& ^ / CORNELL UNIVERSITY. i^3S> 16? >- THE THE GIFT OF ROSWELL p. FLOWER FOR THE USE OF THE N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 1897 RA 847.H3ri892''''''''''''*'^^ ^m?mSmm^l^:S}"*'"^'°" Of disease Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000294516 THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP DISEASE IN GREAT BEITAIN THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASES MAPS OP THU &EOLOfrT AUD GOinaURATIOir OF THE EIGLISH LAKE DISTRICT, CTJMBERLAlSfD AUD WESTMORLAND, BY ALFRED HAVILAND, M.R.C.S.E., &c. 3'Vf.I.oiL|. GEOLOGICAL MAP. CONTOUR MAP. ' UxfJy S- T. 60" INDEX OF COLOURS. ■Hh^ gi f ^ 54'y.Iiat i4 da dl _54.'N.l«t. 1)7 T)« Fsl)2 1)2 GRAN ITE Scale, i:760.320 LIAS Whitehave SAND KIRKLINTONlSTONEjl SfBeesBeail, ST BEES sandstone' RED MARLS. PERMIAN. coal measures. millstone grit, yoredale sd.st. carboniferous limestone. basement beds (conglomerate) ludlow beds stockdale slates ooniston grits. IcoNisTON limestone. volcanic series of borrowdale. SKIDDAW SLATES. INLAND BOUNDARY NORTH PENNINE CHAIN) ABOVE lOOO FEET BETWEEN 500&I000 250 & 500 ] BELOW 250 FEET 54-SXiit S-HTLcg. S.T.-SEA TEMPERATURE. SWAN SONNENSCHEIN 4 C? LONDON. M A C L U rt E & ^, Ln rt , LO fi J N . THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASE IN GEEAT BEITAIN BY ALFEED gAVILAND MElffBEE OF THE HOTAI, COLLEGE OF SUEGEONS OF ENGLAND; FELLOW OP THE EOYAL MEDICAL AND CUIBUBGICAL SOCIETY, LONDON"; FELLOW OK THE SANITAET INSTITUTE OP GEEAT BEITA[N; LlTIl LECTIJEBE ON *'tHE GEOGBAPHICAL DISTBIBTJTION OF DISEASE*' IN ST. THOilAS'S HOSPITAL, LONDON; AUTHOR OP " CLIMATE, WEATHEB, AND DISEASE," "tHE GEOGBAPHICAL DISTEIBDTIOW OF HEAET DI8EABB, CANCHE AND PHTHISIS IN ENGLAND AND WALES," ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC. SECOND EDITION LONDON SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. 1892 BonBn & TilfKEB, The Selwood PniHTiwa Wobks, PjioaiE, AND London. No tF3 1 6f^ THIS PART IS DEDICATED, HIS PEEMISSK SIR JAMES PAGET, BART., E.R.S., SERGEANT-SUEGEON TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN; SURGEON TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES ; D.C.L. OXON ; LL.D. CANTAB. AND EDIN. ; CONSULTING SURGEON TO ST. Bartholomew's hospital, etc. ; whose name WILL EYER STAND PRE-EMINENT IN THE HISTORY OF PATHOLOGY AND SURGERY, WITH SINCERE RESPECT AND ESTEEM, BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. WHEN tlie publication of this second edition was first proposed, it was my intention to divide equally the materials of the first edition among the several parts of its successor, with such addi- tions as had accrued since 1875. On reviewing, however, the material that had accumulated since the issue of the First Edition, it was con- sidered advisable to condense within this Part all the facts and the propositions based upon them contained in the original work, so as to leave the succeeding parts, devoted to the principal river-basins of Great Britain, entirely free for the discussion of the new statistical material and the local facts connected with the natural history of certain diseases. Hence the delay in the issue of Part I., and the increase in the size of this volume. In the first edition I had simply to describe some remarkable and hitherto undiscovered facts in the natural history of disease, and place before my readers the physical, geological, climatological, and other facts which were coincident with certain well-defined mani- festations in the geographical distribution of cancer, phthisis, and heart disease. In this second edition my function is enlarged, if not exalted, for it becomes my duty, not only to add the results of ten years more deaths (1861-70) to those I first published (1851-60), but to show how the later disease-facts agree with the earlier, and how by their so do- ing the geographical manifestations, which were once only spoken of as coincident with certain other facts connected with the local soils and climates, may now be regarded as having a closer and more clearly-defined relationship. Had the geographical distribution of deaths from Cancer, Phthisis, or Heart Disease throughout England and Wales during 1861-70 differed in any essential character from that observed during the preceding decade, 1851-60, I would not have embarked on the costly undertaking of which this volume forms the first part. The same field, however, that I surveyed in 1868 with the death-roll of 1851-60 from these causes in hand, I have again carefully gone over, and studied it by the light of the later list of killed occurring during 1861-70, and have found that in the 630 districts, into which Eng- viii Preface. land and Wales are divided for the registration of deaths, it was as easy to discover in which the contests were severest with either of the above disease foes, and in which resistance was either more suc- cessful or the enemy in smaller force. The maps of these two sepa- rate campaigns had then only to be laid side by side to demonstrate the facts, that the fields of the deadliest struggles with either Cancer, Phthisis, or Heart Disease in the 1851-60 campaign were identical, in the majority of cases, with those marked on the map for 1861-70 ; and that the least deadly fields of the earlier corresponded with those of the later decenniad. The fact, therefore, being established, that in certain well-defined areas throughout England and Wales, Cancer, Phthisis, and Heart Disease had for twenty years consecutively caused high death rates, whilst in other equally well-defined areas they had failed to exceed their average death-rate in the country, it is evident that if we de- sire to search for the causes of this unequal but apparently fixed distribution, we must no longer be contented with the mere state- ment that certain geographical facts in the distribution of disease are coincident with certain other facts connected with the soil and atmosphere, for the time has arrived when the cause of the disease itself must be thoroughly investigated, and its relation to the soil and the atmosphere ascertained. This is no new research, for it originated in the great medical school of Cos, which flourished more than 300 B.C., and had published before that early date the remarkable work entitled " On Airs, Waters, and Places," in which were embodied the principles, on which their disciples should investigate the relations between disease and man's surroundings : these surroundings being the air, the water, and the soil. Up to within a very brief period the results of such researches have only been used empirically by the medical practitioner, for the conditions of soil and air that were discovered to be associated with the existence of certain diseases within their reach, could only be regarded in the light of coincident conditions ; whilst the latent verx causes, remained unrevealed. Since 1868, however, when I first announced (a) that Cancer was more fatal among women in clayey fiooded areas than on elevated calcareous soils; (6) that Heart Disease and Rheumatism were more fatal in the unventilated valley-system of England and Wales than in the open areas freely exposed to the prevailing winds and sun- shine ; (c) and that those tainted with Phthisis succumbed readily to the full blast of prevailing winds ; the powerful aid of the microscope has been invoked, and in some specific forms of diseases has detected flagrante delicto some of these long hidden verce causae at their deadly work. True, the hidden cause of Cancer still baffles the most expert microscopist; so did the cause of Tuberculosis and many another pathogen in times gone by; the cause too of the Rheumatism that is Preface. i.\ at tlie root of our national Heart Diseasej still remains undetected in the malarial miasm of tlie pent-up valley, where death from cardiac and other affections of the circulatory organs abounds. With the increase of facts and the corroboration they brought of the views set forth in the first edition, a desire has gradually been spreading to see the coincidences on which certain propositions have been based, explained by the light of a more thorough investigation of all that connects the blood and cellular structure of the human bodies with their environment. Eobert Gordon Latham, in his work on "The Varieties of the Human Species," says : " Every one knows not only that there are such men and women as negroes and whites, and that there are such things as warm and cold climates, but also that, as a general rule, the negro comes from a hot, the white from a temperate country. To know this leads to the admission that certain physical differences connected with the earth's surface exercise a certain amount of influence upon the human organization; though whether it be great or whether it be small, whether it be sufficient or insujB&cient to account for all the varieties of our species is another question. One thing alone is certain : viz., that there is sometldng in soil, climate, and nutrition." Now in that " sometldng " we expect to find the link connecting the earth's airs, waters, and soils with our bodies. Before, however, entering upon such an investigation, these geological and meteorological factors must be studied carefully in every district, the diseases of which are more or less due to in- digenous causes, or to exotic causes that find congenial soils and other surroundings within them. Such a subject as disease distribution cannot progress without many workers. I have therefore endeavoured in this edition to facilitate the investigations of local observers by giving as fully as possible details in my chapters on the physical geography, geology, and meteorology of the area discussed in this part. I am much indebted to Mr. Eobert Eussell, F.G.S., late of H.M. Geological Survey, for the great assistance he so kindly afforded me in the construction of the geological map. In the chapter on meteorology the well-known name of George James Symons, P.E.S., stands out prominently, as it should do, for no one has worked more laboriously or successfully than he has done in the field of British meteorology. To Dr. Alexander Buchan, M.A., I am also much indebted for the valuable aid his reports on mean temperature, wind direction, and barometric pressure in the British Isles, have afforded me. Finally, I must heartily thank those who have helped me with their special knowledge of some of the subjects treated in this part, amongst whom are Dr. John Beddoe, F.E.S.; Chancellor Eichard S. Ferguson, M.A., F.S.A.; W. Eoger Williams, F.E.G.S.; H. B. Woodward, F.G.S., whose admirable work on "The Geology of Eng- X Preface. land and Wales," I have extensively quoted; William Marriott, Sec. F.E. Met. Society j to tlie artist at the Lithographic Establishment, who bestowed so much care on the geological, contour, and disease maps ; to Mr. Joseph Martindale, who supplied me with a list of the limestone plants in the Lake District; and to Mr. Edward Best, P.G.S., and his colleagues at the Geological Survey Office, whose ever ready help has been freely accorded to me, not only whilst this work was in hand but for many years previously. To Mr. Henry T. Butlin, P.E.C.S., Surgeon to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, I shall always feel indebted, not only for the kind interest he has felt in this work, but for his impartial and valuable report to the Collective Investigations Committee of the British Medical Association, on that part of the first edition which related to cancer. The temporary loss of the whole of the manuscript of the chapter on the Physical Geography of the Cumbrian and Lake District con- tributed to the delay, as it had to be rewritten. When this had been done, the missing sheets were returned to me by post. Medical Geography, studied in connection with geology, climato- logy, and physical geography, offers a wide field to the student of etiology, which must be well cultivated if he would study success- fully that most essential branch of the natural history of disease. In the Appendix will be found some data which will be of service to those who propose carrying on the investigations in Cumberland, Westmorland, and the Lake District; and should the observer pro- ceed to mapping, the skeleton sanitary diagrams of the counties issued by the Ordnance Survey Office, will materially assist him. These skeleton maps are on a scale of four miles to one inch, and they contain the boundary lines of all the civil parishes which are in- cluded in this Appendix. Each registration district is well defined, as in the small maps illustrating this work, the boundaries of which can be transferred to blank paper and then coloured according to scale. For the preparation of the Index I am mainly indebted to the kind help of Mr. R. H. Skaife, Editor (for the Surtees Society) of "Kirkby's Inquest of Yorkshire." The classical work of Professor James Geikie, D.C.L., P.R.S., " The Great Ice Age," has been of signal service to the author, for which he desires to render his best acknowledgment. Whilst these pages were going through the press, geology sus- tained a severe loss by the death of Sir Andrew C. Eamsay, from whose work on the "Physical Geography and Geology of Great Britain," I have extensively quoted, and will still continue to quote in the future parts of this work.^ A. H. ' Part TI. "The Climatology, Geology, and Disease Distribution of the Basin of the Thames," will be published next. CONTENTS. T, PAGE Preface ^jj Inteoduction 3 CHAPTER I. Early experiences of weather and disease — The cholera in 1849— Effects of calms and winds on — Dr. Parr — Schonbein and ozone, 1848 — Hippocrates — " Climate, "Weather, and Disease" — Boudin — Littre— Dr. Parr's Pirst Sup- plement for 1861-60— "Hurried to Death " — Eailway Travelling — Dr. Druitt— Pirst edition of this work— Major Graham, Dr. Parr, Capt. Clode — Calms and Cholera — Hingeston — Hippocrates on Pestilence — The impor- tance of the great river inlets — How they first directed the course of the earliest invasion by animals and by man himself — English Channel — Pro- fessor James Geikie — The inlets around the English and Welsh coasts — Sir Archibald Geikie on Britain joined to the Continent and its subsequent isolation — Glacial period — Advent of man — The importance of the river valleys in the study of disease-distribution — Their relation to the medical geography of heart disease, cancer, and phthisis . . . . p. 6 CHAPTER II. The facts, and the propositions based upon them, relating to the geographical distribution of heart disease, cancer among females, and phthisis among females, in the Divisions, Counties and Districts of England and Wales, and in the Counties of Cumberland, Westmorland, and the Lake District, contained in the first edition of this work, published in 1875 . . p. 12 CHAPTER III. Area Defined — Size — Compared with Others — Natural boundary System the best— Vagabond parts of Counties and Districts — Prance more naturally Divided — Isle of Man — Sheadings — Local Government Board and County Councils — Average size of English, Welsh, Scotch, and Irish Counties — The Boundaries of the Area — The Coastal Boundary — Coastal Parishes and Townships — Their Poreshores and Tidal Waters — Sir A. C. Ramsay and submarine Denudation — Poreshores — Coastal Townships and Parishes — Poreshores and Populations — Length of Coastal Boundary — Poreshores and Sea-inlets — Percentage of Coastal to District Populations — Inland Bound- ary — Districts and Parishes on the Line — Length and Breadth of Area — Length of Area — Porm — Mean level of Coastal Parishes — Course of the Inland Boundary Line — Mean Height of the Inland Boundary Line along Scotland, Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, and Lancashire — Mean Height of the Border District Parishes — Percentage of the Border Popula- tion to that of the Border Districts y. 41 xii Contents. CHAPTER IV. The Great Transverse Eidge— Hippocrates and Water-partings — Direction of Central Water-parting — Course described on District Map — Western End of Ridge— Central Portion— Eastern End of Ridge— Eiffel Tower— The English Lake Area — Boundaries of Lake Districts — Inland Boundary Line of Lake District — Coastal Boundary Line — Hydrography of the Area — Rivers and Aspects— Inland Waters — Lakes — Their Areas — Lake Parishes — Percentage of Lake Populations — Free and Imprisoned Waters con- trasted—Cascades, Torrents, and Lakes— Their Life-giving Waters — Floods — Their Impurity and Power for Evil — Southey's Lines on Lodore — Floods and Local Climates— Effect on Health f • 58 CHAPTER V. SECTION I. The Registration Districts of Cumberland, Westmorland, and the Lake District — Their Number, Names, and Boundaries — Hydrography — Rivers and Lakes — Table of Rivers' Length — Area of Catchment Basins — Sources — The Relation of Rivers to the Registration Districts — Longtown, Sark, Esk, Liddel, Lines — Wigion, Wampool, Waver — Gochermoutli, Ellen, Derwent — Whiteliaven, Ehen, Calder — Bootle, Irt, Mite, Esk, Buokbarrow-Beck — Dud- don — JJlverston, Coniston Water and Leven — Kendal, Kent, Lune — East Ward, Eden and Lune — West Ward, Lowther and Eamont — Penrith, Eden, Petterill — Brampton, Irthing — Carlisle, Eden, Petterill, Calder — Alston, The South Tyne — Rivers and Inland Ventilation — Tidal Wave — Catchment Basins — Gravitation of Water and the Slope of the Land — Aspect — Hippo- crates — How a River-valley should be studied — Its Trend or Axis — The Aspects of its Sides — The Eden — The Direction of its Axis — The Aspects of the Sides of its Valley — Prevailing Winds — Their Relations to the Eden Valley — Summary of the Courses of the Rivers in each District . p. 70 SECTION II. The Lalees in the Cumbrian Area. Divided into four Areas. — I. The Nortk-Western — Ennerdale Water — Butter- mere —Crummock Water — Lowes Water — Derwent Water — Bassenthwaite Water — Thirlmere — Their Affluents and Tarns — II. The North Eastern — Ulles Water— Hawes Water— Their Affluents and Tarns — III. The South- Eastern — Kentmere — Windermere — The Affluents, Lakes, and Tarns of the latter, viz. of Grasmere, Rydal Water, Elter Water, Esthwaite Water, etc. — IV. The Soutli- Western — Coniston Water — Burnmoor Tarn — Eskdale — Wast Water ^'^ 83 CHAPTER VL The Physical Geogkaphy or the Aeea. Description of the Contour Map — Contour Lines — Isotherms — Isobars — Con- tour Maps — Black Combe, Mr. Penning— The Principal Mountain Masses Contents. xiii of the Cumbrian Area— I. The Sca/ell— II. The Relvellyn—III. The SUd- daw — IV. The Blade Gomhe — V. The Bewcasile — "VI. Tlie Edenside — The Scafell — The Radiating Ridges of the Scafell Mountain Mass — 1. Tlie Western — 2. The North-Western — 3. The Northern — 4. The North-E astern— 5. The South-Eastern — 6. The Southern — and 7. The South- We stern — 1. The Western Ridge — 2. The North-Wesiern Ridge — 3. The Northern Ridge — 4. The North-Eastern Ridge — Minor Heights to West of Windermere — De- scription of the View from Orrest Head — 6. The ^South-Eastern Ridge — 6. The Southern Ridge — 7. The South-Westem Ridge — Recapitulation — 1. Wes- tern Ridge — 2. The North-Western Ridge — 3. The Northern Ridge — 4 The North-Eastern Ridge — 5. The South-Eastern Ridge — 6. The Southern Ridge — 7. The South-Western Ridge p. 91 CHAPTER VII. The Geology op Cumberland, Westmorlaxd, and the Lake Distkict. Description of the ' Geological Map of Cumberland, Westmorland and the Lake District — Explanation of the Index of the Colours and Signs employed — The same as used by the Geological Survey of Great Britain — Authoi-s Referred to in this Chapter : Mr. Robert Russell, P.G.S.— Mr. J. G. Good- child, P.G.S.— Mr. H. B. Woodward, F.G.S.— Formations Found within the Area — Formations not Pound within it. Brief History of the Formations — Sedimentary. Volcanic and Glacial — Topography of Formations — Their Relation to the Five Great Mountain Masses — To the Several Registration Districts — To the Valleys and Lakes — The Geological and Contour Maps Compared — What Horizontal Sections Teach us — Rock Structure and Scenery— Rock Structure and the Water-Partings— Sir Andrew C. Ramsay on Lake Basins — Rock Structure and Cascades — Sandstones, Claystones and Limestones — Their Respective Functions in Connection with Animal Life — Protection, Alimentation, and Reproduction — Their Alternative Sequence P- 139 CHAPTER VIIL Population — Race. Introductory— Populations of Civil Parishes and Townships— Necessity of keep- ing the Statistics of Males and Females Separate— Populations at different Age-Periods — Appendix — Former Inhabitants of Area — Racial Character- istics Men of the Rough and Sharp Stone Period— Men of the Smooth Stone Period — Professor James Geikie— Dr. John Evans, F.R.S.— Chancellor Ferguson— Early History of Cumberland and the North of England— Long Barrows— The Old Lakes of Eden— The Two Races— Dolicocephalic— Bra- chycephalic— Dr. John Beddoe, F.R.S. — The Scandinavian Element in the Place Names— The Isle of Man the Source of Norwegians— The Norse Element in the Place Names of the Civil Parishes— Percentage of Norse Element— Canon Isaac Taylor— A. W. Moore— Isle of Man— The Lake District— Iceland— Dr. Beddoe's Opinions— The Colour of Byes and Hair— The Proclivity to Phthisis— Cancer— Summary of Tables as to the Preva- lence of certain Prevailing Colours in Eyes and Hair . . .p. 211 xiv Contents. CHAPTEE IX. Local Meteorology and Climatology. Atmosphere and. Ciirrents — Prevailing "Winds — Irish Sea — Isle of Man — Cum- brian Coast well Air-flushed — Moore on Manx "Winds — Dr. A. Buohan on Prevailing "Winds of Scotland— Force of "Wind and Phthisis — Horizontal and Vertical Deflection of "Winds — Scarborough — North Devon — St. Bees Head — "Wind-force Fatal to the Consumptive — "Winds and Malaria — The Importance of a Knowledge of Winds to the Medical Practitioner — Malarial Rheumatism and Heart Disease — "Winds from the Sea — Direction of Coastal River- Valleys — Monthly Prevalence — "Winds from the Land — Inland Natural Boundary — Protective Influence of — Alston Outside it — Easterly Winds Passing over Barrier get Purifled — The Greek Ether and Air — Zeus — The Helm Wind — Cloud-caps— .aSacas—Oros — Mr. William Mar- riott's Report on " The Helm Wind " — The Importance of Studying Cur- rents of Air in Lee-ward Valley Systems — Local Climates — The Rainfall — Mr. Symons' List of Stations and Approximate Mean Rainfall at each — Rainfall and Altitude — Distribution of Rain — Wasdale and Borrowdale — Isle of Man and Scotland — Influence of Concussion — Entanglement — Kendal, Mr. Isaac Taylor, F.R.S., Average Twenty Tears — Mr. Fletcher — " Symons' British Rainfall " — Mr. Symons on the Rainfall in the Lake District — Table Illustrating his Remarks — Mr. Benn — Quinquennial Periods — Table of Monthly Rainfall — Maximum and Minimum Rainfall — Tempera- ture, Dewpoint, Rainfall, and Wind — Table — Seasons — Temperature and Rainfall — Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S. — His Ratio of the Rainfall in Twenty- two Years to Mean of whole Period 1845-1866— Table— Table of Rainfall — Monthly Percentages at Twenty Stations in the Lake District — Mr. Frederic Gaster — Mean Monthly "V'alues — Tables — Rainfall in 1868 — Ulls- water— Haweswater — Western Lake District — Compared with the Eastern — Table — Altitude and 1868 Rainfall — General Conclusions — Sun — Sunishine Observations — Mean Temperatures, etc. — Deaths by Lightning — Barometer —The Climate of the Microphyte p. 227 CHAPTER X. SECTIOlir I. DisTKiBUTiox OP Disease. The Diseases selected — The Geographical Distribution of Cancer — History of Investigation, 1868 — Series of papers in The Lancet, 1888 — Infrequency of Cancer in the Lake District, 1890 — Paper at Congress of Hygiene, 1890 — Clays and Limestones — The Defective Supplement of the Present Registrar- General— Dr. Farr's Supplements 1851-60 and 1861-70— Death-rates — Death-rates (female) at diiferent Age-periods — Influence of Sex in Disease — Dr. Rogers Williams — General Table of New Growths — Table showing the Organs principally affected by Cancer, and relative frequency in — Per- centage of cases of Mammary and Uterine Cancer — Geographical Distribu- tion of Cancer among Females — Description of the Maps — Index of Colours, and scales of Death-rates— Map I. "All ages"— Map II. "At and above 35 years " — Cancer in the Registration District — Group of Low Mortality — Contents. xv Group of 'Higlh Mortality — Great Transverse Eidge — Death-rates in Cumber- land, Westmorland, and part of Lancashire — Distribution of Cancer among Males — Table of Death-rates from Cancer at different Age-periods, Males and Females — Low Mortality Group — Scale of Death-rates for the two sexes — High Mortality Group (Males) — Male Death-rates in Wigton — Crescentic form of Low Mortality Group — -Physical Facts in Low Mortality Group — Limestone — High Mortality Group — Glacial Clay — Valley Systems — Eden and Derwent Floods — Summary of Coincident Diseases and Physical Facts — Mixed Populations — An Epitome of Disease-facts during the 30 years 1851-1880 — Cancer as a Cause of Death, irrespective of Sex — Table showing Mean Death-rates during the three Decennial Periods, 1861-60, 1861-70, and 1871-80 — Eemarks on Table — The same coincident facts not confined to the Cumbrian and Lake Area — Extracts from a recent paper on the Influence of Clays and Limestones on the Medical Geography of Cancer p. 286 SECTION II. The two Sets of Facts require to be Linked — Their practical Value even with- out being so — 1868, when the Geographical Distribution of Cancer was first Announced — The Study of Specific Causes — A brief Resume of Discoveries in Bacteriology — Ehrenberg, 1828 — Yeast — Cagniard Latour — 1837 — Schwann — Zymotic Diseases — Dr. William Bndd — Typhoid Fever — Sir Thomas Watson — Sir John Simon, 1860— Cause of Inflammation — Dr. Burden Sanderson— Contagium — Professor Hallier — Dr. Klein — Microphy- tology — Grouping of Fungi — Ehrenberg — Cohn's Classification— Schizo- mycetes — Billroth— Lankester — Klebs — Nageli -^ Cryptogams — Phanero- gams — Ancestors of Fungi — Mycelium of Carboniferous Age — Professor Williamson — Habitat of Microphytes — Fliigge— Flooded Lands and Sapro- phytes — Tropical Climates — Dr. Koch — Cholera Bacillus — Increase of Cancer — Progress of Agriculture — Drainage and Sewerage — Floods in- creasingly Foul — Soil in Cryptogamic Culture and Propagation — Difficulty in finding Appropriate Soil — Tubercle Bacillus — Koch — Viability of Fungi — Manured Fields — Pathogenic Forms in Earth — Tetanus — Acid-forming Power of Microphytes — Whitbarrow — Nitric and Carbonic Acids— Relation of Limestones and Clays to Culture of Microphytes — Floods spread Soils favourable to Culture of Bacilli, etc. — Phanerogams and Calcareous Soils — Sir James Paget's Views — Extracts from his " Morton Lecture " — On Cancer and Cancerous Diseases — Messrs. Ballance and Shattock — Tuber- culosis — Syphilis — Vegetable Pathology — Xylomata — Galls — Chauveau — Bistournage — High and Low Mortality Districts (Cancer) — Clays and Lime- stones — Floods — Difference in Mortality — Statistics — Relations of Phanero- gams and Cryptogams to Calcareous Soil — The Connection between the Geographical Distribution of Heart Disease and the Wheat-yield in England and Wales — The Relation of Soil to the Crop — Vegetable Decomposition — The Delta of the Ganges — Soonderbuns — Cholera — Major Graham — The Fevers of Greece — Hippocrates — Littre — Messrs. Ballance and Shattock — Their Joint Paper on the Cultivation of Micro-organisms from Malignant Tumours — Factors Predisposing to Successful Invasion of Disease — Racial Characteristics — Physical Characters— Dr. John Beddoe — Heredity — The xvi Contents. Author's later Investigations— The Effect of Different Soils on Microphytes —Suggestions as to the Cause of the Difference in the Prevalence of Cancer in Clay and Limestone Areas p. oJ 1 SECTION III. General Health and Zymotic Diseases— Mortality at all Ages from all Causes- Mixing the Sexes in the Eegistrar General's Supplement, 1871-1880— General Death-rate.— Health of Cumbrian and English Lake District- Configuration of Land in relation to it— Chief Causes in the Fluctuation of the Death-rates— Zymotic Diseases— Origin of term Zymotic— Dr. Farr —Professor Tyndall— Dr. Koch— Pasteur— Dr. Keith Johnston— General Health, 1851-70, 1870-81— Tables— Effect of Local Climates— Group of Dis- tricts according to Aspects— Tables illustrating Zymotic Diseases p. 338 sectiox iv. Stomach and Liveb Diseases, Diseases of the Kidneys, Childbirtii and Metma. Stomach and Liver Diseases— England and Wales — Cumbrian and Lake area — Table of Death-rates— Diseases of the Kidneys— England and Wales- Cumberland and Lake Ai-ea- Table of Death-rates— Males and Females— Difference— Childbirth and Metria- England and Wales— Cambrian and Lake District— Table of Death-rates— Childbirth and Metria— Table of Zymotic Diseases for three Decenniads f- 850 section v. Phthisis and Heakt Disease. Description of Phthisis Map — Mortality in England and Wales — Death-rates among Males and Females in Cumberland and Lake District — Males and Females, 1861-1870 — The Great Transverse Eidge and the Windward and Leeward Valley Systems — Contour Map — Effect of Strong Winds on the Phthisical — Dampness of Soil — Bowditch — Buchanan — Whitaker — Descrip- tion of the Heart-Disease Map — High and Low Mortality Districts — The Transverse Ridge — Difference in Mortality from Heart Disease on the North and South Sides of the Transverse Eidge — Table of Death-rates . MERIONETHSHIRE § J CARNARVONSHIRE ANGLESEY DIVISIONS. I LONDON )t 8. E. COUNTIES III 8. MIDLAND Do IV EASTERN DO V S. WESTERN DO Vi W. MIDLAND Do- VII NORTH DO. Do. VIII NTH. WESTN. po. IX YORKSHIRE X MTHN. COUNTIES XI MONMOUTHSHIRE AND WALES COUNTIES. 1 SURREY 2 KENT 3 SUSSEX 4 HAMPSHIRE 9 BERKSHIRE 6 MIDDLESEX 7 HERTFORDSHIRE 8 BUCKINGHAMSHIRE 9 OXFORDSHIRE 10 NORTHAMPTONSH. 11 HUNTINGDONSHIRE 12 BEDFORDSHIRE 13 CAMBRIDGESHIRE 14 ESSEX 1!i SUFFOLK 16 NORFOLK 17 WILTSHIRE 18 DORSETSHIRE 19 DEVONSHIRE 20 CORNWALL 21 SOMERSETSHIRE 22 GLOUCESTERSHIRE 23 HEREFORDSHIRE 24 SHROPSHIRE 25 STAFFORDSHIRE 26 WORCESTERSHIRE 27 WARWICKSHIRE 28 LEICESTERSHIRE 29 RUTLANDSHIRE 30 LINCOLNSHIRE 31 NOTTINGHAMSHIRE 32 DERBYSHIRE 33 CHESHIRE 34 LANCASH'IRE^ 35 W. RIDING 6 & ABOVE DO. YORK- SHIRE I « 43 5 -» » > 44 X « it N. Do. DURHAM NORTHUMBERLAND CUMBERLAND WESTMORLAND^ MONMOUTHSHIRE GLAMORGANSHIRE CARMARTHENSHIRE PEMBROKESHIRE CARDIGANSHIRE BRECKNOCKSHIRE RADNORSHIRE MONTGOMERYSH, FLINTSHIRE. DENBIGHSHIRE MERIONETHSHIRE CARNARVONSHIRE ANGLESEY BELOW 2 ANNUALLY TO EVERY 10000 FEMALES LIVING. 1851 — 1860. SWAN.SONNENSCHEiN & C?, LONDON. MACLURE i C» SWAN.SONNEHSCHEIH * CP, LONDON. MACLURE & CP Cancer in the Counties and Districts^ 1851-60. 37 Cancer in the Counties. We will now endeavour to show wliafc were the counties that caused this strange banding of the divisions, and what were the dominating causes in the counties themselves. In the first place, let us take the south-eastern high death- rate belt, which includes the following divisions : London (I.), South-Bastern Counties (II.), the South-Midland (III.), and the Eastern Counties (lY.) The counties that make up this group are all characterized, more or less, by rivers, such as the Thames, that seasonally flood the districts through which, or near which, they flow. They are also characterized generally by much boulder, and other clays, and other soils of a reten- tive nature. I stated in my former edition, — (1). In the counties having a high mortality from cancer we find that the tributaries o£ the large rivers rise from soft, marly, or other easily disintegrated rocks, and thea fall into sheltered valleys, through which the main rivers flow. (2). These rivers invariably flood their adjacent districts during the rainy season, and have generally their waters coloured by the suspension of alluvial matter. The Thames counties, characterized by their tertiary soil and frequently flooded river, form, as it were, a typical cancer-field (p. 75). (3). Those counties which are characterized by hard and nob easily disintegrated rocks, such as the Welsh Silurian and the a:reat carboniferous ransre which forms the backbone of the northern counties to the north of the Mersey, and which are fully exposed to the drying influences of the wind, have, coincident with these opposite characters, a low mortality. The Geographical Distribution of Cancer among Females in the 630 Registration Districts. The large district map of Cancer at once reveals the order of distribution : the student has only to trace the courses of fully-formed i^ivers of the country from source to sea to 38 The Geographical Distribiition of Diseases. be convinced that, wherever these rivers are known to have facihties, after heavy rains or thaws, for flooding the adjacent area, and for retaining these floods on a clayey, tenacious soil, he is sure to find the districts coloured hlue, indicating a liigli mortality from this cause ; and it will not be long before he has ascertained for himself that the districts through which the higher and earlier tributaries and sources flow are, on the other hand, characterized by low mortality. If we take the principal rivers from the river Tweed round by the south and west to the Eden opening into the Solway Firth, we shall find the following, at points where they flood their riparial areas, crowded with hlue, or high mortality districts : The rivers Tweed, Tyne, Wear, Yorkshire Derwent, Swale, Ouse, Humber, Witham, Welland, Nene, Great Ouse, Wensum, Waveney, Thames, Medway, Stour, Sussex Ouse, Dorset Stour, Devon Axe, Bxe, Dart, Way and Tamar, Fal, Tawe, Brue, Avon, Severn, Dovey, Conway, Dee, Derwent (Cumber- land), and Eden. All these rivers, in some parts of their courses, flood their banks; and coincident with these seasonal floods we find around them groups of lAue, or high mortality districts. Where, however, this flooding does not and cannot obtain, there we find the lowest mortality from this cause, even in large towns with many hospitals, and even cancer hospitals, such as at Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Bradford, Blackburn. In all these cases the habits of their rivers are totally diff"erent from those just named, and, moreover, their sites consist of limestone and other carboniferous formations, which we have pointed out are in themselves antagonistic to the evil effects of floods, even if they did take place on them. With regard to the area under consideration, in 1868 I pointed out that the Cumberland cancer field followed the course of the river Eden and the valley of the Derwent. The Eden runs through the new red sandstone, and in the neighbourhood of Carlisle the character of the soil is alluvial. Phthisis among Females in the Cotmties, 1851-60. 39 All this, however, will be more fully discussed ia the second part of this work. The Geographical Distribtdion of Phthisis among Females in the Counties in 1851-1860. The large district map showing the disti-ibution of phthisis (1851-1860) unmistakably pointed out the significant fact that wherever the prevailing sea winds were capable of ex- erting their full force there was to be found the highest death-rate from this cause. We saw in the map of the divisions that the one showing phthisis was totally opposite to that on which heart disease was plotted ; in fact, the one showed that wherever the sea winds blew strongest and exercised their greatest power there was to be found the least number of victims from one kind of disease — heart disease ; and that, on the other hand, where these very winds prevailed, there were slain the greatest number of persons suffering from the other kind of disease — phthisis. The maps of these two diseases should therefore be the reverse of each in colouring. And so they are : the rule being, that in the Heart Disease map all the inaccessible and sheltered valleys are coloured blue, while in the Phthisis map they are coloured red; in heart disease all the districts exposed to the full force of the prevailing winds are coloured red, whilst in phthisis they are coloured bhoe. The Cumbrian and lake areas have been shown to be good examples of the effect of exposure and shelter in the distri- bution of these two causes of death. In summing up the facts connected with phthisis as ascer- tained in 1868-1875, I made the following statements : — (1). The districts show that coincident with sheltered positions is a loiu rate of mortality from phthisis; they therefore confirm what was found among the counties and divisions. (2). The distribution of phthisis is almost the reverse of 40 The Geographical DistrihUion of Diseases. that of cancer, and differs remarkably from that of heart disease. (3). The warm, protected, fertile, ferruginous red-sandstone tracts of country are remarkable for forming the sites of the most extensive series of lotv mortality groups throughout England. (4). The high, elevated ridges of non-ferruginous, and un- fertile carboniferous formations, and the elevated, hard, unfer- tile, and non-ferruginous Silurian formations, form the sites of the most extensive series of high mortality districts. (5). The elevated parts mostly exposed to the westerly and north-westerly wind, and to the easterly and south-easterly, are characterized by high mortality. (6). A sheltered position, a warm, fertile, and ferruginous soil, are coincident, as a rule, throughout England and Wales with loiv mortality from phth'isis. Having now given a brief summary of the facts connected with the geographical distribution of the three great groups of diseases — viz., Hearb Diseases, Malignant Diseases classed under Cancer (among females), and Pulmonary Tuberculosis under the heading Phthisis (among females) — we are in a posi- tion to study each area in minuter detail, and to compare the later with earlier statistics. Moreover, as these three great causes of death have been shown to be influenced by certain grand factors in the climates of the country, we are now in a position to introduce other causes of death, with the view of ascertaining how far they are influenced by the local climates which have been shown to be coincident with such remarkable diverse phenomena in the distribution of heart disease, cancer, and phthisis. "With this view. Diseases of the Stomach and Liver, Diseases of the Kidneys, and the Diseases and Accidents incident to Childbirth, have been added.-' 1 A few copies of the large coloured maps of the Geographical Distriba- tionof Cancer and Phthisis, among females, in the Disti-ictsof England and Wales, published separately, may still be had of Messrs. Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Paterno.ster Square, London, E.G. CHAPTER III. Area Defined — Size — Compared with Others — Natural Boundary System the best — Vagabond parts of Counties and Districts — France more naturally Divided — Isle of Man — Sheadings — Local Government Board and County Councils — Average Size of English, Welsh, Scotch, and Irish Counties — The Boundaries of the Area — The Coastal Boundary — Coastal Parishes and Tovrnships — Their Foreshores and Tidal Waters — Sir A. C. Ramsay and Submarine Denudation — Foreshores — Coastal Townships and Parishes — Foreshores and Populations — Length of Coastal Boundary — Foreshores and Sea-inlets — Percentage of Coastal to District Populations — Inland Boundary — Districts and Pai-ishes on the Line — Length of — Breadth of Area — Length of Area — Form — Mean Level of Coastal Parishes — Course of the Inland Boundary Line — Mean Height of the Inland Boundary Line along Scotland, North- umberland, Durham, Yorkshire, and Lancashire — Mean Height of the Border District Parishes — Percentage of the Border Population to that of the Border Districts. THE area we are now studying consists of the counties o£ Cumberland, Westmorland, and what is known as The English Lalce District, which includes parts of these counties and the Ulverston district of Lancashire. The entire area consists of two thousand five hundred and nineteen square miles, and thirty-one statute acres, made up as follows : — CcjiBERLAXD ... 970,161 Statute acres. Westjioelaxd ... 500,906 Ulveeston 141,124 ,, 1,612,191 or 2,519 square miles and 31 statute acres : so that it is one- twentieth the size of England (20"2) ; nearly one-third that 42 The Geographical DistribtUion of Diseases. of Wales (2-9); and one-twelfth that of Scotland (12-0). The areas of these three parts of Great Britain being as follows : — Sq. Miles. Statute Acres. England 50,933 and 178 Wales 7,377 „ 643 Scotland 30,417 „ 98 The area is about equal to that of two average English counties, which vary in size from I485- square miles, as in Rutland, to the 6,066 square miles of Yorkshire. The history of the sizes, forms, and boundaries of counties would be a curious one indeed. There is no country, either great or small, whose rulers have, for governmental or other purposes, divided it accord- ing to the natural boundary system. If we take England as au instance, we find in it very few counties that are even approximately defined by natural boundaries. Yorkshire and Northamptonshire approach nearest to this common-sense mode of regulating county boundaries ; but when we examine the six hundred and thirty districts into which England and Wales are divided for registration purposes, then we are at once brought face to face with the utmost confusion, which, in many instances, is made worse confounded by the fact that many of these artificially formed poor-law or registration districts are not self-contained, but are so constituted that fragments are found in the centres of other districts; a similar state of things also obtains among the counties : a vagabond bit of Gloucestershire may be found in Warwick- shire or Northamptonshire, or if we go to Scotland we shall find a bit of Stirlingshire in the midst of Clackmannan and another in Perthshire, as if they had been exiled. In France a much more natural plan has been adopted, the river system of that country seemingly having formed the basis of departmental boundary lines. Even in the Isle of Man the sheading, into six of which the island is divided. Areas of Cotmties. had once natural boundaries. Each sheading had its central river, the catchment basin of which occupied the higher portion of the parishes comprehended within its boundai-ies. It seems highly probable that in the original division of the island, the chief rivers and other water courses, their water- partings and their catchment basins, were taken as guides by its early invaders, the Norwegians, which at all events is evidence of their possessing at least some common sense, a mental qualification that does not seem to have been possessed by either the original designers of the Poor Law districts, which are now used for registration and sanitary purposes, or by the more recent Local Government Board officials who have attempted to rectify the ancient blunders of their pre- decessors. County Councils have now a golden opportunity of doing some service to science in this matter. The student of medical geography mast expect to meet with plenty of difficulties in carrying out his investigations, and among the first will be the artificial mode of dividing the country ; but as it cannot now be altered as regards the statistics already collected, the difficulty must be met, and made the best of, ever remembering that few evils are unmitigated. The average size of the counties varies in Great Britain and Ireland : — - Thus the 40 English counties average 1,273 sq. miles. 12 Welsh „ „ 614 33 Scotch „ „ 921 32 Irish „ „ 992 The Ensrlish counties ranging from Eutland, with an area of only 148 square miles, to Yorkshire with one of 6,066 square miles. The registration districts vary even more in size one fr'om another; but it is not worth while to give details as in the course of this work there will be frequent opportu- nities of discussing the incongruities in their form, size, and boundaries. 44 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Tlie Boundaries of tlie Area. From what has already been said on the effect of our coast line and its sea inlets on local climates and diseases, it will be expected that great stress would be laid upon this natural boundary of Great Britain : it is the boundary that has the hardihood to defy the Local Government Board, and it will not be meddled with ; it is therefore the one to be depended on, whether we are studying the country as a whole or the different areas into which I have divided it for medico-geographical purposes. The Cumberland, Westmorland, and English Lake district area has two boundaries, one the coastal entirely natural, and the other inland, irregular, and more or less artificial. The boundaries meet at the Solway Firth in the north and at Morecambe Bay in the south, and enclose a somewhat oval, or an irregularly rhomboidal area. Taking the course of the sun we will trace first the Coastal Boundary from the north- east coast of Morecambe Bay to the south coast of Solway Firth. Along this course in the same order there are the following coastal registration districts : — Kendal (Westmorland), Ulverstone (Lancashire), Bootle, Whitehaven, Goclier mouth, Wigton, and Carlisle (Cumberland), the coastal boundaries of which form that of the area : this fact alone, however, helps us but little ; we want more detail with regard to the foreshores, tidal vaters, and the position of the populations, with regard to them, and this can be easily obtained by ascertaining the facts connected with the coastal boundaries of the coastal parishes or townships which skirt the districts given above. The Coastal Parishes aiid Townships : their Foreshores and Tidal Waters. There is a wide difference between the precipitous steep- to coast-hne of cliffs, and the sloping foreshore. The latter Coastal Boundary and Parishes. 45 only in an extreme form, however, is to be found skirting this area, and prevailing throughout its whole extent with the exception of a short distance at the foot of St. Bees Head. When the difference between the effects of a precipitous and a shelving coast comes to be studied, the interest ia these physical features cannot fail to increase. Whether we view from a height the gradual slope of a series of hill-tops sea-ward, or the wide expanse of the sloping shore on the western coast of Cumberland, we are conscious of having before us the work of submarine denudation. Ramsay showed how regularly the tableland of Wales had been worn down seawards by submarine denudation, as indicated by the generally lessened height of the land towards the sea; although now disguised by the intersecting work of sub-aerial denudation, in the form of river channels ; this sloping towards the sea of plains of marine denudation, as first described by Sir A. C. Ramsay, in his " Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain," p. 496, must be taken into account with the effect of physical configuration on local climates as influenced by the powerful winds. As a rule we know that a steep-to or precipitous coast generally rises out of deep water, whereas a low coast gener- ally stretches far out until it is covered by a shallow depth of the sea at some distance from high water mark. The fore- sJiore is in fact that sloping part of the sea-shore which is exposed between the tidal low and high water marks — the greatest width occurring during spring tides, at which time the tides gain their highest and lowest points. Foreshores generally are extensive and very important at the great inlets into this country, two of which are enjoyed by the lake area ; at these inlets the foreshores are of great size, and their gradual slope over wide reaches, in the trend of prevailing winds, facilitates the passage of these currents inland, where their influence is felt far up into the heart of the country, provided the initial slope from the sea is preserved. 46 The Geographical Distrihttion of Diseases. The coastal boundary consists of the following coastal parishes included in the registration districts which extend to the sea. Beginning with Kendal, the parishes range them- selves in the following order around the coast : Beetliam, Haverbrach, Heversham and MilntJiorpe, L&vem, Meathop and JJlplia, and Witlierslack. The Kendal Coastal Parishes have a population of 5,057; 373 statute acres of tidal water, and 4,585 statute acres of foreshore. The coastal painshes of Ulverstone are East Broughton, Lmver AlUthwaite, Loiver HolJcer, West Plain (reclaimed), Out Marsh (reclaimed), Barrow-in-Furness, Dalton-in-Furness, Egton with Neivland, TJlverston, TJrswich, Aldingham, and Dalton-in-Furness, which have a total population of 77,362, and 1,383 statute acres of tidal water, and 51,403 statute acres of foreshore. BooTLE is skirted by the following coastal parishes : Millom, Whicham, Whitheclc, Bootle, Waherthwaite, Muncaster, and Brigg, which have a total population of 10,465 ; 1189 statute acres of tidal water, and 9,271 statute acres of foreshore. "Whitehaven, although it has an extensive sea coast, has no great width of foreshore, and it is within this district that the highest sea-cliff occurs, namely St. Bees Head, in the parishes of Sand with and Rottington, which is 323 feet above ordaance datum. The coastal parishes are Gusforth, , Ponsonhy, St. Bridget Bechermet, Lowside Quarter, St. Bees, Bottington, Sandwith, Whitehaven, Barton, and Harrington; and have a total population of 28,768; 7 statute acres of tidal water, and 2,015 statute acres of foreshore. CooKEEMOUTH has arranged along its coast, Workington, Seaton, Flimhy, Cross Canonhy with Mary Port, Ellenborough and Ewanrigg, Oughterside, and Allerhy, which have a total population of 31,037, and enjoy 55 statute acres of tidal water, and 2,230 statute acres of foreshore: WiGTON enjoys the commencement of the Solway Firth, and its wide sands and tidal waves. The parishes exposed Foreshores and Districts. 47 to their inflaences are Hayton and Mealo, West Newton and Allonhy, Eolme St. Guthbert, Low Holme, Holme East Waver, KirJcbride, Aikton, and Bowness; the whole population of wbicli amounted in 1881 to 5,743, enjoying a tidal water of 1,409 statute acres, and a foreshore of 18,657 statute acres. Carlisle reaches to the Solway Firth by means of Bochliffe, Beaumont, and Burgh-by-8a.nds to the 4,211 statute acres of foreshore, which it enjoys, and, in addition, Grinsclale and Kirli-Andreivs-upon-Hden enable it to have 20 statute acres more of tidal water besides the 646 statute acres supplied by the foreshore. The population is 2,114. LoNGTOWN is the last district in this area enjoying foreshore and tidal waters, of which it has 261 statute acres of the former, and 77 statute acres of the latter through the coast along Nether Quarter, and ArtJmret loitli Longtoiun. The population was 2,980 at the census of 1881, the date of those of the other coastal parishes. The facts relating to the proportion of foreshore area to district area, and of the coastal population to that of the districts, are epitomized in the following Table : — TABLE I. Coastal Districts. POPOLATIONS, 1881. Per cent. Areas. Coastal Parishes. Entire District. Fore- shores. Districts. Per cent. Kendal Ulterstone BOOTLE Whitehaven . . . GoCKERMOUTH . . . WiGTON Carlisle .... longtown .... 5,057 77,362 10,465 28,768 31,037 5,743 2,114 2,980 41,574 90,940 12,225 59,292 56,789 23,440 52,762 7,711 121 85-0 85-6 48-5 54-6 24-5 4-0 38-6 4,585 51,403 9,271 2,015 2,230 18.657 4,211 261 196,267 152,091 91,301 90,715 170,155 137,647 69,164 88,245 2-3 33-7 101 2-2 1-5 13-5 6-0 •3 16.3,526 .344,733 47-4 : 92,633 995,585 9-3 48 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Coastal Boundary — its Length. The above Census and Ordnance Survey figures give us the following facts : (1) that the coastal boundary of the Cum- brian and Lake area consists of a series of coastal parishes or townships, extending from Seetham in the Kendal district, Westmorland, through Ulverston, in Lancashire, to Longtown, in Cumberland — a length of about 126 miles ; the Hue simply passing through the parishes approximately pai^allel to the coast without following its sinuosities; of this coast Cumber- land shared 76 miles, Lancashire 24, and Westmorland 24. Omitting the sands at the mouths of the rivers Kent, Levens, Duddon, Esk, and Sol way Firth, the ordinary foreshore of the sea coast has only a mean width of about a quarter of a mile ; but this is an enormous advantage, especially as in this case it is the fringe of a sloping inland country. The great inlets, just named, with their extensive Cartmell and Ulverston sands, Mort Bank and Flat, the Duddon sands, the Drigg sands of the Esk, the Moricambe, Cadurijock sands, and middle bank of the Sol way Firth, are, however, the great physical features which give character to the local climates of this large area. (2). That the amount of foreshore enjoyed by each of the coastal districts, not included in the area of the parishes and townships, varies from 0-3 per cent, in the case of Long- town, to the 337 per cent, in that of Ulverston, the mean percentage for the eight coastal districts being 9-3 per cent., and (3) the important fact that along these 126 miles of coastal country there stretch, one after another, a series of townships and parishes, which at the census of 1881 contained 163,526 males and females, or 47*4 per cent, of the entire population of the eight districts. The eight coastal districts, already named, had in 1881 a population of 344,733, of which 163,526 lived in towns, villages, and parishes that immediately abutted on the seashore. The Inland Boundary. 49 Now in geograpliizing disease, and in calculating tlie effect of local climates on communities, such facts cannot be ignored. At the very threshold of the investigation they must be taken into account, and made familiar to our work. The 57 towns and villages which stretch along the coast line contain 47"4 per cent, of the population of the 224 parishes constitutinof the eig:bt coastal districts. Tlie Inland Boundary. The Inland Boundary of the area begins where the coastal ends, namely on the north-west limit of Longtown, which separates this district from the Scotch counties of Dumfi-ies and Roxburgh ; and then extends along the north-east limits of Longtown, Brampton, and part of Alston, which separate these districts from Northumberland, and lastly along the eastern and southern limits of Bast Ward, and the eastern boundary of Kendal, which separates this area from York- shire, and the southern boundary of Kendal, where that district abuts on Lancashire. Following the plan adopted in tracing the coastal boundary line, we now give, in consecutive order, the names of tlie parishes and townships which form the inland boundary line. In the Longtown district are Moat, Nicliol-Forest, Bew- castle ; in Brampton, Arherton, Kingwater, Waterhead, Ujjper Benton, Nether Denton, Farlam, Midgeholme ; in Peneith, GroriUn; in Alston, Alston; in East Whv^D, Bufton, Applehy, St. Michael, or Bongate, Warcop, Stain more, Kaber, Winton, Hartley, Nateby, Mallerstang, Bavenstonedale, Orton ; in Kendal, Dillicar, Firbanh, Killington, Middleton, Barton, Gasterton, Kirkby Bonsdale, Eutton-Boof, and Burton-in- Kendal, to Beetham. The populations of the above parishes which skirt the inland boundary line are given in the following Table II., with the proportions they bear to the entire populations of the districts containing them : — 50 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. TABLE II. PoPnLATIOKS. Per cent. of Inland Boundary Parishes. of Entire Districts. Los(_;to^\-n Bra.mfton . . Penrith .... Alston .... East Ward . . . Kendal . . . 1,702 3,178 251 4,621 7,104 4,367 7,711 10,565 23,242 4,621 14,515 41,574 22-0 30-0 1-0 100-0 48-9 10-5 21,223 102,228 20-7 Length of Inland Boundary Line. The inland boundary line of tliis area shares tlie county boundaries of Dumfries and Eoxburgh. along the north-west of Longtown for fifteen miles ; on the north-eastei'n and easterly borders of Longtown, Brampton, and parts of Penrith and Alston lie forty-eight miles of the Northumber- land boundary, which along the east side of Alston is succeeded by a part of the western boundary of Durham, to the south of which, along the eastern and southerly sides of the East Ward and Kendal districts, Westmorland lies next to Yorkshire for fifty-six miles ; and then along the south side of Kendal Westmorland shares fifteen miles of the Lancashire county boundary from the east end of Casterton to Beetham, -whence the coastal boundai-y started. The entire length of this boundary is about 143 miles, so that, roughly given, the circuit of the area would be about 269 miles. The widest part of the area is in a line due east from St. Bees Head to the eastern boundary of East Ward in Westmorland, and measures fifty-nine and a half miles ; the longest from north to south, namely from the extreme north of Bewcastle parish, in Long- town, to the most southerly point of the Isle of Walney, Coastal and Inland Boundary Line. 5 1 Hilpsford Scar, belonging to the TJlverston district, tlie area measures eighty-two miles in a slightly N.E. and S.W. direc- tion. The shape of the area is thus roughly rhomboidal, not unlike some of the blocks of Lower Silurian rocks or Skiddaw slates. The coastal boundary line must be taken as at the mean sea level, and that of the margin of parishes a little above ordnance datum, or 18 "0 ft. : the mean height of the marginal parishes of each coastal district being as follows :— Kendal 67-5 ft., Ulverston 80-6 ft., Bootle 56-8 ft., Whitehaven 139-0 ft., Cockermouth 96-4 ft., Wigton 25-0 ft., Carlisle 25-0 ft., Longtown 25-0 ft., the mean for the whole being 73-3 ft. Now along the inland boundary we have a very different state of things, but equally important and interesting. The natural inland boundary line of this area and the artificial one between the registration counties of Northumber- land, Durham, Yorkshire, and part of Lancashire, and the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland, and part of Lanca- shire, are not identical, the former throughout its course lying at varying distances to the east and south-east; but we shall not dwell upon the details here as they will be discussed later on when the physical geography of the inland districts are considered.^ The north-west boundary of Longtown is so far natural, inasmuch as it follows the course of the I'iver Liddel and one of its sources, Kershope river, which rises on the west side of Dove Crags, nearly opposite to one of the sources of the Worth Tyne on the east. Near this spot, at the foot of the same crags, the Black Line river springs, seen in the district map. This part of the boundary is flanked to the north-east by the elevated water-parting which separates the basin of the North Tyne from that of the Line on the west ; in fact, the north-east boundary of Longtown lies on very high ground. The north-east and south-east boundary of Brampton is coin- 1 See description of " The Contour Map." 52 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. cideut with the course of the source of the river Irthing, which is seen joining the river Eden near the north-east boundary line of Carlisle district. The Irthing rises near Christenbury Crags, and is separated by the water-parting from the catchment basin of the North Tyne. From the point at which the Irthing turns to the south-west to cross Brampton (and join the Eden), near Upper Denton, the line runs along high ground, namely, Greltsdale Forest, which separates the Vale of Eden from the basin of the South Tyne; and here, instead of pursuing its natural course along the ridge, it is made to cross the valley in which the sources of the South Tyne run, along the courses of the Gildersdale and Aleburns, after which it mounts the high ground and runs southward along the water-partiag between the source of the South Tyne and the river Wear ; in doing which it embraces the district of Alston from Penrith to East Ward. In the latter district, by some means it is forced over the water-parting into the valley of the sources of the river Tees, but, as if out of its' element, it passes up to the high ground of Lune Forest and Sfcainmoor Forest, where it is seen performing once more its natural function by separating the eastern waters of the Swale from the western waters of the Eden, and the sources of the Eden from those of the Ure or Yore. So far, with the exception of looping in Alston, which geographically belongs to the catchment basin of the Tyne in Northumberland, the inland boundary line has, to a certain extent, taken a natural course, that of dividing the catchment basins of the east and west from each other. On the north-west side of Lonsrtown we found the rivers Liddel and Kershope forming a portion of the boundary ; but it should be remarked at once that, however apparently fit a river may be to form a boundary, it is far from being so : the river, it must be remembered, is part and parcel of what it divides. On leaving the water- parting which separates Yoredale and the river Yore or Ure from Ravenstonedale and the River Eden, it turns back to The CoiLvse of the Inland Boundary Line. the north-west to get into the deep valley between Langdale and Houghill Fells, until it reaches the river Lune, when it turns sharply soutli to run along its left bank as far as the entrance of the tributary Rother ; it then runs along the left bank of this tributary as far as Dent Dale, where it is made to mount the high water-parting between the Dent Dale and the valley of the Lune, from which, however, it precipitately descends to cut the Lune in two south of Kirkby Lonsdale in a westerly direction over Hutton Crags, south of Burtou, to end at the southern boundary of the Beetham parish in the district of Kendal at the mouth of the river Kent in More- cambe Bay. Tlie Gourse of the Inland Boundary Line. If we trace the artificial line between our area and Scotland, and England we shall find the following facts, showing the difference between the heights of the artificial and natural boundaries. In this case the two lines, although they do not coincide, are not so widely separated as to cause inconvenience to the medical geographer. The natural boundary is the one that we have to reckon with and study, for it should be nature's party wall between two or more areas. The artificial boundary line, when it deviates from the natural, seems only to have been made to do so for the purpose of sharpening our wits in devising means for counteracting its evil effects both in science and politics. As usual, the natural inland boundary line of this area is of great interest and importance. At present, however, I shall content myself with the bare facts connected, with the levels, as this subject will be again more fully discussed in the chapter devoted to the physical geography and geology of the area. The mean heights of the marginal parishes skirting the inland boundary are as follows for each district: — Longtowx, 1,013 ft.; Beampton, 820 ft.; Peneith, 1,129 ft.; Alston, 54 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. 1,500 ft. ; East Ward, 1,228 ft. ; and Kendal, 625 ft. The mean for the whole being 1,052 ft. The Gouo'se of the Inland Natural Boundary} The inland natural boundary of this area is, in fact, the northern part of the Pennine Chain, which stretches from Derbyshire to the Scotch border, and is one of the most powerful factors in the British climates that we shall have to deal with ; it is well, therefore, to define it at the outset, so as to understand its influence on the area under discussion. LoNGTOWN. — It commences at the Scotch border, in longi- tude 2°40' 40" W., above the source of the Kershope Burn; it soon joins the county boundary, and gives rise to the sources of the river Line ; but at the point where the river Irthing rises it leaves the boundary and runs in an easterly direction, so as to embrace the Northumbrian sources of this river across Paddaburn Moor, where, at the source of the Padda Burn, it is at least a mile and a half from the county boundary, in a north-easterly direction, and is opposite Irthing Head, where the district boundary between Longtown and Brampton begins at the county boundary. During this course to the east of Longtown its mean height is 1,503 "7 feet, and its length eleven miles. Brampton. — From this point it passes in an easterly direc- tion to Green Moor, where it is about 2\ miles from the county boundary ; it then turns to the S.W. over to G-reat Watch Hill, and continues almost parallel to the county boundary as far as Thirlwall Common, crossing in Nether Denton parish the county boundary to enter the Brampton district in a S.W. direction until it reaches Kelky Fell (1.241 ft.), when it is 5J miles to the W. of the county boun- dary. It then turns to the S.B. to embrace the Old-Water and New-Water sources of the river Gelt, which joins the river Irthing, at Rye Close, just above where it enters the 1 See " Contour Map," where it is shown by a red line. Mean Heights of Inland Boiondary. 55 river Eden; froaa Kellci/ Fell it proceeds in a S.B. direction to witliin three-quarters of a mile S.E. of Gold Fell (2,039 ft.) wliere it joins the county boundary, near the source of the Black Burn, a tributary of the South Tijne ; it is then coinci- dent with the county boundary as far as Butt Hill (1,500 ft). During this course in relation to the Brampton district, its mean height amounts to 1,051< ft., and its length thirty-one miles. Pexrith. — At Butt Hill the boundary line between Bramp- ton and Penrith begins, and from this point the natural boundary line is coincident with the county boundary until it reaches the Knar Burn, in the parish of Knaresdale (2,071 ft.) ; it then suddenly leaves the latter, and taking a southerly direc- tion, proceeds to Melmerbij Fell, and during its course gives rise to Grogrni Water and Baven-beck, tributaries of the river Eden. It then continues to Melmerhj High Scar (2,247 ft.), when it runs south-eastwards to the county boundary, which it crosses to the S.E. of Cross Fell (2,930 ft.), and enters East Ward district. During its course across the Penrith district it not only cuts off the eastern part of it, but the whole of Alston district, which, in fact, does not belong to Cumberland or this area at all ; for it is contained in the eastern water- shed of the Pennine Chain, and gives rise to the early sources of the South Tijne, which are separated from those of the Eden by the water-parting of the natural inland boundary. During its course of 12 J miles through Pem-ith it has a mean height of 2,254 ft. East Ward. — After leaving the point near Gross Fell it crosses the county boundai-y and takes a S.E. course to the extreme S.E. boundary of East Ward. When between Stain- more Forest and Bowes Moor for a short distance it runs coin- cidently with the county boundary of Westmorland, having the sources of the river Tees on its N.E. flank. At Beldoo Hill (1,565 ft.) it leaves the county boundary and crosses over Moncly Mia and Gansey Moss (1,649 ft.), and passes between 56 The Geographical DistribiUion of Diseases. the sources of the river Belali on its way to the river Eden, and those of the river Sivale on its eastern flank (Yorkshire) ; it then follows the course of the county boundary until it reaches the sources of the Hell QUI Bech, after which it turns to the W., and passes between those of the rivers Eden and lire, or Yore, along the col between them at a height of 1,189 ft., when it finally leaves the county boundary and the area altogether. Whilst within East Ward it attains a mean height of 1,835 ft. and stretches over thirty-eight miles. KeiVdal. — We have now to trace it from the last point at some considerable distance from the Kendal district outside the area. Immediately on leaving the county boundary it proceeds in a S. by E. direction to Pennegent (2,250 ft.), having along its northern portion the sources of the river Tjitne, and along the southern those of river Ribhle, all of which are derived from its western flank, between it and the county boundary of Westmorland, which here serves as the district boundary of Kendal. The average distance between the county and natural boundary being in this part of the latter's course about 9-9 miles, taken at ten different points. The mean height of the Pennine Chain along this part of its course amounted to 1,829 ft., through the distance of twenty miles. The above mean heights and lengths of water-parting may be arranged as follows : — Mean Heights. Lengths Districts. Feet. Miles. LONGTOWN ... 1,603 11 Brampton ... ... J,054 ... 31 Penettu ... ... 2,254 ... ... 121 East Ward ... 1,835 ... ... 38 Kendal ... 1,829 ... 20 Mean height 1695 Total length 112^ It will be observed that the extreme eastern district Alston Populations of Inland Border Parishes. 57 has no share whatever ia the natural boundary — in fact, it seems to remind us of the early raids made by early Cum- brian kings over their border in search of plunder from their neighbours and enemies. Alston has been filched from Northumberland or Durham, or from both, but when and by whom I am not prepared to say — the fact, however, remains. As we proceed we shall find how necessary it is to preserve in our minds clear ideas as to heights and geological structure ; for step by step we find these natural boundaries intimately associated at every turn with differences in climate. The Population of the Border Parishes, and tJteir Proportion to those of the Border Districts. We found at p. -17, Table I., that the population of the coastal parishes amounted to 47 '4 per cent, of that of the coastal districts of which they formed the margin. We have now to compare this with the inland and upland boundary District?. longtown Bbamptox Peniiith Alstox . . . East Ward Kexdal Border Line Population, 1881. Population. 7,711 10,5Go 23,242 4,621 14,515 41,574 1,702 3,178 251 4,621 7,104 4,367 21,223 Per cent. 22-0 30-0 1-0 100-0 48-9 10-7 20-7 102,228 It may be stated generally, although reference will be again made to the subject, that while the coastal districts and parishes in 1881 showed an increased population when compared with 1871, the upland, inland, and border line districts and parishes were marked by a decrease — out of the eight coastal, seven in 1881 had increased populations, whereas, out of the eight upland and border districts, seven out of the eight had decreased. CHAPTER IV. The Great Transverse Ridge— Hippocrates and Water-partings — Direction of Central "Water-parting — Course described on District Map — Western End of Ridge— Central Portion — Eastern End of Ridge— Eiffel Tower — The English Lake Area — Boundaries of Lake Districts — In- land Boundary Line of Lake District — The Contour Map — Coastal Boundary Line — Hydrography of the Area — Rivers and Aspects — ■ Inland Waters — Lakes — Their Areas — Lake Parishes — Percentage of Lake Populations — Free and Imprisoned Waters contrasted — Cas- cades, Torrents, and Lakes — Their Life-giving Waters — Floods — -Their Impurity and Power for Evil — Southey's Lines on Lodore — Floods and Local Climates — Effect on Health. T HE altitudes of tlie great longitudinal wall bounding this area on tlie east, and its general strike north and south, having been discussed, we must now direct our attention to another equally important physical feature of the Lake District, — the great transverse ridge, which, as a stupendous rampart, strikes across this area from east to west, or at right angles to the great backbone of Britain, part of which I have endeavoured to describe in the last chapter — This lofty wall, so far as the local climates of Camberland, West- morland, and the Lake Disti^ict are concerned, will be found to exert a more i-emarkable iufluence on the health of the districts that radiate from its water-parting ridge than even the northern portion of the Pennine chain. The Great Transverse Mountain Ridge, or Central Water- parting and its Branches. — Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.) was the first to recognise the importance of studying water-part- ings and water-sheds in relation to local climates and diseases ; he well knew how the prevailing winds were affected by the one, and the sunshine by the other ; he also pointed out that these features, according to their position, were 58 The Great Transverse Ridge. 59 capable of causing a difference in the climates of two places only a f ui^long apai't.^ The great central water-parting of this district is remark- able not only on account of its great inj3.uence on the local climates of the districts on its northern and southern sides, but for its length, height, direction, and geological structure, all of which have most interesting histories, which, however, we must leave for the present. This central water-parting stretches right across the Lake District from west to east ; and, without reckoning the curves which occur during its course, its length in a straight line from Dent Hill to Wasdale Pike, is about 32 miles ; the width of the district at this point, namely from Sfc. Bees Head on the west, to the extreme eastern boundary of West Ward, being about 45 miles, so that the ridge occupies all but 13 miles of a line extending through the most central and widest part of the Lake District. Either of the accompanying maps will enable the reader to trace this water-parting if the following instructions are attended to. First, find Ennerdale water in the Wliitehaven district, this lake is 369 ft. above sea level; on the east is seen its affluent (the river Liza), which has its source at Green Gable (2,500 ft.), and on the west its effluent (the river Bben), which at Cleator bends suddenly to the south around the western end of the central water-parting, which culminates in Dent Hill (1,130 ft.), whose position in the map corresponds with the T in WHITEHAVEN : the water-parting then takes a north-easterly direction, but to the south of the river Bhen and Ennerdale water to Grike (1,596 ft.), and then in a south-easterly direc- tion over Iron Crag (2,071 ft.) to Cawfell (2,188 ft.), which mountain lies immediately to the south of the south-east end of Ennerdale Water, at a distance of nearly two miles, pro- 1 yv Koi a-TaSiov to /jL^raiv yv. " Airs, Waters, and Places." — Littre, vol. ii. p. 22. A stadium contains 606 ft. 9 in., or 5.3 ft. 3 in. less than a furlong (660 ft. in.), and is about an eightli of a mile. 6o The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. ceediug east ifc passes over Haycock (2,619 ft.), then to the , north-east over the liigh LT,nd (2,746 ft.) from which some sources of the river Liza are derived, and on to Pillar (2,927 ft.), then easterly to Looking Stead (2,058 ft.), where it turns to the south reaching Kirk Fell, and thence on to Great Gable (2,949 ft.), and above Styhead (2,500 ft.), near the point where, in the map, the three districts Gochermouth, Whitehaven, and Booth are seen to meet ; still pursuing a south-easterly course it passes over Great End (2,984 ft.), which lies on the north-east boundary of Bootle ; from Great End it follows the north-east boundary line of Bootle until it reaches the county boundary, on which it lies as far as Seat Sandal, through the point at which the three districts meet, to the height above Angle Tarn, where the Bootle boundary line joins that of the county (2,500 ft.), and Bowfell (2,960 ft.) ; then passing to the north-east the water-parting crosses over Eossett Crag (2,100 ft.), the Black Crags (1,922 ft.), after which Thunacar (2,351 ft.) is reached. Sergeant Man (2,414 ft.), Calf Crag (1,762 ft.), and to Steel Fell (1,811 ft.), below which it crosses the road from Windermere to Keswick, at the pass of Dunmail Raise (783 ft.), and lastly to the summit of Seat Sandal (2,416 ft.) ; at this point the main water- parting leaves the county boundary and follows the northern boundary line of the Kendal district through Fairfield (2,863 ft.). Hart Crag (2,698 ft.), at the head of Deepdale (2,863 ft.), Rydal Head (2,698 ft.), to Little Hart Crag (2,091 ft.), the Red Screes (2,541 ft.), and Kirkstone Pass (1,450 ft.), at which point the line suddenly turns to the north-east, passing over John Bell's Banner (2,474 ft.). Stony Cove (2,602 ft.), Cau- dale Moor (2,214 ft.), High Street (2,214 ft.), where the old Roman Road runs along it, through Harter Fell (2,500 ft.), over Tarn Crag (2,176 ft.), Harrop (1,963) ft., where the water-parting leaves the district boundary line to the south of Hawes Water (694 ft.), over the Shap Fells to the east, and terminates at Wasdale Pike (1,853 ft.). Such are the The Great Transverse Ridge. 6 1 Tips and downs of this wonderful barrier, that stretches across the Lake District from east to west, for more than 31 miles, separating the northern from the southern lakes, and creating differences in the local climates of the two areas, which are made more evident by the death-rates from certain causes than by the delicate instruments of the meteorologist. The height of this natural wall may be realized by the following summary of the facts just detailed. The water- parting is divisible into three parts : — 1. The Western End, which extends from Dent Hill through the middle of the Whitehaven District to the point where the three districts of Gochermouth, Whitehaven, and Bootle meet, has a mean height of 2,139 ft. 2. The Central Part then starts from the latter point and follows the boundary line of the north-east of Bootle, and then along the county line, which is also the northern district boundary line of the Kendal District, to Harrop Pike, where the line leaves this combined boundary line : the mean height of this central portion amounts to 2,323 ft., and — 3. The Eastern Portion, from Harrop Pike to Wasdale Pike, over the Shap Fells to the north of that on the Kendal boundary. This, the shortest division, has a mean height of 1,878 feet. The mean height of the three divisions amounting to 2,244 feet, which exceeds that of two Eiffel Towers piled one on the other (1,968 feet), by 276 feet. This tower all of my readers have heard of and many have seen, is 984 feet in height, and proves a good unit for comparison. Curiously enough, whilst using this structure to give an idea of this great Lake Wall, I am reminded that the volcanic materials of lava and ash, of which it is composed, have been said to present all the characteristics of the streams which flowed from the extinct volcanoes of the Eifel. For the use of those who may visit this grand and interest- ing country, lists of the heights described will be given at the end of the work, and other details connected with physical 62 The Geographical Distrihition of Diseases. features which cannot vConvenieDtly be given here or else- where. We may now turn our attention to the boundaries of the English Lake District. The English LaJce District; its Boundaries and Registration Districts. The English Lake District is comprehended within the common boundary of the seven Registration Districts ; four in Cumberland, namely, Bootle, Whitehaven, Gochermouth, and Penrith; two in "Westmorland, West Ward and Kendal; and one in Lancashire, JJherston. These seven districts roughly radiate from a circular area, the centre of which is on Cold- barrow Fell to the south of Blea Tarn at a point in the coloured maps corresponding to the top of the left-hand limb of the letter H in cockeemouth. From the extreme south-west corner of the Penritlb district, where the county boundary between Cumberland and Westmorland turns suddenly at right angles to the south, (at Stybarrow Dodd, 2,756 feet), and passes through the two r's in the word Thirlmere, draw a straight line to the north-east boundary of Bootle, which is part of the great central water-parting at the point where it divides the sources of the Long-strath Beck, one of the affluents of Derwentwater, on the north, from Lingmell Beck, the affluent of Wast Water on the south, seen also in the north-east of Bootle district. The sources of these two rivers which are well seen, although not named, on the maps, have between them Grreat End (2,984 feet), which forms part of the great central water-parting. The distance be- tween the north-east and south-west points is 9^ miles the length of the radius of a circle drawn around the centre of this line would therefore be 4f miles and found as described on Coldbarrow Fell. Within this circle lie parts of six out of the seven districts, the centre being 4^ The English Lake District — Its Boundaries, etc. 6; miles from Penrith and Booth respectively ; 3-| from West Ward ; 2 miles from Kendal district ; 4|- from Whitehaven ; and 6^ miles from Ulverston, which is only just outside the ring, being separated from the Cumberland and Westmor- land districts by Kendal and Bootle. The disposition of these districts around the described centre has its origin evidently in the configuration of the land, which, as will be further shown, has given the direction to the courses of the rivers and the lakes they feed. The Inland Boundary Line of the Lake District is shaded in the map, and is seen to separate Gochermouth from Wigton; Penrith from Wigton, Carlisle, Brampton. (Haltwhistle in Northumberland), Alston and Bast Ward; West Ward horn East Ward ; and Kendal from East Ward (Jedburgh in the West Riding of Yorkshire and Lancaster). TJie Coastal Boundary Line is made up of the north-west boundaries of Cocherinoidh and Whitehaven, washed by the Solway Eirth ; the south-west coast of Whitehaven, Bootle, Ulverston, overlooking the Irish Sea ; and lastly the southern coast of Ulverston and the south-western opening of the mouth of the Ken, in the Kendal district, which are influenced by Morecambe Bay and its tidal peculiarities. In the above description all the Cumberland and West- morland districts have been named, except Longtown ; this will be included with the rest when discussing the Cumber- land districts outside the inland boundary line. The Hydrography of the Area. A knowledge of the river systems of a country is the necessary key to a knowledge of its aspects, the most im- portant factor in its local climates; this step necessarily leads to the study of land configuration, so that from hydro- graphy we are naturally and almost imperceptibly led to include the physical geography and then the geology of the area under consideration. 64 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Every river course that carries its vraters to the sea by a single outfall may be considered an independent river; and the area from which it gathers its waters is known as its catchment-hasin, which is separated from neighbouring catch- ment-basins by its rim, or ivater-partinrj, that is, the line of highest ground around the river's gathering-ground. The main water-parting of an island or a continent, such as Great Britain or Europe, is known as its back-bone. The back-bone of Great Britain extends from Duncansby Head on the ex- treme north-east of Scotland to the extreme south-west at the Land's End, Cornwall. This main loater-'parting separates the river systems on the east side of England from those of the west, the former emptying themselves into the North Sea, which now fills up what has been termed above the Great Thames Valley during the continental period when these eastern rivers were so many tributaries to the great river of that age ; the latter discharging their waters into the Atlantic Ocean, Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel, as tributaries to the river of the Great Seine Yalley, now covered by the English Channel. A most important part of this main water-parting or bach-bone forms, as has been explained in the last chapter, the natural inland boundary line of our a,rea, and will pre- sently claim attention as an important factor in the climate of this region. From the moment that my investigations, in 1868, led me to the discovery that those subject to pulmonary tubercle were intolerant of forcible air-currents, especially when in- tensified as draughts by the funnel-like configuration of the mouths of some river-valleys, I have never despised study- ing the smallest catchment basin ; for the smallest, equally with the largest, tells us much of the aspects, and their direction found within the boundaries of their water-partings, and whether they are exposed to the full force of the winds which the consumption map has proved to be so fatal to those suffering from tubercle in the lungs. Hydrography — Rivers and Lakes. 65 The Rivers falling into the Sea at the Coastal Boundary from the North to the South : — (1) T]ib SohcaT/ Firth, which receives the waters of the rivers 8arh, Esk, and Eden, must be considered as the mouth of the last river, to which the others are tributary. The suc- ceeding rivers, however, are independent, these are (2) the rivers Wampool, and (3) Waver, which at low tide are seen to unite in the broad sands of Morecambe to the south of the mouth of the Eden; (4) the Ellen, falling into the sea at Maryport ; (5) the Derwent, which is the eflBuent of many lakes, Thirlemere, Derwent Water, Bassenthwaite Water, Buttermere, Crummock and Lowes Waters, and carries their waters to the sea, into which it falls at Workington, after passing the town of Oockermouth ; (6) the Ehen, the effluent of Bnnerdale Water, which, after running along the coast in a southerly direction, joins (7) the Galder and the New Mill Beck on the foreshore, a little to the south of Sellafield station on the Whitehaven and Furness Junction Railway. The coast line is then broken by another triune river mouth, (8) the Esk, which receives near the foreshore, (9) the Irt that drains Wast Water, and (10) the effluent of Burnmoor Tarn, the Mite; the next in succession are (11) Annaside Beck, on which Bootle stands, (12) the Buddon, (13) Goniston Water, (14) the Leven, which drains Windermere Lake, and lastly (15) the Kent, on which Kendal is built. Such is the bare list of the rivers found in the area; it will now be fitting to see what relations they bear to the different climate and disease factors in each of the districts. Of these the most important are the great water-partings that form the natural inland and transverse boundaries of the greater portion of the area. Inland Waters, the Lakes. — Omitting the Tarns and some other very elevated collections of water on the flanks of the mountains, there are sixteen Lakes, which must be studied in the district in connection with its local climates and diseases. 66 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Height above the 8ea.—0i these sixteen masses of water there are three havins: their surfaces over 600 ft. above sea level ; two between 400 and 500 ft. ; three between 300 and 400 ft., five being 200 ft. and 300 ft., and three between 100 ft. and 200 ft.; the average height being 326 ft.; the highest being Hawes Water, 694 ft., and the lowest Windermere, 134 ft.^ LaJce Areas. — If we take these sixteen lakes, including Windermere, Esthwaite, Coniston, Wast Water, Ennerdale, Crummock Water, Buttermere, Lowes Water, Thirlemere, Derwent Water, Bassenthwaite, UUs water, Brothers Water, Hawes Water, Eydal Water, and Grasmere, and ascertain the superficial area of each, we shall find that the aggregate amount of water expanse equals 21 square miles and 117 statute acres. A very important water surface, even when split up into detached masses. These areas of lake-water are shared by 28 out of the 235 parishes or townships which consti- tute the Lake District. Lake Parishes. — These 28 lake-parishes (parts of which are washed by the lake waters, and on whose shores a consider- able section of the population live) are important therefore, and the following facts relating to them should be known. In the first place, eight per cent. (8'08) of the lake popula- tion occupy these 28 parishes, out of which in 1871 there were 9,194 females, or 8"76 per cent, of the whole female population. The numbers being as follows : — Population of the seven lake districts, 1871 : males 105,730, females 105,014, total 210,744; population of the 28 lake parishes : males 7,841, females 9,194, total 17,035. The females are distributed among the seven lake districts as follows — in the 2 lake-parishes of Penrith, 735 females ; in the 11 of Cockermouth, 3,529 ; in the 2 of Whitehaven, 399 ; in the 1 of Bootle, 167; in the 5 of West Ward, 1,478; in the 4 of Kendal, 1,702; and in the 3 of Ulverston, 1,184; total 9,194. 1 See description of " The Contour Map " (chap. vi.). Hydrography — Rivers and Lakes. 67 This section of the population may be said to Hve under the immediate influence of the twenty-one square miles of water surface ; a climatic factor that must have great in- fluence on the health of those evidently within its power — and whether such a body of water be full of life or full of death is a subject of grave importance. Whilst this lake-water area is fresh on our minds, let me draw attention to the vast difference that obtains between free and imprisoned waters, as the former are well and perfectly represented in the English Lake Districts; where waterfalls, cascades, tor- rential rivulets abound, and, as they dash over the precipitous rocks and along their boulder-laden courses, are thrown into spray-form high into the pure mountain air, which they en- tangle in their snow-white meshes, and rush off with to the lakes below, to promote health and vigour in every being they contain, belonging either to vegetable or animal life — such is the function of these free, unfettered waters ; and we all know how that function is performed, and, whilst contem- plating the mode in which it is so beneficently and so vigorously fulfilled, cannot help recalling to our minds those simple rhyming lines of the poet Southey, who, with feeling worthy of an observant man, in language simple enough for his child, described how these free waters went about their work at the foot of Lodore. " Here it comes sparkling, and there it lies darkling ; now smoking and frothing. — The cata- ract strong, then plunges along, shaking and raging, as if a a war waging — showering and springing, flying and flinging — and glittering and flittering, and gathering and feathering, and whitening and brightening." Let us now transport ourselves from the scene where free waters in the exuberance of their liberty are carrying out the beneficent dictates of nature, where they are the ministers of health and vigour, to some low-lying lands afar off", where the configuration of the country has been so moulded as to render it impossible for these high functions of water to be fulfilled 68 The Geographical DistrihUion of Diseases. — where, in fact, the alluvial and other clayey flats of the low-lying land through which sluggish rivers wend their way from their sources to the sea, are so fashioned as to convert them into traps or prisons, ready to seize upon the errant waters of a flood, should they be obstructed in their course by over-crowding between the river's banks, and thus made to extravasate beyond them. How different is the present scene, how different the future effects ! The imprisoned waters, even at first, are seen to have brought with them, not health and vigour, but death and destruction in all their varied forms, the foul washings from cultivated land, manured with every kind of filth, the excre- ment of man and the lower animals that surround him, dead and dying vegetable matter ; the sewage from towns and villages, and the out-casts of factories ; and lastly the newly dead trees and herbs that have been overwhelmed by the extravasated flood. What the future ? For days, perhaps weeks, the stagnant and imprisoned waters lie upon the surface of what were a short time since luxuriant meadows, bright in their green garment of grass, calm and still it is true, but not inert ; their function is not to bring health and vigour to the herb that lies beneath them, but death and corruption. The once live-grass and its associated herbs when drowned, die and decay ; their decay is accompanied by the extrication of foul gases which pollute the air, and acids that sour the soil, creating obnoxious local climates that be- tray their existence on the map of the medical geographer, and give evidence of their deadly work wherever his dark blue signs, denoting excessive mortality from certain causes, are imprinted. This sketch is far from being overdrawn, for we are as yet only on the threshold of an investigation that will prove rich in results 'if only followed up with well-directed patience and labour. There is a wide range between the live-waters of the moun- Hydrography — Rivers and Lakes. 69 tain cascade, the flood-preventing lake, and the dead-waters of the flood of the plain ; but its entire width must be travelled over if we would learn how to profit by its teachings. CHAPTER V. SECTION I. The Registration Districts of Cumberland, Westmorland, and the Lake District— Their Number, Names, and Boundaries— Hydrography- Rivers and Lakes— Table of Rivers' Length— Area of Catchment Basins — Sources — The Relation of Rivers to the Registration Districts —Longtown, Sark, Esk, Liddel, Lines— Wigton, Wampool, Waver— Gochermouth, Ellen, Derwent — Whitehaven, Ehen, Calder — Booth, Irt, Mite, Esk, Buckbarrow-Beck — Duddon — Ulverston, Coniston Water and Leven — Kendal, Kent, Lune — Hast Wa/rcl, Eden and Jjune— West Ward, Lowther and Eamont — Penrith, Eden, Petterill — Brampton, Irthing — Carlisle, Eden, Petterill, Calder — Alston, The South Tyne — Rivers and Inland Ventilation — Tidal Wave — Catchment Basins — Gravitation of Water and the Slope of the Land — Aspect — Hippocrates — How a River- valley should be studied — Its Trend or Axis — The Aspects of its Sides— The Eden— The Direction of its Axis— The Aspects of the Sides of its Valley — Prevailing Winds — Their Relations to the Eden Valley — Summary of the Courses of the Rivers in each District. SECTION II. The Lakes in the Cumbrian Area. Divided into four Areas . — I. The North- Western — Bnnerdale Water — Buttermere — Crummock Water — Lowes Water — Derwent Water — Bassenthwaite Water — Thirlmere — Their Affluents and Tarns — II. The North- Eastern — Ulles Water — Hawes Water — Their Affluents and Tarns — III. The South- Eastern — Kentmere — Windermere — The Affluents, Lakes, and Tarns of the latter, viz : of Grasmere, Rydal Water, Elter Water, Esthwaite Water, etc. — IV. The South- Western — Coniston Water — Burnmoor Tarn — Eskdale — Wast Water. THE Registration Districts of the Area — Number. Cum- berland (40) ^ contains nine registration districts : Alston 1 The figures within parentheses (40) represent the registration numbers of the counties and districts for the period 1851-70 ; since then some slight alterations have been made. 70 The Registration Districts of the A rea. 7 1 (564), Penrith (565), Brampton (566V Longtoion (567), Carlisle (568), Wigton (569), Gochery^Mith (570), Whitehaven (571), and Bootle (572), whicli ar,e divided into twenty-eight sub- districts, at present not available for the medical geo- graphy of the diseases under discussion, although they are for births, deaths from all causes, and diseases termed zymotic to a certain extent. Dr. William Farr expressed to me a hope that, at some future day, these sub-districts would take the place of the districts in the supplements, and thus enable the medical geographer to localize the occurrence of disease among males and females separately more directly than is possible by means of the larger unit, Westmorland (41) contains three registration districts : East Ward (573), West Ward (574), and Kendal (575), which are further divided into ten sub-districts : Lancashire (34), although it is divided into twenty-sis registration districts, only one Ulverston (486) is included in the area under dis- cussion, in consequence of its forming a part of the Lake District, Why Ulverston is not included in the county of Cumberland is as difficult to answer as, why Alston is. Ulverston is divided into six sub-districts ; Barroio-in-Furness is now made a separate district. Within, therefore, the Cumhrian Area (by which term that part of North- Western England including the counties of Cumberland, Westmor- land, and the English Lake District, will hereafter be de- scribed), there are thirteen Registration Districts, and forty- four sub-districts ; the former will, however, only be used in this work for the reasons already given. Boundaries. It will be unnecessary to give a written description of the boundaries of the thirteen registration districts, as the reader has an opportunity of studying their relations to each other by means of the several maps, in which they are all distinctly defined. 72 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Sydvograjpliy. — Rivers and Lakes, If the reader will consult " The Plan of the Catchment Basins of the Rivers of England and Wales," that accom- panies the Report on the Salmon Tisheries in England and Wales, published at the Ordnance Survey OflSce under the direction of Captain A. de C. Scott, R.E., Colonel Sir Henry James, R.E., F.R.S., etc., February, 1861, on a scale of ten statute miles to the inch, he will find that our Cumbrian area is divided into eighteen catchment basins, the rivers of which fall into the Irish Channel, and that it shares the upper parts of three others that have an opposite course into the North Sea. The names, length, area, and sources of each of the former rivers are appended in the following table : — Length Names of Rivers and Tributaries. 16. EsK Line and White Line Liddel 16. Sark 17. Wampool ... Wize 18. Waver 19. Ellen ... 20. Derwent Greta 21. Ehen 111 Miles. 8i 24i lOf 18 15f 20f 35i 151 Area of Catcliment Basins in sq. m. ... 143 ... Sources and Remarks. From Scotch to the sea. Dyke 62 48 54 268 59 From Scotch Dyke to the sea. Source near Pastures to the sea near Anguton. Source near Brockle- bank Fell to the sea. Source near Caldbeck Fells to the sea. From Borrowdale Fells to the sea. From Ennerdale Water to the sea. Hydrography — Rivers. 73 Names of Rivers Length Area of Sources and in Catchment and Tribntai'ies. Miles. Basins in sq. m. Remarks. 22. Calder ,. 8f ... 23 ... Source at Blakeley to the sea. 23. Irt .. 161 ... 48 ... From Haycock to Mite River at Ravenglass. 24. Mite .. 8f 10 ... FromScreestothesea at Eavenglass. 25. BsK .. m ... 43 ... From Bsk Horse to the sea at RaveD- glass. 26. BUCKBAE- 6 ... 16 ... Source at Great fiow Beck Paddy Crag to the sea. 27. DUDDON .. 27i ... 117 ... Soui'ce at Three- shire Stone to the sea. 28. CONISTON .. m ... 36 ... From head of Lake Water to the sea. 29. Leven .. 61 ... 123 ... From Windermere Lake to the sea. 30. Kent .. 281 ... 196 ... From KidsleyPike to Holm Island. Betlia .. 161 Mint .. Hi Winster .. ni Sprint .. 10 31. Eden .. 701 ... 916 ... From Eden Head to the Solway Firth. Irthing .. 36 Calder .. 26i Petierill .. 251 Eamont .. m 74 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. The South Tyne drains the district of Alston, where it has its source ; it then joins the North Tyne, forming The Tyne, which falls into " The Narrows " at N. Shields. The Lune, after arising at Lune Head, passes through the south-east corner of Kendal district and thence into More- cambe Bay. Tlie Relation of the Bivers to the Registration Districts. Taking the rivers in the order observed in the table above, it will be found that each of the districts is drained by one or more of the rivers contained in the list. 15. The BsK enters Longtown at its N.W. boundary, where it joins the Liddel (not shown in the District Map), which forms the boundary between Cumberland and Scotland ; and at the S-W. boundary of the district is joined by the rivers Line and White Line, which take a S.W. course to the Solway Firth from the extreme N.B. boundary. 16. The Saek is a small border river rising in Scotland, and separates Longtoivn from that part of Great Britain. 17. The Wampool rises in Wigton, and takes a N.W. course to the Solway Firth. 18. The Waver also rises within Wigton, and falls into the same estuary as the Wampool, taking an almost parallel course to that river. 19. The Ellen rises above the lakelet Ouer Water in Wigton, takes a course at first in a N.W, direction, after which it crosses the northern boundary of Gochermouth in a S.W. direction, and falls into the sea at Maryport. 20. The Derwent is, however, the river of Gochermouth, over which it ramifies in all directions. One of its four principal tributaries, the Greta, rises in Penrith district and joins the main stream near Keswick, where it receives the effluent of Derwent Water, after the effluent of Midmere has added to its waters at the boundary line between Cockermouth and Penrith. From Keswick it proceeds to Bassenthwaite Hydrography — Rivers and Registration Districts. 75 "Water, in a N.W. direction, and as the effluent of this lake it moves round in a S.W. direction, receiving near the town of Cockermouth the effluent of the BitUermere and Grum- moch Waters, after which it pursues a S.W. course to Work- ington, where it falls into the sea. 21. The Bhest, not named in the map, but easily traced as effluent of Ennerdale Water, is the river of the Whitehaven District ; its source, called the Liza, takes its rise on the northern side of the great transverse ridge, and, after supply- ing the lake, its waters emerge as its effluent Ehen, which moves round from its original N.W. course to the south around the west end of the great transverse ridge, and enters the sea near Sellafield station. 22. The Caldbe is another river of the Whitehaven district, which, after rising from the south side of the transverse ridge, near the Iron Crag and Caw Fell, proceeds in a S.W. direction to the sea, which it enters a short distance to the south of Sellafield station. It is not marked on the map. 23. The Irt is the effluent of the Wast Water, which is supplied by its sources from Haycock and other heights. As effluent, it takes a circuitous course in a S.W. direction, eventually falling into the triple estuary at Ravenglass, which receives the rivers Mite and Esh. It belongs to Bootle as well as the two following. 24. The Mite traverses Bootle in a S.W. direction after rising from the Screes, ultimately falling into the triple estuary at Ravenglass, between the Esh and the Irt. 25. The BsE, which, like the Mite, is omitted in the District Map, rises on the flanks of Scafell Pike and courses through Esk Dale in a S.W. direction, which it continues until it reaches the most southerly of the river mouths forming the triune estuary at Ravenglass. All these three rivers drain Bootle District, which, however, enjoys part of another river, the Duddon. 26. Buckbaerow-Beck, a small stream having its source 76 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. at G-reat Paddy Crag, follows a similar S.W. course through Bootle to the sea. 27. The DuDDON, which has its source at the ' Three-shire Stone to the north of Bootle, takes its course in an almost S. direction to its large estuary, during which it forms the boun- dary between Bootle and the adjoining district of Ulverston (Lancashire). Its tributaries have their sources, on its right bank from Bootle, and on its left from TJlverston. 28. CoNisTON Water belongs entirely to Ulverston; is almost due S. in its direction, drains the lake of the same name, and finally empties its waters into the sea at the estuary of the river Leven. 29. The Leven, the effluent of the Windermere, or Win- andermere Lake is essentially an Ulverston river. Although its sources, which act as effluents to Gri'asmere, Rydal, and Biter Waters, take their rise in the north-western portion of the Kendal District. In Ulverston the general direction of its course is S. and S.W. ; in Kendal, however, the sources have a S.E. trend. It falls into Morecambe Bay. 30. The Kent, or Ken, is devoted to the Kendal District. Its main valley, extending from Kidsley Pike to Holm Island, in Morecambe Bay. In its upper part, between Kentmere and Kendal, it runs rather in a S.E. direction ; but after pass- ing that town it curves round to the S.W., and falls into Morecambe Bay thi'ough a wide estuary. 31. The Eden is the most important river of the Cumbrian area, for its main stream and tributaries drain five out of the thirteen districts, namely. East Ward, West Ward, Penrith, Brampton, and Carlisle. It rises in the S.E. corner of East Ward, at Bdenhead, on the N.W. side of the water-parting from which the river Ure springs on the S.E. Its valley from this point has a N.W. course, which it continues as the boundary-line between West and East Ward. It then continues in the same direction as the boundary between West Ward and Penrith, and at the Hydrography — Rivers and Registration Districts. 77 point, where it ceases to be so, it receives its efl9.uent tribu- tary, tte river Eamont, after it has carried off the waters from Ulles Water and Hatoes Water. The main direction of its tributary, however, is at right angles to the Eden. After the junction of the Eamont, the Eden crosses Penrith still in a N.W. direction, until it reaches the northern boundary of this district. It may be remarked that one of its tributaries, the Petterill, after rising within the same district, takes a similar and almost parallel course to the boundary between Penrith and Carlisle, in the latter of which it joins the main stream a short distance to the east of the city of Carlisle. After leaving Penrith the Eden pursues still its N.W. direc- tion, whilst acting as the boundary between Brampton and Carlisle; but in ceasing to do so it curves round to the N., until the river Irthing joins it, after draining Brampton, which it runs through in a S.W. direction from its source in North- umberland to the Eden. After receiving the river Irthing, the Eden makes a sharp turn to the W., and then pursues a circuitous route through the N.B. half of Carlisle in a N.W. direction, and after receiving the Petterill and Caldew, near the city, falls into the upper part of the Solivay Firth. The Caldew rises near the boundary-line dividing Penrith and Wigton, and takes a N. course through Carlisle to the Eden. The South Tyne, which drains Alston, takes a N. by "W. course through it, after rising in this district. It does not properly belong to the Cumbrian area. The LuNE, which rises at Lunehead, in Bast Ward, pursues a S. direction whilst crossing the S.B. corner of the Kendal district. Having drawn the reader's attention to the facilities af- forded by the river courses of G-reat Britain to the immigrat- ing fauna of pre-historic times, and having shown how these same valleys enable the sea winds to penetrate into the in- 78 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. terior of the land, ventilating and purging it of stagnant and malarious residual air, lie will be prepared to find that our rivers play an important part in Medical Geography, and that it is necessary to enter into detail with regard to the direc- tion o£ their courses ; for their efficacy as ventilators depends mainly on the direction of their trend. Our rivers not only give, in some instances, free access to the prevailing winds, but also to the tidal wave, with its accompanying freshening sea breeze, and uplifting of the lower strata of air twice daily at least. The catchment basins of the rivers of the Cumbrian area, as seen on the map referred to, remind us of the facets cut by the lapidary on a stone ; in fact, the resemblance increases as we think it out. In the first place, those catchment basins are the results of nature's graving tools, — rain, snow, ice, water, — by which she accomplishes sub-aerial denudation upon the crust of the earth, which, as we all know, presents a very varied form ; in fact, it would be difficult to find two places exactly alike in either structure or form. However, free water always finds out the course of least resistance and follows it, indicating at once the slope or asigeci of the surface on which it operates. The courses of the rivers therefore give us the clue to the aspects of a I'egion, considered so necessary in advising people as to where they should or should not reside. Hippocrates dwelt particularly upon the value of a knowledge of aspects, and laid down rules for finding them. A river valley must always be studied at least from three points of view. (1) The direction of its trend or axis ; and when this is ascertained, then the question arises, Can the winds from the sea find their way up through it easily? or Do they blow over it in consequence of its being at right angles to their course ? The rivers in the Cumbrian area present examples of all kinds of land ventilators from the worst to the best, and will presently be used to illustrate this subject. (2) The aspects of the sides of the valley, which are neces- Hydrography — Aspects and River Valleys. 79 sarily at right angles to the course of the river, and opposite each other, not only in position, but in character of climate. (3) The structure of the bed of the river and that of the valley which it drains. This will be considered under " Geology " (chap. vii,). As the river valleys will necessarily be dealt with in the subsequent part of this work, in which the physical geography and geology of the Cumbrian area are dealt with, it will be only necessary to summarize the facts which have been given in this chapter, as to the actual direction of the water-courses named, and their relation to the sea and land winds. The Eden. If we draw a line from the source of this river, from the S.E. corner of Bast Ward to the point where it falls into the Solway Firth, and then find the centre of the line, which will be seen to be about the crook in the Eamont between the junction of the Hawes "Water effluent and that of the Eamont itself with the Eden, and place the centre of a card having a mariner's compass upon it (a piece of tracing linen so marked is very convenient for this purpose), it will be ascertained that the mean course of this river is from S.E. by S. to N-W. by N., and that the aspects of the slopes of the right and left sides of the valley are respectively S.W. by W- and N.B. by E.; that is to say, the slopes on the N.E. by E, side of the line, or right bank of the river, will look towards the S.W. by W. part of the sky ; and that the S.W. by W. side of the line, or left bank of the river, will look towards the N.E. by E. part of the sky. In other words, the left bank and its slopes will catch the rays of the rising summer sun, when they appear above the Pennine chain, and the right bank and its slopes the rays of the setting winter sun, whilst they remain above the sky-line of the central mountain-mass ; a matter to be well considered both by the medical practi- tioner and the agriculturist. What is here meant by the valley-side having a certain aspect, such as S.W. by W., or IST.E. by B., is that, taking it So The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. as a whole, the majority of its square miles or acres would enjoy such aspects ; this will be better understood when we come to consider the same subject in the description of the " Contour Map." If we look at any valley-side on a good map, such as the one-inch Ordnance, we cannot but notice the almost innumer- able furrows that the minor water-courses have made down the flanks of the heights that form it ; now each of these, even the smallest, will present on a small scale all the features of the most considerable river. But it will be noticed that, however diverse may be the direction of these tributary streams, they are all influenced by the main slope. Again, supposing some of the acres on a valley-side have an aspect contrary to the main one, as many will be found to have in any large area, we must not forget that each acre either enjoys the advantages of a good general aspect or suffers from the disadvantages of a bad one. As a rule, the S.W. and N.E. winds are the prevaiHng winds in Great Britain (the approximate prevalence of each wind for England and Scotland will be given in Chapter IX.) ; such winds have the axes of their currents nearly at figlit angles to the axis or trend of the Eiver Eden. These winds, therefore, would blow over its valley, and not wp through it, nor down through it, ventilating and purging it of its residual air. The N.W. wind would, however, fulfil this function, and when a strong and pretty prevalent wind, would do so effectually. But it must be remembered that it does not come straight from the sea, as it has to sweep over a considerable portion of Scotland before it crosses the Solway Firth, and enters the mouth of the E-den. The same may be said of its antagonist the S.E. ; but the latter, before entering the valley of the Eden, has to break its force against that portion of the Pennine chain forming the inland boundary, which separates the source of the Eden from that of the Ure. Still, if it descend into the valley Hydrography. — Rivers, Valleys, and Winds. 8i and sweep along it to the N.W., it would do much, towards ventilating it. It is, however, not a sea- wind ; for, before reaching the boundary of the Cumbrian area, it must travel over a wide expanse of England. We may therefore sum up ■as follows : (1) The sides of the valley of the Eden enjoy aspects on which the rays of the summer sun fall at its rising and those of the winter sun at its setting, and that therefore each side in its turn would receive a certain amount of the sun's morning, noon, and afternoon rays during the summer. {2) That the Eden valley is shut out from the direct influ- ence of the sea winds, but that it affords free access to the N.W. and at times S.E. winds, which partially ventilate it ■during their prevalence. If we now briefly review the courses of the rivers of the other districts, we shall obtain a good general idea of the means by which the atmospheric currents obtain access to the interior of the Cumbrian area, and from what points of the ■compass they are derived, taking the districts in their regis- tration order : — Alston, an elevated district on the Eastern watershed of England, is fully exposed, and its main valley, that of the ;South Tyne, has a N.N.W. direction ; and open therefore to a land wind. Penrith has already been discussed (p. 17). Brampton is drained by a tributary of the Eden — the Irthing — the valley of which takes a "W.S.W. direction to the main river, and offers free access to winds from that quarter. Longtoiun, the valley of the river Lijie, has a direction nearly S.W. from the N.E. corner of the district; the wind that ventilates it is a sea-wind, and approaches it straight from the Solway Firth. Carlisle was included in the Eden Valley (p. 77). Wigton. The rivers Wampool and Waver open on the Sol- way Firth, after a N.W. course, and give free access to winds from this quarter, which are, however, more land than sea G 82 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. currents, as they pass over a considerable portion o£ Scot- land. Cochermotith. The Ellen offers every facility to the sea winds from the S.W., and so does the Derivent in the latter part of its course ; but at the commencement of its career it has a N. course ; whilst in its middle portion, its valley in which Bassenthwaite Water lies, the prevailing S.W. winds would blow over it. The southern and higher portions of the Berwent, which act as affluents and effluents to Derwent Water have their courses from S. to N., and are shut out from the good influence of the sea winds altogether. Whitehaven. It will be seen that the effluent of Ennerdale- Water, the river Ehen, in the last part of its course, has a S. direction, and open to the full force of the sea winds, but that the valley, in which the lake and its affluent (Liza) lie^ are sheltered from these winds by the western portion of the great transverse ridge. Booth has all its river valleys more or less lying towards- the S.W., and giving the freest access to the sea winds from that quarter. Ulverston. The river and lake valleys in this district have- a more or less S. direction; and the funnel-shaped estuary into which they empty their waters promotes the free ingress- of the sea winds. Kendal. The river Kent, which is the principal river of this district, has first a S.E., then a S., and lastly a S.W. course, which enables it to offer every facihty to the S.W.. sea winds that approach it from Morecambe Bay. Such are the main facts connected with the river-system of the Cumbrian area, and when once mastered the reader will have little difficulty in following the author in his description, of the disease-distribution. I shall conclude this chapter with a short account of The Lakes in their relation to the Registra- tion Districts, some of the more important of which have- already been given in dealing with the river-system. Hydrography. — Lakes. 83 Section 1 1. The Lahes of the Cumbrian Area. The Lake District is defined on tlie maps by a broad shaded line around the inland boundaries oE Cockermouth, Penrith, "West Ward, and Kendal ; and between the points where this line abuts upon the Solway Pirth and Morecambe Bay, the sea forms its boundary. The Lakes, and the rivers which feed them, owe their exist- ence to the Great Transverse Ridge, which has already been referred to, and which will again be noticed in the chapter on Physical Geography, and in the description of the " Contour Map." Let the reader take the 3° W. Long, line where it crosses the River Caldew to the left bank of the estuary of the River Leven, and then at nearly right angles draw a line along the course described at p. 59, and he will find the Lake District divided into four nearly equal parts :, two to the north of the Transverse Ridge, and two to the south, which may be described as (1) The North-Western ; (2) the North-Eastern ; (3) the South-Eastern ; and (4) the South-Western. We will begin with the Lakes to the north of the Great Trans- verse Ridge, and give the names oE one or more of the sources of their affluents, and those of the heights forming the water-parting nearest their sources : the height above sea-level, the area, and depth of each lake will be given, when ascertainable, from the Ordnance Survey maps on a scale of one inch to a statute mile, or from other reliable sources. The Northern Lakes. (1) The North-Western Area. Ennerdale Water. This lake lies in the Whiteliaven Dis- trict, at a height of 369 ft. above the sea ; lias an extreme length of 2^ miles, breadth f mile, and a maximum depth of 80 feet. 84 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. The river Li-M is its principal affluent, wliicli rises npar the summits of the north-western flank of Brandreth (2,344 ft.), Qreeii Gahle (2,600 ft.^), and Kirk Fell (2,631 ft.), and lies in a deep valley, the lofty sides of which separate it from Butter- mere and Grummoch Water on the north, and Wast Water on the south. It has a W.N.W. direction. Its effluent, the river Elien, has been described (p. 75). The course of the valley of the effluent, Wien, can only affect the death-rates in the Whitehaven District, as above Ennerdale Mill there are few people living. Gleator and Egremont are the largest towns on this river, after it has received the river Keekle. Buttermere and Grummoch Water, now two masses of water, formed at one time a single lake '^ five or six miles in length. Buttermere has an extreme length, of IJ miles, and of breadth \ mile, whilst Crummock Water is 3 miles long and f mile broad. They vary too in depth. Buttermere has a depth of 93 feet, whilst the lower lake, Crummock, has one of 132 ; Buttermere is 331 feet, and Crummock Water 821 feet above the level of the sea. The affluents of these two lakes are to be found in that wild but lovely region characterized by Fleetwith Pike (2,126 ft.), Honiston Crag, Grey Knotts (2,287 feet). Lowes Water. As this lake empties itself into the Crum- mock Water, it will be well to include it in this group, although its source of water has nothing in common with the other members. It has a small unnamed affluent ; a length of 1 mile, and breadth, of -^ mile ; a depth of 60 feet, and a height of 429 feet above sea level. The effluent of these three lakes is a tributary of the Derwent, the GocJcer, the 1 The figures represent the height of the part of the Transverse Ridge named. 2 Mr. Ward says that of lakes filled up in whole or in part, mention may be made of Buttermere, which originally extended into Warnscull Bottom on the south, and was continuous with Crummock on the north. Hydrography. — The Northern Lakes. 85 course of wliicli is north-westerly. The whole of the valley from White Hall, Buttermere, to Cockermouth, is well populated ; its direction is W.N.W. After its junction with the Derwent, the latter bends in a S.W directiou, passing through a somewhat thickly-populated valley, and entering the sea to the north of Workington, which would be in- fluenced by its sea inlet. The Buttermere, Crummock Water and Lowes Water may be termed the Cocker group of the Derwent Lakes ; we now come to the Middle or Derwent Group, consisting of Derwent Water and Bassentlituaite. Deriuent Water has a length of 3 miles, a breadth of IJ miles, and a depth of 72 feet ; it lies at a height of 238 feet above sea level. Its affluent is the Dertoent River itself, which is singularly associated in its course with tarns and lakes. The several sources of this river are to be seen flowing from the Borrowdale Fells into Borrowdale : thus the main source may be traced from Allen Crags (2,572 ft.), through the valley at the foot of Seathwaite Fell (1,970 ft.), and Glaramara (2,560 ft.), where it is joined by the most westerly stream that has its source in Sprinkling Tarn, 1,960 feet above sea level, and then feeds Styhead Tarn (1,413 feet). Both tliese sources rise from the northern flanks of Great End (2,984 feet) near the summit, this mountain taking part in the great Trans- verse Water-parting or Ridge. Another stream, Longstrath Beck, has its source in Angle Tarn, to the north-west of Rossett Crag (2,106 ft.), and Bow Fell (2,960 ft.), another member of the Great Transverse Ridge. A third affluent of Derwent Water is the Watendlath Beck, which has its source in Coldbarrow Fell, just above Blea Tarn (1,562 ft.), the rivulet then passes through a lakelet at Watendlath (847 ft.) ; so that the affluents of Derwent Water are actu- ally in connection with five tarns before they reach Derwent Water. Borrowdale, in which three affluents lie, has a direction from S. to N., and therefore receives the winds from the latter 86 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. point after they have passed over aod had their force broken by Skiddaw (3,054 ft.). The valley is moderately populated, but the great centre is Keswick, the popiilatioa of which ■would naturally dominate that of the valley generally. JBassenthumite, which is connected with the lake, just dis- cussed, by the River Derwent, lies at a slightly lower level than Derwent Water, being 226 feet above sea level ; it has a more north-westerly direction than the last, and is consider- ably longer, being 4| miles long and J mile broad; its extreme depth is 75 feet. The Derwent acts as its effluent at its N.W. extremity, and then takes a somewhat sudden turn to the W., under the lee of the heights which extend to the west from Skiddaw. Thirlmere belongs to the Greta branch of the Derwent. Like Derwent Water, it lies in a deep valley trending from S. to N., exposed to the northerly winds, but protected from them by the heights of Blencathra (2,847 ft.), or Saddle-Back. This lake, which has been selected for the water supply of Man- chester, is 533 feet above the sea level, has a length of 2f miles, and a breadth of ^ mile, and an extreme depth of 108 feet ; St. John's Beck acts as its effluent and empties its water into the river Greta, which it enters at right angles near Threlkeld station. The valley is moderately populated. The affluent of Thirlmere is Wyth-Burn, which rises on the north side of the transverse water-parting below the summit of Sergeant Man (2,414 ft.), after which it takes a north- easterly direction in the valley to the N.W. of that classic col, crossed by the main road to Keswick from Ambleside, near which the tumulus of Dunmail Eaise marks the spot where the last of Cumbria's kings fought for independence against the English, which he only surrendered with his life. ir. The North-Eastern Area. Ullsivater is the principal lake in this area, which is separated from the North- Western by the lofty ridge having Hydrography. — The Northern Lakes. 8y a south and north strike, and the third hio^hest mountain in the country in its midst, Helvellyn (3,118 ft.), which has Clough Head to the north (2,380 ft.), and Seat Sandal {2,415 ft.) to the south. From the eastern flank of this stupendous ridge the affluents of this beautiful lake lie, in the following order from the north, the tarns whence proceed the feeders of Ullswater : — ■ Keppelcove Tarn (1,825 ft.), and Bed Tarn (2,356 ft.), just below the summit of Helvellyn ; these empty their waters into the beck that flows down Grlenridding ; then •Grisedale Tarn (1,768 ft.), on the N.E. of 8eat Sandal, then Brothers Water (520 ft.), and lastly Hayes Water (1,383 ft.), both of which last derive their waters from Caudale Moor; five in all, the effluent streams of which at last unite at the •southern end of Ullswater and form its principal affluent, the Goldrill Beck. Ullswater is 477 feet above sea level, and at its deepest part 210 feet; its extreme length is 7^ by f miles. The river Eamont acts as its eflEluent, and empties its waters into the Eden. The whole valley, notwithstanding its somewhat tortuous course, has a mean N.E. direction. It is thinly populated. Its local climate is shared by the S."W. portion of Penrith District, and that of the N.W. of West Ward. Haioes Water belongs entirely to West Ward. Its afflu- ■ents are derived from the southern flank of Kidsty Pike (2,560 ft.), and two tarns, Blea Water (1,584 ft.), and Small Water (1,484 ft.), springing from the north of the Grreat Transverse Kidge, which separates them from the south, eastern area, and Kentmere. These waters unite into one ■stream, and fall into Hawes Water at its southern extremity. Hawes Water is 3 miles in length and ^ mile in bi^eadth. Its surface is 694 feet above sea level ; and its greatest depth is 180 feet. Its effluent, Hawes Water Beck, carries off its ■contents, and shortly after joins the River Lowther at Bamp- ton, which conveys them at last to the River Eamont. The 88 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. valley in whicli this lake lies has a direction from S,W. ta N.E., and is very thinly populated. III. The South-eastern Area. Kentmere. This little lake or reservoir lies in the vale' between Lingmell End (2,183 ft.), and 111 Bell (2,476 ft.). Its affluent rises to the south of the Transverse Ridge, in the- neighbourhood of the Roman Road. It is 973 feet above the level of the sea. Its valley is but sparsely populated. Its effluent, the River Ken, or Kent, runs through an important and well-populated area, and its local climate has much influence on the health of those who inhabit it. Windermere lies entirely in this area, and is shared by the Kendal and Ulverston Districts. Its affluents, however, for the most part are derived from the South- Western Area, as will be seen by the map ; but they will be described with the lake that they feed. As the affluents of this lake are rather complicated in their relation to the tarns and lakelets above Windermere, it will be well to describe them each separately. Troutbech is a considerable stream having its source on the southern flank of Caudale Moor, part of the Great Transverse Ridge. It enters the lake on its eastern side, near Calgarth Hall. Stocli, QUI has its source near the Screes and Kirkstone Pass. It is noted also for its, force, or waterfall, near Amble- side, which town it passes through on its way to join the Rothay river; whicb, after receiving the waters of Godale and Easdale Tarns, acts as affluent and effluent to Grasmere Lake and Bydal Water. The Bothay derives one of its sources close to Bunmail Raise, on the south side of the great water-parting. CodaJe Tarn has a level above the sea of 1,528 feet, on the flank of Thunacur Knott (2,351 ft.), Easdah Tarn (915 ft.), and Grasmere (208 ft.); the last of which is a mile in Hydrography. — The Northern Lakes. 89- length, \ mile in width, and 180 feet deep. 'Ryd.al Water is 1^ mile long and \ mile wide. Elier Water derives its supply from Stickle Tarn. Lying 1,540 feet above sea level, on the flanks of the Langdale- Pikes, its effluent, known as the Great Langdale Beck, then flows in a S.E. direction and falls into Elter Water, which is 187 feet above sea level ; and on issuing from this lakelet assumes tJie name of Brathay, and at the site of the Eoman DiCTis is joined by the river Bothay, which eventually, with its- combined waters, falls into the Windermere, south of the ancient station near Brathay Hall. Loughrigg Tarn empties its waters into the Brathay just below Elter Water. The Biver Brathay is the southern affluent of Elter Water. This river rises near the Three Shire Stone at the head of Little Langdale ; it then proceeds in an easterly direction, and supplies Little Langdale Tarn, 340 feet above sea level,- after which it pursues a circuitous course to Elter Water, at the last changing its direction almost due north. Esthwaite Water lies to the west of Windermere. It is 217 feet above sea level, 1^ miles long, by ^ mile wide, and has a maximum depth of 80 feet. Its effluent, the- Cunsey Beck, discharges its waters into Windermere between High Cunsey and Eawlinson Nab. The effluent of Windermere Lake is the Biver Leven, the course of which, combined with that of the lake, both afford- ing free access to the prevailing sea winds, must conduce greatly to the thorough ventilation of the valley in which they lie. Windermere is 10 miles long, 1 mile in breadth, has a maximum depth of 237 feet, and is 184 feet above sea level, so that its bottom is 103 feet below that datum. IV. The South- We stern Area. Goniston Water lies nearly in the centre of Ulverston District, is 147 feet above sea level, has an extreme depth of ■^o The Geographical Distrihition of Diseases. 160 feet, and has a length and breadth (at the -widest part) ■of h\ and \ miles respectively. Its affluents are characterized by tarm at their sources. Iioiv Tarn (600 ft.) near Tarn Hows drains into Yev:dale JBecJc, from Avhich it derives its principal supply of water. "This stream is derived from Tilberthwaite and Oxen Fell. It does not fall directly into the head of the lake, but on the -western side a little above GJiurch Bech, whicb has its source at High Fell, and then passes through Levers Water, 1,350 feet above sea level. It then takes a S.B. route through Ooniston village, and empties itself into the lake just below the Yewdale Bech. Goat's Water Tarn (1,350 ft.) to the S.W. of Ooniston Old Man (2,638 ft.), empties its waters into the beck that falls into Ooniston Water at Oxen House Bay, in the southern third of the lake. The effluent of "Ooniston water is the river OraJce, which falls into Morecambe Bay through the estuary of the River Leven. Seatliioaite Tarn, 1,210 feet above sea level, derives its •waters from Seathwaite Fell, and discharges tbem by Tarn Bech into the river Duddon through its left bank. Burnmoor Tarn (882 feet above sea level) lies on Eskdale Fell at the head of Eskdale, and empties its waters into the river Esk. Wast Water, the last of tbe series, derives its supply from the flanks of the Pillar, Kirk Fell, Wasdale Fell, and Ling- mell, after which last height the combined waters are named, and, as Lingmell Bech, fall in at the head of the lake ; another affluent. Nether Bech, issues from Scoat Tarn to the west of Red Pike, takes a southerly course and falls into Wast Water -on its ISr.W. side. On its S.E. side the lake is under the lee of the stupendous " Screes." This lake is 3 miles in length, i mile in breadth; has an extreme depth of 270 feet, whilst its surface is only 204 feet above the sea-level, so that its ■bottom at its greatest depth is 66 feet below it. The river Irt .acts as its effluent, and falls into the sea as described (p. 75). CHAPTER VI. The Physical GEOGEAraY op the Area. Description of the Contour Map —Contour Lines — Isotherms — Isobars — A Times Weather Chart^Contour Maps — Black Combe, Mr. Penning — The Principal Mountain Masses of the Cumbrian Area — I. The Scafell—U. The Helvellyn— 111. The Skiddaw—lV . The Blach Gombe —V. The Beivcastle—Vl. The Edenside—The Scafell— The Radiating Ridges of the Scafell Mountain Mass — 1. The Western — 2. The North- Western — 3. The Northern— 4<. The North-JS astern — 5. The South-Hastern — 6. The Southern — and 7. The South-Western — I. The Western Bidge — 2. The North- Western Bidge — 3. The Northern Bidge — 4. The North- eastern Bidge — Minor Heights to West of Windermere — Description of the View from Orrest Head — 5. The South-Eastern Bidge — 6. The SouthernBidge — 7. The South-Western Bidge — Becapiiulation — 1. Western Bidge— 2. The North- Western Bidge— 3. The Northern Bidge— 4. The North-Eastern Bidge — 5. The South-Eastern Bidge — 6. The Southern Midge — 7. The South-Western Bidge. Description of the Gontour Map. ON looking at the " Gontour Map " it will be seen to be so coloured as to represent in shades of blue and hroiun the altitudes of the several areas enclosed within certain con- tour lines; thus the areas coloured hlue are heloiv 500 feet, whilst those coloured hroivn are above that level. Afjain, each colour is represented by two shades : the darkest hlue indicat- ing the loivest levels, namely heloiv 250 feet ; and the lighter Mue, altitudes betvyeen 250 and 500 feet; on the other hand, the areas coloured hroivn are divided into those coloured light ■brown, which shade characterizes such parts of the country as have a height between 500 and 1,000 feet above the sea level; whilst the dark brown distinguishes the mountain (■masses which rise above 1,000 feet. 92 The Geographical DistribiUioti of Diseasesi Contour lines are lines of equal level used by surveyors to- show at a glance the results of their field-work, so as to- facilitate the operations of the engineer and geologist. By means of these simple lines sections of a field or of a whole country can at once be made, their gradients or slopes ascer- tained, and, what is of infinite service to the medical prac- titioner, their aspects determined. With the knowledge how to read the expressions of a series- of contour lines, the medical man is enabled, with, a good contoured map before him, to decide at once when a locality is favourably or otherwise situated for his patient, without actually examining the place itself personally. It was this important consideration that induced me to construct contour maps for the two favourite health-resorts, Brighton and Scarborough, by which medical men, without ever having been in these towns themselves, are enabled to decide at once- what aspects would be favourable and what obnoxious to the- cases they might desire to send there. Before, however,. pointing out how such maps are to be used by my professional brethren, it will be well to give a general description of the contour map before us, so as to familiarise them with the- broad details of the area in this respect. We are most of us familiar with the meteorolog-ical terms isotherm (To-oy = equal and 0ejO^)? = heat), and isobar ((Vo? = equal and /Sa/)o? = weight); the one applied to lines of equal tempera- ture, and the other to those of equal weight or pressure- (atmospheric). Contours are Lines of Equal Level. In the case of isotherms, these can be illustrated by a reference to the map under discussion; as the isothermal lines according to Dr. Alexander Buchan, M.A., F.R.S.B., for July, over this area have been inserted ; those for January being given over the geological map. Let us take the July isotherms : — At the two ends of the- Isotherms — Isobars — Contours. 9j most western crimson line will be found " 60°," which means that the mean temperature, during July, is equal to sixty •degrees, Fahrenheit, along the whole course of that line, after the corrections have been made for altitude in the actual local observations, that is, from 64° N. Lat., and Morecambe Bay to the Solway Firth, and 55° N. Lafc., during which ■course the line crosses the great Transverse Eidge of Moun- tains. The isotherm 61° is seen just crossing the extreme south-eastern part of the Kendal District ; these will be again referred to more fully in the chapter on Meteorology. Now with regard to isobars, the weather charts, published daily in The Times, afford us ample illustration of the prin- ciple on which they are constructed and of their extreme value to science. The weather-chart (see p. 94) published in to-day's issue (26th August) of the above journal affords an excellent example of isobaric teaching. A depression had been ad- vancing towards Ireland from the Atlantic since the 24th August, and The Times of the former date gives a weather- ■chart for Tuesday, 25th August, 6 p.m., in which we see the following isobaric arrangement, which to the accustomed eye tells its unmistakable tale as quickly to the meteoro- logist as a contoured map would to an engineer. To the W. and N.W. of Ireland the " depression " spoken of is represented by a fragment of a circular isobar, which shows that, after corrections for temperature and altitude have been made, the barometer stood within this circular area at 28"9 inches (remarkably low for this time of the year). Going eastward we find that the next isobaric curved line or part of a circle stretches from above the Hebrides, passes down through the centre of Scotland, crosses the Mull of Galloway and the Irish Sea to the west of the Isle of Man, enters Ireland and makes its way across its south-eastern corner to the Atlantic ; this isobar indicates a pressure of 29'1 inches, or yVths greater than within the centre of the depression. The next isobar, still further to the East, 94 The Geographical DistribiUion of Diseases. stretches from the Shetlands, across Durham and Cardigan Bay to the north of Pembroke to the Atlantic ; it has a pressure of 29"3, The fourth isobar, 29"5, crosses the "Wash and trends in a south-westerly direction through the Midlands^ and finally reaches the English Channel through Devonshire on its way to the Atlantic. The fifth isobar, 29" 7, crosses- TEE WEATEER. METEOROLOGICAL EEPORTS. Weather Chakt, Tuesday, Aug. 25, 6 p.m.* the neck of Denmark, and has a course through the Straits- of Dover, along the English Channel and across the north- west of France to the Atlantic ; and the sixth and last isobar, 29'9, extends from the east of Erance across the Bay of Biscay to the north-west of Spain ; the difference between * The Times, Wednesday, August 26tb, 1891. The Contour Map Described. 95. the first and sixtli isobar being exactly one inch, 28'9-29'9 ; therefore the chart shows a crowded array of lines (isobars),. each differing, as regards barometric pressure, to ths of an inch from the one next to it, and when this occurs the distances between the lines are lessened and the gradients are said to be " steep," the same term that the engineer uses when de- scribing an area on which the contour lines lie close together,- as over steep precipitous hills, etc. For the above " weather chart " I am indebted to the kindness and courtesy of tlie- proprietors of The Times. Every school-boy does not know what a contour line is ;, but in my opinion he should be taught, at least before leaving school, whatever his future lot in life may be. Rather than give my own definition of this useful, sign in physical geo- graphy, I will append the one given by Mr. W. Henry Penning,. r.Gr.S., a geologist in H. M. Geological Survey of England and Wales, in his excellent text book of " Field Geology,"' published by Bailliere, pp. 8-25, where he says : — Contour Maps. Some maps have marked on them certain lines, the meaning of which it is well to clearly understand, and which are called "contour lines." These lines convey at a glance, to the eye accustomed to them, the physical geography, or the- actual shape, of a part of country, its hills and valleys, its- precipices and ravines ; not merely in a sketchy or approxi- mate form, but with heights and depths taken from actual admeasurement. For a contour line runs through all the- points at which a perfectly horizontal plane at a given heiglit would intersect the surface of the ground; or, in other words^ if the land were covered with water to a certain height, the margin of the water would be exactly represented by a con- tour line drawn at the same elevation. This we can illustrate by the map before us, thus : If the sea were to rise above its ordinary level to the extenfe '96 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. -of 250 feet, then all the land in the Cumberland and Lake District coloured darh-hlue would be submerged, and the line of high-water mark for this 250 feet rise would represent the contour line for that height. If, however, the sea continued to rise until it reached 500 feet, then the land coloured light- -hlue would be submerged, and the line of high-water mark would correspond with the 500 feet contour. Again, if another rise took place of an additional 500 feet, then would all the land coloured ligJd-brown be under water, and the area instead of being continental as it is now, would be split up into a number of islands, and the high-water mark of this third rise of the sea would correspond with the 1,000 feet •contour lines, above which appear the darJc-broion iusular masses which remain above water, in consequence of the land which constitutes the mountain system of this area being above the 1,000 feet contour line. With these darh-broum masses we shall begin our description of the " Contour Map," but before doing so it will be well to add what Mr. Pennine- has further to say on contour lines. These lines, he says, are shown for every 10, 20, 50 and 100 feet, according to the scale of the map and the' degree •of accuracy required. In geological surveying they are of assistance in the drawing of boundary lines, whether of hori- zontal or inclined strata, in ascertaining heights with ac- curacy, where they run, and between them by estimation. Observed in relation to boundary lines, the contours indicate the direction, and in some measure the amount of dip of the beds, and are otherwise useful in making various calculations- The scale of the contour map that we are now discussing, being only 12 miles to the inch, is too small for displaying more contour lines than have been mven without running the risk of overcrowding and confusion. For instance, if we take the Blade Combe mountain mass to the S.W. of the area in the Bootle district, we find there are only three contour lines between the darJc-hrown, and the line of hio;h-water mark Contour Lines — River Valleys. C)j indicating 250, 500 and 1,000 feet respectively ; within, however, the same distance on the Ordnance Survey (" New series ") maps, on a scale of one mile to the inch, there are ten contour lines including the one of the 1,000 feet level, ■or one for every 100 feet. On maps having a scale of one mile to every 6 inches, it is possible to draw lines at every 25 feet and even at every 10 feet ; and on the large parochial maps on the 25-inch scale at every one or two feet rise in the level, so as to render such maps admirably adapted for sanitary purposes, as for calculating the slope •of the land for drainage and other engineering purposes, such as railways. These contour lines are of essential ser- vice in agriculture, as they aid the farmer in selecting the proper aspects for his crops ; so essential in wheat culture, as proved in my investigations on the effect of aspect on the wheat-yield of Great Britain ; the results of which I gave in two lectures, delivered in London in July, 1886.* Contours, Mr. Penning further adds, run in a V-^i^^^ shape up the valleys, in lines more or less straight on flanks and ridges, and sweep round the outline of the hills ; their variations are as numerous as the hills themselves, but these kinds of form prevail in all. It is but seldom, however, that .a valley presents a straight line, it follows rather a serpentine course ; therefore a contour, at or near its entrance, would be like a V with both its sides slightly curved in the same -direction. To this explanation of the three principal forms of contour lines it will be well to add a few remarks and illustrate theiri by the contour map before us. In the first place the sharp point of the Vj or the point where the two sides of the letter meet at an acute angle, in the case of valleys that have been * " The Effect of Aspect and Climate on the Wheat- yield in England." Reported in The Times, August 14, 1886; The Farmer and Chamber of Agriculture Journal, August 9, 1886 ; Bell's Weekly Messenger and Farmers Journal, August 23, 1886. U 98 The Geographical DistribtUion of Diseases. formed by flowing water, either in recent times or at periods more remote, always points ii'pwards towards the higher land, so that on the north side of the great Transverse Ridge the V-like contours would more or less be seen to assume the usual position of this letter when printed. Thus the rivers Wamfool (Wigton), Galdeiv (Carlisle), Petterill and Eden (Penrith), are seen to lie in loop- or V-like channels of darh- hlue, the apices of which are directed towards the high ground of the central transverse ridge of mountains, whilst their bases or broader parts open towards the lower ground y the valleys, in fact, are fimnel-shajped, the broad parts of which look towards the sea or lowest ground. If we now examine the part of the area to the south of the transverse ridge, we shall see four loop- or V^like valleys in the Kendal District, coloured light-blue, in one of which, the second from the west, the river Kent is represented ; in the others the becks have been omitted. The most western of the four, having its broad end open- ing on the north-east of Windermere Lake, is the valley of the Troutbeclc, one of the affluents of the lake ; its apes points to the high ground of the great central water-parting, (transverse ridge), where the loop is repeated in the light- broion inter-contour space, and made conspicuous by the darlc- broivn of the high ground of the 1,000 feet contour-line, where Caudale Moor (2,214) lies, into the southern side of which the source of the Troutbeclc has scooped the head of the valley, about 1^ miles north-east of Kirkstone Pass. To the east of Troutbeck is seen the group of light-blue loops forming an irregular trident ; these are the valleys of the sources of the river Kent ; in the most western the river Kent is seen to take its course, the loop is /\-shaped, but the letter is reversed, although, as in all other cases, the apex points to- the high ground and the base to the lowest. This light-blue loop hke that of Troutbeck is seen to be capped by a light- brown inter-columnar space, the apex of which contains the Contour Lines — Elevated Land. 99 Kentrnere reservoir, and points to the liigh ground above it whei'e lie Lingmell End (2,183), to the south-west of vrhich are the well known features in the sky-line, Fvoswielc (2,359), and the pyramidal III Bell (2,746). To the east of the Kent- mere loop is the centre prong of the trident. This is the valley of the Sprint, coloured light-blue, and above it is seen the long liglit-hroicn valley of Long Sleddale, having its apes pointing towards the elevated mass of Adam Seat (2,180), and the Enowe (2,509). The easternmost prong of light-blue is the valley of the Mint, which is similarly capped by a light-broum inter-contour loop, reaching high up into the darh-broivn, where the sources of this tributary of the Kent take rise from the southern flanks of Bannisdale Fell. These illustrations will suffice for the present, as in the course of the description of the other features of this map, attention will be drawn to similar examples, an abundance of which are to be found in this wonderfully beautiful area. Now whilst it has been seen that the apices of the valleys point to the high ground, it must have also been observed that the contour " sweeps round " the outline of the hills or high ground ; and that in doing so also forms loops, the apices of which point in an opposite direction — towards the low lands. Let us take the elevated mass with which we com- menced, the elevated mass in the Bootle district, characterized" by Black Combe in the south-western part of this area : here we observe the south-western part of the darlc-broion pointing to the sea ; and that this V-li^e extension is succeeded by a similar light-broivn loop, and this again by the light-blue loop, rendered conspicuous by the darh-blue of the low land border- ing the coast. If we now retrace our steps to the Kendal district we shall find similar features illustrating this fact, in the high lands that separate the valley of the Troutbech from that of the Kent, and this valley from Long Sleddale, and the latter from the vale of the Mint. The darh-brown tongue of hijrh land between the Troutbeck lOO The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. and the river Kent is seen to point southward or towards Windermere; it has its base at Fi'oswiclc, and its apex an Applethivaite Gommon; and is succeeded by the UgU-broiou. area pointing in the same direction : in fact the lower end is somewhat bifid, owing to the course of a small streamlet which feeds the Kent, falling into it at Staveley. On the sharp eastern point lies Orrest Head (784), above Elleray, near the Windermere station, whence the most magnificenr, view in the whole area of the Lake District can be seen. That little point is classic land; for it was the abode of Professor Wilson (Christopher North), and the delight of th« most refined and cultured minds, among whom were the Coleridges, father and son, Southey, Wordsworth, De Quincey, Mrs. Hemans, and a host of other lovers of nature, whom the beauty of this spot had so oft inspired. The long extension of elevated land coloured darh-hroion, between the valleys of the Kent and Sprint, points to the sout'i-east, and so does the liglit-hrown inter-contour V-li^e looo. This tongue of heights stretches from The Knoive (f'lSOO), and Baven Crag to Potters Fell, and includes between these extreme points Sleddale Forest, from which the valley of the Sprint takes the name of Long Sleddale. In the next chapter the geological structure of this ridge will be described "from a section by Mr. W. Aveline, F.Gr.S. Between Long Sleddale and the valley of one of the prin- cipal sources of the river Sprint, Bannisdale Beclc, is seen a - pointed promontory of darlc-hrown, pointing to the S.E., and succeeded by a loop of light-brown having the same directioTi. This mass of high land stretches from Bannisdale Fell (1,819) to Whiteside Pike (1,301), and includes Capplebarrow (1,683). Mr. Penning remarks that contour lines are more or less straight on the flanks and ridges of hills, of which the map under discussion affords a good example in the 1,000 ft. line, which forms the south-western boundary of the largest darh- hrovm area in the whole of Cumberland and Westmorland. The Motmtain Masses Described. loi This line may be said to extend in a south-easterly direction, from the southern part of the Brampton district (close to the letter B, of that name) near Castle Garroch, to the V-^ike loop ia the East Ward district, which is repeated by the larger loop of the crimson line representing the great water-parting of the North Pennine Chain ; a distance of over 30 miles. The terminal loop just mentioned is the head of the valley which gives passage to one of the principal sources of the river Eden, Argill Bech, which has its origin in Stainmoor Forest (1,582). This contour line further illustrates also the upward loop- ing of valleys and the downward looping of the heights. The south-west boundary of the North Pennine darh-hroivn mass is seen to be notched or irregularly serrated along its course: the UgJit-hroicn notches or loops represent the valleys of the numerous tributaries of the Eden, whilst the darJc- brown tooth-like projections between them indicate the posi- tions of the high ground separating the valleys. The Principal Mountain Masses of Cumberland, Westmorland, and the Lake District. These are distinguished on the " Contour Map " by the dark- broivn colour indicating all land above the 1,000 ft. contour line. Within the Lake District there are four principal masses : two forming the great transverse ridge, which lies between the northern and southern masses of Shiddaiv and Blach Combe respectively. Outside the Lake District there are tvvo masses above the 1,000 ft. contour, but these belong to the same mass, the North Pennine Chain. They are naturally connected both geologically and by continuity of water-parting, as the crimson inland boundary line of the North Pennine Chain shows. These masses may be classed under the foUowinc heads : — 102 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Within the Lalce District: 1. The Scafell; II. The Hehellyn; III. The SMddcm ; IV. The Blade Combe; and outside the Lake District, Y. The Bewcastle; and VI. The Edenside. These six masses will be considered as centres of certain smaller masses which will be treated as physical or geological outliers, as the case may be. I. The Scafell. This mountain mass lies in the western part of the Lake District between the Helvelhjii mass and St. Bees' Head, and spreads its arms and its climatic influence into the districts of Goclcer mouth, Whitehaven, Bootle, TJlver- ■stone, and Kendal; its form is not easy to describe, the readers may, however, see a resemblance to some form that may aid their memories. We must be content to regard it as roughly stellar or radiating ; for its rivers and lakes all more or less radiate from its central line to the different points of the compass. I think if Homer had had to give this mass a name, that the coiner of the epithet " cloud- collector" (ve(f)e\ij'yepeTa), which he applied to the cloud- collecting Jove, instead of to his Olympian abode, would cer- tainly have been tempted, on looking at this group on the map, to name the Scafell mountain mass "the Lake Collector" (Xifivtjyepera) , and in doing so would have truly described if, as will be presently seen. I. The Scafell mountain mass lies to the W. of 3° 4' W. Long., and between Lat. 54° 20' N. and 54° 47' N". ; it con- tains two of the highest mountains in the whole area, Scafell Pihe (3,210 ft.), and Scafell (3,162 ft.): it supplies with water thirteen out of the sixteen principal lakes ; and it con- tains the western portion of the great central water-parting or Transverse Ridge. It may be described as consisting of a central oblong body lying on the northern boundary line of the district of Bootle, which separates this district from those of Whitehaven and CocJcermouth. This line will be seen more clearly on tlie " Geological Map," where it will be found to extend in a S.E. The Scafell Mountain Mass (/.). 103 direction, from just below the n in Whitehaven to the county- boundary between Cumberland and Westmorland, at the point where, on the " Contour Map," the July isotherm 60° crosses it. This central mass contains that portion of the great transverse water-parting, which includes the following heights, from N.W. to S.E. :—K%tI Fell (2,631), Great Gable <2,949), Oi-eat End (2,984), and Boivfell (2,960) ; so that it has a mean maximum height, along the 4| miles over which it extends, of 2,881 feet. Prom this central body rise the sources of the Lingmell BecJc, the feeder of Wast Water, and the river EsJc, on the south-west; the course of the latter is marked by the loops in the darh and light blue, and in the light-iroivn inter-contour spaces, the highest having its apex just below E in bootle. Scafell Pike, Boivfell, Gi'eat End and Great Gable are well seen from Orrest Head, just above Elleray, whence they are seen to form a part of that magnificent background, which lends such a charm to the view of Windermere from that standpoint. The Radiating Ridges of the Scafell Mountain Mass. A little careful study of this mountain mass will not only &t once convince the reader that ivater and other atmospheric agents have been the sculptors,- that have carved into such grotesque forms its rock-structure, but that, in ages long past, before these agents could have exerted their influence on it, owing to submergence beneath the sea, it must have formed a much more huge rock mass and that it must have been united to the Helvellyn, the Skiddatv, and the Black ■Gombe masses ; that in fact their separation has been brought about by water from above in the form of rain, snow and ice, and by water from below in; the form of the sea, with its ever restless, pounding, hammering waves. Whilst the whole of this area, comprised within the four divisions, was slowly rising from the sea and escaping the sculpture power of I04 The Geographical Distribiition of Diseases. its waves, it rose into the higher regions of the atmosphere to the extent of thousands of feet higher than the highest point reached to-day; and in doing so attained an altitude where the atmospheric water- vapours, licked up from the sea by the winds, were condensed into snow instead of into rain ; and whence the snow, converted by its own weight into ice, gravitated, in the shape of glaciers, along the channels that running water had already carved, before the land had risen above the snow line. At the present time geologists tell us that we have only the remains of a former enormous thickness of sedimentary rocks and volcanic ashes remaining to tell us the tale of a vast denudation that has levelled a mountain mass equal per- haps in height to Mont Blanc or Etna. The lake valleys that lie within the outstretched arms of rock extending from the central mass just briefly described, are the work of incalcul- able ages, and the lake-basins themselves are in some in- stances the result of the gouging power of ice, when impelled forward by the mighty pressure behind, between the sides of valleys that water had originally hewn out of the rock in its torrential course to the sea laden with mud, sand, gravel, and boulders, torn from the riven rocks of the highest peaks. For the purposes of description the seven dark-hroivn radiating limbs or ridges may be thus briefly named — 1. The Western ridge, between Wast Water and Ennerdale. 2. The North-ivestern ridge, between Ennerdale Water and BiMermere, and Crnmmoch Water. 3. The Northern ridge, between Buttermere and Crwnmoch Water, and Borrowdale and Dertvent Water. 4. The North-eastern ridge, between Borrowdale and Derwent Water and Thirlmere. 5. The South-eastern ridge, between Coniston Water and the valley of the Duddon. 6. The Southern ridge, between the Duddon valley and EsMale. The Radiating Ridges of Scafell. 105 7. The Soidh-ivestern ridge, between Eshdale and Wast Water. 1. The Western ridge contains the extreme western portion of the central water-parting ; its form is irregular, resembling somewhat an index hand pointing to the west. On the northern side the contours along the flanks overlooking Ennerdale are tolerably straight, whilst the southern border is much indented by the passage of rivers as the light-ln-oivn inter-contour loops pointing upwards indicate. The first three to the west give passage to the sources of the Calder, which can be traced to the corresponding loops in the light and darJc- 5/^fe inter-contour areas ; the fourth loop belongs to the course of the river Bleng, and the remainder have been scooped out by the feeders of Wast Water. The darlc-hrotvn heights be- tween the river valleys are as follows : — The index-finger-like height at the extreme west is Longbarroiv (Dent) (1,130), from, which may be traced eastward the water-parting ridge con- sisting of Blaheley Raise (1,276), Griko (1,596), Gatv Fell (1,500), Jro7iC'ra^ (2,071), Gaio i^eZ/ (2,188), Haycock (2,619),- Pillar (2,927), and lastly Kirk Fell (2,631), which we have mentioned before as the point whence the central portion of this mass begins : the main maximum height, therefore, of this portion of the transverse ridge is 1,993 feet. On the- south are the following heights from west to east dividing the water-courses from each other : — Lank Rigg (1,750), (Kinniside Common), Gopeland Forest, S.W. of Caw Fell,. Scatallan (2,766), to S. of Haycoch, and Yew-harrow (2,058) overlooking the head of Wast Water, and to the S.E. of Bed' Pike (2,629). 2. The North-icestern limb is a long ridge stretching from the central mass near Brandreth (2,844), to Otvsen Fell (1,341),. and Martin Fell (1,461) ; the extreme end of this limit is bifid, the former height occupies the northern prominence,, and the latter the southern. This ridge separates Ennerdale- io6 The Geographical Distr^b^ltion of Diseases. from the valley in whicli Bidtermere and Grummoch Water lie. This ridge or limb will be noticed again in the chapter on geology. 3. The Northern Umh, is of large size and not so simple in its form as the last ; for it is deeply indented by the sources •of rivers. It stretches from the central portion near Brand- .reth, to beyond Lord's Seat (1,811) and Broom Fell (1,670), both of which form the S.W. background of Bassenthwaite Water, when viewed from its right bank. At Broom Fell the ridge turns at right angles to the west, and ends in KM Fell t(l,476). To the north of the crook are seen two outlying heights coloured dark-brown ; the smaller western one is *he Burthwaite height (1,224) rising up from the Wythop Moss, which occupies the light-brown inter-contour area to the south ; the eastern and larger height (1,170) lies to the north .of Kelswick Church, and overlooks Bassenthwaite. This inter-lacustrine tongue of elevated land is an important one, inasmuch as from its north-eastern flanks are derived the numerous tributaries to the river Derivent, the Neiolands BecJc, and the lakes they feed ; moreover, it overlooks the most noted dale in the district, Borrowdale, so full of interest to all real students of nature. If we take the heights along the line of water-parting from Brandreth (2,344) to Lord's Seat t(l,811) we shall be better able to estimate the importance of this ridge. Next to Brandreth is Grey Knotts (2,287), which lies to its north, then comes Bale Head (2,473), Bohinson (2,417), Sigh Smell Bigg (1,726), Knott Bigg (1,772), Sail (2,500), Fel ■Crag (2,649), Sand Hill (2,525), Grisedale Pike (2,593), the TurnpiJce Boad to Branthwaite across the neck of the crooked extremity (above 1,000 feet), Gomhe Plantation (1,627), and lastly. Lord's Seat, the extreme point of the ridge to the north ..(1,811) ; which heights give a mean maximum level of 2,147 feet along the water-parting of this northern limb, which at .a height above the 1,000 feet level stretches over 12 miles. The Radiating Ridges of Scafell. 107 From fhe south-eastern side of this limb will be seen project- ing from the main mass a very pointed tongue of land directed towards the north, coloured dark-hronni. This ridge separates ' Borrowdale on the east with the Derwent River and part of the Lake, from the valley of Neidands Bed-, which falls into Bassenthwaite Water to the south-west of the river Bervent, the connecting link between Derwent Water and Bassen- thwaite. This sharp tongue extends north for about 3^ miles from Dale Head above the 1,000 feet contour, and its ridge {beginning from the south) is made up of Eel Crags (2,14:J) through Maiden Moor (1,887) to the base of the sharp point ■Cat Bells (1,482), near the site of the BrundelJiow lead mines. 4. The North-east ridge between Borrowdale and Deriuent Water on the west, and Thirlmere on the east, has now to be considered. This mountain-mass springs from the central portion between Allen Crags (2,572) and Boiv Fell (2,900). Between the main portion of this mass and the one just described will be seen a small darh-hroivn projection pointing in a north-easterly direction, and lying between two loops of light-broivn. This mass has at its base Allen Crags, a little to the north of the main central water-parting, and the bifid head of the valley contains in the western loop the source of the river Derwent, whilst the one to the east contains the Longstrath Beclc, which joins the main river about half-a-mile to the north-west of the village of Rosthwaite, the Borrowdale Fells lying, as it were, in the fork of the two valleys. This minor mass has a total length above the 1,000 feet contour ■of about 3J miles, and a mean maximum height of 2,469 feet, excluding Allen Crags ; on this tongue lie Glaramara (2,560) and Bosthwaite Fell (1,807). We now come to the main mass. From the point of origin ;at Bot!) Fell, which lies on the great central transverse water- parting, to the Pike at the extreme north of Gastlerigg Fell (1,177), the ridge has a length of a little over 11 miles. io8 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. and a mean maximum height of 1,932 feet. The following mountains lie upon it, excluding Bow Fell; Bossett Crags (2,106), Blade Crags (1,922), High Whitestones (2,500), Greenu]) Edge (2,081), Ullscarf (2,370), Long Moss (1,750), (below which lies Blea Tarn, at a height of 1,562 feet), Arm- hotJiFell (1,588), High Seat (1,996), Bleaiernj Fell (1,932), and Castlerigg Pihe (1,177). The principal valley loops are on the western side ; one of which gives exit to the Watendlath BecJc, an independent feeder of Derwent "Water, to the west of which is the dark- hroiun projection of Grange Fell (1,250), on which also is Brund Fell (1,363), and on the eastern side the nose-like darh-hroimi projection lying on the water-parting and county boundary to the west of Dunmail Raise (781), is Steel Fell (1,811). On the chin-like projection to the south of Steel Fell is Silver How (1,345), dividing the valley of the river liotliay on the north-east from that of Great Langdale Beck on the south, which after passing through Eter Water, where it is joined by Little Langdale Beclc, the combined waters issue as the river Brathay. Between the ridge (4) just described and the next in succession (5), there are the remains of another important mass of elevated land lying between Windermere and Coniston Water, but not of sufficient height to be included, except over a very small area, at Long Crags, within the 1,000 feet contour. This elevated ground is represented by the light- hro'icn masses and their flanks coloured Zt^/rf and darh-hlue ; they form the loiver part of the background, of which Conis- ton Old Man and the mountains on either side from Furness- Fells to the Langdale Pikes form such a glorious and distin- guished feature when Windermere is viewed from the east. The elevated land about to be briefly described lies between Windermere and Coniston Water, and apparently at the foot ol the giants behind, when viewed from Orrest Head, or the- road between Troutbeclr Bridge and Bowness, whence they The Radiating Ridges of Scafell. 109 appear in the following order from south-west to north-east ; Blach Combe (1,969), Oaiv (1,735), the highest point of Dunnerdale Fells, the extreme south-west point of the next ridge (6), Walna Scar (2,000) with Sroum File (2,239), The Old Man of Goniston (2,6SS), Bidge of Seathwaite Fells (2,500), which end in the precipitous peak, Garrs (2,500), lying to west, and dipping down behind the next height, Wetherlam (2,250) ; the sky-line then dips to the col, on which the Three -Shires Stone stands, the Wrynose Pass, on the eastern side oc which the river Bratliay rises, and on the west the river Duddon; from this depression we trace the line against the sky until wo reach Great Knott (2,259), and then the Pike of Bliscoe (2,304) and the Grinkle Crags, whence the ridge slopes, until it again rises towards the next mountain, Boiu Fell {2,960), between which and the Crinlde Crags the highest, point in England is seen, Scafell Pikes (3,210) ; then we get a glimpse of Great End (2,984), Great Gable (2,949), Glara- mara (2,560), and lastly the Langdale Pikes, the Pike of Stickle (2,323), and Harrison Stickle (2,401). Such was the glorious mountain view that stood out clear, distinct and purple against the rnddy golden sky of a setting sun on the 21st September, 1885, the date of my first visit to Orrest Head ; the purple of the peaks merging into the dark-green of the foliage of the lower heights of Hawk's Head and Glaife Heights, which seemed to lie humbly at their feet, whilst the broad waters of the lake, like an inland sea of molten silver, reflected their solemn beauty, and thus enhanced the glory of one of nature's grandest displays of brilliant colour and perfect form, never to be forgotten. The lower heights separate Windermere from Coniston "Water. The small light blue outlier close to the lake is the Glaife Heights, and between it and the light-hlue and light- brown heights, to the west lies Esthwaite Water, whilst still further to the west is seen a forked area of light-hlue sur- mounted by a i-idge of light-brown, the northern part of no The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. which is Kigli Arnside and Eawh's Head moors ; the southern or bifid portion contains the Furness Fells, characterized by Long Grags to the west, and Qreat Green Eoive to the east. 5. The South-east ridge, between Ooniston Water and the- valley of the river Biiddon. This mass has already had many of its features given in describing the distant background of Windermere, so that little more than a few additional details will be required. It may be said to extend from Boivfell, Avhere the central por- tion ends, through a neck-like ridge, on which are Shelter- Crags (2,651), Long Top (2,816), and Great Knott (2,259), to the main mass, which begins at the col, on which The Three- Shires Stone stands, between the sources of the rivers Brathay and Buddon, the Wrynose Bass ; thence it extends in a more or less southerly direction through the following heights: — Hinfiing House Fell (2,537), Seathwaite Fells (2,600), Broivn Bike (Walna Scar, 2,239), The Old Man of Ooniston (2,633), Oaio (1,735), the highest point of Bimner- dale Fells; the total length of which from Boivfell to the extreme point of the 1,000 feet contour line being 11 miles ; whilst the mean maximum height amounted to 2,457 feet. The great valley-loop of the Buddon separates this ridge from the next one on the west, and that of the river Brathaij on the east. Lingmoor Fell (1,410), an outlier not shown on the maps, divides the Great Langdade Bech from the Brathay. Through the loops below this river issue the feeders of Coniston Water. 6. The Southern ridge, between the Duddon Valley and Bskdale. This is altogether narrower than the limb just described. It curves to the south-west, and may be described as having its base at Bowfell and winding through Yew Bank (1,570), Border End (1,803), Harter Tell (2,140), Ulpha Fell (1,386), to G-reat Worm Crag (1,400), which last height is separated from the great mountain mass of Bootle, of which Black- The Radiating Ridges of Scafell. 1 1 r Combe is the dominant height, by the valley through which Crosby Gill flows, coloured light-broivn in the map ; this gill falls into the Duddon. From Bowfell to the extreme point of the 1,000 feet western line along this ridge, the distance is between 7 and 8 miles. 7. The South-ivestern ridge, between EsMale and Wast Water. This ridge has its origin in that great mountain mass known as Scafell ; of which Scafell proper has an altitude of 3,162 feet, whilst Scafell Pike exceeds this height, being 3,210' feet; the Scafell mass would occupy the position of the letter li in the name of the district of bootle. This rounded mass- projecting to the south-west is separated from the remainder of the ridge by a depression in which Burnmoor Tarn lies (832 ft.), and the road that crosses the pass into Wasdale. The Scafell portion of this ridge contains the loftiest moun- tain in England; besides which, it contains many rock masses of great height, so that this portion of the elevated ground^ estimated by the height of its twelve principal summits, has a mean level of 2,334 feet. The col already mentioned separates the Scafell mass from that of The Screes, lying to the south-east of Wast Water. This south-westerly termina- tion of the ridge has its axis from south-west to north-east^ and presents the eminences of III Gill (1,978) to the N.E. and White Eigg (1,755) to the S.W. The Scafell portion of this south-western mass is bounded at its north-east by the remarkable depression known as- Ush Hause, which lies to the north-east of the great trans- verse water-parting. Along this hause or throat there is a mountain road from Wastdale to Langdale ; near this road lie, at the north-western portion, Sprinlcling Tarn (1,960), and Sty-head Tarn (1,430), which derive their waters from the- sides of Alleii Crags (2,572), and then empty them into the river Derwent in Borrowdale ; from the south-west of Allan Crags there proceeds in a south-westerly direction a ridge or 112 The GcograpJiical Distribution of Diseases. minor water-parting, whicb. crosses the great transverse ■central water-parting and connects the tongue-lilce mass {described under the north-east ridge (4), characterized as supporting Glaramara, and lying between the bifid head of Borrowdale), with the Scafell mass. This minor ridge has on its south-eastern side, Angle Tarn, lying on the flank of Hanging Knott (2,903) ; it empties its waters into the rsources of the Langstrath Beck, which, after pouring down Longstrath, joins the river Derwent, so that at their origins the two heads of the Derwent rise on opposite sides of this minor water-parting, but meet in Borrowdale. This south- Lvestern ridge (7) is separated from the loestern ridge (1) by Wast Water, and completes the seven radiating ridges of the .Scafell mountain mass. Recapititlation. The details that have just been given in describing tlie form and constitution of the above seven ridges radiatino- from what has been termed the Scafell Mountain mass, however useful for reference, can hardly be expected to be remembered. It will perhaps, therefore, be well to give a short recapitu- lation of the main facts connected with these seven ridges in order to aid the memory in retaining what is essential. All the ridges are coloured darh-hroiun on the " Contour Map." 1. The Western Bidge between Wast Water and Ennerdale, Water has been compared to an index-hand pointing to the west (St. Bees' Head). The extreme western point is Blaheley Raise and the high ground is extended through Qrilce and Pillar to Kirh Fell. The southern flanks are indented by the sources of the rivers Galder, Irt, and the afiluents of Wast Water ; whilst the heights dividing these sources are from west to east, respectively, LanJc Bigg, Gaiv Fell, Scatallan, the most southerly and extensive, and Yeivbarroiv : the two last lying immediately to the north-west >of Wast Water. The Scafell Mountain Mass. 1 1 3 2. The North-western Bidge, between Ennerdale Water, and Butter7nere and Grummoclc Water. This is a long mass terminating in a bifid manner towards the north-west. The chief components of this ridge, beginning from the extreme north-west, are Owsen Fell, Gavel Fell, Starling Bodd, Bed Filce, High Stile, High Crag, to Brandreth. The southern extreme point of the bifid end is Murton Fell. Within the loop between the two extreme north-westerly points are some of the sources of the river Murton, a tributary of the Berwent. On the northern fl.anks rise tlie affluents of Boioes Water, Grummoclc Water, and Buttermere. 3. The Northern Bidge between Grummock Water and Buttermere and Borroivdale and Berwent Water. This is one of the most considerable mountain masses — it terminates in a sort of crooh to the north, having still further north two outliers: is deeply indented on the eastern side, and is characterised by a sharp pointed ridge springing from its base, and pointing to the north. Its main ridge proceeding from the extreme point of the crook consists of Kirh Fell (not the Kirk Fell) to Bord's Seat, Grisedale Filce, Sand Hill, Eel Grag, Bohinson, Bale Head, to Brandreth. The sharp-pointed ridge lying between Borroivdale and Newlands, consists of Gat Bells at its extreme north, through Maiden Moor, to Eel Grags in the south. The loops in the crook give passage to some of the sources {Whit BecJc) of the river Gocher ; whilst the western flanks are indented by the afflufents of Grummoclc Water and Buttermere- and the eastern are deeply sculptured by the main sources of Newlands Beclc, one of the chief affluents of Bassenthimite Lake. The pointed spit of land separates Neiolands from Borroivdale, with its river and Berioent Water. 4. The North-eastern Bidge between Borrowdale and Ber- went Water and Thirlmere, is an irregular mass somewhat pointed to the north. It consists of the following heights from north to south, namely, Gastlerigg Fell, High Seat, 114 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Ullscarf, High White Stones, Thunacar Knott, and Pavey Arh, to Allen Crags ; from which last also springs a promontory of high land that divides the bifid head of Borrowdale and on which lies Glaramara. From the western side of the main ridge issue the affluents to Derivent Water ; and from the eastern the affluents of Thirlmere including the Wythburn, the most southerly; and others of less importance which empty their waters into the left side of the lake. The most north-easterly indentation gives passage to the source of the Naddle Beck, which eventually falls into the river Greta. 5. The Soxith-eastern Ridge, which separates Goniston Water from the valley of the Buddon, is an elongated, pear- shaped mass, extending from Boivfell through a neck of land to the main mass extending south to Dunnerdale. It is characterized by the two well-known mountains, Goniston Old Man, and Wetherlam. At the point where the neck joins the main mass is situated the Three-shires Stones. At its extreme north is Boivfell, which is succeeded towards the south by Great Knott, Pike O'Blisco, Wetherham, Goniston Old Man, Walna Scar, and Dunnerdale. On both sides it is deeply indented ; on the west side by the river Duddon and its tributaries, and on the east by the Langdales, and the rivers which flow through them to supply Windermere and other water masses. Below the Langdales, to the south, the mass gives egress to the affluent waters of Goniston. 6. The Southern Bidge, between the valley of the Duddon and Eskdale, is a long but comparatively small mass. It has its base at Bow/ell, from which it stretches through Harter Fell, to Great Worm Crag and Ulpha Fell ; on its east side it is scooped out by the tributaries of the Buddon and on the west by those of the river Esk. 7. The South-toestern Bidge, between Eskdale and Wast Water, is the highest of all the radiating ridges. It extends from Esk Hause to the far extreme south-west point of the Screes. It is notable as containing the Scafell mass, which The Helvellyn Mountain Mass. 115 is separated from the Glaramara mass at the head o£ Borrow- dale by Esh Mause, and from the Screes mass, by the depression over which the road to Wasdale crosses, and Burn- moor Tarn lies. It is deeply looped by the tributaries to the river Esk, and by the affluents to Wast Water. II. The Helvellyn Mountain Mass. This great division of the Cumberland and Westmorland mountain masses is separated from the Scafell mass (I.) by one of the most interesting and thickly populated depressions in the whole mountain and lake area, which it well be well to ■describe first. The Central Depression of the English Lake District. This great central depression of the English Lake District may generally be described as extending from the mouth of the river Kent, where that river empties its waters into More- <5ambe Bay, in a more or less north-westerly direction, over Dunmail Raise (783), its highest point, and that portion of the great central transverse water-parting which forms the link between the two great mountain masses of Scafell and Helvellyn ; it then descends into the vales of Wythhurn and Thirlmere, and after pursuing a north-westerly direction through Keswick, it may be traced along the course of the river Denvent, and Bassenthwaite Lake to the sea at Working- ion. During this course it only traverses two registration districts, Kendal and Gockermouth. The " Contour Map " will enable us to trace the course of this depression : beginning at the mouth of the river Kent we follow it in the dark blue until after the town of Kendal is passed ; the road then turns to the north-west and gets into the light blue around the northern portion of an elevated area, coloured light brown, to the west of the letter S in Westmoeland. This height, on the eastern side of its upper and broader end, is characterised hj Kendal Fell (650), whilst 1 1 6 The Geographical Distrihdion of Diseases. to its extreme north is Plumgarths Fell (679), under which the road lies ; to the south of these eminent scars, on the same light blue area, rises Scout Scar (713), and still further south, at its extreme sharp end, the scar that over- looks the road just before reaching Brigsteer, has a height of 605 feet. Scout Scar commands a splendid view of the Lake mountains ; but what will interest the geologist most is the oblong light hliie height to the south-west, and to the west of the letters W and E of the name of the county. This tract of elevated land is the mountain-limestone outlier of Whitharrow, where the huge tilted slabs of the above forma- tion are sculptured with the most grotesque forms ; the result of nature's etching acids — the carbonic acid of rain-water, and the still stronger corrosives, resulting from vegetable and rock decomposition. From the post-glacial drmnlin, on which Kendal Castle is built, a good view of the Kendal FelU and Scout Scar can be obtained, and should the observer be fortunate enough to witness the sun set behind them about midsummer, he will see the great orb of day as it were rolling down the sky-line of the slope of the fells, until hidden alto- gether ; just as the writer has seen it apparently roll down the sky-lines of the flanks of the Grampian Bens to the west of Stuc-a-chroin (3,189), from the Abbey Craig near Bridge of Allan. Eesuming our journey, we pass under the height of Plum- garths, and proceed to the north-west until we reach the narrow strip of light blue lying between a projection of the main mass of light brown to the north, and a somewhat quadrangular mass of the same colour to: the, south; the boundary of the northern mass is the termination of ^ the southern slopes of Hiigill Fell (839), at Bavenscar, Staveley,. on the east, and of Orrest Head (871 ) at Bannerigg on the west. On the southern mass hes Grooh Common, the northern portion of which rises to the height of 818 feet at Borwich Fold. Between these two heights lies the light blue valley,. Helvellyn Mass — Central Depression. 1 1 7 througb. the eastern part o£ which the river Ooiuan flows on its way to join the Kent at Staveley : whilst the western portion is watered by a streamlet that enters Windermere Lake just north of Bowness. The concavity in the southern boundary of the northern liglit hroivn mass shows the point where the river Gotvan enters the valley after rising on Applethwaite Gommon to the south of Sour Hoives (1,568). The extension line to Windermere of the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway from Oxenholme station runs through this valley. On reaching the village of Windermere, we again bear to the north-west, passing the classic heights of EUeray, with its wide- spreading sycamore, overshadowing the once happy home of John Wilson, known throughout the civilized world, not only by his own name, but as "Christopher North " : a man whom nature had endowed with a powerful mind and a powerful body, united by a loving heart that ever guided its companion powers. With a host so genial, manly, and cultured ; whose love for nature knew no bounds, and whose readings and interpretations of her were so fresh, joyous, and true, it was not to be wondered that his humble abode became the focus, in the true sense of the term, to which all who took nature as their guide, and devoted their best powers to understand her, would gather ; Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, De Quincey, Hartley Coleridge, besides a host of others, were those who sought the companionship of such a man, and were never tired of the lovely views of lake and fell which EUeray commanded, nor of mounting to Orrest Head with their host, and there listen to his loving admiration of all that surrounded them ; content for once to let their silent praise mingle with his eloquence. This is a digression from the valley to the height, which, however, I advise every traveller to make. In the valley once more we proceed along the road to Ambleside, our way lying by the lake on the darh blue tint ; shortly we cross the Troutbeclc Bridge, at the base of the light ii8 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. hlue loop, pointing up the valley of the Trouthech, which ha& its source high up on the southern flanks af Gaudale Moor, At Ambleside we cross the mouth of another loop that give& exit to the waters of 8toclc Gill, having its source near KirTistone Pass. Immediately succeeding this loop are two others, through which flow respectively Scandals Bed, from the dell of the same name, and Bydal BecJc, which latter has its source at Bydal Head, between Fairfield (2,863), and Hart Crag (2,698). Bijdal Beck, Scandals Bech, and Stoch Gill, all cross the road below Bydal Water (181) to join the river Bothay. As we advance along we have the left bank of Bydal Water, and on our right hand Nah Scar, and Nab Cottage by the roadside, where Hartley Coleridge lived. Beyond this point the road turns sharply round a nab (White Moss, 460) where was the " Wishing Gate:" we then skirt Grasmere Lake (208), after leaving which we have the village of Grasmere and the Fairfield spur of Bydal Fell (2,022) on our left ; during the remainder of our ascent, until we nearly reach Bunmail Baise, the river Bothay flows down on our left,, after crossing the road near the county boundary, from its source near the top of Dollywaggon Pike (2,810), a prominent height along the ridge of the Helvellyn mountain mass. At Bunmail Baise, the depression or valley we have been follow- ing attains its greatest altitude, 783 feet. Here we may rest awhile and refer back to the description of the view from Orrest Head, whence can be seen Steel Fell sloping down on the west towards the pass of Dunmail Baise, which has as its eastern boundary Seat Sandal (2,415). This view will be- again referred to in the chapter in which the geographical distribution of heart disease is discussed, as it aff'ords a re- markable illustration of the effect of the physical configuration of the land on medical geography. The county boundary between the shires of Cumberland and Westmorland crosses the road over Dunmail Baise, on reaching it from Steel Fell, and then ascends on the eastern Helvellyn Mass — Central Depression. 119 side up the northern flank of Seat Sandal, along the course, for a short length, of the mountain stream known as Raise Beclc, and as the source of the river BotJiay, already referred to as having its origin near the summit of Dollyimggon Pihe, to the north of Seat Sandal. The exact position of this portion of the great transverse water-parting is indicated on the " Contour Map " by the dotted county boundary line that crosses the narrow light broum pass between the darh brown nose-like prominence projecting from the Scafell mountain mass (I.) on the west, Steel Fell, and the rounded darh brown mass on the east i^Seat Sandal). It is at this point that the two mountain masses of Scafell (I.) and Helvellyn (II.) are at the least distance from each other. We now begin to descend, leaving Westmorland and the Kendal District at the shire boundary line, to the south of the central transverse water-parting, and entering Cum- berland and the Cochermouth District, lying to the north of that famous ridge, and " That pile of stones Heaped over brave King Dnnmail's bones ; He Yiho bad once supreme command, Last king of peaky Cumberland," as "Wordsworth notes it in his " Waggoner." On reference to the " Contour Map," it will be seen that the depression — as it is continued between the north-eastern darh broiun ridge of the Scafell mass (I.), and the northern darh broivn ridge of the Helvellyn mass (II.) — has a pretty uniform breadth, as regards the space between the 1,000 ft. contours of its lateral boundaries ; at the northern end of Thirlmere (533), these two darh brown masses recede from each other, and still further to the north (where the effluent of the lake, St. John's Bech, is seen to be diverted from the northerly course, and to turn, soon after receiving the lake's waters, towards the east), they are separated by an elevated mass, not shown on the map, but situated on the 120 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. light brown, and crossed by the words Derwent and Water in separate lines. This mass is known as High Bigg, or Naddle Fell, and rises to the height of 1,163 feet at Bake Eoive; it is continued in and to the west of the crook of St. John's BecJc, from High Bridge End, where the stream turns to the east, to the north of Bahe Howe, and then turns to the west, before going northward to ThrelJceld Bridge, where it joins the Glenderamackin, or upper portion of the river Greta, which has its source in the Skiddaw mountain mass (III.) J as well as on Matter dale Common, at the extreme north of the Helvellyn ridge. Instead of following the course of the St. John's Beck, as above indicated, we shall now pursue the central valley on the western side of Naddle Fell, after reviewing some of the points that we have passed unheeded in the general descrip- tion just given. In the first place, after leaving Bimmail Baise, we have the valley of the Wytheburn on our left or western side ; this chief affluent of Thirlmere rises to the east of High WJiite Stones (2,500), and to the north of Serjeant Man (2,414). The loop of its valley is seen in the " Contour Map " north of the nose-like projection of Steel Fell, through which the dotted line of the county boundary is seen to cross towards Dunmail Baise. Still further north is another loop for Hoh Gill, another affluent of less importance ; besides which there are seven or eight mountain streams which con- tribute to the waters of Thirlmere, on its left or western side ; whilst on its right, or eastern side, only one unnamed and inconsiderable stream reaches it, and that from Helvellyn itself ; all the others join a stream, Helvellyn Gill, which runs by the side of the lower end of the lake, and finally enters St. John's Beck, close by the road that we shall take to the north-west in following the valley we are discussing. As we proceed, we have on our left the lake bounded on the west by those heights already described in the north-eastern ridge of the Scafell mountain mass (I.) (p. 113). On our right and Helvellyn Mass — Central Depression. 121 immediately above us is the ridge of 'Kelvdlyn itself, but its highest points are hidden from our view by its shoulders. Birlcside, Whelpside (2,412), Brown Gove Crags, WJiiteside, Watson's Dodd (2,584), Calf How Pike (2,166), and Glougl Head (2,380), all above us. When we are at the head of Thirlmere, at the point where the little stream crosses under the road to enter the lake, we know that we have Helvellyn towering above us on our right, at an altitude of 3,118 feet ; but we cannot see it, for the shoulders of Whelpside and Broion Gove hide it from our view. In reference to the remark that Thirlmere only received one insignificant little mountain stream from the north Helvellyn ridge, the reader will note how comparatively unbroken by valley loops the 1,000 feet contour line of this darh hroivn mass is from Bun- mail Raise northwards to the point where it breaks to the north-east, just opposite Naddle Fell. This unlooped con- dition of the side of the ridge exposed to the westerly and south-westerly winds is coincident with the protective in- fluence of the north-eastern ridge of the Scafell mountain mass (I.), and in strong contrast to the deeply looped 1,000 feet contour on the east and north-east side of Helvellyn. We now enter upon the third and last portion of the central depression. Our course lies across St. John's Beclc, at Smai- thivaite Bridge, just before it ends its eastern direction, as it winds round the southern base of Naddle Fell, between High Bridgend and Loto Bridgend (1,016) ; we then take a north- westerly direction, and cross the Naddle Beck, which has its source at the northern end of the darh brown north-eastern ridge of the Scafell mass (I), on the flanks of High Seat (1,996) and Gastlerigg Fell, where it has the name of Shoul- thwaite Gill. This beck we cross, and when doing so, we have High Bigg, 'or Naddle Fell on our right, and Gastlerigg .and Bleaberry Fell on our left. The road then leads us along the lower and north-eastern end of Derxoent Water, the lake being on our left, or south-western side, and Latrigg (1,203) 12 2 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. and the SJdddaw mass (III.) to our right or north-east. After crossing the river Oreta, on leaving Keswick, just before it falls into the river Derwent, our course takes us along the dark blue area at the foot of the crook of the northern point of the Qiorthern bridge of mass I., Lord's Seat (1,811), where we have Bassenthivaite Lake between us and Shiddaw ; we continue on the south-western side of the lake until we find ourselves at the foot of the most easterly of the two darh hroion isolated heights to the north of the " crook" (1,170), and the lake on our right, backed by Broad End, Skiddam Forest. After this we follow the course of the river Derivent, as it changes its north-westerly course to make a semi-circle around the north of Elva Rill (788), the light Hue area in the " Contour Map," between which and the elevated mass to its north, coloured light brown, Moota Common (825), it ha& made its valley, along which it flows in a westerly direction through Cockermoiith, and thence to Workington, where the- great central depression through the Lake District ends. With a few brief remarks we will now sum up what must have struck us on our journey as regards the relation of this long valley to the prevailing winds. 1. From Morecambe Bay to Dimmail Raise, so far as the south-westerly and southerly winds are concerned, it is freely open to their air-flushing influence, which a glance at the " Contour Map " will prove : for it shows that the sea-winds from Morecambe Bay are freely admitted up through the valley of Windermere and Coniston, without any hindrance, and ,if the map be not sufficient let the reader, when near,, mount Orrest Head, and thence he will see the gittering waters of the Irish Sea straight before him with nothing to prevent his view. 2. From Dunmail Raise, throughout the valley of Thirlmere, these winds are entirely shut out, and when violently blowing would pass over the valley instead of up through it, as they can do to the south of the county boundary. The Melvellyn Mass. 12 j 3. From Keswick through the valley of Bassenthwaite the north-west winds would blow up it, but it must be re- membered that the heights to the north — Moota Common — would frequently divert these winds when not powerful, and break their force when they are so. The latter part of the- Derwent Valley is open to south-westerly winds from the- Irish Sea, and enjoys all the advantages derivable from them. 4. The central depression from Morecamhe Bay to^ Cochermouth is more or less protected from the easterly and north-easterly winds, even if these winds had not already received a check at the great barrier to the north-east, con- sisting of the northern portion of the Pennine Chain. The Eelvellyn Mass (II.) Described. The Helvellyn mountain mass, which is separated from that of Scafell by the depression just described, has a remarkable form when plotted on a map at the 1,000 feet level, and coloured darh brown, but yet not so remarkable nor so com- plicated as the mountain mass I. Like that mass it may be divided into a main body and limbs or ridges radiating from it. Taken as a whole, body and limbs together, it is very difficult to define its form ; but it may be said to extend from its extreme northern point at Great Mell Fell to the east of the 3° W. Long., on which line- it continues until the great central water-parting is reached at Seat Sandal : after which this ridge is followed in a south- easterly direction until, so far as this mass is concerned, it terminates at Loiv Fell (1,135), from which the river is seen to rise, on the " Contour Map " (the Lowther), that is further to- the north joined by the eflGiuent Hawse- Water Beclc. The main body may be therefore described as extending from Dunmail Kaise to the north-east of Shap Fells at Low Fell, where the river Lowther rises, and the fell overlooks the light brown valley between it and the elevated darh brown outlier to the 124 The Geographical Distrihition of Diseases. -east, having /S/tixp Thorn, Rardendale Fell, immediately opposite to it. In the dark broiun outlier is continued the water-parting ridge, which descends from Loio Fell to cross the valley named above, through which the Lancaster and •Carlisle Railway passes. The body of this mass extending as has been stated along the line of the great transverse water-parting from Dunmail Raise to Loto Fell, consists of the following heights, beginning to the west at Seat Sandal (2,416), Bollyioaggon Pike (2,810), Eydal Head (2,863), Little Hart Crag (2,091), lied Screes (2,541), Eirkstone Pass (1,481), Kirkstone, John Bell's Banner (2,474), Strong Gone (2,502), Roman Road (2,500), The Knowe, Hart Fell (2,509), AdanCs Seat (2,323), Tarn Crag (2,176), Harrop Pike (1,968), Great Yarlside (1,937), Wasdale Pike (1,853), and Loiv Fell •(1,135); which series of heights, almost in a straight line from west to east gives the body of this mass a mean maximum altitude of 2,203 feet. Such is the body of this mountain mass, which may be roughly traced in the " Contour Map " along the dotted boundary line separating the district of Kendal from those of Cockermouth and West Ward, until it reaches Harrop Pike, immediately south of the dark hroivn ridge that separates Haives Wa,ter from the light hroion valley loop to the south-east, which gives exit to Siuindale Beck, after rising from the above Pike. From this point the body ■or main transverse water-parting diverges from the boundary line in a direction IST.E. by E. to gain Loio Fell. The Limbs or Ridges. From the northern part of the body just described three ■masses project ; a ivestern, a central, and an eastern : between the first and the second the great light brown valley-loop con- taining Ullswater and its affluents lie; whilst between the second and the third, the light brown valley-loop of Hawes Water is seen. (1) The Western Ridge has the 3° W. Long, running Helvellyn Mass — Radiating Ridges. [25, through its entire length ; its direction is nearly north and south, and it contains the highest mountain of the mass,. Helvellyn, which, like Scafell, is not included in the central transverse water-parting. The length of this ridge above the 1,000 feet contour line amounts to between eleven and twelve miles ; and the ridge consists of the following princi- pal heights, beginning from the extreme north at Great Mell Fell (1,760) :— Little Mell Fell (1,657) lies on the dark brown isolated mass that is seen on the contour map between UUsioater and the northern part of the western ridge ; it opposes, as it were,. Great Mell Fell ; to the south of this isolated mass is Gow- barroiv Fell (1,579), and still nearer the lake Gowharrow Parle (1,434), where the daffodils abound that so charmed Wordsworth and inspired the poem he wrote on them. Great Mell Fell is succeeded to the south-west by Great JDodd (2,807), Watsons Dodd (2,584), Styharroiv JDodd (2,756),. Raise (2,889), Loia Man (3,033), Helvellyn (3,118), Dolly- waggon Pike (2,810), and Seat Sandal (2,415). The mean maximum height of this ridge equals 2,685 feet, which is in excess of that of the whole body. It has been noticed how little the western side of this ridge had been scored by water-courses, one little mountain stream alone contributing to Thirlmere at its foot. If, however, we examine the eastern flanks, it will be found that they are deeply scored by the many waters that act as affluents to Ullswater. To the east of the e in the word Thirle, just below the dotted county boundary line, will be seen a rather shallow loop, which gives passage to Glenridding Bech, the effluent of Kepplecove Tarn (1,825), and Bed Tarn (2,356), which lies just under Helvellyn ; the beck then enters Ulls- water to the south of the hotel. The next valley-loop to the south is that of Grisedale, which receives the waters of Grisedale Tarn (1,768), and carries them to the Goldrill Beck, just before it enters the 3 26 The Geographical Distribtition of Diseases. head of the lake: the third in succession southward is the valley-loop of Dee][idale Beck, which rises just below Fair- field (2,863), and finally joins the Goldrill in Patterdale. To the north of these dales, at the point where the county boun- dary crosses the light blue area, will be observed a slight indentation in the 1,000 feet contour; this is Glencoin Dale, through which runs a mountain stream from Eartside. To the north of this small stream will be found a more consider- able depression giving exit to a stream, that instead of run- ning to the north, an error that unfortunately escaped me, should bend its course towards the southern end of the isolated dark brown height between the main ridge and the lake, and finally empty its waters into the lake to the south- west of Gowharroio Parle, at what is known as Aira or Airexj Point. This stream is Aire^J Beck, and noted for its cascade just ahoYe Lyidph' s Tower, called Airey Force; the beck rises in Deepdale, between Hart's Side and Great Dodd. Words- worth in his poem on it says, that the brook itself is " as old as the hills that feed it from afar" ! Between the Glenridding ^nd the Grisedale loops is BirJchouse Moor (2,318), and the highest point of the dark broion ridge separating the latter -dale from Deepdale Beck is St. Sunday Crag (2,756). Be- tween the western and the central ridges is seen a somewhat bifid loop pointing to the south ; it gives exit to the sources of Goldrill Beck, the southern affluent of Ullsivater ; these .are derived from the high land of Candale Moor (2,214), Middle Dodd (2,106), and Little Hart Crag (2,091). The Central Bidge has a north-easterly direction, lies to the south-east of the lake and separates it from Halves Water. Along its ridge the old Roman road or High Street was carried, portions of which still remain. This interesting highway has a course which may be described as extending from a point just below the apex on the eastern side of the dark brown loop representing Troutbeck, before mentioned, it then rises in a slightly north-eastern direction, and attains Helvellyn Mass — Radiating Ridges. 127 at ^iqh Street an altitude of 2,633 feet ; passes to the east of Hayes Water,, and then proceeds over Raven Hoio (2,356), Bed Grag (2,328), Weather Hill (2,174), Loadpot Hill (2,291), Sivarth Fell (1,832), Whitstone Moor (1,213), to the extreme point of the Central Ridge, where it has an altitude of 1,000 feet. So that the mean maximum height of this remarkable road along the central ridge amounts to nearly 2,000 feet above the sea-level (1,932 feet). The principal loops along the north-western side of this ridge are, beginning from the north, the one which gives exit to the effluent of Hayes Water QUI (1,383), the lakelet shown in the map. This stream joins the Gold-rill ; further north is a cluster of three or more loops through which the waters gathered on Martindale Common flow as affluents to the lake, near which they unite before passing into it to the west of Hallin Fell (1,271), a height not shown in the map, but situated to the north of the elboiv-like bend which the lake makes just opposite the base of the cluster of loops. The chief heights which skirt the lake are Swarth Fell, Load- pot Hill, Steel Knotts, Martin Fell, the Dod, Birlc Fell (1,670), and Place Fell (2,154) ; the last is opposite Glenridding, and commands a splendid view. The opposite flank of this ridge, looking towards the east, is deeply looped by the tributaries to the river Lowther, the chief of which is the Hawes Water Beck, the effluent of the lake of that name, 694 feet above the sea level, which receives through its affluent the waters of Blea Water (1,584) ; be- tween this tarn and Hayes Water, High Street runs. Hawes Water separates the central ridge from the Eastern which may be briefly described as the high land to the north of the main water parting, from which rise the initial sources of the river Lowther ; the projecting darlc hrown masses separating the valley loops are respectively, from north-west to south- east, Naddle Forest (1,639), Ralfl,and Forest (1,439), and Low Fell already named. 128 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. The southern ridges include S/nxp ¥611$, and. the minor ridges which extend to the south-east from them, and sepa- rate the valley-loops of the many sources of the river Lune ; the first of which makes its exit as Wasdale Beds just to the south of the river Lowther. The latter, however, turns to the north, whilst the former makes a sharp turn to the south, soon after which it is joined by Borroiv Beck, which issues from the deep loop obscured by the " shaded inland, bound- ary " of the Lake District. The remaining features of the southern part of this mountain mass have already been de- scribed. III. Tlie Sldddaw Mountain Mass Lies to the north like a wedge between the two masses just described, from which it is separated by the valley through which on the east the sources of the river Greta flow, before joining the Derwent j and on the west by the Derwent valley and the upper part of Bassenthwaite. This huge mass standing right in front of the mouths of Borroiv- dale and 8t. John's Valley, bars the northerly winds from exer- cising their full power in them ; whilst its position and size strike one at once that it must have been the grand diverter of the glaciers that once filled them to the north-west, where Bassenthwaite now lies, and that the long projecting ridge of light trmun from its western side described above as bear-^ ing Mootan Common, continued the diverting influence to the west, and thus brought about the change in direction of the Derwent valley from its original north-westerly trend to the south-westerly one that its river has in its course to the sea at Workington. The Shiddaiv Mass (III) may be roughly stated to consist of about fourteen square miles above the 1,000 feet contour enclosing its darh brown area. Its highest points are Sigh Pike (2,157), Great Lingy Hill (2,000), Garroch Fell (2174), in the north; Dead Grags (2,189), Great Galva (2,267), and The Skiddaw Mountain Mass. 129 Bowscale (2,306), in tlie centre ; and SJdddaw (o,054) and Saddlehach or Blencathra (2,847) to the south and west, and south and east respectively ; so that the mean maximum height of its northern portion reaches 2,122 feet, of its central portion 2,254 feet, and of its southern 2,950 feet; equal to a mean maximum height for the entire mass of 2,115 feet. The contour of Skiddaw is not deeply indented by river- valleys. At its extreme north there are loops for the SJdd.daiv tributaries to the river Caldew, which are divided towards that river by the pear-shaped outliers of dark hrown to the north and north-west, on which lie Galdbech Fells- (1,125), the highest point being to the west (1,221). The small round dark hroion mass to the south of the pear-shaped one is Greenhow (1,053), which helps to divert the river Ellen to the north-west after emerging from the looped north-western side of the Skiddaw mass, and after receiving the waters of the lakelet Ovenvater, which is seen to lie as it were in the broad loop of the Ellen as it issues from the- Skiddaw mass. In this, however, it is considerably assisted by the pear-shaped mass, and another dark brown isolated mass to the south-west, on which a " Tumulus " has been raised at a height of 1,466 feet. Below the source of the Mien an affluent of Bassentliwaite issues just beneath Dead Crags. The western and southern parts of the Skiddaw contour give exit to several small un- named mountain streams whose destination is the river Derwent; on the extreme south, however, will be found a considerable loop, through which flows Glenderaterra Beck, on its way south to form the river Greta just below where the Naddle Beck falls into it. From this point round to the eastern side of the mass only small unnamed mountain streams pass the western line to join the Glenderamackin heck, the exit of which is indicated by the loop on the eastern side that opens in a north-easterly direction ; this valley-loop is occupied by the beck just named, which takes 1 30 The Geographical Distyibution of Diseases. its rise to the nortli of Saddlehaclc and reaches the waters isoon after of Scales Tarn. To the north of this loop is seen another of greater size, which bends round from its original north-easterly trend to assume a south-easterly one. This is the head of the valley ■of the river Galdew, which is seen to issue from it and then turn at right angles to the north ; this now rises to the south of SMddaiv Forest, as Salehoiv Beck, and pursues a north- easterly course, until it reaches the valley between Bowscale and Garroclc Fell ; at the foot of the former, on the south it receives the waters of Boivscale Tarn. Midway between the Galdew loop and the extreme northern point, issues the Gar- roclc Becli tributary of that river. To the east of these valley-loops is seen an isolated darh broivn mass of elevated ground ; it is th.e site of GreystoJca Parli, and has a mean elevation between 1,100 and 1,200 feet. From the deep loop on its north-western side issues the Gilllcainhon branch of the river Galdew, whilst through the loop on the south-west issues one of the sources of the river Petterill. IV. The Blade Gomh Mountain Mass. This elevated area in the south-west of our area, is like that of Sldddaio in the north, not only physically, but geo- logically distinct from either the Scafell (I.) or the Helvellyn (II.) masses. This mountain mass lies to the south-west of the extreme point of the south-western limb or ridge proceeding from the Scafell Mountain Mass (I.), and is separated from it by the valley (Broivn Bigg) in which the Grosby Gill flows to the south-east and joins the river Buddon, whilst the Bevolce Water (766) occupies the north-western portion, and discharges itself by the Linbech QUI to the north-west into the river Fsh. The Blach Gomb mass has its long axis in a direction nearly north and south, and has a length above the 1,000 The Black Comb Mountain Mass. 131 feet contour of between seven and eight miles. Its two ihighest points are Wood, End Height (1,597) at its extreme north, and Black Gomh (1,969) at its extreme south. Hesh Fell (1,566) overlooks the valley of Grosby Gill, which has on its left bank the Ulpha Fell, and Great Worm Grag (1,400). The mean maximum height of the whole mass amounts to 1,661 feet. On all sides its contour is indented or looped by the many mountain streams that take their origin on each side of its ridge or water-parting ; on its northern end there are two slight depressions, the western giving passage to the affluent of Devolce Water, which rises to the north of Wood End Height, whilst the eastern is the opening for the sources of Grosby Gill ; lloioantree Hoio dividing the two valley loops. On the eastern side the upper half of the contour is indented by the mountain streams which fall into the river Duddon ; whilst from the lower half, beginning at the deepest loop on this side, issue the source and tributary streams of Black Bech, which falls into the river Duddon; and still further south the independent streams, which go to form Whieham Bech, issue, but instead of going to the Duddon, are diverted by the elevated light blue mass to the south {Loiv .Scales and High Scales), around which they travel as Whieham Bech (Haverigg Pool) to the estuary of the Duddon. Blach Gomb is the headland so frequently seen from the Isle of Man, where, when it is like a black cock's comb,^ as it frequently is in winter, it is reckoned a sure storm signal. The writer has frequently seen and sketched it from Douglas, whence can also be seen the south-ioestern ridge of the Scafell mass, and the Scafell ridge itself, with the snow lodged in the recesses of its " rugged ribbed peaks." In summer, when the air is clear and the sun is shining upon them, the mountains •of Cumberland afford a splendid sight from the eastern heights near Douglas. ^ Mariners call it the '■^ Blach Gomb," not Combe, as cwm. The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Y. The Penniiie Chain Mountain Mass. Incidentally in previous chapters, especially when describ- ing the physical boundaries of this area, this important climatic factor has been repeatedly discussed ; it will there- fore require less detail now than the other four masses have- demanded. On the Contour Maj), this mass, so far as that portion- of it which lies above the 1,000 feet contour line, is repre- sented as consisting of two distinct dark hroion masses; on& at the extreme north-eastern side of the area, occupying the whole of the inland boundary of Longtown, and about a fifth of the inland boundary of the adjoining district of Brampton ; then comes a gap characterised by a light brown area of less height, occupying a portion of the remainder of the Brampton inland boundary, also divided into two portions by the light blue valley-loop of the river Irthing, in fact this gap of low elevation along the course of the North Pennine Chain inland boundary may be termed the Irthing -and- Tyne-Gap, as it lies between the valley-loops of the sources of these two- rivers ; the former deriving its main branches from Grey Fell Common, in the darh broion mass, in the Longtoivn District,, as well as from the uncoloured area between the county boundary and the crimson Pennine water-parting line, where it is deeply looped towards the east ; these initial streams,, the sources of the river Ii'thlng, then flow towards the county boundary, where they join it, as it forms the portion of that line terminating at 55° N. Lat. ; at which point the river turns in a south-westerly direction, and pursues its course to the south-west, occupying from above downwards the light and darh blue loops in succession. The Cumberland sources, which take their rise in Longtoivn, issue from the bifid light brown loop in the north-east of the Brampton district. To the south of the Irthing loop, along the crimson line just indicatedy is another deep loop pointing westward ; this is occupied by The Pennine Chain Mountain Mass. 133 one of the sources of the North Tyne, the Warh Burn, which takes its rise to the east of Great Watch Hill, that lies on the crimson line of the Pennine water-parting, although it has an altitude of less than 1,000 feet. From this point to the entrance of the crimson line into the main mass of dark hroivn, in the southern part of Bramjpton district, the mean altitude of the gap between the two darh hroion masses does not exceed 883 feet ; the crim,son line at the point of entrance into the dark brown should have been carried further west than it is in the map to the base of the letter A in Brampton. It will be seen that the South Tyne takes its rise in the Alston district on the high land of Alston Common, and that nearly the whole of this district lies to the east of the Pennine water-parting. We now come to the main mass of the darh hroivn Pennine boundary, and find it occupying the remainder of the north- eastern border of our area, and deeply and broadly looped by the sources of the rivers which flow down the eastern -watershed of the North of England on their way to the North Sea, and on the south-western side the 1,000 feet contour line is looped all along its course by the tributaries to the river Eden, which occupies the valley below it throughout its entire length. In the Brampton district the deepest valley-loop, having a north- western direction is occupied by the river Qelt's sources, the principal of which rise to the west of Butt Kill, lying on the -crimson line, and from the high ground of Croglin Fells, and Geltsdale Middle. The Gelt enters the Irthing before that river forks into the Eden, to the south, in the Penrith district, is another loop having rather a south-westerly trend ; this is traversed by the Croglin Water, which enters the Eden through its right bank to the south-west. The next broad and rather bifid loop to the south gives rise to the Baven Beclc, which forks into the Eden at Kirhoswald; then still further to the south is a group of loops through which the Eden tributaries flow from Melmerby and Oushy, and after 134 The Geographical Distribittion of Diseases. uniting fall into the Uden near Little Salheld, in conjunction witli the Briggle Bech, the sources of which occupy the loops still further south in the East Ward district. Still further to the south-east is a well-defined valley-loop, in the darli, brown mass, which corresponds with the loop in the crimson line above where the Pennine water-parting is seen to turn sud- denly to the north, and then as suddenly bend to the south- east. The valley thus indicated contains to the south-west of the water-parting the sources of the Hilton BecJc, which take their rise from Hilton Fell (2,000), and then unite to pass through the valley-loop in the 1,000 feet contour and so join the river Eden through its right bank, just above Great Ormside on its left. Between the outlet of this mountain stream and the important group of loops at the extreme south-east corner of the 1,000 feet contour, only one or two mountain streams cross that line from Burton and Warcop Fells. At the extreme south-east corner of the Yale of Eden is seen a large group of valley mouths, the loops of which correspond with similar loops in the crimson line of the Pen- nine water-parting. The two northern loops give passage to the Sioindale Bech and its tributary Angill Bech, the former of which rises in Musgrave Fells, and the latter from Iron Band (1,750), both heights being south-west of the county boundaries, which at these points are on the outside the Pennine water-parting; from this elevated land the streams converge, and after union enter the Eden as Swindale Bech to the south of Great Musgrave village. In the south- east and south are two other large loops in the darh brown mass, which are found corresponding with two well-defined and sharp-pointed loops in the crimson line of the main water-parting; the more northern of which extends to the county boundary, and is coincident with it for some distance ;. this loop gives passage to Argill Bech, which rises in Stain- more Forest, close to the county boundary, near the Roman Fort (1,562) and road; whilst in the southern and lesser The Pennine Chain Mountain Mass. 135 loop the river Belah flows after the union of its many sources from Kaber Fell which is encircled by the corre- sponding loop in the crimson line. These two water-courses then unite, and as the river Belah enter the Eden to the south of Stoindale Beck, at the point where the light blue loop is seen projecting upwards from the 500 feet contour into the light broivn area. "We next come to the sources of the river Eden itself, which we find occupying the long sharp- pointed loop -having a direction due south, which on its course passes south to north, cuts Mallerstang Common in two, the eastern portion of which is overhung by Mallerstang Edge. From its source as Bed G-ill on Blade Fell Moss (2,200) it takes a south-westerly direction, and then as Hell Gill Bech to the north of the crimson Pennine line and the county boundary, where these two lines coiacide, it turns suddenly to the north, and then enters its valley at the extreme sharp end of the loop in the 1,000 feet contour line, to pursue its course until it enters the light blue area, where it receives its tributary the river Belah just described ; in its course from its source on Blade Fell Moss to this point its course resembles the form of a shepherd's crook. At the point where it turns to the north it is separated by the crimson line of the main water-parting from the source of the river Tire or Yore, which rises at lire Head (2,186) on Abbotside Common. Having now gone through the several points of interest connected with the physical geography of the Pennine Mountain Mass (V".), it remains only for me to connect this important elevated area, containing as it does the Pennine water-parting, with the Helvellyn (IT.) and the Scafell (I.) mountain masses, within which the Great Transverse luater- parting of the English Lake District stretches from east to west. 136 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. The Connection between the Pennine Water-parting and the Great Transverse Bidge. When describing the Helvellyn Mountain Mass (II. )» ^^^ great transverse ridge was said to run through it to the point where the 1,000 feet contour line encircled Lotv Fell (1,135) ; from which point the ridge descends into the light hroton area to the south of the' sources of the river Lowther, where it separates the watershed of that river, from the sources of the Lune on the south. The ridge then ascends to enter the most western projection of the outlying darh hroivn mass that stretches from north-west to south-east across the name of the county (Westmorland). This mass curves towards the north at its north-western end, where it lies on Bed Gill Common, near which is a British camp ; from this point it stretches between ten and eleven miles to its ■extreme south-east end, where it abruptly ends and over- looks the valley which has been cut by Potts' Bech on its way to join the river Eden, as Helm Bech, near the village of Little Ormside. At this point the great transverse ridge descends to the Potts' Beck valley, crosses it at a level of 800 feet, and then immediately ascends the small triangular darh brown isolated mass, which lies between the elongated mass just mentioned, and the large darh brown mass lying to the west of the valley of the Eden, which may be described as a triangular mass, having its base at the county boundary to the south, and its apex surmounted by a head-like mass bending to the north-west, and connected with the main mass by a neck of high land. We will now trace the transverse ridge from Low Fell, the extreme point of the Helvellyn mass (II.). After descending from this height to the pass of Potts' Bech, it ascends to Shaf Thorn (1,129) (Hardendale Fell), the most prominent westerly projection of the long curved mass already mentioned ; it then takes a south-easterly course to The Pennine Water-parting and- Transverse Ridge. 137 (joal Pit Hill (1,315), the highest point oi Crosby BavensivortJi Fell, over Orton Scar (1,210), the Knott (1,352), Grange Scar .(1,270) to Armaside Wood, where it slips to 800 feet in the Potts' Beck Valley, and then rises to cross the isolated tri- angular little dark hroivn area, on which lies Crosby Garrett Fell, through the highest point of which, Nettle Hill (1,254), it crosses to reach the north-western boundary of the valley that separates the height through which we have just fol- lowed it from the head-like mass named above, Ash Fell, through the highest points of which, Bassett Hill (1,233) to the neck of land connecting Ash Fell to Wharton Fell, the apex of the triangular mass lying to the west of the Eden valley ; the transverse ridge then takes a southerly course, passing over the following heights in the western portion of Mailer stang Common, Greenlatv Bigg (1,318), Wild Boar Fell (2,323), Swarth Fell (2,235), and thence to the point where the crimson line of the Pennine Chain is seen to leave the county of "Westmorland. It is at this point between the sources of the rivers Fden and lire, that the Great Trans- verse Bidge unites with the G^-eat Pennine Chain, and it is interesting to note that its continuity, although depressed at times, is only broken twice by water; the first time by Potts' Beck between the south-eastern extremities of the long isolated dark brown mass, characterised by Crosby Bavens- vjorth Fell, and the small triangular mass supporting Crosby ■Garrett Fell ; and the second time by the valley between the last height and the head-like mass of Ash Fell, through which the Scandale Beck flows in a north-easterly direction to join the river Fden, just after ibs main stream has entered the light blue area of its valley. Through the same valley the South Durham and Lancashire Union Railway passes. The only dark brown masses that remain to be described are, (1) the elevated mass bounded on the south by the ■county boundary, and deeply looped on the north side by the many sources of the river Lune ; which is seen to turn 138 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. round its westerly side and proceed south : this mass sup- ports Langdale Fell, and within our area the following high points at the base of each of the four projections between the main loops, beginning from the west, are, Uldale Head (1,553), Simons Seat (1,925), Gartside (2,097), and Grere Hill (1,750). If we follow the river Lune still further south, we shall find on its left bank two detached dark brown masses. The more northern of the two, triangular in shape, is Middleton Fell, with Calf Top (1,999). This mass is looped on the western side by the tributaries of the river Lune. Still further to the south is another dark broiun mass, like the former bounded by the county boundary; it is separated from Middleton Fell by a tributary of the Lune, Barldn Becic, which, after passing between Barton Park (1,000) and Barton Lo%i) Fell (1,126), falls into the main river as Barton Beck, below the village of Barton. It rises on Barton High Fell (1,794). CHAPTER YII. The Gteologt oe Cumbeeland, "Westmoeland and the Lake; DiSTEICT. Description of tlie Geological Map of Cumberland, Westmorland and the Lake District — Explanation of the Index of the Colours and Signs employed— The same as nsed by the Geological Survey of Great Britain — Authors Referred to in this Chapter : Mr. Robert Russell,. F.G.S.— Mr. J. G. Goodchild, E.G.S.— Mr. H. B. Woodward, F.G.S.— Formations Found within the Area. — Formations not Found within it — Brief History of the Formations — Sedimentary, Volcanic and Glacial — Topography of Formations^ — Their Relation to the Five Great-Mountain Masses — To the Several Registration Districts — To the Valleys and Lakes — The Geological and Contour Maps Compared — What Horizontal Sections Teach us— Rock Structure and Scenery — - Rock Structure and the Water-Partings — ^Sir Andrew C. Ramsay on Lake Basins — Rock Structure and Cascades — Sandstones, Claystones, and Limestones — Their Respective Functions in Connexion with Animal Life — Protection, Alimentation, and Reproduction — Their Alternative Sequence. Description of the Geological Map of Cumberland, Westmor- land, and the Lake District. The first thing to be done is to familiarize the reader with the features of the map which illustrates this part of our work; and having already described in detail the Contour Map, it is hoped that the contents of the last chapter will have prepared the reader to comprehend readily the geogra- phical facts about to be discussed in the present one. In point of time the geology of the area should have preceded its physical geography, as the latter is the outcome of the former; but it is well to follow the course of the anatomist who first makes himself acquainted with the external forms- 140 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. of the head, trunk and limbs of the subject he is studying before he ventures to investigate the structures lying beneath them, that are concerned in their formation and support. The Scale. The scale of the map is twelve miles to one •inch; the same as that of all the others. Index of Colours and Signs. The colours and signs adopted are similar to those used by the Geological Survey of Great Britain. The oldest sedimentary rocks in this district are placed at the lower part of the scale, so that the order ob- served may be considered chronological; for instance, in Cumberland, Westmorland and the Lake District, the lower SILURIAN PERIOD as represented by the SJdddaw Slates (b 2), is the oldest within the area, although not so in Wales, Scotland, and some other parts of England, where the Cambrian and. Archcean rocks have been observed. These SJdddaw Slates are therefore placed, in the lower part of the scale although not in the lowest, for this position is occupied by the crimson space marked G, which includes not only granite but other igneous and intrusive rocks. Although granite was formerly considered as it were the basement rock of all other forma- tions, it has been proved since then to be frequently a later deposit than the rocks amongst which it occurs. Sir Andrew Ramsay believes that the granite rocks he has seen are simply the result of the extreme of metamorphism brought about by great heat (under enormous pressure) with pre- sence of water. In fact granite and some other igneous rocks are supposed to be the result of both heat and pressure in the presence of water on the materials of the sedimentary rocks among which they are found, and it is certain that wherever exposed, the fact is evident of enormous denuda- tion of the strata above, which at the time of their formation oontributed towards that very pressure and heat necessary for the conversion of the deposits subject to them into granite and other so-called igneous rocks. Their position, therefore, on the scale is not unnatural, although it must be Index of Colours and Signs — Granite. 141 borne in mind that the sediments which have been so con- verted must have preceded them. Omitting the Glacial Drift, which is not shown on the map, the most recent formation {Lias gi) is placed at the top of the scale. The colours,- letters and numerals which are used to distinguish the for- mations, are the same as those used by the Geological Survey of Great Britain, in order that the student may all the more easily recognise them when consulting the maps and horizontal sections of that department. In the explanation just given there is no diflBculty in making it evident that the younger rocks would necessarily lie on the older, in chronological order ; or that, if the several deposits had successively taken place without any disturbing influences from below, the artificial arrangement in the column of formations might have been a tolerably correct representation of what would have been found in nature under such placid conditions. The history of these geolo- loo-ical formations, however, tells us that from time to time grand and prolonged disturbances did take place, and that during their activity the crust of the earth was constantly being upheaved in one part of the world and depressed in another; that it was subject to enormous vertical and lateral pressure, the result being widespread movements; so that what was once beneath the sea and formed its bottom, was projected above its level and became dry land ; this elevation was not only gradual but persistent, until the topmost parts of the folds, into which the crust was at times thrown by enormous lateral pressure, attained in some regions altitudes amounting to thousands of feet above the sea from below which, they had been uplifted; this uplifting into the atmosphere rendered the exposed islands and continents liable to the immediate attacks of the denuding influences of rain, snow,, frost and ice, so that the most recent deposits of the elevated land would be washed back again into the sea by the rivers- that flowed down the flanks of the land-masses ; these deposits- .142 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. would then be spread out over the sea-bottom ia the form ■of gravel, sand and mud, and form other rocks, which in their turn would be upheaved and denuded in a similar manner. In the meantime the first elevated land, owing to other movements, would again retire below the sea level, and perchance to a great depth, where in its turn it would form the bed of the ocean, and as such receive again the washings from some adjacent continent that had been elevated as they once had been, and was undergoing denudation as it was once demided ; but this ancient continent, now the bottom of the ocean again, has altered in structure since its once regularly piled strata were first upheaved ; now these strata are no longer regular and horizontal, nor even only curved in outline. From the time they first ceased to be the bed of the ocean, through that during which they had been thrust up- wards and converted into land, they have undergone changes in structure and position, brought about by heat and pressure. What were once horizontal, have been folded, so that they have been bent into wave-like ridges, characterized by troughs ■{syncli7ies), and crests (anticlines) ; the latter once formed the highly strained curves of the first mountain chains, but yielding more readily to the disintegrating influence of rain and frost than the compact synclines, or primeval valleys, were first brought low, until at last their strained and un- supported strata, gradually shivered by winter ice and washed down by summer torrents, were reduced to the level oE the troughs, and even many thousand feet below them in some cases, until what were the first valleys stood out as mountain tops, towering above the relics of the up- turned strata around them; all that might be left of what once formed the boundaries of the valleys and the flanks of the primeval mountains. On gradually subsiding below the sea-level these truncated upturned strata would then be .subjected to marine denudation, which would give a last and more equable planing, but whilst doing so the position of the Index of Colours — Lower Silurian. 143 strata would remain the same; so that when at last they once more became the bottom of the sea, they would receive the deposits from its waters on their planed edges, whilst the new formations would collect in horizontal layers upon them, and thus would be unconformable to the hardened strata below them, which at one point may be vertical, whilst in others they may lie at angles from 90^ to 0°, or from be- ing vertical to being parallel with the horizon, when the new deposits above would, although rarely, be found lying parallel ■or conformable with the older rocks below. LOWER SILUEIAN—SEIDDAW SLATES (bj). But the rocks themselves vary in their mode of origin. They are not all composed of the waste of elevated land washed down by rivers and distributed over the bed of the sea. The Sldddaio Slates (ba) are described by J. Clifton Ward, F.Gr.S., in his admirable memoir on the geology of the northern part of the Lake District, as consisting of many alternations of mud, sand and grit deposits, now converted into slate, sandstone and grit-stone, and these metamorphosed in some parts into Ghiastolite slate (or charred argillaceous sedimentary rock, with scattered chiastolite crystals), spotted schist and mica schist. No beds of Limestone occur in the series, and the traces of the ancient life of the period are scant. Spotted (or Andalusite) schist is an imperfectly foli- ated rock with numerous spots (undeveloped chiastolite crystals, passing into mica schist, which is a foliated rock, consisting mainly of mica and quartz. There can be little doubt that the Sldddaio Slates had their origin in what had been washed into the sea of the period from land adjacent, which Mr. Ward considers was to the west ; further, he is of opinion that they indicate comparatively shallow water, and shore conditions. The series of rocks that are next above the Skiddaw Slates and resting upon them, have a totally different origin. The clay slates, just 144 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. briejBy described, were seen to be the result of the action of water on exposed land surfaces. rOLCAmO SERIES OF BOBBOWDALE (F^ 1)2). The rock series next to be noticed will be found to be the result of the action of intense heat, not upon exposed land surfaces, but on the material of the earth's crust far beneath its surface and the level of the sea. Whilst the ancient landy the waste of which had been going on for untold ages, was being stripped and lessened in thickness and area, the heat below, due perhaps to the enormous pressure to which por- tions of the earth's crust were subject, gave such expansive power to the rocks deep down in the earth's interior, as to enable them at last to break bounds upwards, and, through the outlet made, discharge torrents of volcanic ashes and scoriae into the air, and lava over the land ; the former after a time falling to the ground to form layer after layer of volcanic dust, until a vast thickness had been acquired during ages of oft- repeated outbursts. Such is the supposed origin of the deposits known as the Volcanic Series of Borrowdale (Fg bo), which Mr. J. Clifton "Ward describes as rocks almost wholly made up of volcanic ash and breccia, alternating with ancient sheets of lava, and the whole traversed by dykes and masses of intrusive igneous rocks. Fossils are altogether absent. CONISTON LIMESTONE SEBIES (bg). Time went on ; the volcanoes, which had covered the land with thousands of feet of ashes, breccia and lava, at last had exhausted themselves ; calm, such as it was, followed, during which the atmospheric agents attacked the elevated mountain mass, the materials of which had fallen through the air and been arranged in layers, more or less uniform,, until the huge pile had attained an altitude of many thousands of feet. Rain and rivers, frost and ice attacked this stu- pendous cone or cones, as they had the old land on the west The Coniston Limestone Series. 145 of the Siluriau sea, in wticli the Skiddaw Slates were formed, and the ashes, breccia and lava were hurried away to the sea below ; but whilst this was doing, the land of volcanic birth began to sink bodily, until it was sheltered from further spoliation by sinking many fathoms below the level of the sea, the bed of which it became at last. Then it was that it became the resting place of the waste from the land that still remained above ; which for ages continued joined to its depressed portion. At last complete submergence of the volcanic land took place. Daring this time the sea- bed was collecting the material of those rocks that are now known as the Coniston Limestone Series (bg) ; which consist of, (] ) dark flaggy shales, having ashy beds intercalated among them (the Dufion Shales, H. B. Woodward, p. 82), with bands of nodular limestone near their base ; to which suc- ceeded, (2) the Coniston Limestone, consisting of hard grey calcareous slabs and slates, containing either nodules or thin bands of dark blue crystalline limestone of variable char- acter. Above the limestone are, (3) the Ash QUI Shales, con- sisting of grey and green calcareous mudstones, sometimes aflfected by cleavage, with grey crystalline limestone in the lower part. All these three divisions are included under the term " Coniston Limestone " (bg) in the map. With the Coniston Limestone series end the Lower Silurian formations of the Lake District. In the first and second series, the SJciddaw Slates and Borrowdale series, there was no limestone, in the last this rock was abundant. In the first, evidence of ancient life was scant ; in the second, totally absent ; and in the third it was abundant. Dr. Hicks is of opinion (Woodward, p. 61), that the earlier stages of the Loiver Silurian (Skiddaw Slates), which he includes under the Cambrian period, the climate was probably very cold, gradually becoming milder, until in time warm currents or seas of moderately high temperature pre- vailed, as indicated by the growth of corals. The moUusca L 146 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. and the trilobites indicate marine conditions, and the sand and muddy sediments indicate the nearness of land. With regard to the volcanic ashes of the Borrowdale series, Sir Andrew Kamsay remarks that when we consider the vast amount of these products of ancient volcanoes, there can be no doubt that, rising from the sea, some of them must have rivalled Etna in height, and as most volcanoes have a conical form, we can easily fancy the magnificent cones of those of the Lower Silurian Age.* In the Lake District the Goniston Limestone series (bg) separates the Lower Silurian, consisting of the Volcanic series of Borrowdale (F^ ba), and Skiddaw Slates (bg) from the Upper Silurian consisting of the following, from below up- wards : — Upper Silurian' (bg-b,). 1. StocJcdale Shales or Slates (bg) (in the lettering of the index, by an error, " Goniston Grits " have been placed where these should have been). These beds are considered to be the basement beds of the Upper Silurian ; they form certain cal- careous and gritty bands. Mr. Woodward mentions that Pro- fessor Hughes has pointed out that the graptolite mudstones, and their basement bed at Skelgill, rest on the Goniston Limestone bands, and near Goniston on the Ashgill shales. As indicated by fossils the life-forms of this basement bed do not agree with those found in the beds below them, but agree in all respects with those characteristic of the Upper Silurian period. These beds consist of pale grey and purple shales with graptolites, and containing calcareous grit of conglomerate at their base, the Stockdale shales being com- paratively soft, their occurrence is generally marked by a low tract of ground. Goniston Grits and Flags (bg). These rest conformably upon the pale shales and graptolitic mudstones of the base- " Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain," 5tli ed. p. 81. upper Silurian — Coniston Grits, etc. 147 bed ; they consist of bard, siliceous sandstone or grit, flags and conglomerate, with thin bands of slate. The Coniston Grits are estimated as having a thickness of 4,200 feet, and the Flags 2,000 feet (H.B.W.). We now come to what in Wales and the West of England are known as the Ludlow rocks (b,), which in the Lake District are characteristic by certain local names, such as Bannisdale Slates and Kirhy Moor Flags. The Bannisdale Slates. Mr. Aveline describes these slates as consisting of sandy mudstones divided by thin bands of hard sandstone, and occasional beds of grit. The beds some- times exhibit false bedding and ripple marks. The sandy mudstones are much pointed and roughly cleaved, never making good slates, but often large rough slabs. The boundary line between Bannisdale Slates and Coniston Grits is very indefinite owing to the alternation of slaty and gritty beds near the junction. These are more or less the equiva- lents of the Lower Ljudlow. The Kirhy Moor Fla.gs come next in succession. These are considered the equivalents of the Upper Ludlow rocks. They consist of grey calcareous flagstones and grits, sometimes in thick beds, locally stained of a reddish colour, of coarse tex- ture, and often exhibiting a massive concretionary structure. It also contains bands of coarse slate and tile-stone. The estimated thickness of these beds is 2,000 feet (H.B.W.). Throughout the Upper Silurian period life was abundant. Mr. Aveline has proved the complete unconformity of the Coniston Limestone and overlying beds, to the volcanic series. This unconformity, Mr. Ward remarks, probably represents the time during which the volcanic land area was being depressed beneath the GoniHlon Limestone and Upper Silurian Sea. The latest volcanic efforts may have been made during the deposition of the Coniston Limestone, for it contains interstratified and fossiliferous ashy-looking beds and probably a lava-flow ; this probable lava, west of the 148 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. Shap granite, is a true felstone and quite unlike the old lavas of the district in character. Thus, over the whole district, during very long periods, there were deposited upon the series of volcanic strata a great thickness of llfper Silurian beds, amounting, Mr. AveMne estimates, in the Kendal District to at least 14,000 feet. At the close of the Upper Silarian period, there is every reason to believe that in the northern part of the present Lake District, the Sldddaiv Slates (bg) were buried deeply beneath the whole of the volcanic series of Borrow- dale.(Fsb2) from 12,000 to 15,000 feet in thickness, and the ?7pper Silurian strata (bg-by), perhaps 14,000 feet, making altogether some 25,000 to 30,000 feet of rock above the topmost beds of the Shiddaw Slate. Mr. J. Clifton Ward thus summarizes the above facts as follows : (1) The most ancient geologic records in the dis- trict (the Skiddaio Slates) indicate marine conditions with a probable proximity of land. (2) Submarine volcanoes broke out during the close of this period, followed by an elevation of land, with continued volcanic eruptions, of which perhaps the present site of Keswick was one of the chief centres. .{3) Depression of the volcanic district then ensued beneath the sea, with the probable cessation of volcanic activity ; much denudation was effected ; other slight volcanic outbursts accompanied the formation of the Goniston Lhnestone (bg), and then the old deposits of Skiddaw Slates (bg), and vol- canic .material {Volcanic series of Borroivdale) (Fs bj) were buried thousands of feet deep beneath strata formed in the Upper Silurian Sea [StocMale Slates and Goniston Grits (bg), and Ludloiv Beds) (b,) consisting of Bannisdale Slates and the Kirhy Moor Flags. We now leave the Silurian rocks ; but before proceeding to another chapter in the geological history of this district, it will be well to make the following observations. In the first place the term Silurian was applied to the Summary of Geological Events. 149 rocks first discovered by Morcliison, on account of their great development in that portion of Wales which the Silures, a Keltic race, once occupied. The Geological Survey of Grreat Britain still retain the term as applied by Murchison ; some recent authors, however, have adhered to Prof, Sedg- wick's classification and included the Lower Silurian under the heading Upper Cambrian; and Mr. H. B. Woodward in his admirable work on " Tiie Geology of England and Wales," which I have had occasion so frequently to quote, adopts this classification, but throughout this work the nomenclature and classification of the Geological Survey of Great Britain have been followed. Secondly, as the oldest rocks in our district, not only derive their name from a people once inhabiting the part of Wales where they are well developed and first well studied, it will be well to place side by side the several formations that occupy somewhat similar horizons in Wales and the Lake District ; and this I shall now do as a supple- ment to the list of formations attached to the " Index of Colours " given in the " Geological Map " on p. 150. After the great and long-continued Silurian depression and accumulation, during that vast period of the formation of the Upper Silurian above the volcanic series, there occurred in this area a break in the succession af geological forma- tions, so that the next series of formations, the Devonian, and Old Bed Sandstone, so well developed in Devonshire, in. the South of Wales, and in Scotland, are not represented in' the Lake District ; or at least only imperfectly, if at all. Mr. J. Chfton Ward has made the following remarks on. this subject. Old Red Sandstone Period. Most likely the greater part,, if not the whole of this period, is unrepresented by deposits in the Lake District. The so-called Upper Old Bed being- probably but the basement bed of the Carboniferous series. The reason for this absence of Old Red rocks seems clear. 150 The Geographical Distribution of Diseases. r-T-. c3 03 03 PI PI M m 03 O o CO CO C5 > o o "^ ^ rh ^^ fl ^1 fH o^ _bc '^ P P 03 •a'Bun|ig J9ddj2 CO CO -u CO ."t^ =« 03 ^m pq ton dale ^ OD ^ f— * •P ^ S p p ^J OO2 1 — 1 1 1 J3 _D 1 1 1 1 •□Bun{ig aaMoq; 03 a i-i p -ij CZ3 03 P P -4-1 00 03 ;-i CS 03 !- — 1