovei the banks of the Ure, it presents a plain of great fertility, beyond which an irregular and pleasing tract of cultivated grounds, woods, and pastures, rises before the eye, and terminates in the bold and purple form of PenhUl to the south. Up the valley the landscape is at once soft and magnificent, and the opening of Bishopdale when it falls into the vale of Ure, affords by its depth and mountain character a fine contrast to the more open part of Wensleydale. PAST AND PRESENT. 223 Near Hawes there is anotlier fine waterfall, named Gale force; and about four miles below Hawes, at Baiubridge, the Ure receives a considerable stream, dignified with the name of the river Bain, which discharges the overflow of Simmer Water — -a large tarn, or small lake, formed by the waters of several mountain streams. Near the junction of the Bain with the Ure is the site of Foss Abbey, the oldest monastic house in this valley. Below Bainbridge, at Brough Hill, are the remains of a Roman camp, which is supposed by Camden to have been known to the Romans as Bracchium. The outline of the camp is very clearly traced, but there is some uncertainty as to the name and the position. The river Ure flows down a grassy, well-wooded valley, to Ays- garth. The falls or forces of the streams which descend from the hiUs, and enter the river Ure near Askrigg, are amongst the most beautiful in Yorkshire. They are three in number — namely, Bow force, a pretty cascade, twelve feet in height; Millgill force, sixty-nine feet in height, and presenting a noble mass of water ; and Millgill upper force, forty-two feet in height. We shall give a detailed account of all these beautiful objects in our description of the hundreds or wapentakes in the second volume of this work. Our present object is to describe the Yorkshire rivers as a whole. At Aysgarth the river Ure itself rushes through a narrow pass, presenting a magnificent fall of waters, especially after heavy rains. The rapids of the Ure at Aysgarth are beautiful at aU times, and when the river is flooded they are magnificent. The waters are at first collected by a weir, and afterwards turn Aysgarth Mill, Thence they rush down rapids, winding at the foot of a lofty scar or rock. There are three waterfalls or forces in rapid succession. The first is High Force, below which are Yore bridge and mill. Then comes the Middle force; and lower down the stream is Aysgarth force. The valley through which the river winds is richly wooded, and lined with rocks. Flowing eastward, from Aysgarth, the river Ure receives the waters of numerous streams down Bishopdale. It then flows eastward to Bolton Hall and Castle, and the village of Wensley, which gives the name of Wensleydale to this beautiful valley. Bolton Castle in the parish of Wensley, was built by Richard Lord Scrope, chancellor of England in the reign of Richard II., was 224 YORKSHIRE : one of the places of captivity of Mary Queen of Scots, and was bravely defended by the royalists under Colonel Scrope in the great civil war. From neglect and from the damage received during the siege, the tower on the north-east angle became so much injured that it fell to the ground in the year 1761. But three of the four towers are in good repair, and Bolton Castle is still one of the noblest buildings in Yorkshire. Bishopdale is in the parish of Aysgarth, about six mUes below Askrigg. The township consists of farm-houses scattered at irregular distances, and in this picturesque and fertile dale there are several cascades of great height, and vast ledges of rocks intermingled with rich foliage. An account of the cultivation and the recent improvements in all these dales, will be found in the third chapter of this work. At Middleham the river Ure receives the river Cover, which flows down Coverdale, rising amongst the hills which separate Wharfedale from Wensleydale. Nearly opposite to the junction of the Cover with the Ure is Danby Hall, the mansion of the ancient family of the Scropes, who for ages were lords of this district, but who forfeited a considerable portion of their vast estates for their loyalty to King Richard II., when he was dethroned by Henry Bollngbroke, afterwards King Henry TV. Middleham in Wensleydale was the principal castle of the De Nevilles, earls of Salisbury and Warvdck, and one of the most cele- brated of the old baronial houses of Yorkshire. The castle, which was formerly of very great strength, is still an extensive and interesting ruin, and it is surrounded by eminences which were evidently fortified in ancient times. Middleham is now chiefly famous as the principal training place for Yorkshire race-horses. Leybum is about four miles from Middleham. The soil is gene- rally very fertile, and the tovm pleasantly situated. The walk called Leyburn Shawl, which passes along a continued ridge of limestone rocks overlooking the river Ure. is one of the finest natural terraces in Great Britain. From Danby Hall, near Middleham, the Ure flows down to Jer- vaulx Abbey, formerly one of the most magnificent monastic houses in Yorkshire, but now a small though picturesque ruin. Below this point the Ure winds with an eastern course to Kilgram Grange, where it begins to bend towards the south, flowing by Squirrel Bank nearly due south to Highmains, where it suddenly bends, and with PAST AND PRESENT. 225 several curves winds round the woods of Clifton Castle. From this point the river flows through well-wooded banks, nearly due south to Masham, and about a mile below that town receives the river Burn. The town of Masham is delightfully situated on the banks of the river Ure, and the adjacent country, particularly to the east, where the land lies on magnesian limestone, is very fertile. To the west the country rises into extensive moors and wilds; Masham Moor, as it is called, extending over nearly 10,000 acres of land. The Swinton estate, with Swinton Park, are within a mile of the town , and the highly picturesque grounds extend from the vicinity of Masham to the margin of the moors, large tracts of which were reclaimed by the late William Danby, Esq., and belong to the estate of Mrs. Danby Harcourt. The river Bum rises in the Great How on the wildest part of Masham Moor, and receiving numerous tributaries, flows down by Healey to Fearby Moor, then along the north side of Swinton Park to the village of Swinton, and thence to the Ure, which it enters near Aldborough Hall, one of the residences of the ancient family of Hutton. After receiving the waters of the river Burn, the Ure winds round a lofty height named Nutwith Cote, at the top of which are two tumuli. Thence it flows down to Hackfall, one of the most beautiful scenes to be found even in Yorkshire, the river winding at great depth over dark rocks, through thick woods of oak, from which it is supposed by some that the name is taken. The grounds of Hackfall extend from the ancient village of Grewelthorpe down to the river Ure, and then foUow the windings of the latter stream. From the high grounds in this neighbourhood there are most magnificent views, extending over the vale of York, and including the city and cathedral. After passing the woods of Hackfall the river Ure winds round by Mickley down to West Tanfield, where there is a fine bridge across the river, connecting the North with the West Riding. At Tanfield there are the ruins of an ancient castle, which formerly belonged to the Marmion family, but has been in the possession of the Bruces, marquises of Aylesbury, since the time of James I. Near Tanfield the river, which has flowed over the miUstone grit or the mountain limestone from the commencement of its course, enters upon the magnesian limestone, and follows the line of that formation down to the city of Ripon, the scenery being everywhere very beautiful. In this part of its course the river touches the VOL. 1. 2 F 226 YORKSHIRE : grounds of Norton Conyers, an ancient residence of the Norton family. Thence it flows nearly due south to Hutton Conyers ; and then with several windings, and leaving the episcopal palace on the right, down to the city of Eipon, both in ancient and modem times the seat of a bishopric. At Ripon, the river receives the waters of the Skell, a small stream flowing down from the western hills, and passing round the beautiful scenery of Studley Royal, the seat of the earls of Ripon ; near Grantley, also, is a seat of the Nortons, Barons Grantley. The river Ure has been made navigable by art from Ripon down to the point where it joins the river Ouse. After passing the city of Ripon, it flows with a south-east course till it comes opposite the ancient mansion of Newby Hall, the scene of a terrible catastrophe, in which Sir Charles Slingsby and several other gentlemen belonging to a hunting party lost their lives in attempting to cross the Ure after heavy rains. From Newby the river flows eastward by Roecliflfe untU it reaches the ancient town of Boroughbridge, where the bridge across the stream was in ancient times considered a mihtary position of great importance. Here also stands, about a mile from the river, Ald- borough, supposed to have been the Isurium of the Roman Itineraries, and the capital of the Brigantes. Numerous remains of antiquity are found in this neighbourhood, which wiU be described in a subsequent part of this work. After passing Boroughbridge the river winds by EUingthorpe Hall and Ellingthorpe Ings, or meadows, down to Swale Nab, where it receives the waters of the river Swale. These united streams form the river Case, the course of which has been fully described in this chapter. The geological formation of the country traversed by the river Ure is as follows : — It rises on the edge of the millstone grit and Yoredale rock, or upper limestone shale, and runs over the carboniferous limestone in the beautiful Wensleydale. Below Clif- ton Castle it flows for some considerable distance over the millstone grit, and then along the magnesian limestone to Ripon, and nearly to Boroughbridge; but before reaching the latter place, it enters the great red sandstone plain. This it flows over until it joins its waters with those of the Swale, to form the river Ouse.""" The river Ure runs from north-west to the south-east. Its course down to Middleham is very nearly from west to east. There however, it suddenly bends to the south, and continues its course * Ramsay's Geological Map of England and Wales. PAST AND PRESENT. 227 southward, over the magnesian Hmestone, through Ripon. Thence it flows east by south to Boroughbridge and the junction with the river Swale. Fisheries of the Ure and the Swale. — In the inquiry into the state of the salmon fisheries of Yorkshire, in the year 1861, the following evidence was given by Mr. Cayley (who then represented the North Riding), and John Hutton, Esq., of Aldborough Hall, as to the natural capabilities and the actual condition of the Ure and the Swale as salmon-fishing rivers. Mr. Cayley also spoke of the condition of the river Rye, one of the largest and most beautiful tributaries of the Derwent. Edward StiUingfleet Cayley, Esq., M.P., gave the following evidence : — " 13,605. (Chairman.) Have you any observations to make upon tlie subject of this inquiry 1 I am no fisherman, but I happen to live near the head of the Derwent, and I can state from my own knowledge that it has the same characteristics which the witnesses have described in respect to the Eye. It rises in moors ; it is a perfectly pure stream ; it has a gravelly bed for many miles ; and there is a fishing club towards the head of the stream, at a place called Ayton. To all intents and purposes, I think it has all the same facilities for spawning as the Eye would have. The Derwent is also a trout and grayling stream, and the grayling, if anything, preponderate ; they get to a large size. The trout are certainly a less size than they are in the Eye. With reference to the Ure, I have, as representing the North Riding, where the tributaries of the Ouse principally exist, made some inquiry as to the Ure and the Swale. I have a letter from Mr. Lawson, who lives near Eipon, at Aldborough, who says that salmon come up in large shoals annually to spawn in the Ure, and there is no reason at all why they should not do so in the Swale. The only difficulty in regard to the Swale is that there are lead works, which may to a certain extent poison the water." John Hutton, Esq., of Aldborough Hall, gave the foUowing evidence with regard to the fishery of the river Ure : — "13,642. (Chairman.) Where do you reside? At Aldborough Hall. I was requested by Lord Bolton to state that he should have been here to-day, but was obliged to leave home for London. His lordship takes very little interest in the river, because, owing to Nabum lock, the fish cannot get up above Eipon. When there is a large flood there wiU be fre- quently a great many fish. About forty salmon have spawned about Eipon Bridge in the course of three or four weeks. Some years we have no fish whatever higher up, owing to Linton lock, but this year we have had a great quantity, on account of the floods. " 13,643. Does Lord Bolton wish to preserve the river, if the fish had a free passage over the lock ? Yes ; and Mr. Scrope, who has a great deal of property on the river's side, he would be glad to preserve the fish.'' The water-power of the river Ure is very considerable, and the whole of the corn grown in the district through which the river flows, that is not sent to more distant markets, is ground by it. There are also a few woollen and flax mills on the banks of the Ure, which are well supplied with water-power. The number was con- siderably greater in former times, when manufactures were less 228 YOKKSHIKE : concentrated than they are at present. There is scarcely any, if any, workable coal in the district watered by the river XJre ; but the greater part of it abounds in limestone, and in many valuable varieties of building stone. Throughout the whole of this district the buUdings are of stone, and present a very light and cheerful appearance. The River Nidd. — The river Nidd, the third great tributary of the Ouse and the Humber, rises on the south-east side of an amphitheatre of rocky mountains, formed by Great Whemside, 2243 feet; Little Whernside, 1984 feet; Great How, on North Moor, 1786 feet; Brownridge, 1563 feet; Lofthouse Moor, 1450 feet; Fountain Firth Moor, and High Ash Head Moor, at Ousterbank rising to the height of 1450 feet. Within this range Stone Head Pasture also is of the elevation of 2000 feet ; and Rain Stang, of 1483 feet. Black Fell is the general name given to this wild and heath-covered region, in the last Ordnance Survey. The river winds through these mountains to BamsgUl and Bon- thwaite, everywhere presenting the aspect of a wild mountain stream. The Nidd has more the character of a mountain river throughout the greater part of its course, than any other of the large Yorkshire rivers. It is not navigable, except for boats, in any part of its course. After flowing almost due east for a few miles down Nidderdale, the Nidd strikes on the base of Brown Bidge and Lofthouse Moor, which turn it southward to Middlesmoor and Lofthouse, near the latter of which places it receives the waters of How Stone beck, which are nearly as abundant as its own. Between Lofthouse and Rams- gill it flows south-east through moors covered here and there with tumuli, and also yielding much lead ore, stone suited for grinding purposes, and a few thin beds of coal, on some of the highest hills. From RamsgUl the Nidd flows by Homehouse to Gouthwaite Hall, once the residence of Eugene Aram, near which place it receives Bumgill from the west, the river Laver from the east, and the waters of DallowgUl Moor, from an elevation of upwards of 1000 feet. Thence it descends by Brownstay Ridge (1095 feet) the Rolling Mill, and the Ash Stone Quarries, to Pateley Bridge, the principal town in this rich mineral district. From Pateley Bridge it runs by Castlehead to Dacre Banks, near the wUd and rugged scenery of Brimham rocks. Below that point it receives Darley PAST AND PRESENT. 229 beck ; thence througli a winding valley down to Hampsthwaite, and from that point to E-ipley. This whole district is full of wild rocky scenery and objects, some formed by nature, others by art in very early ages. From Hampsthwaite the Nidd runs with a south-easterly course towards Ripley, leaving E-ipley Park and castle to the noi'th, and receiving the stream that flows through the park. The Nidd VaUey Railway winds along the north bank of the river in this part of its course, crossing it a little further south by a lofty viaduct. Nidd Hall rises on the high ground on the south side of the river. From the Nidd viaduct the river winds through very deep banks, known as Bilton Banks, down to Knaresborough, passing High Moor and the Great Camp immediately opposite to Bilton Banks ; thence it flows down to Knaresborough Castle, whose outworks it washes on the western side. The river Nidd then runs by the town of Knaresborough to St. Ptobert's Chapel, and on to Plumpton. There it changes its course, and with many windings flows down to Goldsborough Hall, one of the seats of the earl of Harewood, and to Ribstone Park, the residence of Joseph Dent, Esq. After receiving the Crimple beck from the east, the Nidd flows by Washford to Cowthorpe (famous for its magnificent but now ruinous oak, said to have been the largest ever grown in England), and so on to Hunsingore. Here the Nidd enters the new red sandstone formation, and flows with numerous windings across the great Yorkshire plain. It is crossed by the Roman road near Cattal Magna, and thence runs to Kirk Hammerton, and so on through the meadows to Nun Monkton, on the river Ouse, where it discharges its waters into that stream, immediately opposite to Beningbrough Park. The course of the Nidd is almost directly from north-west to south-east, until it reaches Knaresborough. It then runs for some distance somewhat further southward ; but on entering the new red sandstone plain, a little before it reaches Hunsingore, it takes a north-easterly course, with many graceful windings, before it joins the Ouse. The vaUey of the Nidd, and the wild mountains from which that river flows, are very rich in minerals, especially in lead ore, lime- stone, and building stone. There is also much water-power, which is chiefly used either in corn mills or in preparing the mineral ores of the district. There are a few woollen manufactories, but there 230 YORKSHIRE : is little, if any, workable coal in the valley of the Nidd, or in the sur- rounding hills, and the stream of the river is so rapid that it has never yet been rendered available for the purposes of inland navigation. The Biver Wharf e. — The river Wharfe, the fourth great tributary of the Ouse, is formed by the becks and streams that rise in Cam Fell, and other mountains which divide the rivers flowing westward into the Irish Sea, from the streams running towards the German Ocean. The highest of these mountains, Dodd Fell, rises about 2189 feet above the level of the sea. The two principal streams by which the Wharfe is formed, are the Outershaw beck and the Green Field beck. These streams both run eastward, and unite opposite High Bank, flowing through Langstrothdale, formerly an ancient chase. From High Bank the river "Wharfe descends Deepdale to Buckden, where it is joined by several other streams from Buckden- out-Moor, which is 2302 feet in height. Here the valley begins to widen, and from Buckden to Kettlewell, it is covered with rich meadows, bounded, however, on both sides by lofty ranges of hills and rocks. Starbotton is the principal village in this part of the valley. From Kettlewell the Wharfe flows almost due south by Conistone and Netherside to Threshfield, Grassington, and Linton, a country rich in lead-mines. Thence it runs down to Barnsfield, receiving the streams of Harden Moor, the river Dibb, from the north, and those of Eilstone and Thorpe Fell (1661 feet) from the west. With many windings it reaches Appletreewick, also rich in lead-mines. Below this point the river enters the wild and romantic scenery of Barden and Bolton Park. It flows rapidly past Barden Tower, an ancient mansion of the De Cliffords, but now belonging to the duke of Devonshire. Here it enters a wild and narrow ravine, the rocks pressing the stream on both sides, until it forces its way through a cleft only about six feet broad, cut by the water in the rocks to a great depth, known as the Strid. Through this it rushes with a roar that is heard over the neighbouring hills. This was the scene of the catastrophe of the "Boy of Egremond," and it has in modern times been the place of death of more than one unfortunate person, who has either attempted to cross the stream, or accidentally fallen into its boUing waters. We are indebted to Dr. T. D. Whitaker's Craven, for the PAST AND PRESENT. 231 following account of the early part of the course of the river Wharfe :— "From the source of the river Wharfe down to Kettlewell, a tract of fifteen miles, the Wharfe, which is here an inconsiderable stream, flows amongst wild hills, and even here repays the skill of the angler by the finest trout. The waters rise very suddenly, and frequently overflgw some of the richest meadows in Craven. "At the northern extremity of the parish of Linton the valley of the Wharfe expands into a tract of level meadow and pasture. The strand of the river is broad and pebbly, and a tract of five miles from Linton to Kettlewell maintains a character peculiar to itself; for the tints are almost universally light green and grey ; the foliage is that of the pale and elegant ash ; the stream when illuminated by sunshine, an undulating line of sUver; the villages stone colour, softened by distance or mellowed by time. Even the leaden coverings of their little churches harmonize with the general effect ; but above all, the brown and purple fells are withdrawn, and as far as the eye can range to right or left the sloping sides of the valley are covered with a scaberous sur- face of limestone blanched by storms, which in a powerful sun oppresses the strongest vision by its whiteness. Immediately beyond Kilnsey a collateral valley forks ofi" to Arncliffe, with little to dis- tinguish it from the vale below but a long ridge of rocks, greatly inferior in height and boldness to that of Kilnsey, but more - perpendicular than those of its environs. " From Barden Tower to Bolton, a tract of three miles, the scene is unequalled in richness and beauty. On a low peninsula, formed by a curvature of the Wharfe, and at the very point where the contracted gorge of the valley begins to expand, are the ruins of the priory at Bolton. Either bank of the river, which is here bold, broad, and rapid, is hung with native oak, ash, wych- elm, birch, alder, &c., of the finest growth, showing the richness of the soil by expanding leaves of unusual size, and by that pendulous inclination of the branches which always accompanies luxuriant vegetation. To the left is the park of Bolton, ranging nearly from the river to the summit of the fell, where the blasted heads of weather-beaten oaks form no unpleasing accompaniment to the forked antlers of a herd of stags almost always seen in the horizon. " The river Wharfe, from its varied character, successively deep and 232 YORKSHIRE : shallow, still and rapid, is adapted to the habits of every species of the finny tribe which delights in clear and uncontaminated waters. For the Wharfe is beautifully transparent, not indeed, like the streams which feed the Cumberland lakes, perfectly colourless, but resembling brown crystal, which tinges without obscuring the objects seen through its medium. " The Wharfe is peopled in unusual abundance by the trout, the umber, the grayling, the lamprey, dace, barbel, and chub. But smelts, which once abounded in this river, are now rarely caught ; a deprivation of which the epicure, no less than the angler, has reason to complain, as no other fish, not even the trout, are compara- able to them in point of flavour. " Up the stream from Bolton Abbey, and in the deepest recesses of the valley, is the well known Strid, rendered doubly interesting by the ancient anecdote attached to it, where the whole body of water is suddenly contracted into a space of six feet, and shot with pro- portionate rapidity through the rocky channel. Grey, towerlike projections of rock, stained with the various hues of lichens, and hung with loose and streaming canopies of ling, start out at intervals ; beyond which, the scene terminates with the shattered remains of Barden tower, shrouded in ancient wood and backed by the purple distances of the highest fells." After issuing from the Strid the water pours with great rapidity down the valley, which however, begins to widen, although the Wharfe has all the attributes of a mountain stream, until it has passed the high grounds of Bolton Park, and reached the rich meadows of Bolton Abbey. Here it is very rapid, but passable by stepping stones in dry weather, though impassable after heavy rains Below Bolton Abbey the Wharfe flows past Addingham and Ilkley Moors, down to the pleasant watering place of Ilkiey, the Alicana or Olicana of the Roman Itineraries. Here the valley again widens and presents a succession of well-wooded parks, standing in green meadows, and backed by lofty hills, as far as Otley. The most extensive mills in this district are those of Burley ; but the general characteristics of the valley are rather those of agricul- ture and pasturage than manufactures. Immediately to the south of Otley is the steep height known as the Otley Chevin, which rises to a height of 925 feet, and commands magnificent views both up and down the vale, as well as of the beautiful grounds of Farnley Park immediately opposite. PAST AND PRESENT. 233 At Otley the valley widens, though the hills are still lofty. Below Leathley Hall the Wharfe receives the river Washburn from the northern moors, with several smaller streams from the south. Thence it winds gracefully through Arthington Pastures and past Arthington Hall to Harewood, the noble mansion and beautiful park of the earls of Harewood. Here the vaUey again widens, presenting everywhere green meadows and hills gently slop- ing down both to the northern and southern banks of the stream. In its windings it passes WoodhaU, CoUingham, and the town of Wetherby, formerly a fortified passage across the Wharfe, and on the south Beilby Grange. After several bends the river reaches Thorp- arch with Boston Spa, one of the favourite watering places of Yorkshire. Below Thorp-arch it is crossed by the Yorkhire and North Midland Railway, very near the point where it was formerly passed by the Roman road, near St. Helen's Well. From this point the windings of the river are incessant, down to Tadcaster, and here are the remains of an ancient castle and a Roman road. It was ia this part of the Northern road, near the passage across the Wharfe, that the two great armies of York and Lancaster came in conflict on Towton Field, supposed to have been the most bloody and decisive battle ever fought on the soil of England. In this battle it is said that as many as 40,000 men were slain, besides a great number desperately wounded or killed after the battle. The scene of the battle was the peninsula of land, bounded on one side by the river Wharfe, and on the other by a small brook named the river Cock, which comes down by Grimstone Park from the neighbourhood of Aberford. According to the tradition of those times, the latter stream was choked with dead bodies, and for a time flowed with blood. Passing Towton Field we come to Grimstone Park, the seat of Lord Londesborough. At Bolton Percy the Wharfe receives the waters of a smaE. stream named the Foss, from the neighbourhood of Wighill. Thence it winds across the meadows to Nun Appleton, where it joins the river Ouse. The length of the river Wharfe is seventy-five and a half miles. The geological formation of the country traversed by the river Wharfe is as follows: — It rises in the carboniferous rocks of the Yoredale strata, and flows over those rocks down to Barden, near Bolton Abbey. From that point the Wharfe flows over the mill- stone grit to beyond Harewood. A few miles below Harewood, near Wetherby, it crosses the magnesian limestone; and near Thorp- voi.. I. ^ ^ 234 YORKSHIRE I arch it enters the new red sandstone plain, acfoss which it flows by way of Tadcaster into the river Ouse.'^" The Salmon Fishery of the River Wharfe.— The following evi- dence with regard to the past and present condition of the salmon fishery in this beautiful river, was given at the inquiry of 1861, by the Rev. William Henry Challoner, of Newton Kyme, on the Wharfe : — " 13,370 (Chairman). Where do you reside ? At Newton Kyme, upon the Wharfe ; I have resided there for fourteen years. " 13,371. Do you know the Wharfe well ? Yes. " 13,372. Are you an angler 1 Yes, and have been almost ever since I could walk. " 13,373. Can you state the produce of the Wharfe thirty years ago ? Previously to 1807, I believe there was no impediment on the river, so that the salmon could always go up to the spawning ground; and in those days the servants used to stipulate that they were not to have salmon above three days a week. In 1807, or within a year or two, the late Lord Egremont built a new dam at Tadcaster, of a different shape to the old weir. " 13,374. What has the produce of the river been within the last few years ? It gradu- ally declined till about ten or twelve years ago ; we were trying to preserve the river higher up, and we made an application to the magistrates under the Act of Parliament, including the Severn and several other rivers, by which the magistrates have power to fix a close time, and we got the close time fixed from the 2Sth of September to the 25th of February. Then a subscription was raised to put up salmon stairs at the side of the dam, and, I conceive, since those salmon stairs have been put up a considerable increase has taken place ; but it was found necessary, in order to make the salmon stairs work properly, to place a piece of wood on the top of the dam, and the proprietors above objected to that, as it dammed up the water and prevented drainage taking place. A considerable quantity of salmon got up, and the last two or three years there has been a very material increase, certainly owing to the salmon stairs." " 13,397. Are there any deleterious matters discharged into the river Wharfe ? None. " 13,398. Are there any manufactories on it 1 Nothing to injure the fish directly or indirectly : the water is pure, and I drink it very often. " 13,399. Are there no tanyards or gasworks on the Wharfe 1 No, nothing to injure the water ; I never knew fish killed at any time by the water. About 1846 I was staying a mile from Thorp-arch dam ; I walked over there and stood at the dam ten minutes one day, and ten minutes the next day, and in those twenty minutes I saw 136 fish leap at Thorp-arch ; of course a good many might be the same, but they could not be the same both days : the floods had been very favourable." The following confirmatory evidence was given by Mr. Edwin Chadwick, agent to Lord Londesborough : — "13,464. (Chairman.) Are you agent to Lord Londesborough? Yes. " 13,465. Do you know the river Wharfe 1 Yes. " 13,466. Do you agree with Mr. Challoner's observations upon it? Generally. This last season we started fishing at the usual time, and we caught 162 salmon ; the average weight of which was nine pounds, and the total weight, 1545 pounds — in four and a half miles of water. " 13,467. How were they caught 1 With sweep nets. "13,468. Whereabouts in that water] There are several pools below Tadcaster dam, going towards the village of UUeskelfe. It is our intention to do away with the hecks • * Ramsay's Geological Map of England and Wales. PAST AND PRESENT. 235 we never catch any after the season, and we convicted a man for takmg fish about a fortnight ago." Mr. William Wright, representing the earl of Harewood, gave the following evidence : — "13,704. (Chairman.) Do you represent Lord Harewood? Yes. " 13,705. Have you heard the evidence to-day 1 I have. " 13,706. Do you agree generally with what has been said with regard to the obstruc- tions'! Decidedly so. Mr. Chadwick made the remark that we caught a deal of small fish at Harewood ; it is very little that we catch there at all ; we have no salmon at all ; we have pike fishing and fly-fishing for trout. There is a copy of the regulations, which we give to parties who have permission to fish (handing in a paper.) " 13,707. Does Lord Harewood take any interest in the river? A great interest. He wished me to come and express his concurrence with the objects of the commission, namely, the improvement of the breed of salmon ; and I have no doubt that he would join with the other proprietors in any measures that might be thought desirable. " 13,708. (Mr. Eickards.) Does Lord Harewood own any lock 1 He owns Harewood dam ; but there is no trap in it. " 13,709. Is that a great obstruction 1 Yes ; the salmon do not get up it ; but the great obstruction is at Tadcaster dam below. " 13,710. Can salmon get up Harewood dam in any state of the water 1 They can in very high water, but there are scarcely any to get up, because they are detained at Tadcaster. " 13,71 1. Do you think that if facilities were given for salmon to get over Tadcaster dam, Ijord Harewood would give facilities for their getting over Harewood dam? I have no doubt he would, and co-operate with the proprietors in promoting the breed of salmon in the river." State of the Salmon Fishing of the Wharfe and Derwent Districts in the year 1870. — Since the evidence given above was taken, in the year 1861, considerable efforts have been made to preserve the salmon of these two rivers, and those adjoining to them. The following report has just been made to the inspectors of the salmon fisheries of England and Wales, in replj to inquiries forwarded by them to the local commissioners : — " THE WHAEFE AND DERWENT DISTRICTS. "1. They (the salmon), of these rivers, have increased in numbers; whilst the average weight per fish is from three to four lbs. less. The Board are unable to account for this diminution. " 2. In the Wharfe district (there were taken last year), with draft net, 1017 ; in the Der- went district, with do., 759 salmon. "3. All the licensed fishermen ask for an extension of the open season until the 15th September, for which they would readily give up a month at the commencement, so as to make the open season commence on the 1st March, instead of the 1st February. The Board, however, would much prefer the present open and close seasons remaining as they are until the rivers are better stocked, and the upper parts made more accessible for spawning fish, when perhaps the Board will be in a better position to judge whether a change is desirable or not. " 4. In reply to the question, Is the legal mesh suitable for your district ? ' Yes.' " 5. In answer to the question, Were any new mines or factories using deleterious substances open in the Wharfe in 1869 ? ' None.' " 6. The Board, in the month of May last, addressed a letter to the Otley Board of Health remonstrating against the sewage of that town being discharged into the river Wharfe ; but 236 YORKSHIKE ; notwithstanding, the Board have been informed that contracts have been entered into for throwing the whole of it into the river. Putting aside the importance of the fisheries, and of the value of fertilizing substances that will be wasted and thrown away, the Board are of opinion that it is essentially necessary that government should interfere to put a stop to such abuses, which are not only contaminating all our pure rivers, poisoning fish, &c., but positively jeopardizing the public health. " 7. In answer to the question, What instruments for the capture of salmon were licensed in 1869, the following list is given : — IN THE WHAEFE DISTRICT. Name of Instrument. Draught nets. Rods, . . . Number. 22 7 Rate at which licensed. £5 1 Draught nets. Bow nets, . . DEEWENT DISTRICT. 10 4 Offences Charged. No. of each Offence. £5 1 Convicted or Acquitted. Number of men required to work them. 2 2 1 Penalty if Convicted, Convicted, £2 each and costs. " 5s. and costs. " ^10 and costs. " .£12 IDs. and costs. " 8. Using a net to catch salmon dur- (^ „ ing weekly close seasons, . . . i Using a net or illegal mesh, ... 1 Killing salmon not having a license, . 1 Having in possession unseasonable ) , salmon, ) " The board made the following general recommendation : — " 9. There seems to be little or no necessity for by-laws in these districts, until there is some expansion of the power to deal with the passage of fish over all rivers. When that is accomplished, and the rivers become stocked with fish, it will then be desirable for boards of conservators to frame a code of by-laws for the regulation of the fisheries, which the Board are of opinion should include the control and management of all salmon-fishing boats, and determine the description, size, and length of nets to be used in fishing, and the registering or labelling of the same ; to regulate. the upper and lower fisheries, so as to prevent either interest predominating ; to direct the placing of grating in mill races ; to prevent the infringement of the laws afi'ecting mill dams, fish passes, sluices, mill races, &c., and to regulate the duties of water bailiifs. " 10. The Board reiterate their wishes expressed in last year's report, viz., the merging of the Wharfe and Derwent districts, so as to form one board for the salmon rivers of this county. They also urge upon Government and Parliament the necessity for con-' tinuing the invaluable services of the special commissioners, and to enlarge and extend their powers. The Board also express a hope that the select committee will be appointed in the next session of Parliament, and that a bill founded upon the evidence will be intro- duced into the house, for an amendment of the fishery laws. " 11. The existing fishery acts require considerable amendments, for the reasons mentioned on this head in last year's report ; to which should be added, that the weekly close season should commence at six o'clock on Friday evening, and end at six o'clock on Monday evening." They add — "Stringent measures should be taken to prevent the pollution of rivers, and severe penalties should be fixed for throwing cinder- slip and other refuse into the rivers, and for throwing in any- deleterious matter whatsoever. Extensive power should be con- PAST AND PRESENT. 23? ferred upon conservators and bailiffs to enter land in the discharge of their duties, and to search persons on reasonable grounds of suspicion ; and lastly, every year the Board become more and more impressed with the necessity of securing by some legislative process a free passage for the fish to and from their spawning grounds, without which the rivers of this county can never be developed to the extent they are capable o£" The Elver Aire. — The rivers Aire and Calder are the two great industrial and navigable livers of the West Riding, the seats of the woollen and the worsted manufactures, which in early times owed their existence and prosperity chiefly to the motive power supplied by these powerful streams, and their numerous auxiliaries. The waters of these two rivers, and of their tributary streams, either flowing in their natural channels, or collected in navigahle canals fed from the same sources, also supplied the means by which the first lines of inland navigation were opened across England, from the German Ocean to the Irish Sea ; thus affording to the districts traversed by them, the power of communicating, both with all places on their own banks, and with the two great ports of the North of England, Liverpool and HiiU. In addition to these suppHes of water-power, and means of internal and external communication^ both the Aire and the Calder possess the great advantage of flowing over the rich coal-fields and iron beds of the West Riding, which they have most powerfully assisted to open out and develop, for all the purposes of modern industry. The river Aire, the fifth great tributary of the river Ouse, possesses much less the character of a mountain stream, even in the early part of its course, than any of the rivers above named ; viz., the Swale, the Ure, the Nidd, and the Wharfe. It does not rise in the rugged and barren moors of the millstone grit, but in the softer hills of the mountain limestone. Its springs are at an elevation of about 1200 feet above the level of the sea, in the grassy hUls of Craven ; and in the greater part of its course 'it flows through a gradually sloping valley, with a steady but not tumultuous course. It is much less rapid- than the river Wharfe, but considerably deeper, and, therefore, more apphcable to the purposes of industry. Malham Tarn, a pretty little lake in the hills, which is itself the receptacle of several small streams, may be regarded as the source of the river Aire, although that name is not given to any of the 238 YORKSHIRE : streams that flow into the tarn. It first receives the name of thfe river Aire as it issues, with a large volume of water, from the base of Malham Cove — a lofty limestone rock more than 280 feet high, situate between Malham Tarn and the course which the river Aire follows, after issuing from the foot of the rock. In this, and in all other mountain-limestone districts, the phenomenon of streams flowing with an underground course, and even falling as sub- terranean waterfalls, is of frequent occuiTence, and there is no doubt that the streams which flow into Malham Tarn ultimately discharge their waters down the bed of the river Aire. The scenery, in the midst of which the Aire rises, is ahke distinguished for its beauty, its richness, and its wild magnificence. The following is Dr. Whitaker's account of this charming spot. Speaking of Malham Tarn and the sources of the river Aire, he observes : — " Here nature seems to have wantoned with unusual luxuriance ; the great elevation of the fells above, which con- dense a vast quantity of vapours, together with the nature of the rocks beneath, full of secret fissures, contributes at once to produce the most copious springs, and alternately to exhibit and conceal them in the most fantastic manner. It is not the least curious circumstance about this place, that, on a bottom so cleft and shattered, a basin shoiild have been left capable of retaining a sheet of water not less than a mile in diameter, for such is Malham Tarn. This pool — inestimable for its fishery of trout and perch, which grow to an unusual size, and have the finest flavour — by a rampart of a few feet at the outlet, might be made to cover the deformity of a wide peat moss, and form a beautiful and winding way in the bosom of the mountains. Yet, after all the improvement of which it is capable, Malham Tarn is in too high and bleak a situation to become very interesting as an object. Had it washed the feet of the rocks beneath, and wound alono- the narrow valleys to which they form so majestic a termination, nothmg would have been wanting but a proper fringing of wood to complete one of the noblest scenes in the island. " Speaking in general terms, this lake may fairly be considered as the source of the Aire; but as its outlet quickly sinks into the ground and is lost, and as several streams which appear below contend for the honour of the connection, it still remains a matter of some uncertainty to which of them the preference is to be given. The inhabitants of Malham plead, that the waters of the tarn PAST AND PRESENT. 239 actually appear again in two most abundant and beautiful springs, about a quarter of a mile below the village, and nearly three miles from the place of immersion. This opinion seems most probable. But from the foot of the cove, and almost a mUe nearer to the tarn, a copious stream breaks out, which has undoubtedly the second claim ; yet it is well known that a collection of springs rise in the Black HUl, the Hensetts, and Wythes, and are swallowed up in a field called the Street; and from the turbid quality of the water, very unlike that of the tarn, there is little doubt that, after a subterraneous course of more than two miles, this is the stream which here emerges again. In rainy seasons, however, the overflow- ings of the lake spread themselves over the shelving surface of the rocks below, and precipitating from the centre of the cove, form a tremendous cataract of nearly 300 feet. Thirdly, the Airton Water, from which the village derives its name, seems precluded by its distance from any reasonable pretensions. Fourthly, Gordale Water, which springs in the Great Close, and of which the whole course may be traced, can have no other claim than that of a collateral feeder. "The village of Malham is situated in a deep and verdant bottom, defective only in wood, at the union of two narrow valleys, respectively terminated at the distance of a mile by the Cove and Gordale, which have been mentioned above. The first of these is an immense crag of hmestone, 285 feet high, stretched in the shape of the segment of a large circle across the whole valley, and forming a termination at once so august and tremendous that the imagination can scarcely figure any form or scale of rock, within the bounds of probability, that shall go beyond it. " The approach to Gordale on the east side of the village happily remains what nature left it, a stony and desolate valley, without a single object to divert the eye from the scene before it. This is a solid mass of limestone colour, of perhaps equal height with the Cove, cleft asunder by some great convulsion of nature, and opening ' its ponderous and marble jaws' on the right and left. The sensation of horror on approaching it is increased by the projection of either side from its base, so that the rocks, though considerably distant at the bottom, admit only a narrow line of daylight from above. At the very entrance you turn a little to the right, and are struck by a yawning mouth in the face of the opposite crag, whence the torrent pent up beyond suddenly forced a passage within the memory of men, which at every swell continues to spout out one of the boldest 240 YORKSBIRE : and most beautiful cataracts that can be conceived. Wherever a cleft in the rock or a lodgment of earth appears, the yew tree, indigenous in such situations, contrasts its deep and glossy green with the pale grey of the limestones ; but the goat, the old adven- turous inhabitant of situations inaccessible to every other quadruped, has been lately banished from the sides of Gordale."* The river Aire, after receiving the streams which issue from Gordale on the left, and Kirkby Malhamdale on the right, flows down to Airton, pleasantly situated in a grassy valley, and known as the birthplace of General Lambert, one of the Yorkshire heroes in the great civil war. The stream of the river Aire is so abundant that it turns the machinery of Scalegill mill, before it reaches Airton, and works another mill at that place. From Airton the river runs nearly due south, passing Calton and Calton Hall on the left, and Otterburn Hall on the right. After passing under New Field Bridge, at which point the stream is about 500 feet above the level of the sea, it receives the waters of Eshton Tarn. Numerous quarries have been formed in the lime- stone rocks of this district, which serve to supply the demand for that valuable mineral on both sides of the hills. A little lower down, the Aire receives Otterburn beck from the right, and almost immediately after, supplies water-power for Bell Busk mill, and passes under the (little) North-western Kailway, from Leeds to Lanr caster, which crosses the river by the Bell Busk viaduct. Below this point the river Aire winds most gracefully between the heights of EUenber and Coniston Cold, and then runs by the Ingber planta- tions down to Priest Home Bridge, where there is an aqueduct of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. At Gargrave the river Aire first comes into close connection with the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, which draws the greater part of its supphes of water from the hills on the banks of the Aire, and follows the windings of that stream to the neighbourhood of Bradford and to Leeds. This canal has now been in existence for more than a hundred years, and has been the principal means of developing the industry of this portion of Yorkshire. The original plans were formed by the great Brindley, at the time when he was engaged in constructing the Bridgewater Canal, and the whole work bears the stamp of his bold and original genius. Unlike the Bridgewater Canal, which was only thirty miles in length, and • Whitaker's History of Craven, pp. 20C, 207: 1812. PAST AND PRESENT. 241 ■was carried through, a perfectly level country, the Leeds and Liverpool Canal is 130 miles in length, and was carried across the mountain chain forming the Backbone of England. The plan of following the course of the river Aire, which ultimately flows into the German Ocean, to the point where it approaches nearest to the watershed of the Eibble, and of other streams that flow into the Irish Sea, was one of the chief means of securing success to this great undertaking. This is the only point, in a mountain range of more than 200 miles in length, at which it was possible for the engineering skill of those days, to have formed a navigable canal from the manufacturing districts of Yorkshire to the Irish Sea ; though forty years later the same chain of hUis was pierced at two diSerent and much higher points, for the purpose of con- structing navigable canals. The river Aire runs from north to south, from its source in Malham Tarn to Gargrave, following a course which is nearly parallel to that of the river Eibble. At this point the two streams are within a few miles of each other; but here it is that they both change their courses, the Ribble flowing westward to the Irish Sea, and the Aire running eastward to the German Ocean. After passing Gargrave the river Aire receives a stream of water nearly as large as itself, down Eshton beck, which brings with it the waters of Mil] beck from Rilstone, and those of the Waterburn from the higher ridges of Malham Moor. In its course down to Skipton, it leaves the crags of Flashy Fell, covered with ancient barrows (probably belonging to the British period), on the left, and the remains of a Eoman villa, on the right. Then, passing on by Thorlby, it runs down to the neighbourhood of Skipton. Skipton-in-Craven, the capital of the district, stands on a branch of the river Aire. The castle of Skipton, originally a place of great strength, and which is still a noble building, was erected by the ancient and famous family of the De Cliff'ords, earls of Cum- berland, and belonged in modern times to the earls of Thanet. Skipton stands on the mountain Hmestone; but to the east of that town, high and wild moors of the millstone-grit formation, known as Skipton Moor and Rumbles Moor, fill up nearly the whole of the country between the vaUey of the Aire and the valley of the Wharfe, rising at the White Stones to the height of 1112, and on the highest point of Ilkley Moor to 1323 feet. To the south of the Aire valley the hills rise to an almost equal VOL. I. 2 ^ 242 YORKSHIRE : height, on the moors behind Keighley. Near the junction of the mountain limestone with the millstone grit are the lead mines of Cononley. On the opposite side of the • valley is Kildwick, at the foot of lofty moors covered with barrows and other remains of antiquity. A little further south the river Aire receives the waters of the Silsden valley from the north, and, winding round Steeton Moor and HawkclifFe, flows on to the neighbourhood of Keighley, where it receives the waters of the river Worth from that populous valley. Keighley is the first manufacturing town situated on the course of the Aire, and is the commencement of a great scene of manu- facturing industry, extending over the whole breadth of the Yorkshire coal-field. At Bingley, which stands four miles lower down the river and has the advantage of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, the Yorkshire coal- field commences ; the river Aire flowing over it during the whole of its course, down to the neighbourhood of Normanton. From Bingley the Aire flows to the neighbourhood of the great and populous town of Bradford, and receives the waters of Bradford beck. From this point a canal was carried in early times to the town of Bradford, which placed it in connection with the great line of inland navigation, supplied by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the Aire and Calder Navigation ; and gave a fresh impulse to its progress as a manufacturing town. Leaving Bradford to the south, the river Aire runs at the base of the hills on which Baildon stands, between the Aire and the Wharfe. The highest point of the hills at Baildon is 927 feet above the sea, and is crowned with an ancient British cairn. On the south side of the river, the hills on which Idle is built project into the valley of the Aire, and round them the stream winds, by Esholt Hall, before it reaches the pleasant scenery of Apperley Bridge. From this point the river runs round the base of the hills on which Calverley and Farsley are built, on one side of the valley, and those on which Guiseley and Yeadon stand on the other. All these villages and towns are rich with manu- factures, many of the largest woollen and worsted mills being in this district. Here the whole country abounds in coal and water-power. Passing New Laiths, the river flows down to Kirkstall Abbey, a scene of great natural beauty, but now crowded with extensive manufactories. PAST AND PBESENT. 243 The Aire flows through the large manufacturing town of Leeds, and may be regarded as the first cause of its industrial greatness. The fall of the water in its windings within the town, is sufficient to give impulse to several manufactories, and to furnish water-power at every season of the year. This is not the case in the shallower rivers of Yorkshire, which, though abounding in water- power in the winter months, are nearly dry even in ordinary summers. In addition to the river Aire itself, the water-power of Leeds is increased by the stream that enters it on the south from Holbeck, and gives name to the populous district through which it flows ; and also by several streams, which, unite in one at the northern limits of the town, and enter the river at the old church through Sheepscar beck. It was this abundance of water and water- power that maintained the manufactures of Leeds for many ages, before the discovery of the steam-engine supplied a new power, and gave a new form to the industry of the town. The river Aire was made navigable from Leeds to the Ouse and the Humber more than 150 years ago; and since the middle of the last century Leeds has been the centre of a system of inland navigation, nearly the whole of which is derived, in one form or another, from the waters of the Aire and Calder. Below the town of Leeds the course of the Aire is to the soutb-east; and after flowing over the coal-field for a few miles, it comes out on the magnesian limestone plain. Two or three mUes below Leeds the Aire passes Temple Newsam, which stands on a fine well- wooded elevation on the north-eastern side of the river. A little lower it passes Swillington HaU, and near the park and groiands of Kippax. Thence it flows through a fertile plain to Methley, and afterwards winds with many bends by way of Allerton Bywater, to Castleford, where it receives the waters of the Calder, the second great manufacturing river of Yorkshire. Below Castleford the united stream, which still bears the name of the Aire, flows with many windings to Fairbum, Fryston Hall, and to Ferrybridge, formerly the great passage of this stream, though now superseded by the lines of railway from London to the north. From Ferrybridge the river flows through Brotherton, and through a low but fertile country down to Snaith, past Byram Park on the north, and the great magnesian Hmestone quarries on the south. From Knottmgley a deep and wide navigable canal cuts ofi" the numerous windings of the river Aire through 244 YORKSHIRE : the new red sandstone plain, and furnishes a commodious line of inland naAdgation to the south of the town of Snaith, from which point the Knottingley and Goole Canal extends to the river Ouse at Goole, whence there is a wide and open course into the Humber. The river Aire, in its course from the neighbourhood of Knottingley, passes Berkin on the north, Kellington on the south, and Chapel Haddersley in the neighbourhood of Snaith, flowing between Carlton Park on the north, and Cowick Park on the south. Below Snaith the river Aire winds through extensive meadows to Eawcliffe, and enters the river Ouse near Goole. The River Galder. — The river Calder is the second great manufac- turing river of Yorkshire, and the sixth chief tributary of the Ouse. The Calder was rendered navigable in the early part of the last century from the point where it falls into the river Aire at Castle- ford up to Wakefield ; and some years later, the forming of the Calder and Hebble Navigation extended that cheap mode of com- munication to Huddersfield and Halifax, connecting aU the three towns with the Humber, the port of Hull, and the German Ocean Within the last hundred years navigable canals have also been constructed in connection with the navigation of the Calder, which cross the great chain of hills dividing Lancashire from Yorkshire, at two difierent points, and form connections with the rivers and canals of Lancashire, and through them with the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The rivers Aire and Calder are the only two rivers in the north of England which have been used for the purpose of forming direct communications by water from the German Ocean to the Irish Sea and the Atlantic ; and though the modern improvement of railways has caused the benefits con- ferred by navigable canals to be in a great measure forgotten, there can be no doubt that they were, for at least one hundred years, amongst the principal means of developing the industry of the districts in which they were formed. The river Calder rises in the western hills, beyond the borders of Yorkshire, at the foot of Boulsworth Hill, which divides some of the waters flowing into the Irish Sea from those which flow east- ward into the German Ocean. The course of the Calder, tmtil it enters Yorkshire, is south-easterly, flowing over wild moors to the head of the valley leading down to Todmorden. At Todmorden it enters Yorkshire, and for some distance bends PAST AND PRESENT. 245 its course slightly to tlie north-east. The Calder everywhere supplies great abundance of water-power, and works a succession of manufactories from the point where it enters Yorkshire down to Wakefield. Its tributary streams are extremely numerous, and the valleys through which they flow are full of busy inhabitants, and are the seats of never-ceasing industry. At Todmorden, the point at which the river Calder enters Yorkshire, it strikes upon the eastern edge of the Lancashire coal-field, and thence flows over the millstone grit nearly to EUand, a few miles south of Halifax and north of Huddersfield, both of which stand on the western edge of the Yorkshire coal-field. From EUand it flows over the coal-field through Dewsbury and Wakefield to the neighbourhood of Castleford, where it falls into the river Aire. Below that point the united waters of the Aire and Calder pass over the magnesian limestone, the new red sandstone, and deep beds of alluvium, to the river Ouse. In crossing the Yorkshire coal-field the Calder receives the river Colne from the neighbourhood of Huddersfield, as well as numerous brooks both from the north and the south. The river Calder, after leaving Todmorden, runs through a beautiful green valley, inclosed by lofty hills. Down this valley the river, railway, and canal run either side by side, or crossing each other by numerous bridges and viaducts, to Hebden Bridge, where the river receives the waters of the Hebden, and the streams from Widdop, HeptonstaU, and Wadsworth Moors, on the north ; and, a little lower, to Mytholmroyd, where it receives the waters from the Soyland Moors on the south. Water-power is very abundant in all these valleys. From Mytholmroyd the Calder winds down to Luddenden-foot, receiving streams from Warley and Saltonstall Moors, crowned with the rock known as the Rocking Stone.'"' Below this point the Calder flows with a south-eastern course to Sowerby Bridge, near which place it receives from the south the waters of the Ribourne, from Ripponden. In the last Ordnance Survey of the wild and lofty moors from which these tributaries of the Calder descend, numerous remains were found of British antiquity in the form of beacons, rings of stones, rocking stones, and other objects connected with the wars and the superstitions of ancient times. Many of these are now nearly obliterated by the hand of time, but some stiU bear imdoubted traces of the early inbabitants of this part of Britain. * Ordnance Survey Map, 88. 246 YOKKSHIRE : From Sowerby Bridge the river Calder bends to the south, being turned from its previous course by the steep hills on which the town of Halifax stands. Halifax, like Huddersfield and Bradford, is not built on the main stream flowing through the district, but on one of its numerous tributaries, on which the water-power, though less abundant, was more manageable in former times, and whence also access to the coal-field of the district was somewhat easier. Near Elland is Fixby HaU, for many ages the seat of the distinguished family of the Saviles, marquises of Halifax, who bore the title of Lord Elland, as their second dignity. Elland and Brighouse were the two principal passages and bridges across this part of the river Calder. Between and below them the valley widens, though it is still bounded by lofty hills, extending to Rastrick on the south, and South Owram and Lightcliffe on the north. From Lightcliife a considerable stream runs down to the Calder at Brighouse, through an exceedingly pretty, well-wooded country, in which the bright green of the valleys seems to be even brighter amongst the dark hills, the sides of which are planted with extensive woods. These become thicker and more extensive in approaching Kirklees Hall, the seat of Sir George Armitage, baronet, whose family have held this estate from the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In this beautiful part of the valley of the Calder there was formerly a priory of nuns, and some remains of the priory still exist. The neighbourhood is also famous in tradition as the scene of the exploits, and of the death, of Eobiti Hood. In ancient times the great forest of Sherwood, which was, no doubt, the scene of many an outlaw's exploits, extended northward over the strong land of what is now known as the great coal-field of Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire from the banks of the Aire and the Calder, to the southern bend of the river Trent, at Nottingham. Great part of this district was covered with thickets, woods, parks, and wastes until comparatively modern times ; and beyond the woody districts, heath-covered hills and mountains extended into Lancashire and Derbyshire. The river Calder receives, near Cooper Bridge, the river Colne, coming down from the busy manufacturing town of Huddersfield, and bringing with it the waters of many small streams, almost from the borders of Lancashire. The Colne rises in the highest part of the rocky heights which separate Yorkshire from Lanca- shire. Amongst these points are Dean Head Moss, 1661 feet; PAST AND PRESENT. 247 Holme Moss, which is 1909 feet high at the point where the waters that flow to the north separate from those that flow to the south; West Nab, 1641 feet; and Birk Moss, almost equally- high. From these hUls numerous small streams flow down the different doughs or ravines, uniting in the Wessenden reservoir, whence the river Cohie runs northward to Marsden, turning several mills in its course. Near Marsden the course of the Colne turns eastward towards Slaithwaite, then flows down the valley with a north-eastern course, passing between Golcar and Longwood on the north, and Linthwaite on the south. In its course east- ward the stream receives several brooks from Crossland Moor on the south, and Holestone Moor on the north, near which, at Slack, are the remains of a Roman camp and permanent station. These hills are covered with ancient British remains, and were formerly traversed by one, if not two, of the military roads of the Romans. Leaving Lockwood to the south, the river Colne runs at the base of the hills on which the town of Huddersfield stands. Thence it flows, in a northerly direction, to its junction with the Calder, receiving a considerable stream from the Holmfirth valley, which is the seat of a great and flourishing industry. The river Calder, after receiving the waters of the Colne near Cooper Bridge, passes through the pleasant district of Mirfield, to the large manufacturing town of Dewsbury, where it receives from the north the streams that water the populous valley in which Cleckheaton, Liversedge, and Heckmondwike stand. The Calder and Hebble Navigation runs along the side of the river Calder, connecting the towns in the upper part of the valley with Wakefield, and the Aire and Calder Navigation. Near Dewsbury the Calder receives other streams from the neighbourhood of Birstal and Batley on the north, and, below Dewsbury, flows with many graceful windings through a broad and fertile vaUey, to the neighbourhood of Horbury. To this point the high grounds on the north bank of the river cause its course to bend somewhat to the south-east ; but near Horbury the hiUs recede on the north, and the river Calder turns to the north-east, to the foot of the hills on which Wakefield stands. The ruins of Sandal Castle lie a httle to the south of Wakefield ; and it was in the meadows between Sandal Castle and Wakefield Bridge, that the great battle was fought, in which Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, the father of King Edward IV. and Richard III., was defeated 248 YORKSHIRE : and killed, by the armies of the house of Lancaster, commanded by Queen Margaret of Anjou and Lord de Clifford. Below Wakefield the country becomes more level, and the valley much wider, with numerous fine parks and handsome mansions on both sides of the river. Here the windings of the stream are inces- sant, and in several cases take it for a while far back from its prevail- ing course, which is to the north-east. This course the Calder follows to the neighbourhood of Methley, where it enters the plain through which the river Aire flows, joining that stream at Castleford, supposed to be the Lagecium of the Romans, situated in one of the most fertile districts of the West Riding, within a short distance of the fine parks of Methley, Kippax, Ledsham, and Fryston, and a few miles north of the ancient and pleasant town of Pontefract. The Biver Don. — ^The Don, the seventh great tributary of the Ouse, rises from a number of springs, one of which is known as the Dun well, near the point at which the Manchester and Sheffield Railway passes through the Woodhead tunnel. The highest points of the neighbouring hills are Black Hill, Holme Moss, 1909, Ramsden Edge, Pike End, Snailsden, 1565, Dead Edge, 1479, and Holme Cliffe, 1635. From these hills the streams flow some of them north through the Holmfirth valley, and others west- ward into Lancashire ; but the greatest flow of water in one stream is that to the east, down the river Don, which supplies the Dunford Bridge reservoir, and then runs on by Dunford Bridge eastward towards Penistone and Sheffield. An auxiliary stream, known as the Little Don river, rises in the same hills, near an ancient circular earthwork named " the Camp," and flows nearly parallel to the main stream of the Don until it joins it. A third stream, known as the Ewden river (which is said to be a corruption of the Anglian god, Woden), rises at the foot of Ewden or Woden heights (1220 feet), and also flows parallel to the Don, which it ultimately joins. From the north another large stream, known as the Scout Dyke, comes down from Upper Cumberworth by the British forti- fications of Castle Hill, and joins the Don at Penistone. Both the words Cumberworth and Penistone are of British origin, though with English terminations, and date from the time when the Cjrmry or Cumbers, whose name is also found in Cumberland, took refuge in these hills from the invading Angles.'"' Below Penistone the valley of the Don begins to widen slightly, * See Ordnance Survey of Yorkshire. PAST AND PRESENT. 249 though closed in at different points by the lofty heights of Copstar and Thurgoland. Descending the valley, the range of the Wharncliffe rocks and the woods of Wortley Park rise above the green valley through which the river flows. The greater part of this country is richly wooded, chiefly with oak timber, and is justly regarded as one of the most beautiful districts in the north of England. Opposite to the Wharnclifie the river Ewden or Woden, with other streams, flows into the river Don. After passing Wharncliffe, the Don flows by Oughtibridge, and through a country rich in coal and manufactures to Sheffield, passing through this great seat of industry at the most southern part of its course. At Sheffield the Don receives the river Sheaf and numerous streams flowing from the hills, which are amongst the principal support of the mdustry of that district, turning inmimerable mills employed in the production of cutlery and machinery. The river Sheaf comes down from the south-west, from the neighbour- hood of Dore. The smaller streams of this district are almost innumerable, and it is chiefly owing to the abundant supply of water-power over the whole district of Hallamshire, the great supphes of charcoal which existed in former times, and the abundance of coal found at present, that the cutlery trade of Sheffield has grown to an extent that has never been equalled in any other part of England. During the last few years, also, all branches of the steel and the iron trades have increased rapidly in Sheffield and the neighbourhood, including the manufacture of those immense iron plates with which the iron-clad ships of the British navy are now covered. We shall trace the history of Sheffield and Hallamshire, and of their trade, in a subsequent chapter of this work. From Sheffield to Eotherham the river Don flows through a fertile valley, with hills rising very steeply on both sides. Just before reaching Rotherham the Don is joined by the river Eother, running from the south, out of Derbyshu^e. Eotherham is a rapidly increasing manufacturing town, situated upon the great coal-field of Yorkshire, near the point at which it joins the Permian formation. The red sandstone of Eotherham belongs to the latter; but the prevalent formation is stUl the coal, and much iron of very superior quality is found in this district. From Rotherham the river Don flows across the coal-field to Conisbrough, famed for its ancient castle, which we shall describe VOL. I. 2 I 250 YORKSHIRE : elsewhere. Here it cuts its passage through the cliffs of the magnesian limestone. But before reaching Conisbrough the Don receives the river Dearne, a very considerable stream flowing from the north, and passing through a country abounding in coal, iron, and other minerals. The river Dearne rises between Wakefield and Barnsley, and is the natural outlet for the south Yorkshire coal-field. After fiowing some distance to the south- east of Barnsley, the Dearne is joined by the river Dove, which also runs over a very rich part of the Yorkshire coal-field. Many years ago these districts were opened out to trade, by the forming of Dearne and Dove navigation and canal, which connects them with the manufacturing districts of Yorkshire. In its course down to that river the Dearne flows through a moist valley, by way of Wombwell and Bolton-upon-Dearne, entering the Don opposite to Conisbrough, near the junction of the coal and Permian formations. The river Went, a smaller stream, rises in the neighbourhood of Wentworth, and flows with a south-east course into the river Don, but at a much lower part of its course, near the commencement of what is called the Dutch river. From Conisbrough the Don flows through a hilly, rocky, but well wooded country, by Sprotborough, over the magnesian Hmestone formation, to the neighbourhood of Doncaster. At that point the river enters the new red sandstone plain, which, however, is very thickly covered with alluvial deposits. Doncaster stands on or near to the site of the Boman town of Danum, and, besides being one of the most pleasantly situated towns in the north of England, it was in early times of great importance, in connecting the trade of the eastern part of the north of England with the west. In modern times the river Don has been made navigable above Doncaster; but it has always been navigable as far as that town, and in former times, that was the point at which goods brought by land carriage out of Lancashire were put on board lighters to be transported to the port of Hull. At the beginning of the eighteenth century goods were carried on the backs of horses from Doncaster to the river Mersey at Stockport, where they were embarked and sent down the Mersey to Liverpool. Below Doncaster the river Don pursues a very winding course, passing by Whateley, Long Sandall, Barnby-on-Don, Stainforth, and Thome. From Thorne it flows through the artificial course of the Dutch river, south of Snaith and Eawcliffe, into the rivers Ouse PAST AND PllESENT. 251 and Humber, the former of which it joins near to the port of Goole. The large portion of the trade of Southern Yorkshire still passes along this course. In addition to the rivers above described, all of which flow from the western hiUs or the Penine chain, and ultimately discharge their waters through the Ouse and the Humber into the German Ocean, there is one considerable river, namely, the Kibble, and several smaller streams, which also rise in the western hills of Yorkshire, but discharge their waters westwardly either into the Irish sea, or into some of the rivers that flow into it. We shall briefly describe the course of these streams, before speaking of the rivers which flow into the Ouse and the Humber from the east, or of those that discharge their waters directly into the German Ocean. The River JRihhle. — The river Kibble rises at Eibble Head, above Settle, in Ingleton Fells, at a height of 929 feet above the sea, in the chain or group of hiUs from which the springs of the rivers Wharfe and Aire draw their first supplies. "Whernside with its tarns rises to the west, Blea Moor to the north, and Cam Fells to the east. The river Kibble flows almost due south during the first part of its course, leaving it doubtful for some time whether it wiR ultimately turn to the east or to the west, passing by Dear Bank and the steep rocks of Horton Moor, on the left, and Ingleborough, rising to the height of 2372 feet, on the right. In flowing down Kibblesdale the river nms by Selside and an ancient tumulus near Low Moor, and flows down to Horton in Kibblesdale, Avhere it is still 760 feet above the level of the sea. Kunning southward by Crag Hill, the Kibble receives numerous streams from Ingleborough, on the one side, and Penneghent, on the other. In these cool pure waters the salmon, for which the Kibble is so much celebrated, are bred. From Great Stainford the river flows over moors covered with ancient barrows, to Langcliffe Hall, and near to Giggleswick, where a steep line of limestone scars stretches, like a gigantic wall, across the moors, running many miles from west to east. Thence the Kibble flows down rapidly to Settle- Below Settle the valley of the Kibble widens, and the river becomes more abundant, being fed by numerous streams descending from the range of scars above named. Among the most considerable of these are the Scale Bar beck, which flows down from the Koman camp near Settle, and enters the Kibble across Long Preston Ings, and on the opposite side Kathmell beck, and the stream that descends from the base of Whelpstone Crag. A little lower the 252 YORKSHIRE : Ptibble flows between the groimds of Hellifield Peel and Halton Place, to Paythorne and Castle Haugh, near which are numerous barrows and other remains of antiquity. Thence it passes by Gis- burn into Lancashire, receiving the river Hodder from tbe north, and ultimately reaching the Irish Sea at Preston. Salmon Fisheries of the River Ribhle. — The river Kibble, rising in the highest hills of Yorkshhe, and receiving numerous beautiful mountain streams, is one of the finest and most productive salmon rivers in England. In the year 1869 it produced 6852 salmon, although the season was not favourable.* In the inquhy before the commissioners on the fisheries of England and Wales, made in the year 1861, much evidence was given by various witnesses as to the salmon fisheries of the Ribble. Captain E. Sheppard gave the following evidence as to the natural capabilities of the river, in reply to the questions of the chairman of the Commission : — " Is the Ribble a good spawning river ? I should consider it impossible to have a better; the Hodder, and what we caU the Little Ribble, which are tributaries to it, contain fine gravelly beds all the way up for miles and miles. " Are there any obstructions upon the Ribble or Hodder, either natural or artificial ? On the Hodder there is only one obstruction, but on the Ribble there is a natural rock called the Cow's Tail, at Slideburn, which prevents the salmon getting up ; the morts and sprods can get up ; there are beautiful spawning-grounds above, and a slight expense will alter it; we have the permission of the owner to make that alteration. " How does it happen that the morts and sprods get up, and not the salmon % A little stream comes over the top of the weir, which is large enough for the small fish, but not for the salmon. The weir is partly natural, and partly artificial ; there is just a balk put across the top of the rock, to turn off the water to the corn-mill. " What other obstructions are there ? Some little distance above Settle there is a natural fall, over which fish cannot pass, even if they could get to it ; but there is a miU weir at Settle which effectually prevents the fish getting there : that is at Giggleswick — the Wigg corn-mill. " Is the weir perpendicular ? Yes. " Do you know the height of it ^ No, I do not ; but it is a decided obstruction, and no fish get beyond it— either sprods, or morts, or salmon— even in high floods. " (Mr. Ffennell). How were the fisheries the year before last ? The year before, they very greatly increased ; ten years previous to that was a wet season, and the lessee of the fishery seven miles above Clitheroe weir, which fish cannot get up, according to Mr. Whalley's account, found sixty pairs of spawning fish, sufficient to enlist his co-operation in the improvement of the fisheries. " Is there good spawning ground on the Ribble 1 I do not think any river in the king- dom is more advantageously placed, or where there are so many spawning grounds, or so good. I think, unless you can insure a supply of good fish to the upper proprietors, so as to give them some inducement to preserve the fish, and take care of them when they are spawning, nothing you can do will avail to increase the supply of fish. It is not very likely that the upper proprietors will protect the fish when spawning, to be merely brood hens for the people below." * Ninth Annual Report of the Inspectora of Salmon Fisheries (England and Wales), 1870, p. 69. PAST A:srD PRESENT. 253 Since the inquiry of 1861 great alterations have been made in the river Ribble, with a view to improving it as a salmon river. The Ribble is at present the third most productive salmon river of England, yielding from 6000 to 7000 salmon yearly, whilst the Tees has in some years yielded as many as 10,000 salmon, and the Tyne still more. All the other Yorkshire rivers together, with the exception of the Tees, only yield about 3000 salmon yearly, on the average of the last three years.* The E.eport on the Eibble Salmon Fisheries, published in 1870, is not quite so favourable as those of three preceding years, owing to the excessive dryness of the season. We give it, however, as showing what are the improvements which have been made, and what are stdl required, in this very fine and, on the whole, well-managed river. The following is Mr. Frank Buckland's report on the Eibble for the year 1869-70 :— EEPOET ON THE EIBBLE SALMON FISHERIES, 1869-70. "In my report for 1868 I fully described the weir at Low Moor, near Clitlieroe, the property of Mr. Thomas Gamett. I then stated, that Mr. Garnett had informed me that ' he was, and always had been, desirous that the weir at Clitheroe should have as good a fish-pass attached to it as could be devised, provided that the fish-pass did not affect the stability of the weir or the supply of water to the works, and, at the same time, had the sanction of the secretary of State.' My colleague and myself had an interview, during last summer, with Mr. Gamett and his sons at the weir. The secretary of the Board of Conservators was also present. At this time and place a plan was settled upon to make the weir passable for the fish. Below the weir itself is a plateau of rocks, and upon these rocks some large balks of wood had been fixed by Mr. Gamett, according to the photograph and model exhibited by myself before the Select Committee of the House of Commons. The position of these balks has now been readjusted, additional balks have been placed on the top of some of the original balks, and others have been afiBxed by their sides, so as to form very large pools of considerable depth. " The hatchway now in position opens by means of a hinge, like the blade of a knife : the weather did not permit this to be altered according to our plans during the last season ; but directly the water goes down, this hatchway will be altered in such a manner as to be opened sideways on a slide, by means of a cogwheel and spindle, so as to command just suflicient water to fill the pools. In fact, it wiU act as a flood-guard, allowing the pools to be filled, but no more— a great improvement upon the old hatchway on the weir. The predominant current, according to our new plan, now meets the salmon as they ascend the middle of the river ; and when there is a fair spate in the river the fish will have two roads from the pools, either by going through the movable hatch at the top of the weir, or by jumping the weir itself from the second pool, as the height of the weir is considerably diminished by the action of the balks. " My colleague and myself have advised the Home Secretary to approve this pass, subject to minor alterations ; and with the fuU understanding that this approval does not in any way give the right of fishing within fifty yards of the dam. I take this opportunity of thanking Mr. Garnett and his sons for the manner in which they have met our proposals, and have rendered us every facility in carrying out the new plans. • Ninth Annual Report of the Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries (England and Wales) 1870, p. 69. 254 YOEKSHIRE : " I have a second time, in conjunction with my colleague, examined the weir at Settle. This is an upright weir, five feet high,with no pool at the base. It would not be a very difficult task to pass the fish over this weir ; but on the whole, we both agree that it would be not advisable to pass the fish higher up the Kibble than Settle. The reasons are — 1st, That there is another formidable weir just above, which diverts nearly the whole of the river for the use of the mill ; 2nd, Poaching ; 3rd, A natural waterfall at Stainforth, so that any spawning fish let above Settle would, with their fry, probably be lost to the river. " By the report of the conservators it will be seen that about 6852 salmon — a very satisfactory produce for this noble little river — were caught in 1869 ; it would produce a great many more fish, but for the pollutions. I also agree with the suggestion of the Conservators, that the weekly close time requires alteration, as the fish coming in from the sea hang about the estuary, and are there caught by the nets. This is particularly the case when the water coming down the river is small in quantity, and of not sufficiently low temperature to tempt the fish to ascend. " The following note from one of the conservators confirms the success of the new pass in the Eibble at Clitheroe : — ' February, 14, 1870. You will be pleased to hear that the fish- pass which has just been finished on the Weir, at Low Moor, has proved a great success. The men who were at work on the pass declare, that they saw the fish ascend and get through as if no obstacle interfered with them at all, and I have been told by our superin- tendent, and also by another water-bailiff who spent several hours watching the pass, that large fish passed up easUy. The water bailiffs report more spawning fish in the upper waters (especially of the Kibble) than have ever been known before. This promises well for the future.' ' The Smaller Yorkshire Streams, which flow towards the Irish Sea. — In addition to the river Ribble, several smaller streams, rising in the western hills, flow into the Irish Sea. The number, how- ever, is not great, nor are the streams generally of much importance. In those remote ages in which the western limits of the county of York, and the eastern limits of the county of Lancaster, were fixed, the hne of demarkation adopted seems generally to have been that fixed by the change in the watershed on the top of the Penine chain. There were, however, a few exceptions in addition to that of the nibble. Amongst these were the small streams, named the river Bawthey and the river Dee, on the northern limits of the West Riding, which flow down by Sedbergh into the Lancashire Lune ; and the rivers Greta and Wenning, which also flow into the Lune, in the lower part of its course. Also the river Hodder, which rises in Yorkshire, and forms the boundary of Yorkshire and Lancashire to the neighbourhood of Great Mitton, where it falls into the Ribble ; and further south, the river Tame, which flows through the manufacturing district of Saddleworth, turning a great number of mills before it enters Lancashire, where it ultimately discharges its waters into the Mersey. Having described all the principal rivers that flow from the western hills of Yorkshire, both into the Irish Sea and into the PAST AND PRESENT. 255 Humber, we now proceed to describe tbe river Derwent, tbe only river of any great magnitude wHch enters tbe Ouse from tbe East Riding of Yorkshire, The River Derwent — The river Derwent, tbe eigbtb great tributary of tbe Ouse, rises near to tbe German Ocean, between Scarborough and Whitby, within a few miles of the sea, which, however, it does not reach until it has made a winding course inland of nearly a hundred miles. The whole slope of the land is from east to west, in this part of Yorkshire, carrying the waters of great part of tbe North Riding, and nearly the whole of those of tbe East, from tbe coast into tbe interior, and then causing them to flow southward, down the great central valley of Yorkshire into the river Ouse, and ultimately into tbe Humber and tbe German Ocean. The river Derwent drains an area of about 870 square miles. The name of Derwent is given to several English rivers, one of which feeds the lake of Derwentwater, in one of the most beautiful hollows of the Cumberland mountains ; another flows from tbe chalk biUs of Kent into the Thames, as the Darren t ; whilst a much larger stream, the Yorkshire Derwent, rises amongst the hills of the North Riding, and flows into the river Ouse. Professor Phillips derives tbe name of Derwent from British words meaning " fair water," a very appropriate origin. A more recent writer derives tbe word Derwent from the British words Dmr-Gwent, or " the water of highlands " — a name also very appropriate to tbe Derwent, in the first part of its course,'"' but not agreeing with the learned author of " Words and Places," who makes tbe word Gwent signify "a plain," in the ancient British language. The sources of the Derwent are near Lilla Howe, between the Wykeham High Moors and the Burn Howe Rigg, a few miles north-west of Scarborough, in a wild, thinly-peopled country, about 600 feet above tbe German Ocean, which is only a few miles distant to the east. In the first few miles of its course the Derwent flows eastward towards the sea, to the foot of Harwood Dale Moor, but is suddenly turned by the high land at High Langdale End, and forced almost due south, by the clifis at Hackness Moor on tbe east, and a corresponding range on the west, which carry it down through a deep woody valley to Low Langdale End, where it again winds to the east, under tbe Red Brow plantation, to Hackness. * Phillips' Yorkshire, p. 199 ; J. P. Fleming's Analysis of the English Langaage, 1869. 256 YORKSHIRE : There it flows down past the seat of Sir Harcourt Johnstone, Bart., M.P. for Scarborough, winding through the beautiful grounds of Hackness, and forming one of the great charms of that wild and beautifiil scenery. After passing Hackness the course of the Derwent is turned southward by Suffield Heights, down the Forge valley to East and West Ajrton. Here the stream approaches within a few miles of the sea; but is effectually kept from reaching it by the high downs covered with tumuli, and the remains of ancient camps, which lie between East Ay ton and Scarborough. From this point the river flows rapidly southward into the deep, moist valley, over the marshy and often flooded land known as the Cars, where it receives the river Hertford — a small stream which, rises within two or three hundred yards of the sea at FUey, but flows directly away from the sea through a deep valley, through which an artificial channel, named the New Hertford River, has been formed through the Car or marsh lands, to prevent the flooding of the vaUey. This artificial river joins the Derwent below Binnington Car, and is continued westward into the interior, following the windings of the river Derwent through the Cars to Foulbridge and Yeddingham, with its remains of the ancient abbey. Fi-om Yeddingham the Derwent flows east by south, through a very moist country, down to Low Newstead Grange, where it begins to wind to the south. There, at Eyemouth, the river Derwent, flowing from the north-east, meets the river Rye flowing from the west, and bringing with it the whole of the waters which flow from the Cleveland Hills, on the south side of that extensive range. Ryemouth, the point where all these streams meet, stands a few miles above the narrow pass at Malton, through which all the waters of this district flow southwards towards the Ouse and the Humber. Professor Phillips and other eminent geologists have shown, that this is the only pass through which the waters of this portion of the North Riding can escape into the sea. To the north, east, and west, the rise of the land from which the Derwent and the Rye descend is so great as to prevent the escape of the water in those directions ; whilst on the south there is a range of hills several hundred feet high which just as efiectually prevent the escape of the waters south- ward, except through the narrow pass at which the towns of Old and New Malton have been built, close to the site of a Roman camp, which formerly commanded this strong military position. PAST AND PRESENT, 257 On the right, or west side, of the Roman camp standing on the east side of New Malton, the land rises to a height of 164 feet, in what are called the Old Malton fields, and from this point a range of hills extends eastward. Those at Barton-le-Street rise 186 feet, at Hovingham 299 feet, and in the hills to the south of Gilling Park, to 439 feet, beyond which point they continue to rise untU they reach the highest points of the Cleveland range. On the other side of the southern boundary of the valley of the Derwent, the land begins to rise almost immediately at Settrington and Scagglethorpe, and soon attains to the height of several hundred feet. These heights extend eastward to Thorpe Basset Wold, from which point a line of chalk wolds, everywhere many hundred feet high, runs to the sea at Flamborough Head. Upon the line of the river Derwent at Malton the height above the level of the sea is less than seventy to eighty feet, and through this narrow pass all the waters of the Derwent, swollen by those of the river Rye, flow southward. The vallies from which they descend must in very remote times have been a great lake, and afterwards a great and extensive range of swamps, of which the Car land preserves both the memory and the ancient British name ; Car being the old Celtic name for a " pool " or a swamp. The Biver Bye. — The river Rye is the largest tributary of the Derwent. It rises at the head of Ryedale, on the heights of Rivaulx Moor, to the noi-th of Helmsley. In flowing down this beautifid valley it passes by the remains of Rivaulx Abbey, a noble ruin com- manding most magnificent views from the adjoining terrace walk. Passing down the valley, it winds round Duncombe Park, the resi- dence of the earl of Feversham, one of the most beautiful seats in Yorkshire. The Rye then runs round the base of the old castle of Helmsley, "proud Buckingham's delight," and then winds with a south-easterly course through a level country by Nunnington, to Water Homes, where it receives two large streams flowing from the Cleveland hills, one named the Riccal river, and the other the river Dove. The former of these flows down from behind Helmsley, the latter from the neighbourhood of Kirkby. After passing Brawby the river Rye receives another stream named the river Seven, which flows down from the neighbourhood of Sinnington, and a little lower the waters of Costa beck, which bring down all the waters of the floods from the moors beyond. These enter the river Rye near Little Hebden and Howe Bridge, and swell its waters, so that when it joins vol.. L 2 k 258 YORKSHIRE : the river Derwent a few miles further south-east, at Eye Mouth, it swells that river into a large stream. It is, in fact, the only outlet for the waters of this district. From Malton the Derwent flows southward through a com- paratively level country, passing the remains of Kirkham Priory, erected in the twelfth century by Walter I'Espde. Eich beds of ironstone have recently been found in the upper Oohtic series of the beautiful vale of Kirkham, on the estate of Mr. Clerigh Taylor, of Kirkham Abbey, and also upon the estates of the earl of Carlisle, on the opposite side of the vale.''^ At Stamford Bridge the Derwent flows over the scene of the great victory gained by the Saxons under Harold, the last of the Saxon kings, over the invading Northmen, and their traitorous ally Tostig, the deposed earl of Northumberland, and the brother of King Harold. From Stamford Bridge the Derwent flows almost due south to its junction with the river Ouse, receiving several small streams from the hills of the East Eiding. In its course it passes Elving- ton and Ellerton Priory, and considerably lower down the stream, Wresill Castle — an ancient place of strength of the Percys, earls of Northumberland, who at one time were almost as power- ful in the East Ptiding as they were on the borders of Scotland. The Derwent runs almost due south by Elvington and Stone- upon-Derwent. Further south are the remains of Thicket Priory, and villages of Thorganby, Bubwith, and Menthorpe. To the right of these villages is Escrick Hall, the seat of Lord Wenlock. A little further south the Derwent enters the river Ouse at Derwent Mouth, after a course of upwards of seventy-two miles. Fisheries of the Rivers Derwent and Rye. — ^At the inquiry as to the state of the salmon fisheries made in the year 1861, the Honourable and Eev. Stephen. Lawley gave the following account of the fishery of the Derwent, in answer to the questions of the chairman. " 13,549 (Chairman). Where do you reside 1 I reside at Escrick, six miles south of York, between the Ouse and the Derwent. I can speak of a small fishery on the Derwent, ten miles in extent, part belonging to Lord "Wenlock, and part to General Clargis and other proprietors; and my brother, with Mr. Dodson Reed, have taken the fishery together. Mr. Ashworth has been misinformed about the quantity of fish taken in the Derwent this year ; he stated it to be three fish. There were thirty-one fish, weighing 280 lbs., taken in the whole length of the fishery. I speak of that part of the fishery of the Derwent which is below, and inclusive • Times, July 1, 1870. PAST AND PRESENT. 259 of, the first impediment to the fish ; so that T speak of the tidal fishery where the fish can come up, and where they meet with their first weir or dam upon the Derwent, which belongs to Lord St. Vincent. " 13,550. How is that fishery worked ? With a sweep net ; I have tried it with a fly, but it is a little too muddy. " 13,551. Is any part of it let 1 H"o ; my brother and Mr. Reed have taken the whole of the ten miles of fishery, and we keep it in our own hands. As I have stated, we have taken only thirty-one fish, whereas, in Lord Wenlock's fisheries, comprising one half of the water, ten years ago we took a larger quantity of fish. " 13,552. To what do you attribute the decrease ? To late closing and to weirs, the fish not being able to get higher up the river ; there are two dams, one at Sutton, and one above at Stamford Bridge, where the fish are caught out of season ; they are not able to escape. " 13,653. Is there any obstruction between your fishery and the sea 1 No." William Caley Worsley, Esq., spoke with regard to the fishing of the Derwent, and the Rye, one of the principal feeders of the Derwent, in answer to questions asked by the chairman of the Commissioners : — " 13,577. Where do you reside ? At Helvingham in the North Riding. What I have to say is with respect to the Derwent. I have learned from Mr. Harcourt Johnstone, who is acquainted with the fresh waters of that river, that there is a stream called Scorby in that region, which runs into the sea, and occasionally salmon might get into the head water of the Derwent through that channel. I am personally more prepared to speak of the river Rye than the Derwent. The Rye rises in Bilsdale, and comes into the Derwent some- where adjacent to Malton. Now, the Rye is a river up which salmon occasionally come when they have a chance to get by the weir dams below. I know that it is a very fine stream naturally for breeding salmon ; it is full of fine shallows, with gravelly and sandy bottoms, and the water is as pure as can be ; there are besides many tributaries connected with the Rye in the higher regions, which are perfectly pure streams, and well suited to the breeding of salmon. I am persuaded in my own mind that the scarcity of salmon there this year is almost wholly attributable to the dams below, which prevent the fish getting up. " 13,578. Do you know the dams on the Rye itself 1 There is one at Nunnington, but I do not attribute so much injury to that as to the lower ones ; at the same time it should be dealt with in general ; fish get over, but only in a flood. " 13,579. Are there any fish traps in the Rye ^ Fish I know are caught occasionally at Nunnington (I am not aware that there is a fishery there), owing to their detention under the weirs. My own individual opinion is that the great evil exists lower down, and that to cure the thing you must go to the bottom." William Frederick Eawdon, Esq.j chairman of the Rye Fishery^ also gave the following evidence in reply to the chairman. " 13,580 (Chairman). Are you chairman to the Rye Fishing Club. Yes. " 13,581. How long have you been acquainted with the Rye ? I have fished the river for twenty-five years, more or less. " 13,582. How long has your association existed ? From eighteen to twenty years. " 13,583. Is it supported by voluntary contributions 1 Yes ; it was instituted with a view to the preservation of the river for angling, ,for trout more especially, and there is also grayling in abundance. We have had a meeting of our committee on this subject, and I will, with the permission of the Commissioners, read the statement to which we have agreed." The witness read the same as follows : — 260 YOBKSHIBE "November 7, I860.— At a meeting of the committee of the Ryedale Anglers' Club, held at Mr. Watson's chambers, Coney Street, York : present, Mr. Rawdon in the chair, the following report and resolutions were agreed to : — " The river Rye rises in the moors in Bilsdale, in the North Riding, and comprises several tributaries ; viz., the 'Seph, the Riccal, the Dove, the Hough, and the Seven, all affording spawning-grounds for salmon, and communicates with the Derwent, near Rillington. There are several minor obstructions in the Rye and its tributaries to the passage of salmon ; but the principal are in the Derwent. The Derwent, below its junction with the Rye, is not navigable above Malton, but it is so between Malton and the junction of the Derwent with the Ouse. The Ouse from thence is tidal. The river Rye is unquestionably a salmon-breeding river. For the purpose of enabling the fish to ascend this river, steps, slopes, ladders, and other facilities overall dams and artificial obstructions require to be erected, for facilitating their ascent to the spawning grounds. We may name that the main obstructions exist at .the following places : — Sutton-on-Derwent, Stamford Bridge, Kirkham, Old Malton, Nunnington, Duncombe Park, Buttercrambe Dam. We strongly recommend — 1. Abolition of bag and stake nets, and all fixed contrivances for taking salmon, both in fresh and salt water. 2. Weekly close time from six p.m. on Saturday to six a.m. on Monday, for both nets and rods. 3. Annual close time for nets from the 11th of September to the 15th of February. 4. Annual close time for rods from the 15th of October to the 15th of February, and that it be illegal to have salmon spawn in possession. 5. A license on all salmon fishing, together with fines, to be applied to conservancy purposes. And, finally, this meeting is of opinion that the preservation of salmon is of national importance, as a question of food for the people, and that some such measures as are above suggested are essentially necessary to carry out the object in view. — W. F. Rawdon, chairman." Eecommendations of the Yorkshire Salmon Fishery Conservators, 1869. — A meeting of the Board of Conservators of the Whatfe, Nidd, Ure, Swale, and Ouse fishery district, was held at the Guild- hall, York, Lieut. -Col. Haworth Booth in the chair, in November, 1869. The report, which was read by Mr. J. H. Phillips, the secretary, stated that the amendment of the present salmon fishery laws was now exciting general attention, and was asked for by every board in the kingdom. In the last session of Parliament a select committee was appointed to inquire into the present state of the fishery laws, and to report to the House of Com- mons what amendments were required, but they were unable to complete their inquury. The board expressed their earnest hope that this committee would be re-appointed next session ; '"' that a bill founded on the evidence would be introduced, and result in the passing of an effective measure, the necessity for which became daily more apparent. The report complained that every salmon river in the county was lamentably blocked with locks and obstructions of various kinds; and hence it was only durino- irregular, and sometimes far apart floods, that salmon were enabled to surmount these barriers. Eeferring to the inquiry made nearly a year ago, • This has been done since the meeting of Parliament tliis year (1870), and much additional evidence haa been talien. PAST AND PRESENT. 261 by the special commissioners, into the legality of the fishing mill dams on the Wharfe, confining themselves to the first four — viz., Tadcaster, Thorpe-Arch, Flint, and Wetherby — it was observed that the inquiry was adjourned for the purpose of conferring with the owners. Mr. Hatfield promised that effective ladders should be made, at his own cost, at Thorpe -Arch and Flint. The Leeds Corporation had, in a very generous spirit, instructed their engineer to commence the making of the pass at Wetherby, entirely at their own cost, as soon as suitable weather arrived in the spring of next year (1870). The report showed that more fish, and of greater weight, had been taken this year than in 1868. The board protested against the discharge of the sewage of the town of Otley into the Wharfe. The board begged to impress on the legislature the absolute necessity for an amendment of the law, so as to make it compulsory on the owners of miUs to provide openings on fish-ways over all weirs, from the estuary to the source of every salmon river. The River Tees. — Having described the course of the numerous rivers of Yorkshire which run into the Ouse and the Humber, and also that of the streams which rise in this county and discharge their waters into the Irish Sea, we proceed to notice the rivers that flow with an eastern course into the German Ocean. We commence with the river Tees, forming the northern boundary of the county of York. The Tees rises amongst the wild moors and Hmestone cliffs of Mil- bum Forest, on the borders of Westmoreland, at an elevation of about 2000 feet. The length of its course is 95 miles, and the area of the country which it drains 744 square mdes, from its source at Cross Fell, to its mouth, a few miles below Middlesborough. In the course of its progress to the sea it receives the waters of the Skerne river, 3 Of miles in length ; the Lune river (Yorkshire) 12f miles ; the Balder river; the Greta river, 16 miles; the Leven river, 23 miles; the Langley Aldwent beck, 11 miles in length; the Deepdale beck, 1 0^ miles ; the Northbum beck, 8-^ mUes ; the East Shun, 7\ miles ; the Maize beck, 6f miles ; and the Harwood beck, 5-^ miles. After rushing through a narrow cleft in the rocks with im- mense rapidity, at what is called the Weel, or perhaps the Whirl, the river receives the Maize Brook, and becomes the northern limit of the county of York, entering that county at an elevation 262 YORKSHIRE : of 1500 feet above the level of the sea. Even at this eleva- tion there is a population around the lead mines and the slate quarries, which yield the most valuable products of the district. From these heights the river rushes rapidly forward, throwing itself over the rocks of High Force, and forming a cataract nearly seventy feet in height, surrounded by dark rocks and shaded by mountain trees. Rushing down another cataract at Low Force, the river passes below Winch foot-bridge, built for the accommodation of the miners, and leaving the open moors enters the inclosed country at Holwich Pries. A fringe of pasture-land marks the course of the stream from this point, with occasional woods where there is any depth of soil ; but a scar, rising to nearly 1000 feet above the level of the sea, and many hundred feet above the stream, closes in the ravine. At Middleton Bridge the river is stUl more than 700 feet above the level of the sea ; and in its course eastward continues to receive numerous streams from the hills. Amongst them is a small stream known as the river Lune, which rises at Lune head and runs down the Yorkshire Lunedale, a green valley in the moors, into the Tees; bringing down with it the waters of Mickle-fell, the highest mountain in Yorkshu-e. From this point the Tees again flows amongst woods and below rocky scars, turning CoUingwood corn-mill, and running under Eggleston Bridge, at an elevation of 621 feet above the level of the sea. Hence it passes on to Romaldkirk, with its ancient church and village, and flows, with graceful windings, to Balderfoot. There it receives the Balder river, supposed to have been named after one of the gods of our pagan ancestors, if not after the ancient Baal, the god of the sun. Further down, the Tees passes Cother- stone corn-mill, and leaves the site of Cotherstone Castle and village, with its industrious population and its churches and chapels, to the south. From Romaldkirk to Croft Bridge the country traversed by the Tees is still mountainous, rising both on the north and the south to elevations of from 1000 to 1500 feet. The Roman road runs up Teesdale on the south side of the river, by Hutton Moor, Greta Bridge, and Rokeby Park, to Bowes, supposed to be the site of the Roman Lavatra. Before reaching Barnard Castle the Tees is crossed by the South Durham and Lancashire Union Railway, leading to Bishop Auckland and the system of the Durham railways. Thence it flows down to Barnard Castle, formerly a place PAST AND PllESENT. 263 of great strength, and still the most populous town in this part of Teesdale. A short distance below Barnard Castle is Egglestone Abbey, close to the point where ThoresgiU beck enters the Tees. Here commence the woods of Rokeby Park, one of the most beautiful of the many beautiful scenes of Yorkshire, reaching to the point where the river Greta enters the Tees, at the foot of Mortham bank and Mortham tower, rendered more interesting by the beautiful poetry of Sir Walter Scott's " Rokeby." A Httle lower down the stream is WyclifFe with its rectory, its hall, its wood, and its ancient camp, but still more celebrated as the birthplace of the great reformer, John WyclifFe. Below Wycliffe the river flows eastward, past the supposed site of Old Richmond, with St. Lawrence's chapel in ruins ; near this point the DarUngton and Barnard Castle Railway crosses the liver. Lower down is Pierce Bridge, with its Roman station on the Tees, and the remains of the Roman road, running due north and south, and crossing the river at this point. A little to the south-east is Stanwick Park, which probably takes its name from the Stoneway, and also Forcett Park, and Carlton Park. From Pierce Bridge to Croft Bridge the Tees flows through meadows, with many windings, by High Conisclifle, Low Coniscliffe, Cleasby, and Stapleton. At Yarm it is crossed by the North-eastern Railway, which runs almost due north to Stockton. The Tees reaches the same place, though after numerous windings through the Holmes, the Rings, and other meadows. Before reaching the sea it receives the river Leven, a beautiful winding stream flowing from the hills of Cleveland. At Stockton, which stands on the north side of the river, the Tees is navigable for large vessels, and continues so down to Middlesborough, flowing through marshes and meadows to the sea. It is already the port and capital of the iron district of North Yorkshire. Below Middlesborough the Tees widens, and enters the German Ocean, after a course of ninety-five miles. The Salmon Fishery of the Eiver Tees. — The salmon fishery of the river Tees is the most productive of the river fisheries of Yorkshire, and is scarcely surpassed by that of any other salmon river in Eng- land. It has every natural advantage, the Tees rising in a moun- tainous and thinly peopled country, receiving numerous and beautiful streams at every part of its course, and being comparatively free from the nuisances which interfere with the productiveness of other rivers. In very favourable years, such as 1867, as many as 10,000 264 YORKSHIKE : salmon are said to have been caught in the Tees, and it is believed that with improved management the fishing might be rendered still more productive.^' The following evidence, as to the advantages of the river Tees as a salmon fishing river, was given before the commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of that fishery in November, 1860, by Joseph Dodds, Esq., the present member for the borough of Stockton. Mr. Dodds, speaking of the Tees as a salmon river, said : — ■ " With respect to the natural character of the river, it is in every respect most favourable. The river has its source in the mountains of Westmoreland and Cumberland, some hundred miles from the sea, and for about twenty miles flows through a moorland district, after which it passes through a highly-cultivated agri- cultural district, and finally discharges into the German Ocean. The area drained by the Tees comprises about 700 square miles. I thought it might be useful to place before you the fall from near the head of the river to the sea, and I have prepared from the Ordnance map a statement showing the fall in various sections, from the head of that part of the stream which is known as the Weel. It may be thus summarized : — Distance. Miles. Fur. Fall. To the foot of the High Force, ... 9 546 feet. To Middleton Bridge, 5 4 336 To Gainford, 19 3 461 To Croft Bridge, 13 4 150 To the foot of Dinsdale Lock, ... 12 1 80 To limit of tidal flow, 5 2 8 To Tees Mouth 25 16? 89 6 1597^ " The bed of the river, for its whole course above the tidal limits, is either rock or gravel, principally gravel, streams and pools alternating: in all respects most suitable for the breeding and propagation of fish. Then there are several tributary streams. The principal of them on the Yorkshire side are the river Lune, the river Balder, Deepdale beck, the river Greta, the Clow beck, and the river Leven. On the Durham side there are Ettersgill beck. Bow beck. New Biggen beck, Hudshope beck, Egglestone ' Ninth Annual Report of Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries, 1870, p. 68. PAST AND PRESENT. 265 burn, Staindrop or Grand beck, the river Skerne, Norton or Lus- trun beck, Billingbam beck, and Greatham beck. The same witness (Mr. Dodds), addressing the commissioners as to the natural or artificial obstructions to the ascent or descent of the fish, said — " The only natural obstruction which becomes an actual barrier to the ascent of the fish up the river Tees is the High Force, a cataract of aboiit seventy feet in height, situated about eighty miles from the mouth of the river, and about twenty mUes below its source. There is a smaller obstruction within a couple of miles of it, near a place called Winch-bridge, but that scarcely forms an actual barrier to the ascent of the fish. These two are the only natural obstructions which form an actual bar- rier to the ascent of the fish. Then, as to the artificial obstruc- tions ; they are, first, the stake nets on the sea-shore, to which I have already referred ; secondly, the various mill-races, weirs or dams, and locks or traps, of which there are several between the Hmit of the tidal flow and the High Force. The principal of these is situated at Dinsdale Fish Lock, and it has existed for a great number of years — I believe, for several centuries — and no doubt, forms the principal artificial impediment to the progress of the fish up the river. When the fish are running up to the spawning beds in the upper part of the river a little before the present time, they are congregated by hundreds in the pools between the mill-dam and the limit of the tidal flow, a distance of about flve miles. The facilities for poaching which exist in that five miles of water are so great, that a gentleman resident in the neighbourhood has repeatedly stated to me — ' The great tempt- ations to poaching here are beyond the power of human nature to resist.' " The witness added, " I am prepared to prove that one man, in one night, frequently took from ten to fifteen or twenty stone of fish out of those pools, night after night, for weeks together. The fish are sold, partly in the neighbourhood, to agricrdtural ser^^ants, and so on. I think I could prove cases where families have existed for weeks together on them; they purchase the fish at threepence a pound. A good deal is sent away to a distance ; I believe, in tlie first instance to Newcastle, and thence to London and the south, where it is con- verted into kippered salmon, and afterwards sold to the public as kipper. The spawn from these fish is sold for the purpose of manufacturing into fish bait, and produces about 3s. 6^7. a pound. VOL. I. ^ ^ 266 YOBKSHIKE : There are several men who are known in the neighbourhood to exist entirely in that way. Then, as to our mill-races and fish-locks, there are from twelve to fifteen altogether; these are artificial obstructions, to a greater or less extent, to the ascent of the fish. Most of the mill-races have locks, in which the fish are captured, and many are entirely illegal." In the last report on the salmon fisheries of England and Wales, 1870, Mr. Buckland j^roposes that the conservators should purchase Dinsdale Dam, which is private property, and has existed for a long course of years, and should pull it down. "This," he says, "will be the least expensive and readiest solution of the question, for all parties concerned."* The River Esk rises in the highest parts of the Cleveland HUls, in some smaU streams named Esklets, between Farndale Moor, 1342 feet, and Westerdale Moor, 1336 feet in height; and flows down to the site of an ancient British camp. Thence it runs towards the sea with an easterly course, receiving numerous streams from the north and south. It is, in fact, the only outlet for the streams of this mountainous range. After passing to the south of Egton, leaving the remains of a Roman camp to the right, it flows to Whitby, whose existence as a harbour depends in a great measure on the influence, past and present, of the waters of the Esk. The Salmon Fishery of YorhsMre Esk. — In the ninth report, 1870, of the English salmon fisheries, Mr. Walpole gives the following account of the fishery of the Esk : — " I am afraid that I am myself partly to blame for the circumstance, that for five years no specific report has been made on the Esk ; yet the qualifications of ' that brilliant little river,' and the attention which an association of gentlemen has paid to its preservation, were deserving of better treatment. Though only a comparatively small stream, it possesses qualifications, in a salmon sense, of a high order. There is an abundance of spawning ground of a very fair character, and the fords are separated by excellent pools, which ought to make the river — what small rivers are not always— a good angling stream. Seven weirs bar the passage of the river. At the fiirst, at Ruswarp, the association, at my suggestion, have placed a board diagonally across, with, as I am told, satisfactory results. The second, at Sleights, has been provided with an excellent pass, on the pool system, formed in an old curve on the left side of the river. The third, a fishing weir, offers no obstruction to fish. The fourth, fifth, and sixth, Egton Bridge, Glaisdale Ironworks, and Glaisdale Mill weirs, are very slight obstructions ; but the seventh, at Lealholm Bridge, re(iuires a pass, and I have pointed out to the Esk Association the manner in which a pass could be effectually made. " Only two other matters remain for consideration. The Esk, like many rivers on the east of England, is full of bull trout ; and the association are attempting to restore by artificial breeding the true salmon to the river. The other matter for special consideration is the fact that the Esk has not hitherto been formed into a fishery district. The association conceives • Ninth Annual Report of the Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries (England and Wales) p. 27. PAST AND PRESENT. 267 that the small proprietors who abound on the banks of the river might possibly object to an organization which they might, however causelessly, fancy would interfere with their own privilege as ' brinkers.' If, however, the success which has hitherto attended the efforts of the association continue, it is demonstrable that in their own protection these small proprie- tors must have recourse to the organization which the law has created with this object, as otherwise the rewards to which they themselves are entitled for their exertions, will be reaped by the public fishermen, who have not participated in the task of protection, fishing out at sea." * Along the whole of the Yorkshire coast from the mouth of the Esk, at Whitby, to the entrance of the Humber, a distance of seventy or eighty mUes, not a single stream flows into the sea, which is of sufficient magnitude to be described as a river. In general, the land rises so rapidly, either immediately on the sea -coast, or within a few miles of it, as to cut off aU access of distant streams to the sea. But in the place of a few large rivers, great numbers of small brooks rush down the eastern front of the land along the coast, and discharge themselves into the sea, after a rapid course of a few miles. Several of the streams have force enough to turn a mill, and many of them have cut small creeks in the shore, into which fishing boats enter at low water; but there is nowhere that struggle between the tides of the sea and the waters of the interior, which produces deep water, except at the mouths of the three rivers, the Tees, the Esk, and the Humber. The Oypseys. — Amongst the most curious streams which flow into the sea along the eastern coast are the intermittent brooks, known as Gypseys. These burst forth chiefly, if not exclusively, amongst the chalk hills running inland from Flamborough Head and Brid- lington. The most celebrated of these streams rises at Wold Newton, and flows down by Rudston and Boynton to the sea, at Bridlington Quay. Another bursts out in wet seasons at Kilham.t The Biver Hull. — The last river of Yorkshire that remains to be described is the river Hull, which, though small in extent, is one of the most important of the rivers of Yorkshire, being the chief instrument by which the port of Hull was originally formed, and to which it owes that great depth of water, that renders it accessible to the large ships of modern times. We have shown in the early part of this chapter how greatly the depth of water existing at the port of Hull surpasses the depth that is found at any other point in the Humber, the Ouse, and the Trent; and it is chiefly owing to the continual action of stream and tide, at the point at which the river * Ninth Annual Report of the Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries (England and Wales). Pp. 62 and 63. f Phillips' Yorkshire, p. 105. 268 YORKSHIRE : Hull joins the Humber, that this depth of water has been produced, which gives to the whole county of York, and to many districts beyond it, the great advantages of a first-rate port. We shall show in the course of this work how much modern skill and science, applied to the port of Hull, have done to preserve and extend the advantages conferred by natural causes. The river Hull is formed by three brooks which unite their waters near Great Driffield. The rain-fall in the hills beyond Drif- field is very heavy during storms, and a large quantity of water is discharged by the river Hull, although its stream is rather narrow. It flows down to the south of Beverley, receiving numerous small streams on both sides, and ultimately discharges itself into the Humber at Hull, or Kingston-upon-HuU, according to its ancient name. The Floods of the Yorkshire Eivets. — All the rivers of Yorkshire, rising in mountainous or hilly districts, are subject to great floods after heavy rains. The greatest flood in the Yorkshire rivers that has been known for more than thirty years, occurred on Friday, 16th November, 1866, after a continuous rain of nearly twenty- four hours' duration. In this great flood every stream overflowed its banks, and all the valleys were inundated. The river Don, which flows from the South Yorkshire hills, pass- ing through Kotherham, Sheffield, and Doncaster, began to rise on Thursday night, and on Friday overflowed its banks along the whole of the lower part of its course. A bridge was washed away at Hill- foot ; in the town of Sheffield, the works of Messrs. Vickers were flooded, and several of the roads in the lower parts of the town were impassable. The water ran as high, within a few inches, as on the occasion of the great flood caused by the bursting of the Bradfield reservoir. At Doncaster, also, all the lowlands were flooded. The river Calder overflowed its banks from Todmorden, where it enters Yorkshire, to Castleford, where it flows ,into the river Aire. The whole country was under water along the valley, and the rail- way trains were unable to run for several hours, owing to the flood at the end of the Summit tunnel. The flood was very destructive at Mirfield, Dewsbury, and Wakefield. At Sowerby Bridge the stream rose between seven and eight feet, and all the mills and warehouses adjoiaing the river were flooded. The stream named the Khyburn, that flows down the beautiful valley of Kipponden and joins the Calder at Sowerby Bridge, was excessively flooded ; and here a PAST AND PRESENT. 269 woman and three cHldren were drowned. By the carrying away of the bridge across the Rhyburn the greatest alarm existed in the Black Brook valley, lest the reservoir at Deanhead, at the top of the valley, should burst ; but happily it was strong enough to resist the force of the water. On the river Calder, near Dewsbury, a cart with three persons in it was carried off the road by the floods into the river, and all three perished. At Wakefield, property to the value of upwards of £50,000 was destroyed. The number of persons drowned at Dewsbury by the overflow of the Calder is ascertained to have been seven. The river Aire was flooded from above Skipton to the Ouse. A few tniHes above Leeds, at Apperley Bridge, a railway viaduct was carried away, after having stood for upwards of twenty years. The lower districts of Leeds were entirely under water, and there eight or ten persons perished by the breaking of a stage, which fell into the river with nearly twenty persons upon it. All, except one^ were young girls. The Ribble was much out at Settle, and all the way down to Clitheroe. The river Wharfe, flowing through one of the most beautiful valleys in Yorkshire, was flooded along the whole of its course, from Craven to the point where it falls into the Ouse. At Arthington House, below the pumping station of the Leeds water- works, the flood was higher than it had been during twenty-five years preceding. The river Ouse at York rose to the height of fifteen feet, being swollen by the waters of the rivers Ure, Nidd, and Swale, all of which run into it above the city. A great extent of land, through a large and valuable agricultural district, was also under water. In the East and greater part of the North Riding, the floods were, if possible, more extensive and more destructive than those of the West Biding. Nearly the whole of the waters of the Cleveland district, and of the moors on the eastern side of the .North Biding, are brought down by the rivers Bye and Hertford, and by numerous smaller streams, into the river Derwent, which carries their waters through the natural pass of Malton, down into the East Biding. From Malton to the river Ouse and the Humber, the country, as a whole, forms a great plain, through which the Derwent winds with numerous curves, ultimately reaching the Ouse at Derwent Mouth, 270 YORKSHIRE : near Barmby. In these great floods nearly the whole of the valley of the Derwent was under water, and remained so several weeks. These floods, whenever they occur, are extremely destructive; and though the injury which they inflict is small, in comparison with the benefits derived from the rivers and streams which produce them, it is clear that there is still much to be done, in the way of constructing reservoirs and improved outlets for streams, before the whole benefits which they are capable of conferring will be realized without drawback. Considering how much this part of England, in common with the rest of the kingdom, has suffered during the last few years from the excessive dryness of the summers, as well as from the heavy floods of winter, it is worth while to consider whether some plan could not be devised, by which the land might be irrigated in summer with the surplus water which produces so much mischief in the winter months. This is done in the plains of Lombardy, so as to maintain a perpetual fertility through the driest summers; and there seems to be no reason why it should not be done in a district like Yorkshire, in which most of the streams flow from an elevation of 1000 to 2000 feet, in their course from the mountain tops to the sea. Something considerable has already been done, for the cars or carse land is partially rescued from the floods which formerly laid it waste every winter; but much is still required to be done for those, and the other low-lying lands of the county. The river Trent overflowed its course from Staff'ol'dshire, through Derbyshire and Lincolnshire, to the point where it flows into the Humber. This river, like the Yorkshire rivers, brings down the drainage of a very extensive mountain district, and is subject to great floods, especially in the lower part of its course. When not flooded, the depth of the Trent is less than might have been expected from the extent of country which it drains, though it is naturally navigable for small vessels above Newark, and has been rendered so by art to the borders of Stafibrdshire. The Sea-coasts, Ports, and Harbours of Yorkshire. — Great as are the natural advantages which Yorkshire possesses in its soil, its climate, its minerals, its rivers, its manufactures, and its agri- culture, these advantages would have been much more slowly developed if it had not possessed seaports capable of receiving vessels large enough to carry on an extensive commerce, not only with the shores of Europe, but with every part of the world which can supply this countiy with food and raw materials in exchange PAST AND PRESENT. 271 for its minerals and manufactures. In this respect Yorkshire has a great superiority over the counties extending from the Humber to the Thames, which have few good ports, and are to a great extent destitute of commerce with foreign countries, as well as of internal manufactures. The principal seaports of Yorkshire are at the entrances of the rivers and estuaries. They are few in number, there being only three ports, formed by the opening of the rivers, though, one of them is amongst the greatest and best ports in England. The first of these is that formed by the entrance of the river Tees, in the neighbourhood of Middlesborough ; the second, that formed by the river Esk, at Whitby ; and the third that formed by the Humber, which receives pretty nearly all the other waters of Yorkshire. The port of Hull possesses a commerce which ranks next to that of London and of Liverpool. Scarborough, though more indebted to the beauty of its scenery and its many attractions than to its external trade, has a fair port, immediately on the sea-coast; and that is also the case with Bridlington. Middlesborough, at the entrance of the river Tees, is the chief port on the northern coast of Yorkshire, contains a population of nearly 20,000 inhabitants, and owes its prosperity to its position on the sea, and to its pi'oximity to the great iron district of Cleve- land. It stands on a level winding coast, with a good depth of water in its sea channels, and secure shelter from the storms of the German Ocean ; and it has docks, railways, and all the con- veniences requisite for the conducting of modern commerce. We shall give a full account of the progress* of Middlesborough, and the other seaports of Yorkshire, in a subsequent chapter of this work. From the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Esk, at Whitby, the general line of the Yorkshire coast runs from west to east, with a slight tendency southward. The coast is generally rugged and inaccessible, with precipices rising at many places to the height of several hundred feet. Some of the bays along this coast are very beautiful, but none of them afford shelter for large vessels, being in general completely rock-bound. A considerable traffic in articles of local produce is carried on in some of the creeks. Eedcar is a favourite modern watering place, at the extreme northern point of the Yorkshire coast, near the spot where it 272 YORKSHIRE : begins to bend towards the south-east. The shore here is very level, and the sands are fine. It is surrounded by rabbit warrens and sand hiUs, extending for some distance along the coast. Inland, at a little distancec from the sea-shore, is Upleatham, and somewhat further is Guisborough. Here the land rises very rapidly, and several large becks, or brooks, run down to the shore, most of which meet at Saltburn. A little below this point, the shore begins to rise rapidly into scars, or precipitous rocks. At Stone Gap the cliffs are 100 feet high; at the mouth of Skelton beck, rather more than 100 feet; and proceeding southward, at Huncliffe, they rise to the lieight of 336 feet. This rise continues as the coast runs further out into the German Ocean, and at the Lofthouse Alumworks, near the shore, the flag- staff" is fixed at a height of 625 feet above the level of the sea. A little further inland, Skelton Castle stands at an elevation of '247 feet, and from this point Skelton brook flows down into the sea, with a force sufficient to turn a corn mill in the valley. Proceeding along the coast, the rocks and cliffs at Easington are of the height of 550 feet ; and the Watch-cliff Beacon, a little inland, rises to a height of 790 feet. This latter rise in the elevation of the coast is caused or accom- panied by an entire change in the geological formation. In the neighboiurhood of Middlesborough the new red sandstone is the prevailing stratum, and, as usual, it rises to a very small height, being in general, indeed, more of a plain than of a hilly formation. But, at the point where the coast turns to the south-east, in the neighbourhood of Redcar, the Lias formation commences, rich with the ironstones of Cleveland, and presenting all the type fossils of that formation. Along this shore, in these rocks, are found exten- sive deposits of alum shale, and several alumworks have been constructed where the shale is most abundant. The next great opening in the shore is at Skinningrove, at which point numerous becks or burns unite, and cut their way through the Lias strata. From Blue Nook on the sea-shore, to the shipping place at Staithes, the shore is lined with cliffs, rising two or three hundred feet above the level of the sea. Here also numerous becks or burns unite, and form a wide water-course, through which the streams force their way into the sea at Staithes, ciitting away the cliffs. All along the coast the cliffs continue at the White Stones, the Beck Scar, the Staithes Nab, and the Old Nab, Brackenbury, PAST AND PRESENT. 273 and Lingrow Nook, to the semicircular bay of Runswick. At Runs- wick the cliffs are several hundred feet high, and stiU higher in the neighbourhood of Goldstead. Here, however, are beautiful sands at the foot of the cliffs. Turning to the south the cliffs still continue ; Ovalgale Cliff being 340 feet high, and Sandsend Ness, close to the alumworks, 250 feet. From Sandsend Wyke, or Dunsley Bay, to Whitby the shore consists of cliffs from fifty to a hundred feet high. On the whole of this coast the Lias rocks prevail, but they only form a narrow fringe ; the Oolite approaching within a mUe or two of the sea, and being only separated from it by the Lias cliffs. Whitby is built in the hollow cut by the waters of the river Esk, and by the tides of the sea. Numerous streams flow into the river from the Cleveland Hills, and bring down immense masses of water after heavy rains. Whitby is the only place of safety for shipping on this rock-bound coast, and it has been used as a a port of refuge for vessels navigating these seas from the earliest times. The Dunum Sinus of Ptolemy's Geography is sup- posed to have been at this opening of the coast, or perhaps at Dunsley Bay, which lies a little north of Whitby. The port of Whitby was originally named Streaneshalh, from the fact of its having a lighthouse showing the entrance of the port. This was at least 1500 years ago. The name of Whitby, though as old as the Danish invasion of Britain, is stiU merely the name given by the Danes to supersede the old Saxon appellation. The ancient history of Whitby is extremely interesting, for it was within the walls of the famous and ancient abbey of Whitby, that Csedmon produced the oldest existing poem in the English language. Whitby has commercial advantages, which are now becoming more fuUy developed. Though comparatively secure for vessels which enter the port, it has received great improvements, and the harbour is now secured by two piers (viz., the east and the west piers), which cover the entrances, and break the force of the north-east winds, whicb blow with great fury along these coasts. Leaving Whitby, and proceeding southward to Scarborough, the coast again rises into high cliffs, in some places from 250 to 300 feet high, and everywhere presents the appearance of a rock- bound shore, with scarcely any opening available for vessels. The rocks of the Lias formation continue as far as Robin Hood Bay, where they disappear, giving place to the rocks of the VOL. I. 2 M 274 YORKSHIRE: Oolite formation, which extend along the coast to Scarborough and to Filey Bay. In these rocks are found the fossil plants and coal of the Oolitic system, Oohte iron ore, thin coal beds. Oolitic shale, and fossil ferns. Still further south are found the fossils of the Speeton clay, and those of the Gault and Kimmeridge clay. At Robin Hood Bay is the eastern termination of a vein of greenstone, or basalt, which extends from the sea, and runs inward in a north-westerly du-ection, and from that point crosses the hills of Cleveland and the plain of York, into the coal measures of Durham in the neighbourhood of Bishop Auckland, a distance of forty or fifty miles. This vein is nowhere more than a few hundred yards in width ; and it has the appearance of having forced its way up through a narrow crack, at a time when this part of the land was under the action of intense volcanic force. South of Robin Hood Bay the cliffs continue to Skelbyness Point. The most prominent points along the coast are the Old Peak, to the south of Robin Hood Bay, Balwaithe Point, a few miles further south, Petard Point, Hayburn Wyke, where numerous streams flow down into the sea, from hills covered with innumerable tumuli, belonging to the earliest ages of British history. Further south are Cloughton Wyke, Handel Point, Cromar Point, and Skelbyness Point. A few miles inland, opposite to Hayburn Wyke, are the springs of the river Derwent, which, though there close to the sea, send their waters into the interior, and ultimately discharge them into the Humber. From Skelbyness Point the cliffs rise at Peasholm Point to a great elevation, and extend all along the coast to Scarborough. The rock on which Scarborough Castle stands is 250 feet high, and its surface covers an area of fifty-five acres, two roods, twenty-six perches. The projection of this great rock into the sea forms two bays, the one on the north, and the other on the south. That on the south has always afibrded a certain amount of shelter against storms; but the protection was very imperfect, until the entrance to the bay was improved by the erection of extensive piers, which close in the harbour, and afibrd a fair shelter for vessels in the most stormy weather. But the sources of the wealth and prosperity of Scar- borough are its smooth sands, its clear seas, and its magnificent scenery. These bring thousands of visitors to its health-giving shores every year, and have secured it nearly the highest rank amongst the watering places of England. PAST AND PRESENT. 275 South of Scarborough the coast again runs in wide bays, with lofty rocks along the shore, and headlands running far into the deep. Among the chief of these are the White Nab, Osgodby Nab, Yous Nab, and the Nase, with FUey Bridge, or Brig, stretching far into the sea. These extend to FUey Bay, another pleasant watering place, with very level dry sands, and with cliffs rising from the shore. The Oolite formation continues to the southern side of FUey Bay, in the form of the Portland lime and sandstone.'" This bay has been recommended by a Royal Commission as eminently suitable for a harbour of refuge. For this object it is recommended by its depth of water ; by the protection given to it by the natural breakwater of FUey Brig against being silted up from the sea; by the excellent anchorage ground; by the shelter from the south and west, afforded by Speeton Cliffs, rising to the height of from 300 to 400 feet; by its situation on the most prominent part of the coast, where it is passed by immense numbers of vessels sailing between the northern and southern ports ; and by the fact that often hundreds of vessels are detained there, during the prevalence of south-west winds, from inability to get round the promontory of Flamborough Head, and exposed to be driven upon the rocks when the wind changes to the eastward. If protected by piers or sea-walls, Filey Bay would afford secure shelter in storms ; and many good ships and valuable lives would be saved. The expense of constructing a harbour of refuge on this exposed and iron-bound coast, where for a great distance there is no harbour except tidal harbours, is the only objection made by successive governments to the making of so important a work ; but this seems an insufficient reason for not providing a place of shelter for our vast coasting and foreign trade, and even for ships of the royal navy, on this part of the coasts of the German Ocean. South of FUey Bay the land rises into lofty chalk chffs stretching to Flamborough Head. The chalk formation extends only a few miles along the coast, commencing at the south side of Filey Bay, and terminating in the neighbourhood of Bridlington Quay; but it runs inland along the lofty Wolds of the East Riding, and ultimately through a great part of the eastern and southern counties. The lighthouse at Flamborough Head is 150 feet above the level of the sea, and has a revolving light. In ancient times Flamborough was a rude fortress inclosed by a hne of entrenchments, extend- • Ramsay's Geological Map of England and Wales. 276 YORKSHIRE: ing from the northern to the southern chffs, which prevented all approach to the place from land. In a bay, formed by a retirement of the land to the south of Flamborough Head, is the harbour of Bridlington Quay, a pleasant watering place, and also a toler- ably secure port, owing to the natural shelter of the land, and the piers which have been formed to protect it from the prevail- ing winds. It is the opinion of some distinguished antiquaries that Flam- borough Head is the point named by Ptolemy as the Ocelum Promontorium ; and some writers are of opinion that the Roman station of Prsetorium, mentioned in the first "Iter" of Antonine's "Itinerary," was also in the neighbourhood of Flamborough Head and Bridlington.* Others have been disposed to fix the Ocelum Promontorium at Spurn Point; and the station of Prsetorium at Patrington, not far fi-om the present town of HuU. We shall state the grounds of these opinions in a subsequent chapter. Some early writers also mention Flamborough as the landing-place of Ida, the supposed founder of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria, but others place the scene of that event at Bamborough in North- umberland. They are both places of great natural strength, and either of them, if covered by earth- works or stockades, might have been made a very formidable military position. In modem times, the commanding eminence of Flamborough is better applied to the purpose of giving light and security to vessels passing along these rock-bound coasts.t From Bridlington Quay to the entrance of the Humber there is now no place in which vessels of any considerable size can take refuge ; although there was at one time a harbour, at the ancient port of Ravenspum, where Henry of Bolingbroke landed at the close of the fourteenth century. But Ravenspurn, with many villages along this coast, has long been swallowed up by the encroachments of the waves, which are undermining the alluvial cliffs along the whole of the eastern coasts of Holderness. The sands are very firm and extensive in many places, as at North Chfi", Hornsea, Mappleton, and Withernsea, and there is much sea- bathing along the coast ; but there is no opening for large vessels at any point. * Iter Eritanniarum, or that part of the Itinerary of Antoninus which relates to Britain : by the ftev. Thomas Reynolds, Iter I. p. 146. f Ordnance Maps of Yorkshire, No. 128, Six Inches to the Mile. PAST AND PRESENT. 277 After passing Spurn Point the great estuary of the Humber opens, admitting the largest ships, and furnishing the means of commercial intercourse with all foreign countries. In the earliest account that we possess of this coast the Humber is mentioned by the geographer Ptolemy, under the name of the Abus, probably from the Celtic aher, a "confluence of waters," as one of the great natural features of this part of Britain. Patrington, near the entrance to the Humber, is believed by many writers to have been the Petuaria of Ptolemy; and it was the opinion of Camden and other eminent antiquarians that that was also the site of the Roman station of Preetorium, mentioned as the ter- minus seaward of the first "Iter," described in the "Itinerary" of Antoninus.''^ Whether this opinion is well founded or not, the modem commerce of the Humber has settled itself within a few miles of the ancient Patrington, at the port of Kingston-upon- HulL Hedon, between Patrington and Hull, was also a consider- able port in early times, and returned members to ParKament within living memory. But during the last 500 years the trade of the port of HuU has increased steadily, and never at so great a rate as during the present generation. It is now the third port in England, in the extent and value of its trade, and the outlet for nearly the whole of the commerce of Yorkshire. We shall trace the progress of the town, the port, and the commerce of Hull, in a succeeding chapter of this work. Summary of the Natural Resources of Yorkshire, and of their 'present Development. — We have endeavoured in this, and in the three preceding chapters, to give a sketch of the natural re- sources of the county of York, as an introduction to the history of the industry of Yorkshire, which will form a con- siderable portion of our present undertaking. We have also endeavoured to show how far those resources, and the develop- ment that has been given to them, especially in our own age, have increased the wealth and popidation of the whole county. We have done this the more fully because it appears to us, that no clear view can be formed of the causes which have accelerated or retarded the progress of this or of any other dis- trict, without considering how far industry has been aided by nature ; and because no sound opinion as to the future progress of society- can be formed, without knowing whether its natural * Camden's Britannia, p. 680, 1590. 278 YORKSHIRE : resources are Limited, and likely to be soon exhausted, or whether they are practically unlimited, and therefore capable of con- tinued extension. England is almost everywhere a thickly-peopled country, sustaining on its soil a much larger population than any other country, in proportion to its extent. It has more than doubled its population during the present century, and very much more than doubled its wealth. But the rate of increase, both, of population and of wealth, has varied very considerably in different parts of England during the last thirty years ; having been very great in some, and comparatively small in others. Everywhere and in aU ages, the chief cause of a rapid increase of population is to be found in the rapid development of the means of profitable employment for the labouring classes, who form the great mass of the people in all countries. Wherever this exists wages are high, the general condition of the people is prosperous, and their numbers increase rapidly. What are the means of profitable employment is comparatively unimportant. They may be derived from the feeding of sheep and the gathering of gold, as in Aus- tralia; from the cultivation of the soil, and from a great trade in its products, as in the United States of America ; or from the combined advantages of a skilful agriculture, rich mines, ingenious manufactures, and a commerce extending to the whole world, as in England. Any one of these causes is sufficient to give a great impulse to the population of the country in which it exists. It has been one principal object of the present and of the preceding chapters of this work to show how far the great elements of agricultural, of mining, of manufacturing, and of com- mercial prosperity exist in the county of York at the present time; and that. chiefly to enable our readers to judge of the real nature of the great prosperity which has been so long enjoyed by the inhabitants of this extensive county, and of the grounds for beheving that it wUl continue to exist in future years. With regard to the agricultural resources of the county of York, it has been shown in previous chapters, from information supplied by high local authorities, as well as from the ParKa- mentary Returns of the systems of cultivation, and the quantities of cattle, sheep, and horses produced in the three Eidings, and in the whole county, that agriculture is in general skilfuUy conducted, and yields a liberal return. The amount of employment siipplied by agriculture depends partly on the quantity and quality of PAST AND PRESEMT. 279 the land cultivated, and partly on the system of cultivation adopted. Within the last two generations a large extent of land has been brought into first-rate cultivation, which at the commencement of this century yielded very Uttle either of food or of employment for labour. This has been especially the case with the light lands of the county, including the whole of the chalk formation, which extends over nearly half a million of acres, and has during the present century been converted from wild unproductive downs, into fertile corn-fields. The heavy lands of the county have also been greatly improved during the last thirty years, owing to the extensive introduction of thorough draining. On the limestone lands in the beautiful dales of the West and North Ridings, the improvement during the present generation is said to have been as great as in any part of Yorkshire. Even on the higher hUls, some of which approach to mountains, there has been a considerable improvement. Every year adds something to the amount of cultivated land in this county, and as land is almost the only kind of property of which there is a limited supply in England, we shall no doubt witness a continuance of that very great and general improvement in agricul- ture that has been witnessed from the commencement of the present century, and more especially during the last thirty years.""' The improvement and increase in the mineral wealth of the county of York, during the last forty years, has been great beyond all previous example. Coal and iron are the two chief sources of mineral wealth in this kingdom, and the production of * Just as we are concluding this chapter of our work we find in the public papers of August, 1870, the following account of the Yorkshire Agricultural Shows for this year ; — THE TORKSHIKE AGBICDLTUKAL SHOWS OF 1870. Last week was a perfect agricultural festival in Yorkshire. A year ov two ago it was thought during the incidence of the cattle plague that the local shows were losing interest, and, indeed, efforts were made to merge them into North Riding and East Riding shows, to migrate as does the Countv show and the Royal. This met with great opposition, but had the effect of stirring the yarious societies into increased activity, and very successful exhibitions have already been held at Selby, Thirsk (a new society), Appleton, Bridlington, and DrifBeld. The last-named show was held on Friday, and was, as it is usually regarded to be, the rehearsal of the Great Yorkshire itself. Lord Hotham was the president. The money prizes reached £350, and there were several silver cups given as prizes, among which one was given by the president, one by Jlr. C- Sykes, M.P., and another by Count Batthyany. There were 856 entries, of which 260 were for horses. Indeed, this is now regarded as the best horse show of the North, and excels firequently the Yorkshire itself. Among the classes for short^horn bulls Mr. Button of Sheriff Hutton, York, and Mr. Frank of Fylingdales, Whitby, were the most successful. The All England Cup for the best yearling bull shown was won by Mr. Jordan of Elmswell. In the sheep classes the most successful exhibitor was Mr. E. Riley of Kiplingcoates, Beverley, who also won the East Riding silver tankard for the best pen of gimmers. In the hunting classes Mr. Shaw of Shipton, Market Weighton; Mr. Lalnplongh, of Nafferton ; Mr. Jarret, of Harpham ; Jlr. W. H. Broadley, M.P. ; and Sir George Cholmley, were most successful. The President's Cnp of £25, for the best roadster, was won by Mr. J. Robson of Old Malton. Mr. C. Sykes' Cup, for the four-year-old hunter, was won by Jlr. Barkworth of 280 - YORKSHIEE : both those invaluable articles has increased in this county with remarkable rapidity. We have shown in our account of the York- shire coal-field, how greatly its productiveness has increased from the time when a regular account was first taken, a few years ago, of the yearly produce of British mines. The increase in the produce of iron in Yorkshire is still greater in proportion even than the increase of coal, and is the more remarkable from the circumstance, that much the larger portion of the increase is derived from strata which were not known to contain any iron worth working, forty years ago. It is thus an entirely new discovery of mineral wealth, and seems hkely from recent indications both in the North and the East Riding, and in other districts in England where the Lias and Oolite exist, to be followed by fresh discoveries. Already, however. Yorkshire produces a much larger quantity of iron than any other English county, besides yielding a considerable quantity of lead and many other valuable minerals, including limestone, of various kinds, and building stone of the fiinest 'and most durable qualities. Wherever iron, coal, and water-power are found in abundance, machinery and manufactures also abound. It is so, both in the case of the textUe manufactures of Leeds, Bradford, Halifax, Hud- dersfield, and Dewsbury, and also in that of the iron work and cutlery of Sheffield and Rotherham, The West Biding is covered with mills and workshops, from the banks of the Don to the banks of the Aire; and from the great variety and value of, and the universal demand for, the products yielded by them, the manufacturing industry of Yorkshire rests on a very broad and solid foundation. The commerce of Yorkshire has also the advantage of one very commodious port at Hull, and of several others that are partially so. Being situated in the narrowest part of England, it has facilities for obtaining all that it requires both from the east and the west, and of exporting the sui'plus products of its industry to foreign countries. Having described the natural resources of the county of York, we now proceed to trace the history of its people, from the earliest ages to the present time. Raywell ; the Society's Cup of £25, for the best hunter, (all ages), bj Mi. H. Jewison, Raisthorpe ; a Society's Cup, for three-year-old hunters, by Sir George Cholmley, Newton ; and a Cup of ten guineas, given by Count Batthyany, for the best drive mare or gelding, by Captain Boynton of Hanthorpe. This was quite a new and successful feature. There were excellent shows of pigs and poultry. The luncheon was attended by 500 ladies and gentlemen. Lord Hotham presided, and among the speakers were M. C. Sykes and Mr. Broadley. PAST AND PRESENT. 281 CHAPTER V. THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE COUNTY OE YORK. THE BRITISH AND ROMAN PERIODS, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE RETIREMENT OF THE ROMANS, ABOUT A.D. 421. When the Roman armies, under the command of Julius Agricola, succeeded in forcing their way into the northern parts of Britain, in the reigns of the Emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian (a.d. 78-84), about forty years after the Roman Emperor Claudius had commenced the attempt to conquer the whole of Britain, (a.d. 43) ; they found that the portion of the island which lies between the German Ocean on the east, the Irish Sea on the west, the rivers Humber and Mersey on the south, and the mountainous regions on the borders of Caledonia on the north, and which includes the present counties of York, Lancaster, Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, was inhabited by a numerous and warlike people, named the Brigantes.* This powerful British tribe long offered a determined resistance to the Roman armies, and, though often defeated on the field of battle, continued to rise in frequent insurrections against the Romans, for more than a hundred years after the Brigantine territory was claimed as a province of the Roman empire.t This they were better able to do, because their country was in general hilly, and in many parts mountainous; was covered with thick forests; and was rendered difficult of access by the overflowing of the rivers and the irrup- tion of the seas, which converted the southern portion of its plains into inaccessible morasses. On the east and west they were protected by the sea, which was not fully explored, and still less commanded, by the Roman fleets, until the time of Agricola. X Previous to the conquests of Agricola in the northern parts of Britain, the territory of the Brigantes was the scene of important intrigues and operations affecting the fortunes of the Romans in Britain, as well as those of the British tribes. * Julii Agricolse Vita C. Cornelii Taciti, u. 17. . Ptolemisi Geographia, lib. i. p. 107. f Pausanise Gisecise Descriptio, lib. viii. cap. Kliii. J C. Cornelii Taciti Agricola, cap. xxv. VOL. 1. 2 N 282 YORKSHIRE : In the great struggles with the people of the southern, western, and eastern parts of the island, under Caractacus and Boadicea, the Brigantes were sometimes on the side of their fellow country- men, and at others on that of the Romans; for in those times Britain was divided amongst numerous tribes, which lived in a state of frequent hostility to each other, and were generally more anxious to destroy the power of their native rivals, than to guard their own independence against foreign enemies. As the great Roman historian, who has given us incomparably the best account of the ancient Britons, observes: — "Our greatest advantage in contending with tribes so powerful is, that they do not act in concert- Seldom is it that two or three states meet together to ward off a common danger. Thus, while they fight singly, all are conquered.""'' This was the case in the struggle of the Romans against Caractacus and the western Britons, in which one faction of the Brigantes, commanded by their queen, Cartis- mandua, who seems to have reigned in her ovpn right, formed an alliance vdth the Romans ; whilst a more numerous body under the command of her husband, Venusius, from whom she was separated, was ranged on the side of Caractacus and the inde- pendence of Britain, t Thus a violent family quarrel between the king and the queen of the Brigantes, and a civil war amongst their respective adherents, divided the Brigantes into two hostile factions, and powerfully contributed to destroy the independence of the whole nation. A few years after the overthrow of Caractacus and of Boadicea, the command of the Roman armies was conferred by the Emperor Vespasian on Julius Agricola, a consummate general, an able administrator, and an enlightened statesman. In the first and second years of his command in Britain he overran and con- quered the greater part of the country between the Humber and the Tyne, forming the most fertile and accessible portion of the territory of the Brigantes; and this became the most northern portion of the permanent conquests of the Romans in Britain. In subsequent years Agricola overran the country, extending northward from the Tyne and the Solway, first to the Forth and the Clyde ; subsequently to the banks of the Tay ; and ultimately to the foot of the Grampian mountains, t In his latter campaigns • C. Cornelii Taciti Agricola, cap. xii. f C. Cornelii Taciti AnDalium lib. xii. t C. Cornelii Taciti Agricola, cap. xxix. PAST AND PRESENT. he had the advantage of being supported by a powerful and well- appointed Roman fleet. This he caused to be constructed or collected in the seas of Gaul and Britain ; and it gave him great advantages in contending with tribes which had no armed vessels of their own, but whose territory was washed on both sides by the sea, was penetrated at numerous points by large estuaries, and was intersected by many rivers, deep enough to be accessible even to the war ships of the Romans, which drew little water, and were impelled by rowers. With the advantages afforded by his fleet, which served to bring up arms and provisions, and, in case of need, to convey reinforcements, and which insured shelter and a safe retreat even in case of defeat, Agricola was able to maintain his army far in advance of the usual resources of an invading army, and for a while struck terror amongst the native Britons, who had never seen either a fleet or a regular army before.'^ With these appli- ances he made many brilliant conquests, including his celebrated victory at the foot of the Grampians, which, with his other exploits, have been immortalized by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. In addition to this, his fleet sailed round Britain, which had pre- viously never been certainly known to be an island; explored the shores of Hibemia (or Ireland); discovered the Orkney, and perhaps the Shetland islands; and collected information as to an island or islands lying still further to the north, and known by the vague name of Thule, which may probably have been the more distant Faroe Islands.! Agricola also probably selected the principal naval stations of the Romans in the northern parts of Britain, of which Eboracum, or York, was long one of the porta commanding the German Ocean, and Deva, or Chester, one com- manding the Irish seas. J Yet though Agricola's successes were very great, he achieved nothing that was permanent in the country lying north of the river Tyne, for he found it prudent to retire immedi- ately after his last great victory over Galgacus ; and although the Romans for a while held and fortified the narrow line between the Forth and the Clyde, they were ultimately compelled to faU back, to the more defensible line extending from the mouth of the Tyne to the mouth of the Sol way. § This hne, generally known as the Vallum or Roman wall, fortified by successive emperors and commanders, became the northern boundary of the Roman empire • C. Cornelii Taciti Agricola, cap. xxv. f Ibid, a t Ptolemffii Geographia, cap. ii. § Iter Britannicntn Antonini ; iter i. 2 8 J: YORKSHIRE : in Britain; and the city of Eboracum or York, erected on a fertile plain, on tlie banks of a navigable river, and with military roads reaching to the eastern and vsrestern extremities of the Roman wall, became the military capital of the Romans in this island. Here they founded a colony of Roman citizens, and established the head-quarters of the sixth Roman legion.'"' That legion, perhaps aided by the ninth legion, occupied the city of York for upwards of three hundred years (which was nearly as long a time as the Romans remained in Britain), besides furnishing garrisons for most of the forts along the Vallum or Roman wall, and for many detached fortresses in the hilly and mountainous districts between the Humber and the river Tyne. At the time when the Romans conquered Britain, the inhabitants of the British Islands had made some progress in the useful arts. In this respect they seem to have been nearly on an equality with the Gauls, and considerably in advance of our ancestors, the ancient Germans. The existence of numerous towns, mentioned by Ptolemy, is itself a proof of a considerable amount of intelhgence, and of the existence of laws or customs which gave some protec- tion not only to person, but to property. The most favourable account that we possess of the ancient Britons is that which we owe to the historian Tacitus, who had the best means of knowing what they really were, and who added to a superior knowledge of facts a great power of judging of them with sagacity. The account which Tacitus gives of the ancient Britons, at the time when the greater part of them were conquered by his father-in-law, Julius Agricola, may be regarded as founded on the information collected by that distinguished general and statesman, during his long services and his extensive command in Britain. Agricola first went to Britain when he was only twenty years of age, and served in that country for three years, from A.D. 59 to 62, under the command of a very active and enterprising ofiicer, Suetonius Paulinus — "a pains-taking and judicious ofiicer," under whom he saw much hard service. " Never, indeed, had Britain been more excited or in a more critical position ; veteran soldiers had been massacred, colonies burnt, armies cut ofi": the struggle was then for safety ; it was soon to be for victory. And though all this was conducted under the leadership and direction of another, though the final issue and the glory of having won back the province belonged to the general, yet * Ptolemaei Geographia, lib. ii. PAST AND PRESENT. 285 skill, experience, and ambition were acquired by the young oiiicer."'" It will be seen from these lines tbat Agricola had served a severe apprenticeship of three years' duration in Britain, at the period of his opening manhood. Ten years later (a.d. 72), when he had attained the age of thirty-three years, we find that he was again serving in Britain, first under Vettius Bolanus, and afterwards of Petihus Cerialis. His services in Britain, especially under the two latter commanders, had been so great, that "a general belief prevailed that the province of Britain was to be his, not because he had himself hinted it, but because he seemed worthy of it."t Five years later, in A.r). 78, when Agricola had reached the age of thirty-nine years, he was appointed to the govern- ment and command of Britain, which office he held for eight years; having fought his last great battle with the brave Caledonian chief, Galgacus, within sight of the Grampian mountains, A.D. 84. J His knowledge of Britain and its inhabitants must thus have been much greater than that of any other Roman of anything like the same inteUigence and capacity, and we may receive with much more confidence the information derived from him than that obtained from any other authority. This information has come down to us through the historian Tacitus, who has written the account of his exploits, and who says, "He was consul, and I but a youth, when he betrothed to me his daughter, a maiden even then of noble promise. After his consulate he gave her to me in marriage, and was then at once appointed to the government of Britain, with the addition of the sacred office of the pontfficate."§ The only other Roman writer of equal judgment and talent, whose account of Britain rests on what may be regarded as personal knowledge, is Juhus Caesar. But he spent less than three months in the island, saw only the southern part, and wrote more than a hun- dred years earlier than Tacitus, at a time when little or nothing was known about the northern or even the central parts of Britain. Agricola speaks of the Britain of his time as of a country pro- ducing all the plants of Europe except the olive and the vine, and as yielding the principal metals, including gold and silver. In a few lines he describes its principal products : — "With the exception of the olive and vine, and plants which usually grow in warmer climates, the soil will yield, and even abundantly, aU ordinary produce. It ripens, indeed, slowly, but * 0. Cornelii Taciti Agricola, cap. v. f Ibid. cap. viii. % ^^^^- "^^P ^'^- § "'''' '^"P- "• 286 YOBKSHIRB ; is of rapid growth, the cause in each case being the same ; namely, the excessive moisture of the soil and of the atmosphere. Britain contains gold and silver, and other metals, the prize of conquest. The ocean, too, produces pearls, but of a dusky and bluish hue." With regard to the Britons themselves, Tacitus, no doubt from the report of his father-in-law Agricola, always speaks of them with respect, and sometimes even with sympathy, though it was his settled opinion, like that of all Roman writers, that aU nations were bom to obey the Roman yoke. One of the first things that Agricola did after his first campaign, as commander-in-chief and governor of Britain, was to attempt to introduce amongst them some of the elements of Roman civiUzation ; and we learn from the report of Tacitus, that he found the Britons to be intelligent and quick to learn. Speaking of the events of the winter of a.d. 79, which followed his first campaign, and was probably spent in the district which is now included in Yorkshire and the other northern counties, Tacitus says : — " The following winter passed without disturbance, and was employed in salutaiy measures. For to accustom to rest and repose, through the charms of luxury, a population scat- tered and barbarous, and therefore inclined to war, Agricola gave private encouragement and public aid to the building of temples, courts of justice, and dwelling houses, praising the energetic and reproving the indolent. Thus an honourable rivalry took the place of compulsion. He likewise provided a liberal edu- cation for the sons of the chiefs, and showed such a preference for the natural powers of the Britons over the industry of the Gauls, that they who lately disdained the tongue of Rome now coveted its eloquence. Hence, too, a Hking sprang up for our style of dress, and the toga became frequent and fashionable. Step by step they were led to thmgs which disposed to vice, the lounge, the bath, the elegant banquet; all this in their ignorance they call civilization, when it was but a part of their servitude." This last observation of Tacitus is merely one of the commonplaces of the philosophers of the Stoic school, which still held its ground at Rome, notwithstanding the unrivalled wit and admirable good sense with which its exaggerations jiad been lashed by Horace more than fifty years before.^- The adoption of the bath and of • The extravagances of Damasippus, and of other Stoic philosophers, are ridiculed by Horace with nnri- valled wit and humour, in his Satires, lib. i.. Sat. iii. lib. ii., Sat. iii., while ample justice is done to the nobler parts of their philosophy in the last of Horace's Epistles, and in other parts of his works. PAST AND PRESEjST. 287 the Roman style of dress were certainly great improvements, and within moderate limits the use of the promenade or portico, and even of the elegant banquet, were rather proofs of the good taste than of the love of luxury of the ancient Britons. What Tacitus says of their readiness to build temples, courts of justice, and improved dwelling-houses, to adopt a liberal educa- tion for their children, and of the great success with which they cultivated the language and literature of Rome, is calcu- lated to excite respect for their natural abilities, and even to produce considerable doubt of the stories of utter barbarism which is imputed to them by earlier Roman writers, few of whom knew anything of them except from the report of witnesses very much inferior both in candour and experience to Agricola and Tacitus. Who were the earliest inhabitants of this part of Britain? — The question of who were the earliest inhabitants of this part of Britain, has recently acquired greatly increased interest from the discovery, especially in the county of York, within the last twenty years, of the bodies and instruments of war and other remains of many hundreds of the ancient Britons, in the tumuli which are spread in great numbers over the wolds and moors of Yorkshire, but which are rapidly disappearing under the plough, with the reclaiming of the waste lands of the county. Thousands of these tumuli, containing the remains of what were probably the earliest race of Britons, have no doubt disappeared in the course of ages, without any record having been preserved of their contents. But most happily, for the progress of historical knowledge, some hundreds of these tumuli have been explored during the last thirty years, chiefly on the hills and mountains of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and on the extensive and thinly peopled downs of Wiltshire, by able and learned men, capable of appreciating, and of recording for the use of the present and of posterity, all that is remarkable in the evidence which these tumuli and their contents afford, of the habits, the superstitions, the modes of Hfe, and perhaps, in some cases, of the families of nations, to which the early races interred within them belonged. The general result of these inquiries is, that the British tribes whose remains have been thus examined, in general belonged to a race very much inferior, in knowledge of the useful arts, to the Celtic inhabitants who were found in Britain by Csesar and Agricola. The latter certainly 288 YORKSHIRE : possessed a knowledge of the mode of working copper, iron, and the other metals ; were able to build formidable war chariots, armed with scythes, capable of mowing down the .Roman soldiers in battle ; they were armed with long swords, only differing from those of the Romans in being longer, and not being pointed at the end ; they were able to train horses ; they must have had tolerable roads for their chariots, and they had built a large number of towns previous to the time of the first geographical descriptions of Britain given by Strabo, in the time of Augustus, and by Ptolemy of Alexandria, in the time of Hadrian. The Bemains of the Ancient Britons Discovered in the Tumuli of YorhsJiire. — Until the present age, the earHest information that was possessed respecting the inhabitants of those parts of Britain that He to the north of the river Humber, and of which the present county of York forms the most extensive portion, was derived exclusively from Roman and Greek histories, or works ol geographj^. The accounts which even those works give of Britain, before the time of the Roman invasion, are very imperfect. There is, however, reason to believe that the Tyrian or Carthaginian colonists settled at Cadiz, or Gadira, in Spain, made voyages to Britain some hundred years previous to the Roman conquest, for the purpose of purchasing copper and tin, and lead. It is even possible that the Tyrians and Sidonians made similar voyages to Britain for the same object in still earlier times. But we have no contemporary, or very early, accounts of any such voyages. Herodo- tus, the father and founder of history, who visited the city of Tyre about 440 B.C., when he was collecting, by personal inquiry, the materials for his delightful and invaluable account of the ancient world, does not appear to have heard of the name of Britain or Albion. But he had heard the name of the Cassiterides, or tin- producing islands, though he seems to have known nothing but their name, and the most important of their products ; for he says, " Nor am T acquainted with the Cassiterides Islands, from whence our tin comes." But this merely shows his great caution, and is not intended to throw any doubt either on the existence of islands so-called, or on the trade in. tin which was carried on with them. On the same ground, of want of personal information, he declines to speak of the river Eridanus or Po, and of the trade in amber carried on down that river ; and hesitates to speak of the sea on the western side of Europe, on the ground PAST AND PRESENT. 289 that thougli he had diligently inquired, he had never been able to learn from any man, who had himself seen it, that there was a sea on the western side of Europe.* From the language of Herodotus and some other writers, it has even been thought that the first knowledge of Britain was obtained from the Greek colonists of Massilia, or Mar- seilles, on the south coast of Gaul, founded about 600 B.C., who sailed up the river Rhone, from the Mediterranean, and, after an overland journey, descended the valley of the Loire, or perhaps that of the Seine, to the southern shores of the British Channel. This seems to have been the covu'se taken by Pytheas, a traveller of Marseilles, who is the first person of whom it can be said, with anything like confidence, that he really visited Britain. t From his time there is no doubt that the trade in tin and lead, for which Britain was already famous, was carried on across the British Channel, and then by means of the rivers of Gaul, to Marseilles and the Mediterranean. Other writers, however, have been of a different opinion, and have maintained that the early accounts of the voyages of Tyrian colonists from Cadiz to Britain are substan- tially true ; and that the tin or kesseteron mentioned by Homer in the IHad about 850 years B.C., as being in use amongst the Greeks, was brought, even in that early age, by the Phoenicians from the islands of Britam. If the Britons supplied the Tyrians with tin and copper as early as the times of Homer, they must have had a knowledge of the art of smelting and working those metals nearly a thousand years previous to the conquest of Britain by the Romans. We are probably carried back by recent discoveries, in the tumuli of Yorkshire, to ages which preceded the time when the use even of tin and copper, and of the bronze made by mixing those metals in well ascertained proportions, was known to the inhabitants of Britain, and when their implements of war and industry were made of flint, horn, and wood. Ignorance of the use of these metals, or at least of one of them, always marks a period of ex- treme barbarism, and a condition of society much lower than that which existed in Britain at the time when the greater part of the island was conquered by the Romans. For some time, and throughout many countries of Northern Europe, antiquaries have been accustomed to distinguish the objects found by them in ancient tombs, as belonging to one * Herodotus, book iii. Thalia, cap. 15. f Strabonis Geographia, lib. iv. VOL. I. -^ O 290 YORKSHIBE : of three periods, namely, the Stone, the Bronze, and the Iron. In the first of these periods it appears as if stone, wood, and bone, were the only materials which the people of that age had been able to convert either into arms or into implements of industry. According to an eminent writer on this subject, the people of the Stone age occupied a very low rank in civilization. " The use of metal was unknown to them, and hence all then- implements were made of stone, of bone, or of wood. With such tools the inhabitants could make no great progress in agriculture ; on the contrary, hunting and fishing formed their chief sources of subsistence. For catching fish in rivers and in the sea, they used hooks, harpoons, and lances of flint ; and they possessed boats formed of stems of trees, which had been hollowed out for the pur- pose. When hunting, they were armed not only with bows and arrows, but also with lances and hunting knives, the more easily to slay the large animals, whose skins served them for garments. Their dwellings were formed most probably of stone, wood and earth ; for they even buried their dead with much care in cromlechs, which were formed of large stones, smooth on the inner side. By the side of the dead were laid their hunting and fishing implements of bone and stone. Similar cromlechs, with similar contents, are to be seen on the south coast of the Baltic, and on the north-west and west coasts of Europe, in England, and Ireland. * The period at which the Stone age ends and the use of metal in the forming of instruments of war and industry commences, varies very greatly in different countries. There are countries in AustraHa and Africa in which the use of the metals, and at all events the mode of fabricating them, is not understood even to the present day ; but in the countries of the east, which first became civilized, includ- ing Phoenicia and Greece, the use of the metals commenced at least a thousand years before the Christian era ; and as one of the most valuable of those metals, tin, was chiefly obtained from Britain, it is very probable that they were in use in this country at almost as early an age. In the earliest history which the world possesses, namely, that contained in the Pentateuch, it appears that bronze or brass had taken the place of stone amongst the inhabitants of Syria at a very early age; although knives of stone were stiLL used for some * The Primeval Antiquities of Denmarlj, by J. J. A. Worsaae, translated and applied to the Illustration of Similar Remains, by William J. Thomas, London, 1849. PAST AND PKESEXT. 291 purposes connected witli religion, and iron was coming into use for purposes of war. In the account of the manners and arts of the Greeks and Trojans contained in the Ihad and the Odyssey, which were written about 850 years before the birth of Christ, bronze, or as it is generally called, brass, are almost the only metals mentioned as being used for warlike or other purposes. Even swords and spears, as well as shields and bucklers, were made of bronze ; and although Homer mentions one warrior who was armed with an iron weapon, that weapon was formed of a mass of iron in the shape of an iron club.* Although bronze is a very inferior metal to iron or steel, both for the purposes of war and industry, yet the introduction of its use is a great step in civilization. According to the writer whom we have already quoted on the subject of the Stone age, "in the next period, or during the age of bronze, a greater degree of cultivation was introduced into the country, and by this means all previous I'elations were completely changed : bronze tools gradually supplanted the implements of stone, which, however, continued for a long time to be used by the poorer classes ; hunting and fishing gave way to agriculture, which was then commencing. The forests in the interior of the country were cleared by degrees, in proportion as agriculture was more widely extended, and the population increased. Intercourse with other coimtries was opened, partly by means of warlike expeditions, partly by commerce ; navigation acquired importance, and ships were biiilt of a larger and better description, than the simple vessels formed of hollow trees. At this period it was customary to bum the bodies of the dead, and to deposit the bones which remained in cinerary urns, in small stone cists, or under heaps of stones in large mounds of earth. Sometimes the bodies were also interred unburnt in stone cists, which are, how- ever, always totally different, both in size and form, from the cromlechs of the Stone period. Barrows containing implements of bronze, are found in great numbers over nearly the whole of Europe, except in Norway and Sweden, where they are extremely rare."t In all countries of which we have any clear account, copper, generally mixed with tin, came into use before iron ; and this appears to have been the case in Britain also, for copper is found in the British tumuli of an age much earher than that in which iron is found. * Homeri llias, lib. vii. f Worsaae, Primeval Antiquities. 292 YORKSHIRE : This was just what was to be expected, from the much greater ease of smelting and working copper as compared with iron. As Worsaae observes, we know that copper is found in the mines in a state of such comparative purity as to require very httle smelting for the purpose of being brought into a state fit for use, while, on the other hand, iron in its rough state looks more like a stone than a metal; and, moreover, before it can be worked, must be subjected to a difficult process of smelting by means of a very powerful fire. If we look at the question only on this side, we are forced to conclude that copper must have been found and employed before iron ; and this is confirmed, not only by early historical notices, but also by recent investigations of ancient remains. In Asia, from whence the greater portion, probably all, the European races have migrated, numerous implements and weapons of copper have been discovered in a particular class of graves; nay, in some of the old and long- abandoned mines in that country, workmen's tools have been discovered made of copper, and of very remote antiquity. We see, moreover, how at a later period attempts were made to harden copper, and make it better suited for cutting implements by a slight intermixture, principally of tin. Hence arose that mixed metal to which the name of "bronze" has been given, and which, according to the oldest writers of Greece and Rome, was generally vised in the southern countries before iron. It appears from the contents of the British tumuli, that little if any iron was deposited in tombs in this country until a somewhat later period, when the Celts, the ancestors of the oldest British race of whom we have any historical account, had probably become firmly settled in Britain. Tacitus informs us that the Celtic Britons fought with long swords, which were no doubt made of iron, as he compares them to the swords of the Roman soldiers, and only speaks of them as difiering from the latter in being longer, and not pointed at the end- It appears, however, from the " Germania " of Tacitus, that there were some districts in the east or to the north of Cilermany, in the country inhabited by the Finns, in which the use of iron was very little known, even in the times of Germanicus, who commanded the Roman armies in Germany in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius.- It is also stated by the antiquaries of Denmark, that the use of iron was not completely established in Scandinavia untU the eighth cen- tury of the Christian era, which is many hundred years after the use of that metal was well knovm in Britain. It has been supposed that PAST AND PRESENT. 293 the original inhabitants of Britain, if not of the greater part of western Europe, who were conquered, and to a great extent destroyed by the Celts, belonged to the Finnish race, and resembled the Laplanders, and other tribes of feeble organization, which are now found scattered along the coasts of the icy sea.'" Tacitus in describing the Fenni, in the last chapter of his " Germania" says: — '• The Fenni are strangely uncouth and squalidly poor ; they are without arms or homes ; their food is herbs, their clothing skins, their bed the earth. They trust whoUy to their arrows, which for want of iron are pointed with bone. The men and women are alike suppHed by the chase ; for the latter are always present, and demand a share of the prey. Their very children have no shelter from wild beasts and storms, but a covering of interlaced boughs. Such are the homes of the young, such the resting place of the old. Yet they deem it greater happiness than groaning over field labour, toiling at building, and poising the fortunes of themselves and others between hope and fear. Careless of mankind, careless of the gods, they have realized the very hard condition of having not even a wish." This appears to be a description of a race greatly resembling those whose remains have been discovered in the more ancient tumuli of York- shire and other English counties, but not at all resembling the well armed, active, and comparatively intelligent race of men, which existed in this part of Britain in the time of Tacitus and Agricola, and of whom remains have also been found in some of the tumuli of Yorkshire. If such a race as the Fenni ever existed in Britain, it had probably been entirely destroyed long before the coming of the Romans, by the more warlike Celts who seem to have possessed the whole of Britain at the time of the Roman invasion. During the last few years about one hundred of the tumuH or ancient burial-places of the Britons, still existing on the wolds and moors of Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland, but which are rapidly disappearing, as cultivation extends over what have long been uncultivated wastes, have been examined by the Rev. Canon Greenwell, of Diurham, and other experienced antiquarians, and have yielded many very curious and interesting results. Up to the close of the year 1868, the number of tumuh examined in Yorkshire was between eighty and ninety,! and in the following * Prichard'3 Physical History of Mankind, vol. 3, p. xx. f See Table containing Summary and Results of the Rev. Canon Greenwell's Researches in " Pre-historic Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, &c " : by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., 1869. 294 YORKSHIllE : year, 1869, many more, and some of them of very great interest, were also examined. The eighty-seven tumuli examined in the county of York were chiefly found on the moors of the North Eiding and on the wolds of the East Eiding. In the North Eiding the whole number of tumuli examined was twenty-four. Of these, the number on the Egton Moors was two, on Hamble- ton one, on Gunston Moor three, at Castle Howard ten, and on Wyecomb Moor eight. In the East Eiding the tumuli examined were sixty in number. Their positions were — at Kirby one, at Underdale one, at Langton Wold one, Duggleby one, Heslerton Wold one, Sherburn Wold six. Potter Brompton seven, Ganton Wold eight, Wellerby Wold six, Eudstone one, Butterwick one, Weaver- thorpe eighteen, Enthorpe six, and Gardham four. The only tumu- lus examined in the West Eiding, was at Ferry-bridge ; several, however, had been previously examined in Craven and the hilly parts of the West Eiding, as well as in the neighbouring coixnties of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Northumberland. The whole number of tumuli described as having been examined in the northern counties, by the Eev. Canon GreenweU, up to the close of 1868, was 103. But the subsequent researches were remarkably curious and interesting, as will be seen from the account of those of the year 1869, given in a subsequent part of this chapter. If we may judge from the presence or absence of objects of bronze, iron, or other metals, in the tumuH thus examined, of the age in which the persons whose remains were found in them lived and died, we should say that they belonged to the earliest times and families of the British race. In only one of them was there a fragment of iron found, and that was in the form of the tongue of a fibula, or brooch, found at Weaverthorpe. This morsel of iron had been used for the purpose of replacing a broken bronze tongue. The number of bronze articles was somewhat more numerous, and amounted to eleven. These consisted of a dagger found at Wyke- ham Moor; three awls, at Langton Wold; aflat piece of bronze, at Potter Brompton ; a dagger, axe, drill, and awl, at Butterwick ; two armlets, a fibula, and two earrings, at Weaverthorpe. The number of articles formed of bone and flint far surpassed that of the articles made of iron and bronze. At Langton Wold there were two implements of bone, one like the bow of a drill; at Potter Brompton, two pins of bone ; another at Ganton Wold; at Eudstone, PAST AND PltESENT. 295 a club made from the antler of a red deer ; two tines of red deer antler cut off; a hammer of red deer horn, and at Feriy bridge a bone pin. The number of articles of stone was still greater, amounting to thirty. At Castle Howard was found a round scraper of flint unburnt ; at Wykeham Moor, three pieces of flint burnt, a large flint knife, and a javelin head ; at Sherburn Wold a javeUn head burnt, a scraper, and five chippings ; at Potter Brompton Wold, a perforated axe burnt and arrow point of flint barbed, and a long flint knife ; at Ganton Wold two oval scrapers, one burnt ; at Willesby Wold, two knives and four flint chips ; at Butterwick a knife ; at Weaverthorpe, a knife and two large plates, an oval scraper or knife, a perforated axe, a round scraper of flint, a flake, two flint chippings, and a javelin head. In Cum- berland, Westmoreland, and Northumberland, were found a long narrow knife, a pointed oval knife, an arrow point, and another knife." In much the greater part of these tumuli the bones of the deceased, or considerable portions of them, were found, and were in such a state of preservation as to enable the experienced antiquaries who examined the graves or cists, to ascertain whether they were those of men, women, or children. The other objects of what may be called a miscellaneous nature, found in one or other of the tombs, were two cinerary urns, one covered by a third urn, and the whole surrounded by a circle of stones set on edge and four feet in diameter ; two shoulder-blades of a boar in one grave ; the remains of a man on the natural surface, and close to him those of a woman, who had a piece .of jet, a piece of deer's tooth pierced, a vertebra of a fish, and three cowries at her waist ; the remains of a man and a woman overlying a deposit of burnt bones, probably a man, his wife, and slave; an urn laid on its side upon the bones ; a grave containing the scattered remains of three bodies, and several fragments of a drinking cup ; five large jet and one stone buttons ; a necklace of jet beads ; on the end and imder, forty-nine flat circular discs and a triangular central pen- dant ; necklace of blue glass beads with a zigzag pattern in white ; at Weaverthorpe an armlet very like the armlets of the late Celtic age, and the necklace, similar to those found at Arras in France. Also at Weaverthorpe, several pieces of a drinking cup and an urn ; at Enthorpe three urns. Food vessels and articles of pottery were • Pre-Historic Times as Illustrated by Ancient remains, &c.. by Sir Jjbn Lubbock, Bart. F.R.S., 1869. 296 YORKSHIRE 1 found in a very considerable portion of the graves — altogether, in forty of the Yorkshire graves, eighty-seven in number; and in forty-seven out of 103 tumuli examined by the Rev. Canon Greenwell. * The researches amongst the Yorkshire tumuh made in the year 1869 v^ere very successful. The general result was to show that the persons there interred belonged to a very early age, and to British tribes which still employed flint and bone as their principal materials, though they were not altogether destitute of bronze, and possessed the art of manufacturing earthenware from clay with considerable skill. In the month of November of that year, the Rev. Canon Greenwell and several other gentlemen completed the examination of two very large round tumuh on the estates of Sir Henry Boynton, Bart., at Rudstone, near Bridhngton, which yielded interesting results. Rudstone is the place where the only known megalithic monument in the East Riding exists, the Celtic mcenhir, " long stone," in the churchyard. The barrows were in the immediate neighbourhood, and formed a portion of a group originally consisting of seven. Those opened in 1869 were full of secondary burials, both burnt and unburnt ; and in both cases the primary interments in the mounds had been destroyed by the insertion of remarkable burials in deep graves, dug into the chalk rock. In the centre of both barrows cylindrical-shaped graves had been dug, destroying whatever else had been pre- viously interred. In one tumulus an opening of very large size, probably eleven feet in the rock, had been made, and in it a double cist was found of large stones of oolitic sandstone, probably brought from Filey Brig, twelve miles distant. Many of the stones forming this monument were of great size, some weighing a ton, or more, and marking the burials as of great importance. With the bodies — both burnt and unburnt — were found fine specimens of pottery and stone implements. The find of bodies, implements, weapons, ornaments, pottery, &c., was rich in the extreme. The first barrow was sixty-six feet in diameter, and still five feet high, though greatly ploughed down. It was formed of earth and chalk. At a point four feet S.W. from the centre, and at four feet above the natural surface, was the body of a woman, on the left side, contracted, the head to the N.W., left hand on the hip, right • Pre-Historic Times as Illustrated by Ancient remains, &c., by Sir Jolm Lnbbock, Bart., F.E.S., 1869. PAST AND PRESENT. 297^ hand up to the face. Before the face was an urn, of the "food vessel" type, completely covered on the exterior with zigzag mark- ings by a pointed instrument. Lying before the chest was a small bronze awl or bodkin. At six feet N.E. of the centre were part of the skull and other bones of a man, crushed by the plough. At and about the centre the mound was entirely made of earth, in distinct conical layers. The section showed that through these, long after the mound had been bmlt, a cyhndrical excavation, equal in diameter to the immense grave in the soHd chalk below, had been cut, and the excavation had been filled in with chalk and earth mixed. In the " fiUing in," at a point three feet above the line of the natural surface, was a layer or cap of burnt earth and charcoal, five inches in thickness. Six inches below, and at the east side of the cu'cle, was the body of a very young chUd, on the left side, contracted, the head E. by S. ; and six inches below it was the body of a woman, on the left side, contracted, the head E.N.E. ; the right hand across the chest, just under the, chin ; left hand on knees. Before the chest was a flint knife which had been newly made, perhaps for the purposes of the interment ; and beyond the knife was a bronze driU, having a square centre, and both ends pointed. Behind the body was a bronze awl and a flint flake, and close by a beautiful "drinking cup" of very luiusual pattern, the outline presenting a waved contour. The cup was eight inches high, and a charming novelty. The burial of this woman had disturbed that of a man, whose head was to the S.E., and portions of the others were undisturbed. This burial had been contracted, on the left side, and possibly the bronze awl might have belonged to it. Still descending, and at the line of the natural surface, was the body of a young woman, under twenty years, contracted on the left side, head to the E., and both hands in front of chest. Behind the skull was another drinking cup, six and a half inches high, ornamented over the whole surface with horizontal, vertical, zigzag and chevron lines, made by a peculiar implement of bone or wood, toothed, and the apices of the teeth squared ofi", thus making angular grooves in the clay. All the different patterns of ornamentation were by the same implement, and altogether unusual. The body was laid on a bed of charcoal, and under the feet was a flint knife. Conterminous with the upper cutting and its varied burials, was the grave in the rock, which proved VOL. I. 2 p 298 YORKSHIRE : to be filled in carefully with mould only. The grave proved to be more than nine feet in diameter, and ten and a half feet deep- From this point the measurement is from the line of the natural ground, and at four feet deep were two large flags of oolitic sand- stone, sea-worn, standing on edge nearly against the south side. Lying beside horizontally there were two large stones, four feet eight inches by two feet, and three feet six inches by three feet ten inches, and on the top of these, hanging slightly over, was another, two feet by one foot ten inches. On removing these it was found they lay on a fourth of equally large size, but all in the mould, and forming no part of the splendid cists below. They seem to have been spare blocks thrown heedlessly into the grave. Two feet below all this the top of a magnificent double cist was touched, the cist resting on the floor of chalk, at the bottom of the immense grave. The cists formed but one structure, and had been erected, as was shown by the slabs overlapping, at the same time. They were N.N.W. by S.S.E. The second tumulus at Paidstone was seventy-eight feet in dia- meter, and six feet high, formed of chalk and earth, in layers. This mound had a trench round it (within the circumference), four feet wide at top, tapering to two feet at bottom, and three feet six inches deep, in solid chalk. The inner diameter was forty feet. On the encircling line of the trench, at intervals of twelve to sixteen feet, occm-red divisions of unexcavated chalk, not coming to the top, forming, in fact, a series of troughs round the barrow. Upon the natural sur- face of the ground was a stratum of hard, tempered, cement-like soil, eight inches thick ; so hard as almost to resist the pick. At eleven feet south-east of the centre, and a foot above the natural surface, was the body of a woman, contracted on right side, and head to N.E. by E., left arm to knees, right hand to the face. Behind the head was a bone pin. At six feet S.S.E. of centre, and sixteen inches above natural surface, was the body of a man, on the left side, head to E.S.E. The body was in a circular hollow, cut through a layer of chalk, and resting on the tempered floor. At thirty feet E.S.E. of centre, was a body on the right side, head to S.S.W. Being near the surface, this burial was destroyed greatly by driving sheep-net stakes. At sixteen feet S.E. and E., in a hollow three feet diameter, and four inches into natural ground, lined with wood slightly charred, was a very young child, head to the south, on right side. Before the face was a nearly globular urn, four inches high, PAST AND PRESENT. 299 ornamented by punctured impressions over the whole surface. At seven feet S.E. by E., and twenty inches above the natural surface, was the body of a young person, on the right side, head to S. by W., hands up to the face. At four feet south of centre was a body on the left side, with head to S.E. by S., lying on the natural surface, the right hand on the knees, the left up to the face. One foot above this body was another of a young person lying on the left side, with head to west. On the east side, and just within the circumference of a central circular grave, and six inches above the natural surface, was the body of a man on the right side, head west, right hand under the head, left up to breast. There was a plank of willow on each side of the body, the planks being three feet six inches long, and one foot six inches apart. It was not a coffin, but merely a wooden protection on each side. In front of the head was a food vessel urn, with four unpierced ears, covered with impressions of the end of some implement. Close by the urn and skull was a most beautifully perfect and large barbed arrow point of flint, fresh as the day when made. The point was away from the head, and it is probable the shaft (decayed) was held in the right hand when interred. With the arrow was part of an ammonite — a sort of charm. The body of the person buried was that of a round- head (the Brachycephali), with the lowest development of fore- head and the most debased skull conceivable for that of a human being. As with the first described barrow, so in this, the original mound had been cut through to form the central grave below, and, in filling in, bones of more than one body, and portions of a ribbed pattern drinking cup had been mingled with the earth. At one foot four inches east of the grave, on the natural surface, was a body on the right side, head to N.N.W., hands together in front of knees. At the centre was the grave in the chalk, six and a half feet E. and W., and five and a half feet N. and S., and five feet deep. Three feet six inches deep in the grave was a burnt body, and below it, on the bottom, a man on left side, head S.E., left hand on the hip, right hand to face. The burial was in a dished cavity, of which the chalk formed the bottom, and the sides were built of burnt earth and charcoal. Behind the hip, and just out of the " dish " was a very thin flint scraper. In the grave, and through nearly the whole mound, were remains of disturbed bodies, showing the tumu- '300 YORKSHIRE : -lus to have been used again and again. Mixed with the material forming the hill were some animal bones, all broken for marrow; a very large quantity of chips, cores, &c., of flint, ten round flint scrapers (one most beautiful in work, and another smoothed by long use), four saws, two drills (one curved), three knives and a chipped knife or spear point, all of flint ; three stone pounders, one small pierced hammer-stone (used), and a beautiful jet armlet, two and a quarter inches in diameter. The skulls from the several finds, with the exception of two, were decidedly brachy- cephalic. The proceedings excited great interest in the dis- trict, and among the many visitors were Sir H. Boynton, Bart., Major and Mrs. Mussenden, Mr: K. Wyse, and Mr. H. S.- Harland, Malton; Captain Barnes, Captain Beauvais, Rev. Mr. Oxley, Bev. P. and Mrs. Royston, Mr. Cape and Mr. Tindally Bridlington ; Mr. Level, Weaverthorpe : Mr. Payne, Nottingham ; Mr. Walmsleyi Mr. ^nd Mrs. Lowish, Mr. Harding, and Mr. Harding, jun., Mrs. and the 'Misses Hordem, Burton Agnes ; Mr. Butterfield, Mr. Milner, Kil- ham ; Mr. Daggett, and Mr. Porritt. The remains found in these tombs and tumuli appear to belong to some of the earliest of the British tribes. It will be Seen that the materials used by those whose remains were -therein interred, "consisted chiefly of stone, bone, horn, and clay. They do not appear "to havfe been altogether ignorant of the use of bronze made from copper and tin, but to have possessed it in very small quantities. ■Their supply of iron was still smaller, and shows that that most -valuable of all the metals, though abounding in the hUly districts in which they resided, was of no use to them, in their ignorance ot the mode of working it. But whilst the much greater portion of the remains discovered in Yorkshire appear to belong to a. feeble and unwarhke race, others have been found which belonged to the time when the Britons fought bravely for their independence, even against the irresistible warriors of Rome. The following are accounts of the rfemains of two ancient British warriors, whose remains have been discovered within the last forty years, one of whdm seems to have belonged to the race of British charioteers described by Caesar and Tacitus, and to have been buried not only with his ^arms, but with his war chariot and his faithful steeds. They appear to have been men of noble form, and onte of them, at least, "of remarkable size. PAST AND PRESENT. 3Q1 The remains of the first of these British warriors were discovered ^at-Grimthorpe, near Scarborough, and are thus described: — The Tumulus at Grimthorpe, near Scarborough. — This tumulus was opened in the month of July, 1834, by Mr. ISeswick, the owner of the estate on which "it was situated, and Mr. Alexander, of Halifax. At the depth of six feet from the surface the spade struck against a hard substance, which proved to be a quantity of oak- branches loosely laid together. These being removed, an immense log of wood, situated north and south, seven feet long, by three broad, presented itself, to the great satisfaction of these antiquaries. - At one end of the log was what was at first sup- posed to be a rude figure of a human face ; wliich circumstance, together with the large size of the log, led the finders to believe that they had discovered one of the Druidical remains of. the ancient Britons. On attempting to remove this log on the follow- ing morning, it seemed at first. to have been broken by the force employed ; but on the fractured portion being lifted up, : it„was foiind to be the Hd of a cofiin, the lower part stiU remaining "in the clay, containing a quantity of fluid, in which a human skull -was visible; and- on the water being thrown out it was soon found •that the coffin contained a perfect skeleton. , The bonea were ■ carefully removed, the other contents of the coffin examined, the lower part taken up, and the whole conveyed to the Scarborough Museum, where th^, are now deposited. The coffin, proved to have been made from the trunk of an Dak^ " ingentem quereum, decisisque imclique ramia Oonstitiiit tjimulo — " .^ . roughly hewn at the extremities, and split with wedges. It had been hollowed by chisels of flint about two inches in width, but miist have been cut down with some much larger tool, the marks of its strokes being nine inches in length. The outer bottom of 'the coffin was in length seven feet nine inches. In the bottom, Oiear the centre, was an oblong hole, about three inches long by one wide, most probably intended to carry off any fluids arising from the decomposition of the body. There is little difference in size \between the lid and body of the coffin. No resin appears to have ■ been used to fix; the lid. It was merely loosely laid on, and kept in its-place -by the uneven frfi-cture of the wood; the broken por- tions .corresponding on each side when brought into their proper places. The skeleton found in the coffin was quite perfect, and 302 YORKSHIRE : of an ebony colour."^' The bones are much larger and stronger than those of a more recent date, exhibiting the lines and ridges for the attachment of the muscles with a degree of distinctness rarely if ever witnessed at the present day. But the most remarkable por- tion is the head, which is beautifully formed and of extraordinary size. The skeleton, which has been articulated, measures six feet two inches, and the interior of the coffin being only five feet four inches, accounts for the disordered state in which the lower extremities were found, as they must necessarily have been doubled up so as to admit of being placed within it. The body — ^which had been laid on its right side, with the head to the south and its face turned towards the rising sun — ^had evidently been wrapped in the skin of some animal, the hair of which was soft and fine, resembling that of a sheep, or perhaps more nearly that of a goat, but not quite so long ; and this skin had been originally fastened at the breast with a pin of horn or bone. The weapons. Sec, found in this coffin consist, 1, of the head of a spear or javelin, formed of brass or some other composition of. copper ; it was much corroded, and had at the broad end two small rivets used to attach it to a shaft, which, from the short- ness of the rivets still remaining, must have been broad and thin. 2. The ffint head of a small javelin, a beautiftdly formed ornament, of either horn or the bone of some of the larger cetaceous tribe of fishes. The under side is hollowed out to receive some other appendage ; and there are three perforations on each side for the purpose of fastening it by means of pins. It had probably been the ornamental head of a javelin, of which the metal head had formed the opposite extremity. Its symmetrical form, which would not disgrace the most expert mechanic of the present day, combined with the gloss upon it, gives it quite a modern appear- ance. 3. Eude arrow-heads of flint. 4. An instrument of wood resembUng in form the knife used by the Egyptian embalmers; the point not sharp, but round, and flattened on one side to * This remarkable circumstance was thus satisfactorily accounted for by the dean of Westminster (Dr. Buckland), in a communication addressed by him to the editor of the Literary Gazette : — "The extraordinary and, as far as I know, unique condition of the bones, preserved by tannin and converted to the colour of ink, had resulted from the tannin and gallic acid which was in the green oak trunk which formed the coffin, and in its very thick bark. The conversion of the flesh into adipocere must have been occasioned by the ready admission of water through the line of junction of the lid with the body of the coffin, or through the hole cut in the bottom. The clay found in contact with the body probably contained sufficient iron pyrites to afford the sulphate of iron, which uniting with the tannin and gallic acid, have formed, together with the water within the coffin, an ink of precisely the same materials as that in common use." PAST AND PRESENT. 303 about half its length. The opposite extremity' is quite round. 5. A pia of the same material as the ornament of horn or fish- bone ; it was laid on the breast of the skeleton, having been used to secure the skin in which the body had been enveloped. 6. Fragments of a ring of horn, composed of two circles con- nected at two sides. It was of an oval form, too large for the finger, and was probably used for fastening some portion of the dress. By the side of the bones was placed a kind of dish, or shallow basket of wicker-work, of round form and about six inches in diameter. The bottom had been formed of a single piece of bark, and the side composed of the same, stitched together with the sinews of animals, which, although the basket feU to pieces on exposure to the atmosphere, are still easily to be observed in the fragments and round the edges of the bottom. Attached to the bottom was a quantity of decomposed matter, the remains, as was supposed, of ofierings of food, either for the dead or as gifts to the gods. Laid upon the lower part of the breast of the skeleton was a very singular ornament, in the form of a double rose of ribbon, with two loose ends. It appeared to have been an appendage to some belt or girdle ; but,- like the basket, it fell to pieces immediately on being removed. It is very uncertain of what it was composed. It was something resembling thin horn, but more opaque and less elastic. The surface had been simply though curiously ornamented with small elevated fines. Lastly, a quantity of vegetable substance was also found in the cofiin. It was at first believed to be rushes, and being afterwards mace- rated, although the greater portion of it was so decomposed that nothing but the fibre remained, in one or two instances the experi- ment was so far successful as to distinguish a long lanceolate leaf resembling the mistletoe, to which plant they most probably belonged. This supposition was strengthened by the discovery of some few dried berries among the vegetable masses, about the size of those of the mistletoe. They were, however, very tender, and very soon crumbled to dust. The Tomb and Horses of an ancient British Warrior. — In a paper by the Rev. E. W. StiUingfleet — ^in illustration of some antiquities discovered in tumuli on the Wolds of Yorkshire, and pubfished in the York volume of the Archaeological Institute — is found a remarkable account of the discovery of two distinct skeletons of what Mr. StiUingfleet designates British charioteers. The 304 YORKSHIRE : following are extracts : — " In a cist almost circular, excavated ' to 5 tlie depth of above a foot and a half in the chalky rock, and, on a nearly smooth pavement, the skeleton of a British charioteer" presented itself, surrounded by what in life formed the sources of his pride and delight, and no inconsiderable part of his possessions. The head of this charioteer was placed to the north, with an eastern inclination. He rested on his back, his arms crossed on his breast, and his thigh and leg bones, when bared, presented to the eye what may be termed a singular grained work ; both the thigh and leg bones appearing to have been crossed in opposite directions. Very near to his head were found the heads of two wUd boars. Inclining from the skeleton on each side, had been placed a wheel ; the iron tire and ornaments of the nave of the wheel only remain- ing. The tire of the wheel, to the east of the body, was found perfect in the ground ; but unfortunately it broke into several pieces on removal, owing to its corroded state. Small fragments of the original oak still adhered to the iron. In diameter these wheels had been a trifle more than two feet eleven inches ; the width of the iron tire about one inch five-eighths. The diameter of the ornaments of iron plated with copper, and varnished green, which had encircled the nave as a kind of ritn, was very nearly six inches. The circumference of the wheel, on the western side, had been forced much out of its shape, evidently by pressure of the earth. Each of these wheels had ariginaUy rested on a horse, the bones of which were found under or adjoining to them ; the head of each horse being not far from that of the charioteer, on opposite sides. From the size of their leg-bones, these horses were of unequal height ; but probably neither of them reached thirteen hands. Perhaps they may be regarded as progenitors of the Shetland, Welsh, or forest breeds of our own days; at any rate, they corroborate, by the most certain of all evidence, the historical record, that the British horse was diminutive in his size, and swift in his motions." "On the western side of the British charioteer, were found two very singular articles — of the length of five inches, round at one end, and carved at the other — of iron plated with green varnished copper, which our workmen called linch-pins. Besides these (in different parts of the barrow, but all I, think, on the western side), w^ere found two little rings, three- quarters of an inch in diameter ; and five buckles, semi-circrdar, of various sizes, in some of which the tongue still remained. These PAST AND PRESENT. 305 buckles undoubtedly belonged to the harness, and their fellows may be seen in the Stanwick collection." The two latter tombs probably belonged to warriors of the British Celtic race, though in the former there were implements of stone as well as bronze; but most of the earlier ones appear to contain the remains of men of an earlier and less energetic race, more ignorant of the arts of war, and probably of those of peace also, than the Celts. It is now well ascertained that there were other races scattered over western Europe, before the Celts arrived from the East. Some of these races do not appear to have been at aU wanting either in intelligence or in courage ; whilst others seem to have been a very inferior race physically, if not mentally. We are informed by writers who have carefuUy investigated the language of the Celts, that they were not the race who gave to Britain the name which it now bears, and which it has borne from two hundred to three hundred years before the Christian era. It is stated "that the Celtic inhabitants," whom the Romans found in this island, " did not call themselves Britons, and that no complete and satisfactory explanation of the name of Briton can be discovered in any of the Celtic dialects. Neither does the word seem to have originated with the Greeks or Romans, although it has come down to us m the works of their writers. According to a learned writer on the origin of the names of places and persons, the name of " Britannia " is derived from that family of languages of which the Basque of Spain and the Lapland language of northern Europe are the sole living representatives. Hence it is inferred that the earliest knowledge of the island of Britain which was possessed by the Greeks and Romans, was derived from the Iberic or Basque mariners of Spain, who, either in their own ships or in those of their Punic masters, coasted along the shores of Gaul, and thence crossed to Britain at some very early period of the world's history. The name of Britannia contains in its fii"st and second syllables the Basque, or as it is sometimes called the Euskarian, suffix etan, which means in that language a "district" or country. We are informed that this suffix of etan is found in the names of many of the districts known to or occupied by the Iberic race. Thus it occurs in Aquitania, or Aquitaine ; in Lusitania, the ancient name of Portugal ; in Mauritania, the country of the Moors ; as well as in the names of very many of the tribes of ancient Spain, VOL. 1. 2 Q 306 YORKSHIEE : such as the Cerretani, Ausetani, Laletani, Cosetani, Vescitani, Lacetani, Carpetani, Oretani, Bastitani, Turdetani, Suessetani, Ede- tani, and others.""' It is rather remarkable that the name which these early visitants and perhaps settlers in Britain gave to the word water, in their native Basque language, is at present borne by one of the rivers of Yorkshire, and also by one or two streams in Gaul or France. The Yorkshire river thus named is the river Ure, and it appears from the researches made by Humboldt into the Basque language that " ure," or " ura," is the name for water in that very ancient language. The word ura, " water," is found in a variety of names still in use in Spain, as Asturia (compounded from the words asta, "a rock," and ura, "water"), lUuria, Uria, Verurium ; from ura, "water" and bi "two" are derived the words Urbiaca, Urbina, Illur- bida, and many others.! Names derived from the ancient Basque or Euskarian language, are found through the greater part of Spain, and through those parts of France which belonged to the ancient territory of the Aquitani ; and it is quite possible that words derived from this root may be found in the names of rivers, mountains, and even of very ancient towns in Britain, if carefully sought for. We mentioned the instance of the Yorkshire river Ure as exactly corresponding with the name of water in this very ancient language. It appears that this race formerly occupied a considerable portion of the south and west of Europe, including a part of the present France, a larger part of Spain, and the Islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, in the Mediterranean.;]: Its founders are said to have been a powerful people while the Greeks and Romans were stQl barbarians. As Humboldt says : — "I'heir history manifestly reaches back beyond the periods of languages which we regard as ancient, namely, those of the Greeks and Romans, and if we seek a point of comparison, can only be placed on a line with the pre-Hellenic idiom of the old Pelasgi."§ The word Britain and the name of the river Ure certainly appear to belong to this very ancient language, and it is probable that careful research might show that other ancient British words are derived from this source. It would appear, however, that while one portion of the Basques were a powerful race, another portion were mere savages, or rather * Words and Places, by Rev. Isaac Taylor, p. 60. f Prichard's Physical History of Mankind, vol. iii, p. 27. t Ibid. vol. iii. p. 29. § Humboldt's Untersuchungen. PAST AND PRESENT. 307 harmless children, like the Lapps of the present time, and the Finns or Fenns mentioned by Tacitus. Dr. J. C. Prichard states, in his learned researches into the "Physical History of Mankind," that some of the skulls found in the tumuli of northern Europe, including Britain, belong rather to the Finnish nations than to Indo-Europeans. In proof of this he mentions that the orbits of the eyes are small and deeply set under strong, prominent eyebrows: there was also a considerable depression of the nasal bones between the eyebrows. A still stronger feature of resemblance to some of the Lappish, Finnish, and other kindred races, is the lateral projection of the zygoma, giving to the skull much of that pyramidal form which is so remarkable a feature of the Turanian nations. Dr. Prichard adds, "Some remains found in Britain give reason to suspect that the Celtic inhabitants of this country had, in early times, something of the MongoHan or Turanian form of head." He adds, " However this may have been, we recognize in both countries remains belonging to two successive periods: I mean those of the Stone and of the Copper age."'"' He further adds, "The relics of copper or brazen ornaments are evidently of a later date than that long series of ages which raised the great majority of the numerous barrows, which are spread both in the British Isles and in the northern regions of Europe." t The Celtic Race in the Brigantine Territory.— There is abun- dant evidence, from the statements of the Eoman and Greek historians relating to the Britons, in the times of Csesar and Tacitus, that they belonged chiefly, if not altogether, to the Celtic race, like the neighbouring Gauls, who then formed the mass of the population, not merely of the British Islands, but of Gaul and Spain, and probably even of a portion of Germany ; and whose descendants are still found amongst the people of Wales, of the Highlands of Scotland, of the greater part of Ire- land, and of the western provinces of France. From the very earliest times of which we have any knowledge of the history of the Celts, and of the Cimbri, who seem to have belonged to the Celtic race, they appear to have been a most warlike people, thoroughly acquainted with the art both of inaking and using weapons of war, and altogether difierent from the feeble races which used weapons of flint and bone as their only means of making and repelling attack. Herodotus, writing nearly 500 • Prioliard's Physical History of Mankind, vol. iii. p. 20. f Ibid. p. 21. 308 YORKSHIRE : years before the Christian era, speaks of the Celts as dwelling beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and bordering on the terri- tories of the Cynesians, "who," he says, "he at the extremity of Europe to the westward." He agam speaks of the Celts as living beyond Pyrene (supposed to be the mountain chain of the Pyrenees), on the borders of the ocean ; and a third time he mentions that the river Ister, or Danube, flows through all Europe, beginning from the Celts, who, as he repeats, are next to the Cynetae, who inhabit the remotest parts of Europe towards the west.'*' Yet the modern investigations into the language of all the Celtic tribes clearly show that they originally belonged to the Indo- Germanic, or Aryan race, which originated in the east, and gradually extended its conquests from India, -which was con- sidered to be the furthest limit of the east, to Spain, Gaul, and Britain, then believed to be the furthest limits of the western world. It is not very improbable that the Celtic tribes found occupying this country in the time of Csesar and Agricola, were the descend- ants of the Cimmerians, who are mentioned by Homer, 850 years e.g., as inhabiting the furthest regions of the earth ;t and whom Herodotus describes as the conquerors of great part of western Asia, and of extensive regions of Europe, previous to the founding of the Persian empire.;]: But it is not credible that this warlike race should have been ignorant of the use of the metals, from which the weapons of war were made, at any time after it penetrated into Europe. In their early conflicts with the Romans, e.g. 390, the Celts or Gauls fought successfully, captured the city of Piome, and conquered a considerable portion of Italy ; and although they were ultimately vanquished by the Romans, it was not from want of formidable weapons of war, but from inferi- ority of m.ilitary skill. The Language of the Celtic Britons. — It has been clearly shown during the last forty years, that the language which was spoken in Britain, in great part of Gaul (the France of modern times), in a considerable portion of Spain, and even in a part of Germany, at the time of the Roman invasions of those countries, in the centuries immediately preceding and following the Christian era, belonged to the Celtic family of languages, and greatly resembled the language, which is still spoken in the principality of Wales, in the High- lands of Scotland, in the Isle of Man, and in aU those parts * Herodotus, ii. 33, iii. 00, iv. 49. f Homer's Odyssey, bonk viii. X Herodotus, i. 6. PAST AND PRESENT. of Ireland in which the Erse or Irish language is still known. Dialects of the same language were also spoken in Cornwall within the last hundred years, and in the wilder parts of Cumberland and Westmoreland nearly down to the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Similar dialects are stUl spoken in France, in the western depart- ments formed from the ancient province of Brittany ; and a very considerable portion of the French language, as spoken in the more primitive districts of France, and even of the French of literature and of polite conversation, is derived from the Celtic language, mixed with a good deal of Latin, and with a little German. This was also the case with the language spoken in ancient times in a considerable part of the Spanish peninsula, in which the names of a large portion of the rivers, mountains, and more ancient towns and cities, are evidently derived either from Celtic roots, or from the older Basque. In those ages the Celtic language seems even to have been spoken in Germany and on the shores of the Baltic, for Tacitus, in speaking of the ^stii, who dwelt on the eastern shore of the Suevic sea, says that their language resembled the British.""' In fact, according to the statement of the most learned of modern writers on the Celtic language, it was then spoken over much the greater part of western Europe, and from that age has been pre- served in the Gallic, Belgic, and British names of men, cities, rivers, plants, and even in a few words and phrases of the Greek and Latin writers. These names and words have been preserved in sufficient numbers to render it quite certain that they belong to the same family of languages as the Welsh, the GaeKc, and the Erse of modem times.! A number of the ancient names of persons and places used amongst the Brigantes, who were the Celtic inhabitants of the present Yorkshire and the rest of the North of England, have been preserved and handed down by Tacitus, Ptolemy, and the author of the Antonine Itinerary, whoever he may have been ; which show that nearly the whole of the names, both of persons and places, used in the Brigantine territory belonged to the Celtic language. A considerable number of names of natural objects, especially those of rivers, mountains, promontories, and marshes, have also come down from age to age, and have reached the times in * C. Comelii Taciti Germania, cap. 45. f Grammatica Celtica, fe monnmentis vetustU tarn Hibernicse Linguae, Britannicae Dialectis Cambricse, Cornica;, quam AnnoricjE; necnon k Gallicaj Priscse Reliquiis Constnixit, J. C. Zeuss, Ph. Dr., Histor. Prof., Lipsise, 1853. 310 YORKSHIRE which we hve, that are not less certainly of Celtic origin, many of them being used in "Wales, in the Highlands of Scotland, and in Ireland, to the present day. Even the names of a few towns and villages not mentioned by any ancient author, but which are still in existence, can be shown to be derived from Celtic roots. What is still more remarkable, the names that our Anglian ancestors gave the ancient Britons, whom they conquered and expelled, can be found in the names which some of the towns, villages, and parishes of Yorkshire bear to the present day. It may be desirable and interesting to give a list of names of Celtic origin found in this county, and we shall arrange them in alphabetical order, as most convenient for reference. We shall also give, along with these ancient British words, the few Latin and Greek names of places found in Yorkshire, which go back to the times of the Roman occupation, or are connected with it : — CELTIC, ROMAN, AND GREEK WORDS POUND IN THE NAMES OF PERSONS AND PLACES IN THE TERRITORY OF THE BRIGANTES, OF WHICH THE PRESENT YORKSHIRE WAS A PART. Aberford, from Aber, '' a confluence," and probably from the Celtic word Ford, " a way or road." — Zenss, "Grammatica Celtica," p. 184. Abus, the name given by Ptolemy to the river Humber, from the Celtic word Aber, " a confluence " of waters, a name most appropriate to an estuary which receives nearly all the rivers of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and Nottinghamshire, and discharges their waters into the ocean. — Zeuss, G-. C. p. 189. Acaster Malbis, the name of a Roman camp on the river Ouse, the first syllable probably derived from Ac, a Celtic word for "water" (Owen's Welsh Dictionary), and from the Roman •word castrum, "a camp." Malbis probably belongs to the Norman times, and is the name of a family. Acaster belongs to the age of the Roman occupation of Britain, though rather to the Latin than the Celtic language. Acaster Selby, the name of another Roman camp, formed for the defence of York and of the navigation of the Ouse. The first of these two words also belongs to the age of the Roman occupation. The termination by, in Selby, shows it to be of Danish or Nor- wegian origin. Acomb, probably from the Anglian word Ac, "an oak," or the British word, Ac, for water ; and the British word Cwm or Comb, which means "a hollow in the hills." The word has still the same meaning in Welsh. Aire, river, "bright or gentle," also found in the word Arar, a stream which Csesar describes as flowing with incredible gentleness; in the modern river Aire in France; in the Aar, which flows through Aargau in Switzerland, and, as Dr. Owen mentions in his " Dictionary of the Welsh Language," in several small streams in Wales, at the present time. The author of " Words and Places " says :— " The widely diffused root Ar causes much per- plexity. The Arar, as Csesar says, flows incredihili lenitate ; while, as Coleridge tells us, the Arve and the Arvelron " rave ceaselessly." We find, however, a Welsh word Araf, " gentle," as well as the Celtic Arw, " violent," and a Sanscrit root Arb, " to ravage or destroy." From one or other of these roots, according to the character of the river, we may derive the names of the Arw in Monmouth, the Aray in Argyle, the Aire in Yorkshire, the Ayr in Cardigan and Ayrshire, the Arre in Cornwall, the Araglin and the Aragadean in Cork, the Arro in War- PAST AND PBESENT. 311 wick, the Arrow in Hereford and Sligo, the Arrifege, the Erve, the Arve, the Darcq, the Arve, and the Arveiron in France, the Arga, and three rivers called Arva in Spain, in Italy the Arno and Era, in Switzerland the Aar and the Arbach, in Germany the Ohre, Ahr, Isar, Aurach, Orre, Erl, Erla, Arl, Orla, Argen, and several mountain streams called the Are ; besides the well-known ancient names of the Darus, the Araxes, the Ar-ar-ar, the Naparis, the Aras, and the Jaxartes. — (" Words and Places," by the Rev. Isaac Taylor, p. 228.) Probably, in the case of the Yorkshire Aire, the name is intended as a contrast to the neighbouring river Wharfe, which is said to derive its name from its rapid and winding course. Alauna, from All, "white," the name of a large river now known as the Lune, which forms a portion of the north-western boundary of Yorkshire, and of another and smaller Yorkshire stream which flows into the river Tees. — (Zeuss, G. C. p. 38.) Hence the numerous rivers and streams known as Aliens, Ellens, Aulns, Aulness, Alns, and other similar names. The Romans Latinized Al, "white," and Afon, "a river," into Alauna. — Rev. Isaac Taylor's " Words and Places," p. 225. Arden, from Arden, " a forest," or a lofty wood, found in the name of the forest of Ardennes in Gaul, in Henley-in-Arden in Warwickshire, and in Arden in Yorkshire. — " Words and Places," by the Rev. Isaac Taylor, p. 238- Ardwick-le-Street. Here we have four languages in the name of one place. Ard is the Celtic word for " high or lofty " (Zeuss, G. C. p. 20) ; Wick, the Anglian or Saxon word for a village ; that is followed by the French word le ; and then by Street, derived from the Latin word stratum, which preserves the recollection of the strata, or roads formed by the Romans in all parts of Britain. There are more than fifty places in England which derive a portion of their modern names from the same circumstance. BaUdon, from the Anglian word Bael, " a funeral pile," and the Celtic word Don, "a hiU, or camp."— Zeuss, G. C. p. 29. Bain, a stream in Wensleydale named from the British word Ban, " white." — Rev. Isaac Taylor's "Words and Places," p. 226. Belisama. The name that Ptolemy gives to the river Ribble, which rises in Yorkshire and flows down into the sea through Lancashire. All the Syrian gods were supposed to have wives, and Belisama was the wife of the Syrian god Baal. Camden thinks that the name Baal is found in the last syllable of the name Ribble or Rybel. It is probable that Ptolemy was of the same opinion, and therefore named the Ribble the Beli- sama.— (Camden's Britannia, p. 615. Edition 1590.) The first syllable of the modern name, which also was probably part of the ancient name, namely Ri, is derived from the Welsh or British word Rhe, " swift."—" Words and Places," by the Rev. Isaac Taylor. Brigantes. This is the name which Tacitus, and all the other great writers of antiquity, gave to the British inhabitants of that part of England which includes the present county of York. It means " highlanders" or mountaineers, in the Celtic language, and is derived from the word Briga, " a height." The Romans, who no doubt learned this word from the Celts, probably of Britain, afterwards applied it to other hill tribes, especially to the Swiss dwelling in the neighbourhood of Bregentz, who are spoken of by Ammianus MarceUinus as the Brigantes.— Zeuss, G. C. p. 101. Bryan Askham. The first word is probably from the Celtic word Bryn, "a ridge," and the second, from the Anglian words Ask, " an ash tree," and Ham, " a home."' BurgT\allis. This is an Anglian or Saxon name, meaning " the hill " or " fortress " of the Welsh. The term Welsh is the name which the Angles and Saxons gave to the ancient Britons, so that Burgwallis is the hill of the Britons. The ancient Germans gave the name of Walcher to strangers and foreigners, and gave it to the Britons, who called them- selves, as they still do, Cymri. To the present time the Germans call the Italians Walchers, and Italy, Walchland. Goethe, in his travels in Italy, describes the first Italian postdlion whom he met with in Italy as " a genuine Walcher," that is a real Italian. Caer Caratuc. The British name of Catterick in Yorkshire, according to the earliest British writers. See Cataractonium. Caer Ebrauc. The British name for Eboracum or York, as given in the works of the 312 YORKSHIRE : earliest Britisli writers, G-ildas and Nennius. Caer means " a fortress " or " city." Much uncertainty exists as to tlie origin of the word Ebrauc, or Eboracum. We shall state what is thought of the origin of the name of that celebrated city under the word Eboracum. Oalder Eiver. The last syllable of this word is derived from the Celtic word Dur or Dwr, signifying "water." Dr. Prichard gives a list of forty- four ancient names containing this word Dwr, " water," in Italy, Germany, Gaul, and Britain. Amongst these is Oalder. The first syllable Cal is probably derived from the name of the Gael, the oldest of the Celtic races of Britain. The whole word may mean "the river of the Gael;" though some suppose it to mean " the winding water," and others " the woody water," or " water of the woods." — Taylor's " Words and Places," p. 209. Cambodunum, the Winding Hill, or Hills, from the Celtic word Cam, ''winding," and Dunum, " a hill," the name of the second station from Eboracum, or York, to Manounium, or Manchester, and supposed by Camden to be at Almondbury, near Huddersfield, though others place it at Greetland, at Slack, or at EUand. —Reynolds' "Iter Britanniarum," p. 191. Camden's " Britannia," p. 569. Car, from Cors, "a marsh;" Corsen, "a marsh plant." — Zeuss, G. C. p. 300. Camunlodunum. This place, mentioned by Ptolemy (" Geographia," p. 108), is generally supposed to be Cambodunum, mentioned above, and seems, at all events, to have been situ- ated to the west of Eboracum or York. If it was a separate place the name is probably derived from Dunum, " a hill," and Camulus, the name of the British Mars, or god of war. Cartismandua. The beautiful name of the queen of the Brigantes, mentioned by Tacitus and other writers. Professor Phillips believes that this name is expressive of locality, and thinks it probable that it is derived from the Celtic words Cathair ys maen du, " the chair of the black stone," from her seat of sovereignty by the black Druidical stones, the precursors of the Roman camp of Isurium, the present Aldborough. — (Phillips' "Yorkshire," p. 201.) Zeuss mentions the Celtic words Car, "a friend," and Cared, "beloved," as the roots of most of the Celtic words commencing with Car; as Caractacus, Cartismandua, and many others. Cataractouium, or Catterick, which is first mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography, is generally supposed to be derived from the Greek word Katarakton, " a cataract " or " waterfall." But it has been thought in recent times that there was some Celtic name resembling this, which Ptolemy supposed to be the same word. In the old British language Catu means "a battle," and it is not improbable that that may be the origin of one of the syllables. Professor PhiUips derives Cataractouium from the Celtic words Cathair rigd, "fortified city." — (Phil- lips' " Yorkshire," p. 201.) It is not very probable that a purely Greek word would be found, in Yorkshire, as a name of a place, in that age. Cawood, from the British word Cae, signifying " a hollow " or " a field," and the Anglian word Woodu, " a wood." Chcven, or Sheven, from Cefn, a Celtic word meaning " a ridge,'' well describing Otley Cheven. Colne, rivei', from the Latin word colonia, found in the names of the cities of Lincoln and Cologne, and in the rivers Colne in Essex, and in Yorkshire. — Rev. Isaac Taylor's " Words and Places," p. 276. Cotness, " the woody promontory," from Ooit " a wood," and Ness, the Anglian name for a promontory. Craven, perhaps from Cragen, a district of crags. Oreyke Castle, from Careg, " a rook," the castle being situated on a lofty rock over- looking the ancient forest of Galtres. Cumberworth, from Cumber, or Cumbri, the ancient name of the Britons, found in the word Cumberland, and the Anglian word Worth, which means "an inclosure," generally on the bank of a river or lake. Dearne, probably from Dwr, "water." Dee. A small river near Scdberg, named from the words Du-wy, " dark water." Delgovitia. A town in Yorkshire mentioned in Antonine's Itinerary, the position of which is supposed by Burton to be Market Weighton in the East Riding, the ancient Anglian name PAST AND PRESENT. 313 of which place was Mickleweighton or Wajrton, " the large town on the way,'' or Roman road. Burton derives the name of this place from the British word Delw, which Zeuss also informs us (p. 160) means " an image.'' Burton identifies Delgovitia with Godmanham near Market Weighton, which was a great place of idol worship in the time of the Angles, and is likely from its name to have been so likewise in the time of the Celtic Britons.— Burton's " Itinerary of Antoninus," p. 90. Dent, from dens or dent, " a tooth," used figuratively for a mountain. Derventio; the town on the Derwent, mentioned in the first "Iter" of Antoninus. The name is evidently derived from the river which flows through it. Derwent ; the river Derwent, named from Dur gwin, " the fair water." Dewsbury, from Dew, the British word for God, and Bury the. Anglian word for hiU, meaning '' God's hill." Don, or Dun, which simply means " the water " or " the river," and is found in the river Don in Russia, and, with a slight alteration, in the Donau or Danube. Dove, a river from Du, " black." Dourwater, from Dwr, " water." — Rev. Isaac Taylor's " Words and Places," p. 222. Drax, Ax " water."— Rev. Isaac Taylor's " Words and Places," p. 213. Dunum Sinus, " the bay of the hill," from the British word Dun or Dunum and the Latin word Sinus ; or Douron Kolpos, according to the original Greek of Ptolemy. Easebume, from Uisge or Esk, " water," and Burne, the Anglian word for a stream. Eboracum. Of this celebrated name Dr. J. 0. Prichard says : — " I find no probable etymon for names containing Ebor, except the Welsh Aber, which means "' a confluence " of waters. The use of this word Aber was not confined to Wales, since Aberdeen and Aber- brothwick are well known in Scotland. Havre de Grace has probably hence its name — " (Prichard's " Physical History of Mankind," vol. iii. p. 128.) It is also probably found in the first part of the French name Evreux. Esk. The river Esk, from Uisge, a Celtic name for " water." Forest, the Celtic word for a forest, found in Sherwood Forest, the Shirewood Forest. Foss. From the British word Fhoss, or perhaps from the Latin word fossa, " a ditch or entrenchment," so named from forming part of the fortifications of York. Catfoss is " the wood of the Foss," and Foston is probably " the town of the Foss." Gabrantuicum. A place on the coast, near Flamborough Head, supposed to be named from Gaber, the Celtic word for " a goat.'' Galtres, " the wood of the Gael," or ancient Britons. Garforth, the woody promontory ; from Gara, " a promontory," and Firth or Forth, " a wood " or " inclosure." Greta, from Rhe, and A, " the swift water." Humber. Probably a corruption of Aber or Iber, both of which mean " a confluence of waters." Professor Philips mentions a Gaelic word Comar, also a confluence of two or more waters, as a probable origin of the word Humber. But Ptolemy names this great river the Abus, and Aber is probably the original name. Kimberworth. The same word as Cumberworth, mentioned before. Laiths, "a moist plain." Leven. A river of Cleveland, supposed to be so named from the British word Leven, or "gentle." Lune river. " The Alauna of the Romans," derived from the word All, "white." Masham, from the Celtic word Maes, " a field," or plain, and the Anglian word Ham, " a home." Nid, or Nith, the name of a river, from Nedd, or Neth, "winding," or "whirling." Ocelum Promontorium, believed to be Flamborough Head, and to be named from the Celtic word Uchel, "a height or promontory." Ouse river. Probably a corruption of the Celtic word Uisge, '' the water." Ouseburn, from Uisge, " water," and Burne, " a stream."— Rev. Isaac Taylor's " Words and Places," p. 222. VOL I. 2 R 314 YORKSHIRE Penhill. The head or chief hill at the end of Wensleydale, from the Celtic Pen, "a head," and the Anglian Hill. Penistone. From Pen, "the head," meaning " the head of the rock" or hill. Pennigant, "the head of the plain," from Pen, "the head," and Gwent, "the plain or valley."—" Words and Places," Rev. Isaac Taylor, p. 243. Eeeth. A town on the Swale, from the Celtic Rhyd, "a ford" (" Words and Places," by the Rev. Isaac Taylor, p. 268); or Rit, also " a ford."— Zeuss, G. C. p. 169. Ehosbury. The name of one of the principal mountains in the North Riding, from Rhos, a Celtic word for " a moor," and Burg or Bury, the Anglian word for " a hill." Patrington. A town of the Parisii, who occupied a part of the present East Riding of Yorkshire, supposed to be derived from the word Petuar, " four."— (Zeuss, G. C. p. 324.) It is not certain, however, whether it was four miles or four pillars, or some other object. Rivelin. The stream of Velinus, or Belinus, one of the ancient British gods. — Zeuss, G. C. p. 102. Rye. A swift river, from the word Rhe, "swift" or rapid, which well describes the character of the Yorkshire stream of that name. Straiforth. The name of one of the Yorkshire hundreds, derived from stratum, " a road," and Fforth, which also means " a road," both referriug to the Roman road passing through that part of Yorkshire. Tadcaster. From castrum, " a camp," and some unknown British or Anglian word. Tame. The name of two rivers in Yorkshire, as well as the much more celebrated river Thames, in a slightly different form; derived from the British word Tam, meaning "spreading," or quiet. Tees, river, perhaps from Es, " water," and the Celtic preposition Ti or Di "at" prefixed to it. The Tees, the TafiF, and the Tavon are perhaps instances of this usage, which is also found in the German languages, in Zermat, Andermat, Amsteg, and Utrecht {ad Trajectum). — Eev. Isaac Taylor's " Words and Places," p. 221. Treton. Perhaps from the British word Tre, meaning " a house " or a village. It is said to occur only once in Yorkshire. Washburn, from Uisge, "water," and Burne, "a stream." Wealswood. An Anglian word; but meaning the "wood of the Britons," named the Wealas or Welsh by the Angles and Saxons. Wensleydale, the first syllable probably derived from the British word Gwyn, meaning " white."- Rev Isaac Taylor's " Words and Places," p. 209. Went, river, from Gwent, " white " or fair. Wharfe river. Probably from the same root from which the river Garve in Rosshire, Garry in Perthshire, Yare in Norfolk, Yarrow in Selkirkshire, and Garonne in France, are derived, which is said to be the Celtic word Garw, " rough or violent." Wisk. A river of the North Riding, the name of which is derived either from the Gaelic word Uisge, meaning " water," or the Welsh word Wysg, meaning " a current." The above Celtic words are only a few specimens of a language which once prevailed over the greater part of Western Europe, including the whole of the British Islands. It is probable that the ancient British language received a considerable number of Latin words, during the period of nearly four hundred years of the Eoman occupation of Britain. But the infusion of the Latin language into the Celtic dialects of Britain was not nearly so extensive as its infusion into the Celtic dialects of Gaul, Spain, and Northern Italy, which derived an entirely new character from the influence of the Latin language. The language of Britain appears to have been PAST AND PKESENT. 315 chiefly Celtic for a considerable time after the departure of the E-omans, and it is stQl Celtic in the more mountainous parts of Great Britain and of Ireland. Very few of the words that stUl exist in the names of places and objects found in Yorkshire, are purely Celtic. They are most of them mixed up with Anglian, Frisian, and Danish words, which have formed the staple of the language of this district from the time of the AngUan and the Danish conquests. This we shall show in a subsequent part of this work. Ptolemy's Account of the Brigantine Territories. — Whilst we are indebted to the historian Tacitus for the clearest and best account of the pohtical events by which the Brigantine territory, of which the present county of York formed the larger and more fertile portion, was united to the Roman empire, we owe our earhest account of the geography of that district to Claudius Ptolemy, of Alexandria in Egypt.* This writer flourished in the second cen- tury of the Christian era, and was one of the contemporaries of the Emperor Hadrian, who may be regarded as the organizer of the Roman province of Britain. The points respecting which Ptolemy professed to inform the ancient world in his Geography, were the positions of all the principal states, cities, ports, estu- aries, and promontories in the countries extending from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to the furthermost points, north, east, and south, of Europe, Asia, and Africa, known to the Greeks and Romans. The first book of this celebrated work commences with an accoimt of the British Islands, and it is a remarkable proof of the extent of the author's researches that he should have ventured to give a detailed account of these islands, taking Hibernia or Ireland first, although it never formed a portion of the Roman empire; and also to give a similar account of the northern parts of Britain, which were never subdued by the Romans, as well as of that part of Britain, now forming England and Wales, which at that time constituted the scarcely pacified Roman province of Britain. In the second chapter of his first book Ptolemy names the ports, rivers, estuaries, bays, and headlands on all sides of Britain ; and then the names of the principal tribes in the interior, and the chief towns of each. He also professes to give both the latitude and the longitude of every place or object of interest • Clandii Ptolemsei Geographic Libri Octo, Grace et Latine, ad Codicum manu Scriptorutn Fidem. edidit Dominus Frid. Gnil. Wilberg. Essendije, 1838. Cap. i. p. 101, cap. ii. p 104. *316 YORKSHIRE: mentioned by himself, in this and the whole eight books to which his great work extends. Some idea may be formed of the extreme difficulty of this undertaking, when it is stated that the latitudes and longitudes of no less than 140 places are men- tioned in Britain alone, and those of several thousands in other parts of the world. This attempt at an accuracy which was quite unattainable with the few observations and the imperfect instruments of that age, has had the effect of producing numerous errors, both of latitude and longitude, in a large portion of the places mentioned by Ptolemy. Nevertheless there is every reason to believe, that the whole of them were founded on observations or calculations made on the spot by himself or others ; and it gives one a very high impression, not merely of the industry of Ptolemy and the earlier geographers, but of the immense pains taken by the Roman government, that even an attempt should have been made to fix the position of so many places, especially in the British Islands, at a time when not more than one half of their total area was subject to the Roman dominion, and when even the portion which they professed to rule was very partially subdued. It has been supposed that Ptolemy, being a contemporary of the Emperor Hadrian, was assisted in collecting the immense number of observations which he must have made, or had made by others, in preparing his work, by the influence or authority of that great lover of knowledge and that indefatigable traveller. Hadrian was a warm friend of learned men, and his court was constantly crowded with philosophers, orators, poets, and mathematicians, for whom he always had a particular esteem. As emperor, he resided for a considerable time at the city of Alexandria, at the time when Ptolemy was at the head of the men of science of that great seat of Greek intelligence ; and it is very probable that he may have used his authority throughout the Roman empire to obtain for the geographer the information which he required. A circumstance which renders this the more probable is that the Emperor Hadrian was himself an indefatigable traveller, and spent the whole of his reign in visiting every province of his great empire. We are told that it was a saying of Hadrian, that "an emperor ought to imitate the sun, which enlightens aU corners and regions of the earth," and that he accordingly visited every province of his empire, employing no less than seventeen years ia this PAST AND PRESEIST. SI? inspection, commonly travelling on foot with bare head, and making no difference between the summits of the Alps and the burning sands of Syria. In the second year of his reign, he visited Campania and other regions of Italy. In the next year he set out for Gaul, where he examined the principal cities and fortresses. From Gaul he went into Germany, where he spent a considerable time in reviewing and training the Roman troops then in garrison along the banks of the Rhine and the Danube. From Germany the emperor returned into Gaul, and thence passed over into Britain. There he organized Britain into a Roman province, and fixed its northern boundary, building the great wall eighty miles in length, extending from the mouth of the Tyne to that of the Solway Frith. This Vallum became the northern limit or boundary of the Roman empire, and although the line of frontier was pushed forward to the narrow pass between the Forth and the Clyde at a subsequent time, that advanced position was soon abandoned, and the line adopted by Hadrian became, and continued to be, the northern boundary of the Roman empire in Britain. It appears also from the inscriptions on Roman milestones found in Leicestershire, in the north of Lancashire, and at other places, that some, if not all the great lines of military road formed in Britain, were constructed in the reign of Hadrian, whose name the Mili- aria bear even to the present time. Having ordered and regulated affairs in Britaia, Hadrian returned to Gaul, and thence proceeded into Spain, where he held an assembly of the states of Spain, and rebuilt at Taraco the temple which Tiberius had there erected in honour of Augustus. From Spaia the emperor returned to Rome ; but we find that soon afterwards he was at Athens, whence he went into the East, where he prevented a war with the Parthians, by a conference with their king. The year following Hadrian returned from the East through Asia, and visited Cilicia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, and Phrygia; ordering temples, squares, and other edifices to be built at his expense in most of the principal cities of those provinces. He Hkewise visited the islands of the Archipelago, and arrived in Achaia in the beginning of the next year, of which he spent the remainder at Athens. From Athens he travelled into Sicily, it is said, from a wish to see the top of Mount Etna, and thence he returned to Rome in the beginning of the following year, where he seems to have remained two years regulating the affairs of the empire, but 318 YORKSHIRE: never forgetting the more distant provinces ; for it was during this period that he rebuilt, at his own expense, the cities of Nicomedia, Csesarea, and Nice in Asia Minor, which had been almost destroyed by an earthquake. In the thirteenth year of his reign the Emperor Hadrian again set out on a new progress, passing first into the Roman provinces of Africa, where, by bestowing many favours upon the people, he gained the affections of all ranks of men. From Africa he returned to Rome, but in the beginning of the fourteenth year of his reign he again went into Asia, where he consecrated several temples. He next visited Cappadocia, and thence passed into Syria, through Palestine into Arabia, and thence into Egypt. He continued in Egypt all this and the following year, and restored at his own expense the city of Alexandria, which had been almost destroyed by the Romans, granting to its inhabitants all their ancient privileges. From Egypt he passed into Libya, and the parts about Cyrene, where he is said to have killed a lion of monstrous size with his own hand in a hunting party. In the following year he left Egypt and returned to Syria, where he stayed several months. Then after visiting Thrace and Macedon, and paying another long visit to Athens, he returned to Italy, having thus spent almost seventeen years in travelling in the several provinces of the empire ; from the territory of the Brigantes and the Caledonian Wall, to the wildest parts of the African and Arabian frontiers. About the year afterwards the Emperor Hadrian died at Baia in Italy, after a life chiefly spent in the development of the resources of the vast empire of which he was the ruler. He was succeeded by Antoninus Pius, a sovereign equally benevolent and wise, to whom it is highly probable we are indebted for that great account of the Roman roads contained in the " Itinerary of Antoninus." Whether he was the author is indeed doubtful; but it is highly probable that it was drawn up in his reign, and was intended to afford to him- self, his successors, and all the people of the Roman empire, the information which was necessary to enable them to travel with ease and safety from one end of the Roman empire to the other. The account of the Brigantine territory given by Ptolemy, in his Geography, relates partly to the coasts, and partly to the interior. After describing the northern, the western, and the southern coasts of Britain, he proceeds to describe "the north-eastern and south- ern coast looking towards the German ocean." This is not altogether an accurate description of the eastern side of Britain, but even PAST AND PRESENT. 319 Ptolemy had a very imperfect knowledge of the general line of the coasts of Britain at that time. After mentioning several other points lying to the north of the Brigantine coast, including the estuary of the Tay, that of the Forth, that of the Tyne, and that of the Wear, he proceeds to describe the ports, harbours, and headlands on that portion of the Brigantine coast which now forms part of the county of York. The first point which he mentions is the port or harbour of Dunum Sinus, which is generally supposed to be either Whitby or Dunsley Bay, close to the port of Whitby. He then mentions another apparently very commo- dious harbour ; this he describes by the name of Gabrantuicum, adding opportunus sinus, which may be translated the " well-harboured bay." Opinions are divided as to whether this is Scarborough or Filey Bay, or whether it is some point farther south. Proceeding south- ward, Ptolemy next mentions the promontory of Ocelum, which is generally supposed to be Flamborough Head, the loftiest and most commanding promontory on that part of the coast. Then proceeding stUl further southward, he mentions the mouth of the river Abus, which can be nothing else than that of the river Humber, the great port of the Brigantine territory, as it is now of the county of York. To the south of this point Ptolemy leaves the Brigantine territory, first mentioning the Metaris ^stuarium, which is supposed to be the Wash; then the Garienni fluvii Ostia, supposed to be the mouth of the river Yare at Yarmouth, and after mentioning two or three places of lesser celebrity, the Tamesae ^stuarium, or the estuary of the Thames. The latitudes and longitudes of these places are aU mentioned by Ptolemy, but they are nearly ah. wrong, the cal- culations having been formed on imperfect observations. In the "Introduction to Antoninus' Itinerary of Britain," by Eeynolds, published at Cambridge in the year 1799, we find the following observations on this part of Ptolemy's account of what we may caU the Yorkshire coast. The commentator begins at the south with the Humber and proceeds northward, which, however, is not the order of the original work. After describing the Thames, the Yare, the Wash, and other points to the south of Yorkshire, he proceeds as follows : — " The next observation leads to the mouth of another river named Abus, always considered as the Humber. This determination cannot be well disputed, because it is the only river in these parts. The longitude of the river is made the same as that of the Yare in Norfolk, which must be nearly two degrees east of it, nor is this error in longitude corrected in any subsequent observation. 320 yoRKSHiRE : " The promontory Ocelum has been generally interpreted as the Spurn Head, but that headland cannot well be divided from the Humber; whereas Ocelum is represented to be ten minutes in latitude and fifteen in longitude distant from that river. Ykill and Ocelum in the British language signifies a ' promontory,' as Camden states, and the name may be supposed to be applied, in the present case, by way of eminence. This will lead our attention to the most remarkable promontory in this neighbourhood, which is Flamborough Head, much larger than the Spurn, and perhaps the largest in the island. The only circumstance in favour of the Spurn appears to have been the fixing Pretorium at Patrington ; but it will be seen that it is much more probable this ancient town occupied the site of modern Flamborough (or Bridlington). " The bay of Gabrantuici may have been situated at Filey, but more likely at Scarborough. " Another bay called Dunum, is placed by Camden north of Whitby, where the small town Dunsley seems to preserve the name. "A river, called by Ptolemy Vedras fluvii Ostia, is the last place mentioned upon this coast, within the limits of Antonine's " Itinerary," and this is decided by the same antiquary to mean the river Wear, in the palatinate of Durham. Horsley prefers the Tyne, from its size and consequence; and had Ptolemy himself surveyed our coasts, there would have been good reason to expect that he would have elected the jtlace the most remarkable, where two occurred near to each other ; but since his personal knowledge could not influence his choice, it is not to be wondered at that a larger river should not be mentioned by him, while a smaller neighbouring has that honour. Beyond this river the longitudes and latitudes become still much less to be depended upon, representing Scotland (Caledonia) in a form very difi'erent from the truth." * In Professor John Phillips' excellent work on the "Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coasts of Yorkshire," the author makes the following observations on the points of the Yorkshire coast men- tioned in Ptolemy's Geography. He says : — " By universal consent the Humber estuary claims the old name of Abus. At some point north of this a projecting part of the land was called 'Ocelum Promontorium.' Camden supposed the modern name of Kilnsay, a little north of the promontory of the old name Ocelum, to be derived from the British Y-kill, ' a promontory,' low tongue, or narrow track of land. But the words of the Greek author imply elevation, really a cape or headland, not a mere extension of land. For Akron seems to be merely a translation of the British name given before, as that is clearly derived from Uchel, 'elevated.' By later writers, especially Mr. Walker, of Malton, the place of this promontory is fixed at Flamborough Head. " Further to the north was Gabrantuicum Sinus — the Bay of the Gabrantuici (also called the Well-havened Bay). Camden places this at Sowerby (as this were "Sure Bay"), near Bridlington, deriving the name from Gafran, the Welsh for goat, an animal which he says was abundant on Flamborough. By later writers it is carried further north to Filey Bay (as if that were the "Portus Felix"). Still * Antoninus' Itinerary of Britain, by Reynolds. Introduction, p. 104. PAST AND PEESENT. 321 further to the north we have Dunura Sinus, which by general consent, following the dictum of Camden, is placed at Dim.sley Bay, near Whitby. According to this reference Ptolemy took no notice of the Tees.""'' The particulars given by Ptolemy as to the interior of the Brigantine territory consist, chiefly, in the statement that it ex- tended across Britain, from what we now call the German Ocean to the Irish Sea; and that a portion of it was inhabited by a tribe named the Parisii, who seem to have occupied the eastern coast near the river Humber. In addition to this, Ptolemy mentions that the Sixth Victorious Legion occupied Eboracum, or York. He also gives the names of the different to-wns of the Brigantes, and that of the one town possessed by the Parisii. He likewise states the latitude and longitude of aU those towns; but none of the cal- culations or observations on which the latitudes and longitudes are founded can be at all reHed upon. The following is the substance of Ptolemy's statement with regard to the Brigantes : — ■ " South of the Elgovse and the Otadeni, stretching from sea to sea, are the Brigantes, amongst whose cities are — Greek. Latin. Long. Lat. Epeiakon, Epiacum, ...... 18° 30' 68° 30' Ouinnouion, ... Vixmovium, 17° 30' ...•■• 58° 00 Katourraktonion, Cataractonium, 20° 00 58° 00 Kalaton, Oalatum, 19° 00 57° 45' Isourion, Isurium, 20° 00 57° 40' Rigodounon, ... Eigodunum, 18° 00 57° 30' Olikana, Olicana, 19° 00 57° 30' Eborakon, Eboracum, 20° 00 57° 20' Under Eborakon is written "The Sixth Conquering Legion." Kamounlodounon Oambodunum, 18° 15' 57° 00 Beside these, about the Well-havened Bay, are the Parisoi and the city of— Petouaria, Petuaria, 20° 40' 56° 40' With regard to several of the above places there is httle or no difl&culty in identifying them with modern towns, cities, or villages. Eboracum, the headquarters of the Sixth Conquering Legion, is no doubt the city of York; Cataractonium is Catterick Bridge; Calatum is Tadcaster; Isurium is Aldborough ; Olicana is Ilkley ; and Eigodunum is Eibchester, on the river Eibble, in the adjoining county of Lancaster. There is some doubt as to the modern places • The Eivcrs, Mountains, and Sea-coasts of Yorkshire, with Essays on the Climate, Scenery, and Ancient Inhabitants of the County: by John Phillips, F.R.S., Author of Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire, and of Geological Map of the County. London, 1853. VOL. I. - ^ 322 YORKSHIRE with which the other names correspond, viz., Epiacum, Vinnovium, Camounlodounon, and also with regard to Petuaria. In a subse- quent part of this work we shall notice all those places, and their supposed positions. The existence of a tribe of Parisii within the Brigantine territory has always been a subject of discussion. There is no doubt that there was in Gaul a tribe named the Parisii, from whom the famous city of Paris takes its name. They seem, from the earliest times of which we have any record, to have occupied the valley of the Seine ; and as several of the Gaulish tribes appear to have founded colonies in Britain, there is nothing very improbable in the supposition, that the Parisii of the valley of the Seine may have founded a colony on the bank of the Abus, or Humber. Some writers have indeed considered this to be highly improbable, and have even thought that Ptolemy has made a mistake in the name, and that these colonists were Frisii, and not Parisii. But this is a mere conjecture, and cannot be received without much doubt, as it brings one of the Ger- manic tribes to Britain some hundred years before the great German migration into this country. There is some slight confirmation of the opinion that there were Germanic tribes in Britain, even previous to the time of Ptolemy, derivable from the statement of Tacitus, in his account of the British tribes, that " the red hair and large hmbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia pointed clearly to a German origin," and it is quite possible that these peculiarities of complexion may have extended further south than the country of the Caledonians. On considering the whole matter, Tacitus seems to have come to the conclusion that the Britons were sprung from the Gauls, though it is perhaps not very improbable that there may have been some districts occupied by tribes of German origin. We should not, however, venture to change the name of Parisii to Frisii on so slight an evidence as an observation of Tacitus as to the size of the limbs, and the colour of the hair, of some of the northern tribes of Britain. The Brigantes appear to have been not merely the most numer- ous of the British tribes, stretching from sea to sea, but also to have been a maritime people, and to have founded colonies in Ireland, who also bore the name of the Brigantes. It is the opinion of Dr. Prichard, that Ireland was mainly peopled by the Celtic in- habitants of Britain, and that the Brigantes had a considerable share in the peopling of that country. There is no great difference PAST AND PKESENT 323 between the language of the Celtic inhabitants of Ireland and that of the Gael of Britain ; and it is very probable that the Celts who peopled Ireland, in their progress westward, may have made their way across Britain at the points where the two islands approach most nearly to each other. This would be from the coasts of Cumberland, Galloway, and Cantyre. Galloway was no doubt named from the Gael, who were amongst its earliest inhabitants ; and Cumberland from the Cymry, the ancestors of the modern Welsh. The commerce of Britain with Gaul appears to have been very considerable, from the time when the Romans over-ran and conquered Gaul, in the time of Julius Caesar. When Strabo wrote his account of Britain in the reign of the Emperor Augustus, there was already a considerable commerce in copper, tin, skins, hides, and in slaves, who in those times were articles of merchandise in all parts both of the Roman and the barbarian world. There is every reason to believe that most of these branches of trade would increase rapidly, when the more fertUe parts of Britain had been conquered and at least partially civiHzed by the Romans, when great roads had been formed in every part of Britain, and when secure ports of communication had been estabhshed on both sides of the British Channel. Even the trade in British slaves may have been kept up by wars along the northern border of the empire. As far north as the coast of Yorkshire, there were ports and harbours known to form safe places of refuge for shipping, and points of trade for the merchandise of the district. The river Humber is full of ports of that description, and there are many others along the sea-coast from the mouth of the Humber to the entrance of the Tees, and still further north. One great object of the works of Ptolemy, and the other ancient geographers, was to supply the navigators of the ancient world with the knowledge necessary to enable them to trade with the most distant regions. In the north-western extremity of Europe he describes the coasts of Britain and Hibernia; of Belgic Gaul, and of Great Germany, as far as the river Elbe; the Cimbrian Chersonese, which includes the present Jutland and great part of Denmark; and the southern shores of the Suevic or Baltic Sea, as far as the mouths of the river Vistula.* These charts-and plans must have been of great value in developing the trade of the regions around the German. Ocean and the British seas with each other, and with other parts of the Roman empire. » Ptolemsei Geographia, lib. ii. cap. 10 p. 148. 324 YORKSHIRE Their value in tHs respect would be greatly increased, within the limits of the Roman empire, by the formation of commodious and well-constructed roads in Britain and all the other provinces of the empire. The Boman Roads through the Brigantine Territory. — One of the earhest, the most effectual, and the most permanent means by which the early inhabitants of this part of Britain were brought into connection with the civilization of the Roman world, was by the construction of great lines of military road, commencing at the Roman Wall, the limit or northern boundary of the Roman empire, and extending over the whole of Europe. The Vallum, or Roman Wall, as it has been named in modem times, stretched from the mouth of the river Tyne to the estuary of the Solway. These roads ran southward through what we now call Durham and Yorkshire, to Eboracum or York, to London, to every part of the present England and Wales, and to the Kentish coast at Rutupise, now Richborough, near the sites of the modern towns of Sandwich and Dover. From Rutupiae the Romans kept up their communica- tion, across the Channel, with Gaul and the continent of Europe. The roads which thus ran through Britain, from north to south, were continued southward through the whole of Gaul, to the Alps. Crossing the Alps they also extended to Rome, and to the most southern point of Italy, Brundusium; which was then, as, under its modem name of Brindisi, it seems likely again to become, the point of communication from Europe to the East. From these main Hnes of military road which thus ran from the borders of Caledonia, through Britain, Gaul, and Italy, to the shores of the Mediterranean, innumerable secondary lines also branched out to the west and to the east. Those extending to the west traversed the whole of Gaul and of Spain, to the Atlantic Ocean, and the mouths of the Loire, the Garonne, the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadalquivir, at Cadiz, or Gadira, perhaps the oldest city in Europe. Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, or what we now call the Straits of Gibraltar, similar roads were carried throughout the whole of the Roman empire in North Africa, to the mountains of Atlas, and the northern borders of the African desert. To the east of the main line from Britain to Rome and Brundu- sium, the military roads extended to the banks of the Rhine, almost from the point where it enters the German Ocean to the point at which it rises in the mountains of Switzerland. Down the PAST AND PRESENT. 325 Danube, also, the Eoman roads extended by way of the present Vienna to the Lower Danube, across which river the Emperor Trajan built a bridge, in the same age in which the Romans estab- lished their dominion in Britain. To the south of the Danube the military roads extended into Greece, and to Byzantium, afterwards named Constantinople, through the whole of Asia Minor into Syria and Palestine, to the banks of the Euphrates, and to the ruined walls of Jerusalem. Thus one of the earliest effects of the conquest of Britain by the Romans was to bring the Britons into connection with this great line of roads, extending to every pro- vince of the Roman empire, and connecting all the great cities of the ancient world with each other. To facilitate travelling on these roads, stations were formed at distances of from ten to fifteen or twenty miles from each other, with resting-places, and services of post-horses for the transmission of government and other despatches, as well as for the use of travellers. Thus were the people of Britain brought into communication with the civOized world, and ceased to be toto orbe divisos, Britanni, as they had been down to the times when the conquest of their country was effected by the Romans. The Roman roads were planned by the most eminent Greek engin- eers in the service of the Roman republic and the earher emperors, and were founded on a survey — greatly resembhng our Ordnance Survey — commenced in the time of JuHus Csesar, and which occupied above thirty years in completing. There were no doubt subsequent surveys made, as Britain and other new provinces were added to the empire. Everywhere, even to the most northern limit of the Roman empire in Britain, the roads were constructed with consummate skill, immense solidity, and with a thorough appreciation of aU the natural features of the country through which they ran. Within the limits of the present county of York some of these roads are carried over mountain passes nearly a thousand feet above the level of the sea ; and crossing the higher part of the mountains of Westmoreland and Cumberland, to the western extremity of the Roman Wall, near Carlisle, one of these roads, still named High Street, is carried over a height of more than 2700 feet above the sea level.* The number of Roman roads in Britain, described in the Itinerary of Antoninus, is fifteen, and of these four lines pass through the • Ferguson, Nortlimen in Cumberland p. 29. 326 YORKSHIRE : present county of York.""' All the fifteen are evidently what we now call " main-trunk" hues of road ; for there are at least half a dozen other lines of road, evidently the work of the Romans — which can be clearly traced, and have indeed been recently laid down in the Ordnance survey of Yorkshire — which are not described in the Itinerary of Antoninus, besides many more in different parts of Eng- land. Some of the most important lines in a commercial point of view, including the greater part of those formed in the later period of the Roman occupation, are not mentioned at all in the Itinerary of Antoninus. Amongst these were the great line of road running through the adjoining county of Lancaster, from Warrington to the town of Lancaster, which seems to have been made in the reign of the Emperor Philip, who seized upon the empire in 244, as appears from the milliaria or milestones ; and the road from York to the neighbourhood of the present town of Leeds, as well as several other roads in different parts of the county of York. By giving a brief sketch of the course even of the Roman roads described in the Itinerary of Antoninus, we shall be able to show how completely all the most fertUe and populous parts of Britain were united mth each other ; and how the whole of them were connected with the great military positions of Britain, namely, with the Roman Wall; with Eboracum, the military capital of Britain, and the head-quarters of the Sixth Legion ; with Deva or Chester, the head-quarters of the Twentieth Roman Legion; with Isca Silurum in Monmouthshire, the head-quarters of the Second Roman Legion; with London, the commercial capital of Britain, from the time of the Romans; and with Rutupiae, near Sandwich, Dubris or Dover, and Lemanis or Lymne, near Hythe, the ports of communication from Britain to the continent of Europe. Before giving an account of the roads in Britain, the author of the Itinerary of Antoninus commences by stating the distance across the Channel from Gessoriacum in Gaul, the present port of Boulogne, to Rutupis, or Rutupise, which is described as the port of Britain, and is situated in the county of Kent, on the banks of the river Stour, a little distance from the port of Sandwich, where there are the remains of a great Roman fortification, which are full of interest even at the present day. The distance across the Channel, from the present Boulogne to this point on the Kentish coast, * Iter Britanniarum, or that part of the Itinerary of Antoninus which relates to Britain j with a new Comment" by the Rev. Tliomas Reynolds, A.M., Cambridge, 1799. PAST AND PRESENT. 327 is said to be 450 stadia. The stadium, whicli was the measure of sea distances employed by the Greek engineers in the service of Rome, was about equal to the modern furlong. The stadium is generally computed to have been 125 paces, each pace of five feet, so that eight stadia formed the Roman mile, or 1000 paces {mille passuum). Plutarch says, in his "Lives of the Gracchi," that a mUe is little less than eight stadia.""' Iter 1. — The first Iter described by Antoninus runs entirely through the ancient country of the Brigantes, and for the greater part of its course through the present county of York. It starts from the Roman Wall (a Limite, id est, a Vallo), and extends to Prsetorium, an important point on the coast of Yorkshire, the position of which is not absolutely fixed, though it is supposed to be either the mouth of the Humber at Patrington, near HuU, or to be Brid- lington, near Flamborough Head, the most conspicuous promontory on the Yorkshire coast. The distance from the Limit, or the Roman Wall, to Prsetorium, is stated to be 156 Roman miles. The Roman mile, or mille passuum, was 1000 paces of five feet each, and the great historian Gibbon looks upon ten English mUes to be equal to eleven Roman. Some other authorities consider the proportions between the Roman and the English mile to have been as 967 to lOOO.t Iter 2. — The second Iter, which is by far the greatest and longest of all the Roman mihtary roads in Britain, also passes through Yorkshire from north to south, as far as York, and then from east to west, as far as the hills which separate Lancashire from Yorkshire. Thence it extends westward to Mancunium or Manchester, and Deva or Chester ; and then runs southward by Wroxeter, the ancient Uriconium, situated near the modern Shrewsbury, to Penkridge ia Stafibrdshire, and then through the modern counties of Warwick, Bedford, and Hertford to London, and thence through the county of Kent to Rutupise. This may be regarded as the main trunk line of Britain, from the extreme north to the extreme south, or south-east, of the Roman province of Britain, and nearly every other road in Britain was connected with it, either directly or indirectly. The second Iter is described as extending from the Vallum or * A Commentary on Antoninus his Itinerary, or Jonrneys of the Koman Empire, so far as it concerneth Britain, by William Burton, B.C.G., p. 32. Temple Gate, London, 1658. t Reynolds' Antoninus, pp. 60, 51. 328 YORKSHIRE : Roman Wall, the limit or northern boundary of the empire, to the port of Rutupis. It is stated to be 431 Roman miles in length ; but it is considerably longer in English miles, being about 530, according to the calculations of modern writers who have carefully compared the distances between the various stations, according to the distances of the high roads of England. There are, indeed, some great mistakes in the lengths, as given in the Latin original. For instance, it is stated that the distance between Eboracum or York, and Mancunium or Manchester, is only 47 miles, while the real distance between York and Manchester by the highways is at least 67.""" There are a few other mistakes at different points ; but the general tendency of these errors is to represent this great road, extending from the British Channel and the coast of Kent to the Roman Wall, as 431 miles in length, instead of about 530 miles, which it must really have been. To show how completely this line of road described in the second Iter was the main line of Britain, it is only necessary to mention a few of the points which it touched in its course from north-west to south-east. It commenced near the present city of Carlisle, but further down the Solway, so as completely to com- mand the southern bank of that estuary. It began at a place which is described as Blatum Bulgium, and is supposed to be Bulness, on the Solway ; whence it extended inland to Luguvallium, on the site of the modem city of Carlisle. Hence it was carried over the mountains of Cumberland and Westmoreland, by Brougham Castle or Brovanicis, into Yorkshire. From this point it ran eastward, down the south bank of the river Tees, by Brough or Verteris, and Bowes or Lavatris, to Cataractonium or Catterick Bridge in Swaledale. Thence it turned southward to Isurium or Aid- borough, at the junction of the Ure and the Swale rivers, and so ran down the vale of York to Eboracum, or York. We have already shown, in our account of the first Iter, that there was a road from Eboracum, or York, to the Preetorium on the German Ocean, at a place named Praetorium, which was either at the mouth of the Humber or near to Flamborough Head. Indeed, there is no doubt that there were Roman roads from York to both those points, many traces of which formerly existed, though ciiltivation has destroyed some of them within the last hundred years. The only doubt is as to which of these roads to the coast terminated * Antoninus' Itinerary of Britain by Reynolds, p. 17C. Cambridge, 1799. PAST AND PllESENT. 329 at the place named PrEetorium. That must have been a place of great importance as the summer or the marine residence, or both, of the Roman praetor, who was the real governor of this part of Britain, if not of the whole British province. After reaching York the line of the second Iter turned to the west, and the road proceeded through Calcaria or Tadcaster to Cambodunum. This Camden supposed to be AJmondbury, near Huddersfield, but other writers have been disposed to place it at Greetland, at Slack, or at Eland, on the banks of the river Calder, somewhat nearer to the present town of Halifax. It is clear, however, that there were at least two lines of road through this mountainous district, if not three ; and it is impossible to fix the precise Hne from Cambodunum to Mancunium or Manchester, or the precise position of Cambodunum, owing to the great mistake in the distances, as given in the Itinerary, of which we have already spoken. However, there is no doubt that the road passed west- ward from Cambodunum, probably with two branches running through different valleys and mountain passes, but joining when they reached the level country in the neighbourhood of Manchester. From Mancunium, or Manchester, the road traced in the second Iter ran westward to Chester, then known as Deva, and the head quarters of the Twentieth Roman Legion. From Chester it ran south to Uriconium or Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury, where the remains of the ancient Roman city have recently been laid open. Thence it ran south-eastward through what we now call Staffordshire, Warwick- shire, and Northamptonshire, to Yerulamium, now St. Albans, in Hertfordshire, and thence on to London. From London the road described in the second Iter ran through the county of Kent, near Rochester and Canterbury, to the port of Rutupiae (ad portum Rutupis), near the old Roman ruins of Richborough, on the banks of the river Stour, and two or three miles distant from the present town of Sandwich. Richborough, though standing on an elevation of fifty or sixty feet above the river Stour, is situated in the midst of a great plain, in a position most favourable for the landing and the disembarking of troops ; and hence it was that the Romans kept up their communication with the Continent so long as they remained in Britain. Dubris, or Dover, was also used, but the harbour of Rutupis was much safer for such vessels as were employed by the Romans ; and the position was much less liable to be interrupted by an insurrection among the Britons VOL. I. 2 '^ 330 YORKSHIKE : against their Eoman masters. It will be seen from the above particulars, that the second line of road thus described was the main line of communication from the northern limit of Roman Britain at the Vallum, or Roman Wall, to the south-eastern ex- tremity of their dominion in Britain, on the coast of Kent. Iter 3 is not in the northern part of Britain, but is connected with the second Iter, which runs from the Roman Wall through Eboracum, and with a winding course to London. The third Iter extends from London, which was already a very considerable commercial city, to Dover on the Kentish coast {ad portum Duhris), being a direct line of communication with that place. Iter 4 describes a third line through the county of Kent, com- mencing at London and extending ad portum Lemanis, which is supposed to be Lymne, near Hythe, where there are still great Roman remains. Iter 5 is another great trunk line of road extending from London to the neighbourhood of Carlisle, and running through Yorkshire from Danum, the present Doncaster, up the vale of York and the vale of Mowbray through Lagecium, or Castleford, on the river Aire, Eboracum or York on the river Ouse, and Isubrigantum or Isurium of the Brigantes, the present Aldborough, at the confluence of the Ure and the Swale, to Catterick. A little beyond that place it turns up into Teesdale and reaches the neighbourhood of Carlisle by way of Lavatria, Verteris, and Brocavum or Brougham, to Lugu- vallium, in the neighbourhood of the present city of Carlisle. Iter 6 extends from London northward through Verulamium or St. Albans, and Ratis or Leicester, which was considered the centre of Britain, to Lincoln or Lindum, where it seems to have terminated. Lindum or Lincoln was a strong Roman fortress, besides being a place of great trade. Iter 7 ran from London westward and south-westward by Winchester, or Yenta Belgarum, to Reading and to Chichester. Iter 8 commenced at the city ot York or Eboracum, and ran southward to London, the distance being stated to be 227 miles. The stations in Yorkshire, after leaving York, are Lagecium, which is supposed to be Castleford, and Danum, which is well ascertained to be Doncaster. From that point the hne ran through Agelocum, or Littleborough in Nottinghamshire, Lincoln, Leicester, and Verulam or St. Albans, on to London. Iter 9 ran through the eastern counties to London, commencing PAST AND PRESENT. 331 at Venta Icenorum, wKich is either the present city of Norwich or Caistor, in its neighbourhood, and extending through Sitomagus or Stowmarket, in SuiFolk, Maldon or Camulodunum, in Essex, and Csesaromagus or Widford, to London. Iter 10 extended from Glanoventa, which is either Cockermouth or some place on the coast of Cumberland, through the lake district to Galava, or Keswick, and then southward through Eibchester and Manchester to Whitchurch in Shropshire, where it joined the great Une running through Wroxeter or Uriconium, into the southern and western parts of Britain. Iter 11 was a road commencing at Segontium, on the Menai Straits, and running through North Wales to Deva or Chester. Iter 12 was a hne of road beginning at Maridunum or Car- marthen, in South Wales, and running along the coast of South Wales to Isca Silurum, afterwards Caerleon, the headquarters of the Second Roman Legion, which place was near Newport, in Mon- mouthshire. From that point this road ran with a north-easterly direction through Abergavenny, and along the Welsh and EngHsh borders to Uriconium or Wroxeter, in Shropshire, where it joined with many other lines from all parts of Britain. Iter 13 was a line of road commencing near Caerleon, or as the Romans called it, Isca Silurum, and running through the pre- sent Monmouth, Gloucester, and Cirencester, to Calleva or Reading, in the valley of the Thames. Iter 14 commenced at Venta Silurum, supposed to be Caerwent, in Monmouthshire, crossed the Severn a little above Bristol, at Trajectus, and then communicated westward with Bath (Aquae Solis, which was already famed for its mineral waters), and east- ward with Reading, Iter 15 commenced at Reading, and running south-westward, passed through or near the towns of Winchester, Old Sarum, near to Salisbury, Blandford, Dorchester, Honiton, and westward to Exeter. Such were the main trunk lines of the Roman roads formed in Britain within the first hundred years after the Roman conquest of the country. Their effect was at once to supply the means of communication with every part of it south of the Roman Wall. This was the first step towards the forming of the scattered tribes of Britain into one nation. By means of these admirable roads, a citizen of York could with ease communicate with every part of 532 YORKSHIRE: Britain south of the present towns of Carlisle and Newcastle-on- Tyne ; as far westward as the borders of Wales and Cornwall ; along the southern and eastern parts of England ; with nearly all parts ol the inland districts : with London, the southern capital ; and with Rutupise, on the coast of Kent, the point of embarkation for the continent of Europe. These roads were so skUfulIy laid out and so strongly constructed, that they continued to be the high roads of England for more than a thousand years, and formed the outline on which the modern highways of England, and even some of the modern lines of railway, have been constructed. The main lines of the London and North-western, and the Great Northern railways seldom deviate more than a few miles from the hues of the Roman roads from London to Chester, and from London to York ; the construction of both those great works, formed at a distance of seventeen hundred years from each other, having been influenced by the same considerations in the choice of the lines taken, except in districts where military reasons influenced the choice of the Roman engineers. In addition to the five lines of Roman road which are described in the Antonine Itinerary as intersecting the present county of York, several other lines appear to have been formed in different parts of the same county. A considerable portion of these ran along the summits of the hills which separate the different valleys of the county from each other, and were probably constructed for military purposes, and at a time when this district was only partially subdued. Some of these mountain roads are still in excellent preservation, having been little interfered with, either by traffic or cultivation, since the retirement of the Romans from Britain. Even in the more fertile districts of the county the Roman roads have in some instances defied the ravages of time, and may still be traced, except in the deeper valleys, where the winter floods of nearly eighteen hundred years have greatly changed the level of the ground, and have caused them to be buried under great accumulations of earth and gravel. In the neighbourhood of York, some of the roads have been found at a depth of many feet below the present surface of the soil, and this is one reason why it is very difficult, and in some cases impossible, to discover any traces of lines of road of whose existence there is no doubt. In the neighbourhood of Chester, the ancient Deva of the Romans, and situated like Eboracum on the banks of a wide river, many Roman remains of roads and streets PAST AND PRESENT. 333 have been met with, more than twenty feet below the present surface of the ground. Roman Capital and Stations in the Brigantine Territory. — Eboracum, or York, was the military, as well as the civil capital of Britain, during the greater part of the Roman dominion. One, if not two, of the legions maintained by the Ptomans in Britain, made Eboracum its head-quarters for nearly 300 years. The Sixth Legion, described as Victrix, Pia, Fidelis, or, perhaps, Felix, came over to Britaia with Hadrian. It is never mentioned in the inscrip- tions found in the south of Britain ; but its name occurs frequently in those of the north. In Hadrian's time this legion was employed in the works of the Roman Wall about Amboglanna (Burdoswald), Carlisle, and some other stations. It appears to have been afterwards employed in constructing the vaUum of Antoninus Pius between the Clyde and the Forth. Dion speaks of this legion as stationed in the lower part of Britain, but this must be in relation to Caledonia, or the most northern part : for it is certain that about the middle of the reign of Antoninus Pius, or before A.D. 190, its head-quarters were at York, and continued to be, as long as the Romans remained in the island. It is mentioned in the " Notitia " as one of the two legions which still remained in Britain at the close of the Roman occupation. Eboracum, or York, was the centre of the district ruled by this legion. It supphed garrisons to most of the stations on the line of the Roman Wall, through the Lake Districts, and through the greater part of the present county of Lancaster. There it met with the outposts of the Twentieth Legion (whose head-quarters were at Chester), both at Mancunium the present Manchester, and at Rigo- dunum, or Ribchester, in the valley of the Ribble. There is some reason to believe that the Ninth Roman Legion, originally raised in Spain, and known by the title of Hispanica, was also stationed at Eboracum or York, and gradually became incor- porated with the Sixth Legion. The Ninth Legion came into Britain in the first invasion in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, but was nearly destroyed in the reign of the Emperor Nero in the insurrec- tion of Boadicea ; and its loss on that occasion was recruited by two thousand men, and eight auxiliary corps from Germany. It again suffered severely in Caledonia in the sixth campaign of Agricola, when, as Tacitus says, the enemy making a general attack in the night upon the Ninth Legion, which was the weakest, skughtered the sentinels, and in the confusion of sleep and of 334 YORKSHIRE : surprise burst through, theu- entrenchments. The Ninth Legion seems to have been stationed at York before the arrival of the Sixtli, and being weak from its heavy losses, it is thought to have been incorporated with the Sixth. In one inscription on a Roman brick it is called Yictrix, though this title belonged not to this, but to the Sixth Legion. It is therefore conjectured by Horsley, that this honourable title was assumed by the soldiers of the Ninth Legion when incorporated with the Sixth. On a coin of Carausius it is designated Leg. Gem., or Legio Gemina, the title given to a double or mixed legion. Hodgson says, that after the time ot Agricola this legion is not heard of; but Wellbeloved states in his "Eboracum," that its existence was recognized so late as the usurpation of Carausius, and that there are memorials of it in York long subse- quent to the time of Agricola. On the coins of Gallienus, the figures of a bull and of a lion appear with this legion.''^ Eboracum was not only the head-quarters of one, if not two, legions, and therefore the military capital of this part of Britain, but it was also the seat or residence of the praetor, and the place at which justice was distributed to the British subjects of the Eoman empire. The Roman prsetors according to Cicero (" De Legibus," iii. 3), were originally military officers, whose title designated the consuls as the leaders of the armies of the state. At a later period, however, other praetors were appointed, whose business was to administer justice in matters in dispute between strangers and Roman citizens. This officer, whose dignity was of the highest rank, was known as the Praetor Urbanus. As the limits of the republic and the empire extended, praetors were appointed for the purpose of administering justice in the provinces, and in the time of Pomponius there were eighteen praetors administering justice to the state. The seat of the praetor of Britain seems to have been at Eboracum or York, although he appears to have held sittings and to have had a per- manent court at another place, named the Praetorium, which was on the sea-coast either near Patrington at the mouth of the Humber, or in the neighbourhood of Bridlington and Flamborouo-h. The chief Praetorium, however, seems to have been at York, and there it was that the praetor usually resided. It is a matter of some interest that the Emperor Septimius Severus when he visited Eboracum or York, where he died about the year 207, was accompanied by one of the most celebrated ♦ Eboiacum, or York, under the Romans, by C. Wellbeloved. PAST AND PRESENT. 335 lawyers of Rome, who may possibly have assisted in organizing the administration of justice in this part of Britain. We are told that the reign of the Emperor Severus was particularly propitious to the science of the laws, and that his chief favourites and counsellors were selected from that learned order. Amongst these were Papinian, Julius Paulus, and Ulpian, three of the most rational and upright civilians that ever graced the profession of juris- prudence. Under their inspection he enacted many wise and equitable laws for the use of the empire at large, and some Hke- wise for the government of Britain in particular, where he resided for the four last years of his life ; keeping his court and administer- ing justice at York, having the excellent Papinian for his assessor. Many of these laws were afterwards adopted by Justinian, and have a place in his Digest and Code. It is Hkewise thought vety probable, that numerous principles of the civil law, which pre- vailed in very early ages over the greater part of this island, especially over the northern provinces, derived their origin from the ancient Roman masters of the country, and perhaps chiefly from this emperor. The Roman law, it is not improbable, con- tinued to be taught in the city of York from that age. Aldhelm, bishop of Sherburn, who was born in 639, studied the Roman law at York; and Alcuin describes the same school as existing in that city in the year 804.'" Whilst the memory of one of the Roman emperors, who died at York, is closely connected with the improvement and the administration of laws, the name of another, who assumed the imperial purple in the same city, is inseparably connected with the introduction and the establishment of Christianity in this country, as well as in the whole of the Roman empire. When Diocletian and Maximinian, who had been amongst the most cruel persecutors of Christianity, resigned the empire to the Caesars, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, Britain fell to the share of the latter, who immediately came over to this island, and fixed his residence at Eboracum; and there, after two years, he died. Constantino the Great succeeded his father, having been pro- claimed emperor by the army at York, where he was residing at the time of his father's death. There is even a tradition that Eboracum was the place of his birth, but the weight of evidence is altogether against that opinion. There has also been much dis- * Eboracum, or York, nnder the Romans, by C. Wellbeloved, p i i 336 YORKSHIKE : cussion as to the birthplace of Helena, the mother of Constantine, and at one time it was believed that she was the daughter of a British chief This opinion is now generally abandoned, there being sufficient evidence that Helena was a woman of humble origin, a native of Drepan^im in Bithynia (afterwards named by her son Helenopolis, in honour of his mother); or of Naissus, now called Nissa, a town of Moesia, where it is now commonly thought that Constantine the Great was born.""' But wherever Constantine was born, there is no doubt that he assumed the command of the Roman empire at York, and just as little that his accession to the throne was one of the most important events that has occurred in the history of the world. Though there was not much to admire in his life and character, yet he certainly conferred on the world one of the greatest services that has ever been rendered to it, by putting an end to the cruel persecutions to which the Christians had been subject in all parts of the Roman world, even down to the reign of Diocletian. This was an unspeakable benefit to society, whatever may have been the influence which other parts of his policy had on the spread of Christian truth. In addition to the numerous evidences of the presence of the Romans at Eboracum, marks of it have also been found at upwards of forty other places within the three Ridings of the county of York. Taking Eboracum, or York, as a centre of the whole of the Roman roads of Yorkshire, we may trace the presence of the Romans at the following points. Proceeding northwards from York, along the road traced in the first Iter, which reached northward to the eastern extremity of the Roman Wall near the mouth of the river Tyne, we find the following stations in the county of York : — The City of Isurium, or Aldhorough. — Amongst the Brigantine towns was Isurium, built on the site on which Aldborough now stands, near the point where the rivers Swale and Ure join to form the river Ouse, the great outlet for all the waters of the Brigantine territory within the limits of the present county of York. Isurium is supposed to have been the ancient capital of the Brigantine territory, but was superseded either on the invasion of the Romans, or perhaps previously, by Eboracum, situated lower down the Ouse, at a position at which it is much more navigable, and within a few miles of the point to which the tides rise, and assist * Eboraourn, or York, by C. Wellbelovod, p. 27. PAST AND PEESENT. 337 in creating a motive power up the stream, as well as that which the cuiTent creates down it. This was so important for the pur- poses of navigation, that it would be quite sufl&cient to give Eboracum a great superiority over Isurium in the eyes of the Romans, who, as we have already mentioned, had a fleet on the north-east coast of Britain, which rendered them most valuable assistance in the campaigns of Agricola. This fleet it must have been of great importance to them to be able to place in perfect security when dragged up on land, according to the Roman custom, in the winter months. Thus it would be under shelter of the fortifications at Eboracum, but not at Isurium. The numerous Roman remains discovered at Aldborough and in the neighbour- hood, will be described in a subsequent chapter. Gataractonium, or Gattei-ich Bridge. — Proceeding along the line of road at present known as Leeming Lane, which is a continuation northward from Isu.rium of the line described in the first Iter of Antoninus, we come to another Roman station situate on the river Swale, at the site of Catterick Bridge. This has always been considered to be the Gataractonium and Cataracton described by Ptolemy and Antoninus. In Camden's time it had nothing great except its name ; but since then many remains of antiquity, including the outhnes of a Roman camp, have been found in this neighbourhood. "Three miles below Richmond," says Camden, writing three hundred years ago, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, "the Swale flows by an old city, which Ptolemy and Antoninus call Catarac- tonium and Cataracton, but Bede Cataractan, and, in another place, the village near Cataracta ; which makes me think that name was given it from the word Cataract, seeing here is a fall of water hard by, though nearer Richmond, where the Swale rather rushes than runs, its waters being dashed and broken by the crags it meets with. And why should he call it a village near Cataracta, if there had been no cataract of water there? That it was a city of great note in those times may be inferred from Ptolemy, because an observation of the heavens was taken there: for in his 'Magna Constructio' he describes the twenty-fourth parallel to be through Gataractonium in Britain. But at this day, as the poet says, it has nothing great, but the memory of what it was. For it is but a very small village, called Catterick or Catterick Bridge, yet remarkable for its situation by a Roman highway, which crosses the river here, and for those heaps oi VOL. 1. 2 u 338 YORKSHIRE : rubbish up and down, which carry some colour of antiquity. Under the Saxon government it seems to have flourished; though Bede always calls it a village, till the year 769, when it was burnt by Eanredus, the tyrant who destroyed the kingdom of Northum- berland. But after his death Cataractonium began to raise its head again ; for in the seventy-seventh year after. King Ethelred solemnized his marriage here with the daughter of Offa, king of the Mercians. Yeb it did not continue long flourishing, for in the Danish outrage which followed it was utterly destroyed." Many Roman remains have, however, been discovered in more recent times, which shall be subsequently described. Pierce Bridge. — Proceeding still further northward towards the river Tees, the Roman road divides into two branches at the foot of Teesdale. One of the branches runs due north, and passes the river Tees at Pierce Bridge, where there are numerous marks of the presence of the Romans. It was supposed by Horsley that the Roman station of Magis mentioned in the "Notitia," and where there was a garrison commanded by the Prsefectus numeri Pacen- sium, was at this spot. From the city of York to a few miles north of Catterick Bridge, the line of road described in Iter 2 corresponds with that de- scribed in Iter 1, passing through Isurium and Cataracton. But after passing the latter place, the road described in the second Iter begins to ascend the valley of the Tees, and runs to the top of that valley. Greta Bridge. — Ascending Teesdale, at Greta Bridge, Roman altars and coins have been found, and there is a camp, with plain marks of a station.* In the angle or corner of land between the river Greta and the stream known as Tutta beck, is a clearly marked Roman camp, on the line of the great military road which runs up the valley. Lavatra, or Bowes. — Ascending the valley, the next Roman station come to is that of Lavatra, near the modern town of Bowes. The monuments erected there belong to different ages, commencing with the Emperor Hadrian, extending to the reign of the Emperor Severus, and coming down to the reigns of the Emperors Gallus and Volusianus, in 253. Still ascending the valley of the Tees, we come to Verterae, on the borders of Westmoreland, near the present town of Brough. * Horsley. PAST AND PRESENT. 339 From this point the road extends through Westmoreland and Cumberland, to the eastern extremity of the Roman Wall. No Roman road has been traced up Swaledale, above Catterick; though there is reason to believe that there was a cross road from Lavatra to the neighbourhood of Reeth, which also extended to Bracchium in the present Wensleydale. BraccMum near Bainhridge in Wensleydale. — In the valley of the Ure there appears to have been several Roman positions, in the neighbourhood of Well, Spennithorn, and Bainhridge. At Well, not far from Masham, a Roman pavement was discovered on the supposed line of Roman road up the valley. At Spennithorn, higher up the valley, near Middleham, there were formerly the marks of a Roman station, now levelled by the plough. StiU higher, at Bainhridge, there are the remains of a Roman station. Here were dug up a statue of the Emperor Aurelius Commodus, and other objects of interest. Cattal Magna. — The valley of the Nidd possesses few remains of Roman antiquity above Cattal Magna, where there seems to have been a camp at the point at which the Roman road crossed the river. But a road formed by the Romans has been clearly traced from Isurium across the higher part of the rivers Nidd, Wharfe, and Aire, and over the hills to Rigodunum or Ribchester, which was one of the principal towns or cities of the Brigantes. Another set of Roman stations have been traced along the line of road leading from Eboracum or York, to Rigodunum, and along the high grounds which divide the valley of the Wharfe from the valley of the Aire. The principal Roman stations along this line were at Calcaria, the modern Tadcaster; at Adel, a little to the north of the town of Leeds ; and at OHcana, near the present Ilkley in Wharfedale. Calcaria, or Tadcaster. — This place is supposed to have been named from the calx, or lime, which is found in abundance in the neighbourhood. Between Tadcaster and Wetherby was the ford at which the Roman road crossed the river Wharfe. It received the name of Helens-ford possibly in honour of the mother of Constantine the Great. Such is the opinion of Camden as to the site of Calcaria ; and he also gives the sanction of his authority to the supposition that the ancient name of the town might be derived from the circumstance stated. The persons employed in burning lime are in the Theodosian 340 YOJIKSHIRE : code named Calcarienses. Bede calls the place Calcacester. For other proofs of its antiquity Camden adds, that, " not to. mention its situation near a Roman consular way, there are many coins of Roman emperors digged up, the marks of a trench quite round the town, and the platform of an old castle remaining." Of this castle Leland observes, that " a mighty great hill, dykes, and garth may yet be seen a little above the bridge. It seemeth by the plot that it was a right stately thing." Others think that the situation of Calcaria is now occupied by Newton Kyme, where Roman coins and many antiquities have been discovered. Gibson favoured this opinion; but the termination of the name, supported as it is by the abundance of antiquities collected about it, and the distance from Eboracum, seem to justify the more general preference given to Tadcaster as the site of the ancient Calcaria. Aherford. — There is scarcely any part of England in which the line of the Roman roads is so strongly marked as between Aberford, near the river Wharfe, and Castleford on the river Aire. This was noticed by Leland in the reign of Henry VIII., and by Camden in the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; and after the lapse of 300 years it is as clear as it was in their days, that Aberford stands on a Roman road, which all the way to Castleford appears very perfect. Near it is an old fort, called Castle Cary. In approaching Eboracum, the military capital of Britain, the roads appear to have been raised to that remark- able elevation above the general level of the adjoining land, which caused them to be known in after times as the high roads or highways of the kingdom, or in later times as the king's highways, which were in a special manner protected by the Crown. By the ancient laws of this kingdom, travellers robbed or injured upon these highways had a right to be compensated by the inhabitants of the district in which the offence was committed. Barwick-m-Elmet, near Aberford, appears by the mounds of earth round about it to have been encompassed by a wall. Here is a remarkable mound, called Hall Tower Hill, which has two trenches round it. And on the north side of the town is a high and steep bulwark, part of the Roman way from Bramham Moor, and called Wendle Hill. There are other extensive works, some of which probably were commenced by the Romans, though they PAST AND PRESENT. 341 may have been afterwards added to by the Anglian kings of Nor- thumbria. But the Anghan kings had no great skill in building, and generally occupied the remains of the works constructed by the Romans. Ascending the valley of the Wharfe to the neighbourhood of Ilkley, we find the remains of a Roman station, which is believed to be the Olicana mentioned by Ptolemy in his account of the Brigantine towns. Here was found a votive altar dedicated to the nymph or goddess of the Wharfe, under the name Verbeia. Here also were discovered several other inter- esting Roman remains, which will be more fuUy described in a subsequent chapter. The Roman stations along the line of the river Aire, or on the hills which bound the valley through v^hich that river flows, were Lagecium, built on the site of the present Castleford, near the point where the Aire is joined by the Calder; Adel, a short distance north of the town of Leeds ; and several points on the grassy hills of Craven, over which they made their way to the western sea. Lagecium, or Castleford, was a military position of great im- portance on the main road from Eboracum or York, to Danum or Doncaster, and through Lincoln to London. The outlines of the Roman camp can still be distinctly traced on the bank of the river Aire, which is here wide and deep, and was frequently used for warlike purposes, even down to comparatively modern times. Adel, near Leeds. — At Adel near Leeds, on what was then a wild moor, there was discovered in the year 1702 the out- line of a Roman camp, with many fragments of urns and a sepulchral inscription with figures supposed to i-epresent the Deee Matres. Roman remains have been found at several places higher up the vaUey of the Aire, and on the adjoining hills, which were traversed by Roman roads. The principal station on this line of road appears to have been at Adel, near Leeds. At Cookridge also, on the road from Adel to Olicana or Ilkley, at a place called Black-hill, many Roman coins have been found. Bingley. — Higher up the valley of the Aire, in the parish of Bingley, there are traces of the presence of the Romans. In this parish, between Hamworth and CuUingworth, a paved 342 YOEKSHIRE : way has been observed of an unusual breadth, doubtless a Roman road. It appears, to have been above twelve feet broad, and regularly formed of such stones as the place afforded. Skipton and Gargrave. — Still ascending the valley of the Aire, we find traces of the Roman dominion in a villa constructed on the south bank of the river, a little beyond Skipton. Here is also a camp, and a Roman pavement has been discovered at Gargrave.* It was at this opening of the hills that the Romans made their main road across the island, from Eboracum to Ribchester ; this being much the lowest passage through the Penine range of hills, now generally known as the Back-bone of England, and traversing a country much more fertile than the districts either to the north or to the south. In the valley of the Calder, and on the adjoining hills, many remains of the Romans have been found. The most important of these are supposed to be connected with ancient Cambodonum on the road from Eboracum to Mancunium. Camden, whose judgment was very sound, placed the site of Cambodonum at Almondbury, near Huddersfield, where there are many remains of antiquity, a,nd a commanding military position. Some more recent writers, including Hunter, whose authority is also high, place Cambodonum at Greetland, near Elland, on the Calder, where an altar was dis- covered, dedicated to the tutular deity of the Brigantes. Other authorities have been disposed to fix the site of Cambodonum at Slack, in the same neighbourhood, where there are also the remains of an important military station. Roman coins have also been found near Stainland ; in fact there are few districts of Yorkshire in which the remains of the Romans are more abundant. These valleys formed the entrance of one of the most important military passes in Britain, through which the Sixth Legion stationed at York, and the Twen- tieth Legion stationed at Chester, kept up their communica- tions across the most mountainous part of the Brigantine territory. Considerably higher up the valley of the Calder, in the neighbourhood of Hipperholme, large quantities of Roman coins have been found belonging to the age of Diocletian, Car- ausius, and AUectus, These were found buried in a thick glass vessel. * Gough. PAST AND PRESENT. 343 Near Halifax, at Sowerhy, many Roman coins have been turned up by the plough, and a small votive altar discovered.* The Roman stations in the valley of the Don were Danum, the preseiit Doncaster, and the strong fort erected at the angle or tongue of land situated at the point where the Rother flows into the Don. Danum, or Doncaster, continued to be occupied by the Romans to the close of their dominion in Britain, and was held by bodies of cavalry, which held the level country on the lower banks of the river. The Roman station at the mouth of the Rother is supposed to have been at the southern limit of the province, and is sometimes described as ad fines ; it has also been described in more ancient times by the name of Temple Brough, a name partly derived from the Latin, and partly from the Anglian language. Many traces of a Roman road have been discovered between Lagecium, the present Castleford, and the town of Derby. This road is supposed to have crossed the river Don, near the junction of the Rother with that stream, and at a point where there is still a Roman camp. Temple Brough is, says Gibson, a fine Roman fortification on the river Don, before it comes to Rotherham. The north-east comer of it is worn away by the river. The area is about 200 paces long, and 120 broad, besides the agger. And without is a very large trench thirty-seven paces deep from the middle of the rampire to the bottom. On the opposite side of the river is the bank called Danes Bank.t The Roman roads running from York eastward to the German Ocean, are somewhat more difficult to trace, partly owing to the softer materials for road-making suppHed by the stone of that district, and partly owing to the great liability to floods existing in the valleys of the eastern side of the county, which has caused many objects of antiquity either to be washed away, or to be completely buried by the soil to so great a depth as to render it difficult to trace them. There is reason to believe that an ancient Roman road ran north- ward from Eboracum to the mouth of the river Tees, but no towns can be mentioned along this line. There are clear traces of a line of Roman camps and of a road connecting them with each other, running from Eboracum in a • Hearne's Leiand. t Gibson. 344 YORKSHIRE north-east direction to the supposed site of Dunum Sinus, mentioned by Ptolemy, and supposed to be situated at Dunsley Bay, near the present port of Whitby, or perhaps at Whitby itself. The stations along this line may be traced near Stamford Bridge, Malton, Cawthorne, and on the banks of the river Esk, which flows into the sea at Whitby. There are also lines of road running from the neighbourhood of Malton across the southern entrances of the principal valleys of Cleveland, and communi- cating with a road already mentioned as running northward from Eboracum to the entrance of the river Leven which falls into the Tees. Malton, the site of a Roman camp, and supposed by some writers to be the ancient Derventio, though the distance from Eboracum, or York, does not agree with that given in the An- tonine Itinerary, which is only seven Roman miles, as has been already noticed. A Roman inscription was dug up in some pits near the lodge. In connection with Malton the equites singulares, a part of the emperor's body-guard, are here first mentioned in Britain. ''^ Pickering. — On the moors, in this part of Yorkshire, have been found a Roman camp, or rather four together, to which an ancient road, now named Wade's Causeway, leads. Many tumuli of different sizes are scattered about, and urns found in them.t Willington. — On the south side of a hill half a mile north-east of this town have been found many foundations of buildings, Roman pavements, tiles, &c.:j: Meiham. — On the moors at this place have been discovered the remains of a Roman pottery, with pieces of broken urns and cinders. § Easiness in Ehydale. — A Roman inscription dug up. || The Roman road described in the first Iter of Antoninus, runs eastward from York towards the sea, through the stations of Der- ventium, Delgovitia, and Prsetorium. It was the opinion of Camden and other antiquaries of earlier times, that the road described by Antoninus ran from York to the entrance of the Humber near the present town of Patrington, in the neighbour- hood of HuU. They were disposed to place the site of the first station on that road which was named Derventium, at the point on * Gough. f Ibid. | Ibid. § Laccombe's Gazetteer. || Gale. PAST AND PRESENT. 346 the river Derwent, which evidently gives name to the station, at a distance of seven miles from York, which is the distance mentioned by Antoninus. They were next disposed to place the site of Delgovitia in the neighbourhood of Market Weighton, and more particularly at the village of Godmundingham, near that town, where there were ancient idol temples, from which the name of Delgovitia, was supposed to be derived. The third station men- tioned in that Iter under the name of Prsetorium, which must have been the residence of the Praetor, and a very important place in the government of the northern part of Britain, they proposed to place near the mouth of the great port of the Brigantine territory at Patrington, near Hull. Many ingenious reasons have, however, been brought forward for placing those three stations at other points. Thus Derventium has been placed at Malton, where there are abundant evidences of the existence of an extensive Roman station ; whilst Delgovitia has been placed upon an ancient road which certainly leads for Derventium, over the Wolds of the East Riding towards the sea ; and Prsetorium has been placed in the neighbourhood of Bridhngton near the great pro- montory of Flamborough Head, the most conspicuous promontory on that part of the coast. In a subsequent part of this work, when we speak of these places separately, we shall give a brief sketch of the arguments on which these opinions are founded. All that is necessary at present to do, is to state that the sites mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary are claimed by these different places. There can be no doubt that in the ages in which these towns were built, their prosperity and even their existence depended chiefly on the fact or the circumstance of whether they were, or were not, situated on the Roman road. This is clearly shown by the follow- ing considerations : — " These roads," says the learned author of ' Eboracum, or York under the Romans' (C. WeUbeloved), " raised above the surroimding surface, were laid in as straight a line, between place and place, as could well be drawn, and composed of the most durable materials that the country through which they passed could furnish ; occa- sionally, in part at least, of materials brought with great labour and expense from a considerable distance. In marshy lands they were constructed on piles. They were generally paved with large irregular blocks of stone, supported by strata of cobble stones or flints, of broken stones cemented with lime, of chalk, or gravel. VOL. 2 X 346 YORKSHIRE : They appear to have varied in breadth ; some, exclusive of the foot-path by the sides, being twenty, while others were only fifteen, thirteen, or eight feet wide. From the nature of their construction they were called Viae Stratee, whence the Italian denomination, Strada, and our word, Street. By the aid 'of this latter term, we are now able to trace the line of some of these roads in our country, even when all remains of such works have disappeared. " The primary objects of these roads was to render the marches of the legions to the most distant parts of the empire easy and expeditious ; and nearly alhed to this, to provide the means of rapid communication between Rome, the seat of government, and the remotest provinces. For this purpose, especially, posts were esta- blished on these roads, at short distances from each other, so that by means of couriers passing from one post to another, information could be conveyed to the capital, and orders transmitted to the provincial authorities or the armies with great celerity. These posts were probably first established by the Emperor Augustus. The young men whom he placed on them as couriers performed their service on foot. To obtain greater celerity, Augustus afterwards employed relays of horses or mules, and the emperors who succeeded him maintained these establishments. The places on the roads where these were kept were Mutationes, " change-houses," erected at a moderate distance from each other, and provided each with forty horses or mules ; carriages also of different kinds were placed at the Mutationes, by means of which journeys were performed with ease as well as rapidity. Post stations, called Mansiones, where travellers might pass the night, were established at greater inter- vals, at about the distance of twenty English miles, the length of a day's journey. These, which were probably at first places of encamp- ment, being originally called Castra, afterwards were furnished with barracks for the soldiers, granaries or magazines of provisions, and also with buildings suited to the reception of travellers of all ranks, even of the emperor himself Artificers also were stationed along the great roads, whose services might be. required in the fabrication or repair of armour ; and under the later emperors at least, mints were established in some of the priacipal cities on their line. Off the sides of these roads, and near the cities through which they passed, were temples erected in honour ol the gods, villas surrounded with gardens, triumphal arches, "PAST AND PRESENT. 347 and cemeteries adorned with tombs and monumental urns and pillars. "■'" The Influence of the Roman Dominion in this part of Britain. — The whole of Britain, south of the Roman Wall, may be consi- dered to have been . settled into the form of a Roman province from the age of the Emperor Hadrian and his successor Anto- ninus Pius. The last insurrection in which the Brigantes took part against the Romans occurred in the reign of the latter emperor ; and although it was at one time highly dangerous, it was ultimately subdued, and a considerable quantity of the land of the Brigantes was taken from them as the penalty of their offence. We are not told by Pausanias, who mentions this insur- rection and this confiscation of Brigantine lands, to whom the lands thus confiscated were granted. It is probable, however, and almost certain, that a considerable portion of them was given to the soldiers of the Roman colony established at York. It was a common practice with the Romans, after putting down an unsuc- cessful insurrection, to plant a colony, or colonies, consisting of soldiers and their families. This circumstance accounts in some degree for the fact, that several of the Roman legions, when once estabhshed in a conquered country, continued there from genera- tion to generation. Thus, for instance, the Sixth Roman Legion had its head-quarters at Eboracum, or York, for a period of nearly 300 years ; and the same observation apphes with some slight modification to the Twentieth Roman Legion, which was estab- lished at Chester for nearly an equal period ; and to the Second Roman Legion, which was established for an equal period at Yenta Silurum, on the river Usk at Caerleon, within two or three miles of the site of the present town of Newport in Monmouth- shire. There must have been some very permanent tie in the connection of these three legions with the districts which they occupied for so many ages. The most enduring tie is the ownership of the soil, or of an interest ia a considerable portion of its produce. The effect of the arrangement by which the Roman legions were thus permanently established in a few chosen places, must have been to introduce an unusual portion of the arts and the intelligence of the governing class into those districts. As far as we have the means of judging, this part of Britain * Eboracum, or York under the Eomans. By C. Wellbeloved, 1842. 348 YORKSHIRE : under the Romans enjoyed at least as good a government as any- other portion of the Roman empire ; and, from its insular position, may perhaps have enjoyed a greater freedom from the ravages of war, and from military oppression, than the provinces along the German border, which were always more or less exposed to invasion from the vast tribes of warlike Germans, who not only held the military line of the river Rhine, but also frequently pressed far within the limits of Gaul, superseding the Celtic by the Teu- tonic race. It is true that even the Britons residing to the south of the Roman Wall, were never altogether free from the incursions of the bold mountaineers who resided to the north of that line. But from the great superiority in point of numbers of those, residing to the south of the Wall; from the great strength of the fortifications extending from the mouth of the Solway, to that of the Tyne ; and from the strength and military discipline of the Roman legions, the Britons must have enjoyed under the Romans a much greater tranquillity than they had ever experienced under their native chiefs. If they were ever exposed to attack from enemies to the north of the Wall, it must have been owing to the Ul-regulated ambition of such of the emperors as attempted to conquer the northern part of Britain, and thus compelled the native tribes to fight for their own homes, and, in a few instances, induced them to burst through the Roman fortifications, and to, carry the war into the enemy's country. In the reign of Antoninus Pius, the Roman commander in Britain, Lolhus Urbicus, drove back the North Britons from the waU of Hadrian, and formed another hne of fortification across the isthmus of the Clyde and the Forth — a line which had been originally forti- fied by Agricola, but which had been abandoned before the visit of the Emperor Hadrian to Britain. It is not certain how long this more advanced line was held by the Romans, nor precisely at what age it was abandoned. But a great struggle took place about the year 208, in the reign of Septimius Severus, in which the ancient line was probably re-established as the permanent boundary. About the year 206 or 207* Septimius Severus arrived in Britain with his two sons, M. Antoninus Bassianus (Cara- calla) and Geta, and established hunself and the head-quartera of his army at Eboracum or York, with the intention of conquering the whole of the northern parts of Britain. In the year a.d, 208 * Eboracum, or York under the Romans, p. 13 PAST AND PRESENT. 349 Severus marched into the country north of the Roman Wall, and is said to have forced his way into the Highlands, and per- haps, at some points, even to the northern extremity of Britain. In the course of a long and bloody campaign he destroyed great multitudes of the Caledonians, but is said himself to have lost nearly 50,000 men, either from the sword of the enemy, from famine, or from disease. He ultimately returned, as he supposed victorious, to York, though with his own health broken by the hardships of the campaign. There he died soon after, having had the mortification to learn on his deathbed that the Britons, to the north of the Wall were again in arms against the Bomans. This seems to have been the last great effort made by any of the Roman emperors to subdue the northern parts of Britain, for a period of from 150 to 200 years. It is probable that a considerable portion of these years was a time of comparative peace, and of as much prosperity as the laws of the Roman empire and the habits of' the British people enabled them to enjoy. There is no doubt that during this period the revenues yielded by the tributes of Britain became large and valuable; and that agriculture was carried on with such success as to enable the Britons to supply the Roman garrisons along the Rhine with large quantities of grain in yearsi of famine, caused eith,er by bad seasons or by the invasion of the German hosts, which still hung along the north-eastern boundaries of the empire, and threatened that irruption of the northern bar- barians which took place after, the departure of the Romans from the country. It was chiefly between the years 200 and 400 that the superstitions of the Druids of Britain, with all their bloody and murderous rites, gave way to the teachings of Christianity. Nor were these teachings confined to those parts of Britain that were subject to the Romans, for we are expressly told by TertuUian that Christianity had been introduced into regions of Britain into which the Roman armies had been imable to penetrate. Long before the Romans finally abandoned Britain, it had become a comparatively civilized country; and the same observation applies to all parts of the British Islands.. Even after the vast hosts of Germany had overrun the greater part of Britain, as well as nearly the whole of the Roman empire, the light of Christianity continued to burn clearly in the more mountainous and more inaccessible portions of Britain and of Ireland, and from those regions again extended 350 v'OUKSHreE : to Britain, to Germany, and to the pagan tribes which inhabited (^aul and Scandinavia. But previous to the recognition of Christianity by the Roman emperors, the seas around Britain began to be infested by the Germanic and Scandinavian tribes, who in succeeding ages con- quered Britain. So great were the perils even of crossing the Channel for Boulogne in Gaul to Rutupiae in Kent, that the Roman emperors found it necessary to take into their pay, for the purpose of protecting the Channel, some of the more daring of the German chiefs, whose fleets had so often plundered voyagers passing it. Amongst the most formidable and the most distinguished of these chiefs, was Carausius, who was employed as the guardian of the British channel by the emperors Maximus and Diocletian, about the year 284, and who gradually became so strong, that he not merely seized upon the Channel, but made himself sovereign or emperor of Britain. So formidable was his power that it required all the energy of Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine the Great, to put down the usurper, and to re-establish the authority of the Romans in Britain. From this time forwai'd the seas of Britain began to be infested with tribes of Saxon and other German pirates, who continually threatened the security of the coasts of the empire, and ultimately established their own dominion in Britain. There is reason to believe that considerable districts of Britain had been occupied by the Saxons previous to the retirement of the Romans. Prior to that event there was a portion of Britain which was known by the name of the Saxon Shore, and which was under the government of a Roman general, known as the Count of the Saxon Shore. The authority of this officer extended along the coast of what we now call the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, and great part of Sussex ; and was employed either in maintaining order amongst German tribes which had settled in those parts of Britain, or in preventing further inroads of the same tribes. This was the commencement of the occupation of the whole of the more level and fertile districts of England, Scotland, and ultimately of Ireland, by the same race. The Romans appear to have remained at Eboracum, or York, until near the close of their dominion in Britain. This appears from the "Notitia," which is a kind of register of the several military and civil PAST AND PKESEIST. 351 officers and magistrates in Britain, and in other parts both of the western and the easter empires, down to the times of Arcadius the emperor of the East, and Honorius the emperor of the West, at the beginning of the fifth century. This official return both shows what positions continued to be occupied by the Romans in Britaiu down to that period, and enables us to judge of what parts of the island had been abandoned by them previous to their final departure from Britain. At the time above-mentioned the whole of the western and great part of the north-western portion of Britain had been abandoned, including Deva or Chester, which had long been the head-quarters of the Twentieth Victorious Legion, and Isca Silurura, afterwards known as Caerleon, which had also been the head-quarters of the Second Augustan Legion. The Twentieth Legion is not men- tioned at all in the account of the Roman forces in Britain given in the "Notitia," and it is well known from the poems of Claudian and other sources that that legion had been vsdthdrawn from Britain some years before, and had been employed in defending Italy against the Gothic invaders, who captured the city of Rome itself in the year 410, under the command of their formidable leader Alaric. The Second Augustan Legion, which had so long been stationed in South Wales, still remained in Britain in the reigns of Arca- dius and Honorius, but it had been removed to Rutupise in the present county of Kent ; and there it guarded the communica- tions of the Romans with the continent of Europe, and watched the Saxon shores, extending northward as far as the present Norfolk, and southward and westward as far as the most western part of the present county of Sussex. It also no doubt guarded London, which had long been the chief commercial city of Britain. In the north of Britain the Romans still retained the line of the Roman Wall, to prevent the irruption of the northern and inde- pendent Britons into the Roman province, which was at that time subdivided into the five districts of Maxima Csesariensis, Valentia, Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, and Flavia Csesari- ensis, the boundaries of which province are only imperfectly known. The following feeble garrisons appear to have preserved a shadow of the Roman power in Britain down to the close of the Roman dominion, but to have finally withdrawn about the year 420, 352 YORKSHIRE : leaving Britain open to the daring races of the north, which soon afterwards began to pour into it, and in the course of a few generations conquered the island and peopled it with the Anglian race. Eboracum, or York, the seat of the Prsetorium, appears still to have been the head-quarters of the Sixth Legion, an honour which it owed to the fact of its still being the military and judicial capital of Britain ; and around it there were a number of Roman garrisons, which appear to have been maintained to the close of the Roman dominion. Amongst these garrisons were the fol- lowing. To the south, Danum or Doncaster, which was occupied by a body of Roman cavalry commanded by an officer who is described as the Frcefectus Equdtum Crispianorum, an officer who no doubt, kept open the communications with the south, and guarded the level district of country on the banks of the Don and towards the mouth of the Humber. Further to the north was Lavatse, on the main road leading from York to the western end of the Roman "Wall ; and near it was Verter^e, on the same line of road. These were on the sites of the modern towns of Brough and Bowes. The officer in command at Lavatse is described as the PrcBfectus Numeri Exploratorum, and the officer in command at Yerterse is described by the title of the Proe- fectus numeri Directorum. Another station^ described by the name of Magis, is supposed by Horsley in his essay on the " Notitia," to be the station now known as Pierce Bridge, on the banks of the Tees and the borders of the present counties of York and Durham. The officer in command at Magis, whatever may have been its position, is described as the Proefectus numeri Pacensium.. Another gairison still nearer to Eboracum was that of Derventio, mentioned by Antoninus as being only seven miles distant from York. This appears to have been garrisoned by a body of citizens connected with the place itself, for the commander is described as the Prcefectus numeri Derventionensium. The other garrisons, though not within the limits of the present county of York, seem to have been chiefly between Eboracum and the Roman wall. Amongst the places occupied by them were Longovicum, supposed to be the present Lancaster; Barbo- niacum, behoved to be Overbury, also in Lancashire ; and Arbeia, believed to be Moresby on the coast of the present Cumberland. $ ii 1 \K •A ■' • y ii.MjiiiSlMiti t^ i iSi Seilt M i,'^ ,^^,;,.^t^=^,>^,.-rp:^-^^ ■^,'^-