ATI (Qarnell lUtiucrstty Slibraty 3tiiaca, Ncui gottt BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1891 Date Due F: o as'si FFRR 19*50 OCT 2 1 1953 HV lUfi — 9* ■w-hxj "tT^W TgV "15 s» iw ¥ ' — j f=S| ■It* f Cornell University Library LB1775 .A37 Some present aspects of the work of teac olin 3 1924 030 595 544 >-*.' 'o\ Some Present Aspects of the Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations In the United States BY CARTER ALEXANDER, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Educational Administration, University of Missouri TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, NO. 36 PUBLISHED BY Sfearljmi (EoUegj, (Mmnbia TSLnivtreitQ NEW YORK CITY 1910 Copyright, 1910, by Carter Alexander PRESS OP FRANK H. EVORY & CO. ALBANY, N. Y. PREFACE This investigation was begun in 1908 at the suggestion of Dr. David Snedden, then professor of Educational Administration in Teachers College, and it has been prosecuted under his direction. The intention at first was to make a survey of all the significant phenomena in the important associations of the country, but the magnitude of such a work, the difficulty encountered in securing adequate data, and the publishing in 1909 of an excellent article by Superintendent C. S. Foos of Reading, Pennsylvania, on the state associations, necessitated a considerable narrowing of the original investigation. The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness for source materials to the hundreds of teachers all over the United States, especially those studying at Teachers College, who have so kindly furnished him with information regarding various associations. In particular he is under obligations to Superintendent Foos for giving him access to the sources used in preparing the latter's article, and to Miss Lillian Flint of St. Paul, for affording him the same privilege as regards materials gathered by her for a study of teachers' pensions. The author's thanks are also due his friends, Dr. I. L. Kandel, Professor E. O. Holland of Indiana University, and Mr. L. D. Coffman of Teachers College, for assistance in revising the manuscript. C. A. Teachers College, August 8, 1910. Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030595544 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION i CHAPTER I DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALIZATION Section I — The Present Tendency Toward Differentiation and Specialization National Associations 5 Inter-sta,te Associations 6 State Associations 7 Intra-state Associations 8 County Associations 10 City Associations 10 Section II — The Present Counter-Move Toward Federation National Education Association 13 Federation of State Associations 13 State Associations 14 City Associations 18 Section III — The Historical Origin of the Present Conditions Early Traces 19 Before the Civil War 19 From the Civil War to 1880 20 From 1880 to the Present 21 City Associations 22 Historical Summary 23 Present Tendencies 23 Section IV — Problems Connected With Present Conditions Objections to Specialization 24 Arguments for Specialization 24 Specialization as a Practical Problem 26 CHAPTER II THE WORK OF THE ASSOCIATIONS IN LEGISLATION Section I — National Education Association 28 Section II — State Associations Structural Provisions Make-up of Legislative Committees 29 Work of Committees 29 v vi Contents Procedure PAGE Investigations 30 Formulation of Results 31 Securing Co-operation of Teachers 31 Publicity 32 Direct Influencing of Legislature 33 Co-operation with State Department of Education 35 Lines of Legislation Attempted 36 Actual Results 36 Section III — City Associations General View 38 Special Features of Work Aggressiveness 38 Publicity 39 Co-operation 40 Kinds of Legislation Attempted 41 Actual Results 42 Section IV — Problems in Legislation Causes of Small Influence Not Those Ordinarily Assigned 43 Lack of Co-operation 44 Lack of Permanence of Organization 45 Changing Personnel of Profession 45 Lack of Institutional Organization 45 Right of Teachers to Attempt to Influence Arguments Against 46 Arguments For 47 The Problem as a Practical One 48 CHAPTER III THE WORK OF THE ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE ECONOMIC BETTER- MENT OF TEACHERS Section I — Lines of Work Attempted Salaries 49 Temporary Aid 50 Pensions, Annuities and Insurance 51 Tenure of Office 52 Aid in Securing Positions 53 Section II — Procedure Adopted Mutual Aid 54 Concerted Legal Action 56 Labor Unionism 58 Investigations of the Economic Conditions of Teachers 61 Influencing Legislation 62 Contents vii Section III — Problems page The Materialistic Tendency in the Profession 65 Labor Unionism 67 Raising Qualifications of Teachers 68 CHAPTER IV THE PLACE OF WOMEN IN THE ASSOCIATIONS Section I — The Present Position op Women in the Associations National Education Association 69 State Associations 70 City Associations 71 Section II — Causes of the Present Situation Influence of Tradition 71 Deference Shown Occupants of "Positions'" 73 Small Desire of Women for Prominence 75 Brief Stay of Women in the Profession 76 Section III — Recent Phenomena Making for Greater Prominence of Women in the Associations General Associations National Education Association 77 State Associations 78 Specialized Associations National 79 State 80 City 82 Specimen Associations 83 Chicago Teachers' Federation 86 Interboro Association of New York 90 Affiliation with Women's Clubs 91 Section IV — Problems General View of Non-participation 92 Place Women Deserve 92 Place Women Really Care For 94 Probable Future Changes Possibility of Leaders Among Women 94 Lines of Change 95 Consequences of Increased Participation by Women 96 SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 97 BIBLIOGRAPHY 101 INDEX 105 SOME PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE WORK OF TEACHERS' VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES * INTRODUCTION The statement that " whatever impairs the popular habit of achieving ends by private initiative and voluntary organization, endangers society," 1 is peculiarly true of an organization of society like that in the United States. And of the increasingly numerous and powerful forms of voluntary association at work here today, — religious, charitable, philanthropic, civic, labor, busi- ness, professional, etc., — probably no form has greater potential possibilities than that of the teaching profession. For the teachers of the United States, now about five hundred thousand strong, could by co-operation and closer association exert a tremendous force that not only would influence all their own numbers, but, by virtue of their peculiar relation to society, would ultimately affect every community and practically every individual, at least during his school days, in the land. But while teachers have almost recovered from their former custom of devoting much time at their meetings to discussions as to whether teaching is a profession or can ever be one, still they do not on the whole appear to have much conception of the possibilities of organization, or much belief in its value, even if it could be attained. There is some painting of impossible ideals just as there was seventy years ago, some perfunctory self- congratulation and a few instances of keen elation over real or *In this study a voluntary association means "an organization of indi- viduals for moral, benevolent, social or political purposes, or for any object other than pecuniary benefits." (Inter. Encyc, xvn =434. ) A teachers' association means one composed wholly or in the main of teachers, although no hard and fast line can be drawn between such asso- ciations and those composed of educational experts and administrators, or general educational associations, or learned societies. JGiddings, Principles of Sociology, 195. 2 Introduction supposed accomplishments of teachers' associations. But there is also a pronounced tendency to assume an attitude of habitual dis- paragement of the associations, of contempt for their printed proceedings, and of general skepticism as to their having any significant value, especially when their accomplishments are com- pared with those of voluntary associations in other professions. However, all of these criticisms are made upon the basis of purely empirical and very meagre data; there are practically no studies or careful descriptions of the associations, except in the case of a few isolated organizations. 2 Under these circumstances it would seem advisable to follow the procedure so often successful elsewhere, — to substitute for vague, biased, and frequently purely traditional conjectures, some accurate knowledge obtained from a careful study of the facts. As the embodiment of the results of such an attempted study of certain significant activities of voluntary teachers' associations in the United States to-day, this work is accordingly presented. However, the associations are so very complex in organization, aims and methods of work, that a student of them is in constant danger of going astray. Hence this study will attempt to take up only a few significant problems arising from a careful examination of various types of associations, concerning which problems some brief statements are in order. First. In any voluntary association, the form of organization is important, but particularly so> in the case of teachers' associations for they at present exhibit a very pronounced tendency to differentiate into minute subdivisions which specialize along very narrow lines of interest. This differentiation is especially worth noting because, according to a widely current view, it is the reason why teachers are less able than almost any other class, to co-operate. Second. Under the American system of state-supported educa- tion, much educational legislation is necessary. On purely theoretical grounds, therefore, it would appear that teachers should of course be interested in educational legislation, and the more so because under our system of government, " the vast majority of all bills originate in the counsels of voluntary associations, and are introduced in legislature, congress .... at the instigation of 2 The article by C. S. Foos on State Educational Associations in Rep. Com. Edn. 1909 : 1 : 251-274, is an exception. CL Introduction 3 associations whose agents watch them through every stage of their progress to final enactment or rejection." 3 But when we contrast such theoretical possibility with the actual attempts and accomplishments of teachers' associations in this field, there is a great discrepancy which needs to be accounted for. Third. The general tendency of the times to attempt present day betterment of actual situations rather than to be satisfied with depicting vague or fantastic dreams of future ideal conditions, is reacting on teachers' associations. Naturally one of their earnest endeavors in this field, — now they have numbers, strength, and prestige which promise some results, — is to correct the long- standing evil of hard living conditions for teachers. But trouble immediately arises here because teachers are in a peculiar position ; they are so dependent upon the public and bear such a relation to society at large that they cannot move far in their attempts at economic self-betterment without being accused of unprofessional / selfishness or of antagonism to the public. ■*■»*/ Fourth. The emancipation of women presents an interesting problem in almost any field, but especially so in the teaching profession where there is already a great and steadily increasing majority of women. In teachers' associations, the proper sphere of activity for the women members presents a pressing problem for which no solution is as yet apparent. With these preliminary statements, the four chapters under which a detailed study of the associations is to be given, are : I. Differentiation and specialization in the associations. II. The work of the associations in legislation. III. The work of the associations for economic betterment of teachers. IV. The place of women in the associations. The investigation has in the main been confined to the National Education Association, the more important inter-state associations, practically all the state associations, and city associations in representative cities with a population of thirty thousand and over. In addition to these, hundreds of associations of various kinds have been examined incidentally. County associations and those in 3 Giddings, Principles of Sociology, 185. 4 Introduction towns and villages are not included because it is wholly impossible to secure adequate data on them, and they present very few phenomena bearing on the problems investigated. The general procedure in each chapter is : ( I ) a description of present conditions; (2) a historical account of the origin of the present situation, whenever it is especially helpful for interpreta- tion ; (3) a consideration of the problems suggested by the present conditions, as regards that particular phase of the work of the associations. CHAPTER I DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALIZATION It is a commonplace that differentiation and specialization are the order of the day, and teachers' voluntary associations offer no exception to the rule. Indeed, when the great complexity of the organization of the teaching profession in its manifold and widely varying forms of association is taken into account, it seems to furnish for the rule an example par excellence. We shall accord- ingly now take up a study of the phenomena of differentiation and specialization as manifested in voluntary teachers' associations of the United States, under four sections : I. The present tendency toward differentiation and special- ization. II. The present counter-move toward federation. III. The historical origin of the present conditions. IV. Problems connected with present conditions. Section I. The Present Tendency Toward Differentiation and Specialization At the present time teachers in all their organizations, from the great National Education Association down to the associations in small cities, tend to differentiate into sections or independent bodies that each newly formed group may the better pursue the peculiar interests of its members. In support of this statement, evidence can be procured almost anywhere. Of the national associations, we find only one that is practically universal in membership and general in its work, — the National Education Association. This is indeed so general that it does not limit its membership to teachers but is open to " teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of educational institutions." 1 The association itself is not really one large unified ] By-Laws of N. E. A., Art. I, Sec. I, 1907 adoption. 6 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations body, but is a rather loose association of practically independent and highly specialized sections. 2 The Department of Superintendence with its meeting carefully put in February or March so as to miss the general meeting in the summer, is practically a department of the association only in name and a few details of management. This department is a great affair and now enrolls each year more than the whole association ever did for many years. Also it has to subdivide a good deal in its own work ; for instance in 1910 it had round-tables to accommodate state and county superintendents, superintendents of larger cities, and superintendents of smaller cities, respectively. With both the general association and the department of superintendence each year a number of independent associations meet. 3 On the other hand there are numerous national associations that limit their fields of activity. It is impossible to get a complete list of these, but excluding associations that devote themselves mainly to the advancement of knowledge, and including only those that are primarily cpncerned with the interests of teachers, there are national associations for the faculties in American universities, state universities, Catholic colleges, law schools, medical schools, dental schools, dental schools in state universities, agricultural colleges, commercial schools, colored schools, and Indian schools. In addition there are other national associations for teachers of special subjects, including kindergarten work, music, education as a college subject, manual training, gymnastics, home economics, speech-arts, arts, domestic science and art, modern languages, mathematics, and natural science. Of the inter-state associations, only two general ones of impor- tance exist, — the American Institute of Instruction, for the New England States, and the Southern Educational Association. Both of these have sections, essentially like those of the National Education Association. 2 For 1910 the departments are : National Council of Education, Kinder- garten Education, Elementary Education, Secondary Education, Higher Education, Normal Schools, Manual Training and Art, Music, Business Education, Child Study, Physical Education, Science Education, School Administration, Library, and School Patrons. 3 At the general session for 1910, the following: American School Peace League, American Home Economics Association, Federation of State Teachers' Associations, Religious Education Association Conference, Na- tional Committee on Agricultural Education, Educational Press Associa- tion of America, Conference of Teachers of Agriculture. Differentiation and Specialisation y In contrast to these two inter-state general associations, there is a considerable list of specialized associations covering the same or similar territory. 4 Most of these seem to be thoroughly permanent and print proceedings regularly, usually in booklet form, but sometimes in official organs; this latter procedure is generally the case when an association is newly formed. The New England Teachers' Association of English, for example, have the main papers at their meetings printed later in the School Review. In the state associations we find specialization to a very marked degree. Every state and territory save Delaware and Tennessee has a state association and of these associations all except Massa- chusetts have sections. It has been utterly impossible to obtain an accurate cross-section view of this matter of specialization in the state associations at any time, because it is impossible to secure copies of all their proceedings or programs for any one year ; because they are constantly changing the number and names of the sections ; and because there is absolutely no uniformity in the work attempted by sections having the same names, or in the relations of the sections to each other and to the general associa- tions. However, a list of the sections for each state association, except those of Wyoming and West Virgina, for one year (either 1908 or 1909) was obtained and from this list, forty-three associ- ations in all, a complete tabulation, so far as the difficulties of nomenclature permitted, was made. The results have been thrown into a table of frequency, which is in the main self-explanatory, but a few additional comments may not be amiss. The names of the sections may be obtained from the table and it will be noted that their total number is forty-two. There seem 4 A complete list cannot be secured, but these at least are known to exist: New England College and Preparatory Schools Association; Middle At- lantic and Maryland College and Preparatory Schools Association; South- ern College and Preparatory Schools Association; North Central Associa- tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools; New England Superintendents Association; Western Manual Training Teachers Association: Eastern Manual Training Teachers Association; Pacific Manual Training Teachers Association; New England Mathematics Teachers Association; Middle States and Maryland Mathematics Teachers Association; Central Mathe- matics and Science Teachers Association ; Eastern Physics Teachers Asso- ciation; New England English Teachers' Association; Classical Associ- ation of the Middle States and Maryland; Classical Association of New England; Classical Association of the Middle West and South; Pacific Classical Association ; New England History Teachers' Association ; North Central History Teachers' Association; Middle Atlantic and Maryland History Teachers' Association; New England Normal School Association. 8 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations to be no apparent lines of similarity other than those evident from the table. In the number of sections within an association, there is the the widest possible diversity up to twenty-four sections in Iowa in 1908. The median number of sections is seven, but of the seven associations that have this number, there is no one section in common. Generally the lowest number of sections occurs where the associations are small, as in New England, because of numerous isolated specialized associations, or in younger and weaker states, where professional association of any sort has not as yet developed much. The greatest differentiation into sections is found in the central states. Of the eleven states highest in number of sections, the median is sixteen which happens to be that for Indiana in 1909 when the sections were as follows : High School, Grammar Grades, Primary, Kindergarten, County Superintendents, Institute Instructors, English, History, Modern Languages, Classics, Mathematics, Music, Manual Training, Physical Culture, Elocution, and Reading Circle. Iowa has all of these except Modern Languages, Music, Institute Instructors, Physical Culture and Elocution, and in addition had in 1908 eight others: Educational Council, Normal, College, Intermediate, Superin- tendents and Principals, "Science," Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Physiography, Drawing, Commercial Education, Women and Mothers. However, this does not tell the whole story of specialization ; in several instances the number of sections in the state association is lower than it ought to be for the reason that such interests are cared for in specialized associations apart from the general state associations. This is the case with high-school, college, music, manual training, and science teachers in several states, and with superintendents in twelve states, although the superintendents in a few instances have one of their meetings each year with the state general association. Most of the states of the country have large sectional associ- ations of a general character that give most of the associational experience on a large scale for the teachers of their respective districts. In some instances, as in Ohio, Indiana, and California (until recently), one or more of these sectional organizations may be larger and really of greater interest than the state organiza- Differentiation and Specialisation 9 tion. The sectional associations do not as yet seem to be differentiating much into special associations, although there are signs of it; for instance there is a Northern Illinois principals' and superintendents' association, a Northwest Missouri high school Table Showing Frequency of Sections in State Associations (One meeting in 1908 or 1909 for each association.) Administra- Administra- Miscellan- tive School tive Subjects eous Divisions Officials In High School Superintend- Three-Fourths ents and of the Principals Associations In from College County Music One-Half to Primary and Superintend- Three-Fourths Kinder- garten Grades ents In from Normal School History Reading One-Fourth to Rural Boards Classics Circle One-Half Mathematics "Science" Manual Training In from Commercial Biology Educational One-Eighth to Education Art Council One-Fourth Child Study Modern Langua- ges Drawing Physical Culture English In Less than University Domestic Art Retirement One-Eighth Special Domestic Science Fund Education Chemistry Medical Industrial Phvsics Conference Education Physiography Elocution School- masters School- mistresses School Im- provement Women and Mothers Library Institute Instructors io The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations teachers' organization, etc. But in general these associations do seem to follow the lines of differentiation of the state associations for their respective localities. Indeed they probably arise in the main because of the necessity of limiting the distance teachers must travel, and also of insuring that the city where the associ- ation is held will have large enough hotel accommodations. For instance, actual joining of all the teachers in Indiana into one state association has been delayed greatly for the reason that it is impossible to get any place with hotel accommodations for the number that would wish to attend only one large association. County associations and institutes have been left out of detailed study in this connection for the reason that it has been found impracticable to obtain material enough from which to formulate any adequate view of their tendencies and also for the reason that in perhaps the majority of cases there is a question as to how far they are voluntary. There is often some form of certificate credit or requirement from the county superintendent that acts as a compelling force to insure the attendance of teachers at the institutes. The conduct of them is naturally in the hands of the administrative authorities to a considerable extent and they do not so well typify the free development of teachers who can arrange their own work and change their organization at will. In the few voluntary county association types of which the author has been able to learn, resort is made to sectionizing, at a very early stage, usually along the lines of type of school, teaching experience, grade taught and subject taught. In city associations 5 there is a great degree of specialization and differentiation, naturally increasing from the smaller to the larger cities where the teaching force is larger and more 6 The data for this section consist of complete lists of the associations in fifty-nine representative cities of the United States, of over thirty thousand population. On the. basis of the 1906 census bureau classification, the cities studied were as follows : Class I, 13 out of 15 cities. Class II, 16 out of 27 cities. Class III, 15 out of 48 cities. Class IV, IS out of 68 cities. The number of cities in the last two classes was not so large proportion- ately as in the other two, because the phenomena under consideration here disappear largely as the cities become smaller. The material was secured mainly through the efforts of the faculty and the students of Teachers Col- lege, but it gives practically a random selection of cities. In only three cities to which requests for information were sent did the educational authorities ignore the appeal. Differentiation and Specialization n permanent. The size of the city, however, is by no means a sure indication of the amount of differentiation for some of the smaller cities outstrip some of the larger ones in this respect. The range from New York and Boston which have associations correspond- ing to practically every line of interest city teachers can have, down to cities like Reading, Pa., Fort Wayne, Ind., Akron, O., and Little Rock, 6 which report no associations of teachers, is very great. While it is practically impossible to find typical cities, so many are the differences, the following selections will show the wide variations, both in the number of the associations and in the interests pursued. Class I St. Louis : A general pedagogical society with numerous subject-matter sections, a principals' club, a kindergarten society, a teachers' fellowship society, a mutual aid society, and a pension association. Boston: Educational club, masters', headmasters', masters' assistants', sub-masters, high-school masters' and high-school assistants' organizations ; primary and kindergarten associations ; clubs of teachers of chemistry, biology, manual training, English, German, sewing and nursing; schoolmen's and schoolwomen's clubs ; a mutual aid for women teachers, and a retirement fund association. Buffalo: A women teachers' association. Milwaukee: A general and a principals' association. Washington: A grade principals' association, a high-school teachers' association, a child-study club, a schoolmen's club, and an aid and annuity association. Class II Minneapolis: A principals', a grade teachers', a women teachers', a schoolmasters', and a manual arts club ; a retirement fund association. Indianapolis: A principals', a general teachers', and a class teachers' association. Rochester : A general teachers' association, a women's club, a kindergarten association, a crafts' club, and a mathematics section of the Teachers of Mathematics of the Middle States and Mary- land. . . Memphis: An educational league, a principals' association, and a "story tellers' league." Population for 1909, estimated by Census Bureau, 78,961, 45.H2, 42,728, 38,307, respectively. 12 The Work of Teachers? Voluntary Associations St. Joseph, Mo. : A general teachers' association. Dayton, O. : A principals' association, a teachers' club, and a kindergarten club. Class III Albany: A general association, a classical association, and a schoolmasters' club. Savannah: A general association, a general educational club, a kindergarten association, a library association, and a mutual benefit association. Manchester, N. H. : A general association. Harrisburg: A general association, a principals' club, and an annuity guild. Houston, Tex. : A general study-course association, a school- masters' round-table, a " story tellers' league," and a public-school art league. Class IV Covington, Ky. : A principals' round-table. Butte, Mont. : A general lecture-course association. Dubuque, la. : A general association and a kindergarten association. Topeka, Kan. : A principals' club, and a grade teachers' organization. Canton, O. : A schoolmasters' and a women teachers' club. Joliet, 111. : A county teachers' association, a botany and a science club. The interests and aims of the different associations of the same name, etc., vary enormously, so that it is practically impossible to generalize much on the subject, but a complete tabulation of the data secured indicates that differentiation may, on the whole, be expected to occur from the smaller to the larger cities in the following order : principals, with later separation along adminis- trative units or sex lines ; schoolmasters' clubs ; primary and kindergarten, mutual aid, women teachers, high-school teachers, grade teachers, and lastly subject-matter associations. Section II. The Present Counter-move Toward Federation As an offset to this great specialization and differentiation in the associations, there is a counter-move toward a unification of educational interests by means of federated or affiliated associ- ations. The movement is as yet very indefinite and unorganized. Differentiation and Specialisation 13 but many a.ddresses and discussions on the subject have been given at all sorts of associations within the last few years and some institutional recognitions of it are becoming apparent. In the National Education Association, the opinion has frequently been advanced that there are too many sections and a consequent waste of energy, but little has been done to remedy the defect. The Board of Directors in 1909 did agree to limit the number of departments to nine 7 but this agreement does not appear to have been followed, the number of departments for 1910 being eighteen. Besides, this move may in a sense be only an indication of greater specialization ; among the reasons advanced for the reduction of the departments was one that several classes of teachers, such as the kindergarteners and the art teachers, prefer to get their associational experience in separate associations so that it is unnecessary to try to arrange special departments for them. 8 Further indications are seen in numerous adverse criticisms in the last few years leveled at the National Education Association, most of them accusing it of failure to keep itself a truly national body, representative of all educational interests, and some of them going so far as to predict early decay for it. In this connection it is well to note the new federation of state teachers' associations which first met in 1909 at Denver for informal discussions of means for making the state associations more effective. This body met at Boston in 1910 with a complete organization and a definite program. It is significant that most of the time here was devoted to discussions of the aims of the national federation and to plans for affiliating teachers' associations within the separate states. It is of course as yet too early to foretell the outcome of this movement, but it may be that it has within it the possibilities of effecting a national unification of the teaching profession, with a definite institutional organization, such as the National Education Association has never been able to attain. The need of greater co-operation among organized bodies of teachers is also being recognized within the states. While the movement for federation is as yet far from general or always successful, and while it occurs in very diverse forms, the following 7 Proc. N. E. A., 1909 : 46. 8 Ibid., 45- 14 The Work of Teachers? Voluntary Associations brief accounts of the methods employed in several states will serve to indicate the trend of affairs. In 1905 the Associated Academic Principals of New York invited the state association to confer regarding joint meetings for two years, and an ultimate union of the various specialized organ- izations of the state. 9 Things were very promising for a while and in October of 1907 a plan of federation was agreed upon by representatives of the English Teachers, Grammar School Princi- pals, State Teachers' Association, Training Class Teachers, Council of School Superintendents, and Academic Principals. The tentative organization in brief was an executive council composed of the president and secretary of each constituent organization, all members of each minor association to be members of the federation and pay dues of ten cents for it to their local treasurers. The proposed purposes and work of the federation were : "a. Permanent secretary. b. One volume that will contain the proceedings of all state organizations belonging. c. Complete list of the teachers of the state. d. An effective legislative committee." 10 But factional troubles soon set in 11 and while the state associ- ation has since that time practically absorbed several of the specialized associations, some of the more important ones are still not affiliated and there is little prospect of their being so in the near future. In Ohio there is an affiliation of educational and teachers' associations known as " The Allied Educational Associations of Ohio," 12 formed in 1904 in an effort to unify the educational forces of the state. The essential features of the organization are as follows: The admission of any educational association upon request and appointment of a representative for the general execu- tive committee; an annual convention at Columbus during the Christmas holidays ; a general executive committee, composed of the chairmen of the executive committees of the constituent associ- ations, who preside in turn at the general sessions, the special 9 Proc. N. Y. State Teach. Assn., 1906 : 8-9. 10 Proc. N. Y. State Assn. Schl. Corns, and Supts., 1907 : 107 (Edn. Dept. Bull., 427). U N. Y. Edn. Dept. Bull., Oct., 1908 : 1 19-120. w The description here given is abridged from Chrisman : The Allied Edu- cational Associations of Ohio : Jnl. Ped., 19 : 269-281. Differentiation and Specialisation 15 business of each minor association being left to its own officers ; fees of twenty-five cents from each person attending the annual convention. The wide range of interests thus co-ordinated may be judged from the list of constituent associations in 1907 : The Ohio State Association of School Examiners. The Ohio Township Superintendents' Association. The Ohio College Association. The Ohio Academy of Science. The Ohio School Improvement Federation. The Central Ohio Schoolmasters' Club. The Ohio Speech-Arts Association. The Association of Ohio Teachers of Mathematics and Science. The Ohio Art and Manual Training Teachers' Association. The Ohio State Association of Secondary Teachers. The Ohio State Association of Elementary Teachers. The Ohio Young Men's Christian Associations. The Ohio Kindergarten Association. The Ohio State Association of Medical Teachers. The Ohio Division of the United States Historical Society. The Association of Ohio Teachers of Philosophy, Psychology, and Pedagogy. It is claimed for this organization that it has the excellent features of using very little machinery, of leaving the way open to immediate reception of new associations, and of being especially valuable as furnishing through its executive committee, a legisla- tive committee to aid the state school commissioner. But it is somewhat difficult to see how the results obtained differ materially from those states which have strong state associations with plenty of sections ; and indeed a prominent state official of Ohio recently wrote that the organization amounts to little more than a joint arrangement for programs, hotel accommodations, and railroad rates. However, it would seem to have the advantage of getting representatives of all classes of educational interests in the state in one place at once, a thing which many other states do not seem able to accomplish. In Massachusetts an especially good plan has been worked out in the form of an educational council, which has been well described by Foos : " Thp council in Massachusetts aims to unify and secure the co-operation of all the educational agencies of the State to discuss 16 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations and devise plans for increasing the efficiency of education, and to promote necessary legislation. The membership comprises the president of the state association and the secretary of the state board of education, exfhcio; 24 delegates from the state teachers' association ; 5 each from the New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, the Massachusetts Schoolmasters' Club, and the Massachusetts Superintendents' Association; 3 delegates each from the New England Normal Council, the High School Masters' Club, the Boston Association of School Principals, the Boston Teachers' Club, and the Harvard Teachers' Association; 1 each from the various county associations and any other educa- tional organizations desiring to be represented, provided that the total membership shall not exceed ioo." 13 The Virginia State Association is employing an extremely effective method of arousing local associations and stimulating local endeavor. Each congressional district has a vice-president who reports to the president of the association three times a year. Each county association is allowed one representative in the state association for every twenty-five members, but these representa- tives have the exclusive voting privilege only when there is a demand for a roll-call. Each vice-president stimulates the district of which he has charge and local associations in it hold at least two meetings a year. 14 California presents the most carefully worked out plan for affiliating all the teachers of the state in one large organization. The federation arose because geographical conditions necessitated four large associations in as many geographical sections of the state. These had grown very large and powerful, but were not working together, so in 1907 15 it was proposed to federate them. The proposals for the affiliation as advanced late in 1909 were as follows : Name: The name of this organization shall be " The California Council of Education." Membership : The organizations first considered for member- ship herein are the California Teachers' Association ; The South- ern California Teachers' Association ; The Northern California Teachers' Association, and The Central California Teachers' Association. After this organization has been duly established, the 13 Foos, State Educational Associations ; Rep. Com. Edn., 1909 : 1 : 253. "Ibid., 264. w Schl. Bd. Jnl, May, 1910 : 10. Differentiation and Specialisation 17 members thereof shall determine upon the admission of new members. Representation: Each association is entitled to be represented by its president, secretary, and one additional representative for each three hundred paid memberships, or major fraction thereof. Each president, after the date of the organization of this affili- ation of the associations represented herein, shall continue to serve as a representative of his association for two years after his term as president has expired, but during these two years he shall be counted as one of the representatives from his association under the apportionment of representatives. Each association shall determine the method of appointment of its representatives except as above specified.- Duties and Purposes: 1. This council shall be a permanent committee on legislation to represent the educational interests of the members of the associations. 2. It shall have authority to establish and support an official means of communication with the members of the associations. 3. It shall have power to deliberate on educational questions, policies and reforms, and to make recommendations regarding the same. 4. It shall have power to take action upon all questions referred to it by the associations. 5. It shall have power to choose its own officials and define their duties. 16 The plan was' carried through, and the council met in March, 1910, for organization, with twenty-six members, representing about eight thousand teachers in the four affiliating associations. The membership dues for teachers are $1.00, paid to the local association, seventy-five cents of it being sent to the official organ of the council, — the Sierra Educational News. This educational monthly is owned by the associations, its editor being employed for his full time on the periodical and for work as secretary of the council, at a salary of $2,400. There were protests for a while from some teachers of the state who feared too much centraliza- tion of power and ring politics, but the agitation seems to have died down and the outlook at present is very promising. In city associations there is little in the way of formal connection with other teachers' associations or with organizations of any sort for that matter. There are a few places where definite affiliations K Sierra Ednl. News, Oct., 1909 144. 18 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations have been worked out 17 and there are a few instances where the associations are affiliated with outside teachers' associations or with general cultural and civic organizations. 18 But in general, as far as any institutional arrangements are concerned, the city associations are isolated. However, this does not mean that city teachers do not co-operate when, necessary. Great numbers of instances could be cited to show that they have done so recently, 19 and even as organized bodies, especially in matters of legislation, but such co-operation is easily arranged without formal machinery. If organization for organization's sake were the only ideal, it would doubtless be better to have more definite and customary arrangements for co-operation between the various city associations. But when one considers the ease with which committees from the associations can be appointed for conference, the general associations which exist in most cities, and the apparently increasing tendency to form " educational councils " in city systems, it is by no means certain that any more formal affiliations are necessary. "Examples are: The Rochester Arts and Crafts Association with the general city asso- ciation. The various Philadelphia organizations which have come together in the Philadelphia Teachers' Association. The affiliation of the various associations in Jersey City. The Interboro Council of New York which is composed of delegates from the various teachers' organizations of all the boros. The George Howland Club (men principals) with the Ella Flagg Young Club (women principals) in Chicago. 18 Examples are : The Pittsburg Principals' Association with the Pennsylvania School- masters' Club. The Norfolk Teachers' Association with the Virginia State Association. The Columbus branch of the Ohio Reading Circle. The Rochester and Philadelphia local chapters of the Association of Mathematics Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland. The Terre Haute Teachers' Association with the local Civic League. The affiliation of women teachers' associations with general women's clubs. 19 In fact about the only instances of actual opposition between city asso- ciations that the writer has come across have been a few in connection with "equal pay" agitations like those in New York and Philadelphia, where the men naturally oppose the women. Differentiation and Specialization 19 Section III. The Historical Origin of the Present Conditions This matter of specialization in associations, when we come to examine it historically, is a comparatively modern development, although there were traces of it very early. The first permanent teachers' association, the American Institute of Instruction, was not even confined to teachers when it started, 20 and for the first fifteen years its leaders were educational statesmen rather than teachers. But the germs of specialization were in the movement, for by the end of that period the grammar-school men of Massa- chusetts and Connecticut had become so dissatisfied with the domination of the educational statesmen, college professors, and classical men in the American Institute of Instruction, that they withdrew and proceeded to form the Massachusetts and Connecti- cut state associations in 1845 an d ^46 respectively. 21 In these state associations they narrowed the membership to those actively engaged in teaching and had programs meant for teachers only. Later on these same men came into control of the American Institute of Instruction and while they ran it on broader lines than the state associations, it was never so broad as it had been before. 22 The American Association for the Advancement of Education (1849- 1 856) wen t even farther, for in 185 1 its constitution con- tained the following: " The Convention may, at pleasure, through its standing com- mittee, resolve itself into sections, the number and designation of said sections to vary, from time to time, as may be found expedient. " Each section shall meet by itself, and shall elect its own chair- 20 The original call for the first regular meeting in August, 1830, did read: "All teachers, either of common schools or in institutions of a higher order, and all gentlemen who have ever been engaged in the business of teaching, and who still take an interest in the subject of education, are respectfully invited to attend the meeting, and become members of the asso- ciation, in whatever part of the country they may reside." (Quoted in Barnard's Am. Jnl. Edn., 2:24.) But "the presence . . of many gentlemen from all parts of the Union, and of various professions and employments, induced the members to concur in the design of adopting a more extended plan." (From Proc. of Am. Inst, for 1830 as given in Annals of Education, I : 430.) a Winship, The American Institute of Instruction, Proc. N. E. A., 1906 : 460. 22Ibid. 20 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations man and secretary, who shall be ex officio members of the standing committee and shall remain in office for one year. " It may also have a standing committee of its own ; it shall discuss such subjects as are indicated by the title of the sections — may receive communications — recommend subjects to be investi- gated, and reported upon, etc." 23 This of course shows that the need of specialization and of separation for more thorough work in special fields had been recognized. After 1845 various state associations were formed so rapidly that by the time the National Teachers' Association was formed in 1857 there were twenty-two of them in existence. There were some faint traces of specialization even in this early period. Thus the county superintendents of New York had a state association from 1841-1847 until the position was abolished, but they really met at the call of the state superintendent. Illinois also had such an association in 1859. New York tried to form a city superin- tendents' and principals' association in 1856, as did Ohio in 1857, but both of these soon died out. About 1852 the classical teachers of Western New York managed to have an association for several years and in 1855 an unsuccessful attempt was made in Michigan to form a natural history association. With these exceptions a pretty extensive search has failed to reveal any section within state associations until after the Civil War. Immediately after the Civil War or even during it, signs of differentiation became evident, but the movement was very slow indeed in the beginning. The National Teachers' Association did not amount to much in the first few years and so felt no need for sections. But in 1866, the superintendents and the normal school people withdrew to form separate associations which met at the same time and place as the main association and continued to do this until 1870. In this year, the name of the association was changed to the National Educational Association,* the two minor associations were brought in as departments, and the two new departments of elementary and higher education were created. In other ways the beginnings of specialization are to be noted. Before 1870, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Maryland at least had sec- tions for county superintendents in the state associations, while ^Barnard's Am. Jnl. Edn. : 1 : 5. ♦Changed to National Education Association in 1907. Differentiation and Specialisation 21 college associations were to be found in New York, Ohio, and Massachusetts. Thus the movement went along slowly till the National Educa- tion Association, probably as a result of the Centennial, added the Industrial Education Department in 1877. In 1879 the New England Superintendents' Association was started. In the state associations during the decade from 1870- 1880, sections for super- intendents and principals were to be found in at least California, Michigan, Minnesota, Kansas, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and New York; sections for county superintendents in Kansas and New York ; college sections in Massachusetts, Ohio, and Indiana ; high- school sections or provision for an association in California, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, and Rhode Island ; grammar-school sections in California, Maine, Minnesota, and Rhode Island ; primary sections in the last three named. But beginning about the year 1880 there was a more pronounced tendency to form sections. It is uncertain what caused the move- ment, but it was probably only one manifestation of the general educational awakening and criticism of the current means of education. 24 The effects of this tendency are soon manifest in the National Education Association for we find the leaders draw- ing off to form the Council of Education in 1881, although this organization did not have its proceedings printed with those of the main association till 1884- In 1883 the Art, in 1885 the Music, in 1886 the Secondary, in 1889 the Manual, in 1893 the Business and Technical (the latter for one year only), in 1894 the Child Study, in 1895 the Science, in 1896 the School Administration, in 1898 the Special Education, and in 1900 the Indian Education departments came. From 1900 to 1906 the association continued M At any rate there is a sudden change in the reports of the teachers' asso- ciations in the educational periodicals of the times, for the reader begins to note that they are filled with much dissatisfaction. The reporters frequently state that the associations are too much given to long-winded, prosy lec- tures and to vague and glittering generalities, and consequently never get anywhere ; that it is no wonder school boards are unwilling to let teachers off to attend such useless meetings, etc. Often the recommendations are made that the work would be much more helpful if it could be made more practical ; if the college and university men who knew nothing about actual public school work, and yet monopolized the programs, could be eliminated and all the teachers of one class or interest brought together so that they could thresh out some particular problem by themselves, say definitely that it was settled and then proceed to something new instead of going over the same ground year after year. 22 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations with the same list of sections, but in 1907 the Technical Education, the Rural and Agricultural and the National Organization of Women departments were added. The list of departments for 1910 is given on page 6. It should also be noted in this connection that the National Education Association was not able to care for all the particular interests that wished to cover the whole country, but that various specialized associations of national extent went on independently. Thus the music teachers have had a special association of this sort since 1876, the commercial teachers since 1880, the modern language teachers since 1887, and the agricultural colleges since 1888. A tabulation of the original dates of most of the national specialized associations of importance now in existence shows clearly that this kind of organization begins to be very prominent in the nineties and is exceedingly so since 1900. Of the inter-state associations, the American Institute of Instruction did not have sections till 1906, apparently, although it did have two round-tables in 1892. The Southern Educational Association has had sections from the second year of its existence (1891). 25 But the whole tendency is shown very clearly in the inter-state specialized associations. The New England superin- tendents had separated out for special work by 1879, and the New England normal-school teachers were not much behind. The four great college and preparatory associations beginning with the one for New England, which was developed out of the Massa- chusetts Classical and High School Association, in 1885, were all in existence by 1895. But the differentiation did not stop here and by 1900 the Western and Eastern Manual Training, the Eastern Art, the Eastern Physics, the North Central History, and the New England History Associations were in existence. It is impossible to obtain data for an adequate historical treat- ment of the movement in city associations. However, considerable fragmentary material has been accumulated and it all tends to show that the general development has been essentially the same as in the associations covering greater areas. The differentiation naturally came first in the larger cities where the teachers were more numerous and permanent, and in general proceeded down- ^Tighe, The Southern Educational Association : Proc. N. E. A. igo6~: 503. Differentiation and Specialization 23 ward, from superintendents and principals, finally reaching grade teachers. With the increasing percentage of women teachers in the cities, there has come a marked differentiation of school- masters' clubs since about 1890 and of women teachers' associations since about 1900. To sum up the historical phase, it may be said that differenti- ation and specialization were of comparatively little importance till the period of educational awakening about 1880, became a serious matter in the nineties, and are still going on at a rapid rate. At present it may be said that specialization within general associations, is certainly on the increase. This is shown by the rapid growth of the number of sections from year to year in the newer associations of the western states. In the older states the tendency seems to be for the sections to become more and more independent of each other, that is, to form practically isolated associations that for some purposes, such as reducing expenses, may come together for a joint meeting, but are really independent. Again the movement for isolated associations is continuing in the national field. The music and kindergarten teachers have such strong national organizations that at the National Education Asso- ciation in 1909 it was claimed to be unnecessary to continue the corresponding departments, as the work was already so well cared for elsewhere. The National Mathematics and Science Federation is a recent example of this as it was formed from a number of large specialized associations in various parts of the country and now has a strongly organized national association in its special field. Thus this tendency to form strong isolated specialized organizations is probably on the increase and at any rate general associations now exist practically in name only. Section IV. Problems Connected with Present Conditions The most casual reader of educational journals or proceedings of teachers' associations at any time in the last twenty years can hardly have failed to notice protests against the increasing number and specialization of the associations. Particularly has this been evident in the reasons lately advanced in several places for affili- ation of organizations. However, it will be recalled from the preceding sections that specialization has all the while gone steadily on, extending itself in various ways and along many lines 24 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations of cleavage, so that while it may not be altogether a good thing, it is preposterous to think of eliminating it. Hence the only prac- tical treatment of the problem is an attempt to estimate impartially the values of specialization in associations, with a view to encour- aging good and limiting evil results as much as possible. This we shall now attempt to do. The objections to specialized associations appear in various forms but they are all practically reducible to one, — that such specialization prevents a unified teaching profession or anything like a balanced professional consciousness among teachers. It is argued that in the specialized associations, teachers are constantly being more and more isolated from teachers with even slightly different interests so that undesirable class distinctions are inevit- able. These differences only serve to accentuate the difficulties teachers have always had in working together for any common good. The well-known difficulty experienced in getting all teachers of any legislative district to work for legislation, even that which will benefit every one of them, is given as an especially good case in point. As a result of this class separation, it is urged, the individual teacher is more and more drawn into a narrower circle of interests so that his own selfish needs increasingly occupy his attention. This not only tends toward a divided profession, but what is still worse, toward one of a distinctly lower tone than we have here- tofore had, for the whole tendency involves the waning of the high altruistic motives that have in general characterized the teaching profession until the present. It is said that many teachers recognize the danger of being so narrowed and con- sequently try to see the work in many departments at any general association, with the result that they spend their time flitting about from section to section and in the end secure from the associations only an exceedingly superficial professional knowledge, — the very thing specialization seeks to prevent. On the other hand the advocates of specialization in associations not only offer strong counter-objections to the ones just cited, but they also advance some additional arguments that are practically irrefutable. In the first place, it is urged that specialization is inevitable under the general laws of evolution and progress. It already exists in many other lines of voluntary association, and the teaching profession has now reached a stage of numbers and Differentiation and Specialisation 25 complexity where a "constituent" rather than a "component" society of teachers is inevitable. Especially is this true as regards the formation of associations for the study of methods in special subjects, for the members of such associations have previously been highly specialized in their pursuit of knowledge at any of the schools they have attended. Again, evidence is adduced to prove that specialization insures the enlisting of the greatest possible number of teachers in some form of associational work for the reason that some sort of organ- ization that will appeal to each teacher's interest, can always be found. And after all, in associational experience, it is only the associations that enlist the active interest of teachers that count. It may be true that teachers are somewhat isolated from other groups of teachers by this specialization, but it must not be for- gotten, that to the 1 "extent this is true, to the same extent they are still more isolated from the general public, so that they always are much nearer in interests to some teachers than to outsiders. Hence, there is an increasingly closer fellow-feeling among teachers at large, — the gap between them and outsiders is wider than ever before. Another strong argument for specialization is that it tends to remove one serious defect of the old associations, — it helps to center the attention and energies of teachers upon very definite and specific problems, thus insuring a final or at least a fairly permanent solution. This avoids the vagueness and futility so characteristic of the work of the old associations. At the same time, teachers may acquire sufficient breadth by belonging to more than one association, or what is more reasonable, by repeated daily personal contacts with teachers in other lines of work, con- tacts that in the end produce far more results than a transient exposure to the influence of a body of kindred specialists, once or twice a year. It is also argued that specialization will tend to increase the sum total of professional knowledge in many more fields so far as the associations are productive of such knowledge. With many more groups of workers at work this is obvious, and it is especially true of the newer subjects which might not receive any attention at general associations, but which are sure to be worked out if teachers are always free to organize small sections or separate associations. 26 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations And lastly it may be urged that specialization tends to bring about a better balance in general professional interests than has been the case heretofore. This does not mean necessarily a smoother or a quieter adjustment, but simply a better one. The professional unity of the past has not always meant a healthy adjustment of the various interests, but sometimes rather a strong and crushing monopoly of certain interests, too powerful to be opposed by the others. Thus the college interests long dominated ; then the superintendents and principals separated out, and it is only within a very recent period that women grade teachers, and grade principals have had the benefit of active associational experience. By giving free scope to the organization of sections or specialized departments whenever there is a demand for them, there will be a healthy rivalry between various classes of teachers, and the vitality of a section will be a good criterion of its value. Federation will inevitably take place where it is necessary as it will be a device very attractive to sections or interests that would otherwise be crowded out. When it comes to specialization as a practical matter, most people regard it as inevitable and declare that there must be freedom for it; consequently the only problem here is that of finding the limit up to which it may be economically utilized. Specialization within general associations is very desirable for the reasons above cited. General sessions will largely offset narrowing tendencies, useful differentiations are the only ones likely to survive, and it is comparatively easy to keep the manage- ment of the whole broad by providing on the board of managers, representatives from the various sections. However, unless this last matter is attended to, it will be difficult to avoid the with- drawal of unrepresented or dissatisfied classes of teachers, as has several times occurred in the case of the National Education Association, which has tended to invest its management in a close corporation, rather than in anything like a representative body. Specialization by associations covering large areas, is probably of doubtful value unless the teachers involved get some genuine contact with other classes of teachers. Still such specialization seems inevitable, particularly as the specialization of subject- matter in schools continues. The teachers may secure enough general contact through their local or state general associations, but the best way is probably that of getting all the specialized Differentiation and Specialisation 27 associations within a practicable area to meet together as affiliated bodies and have some general sessions. However, a limit to such possibilities as this is soon reached because of the numbers to be accommodated at one time and place if all interested attend. Therefore, in many respects the best plan seems to be that of general associations of reasonable size with plenty of sections. These sections could then elect delegates to representative councils covering larger territories as is already done in several of the state councils of education, only many of these are not representative of all the interests concerned. This plan might be extended up to associations that would cover the whole country. If this were done, it would be possible to have a truly national association, getting out a truly representative year- book of incalculable value, — a consummation devoutly to be wished though at present far from being attained. CHAPTER II THE WORK OF THE ASSOCIATIONS IN LEGISLATION In a country like the United States where public opinion is so powerful, one of the best ways of estimating the importance of any element in the social structure is to see how it helps to fix the institutional forms of social activities ; in other words, to examine its influence upon legislation. This test when applied to the teach- ing profession not only is serviceable in this respect but, as legisla- tion is customarily promoted by voluntary associations, it also serves to indicate the sense of professional solidarity and power of co-operation among teachers. As a rule, legislation is a concern of general rather than special teachers' associations, for success in securing it comes only when more than one class of teachers will support it. Furthermore it is obviously an activity of associations that cover legislative areas like the nation, states, and cities. We shall now take up in order the associations in these areas, examining consecutively their provisions for influencing legislation, their methods of procedure, the kind of legislation attempted, and the, actual results. After this we shall deal with problems arising from a consideration of the foregoing. Section I. The National Education Association The National Education Association has attempted and is attempting very little in the way of legislation for the reason that in the United States education has not heretofore been generally considered a matter for national legislative action. There is no specific provision for influencing legislation and no direct refer- ence to the idea in any of the structural arrangements of the association. What little it has done has in the main been confined to the passing of rather futile resolutions and the appointing of short-lived committees on the United States Bureau of Education, 28 The Work of the Associations in Legislation 29 the establishment of a National University, and National Aid to Education. All of these questions have been considered in their recurring cycles within a year or so, but the usual differences of opinion and failure to take definite and continued action regarding them 1 have led to nothing of importance. Section II. State Associations In the state associations, however, legislation is widely recog- nized as a natural sphere of activity, every association having been concerned with it in some way in recent years. For such work, about half of the associations use standing or regular committees on legislation, while the rest employ various other regular or special temporary committees. These legislative committees are small in membership, the most frequent number of members being five, and usually contain the president and one or more members from the executive committee. Over a third of them contain some member from the state department of education and the other members are almost exclusively city or county superintend- ents. Some effort is usually made to keep experienced men on the legislative committee. In Wisconsin 2 and Iowa 3 a member serves three years, and all members are not elected at the same time. In California, the presidents of the constituent associations retain their seats in the Council, which is a permanent legislative committee for two years after their presidencies. 4 In practically all the other standing or permanent legislative committees, mem- bers are frequently retained year after year. The following statements from representative associations in widely different parts of the country show the aim and general nature of the work of these legislative committees : " To formulate and define our school needs and to secure their enactment into laws." 5 !The latest example of this, a typical one, is the resolution of the 1910 meeting of the Department of Superintendence, favoring the elevation of the Bureau of Education into a Department. This was, however, referred to a committee to be brought up at the next annual meeting in 191 1. Proc. N. E. A., 1910 : 9-10. 2 Proc. Wise. T. Assn., 1908 : 1. 3 Proc. la. S. T. Assn., 1908 :6. i Sierra Edn. News, Oct. 1909 : 44. 5 Ut. Edn. Rev., Jan. 1909 : 8, Rep. of S. T. Assn. 30 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations " . . . . shall suggest needed legislation for the improvement of the schools of the state and of the teaching profession, and, when so directed by the association, shall endeavor to have these suggestions incorporated in the school laws of the state." 6 " The Committee on Legislation appointed by the President carry out as near as may be the recommendations of the Commit- tee on Resolutions, meet with the Educational Committees of the State Legislature, and formulate bills and present the same to the committee of the Legislature for their consideration." 7 " . . . . whose duty it shall be to keep the needs and interests of the public schools of the state constantly before the people, tax- payers and legislators of the state through the press and otherwise as opportunity offers." 8 The committee, after it is formed, may simply get up a set of resolutions on desirable education legislation, but the ordinary plan where serious work is intended, is to conduct an investigation into the educational procedure in the designated field in other states. Thus the Colorado committee in 1908, was directed " to make an exhaustive study of the school law in connection with the school systems of the other states" ; 9 the Wisconsin Committee on Education investigated the economic status of teachers, in 1907 ; 10 a Minnesota committee in 1908 considered a plan of county normal schools in sister states ; xl the Indiana Association, in 1909, con- ducted a detailed examination of pension systems for teachers. 12 As such investigations, to be well done, require far more time and money than the associations can afford, they may first try to secure a state commission to do the investigating at state expense. This was the case in Indiana, in 1905, 13 and in Illinois, in 1907 : 14 6 Proc. S. Car. S. T. Assn., 1909 131, Rep. Com. on Constitution and By-Laws. 7 Proc. Ind. S. T. Assn., 1908 : 3. 8 Proc. N. H. S. Assn., 1907 : 3. 9 Educational Council, Col. Assn., 1908 : 2. 10 Proc. Wise. Assn., 1907 : 7. u Proc. Minn. Edn. Assn., 1908 : 17. ^Proc. Ind. Assn., 1909 : 17-18. :3 Proc. Ind. Assn., 1905 : 58-59. "Proc. 111. S. T. Assn., 1907 : 19. This commission began work in December, 1907, and at once undertook the publication of a series of bulletins which were issued separately, the series being completed by 1909. Their value may be judged from the fact that by that time they had been "demanded in quantities in at least a dozen of the states for the purpose of influencing legislation." (Final Report of Educational Commission to the Forty-sixth General Assembly of Illinois, p. 6.) The Work of the Associations in Legislation 31 while within the last eighteen months, such commissions have been requested by the state associations in Kansas, 15 Ohio, 16 Pennsyl- vania, 17 and South Dakota. 18 After the data are secured, the legislative, or some other com- mittee, formulates the wishes of the associations in regard to the matter. There are wide variations, indeed, as regards this for- mulation, from a mere resolution calling upon the legislature to note the problems, 19 through a recommendation to the state department of education to draft a law, 20 up to the highly specific work of the California, Colorado, Indiana, and New Jersey associ- ations where the legislative committees draw up bills under legal advice. The two extremes are well seen in the case of the Indiana Association which in 1909 was apparently not greatly concerned over the text-book question, and merely passed a resolution on the subject, 21 while the legislative committee brought in a report on a retirement law, already elaborated to the stage of "An Act to Provide." 22 The report of the legislative committee, whatever its form, must in general be approved by the association before further procedure is undertaken. In case of resolutions, or less definitely formulated reports, the approval is frequently perfunctory ; but in the more influential organizations, elaborate steps are taken to have the proposals for legislation secure the support of most of the members of the association. Thus, the Colorado legislative committee does not go further with bills that do not meet the approval of five- sixths of the council members present at the meeting at which such bills are proposed. 23 The Indiana city and county superintendents settle their differences at meetings apart from the state association, or in years when the legislature is not in session, so that a practical working agreement may be reached when the time comes for the legislative committee to begin active work with the legislature. When the ideas of the association, or of its legislative committee 15 Kan. T. Assn., Western School Journal, Jan., 1909 :4s. 16 O. Ed. Monthly, July, 1909 :40a 17 Pa. Edn. Assn., 1909 :4& 18 S. Dak. Ed. Assn., 1908 : 28-29. 19 Ark. State T. Assn., 1908 : 19. 20 Ky. Ed. Assn., 1909 : 11. 21 Proc. Ind. S. T. Assn., 1909 : 9. 22 Ibid., 18-22. M Mins. Ed. Coun. Col. S. T. Assn., 1908 : 2. 32 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations have been expressed, the next step is the attempt to get them enacted into laws. There are three general methods of pro- cedure here, — recommendations to the governor or state depart- ment, general publicity campaigns, and direct work on the legisla- ture. The first method is one used where the association is not very powerful and so hopes merely to suggest procedure, as in Kansas 24 and New Mexico. 25 But it is also found, in various modifications, in states where there are strong state departments, so that the association feels that it has only to suggest the ideas to the state department and co-operate with it, as in New York. 26 "Arousing the People" is often frankly recognized as the surest way of influencing legislators. Probably the best expression of this aim is found in a resolution adopted by the New Hampshire Association, in 1907 : " . . . . the most desirable work of the Legislative Committee will be with the citizenship of the state in the direction of setting effectively before the people the needs of the public schools rather than the General Court, for the few weeks of its session." 27 The plans for carrying out such publicity are often not very clearly formulated, and the association contents itself with a resolution of which the following is a typical case: " We hereby request teachers, educational associations, and other organizations interested in the welfare of the child, here and else- where, to give their hearty support to this movement, .... to interest their local papers and in every way in their power to assist in this movement." 28 On the other hand, some associations have carefully worked out plans for publicity. The Missouri Association, in the county supervision campaign of 1907, formulated petitions to be presented to the legislature, and sent them out through the state department to every county. 29 In Virginia and Indiana, there are highly organized plans for utilizing local and sectional associations. Thus in the Virginia campaign of 1908, the state organization, through its subsidiary local associations, held rallies of teachers, school 2i West. Schl. Jnl., Jan. 1909 : 45. 25 AT. Mex. Jnl. Ed., Feb. 15, 1909 : 14. ^Proc. N. Y. S. T. Assn., 1908 : 24-26. ^Proc. N. H. S. T. Assn., 1907 : 13. ^Proc. O. State T. Assn. O. Ed. Monthly, July, 1909 : 402. ^Proc. Mo. S. T. Assn., 1907 : 17. The Work of the Associations in Legislation 33 officials, and citizens in every /county. 30 In Indiana, the teaching profession is so well organized, that every matter of importance on the legislative program of the state association, is discussed and thereby disseminated through all the smaller associations in the state, and any newspaper article issued from headquarters will be inserted by teachers in many local papers. In some states the press is used a great deal. Thus, the Georgia association made a special point of sending out briefs, to papers in 1908. 31 The California and Colorado associations both own periodicals, and pay their secretaries good salaries to edit them in the interests of the associations. But the Colorado association, at least since 1907, has also had a special committee on publicity, which has done very effective work. 32 The New Jersey associ- ation, especially the Retirement Fund Department, has developed very aggressive methods of publicity. In the 1908 campaign for the tenure-of-office bill, for example, ten thousand circulars were sent out to be used by teachers as campaign documents. The secretary of the Retirement Fund, Miss Elizabeth Allen, in September, 1909, sent out a large sheet of "release" matter that was a model of organization. It contained complete information in regard to the retirement fund, worked up into small articles with attractive headings, so that any paper could simply copy such articles as it pleased, at once. The material was sent out in advance to many papers, to be released at a certain time. However, direct influence upon the legislators is of course one of the obvious ways of securing legislation, no matter whether public sentiment has been much aroused or not. Indeed, it might be said, other things being equal, that the effect upon legislation exerted by a state association may be pretty accurately gauged by the directness with which it approaches the legislature. Nearly every state association at some time or other, sends its legislative committee, or part of it, to the legislature during the session, to argue before committees in favor of certain educational legislation. The amount of such direct work upon the legislature seems to be limited mainly by the amount of money the association can spare for the expenses of the lobbyists, and even the very poor and 30 Va. S. T. Assn., 6th Annual Bulletin, Nov. 1908 : 12. 31 Ga. Ed. Assn., 1908 -.42. M Ed. Coun. Col. T. Assn., 1907 : 7. 34 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations weak associations often have individuals enough interested to pay their own expenses in such work. This investigation has disclosed no trace of committee members receiving compensation for such work, but they appear to be willing to give their time freely if their expenses are paid. Thus, the Colorado Council of Education members pledged themselves in 1908 to go to Denver and actively support the pension bill under this condition. 33 The Indiana Association has an exceptionally thorough but unostentatious arrangement for this purpose. An Indianapolis schoolman is always a member of the legislative committee, and, of course, is constantly on the ground during sessions of the legis- lature. But the other members of the committee also watch the situation closely, and the matter is so arranged that any one of their number or other influential schoolmen of the state, may immediately be called to the capital to take his turn in representing the teachers of the state whenever any educational legislation is likely to come up. Thus, in a very effective, and yet thoroughly professional way, the teachers of Indiana are constantly making their influence on legislators felt. New Jersey also works very energetically along similar lines, as may best be shown by the following excerpts from the report of the 1908 legislative committee: " Immediately after the organization in January, the committee rallied all the forces it could reach in the effort to secure the passage of the bill (permanent tenure). Every member of the Senate and of the Assembly was interviewed by members of the committee, or by other advocates of the bill. " .... A number of the leading city superintendents of the state came with the members of the committee and the president of the association to present the claims of the bill at the preliminary hearing in the committees of the Senate and made addresses in its behalf at the public hearing in the Assembly. Large delega- tions of teachers from different parts of the state attended the hearing." 34 In Virginia especially effective work is done in the way of pledging legislators before the opening of the session, as the following account of a recent year's work shows : 33 Ed. Coun. Col. T. Assn., 1908:2. 34 Rep. Com. on Legislation, Proc. N. J. S. T. Assn., 1908 : 1 10-12. The Work of the Associations in Legislation 35 " This preamble and resolution was sent to every member of the General Assembly. Replies were received at once from many of the Assemblymen, who unequivocally pledged themselves to advocate our program. We then sent the resolution to every local association, with the request .that the local associations adopt similar resolutions, and urge their local representatives in the General Assembly to support its provisions. Many more com- mittals were secured through this agency, and when the General Assembly convened your officers felt assured that most of these propositions would be enacted into law." 38 But whatever plan for influencing the legislature is adopted, it is pretty generally recognized that co-operation with the state department of education and with the other associations of teachers in the state is absolutely necessary. As a result, the legislative committee is frequently found consulting with the state department of education, or following its lead. Failure to do this, may result in unwise complications ; an exaggerated case of such danger was seen in the work of the legislative committee of the New York State Teachers' Association in 1908, with its tenure-of- office bill. The committee thought it had the sanction of the state department, but the legislators apparently thought otherwise, and tacked on to the tenure-of-office bill an entirely foreign bill supposed to have arisen in the state department. The result was that the tenure-of-office bill was lost although it could probably have been passed alone. 36 Again, the movements for federating the associations within the state, generally say specifically that effective influence upon the legislation is one of the things aimed at. This was the case in the movement in New York, in 1907, 37 in California in 1909, 38 and in Ohio in 1904. 39 Only the California movement was completely successful, but there seem to be possibilities for the others within a reasonable time. However, until such federations are attained, co-operation will have to be secured through the Colorado, Mary- land, and Virginia plans for forming local or subsidiary associ- ations or clubs ; by endorsing the work of other associations, as in the case of the Texas State Teachers' Association and the Texas 35 Annual Rep. of the President, Va. S. T. Assn., 1908-1909 141-43. 36 Proc. N. Y. S. T. Assn., 1908 =23-26. 37 Proc. N. Y. Associated Academic Principals, 1907:119-120. 38 Sierra Ednl. News, Oct. 1909 : 44. 39 Chrisman, Allied Educational Associations of Ohio, Jnl. Ped. 19: 277. 36 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations Conference for Education, 40 or by joint legislative committees from the different associations, like that in Indiana. Indeed, the last mentioned plan may be the only practicable one for many of the states which are so large that it is impossible for any one association ever to represent all parts of the state well. Occasionally, instead of trying to get a new law passed, results may be secured by testing one already in force, in order to obtain a desired interpretation. Thus, the Washington Educational Association, in 1908, instituted legal proceedings regarding the application of proceeds from the sale of " tide lands " with a view to securing a decision favorable to the Common School Fund. 41 Enough has probably been given to indicate the various lines of interest of the state associations, as regards legislation. It has been utterly impossible to get a complete list of the bills and proposed laws upon which the associations have been working for several years, but a careful tabulation of all such topics as could be obtained (this covered over one-half the associations from all parts of the country) indicates that their efforts are about equally divided in the following five fields : 42 1. General administrative adjustments in state systems, especi- ally in fiscal matters. 2. Detailed administrative improvements for individual schools or types of schools. 3- Training and qualification of teachers. 4. Economic betterment of teachers. 5. General sociological conditions affecting education. There seems to be no special localization of any of these fields in certain parts of the country, but each state association takes up whatever seems to be the most pressing problem at the time. It is a very difficult thing to estimate the actual effect of the state associations upon legislation, except that throughout the country as a whole, such influence undoubtedly is small. Superin- tendent Foos, of Reading, Pa., in 1909 sent out a questionaire 43 " to the officers of each state association asking among other things, 40 Com. on Recommendations, Tex. S. T. Assn., Tex. Schl. Magazine, Jan. 1910 : 12. 41 Proc. Wash. Assn., 1908 : n. ^For specimen topics see Foos, Educational Associations, in Rep. Com. Edn., 1909: vol. 1:270-1. 43 Superintendent Fooi kindly furnished the writer with the original replies to this. The Work of the Associations in Legislation 37 their views of the influence of their association on legislation, and requesting them to name specific acts passed by its influence. Every association sent in a reply. The replies, of course, in the main, give only opinions, but these are the opinions of people who presumably have good grounds for their views. While of course it would be foolish to try to work out percentages and accurate estimates from these data, it is significant that the replies clearly place the associations in three groups of approximately the same size, — those of little power, those moderately influential, and those exerting much influence. Of these, the last is smallest. So that, in the opinion of the officers of these associations, less than a third of these organizations are prominent factors in influencing legislation. 44 Also, the reports of the legislative committees, as printed in the proceedings of the various associations are seldom cheerful, but tell of repeated failures to secure the attention of legislators, of inability to secure promises or preferred places for their legisla- tion for the time being. The reports, in the main, are of this general nature, while in a number of instances the committee seem to think the matter of so little importance that it is not worth while taking up the time of the association by making a report. Even the successful associations often seem compelled to work for years before the measures are finally passed. Again, it is often the case that, in the educational legislation in which the associations are interested, the state department is vigorously at work, presumably with more influence than the association. Indeed, the legislative committees of the associations often speak of co-operating with the state departments and of following their lead. In the digests of the governors' messages from 1902 to 1908, got out by the New York State Library, the excerpts regarding education were carefully examined- Yet, in those that gave the source of the recommendation, only two referred to organizations of teachers, while twenty-eight men- tioned the state departments. In fact it seems to be the opinion of men from all over the country, who have been prominent in these state associations, that, with few exceptions, the associations exert little influence in legis- lative matters. ^For further details see Foos, State Educational Associations, U. S. Com. Edn. Rep. 1909 : I : 270-1. 38 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations Section III. City Associations While state associations, because they cover the most typical legislative areas, are the typical ones for influencing legislation, still such activity 45 is very widespread among city associations. Of forty-eight representative cities of all classes from thirty thousand population up, replies were received from one hundred and twelve associations. Of these, fifty-one associations have within the last year or so been concerned with attempts to influence legislation, and in addition forty others have been working for salary increases, an activity that in many cases amounts to attempts to influence local legislation because such increases usually can be granted only by the passing of a special schedule or ordinance; thirty-one cities are represented by associations working for one or both of these ends. It seems reasonable to suppose that this proportion is approximately true of the whole country. In general, city associations have the same structural provisions and the same methods of procedure for influencing legislation as the state associations. The investigations conducted by these associations preliminary to attempts at influencing legislation are naturally rather restricted in scope and are often very superficial. They are seldom published as special reports of the associations, but many of them find their way into educational periodicals as news items of work done at associations, or as regular articles. There are, however, several features of the legislative work of city associations deserving of special mention. The more important of these are an aggressive initiation of reforms, an especially effective use of all forms of publicity, particularly of the press, and a deliberate and systematic attempt at co-operation with other organizations of teachers. Owing to their local character with the resulting permanence, ability to get quick action upon problems of interest, and power to raise funds speedily, city associations show a directness, an aggressiveness and a persistence in promoting legislation of interest to their members which is seldom seen in any of the associations that cover larger areas. This is increasingly true as the cities become larger. While these city associations are for 45 For influencing the passage of either acts by the state legislature or ordinances by the municipal authorities. The Work of the Associations in Legislation 39 the most part naturally interested in legislation adapted to their local needs, they are indirectly the means of initiating many reforms in educational work for their achievements are often copied in other communities, or adapted to meet the needs of the state. Thus the work of the Chicago Teachers' Federation in uncovering tax-dodging corporations stimulated teachers all over the country to hunt for sequestered property so that it might be taxed to bring in greater educational revenue. The activities of these same teachers, as also of those in New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Minneapolis, and St. Paul, in the last few years, have not only secured better salary schedules in their own localities, but have helped other teachers to achieve similar results in other places. The Chicago teachers apparently were largely responsible for the National Education Association's investigation of the economic conditions of teachers. 46 The teachers of Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Denver, Duluth, Indianapolis, Jersey City, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, New York, St. Paul, and St. Louis have recently done excellent work in initiating agitation for teachers' pensions in their respective states. The results of such agitation have not as yet been embodied in state legislation to any great extent, but most of these cities have secured permissive legislation, enabling them to start individual pension systems, — a step which will in time probably result in an extension to the state systems as has recently been the case in New Jersey and Mary- land. The city associations as a rule have very highly organized means of publicity : in this they are far superior to the state associations. The reasons lie mainly in closer and more persistent contact with the local press, with women's clubs, and with the general public. In general, city associations have easy access to the columns of the local press at almost any time. At the sessions of the National Education Association and at the various state associations there is frequently much complaint that the local papers give little or no space to the proceedings. Such is not the case with most of the city associations that care for publicity. In many of the cities, also the more important associations have organs of their own or have correspondents who will give full reports of their activities to various educational periodicals. Through the women teachers' « Chic. T. Fed. Bull., Sept 11, 1903 : 1. 40 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations clubs, or through the teachers who are members of women's clubs, the women teachers have contact with the women of the city, and thus have another avenue for publicity. But in addition to these means, the associations often conduct direct agitations of the public by means of public assemblies. The two best recent examples of this are probably the Philadelphia Teachers' Association and the Chicago Teachers' Federation. The former in the winter of 1903 effected an organization of the teachers of the city and by the first of June following had prac- tically every teacher in the city enlisted in a campaign for better salaries and improved schools. 47 By means of a fund of over $4,000 subscribed by the teachers, a vigorous campaign was instituted, in which petitions from the people, clubs, and religious associations were sent to the Board of Education, a mass meeting was held in the largest assembly hall in the city, several teachers from other places were brought to tell what organization had accomplished for teachers in their respective localities. An increase in salaries for all teachers below the high school was obtained ; the teachers have kept up their organizations, and the city is still experiencing the good effects of the educational awakening. The Chicago Teachers' Federation conducted a strong agitation to influence public opinion in its fight to assess the property of the tax-dodging public service corporations, against a Board of Education favoring these interests, which controlled several important daily papers. Finally the members of the Federation decided to enter the Chicago Federation of Labor, " because they could by so doing utilize practically the hitherto ineffective support of public opinion, without being obliged to commit themselves to any policy in conflict with the one they had already adopted. 48 Much good to the teaching profession in general results from these publicity campaigns for items of interest are soon noted and published all over the country in educational and even in lay periodicals. As a consequence, representatives of successful associations are frequently invited to other cities to aid the teachers there in similar movements, by addresses. City associations show considerable capacity for co-operation in 47 A synopsis of this campaign is given in Jnl. Edn. 58 : 383-4. 48 Editorial Chic. T. Fed. Bull., April 17, 1905 : 4. The Work of the Associations in Legislation 41 their legislative activities. Much of this co-operation is necessarily very informal for the reason that the traditional attitude of Boards of Education is that of viewing teachers as their appointees during their pleasure, so that they are in general very hostile to attempts by teachers to influence them by organized effort. In spite of this, the co-operation is none the less real and effective. It occurs in three forms, — between different associations in the same city, between organizations in different cities, and between the city and state associations. The first form is a very natural one and may take the form of a general association of all the teachers of a city, in addition to the specialized associations, as in Philadelphia, or there may be an affiliation of the specialized associations for work along common interests. Good examples of such affiliations, more or less informal in nature, are those in Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, and Jersey City. The most highly developed instance of this kind on the institutional side is the Interboro Council of New York City, which is made up of delegates from the various teachers' associ- ations of New York. Examples of the second form are the recent co-operation for work on pension legislation among the teachers of Pittsburg, Allegheny, and Erie in Pennsylvania, and of Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Duluth in Minnesota. The third form is that of city associations working in connec- tion with the state associations. This is a very common form of co-operation, so much so that it often seems that the various city associations, work through rather than with the state associ- ation. Good examples are the city associations in Virginia and the Denver associations in Colorado. The best institutional expression of this form of co-operation is found in Massachusetts, where, in the state Council of Education which is composed of one hundred members from various organizations of teachers, three Boston teachers' associations are represented. 49 The legislation attempted at present by city associations seems to be almost wholly that relating to the economic betterment of teachers. Of the fifty-one associations replying to the writer's questionaire as attempting to influence legislation, eleven do not specify the kind of laws. Of the forty who do so specify, twenty- M Foos, State Educational Councils, in Com. Edn. Rep. 1909 : 1 1253. 42 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations nine 50 in twenty-one cities name pensions; eleven 61 in ten cities name salaries and protection of school funds; ten 52 in nine cities name general philanthropic and remedial legislation such as child labor and pure food. The associations not specifying the kind of legislation attempted are those that news items show have been working for economic betterment. This conclusion is also borne out by a study of news items in numerous educational periodicals regarding many other city associations from every section of the country for several years, and by the results from inquiries made of school men and women from all parts of the country, taking work at Teachers College. The actual influence of these associations upon legislation is very difficult to estimate and while no final results can be reached from the data obtainable, there seem to be strong indications that these associations exert much more influence proportionately than do the state associations. Their committees seem much more optimistic, their reports are more encouraging and the work is much more aggressive and persistent. The common practice of state associations bespeaking at the outset of any legislative campaign the support of the city associations, is an indication of the influence of the latter. Enough has already been given to indicate the power of these associations to carry their points, especially in salary matters, against hostile boards, and even initially hostile publics. For some years the city teachers of the 50 Albany Pub. Sch. T. Assn.; Baltimore Pub. Sch. T. Assn.; Baltimore Benev. Assn. ; Boston Schlm. Club ; Cincinnati T. Annuity and Aid Assn. ; Cincinnati Prins. Club ; Denver T. Club ; Elmira T. Assn. ; Indianapolis Fedn. ; Indianapolis Prins. Club; Jersey City T. Assn.; Jersey City Prim. Prins. Assn. ; Los Angeles Prins. Club ; Milwaukee Prins. Assn. ; Mil- waukee T. Assn. ; Minneapolis T. Assn. ; Minneapolis T. Club ; Norfolk T. Assn. ; Pittsburg T. Assn. ; Philadelphia T. Assn. ; Rochester T. Assn. ; St. Louis T. Benev. Annuity Assn.; St. Louis Soc. Pedagogy; St Paul T. Assn. ; Terre Haute T. Assn. ; Topeka Prins. Club ; Topeka Grade 1 Organ; Troy T. Assn.; Washington T. Ann. and Aid Assn. 51 Boston T. Club; Brooklyn T. Assn.; Chicago T. Fed.; Columbus, O., Franklin Co. Assn. ; Grand Rapids T. Club ; Jersey City Prim. Prins. Assn. ; Indianapolis Fed. ; New York City T. Assn. ; New York Prins. Assn. ; St. Joseph Fedn.; Washington H. S. T. Assn. 62 Cincinnati Sch. M. Club (Tuberculosis prevention) ; Columbus, O. ; Prins. Assn. (Moving Picture Show Regulation) ; Grand Rapids T. Club (Juvenile Court) ; Jersey City Prim. Prins. Assn. (Objectionable Posters) ; Pittsburg T. Art Club and Pittsburg Prins. Assn. (Child Labor) ; Provi- dence, R. I., Sarah E. Doyle Club (Child Labor, Pure Food and Play- grounds) ; St. Louis Soc. Pedagogy (Compulsory Edn.) ; St. Paul Prins. Club (Detention Home for Girls). The Work of the Associations in Legislation 43 country have had before them a most excellent example of what organized teachers can do towards furthering legislation, — the campaign of the New York teachers for the Davis bill in 1900. The effectiveness of this campaign has been well expressed by Superintendent Maxwell : " The law when originally passed in the year 1900 was opposed by the mayor of the city of New York, by the common council, by the board of estimate and apportionment, by the corporation council, by the entire board of education of Greater New York, and all the borough school boards and it was passed, largely, .... through the organized efforts of the class teachers. They made it known that politics had no longer anything to do with appoint- ment or promotion. Hence they commanded the support of the common people of the city of New York who are, as far as I could learn, unanimous in favoring this measure. It was opposed, as I said, by the united efforts of the entire city government. This last great struggle took place after the bill had been vetoed by the mayor, because the mayor of the city has the right to veto any local measure after it has been passed by the legislature. After the measure had been passed again by the legislature by a two-thirds vote in each house over the mayor's veto, the last great struggle was made before the governor, and there the city govern- ment put forth all its efforts to defeat the bill and to induce the governor to veto it. The governor, however, signed the bill." 53 Section IV. Problems in Legislation A number of problems may be raised regarding the general topic of this chapter, but they are practically all reducible to two large ones, — the causes of the small influence exerted by the associations as a whole upon legislation, and the right of the teaching profession to attempt to exert even that influence. We shall now take these up in order. In searching for the causes of the small influence exerted by the state associations, one is struck with the inadequacy of the usual explanations. It is certainly not a sectional cause, for the states of each group of those in the Foos data are scattered widely throughout the country, except that all of the New England states are practically in the lowest group. It is the same way with the size of the state and the density of the population. The list of legislation passed embraces every conceivable kind of bill and 53 Maxwell, Teachers' Salaries in New York City, Jnl. Edn. 58 -.256. 44 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations no one kind seems to carry success with it any more than another. The size of the organization apparently does not have very much to do with success. From the data given in Superintendent Foos' article, 54 the attendance of each state association for the years 1907- 1909, was averaged, and the percentage that this was of the whole number of teachers in the state was calculated. It is of course unfair to compare associations very rigidly by this method, because the percentage of members of an association in a large state can never be anything like so great as in the case of the smaller states. At any rate, these figures show no correlations whatever, except that the five most influential state associations are about the median for the entire country in mem- bership, although no one of them enrolls over fifty per cent of the teachers in its state. The cause may also lie, to a considerable extent, in the organization and excellence of the state department of education, which because of its permanence and prestige is pre- sumed to know what legislation should be enacted, so that the influence of the teachers is needed only to reform educational procedure in • crises of inefficiency. Again, in some places, especially in New England, whatever influence the teachers have may be exerted through specialized associations instead of through state associations. Whatever be the causes, it is certain that the teaching profession as an organized body is not exerting any great influence on educational legislation for state systems in the country as a whole. Now, to consider the associations that are admittedly and evidently influential in legislation. If we were to pick five states in which teachers are admittedly a force to be reckoned with in matters of educational legislation, they would probably be the states of Indiana, New Jersey, California, Virginia, and Colorado. There is on the whole nothing peculiar about these state associ- ations, except that they have highly organized means of publicity or of rallying the teaching bodies of the states, and of securing representation from all classes of teachers. This matter of having all the teachers behind legislative campaigns appears to be the main reason for success. That the above is the true conclusion is borne out abundantly B4 Rep. Com. Edn., 1909 : 1 : 266. The Work of the Associations in Legislation 45 by the reports of the legislative committees from all over the country ; the difficulties they emphasize are the apathy and lack of interest and co-operation manifested by the teachers. Very often a considerable campaign of education for the teaching body on proposed legislation must be undertaken before it is worth while to take up the matter with the public and legislature. In the city associations also, co-operation among the teachers appears to be the sine qua non for success in this field. In New Yorkj for example, this is so much the case that even " equal pay " would probably have been secured before now were it not that many of the men teachers of the city are opposed to it. This lack of co-operation is in turn due to a variety of causes. In the first place the state associations meet only a few days each year and most of them have no permanent or consecutive organ- ization in the intervals, a thing very essential at all times and especially while the legislature is in session, if legislation is to be influenced. A few associations, like those of Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, do manage to secure some degree of permanency by having secretaries for terms of several years at small salaries, though these secretaries are not paid enough to warrant their doing much more than the clerical work connected with the meet- ings, and the editing of the proceedings. The two associations of Colorado and California have secretaries paid for much of their time. (California for the whole time), a part of whose duty is the editing of the official journal of the association ; these associations are admittedly influential in matters of legislation. Co-operation is also made more difficult by reason of the con- stantly changing membership of the profession within a state. The average term of service of the teachers is notoriously brief and the increasing percentage of women, many of whom marry after a few years, is not apt to remedy the matter much. Again, there is great difficulty in getting co-operation for the reason that there are few instances of institutional organization, as yet worked out, whereby all the teachers of the state may feel that they are represented in the movements for legislation. The tendencies to specialized associations have already been treated and it will be recalled how they prevent teachers from getting together. The state associations do not enroll equally over the states that are at all large and their officers or legislative committees 46 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations can seldom claim that they really represent all the teachers of the state. In most associations also it is customary to appoint on the legislative committee faithful members, representatives of various interests, or presidents of various educational institutions, but there is in general very little provision for selecting the legislative committee in such a way that the teachers of the state may feel that the proposed legislation has been formulated by their repre- sentatives and hence needs their support. However, a few excellent systems for getting better representation have been worked out. Among these are : the New Jersey plan of having a representative from each congressional district on the legislative committee ; the Virginia one of having the county associations take out membership in the state association ; the Indiana one of a joint legislative committee of the more important associations in the state, the expenses being paid by the state association ; the California and Massachusetts plans of using a council of education as a legislative committee, this council to be made up in California of representatives from the interstate general associations, in Massachusetts of representatives from various specialized and county associations. lT~*Some of the lack of co-operation is also undoubtedly due to the rfact that many teachers do not believe that they as a body have much business trying to influence legislation, and that brings us to the next problem, the right of the profession to exert this influence. We shall now take up briefly the arguments against and in behalf of such activity on the part of the teaching pro- fession, as advanced by teachers and laymen. As against such activity, the usual argument is that it is unpro- fessional and beneath the dignity of teachers. They as teachers have very special interests and cannot possibly be qualified to judge adequately of the needs of the whole educational system. As a result, if they attempt to influence legislation, they inevitably tend to work mainly for their own selfish interests. In con- sequence there is a very distinct weakening of school efficiency and hence loss to the children, a loss which may be estimated from a number of phenomena. For example, conflicts between the teaching force and the educational authorities as in the familiar cases of Chicago and New York, or in Washington where in 1907, the board felt obliged to adopt a rule forbidding lobbying on the The Work of the Associations in Legislation 47 part of teachers, 55 are sure to result in much loss of energy within the systems. If they continue, a point is soon reached where the profession suffers a loss of prestige, especially if it be suspected of undue zeal in attending merely to the interests of teachers, with the result that its opinion will not be sought in weightier matters. Then there is the temptation to mix in politics to secure the desired legislation. Those who raise this objection point to the action of the New York women teachers in the fall of 1908 in attempting political affiliations to further their equal pay agitation ; to the campaign of the Chicago Federation to secure an elected board of education because the then appointed one would not concur in their views ; and to the cliques and "rings" in some state associations that are unscrupulously used by political parties to control the election brThe~state-sap'erintendent of'education. A mention of this danger of political action terrifies teachers and the general public more than almost anything else, because the American people are in general determined to keep their schools out of politics. In behalf of such activity, the primary argument is an ipso facto one. The right of the associations to exert such influence is already specifically recognized in many important instances as in England where various associations customarily draw up educa- tional bills and the National Union of Teachers has its secretary in Parliament to look after its interests ; as in many of the states where the governor and legislature habitually receive with con- 55 The rule was as follows: "All officers, teachers and employes of the public schools in the District of Columbia are forbidden, either directly or indirectly, individually or through associations of their own initiative to solicit an increase of pay, or to influence or attempt to influence in their own interest or for a personal end, any other educational legislation what- ever, either before Congress or its committees, or in any way save through the board of education. This rule in no wise affects the right of any person in the service of the public schools to make any suggestions for the improvement of the public school system or its administration, but all such suggestions must be forwarded to the board of education for consideration." A board member supported this rule in these words : "The special com- mittee appointed to suggest improvement in act 254 — the school law — has given teachers every opportunity to make suggestions and will continue to do so. But we feel that they cannot understand the needs of the whole school system as well as the board can, and we do not want when we lay the matter before Congress to be met by the undigested views of individuals and small groups of persons, each of whom is seeking something for him- self and friends. This is what happened before, and act 254 which has made so much trouble, is the result of just such interference." — {Washing- ton Post, Oct. 25, 1907.) 48 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations sideration the legislative committees of the state associations ; in some cities where the boards of education call upon representatives of the teachers for advice or support in regard to certain con- templated changes in educational procedure. But aside from this, there are several reasons advanced for this activity. It is urged that teachers are the only ones who make a specialty of educational problems and give enough time to them to have sufficient grounds for sound judgment regarding them; that they have the same right as any other body of citizens to try to advance educational conditions; that the so-called selfish legislation is really necessary for the good of the schools, and that any movements for the betterment of teachers, economically or otherwise, cannot fail to do the schools more good than harm ; that the increase in apparently selfish tendencies of teachers is only an inevitable result of the modern tendency to specialization, and is consequently a sign of progress ; that the so-called dis- advantages of affiliation with political organizations and labor unions are purely transitory phenomena, which will disappear as soon as the right of teachers to try to influence legislation on their own account, is more generally recognized. On either side of this problem as a purely theoretical one additional arguments might be advanced at some length, but the discussion would avail little. As a practical problem, it is largely solving itself. With the increasing tendency of teachers and educational authorities to take the "right" for granted, the problem becomes one on the part of teachers of trying to avoid seeking too selfish aims and to eliminate methods of work that are unworthy of the traditionally high dignity of the teaching profession. CHAPTER III THE WORK OF THE ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE ECONOMIC BETTERMENT OF TEACHERS Within recent years there has been a very noticeable effort among teachers' associations for deliberate and systematic better- ment of the economic condition of teachers. Indeed this move- ment has been so pronounced, in contrast with the futile efforts of former times, that many thoughtful persons fear that teachers as a whole are becoming too selfish and giving too much attention to their material interests, with the result of distinctly lowering the tone of the profession. We shall now take up a study of this movement under three heads: I. The lines of work attempted by the associations. II. The procedure adopted by them. III. The problems raised by consideration of I and II. Section I. The Lines of Work Attempted Roughly, these may be grouped into attempts to : 1. Secure better salaries. 2. Provide hospital and burial benefits. 3. Provide pensions, annuities and insurance. 4. Secure longer tenure of office. 5. Aid teachers in securing positions. These will now be taken up in order, as they occur in the more important associations. 1. The National Education Association has never concerned itself much with efforts to advance the material welfare of teachers. It did have a committee in 1877 to formulate a protest against reducing teachers' salaries during the financial depression then existing ; it has had occasional addresses on teachers' salaries, and it authorized a Special Committee on Salaries, Tenure of Office and Pensions, in 1903, which made a very valuable report to the 49 50 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations National Council of Education, in 1905. But on the whole, the National Education Association has apparently " thought it was beneath the dignity of the Association " to talk about the " money basis of education." 1 The state associations have recently been devoting their attention to this matter of salaries. While it has been impossible to get complete files of the proceedings of these organizations, still documentary evidence has been obtained showing that within the last five years at least eighteen state associations, representing every section of the country, have taken deliberate and systematic action as organizations to increase the wages of teachers. 2 It is, however, a question as to how seriously these associations regard this work, for there are indications that in some instances the matter has been taken up much as any other topic discussed before the associations, — to be dropped after a year or so. But it is in the city associations that the most persistent salary agitations are found. The salary campaigns in New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Pittsburg, are doubtless known to most readers of educational magazines, but the interest and activity of city associations in such work is noted in all parts of the country, in the cities examined, — those from 30,000 population up. While a complete list of such associations cannot be obtained, it is safe to say that almost no cities of this size, which have voluntary associations of teachers, have failed to be the scene of organized effort on the part of some of these associations to better salaries. 3 2. Temporary aid, especially during sickness, and the raising of burial funds, were the earliest form of economic work attempted by teachers' associations and are the most widely attempted form at present. The teachers in nearly every city have some provision for this object, although it is often carried on in a very informal 1 Wm. McAndrew, Where Education Breaks Down, Ed. Rev. 33 : 22. 2 Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Mary- land, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Dakota, South Carolina, Ver- mont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming. 8 Specific evidence of such activity on the part of one or more organiza- tions in each city within the last five years has been found in the following cities: Albany, N. Y., Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Canton, Chicago, Cin- cinnati, Denver, Elmira, N. Y., Grand Rapids, Mich., Indianapolis, Jersey City, Memphis, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Nashville, New Orleans, Newark. New York, Paterson, N. J., Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Providence, R. I., St. Joseph, Mo., St. Louis, St. Paul, San Francisco, Tacoma, Terre Haute, Topeka, Troy, N. Y. , Washington. Work of the Associations for Betterment of Teachers 51 way. 4 This form of activity is of course almost exclusively con- fined to local associations. 3. The movement for pensions is, on the whole, very recent. The National Education Association in 1891 passed the following resolution : "Justice as well as the best public service requires the retire- ment and pensioning of teachers after a service of thirty years, and upon carefully devised conditions. We recommend the enact- ment of laws in the states to permit and regulate the retirement and pensioning of professional teachers." 5 And, in 1903, it appointed the committee before mentioned, apparently at the instance of city teachers working through the Illinois and New York delegations. In the state associations, the matter of pensions is being seriously considered in various parts of the country, but it is not so widespread as the movement for better salaries. 6 But up to and including the present time, the main work for teachers' pensions has come from organizations of city teachers. The first pensions for teachers in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Pittsburg were provided by voluntary associations, and a great deal of the legislation attempted up to the present has been to allow local communities, often of a certain size or over, either to form voluntary associations of teachers or to establish, if desired, contributory pension schemes. Thus, to-day, there is legislative provision for such voluntary organizations in New York, Massachusetts, Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana, while teachers have organized such associations without formal authority in New 4 Work of this sort is carried on in some way, either by organizations for that special purpose, or as part of the activities of various associations in at least the following cities: Baltimore, Boston, Buffalo, Canton, O. , Chicago, Cincinnati, Denver, Detroit, Grand Rapids, Harrisburg, Indianapolis, Jersey City, Louisville, Nashville, New York, Paterson, N. J. , Philadelphia, Roches- ter, St. Louis, St. Paul, San Francisco, Topeka, Washington. 5 Proc. N. E. A. 1891 :39i. 6 These associations have within the last two years been seriously concerned with the pension problem: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Indiana, Min- nesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Wisconsin. In addition there are voluntary state annuity associations in Massachusetts and Con- necticut. 52 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations Orleans and St. Louis. 7 The teachers of St. Louis are at present trying to secure a state annuity law. 8 4. While more permanent tenure of office has long been set up as an ideal by the associations, it is only lately that they have begun to work for it very definitely. As yet little has been accom- plished. The National Education Association published the report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure of Office and Pensions of Public School Teachers in 1905, which devoted some attention to the subject. A few city associations have been working for it, 9 but in the main the state associations are the ones concerned with it. Of the state associations, New York has been working for tenure of office since at least 1904 ; 10 Colorado has considered legislation in this direction since 1907 ; u Kansas adopted a resolu- tion favoring it in 1908 ; 12 Oklahoma in 1908 recommended "a bill changing the term for which teachers may contract from the present term of one year to three years under the continuous approval of the county superintendent" ; 13 Iowa had the following presented to the Educational Council in 1908 : "It is our belief that present conditions can be materially bettered by changing the maximum time for which boards of education may contract with teachers from one to three years, in cases of principals and superintendents, and that the tenure of all subordinate teachers be indefinite or during efficiency." 14 The most aggressive association in this respect is the New 7 Jnl. Edn. Jan 7, 1909 : 24. 8 Some form of voluntary pension or annuity associations is or was main- tained until recently by teachers in at least tie following cities: Baltimore (until recently), Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Harrisburg, Indianapolis, Memphis, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, St. Louis, St. Paul, Somerville, Mass., Washington. 9 The Washington High School Teachers' Association reports efforts to promote it. The New York City Teachers' Association has recently done good work to secure it and to protect teachers' licenses. In the statement of principles of the Chicago Teachers' Federation in 1908, the following occurs: "After a probationary period all appointments to be permanent during efficiency and good behavior. "Inefficient teachers to be eliminated from the service after having had reasonable opportunity for improvement and a trial before the Board of Education on written charges." (Chic. T. Fed. Bull., Mar. and Apr., 1908:8). 10 Chic. T. Fed. Bull., 3 : 38 14-5. Proc. N. Y. St. T. Assn., 1903 : 53 ; 1908 : 26. 11 Minutes Ednl. Counc, Col. St. T. Assn. 1907. i2 West. Sch. Jnl., Jan., 1909 -.4$. 13 Proc. Okla. St. T. Assn., 1908 : 10. " Proc. la. St. T. Assn., 1908 : 33. Work of the Associations for Betterment of Teachers 53 Jersey one. After discussion of the principle of tenure of office in 1903, 15 successive legislative committees from 1905 on, entrusted with the promotion of legislation to secure it, gradually overcame opposition from the legislators and general public, and differences of opinion among teachers, 16 concentrated all their efforts upon it in 1908, 17 and achieved the passage of a good law, approved April 21, 1909. This law substantially provides for permanent tenure after three years of service in one place, with limited chances for preferring charges against the teacher, liable to result in dismissal. 18 5. Attempts to aid teachers in securing positions appear only in a few of the state associations. 19 This employment bureau feature is a vestigial survival of the early days when it was necessary for teachers systematically to help each other in secur- ing positions. In the Missouri association, in 1908, there was a proposal to do away with the committee for this work on the ground that it was originally appointed when the association met in summer while teachers were being employed, but that there was nothing for it to do when the association met in winter. 20 Still, the report of the 1909 meeting of this association has a committee listed for such work. Much help in securing positions the country over is undoubtedly given teachers by other teachers, but aside from the reason advanced in Missouri, there is prac- tically now little need for such work by associations, because it is already well cared for by commercial teachers' agencies or by special committees connected with the various institutions that prepare teachers. Section II. The Procedure Adopted by the Associations This movement manifests itself under so many diverse forms that it is very difficult to generalize regarding it, but from an examination of its history and of its present manifestations, the tendencies at present appear to be as follows : 16 Duffy, Legislation Needed for the Teachers of the State of New Jersey, in Proc. N. J. T. Assn., 1907 : 8. 16 Proc. N. J. St. T. Assn., 1907 : 181-3. 17 Proc. N. J. T. Assn., 1908 : no. 18 The full text is given in Rep. Com. Edn., 1909 : 1 : 117. 19 Apparently only in Indiana, Iowa, Missouri and Ohio. 20 Proc. Mo. S. T. Assn., 1908 : 20. 54 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary, Associations i. From sporadic to permanent, organized efforts at economic betterment of teachers. 2. From giving temporary to more permanent forms of aid. 3. From purely voluntary schemes to those compelling by one means or another all teachers to share in the burden of support. 4. From immediate and direct support by teachers to that by municipal or state authorities. These tendencies will be apparent later on, and keeping them in mind, we shall now see how the associations carry on their work in this field. The general lines of procedure will be taken up under the following headings : 1. Mutual aid. 2. Concerted legal action. 3. Labor unionism. 4. Investigations of the economic conditions of teachers. 5. Influencing legislation. 1. The first and most obvious form of economic assistance is that of temporary aid in sickness or for burial purposes. This is probably an inheritance of the friendly society procedure which has come down from the medieval guilds. Such work is usually confined to allowances or loans during sickness or to lump sums paid at death. Such work requires only the simplest of organizations and is frequently carried on merely as one of the activities of associations not organized primarily for this purpose. 21 But in most of the important cities, there are associations organized specifically for such work. The dues are usually from $1.00 to $3.00 annually, and the extent of benefits allowed varies with the funds on hand. In several places, through gifts and bequests, a comfortable surplus has been acquired; where this is the case, the work may be extended to cover loans to teachers, especially during sick- ness. 22 The success of such organizations suggested another and more permanent form of organization, — that attempting to provide 21 Examples are the Teachers' Clubs in Denver, Grand Rapids, Jersey City and Minneapolis, and the Teachers' Associations in Indianapolis, Jersey City Nashville, Paterson, and Rochester. 22 The Indianapolis Public School Teachers' Association is a case in point. See Indianapolis Superintendent's Report, 1908-9 : 230-1, Work of the Associations for Betterment of Teachers 55 annuities, either alone or in addition to temporary relief. The first association of this kind appears to have been the Teachers' Mutual Benefit Association of New York (1887), but the move- ment soon spread throughout the cities of the country. These associations naturally had much trouble in securing enough mem- bers to guarantee the success of the movement at the start, and much effort to raise money for surplus by bazaars, etc., was necessary. It is recorded that the Boston association cleared $56,000 for the permanent fund from one bazaar. 23 In some instances also much money has come from gifts. 24 But in spite of all such work, it has been difficult to make the associations a success, and the general trend has been towards asking the city board of education to take over the management of the work and to compel all teachers to contribute a certain per cent of their salary. Naturally, there has been opposition from teachers who feared the success of the plan or did not intend to teach permanently. However, the device of appointing a certain date up to which all members now in service may join, and after which all new teachers in the city accept compulsory membership as a part of their contract, is constitutional in New Jersey, and is apparently solving the difficulty very satisfactorily. The dues in these associations vary from one to three per cent of the teachers' salary, pensions are not usually granted until after at least twenty-five years of service, and the annuity is usually sixty per cent or less of the average salary for a certain term before the annuity is granted, with a prescribed possible maximum. 25 Some of these associations have done great good, but it is difficult for them to meet the anticipated payments, so that apparently they must in time be taken over by the boards of education as shown in the recent examples of Baltimore, Pittsburg, and Harrisburg. There have been, so far as the writer has been able to learn, only two voluntary state annuity associations, — the Massachusetts and 28 Mrs. Mary D. Bradford, Teachers' Pensions and Insurance, Jul. of Ed., 61-2 : 512. 24 The most noteworthy recent examples of such gifts are the Elkins fund in Philadelphia, the $250,000 anonymous Pittsburg contribution of Septem- ber, 1909, and the Pratt bequest in Brooklyn, as mentioned in the Century editorial, on Pensions for Teachers, ' February, 1910, p. 639. 25 For full details regarding such associations, see Lillian C. Flint, Pensions for Women Teachers, in Century, Feb., 1910 : 618-20. 56 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations the Connecticut Teachers' Annuity Guilds, organized in 1893 and 1896, respectively. The general plan of these associations has been merely that of the city organizations, modified to cover the state. While these associations have both been highly successful and have demonstrated that a contributory pension scheme for teachers of a state is feasible, they will probably end under state control. Indeed, in Connecticut, at the present time, a vigorous campaign for state pensions is under way. 2. Leaving the mutual aid work, let us now see what the associations have done to better the economic condition of teachers through concerted legal action. To begin with, enforcing tax laws so as to provide funds for paying teachers has accomplished a good deal. The oft-cited instance of the Chicago Teachers' Federation which, aroused by a cut in wages, in 1900, investigated, at its own expense, tax-dodging corporations, and brought annually into the school treasury over $250,000, is a case in point. Such work is also done effectively by state associations. 26 In this connection it is well to note several instances in the larger cities of the ability of teachers to band together and take legal action to secure their rights in the matter of salaries. Thus, New Orleans teachers from 1882 to 1887 were not paid on account of lack of funds, but managed to secure judgment after nearly twenty years of litigation, which finally reached the United States Supreme Court. 27 In 1905, some 3,334 Brooklyn teachers after six years of litigation received judgment for $195,238.60 for back salary for work done in 1899, the increase being in dispute because of the merging of the borough with Greater New York. But probably the most signal example is that of the Chicago teachers. A considerable number of grade teachers, after suffering a cut of wages for six months in 1900, and securing $250,000 from tax-dodgers for the school fund, were apparently going to be forced by the board to see this money distributed for janitors' pay and 26 Examples: the bringing of the matter of untaxed property before the Wisconsin Association's Legislative Committee in 1904; the appointment some years ago of the State Superintendent as the Indiana Association's agent to look up sequestered property; the Missouri Association's investiga- tion of taxation in 1906; the bringing of a friendly suit by the Washington State Association to preserve certain state moneys for the School Fund, in 1908. 27 Chic.Fed.Bull., Nov. io, 1905 : p. 4. Work of the Associations for Betterment of Teachers 57 other expenses. But they brought suit and after four years of litigation secured judgment. The wisdom of their procedure is apparent when it is known that the restitution was not made to those who did not file claims. 28 Some results have also been achieved in the matter of enforcing laws that make for a better economic condition of the teacher. This is, however, a somewhat dangerous field, as there is hardly need for activity on the part of teachers unless a considerable portion of the general public is indifferent or opposed to the enforcement of the law in question, in which case, of course, the teachers run the risk of encountering the active opposition of the public. The salary suits before mentioned are a form of such activity. The Ohio School Improvement Federation and the Indiana State Association have both done good work in a quiet way in enforcing the minimum wage laws in their respective states. The most notable example of such activity is the recent work of the Retirement Fund Department of the New Jersey Association. Under the law of that state, all persons teaching for the first time after December 31, 1907, become " by virture of appointment " members of the Retirement Fund and their respective school boards are required to deduct their dues and send the money in to the central authorities. But as some of the boards and new teachers are opposed to the law, there is a considerable number of failures to report new teachers and transfers from other cities. The Retirement Fund Board therefore has a great deal to do to keep track of all such new members and transfers so as to get all the money due the fund, a work conducted mainly through correspondence, but including complaints filed with the attorney general against schools boards that do not comply with the law. This work is very important at present, as the safety of the fund depends upon it, but it will probably be less necessary as time goes on and boards and teachers begin to take the Retirement Fund Law as a matter of course. In this connection it is worthy of note that the associations seem to do practically nothing in the way of providing legal defense for teachers who are attacked in their professional capacities. The problem comes up in a few associations, 29 but individuals still 28 Chic. Fed. Bull. Sept. 9, 1904 =4; Sept. 28, 1906 -.4. ^Examples: Brooklyn Teach. Ass'n, 1905-6:13; N. J. State Teach. Ass'n, 1907 : 108. 58 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations are obliged to secure at heavy personal expense legal decisions that benefit many other teachers. 3. Practically no discussion for this general movement of teachers for economic self-betterment in recent years has been complete without extended reference to the possibility of teachers organizing along labor union lines. However, the facts at present give little indication of the likelihood of such a turn of affairs in the near future. There were in April, 1909, so far as the secretary of the American Federation of Labor knew, but two teachers' organizations in the country affiliated with labor unions. These are the Public School Teachers' Association of San Antonio, Texas, which is Local No. 10,303 of the American Federation of Labor, and the Chicago Teachers' Federation which is affiliated with the Chicago Federation of Labor. 30 The first case of affiliation, as far as the writer has been able to learn, was the San Antonio, Texas, Association which affiliated with the American Federation of Labor in September, 1902. 31 The Chicago Teachers' Federation affiliated with the Chicago Federation of Labor, later in the same year. A voluminous dis- cussion regarding the causes and merits of this action raged for spme time in mar'jk educational periodicals, but the elemental fact seems to be that th« Federation in its tax campaign and general work for the^betterment of the teachers and schools, felt that it was necessAry to get better support from the public. The labor adherents farmed a very influential part of this public, and more- over, supplied a weapon much needed by the women members of the Teachers' Federation, i. e., the suffrage. The constitution of the Teachers' Federation was not essentially different from that of other city associations of grade teachers at the time, and it was not in the least changed by the affiliation. The Teachers' Federation was permitted to run its own local affairs, but it did send delegates to the public discussions of the Federation of Labor, and, in 1903, sent its quota along with that of the other organiza- tions of the city to the miners then out on a strike. It seems now probably true that the matter of affiliation was what its leader then claimed it was, — " only an incident in the tax fight." 32 80 Private letter to the writer from Secretary Frank Morrison of the Amer- ican Federation of Labor, April 29, 1910. 81 Private letter of Mr. Marshall Johnston, charter member of this associa- tion, dated May 19, 1910, to the writer. 82 Ricker, The School Teacher Unionized, Ed. Rev., 30 :357. Work of the Associations for Betterment of Teachers 59 Be that as it may, a widespread discussion of the act soon arose, and information regarding the movement was widely dissemin- ated through the National Teachers' Federation, an organization of grade teachers of which the Chicago association was the " heart." 33 In 1903, several associations in various parts of the country affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, and a few others did later on, the complete list of the locals thus affiliated from 1902-10 being as follows : Public School Teachers Ass'n, No. 10303, San Antonio, Texas. School Teachers Ass'n, No. 10619, Jackson Co., Illinois. No. 10806, Kern Co., California. No. 10798, San Jose, California. No. 10884, San Jose, California. Teachers Ass'n, No. 12304, Saline Co., Illinois. No. 12407, Cordell, Oklahoma. No. 12617, Jefferson Co., Texas. No. 12636, Austin, Texas.34 The Chicago organization " affiliated with the Chicago Feder- ation of Labor with the understanding that they would take out a charter from the American Federation of Labor, but same has never been applied for." 35 But all of these, with the exception of the San Antonio associa- tion have abandoned their connection with the American Federa- tion of Labor. Secretary Morrison writes : " Whether or not this is the result of their disbandment, or simply that they decided to sever relations with the American Federation of Labor, I cannot state." Inquiries regarding the causes of such disbanding were sent out to the secretaries but so far only three replies have been received. These, which are self-explanatory, are here given. The reply from Cordell, Oklahoma, was : " Our organization was not a success. We failed principally because the teachers took no interest in it and because conditions were not favorable for its development. It existed about six months and accomplished nothing." The reply from Jackson County, Illinois, was : " Nothing of any value was accomplished. It was influenced in affiliating by the extremely low wages paid teachers in Southern Illinois." 33 Ibid., 30 : 349. 34 Morrison letter before mentioned. 85 Morrison letter. I CO Iff 60 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations " The union died because of internal dissension and timidity. To proceed along union lines in securing increased salaries was not ethical; others were afraid of trouble." The reply from the Santa Clara County (San Jose), California, union was : " This organization was effected in 1903 and came to an end the following year (1904). Nothing was accomplished as the members were too timid to even allow the public to know who they were. The membership at all time was small, the majority of the teachers of the county being opposed. Membership decreased until the association dwindled to nothing. The causes of affiliation were to receive support from the union people, to have teaching recognized as a " profession," to be a strength in the community, to work for the general bettering of conditions of teachers' positions in regard to permanency, salary, etc. You can see the cause of withdrawal from the federation can be stated as result- ing from withdrawal of individual members from the local organ- ization until practically no membership remained. Most of the members left the union as they feared the opposition from school boards, as many would not hire union teachers." It seems reasonable to conclude that these associations were never materially affected by this affiliation. Indeed, the policy of the American Federation is that " affiliation with the American Federation of Labor does not interfere with their absojute right of controlling their own affairs without interference wrar^ outside parties." 36 The constitutions of the Chicago Teachers' Federation and of the Jackson County, Illinois, Association certainly were not materially changed. 37 The Saline County, Illinois, Association, in 1904, conducted a very successful salary campaign in the county, but it was rather in the nature of making out a scale of prices, as a county medical association does, than as a labor union. 38 36 Morrison letter. 37 Chic. Teach. Fed. Bull. Dec. 13, 1902 -.2; Chic. Teach. Fed. Bull. Feb. 13, 1903 : 2. 88 The essential steps in this campaign were the appointment of a committee of teachers to establish a. fair minimum wage for each school in the county, and an agreement of teachers not to teach in any school for less than that price. The campaign aroused the hostility of the school directors of the county who organized a counter organization of their own number, and passed resolutions condemning the action of the teachers, and proposing to give beginning teachers the preference. But the teachers stood firm and won fairly easily with the result of a raise in salary of about thirty per cent. Full details of this campaign may be found in "How the Teachers of Saline County Solved the Salary Question," S. T. Robinson: Chic. Teach. Fed. Bull. Nov. 3, 1905 12-3; "The Next Step in the Salary Campaign," D. Felmley, Proc. N. E. A. 1906 : 189. Work of the Associations for Betterment of Teachers 61 However, it is only fair to state that the San Antonio, Texas, I Association appears to be flourishing. Indeed, the letter previously referred to states : " Since we have been affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, and with the State Federation, we have been able to interest the voters of this section in important constitutional amendments that referred directly to educational questions. When such amendments have been submitted to the people we have waged a campaign of education by short talks to the different Locals and by means of the Central Labor Body in which we have representation. Shortly after we affiliated with the Federation of Labor, our salaries were increased thirty per cent. " We affiliated with the American Federation of Labor to secure certain school reforms and an increase of salary. We have been remarkably successful. We are in harmony with the School Board and with the Superintendent. When we first organized there was much opposition from the public. This opposition has disappeared or at least it is dormant." 39 It is accordingly evident that, whatever be the theoretical advantages of teachers' associations organized along labor union lines, their practical significance in the country at large at the present time is negligible. . , 4. Teachers' associations have from the first been more or less active in promoting the economic betterment of their members, but in recent years this activity has been distinctly characterized by a more scientific accuracy and deliberateness of procedure not t bY^ usual hitherto. This appears in the investigations which are \r gradually becoming the customary initial steps in all such move- ments. The National Education Association has never concerned itself to any great extent with this movement, but in 1903 it did authorize the appointment of a committee on salaries, tenure of office and pensions of public school teachers. This committee, under the chairmanship of Carol D. Wright, presented a very able report to the National Council of Education of the National Education Association, in 1905. The report covered exhaustively the following topics : Salaries of teachers in practically all towns over 8,000. Salaries of teachers in selected towns of less than 8,000. Salaries of teachers in typical ungraded rural schools. 39 Johnston letter before mentioned. 4? 62 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations Funds for the Payment of Teachers' Salaries. Minimum Salary Laws. Earnings in Teaching and in other Occupations. Purchasing Power of Salaries in Different Localities. Tenure of Office of Teachers. Pensions for Teachers. The interest aroused all over the country by the preparation of the report and by the facts contained in it stimulated many similar investigations by state and city associations with a view to remedy- ing matters in their own localities. 40 The advantages of such reports are obviously very great for they enable any one to profit by the experience of teachers in various places throughout the country. They are especially valuable in furnishing material for publicity campaigns and in supplying legislative committees with valuable information regarding effec- tive and satisfactory laws in other states. Thus, as soon as a law is enacted in one state, teachers in another can quickly point to it and argue for the enactment of a similar law in their own state. 41 These investigations certainly accomplish much good if they only do what the Committee on Salaries of the Minnesota Educational Association, in 1906, did, — " avoid incoherent lamentations over low salaries." 42 5. The economic trend is also clearly apparent from an examination of the attempts of the various associations to influence 40 Samples of such reports in the state associations are the following: Connecticut Women Teachers' Salaries, 1908. Illinois Part of Work of Illinois Commission, 1907-9. Indiana Taxation and Teachers' Salaries, 1904. Teachers' Pen- sions, 1909. Iowa Pensions and Tenure of Office, 1908. Maine Teachers' Salaries, 1905. Minnesota. ...:. .Teachers' Salaries and Living Expenses, 1906. Supple- mentary Report on Teachers' Salaries, 1908. Missouri Teachers' Salaries, 1908. North Dakota.. . .Teachers' Salaries, 1907. Ohio School Revenue Commission, 1907. South Carolina. . .Status of the Teaching Profession in South Carolina, 1909. Washington Teachers' Salaries, 1905. Wisconsin Teachers' Wages and Cost of Living, 1904. Wyoming Minimum Salaries and State Aid, 1909. In the cities, also, many such reports have been made, notably in Chicago, Philadelphia, Minneapolis, but they are not generally printed. 41 By the time the Illinois Commission (1907-9) had its report in final form, copies of the separate bulletins had "been demanded in quantities in at least a dozen of the states for the purpose of influencing legislation." (Rep. 111. Com., Final Form, p. 6.) 42 Report of the Committee, p. 32. Work of the Associations for Betterment of Teachers 63 legislation favorable to better economic conditions for teachers. The general procedure in such attempts is not essentially different from that in attempts to influence any other legislation, but it does serve to show clearly that the teachers of the country are by no means unanimous for such procedure on the part of teachers. In nearly every campaign of this sort there is a strong protest from various teachers against too much striving for economic self- betterment on the part of the teachers themselves. But such attempts are obviously a comparatively late stage in the move- ment as the practicability of many of the things demanded must be demonstrated by private initiative on the part of the teachers before they can possibly be enacted into law. But of course in this as in many other things, the more progressive states and cities enact laws that are copied by the less progressive units. The movement to influence legislation for this purpose seems to be spreading from the city to the state associations. Of over one hundred city associations in all parts of the country of which definite information could be obtained, a scant half claimed to be doing anything to influence legislation, but of those that did, prac- tically every one was giving its attention almost exclusively to securing wage, pension, or tenure of office laws. Of the state associations, however, scarcely a fifth of the laws they were striv- ing to enact related to the economic betterment of teachers. Again, an examination of the activities of the state associations in this respect shows that these activities are initiated and carried out very largely by city teachers. The general plan of procedure in the matter of pensions is to start by getting permissive legislation for the larger cities in a state, and most of the state laws so far enacted seem to be extensions or adaptations of the city laws or experiences in this field. Although, on the whole, outside the cities, comparatively little has been accomplished in enacting legislation directly bettering the economic condition of the teacher, still that condition has been very appreciably raised because of the agitation in the legislative campaigns. Nearly every report of such a campaign that did not secure the desired laws claims that much good was accomplished because the public was so aroused by the arguments for better salaries, pensions, and tenure of office, that teachers in general benefited immediately by increased salaries. It should be noted in this regard that it appears to be useless for associations to try to 64 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations enact such economic laws on the plea that the teachers deserve better treatment at the hands of society. The "live" associations have long since learned that the only successful agitation of the question is that which aims to show the public that the economic conditions of teachers must be remedied for the sole purpose of making the quality of education much better for the children. Note the following from a very progressive association : "Agitation of the question of teachers' pensions for the state of Indiana must be founded, not upon the idea that they are for the benefit of the teaching force of the state, but that they are for the benefit of the public schools themselves — not upon the claim that the teachers need the retirement fund, but upon the all too apparent proposition that the schools need it. Once demonstrate to this citizenship that their schools will reap the largest benefit from a teachers' service pension, and their enthusiasm for popular education will establish and perpetuate it on a liberal basis." 43 It is for the same reason that there has been practically no attempt to establish a minimum salary schedule that did not also promise to raise the qualifications of teachers, at least for those entering the profession after the enactment of the law. 44 So much for the facts of what is being attempted in this general field, and the means used to attain it. Let us now take up a num- ber of problems that arise from a consideration of these facts. Section III. Problems It is interesting to note in the first place that the activity in this field evidently arose among the city teachers and has spread out- ward. They first undertook relief by voluntary associations, experimented and showed what could be done. They also first organized and aggressively worked for economic relief for teachers. From them has come first the demand for temporary aid, for better salaries, for pensions in the shape of annuities, and for security in tenure of office. The work by the state associations 43 Report of the Indiana City and Town Superintendents' Committee on Pensions. Quoted in the Col. School Journal, Feb. 1909 : 262-3. 44 It seems to be established that it is hardly possible to secure the passage of a minimum salary law with increased qualifications for all teachers, unless some provision is made to exempt present teachers from meeting the require- ments, or else to give them a reasonable time in which to meet them. The reason is that otherwise the more inefficient teachers would oppose the pro- posal so actively that it would be very difficult to get it enacted into law. Work of the Associations for Betterment of Teachers 65 is largely only an attempt to imitate and adapt what the city teachers have accomplished, and city teachers are usually the leaders in such work in the state associations. Indeed, this is so much the case, that country teachers are sometimes jealous of what the city teachers are doing in this field and claim that they are using the state associations for their own personal good with no thought of doing anything for the country teacher. This activity arose primarily among the city teachers because of the greater permanency of the teaching force in cities. They look forward to a long period of service as teachers, and con- sequently endeavor to make conditions better in teaching since they do not expect to take up some other profession. #~~"? In discussion of the general movement, the assertion is often / made that teachers as a body are becoming much more materialistic I and developing harmful selfish tendencies by their organized attempts to better their material welfare. It is true that such organized attempts are a rather recent development in this country, in the main appearing since 1890, but it is also a question if this, work for economic self-betterment is not at present about the best thing that teachers can do to further the progress of education. In former times, they were propagandists for education, held institutes, devoted themselves to cultural and professional work because they could not get such things other- wise. But now education is accepted as a settled duty of the state and is publicly supported, and good facilities for cultural and professional advancement of teachers are offered in colleges, universities, and normal schools, so that teachers depend less and less on their associations for help in these lines. Also, a system of administration by educators who are more or less experts has arisen, so that teachers in local educational systems can get, in the regular teachers' meetings which they are obliged to attend, advantages that they formerly had to provide through voluntary associations. Specialization has also brought abou f a situation where it is very difficult to get teachers interested in general subjects or working in general associations. In short, the time has come when there are good grounds for believing that the best thing the teachers can do is to try to make the teaching profession one that will attract good teachers in the first place, and retain them long enough to insure their getting adequate professional training for their life work. That is, the . 39 1909 Ala. 69 1908 111. 45 1909 Md. 70 1909 Ind. 47 1909 N. M. 72 1908 Mo. 47 1908 Oreg. 72 1909 Ky. 48 1910 Minn. 74 1908 Ark. 5i 1908 N. H. 80 1908 S. D. 55 1908 Wise. 82 1908 la. 59 1909 N. Y. 84 1909 Pa. 60 1908 Vt. 84 1909 Miss. 62 1908 N.J. 89 The Place of Women in the Associations 71 New Jersey in 1908. Three-fourths of this number have more women than men members and the median percentage of women members is sixty-two. But women have practically no more representation in the matters of officers, of committees, or places on the program than they have in the National Education Association. 4 Barring a few vice-presidencies, 5 a slightly larger number of secretaryships, and a slight preponderance in the departments of primary and kindergarten, music, and art, women do not appear; and in many departments they have no representation whatever. In the city associations, however, woman is a much more important factor. From a wide and practically random selection of cities from thirty thousand upwards, replies to a questionaire sent out by the writer indicate that probably over half these cities have some form of teachers' organization that is composed of women only. Practically every one of them has some form of general voluntary teachers' organization or federation, and in these as a rule the women teachers have more influence than they do in the National Education Association and in the state associ- ations. Many of the organizations composed of women only do not attempt to exert any influence beyond their immediate circle of members, but a considerable number of them, especially in the last few years, and in the larger cities, are coming to wield a decided influence in larger spheres. In Chicago, New York, Boston, San Francisco, and Denver, for instance, there are associ- ations of women teachers as well organized and as influential in all movements for the educational betterment of the community, or for the good of its teaching body as any associations of men teachers in these cities. Section II. The Causes of the Present Situation In the first place, the present unimportance of women members is in large measure traditional. The mere admission of women to membership in the associations was a work of many years. The American Institute of Instruction at the start in 1830 admitted " any gentlemen of good moral character, interested in the subject 4 This statement is founded upon a tabulation of the number of women in the lists of offices in thirty-nine associations, of committees in twenty and of women on the programs of thirty-three, — all for which data could be secured. 6 Calif orina in 1908, Maryland in 1909 and Illinois in 19 10 had a woman president, but these cases seem to be purely sporadic. 72 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations of education," but " ladies engaged in the business of instruction " were only to be " invited to hear the annual address, lectures, and reports of committees on subjects of education." 6 This is especially significant in view of the fact that the secretary of this organization in writing of the second year's meeting said that the number of ladies, " who were generally teachers and admitted gratuitously," was greater than that of the men who were members." 7 In the Western Literary Institute (1831-1845) ladies were not admitted as members although they did occasionally write papers that were read by men. 8 The Philadelphia Association of Teachers in 1831 held meetings " to which females engaged in the business of teachers, though not regular members, are to be invited." 9 The Massachusetts State Association at the start in 1845 was open only to men; women were not admitted to full membership till 1876. 10 The same was true of the California Educational Society in 1859 after the normal school was opened in San Francisco. 11 The New York State Association was not open to women as participating members until Miss Susan B. Anthony secured such a ruling in their favor by a sensational stand for it in the meeting of 1853. 12 The National Education Association reflected the same view of things, for its constitution contained the following, from the beginning in 1857 to 1870 : " Ladies engaged in teaching may on recommendation of the boar^of director become honorary members, and shall thereby possess the right of presenting in the form of written essays (to be read by the secretary, or any other member whom they may select) their views upon the subject assigned for discussion." 13 The admission to full membership in the associations was gradually accomplished, so that in 1879 about seven-eighths of the number of members in the Vermont Association were women, 14 6 Constitution of the original organization. I Annals of Education, 1 1441. 8 Boone, Education in the United States, 121. 9 Annals of Education, 1 : 283. 10 Jour. Edn., 17 : 10. II Barnard's Am. Jour. Edn., 16 : 785. 12 Chic. T. Fed. Bull., May 29, 1903, p. 1, quoting Ida Hustead Harper's Life and Works of Susan B. Anthony. 18 Irwin Shepard, Historical Sketch of the N. E. A., Jour. Edn., 52 : 12. 14 Editorial, Jour. Edn., 10 : 69. The Place of Women in the Associations 73 and the president of the National Education Association in the same year said that it was unnecessary to state that in the American Institute of Instruction and the National Education Association women possessed the same rights as men. 15 However, it was probably not intended that the women should exercise these rights all the time. A good illustration of this is the fact that all sorts of financial concessions, etc., were made to women teachers, ostensibly because of their weaker sex and lower economic compensations., but in reality typifying their unimport- ance in the associations. Thus it was customary to charge women less for hotel accommodations, to secure free entertainment for all the time or for lodging and breakfast as in the Maine and Rhode Island Associations of 1878 and 1879 respectively, 18 and either to relieve women members of all assessments as in the Ver- mont Association of 1875, 1T or to quote them reduced fees. This matter of reduction of fees still continues to some extent, ten state associations in 1909 charging women only half as much as men for membership. 18 The non-participation of women in the programs of the associ- ations is also largely traditional. The Western Literary Institute before referred to had a considerable proportion of women repre- sented on its program by means of essays read by men. The Massachusetts State Association at its first meeting requested " the assistance of female teachers by means of written communications to the association," 19 and later adopted the plan of awarding prizes ; for example, in 1854, it awarded prizes for such essays to three women. 20 Miss Anthony and some other women created a sensation in the New York State Association in 1853 by " winning for women the right of speaking in an educational convention on an educational subject." 21 The National Education Association and the American Institute of Instruction have never had women on their programs to amount to anything. Indeed the omission has. occasionally been so striking as to call forth severe criticism of 15 Proc. N. E. A., 1879 : 12. 16 Jour. Edn., 9 : 13; 6:12. 17 Jour. Edn., 1 : 54. 18 Foos, State Educational Associations, Rep. Com. Edn., 1909, Vol. 1 : 258. 19 Barnard's Am. Jour. Edn., 15 : 507. 20 Ibid., 516. 21 Address of Mary E- Wooley before the Natl. Suffrage Convention in Baltimore, 1906, as reported in Chic. T. Fed. Bull., Mar. 16, 1906, p. 1. 74 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations such associations for failing to place a single woman on the program. 22 The state associations as shown in hundreds of their programs over many years do not seem to have done any better, after women were admitted. There have been a few sporadic attempts in various associations to give women greater representa- tion in this matter, 23 but such attempts have never continued nor have they had an appreciable permanent effect. The small percentage of women officers in general associations is also a matter of tradition and is scarcely to be wondered at in view of the late day at which women secured membership in the associations. The New York State Association, in 1854, elected a woman as vice-president at the instigation of Miss Anthony, 24 but this was a very unusual thing. Soon after the National Education Association admitted women (1870), they began to be elected occasionally to honorary or subordinate offices, but they have never held an executive office in this association 25 nor have they ever been more prominent than at present. In the American Institute of Instruction in 1875, there was a contest about getting women on the list of officers, 26 but they have never exerted any material influence in this association. However, during the seventies the practice of electing women to representa- tion on the lists of officers of the state associations, particularly as honorary vice-presidents, arose. 27 From this time on, just as at present, there were a few sporadic cases of prominent 22 This was the case with the American Institute of Instruction in 1878 as reported in the Journal of Education 10 : 25, and the National Education Association at the general sessions in 1903 and at the department of super- intendence in 1900. 28 The N. E- A. in 1884, the New England Normal Association in the same year, the Illinois Schoolmaster's Club in 1890 and the Massachusetts School- master's Club in 1901 made special efforts to have women only at one or more sessions. 24 Chic. T. Fed. Bull., May 29, 1903 : 1-2, quoting from Ida Husted Harper's Life and Works of Susan B. Anthony. 25 Jour. Edn., 66 : 16. 26 Jour. Edn., 2 : 46. 27 Examples are the following: Mass. State Assn. ; several women directors from 1871-4. Tenn. State Assn.; one woman vice-president out of 9, 1878. Maine State Assn.; one woman out of 5 on Exec. Council, 1878. Conn. State Assn. ; 2 women vice-presidents out of 7 and a corresponding secretary in 1878. N. H. State Assn.; 3 women out of 9 vice-presidents, 1878. The Place of Women in the Associations 75 women in offices of importance, but these cases were very excep- tional. 28 In general, from that time to the present there has been no marked advance in the proportionate representation of women in the general associations, and what has been given above holds true for the country at large, except that women first obtained recognition in the east ; the western and southern associations have been somewhat slower to allow them even this slight recognition. But one of the main causes for the unimportant place of women in the list^of officers and on the programs to-day is undoubtedly due to the fact that such places seem to be given to positions, rather than to individuals, that is, the state superintendent of education will usually serve as president of the state association some time during his office no matter how he ranks as an individual. Consequently, as women do not occupy so many executive and prominent positions in educational work as do men, they are not elected to the offices or assigned on the programs so often. The comparatively few women who are very prominent in such work seem to serve rather frequently in all except the very highest offices ; little real discrimination against them is apparent. The same thing appears to be true of speakers not engaged in educational work, — statesmen, publicists, editors, etc., who appear on the programs. It is also a question as to how much women have really cared to be represented in these associations. There have been periodical protests all over the country about their lack of representation, but after securing representation they have also failed in some instances to do anything of importance. In 1885 a board member of the Massachusetts State Association in replying to strictures on the association for not allowing women more representation in it, wrote as follows: "About a dozen years ago .... five women were nominated and elected (on the Board). The records of the association do 28 Examples are the following: The New Haven Teachers Assn. organized in 1879 had half its executive committee women. {Jour. Edn., 9 : 44.) The Indiana State Assn. in 1877 had a woman vice-president who presided at one of the meetings. (Jour. Edn., 7 : 93.) The New England Normal Assn. in 1884 elected a woman president for the ensuing year. (Jour. Edn., 19 : 92.) The Penobscot (Me.) T. Assn in 1887 had a woman president. (Jour. Edn., 25 :3i7.) j6 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations not show that one of these women was present at any meeting of the Board during the year." (Next year other ladies were elected.) "Not one attended a directors' meeting, though I believe that every male director attended at least one meeting, and many attended all the directors' meetings, some of them at considerable trouble and expense " Of the fifteen ladies who have been members of the Board, the records show only two, who have ever attended a meeting of of the directors, or in any way aided in the deliberations of the Board " The fact still remains that the workers in the association are largely men ; and the 'eminent' and 'admirable women ' referred to, rarely, if ever, offer a word in free and open debate in the meetings in the association ; and that until women are ' an equal factor ' in the every day work of an association, it is unreasonable to expect that they will be made ' an equal factor ' in its board of govern- ment." 29 With slight modifications this reply could be made to many similar protests of the present time. Many women join state associations and even the National Education Association prac- tically under compulsion from their superintendents 30 who are enthusiastic for a large attendance at the associations ; such women naturally care nothing about the associations and have no inten- tion whatever of attending them unless forced to do so by their superintendents or boards of education. Under these circum- stances there is some reason for believing that there is no real discrimination against women in the associations. Another cause for this seeming discrimination is probably the short stay of women in the teaching profession. The people who appear on the programs of the associations and gradually work up to the offices, are naturally those who attend year after year. Women who do not intend to teach long make little effort to go to these associations, although, as before mentioned, they may be practically forced into taking out membership. The few women who do occupy prominent places in the associations are those who attend regularly year after year, and their names appear in the offices in the same way. Many women teachers are also prevented from attending the associations because of low salaries, 29 Jour. Edn., 21 : 151. 80 Representative graduate students at Teachers College from every sec- tion of the country state that this practice is a common one in the localities with which they are familiar. The Place of Women in the Associations jj although they may take out memberships because they are forced to do so or because they desire copies of the proceedings. From the foregoing it may be seen that even if on the whole women at present occupy a very subordinate position in teachers' associations, still by a slow and gradual evolution they have made great progress since the associations first organized. However, within the last few years there have been some activities of women, which, while they have not as yet produced much in the way of tangible results, are nevertheless indicative of future lines of development. We shall now examine these. Section III. Recent Phenomena Making for Greater Prominence of Women in the Associations In the general associations, although nothing very tangible in this direction has been accomplished in the National Education Association, still there have been several interesting attempts lately. The most important of these is one inspired by Chicago women teachers. In 1902 the Chicago Federation of Teachers, an organization of grade teachers, led a movement to obtain more recognition of grade teachers in the National Education Associ- ation. As immediate results were not satisfactory, the " National Federation of Teachers," an organization of women grade teachers to meet annually at the same time with the National Education Association, was formed. This federation devoted itself mainly to discussions of the rights of women teachers, of the advantages of the organizations, and it conducted an extensive correspondence with such organizations and sent out literature to all parts of the country. It has suspended operations for the present as it was found " impracticable " to carry it on, 31 but it did cause consider- able discussion for a time. 32 Within the National Education Association itself, a representative of the federation in 1903 helped to defeat a proposition to give the president of the associ- tion the right to name the nominating committee instead of having the latter elected by the members of the association, 33 although this proposition was strongly advocated by the officials of the 31 Private letter from Financial Secretary of Chicago Federation to the writer, May 27, 1910. 82 A description of its activities at flood tide is given in Edn. Rev., 30 : 344, et seq. 38 Chic. T. Fed. Bull., Sept. 18, 1903:4-5, quoting comments from various periodicals. 78 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations association. In 1904 she had a spirited tilt with a representative of the conservative element in the association regarding organiza- tions of teachers. 34 In 1905-6 she actively opposed a change in the charter of the association looking toward greater centralization of control, especially of funds, although this change was advocated by the controlling elements in the association. 35 However, all these efforts seem to have produced no permanent effects. Again, in the National Education Association, the secretary's minutes for 1908 show that " suggestions were made expressing the desire of the members that, in the choice of additional members of the National Council, the disparity in the proportion between men and women members be reduced." 36 This has not as yet produced any tangible results, the number of women in the Council for 1909 being actually one less than for 1908. It must be stated, however, that the methods of the association of electing only one-sixth of the membership each year and filling the vacancies caused by those who have been absent from two successive meet- ings, are the only ways the council can gain new members ; such ways of course are very slow in operation. The department of Women's Organizations, which was formed in 1908 on petition of five organizations of women, may in time bring about some change in the influence of women in the National Education Association. While the members of the department are only in part teachers, and will in all probability take up only large educational problems, still by a ruling of the Board of Directors in 1909, members of this department do not belong to it in their corporate capacity of organizations of women, but as individual members of the whole association. 37 There may thus ultimately arise a situation where the women members may take a considerable part in the general association, especially as they can claim to be the representatives of a million or so organized club women. 38 But as yet they show so little signs of doing this that the new name of the department given it in 1909, — " School Patrons," — typifies its aims pretty well. In the state associations, on the whole, the status of the women 34 Chic. T. Fed. Bull., Nov. 18, 1904 : 4, quoting from Western Teacher Oct., 1904. 85 Chic. T. Fed. Bull., Mar. 2, 1906 : 4. seProc. N. E. A., 1908 141. 37 Proc. N. E. A., 1909 1 39. 88 Laura Drake Gill, The Scope of the Department of Women's Organiza- tions. Proc. N. E. A., 1909 : 75. The Place of Women in the Associations 79 members as regards movements for increased influence is virtually the same as in the National Education Association. Correspond- ing to the Department of School Patrons in the larger association, there are the School Improvement Departments in Alabama, Mississippi, and the two Carolinas, the Mother's Congress in Iowa, the Parents' Section in Utah, and the proposed federation of women's clubs in Georgia for 1909, 39 with virtually similar mem- bership and aims. There is a Schoolmistresses' Club that meets annually at the Vermont Association, but it has apparently only an annual banquet.* In the Wisconsin Association in 1908 there was a minority report from the Committee on Revision of the Constitution and By-Laws, recommending the elimination from the constitution of the provision making a distinction between members on account of sex, but this did not meet with sufficient approval to prevent its being laid over for one year, 41 and the 1909 proceedings have not been received at this writing. In California also there has been considerable dissatisfaction among the women at the way they have been ignored^ the editor of a leading educational periodical there in July, 1909, remarking: " How long are the women of California going to stand for the treatment that they receive from the educational leaders of this state ? The regret of this ' Journal ' is, that the women seem to lack the championship of a leader and are content to meekly pay their dollars and form the audience for the speakers, while the men show their educational efficiency by doing the thinking part in the lobbies of halls and hotels." 42 The efforts of the women in this state, however, seem to be tending toward an organization of the women outside the regular general associations. Let us now consider what the women have done to further their professional advancement in associations by themselves. While some results have been attained in this field, they are on the whole still very vague, unorganized, and as yet not expressed " institutionally." It has been impossible to collect full information from all the places where phenomena in this field are occurring, but it is believed that enough has been collected to indicate the tendency. Women teachers have not yet been able to achieve a national 89 Proc. Ga. Edn. Assn., 1908 : 19. *> Proc. Vt. St. T. Assn., 1908 : 10. 41 Proc. Wise. St. Assn., 1908 : 5. 42 Editorial, West. Jul. Edn., July 1909, 326-7. 80 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations organization as women. The National Federation of Teachers, as before mentioned, is no longer active. In Connecticut in 1902 there was started a movement to organize women teachers in the state into a " Woman's Council of Education." 43 It was planned to work with all the women's clubs of the state and ultimately to form a national teachers' league of women. This movement appears to have expended itself in securing the department of women's organizations in the National Education Association. 44 Of the state associations, there are only two so far as the writer has been able to find that indicate that the women have sharply divided in purposes along sex lines ; these are the Vermont School- mistresses' Club and the California Federation of Schoolwomen's Club before mentioned. This latter appears to be very significant for the future of state organizations of women teachers. The following call 45 issued in November, 1909, gives an excellent summary of the movement. " In San Jose last year an organization was effected under the name of the California Federation of School Women's Clubs. As implied in the name, this organization is composed of delegates from local clubs, and its plan is to hold a yearly meeting at the time and place of meeting of the T. C. A., where all school women can come and discuss things that make for our professional advancement and better acquaintance. Quoting from the constitu- tion adopted, the purposes of this federation are: 1. "To cultivate professional spirit among the women teachers of the state, that they may have a broader outlook upon their work and conception of it. 2. " To encourage women teachers to organize as a help toward the above, that they may work together and have opportunities to discuss professional problems. 3. " To promote acquaintance and fellowship, in order that co-operation may enable women to make their work more effective and secure adequate recognition of its worth." In order to further these aims a meeting of the officers and executive board was held in San Francisco on the twenty-seventh of February, when nine members out of thirteen were present. An outline of work was prepared and sent to the clubs to be included in their plans of work for the year. This outline follows : 43 Jour. Edn., 63 : 175. 44 Laura Drake Gill, The Scope of the Department of Women's Organiza- tions. Proc. N. E. A., 1909 : 70. 46 Agnes E. Howe, A Call to the School Women of California. Sierra Ednl. News, Nov. 1909 : 50-2. The Place of Women in the Associations 81 1. Consider the report of the committee on affiliation submitted at the San Jose meeting of the C. T. A. and published in the February number of the Sierra Education News. i. Consider carefully the plans presented. 2. Add to, take from, or formulate a new one. II. Study of administrative methods of elementary and second- ary schools of California. What does our administration now accomplish — what should it accomplish — what steps may be taken for improvement? Under this include some of the following : i. Method of appointment and tenure of teachers. 2. Influence over pupils exerted by men and women in the higher educational positions. 3. Economic status of women and its effect upon health and efficiency. 4. Causes of the decreasing number of men in the profession and its effect upon school efficiency. 5. Causes for woman's professional or lack of professional attitude. III. An intensive study of the school legislation adopted during the present session of the State Legislature. 1. Study of laws passed. 2. Study of amendments to the state constitution to be voted on at next general election. Give special attention to the article of Improving County School Supervision in the February number of the Sierra Educational News. The clubs so far as heard from have all considered topics I and III and some have included II. One club secretary writes that the club meetings are so enjoyable and interesting, and they find so many things to discuss, that the members have voted to hold monthly meetings hereafter instead of quarterly as heretofore. At present there are ten clubs in the federation, and several others which have not joined it as yet but which are holding meetings and keeping their own organizations. Whether they join the federation or not is a minor matter, though we hope that those in the territory about the Bay region may yet do so ; the main issue is to have the women teachers of the state become conversant with school matters outside of their immediate work and locality as well as within them, and so be able to act intelligently and effectively whenever action is necessary or 82 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations advisable. When it is considered how much may be accomplished through organization, and how little without it, it seems best either to strengthen the present federation or to devise some other plan that shall satisfy the majority and still accomplish the results that seem desirable. If the plan for the affiliation of the four great educational associations of the state is accomplished by and during the coming meeting of the C. T. A. 46 it seems to the writer advisable to have organizations of women in connection with each of them. Such a one was formed by the women of the Northern California Association at the recent meeting, and it is hoped that similar ones will be formed by the women of Southern California and in the San Joaquin Valley. The coming together at the different associations, the social intercourse, the professional uplift, and the general good time so secured are well worth while, even if nothing more be accomplished ; and in the meetings of the local clubs more may be done along the same lines together with the development of a larger professional outlook. This year in San Francisco the federation will hold a reception and business meeting to be followed by a banquet at the Fair- mont Hotel, Tuesday evening, December 28th. All arrange- ments for both are being made by the San Francisco School Women's Club. All women attending the association, whether members of clubs or not, will be cordially welcomed at both functions. Last year in San Jose two hundred and thirty women attended a banquet This year we hope to exceed the San Jose attendance by a number that will tax the hotel management to accommodate us. There will be toasts from some of the most prominent women of the state — school women and others. Let us prove that we have enough professional pride and spirit to have one meeting each year that shall be not only an enjoyable social function, but shall give us a solidarity of interests and of aims that perhaps hitherto have been somewhat lacking." In city associations of teachers, the prominence of women immediately strikes an observer. The returns from representative cities all over the United States show that women are a very decided factor in such associations, as measured by their holding offices and serving on committees and programs. In nearly every city there is some association in which the women either form a total membership or else monopolize the offices, boards of control, and advisory offices. The indications are that in at least half the 46 It was so accomplished. The Place of Women in the Associations 83 cities of 30,000 and upwards, there is at least one organization of teachers, composed of women only. 47 It is impossible to make any final generalizations regarding the work of these city associations from the data that could be col- lected, but the reader may gain an idea of their work from typical ones which will now be described. 48 All of these types have been discovered in some numbers, but it has been impossible to attempt to give anything like a comparative numerical estimate of the strength of the various types. 1. General Women Teachers' Club Large City. Boston Teachers' Club. Membership 1400; open to all women teachers: Object: "To promote a closer union among the women teachers of Boston by means of social intercourse and friendly co-operation; to raise the standard of excellence in the teaching profession ; to promote the interests of the women teachers of the city; to create in the community at large a deeper sense of the dignity of the profession and the importance of the interests 47 Examples are :. Boston Lady Teachers' Association. Boston Teachers' Club. Boston Master's Assistants' Club. Canton, (O.) Teachers' Club. Cincinnati Women Teachers' Club. Chicago: Ella Flagg Young Club (Principals); Chicago Teachers' Federa- tion. New York: Interboro Assn.; Women Principals' Association. San Jose, Cal. : Schoolwomen's Club. (This is one of a federation of such clubs in California, that numbered 10 in Nov., 1909.) Somerville, Mass. : Woman Teachers' Club. Springfield, Mass. : Teachers' Club. Toledo, O. : Schoolmistresses' Club. Jersey City Teachers' Club. Jersey City Primary Principals' Assn. Patterson, N. J. : Public Kindergarten Assn. Philadelphia Teachers' Club. Providence, R. I.: Rhode Island Kindergarten League; Sarah E. Doyle Club. Savannah Teachers' Mutual Benefit Assn. (almost exclusively). Indianapolis : Federation of Teachers. Hartford, Conn. : Grade Teachers' Club. Houston, Tex. : Story Tellers' League. Memphis: Story Tellers' League. Pittsburg Teachers' Art Club. Denver: Women's Educational Club of Colorado. Savannah Kindergarten Club. 48 The data for this description were obtained from replies to a questionaire sent out by the writer to officers of the associations and from the publications of the associations. 84 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations which it represents ; and to strengthen the bond that unites the home to the school." (Constitution of the Club) Runs a lecture course of six to ten numbers a year, conducts extension courses in Composition, English, and Design, has a dramatic section for presenting plays and a glee club for con- certs. Has two social meetings yearly. Has School Board Conference Committee and a Legislative Committee which was sent to influence the Legislature regarding salaries and claims it was largely responsible for the 1908 Massa- chusetts pension law. Affiliated with other women teachers' clubs in Boston. Small City. Canton {Ohio) Teachers' Club. Membership 175 ; open to all women teachers. Object: "To bind the women teachers of the city closer together in a professional, social and educational way." Conducts a Chicago University extension course, an art class and a reading circle. 2. Specialized Associations Ella Flagg Young Club (Women Principals of Chicago).. Membership 62. Object: " To organize the women principals and to bring them into closer acquaintance ; to subserve the interests of education by the discussion of appropriate topics." (Constitution) In 1909-10 discussed these topics : The New Course in The Study of Chicago. The Influence of Cheap Theatres upon Our Pupils. Social Hygiene. Spring Planting. An Arts Conference. Has had study courses in Psychology and Ethics. Has co-operated with other organizations of teachers in Chicago to secure increased salaries and pensions. Jersey City Primary Principals' Association. Membership 32. Object: "The mutual improvement of its members; the dis- cussion of school management and improved methods of teaching." (Constitution) Has lectures on methods, but members prefer to attend Columbia University for extension courses. Has been very active in striving to secure legislation on pen- sions, salaries, etc. Works with other bodies of teachers in the city and belongs to the New Jersey Federation of Women's Clubs. Savannah Kindergarten Club. Membership 41. At first open to graduated kindergar- The Place of Women in the Associations 85 teners, but now to " any one interested in the education of small children." Object : The securing of a better education for small children. Conducts lectures, study courses, and public kindergarten festivals. Is affiliated with the Kate Baldwin Free Kindergarten Associ- ation, the " Kindergarten backbone of Savannah." Pittsburg Teachers' Art Club. Membership 55. Object: " The diffusion of the knowledge of Art, Art Litera- ture and Art Industry in the community." Conducts lecture and art courses. Helped promote bills for protection of women and children and for the advancement of art interests. Federated with the Women's Clubs of Pennsylvania. Class Teachers. Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. " The superintendent, assistant superintendents, supervisors, directors of practice, supervising principals and regularly appointed teachers are eligible to membership, but only regular teachers of classes are eligible to office, to membership on the executive board, to membership in the representative body, or to appoint- ment on standing committees." Object : " To promote in the community at large an intelligent understanding of the interests which the public teachers represent ; to secure for the members of the Federation whatever advantages may be derived from co-operation in the way of arousing a stronger social spirit, of increasing the compensation of teachers, of dealing with questions of vital interest to the schools, of look- ing after sick teachers, and of adjusting through a judiciary committee all matters pertaining to the professional interests of the members of the Federation." "The first action taken by the Federation in behalf of its mem- bers, was an organized effort to induce the legislature to enact a law empowering and authorizing the school board to levy an additional tax for the purpose of increasing the teachers' salaries. At the same time the Federation also made diligent efforts to secure the passage of the bill providing for a teachers' pension fund. In both of these efforts the Federation was successful. " Twice since the Federation was organized, the teachers have presented petitions for increase in salary — petitions which were granted. " Again the Federation presented a petition to the School Board asking that the schedule of pay days be so arranged that the teachers might receive their salary warrants before the first of each month. This petition also was granted. 86 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations " In order to create a closer social relation among the members, a social committee was appointed for the purpose of assisting new teachers in finding homes for themselves, and of providing social recreation and entertainment. " Another most important committee was appointed — a hospital committee — to look after the interests of the sick teachers. This committee is empowered by the Federation to use funds accruing from membership fees for the relief of such members. As the result of this provision, $960 has been disbursed among the mem- bers who have required hospital treatment or nurses' care. " For the sake of creating an intelligent public understanding of the interests of the teachers and the schools, a press committee was appointed to publish, from time to time, and cause to be published, articles relating to the highest welfare of the schools." 49 3. General Educational Women's Club Women's Educational Club of Colorado. Membership not over 40 with not over 30 from Denver. Object: "To bring women engaged in different lines and grades of educational work in touch with one another socially and in discussions of educational matters so that the members can get a wider view of education." Holds six meetings yearly, usually with banquet. Helped state association to promote educational and pension bills. There have been two city organizations of women teachers that merit special mention, — the Chicago Teachers' Federation and the Interboro Association of New York. The work of the first of these has been referred to several times. The Chicago Teachers' Federation has probably never had a superior among teachers' associations so far as effective organiza- tion for the end in view is concerned. An editorial in the Journal of Education, in 1903, in treating of the Chicago situation, and in the main referring to this association, contains the following: " There is no gainsaying the fact that in the past four years the teachers of Chicago have wielded a greater influence than has ever before been wielded by teachers as a class, that women teachers have had a proportionate influence hitherto unknown, that the tangible results of their effort is unprecedented." 50 According to the constitution " teachers of the public schools " are eligible to membership. The term "teacher " shall be construed to mean " any teacher in charge of a division, and none other." 49 Indianapolis Public Schools: Report for 1908-9: 230-1. 50 Jour. Edn., 58 : 436. The Place of Women in the Associations 87 There are a few slight modifications of this, but they are not material. According to the same authority: " The object of this organization shall be to raise the standard of the teaching profession by securing for teachers conditions essential to the best professional service, and to this end to obtain for them all the rights and benefits to which they are entitled; the consideration and study of such subjects as the Federation may deem necessary ; the consideration and support of the pension law ; the study of parliamentary law." A brief history of the accomplishments of this remarkable organization will suffice to show its effectiveness. Aroused by a reduction in wages in 1900 the members of the Federation appointed during the year two of their number to investigate on leave of absence at the organization's expense, tax- dodging public service corporations. 51 These women instituted legal proceedings which resulted in 1902 in turning into the city treasury nearly six hundred thousand dollars for back taxes for 1900. The School Board attempted to use its part of this money for buildings, supplies, etc., but 1,684 teachers, 57% of whom were members of the Federation, in July of that year, secured an injunction restraining the Board from using its $249,554.74 of the back taxes for 1900 except for restoring the cut of 1900 in teachers' salaries, this injunction being sustained in August, 1904. The suit for back salary for 1900 was dismissed in 1906, when the Board agreed to pay the money for this purpose. Also in 1903, an increase of at least $50 annually for each elementary teacher was granted, manifestly the direct result of the Federation's activity. The Federation affiliated with the Chicago Federation of Labor in 1902, causing much discussion throughout the country. It is still affiliated but is avoiding publicity at present. In 1904 the Federation took a very active part in getting votes in favor of an elective school board. " During the last two or three years " it has " worked toward overturning a vicious system of secret marking which has been in vogue for a number of years. The result of the investigation made by the Federation over- turned the system." 52 It is at present " accomplishing much 51 By 1901 the Federation comprised in its membership about 4000 out of the 6000 teachers of the city as reported by Miss Margaret Haley before the Middlesex Co., Mass., Association in Nov. 1901. {Jnl. Edn., 54 : 304.) 52 Letter to writer from Financial Secretary of the Federation, May 27, 19 10. 88 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations though keeping very quiet." 53 The publication of the bulletin of the Federation was discontinued in 1908, as there seemed to be no particular need for it, and there was no one free to take up the work. The last definite accounts of it in print seem to be a pamphlet of twenty-four pages issued December 1, 1908. The following shows what it then stood for: What the Chicago Teachers' Federation Aims to Secure Object. The object of this organization shall be to raise the standard of the teaching profession by securing for teachers conditions essential to the best professional service, and to this end to obtain for them all the rights and benefits to which they are entitled; the consideration and study of such subjects as the Federation may deem necessary ; the consideration and support of the pension law ; the study of parliamentary law. — Constitution of Chicago Teachers' Federation. Entrance Qualifications. Such a standard of scholarship and professional attainments, as entrance requirements, demanded of all candidates for appoint- ments as will insure the service against the permanent appoint- ment of the unscholarly and professionally incompetent and unfit, this to be secured by, (a) Examination or other equivalent educational test before appointment on probation. (b) Period of probation before permanent appointment under supervision competent to recognize and encourage scholarship and professional ability and with authority to eliminate the incompetent after reasonable trial in at least three different schools. Tenure of Office and Efficiency. Repeal of Rule 190. Repeal of Rule 190 of the Board of Education, abolished in December, 1906, and re-enacted in June 1907. This rule provides' that " Teachers shall be subject to removal at any time within or without cause at the pleasure of the Board." Adoption of Following Instead. After a probationary period all appointments to be permanent during efficiency and good behavior. Inefficient teachers to be eliminated from the service after having had a reasonable opportunity for improvement and a trial on written charges before a properly constituted tribunal. Repeal of Secret Marking System. Abolition of the present secret marking system and promotional 53 Same letter. The Place of Women in the Associations 89 examination and other extraneous tests and requirements of certified culture. Adoption of Following Instead. After permanent appointment actual work in school room, under supervision competent to recognise scholarship and pro- fessional ability in and through such work, to be the only test of a teacher's efficiency. All efficient teachers to be entitled to and to receive the regular annual increase of salary till maximum in salary schedule is reached. " Efficient teachers " to be held to mean teachers against whom no charge of inefficiency or unfitness has been proven. Salary Schedule. All elementary teachers to receive not less than $1,000 for seventh year, and an annual increase of $100 thereafter until the maximum of $1,500 is reached. Stable Salary Fund. A separate fund to be used exclusively for payment of teachers' salaries, said fund to be not less than a certain fixed percentage of assessed valuation of property in Chicago, as now provided in the New York City Charter. Pension Fund. Public funds for teachers' pension fund. Advisory Educational Councils. Adoption by the Board of Education of the report of the School Management Committee recommended to the Board of May 8, 1907, and providing for official advisory organization of the teach- ing force. Object: To provide a means of growth and educational advancement through interchange of ideas, and to give the school system the benefit of the experience of those actually engaged in the work of teaching. Duty: To discuss questions and methods of discipline and teaching courses of study, text-books and equipment, and all other questions bearing on the work of the teacher or affecting the progress and development of the schools, and to make recom- mendations on same to superintendent and board of education. All findings and recommendations of the council to be made a matter of record in the official proceedings of the Board of Education. Definite provision to be made for time within the regular school hours for the meetings of the councils. Elected Board of Education. Elected by the people ; nominations to be by petition ; elections 90 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations at large (instead of by wards) ; women to have the right to sign nomination petitions and to vote for members of the Board. Maximum Number of Pupils. The maximum number of pupils to each teacher not to exceed forty, to be secured without interfering with teachers' salaries or increasing the burden of the honest taxpayers." 54 The financial secretary writes under date of May 27, 1910, that the Federation is " still at work and accomplishing much, though keeping very quiet .... With an appointive Board of Education, made up of representatives of the interests we attacked, no public recognition can ever be secured for the work of the teachers, but so long as the benefits accrue, we are not worrying about that." This does not mean that the organization is declining, but only that it is co-operating with other organizations of teachers in the city and is in hearty sympathy with the present superintendent. In all probability its influence and power for good are greater than ever. The Interboro Association of women teachers of New York is significant for furnishing the most extreme case of specialized activity on the part of teachers for economic betterment of teachers. For several years this organization has conducted a very aggressive campaign for " equal pay '' for women doing the same work as men. The magnitude of the agitation may be judged from the facts brought out in the report of an investigating committee of the Board of Education, presented in September, 1907. 55 It was then established that in the previous campaign at Albany, over three hundred supervisors and principals had been absent from school over five hundred days. One district super- intendent, a woman, was absent thirty-four days or a fifth of the school year, one woman was absent^twenty-nine days and another eleven and a half, after January, 1907. Some of these teachers had gone to oppose the bill, at the request of the board members, but the great majority of them were " equal pay " adherents. The board intended to punish the women, but their leader skillfully produced documentary evidence to show that 7,000 women teachers had been involved, either going to Albany themselves 54 Report, Showing Results of Fifteen Years of Organization, to the Teach- ers of Chicago, pp. 19-21. (Issued by Chic. T. Fed. in Dec, 1908.) 86 This report is given substantially in: New York Globe and Commercial Advertiser, Sept. 12, 1907. Chic. T. Fed. Bull., Oct. 18, 1907 : 1-3. The Place of Women in the Associations 91 or contributing to send representatives there. 56 As a result, the Board only adopted very stringent rules governing absences, designed to prevent such activities in the future. This association also tried in the political campaign of 1908 to pledge the democratic candidate for governor to support their measures, but they have not had power to accomplish much as yet. The matter of " equal pay " came up before the Board of Education in March, 1910, for the first time with no complications as to where the money for increased salaries of women was com- ing from. However, it was defeated, 23 to 15, three of the four women members of the Board voting against it. This will apparently check the movement for some time. Relief may be sought again through Albany, but little can be hoped from this source as the previous bills for " equal pay " passed by the Legislature were vetoed by the Governor and the Mayor. 57 Probably the most important thing in the whole matter of separate organizations of women teachers is the affiliation of women teachers' clubs with general women's clubs. It is impossible to obtain full statistics on this subject, but enough has been found to indicate that there must be many schoolwomen's clubs over the country affiliated with their respective state feder- ations of women's clubs. 58 In addition many prominent school women are very active as individuals in these general women's clubs which very often take up educational problems. When it is recalled that the Department of Organizations of Women in the National Education Association at its birth in 1908 represented 900,000 organized women, 59 and at the end of one year could boast of twenty-five states with fully organized educational com- mittees, twenty-one of which states could show definite accom- plishment, 60 the possibilities of such affiliation seem large. Indeed in all our American civilization, as Miss Gill says, " The only 56 Chic. T. Fed. Bull., Oct. 18, 1907 : 4. 57 New York Times, Mar. 17, 19 10. 58 Examples are : Boston Teachers' Club. Chicago Teachers' Federation. Dayton (O.) Teachers' Club. Jersey City Primary Principals' Association. Pittsburg Teachers' Art Club. Rhode Island Kindergarten League. 59 Laura Drake Gill, The Scope of the Department of Women's Organiza- tions. Proc. N. E. A., 1909 175. «°Ibid., 71. 92 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations available machinery at present for any wide co-operation is found in the national organizations of women In the America of to-day the woman citizen has the leisure to plan, create, and operate the social machinery for throwing her power and that of her men friends, into a given cause at an opportune moment." 61 Section IV. Problems A number of problems arise in connection with a serious survey of the facts as presented heretofore, several of which we shall .now discuss. / In view of the overwhelming importance of organized voluntary J effort in modern American life, any one who has the advance- ment of the teaching profession at heart can scarcely fail to be concerned with the part women play in' such advancement at present^ From a purely theoretical standpoint, it is difficult to see how any profession in which the great majority of members in organizations working towards its advancement are inert, can hope to advance much. It will be recalled how great a majority women have in the membership of the associations, yet how they are practically nonentities in running them. To some it is a cause of wonder that the members of a profession which is so intimately concerned with teaching the principles of representative govern- ment in our schools, cari be satisfied to_ remain with no ftgl 'O0A\O r rC?V^- representation in the manaeejrie nt of its ow n. -affairs. ™ The principle is essentially that for which the Chicago Federa- tion contended in its struggle against the superintendent and the Board of Education, and for which Professor Dewey so eloquently pleaded, 62 — democracy in education. ^Ch6 teaching r^rqfessjon_cjmJ^iidam^ all its members^ are vitally concerned in_ jts adv a ncemen t. That they are TT~»t at present thus concerned is obvious ; nnti], they arg! the^aHvancp- ment of the professio n of teaching on the foundation of A merican ideals of democracy is impossible, On the practical side, this problem may not seem to exist, for whenever the question comes up in associations, almost invariably the argument is advanced that the women now have all the representation they deserve, or really care for. And it must be frankly admitted that there is some good evidence for such belief, 61 Ibid., pp. 72, 73. " 62 Dewey, Democracy in Education, El. Schl. T., 4 : 193-204. The Place of Women in the Associations 93 at least on the first point. Men teachers traditionally have been concerned with the advancement of the profession through organ- ization and they are still entrusted with the management of such associations. Of twenty state associations, — all whose lists of members could be obtained, — the names of the men and women members were carefully counted. The results 63 show that the median percentage of the men teachers of a state who belong to the state association is 18.2 with a range from 5.7 to 66.0 ; while for women the median percentage is only 8.6 with a range from 2.4 to 60.7. In sixteen states a larger proportion of men teachers of the state belonged than did women teachers, the median ratio being 2 in favor of the men with a range from .42 to 7.37. Such evidence as this is certainly in favor of the view that women do not deserve equal representation with men in the management of these associations. Statistics showing the relation of actual attendance of those enrolled cannot be obtained, but it is generally admitted that the women are not equal to the men in this respect. Again it is obvious that so long as the average stay in the profession for women is much shorter than for men, and so long as the executive positions and those carrying longer tenure of «THfe complete tabulation is as follows: Per cent Per cent of men of women Ratio of teachers teachers percentages who are who are men to Year. State. members. members. women. 1909 Ala. 17.6 21.8 .81 1908 Ark. 8.6 8 5 1 .02 1908 111. 12 5 2 4 5 23 1909 Ind. 6.7 3 5 1 .92 1908 la. 19.7 3 5 563 1909 Ky. 17.0 9 1 1 .90 1908 Me. 27 .0 13 2.08 1909 Md. 19.0 8 7 2. 19 1910 Minn. 66.0 23 4 2.82 1909 Miss. 8.1 6 6 1.23 1908 Mo. 13.0 4 3-25 1908 N. Y. 55-5 57 3 •97 1908 N. Mex. 18.0 34 •53 1909 N. Y. 5-7 3 1 1.84 1909 N. D. 18.4 2 5 7-37 1908 Oreg. 31.0 19 9 1.56 1909 Pa. "■5 4 8 2.40 1908 S. D. 26.0 5 6 4-65 1908 Vt. 45 -o 21 4 2. 10 1908 Wise. 25-9 60 7 .42 Median 18.2 8.6 94 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations office are preferably open to men, just so long will men continue to lead in the associations. The argument that women do not care for more active par- ticipation is hardly so well grounded. If they do not, it is apt to be the case that the association is not accomplishing anything. In many instances they undoubtedly do care for greater participation, but the notoriety and unpleasant censure that have been heaped upon the heads of women teachers who have gone ahead in such activity, as in Chicago, New York, New Jersey, and California, deter them. The unpleasantness in this respect and the fear that dissensions in the teaching body may arise that will more than offset any gain to be derived from greater participation of women are very apt to make them prefer the present situation. Also, largely for traditional reasons arising in general social conditions, they may distrust leaders of their own sex just as in some instances they distrust women supervisors or members of the Board of Education; 64 until such distrust can be removed, in all likelihood comparatively few women will care to try to lead. The next problem is one regarding changes from the present situation likely to result in the future. In the first place, it is hardly likely that the present situation can continue indefinitely. With the percentage of women teachers in all the states steadily increasing; with a lengthening term of service in the profession for women as salary increases, tenure of office, pensions, and removal of disbarment for marriage are secured ; and with women steadily securing better executive and administrative positions in educational work, their dissatisfaction with the present situation is sure to increase. Moreover, such dissatisfaction is certain to be fomented by workers in the general movement for woman's emancipation, and the granting of universal suffrage. 65 Any change of course cannot be permanent unless women teachers can produce from their number capable leaders, a pos- sibility very seriously questioned by many prominent men. While at present no definite answer can be made to this, there are some indications that these persons may be in error. There have 64 For instance, in 1889 two thousand women teachers of New York peti- tioned to prevent the appointment of women members on the board of edu- cation. {Jnl. Edn. 30 : 344.) 65 An example of this is the backing given the "equal pay" agitators in New York by the suffragists. The Place of Women in the Associations 95 already appeared in these associations, women that are probably as capable individuals as any man in the profession. The elevation of women to high executive positions, a movement of which Mrs. Young's election in Chicago appears to be the first significant case, 66 indicates that there is sufficient talent for leadership among the women if they care to exert it. In organizations for women teachers only, as in Chicago, New York, Boston, Denver, or in some of the state associations as New Jersey, California, and Virginia, individual women have shown remarkable talent for effective and persistent leadership. The question then reduces itself to one as to whether leaders among women can be produced in sufficient numbers. It would seem that with increasing remuneration and stability, and higher standards for the profes- sion, a better class of women ought to be secured, so that leaders will appear as opportunity arises. This cannot be proved of course except by actually trying it out, but at any rate it is safe to remember that " only by sharing in some responsible task does there come a fitness to share in it." 67 As to the probable line of development, present indications and historical precedents in analogous matters seem to be against the rise of women as leaders first in general teachers' associations. The case of the National Education Association is probably a fair example of what to expect in this line. The movement will probably develop through an extension of the influence of women from the city associations, organizing first state associations and possibly in time a national organization. With the initial help and successful experience of the women's club movement, such a culmination should be reached if women teachers desire it. Temporary trouble may result because such a movement is sure to encounter active opposition from men who are now controlling the general associations. However, the writer has not found a single instance of organizations of women teachers refusing to affiliate on terms of reasonable recognition with organizations of men teachers, but he has found several cases of where associ- 66 "Women are destined to rule the schools of every city. I look for a large majority of the big cities to follow the lead of Chicago in choosing a woman for superintendent. In the near future we shall have more women than men in executive charge of the vast educational system. It is woman's natural field and she is no longer satisfied to do the greatest part of the work and yet be denied the leadership." — Mrs. Ella Flagg Young as reported in the West. Jnl. Edn., Oct., 1909 : 515. 67 Dewey, Democracy in Education, El. Schl. Tchr., 4 : 197. 96 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations ations of the latter were secretly fighting the former, and appar- ently were undesirous of recognizing the women. If this should prove to be the tendency, there need be no serious apprehension of permanent trouble from women even if there is a temporary separation of organized women from men teachers. Some observers of women's activities in teachers' associations are fearful of any extension of their influence. Such observers base their views upon the common assumption that the feminine mind is governed by prejudice, emotion, and intuition rather than by reason, and they fear sudden and ill-considered acts from women teachers working in organizations. In actual practice they point especially to the action of the Chicago Teachers' Federation in affiliating with the Federation of Labor, in taking part in municipal politics and in struggling so severely against the superintendent and board of education; and to the women teachers of New York in their fight for equal pay, especially in tending toward political affiliations. There is as yet far too little evidence upon this point to enable one to reach a final conclusion. It is well, however, to point out a fact often overlooked by such fearful persons. This is that the affiliation with the labor unions and political parties by the women teachers came about mainly because the women did not have the suffrage. Without it they are compelled to use all sort of indirect means to obtain things that men teachers can reach more directly. Had they possessed the suffrage in New York and Chicago, things might easily have been very different. Their affiliation with women's clubs may bring in a counteracting influence that will make for wider and saner views in educational matters, for the organizations of women clubs in this country represent a wider range of public interests than any other voluntary organizations or affiliations of organizations now in existence. SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS AND CONCLUSIONS The conclusions reached have been given from time to time in each chapter so that only a brief summary is necessary here. For the detailed evidence supporting the conclusions, the reader is referred to the different chapters. The investigation seems to warrant the following conclusions : I. Differentiation and Specialization in the Associations At the present time teachers in all their organizations tend to differentiate freely into sections and independent bodies for specialized work. The tendency to form specialized associations covering increasingly large areas is growing rapidly. Cleavage along sex lines has been increasing since about 1890. A counter tendency towards affiliation of associations to protect common interests, while still preserving the good results of differentiation, is beginning to manifest itself. Affiliation of an informal sort is common in cities; a movement to give it an organized form in states is spreading. Historically, differentiation and specialization were of compar- atively little importance till about 1880, have become widespread only since about 1890, and have been unduly exaggerated only since about 1900. Differentiation and specialization are inevitable, and on the whole highly desirable. The movement, when not carried to too great an extreme, enlists many more teachers in active associ- 'ational work, does not destroy professional consciousness, introduces definiteness and specific aims into the work of the associations, and brings about a better balance of professional interests. The best form of differentiation wouid probably be that of general associations with plenty of sections, which covered the largest practicable areas, electing representatives to serve in 97 98 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations corresponding sections in still higher general associations which covered still larger areas, the whole culminating in a truly effective national organization. II. The Work of the Associations in Legislation The associations interested in legislation are naturally those that cover areas which are units for educational legislation, — state and city associations. All state and many of the city associ- ations (the latter tending to show much greater activity as the cities increase in size) attempt to influence legislation. The customary procedure is an investigation of conditions and legislation in similar areas, a formulation of the proposed legisla- tion and the appointment of a committee to secure active co-operation of teachers for direct attempts to influence legislators and general publicity campaigns to influence the public. The city associations show much greater aggressiveness, persistence, and capacity for co-operation with other organizations of teachers than do any of the other associations. The state associations are largely concerned with general administrative legislation for the betterment of schools and the raising of standards in the profession, and are concerned only in a secondary way with attempts to bring about economic better- ment of teachers. This last field is practically the only one in which the city associations are attempting to influence legislation, and their work is beginning to be felt in the state associations. With a few exceptions the state associations exert little influ- ence upon legislation ; the city associations, especially those in the larger cities, are proportionately much more successful. The small influence exerted by the associations on legislation is due in the main to the lack of means for securing permanent co-operation of all teachers. This in turn is due to lack of per- manent organization, of a constant personnel in the profession, and of institutional schemes of representation. The associations are more and more tending to take for granted the " right " of the profession to influence legislation and to try to devise institutional schemes for securing better representation and more active participation of all teachers in promoting legislation. Summary of Conditions and Conclusions 99 III. The Work of the Associations for the Economic Betterment of Teachers The movement for economic betterment of teachers is spreading from the cities, where it is very active, to the states, where many associations are now working. The National Education Associ- ation attempts little here. The attempts to give merely temporary help such as that afforded by mutual aid associations and employment bureaus, have largely disappeared and have been replaced by persistent effort to secure permanent relief through adequate salary schedules, pensions, tenure of office, etc. In methods of achieving results, the associations are more and more abandoning weak and ineffectual appeals to the general public and voluntary make-shifts supported by their own mem- bers. Instead they are trying to make adequate and careful investigations of conditions and possible remedies, to secure the active co-operation of all teachers, and to make aggressive cam- paigns with the object of shifting the burdens of raising funds from teachers to city and state administrations. There is no conclusive evidence that teachers by their efforts in this field are becoming unduly selfish and lowering the tone of the profession. The raising of qualifications for teachers, which comes with practically every economic advantage secured, largely offsets any anticipated disadvantage here. Labor unionism among teachers in the United States to-day is a negligible factor so far as its practical significance is concerned. IV. The Place of Women in the Associations In the associations, women members, although comprising the great majority, have so far been almost nonentities, except in cities. The causes of this state of affairs are, in the main, traditional conceptions of woman's inability to lead ; the practice of assigning important places in the associations to persons occupying certain positions in educational work rather than to individuals ; and the lack of interest in the associations shown by most of the women members. But all through the associations, especially in the cities, the women members are leading an aggressive movement to secure ioo The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations greater representation in the general associations and to form! separate associations of women. Greater prominence of women in the associations in the future is inevitable and on the whole highly desirable. There is no adequate evidence for believing that the dangers ordinarily apprehended in this connection are likely to be more than phenomena of transition. BIBLIOGRAPHY This investigation is so largely based upon materials that are widely scattered and found only in special libraries that it is impracticable to give a conventional bibliography. The available references have been given in foot-notes and may be readily followed up by consulting the index for the various topics. General The main source of information has been the proceedings of the various associations. However, owing to various irregular- ities of publication, it is practically impossible in many instances to secure these. A few comments therefore will be in place. Historical In addition to the proceedings of the various associations, and the brief sketches given in nearly all of the historical treatments of education in the United States, much valuable material is scattered all through the following: American Journal of Education, 1826-30. Annals of Education, 1831-39. Barnard's American Journal of Education, 1856-1881. Journal of Education, Boston (formerly the New England Journal of Education) 1875 — Reports of the U. S. Commissioner of Education. Proceedings, National Education Association, 1906. National Education Association From 1857 to 1870 it was known as the National Teachers' Association and its proceedings for this period are to be found in Barnard's American Journal of Education. From 1870 to date, the proceedings have been issued by the 102 The Work of Teachers' Voluntary Associations association ; reports of the meetings occur in Barnard's American Journal of Education up to 1881 and in the Journal of Education from 1875 to the present time. State Associations In Illinois, Maryland, New York, North Dakota, Virginia, and Wisconsin, the proceedings of the state associations are issued by the state department of education. In a number of states the proceedings or fairly full reports appear only in educational periodicals. The following is an approximately complete list of such associations : California: Sierra Educational News, Alameda, Cal. Colorado : Colorado School Journal, Denver, Colo. Connecticut : Journal of Education, Boston. Florida: Florida School Exponent, Miami, Fla. Kansas: Western School Journal, Topeka, Kas. Massachusetts : Journal of Education, Boston. Michigan: Moderator Topics, Lansing, Mich. Montana: Intermountain Educator, Butte, Mont. Nebraska : Nebraska Teacher, Lincoln, Neb. New Mexico : New Mexico Journal of Education, Santa Fe, N. M. Ohio : Ohio Educational Monthly, Columbus, O. Texas : Texas School Journal, Dallas, Tex. Utah: Utah Educational Review, State University, Salt Lake City, U. West Virginia : West Virginia School Journal, Morgantown, W.Va. , Wyoming: Wyoming School Journal, Laramie, Wyo. The writer has been unable to find any account of the work of the associations in Arizona and Idaho. In the remaining states, the proceedings are issued by the associ- ations, but there are few instances of permanent headquarters. A list of officials of all the state associations for one year, is given in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1909, 1 :i23~4 ; these officials or the state superintendents of education are usually able and willing to tell where copies of proceedings may be obtained. Bibliography 103 City Associations Most of the city associations issue no formal reports or annual proceedings, although most of them get out printed programs ; but accounts of their work are frequently to be found in the annual reports of the superintendent of education, notably in Boston, Cleveland, Indianapolis, and St. Louis. Accounts of their work and announcements of special reports are often given in educational periodicals, especially in the Chicago Teachers' Federation Bulletin, published from about 1895 to 1909, and in the Journal of Education, Boston. INDEX Akron, O., II Albany, 12 Allen, Elizabeth, 33 American Association for the Ad- vancement of Education, 19 American Federation of Labor, 58, 59, 60 American Institute of Instruction, 6, 19; sections in, 22; women in, 7i. 73, 74 Annuities, attempts to secure, 51, 52 Anthony, Susan B., 73, 74 Boone, R. G., 72 Boston, 11, 13, 55 Boston Teachers' Club, 83 Bradford, Mrs. Mary D., 55 Brooklyn Teachers' Association, 56, 57 Buffalo, 11 Bureau of Education, U. S., 28 Burial benefits, 50, 51 Butte, Mont., 12 California, 8, 29, 44, 45, 46, 60; federation in, 16; federation for legislation, 35 California Federation of School- women's Clubs, 80-82 California State Teachers' Associa- tion ; drawing up bills, 31 ; legisla- tive committee, 21 ; publicity for influencing legislation, 33 Canton, O., 12 ; Teachers' Club, 84 Chicago, 18, 46 Chicago Federation of Labor, 40, 58, 59 Chicago Teachers' Federation, 39, 47, 58, 60, 92; legal action, concerted, 56; salary campaign, 40; women in, 77, 86-90 Chrisman, 35 City associations; differentiation in, 10-12; differentiation in, histori- cally, 22; federation in, 17-18; investigations for economic better- ment, 62; mutual aid procedure, 54-55; salary campaigns, 50; women in, 71, 82-92 Clubs, of women teachers, 91 College and preparatory schools asso- ciations, 7, 21 Colorado, 44, 45; Council of Educa- tion, lobbying, 34; federation for legislation, 35; legislative investi- gating committee, 30 Colorado State Association; drawing up bills, 31 ; approval of members for proposed legislation, 31 ; pub- licity for legislation, 33 Colorado Women's Educational Club, 86 Columbus, O., 14, 18 Committees; legislative in state asso- ciations, 29-30; reports of, 31-32; on salaries, 62 Connecticut State Teachers' Associ- ation, 19 Connecticut Teachers' Annuity Guild, 56 Council of Education, women in, 69 County associations, 3, 10 Covington, Ky., 12 105 io6 Index Davis Bill, 43 Dayton, O., 12 Delaware, 7 Denver, 13, 41 Dewey, John, 92, 95 Differentiation, chap. I, pp. 5-27; national associations, 5-6; inter- state associations, 6-7; state associ- ations, 7-10; city associations, 10, 12, 22; historical summary, 23; general summary, 97-98. See spec- ialization. Dubuque, 12 Economic betterment of teachers, chap. Ill, pp. 49-68; lines of work attempted, 49-53; procedure, 53-64; mutual aid, 54-56; concerted legal action, 56-57; labor unionism, 58-61; investigations, 61-62; influ- encing legislation, 63-64; problems, 63-68; origin of, 64-65; material- ism, 65; women, 66; professional etiquette, 66; work for, summary, 99; N. E. A., work for, 49-50 Elkins Fund, in Philadelphia, 55 Ella Flagg Young Club, Chicago, 84 Federation, 12-18 ; N. E. A., 13 ; state, 13-17; New York state, 14; Ohio, 14-15; Massachusetts, 15; Virginia, 16; California, 16; for legislation in state associations, 35 Felmley, D., 60 Flint, Lillian C, 55 Foos, C. S., 2, 15, 16, 36, 37, 41, 43, 44 Fort Wayne, Ind., 11 Giddings, F. H., 1, 3 Gill, Laura Drake, 78, 80, 91 Georgia State Educational Associa- tion, publicity for legislation, 33 Harper, Ida Hustead, 72 Harrisburg, 12 Hospital benefits, 50-51 Houston, Tex., 12 Howe, Agnes E., 80 Illinois, 9, 20, 45, 51 ; Report of Edu- cational Commission, 62; state investigating legislative commis- sion, 30; Northern Illinois Prin- cipals' and Superintendents' Asso- ciation, 9 Indiana, 8, 10, 20, 44, 45, 46; legisla- tive committee of state association, 30; legislative committees, 35 Indiana City and County Superin- tendents' Association, agreement on proposed bills, 31 Indiana State Teachers' Association, 57 ; drawing up bills, 31 ; lobbying, 34; publicity for legislation, 32, 33 Indianapolis, 11; Federation of Pub- lic School Teachers, 85; Public School Teachers' Association, 54, 85 Institutes, 10 Insurance, 51-52 Interboro Association, women in, 90-91 Interboro Council, New York, 41 Interstate associations, general, 6; specialized, 7; sections in, history of, 22 Introduction, of dissertation, 1-4 Investigations: for economic better- ment, 61-62; city associations, 62; N. E. A., 61-62 ; state associations, 62 Iowa, 8; legislative committee of state association, 29 Jersey City, 18; Primary Principals' Association, 84 Johnston, Marshall, 58, 61 Joliet, 111., 12 Kansas State Teachers' Association, recommendations for legislation, 32; legislative commission request- ed, 31 Index 107 Labor unionism, 58-61 ; problems of, 67 Labor unions, affiliation of women with, 96 Leaders, women as, in associations, 94-95 Legal action concerted; city associa- tions, 56; state associations, 57 Legislation, chap. II, pp. 28-48; attempts to influence for economic betterment, 63, 64; city association, 38-43 — extent of work, 38 — struc- tural provisions, 38 — procedure for influencing, 38 — publicity cam- paigns, 39 — co-operation for, 40-41 — kinds attempted, 41 — influence upon, 42 ; N. E. A., 28, 29 ; state associations, 29-38 ; committees, how composed, 29 — aim of, 29-30 — in- vestigations, 30 — state investiga- tions, 30, 31 — reports of, 31, 32 — attempts to enact recommendations into law, 32; direct influencing of legislatures, 33-35 ; effect on legis- lation, 36, 37; summary, 98; lobby- ing) 33 ; testing existing laws, 36 ; kinds in state associations, 36; causes of small influence, 43 — size of organization, 44 — co-operation, 44, 45 — means of securing, 45, 46 — arguments against, 46, 47 — argu- ments for attempting, 47-48 Little Rock, 11 Manchester, N. H., 12 Maryland, 20, 39; federation for leg- islation, 35 Massachusetts, 7, 21, 41, 46; federa- tion in, 15 Massachusetts College Association, 21 Massachusetts State Teachers' Asso- ciation, 19; women in, 72, 75 Massachusetts Teachers' Annuity Guild, 55 Maxwell, W. H., 43 McAndrew, Wm, 50 Memphis, 11 Michigan, 20 Milwaukee, 11 Minneapolis, 11, 39 Minnesota, legislative investigating committee, 30; committee on salar- ies, 62 Missouri, 9, 45, 53; publicity cam- paign, 32 ; Northwest Missouri High School Teachers' Association, 9 Morrison, Frank, 58, 59, 60 Mutual aid, city associations, 54, 55; state associations, 55, 56 Mutual Benefit Association, Teach- ers', of New York, 55 National Council of Education, 21, 50, 61 ; women in, 78 National Education Association, 3, 20, 26, 39; affiliated associations, 6; departments, 6 ; department of super- intendence, 6; differentiation in, 5; economic betterment, work for, 49. 50 J economic betterment, inves- tigations for, 61, 62 ; federation in, 13; history of departments, 21, 22; legislative activities, 28, 29; women in, 69, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 91, 95 National Mathematics and Science Federation, 23 National Teachers' Association, 20 National Teachers' Federation, 59, 80; women in, 77 National Union of Teachers, Eng- land, 47, 67 New England Teachers of English Association, 7 New Hampshire State Teachers' As- sociation, legislative committee, 30 New Jersey, 44, 46, 55 New Jersey State Teachers' Associ- ation, 39; publicity for legislation, 33 ; drawing up bills, 31 ; lobbying, 34 New Mexico Educational Associa- tion, recommendation for legisla- tion, 32 io8 Index New York City, n, 20, 21, 39, 46, 47; Teachers' Mutual Association, 55 New York, State, 20, 51 ; federation in, 14; federation for legislation, 35 New York State College Association, 21 New York State Teachers' Associa- tion, 20, 51; co-operation with state department for legislation, 32 ; legislative campaign, 35 Norfolk, 18 Ohio, college associations, 21 ; feder- ation in, 14-15; federation for leg- islation, 35; federation for school improvement, 57; legislative com- mission requested, 31 ; publicity campaign for legislation, 32 Pennsylvania, legislative commission requested, 31 Pensions, problems of, 67; attempts to secure: N. E. A., 51; state asso- ciations, 51 ; city associations, 51 ; Pratt Bequest, 55 Philadelphia, 18, 39 Philadelphia Teachers' Association, salary campaign, 40 Pittsburg, 18, 39 Pittsburg Teachers' Art Club, 85 Positions, aid in securing, 53 Publicity campaigns, for legislation in city associations, 40; state asso- ciations, 32-33 Reading, Pa., 11 Retirement Fund, N. J. state associ- ation, 33, 57, 67 Ricker, D. S., 58 Robinson, S. T., 60 Rochester, 11, 18 St. Joseph, Mo., 12 St. Louis, 11 St. Paul, 39 Salary campaigns, 49-50; N. E. A., 49; state associations, 50; city asso- ciations, 50, 51 San Antonio Public School Teachers' Association, 58, 61 Savannah, 12 Savannah Kindergarten Club, 84 School Patrons, Department of, in state associations, 79 Sections, in state associations, 7, 8, 9 Shepard, Irwin, 72 South Caroline State Teachers' Asso- ciation, legislative committee of, 30 South Dakota; legislative commission requested, 31 ; educational commis- sion requested, 31 Southern Educational Association, 6; sections in, 22 Specialization, see differentiation; objections to, 24; arguments for, 24-26; as a practical matter, 26; in general associations, 26; in asso- ciations covering large areas, 26, 27; best plan for, 27 State associations; differentiation in, 7-10; effect on legislation, 36, 37; federation in, 13-17; investigations for economic betterment, 62; kinds of legislation attempted, 36; legis- lative activities, 29-38; lobbying for legislation, 33; sections in, 7, 8, 9; women in, 69, 70, 74, 75, 78, 79, 93 State sectional associations, 8 Summary, of dissertation, 97-100 Superintendence, Dept. of in N. E. A., 6, 29 Teachers' association, defined, I Tennessee, 7 Tenure of office, attempts to secure, 52, 53 ; N. E. A., 49, 52 ; city asso- ciations, 52; state associations, 52, 53; in New York, 35; problems of, 67 Terre Haute, 18 Texas Conference for Education, 36 Texas State Teachers' Associations, 35 Tighes, R., 22 Topeka, 12 Index 109 Unionism, labor, 58-61 U. S. Bureau of Education, 28 Utah, legislative committee, 29 Virginia, 44, 46 ; city associations, 41 ; federation in, 16; legislation, 35; lobbying, 34 Virginia State Educational Associa- tion, pledging legislators, 34; pub- licity for legislation, 32 Voluntary association, denned, 1 Washington, 11, 46 Washington Educational Association, tide-lands case, 36 Washington High School Teachers' Association, 52 Western Literary Institute, women in, 72, 73 West Virginia, 7 Winship, A. E., 19 Wisconsin, 20; investigating commit- tee, 30; legislative committee in state association, 29 Women's Education Club of Colo- rado, 86 Women, place of, in the associations, chap. IV, pp. 69-96; affiliation with labor unions, 96 ; American Institute of Instruction, 71, 73, 74; Cali- fornia Educational Association, 72; Chicago Teachers' Federation, 77, 86-90; city association, 71, 82-92; Council of Education in N. E. A., 69, 78; Interboro Association of New York, 90, 91 ; N. E. A., 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79. 91 ; National Teachers' Federation, 77; New York State Teachers' Associ- ation, 72; Massachusetts State Teachers' Association, 72; promi- nence increasing, 77; problems, 92-96 ; as leaders, 94, 95 ; state asso- ciations, 74, 75, 78, 79; statistics on, 93 ; teachers' clubs, 40, 91 ; Western Literary Institute, 72 Wright, Carrol D., 61 Wyoming, 7 Young, Ella Flagg, 69, 95 ; Ella Flagg Young Club, 84