CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARILS ITHACA, N. Y. 14583 JOHN MLOUN UaRAftY Cornell University Library F 3408.G95 The Amazon provinces of Peru as a field 3 1924 010 462 251 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924010462251 — .THE Amazon Provinces of Peru As a Field f 07" European Emigration. A STATISTICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW OF THE COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES, INCLUDING THE GOLD AND'SILVER MINES TOGETHER WITH A mass of Useful and Vabtabk Information, WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS, BY H. GUILLAUME, F.R.G.S. Consul- Gaieral-for Peru, in Southampton, DELEGATE MEMBER DE LA SOCIEDAD OBREROS DEL PORVENIR DE AMAZONAS DEL PERU, MEMBER OF THE ASSOCIATION OF.l'OREIGN CONSULS. lonbott: I \J' f; WYMAN & SONS, 74-76, GREAT QUEEN STREET, lincoln's-inn fields. ■ i 1888. ^\y WYMAN AND SONS, PRINTERS, GREAT QUEEN STREET, UNCOLn's-INN FIELBS, LONDON, W.C. L|L|L| TO HIS EXCELLENCY GENERAL ANDRES AVELINO CACERES, PrcSiltent of tjr Mrpublt'c of ^nu, WITH THE HOPE THAT IT MAY ASSIST HIM (X I'HE XOBLK WORK WHICH IS THE OBJECT OF HIS LIFE, VIZ. : — THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE INTERESTS OF PERU, Ci^tS BSaorft is most rrsprrtfullt) JBeliitafttt, BV HIS VERY HUMBLE AND OBEDIENT SERVANT, THE AUTHOR. Bfag^a PREFACE, J|HE present treatise owes its origin to a small pamphlet placed in the writer's hands [ on the 8th of April, 1886, by Senor Don Alejandro de Ydiaquez, then on the point 01 embarking from Southampton for Peru. The pamphlet was issued in Lima, December, 1885, by a society known as " La Sociedad Obreros del Porvenir de Amazonas del Peru" (the Society for the Exploration and Colonisa- tion of Peru), which has for its president the enlightened Dr. Albornoz, of the city of Chachapoyas, and the writer was urged to make a translation for the benefit of the English people. From that time until now the author has unceasingly endeavoured to accomplish that object, having only delayed doing so until he was in possession of further information respecting the vast resources of that fertile country, so as to place a fuller description of it before those for whom it was intended. It appeared to him that the efforts that have been, and are still being, made by the Society are so laudable that, when the facts become fully known in this country, Englishmen would not be found wanting to join in the important work. V! THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Notwithstanding the many favourable reports made by the English scientific travellers, Clements R. Markham, J. B. Minchin, Simpson, Bates, and others, who have from time to time visited these regions and reported on their great natural resources, it seems incredible that their noble efforts, made for the benefit of the people of Europe, should have as yet borne no fruit ; and that this immense territory, so fertile and abounding in the richest mercantile products, which would be of such great value to European industry in general and that of England in particular, should still remain ignored by commercial enterprise. Not long since, when the subject was prominently brought before one of the meetings of the Royal Geographical Society, by Mr. J. B. Minchin, in a paper giving the result of his travels in Eastern Bolivia, the noble chairman. Lord Aberdare, expressed his opinion as follows : — " I cannot understand how it is that Englishmen take so much interest in Africa and not in South America. I suppose it is only on account of the spirited adventures of Livingstone and others, which have aroused attention to the country." Professor Raimondi, the eminent scientist, lately said : — "It appears to be a thing incredible that Peru— this land of proverbial wealth — which at the time of the Spanish Conquest filled with gold the chests of the exhausted Spanish Treasury, has been up till recently, and one may say up to the present time, almost a terra i7icognita to the people of Europe," PREFACE Vll The object of this treatise is to set forth in an unbiassed accouiit the interior of the country, and the resources of its vast uncultivated regions, without ignoring the difficulties and obstacles which have to be overcome. In order to clearly show the physical and geographical position of these regions, resource has been had to the valuable and reliable reports made by Peruvian, English, German, and other scientific explorers, down to the present time. It will be seen from these reports, that the chief impedi- ment to the development of the resources of the interior of Peru has hitherto been the want of communication with the coast, in consequence of the stupendous moun- tains which form so formidable a barrier, and seem to say to man, " Thus far shalt thou go, and no further ; " but this gigantic obstacle is now about to be overcome by the extension of the great lines of railway, which will be the means of attracting emigration to the country, and thereby developing its resources, and thus a great impetus to trade and commerce will be given, to the mutual benefit of Peru and the populous countries of Europe. That Peru is a country desirous of taking her proper place amongst the nations of the world is evidenced by its gigantic lines of railway, which have been constructed at an immense expenditure of toil and money. These works have been designed not so much for the benefit of her scanty population, as for the advantage of the population which, it is hoped, will be attracted thither. Like her prosperous sister, the Argentine Republic, Peru, unable to colonise these vast territories herself, generously offers them to all honest labourers, who may come VIU Tilt AMAZON PROVINCES OF PUKU. and share with her the vast natural resources they contain, and who will be guaranteed a permanent title to the land equally with natural-born subjects. It is satisfactory to perceive that the commendable efforts of Peru will probably soon be crowned with success, by means of the Panama Canal. The day when that great work is completed will mark a new era in the history of the country, and she will enter upon a new career of progress and prosperity. It will be seen from the following chapters how varied and rich are the resources of the country, and that the colonist will not be confined, as in other less favoured lands, to the growing of corn crops, with which the markets of the world are already so abundantly supplied, but will be enabled to cultivate crops in greater demand in the markets of Europe, and which are found in these regions, growing naturally, ■ and in boundless luxuriance. In the present treatise, the subject of mines has been but lightly touched upon, being so extensi\'e ; the author of the present work is compiling another, dealing exclusively with that subject. The author begs to acknowledge with deep gratitude, his indebtedness to the following gentlemen : — Professor Antonio Raimondi and Seiior Leonardo Pfliicker y Rico, for their kindness in permitting him to translate passages from their works ; Seiior Don A. Espinosa, late secretary to the Legation, London ; Don Benjamin Alvarez, Consul-General of Peru, Liverpool ; 31 r. A. R. Robertson, Consul for Peru, London; Herr Jean Notzli, mineralogist and explorer, C.ijamarca, Peru ; Mr. Otto PREl'ACb. IX Ringeling, Lima ; Mr. J. D. Osmers, botanist, and others, for the valuable information and assistance which they have so kindly rendered him. His aim has been to second the laudable efforts made by the illustrious chief of the State, and all patriotic Peruvians, to bring these extensive undeveloped regions of Peru within the orbit of Christianity and civilisation ; and he expresses a fervent hope that at the present time, when emigration forms an all-absorbing topic in this country, the claims of Peru, as set forth in this work, will not be overlooked by those engaged in forwarding the various schemes for colonisation, and seeking favourable homes for the surplus population of Great Britain ; and may that hopeful spirit of enterprise be ever innate in the breasts of Englishmen, as described by the poet Campbell : — The pride to rear an independent shed, And give the lips we love Tinborrow'd bread, * * ft ♦ ft •■ To skirt our home with harvests w idely sown. And call the blooming landscape all our own, Our children's heritage, in prospect long — These are the hopes, high-minded hopes and strong, That beckon England's wanderers o'er the brine, To realms where foreign constellations shine. H. GUILLAUME. rERUvi.\.N Consulate, South am pto.n, August, 1887. The following is a copy of a letter the author has re- ceived from Clements R. Markham, Esq., C.B., F.R.S., Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, &c., &c., the distinguished English traveller and scientist, who for many years travelled in Peru making scientific studies, and who possesses an intimate knowledge of the country. " 21, ECCLESTON SQUARE, "May lo, 1887. "Dear Sir, " I rejoice to hear that you are bringing out a work on the ' Amazon Provinces of Peru,' and I trust that its publication will have the effect of promoting colo- nisation, and spreadmg a more correct knowledge of the resources of Peru. " I consider that the slopes of the Eastern Andes, within the Republic of Peru, are very suitable for European colo- nisation, and offer an admirable field for industrial enter- prise. " Yours faithfully, "Clements R. Markham." TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. EXTENT BOUNDARIES, GENERAL DESCRIPTION, CLIMATE, AND HISTORY. Extent, Boundaries page i Configuration of the Country — the Coast, the Puna, THE Sierra, and the Montana i Climate ... 3 Salubrity of the Sierr.v 5 Longevity of the Indians, Mineral Springs ... ... 6 Ancient History' of Peru 7 Modern History of Peru ... 10 CHAPTER n. c.eneral description of the amazon pro\'inces, or MONTANA. Report of the Exploration and Colonisation Society 14 The Necessity for Immigration Cahuapanas, Chachapoyas, Moyabamba Animals, Birds, Fish, Turtle Vegetable Products of the Montana Gold Washing on the Tributaries of the Maranon. How to Develop the Gold Washings Proposed Construction of a Railway to Cahuapanas Distance from one Extremity to the other, N.E. to S.W 2% ..17 -iS ..18 -20 20 22 23 24 CHAPTER HI. products OF THE MONTANA. Fruits of the Montana 26 Trees of THE Montana — The India-Ru beer Tree ... 2S Drugs, Dyes, Gums, and Textile Plants 33 Palms, Orchids 38-39 THrC AiMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER IV. THE RIVERS, INDIAN TRIBES, AND VOCABULARIES. Report of SeSor A. Larrea, Commander of Iqimtos, ON THE Rivers The Rivers Ucayali, Purus, Yurua, &c. ... The River Putumayo Steam Launches required for the Mara.non Yurrimaguas Exploration of the River Morona List of Latitudes and Longitudes, Elevation, Distance of Places on the Maranon Indian Tribes Indian Vocabularies Population of the Amazon page 40 43 44 45 47 48 •, and 49 ...50 -54 •■•55 -58 59. CHAPTER V. reports of scientific travellers. Report of M. Olivier Ordinaire 60 ,, SeNor Melina, Sub-Prefect ,., .. 62 ,, Professor Orton 71 „ Professor Antonio Raimondi 72 Mr. a. Wertheman 74 Mr. Jean Notzli 75 ,, Mr. Otto Ringeling 77 ,, Mr. J. D. OsMERS 79 ,, A British Naval Officer 80 No.mination of a Commission by the Prefect of Caja- marca 81 Account of Funds received by the Council of Dele- gates of the Exploration Society 82 Appointment of the Author as Delegate Member of the Exploration Society . S3 CHAPTER VI. THE RAILROADS OF PERU. Government Railroads 86 F'ROFnssoR Okton's descriptio.n ... 87-94 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. the sierra, or mountain districts. Report of the Prefect of the Junin Department Cajamarca QUEBRADA OF TaMBOPATA Products of the Sierra Vegetables — Lucerne, &c Fruits of the Sierra — The Chirimoya The Palta— The Lucuma, &c The Quinua The Coca AND Cocaine The Puna The Llama, Alpac.\, VicuSa, &c. PARTM! .NT page 95 97 98 99 lOI- -104 105, 106 107- -109 no III 112 "3- -115 CHAPTER Vni. the gold and silver mines of CERRO DE PASCO AND VAULI. I, ibT of the Mining Districts 116 Wealth of the Cerro de Pasco and other Mines ... 117 Coal AND Petroleum iiS, 119 The Cerro de Pasco Mines .. ... 119 Formation of the Ores of ditto ... 120 Geological Formation OF ditto ... 120-124 List of Mines IN the Cerro DE Pasco 125 The Coal Deposits in ditto 126 The Manufacture OF Magistral 127 Professor Orton on the Silver Mines of Cerro de Pasco jin The Silver Mines of Yauli ... 130 Thermal Springs IN DITTO 132 The Carahuacra Vein IN ditto 133 List OF Mines IN ditto '34-137 The Labour Difficulty... 13; Llamas USED for Transport 138 List or Ores ... 141-151 ■^'IV 1-llK \,\[,\Z<)N PKIINI NCI'S (IF PI'.RU. CHAPTER IX. ON THE MINERALS OF THE ANCACHS DEPARTMENT. Geological Formation fage 152-15; 15+ 156 157 15.S 159 160 .161 ■63 164 The Production OF Silver Coal Deposits Professor Orton on the Ancachs Dei'osits The Mines of Salpo, Quiruvilca antj Huamacuucu Salpo Mines Geological Formation List of the Mines and their Yield of Silver Quiruvilca AND its Mines HUAMACHUCO AND ITS YiELD OF GOLD HuAMACHUCO, ITS Coal Mines CHAPTER X. THE GOLD .MINI'S OF J'ERU. The Carabaya Gold JIiNEs The Lump of Gold discovered jn them Method OF Working THE Gold Mines Geological Formation ... Working Gold in the Beds of the Rivers Necessity OF Good Roads Reports of English Travellers on the Carabaya Mines 177 The Mining Laws OF Peru 178-1S8 General Register of Mines i So -202 168 169 170 171 17-+ 176 CHAPTER XI. POLITICAL ORGANISATION. DEPARTMENTS. KDVt WI'lON. The Government AND Municipal Corporations , ... 20; Departments AND Provinces 20 • Male Population 204-2iq Education 220 Senor Mariano Paz Soldan— Senor Antonio Raiwondi 221 Character OF the Peruvian People 222 Periodical Publications TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER XII. EMIGRATION. Emigration Laws page 224 Chanchamayo Colony 225-229 CoDiGO CivTL OF Peru 230 Protection to Foreigners in Peru 232 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation 234-237 CHAPTER XIII. trade between england and peru— commercial statistics. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company The Amazon Steam Navigation Company Sugar Imports TO England Gold and Silver Coin and Bars Imported to England vid Southampton Importation OF Wool List of General Exports from England to Peru ,, ,, Imports TO England from Peru List of English Companies and Merchants resident Peru List of General Merchants trading with Peru Mining Statistics — Statistics of Mines owned ... Minerals Exported Customs Revenue List of British Consuls resident in Peru Telegraph Wires — Postage National Revenue and Expenditure, 1887-1888 ... Peruvian Money Tables of Measurement and Weights Tariff of Passages Cost of Voyage UP the Amazon Conclusion 238 239 240 md 241 241 242, .243 244 IN 245 245 , 246 247 ... 247 248 249 249 250-252 252 253 i-261 261 -262 263 ... 255 Appendix ► 267 LIST OF PLATES. 1. The Prfsident frontispiece. 2. City of Lima page i 3. City OF Cuzco 7 4. Ancient Writing ... ... ... ... ... 9 5. Gold Washing ON THE River Urubamba 22 6. A Cinchona Forest 32 7. A Grove OF Quin-quinas 35 8. The Napo, with a view of the Llangunali Mountains in the Distance 43 9. An Improvised Bridge i>f a gorge near Napo ... 45 10. The Amazon AT THE Mouth OF theNapo ... 47 11. An Indian NEAR Pebas ... S' 12. Indians ON THE UcAYALi S3 13. Journey on Litter near Napo 55 14. Chicla, present termination of the Oroya Railroad 81 15. Cast-iron Bridge of the Oroya Railway ... 88 16. Tunnel on THE Oroya Railway 90 17. The Chinchilla 113 18. The Llama 114 19. Mining Hacienda of Pomacancha 130 20. Old Copper Works, Morococha 139 21. Map OF THE Ancachs Department 152 22. Map OF the Car AV AY A Valley 168 23. The River Maniri, near the Golden Hills OF Camanti 174 24. The Golden Hills of Camanti 176 25. A Party of Ladies and Gentlemen op Lima giving a Concert 223 26. Manaos ... 263 27. Map of the Amazon ... 265 28. Map of the Paucartambo and Carabaya Valleys— Appendix . 288 29. TheRiverChuntapunco, Tributary of the Cconi 290 30. Old Dam in the River Garote .. 292 31. Torrent Stream, Saniaca 292 32. Mouth OF the River CucHOA ... 292 ■s THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER I. Extent, Boundaries, General Description, Climate and History. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES. PERU is situated in South America, between the parallel i°S. and 19° S. latitude; between 68° and 8i° 20' 45" longitude W. On the west it is washed by the Pacific Ocean, having an extensive coast-line of 1,300 miles. It is bounded on the north by the republics of Equador and Colombia, on the east by the Brazils and Bolivia, and on the south by Bolivia and Chili. The most northern port on the Pacific is Tumbes. The boundary-line commences a short distance north of that port ; it runs southward as far as the river Macara, following its course until about lat. 3°, long. 7 9°, thence it rises in a north-easterly direction by Andoas, to Santa Rosa, which is the extreme northern point of Peru. The line then passes from the river Napo to the Brazilian frontier, which commences at the confluence of the Apaporis with the Yapura, 1° 31' 29" 5 S. lat, 69° 24' 55" 5 W. long., thence to the point of juncture of the river Catuhd with the Putumayo, 2° 53' 12" 8 S. lat., 69° 40' 28" 55 W. long. ; it thence descends, cutting the Putumayo three times, to San Antonio, 4° 13' 21" S. lat., 69° 54" 00 W. long., as fixed by the Peruvian Brazilian Commission of 1873. The Commis- sion of 1874 fixed the eastern boundary as follows : — "The line descends the rivers Guapord and Mamore, which form the Madera, to a point half-way between the Amazon and 2 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. the mouth of the Mam ore (6° 5 2 S. lat), thence it passes east to west to the river Yavari, 6° 59' 29" 5 S. lat., 74° 6' 26" 69 W. long., ascending that river to the Maranon." The boundaries between Peru and Bolivia have never been definitely fixed, but it is understood the line follows the river Beni to the Andes, traversing the lake Titicaca, and thence follows the Andes until it reaches the river Camarones,' which river now forms the boundary between Peru and Chili, as determined by the treaty of peace. The area of Peruvian territory is 500,000 square miles, being as large as England^ France, Spain, and Portugal put together. CONFIGURATION OF THE COUNTRY. The Andes range of mountains, after quitting Bolivia, branches into three colossal chains, extending inland for a distance of 250 miles, viz., the western chain, which is known as the Cordillera de la Costa (coast range of mountains), the Central Cordillera, which attains a height of 20,000 feet, with passes at 15,000 feet, and the Andes,^ or Eastern Cordillera, which is of lesser elevation than the other ranges. Peru is therefore divided into four distinct longitudinal regions, viz., the Coast, the Puna, the Sierra, and the Montaria. (i.) The first, lying along the Pacific slope, enjoys a sunny sky, but has the peculiarity that rain never falls there, and thus, for the want of moisture, it is for the most part a sandy desert ; but where it is broken by streams and valleys there is surprising fertility, and the sugar-cane and cotton-plant grow in great luxuriance. (2.) The Puna comprises the high table-lands and cold regions lying between the coast and central ranges, which is the home of the Peruvian sheep, the llama, alpaca, vicuna, &c., and also of the chinchilla, a small animal like a rabbit, ' Chili holds territory north of this boundary to the river Sama until 1893. ^ The name Andes is derived from the Quichua word Antasuya , Anta signifying metal and suya a district. In common parlance suya was dropped and the termination a in Anta converted into is. The Spaniards, according to their practice of corrupting the words of the Quichua language, substituted Andes for Antis. — (Garcilasso de laVega. ) The historian, General Miller, however, supposes that it was from "Andenes," as the steps or terraces, which were cut in the mountains lor the purpose ot cultivation, were called by the Spaniards. CLIMATE. 3 well known for its valuable fur. It is subject to rain and snow in the winter season. (3.) The Sierra is also a high table-land of lesser eleva- tion, lying between the central and eastern range, and has a temperate climate, being subject to snow and rain during the winter season. This is the region for the growth of corn, barley, potatoes, and other European products, and here the valuable Peruvian sheep are reared, as in the Puna. It is also the region of mines and precious metals. These high lands extend from 50 to 100 miles, and are about 950 miles in length. In these regions are situate the cities of Cuzco, 11,380 feet above the sea, Ayacucha, and Cerro de Pasco. (4.) The fourth region — the Montaria or forest country — is that immense region lying along the slopes of the third or eastern range of the Andes mountains, and ex- tends to the Amazon. It remains as yet in its primitive state of nature, and is extremely interesting from the grandeur of its magnificent forest scenery. It has been described by many writers as worthy of the name of " the Ophir of Solomon," on account of the many rich and valu- able products which abound there. It consists, for the most part, of one boundless forest, in which flourish the india-rubber and cinchona-trees, as well as the coffee, cocoa, and vanilla, while torrent streams from the moun- tain bring down with them rich deposits of gold. The great network of rivers in this region offers a wide field of enterprise to steam navigation by way of the Amazon ; thus one of the richest quarters of the globe is waiting to be developed. CLIMATE. By reason of its lofty ranges of mountains, Peru, although situated in the tropics, has the advantage of enjoying a great variety of climate. In many parts the salubrity of the climate is such that it is even superior to some of the healthiest cities of Europe, and offers, according to the latitude andpecuhar circumstances of the localities, desirable advantages to European colonists. On the Pacific coast, at Lima and other towns, the heat of the sun is tempered by cool S.E. breezes, and the temperature throughout the year is very B 2 4 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. suitable to Europeans. At Lima the sun is scarcely ever hidden by clouds for a day throughout the whole year. The maximum temperature at Lima in the summer season is 78°, and in the winter season (June, July, August) 59°. The so-called winter season is like an English spring.' The Pacific coast of South America is much lower in tempera- ture in comparison with the eastern or Brazilian coast of the same latitude, by reason of the so-called " Humboldt current," which, flowing up from the Antarctic regions, and running parallel to the coast, has the effect of lowering the temperature. Mr. John Ball, F.R.S., in his isothermal map lately published, draws particular attention to this current, by which the climate of Peru is so much benefited. The mean annual temperature of the Amazon valley from Manaos to Tabatinga is 80°. Moyobamba, which stands 2,700 feet above the sea, has a mean annual temperature of 77°. The climate here is delightful. Nature is so prodigal that everybody can get a living except physicians. Chachapoyas, another most delightful town, is situated 7,600 feet above the sea-level, has a temperature ranging from 40° to 70°, with a mean annual temperature of 62° Fahr. The Pampas of Sacramento at Sarayacu has a minimum and maximum temperature of 75° and 85°, the altitude above the sea at Sarayacu being 165 mfetres=S42 feet. The eastern provinces, being at a considerable elevation above the sea-level, no part can be called unhealthy. The in- terior of the forests, through which the rays of the sun have not penetrated for centuries, are as free from malaria as the mountains. There are two seasons in the Montana or forest country — the dry season, from May to October, and the rainy season, from November to April. The largest amount of rainfall occurs in February and March ; the quantity of rain that falls is probably about seventy inches. The heavy rains carry off all the decaying matter, and the trade winds, which are continually blowing towards the Atlantic, follow the course of the river, and, combined with the current of the river, no doubt cause the salubrity of the climate along the Amazon. The same may be said ' In the mornings of the winter months the sky along the coast is frequently obscured by fog, "niebia," or by a falling mist called "garua," which is dispelled by the sun at noon. THE GALUBRITY OF THE SIERRA. 5 of all the large tributaries to the Marafion, as the Napo, Ucayali, and Huallaga; malarial fevers are almost confined to the small rivers. Professor Orton' writes : — " Epidemics are unknown, and dysentery is of comparatively rare occurrence on the Mara- fion. I repeat what I have said elsewhere, that the entire main tract of the Amazon, from Para to Borja, but especi- ally the Marafion, is as healthy as any tropical river in the world. The main river is certainly as healthy as the Mis- sissippi. In my judgment, the journey is as healthy as a pilgrimage to Egypt, and far more refreshing than any number of wanderings in the Adirondock. I have crossed the continent three times, and the Andes six times, and have not been ill a moment." THE SALUBRITY OF THE SIERRA. Mr. Clements R. Markham^ writes : — "From Cerro de Pasco there is a considerable descent southwards to the city of Jauja, the climate of which is said to be almost perfect for patients with pulmonary complaints. It is a charming little sierra town, and near it, on the eastern watershed, is Tarma, another sierra town, beautifully situated in an amphitheatre of mountains, clothed to their summits with waving fields of barley. The climate is delightful, so that no doctor can gain a living, and the one resident surgeon depends on a salary from the tax on spirits and the tolls on the bridge of Oroya." It was at the above-mentioned sierra town that Don Manuel Pardo resided for some time for the benefit of his health. He has written a pamphlet, in which he has given a full description of this delightful place, its mineral wealth, and its salubrious and bracing air. English and American doctors have recommended patients to the Andes moun- tains, and magic cures have been effected of aggravated forms of phthisis pulmonalis. Mr. Hilbck, the Consul-General for Germany in Peru, with whom the authorhad the honour of making acquaint- ance on the loth March, 1887, at Southampton, on his ^ "The Andes and Amazon,'' Dr. James Orton. New York ; Harper Bros. = " Peru," Clements R. Markham, C.B. London : Sampson Low & Co., 1880. 6 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. returning to Peru, stated that he had resided thirteen years at Piura and Caxamarca, and had never experienced any illness whatever. " Peru," he said, " is one of the healthiest countries of the world, and is highly suitable for European emigration, which is so much needed." Mr. Jean Notzli, an eminent geologist and mining en- gineer, informed the author that he had resided fifteen years in the Amazon regions and interior parts of Peru without ever having suffered any ill effects from the climate, but that he had always enjoyed the best of health there. {See his report, Chapter V.) LONGEVITY OF LIFE AMONGST THE INDIANS. Cases of longevity of life are numerous. The Indians are, on the average, remarkable for longevity, though they frequently shorten their lives by the intemperate use of strong drinks. Instances are not rare of Indians living to 120 or 130 years of age, and retaining full possession of their bodily and mental powers. Stevenson writes as follows : " On examining the church registers of Barranca, I found that within an interval of seven years, eleven Indians had been interred whose united ages amounted to 1,207, being an average of 109 years to each. In the year 1839 there was living in the valley of the Jauja an Indian who, according to the baptismal register shown to me by the priest, was born in the year 1697, being 142 years old. He himself declared that he had not for the space of ninety years tasted a drop of water, having drunk nothing but chicha.' Since he was eleven years of age he had masticated coca at least three times a day, and had eaten animal food only on Sundays : on all the other days of the week he lived on maize, quinua, and barley. The Indians retain their teeth and hair in extreme old age, and it is remarkable that the latter never becomes white and very seldom even grey. Those individuals, whose advanced ages have been mentioned above, had all fine black hair." MINERAL SPRINGS. No country is so bountifully supplied with so many mineral and warm springs as Peru. There are 120 mineral ' Chicha, the fermented juice of maize or mandioca. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 7 springs and warm baths, ranging from i6° to 91°. They are situated principally in the central regions — viz., Sierra and Cordillera, and they succeed each other almost without interruption from one extremity of the Republic to the other. ANCIENT HISTORY OF PERU. The history of the conquest of Peru has been recorded by the masterly hand of Prescott, but its ancient history, previous to the time of the Incas, remains yet to be written. At the time the Spaniards entered Peru they found it under the Inca^ dynasty, which commenced with Manco- Ccapac^ about three centuries previously. The name Peru was not known to the natives, the country was so named by the Spaniards, but historians are not agreed upon the source of its derivation. According to Garcilasso de la Vega, Peru was the ancient Ophir, whence Solomon drew such stores of wealth, which has in time been corrupted into Phiru, Piru, Peru. But it is more generally believed by Peruvians that their country derives its name from Viru, an Indian valley and river of the same name in the north of Peru, near Trujilio, where Pizarro formed his first city, and named it after his birthplace in Spain. The Indians called that district Viru, and therefore the old Spaniards believed it to be the name of the whole country, and which has since been corrupted to Peru. Ttahuantin-suya,^ or the four provinces, was the name the Incas called their country, which was divided into four provinces, or departments, which were subdivided into smaller sections, similar to the hundreds and tythings of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers. Cuzco* was the capital where the Incas built their Temple to the Sun, which they worshipped and called their father, and denominated themselves " Children of the Sun." Prescott says : " Cuzco was the ' holy city,' the great Temple of the Sun was the most magnificent structure in the New World, and unsurpassed, probably, in the cost- liness of its decorations by any building in the Old. The great temple was studded with gold plates, and the broad ' The word Inca in the Quichua dialect means king or lord. ' Ccapac signified great or powerful. It was applied to several of the successors of Manco. ' Thahua means four, suya a province. * Cuzco means navel ; signifies here the central region. 8 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. parterres adjoining it sparkled with gold in the many forms of vegetable life, which were skilfully imitated in gold and silver. On certain festivals the Incas used to exhibit their valuables in the great square at Cuzco, and the Spanish historian Sarmiento writes : — " It is certain that neither in Jerusalem, Rome, nor in Persia, nor in any other part of the world, was there ever collected in one place such a profuse magnificence of treasure in gold, silver, and jewels as at this place Cuzco." With respect to the Inca dynasty, .the historian Trezier states he saw the pictures of the Inca emperors painted by the Indians at Cuzco, in the proper habits, as large as life. He points out that Garcilasso de la Vega and Mon- talvo only mention eight emperors, whereas, according to the pictures, there were twelve, whose names with those of their wives were as follows : — A.D. The Emperors. Their Wives. I. — I02I. Manco Ccapac. Mama Oella Vako. 2. — 1061. Sinchi Lloccac. Kora. 3. — logi. Lloque Yupanqui.' Anavarqui. 4. — II 26. May ta Ccapac. Yachi. 5. — 1 1 56. Ccapac Yupanqui. Klava. 6. — 1 197. Inca Lloccac. Mikay. 7. — 1249. . Yahuar Huaccac. Chisia. 8. — 1289. Viraccocha. Runtu. 9. — 1340. Pachacutec. Anavarqui. 10. -1400. Inca Yupanqui. Chimpa Oello. II.— 1439. Tupac Yupanqui. Mama Oello. 12. — 1475. Guayna Ccapac. Koia Pilico Vaco. 1526. Huaacar " and Atahualpa, who were jointly reigning at the time of the conquest,' the former over the northern part and the latter over the southern part of the kingdom.'' ' Yupanqui signifies rich of all virtues. ''■ Huascar in the Quichua dialect signifies ' ' Cable. " The reason of its being given to the heir-apparent is remarkable. According to the Spanish writers Zarate and Garcilasso, Guayna Ccapac celebrated the birth of the prince by a festival, in which he introduced a massive gold chain for the nobles to hold in their hands as they performed their national dances. The chain was seven hundred feet long, with links nearly as big round as a man's wrist. ' In 1780 an unsuccessful attempt was made to restore the Inca dynasty by the Inca Cundurciraca, who assumed the name of Tupac Amaru. He succumbed after occupation of six provinces, and was sentenced to a very cruel death. * Prescott says: — "Their father, Guayna Ccapac, so fondly loved his younger son, Atahualpa, that on his death-bed he, contrary to the aiiuiiP; ABMiMlJ EMiPtjjl ^^B gBj f^^^E nff ICIttL^I tp^llfiMlll'l ■Hiim Found at Sicasica (Reduced to one-fifth. n i tm IS 2 w u % / "I # uo u irtl © iTi< ^ t 4^ ■ m 'J;! a; ^ f >^ 4 Found at Paucartamba (Reduced to one-fifth). SPECIMENS OF ANCIENT PERUVIAN WRITING. These writings, found in tombs, are written on tissue which had previously been dipped in gum or other preservative. The upper p lates represent the crucifixion of Christ, Ijoth are written in the same ideo-graphical system that the Indians knew before the conquest. /^acd page 9. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS. Throughout Peru there are extensive archaeological remains, consisting of ancient fortresses, aqueducts, and curi- ously-carved rocks covered with hieroglyphical signs, re- specting which no information has ever been obtained from the descendants of the Incas, and which remain to this day a problem for the scientific to solve.i It is the opinion of Dr. Thomas J. Hutchinson, ^ late H.B.M. Consul to Peru, that these ancient monuments attest the former existence of a powerful and civiUsed empire many centuries anterior to the era of the Inca dynasty. He bases his opinion upon the many beautifully-executed objects of art in terra-cotta, silver, and gold, the exquisite workmanship displayed in the construc- tion of the buildings, &c., which cannot be considered the work of savages but that of a people possessing consider- able knowledge of scientific and mechanical art, and says that these remains and relics bear a most striking similarity to the description given by Dr. Schliemann of those dis- covered at Homer's IHum. He is supported in his opinion by Dr. Archibald Smith, another explorer of Peruvian anti- quities, who says : — ''The gigantic architecture of Peru points to the Cyclopean family, the founders of the Temple of Babel and of the Egyptian Pyramids." In general, however, modem Peruvians do not take any great interest in the study of antiquities. Notwithstanding, there are several very fine collections in Lima owned by private persons ; worthy of mention are those of Dr. Macedo and Sehor Saenz. It is satisfactory to notice that these relics of past established usages of the realm, divided the empire between his two sons, and urged them to Uve in amity with each other, while he re- commended harmony between the successors to his authority. With his dying breath he subverted the fundamental laws of the empire, and left in this very division of it the seeds of inevitable discord. This it was that led to the country falling so easy a prey to the Spanish adventurers." ' Mr. A. Espinosa says : — " As far as the external appearance and the system of construction of the Incas are concerned, there is in my opinion good reason to believe that there is some close relationship between the culture of the Incas and of the Egyptians and Assyrians. " " Dr. Hutchinson has published a work entitled "Two Years in Peru," in which he gives a most interesting account of the archjeological remains of the country. lO THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. ages are beginning to receive attention at the hands of the Peruvian Government, as well as of certain private persons, and collections are now being made of these rare archaeo- logical relics, which lead to the hope that science will some day be rewarded by the discovery of the missing link that will throw light on the hidden history of this interesting country. MODERN HISTORY OF PERU. The discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 excited a spirit of adventure in Spain, and an eager desire was kindled in the breasts of Spaniards to profit by the work of the great navigator. Thereupon expeditions went forth, and the adventurers were rewarded by the conquest of Mexico. Francisco Pizarro, an officer of intrepid courage, and possessing remarkable powers of endurance, who had taken part in the conquest of Mexico, started, in the year 1524, on the project of extending Spanish conquests in the southern coast of America. His first voyage resulted in making valuable discoveries of the country, and he returned for reinforcements. In February, 1531, Pizarro again sailed from Panama with a small fleet of ships, and with a force consisting of 186 soldiers, of whom thirty-six were horsemen, and succeeded in effecting a safe landing at Tumbez, in the north of Peru. Fortunately for Pizarro, a civil war was then raging between the two royal princes of the Inca dynasty, Atahualpa and Huascar, and, under the pretence of aiding the former against the latter, and using great strategy with his small force, he accomplished the marvellous feat of conquering the whole country from the Incas without even a battle. History does not relate so great a prize being so easily won by any nation. Peru, thereuponj became subject to the Spanish Crown, and remained one other richest possessions from the year 1533 until the 23rd June, 1820. In the year 1810 the Spanish colonies began to rise against the mother country. Chili first obtained her independence, and in 1820 General San Martin, a native of Buenos Ayres, who liberated ChiU, came with an army to Lima and drove out the Spaniards, and the independence of Peru was proclaimed on the 28th of July, 182 1. San Martin was named Protector of Peru, but MODERN HISTORY OF PERU. II resigned his authority in August, 1822, upon the arrival of Bolivar, the Columbian General, who entered Lima in February, 1824, and was made Dictator of Peru. In 1825 Bolivar resigned the dictatorship, having previously con- trived to separate the southern provinces from the northern, and to convert the latter into a new republic, which adopted the name of Bolivia. There is one name which will be ever memorable in the annals of the struggle for independence in South America, — that of Lord Cochrane (Earl Dundonald), whose prowess was one of the chief causes in enabling Peru to shake off the yoke of the Spanish dynasty. This brave English nobleman, as admiral of the Chilian fleet, sailed from Val- paraiso in September, 18 19, to assist Peru. After display- ing indomitable pluck in fighting the Spaniards and capturing their treasure ships, he challenged the Viceroy to fight him ship for ship, which, of course, was not accepted. But Lord Cochrane's greatest feat was the capturing of the Spanish war frigate Esmeralda in Callao harbour. He accomplished this brilliant achievement of naval tactics by means of his boats. Boarding the frigate at night-time, himself leading his men, he captured the Esmeralda and aU on board, though the frigate at the time, besides being guarded by twenty-two gunboats, was protected by the powerful guns of the fortress. This gallant enterprise took place at midnight November 5, 1820. Englishmen have reason to remember with pride this episode of the bravery of their gallant countryman, whose name is indelibly written in the history of the South American Republics ; and Peru- vians will ever remember with gratitude the great services rendered to their country by this great and brave English- man, and in consequence have a more kindly feeling towards his countrymen than towards those of other nationalities. For several years after gaining its independence Peru had to contend with many difficulties, caused by the struggles of ambitious military chiefs, and the progress of the young republic was materially checked. In the year 1865, General Prado was called to the presidency, and had the advantage of having in his ministry a really eminent statesman, Don Manuel Pardo, who afterwards became President; war 12 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. then broke out with Spain, and it was under General Prado's Government that Peru successfully repelled the attack of the Spanish fleet on the 2nd of May, 1866. The gallant manner in which the Peruvians fought in that severe struggle, and the heroic acts performed by them, will ever be remembered as one of the most brilliant achievements in Peru's history. On the 2nd of August, 1872, Don Manuel Pardo was elected President. During the Government of this enlightened statesman, great reforms were effected; education was promoted and placed on a satisfactory basis, the great lines of railway designed to traverse the Andes were prosecuted with much vigour, and many improvements were made in the development of the country. It must be said to his memory that Don Manuel Pardo was one of the greatest statesmen who ever ruled in South America. It is to this enlightened statesman that Peru owes the wise pro- ject of introducing European immigration, and it was through his efforts that the colony of poor Italians was successfully established in the Chancharaayo valley.^ It is not the purpose of the present treatise to open up any matters in connexion with the late unfortunate war, which commenced in 1879 and was concluded by the treaty of peace of Ancon, dated 30th October, 1883. It seems only necessary to say that the struggle has left behind it remem- brances of heroism and bravery displayed by the sons of Peru, who sacrificed their lives to their country's cause, and the name of the intrepid Admiral Grau, in connexion with the ship Huascar, will be ever recorded in the history of Peru as that of one of its greatest heroes, — " Who nobly fell, Disdaining fear, and deeming light the cost. Of life itself, in glorious battle lost ! " 1 The colonisation has so successfully progressed, that there are at present very large and valuable sugar estates. Several good roads are already constructed or being made, and lately the building of a narrow gauge railroad from Tarma to Chanchamayo has been projected con- necting it with the main system of railroads. The crops in the Chan- chamayo are so abundant that in some cases they cannot be all gathered in from want of labour and means of conveyance. Justified hopes are being entertained that when the net of roads is finislied, or the railway built, a great impulse will be given towards approximating these regions to the civilised world by means of the navigable Amazon river, — (A. Espinosa.) THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 1 3 And also the name of Captain (now Admiral) Aurelio Garcia y Garcia is worthy of mention, in connexion with the daring capture of the Chilian transport Rimac by the wooden despatch-boat Union. On the 3rd of June, 1886, General Andres AveHno Caceres was unanimously elected President. No man was ever more worthy of this exalted position. Under this patriotic and much-beloved President, Peru enjoys order and peace throughout its territories, and the aspirations of both Government and people are consolidated together for the maintenance of peace and the development of the resources of the country. The progress that has been made since the late war, both administratively and commercially, is in itself a testimony to the recuperative powers of the nation. 14 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER II. General Description of the Amazon Provinces. REPORT OF THE EXPLORATION AND COLONISATION SOCIETY OF THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. THE Society issued a report of its proceedings at a meet- ing held at the Athenaeum, Lima, on Dec. 12, 1885, when the president, Doctor Albornoz, gave a history of the Society from its commencement, and also a full description of the resources of the Amazon Provinces of Peru, which the author has translated, and which forms the subject of the present chapter. The president stated that the Society was founded in the year 1858, under the Bishop of the diocese of Chachapoyas, Dr. Pedro Ruiz, for the object of promoting industry, commerce, Christianity, and civilisa- tion in the Amazon regions of Peru. A full report was given of the explorations and work done by the several expeditions which had been fitted out at the Society's expense since its foundation, for carrying out the work of colonisation, particularly the cutting of a road through the forests, starting from Chisquilla, with the object of making a short route for commerce from the beautiful regions of Chachapoyas to the Amazon, or Maranon,! by the Cahua- panas river, which joins the Maranon below the Pongo de Manseriche.^ The worthy president made an earnest appeal for European immigration in the following words : — THE NECESSITY FOR IMMIGRATION. "No country in the world can be better endowed by nature with rivers than Peru. On the one side it is favoured with the Pacific Ocean ; on the other by numerous rivers, ' Maranon is the term given to the Upper Amazon , west of Navta, and the whole extent of its course through Peruvian territory. ^ Pongo is the Indian word for " end of the hills." THE NECESSITY FOR IMMIGRATION. 1 5 which beautifully part its territory, and eventually unite to form one gigantic stream, which majestically goes and salutes the Atlantic. The existence of the King of Rivers, with its numerous tributaries, would be a great advantage to any country ; more especially, then, must it be the case in Peru, where the district through which it flows is rich in every kind of mineral and vegetable product. " I'he want of inhabitants is the cause that year by year there is lost millions of pounds' worth of valuable natural products, which arrive at maturity only to fall to the ground, and serve as soil for reproduction the following year. Nothing has been as yet done to remedy this state of affairs, and our forests remain still deserted ; we want an abundant immigration to help us gather our produce. Fortunately, our necessity coincides with the excess of the cities of Europe and the United States ; the former being at present obliged to seek in Africa a soil for its population. A more propitious opportunity cannot be presented ; we must avail ourselves of it without loss of time, and endeavour to attract to our country that current of emigration, by showing the people that they can find here a more comfortable posi- tion than elsewhere. " Our montanas (the name given to the forest regions) being of so varied a nature, the colonists can select that part which will suit their convenience, and with respect to the extent of suitable land at their disposal, the pampas of Sacramento^ can accommodate millions of people. But we must first prepare the places to receive the • Pampas means plains, but these are thickly covered with trees. The pampas of Sacramento comprise the region lying between the rivers Ucayali, Huallaga, Pachitea and Maraiion. Its length is 300 leagues (900 miles) from north to south, and from 40 to 100 leagues, or from 120 to 300 miles, in width. Lieut. W. Smith, R.N., speaking of it in his noted travels, says : — "The pampas of Sacramento was so called from its being discovered by some newly-converted Indians in 1726 on the day of the festival of the Corpus Christi. It is remarked with apparent justice in the 'Viagerio Universal' that the two continents of America do not contain another country so favourably situated and so fertile. The climate seems very like that of the island of Madeira. During our stay at Sarayacu we registered the themometer three times a day, and its minimum and maximum were 75° and 85° Fahr., and the sun at this time passed over our zenith. A hill called San Martias, near Mayro, is said to produce gold." 1 5 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. immigrants, by putting the same in communication with other towns of the interior. This has been the principal object which the Society has had in view, and its first aim is to open a road through the forest to the Cahuapanas river. Its intention is to endeavour to populate the upper part of the Maranon, placing the same in communication with other towns in the interior, and particularly with the town of Chachapoyas, by which means the new places will be sup- plied with everything necessary for their first wants. " There are no real obstacles which oppose the gradual development of commercial relations. We do not com- mence competition with one existing beforehand ; there- fore, we can bind together freely as much as we wish, placing ourselves in accord with persons really interested in the progress of these virgin regions. "The Society wishes to introduce immigration in a methodical way, by opening a road to Cahuapanas, estab- lishing a town there, and preparing ground for agriculture. Naturally the shortest way will be chosen for immigration, that is, by the river Amazon, and this route should be selected as being the most convenient. "The variety and favourableness of the climate, the fer- tility of the soil, and the generosity and good disposition of the Peruvian people, are, moreover, advantages which should attract individuals from all parts of the globe. They will find an affectionately disposed country, as brothers solicitous for their welfare; and they, moreover, acquire the ownership of the soil without any further stipulation than that of each person cultivating his own portion of it. The distribution of the land is made per head, each father with a family has a right to receive as many portions as there may be members of it. But we must seek them, tell them the advantages we can proportion to them, illustrate our real position, and please them with our kindness and protection. That is the only way we can influence labourers, if we wish to progress, and enter in the glorious path which Providence has destined for us. " No country has such advantages to offer to immigrants as we have : a soil most fertile, — natural riches heaped upon it; a climate unequalled. Our proverbial kind hospitality, and everything that is desirable in this world, CHACHAPOYAS. 1 7 we place at the disposal of those who wish to come and live with us." SITUATION OF THE REGIONS OF CAHUAPANAS. " This beautiful, rich region is bounded on the north by the Maraiion, and by the Cahuapanas on the east. Its situation could not have been more favourable ; lying on the upper part of one of our largest rivers, it is not subject to inundations :its soil is most fertile, and its natural pro- ducts of the richest kind. There are pampas and immense valleys which delight the eye, evoking a provocative desire to cultivate them. Its temperature is most agreeable, and it is altogether most healthy, as has been fully testified by the several expeditions, and by the fact that no one contracted any disease or illness — and this in spite of the hard trials, exposures in all weathers, and great privations supported for many months in the nine expeditions that have taken place. It would be impossible to fully describe the invaluable advantages this locality possesses." CHACHAPOYAS. Chachapoyas, in particular, has great attractions — a pleasant and benign climate, a perpetual spring, an ever- verdant vegetation, which, combined with the cultured and generous disposition of its inhabitants, make the city a most enjoyable place, in which all live as if they were members of one family. We do not know any other part of the Republic more abounding in food than that of the Amazon Department ; nothing is wanting which can satisfy the most delicate taste. Everything grows at home, without sending outside the Department for food. Its products can be aug- mented indefinitely, to satisfy thousands of inhabitants, and also those of the Maranon. Professor Orton says of the city of Chachapoyas : — " Perched 7,600 feet above the level of the sea, Chachapoyas possesses a delightful and equable climate, ranging from 40^ to 70°, with the mean temperature of 62" Fahr. Here for the first time we ate bread made from the native flour. The people, to the number of 5,000, scratch the ground with a wooden plough. There are signs of valuable mines of gold, c 1 8 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. cinnabar, lead, limonite, and grey copper ore containing silver is found in the vicinity, while mountains of salt occur at San Carlos, twenty-five miles distant north-west. Chachapoyas is the best-built and cleanest city west of Mafiaos. The city is regularly laid out ; it contains a barrack for soldiers, a monastery, a cathedral, and a resi- dent bishop, whose see extends from Moyobamba to Cajamarca." MOYOBAMBA. The same author says: — "The city of Moyobamba stands in a most luxuriant place, with an altitude of about 2,700 feet, and a mean annual temperature of 77°; the climate is delightful. Nature is so prodigal that everybody can get a living except physicians." There are two mineral springs at 106°, and also two sulphur springs at 30° and 84°. Grapes, sarsaparilla, vanilla, india-rubber, and copal grow spontaneously, but are not gathered. The bom- bonaje, or screw-pine, the leaves of which are so extensively used at Moyobamba in the manufacture of hats, is a tree seven feet high ; it grows extensively at Moyobamba, between the river Ucayali and the Andes, and largely at Rioja and Tarapoto. The distance from Moyobamba to Chachapoyas is forty leagues, for a hundred miles of which in a stretch there is not one inhabitant. The only villages on the route are Rioja and Tambo. The highest point is Pointa Piskohuahua(z>.,the place where birds die), rising i i,ooofeet above the sea. It consists of dark brown slate, with lias ammonites. It is the range which divides the waters of the Upper Maranon from the affluents of the Huallaga, which, meeting the more westerly sierra, form the terrible cataracts above the Pongo de Manseriche. ANIMALS OF THE MONTANA. Horses, cattle, sheep, pigs. Horses are reared at Caxa- marca, and mules ^ of excellent quality at Piura. The llama, which is used as a beast of burden in the mountains, the vicuiia and alpaca, all of which produce the most beautiful ' The mule is a very important animal in Peru, and without it the steep ascents of the Andes would present insuperable obstacles to intercourse between one place and another. BIRDS AND FISH OF THE MONTANA. 1 9 wools. There are several species of deer (venados or luassa), which exist in large herds ; their flesh is excel- lent. Rabbits, the peccary or wild hog, and other animals are found in this district. BIRDS. The turkey (carassow or pari on the Napo), pacharaca (or small pheasant), guanana, or beautiful goose, fowls, ducks, pigeons, toucans, parrots, &c., and all sorts of game birds. The condor is the largest bird of the vulture kind in Peru ; its haunts are in the lofty elevations of the Andes. It will often attack animals with impunity. FISH. There are about eighteen specimens of the finny tribe found in the Maraiion. The principal fish is the pira ruca, or cod fish ; it is the universal diet on the Amazon. It sometimes attains the length of ten feet, and weight of 100 lb. Fish are caught by the natives either by hook or by means of the barbasco, a narcotic plant, the bulbous roots of which are bruised and thrown into the small streams, which in a short space of time so stupify the fish that they may be taken by the hand floating on the surface. The vaca marina, manatee, or sea-cow, which resembles the seal, is about seven feet long and six feet round the body in the thickest part. It is found in the Ucayali and Huallaga rivers, and the natives harpoon it. Its flesh is greasy, and has the appearance of pork. It is boiled and stewed and made into sausages. A large one will yield 50 lb. of oil from its fat. The blade-bone forms a spade, and is constantly used as such by the natives, and it is not a bad substitute. It has a semicircular flat tail, and behind the head are two oval fins, beneath which are the breasts, which yield a white milk. There is a sort of crab (camarones), the flesh of which is very tender. The Peruvians prepare of both fish and camarones exquisite national dishes, called " cebiche " and " picante." THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. TURTLE. The river turtle (tabaraga or charupa, as the Indians call it) forms an abundant supply of excellent food. They are found in immense quantities on the Pacific slopes, and in all the rivers which fall into the Maranon, and in that mighty river also ; in the dry season every bank and beach is covered with them. They are taken and deposited in ponds, and kept for use at all seasons of the year. The turtle is very prolific, and lays its eggs from the beginning of July to the end of September. When the Ucayali is at its lowest the beaches are said to appear paved with turtle. The eggs remain fifty days before they are hatched, and are a very valuable product to the Indians, for from them they make an oil which supplies them with light at night, and they also mix it with their food ; it is also one of the principal articles of commerce all along the Maranon ; it is called manteca. The oil is made in the following manner : — A large quantity of eggs are thrown into a canoe and smashed with a kind of four-pronged fork. The skins are then cleared off and thrown away, the canoe is then filled with water to within three or four inches of the gunwale, and left half a day exposed to the heat of the sun, when the oil becomes separate, and floats upon the water ; it is then skimmed off with shells, put into jars, and carried to a cauldron, in which it is boiled until it attains a bright, clear, yellow colour ; it is then ready for use or exportation. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS OF THE MONTANA. The vegetable products of the eastern slope of the Andes rival in value, beauty, variety and fragrance those of any other part of the world. As the elevation becomes greater the tropical plants and flowers disappear, giving place to all the vegetable productions of the temperate zone. There are two classes of productions, natural and cultivated. Amongst the natural are the following : — Caucho (from which india-rubber is obtained, at present the most important industry), cocoa, cascarilla, PRODUCTS OF THE MONTANA. 21 cinnamon, coffee, campeche, copaiva, mandioca, vegetable ivory, sarsaparilla, indigo, tamarinds, almonds, gums, resins, storax, bees-wax, Tonka beans, bombanaje (the leaves of which are used for making the celebrated Panama hats, &c.). From the Coca plant the natives prepare their favourite stimulant called ypadu ; with this beverage they perform a prodigious amount of labour, travelling for days without fatigue or food. There are extensive groves of coca in all parts of the country, and one has only to gather what nature has sown. A full description of this plant will be found in another chapter. Coffee of a very excellent quality grows at Moyobamba. Vanilla improves by cultivation, which can be carried on on a large scale. The same with Cascarilla ; it is an indigenous plant, and it is the richest in quinine of cultivated plants. Tobacco is of excellent quality, and in some parts, as in Jaen, it is superior to that of Havanna. The Cotton plant has not its rival in the world. It grows luxuriantly on the Huallaga, particularly at Tarapoto, and on the Ucayali. The natives make a cloth of it called tocuyo and lienzo, of which tunics are made. The spinning wheels are of the rudest construction. Rice grows exceedingly well, and nowhere does the sugar-cane grow so luxuriantly. Cochineal is produced at Amatape (near Payta), and orchilla is exported from Payta. FRUITS. The orange-trees of Moyobamba have no rival in the world. The trees bloom all the year round. The grape vine bears three crops a year, and pine-apples grow to the weight of 20 lb. and are of a most delicious flavour. The palta or alligator pear is one of the most delicious of fruits, and grows at Moyobamba. Guavas, figs, olives, also abound. VEGETABLES. Maize, rice, beans, peas, potatoes, onions, mountain cabbage, quinoa or spinach, yuca, yellow potatoes (an excellent kind, unique in Peru), &c., grow freely in the country. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. MATURITY OF CROPS. The soil of the Maranon is a stiff loam, and vegetable mould is in many places 20 feet deep. Maize, peas, and yucas are produced in four months, rice in five, sugar in seven, plantains in nine. The sugar-cane only needs to be planted once, as the crop is perpetual ; the canes often grow to the height of ten metres (33 feet). THE GOLD-WASHINGS ON THE TRIBUTARIES OF THE MARANON. " The rivers wash down gold in nuggets and line dust. The rivers Santiago and the Patohuachanu, which flow from Equador, are the most important for the richness of their deposits. ^ " From the former of these rivers one of our ancestors took away several flasks of gold, which formed the offerings the Indians made him while he was among them as Curd. He had been to the gold washings, and saw the abundance of gold, and the facilities for extracting it, as the natives dug trenches in the rivers. When Col. Secada was Prefect in the Loreto Department, there came to Moj'obamba six individuals with 14 lb. of gold, which had been taken out of the Santiago in eight days ; but during that time only three of them were occupied in extracting the gold, the two acted assentinels,being very vigilant with their muskets, while the other man undertook the cooking of the food. There lies in the Government ofiices the proposals for an expedition which Senor Secada suggested should be organised, which he sent to the capital with an ounce of gold as a sample of the notable find. Besides other instances, we have the following : — A party of several individuals, for the most part foreigners, proposed to settle on the Santiago to wash gold; but as the tribe of Huambisis, who were in the ' Prescott says : — "Gold was gathered by the Incas from the deposits in the streams. They extracted the ore also in considerable quantities from the valley of Curimayo, north of Cajamarca, as well as from other places. ■<\ ><, GOLD-WASHINGS ON TRIBUTARIES OF THE MARANON. 23 vicinity, thought themselves owners of the washings, they were obliged to work during the day with great precaution, retiring at night in their canoes to a distant place. Their watchfulness and industry were magnificently rewarded, as they were enabled to anticipate a continued remuneration. Uniting again a short time afterwards, nothing having trans- pired during the interval, and wishing to proceed with greater speed, they remained at the workings, and dur- ing the night were surprised and killed by the savages. Latterly there are some individuals who go by night in their canoes to the Santiago washings, stealthily collect as much sand as fills their boats, and carry it away to their homes, by these means obtaining large quantities of gold. "It is said that the Patohuachanu is richer still, that it rivals California, and that by the eye one can dis- tinguish the sands to be auriferous. It is not known precisely where the place is, but it is south of the Maranon. The Aguarunas know it. It is to be found very near the spot where the Society is making the road to Cahuapanas. HOW TO DEVELOP THE GOLD WASHINGS. "The extraction of gold in the workings in the river Santiago should be carried on in a proper manner. An establishment of fifty men should be formed, provided with good guns for sporting purposes, and small mountain guns for protection, with the necessary ammunition.^ The pay should be twenty-five soles per month, in addi- tion to their keep and passages ; at which wages plenty of men can be found. It will be necessary to construct sl fort for the habitation of the workers and others. The colony should contain 100 men, at least. Rigorous dis-- cipline and strict vigilance at night would be necessary, to keep themselves safe from the attacks of the savages,. who would, when they found the undertaking was firmly ' Proper precautions against the Indians may only be necessary at this particular place, as Mr. Jean Notzli, a mining engineer and scientist, assured the writer that he has frequently passed down the rivers in the neighbourhood of the Pongo of Manseriche without ever having been molested by the Indians. See his report, Chap, v. 24 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. established, abandon the neighbourhood. The machines employed for extracting the gold should be the same as are used in the United States.i Above all, it is most important and indispensable to have a properly-constructed steamer, to transport men and goods, and convey things required. " On the hills of Angaisa and the Patohuachanu, gold workings are unknown at present, but it is worth while to seek for them. It would be most advantageous to employ capital in erecting mills, using the motive power of the rivers." PROPOSED CONSTRUCTION OF A RAILWAY TO CAHUAPANAS. " We will now direct attention to the advantageous uses to which foreign capital may be employed in the Amazon regions. One of the most important is the construction of a railway between Cahuapanas and Yonan, the present termi- nation of the railway from Pacasmayo. The distance is not more than 333 miles, and when this work is completed, important communication between the Atlantic and Pacific will be established by way of the Amazon, the Cahuapanas river, and the railway. The rails should be disem- barked at Cahuapanas, and laid on sleepers of good timber, of which there is a great abundance, sufficient to construct all the railroads in South America. The railway would pass through the capital of the Amazon provinces and Cajamarca, and all the towns would be interested to find labourers and provisions. A Steam Navigation Company should be established, and distributed so as to make the navigation of the principal rivers, which would greatly assist colonisation. It is natural that the traffic would be small at first, but the Company should take upon itself the gathering of produce on their own account, such as coca, &c., which is readily found along the banks of the rivers, and barter for gold with the Indians. A few steam-launches would aid in the development of these regions." ' In New Zealand steam dredgers are used for obtaining the gold- dust from the rivers, and return a large profit to their owners. These ;machines are made in England, and would be very suitable for these livers ; with these an immense return would be realised. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 25 DISTANCE FROM ONE EXTREMITY OF THE COUNTRY TO THE OTHER, BY WAY OF CAHUAPANAS (fROM N.E. TO S.W. IN THE NORTHERN PART OF PERU). to From Loreto Pebas „ Iquitos Iqiiitos „ Nauta Nauta to the mouth of the Huallaga .. Huallaga „ Cahuapanas The outside to the town of Cahuapanas Pebas distance 131 miles. no „ Cahuapanas Chisquilla Chachapoyas Cajamarca Yonan to Chisquilla . Chachapoyas Cajamarca... Yonan Pacasmayo . . Total 40 208 78 66 72 45 130 66 39 1,039 " From the mouth of the Cahuapanas to the commence- ment of the Pongo of Manseriche, the furthest point of navigation on the Maranon, is 83 EngHsh miles. The communication afforded by the road to Cahuapanas, and the establishment of communication between the two towns of Iquitos and Chachapoyas, would be of immense advan- tage to both ; the former would obtain a market for its abundant agricultural produce, whilst the latter would benefit by cheap fresh provisions. Iquitos would be de- veloped rapidly, and become a town of great importance on the Amazon. We learn that, in August last, an expedition started from Iquitos via Cahuapanas, coming in the direc- tion of our last two expeditions, to seek the track which the Society made ; and on the 9th of September an expedition started from Chachapoyas to meet the former." 26 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER III. Products of the Montana. THE FRUITS OF THE MONTANA. P)ROFESSOR ORTONi says:— "The valley of the Amazon, so remarkable for the abundance and variety of its woods, is equally rich in other products of the vegetable kingdom. The field is so vast that it can hardly be said to have been explored; but enough has been seen to justify the remark that, if the valley is not the ' Ophir of Solomon,' as some suppose, it is certainly worthy of the name. The industrial, medicinal, and food plants already known and used are beyond enumeration ; but, when science and commerce shall have threaded every part of the forest, an immense harvest will be reaped." Safety {Achras sapotd) or sapotilla — a very sweet fruit of the size of an egg, with a yellowish-brown exterior — is most abundant in the eastern valleys of Peru. Caju (Anacardium occidentale) is the fruit of a tere- binth abounding in dry, sandy soils, from Santarera to Moyobamba. It has the shape and size of an ordinary pear, with a kidney-shaped nut at the lower end. An ex- cellent wine, considered anti-syphilitic, is made from the fruit, and the nuts are roasted and eaten. Abacate {Persea gratissimd), or alligator pear, called "palta" on the Andes. This delicious fruit is the product of a tall laurel-tree with dome-shaped top, grown on all the Amazons, but particularly on the Maraiion. The unctuous pulp already recommends itself to a refined taste by its wonderful delicate flavour. Guava, or goiaba, resembles a small pomegranate, and is used for making an excellent though astringent jelly. ' Much of the description of the flora in the present chapter is derived from that given by this eminent traveller. FRUITS OF THE MONTANA. 2'J The tree, a scrubby Psidium, grows sparingly throughout the valley, and is seen at Moyobamba. Oranges, or maranjas, abound the whole length of the river ; those of Moyobamba probably have no equal. The trees blossom all the year round, but especially in January. Pupiinha (Guilielma speciosa), or peach palm, on the Peruvian slope called "pisho-guayo,'' or bird-fruit. This celebrated fruit has the colour and size of a peach. Bates compares it to a mixture of chestnuts and cheese, and Spruce to something between potato and chestnut, but superior to either. It is very nutritious, and forms the prin- cipal article of food of the natives^ when in season. It is not indigenous, and does not appear wild, but has been culti- vated by the Indians, like the cocoa-nut, mandioca, and banana, from time immemorial. Pitajaya. — The delicious fruit of a tall cactus, found chiefly at Cajamarca. Palmeto — the terminal bud of many palms — is largely used, particularly on the Maranon, as a salad. Bread-fruit {Artocarpus incisa) has been introduced, and is cultivated sparingly from Para to the Andes. Rice is cultivated at Moyobamba. Coffee has been introduced on the Amazons, and a very excellent quality has been raised on the Rio Negro. Cacao is a native, and thrives with little culture. Except rubber, it is the chief article of export. Bates saw trees yielding an arroba (25 lb.) each a year. The fruit, in the hands of the natives, is turned to good account, yielding, besides chocolate, a vinegar, a soap, a wine, and a dulce. Mandioca, or cassava, the bread-root of the Amazons, yields farina and tapioca, and a liquor called "tucupi," or " aguardiente de beyu." There are four species : — (i.) The mandioca proper {Ma?titot utilissimci), of which there are many varieties, among them maicurii — the lowest being only four feet high, but producing the largest and best fruits — itoqui, tambaqui, auirana, and mucura. (2.) Aypi (M. aipi) or sweet mandioca, called " yuca dulce " on the Marafion, having oblong, juicy roots, becoming sweet after they are gathered. The chicha made from it is called "mossato." (3.) Macachero, or macasheiro (yuca of 28 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Peru ?), whose roots are used as potatoes roasted or boiled. 4. Manicueira, different from aypi, having a long root. Mandioca will produce in six months after planting, with- out cultivation. The root is deprived of its poisonous juice in a curious strainer. A long tube of woven fibre, containing the macerated root, is hung up, with a stone at the lower end, by which means the diameter is diminished and the juice squeezed out. In the mandioca, or cassava plant, the wants of man and beast are supplied. Life and death are blended in the plant : every part of it is useful. The cattle eat the leaves and stalks, while the roots are ground into pulp, which, when pressed and baked, forms farina — the bread of all classes. The juice is deadly poison. Sttgar-cam, or sorghum, has a luxuriant growth every- where on the Amazon, but the cane seems better fitted to make rum than sugar. At San Regis and on the Maraiion 18,000 gallons of cashaga are manufactured yearly. Sugar is imported. Canela (American cinnamon) is obtained from the forests round the head-waters of the Pastassa and Napo, and at Cashaboya, on the Ucayali. It is said to contain more essential oil than that of Ceylon, and it is used as a condiment in the Quito valley. Vani/a, or vanilla, is not cultivated, as far as we know, except by an American at Napo ; but a small quantity, collected wild, goes down to Para. It is quite abundant on the Sacramento plain of the Ucayali. It is inferior to the Mexican, but would be improved by culture. TREES OF THE MONTANA. Nowhere in the world is there found such a variety of useful and ornamental woods as in the virgin forests of the Maraiion ;i amongst which are palms, cedars, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, and many other varieties of valuable cabinet woods. On the high lands, fuchsias, rhododendrons, ' Prescott says : — " Here it is that Pizarro's men beheld stupendous trees ; some were so large that sixteen men could hardly encompass them with extended arms. Thus, allowing six feet for the spread of each man's arms, they would be about ninety-six feet in circumference, or thirty-two feet in diameter." TREES OF THE MONTANA. 29 calceolarias, and like plants flourish as in the temperate zone. The Cauclio, or india-rubber tree, is one of the most valuable trees known for commerce. There are two species of the caucho-tree, which are worked under different systems. They are the seringa, or horracha, which comes from the Hevea guianensis, and the caucho, called in the Indian dialect cahucho. The trunk of this tree is less in height than that of jebi, which does not exceed fourteen mfetres (forty-six feet) in the Peruvian forests. Its oval leaves, hairy on the reverse side, fall in the month of July, and are recovered again in the month of August, the period in which its sap is most abundant. The sap is obtained in the following manner ^ : — An incision is made at the foot of the tree in the form of a V- The white sap flows in globules from the cutting, and is received in india- rubber bags. When the lower part of the trunk is drawn off, the tree is cut, and new incisions made the whole of its length. The milk, or sap, falls into a hole opened in the ground. To accelerate the coagulation they add to it the juice, diluted with water, of a plant known in Peru under the name of leche-camole. An india-rubber plant will yield one arroba (25 lb.). The india-rubber gatherers say that it is impossible to extract the caucho without losing the life of the tree. If not felled it is attacked immediately in the part cut by insects, and soon dies. In working the Hevea guianensis, which grows to the height of fifteen to twenty metres (forty-nine to sixty-six feet), the tree is not killed. It grows in families or groups, and often 100 trees can be found growing at short distances apart in what is called a seringal. The seringuero, or india-rubber gatherer, estabhshes his residence in the neighbourhood, and makes pathways between the trees. He goes every morning to puncture the trees, that is to say, to make at the height of the hand small incisions, and fixes beneath them a globe or vessel to receive the milky juice. The coagulation of the india-rubber is obtained by exposing the liquid to the smoke produced from the burning of the fruit of a palm. The tapping of a seringal is renewed daily for four or five months, the supply is increased up to the end of the third ' Translated from the report of M. Olivier Ordinaire to the Geo- graphical Society of Paris. — From El Coinercio, Lima, April 22, 1887. 30 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. month. The trees are then allowed one month's rest, and the working of the groups can last for twenty years. At the most productive period loo trees can give one arroba (25 lb.) of india-rubber per day. Aca}u, the " Wacapou " or " Black-heart " of foreigners. It is the Andira aubletic, one of the Leguminosm. This is the most valuable ship, timber in Amazonia, resisting the teredo. Inland it is largely used as uprights in construc- tion. There are two kinds — that of the terra firma (the best) and that of the lowlands. The wood is heavy, hard, and of a light brown colour, sometimes mottled brown and white. It has a lofty naked trunk, yielding clear timber 60 feet long. Acapu is the pride of the Brazilians, being invaluable in the naval art, and admirably fitted for piles and railroad ties, as it endures moisture and is tough. The leaves are alternate. It grows the whole length of the river Amazon and also on the Huallaga. Itauba or Icaiiba, the "Stone-wood" of the Amazon, belonging to the laurels, is one of the most valuable and common woods in the valley. It is hard, heavy, and firm, and is largely used for building schooners and for houses. As ship-timber it is as durable as teak. It often occurs four feet in diameter and from 30 to 60 feet high. There are two kinds, yellow and black. The former, / amarella, resembles maple ; the other, I. pretii, is very hard, dark-coloured, and close-grained. Both grow from the Tapagos to the Huallaga. Palo de Cruz or " Wood of the Cross," the Lignum vitm of Brazil. It is a comparatively small tree (Legutninosce), not over two feet in diameter, consisting of a white wood en- closing a black and intensely hard heart, and from the fancied cruciform section it sometimes presents it derives its name. It is susceptible of a fine polish, and is chiefly made into canes ; it is almost confined to Pebas on the Maranon. Palo de Sangre or " Blood-wood." — This is a very beautiful wood of a red colour, fine-grained, hard, and receiving a good polish. The tree, which has a white bark, grows only on the Maraiion and its tributaries, particularly near the foot of the Andes. Palo Setiti or " Satin-wood." — This precious wood is very close-grained, heavy, and durable, of a deep yellow TREES OF THE MONTANA. 3 1 colour, and is used for veneering, inlaying, picture frames, &c. It has more lustre than the oriental satin-wood {Chloroxylon\ and belongs to an entirely different order— the Ebenacea. Logs can be secured 8 inches square and 10 feet long. It grows in Peru. Palo-mulatto, called Capirona on the Maraiion, is allied to the cinchonas (Eidkylista spruceand) and grows far up the Andean tributaries to the altitude of 2,000 feet. It is a tall, elegant tree (from 80 to 100 feet high), conspicuous for its polished bark and green trunk. The wood is light and tough, and used for beams in houses ; but from the abundance and the readiness with which it burns while green, it supplies most of the fuel consumed by the Amazon steamers. Jutahy or Jetaby, " Copal-wood." — This is also a patri- arch of the forest, from 150 to 180 feet high, with a gigantic trunk, sometimes 60 feet in circumference and sup- ported by huge buttresses. Generally, however, the trunk is 40 feet long and 3 to 4 feet in diameter. The bark resembles the English oak. The high yields copal, and the low a poisonous juice. The wood is dark-coloured and intensely hard, tough, and dense. It is used for rollers and cogs in sugar-mills, for beams and planks in heavy engine work, and for treenails in planking vessels. It occurs throughout the valley. Ma^arandiiba or " Cow-tree." — This wonderful tree, one of the largest of the forest monarchs, is the Mimnsops elaiu, belonging, therefore, to the same order and genus as the Moirapiranga. It stands from 180 to 200 feet high and 20 feet in circumference, crowned with a vast dome of foliage. It has entire alternate leaves, a deeply-scarred, reddish, ragged bark (used for dying cloth), palatable fruit and milk. The milk has the consistency of cream, and may be used for tea, coffee and custards. It is a hard, fine-grained, heavy, reddish wood, very durable in water — more so than itaiiba even — and the toughest of all Amazonian woods, yet splitting easily. It is largely used for construction and for furniture, and would be admirable for ship-building. It grows on lowlands along the whole length of the great river, from Para to the Upper Maraiion, also on the Rio Negro, and probably other affluents. Chonta is a general term in Quichua for palm. The one 32 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. referred to here is the Bactris ciliata, a very hard, dark- coloured, elastic wood of the Marafion, from which the Indians make bows and spears and the points of arrows. Another chonta (a species of Euterpe) is used in construc- tion on the Huallaga. The wood of the Pupunha Palm is tough and black, taking a fine polish, and is called "Chontadura" on the Upper Maranon. Aguano, or mahogany. — This is a gigantic tree even for the tropical forest. It is probably not identical with the {Swietema mahogoni) of Central America, the mahogany of commerce, but it resembles it in colour, and it is a choice wood in the Montana. It grows on the western tributaries of the Maranon, as the Napo and the Huallaga, where it is used in canoe-building, &c. Cocobblo. — An excellent timber of Moyobamba, the heart of a very large tree. It is reddish and very strong — often used for making the cogs of wheels. It is very heavy and never floats in the water, and is most useful where strength is required. Cumatsiba. — A very hard, heavy, reddish wood, with a white bark, from the Ucayali. Aleso {Betulco acuminata) is one of the most abundant and useful trees in the Quitonian Andes, descending the Pastassa to nearly 4,000 feet. Lahuana. — One of the largest trees on the Huallaga, has a grey bark and umbrella-like top. The wood is used for build- ing, and rails of it are taken down the Maraiion on steamers. Chawinto and Sangre de Drago are very tough woods, growing round the district of Moyobamba. Balsa, or ceibo. — An exceedingly liglit wood, the " Raft- wood" of the Upper Maranon. It resembles the cotton-wood. The tree {Ochroma piscatoria) is about as large as the maple, and the fruit has a cotton-like covering used for mattresses. DRUGS, DYES, GUMS, AND TEXTILE PLANTS OF THE MONTANA. Drugs. The valley of the Amazons is an infinite field for the discovery of useful vegetable products. Many unknown principles are waiting to enter our Materia Medica, or to advance the industrial sciences. Many a herb of myste- rious nature is known only to the Indians. f #' h'* ^- ^-^-i ;,*-- "■■#u- DRUGS, DYES, GUMS, ETC., OF THE MONTANA. 33 Cinchona, or Peruvian bark. — What an immense benefit Peru has conferred on the world in this valuable drug ! What an amount of suffering has been relieved by its use ! This, the foremost of febrifuges, is collected at the sources of the Upper Mararion, Huallaga, Ucayali, and Beni. The region extends over 29° of latitude, and de- scribes a vast curve commencing with the 19th parallel south, and continuing generally along the east slope, at an altitude of 7,500 feet. The valuable red bark (C succi- rubrd) is peculiar to the Pacific side of Chimborazo, and, therefore, does not belong to the Amazon valley. The crown bark (C condamined) is found in the provinces of Loja, Jaen, and Cajamarca. Its proper commercial name is " Cascarilla," but that name is now given to cinchona in general. The yellow bark (C. calisaya) from Bolivia is the present chief source of quinine. The Indians call it Quina-Quina, or " bark of barks." The cinchona trees have the aspect of the beech, with the flowing branches of the lilac, smooth bark, white wood, susceptible of a high polish ; opposite, entire leaves, similar to those of the coffee plant, which belongs to the same order. The reckless manner of gathering the bark will, ere long, remove all traces of cinchona vegetation. At least 3,000,000 lb. are shipped annually to England, and the demand and price are on the increase. Several sub- stitutes are used by the natives, as Maravilla, from the Pastassa forest ; Chuquiraga, from the high Andes of Equador ; Quina {Solanum pseudoquina), and Cafferana. A tincture of the last is considered more efficacious than quinine. Mr. J. B. Minchin, the English traveller to the eastern slopes of the Andes, says : — " The cinchona plantations in Peru and Bolivia are at a height above the sea of from 1,300 to 6,000 feet, and are formed to some extent of young plants from the forests, but chiefly from seed, the small plants being transplanted when from three to four inches high to the bottom of holes some six feet apart and six inches square by a foot deep, the mouth of the hole being partially covered with a piece of bark. The young plant is thus protected till it reaches the surface-level, when the bark is thrown off", and it is able to bear the force of the 34 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. sun. A year and a half from the time of the seed being sown the plant attains a height of from six to seven feet, and, at the age of six years, the trees are cut, each one yielding some five pounds of dry bark. The cost of forming a plantation of upwards of 50,000 plants a year old may be calculated at the rate of z^d. per plant. The bark grown on the steepest slopes appears to be the finest, and the immediate proximity of the high cordillera is evidently advantageous, probably owing to the greater amount of. moisture in the air, and the more clouded atmosphere and frequent showers, as, at equal elevations further east, the quality is much inferior." Sarsaparilla is found on all the tributaries of the Maranon. It is the root of a prickly climbing plant, found chiefly on dry, rocky ground. Ipecacuanha, the great emetic, is the creeping root of the herb Cephaelis, growing in the humid, shady forests of the Amazons. It is usually gathered while in flower, i.e., during the rainy season. lonidium poaya is sometimes sold for the genuine ipecacuanha. Gomphrena ("paratodo" of the natives), growing on the Madeira, is used as a panacea for intermittent fevers, colic, diarrhoea, snake-bites, &c. Guarand (Paullinia cupanta), Poaya branca (lonidium oiuba), Sphceralcea cisplatina, Manettia cordifolia, Pavonia diureiica, and the seeds of the Patagua (Hura aculota), are popular remedies for bowel complaints. The guarana, the most important, is cultivated on the Negro and Tapajos, but especially on the river Manhes. It is a natural twiner, but is kept down by cultivation to the size of a compact currant-bush. The seeds are roasted, ground, and made up into sticks. The essential principle is almost identical with theine and caffeine. It is a preventative rather than a cure, but European physicians pronounce it efficacious not only in diarrhoea but also in sick-headache, neuralgia, paralysis, and lumbago. In France it has cured attacks of cholera when the evacuations were at the rate of thirty per hour. It also prevents exhaustion, hunger, and sleep, being slightly exhilarative. The natives, particularly up the southern tributaries, are passionately fond of guarana, and drink it as a beverage. On the Orinoco it is used as a DRUGS, DYES, GUMS, ETC., X3F THE MONTANA. 35 preventative against bilious fevers. In Bolivia it brings six dollars a pound, on the Amazons sixty cents. Matioco, the leaves of Arlanthe elongata, growing on the Peruvian slope, is a valuable styptic for heemorrhages. A species of leguminous Myrospermum (" Quino-quino ") growing in the high region of the Huallaga yields the Balsam of Peru. Coca (" Ipadu " of the Brazilians), the powdered leaves of an Eurythroxylon growing on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes, is, to the natives of that region, what opium is to the Turks and betel to the Malays. It is not only a powerful stimulant, but also an alimental and a tonic. The leaves resemble tea-leaves, only they are entire, and the plant is a slender shrub, occurring both wild and cultivated. With it and a little parched corn the Indians will stand a surprising amount of fatigue, — in fact, with coca alone they will go days without food or sleep. The best coca is grown in the Yungas of Bolivia. {See a fuller description of coca and cocaine, page no.) Tobacco of fine quahty is cultivated in many parts of the Amazons. The best quality for pipes is that of Borba and Trinidad on the Madeira. The finest for cigarettes is pro- duced at Jeveros, near the mouth of the Huallaga, and at Bagua, Tamboli, Duria, and Cunchara, in the valley of Utcubamba. Three species of the tobacco-plant are recognised by Brazilian botanists, Nicotiana tabacum, N. rustica, and N. persica. Aya huasca, or " Dead man's vine " {Banisteria coapi), a woody twiner, cultivated on the upper parts of the Pastassa, Napo, and Negro, contains in its stem one of the mo3t remarkable narcotics in America. The Napes and Uaiipes drink an infusion at the feasts to get into a trance. The celebrated poison Curari, the most powerful sedative in nature, is a compound prepared only by the natives living beyond the cataracts of the northern tributaries, especially the Negro and Japura, and by the Tecunas. Its principal ingredient is derived from the Strychnos toxifera. The extract is prepared by boiling the bark, and then coagulating with the milk of another plant and tobacco- juice. The slightest portion of this poison diffused in ; i ■ D 2 36 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. blood produces excessive torpor, but it is said that the mind and involuntary muscles continue active. Death ensues from palsy of the lungs. Salt is the only known antidote, and its effects on salt-eating men are not so manifest as on wild animals. It is sold chiefly at Pebas, at one dollar fifty cents a cup of half a gill. Tipped with curari, the needle- like arrow used in the blow-tubes will kill an ox in twenty minutes and a monkey in ten. DYES OF THE MONTANA. Achiote, anotto, or urucii, prepared from the seeds of the Bixa orellana, growing abundantly on the high Maranon, is used extensively by the Indians in dyeing a reddish- brown or orange-yellow. Indigo {psetcdo-anil) grows wild in many places, as at Santarem, Foente-Boa, and in the provinces of Loreto, Urubamba, and Carabaya. The fruit of Xhe/agua or Vttu {Genipd) gives a dark- blue, as on the Ucayali and Huallaga. The Moyobambians dye cotton-cloth a permanent blue by simply boihng it only with the digitate leaves of the Yangua tinctoria Lasiandra argentia, on the Amazons, and parinari, rijari, and huito from the Maranon, are used for dyeing black. Orchella, valuable for a yellow dye, is grown along the coast. GUMS AND OILS. Copal exudes from the bark of the Hymenaa (jutahi, of ■which there are several species), a monarch of the forest often 100 feet high. On the Maraiion it is used for illumination. The Cetico (a Cecropta, a tree 50 feet high, with white bark and digitate foliage, very common on the Maranon) is also a " wax tree," but the wax is of animal origin, stored away in the hollow trunk. The wax is of two kinds, white and reddish, the former is said to be made by bees and the other by ants. DRUGS, DYES, GUMS, ETC., OF THE MONTANA. 37 India-rubber — called on thp river borracha (from the form in which it is exported), seringa (because it was formerly- made by the natives into syringes for injections, a popular treatment of disease), gomtna-elastica,jebe, and caucho — is the product of several Amazonian trees, but especially of ^V- pkonia cahucha, known by the collectors as Seringuerid, or Chilinga. This tree, having the bark and foliage of the European ash, and a trunk with the maximum diameter of four feet, and branchless for a hundred feet, grows wild on the lowlands (ygapos) of all the tributaries, but it is tapped mainly in the regions of the Madeira, Xingu, Puruo, Juriia^ and Tapajos. The rubber is collected in the dry season (between July and January), one man collecting on an average 8 lb. a day, worth on the Amazons (when fine) 14 dollars an arroba.^ The sap has at first the consistency of cream, but soon thickens and is further hardened by being exposed to the smoke of burning palm-nuts, usually the urucuri. Coagulation is necessary also to prevent the separation of resinous parts. (See mode of collection,, page 28.) Castor-oil plant {Recina) abounds along the eastern slope- of the Andes, one species attaining, at Tarapota, the height of 25 feet, but very little oil is extracted. Sassafras, so-called, is the transparent oil of a tree on the Upper Negro, and is used in mixing colours. TEXTILE PLANTS. Pita (so-called in Equador, m Peru " caybua ") is made from the macerated fibrous leaves of a species of Agave^ It is manufactured most largely at Archidona, on the Napo. The Chambira (an Astrocaryuin) is used by the Zaporus. on the Napo for string for the manufacture of hammocks. The natives make a bark cloth from the tururi ( Cura- tari legalis) called "cascara" up the Madeira, and from the lanchama on the Maraiion (Napo and Huallaga). A wax palm {Carnabua) furnishes a fibre for making mats ; and ropes and other fabrics are made of the fine, glossy fibre called "caraua" and "palha," from a species of Bromelia. ' One arroba equals 251b. Spanish. 38 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. The Screw pine {Carludovica bombondje), the unexpanded leaves of which are so extensively used at Moyobamba as well as at Guayaquil for the manufacture of Panama hats, is grown between the Huallaga and the Andes, particularly about Moyobamba, Rioja, and Tarapoto. The tree is seven feet high, but the full-grown leaves are ten or more. The longest straw obtainable is 27^ inches. It takes about sixteen bundles (cogoUos) for an ordinary hat, and twenty- four for the finest. The straws of the latter are not more than one-fortieth of an inch wide. About 100,000 hats were annually sent down to Para ten years ago. They then commanded 40 dollars a dozen ; now they can be bought for 15 dollars. Cotton is grown mainly on the Huallaga (particularly at Tarapoto) and Ucayali. Trees at Balso Puerto grow twelve feet high. The native cloth is called " tocuyo " and " lienza," and that which is made into cushmas, or long tunics, is stronger than the stoutest unbleached cotton of England or the United States. The spininng-wheels and looms are of the rudest construction. Huimba, the produce of a tree (Bombax) growing on the Peruvian slope, resembles cotton, but is much lighter and very silky. The Indians use it to wrap around the slender arrows blown through the cerbanta (blow-tube). Samaiina-silk, from the giant Eriodendron, is used for the same purpose. PALMS. Mauritia. — This group may be distinguished from all others, not only by their leaves but also by their scaly fruits and pinnately branched spadices. There are at least a dozen species on the river. The M. flexuosa, the miriti of Bra- zilians, and achual or aguashi of Peruvians, is the most universally distributed palm in the valley, abounding from the shores of the Atlantic to the altitude of 3,000 feet on the Andes of Peru, Equador, and New Granada. It is a social palm, forming groves along the low shores at the mouths of the tributaries and about swampy lakes. It is always a conspicuous object, the smooth stem often rising 100 feet and bearing enormous, spreading, fan-like leaves, and clusters of egg-shaped, scaly, reddish fruit resembling DRUGS, DYES, GUMS, ETC., OF THE MONTANA. 39 pine-cones. The epidermis of the leaves furnishes a useful fibre. The orange pulp of the fruit is eaten by the Indians, or made into wine called yucuta, and the farinaceous pith yields a kind of sago. The Indians call it " the tree of life." Carludovica palmata (R. et P.), or bombonaje, from which straw hats are made, has no stem; the leaves, on long slender petioles, spring from the ground. The leaves are about 10 feet long, fan-shaped and four-parted, each segment on its own rib ; there are eighty layers in a young leaf. It is this young unexpanded leaf, which is split into 160 or more strips, that is used in the manufacture of Panama hats. It is confined to the Andes. Fhytelephas. — The ivory palms, whose seeds yield the vegetable ivory of commerce, are found only at the roots of the Andes, generally in clusters near streams under the shade of lofty trees, as at Tarapoto. Their extreme altitude is 3,000 feet. There are two species; P. macrocarpa (R. et P.), or polo-ponto, has a very short trunk or none at all, and large pinnate leaves, with about 100 pairs of pinnae, which begin at the very base of the leaf. The fruit is about the size of a man's head, and is well packed with from twelve to twenty leaves. ORCHIDS. Some orchids are in bloom all the year round. The finest species is the Odontoglossum, having large chocolate- coloured petals variegated with yellow. " Such in number and variety," wrote Humboldt, " that the entire life of a painter would be too short to delineate all the magnificent OrchidcB which adorn the recesses of the deep valleys of the Peruvian Andes." 40 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER IV. The Rivers, Indian Tribes, and Vocabularies. NAVIGATION OF THE AFFLUENTS OF THE MARANON. Report >< « o g z > o D - O m f? o a ►J w a Q m ?; ~] c p z f< « < P4 m . Z r^ H O I- K " CO H < O 3 2 ps w W M 13 £ «u :io C/3 a o 00 os a^ Ch p s:- GO t^ t-^ »-n r^ ro o vo vo "^ ro r-. 0^ OMO N 00 I-^ WW ■^ O O wa H r^ t-. t^ t->.oo CO 00 r>. WW o o o f^ fn -^ vo vo r^oo 00 ON ON ■<* ^^tn o 0^ ON 0^ O O Ci^ O C^ 1^ S S ^" 3 3 ?i " •U c « S ja = -5 J3 o XS 2i ^^'z, 3 "^ ri 5 ^ •- Tl o - " i ° ■~f^ 3 S -? « o 2 g y t, ui s (3 s s O Tl'" d) rt T?' ^ _W5 o rt fl? c:; s ^ o 1 ^ c J«; gl^1.? g"^- 5^~ oH " s s * E 50 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. INDIAN TRIBES OF THE MONTANA. Translated from Senor Antonio Raimondi's work, '■'■El Peril" Lima, 1879, by permission of the author. The Marubas on the Javari have a dark complexion and a slight beard. On the west side of the river roam the Majeronas, a fierce, hostile, light-coloured tribe of bearded cannibals. The. Jivaros. — It is well known that the Santiago is much populated with savages (the Jivaros, a large tribe and one of the most warlike in South America), and that the names of many are mentioned who have been victims to their treach- erous attacks, who, carried away by the enthusiasm of ex- ploring the ancient famous gold-washings, have trusted to the treacherous friendship of the Jivaros, who in remote times destroyed in a single night numerous flourishing towns, and amongst them Sevilla del Oro, which was situated on the banks of the Santiago, killing all its male population. The missions at Moco and Guayaquiza have produced as yet no practical result. This tribe occupy the country generally from the Upper Pastaza to the Santiago, down to the Pongo of Manseriche. According to P. Castrucci, the Jivaros number about 1,600 ; they live like the Yaporos. They rear pigs and fowls in abundance, hunt monkeys, and eat all kinds of animals ; cultivate plantains, yuca, caniotes, pdpus de nointe, pine-apples, and sugar-cane. They have the custom of preserving their dead, drying them by means of a slow fire and much smoke, and so reducing them to mummies. The Yaporos do not exceed a thousand, they are scattered over an immense tract of land, arid their villages are very far apart. Their houses are constructed of the boughs of a palm called tarrepoto, and are 25 yards long, by 18 feet wide, and are inhabited by from twenty-five to thirty persons. They sleep in hammocks, and always have by their side a candle, which infallibly burns the whole night. Each man lives with three or four women, who live in the greatest harmony among themselves. ^ A TAI'UY INDIAN OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PEBAS. Face page 52. INDIAN TRIBES OF THE MONTANA. 5 1 The Ayulis. — According to Raimondi, the Ayulis, who inhabit the river Morona, are generally well-formed, of sound disposition, and robust ; are light in colour, have good eyes and beards, which they often cut, and they appear rational. Everything leads to the belief that this branch of the great Jivari nation is crossed with white or Spanish people. Tradition relates that in the days of colonisation (eighty years ago), the town of Logroiio and other places were destroyed by the said Jivaros, in consequence of the great greed of the Spaniards for gold, which these Indians contributed to the Crown of Spain, and that they beheaded all the men, the barbarians taking away with them all the women, including the nuns of the convent of Logroiio. The Ayulis, the same as the Patucas on the river Alangirsa (a branch on the left of the Morona), are kind, laborious, arid clever ; they make good canoes, and cultivate in abundance yucas, plantains, maize, onions, and beans. They likewise cultivate cotton, with which the women make very gay woven clothes, which they wear. They rear fowls, chanchos, and dogs. The Combos occupy the extremity north of the territory of the Huillcamayo and part of the prolongation called Ucayali; the extent of their territory is eighty-two leagues, = 246 miles, beginning from the river Simpa and extending to the Capisinia. The land is flat and woody, and the atmosphere is humid. The climate is considerably hot, except in times of storms, when the temperature is much lower. The Conibos are small in stature, brown in colour their bodies are fat and almost womanish, their features are proportionate, and they have their noses less flattened than other Indians. The women have ugly faces, and de- formity in proportion to the body. They wear the same kind of clothes as the Piros, being different to them only in colour, which is snuff-colour. They speak pausingly, and their guttural sound is not so pleasing as that of the Tampis and Piros. They are circumspect, reserved, and distrustful. They cultivate a great deal of land, and fish for turtle, which is called charapa. The Shipibos are the fourth tribe, which have an extent of district of sixty-four leagues, = 192 miles long, on the river Ucayali, a continuation of the river Huillcamayo, from the E 2 52 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. river Caspusina to the Sarayacu. The country is level and has extensive forests. Their products consist of wax, vanilla, aguardiente, rice, and, in the Huallaga district, salt. The climate is that of the Conibos. In the vicinity of Pebas dwell the inoffensive Yaguas. Near Nauta dwell the tall, finely-built Cucumas, shrewd, hard-working canoe- men, notorious for their singular desire to possess pro- perty ; and the Za7noes, a white tribe, who wander across the Marafion, as far as Sarayacu. Mr. Alf. Simpson says : — " All the Indians of the Napo, Pastassa, and Putu- mayo, who have had contact with or even heard of white men and baptism, show the greatest distaste for the despi- cable title of Ancas (heathens), and invariably disclaim it for themselves, but I fear their religious zeal goes no further." The Quichuan is always submissive to your face but slow to perform ; soured by ill-treatment, he will hardly do any- thing unless he is compelled. He will do nothing well unless he is treated as a slave. Treat him kindly and you will make him a thief; whip him and he will rise up and thank you, and be your humble servant. Servile and timid, superstitious and indolent, the Quichuans have not half the spirit of the North American Indians. It has ' passed into a proverb, " The Indian lives without shame, dies without fear, and eats without repugnance." The Antis or Campas. — From the point of the Chaguaris, situated on the right bank of the Huillcamayo,! at the com- mencement of the river region of the Montaiias, lies the territoryofthe Antis or Campas Indians, extending 75 leagues up to the confluence of this river with the one called Comisia. The country is rocky and hilly until arriving within a mile of the Chibucuni cascade, when it gradually disappears, meeting after-yvards only some promontories, commencing with the pampas of Sacramento. The climate is very hot, sky generally clear, except when there are rains ; agreeable breezes blow during the day, tempering the heat. The course of the river through the rocky country is very winding; there are 125 rapids. The men are generally of an average height, bronze in colour, with small faces, short and flat noses, eyes black without vivacity, heavy lips, small hands and ' Necklace River. Huillca means necklace, and mayo river, in Quichua. INDIANS ON THE UCAYALI. INDIAN TRIBES OF THE MONTANA. 53 feet. The little beard they possess they pull out by the roots with two shells, which serve them as pincers ; they have a pleasing physiognomy ; they do not paint the face ; the women are generally ugly. Both sexes have long hair, and cut it at the birth of their first son, and usually at other births. Of the savages who inhabit the banks of the Huillcamayo and the Ucayali, this is the only tribe in which the women appear modest in dress. Some of the men are accustomed to place a wooden hoop with bird-feathers on their heads, but this does not betoken any distinction. It is common among both sexes to hang from the gristle of the nose a kind of silver medal, and make a hole below the lower lip into which they introduce a wooden peg ; it is likewise customary to tie woven cotton bands round the ankles and wrists and to adorn the neck with necklaces of bugles or small carved pieces of wood, from which hang threads which fall upon. the shoulders, on the ends of these threads they tie the dried plumage of birds. Their mode of speaking is pleasing, being soft, and delivered in a kind of chanting monotone. They are of a melancholy disposition, not very frank, and naturally indolent, as the cultivation of the land is exclusively attended to by the women. A Campa seldom is cheerful, and the most that can be obtained from him in that way is an expression of approbation. They take an interest in anything only when they desire it, but it is just to say they possess no bad intentions. There are other Indians as well as the Campas who are without a history, although by tradition they are said to have held sway over the savage Piros, their rivals and neighbours. There is no doubt that were they to live united they would be richer in productions, and improved in character ; but at the present time it is otherwise, because they have become at variance through the wars which have taken place. There are hardly two families which are united ; the shortest dis- tance of one house from another is not less than three leagues, and sometimes as much as eight ; their habitations are not built on the banks of the river Huillcamayo, but on the plains, on the top of the quebrada (broken country). These precautions are necessary, because the Piros, who usually go to the Chaguaris in the month of July, carrying animals from the Montana and other articles of barter, rob as many 54 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. people as they can on the road. It is only when a Campa is pressed by hunger that he goes out for provisions, as other- wise he would never exert himself to procure them. They sleep extended on the ground near a fire, their feet placed as near to it as possible.- When one of them dies, they throw the body into the river, after tying the hands and feet, and placing large stones upon it to submerge it — a precaution they adopt to avoid its reappearance, as they are taught by an old tradition: They do not recognise a chief, for although they have some whom they call captains, they never show any obedience to them ; this title is given them in consequence of having acquired great dexterity in hunting and fishing, and for possessing a knowledge of at least two or three dialects. They are without any religious belief, and only have an idea of an evil being, whom they call Camac arinchi, and in other tribes Miajamunchi Jltuchi, equivalent to the devil. Polygamy is in practice amongst all the savages, each one keeping as many women as he can, taking them from their parents, and giving them in exchange hatchets, knives, and other hardware ; the orderly manner in which they live together is remarkable. Their agricultural productions are coca, tobacco, cotton, yucas, racachas (a plant, a kind of papas or potato), camiotes (sweet potatoes), plantains of three sorts, pines, papayas, sugar-cane, maize, and mani (gum). Game and fish are not plentiful. The articles of com- merce which the Indians receive in exchange for their products are hatchets, knives, scissors, needles, fish-hooks, buttons, beads, &c. The Marubos, on the Javari river, are of dark complexion, with a slight beard. On the west side of Narwei roam the Majeionas, a fierce tribe of hostile, light-bearded cannibals. Bovo de Revello, an Italian friar, who has travelled a great deal in various parts of the world, and who is himself a clever naturalist and geographer, states, as his opinion, that for missionaries of scientific tastes there are boundless opportunities in the interior of Peru for pursuing their investigations while engaged in spreading the Gospel. JOURNEY ON LITTER NEAR NAI'O. Face page 55. Pi < B a o < < o o 2 <: s o o i '1 iL ■-§ |.s«^S,8^:§:S.s;slla-s -g o ■3 -0 : : (D .s-g : ■ a. • u -j: c c 3 <■< u . i- iS ^ E gl-l 2:;<; 6 1 3 s y ■ —^ 3 13 "3 "^ jQp:OQCyQ C = '4^ CJ • S 3 s c 1 .1 ; : u n:: ss 3 3 ^1 c iff! z . : S : " ■.■.:■. B : : : a D ;>, a, ""^^ i 5 "5 C illJlilllJlliili "a. s ^6i 3': 3 ; : : : ^ ; .^ ■ . • ■ c ^OJ ■1~1 1-1 to -^H 0) OJ .0) -C 58 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. English. Qiiichua. Zaparo. Yagua. I., ii Aillu Cuarama (same as brother) Husband Kosa (always the k guttural) ... Cuiran Rai-hudno Wife Huarmi Cuirichan Rai-huaura Widower Huacicha cari ... Machicho Widow Huacichahuarmi Machicho Twins Yshcai huach- ashca (or hua- chic) Sarro Hand Maqui Cuichoac Samutii Foot Chaqui Cuinoca Nimatii Fingers Maqui palca ... Canasii Toes Chaqui palca ... Cuinoca canasii Thumb (No separate term for thumb or leg toe) Cumacana God Apunchi yaya (God our Fa- ther) Piatzo Tupana One Shuc (or .Shug) Noqui Tiqui Two Ishcay Ammassaniqui . . . Nanoijoi Three Quimsa Imucu maraqui.. Momuhi Four Tahua Above 3 they Naiiunjuia Five Pischa ... (or have no name, Tanaijo pitchca) but show their Six Socta fingers. They Tiqiiinihate Seven Canchis do not count Naiioujaiate Eight Pusac (or Piisag) above ten. Momun- huaiate Nine Iscun Naiiauyuia- ato Ten Arunca Naujui Eleven Chiinca-hucniok (go no Twelve Chunca - ishcay- niok higher) Twenty Ischa-chunca ... Twenty-one ... Ischa chunca- huc ... .!. Thirty Quimsa-chunga,. One hundred ... Pachac (or Patzag) One thousand ... Guarango 10,000 would be Chunga - guar- anga POPULATION. 59 Ordinal numbers. — Nlqui is joined to the number, thus : — ist is Shug Niqui ; 2nd is Ischay Niqui, &c. The Conibos count by twos. Thus, one is avicho ; two is raboi ; above two, so many two's, as : — four ( = two 2's), raboi-raboi ; six (= three a's), raboi- rab6i-rab6i. Authors assign to South America from 280 to 700 languages, of which two-fifths are composed of idioms radically distinct. The polyglot America is antipodal to the Chinese ; the language of the former is richest in words ; that of the latter the poorest. The prepo- sition follows the noun, and the verb ends the sentence. POPULATION OF THE AMAZON. Prof. Orton says: — "The valley of the Amazon is probably the most sparsely populated region on the globe. There are not 40,000 souls along the banks of the rivers in the whole of the Amazon and the Maraiion. Many of the towns marked on the map do not exist, or are represented by a solitary palm hut. The visible population is almost confined to the circum- ference of the valley; as at Para at the mouth of the river, at Moyobamba, and at Tarapoto. The great basin is filled with a continuous, dark, primaeval forest, rarely disturbed by the hand of man, and into which daylight seldom enters. Yet imagination peoples this pathless wilderness with uncounted swarms of savages. There are, it is true, numerous clans, we can hardly call them tribes, which, though dignified with separate names, are insignificant in numbers, barely numbering a hundred each. Raimondi puts down the number of all the wild Indians on the Maraiion — that is, in the whole province of Loreto, which stretches from Equador to Cuzco, and from the top of the Andes to Brazil — as from thirty to forty thousand. To this must be added another forty thousand to include the civilised tribes, half-castes, and whites." 6o THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER V. Reports of Scientific Travellers. REPORT OF M. OLIVIER ORDINAIRE ON THE NAVIGATION AND COLONISATION IN THE AMAZON PROVINCES. THE following is extracted from the Report by M. Olivier Ordinaire to the Geographical Society of Paris, 1886. This traveller, having lately made a journey across the Andes, gives a full description of the country he passed through. He states : — Owing to the badness of the roads, goods are at present transported on men's backs, and the journey from Lima to Iquitos generally takes forty-five days to accomplish. He passed down many of the rivers, studying the numerous productions of its valleys, and the advantages they offer to commerce and colonisation. His report is limited purely to commerce and statistics. Caucho, or india-rubber, represents the greater part of the exportation. According to the Manifests in the Custom House of Iquitos, there was exported during 1884 and 1885 :- 1885. 714,161 kilos 32,770 pieces 23,110 kilos 7.469 ,, India-rubber j 540,529 kilos Straw Hats 48,204 pieces Tobacco 22,714 kilos Sarsaparilla | 18,586 ,, The Loreto Department has also exported, in lesser quantities, vegetable ivory, cascarilla, copaiba, parchi or pirarucu, chambira (textile vegetable material), and a certain quantity of gold taken from the affluents of the river Maranon, which, not having been registered in the REPORTS OF SCIENTIFIC TRAVELLERS. 6i Custom House, has not been valued. The navigation of the main Amazon River is represented by 150 sailing-ships and many lines of steamers, which carry on a regular service from Para — the port at the mouth of the Amazon — with Manaos, situated 872 miles up the river. The following is the list of steamers and the number of voyages they made during last year to the Amazon. The Brasilera del Sur Company's vessels made thirty-six voyages to Para and thirty-six to Manaos. The North-American Steamship Company's vessels made twelve voyages to Para and twelve to Manaos. The English Company, Booth Line, made twelve voyages to Para and nine to Manaos. The English Company, Red Cross Line, made twelve voyages to Para and nine to Manaos. Para pos- sesses thirty-seven steamers, from 100 tons to 700 tons. Some of them at fixed dates ascend the Puras and Madeira. Large steamers ascend the river, not only to Iquitos, but as far as Yurrimaguas, on the Huallaga. The distance from Manaos to Iquitos is 1,130 miles, and from Iquitos to Yurrimaguas 458 miles. The following table shows the steamers navigating the Peruvian Amazons : — flj No. of Name of Steamer. Flag. a c Journey. voyages pe'r H annum. Santarem ... B. 400 Manaos to Iquitos 12 Solimoes B. 2cra Manaos to River Javari 12 Macapa B. 680 Para to Yurrimaguas 4 Juruti B. 200 4 Gran Para .. B. 500 4 Amazonia ... B. 570 ») J) 4 Angosto B. 240 )j >» 4 The river Javari — which separates Peru from Brazil — is navigable for a distance of 260 miles, and has not only been visited by the Solimoes, but also many times by the Solimoes and the Amazonia on their return voyage. The river Ucayali is, of all the affluents of the Upper Amazon, that which exports most india-rubber. It is navigable for over 700 miles. 62 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. SHIPPING. Twelve steam launches, from 2 to 100 tons, belong to Iquitos and navigate the Ucayali and other Peruvian rivers. Having descended the rivers Palcaza and Pachitea in canoe and balsa and tbe Ucayali in steam-launch, M. Ordinaire proceeded to Nauta (a port on the Maranon) in the steamer Amazonia and ascended the river as far as Yurrimaguas and descending the Amazon to Para, after having made a voyage of 1 20 miles in the river Yavari. The voyage of the Amazonia to Yurrimaguas, going and returning, with all its stoppages, lasts three months. M. Ordinaire left Para at the beginning of November, 1885, and returned 3rd February, 1886. The steamers Macapa and Amazonia are the largest steamers which call at Yurrimaguas. The steamer Viren is of 600 tons register, but the vessels most convenient for the fluvial navigation are those having flat bottoms, which run no risks in crossing the bars of earth or sand. Steamers drawing over 12 feet of water during the months of July and August cannot call at Iquitos, being obliged at this season by lowness of the river to anchor half a mile off the port. In 1863 the bark Arica, of 800 tons, and drawing 17 to 18 feet (English) of water, entered Iquitos towed by the steamer Morona, of 500 tons. EXPORTS FROM IQUITOS. The report of the Sub-Prefect of the province of the Upper Amazon, Otoniel Melina, dated Iquitos, 2nd December, 1886, appears in the official Gazette El Peruana, 23rd December, 1886. In this report the Prefect urges the Peruvian Government to introduce European immigrants to those regions. He proposes that immi- grants should be brought from Europe by the State's own vessels ; the ships should be 800 to 1,000 tons burthen, auxiliary steam. Houses should be prepared beforehand to receive the immigrants, and a stock of implements and provisions given to them at the expense of the State, for at the end of six months their lands would be cultivated and they would be enabled to grow their own food and be independent of Government aid. Iquitos is REPORTS OF SCIENTIFIC TRAVELLERS. in a flourishing state on account of the great demand for india-rubber, which brings a mine of wealth to the mer- chants engaged in the trade. The value of the importa- tions into Iquitos have been during the past six months as follows : — Value of Value in Peruvian Invoices. Money. Soles. Germany M" 6,383'oo I.S9S7S Brazil Reis 68,9i6'Oo 38,285'66 United States $i4,9i5'84 I4,i99'84 France Frcs 228,353'40 45,667'o8 England £^4,33^ i6 lo 7i,694'20 Portugal Reis i,687'40i 1,874-89 Plaza Reis 73,497-000 40,831-66 Aduana Reis 133,938-000 74,410-00 288,560-08 During the same half year, there have been exported from Iquitos 554,344 kilogrammes of india-rubber. The productions of the five districts which form the Lower Amazons are india-rubber, fine gutta-percha, brandy, vegetable ivory, copaiba, oil from the paca-marina, salted fish, sarsaparilla, building timber, gold dust, &c. These are the principal articles which serve for return for merchan- dise imported. Trade is rising in importance, and at times there is insufficiency of steam tonnage, and it is very desirable that this should be extended. The colony is a model of morality, order, and industry, and the obedience and respect shown to the authorities is admirable. The com- mercial and agricultural interests are flourishing under the good administration of the authorities of the colony. The blessings which Europe has hitherto derived from North America will soon flow to her from the Southern Continent. To the former the gate of entrance is only open to a few on certain conditions, but to the latter all are welcomed. SPECIAL CUSTOMS TARIFF FOR GOODS IMPORTED AT AMAZONIAN PORTS. M. Ordinaire continues : — Articles of importation are not subject to the Custom's tariffs, which affect goods landed in the ports of the West Coast of Peru. The import duties which, either at Lima or in the 64 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Brazils are charged at 30 to 40 per cent, on the estimated value of the articles, are not charged on goods which come by the Amazons to Eastern Peru, but at 7^ per cent, only on the invoiced value. The advantage is the same for the export trade. While the Brazilian india- rubber pays an export duty of 23 per cent, on its value, that which is exported from Peru does not pay more than 4 per cent. The market at Iquitos has been for many years tributary to that of Para, which, from its long established connexion and from its maritime situation at the mouth of the Amazon, was the general depot of these regions. But for some few years past, the increase of the exportations of the Loreto Department has permitted Iquitos, at least in a great measure, to free itself from this tutelage. It now obtains direct from Europe or the United States its requirements, which undergo only one transhipment, at Para or Manaos. From the statistics of importation of the Department, the countries with which trade is carried on are classified in the following order : — I St. England. 2nd. United States. 3rd. France. 4th. Germany. Sth. Portugal. ARTICLES IMPORTED. England sends indianas (calicos) and ordinary cotton Stuffs ; the United States its flour, cheese, sewing machines, rough furniture, petroleum, and hatchets ; France, silk stuffs, perfumery, wines, and preserves; Germany- sends cashmeres, woollen and cotton goods, beer, and all kinds of fishing tackle, &c. ; Portugal divides with France and the United States the trade in preserves ; it imports likewise a light and commodious kind of shoe, the use of which is general in the Amazon regions. Amongst the articles of considerable sale in the Montana, and which is specially manufactured for it in the form which their habits and customs require, I will mention REPORTS OF SCIENTIFIC TRAVELLERS. 65 the ipulli, a knife with a large blade, used for cutting grass, and the machete (axe), which every man carries who pene- trates the forests. SYSTEM OF TRADING. One arroba (25'32o lb.) of india-rubber is worth on the Ucayali to the workman who supplies it, 10 soles (33s. 4d.) worth of goods. This system is suitable to the Indian, who fears neither hunger nor cold, who does not know what the words wealth and misery mean, and who only works in order to obtain the object which he has seen. In his turn the buyer who comes and seeks the india-rubber, in steam-launches or canoes, pays for it, at the least in part, with goods, and this system of direct barter causes an important coasting trade. PROGRESS OF CIVILISATION AMONGST THE CAMPAS INDIANS. If one ascends the rivers as far as the country of the Campas, who live in a region towards the Andes, natives are met with who have no idea of the value of goods compared with silver. A piece of money has no more value to them than a perforated bead, or a portion of a necklace. These Campas, who have been considered for a long time to be dangerous and rebels to all civilisation, are as capable of work as the others, and besides, carry out their engagements. In the confluence of the rivers Palcaza and Chuchuras, in a region which was up to the present considered as completely deserted, M. Ordinaire found the dweUing of a German, established there about four years. He had succeeded in drawing around him some sixty Campas families, who were living within several leagues' radius of his dwellings. They could gather about TOO' arrobas of india-rubber annually. According to the cal- culation which he himself gave M. Ordinaire, each arroba is worth in Iquitos fourteen to fifteen soles (fifty-six to sixty francs), obtaining it for two reals (fivepence), that is to say, less than one franc, paid in goods to the Campas, who, besides, took care of his plantation, of yucas and palms, and pro- vided him with abundance of game. The increase in distance, and expenses of transport, are far from counterbalancing such advantages. It may be in 66 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. general said, that for the working of the india-rubber and of similar products of great value, the most distant place in the civilised regions is the best for the colonist. AGRICULTURE. Although the land is fertile to excess, agriculture scarcely exists in the Loreto Department. All the activity of the colonists is absorbed in the working of and trading in india-rubber. Perhaps there does not exist a region more favourable for the cultivation of rice, and yet almost the whole of the rice which is consumed in the country, — where the land belongs to the first who occupies it, — is imported from Brazil. Potatoes are imported from Havre and Lisbon; this is a remarkable fact, when we take into consideration that Peru was the original country of the potato, and that if it grows badly in the Montana, the neighbouring Cordillera produces it in abundance, and of the best possible quality. It is true that in order to seek for it, it would be necessary to make a road first, and this appears to be what the india- rubber gatherers think the least of doing. The Peruvian Amazons do not export, in reality, other agricultural products than tobacco from Tarapoto. The sugar cane cultivated in some of the estates of the Maranon is converted into tafia (aguardiente from sugar), which is consumed in the Department. The plough is unknown. After having burned the land, they plant and sow without moving it. In the Ucayali valley they make use of the mud deposited by the river on its banks. When the waters are low, they sow on the beaches maize, turnips, onions, &c. Maize comes to maturity in four months, turnips and onions in three. In the estates on the Maranon, the sugar cane, three or four metres high, is cut every eight or nine months. FERTILITY OF THE VINE. What attracted M. Ordinaire's attention the most in the immense Amazon regions was the fertility of the vines. His surprise was greater in meeting with vines along the road when he knew that in the Chanchamayo, an elevated valley of the Montana, plantations had not met with success ; and he was thus convinced that the failure of the trial pro- EXPEDITION OF MR. GEORGE P. JAMES. 67 ceeded from the omission made of not pruning the shoots. The first vine-stock which he found was in Yurrimaguas. It alone formed one immense bower which contained over 300 bunches of a medium size, of a good black colour, and slightly acid. He saw others similar on many estates, parti- cularly in Caballo-Cocha, on the banks of a small affluent of the Maraiion, and was assured in all these places that they yielded regularly three crops annually. By merely passing in transit he was unable, as is natural, to prove the fact himself, but it is certain that the vine gives in that country exceptional results. However, nobody has yet cultivated it in the Department for the purpose of making wine. All that is drunk in Iquitos is imported from Europe, and is very dear. The same occurs with vegetables, which come from the Ucayali, and are paid for at high prices. Thus it is that horticultural cultivation and the making of wine would give, in the neighbourhood of that town, safe and sure profit, perhaps more than india-rubber. In consequence of its separation from the capital, and of the want of means of communication with the Pacific, and likewise of the desire of the Peruvian Government to favour the colo- nisation of the rich regions of the Montana, the Peruvian Amazons lead, from a commercial point of view, an inde- pendent life. — Translated txomEl Co?nerdo de Lima, 22nd April, 1887. EXPEDITION OF MR. GEORGE P. JAMES FROM THE CHANCHAMAYO IN PERU TO THE ATLANTIC* Mr. George P. James, who has a sugar estate on the bajiks of the Chanchamayo river, undertook a journey to explore the region between that position and the Perene. His estate is near the village of La Merced, on the Chancha- mayo. He set out on the 17th of July, 1886, accompanied by an Italian named Bogo, who could speak the language of the Chunchos, and was reputed to have a certain influence over them. But both these qualifications appear to have been much exaggerated. Mr. James resolved to * Communicated by Mr. C. R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S., Secretary. — From El Comercio de Lima, 3rd May, 1887. F 2 68 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. follow up the right bank of the Paucartambo, and thence to reach the famous Cerro de la Sal. In the hamlet of San Luis, which is situated on the Cerro de la Sal, they found a missionary named Sala. The good father arranged that the travellers should be accom- panied by a lay brother, who turned out to be an energetic and courageous comrade. The party took leave of the good father, and set out in the direction of Palcazu, that is to say, they entered an unknown tract of country. James was armed with a repeating rifle, a revolver, and a well-sharpened wood-knife (machete). Bogo was also well armed, and the lay brother was provided with a machete, an indispensable companion in that forest region. They pushed valiantly on, slipping through the dense under- grov/th, or opening a way with their wood-knives, the compass being their only guide. At length they came in sight of the river Palcazu, which had been described to them as navigable. This, unfortunately, was not the case, at least in the dry season, and it was necessary for them to march along its right bank, following the course of the strearri, and wading across the small tributaries, during three days, when they reached a point where the river was really navigable in balsas. Between the Paucartambo and the Palcazu they only met with one river of little volume, which they easily crossed. It is one of the tributaries of the Perene. .At the point where the Palcazu became navigable, as well as at other places along the banks, they came upon habitations of wild Indians. These people appeared to be hostile at first, but as soon as they saw the cordiahty with -which the Englishman and the Italian drank their masato, and took part in their dances and noisy amusements, they forgot their suspicions and treated the strangers as old friends. When the drinking bout was over, the chief of these Indians was very useful, and it was due to him that . they procured three small balsas, one for each traveller and an Indian in each to guide them. They embarked in the morning, taking care to fasten all their traps to the poles of the balsas, and at about noon, being carried down by the rapid current, they reached Chincheros, a place situated at the point where the river of the same name falls EXPEDITION OF MR. GEORGE P. JAMES. 69 into the Palcazu. This station appeared to have commercial relations with Huancabamba. Proceeding on the voyage, the navigators stopped at a hut for the night, and during the hours of sleep the three Indians escaped in one of the balsas and were not heard of again, but they did not take anything. This accident caused them to lose all the next day, for the Indian who owned the hut refused to go with them. At length he yielded to their promises. They made one balsa out of the two which the fugitive Indians had left, and embarked once more. After two hours the Indian, either by accident or design, lost his paddle, and, on the pretext of making another, he went into the forest and also disappeared. There was nothing left for the three adventurers but to continue the voyage alone, and this they determined to do. Nothing occurred during the following day. The current took them down the river with moderate speed, and no natives were seen on its banks. In the evening they selected a beach on which to pass the night, continuing the voyage on the following day. But at ten o'clock in the forenoon the balsa struck upon a rock and capsized. When Mr. James came to the surface the iay brother was already on the cap- sized balsa, and Bogo was swimming with one hand on it. Mr. James soon rea,ched it also. Half an hour afterwards, swimming down the river with the help of the balsa, they succeeded in beaching her just at the point where the river Lagarto falls into the Palcazu. The things which were on the balsa had all been well secured, and, with the exception of Mr. James's boots, nothing was lost in the shipwreck. The afternoon and night were passed without food, but next morning an Indian came to their help, lighted a fire, and enabled them to appease their hunger with boiled yucas. Having dried their clothes, refreshed themselves, and righted the balsa, they continued the descent of the river, and arrived next day at the junction of the Pichis with the Palcazu, when the united stream is called the Pachitea. Here they had the pleasure of meeting the Peruvian india-rubber collector, Davila, who was on a voyage with a small supply of that product, and who conducted them to a place 70 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. called Santa Isabel, the residence of a German india- rubber merchant. They remained at Santa Isabel for a whole week, waiting for another india-rubber collector. At length he arrived, accompanied by two monks, who said they were going to the Pozuzu, though it afterwards turned out that they were on their way to the Pichis. The lay brother joined them, so that Mr. James was left with the Italian Bogo as his sole companion. They made the voyage down the Pachitea in a canoe, guided by the india-rubber merchant. It was prosperous down the whole course of that great river, but on arriving near its junction with the Ucayali, owing to having started before dawn, the canoe struck upon the trunk of a tree half-covered by water, and capsized. This time the travellers lost everything they had with them. The position where this accident befel them was a mile above the confluence of the Pachitea with the Ucayali. The canoe was not stove in, so that they were able to right her again and to reach a place where they fell in with the small steamer Mayro, which took them down to Iquitos. After a forced residence of five weeks at Iquitos, Mr. James continued his voyage to Para ; proceeding thence to Bar- badoes and Trinidad, he returned to Peru by way of Panama. On May 7, 1887, he left Lima on his way back to his estate on the Chanchamayo. During the whole of his journey Mr. James only saw two snakes and one puma ; the puma walked past his camp at night without doing any harm. Mr. James has thrown light on the geography of a part of the forest-covered Mon- tana of Eastern Peru which was previously unknown. The practical results of his voyage are not without interest. The Palcazu is not really a navigable river, but the Pichis is. suited for navigatiijn. The latter river is, therefore, the point to which attention should be turned by those who desire to open a practicable route from the central regions of Peru to the Ucayali. At present 5, 000 men from Tarapoto, machete in hand, are occupied in felling the caoutchouc trees on the hills overiooking the Pichis. The caiicho {Cas- tilloa 1) india-rubber tree is felled, while the jeve ( Hevea or Siphonia ?) is merely cut across the bark of the trunk, to obtain the caoutchouc juice. Hence the mischief that is REPORTS OF SCIENTIFIC TRAVELLERS. 7 1 being done by these 5,000 men from Tarapoto is con- siderable, althougli the caucho-trees . increase and multiply with comparative rapidity. Another army of depredators comes up the Ucayali, and another up the Javari, for the exclusive benefit of Brazilian trade. Mr. James does not think that it would be of immediate utility to open a road from Chanchamayo to the Pichis, because, by the time it was finished, the 5,000 caucheros would have completed the work of destruction. It would be useless to open such a road for purposes of exportation so long as a heavier freight is paid for goods from Iquitos to Para than from Callao to Europe. As regards the export of timber on a large scale, there already exists a North American colony at Santarem occupied entirely in the timber trade. In Mr. James's view, the most useful measure, as regards the Peruvian forest region, which is very fertile and enjoys a healthy and agreeable climate, would be its colonisation. When that is effected, the construction of good routes to the Ucayali will become necessary. Mr. James is an enthusiastic traveller, and is willing to take part in any other exploring expedition which may be undertaken by the Peruvian Government.^ PROFE.SSOR ORTON'S DESCRIPTION OP THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Respecting the eastern slope of the Andes Moun- tains, which lies in Peruvian territory, no traveller has made a deeper research into these regions than the late Professor Orton, the eminent North American explorer, who threw himself most earnestly into the noble work, and has left to the world the valuable results of his labours. He says : — Peru has immense capabilities. She is the France of the South American continent. All the fruits and grains of the earth here find a congenial and fertile soil. With the great Pacific on her left, and the navigable sources of the Amazon on her right, — with mountains of 1 "Proceedings R.G.S.," August, 18S7. 72 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. mineral wealth untouched — with highland valleys, like the ovethanging gardens of Babylon for beauty, and with plains and reclaimable pampas which might equal Egypt in fer- tility, Peru is potentially one of the richest countries on the globe. No other country can furnish 6,000 miles of con- tinual internal navigation for large vessels. For 2,000^ miles from its mouth the main stream has not less than seven fathoms of water, and not a fall interrupts navigation for 2,600 miles. It is impossible to avoid asking the question what is to' become of this great region — this grand system of inland navigation — these thousand and one products of nature ? The wealth of an empire is yearly lost in these bou*ndless forests. These rich resources, lying almost at our very doors, must soon appeal to that restless spirit of enterprise and commercial activity which, not content with its past triumphs, longs for new conquests and a wider field of exercise. The Maranon (the name given to the upper part of the Amazon as it enters Peruvian territory) is a region of inexhaustible fertility, and would yield ample return to energy and capital. The villages are open to foreign commerce free of duty ; but at present the voice of civilised man is seldom heard save on the fluvial high- way between Moyobamba and the Brazilian ports. One looks forward to the dazzling future of this great valley, when the ships of all nations will crowd the network of rivers for the gold and perfames, the gems and woods of the great Western Ophir. PROFESSOR RAIMONDI ON THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Letter from Senor Antonio Raimondi to Senor Doctor Mariano M. Albornoz, on the suitability of the regions of Cahuapanas for emigration. Translated from " El Nacional," 1st July, 1887. Cahuapanas, June 23, 1887. My Esteemed Friend, — I reply to your favour of this day. I feel that your patriotic works are not understood as they should be ; but this is not to be wondered at, as REPORTS OF SCIENTIFIC TRAVELLERS. 73 no great work has yet been accomplished without the pro- moters having experienced many hardships and difficulties in the undertaking. But, on the contrary, all that is taking place will show you that the steps you have already taken are making good' progress. I can only advise you to persevere, because you have already given more than sufficient proofs of abnegation and exemplary firmness. Besides, proved as it firmly is of the absolute necessity of the opening of a road from Chachapoyas to the navigable port of the Maraiion, and, it being practicable, you ought not to leave this work until you see it accomplished, be- cause all indecision would, under the present circumstances, be most inconvenient, which in your work is shown to be so necessary for the advancement of the Departments of Amazonas and Loreto. Nothing less than the opening of this road will attract immigrants in sufficient numbers, the lands in these parts being those most suitable for agriculture ; they contain natural resources in abundance, and the excellent climate makes them inhabitable. The opening of this road would gready aid the establishing of populous towns, which would be the nucleus of others that would be established through the influx of immigrants to this region. In Europe and the United States the advantages which the places before mentioned offer for emigration are well known, since many travellers have spoken of the fertility of the soils, of the geniality of the climate, and of what they possess to make Hfe comfortable ; and it is only necessary to introduce immigration and it will increase, according as , greater facilities and accommodation are offered to immi- grants, by means of the opening of good roads to the populated places of the Sierra, and in all the extent oi Peruvian territory. And the advantage is, that these works do not conflict one with the other ; all are indispensable for the aggran- disement of the country, and the day will come when all will be realised ; but it is necessary that a beginning should be made in some direction, and the work be continued until completed, and this is what I have always advised the Amazon people to do, whose conduct is very laudable in this respect. 74 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Hoping that your patriotic efforts will be crowned with the most complete success in the briefest time possible, I am, Sac, Antonio Raimondi. MR. ARTHUR WERTHEMAN'S OPINION OF THE AMAZONIAN PROVINCES. T/ie following is a letter from Mr. Arthur Wertheman, the eminent German explorer, to Doctor Albornoz, respecting the fertility of the Cahuapanas regions Translated frorn '■'■El Comercio," dth July, 1887 : — Cahuapanas, Turico, /;/«« 10th, 1887. My Esteemed Friend, — I received yesterday your letter, to which it is difficult to reply as I should wish, I having lost all my documents in the wreck of the Valdirca. I remember that, in the month of September, 1878, when I descended the river Cahuapanas, we experienced a minimum depth of i mfetre 20 centimetres, or 4 feet, which is more than sufficient for steam launches, and, in the other months of the year, it has a far greater volume of water. Its current, on an average, was four miles per hour. Presuming that the navigation from Barranquita is diffi- cult, this will not be an inconvenience, since from the town of Cahuapanas to Barranquita there are only three leagues of road in a north-west direction, and to the river Sillay, which is as voluminous as the Cahuapanas, four leagues distant. From the town of Cahuapanas to the confluence of the rivers Cahuapanas and Maranon there are also nine leagues of level road, and though for want of water the traffic is interrupted for a month in the summer period, this will not be of great importance, as it happens at that period the steamers of Brazil do not reach Iquitos on account of the sandbanks outside the port, which does not affect very much the trade of Iquitos, and much less smaller places like Cahuapanas. For two months in the year the steamers only ascend the Huallaga as far as the Laguna, because the ordinary steamers are large, and the Huallaga has sharp bends in its course when the river is low. REPORTS OF SCIENTIFIC TRAVELLERS. 75 The lands watered by the affluents of the Cahuapanas have great advantages as regards both climate and natural productions ; the regions at the sources of the affluents are high and favourable for agriculture, and those of the pampas, partly flooded for three months of the year, contain much india-rubber, and are good for the cultivation of sarsaparilla, which even grows there spontaneously. Sheep, which are so scarce in the whole Amazon valley, can be reared not far from Cahuapanas, since there is much land suitable for the purpose without being either cold or very warm. You must always remember, as I have told you, that inPerutheroads of vital importanceare those fromCuzco to Urubamba, from Tarma and Chanchamayo to the Perene, from Huamico to Pozuzo and Pichis, from Pataz to the Huallaga, from Chachapoyas to Cahuapanas, from Moyo- bamba to Yurrimaguas. One of these roads does not make the other unnecessary, — all are exceedingly indispensable. To make a road from Cahuapanas to Chisquilla, I think it will be more easy to begin at the source of the Hun- guyacu, where there are some valuable lands. When I was in the Hunguyacu there were some Aguarunas tribes whose services would be useful for the expedition. You ought to have a map which I sent you some time ago. A copy will render much assistance to those who may make the expedition from Iquitos ; and, with regard to the details of the organisation of the expedition, they are very simple, and we have spoken sufficiently about them ; it is necessary to form it of the forest people accustomed to the work. Finally, my dear Doctor, be firm ; do not give up the work after having sacrificed already so many years to this work of progress. — Your sincere friend, A. Wertheman. REPORT OF MR. JEAN NOTZLI ON THE PRESENT STATE OF CAJAMARCA AND COLONISATION OF THE MONTANA. Mr. Jean NotzH, a mining engineer, with whom the author had the honour of making acquaintance at South- ampton, on the lotb March, 1887, at the time of his 76 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. re-embarkation for Peru, gave him the following informa- tion, which he gives in his own words : — I have lived fifteen years at Cajamarca and in the Amazon provinces. The country is exceedingly healthy. I have never experienced any illness whatever. I embark to-day, with eight other engineers, to develop the mines and erect smelting-works near Cajamarca, the private enter- prise of Herr Hilbeck, the consul-general of Germany in Peru. There is a wide field of enterprise for companies and capitalists. In the neighbourhood of Cajamarca there are extensive silver and copper mines, only partially worked. They are more particularly favourable for smelting than for amalgamation, as the ores contain a mixture of silver, copper, and lead. Within a distance of four miles coal is found in abundance, but, however, is not worked, from the fact of there being no direct means of transporting it to the coast. The country produces wool, sugar-cane, cocoa, coca, sheep, vicunas, horses, llamas, &c. These animals are reared in great numbers in the district. Colonisation of the Montaiia. — With regard to this subject Mr. Notzli says : — The fluvial departments of Loreto and the Amazons are the most favourable for colo- nisation in the event of the fluvial navigation of the Amazon being extended up to the rapids of the Pongo of Manseriche. The places more particularly suitable for the establishing of young colonies are near the rivers, where the' produce can be easily transported to where there is a market ; otherwise, if established inland, where there are no roads, there are no means of transport. Bongara as suitable for Colonisation. — I consider the province of Bongara, forming part of the Amazon Depart- ment, is more particularly favourable for the establishment of a young colony, on account of the immensely rich pro- ducts already accumulated there, such as cofiee, cocoa, coca, and valuable woods, all of which can be exported at once by the facilities which the rivers afford for their transport. Moreover, the soil is very fertile, and, with a little labour, can be cultivated. In the immediate neighbourhood there are uplands, where the colonists can cultivate potatoes, wheat, and other cereals. I have had great experience in navigating the rivers, and have REPORTS OF SCIENTIFIC TRAVELLERS. 77 frequently been brought into contact with the Indians, who, although savages, are not dangerous, and have never molested me. REPORT OF MR. OTTO RINGELING. On the 7th April, 1887, the author had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Otto Ringeling, previous to his embarking from this port (Southampton) for Peru, who very kindly supplied him with the following information of his experi- ence of Peru, which is given in his own words : — I have been fourteen years resident in Peru, and have had occasion to know the interior — viz., the Sierra as well as the Montana. As far as climate is concerned, no doubt the Sierra would be preferable to English and German colonists, on account of its similarity to their own countries ; but this part of Peru is poor compared with the immense fertility of the Montana, where the richest products can easily be cultivated, such as coffee, sugar, tobacco, &c. Not the least of the rich productions of the Montana con- sists in all sorts of splendid kinds of woods. In the colony of Chanchamayo, carpenters who were engaged there on behalf of the Government found woods of fourteen different colours, all of a superior quality, the cedar being the poorest and most common kind. These woods would re- place with great advantage the finest descriptions now in use in Europe. Any part of the eastward slope of the Cordillera towards the Amazons would be a fit place for European immigration, so soon as that part of the country is put in connexion with the coast by rail, or with the Atlantic by means of fluvial navigation down the Amazons ; but, until this is done, all attempts at colonisation will be of little success, as is shown by the colonies of Chancha- mayo and Pozuzo. Chanchamayo can no longer be con- sidered a colony, but the work done by the colonists exists, and has been carried on by capitalists, who have bought the colonists out and have formed large haciendas of their lands, which are now cultivated by them on a large scale. I will explain how this happens : — The capitalists can culti- vate these lands more extensively, applying them to the growing of crops of coffee, &c., which they can transport 78 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. to the Sierra or the coast, whereas the poor man has not the means of doing so, and therefore is compelled to dispose of his crop on the spot whenever an opportunity occurs for him to do so. The colony of Pozuzo still exists. It consists of Tyrolese, who some twenty-five years ago settled in that part of the country, and have ever since cultivated it. They remain there cut off entirely from the civilised world ; they earn enough for their own living, and, in fact, live well and are in good health ; but they have not the means of making themselves a prosperous colony on account of want of communication and a market for their produce. No one ever interferes with them. They have their own church and schools, and live happily and contentedly together, cultivating crops of tobacco, coffee, fruit, and vegetables, and rearing horses, mules, cows, fowls, &c., for their own use ; but as soon as communication by good roads, railways, and navigation is established, then, of course, everything will take another turn. The want of Irrigation. — In the north of Peru there are extensive deserts of very fertile soil, which only want irrigation to allow the cultivation of any of the tropical plants, such as cotton, coffee, sugar-cane, tobacco, &c. The idea of irrigating these deserts from the rivers existing on the mountains has been brought to the notice of the Peruvian Government on previous occasions, but no efforts have as yet been made to carry out so important a work, although it could easily be done in the event of capital being found to execute it. Mines. — Peru is provided with silver and gold-mines to a very great extent. Silver-mines are to be found on the western side of the Cordillera, especially on the higher part of the mountains ; they lie, therefore, in the Sierra. A great many people are proprietors of silver-mines, and daily new mines are discovered, but, up till now, only a small number of them are worked, chiefly for want of labourers, and on account of their being situated in barren places in the mountains, far from towns and habitations. Nevertheless, the mining enterprise promises at the present moment to be one of the chief resources of Peru. Rich gold-mines exist on the 'eastern side of the Cordillera, and REPORTS OF SCIENTIFIC TRAVELLERS. 79 in the valley of Carabaya, and in the Union province,^ as the streams flowing down the Andes bring down quantities of gold which can be easily washed out, but up to the present time very few gold-mines have been opened up for want of capital and scientific labour. Any man working earnestly and soberly, and conducting himself as a good citizen, will prosper in Peru, in due time, whenever the above-mentioned improvements are carried out; and it ought to be the special care of the Peruvian Government to provide such facilities, as well as to take proper steps to guarantee the interests and protect in every way European immigrants to these parts of Peru. THE REPORT OF MR. J. D. OSMERS, BOTANIST, ON THE MONTANA. SAFETY AMONGST THE INDIANS. THEIR WILLINGNESS TO WORK. The author had the pleasure of meeting the above distinguished botanist on the 13th of April, 1887, on his arrival at Southampton from the Brazils, who supplied him with the following information : — Mr. Osmers said : — I visited the Amazon regions of Peru in November, 1883 arriving at Yurrimaguas, on the river Huallaga, on the nth of that month. I engaged four mules and three men and set out in search of orchids. I was six months travelling about the forests amongst the tribes of Indians, and I can safely say that I was never molested in the least by any of them ; but, on the contrary, I found the Indians to work well, and very ready to assist me in bringing down my cases of plants. With regard to the suitability of these parts for English and German coloni- sation, my opinion is that much would not, on account of the low swampy parts, be suitable, but the high lands of the eastern slope of the Cordilleras would undoubtedly be very suitable and healthy, on account of the climate being so much like England and my own country, as soon as communication from thence is opened up with the coast and to the fluvial navigation of the Amazons. ' The principal mines being the Iluayllura, Palmaderas, and Monies Claros. 8o THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CLIMATE.— PROSPECTS FOR CAPITALISTS.— HOSPITALITY. ACCOUNT OF A VISIT TO PERU BY A BRITISH NAVAL OFFICER. An English naval officer, who has lately served four years on the Pacific station, has kindly favoured the author with a description of his visit there. After describing the various engineering difficulties that have been overconie in the construction of the railways through this mountainous country, he proceeds to give the following particulars as to the capabilities of the country :— The most is made of irrigation, but in a very rude way, as in the Rimac valley, where tremendous crops of sugar- cane are raised. I am sorry I have no figures, but these could be easily obtained. I only know that the produce per acre from land where irrigation is carried out, such as the Chimboteand Rimac valleys, far surpasses that produced in the most favoured regions of any other part of the world. Here I think, is a great opening for capitalists, a sugar estate here being a sure means of obtaining a very speedy return of very large profit. The climate is all that can be desired, being dry and warm, and so equable that one crop of cane after the other can be cut, so that the sugar-mills can be kept constantly running, not remaining idle for ten or eleven months in the year, as in the West Indies. In fact there is no line to be drawn for the seasons, as you experience but one perpetual summer, so that a constant supply is always obtainable. This is earned on without the land requiring to be fertilised or to lay idle. This is due to the large quantities of nitrates in the, soil. There are many large sugar estates in the north of Peru ; one, that of Sehor Dertiano, about ten miles inland from Chimbote, I visited Here we were shown the greatest civility, and hospitality of a very high order, horses being placed at our disposal to visit the various parts of the estate ; and although we were utter strangers to this gentleman, yet pressing invitations were given to the whole party to remain. Maize is also grown in great quantities ; it forms the chief food of the poor Indians (the Cholos), who are descendants of the old Peruvians. Another trip I made OPENING OF A ROAD TO CAHUAPANAS. 01 from MoUendo to Puno, on the Lake of Titicaca, visiting Arequipa on the road. In speaking of the hospitality shown, him in the south on occasion of a visit to Lake Titicaca, he says : — Here, it possible, it surpassed that shown us in the north, a train was placed at our disposal from Arequipa to Puno, horses were always waiting for us, and it was with difficulty that we were allowed to pay our hotel bills ; and this hospitality was from people we had never seen before, and most probably would never see again, and without a chance of in any way returning their kindness. I cannot pass by Lake Titicaca without saying a word or two on the wonderful quantities of wild fowl here. Officers who had been in all parts of the world said they had never seen a hundredth part of the fowl we saw here ; they literally rose in thousands upon thousands. Geese, swans, and ducks of all kinds were found here in the greatest profusion. It is the Paradise of the sportsman ; the plains round about the lake teem with guanuco and vicuna. Here also is the home of the llama. A cross between the llama and the vicuna produces the fine valuable wool so much sought after by our manufacturers for weaving into a fine soft cloth. This animal flourishes here, and I have no doubt that the breeding of it would prove most lucrative. I know of no more promising field for mining adventure than Peru. When I was in Chicla I saw scores of llamas coming down the mountains with silver ore on their backs, and this obtained by the montaneros (Indians), with the most primitive tools. From the best authority I heard the most glowing accounts of the richness of the silver mines. THE EXPLORATION AND COLONISATION SOCIETY OF THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Nominatien of a Commission by the Prefect of Cajamarca. Translated from ''El Callao," 22nd October, 1886. OPENING OF A ROAD TO THE CAHUAPANAS. The Prefect of the Department of Cajamarca, Senor Frederic Rios, being convinced that the progress of the country depends upon the quick realisation of a road which G 82 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. will connect the capital of the Department of the Amazons with the navigable waters of the Cahuapanas, thus affording a short road to the Atlantic, and so receive the enlightened industrial population of the old world, has undertaken with enthusiasm and patriotism the duty of collecting funds in his Department in order to contribute to the execution of the respective works for that object. To Carry out his intention the Prefect has nominated a commission composed of Senor Luis F. Bustamante, who will be President, Senores Carlos Beckerel and D. Wenceslas Villacorta. These gentlemen will arrange the carrying out of this important work with Dr. Jos^ Arbaiza, who is the delegate in this Department of the Society. Translated from "El Callao,^' 2\st March, 1887. LIST OF SUBSCRIPTIONS. The Council of Delegates, in its last session, notified the receipt, from Dr. Albornoz, of the following amounts from the undermentioned delegates of the Society : — From the delegate at Huamachuco $46. 50 ,, Seiior Manuel Pinillos Marten 40.00 ,, the council of the Santiago de Chuco district. 6.00 ,, Luis Enriquez 80 ,, the delegate of the province of Moquegua ... 149.40 „ _ „ ,, Arequipa 151.40 ,, Provincial Council of Condesuyos 20.00 ,, the Sub-Prefect of the same province 19.40 ,, Provincial Council of Castilla 12.00 ,, the delegate in the province of Cauta 525.00 ,, the Sub-Prefect of same 200.00 ,, the delegate of the Huanuco department 175.00 SI.345-SO {= ;^269. 2S.) It was arranged that in the absence of Dr. Solar, Dr. Zurate, or in his absence Senor Elguesa, would preside at the regular meetings of the Society, and a vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Albornoz for his efforts in promoting the objects of the Society. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 83 APPOINTMENT OF THE AUTHOR AS DELEGATE MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE EXPLORATION AND COLONISA- TION OF THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. This eminent Society elected the author of this work as honorary member and its delegate in England, by a diploma dated Lima, 9th July, 1887. The object of the Society has already been recorded, viz., that of preparing the Amazon regions of Peru for European colonisation, and so opening the same to the advantages of civilisation and Christianity, for which purpose the Society seeks the co-operation of capitalists and people of this great country in joining hands with it to carry out this noble work. As an Englishman, and one who has during the period of sixteen years received repeated courtesies at the hands of the Government of Peru and its people, the author will gladly contribute his humble services towards this laudable and patriotic work, which he trusts will be a blessing to the two peoples, on the one hand by opening up the dark regions of Peru to civilisation, and on the other by giving means of employment to those in distress in Great Britain and Ireland. At all times he will have pleasure in affording information upon the subject in his power to persons requiring the same, and offers his services as a medium between such persons and the Peruvian Society. NECESSITY FOR ASSISTED EMIGRATION. The urgency which exists in this country for assisted emigration is acknowledged by all Englishmen who desire their country's progress, and hold the welfare of their fellow-men at heart. A ■ Society called the National Association of State-directed Colonisation has been formed, with the object of assisting intending emigrants. So far, no measures have been taken in that direction by the State, but it is evident that the legislature of this country is fully alive to the deep importance of the question, as is evi- G 2 84 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. denced by the reply given by the Prime Minister to a deputation headed by Lord Brabazon at his official resi- dence, on Feb. 24, 1887, when Lord Salisbury, in the course of his reply, said : — " It is one of the most momentous subjects with which the present generation can deal. I feel intensely that if we go on as we are going now, and there is no machinery ^ for leading out into less exhausted and less crowded portions of the world the vast population, we are only adding to our roll a terrible amount of misery, which must be discharged by this or the next succeeding generation. It is impossible to exaggerate the importance, taking it in a large sense, of the subject that you have brought before me." Sir Theodore Martin, in a letter to Lord Brabazon upon this subject, writes : — " It is one in which I have for many years felt the deepest interest, my conviction having long been, that the problem how to deal with our surplus population is one which, if not earnestly grappled with by the Government, as well as by individuals, will force itself upon our consi- deration in ways that cannot be contemplated without alarm. It is obvious that we have already more mouths to feed in England than can be fed out of the wages fund, which during the years of ' leaps and bounds ' of prosperity was ample for the purpose. And these mouths are increas- ing yearly, with a rapidity that is simply appalling. Other countries, where the pressure of population is not so great (more far-seeing than our own), are, with the assistance of their Governments, pushing their commerce into regions where we formerly enjoyed almost a monopoly, and so nar- rowing day by day the resources of our own commerce. They, too, see the importance of obtaining possessions to which their own surplus population can be sent, and in time establishing markets for their home products, and so pro- viding wages for their home populations We have a vast population on our hands ready to work, but with no work for them, nor the means to transport themselves to the regions which are ours, and where all the industrious workers we can spare might in a very brief period establish themselves in comfort, and open invaluable markets for the products of our native industries." THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 85 HOW TO EFFECTUALLY COLONISE THE AMAZON REGIONS AND EASTERN SLOPES OF THE ANDES OF PERU. It is the author's opinion that the first step to be taken to effect the colonisation of these rich and fertile regions is to form a Railroad Company, which would receive important concessions of land from the Peruvian Govern- ment, similar to what has been done in the Argentine Repubhc, and which has been attended with such magnificent results that the railroads in that country are now amongst the most remunerative of any in the world. Experience has shown us that in all new countries the pioneer to colonisation, commerce, and civilisation, is the railroad. We have only to observe the immense flow of emigration which is daily taking place to the Argentine Republic, in consequence of the great lines of railroad which have been made there, and which are now being extended to the borders of Bolivia. Vast plains which were only very recently uninhabited deserts are now studded with flourishing towns, populated by Europeans. The President of the Peruvian Exploration and Colonisation Society points out, in his report given in a previous chapter, the facility with which a line of railway may be constructed, and if the lines of railway in the Argentine Republic have proved so highly remunera- tive, surely it may be confidently expected that similar undertakings in these fertile regions would be attended with equally good results. It is to be hoped that capitalists in this country will avail themselves of the opportunity to initiate this important work in one of the richest quarters of the globe, which will be the means of opening up a new and extensive field for English enterprise aud colonisation. 86 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER VI. Railroads. The following are the Government Railroads : — Name of Railroad. Length in English Miles. Cost in £ Sterling. Remarks. Callao, Oroya andCerro de 136 107 218 82 63 83 45 45 63 144 36 172 40 5,175,000 2,250,000 6,000,000 4,500,000 1,256,250 1,331,250 300,000 60,000 750,000 337-500 1,875,000 450,000 4,500,000 600,000 / Finished to \ Chicla. MoUendo and Arequipa ... Puno, Juliaca, and Cuzco... Ilo and Moquegua Pacasmayo, Guadalupe, Yo- nan, and Cajamarca Pisco and lea Ancon and Chancav Lima to Huacho PaytaPiura Chimbote, Huaraz, and Recuay Salaverry to Trujillo and Ascope Total 1,3234 ;^29,385,ooo 760 miles are furnished and equipped, and for the present it is proposed to construct the most important sections, such as Cerro de Pasco, part of Cuzco, and part of Chimbote railroads, in all about 240 miles. The Ilo road was destroyed, and the rails and rolling stock carried off by the Chilian forces. RAILROADS. 87 PRIVATE RAILROADS. Miles. Cost. Cerro de Pasco (Mineral Railroad) 15 Iquique to Nona 37 Pisagua to Sal de Obispo 35 Eten to Ferrenape 28 "5 RAILWAYS ALREADY WORKING (ENGLISH COMPANIES). Arica to Tacna 39i ) Callao to Lima 9 1 ;rji, 125,000 Lima to Chorillos 9 ) 57i Professor Orton, speaking of the Railroads, says : — " Peru has just found out that this is an age of roads, and that if she would not fall too far behind in the race of nations she must have means of inter-com- munication. No other country has greater need of high- ways, for the two agricultural regions, the Interandean plateau and the eastern Transandean slope (Montana) are separated by the Oriental Cordillera, and the mineral region is cut off from the agricultural by the coast range, while no navigable streams enter the Pacific. The Incas con- structed some remarkable roads, chiefly longitudinal, one passing over the grand plateau from Quito to Cuzco ; another along the coast. The latter is almost effaced by the shifting sands ; a fragment, however, is still visible at Pacasmayo. The remains of the other bear evidence of their primitive grandeur, and have drawn forth the eulogium of Humboldt, that ' the roads of the Incas were among the most useful and stupendous works ever executed by man.' But these roads are now useless, and, even if repaired, would be unsuited to modern commerce. What Peru wants, and what she is trying to accomplish, is the intro- duction of a system of transverse railways, bringing her rich highland valleys in connexion with her ports, and a longi- tudinal line eclipsing the royal road of the Incas, which shall link all together, passing from Jaen through Cajamarca, Cerro de Pasco, and Cuzco, to the Lake Titicaca." S8 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. " The following railways are owned by private com- panies : Lima to Callao, eight to nine miles, finished. This is the oldest road in Peru, having been opened in 1851, and, hke all the rest, it has but one track. Lima and Chorillos, the fashionable Long Branch of Peru, nine miles, finished. Eten and Lambeyeque, twenty-eight miles, finished, starting from an iron pier 4,000 feet long. Arica and Tacna, forty miles, finished. A continuation to La Paz is projected, to cost $32,000,000, to rise 14,000 feet; this would be the nearest outlet for Bolivia, but would have a rival in the Arequipa and Puno road. Iquique and Pisagua, 160 miles, half finished, designed only for the exportation of nitrate of soda. There are also short roads' constructed at Pimentel, Trujillo to Ascope, Patillos, Eten, Lambeyeque, and from Magdalena to Lima. These lines represent $25,000,000." " Peru has invested about $140,000,000 in railways — a gigantic sum for 3,000,000 of people ; but guano is the exchequer. Of this amount she has paid nearly one-half, and 650 miles of track have been laid, or one-half the projected amount. It costs 50 per cent, more to build a railway in Peru than in the United States, for everything must be imported, and labour is expensive.^ Among the minor roads owned by the Government are the Pisco and Yea, forty-five miles, finished, cost $1,500,000. Ancon, finished from Lima to Chancay, forty-five miles, cost about $300,000. Payta and Piura, sixty-three miles, a portion of which is still in construction, to cost $1,950,000." ^ "But all the great iron roads of the Republic are the handiwork of Mr. Meiggs, the ablest representative of Ameri- can enterprise south of the Equator. Mr. Meiggs has con- tracts with the Government amounting to $133,000,000 for building seven railways, with an aggregate length of about ' IIo to Moquegua was carried away during the war, but is to be rebuilt shortly. The concession to build a railroad from Lima to Pisco (144 miles) was granted in February, 1887, while a short time ago an English firm was carrying on negotiations with the Government to build the same, besides a narrow gauge one from Pisco to Ayacucho. ^ The mountainous nature of the country requires enormous engineering work, chiefly in cutting and tunnelling. Besides, the gradients are so steep that Peru possesses the highest and steepest railroads in the world. LARGE CAST-IRON BRIDGE OF THE OROYA RAILWAY, AND THE OLD SUSPENSION BRIDGE OF VEGETABLE FIBRE. Face p, 88. RAILROADS. 8g a thousand miles. Five of these are finished ; three (the Puno, Oroya, and Pacasmayo), the longest and most dififi- cult, being in process of construction at the same time." " The gauge of the roads is 4 feet 8|- inches, save that of Chimbote, which is 3 feet. The rolling stock is Ameri- can, the cars coming from Gilbert, Bush & Co., Troy, and locomotives (mostly Rogers's) from Paterson. A locomotive on the track costs $20,000, to $25,000, and a first-class car $5,500.^ The ties are from Oregon, the rails from England, the diamond drills from America, worked by Rand & Waring's compressor ; the stationary machinery from Leeds. The shops and depots generally are made of English galvanised iron, the shovels are Ames's, and the iron water-tanks Pill's Patent. The engineers are invariably, I believe, English-speaking, and the labourers are Chinese, Cholos, and Chilians. The timber, iron, rolling stock, labour, fuel, and nearly all the food are imported." " It will be a long time before the Government will realise anything directly from these railroads. The Chimbote, passing through a developed mining region, and the Ilo, draining the vineyards of Moquehua, will soon be self- supporting. But such a costly enterprise as the Oroya can do nothing but expend until it is extended to the Amazons ; while as to the Arequipa, one is in doubt whether to wonder most at the skill of the engineers or the hardihood of the Government in ordering the gigantic undertaking ; for it passes through an utterly profitless region — one village in one hundred miles — over sterile pampas and black paramos, without mines worth the working, without a sign of life, save now and then a condor, a few herds of Peruvian sheep, and scattered tufts of wiry grass, cacti, and coni- positce. The great export from Southern Peru, alpaca, does not exceed 10,000 quintals a year. Surely, we say, the Government will not have a month's work for this road in a year. But so would we misjudge the Pacific Rail- road, as it crosses the great desert. When the Oroya Railroad joins the Pichis river, and the Arequipa is connected with the heart of Bolivia, and thence ' The Government has been charged $30,000 for most of the locomotives. go THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF J>E1(.U. Tith the projected lines in the Argentine Confederation, we shall look for dividends. The railroads of Peru, as everywhere else, will develop new life in the people, and new sources of wealth in the country." " But, letting Peru look after the proceeds, let us glance at these great enterprises as marvels of engineering, and as the creations of American genius." " The Pacasmayo J?ai/road—situa.ted in lat. 7" 30' S. Termini — Pacasmayo and La Viiia Length, 172 miles, finished. Contract taken ,by Mr. Meiggs at 15,800,000 in cash. Starting with an iron mole half a mile long, it passes up the valley of Rio Jequetepeque (or "Hidden River") through the village of San Pedro, the capital of a rich agricultural region, having vast plantations of sugar-cane, rice, coiFee, and corn ; then over a desert, which, however, can be easily reclaimed by irrigation, and ends at an alti- tude of 4,000 feet, near the silver mines of Chilete. A branch leads to the busy village of Guadalupe. One can now go from the coast to Cajamarca in a short time." " T/ie Chimbote Railroad.. — Situated in lat. 9°. Termini ■ — Chimbote and Huaraz. Length, 172 miles, finished. Contract taken by Mr. Meiggs, at $24,000,000 in cash. It passes up the valley of the Santa, and then southerly along the highlands, and is designed to open up the rich mines of that region, and to benefit 200,000 inhabitants. It begins with a magnificent iron pier, and there are thirty tunnels on the route." " The Oroya Railroad. — Situated in lat. 12°. Termini — Callao and Oroya. Length, 136 miles. Contract taken by Mr. Meiggs, at $27,600,000, in bonds at 79. This is one of the Nine Wonders in the Peruvian world, and certainly it is the greatest feat of railroad engineering in either hemisphere. As a specimen of American enterprise and American workmanship it suffers nothing by comparison. It was begun in 1870 and finished in 1876. Starting frora the sea, it ascends the narrow valley of the once sacred Rimac, rising the first forty-six miles nearly 5,000 feet ; then it threads the increasingly-intricate gorges of the Sierras (a winding, giddy pathway along the edge of pre- cipices and over bridges that seem suspended in the air), tunnels the Andes at the altitude of 15,645 feet — the most TUNNEL ON THE OROYA RAILWAY. Foce page 90. RAILROADS. gi elevated spot in the world where a piston-rod is moved by steam — and ends at Oroya, 12,178 feet above the Pacific. The wonder is doubled by remembering that this great elevation is reached in seventy-eight miles. Between the coast and the summit there is not an inch of down-grade. The difficulties encountered in its construction are without a parallel. The valley narrows to a ravine, and then to a gorge, till the closing in fairly overhangs the infant Rimac ; in fact, at one point a stone dropped will fall on the opposite side of the stream. So that, in forcing the railway up the Cordilleras, the engineers have literally threaded the moun- tains by a series of sixty-three tunnels, whose aggregate length is 21,000 feet. The great tunnel of Galera, by which the locomotive is to be taken over the Andes, will be 3,800 feet long. Besides boring the flinty rock, and making enormous bridges, cuts, and fills, the workmen (of whom 8,000 have been engaged at one time) have had to contend against land-slides, falling boulders, sorroche (or the difficulty of breathing at high altitudes), the extremes of climate, pestilential diseases, such as fevers and verrugas, and accidents by falling from the rocks and in blasting. Over 7,000 have died or been killed in the construction of this road. The bridges and crossings number over thirty. All are of iron or stone. Some are of French and English manufacture, but the best are American. Of these the Verrugas bridge is the most remarkable structure of its kind in the world. It spans a chasm 580 feet wide, and rests on three piers. The base of the middle pier is 50 feet square, and its height is 252 feet. The deflection is only five-eighths of an inch. It was made at Phoenixville, Pa., of hollow wrought-iron columns, and cost in New York $63,000. This triumph of American ingenuity is the great attraction in Peru, and is the wonder and praise of all visitors. The maximum grade of this road is 4 per cent., the sharpest curve 395 feet radius, and the average consumption of coal sixty-five pounds per mile. Mules and gunpowder are in- dispensable in advance of the locomotive, and together make quite an item; $115,000 are invested in the quad- ruple means of transportation, and 500,000 pounds of powder are used monthly for blasting. My fearfully grand ride down the Andes on a hand-car drawn by gravity, under 92 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. the superintendence of Mr. Cilley, will never fade from my memory. To fly along the edge of a precipice at the rate of forty-five miles an hour, and whip round a curve till every hair of the head stands on an end, is glorious — when over. Once is enough for a lifetime. Oroya, the terminus, is only a point of divergence.^ In time, branches will run to silvery Cerro de Pasco, to Tarma, destined to be the Mecca of consumptives, and to Fort San Ramon or to Mairo, the head of navigation on the Amazons. This will probably be the first inter-oceanic road in South America, as the link necessary to connect it with the great river is very short. It will also serve to colonise and civilise the moun- tain regions of Peru." " The Arequipa Railroad. — Situated in lat. 17°. Termini — Mollendo and Arequipa. Length, 107 miles, finished. Contract taken by Mr. Meiggs, at $12,000,000 cash. Com- menced in 1868, completed in 1870." " The Puno Railroad. — Situated in lat. 16° 30'. Termini — Arequipa and Puno, on the west shore of Lake Titicaca.^ Length, 218 miles, finished. Contract taken by Mr. Meiggs, at $32,000,000, in bonds at 79. Commenced July, 1870, completed June, 1874. These two roads — the Arequipa and Puno — are practically one (for it is a con- tinuous line), and may be treated together. At present this is the longest rai!wxy south of the Equator, unless the Rosario and Cordova railroad be a rival. It is the most lofty and most serpentine railway in operation anywhere, and no other road in the world can show so much heavy work done. On the first division 7,000,000 cubic yards were removed. The deepest cut is 90 feet, the highest fill 112 feet; powder used, 27,000 quintals. On -the second division the total amount of excavation was 9,858,000 cubic yards, the deepest cut being 127 feet (260,000 yards), the highest fill 141 feet; powder used, 15,500 quintals. ' A contract has been signed since 1885 to finish this road beyond Oroya to Cerro de Pasco, the most wealthy silver mine in South America after Potosi. ^ The Lake Titicaca is 13,000 feet above the level of the sea, the highest navigation in the world, and it has a depth of sixty fathoms of water. The Peruvian Government have steamers plying between Puno and the Bolivian ports on the other side of the lake conveying passengers and merchandise. RAILROADS. 93 There is but one short tunnel in the 325 miles, although the first survey of the Arequipa division alone demanded nineteen. There are only four bridges, all American, the longest being i,6go feet. The engines on the Arequipa division have 18-inch cylinders; on the Puno 17-inch. They consume one ton of coal (costing $30) every thirty- four miles, and the shoes of the brakes are replaced for every round trip. The maximum grade is 4 per cent., and the maximum freight is sixty tons. The road crosses the high Andes at an altitude of 14,660 feet 116 miles east of Arequipa, where there is a cut of only 6^07 feet. When the track was laid beyond this summit, in 1873, it was the first time in history that a locomotive crossed the Andes. The Oroya railroad excels this in difficulty of work, in amount of excavation, as also, perhaps, in the sufferings of the men arising from want of food and fuel, and the prevalence of rain, snow, cold, and rarefied air. On both there was trouble in cooking certain articles of food, as beans for example, for the water boiled before it was fairly hot, so that the men were obliged to use closed cans to cook, under pressure. But there is this gain with the loco- motives — the steam is generated and acts more freely at high altitudes, and less fuel is needed. A telegraph line follows each of these railroads. To supply MoUendo with water, a pipe has just been laid alongside of the track, • eighty-five miles in length, the longest iron aqueduct in the world. It starts near Arequipa, at the elevation of 7,000 feet, and crosses the great desert of Islay. It is an 8-inch pipe, and discharges 433,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. It cost $20,000 per mile. This magnificent highway across the Andes will be a dead loss to Peru unless extended, as it passes through the most useless region in the world ; and Puno is but a huddle of 5,000 shivering Indians. A railroad from Puno to La Paz could be built for $10,000,000. But one important tributary is already in course of con- struction." " The Cuzco Railroad. — This first longitudinal road along the Peruvian Andes is to connect the city of Cuzco with the Arequipa railroad at Juliaca, near Puno. Length, 210 miles j graded contract, taken by Mr. Meiggs, at $25,000,000 cash. The highest point, 14,150 feet, is about 94 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. loo miles north of Juliaca; thence, for 90 miles, the track falls to 10,000 feet, following an affluent of the Ucayali, and then rises to Cuzco, which is 11,500 feet. It passes mainly through sandstone and limestone, but there is no tunneling. The total amount of excavation was 5,500,000 cubic yards. But the freight on the material for this road would be sufficient to build it in the United States. The productions for exportation are — cacao, coffee, wool, cotton, sugar, cascarilla, and woods." " The Moquegua Railroad. — Situated in lat. 17° 30'. Termini — Ilo and Moquegua. Length, 63 miles, finished. Contract, taken by Mr. Meiggs, at $6,700,000 in bonds at 75. It passes through one of the richest wine-producing districts in Peru." THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 95 CHAPTER VII. The Sierra or Mountain Districts. CONDITION OF THE PROVINCE OF JUNIN (CENTRAL PERU). The following is an extract translated from a Report of the Prefect, Senor Patron, dated 2gth May, 1886. Fi-om " El Peruano." THE MINING INDUSTRY AT CERRO DE PASCO. THE Prefect reports : — " The mining industry of this Department has commenced to revive. The rich mines at Cerro de Pasco, the gigantic resources of which seemed to have been expended, are again worked with considerable activity. Formerly, the annual product of these mines amounted to $8,000,000, or ;^i, 600,000. During the past months, its production, notwithstanding the difficulty of procuring labour and the wet season, has increased very considerably. However, as long as there is no change made in the system of mining from the ancient and primitive style to that which modern science teaches to be the best, the mines will be incapable of showing a real national wealth. The Government and Congress should take care that this is done. From its realisation, this colossal mine would open quickly its inexhaustible and rich veins, spreading throughout Peru the fabulous riches it contains ; and in order that such a happy state of things may be realised it is necessary that the great work of the Transandean Oroya railway be brought to a speedy termination. Important works are being carried 95 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. on at the famous Yauli mines. An experienced engineer is directing them who is sanguine of the most briOiant results. Yauli, in its granite rocks, holds out another future source of wealth to the country ; and is within thirty miles of the present terminus of the Callao and Oroya Railway. A large staff of scientific American engineers have lately been engaged by an American syndicate of capitalists, surveying at the Cerro de Pasco Mines. Their report is not yet issued, but it is known to be highly favourable." AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY IN THE JUNIN DEPARTMENT. " Providence has dispensed to the Department some com- pensation for its long sufferings caused by the war. The crops this year are superior to those of the last seven years, and offer abundant grain of all kinds. The various grasses which_ cover the country, fertilised by the abundant and extraordinary rains, supply our flocks of sheep, vicuna, and llama with a rich and varied sustenance. The entirely primitive style in which our agriculture is carried on cannot produce those benefits that it is capable of producing. We have now a scientific agriculturist, who will introduce the most useful crops to be cultivated, which will stimulate our rude peasants, and teach them the advantages to be derived from being led by what science teaches, compared with the rude system they adopt." ROADMAKING IN THE FORESTS. " If the mining industry offers an immediate and rich future to Peru, how much greater and surer do the rich, fertile regions of the Amazon offer with infinitely greater re- sources ? In the vicinity of Tarma sixteen leagues of the forest country are already populated and traversed by a horse-road, offering a safe and convenient road for travellers and produce. Another fifteen leagues of road have to be made in order to reach localities on the rivers from which there are convenient ports of departure for steamers. In six days a person can make a journey from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the beautiful regions of the Mairo, Pichis, and Palcazu." CAJAMARCA. 97 MANUFACTURES. In the provinces of Jauja and Huancayo, there has always been noticed an inclination to engage in manufac- turing pursuits. This industry has suffered natural paralysa- tion in the last few years, but it is to be hoped, tranquillity being restored, it will again take that importance it formerly occupied. In the provinces of Tarma there is a small town, Cacas, which is almost exclusively dedicated to the making of woollen cloths, in which it enjoys a profitable occupation. CERRO DE LA SAL (hILL OF SALT). It would be indisputably convenient to occupy this important place, the key by which we will easily be able to open the road that will give us a wide and free passage to the beautiful Amazon regions. Numerous tribes of Chunchos meet and occupy the Cerro de la Sal to take away this indispensable article of necessity, and the importance of occupying it may be well understood to give us the power of entering into friendly relations with them. Thus we shall meet with powerful help to crown the very important and grand work, — to reach the navigable rivers by means of a horse-road traversing rich and valuable valleys. CAJAMARCA. Cajamarca^ is about seventy miles from Chachapoyas. Its present population is 8,000. It stands 9,400 feet above the level of the sea, and the temperature ranges from 40° to 72°. The province yields annually 7,000,000 pounds of wool, 160,000 head of sheep, 100,000 head of cattle, and 50,000 horses. Thehot springs(Los banos del Inca) are renowned for baths, and pigs are scalded at 162°. The enormous riches of this region are matters of history. Cajamarca is famous for Pizarro's great battle with the Inca king, in the days of the conquest of Peru. It was then known for its famous ' See Mr. Jean Nbtzli's Report, page 75. H 98 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. mineral springs. We are told the weight of gold found at the baths and accounted for was 15,000 ounces, besides the gold goblets, seats covered with gold, and the presents of gold to Pizarro's brothers. It was at Cajamarca the Inca king collected gold and silver to pay his ransom. He engaged to fill with gold the apartment in which he was kept prisoner, which was twenty-two feet long, seventeen feet wide, and was to be filled as high as nine feet from the floor. He further agreed to fill an adjoining room of smaller dimensions twice full of silver. The total amount of gold collected at Cajamarca by the Inca king amounted in value of money at the present time to three and a half million pounds sterlitig. The quantity of silver is estimated at 51,610 marks (309,660 ounces). There being no iron at hand, nothing but gold and silver, Pizarro caused the horses of the whole troop to be shod with silver. THE QUEBRADA OF TAMBOPATA IN THE PROVINCE OF CARABAYA. The illustrious English traveller, Mr. Clements R. Mark- ham, undertook in the year 1858 a journey to the interior of Peru, when he visited the city of Cuzco, almost with the exclusive object of making ethnological studies on the remains of the ancient civilisation of the Incas. He like- wise made an excursion to the great river Madre de Dios (Mother of God), which waters the fertile valleys of JPaucartambo, with the object of knowing the famous Amarumayo, by whose waters the great expedition de- scended with the Inca Yupangui sent at the conquest of the Mojos. In the interesting work he published in London in 1856, he devoted a chapter to the Hydro- graphical Transandean Region of Peru, which in the country is known under the name of Montana. In this work he gives an excellent historical and geographical resume of the rivers Amazon, Huallaga, Ucayali, Madeira, and Purus. From a geographical point of view, the most important journey of Mr. Markham is that which he made in 1866 in the province of Carabaya, with the object of collecting seeds and plants of different VEGETABLE AND OTHER PRODUCTS. 99 species of the cascarilla plant, in order to introduce its cultivation into India. He selected as a field for his work the Quebrada of Tambopata, which he traversed in different directions, carrying out his important mission with the greatest zeal and intelligence. This illustrious traveller pubhshed in London the account of his journey in Peru, containing interesting data respecting the province of Carabaya, and more particularly the Quebrada of Tambopata. To the intelligent work of Mr. Markham, England owes in a great measure the fortunate result attending the introduc- tion and acclimatisation in India of the cascarilla plant. VEGETABLE AND OTHER PRODUCTS OF THE SIERRA AND COAST. Cotton. — Cotton of various qualities is raised in Peru. In the north of the Republic the country cotton, a biennial,, is produced ; towards the south, a cotton of a finer fibre is obtained ; and lately the " Amazonian," which commands- a high price in the market, has been introduced. A beauti- ful silk-like cotton is grown in the valley of Santa Ana. The indigenous cotton is readily bought up by manufac- turers in England, the fibre being long and coarse ; the finer qualities are also sought after to mix with wool. The cotton exported is grown on the confluence of rivers, and by irrigation on the west coast of the country. In the interior, wild cotton-trees are found 20 feet in height, the branches breaking down with their white load of the finest staple quality. In 1873, 81,441 bales were imported into- England at Liverpool. The principal ports from which cotton is exported are, Pacasmayo, Payta, Eten, Chancay,. and especially Pisco (grown in the rich valley of lea). Flax is also found in Peru, but is valued by the Indians principally for its seeds, of which they make a kind of beer called chicha, while the stem, the most useful part of the plant, is left to perish. Wine. — The richest wine-producing districts are in the provinces of Chicha, lea, and Moquegua, the Bordeaux of Peru. The value of the vineyards in the province has been estimated at ;^3, 000,000, and that of its annual pro- H 2 lOO THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. duce in wine .and aguardiente at ;^2oo,ooo. Next to Moquegua in the Department of lea, which also produces wine on a large scale, a large amount of rum and wine is exported from Pisco. " Italia " is the name of the leading brandy. Oranges, lemons, melons, and olives are grown along the southern coast. The olives of Ilo and the raisins of Pica will compare with those of Seville and Malaga. Wool. — After sugar, alpaca and vicuna wool is the principal export. The annual product is about 60,000 bales. It comes almost entirely from the Departments of Cuzco and Puno, the ports of shipment being Pisco, Islay, Mollendo, and Arica. But Arequipa is the great centre of the alpaca trade. Such is the reputation of the Arequipa brand that the wool is generally taken to that city to be re-assorted and re-packed. The alpaca sheep thrive best in the bleak, almost barren, boggy lands, from 13,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea. Shearing time begins about the middle of December, each sheep being sheared only once in two or three years. A fleece of three years is, of course, the largest, and commands the best price. It is now worth in Arequipa $70 a quintal. Vicuna wool brings $100 a quintal, but little is exported. About 4,000 goat- skins are exported annually from Payta to the United States, and a few chinchilla skins from Arica. Silk. — Peru is admirably adapted for the cultivation of the mulberry and castor-oil plant, and the two species of silkworm which feed upon them. Three, four, and even five crops of eggs could be produced annually. Many of the following particulars relative to the products and fruits of Peru have been translated, with corrections and additions, from the work of Dr. J. J. Yon Tschudi : — ■ Cotton is cultivated only in a few plantations in the immediate vicinity of Lima, but it abounds more in the northern districts, particularly in the Department de la Libertad, the coast province of Piura, in Lambeyeque, and in Truxillo. In the southern province, lea, a consi- derable quantity is also reared for exportation. The brown cotton was chiefly cultivated in tlie time of the Incas. Most of the bodies found in the ancient graves on the coast are enveloped in this kind of cotton. VEGETABLE AND OTHER PRODUCTS. 101 The Sugar-cane is cultivated with success in all planta- tions where there is sufficient moisture of soil ; and of all the agricultural products of this country it yields the greatest profit. The sugar estates lie on the sea coast, or along the banks of the rivers. The vertical limit of the sugar-cane growth is on the western declivity of the Cordilleras, about 4,500 feet above the level of the sea. The largest planta- tions, however, do not rise above 1,300 feet above the level of the sea, while those of the same extent on the eastern declivity are at the height of 6,000 feet. Within the last forty years the introduction of the Otaheitian cane has greatly improved the Peruvian plantations in quality, and has more especially increased the quantity of their pro- duce ; for the Otaheitian canes are found to yield propor- tionately one-third more than the West Indian canes which were previously cultivated. The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in a very rude and laborious manner. In most of the plantations the cane is passed through wooden presses, with brass rollers. These machines are called trapiches or ingenios. They are kept in motion by oxen or mules. In some large estates water-power is employed, but in many districts the steam-engine has been put up, which does the work effectually and quickly. A part of the sugar-cane juice is used for making the liquor called guarapo, or distilled for making rum. The remainder is boiled down into a syrup, or further heated until it thickens into cakes, called chancacas, or brown sugar. After a careful purification it is made into white cakes, or prepared as white sugar. In fineness of grain and purity of colour, it may perhaps be inferior to Cuban sugar, but it certainly exceeds it in sweetness and flavour. The con- sumption of sugar in the country is great, and its export is considerable. A table showing the importations of Peruvian sugar to Great Britain, from the commencement of its export from Peru down to the present time, is annexed to this pamphlet. Maize. — Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most gene- rally and most successfully cultivated in Peru. It grows on the sandy shore, in the fertile mountain valley, and on the margin of the forest, where the warmth is great. There are several varieties of maize, which are distinguished from one 102 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. another by the size of the head, and by the shape and appear- rance of the grain. The most common kinds on the coast are — first, the Maiz morocho, which has small bright yellow or reddish-brown grains ; second, the Maiz amarillo, of which the grain is large, heart-shaped, solid, and opaque ; third, Maiz amarillo de Chancay, similar to the Maiz amarillo, but with a semi-transparent, square-shaped grain, and an elongated head. The morocho and amarillo maize are chiefly planted on the eastern declivity of the Andes. They run up stalks eight or nine feet high, and have enormously large heads. Maize forms the bread of the Indians of the mountains as well as of the coast. Like the potato of Europe, it is cooked in a variety of ways. Two of the most simple preparations of maize are those called choclas and mote. Choclas is the unripe maize-heads merely soaked in warm water ; they form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food. Mote consists of ripe maize, first boiled, and then laid in hot ashes, after which the husks are easily stripped. In the market in Lima, and in the large towns on the coast of Peru, there is an abundant supply of all kinds of vegetables, fruits, and flowers, all the year round Potatoes are planted on the coast, their quality being very good, but they are subjected to frosts, which frequently spoil them, and for this reason Peruvians depend princi- pally on the crops of the hilly districts. On the higher ridgeSj which intersect the coast at short distances from the sea, the potato grows wild. I am inclined to believe that the root is indigenous in these parts, as well as in Chiloe and Chil^, and that the ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from the south, but that they removed it from their own high lands, to cultivate it on more favourable soil. The best potatoes grow about twenty-two leagues from Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7,000 feet above the level of the sea, to the north-west of the Que- brada of Canta. This potato is small and round, with a thin white skin, and, when bisected, the colour is a clear bright yellow. It is called Papa amarilla (yellow potato), and there is a great demand for it in the market, where it fetches a good price. The other potatoes come chiefly from the Quebrada of Huarochirin, and theyare very well flavoured. VEGETABLE AND OTHER PRODUCTS. I03 The Camotcs {Convolvulus batatas, L.), not improperly- called sweet potatoes, grow to a considerable size. There are two kinds of camotes, the yellow and the violet ; the latter are called camotes moradas. These two kinds are much liked for their excellent flavour. They cease to grow beyond the height of 3,500 feet above the level of the sea. The Aracacha {Conium moschatum, H.B. Kth.) grows on the coast, but it is more abundant on the projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It is a very agreeable and nutritive kind of tuberous vege- table, in flavour not unlike celery. It is cooked by being either simply boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. In many districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year. The Yucca {Jatropha manihot), is one of the finest vegetables of Peru. The stalk of the plant is between five and six feet high, and about the thickness of a finger. The roots are from one to two feet long, somewhat of the turnip form. Internally, they are pure white ; but the external stem is tough, somewhat elastic, and of a reddish- brown colour. The roots are the edible parts of the plant. They are very agreeable in taste and easy of digestion. When raw they are hard and tough, and their taste some- what resembles chestnuts. When boiled in water the root separates into fibres, and is rather waxy, but when laid in hot ashes it becomes mealy. In some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very fine flour from the yucca, and it is used for making fine kinds of bread, and especially a kind of biscuit called biscochuelos. The yucca roots are not good after they have been more than three days out of the earth, and even during that time they must be placed in water, otherwise green or black stripes appear on them, which in the cooking assume a pale red colour. Their taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become rotten. To propagate the yucca, the stalk is cut, particularly under the thick part, into sprouting pieces, which are stuck obliquely into the earth. In five or six months the roots are fit for use, but they are usually allowed to remain some time longer in the earth. They then put forth new leaves and flowers, and after sixteen or. eighteen months they become slightly woody. The Indians on the Montana de Vitoc sent as a present to their officiating priest a yucca 1 04 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. which weighed thirty pounds, but yet was very tender. On the western dedivity of the Cordillera, the boundary eleva- tion for the growth of the yucca is about 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. Pulse Crops. — Amongst the pulse there are different kinds of peas (garbanzos) on the coast ; beans {frtjoks), on the contrary, occupy the hilly grounds. All vegetables of the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe will grow in Peru. The climate, both of the coast and the hills, suits them perfectly. Numerous varieties of the genus Cucurbita are cultivated in the ckacras, or Indian villages, on the coast. They are chiefly consumed by the coloured population. I did not find them very agreeable to the taste. They are all sweetish and fibrous. Tomato, Aji, and Capsicum. — Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or spicing, I must mention the love-apple {Tomato), which thrives well in all the warm districts of Peru ; and the Spanish pepper {Aji), which is found only on the coast and in the wild woody regions. There are many species of the pepper {Capsicum annum, baccatum, frutescens, &c.), which are sometimes eaten green and sometimes dried and pounded. In Peru the con- sumption of aji is greater than that of salt; for with two- thirds of the dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the latter is used. It is worthy of remark that salt diminishes in a very striking degree the pungency of the aji ; and it is stilJ more remarkable that the use of the latter, which in a manner may be called a superfluity, has no effect on the digestive organs. If two pods of aji, steeped in vinegar, are laid as a sinapism on the skin, in the space of a quarter of an hour the part becomes red, and the pain intolerable ; within an hour the scarf-skin will be removed. Lucerne {Medicago sativa) called by the natives alfalfa, is reared in great abundance throughout the whole of Peru as fodder for cattle. It does not bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold ; yet its elevation boundary is about 11,100 feet above the level of the sea. On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly during the misty season, but during the months of February and March it is almost entirely dried up. FRUITS OF THE COAST AND MONTANA. I05 Tht Maisillo {Paspalum purpureiim, R.) then supplies its place as fodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts it is also most abundant during the humid season ; but as soon as the frost sets in it decays, takes a rusty brown colour, and remains in a bad state until the beginning of the rainy season. On an average the alfalfa may be cut four times in the year, but in high-lying districts only three times ; and in humid soils on the coast, particularly in the neighbourhood of rivers, five times. Once in every four or five years the clover fields are broken up by the plough, and then sown with maize or barley. In the sixth year clover is again raised. The Olive-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern pro- vinces of the coast. In flavour its fruit approximates to the Spanish olive. That the oil is not so fine is probably owing to the bad presses which are used, and the rude manner in which the operation is performed. The olives (Aceitunas) are preserved in a peculiar manner. They are allowed to ripen on the tree, when they are gathered, slightly pressed, dried, and put up in small earthen vessels. By this process they become shrivelled and quite black. When served up at table, pieces of tomato and aji are laid on them ; the latter is an excellent accompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve them in salt water, by which means they remain plump and green. The Castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis) grows wild, but it is also cultivated in many plantations. The considerable quantity of oil which is pressed out of the seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the street lamps, and also in the sugar plantations for greasing the machines employed on the works. The Pifioncillo-tree {Castiglionia lobata) is cultivated only about Surco, Huacho, and Lambayeque, in some of the Indian chacras ; but it grows wild in considerable abundance. Its bean-like fruit, when roasted, has an agreeable flavour. When eaten raw, the ethereal oil generated between the kernel and the epidermis is a strong aperient, and its effect can only be counteracted by drinking water. When an incision is made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out ; but after some time it becomes black and horny-like. It is a very powerful caustic, and retains its extraordinary property for years. Io6 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Vast quantities of Apricots (called duraznos) grow in the mountain valleys. Of fifteen kinds which came under my observation, those called blanquillos and abridores are distinguished for fine flavour. Generally speaking, the interior of the country is well suited to all the fruits and grain of central Europe ; and doubtless many of our forest trees would flourish on those Peruvian hills which now present no traces of vegetation. All the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm regions of Peru. Oranges, Pomegranates, Lemons, Limes, &c., grow in in- credible abundance. Though the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round, yet there are particular times in which their produce is in the greatest perfection and abundance. On the coast, for example, at the commence- ment of winter, and in the woody districts in the months of February and March, melons and sandias {water melons') are particularly fine. The Figs are of two kinds ; the one called higos and the other brevas. In the former, the pulp is red ; in the latter, it is white. They are usually large, very soft, and may be ranked among the most delicious fruits of the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in the neighbour- hood of the plantations and the chacras, and the traveller may pluck the fruit, and carry away a supply for his journey, for beyond a certain distance from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit not easy of transport in its fresh state, and when dried it is not liked. Pomegranates and Quinces seldom grow on the coast. They are chiefly brought to the Lima market from the neighbouring Quebradas. The Mulberry-t7-ee flourishes luxuriantly, and without cultivation, but its fruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food for the birds. In the southern province of lea, the cultivation of the Vine has been attended by most successful results. In the neighbourhood of Lima grapes are seen only in a few huertas (orchards) ; but for size, sweet- ness, and aromatic flavour, there are no such grapes in any Other part of the world. The Chirimoya. — Of tropical fruits the number is not so great in Peru as in the more northerly district of Guayaquil, but there are some Peruvian fruits the delicious flavour of FRUITS OF THE COAST AND MONTANA. I07 which cannot be excelled. One of these is the chirimoya (Anofta tripetala}) Hanke, in one of his letters, calls it " a master-work of nature." It would certainly be difficult to name any fruit possessing a more exquisite flavour. In Lima this delicious fruit is grown to the size of above two- thirds of a pine-apple. In Huanuco, its indigenous soil, it grows in the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight of sixteen pounds or upwards. The fruit is of roundish form, sometimes pyramidal or heart-shaped, the broad base uniting with the stem. Externally it is green, covered with small knobs and scales, and often has black markings, like net-work, spread over it. When the fruit is very ripe it has black spots. The skin is rather thick and tough. Internally the fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with a number of small seeds well-covered with a delicate substance. The chirimoyas of Huanuco are also dis- tinguished from those of the coast by having only from four to six seeds, whereas on the coast they are found with from twenty-five to thirty. The question as to what the taste of this fruit may be compared with I can only answer by saying that it is incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the chirimoya emit a fine fragrance, which, when the tree is covered with blossom, is so strong as to be almost overpowering. The tree which bears this finest of all fruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad, flat top, and is of a pale green colour. The Palta (Persea gratissund) is a fruit of the pear form, and dark brown in colour. The rind is tough and elastic, but not very thick. The edible substance, which is soft and green, encloses a kernel resembling a chestnut in form and colour. This fruit is very astringent and bitter, and on being cut a juice flows from it which is at first yellow, but soon turns black. The taste is peculiar, and at first not agreeable to a foreigner, but it is generally much liked when the palate becomes accustomed to it. The fruit of the palta dissolves, like butter, on the tongue, and hence it is called, in some of the French colonies, Beurre v'egetale. It is sometimes eaten without any accompani- ment, and sometimes with a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels make a very good brandy. The palta-tree is slender and very high, with a small dome-like I08 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OK PERU. top. On the eastern declivity of the Andes these trees can be seen more than sixty feet high. Bananas (platanos) thrive well in parts where there is heat and humidity ; there are many varieties. The platanos belong indisputably to the most useful class of fruit-trees, especially in regions where they can be cultivated exten- sively, for then they may very adequately supply the place of bread. In northern Peru and Guayaquil the platanos fruit is prepared for food in a variety of ways. Fine-apples {ananas) are not much cultivated on the coast of Peru, but in the Amazon provinces and in the Montana de Vitoc ; but owing to the lengthy transport from the latter place, and the quicker communication by steam navigation alorig the coast, the Lima market is chiefly supplied from Ecuador. The Granadilla {Passiflora quadrangularis) is about the size of an apple, but rather oblong. The skin is reddish- yellow, hard, and rather thick. The edible part is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerous dark-coloured seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste resembles the gooseberry, and is very cooling. The granadilla is a shrub or bush, and it twines round the trunks of trees or chmbs the walls of the ranches. It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent valleys. The Tunas are fruits of different species of cactus. The husk, which is covered with sharp prickles, is green, yellow, or red in colour, and is easily separated from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked the tunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles, which, however, is not always completely accomplished. It is therefore necessary to be cautious in handling the husks, for the small prickles cause inflammation when they get into the (ingers. The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size {Prosopis dulds), with a rather low and broad top. It consists of a pod from 20 to 24 inches long, enclosing black seeds, which are embedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky part is as white as snow, and is the only eatable part of the fruit. It tastes sweet, and, to my palate at least, it is very unpleasant ; however, the Limerios on the coast and the monkeys in the woods are fond of pacay. FRUITS OF THE COAST AND MONTANA. I09 The Lucuma is produced along the whole coast of Peru. The fruit is round. The grey-brown husk encloses a fibrous, dry, yellow-coloured fruit, with its kernel. It is a very delicious fruit, and makes excellent ice-cream. The Guayava {Psidium pomiferum) grows on a low shrub, chiefly in the valleys of the coast, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It is of the form and size of a small apple. The rind is bright yellow, and thin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of little egg-shaped granu- lations. Its flavour is pleasant, but not remarkably fine. In Lima it is not a favourite, for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and when the fruit is ripe larvse are found in it. The Pepino (a Cucurbitacea) is grown in great abundance in the fields. The plant is only a foot and a half high, and creeps on the ground. The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical, and at both ends somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yellowish-green colour, with long rose- coloured stripes. The pulp or edible part is solid, juicy, and well-flavoured. The kernel lies in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow. By the natives the pepino is, not altogether unreasonably, believed to be injurious. They maintain that this fruit is too cold in the stomach, and that a glass of brandy is necessary to counteract its injurious properties. This much is certain, that the pepinos are very indigestible, and that eating them frequently, or at improper times, brings on fits of illness. The Mani, or earth-almond (Arachis hypogaa), is pro- duced in the northern provinces. The plant is from a foot and a half to two feet long, and very leafy. The kernels have a grey, shrivelled husk ; they are white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed, they are eaten with sugar. The Capulies (Prunus capuliti) grow in the open fields. In the towns they are planted in gardens or in pots. The fruit is a little larger than a cherry. It is of a deep yellow colour, and has an acid taste. The capulies are not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasant odour, they are used in making pucheros de flores, or, with other odoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled with Agtia rica, and laid in drawers to perfume linen. The ladies of Lima no THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. wear them in their bosoms. The same uses are made of the Falillos {Campomanesia lineatifolia, R.) which grow on trees from 20 to 30 feet high. The bright yellow fruit is as large as a moderately-sized apple. The palillo emits an exceedingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used in making the perfumed water called mistura. When rubbed between the fingers, the leaves smell like those of the myrtle ; but they have an acid and astringent taste. The Quinua-plaiit. — The quinua {Chenopodium quinod) is grown extensively on the Sierra and the Puna, where it is found to be a nutritious, wholesome, and pleasant article of food. The leaves of this plant, before it attains fu)! maturity, are eaten like spinach, but it is the seeds that are most generally used as food. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but most frequently boiled in milk or in broth, and sometimes cooked with cheese and Spanish pepper. The dried stems of the quinua are used as fuel, In Peru it is much liked, and is regarded in the light of a delicacy. ' Four kinds of tuberous plants are successfully cultivated in the Sierra ; viz., the potato, the olluco, the oca, and the mashua. Of potatoes there are several varieties, and all grown in perfection. The Olluco (Tropceolum tuberosum) is smaller than the potato, and greatly varies in shape, being either round, oblong, straight, or curved. The stem is thin, and of a reddish-yellow colour, and the inside is green. When simply boiled in water it is insipid, but it is very savoury when cooked as z. picante. The Oca [Oxalis tuberosa) is an oval-shaped root, the skin pallid, and the inside white. The Mashua is cultivated and cooked in the same manner as those already described. It is of a flat pyramidal shape, and the lower end terminates in a fibrous point. It is watery and insipid to the taste, but is nevertheless much eaten by the Serranos. The Indians use the mashua as a medicine; they consider it an efficacious remedy in cases of dropsy, indigestion, and dysentery. ' The writer has grown the Quinua plant to perfection in the neighbourhood of Southampton. It grows very rapidly in the open air, attaining the height of about three feet, and yields an abundance of seed which comes to early maturity. It will grow anywhere in England if required. VEGETABLE AND OTHER PRODUCTS. Ill The Coca-plant (Erythroxylon coca) is cultivated be- tween 5,000 and 6,000 feet above the sea, in the warm valleys of the eastern Andean slopes. It is a shrub like the tea-plant, growing about six feet in height, with bright green leaves and white blossoms, which turn into red berries. It is raised from seed in the beginning of January, in small plots of ground called almazigos. The following year they are removed to properly laid out coca fields and planted in rows, and crops can be gathered from them for forty years. When ripe the leaves are carefully gathered by women from off the trees, so as not to injure the twigs. The trees soon regain fresh foliage. The leaves are dried in the sun, and when perfectly dried are packed in bags. In Hua- nuco these bags weigh 75 to 80 lb., in Vitoc about 150 lb. In the Montanas of Caica, Urubamba, and Paucartambo, the coca leaves are packed in baskets. Great care must be taken not to let the leaves get damp, otherwise they are spoiled. The Indian is never seen without his leathern pouch, called the huallqui, containing coca leaves, and he suspends his labour three or four times a day to masticate the coca, mixed with powdered lime, or the ashes of the quinua plant, or the musa root. The flavour of the coca leaves is bitter, somewhat like green tea. The Indians undergo great amount of labour solely by the use of the coca. The fact that it is beneficial is evidenced by the longevity of the Indians accustomed to take it, who have reached the age of 130 years. The aperient quahties of the coca, no doubt, prevent diseases, and are most useful in counteracting the obstructions caused by farinaceous food. We will now pass on to cocaine, a product of the plant. Cocaine. — The great benefit derived from the famed drug quinine, product of the Peruvian cinchona plant, and the amount of human suffering which has been relieved by means of its use throughout the world, are already well known. There is another drug which has lately been fortunately discovered by medical science, viz., cocaine, an alkaloid of the coca plant, mentioned above, to which we are indebted to Peru. It is only quite re- cently, — within the past three years, — that the valuable properties of this drug have been recognised by the medical profession in this country as a local anesthetic. It is 112 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. especially invaluable for relieving pain during operations on the eye, as also for neuralgic pains on the face, &c. ; and for similar superficial operations this drug stands unrivalled. It entirely supersedes and dispenses with the use of chloroform and other drugs which were formerly used for such purposes, which are more or less of a dan- gerous nature. As a stimulant, the leaves of the coca plant are very remarkable, as it is well known to nourish and sustain the system for many days without any other food being taken. Cocaine is also made into a wine, and its valuable properties are daily becoming more generally recognised in this country. THE PUNA. The Puna is the name given to the high table-lands and cold bleak regions lying between the central and the coast range of the Cordillera. These lofty regions form the highest parts of the South American highlands, standing at an altitude of 15,000 feet above the sea. The Puna, although poor as regards vegetation, is richly and beauti- fully represented by the animal kingdom. It is the home of the llama, alpaca, huanuca, and the vicuna, so valuable for their wool, and the chinchilla, which resembles a rabbit, whose skin supplies the beautiful fur so much prized by the ladies of Europe. It lives on the steep rocky mountains, and feeds upon the alpine grasses. Deer inhabit the high forests. Large herds of cattle are reared on farms in sheltered valleys on the Puna. Owners of farms possess many thousand sheep, and from five to six hundred cows. They graze often at an altitude of 15,000 feet above the sea, sheep doing better in the dry season than cattle. The dry grass is burned every year, in order to improve the fodder. The cattle and sheep form the principal food of the mining districts. The beef is dried and called charqui, and the mutton chalona. Dogs are kept for hunting the vicuna and other animals. Feathered game is very plentiful, and is represented by the huahua or species of goose, the black curassow, spoon- bills, cranes, snipes, &c., the yutu, a species of partridge, two species of ibis and plovers. The lagunas, or lakes, are ^ ANIMALS OF THE PUNA. II3 inhabited by large numbers of water fowl, including the quiuUus (white mews), the gigantic water hen, and many others. Birds of prey are represented by the immense condor and the huarahuan or the aloi, one of the grey falcon species. As stated, the Puna is poor in vegetation. The expansive levels are for the most part covered with grasses of a yellowish brown tint, studded at intervals with quenoa trees {Polylepis racemosd), or by large patches of the katanhia shrub {Strameria triandrid). The Maca is a tuberous root, and grows like the potatoes. The Indians boil it in milk, or roast it with maize, and in some districts it constitutes the principal food of the inhabitants. It thrives 12,000 to 13,000 feet above the sea. Barley is grown in the Puna at a height of 13,000 feet. It does not, how- ever, attain maturity, but is cut green as fodder for horses. ANIMALS OF THE PUNA. The Llama. — The following is the description Dr. Tschudi gives of these valuable animals : — The llama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head four feet six to four feet eight inches, and from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders from two feet eleven inches to three feet. The female is usually small, and weaker than the male, but her wool is finer and better. The colour of their wool varies greatly. It is generally brown, with shades of yellow or black, frequently speckled, but very rarely quite black or white. The speckled brown llama is in some districts called the moro-moro. The young llamas are left with the dam for about a year, after which time they are removed and placed with the flock. When about four years old the males and females are separated. The former are trained to carry burthens, and the latter are kept in the pastures of the level heights. Most of the flocks of llamas are reared in the southern Puna provinces, viz., Cuzco and Ayacucho, and from thence they are sent to the silver mines of North Peru. The burthen carried by the llama should not exceed 125 pounds, and the animal is seldom laden with more than a hundredweight. When the llama finds his burthen too heavy he lies down, and cannot be 114 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. made to rise until some portion of the weight is removed from its back. In the silver mines the llamas are of the ut- most importance ; they are frequently employed to carry the metal from the mines in places where the declivities are so steep that neither horses nor mules can keep their footing. A flock of laden llamas journeying over the table-lands is a beautiful sight. They proceed at a slow and measured pace, gazing eagerly around on every side. When any strange object scares them, the flock separates and disperses in various directions, and the arrieros have no httle difficulty in re-assembling them. The Indians are fond of these animals. They adorn them by tying bells round their necks ; and before loading they always fondle and caress them affectionately. If during a journey one of the llamas is fatigued and lies down, the arriero kneels beside the animal and addresses it with the most coaxing and endearing expressions. Notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowed on them, many llamas perish on every journey to the coast, as they are not able to bear the warm climate. The llamai finds sufficient sustenance in the moss and stunted herbage, principally thtychu, a species of grass that grows along the steeps of the Cordilleras. The structure of its stomach, like that of the camel, enables it to dis- pense with a supply of water for weeks together. Its spongy hoof, armed with two claws or pointed talons, enables it to take secure hold on the ice ; it never requires to be shod. The load laid upon the animal rests securely on its woolly back, without the aid of girth or saddle. The llamas move in herds of 500, or even 1,000, and thus, though each individual carries but little, the aggregate is considerable. The Alpaca. — The alpaca, or paco, is smaller than the llama. It measures, from the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head, only 3 ft. 3 in., and to the shoulder 2\ ft. In shape it resembles the sheep, but it has a longer neck and a more elegant head. The fleece of this animal is beautifully soft and very long ; in some parts it is four or five inches in length. Its colour is usually either white or black, but in some few instances it is speckled. The Indians ' Llama also signifies flock i II '" 1(1 ! ANIMALS OF THE PUNA. II5 make blankets and pouches of the alpaca wool. The wool is largely exported to Europe, and in English markets it com- mands a good price. The alpacas are kept in large flocks, and throughout the whole of the year they graze on the level heights. At shearing-time only are they driven to the huts. Tlie Huanaat. — The largest animal of this family is the huanacu. It measures 5 ft. from the hoof to the top of the head, and 3 ft. 3 in. to the shoulders. On the neck, back, and thighs the huanacu is of a uniform reddish- brown colour. The under parts of the body, the middle of the breast, and the inner side of the limbs are of a dingy white. The face is dark grey, and the lips of a clear white. Of the huanacus there are not those varieties which are found among the llamas and the alpacas. The wool is shorter and coarser than that of the llama, and it is of nearly uniform length on all parts of the body. They live in small herds of five or seven. The Vicufia}. — The vicuna is a more beautiful animal than any of those just described. Its size is between that of the llama and the alpaca. It measures, from the sole of its foot to the top of its head, 4 ft. i in., and 2^ ft. to the shoulders. The neck is longer and more slender than in either of the other relative species, and from them the vicuna is also distinguished by the superior fineness of its short curly wool. During the rainy season the vicuna inhabits the ridges of the Cordillera, where some scanty vegetation is to be found. It never ventures up to the naked rocky summits, for its hoofs, being accustomed only to turfy ground, are soft and tender. It lives in herds con- sisting of from six to fifteen females and one male, who is the protector and leader of the herd. The Indians catch them by what is termed the chacu. They drive the vicunas into circles formed by stakes and ropes, and then catch them by means of the bolas, a line with weights at each end, which they cast round the legs of the animals and impede their progress ; this allows them to be taken alive. ' The present price of vicuna wool in the Liverpool market is S/- per lb. I 2 Il6 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER VIII. The Gold and Silver Mines of Peru. LIST OF THE MINING DISTRICTS. NO country possesses such vast resources in metallic riches as Peru.i The mountainous districts from one extremity of the country to the other abound in all the precious minerals, such as gold, silver, platina, copper, iron, tin, lead, quicksilver, precious stones, salt, nitrate of soda, alum, coal, sulphur, saltpetre, petroleum, and other minerals. The following mineral deposits deserving special men- tion on account of their richness were lately enume- rated in a letter to the press by Admiral Aurelio Garcia y Garcia, Peruvian Minister to England: — "Beginning with the North, coal and petroleum are found on the seaboard com- prised between Tumbes and Morrope, with shipping ports within a distance of a few yards ; iron in the same depart- ment ; sulphur and rock salt on the coast of Sechura, and near to the bay of that name ; silver in Hualgayoc, Caja- bamba, Celendin, and Chilete, which is partially connected by rail with the port of Pacasmayo ; gold in Chachapoyas and Santo Tomas ; silver in Pataz, Otuzco, and Huama- chuco ; and coal in Chala, which is also partially in railroad communication with the port of Salaverry ; coal and silver in the pass of Huaylas, both considered as among the most valu- able on account of their abundance and richness, their out- lets being the ports of Chimbote, Samanco, Casma, and Huarmey ; silver in Cajatambo, and salt in Huacho, the port of same name being the outlet ; silver in Yauli and the pro- vince of Huarachiri, along the line of the Oroya railway; silver in Morococha, Pucara, and in Tarma, the port of which ' Of its wealth and magnificence, the historian Frezier tells us : — " When the Viceroy, Marquis de la Palata, entered Lima, in 1682, the merchants showed their wealth by paving, to the extent of 150 yards the entrance to the Royal square with ingots of silver, which were 12 to 15 inches long, 4 to 5 inches wide, and 2 to 3 inches thick, weighing on an average 200 marcs each, and amounting to ^^32, 000,000 of our money." GOLD AND SILVER MINES. II7 is Callao ; also the renowned mines of Cerro de Pasco, which are rich beyond description ; quicksilver in Huancavelica, and silver in Castro-Vireyna and Lircay ; platinum and cobalt in La Mar and Canzullo ; copper in lea, Lucanos, and Parinacocha, with outlet to the sea at Pisco and Chala, as also the gold mines of Aymaraes ; gold in Huayllura, Palmaderas, and Montes-Claros, the mines of which in their day yielded millions to the Crown of Spain, but work was stopped in consequence of the falling of the mine. This rich territory is of easy access through the port of Quilca, but the ports of Ocana and Atico are within lesser distance and will be utilised when systematic work is undertaken. There are coal deposits in .Sumbay and silver in Cailloma and Puno ; gold in Poto and Carabaya, con- nected with the coast by the railroad and port of MoUendo." The mines of Huantajaya, near Arica, are particularly celebrated for the great masses of native silver which they contain in a decomposed gangue. In 1758 and 1789 two masses of native silver were found in two of its mines, one weighing 800 lb. and the other 200 lb. From recent surveys of Senores Raimondi and Babinski, the gold mines known as the Palmaderas and Montes- Claros in the Union province are found to be amongst the richest ever discovered in Peru. Rich gold mines have recently been discovered in Cerro Azul, a seaport south of Callao. The silver vein at Carahuacra, in the Yauli district, is the fifth richest in the world ; it has been surveyed for a dis- tance of three miles and has a thickness of 99 feet. (See description of this mine, page 133.) WEALTH OF THE CERRO DE PASCO AND OTHER MINES. Colonel Harris, speaking of the vast mineral resources of Peru, says ; — " The records of Madrid show that Cerro de Pasco, Hualgayoc, and Huantajaya, three mining districts only, produced during the occupation of the Spaniards up to 1803, ;£i69,889,ioo, as follows : — Cerro de Pasco ^^61, 860,320 Hualgayoc 38,028,780 Huantajaya 70,000,000 £ 169,889,100 Il8 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. "The mind can scarcely comprehend the immense wealth produced from this country with the rudest appliances and unskilled labour." Mining decadence has taken place yearly. Cerro de Pasco has lately only produced 200,000 marcs (100,000 lb.), Hualgayoc is all but deserted, and Huantajaya the same. In one mountain above Cerro Colorado there are over 400 veins, one of which is 100 yards wide and can be traced for leagues, and at the surface yields 14 marcs ot silver to the cajon. This is one out of many hundred cerros which are completely ribbed with metal. 1 Copper ore can be raised in as great quantity as in Chili. The Government of Peru, under its worthy president. General Caceres, in order to develop the resources of the country, and for the purpose of giving impulse to the mining industry, has resolved to open a mining exhibition in Lima, on the 28th July, t888, at which will be exhibited a collection of the various minerals which the country produces, together with implements and machinery of the latest modern invention for mining purposes. English engineers are invited to send specimens of machinery to Peru for this exhibition. COAL DISTRICTS. There are many coal districts in Peru, several of them being of the best anthracite coal. Only a few of them are temporarily worked on a small scale. In 1877 the coal district of Otuzco, in Northern Peru, was explored by a Government Commission. They reported a very fine stratum at a short depth, ranging from 4 to 7 metres thick, and expressed the belief that better strata may be found at greater depth. The different analyses yield an average of carbon of some 75 per cent, to 80 per cent., a splendid result. The report says : — " As to the quantity of fuel, we dare say that it is immense, and that the district of Libertad is ' All the slopes and chains of the Andes are more or less crossed by rich silver veins, which in most cases are exposed to the eyes of the wanderer vi'henever he happens to take an unusual way through that labyrinth of mountains. The mining regulations of Peru being very liberal, any one may become the owner of the mine or mines he discovers for a very small fee of some 1 5 soles (60s.) paid half-yearly to the Treasury.— A. Espinosa. CERRO DE PASCO. II9 able to supply the whole of South America during several centuries. Notwithstanding these mines are only some 40 miles from shore, and only 18 from a railway station, work is stopped at present, and will be until more hands and capitalists come to Peru." The present average price of coal in Peru is $22, or ;£t, per ton, and the average consumption 200,000 tons a year. PETROLEUM WELLS. Large petroleum wells exist all along the coast from Tumbes to Paita, but are only worked at Zorritos, some 10 miles south of Tumbes. Many thousands of gallons run into the sea, which in a more populated and enterpris- ing country would be worked, and vifould form a consider- able income to private persons and to the Government. SALTPETRE. Doctor Ignacio Abadie has reported the discovery of a rich deposit of saltpetre in the north of the Republic, ex- tending for no less than sixty square miles. A commission of engineers are now surveying the district. CERRO DE PASCO. The following particulars as regards this celebrated argentiferous deposit have been translated from a pamphlet by M. du Chatenet on the present state of the mining industry of Cerro de Pasco, published in the " Anales de Construcciones Civiles y de Minas del Peru " (Lima, 1883) : — "The name of Cerro de Pasco is justly known by the enormous quantity of silver which it has produced for the last two centuries. In spite of the immense mass of mineral which has been extracted, it still contains within its veins sufficient wealth to remunerate the work of many generations. Cerro de Pasco is situate between the lati- tude 10° 55' and longitude 75° 40' W. of Greenwich. Its height above the level of the sea, according to Paz Soldan and Babinski, at Chaupimarca is 4,327 metres, or 14,198 ft. The town is situate at the north of a large plain formed between the principal chain of the Cordillera — which follows its ordinary direction of south-east to north-west — 120 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. and an immense circle which it appears to make towards the south-west. The population consists principally of Indians, of small stature, but broad-chested, stoutly formed, and much accustomed to hard work. It now contains 8,000 to 9,000 inhabitants. The climate is healthy, although it is subject at certain seasons to heavy storms of rain and snow." GEOLOGY OF CERRO DE PASCO. Notwithstanding the difference in their nature and com- position, the ores of Cerro de Pasco are all valuable for their metallurgy of silver. We will use the same classification as the miners of the district, who distinguish, amongst themselves, the pacos or cascajos, the pyrites, the pavonados, the ores containing lead, copper, and silver. All are argen- tiferous, and contain a variable quantity of silver, from traces hardly visible in certain pacos or pyrites, to a fair proportion in &ovaQ pavonados (grey copper ores). Of these different ores, at the present time there is only one class which is the object of active work — the pacos. Only a few cajons, of the other ores are occasionally worked. The ores generally known in Peru, under the name of pacos, are the same as those called colorados in Mexico, and the two words, which are the same in Spanish and in Quechua, arise from the red colour, more or less bright, in which these ores always appear. This class of ore appears peculiar to America. Its exterior characteristics do not denote the presence of silver to a mineralogist who is not familiar with them. They are more like an iron ore of medium ley than a silver ore. All have an appearance more or less stony and earthy ; they scarcely ever show any trace of crystallisation, and are coloured more or less strongly by oxide of iron, which forms an important part, and at times almost the whole, of the ore. Respecting their chemical composition, these pacos present the peculiarity of having only oxidised matter, and even these are found under the state of higher oxidation. These are the general and common characteristics of all ' The cajon of Peru is equal to three tons. GEOLOGY OF THE CERRO DE PASCO. 121 the pacos or cascajos, but their chemical composition varies according to the positions in which they are found. In almost all oxide of iron forms a principal part ; others have, besides, lead or copper — the lead in the state of carbonate, the copper in the state of oxide or carbonate. Ferruginous ores are chiefly found in the tajo of Santa Rosa and its vicinity ; copper ores are found in the district of Yana- cancha, and generally under the buildings of the city ; lead ores in the upper part of the Pariajirca district, at a short distance from the limestone rocks which divide the ore regions from the eastern side. Not only do the pacos differ in composition, but also in structure ; they are pre- sented under various conditions — some of a variable colour, from clear yellow to dark red ; they appear to have a homogeneous structure, and are principally formed of oxide of iron more or less compact, being a combination of various oxides. They are found either stony or earthy, and are extracted either by powder or dynamite, or simply by the pickaxe. They are either as solid as rock or as friable as earth, the appearance of which they have. In the first case they are called cascajos, and in the second llampos. Others, on the contrary, are principally com- posed of siliceous sandstone, with a httle earthy matter which appears to be impregnated with oxide of iron — as in many mines of the tajo of Santa Rosa. This ar- gentiferous sandstone is designated under the name of pedernal. The pede/ytos are a variety of cascajos, harder than other kinds, and are worked by means of powder. Some- times the cascajos present the appearance of scoria, having a half-melted half concretionary appearance, and showing innumerable cavities or pores. This variety is interesting as showing the mode of formation of these minerals, and is called chicharrones by the miners. In the lower part of the earth, which shows the phe- nomenon of oxidation, there is found at times, on the upper side of the vein, like a covering, earthy ores called caprichos, which are worked in some mines. In the same situation, these ores, when they are more yellow and charged with iron, take the name of pastelillos. The cascajos are nothing more than a hard or decomposed sand- stone impregnated with iron and silver. It is almost im- 122 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. possible to. say to which formation this sandstone belongs. The Cerro does not contain fossils of any kind, and the study of the stratified formations affords no results, on account ot the capas (stockwerk '), which do not show any kind of stratification. There is no other means of de- ciding this question except the very uncertain method of examining the structure and character of the rock. This leads to the conclusion that the Cerro is of Jurassic formation. Whatever may be their composition or nature, these pacos of the Cerro do not contain a high percentage of silver ; in many cases there sometimes exist traces of that metal, considered profitably workable when they contain at the least four marcs (32 ounces) to the cajon. It would be difficult to say up to what percentage the richest ores might yield ; some of the mines are known to produce rich-yielding ores of twelve to fifteen marcs (96 to 120 ounces), but they are very scarce. It may be said that the greater part of the mines actually worked furnish very poor ores of from four to six marcs the ley. These ores, now being worked by the miners, form the backbone of the district. It is evident that the profitable ores are by no means as rich as many imagine, but, in spite of the great diminution of production in the Cerro, the mines continue to yield annually considerable quantities of silver. The reason is, the inexhaustible abundance in which the ores are found, and the facility with which they can be worked. Cerro de Pasco is, owing to the enormous quantity of argentiferous minerals it contains, certainly one of the most important deposits of silver in the world. Its mode of occurrence is likewise very interesting from a geological point of view, and scientists differ considerably as to its orgin. The mineral matter which generally yields the useful metals shows itself in three different modes of occurrence, — small fissures or veins, as capas or stockwerk, ' Stockwerk is the name given to the appearance ot veins which, by successive nearly parallel fissures, are filled with mineral matter ; a vein becomes of very great and almost indefinite width, making it difficult to follow. Veins of this description are worked in successive floors or storeys. GEOLOGY OF THE CERRO DE PASCO. 1 23 and in groups or distinct layers, the geological formation being either of igneous or sedimentary origin. The ex- amination of the boundary between the argentiferous and sterile rocks can hardly serve to determine this question, since in the Cerro the boundary is very indefinitely de- fined. When we take into account the extent of the deposit, this fact is not surprising, if an igneous origin be attributed to this formation ; the contact of the erupted materials with the walls of the fissure which has been filled with mineral matter would have produced a powerful metamorphism in the sedimentary strata ; as in limestones, the argentiferous material would have been able, under the influence of pressure and heat, to impregnate them a little, therefore it can be easily understood how it happens that in certain parts silver ores are found in the limestone of the Cerro. If, on the contrary, we consider the formation to be of sedimentary origin, it can be ex- plained on the hypothesis that during the eruption of the neighbouring rocks, and of the metamorphism which they have caused, small portions of the pre-existing mate- rials have been drawn along, or separated from, the prin- cipal mass, and transported to a certain distance. In the Cerro the miners often speak of veins, but I believe their idea of that word does not convey the same signification as that of its literal sense, and that they only designate as veins the richest parts of the ores, which yield enough metal capable of being refined with profit. AVithout expressing any opinion as to the mode of forma- tion, I did not find any deposit deserving the name of vein or fissure in the generally accepted sense of the words. May not the metal-bearing formation of the Cerro be a single vein of variable richness and of considerable width ? Serious objections could be raised to this theory. What- ever may have been the mode of formation of a vein, the nature of its constituents always shows certain special characters. Three different ingredients are observed in its composition — the relleno,^ the gangue,^ and the useful ' The relleno is the principal mass of rock which surrounds the vein of workable ore. ^ The gangue is the matrix or portion of a rock in which an ore is deposited. 124 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. ore. The gangue mass contains different materials, but most of them are sterile; for example, pyrites, spathic iron, the different oxides of iron, zinc blende, quartz, felspars, arragonite, carbonate or sulphate of lime, fluor- spar, sulphate or carbonate of baryta, &c. Of the metals which generally constitute the gangue mass, we meet with pyrites and oxide of iron at different altitudes. Here these materials are not really the gangue, but the useful sub- stance ; and they are very far from constituting the whole of the mass, since the cascajo and pyrites have sandstone as the principal component part, as is observed in the pedernal of Santa Rosa. The structure of these mate- rials does not resemble an igneous origin ; they have scarcely any crystals, and are hardly ever found crystallised with carbonate of lead. The general mass of the metal does not^ present a crystalline structure whatever, as hap- pens in veins, where the small cavities are decked with crystals. The Cerro can be easily considered as forming a strata, or rather a series, of stockwerk. However, it is not easy to recognise the stratification ; in some parts there can be seen some traces of formation of paws ; generally nothing can be absolutely distinguished, as the rocks are of a homogeneous structure, and their different aspects or nature follow no visible rule. However, it is without doubt, all the materials which compose the deposit exist in the state of stockwerk ; many other deposits are found where there is no doubt that the formation is of sedimen- tary origin. If we consider the Cerro as one immense aggregation of metals, which may be either one vein or one stock- werk, it appears to me most natural, for the reasons already given, to take it for sedimentary formation. Up to the present time there have been no researches sufifi- ciently deep to decide the question as to which formation it belongs. In the neighbourhood of Cerro de Pasco there are being worked at present thirty mines, of which Colquijorca and Vinchos are the oldest. They are working in the Cande- laria mine a magnificent vein of argentiferous ore. In working the mines it is customary, on arriving at a depth GEOLOGY OF THE CERRO DE PASCO. 125 when they meet with water, to abandon them without any effort, in most cases, being made to drain them, and a new mine is commenced. In Cayac Pariajirca Mataderia there are 33 2 I Chaupimarca Yauricocha >> 2 Paccha I Patarcocha jj Santa Rosa )> 62 Ayapoto Huancapucro Arenillapata Valeria 9 3 12 7 Santa Catalina II Uliachin jj 3 Portachuelo jj 3 Tingo Pampas de San Andres 4 5 San Juan J J I Rumillana )J Mata-gente J) 2 46 9 32 68 54 26 53 4 4 16 II 15 23 27 7 4 4 From the Mata-gente mine,' according to report, the richest mineral was extracted, but the working has been almost suspended owing to a general falling in of the mine, which buried 300 workmen. For some time past the miners of the Cerro have been actively engaged with the question of the water in the mines, which is of vital importance for the prosperity of the district. The department of Public Works is now constructing a tunnel to drain the mines. It is to be cut from Mesapata as far as the valley of Rumillana, where it will empty itself. Comparing the return of silver bars cast at the foundry in late years to those formerly cast there, it is seen that the production has decreased considerably ; formerly the quan- tity exceeded 300,000 marcs, but lately it has decreased to 159,000 marcs. '" Mata-gente " means "kill-people," and is the name by which this mine has been known since the accident. 126 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. ITS COAL DEPOSITS. The combustible mineral deposit of Cerro de Pasco may- be considered as one of the richest of the Republic, but as the use of coal has not been extensively introduced in the refining of the ores, this wealth is almost useless, and its working almost nil. Of these combustibles the most impor- tant is coal, which exists in very many parts of the province. The beds are generally much charged with volatile materials, mostly pyritous, and have a large proportion of ash ; very • bituminous specimens are met with, which can be advan- tageously used in the manufacture of gas. There are altogether sixty-four coal mines, of which twenty-eight are being worked, and thirty-six are aban- doned. The coal, which is consumed for domestic purposes and smith's work, is worked principally in the districts of Chacayan, Paria, Jusi, and Huallay, and that obtained from Raneas is used in the smelting foundries and for dis- tilling the amalgam. The only cause which exists for such a small consumption is the difficulty of transport. The mines are situated several leagues from the towns, and the coal cannot be brought there except on the backs of animals, on which account the working of this combustible is exceedingly inactive, and at the present time there is not a single mine which merits the name of such by the quantity of material taken out. The coal industry, now of so little importance in the Cerro, is capable of being very rapidly developed as soon as the railroad is constructed, which will place this deposit in communication with the coast. Being then sure of finding a demand for their products, the proprietors of the mines would establish roads to the railway, and increase very considerably their workings ; there will then be an abundance of coal brought to the Cerro at a low price, which will bring about a radical change in the methods now employed, by the adoption of a more perfect system of smelting, by which means they will be able to work at a greater profit all the varieties of ore which exist in that deposit. Coal is not the only fuel which nature has provided in this deposit ; in the quebradas or pampas which are near MAGISTRAL. 1 27 the Cerro there is found a large quantity of peat, which the Indians call champa. This peat, dried during the summer, serves very usefully for domestic purposes, and although it constitutes a fuel of inferior quality, it would probably be profitable in the operations of a local industry. The animals provide by their excrements another class ot fuel, which is known as taquia ; this they collect from sheep and llamas. Owing to its abundance and cheapness (one ton of taquia only costs at the most ten soles), it is used by the Indians in foundries for refining galena. MAGISTRAL. The galena ores are smelted by means of furnaces. Another industry assisting in the refining of the pacos in the Cerro, is the making of magistral. The useful properties of magistral arise from the sul- phates of copper and iron which it contains, and its separation is effected by the heating of iron and copper ores ; these metals are a mixture of iron and copper pyrites with other copper ores, which gives the material a black colour. As the magistral owes its active qualities to the proportion of copper which enters into its composition, the ores which contain the most copper are those most valued for this purpose ; these ores are taken from some mines in the district of Zanacancha. The operation of manufacture is carried out by means of a reverberating furnace of very simple construction, taquia being used as fuel. The furnace is charged through an aperture in the upper part of the arch. An oven-full, con- sisting of 120 arrobas of crushed ore, is introduced; the fire is kept at a temperature of a deep red heat, so as not to melt the material. Air enters freely by the door of the furnace, to facilitate the formation of sulphates. When the fumes of the gases diminish, twelve arrobas of ground salt are added, which is mixed with the other materials. The operation is completed when the fumes of sulphuric acid cease, and the furnace is then discharged for another supply. Salt is mixed with the other mate- rials for the purpose of converting the copper to a soluble state, by the chloridisation of the oxide of copper which 128 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. had not become sulphuretted, or that proceeding from a decomposition of sulphate already formed. A sample of magistral in most use in the Cerros gave the following results : — Part soluble in water Psrt in- soluble I Sulphate of copper 975 ) Sulphate of iron I'I4 1 Chloride of sodium 3'36 ( Sulphuric acid in excess 4'6o r Oxide of copper l'5o ■ Peroxide of iron 44'92 Oxide of lead 378 Sulphuric acid combined with lead and iron 2'8o Silica and other materials 28 '1 5 i8-8s % 81-15% This result is very interesting, as it plainly shows the fact already known by all the miners, that the power of magistral depends principally upon its proportion of copper, whilst the iron possesses scarcely any importance. THE SALT MINES. The mines which supply the salt employed in refining the ores are situated at San Bias, twelve miles from the Cerro, and belong to Senor Agustin Tello. As there are several salt springs in' various parts, no doubt other mines will be discovered. WANT OF DRAINAGE TO THE MINES. The silver mines, with some exceptions, are not in the hands of rich persons, but in the hands of those who are obliged to borrow at the banks at various rates of inte- rest. There is no spirit of association ; each one separates himself from the others, and they have introduced no improvements since the time of their forefathers. In order, therefore, to re-establish its former importance, it is necessary to give fresh impulse to the execution of the works for draining the water from the mines, and the miners and proprietors of the Cerro ought to make every effort to perfect or change the primitive methods which they are at present using. Thus the THE CERRO DE PASCO. 1 29 prosperity of the Cerro can be revived, and this celebrated region will continue to merit in the future, as in the past, its renowned fame for proverbial wealth PROFESSOR ORTON ON THE CERRO DE PASCO. The most famous silver mines in South America, after those of Potosi, are the mines of Cerro de Pasco, sixty leagues N.E. of Lima. They are situated on the Atlantic slope of the Andes, over 13,000 feet above the sea, where the prevailing rock is conglomerate. The silver, discovered by an Indian in 1630, occurs in the native state, also as sulphide mixed with pyrites, cobrizo (a carbonate of lead and copper, with sulphide of copper), and with oxides, forming what are known in Peru and Mexico as pacos and colorados. The ore is treated with salt and mercury, but so rudely that generally one pound of mercury is lost to every half a pound of silver extracted. Fortunately Cerro de Pasco is only 200 miles from the celebrated quicksilver mines of Huancavelica. According to Herndon, the ore yields only six marks to the cajon. (A mark is eight ounces, and a cajon three tons.) A representative specimen in my possession contains 0.004 of silver. During the last two centuries and a half, the mines have produced about $500,000,000. The annual amount of ore mined, at present, does not exceed 110,000 tons, each cajon yielding on an average 4^ marks (36 ounces), the amal- gam containing 22 per cent, of silver. Just now work has-, nearly ceased, owing to the inadequate means of drainage. But at Cerro de Pasco, as at other places, it has been found profitable to re-work by the improved modern methods the • tailings left by the old Spanish miners. The contemplated', connexion of the Oroya Railroad with a line from Pasco^ will give new impetus to the mining interest. Hualgayoc, fourteen leagues north of Cajamarca, has- long been celebrated for its rich mines, but it is also afflicted with a plethora of water. The Cerro, unlike most silver mountains, presents rugged, tower-like points, and is perforated on every side up to its very summit. The rock is siliceous. There are many good mines in the vicinity of Lampa and Puno, on the borders of Lake Titicaca ; those of Manto, Salcedo, Chupica, and Cancharani were K 13° THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. famous in Spanish history. In the seventeenth century the mines of Puno were inferior only to those of Potosi. The richest ores are called brosa, rosicler, and pavonado. The first yields forty marcs to every fifty quintals of ore. The ores of Huantajaya, Carmen, and Santa Rosa, near Iquique, yield from 2,000 to 5,000 marcs to the cajon. Without ques- tion they are amongst the purest in the world. Masses of pure silver have been found on the surface of the plain, one weighing 800 lb. Rich deposits occur also in the province of Cailloma, north of Arequipa, and at Yauli, San Mateo, and other localities near the Oroya Railroad. Extensive veins have been recently discovered at Chilete, the terminus of the Pacasmayo Railroad, the ore assaying from $60 to I200 a ton. A Bostonian has a large interest in this mine. Silver associated with gold and copper is found in the Cerro Potoche, near Huancavelica. The mines of Hual- anga, near Tarma, have yielded 3,000 marcs in a year. THE SILVER MINES OF YAULI. Extracted by permission from " Apuntes sobre el Distrito Mineral de Yauli,"'^ by Leonardo Pflucker y Rico. Lima, 1883. Leaving Lima by the Oroya Railroad, in nine hours one arrives at the end, which is at present the small town of Chicla, situated in the nalrrow and deep ravine of the Rimac, at 126 kilometres (seventy-eight miles) from Lima, and 3,725 metres (12,162 feet) above the level of the sea. From thence it is a short day's journey to the town of Yauli, passing by the mining haciendas of Pomacancha and Bellavista, the villages of Acchahuaro and Casapalca, and the quebrada of Piedra Parada, which contains rich veins of silver, copper, and lead. Passing the mining establishments of " El Carmen " and " La Americana," and gaining the summit of the Cordillera at the narrow pass of Paracte or Piedra Parada, at an altitude of 4,900 metres (16,076 feet) above the sea, from thence descending by the valley of "' Anales de Construcciones Civilesy de Minas del Peru, " published by the School of Mines, Lima, 1883. THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VAULT. 13I Viscas, we arrive at Yauli, the total distance from Chicla being thirty-one kilometres (nineteen miles.) The town of Yauli is situated in a quebrada or valley, watered by an affluent of the Mantaro. There is nothing particularly deserving notice. The houses are built of adobe bricks, with roofs of straw or corrugated iron. There is a good school for boys and girls ; the inhabitants number 600, and the district of which Yauli is the capital contains 5,326 inhabitants. But the town owes its import- ance to being the centre of an exceedingly rich mining district. It lies on the high road from Lima to Tarma and Jauja, or rather to the Junin Department, the trade of which to the coast is very considerable. The province of Tarma, comprised between ri° and 11° 40' south latitude, extends from west to east from the summit of the Cordillera mountains to the river Ene (formed by the Apuriniac and Mantaro), which separates it on the east from the department of Cuzco in the virgin region of the Montana. It is one of the four provinces which comprise the department of Junin. Between the two crests of the Cordillera mountains, which are distant from twenty to sixty kilometres apart, there extends (from N.N.W. to S.S.E.) an elevated table-land at an altitude of 4,400 metres, but so intersected by wide valleys and deep ravines, that it loses, in fact, the character of such, being traversed by ridges of greater or less extent, which enclose within them numerous valleys and narrow passages, generally traversed by rapid streams, all of which form the special characteristics of the table-land, or Sierra, the part of the province which is most populated, and which has the most productive and abundant re- sources. From north-west to south-east the table-land is traversed by the Mantaro or Oroya, which is the most important river. This river has cut a deep channel, into which flow all the rivers and streams which fall from the two lower flanks of the Cordilleras. The river Chanchamayo, with its affluents, form an exception, which, taking its source in the table-land south-west of Tarma, passes to the north- east, crossing the Oriental Cordillera through a deep and narrow quebrada, and flows into the Perene. K 2 132 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. The ridges andsmooth declines of the table-land, although in some parts arid, are usually found covered with an abundant natural pasturage, which serves to rear a large number of animals, such as sheep, vicunas, and llamas. There are places where the pasture grows over one metre (3I feet) in height, and some farms maintain 30,000 head of sheep. On account of the climate being cold, this elevated region, called " puna," is but scantily populated. Apart from some houses in which the resident managers of estancias or proprietors of sheep reside, there are only to be met with here and there shepherds' huts, which are a considerable distance apart. No rain falls here, only snow and hail. The villages and houses are built in sheltered valleys. Barley, potatoes, wheat, maize, and other fruits are culti- vated, according as the country descends to the valleys of the Mantaro and Chanchamayo. The upland rivers, being only small, can be easily forded in the dry season, and even in the wet season it is not difficult to cross them. The geological structure of the Yauli district shows numerous eruptions in the immediate neighbourhood of the Cordilleras, but towards the centre of the table- land the disposition of the strata is more regular, and in some places it is horizontal. In the Oroya valley the strata are found in a vertical position. A great number of fossils are found in the calcareous deposits, and at Chaplanca, 4,467 metres (14,655 feet) above the sea, there is an immense quantity of ammonites, several of which measure 36 centimetres (14 inches) in diameter, and many other fossils. Mineral Springs. — There are warm mineral springs near Chaplanca and Yauli; the temperature of the former is 54° Centigrade. The water, when taken, is somewhat laxative, and as a bath it has been employed with excellent results in curing skin and other diseases. According to the ana- lysis of Seiior Raimondi it contains sulphates, chlorides, and carbonates of sodium, calcium, magnesia, lithia, and iron, the salts of sodium chiefly predominating. In this respect, as also for its high temperature and in its deposits of Toba, it resembles the celebrated mineral waters of Carlsbad, in Bohemia. THE SILVER MINES OF YAULI. 1 33 Metalliferous Veins. The principal Cordillera offers an extraordinary abundance of metalliferous veins in the whole of its extent, and they appear to be intimately united to those of the eruptive rocks. In the centre of the table-land, where the strata are but little dislocated, veins are rare and of little value. The Alines. — The miners now limit themselves to work- ing the veins of silver and a few of the deposits of coal in the district. The veins of silver, including under that denomination argentiferous galena, predominate over all others, together with important veins of copper and anti- mony and a small amount of cinnabar. Andaichagua, a village situated to the east of Yauli, is the region of native silver par excellence. The principal mine, Machoruca or San Jos^, is not worked. Its ores are composed of lead (ronco), native silver, zinc blende, and quartz. There are many other mines of less importance. Carahuacra, situate to the south of Yauli, is the most renowned and productive vein in the district. It has been surveyed and found to extend for a distance of 5 kilo- metres (3 miles), and its thickness in places to be 30 metres (99 feet). These enormous dimensions rival the largest silver veins known, such as the Comstock in Nevada, which is 7 kilometres (4^ miles) long and in parts 60 mfetres thick ; the Veta Madre of Guanajuato, 14 kilometres {Z\ miles) long and 10 to 66 metres thick ; the great vein of Zacatecas, of little less length than the former, and 10 to 22 metres (33 to 72 feet) thick; and the great vein of galena in Clansthal, in Prussia, 8 kilometres long (5 miles) and from 6 to 130 feet thick. The Carahuacra vein is superior to these in the richness of its ores. Its course is north-west to south-east, in which direction there is seen rising above the surface a gangue quartz of dark grey colour, interrupted by an accumulation of large boulders of dark grey colour lying in the direction of the gangue. It is composed of quartz, of grey or black colour, in which the ores are scattered in small irregular veins or nests, which makes the working somewhat difficult. There are ores of silver — native silver, ruby silver, rich pavonado (argentiferous grey copper ore), with much zinc blende, pyrites, and a little galena; the 134 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. zinc blende is of different colours, yellow, chestnut, and black. The northern part is the better known, and up to the present time has almost exclusively produced the metal. Here also are the Carmen (San Antonio de Callapa), San Francisco, San Marcos, and San Jos6 (Ventanilla) mines, which occupy, according to the Padron de Minas} an extent of i,6oo yards (1,337 metres). The San Francisco Mine had been, without doubt, much worked during the colonial period, as is shown by the extent and depth of its works. In the San Francisco mine the predominating ore is ruby silver with zinc blende ; in the San Marco, a mine likewise much worked, although not so much as the former, it is the pavonado fino (argenti- ferous grey copper ore), under which name they denote the grey copper ore of high ley of silver, which is gene- rally 8 to 10 per cent.^ The other mines are abandoned. JRomaiarea, to the south-west of Yauli, is a valley enclosed on the north by snow-carpeted hills, on both sides of which there are argentiferous veins. Galera. — In the quebrada of this name, situated on the north-west of Yauli, there are various mines, now aban- doned ; one owned, the San Josd, but not worked. Parade. — This cerro, situated near the Piedra Parada Pass, contains several mines, amongst them two are owned, the Carmen and the San Francisco (Saco Huarmi). Both have produced in former times good ores, those of the San Francisco mine yielding pavonado fino (argentife- rous grey copper ore) with quartz. But to the west, on the western slope of the Cordillera, are the Bella Union and Araucana mines, in the Cerro Chuquichuecho ; the San Antonio, in Colquiputo ; the Elena, in the Cerro Cuarenta Varas ; and the Senor de los Milagros, in Anta- puero. The ores from these mines are exported to Europe. In the Bella Union they are composed of argentiferous grey copper ore, zinc blende, and pyrites in quartz. In the Cerro Pucaurco, near the Pass of Antarangra, the Volcan mine is worked in a vein half a mfetre thick, ex- tending north-east and south-east. Its ores, — pavonado ' The Padron de Minas is the official Register of Mines, published half-yearly. ^ This is an extraordinary rich ore. THE SILVER MINES OF YAULI. I35 fino, rosicler (ruby silver), galena, zinc blende, and pyrites in quartz (white and red), — are exported to Germany ; the ley of the silver 0-5 to o-6 per cent., of gold 0-4. It is still worked. Anticona. — -To the east of Antarangra. In this ravine they work at the north of it, at the foot of the Nevado Yanasinga, the Libertad mine ; towards the west, the San Jose mine, which is owned. To the south-east of this point, and of the Cerro Pucauro, is the place called Tarantan ; here the Esmeralda mine is situated. Alafainpa. — On the descent of the mountain, extending to the north of the lake Huacracocha, there are various mines ; the most important is Yanamina. There are also owned in this cerro the San Joaquin (or Aguilar) and Saa Pedro Alcantara mmes. Nuevo Potosi. — This cerro, which rises 379 metres above- the immediate hacienda of Morococha, extends from' south-east to north-west. The stratified ground contains- numerous argentiferous veins, which run perpendicular to- the eje'i- of the cerro, and some parallel to it, the principal from the west. Santa Barbara and Santa Rita. — The latter is a verticali vein of one metre thick, running north-north-east ; it is at. present being worked. San Antonio. — A mine much worked during the last thirty years, and which has at times employed 250 men. The ore is very rich (100 marcs of silver per cajon, or o'8 per cent.-). The ores are refined in Tuctu by amalgama- tion. Elvira. — A mine still being worked. jPurisima. — A vein half a metre to one metre thick, not- worked. San Pablo. — The nearest to the eruptive rocks ; not: worked. Victoria. — A wide vein, half a mfetre to three metres- thick, not worked. ' Eje, direction of the length of the cerro or hill. The Peruvian cajon consists of 3 tons, each 2,000 Spanish pounds. The Spanish pound contains 2 marcs of 8 ozs. each ; the value in the decimal measure being 460 grains. A marc is, therefore, one i2,oooth of the cajon. 136 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Yacmnina. — In this district, situated to the south of Morococha, two mines are worked. Buenaventura. — The vein is vertical, one metre thick. The Cerro Santa Clara, between Morococha and Yauli, contains argentiferous veins ; in it are situated the mines registered in the Padron, Octavio Rubi. Toldojirca. — To the south of the lake of Huacracocha there is a cerro in which are situated the Pucalabor, Liber- (tadora, San Antonio, and San Jos^ mines ; and in close _proximity on the ■west the mine of Sacramento Pucalabor, -which has a vein one mtoe thick, but is not worked. San Jose, a vein one metre thick ; its ores are refined at Tuctu ; its ley of silver is generally o"2 per cent., rising above that when they contain pavonado. San Antonio and Liber- tadora, situated in the centre of the cerro, are two mines in the renowned nianto^ of Toldojirca, which consists of a (faja) of ore (galena, with lead ronco) from half a mfetre to ' one metre thick. The argentiferous manto having yielded -ores of 60 to 100 marcs (o'5 — o'8 per cent, of silver), and .in time of boycfi from 400 to 800 marcs per cajon (3 '3 — 6 "7 per cent.). Accompanying the galena is cerusite, anglesite, ^--azurite, and malachite ; sulphite of silver has been found ■in small nests, disseminated in the form of small powder. Alpamina. — To the east of the former is another cerro ■'.vhich was noted for the quantity of rich metal which it produced in former times. In it are situated the Mercedes, San Antonio (Sacracancha), San Francisco, Pucara, and Rosario mines. The vein in the latter has been much worked, and produces ores of very fine ley, but it is not worked at present. In Cerro Concuspata there are the Senor de la Carcel and Santa Rosa mines. The latter abandoned ; the former has a vein one half mfetre to one metre thick; its works extend for go metres. Vicharayoc, a cerro situated to the north of Yauli, con- tains the Trinidad, Noria, and Pisagua mines. In them there is a vein of argentiferous galena one metre thick, ' Maiiio is a horizontal mineral deposit, without formation of veins. ^A mine is said to be in boya when it yields an unusually rich ore. THE LABOUR DIFFICULTY. I37 and lately the ore has been exported to Europe. Near Vicharayoc is the Cerro San Andrds, in which is situated the Augusto mine. Santiago, the cerro in close proximity to Yauli on the north, contains veins of ruby silver, and was noted for the rich quality of the ore produced in former times. In it are situated the mines of San Pablo, Santa Elena, and Talisman. The two former are not worked ; in the latter works of very considerable extent and cost have recently been made. The ley of silver is from o"25 to i per cent. There are also the mines — San Josd, situate in the Cerro Siripata, in the neighbourhood of the town of Huaipacha, distant 30 kilomfetres (i8|^ miles) from Yauli, and San Juan Bavtista, near the river Pallanza, situated 80 kilometres (49!- miles) to N.N.E. of Yauli — which possesses an establishment for refining ores by fire and amalgamation. Besides the before-mentioned mines of silver there are some which yield other minerals — copper, cin- nabar, sulphur, coal, salt, &c. The coal mines of most importance are those of Santo Domingo, Sorao, and Chinchu. THE LABOUR DIFFICULTY. The great difficulty which hinders the development of mining in this district is the scarcity of labour, as very few of the labourers live constantly in the mineral establish- ments and neighbouring villages. The greater part come by contract from a distance, particularly from the popu- lated valley of Jauja, which supplies labourers not only to the Yauli mines but also to those of Huarochiri and the sugar estates of the Montana. The hours of labour are from six or seven in the morning to six in the evening, with a half-hour's interval at 9 a.m. and and another half- hour at 2 p.m. ; but generally they make two huaraches (night-work) in the week, in which case the people leave the mine at five in the evening, and return again at seven or eight ; the same in the morning. There are workmen who ask for three huaraches in the week, so that they only rest twelve hours out of each twenty-eight hours of work, which 138 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. appears strange, but can be understood when the natural physique of these men is observed, aided by the use of coca. They are paid one silver sole (3s.) a day. The workmen of the province, as they are there called, come from the Jauja valley, and generally contract for three months ; almost all of them have their dwellings and land in that district, and from April to June and from October to December they attend to sowing and their harvest. This is one of the obstacles to mining; another is the rugged state of the country, and want of proper roads for trans- porting material. The use of carts being impracticable, the transport is effected on the backs of animals ; consequently the miners are unable to use machinery, and the expense of the con- veying of coal would be too heavy on account of the great number of llamas which would be required, for in spite of the great number of these useful animals which exist in the district (the Morococha estate, for example, keeps regularly 1,000 to 1,200 llamas), they are not sufficient to meet all the requirements of the carrying of the ore, salt, taquia, provisions, &c. The use of mules is limited to transporting loads which are unsuitable in form, weight, or volume for llamas. The use of the former, however, is much more costly than the latter animals, notwithstanding that mules can be loaded with 115 to 138 kilogrammes (253 to 303 pounds) and the llamas only with 46 kilos (loi pounds). The mines at present in actual working are proportionally few. Amongst those which have been worked with some regu- larity of late years are those near the pass of Paracte or Piedra Parada, the mines of the Pucara estate, the silver ' from which, refined on the establishment, is exported at the present time ; those of the Carmen estate (close to Yauli), and the mines of the estates of Rio Pallanga and Morococha. The production in the last ten years ending 1880 may be estimated at 3,000,000 kilogrammes of argentiferous ore, with a ley of o'24 per cent, of silver. i.ri-™ " ■■ THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. I41 LIST OF ORES IN THE YAULI DISTRICT. Gold in pepitas (nuggets) is carried down by the rivers which descend the slope of the second Cordillera towards the Montana, viz., the Oxabamba and the Tulumayo, both affluents of the Chanchamayo. It is found in small quantities in the veins of quartz which are within the crystalline rocks of that same chain, and in the western in veins of quartz and pyrites near Morococha. Silver (native) is found principally in the veins of Andai- chagua, in specks and crystals of elongated forms called hairy silver, also in Carahuacra and Anticona. Copper has been observed in specks of dendritic form, in the mine of San Pablo, Cerro Nuevo Potosi. Arsenic in rounded grains, forming incrustations in carbonate of lime, is found in the mine of Elisa, Cerro Fraguamachay, on the western descent of the principal Cor- dillera. Realgar (sulphide of arsenic) is found near Chaplanca, in a quebradita towards the north, in grains and chispitas, enclosed in a whitish argillaceous rock. Stibnite (antimony) maciza, is found in large crystals in a vein near Andaichagua, accompanied with horn stone (flint.) It is found likewise in the Carahuacra vein, and crystal- lised in radiated forms. In the Talisman mine, Cerro Santiago, and in the Elisa mine, Cerro Fraguamachay, the aggregations measure ten centimetres (four inches) in diameter. Molybdenite has been observed in the quebrada of Piedra Parada, on the western descent of the principal Cordillera. Argentite (sulphide of silver) is frequent in Andaichagua, Carahuacra, and Toldojirca. In the mass of galena in the latter place it has been found in papas (upper oxidised ores), in pieces of eight centimetres, of irregular form, and mixed with earth in small powder. In the veins of Tarantan, to the south of Lake Huacracocha, it appears in rounded grains in the cavities of the quartz. Galena (sulphide of lead) is one of the minerals which most frequently occur in the district, being present in greater or lesser proportion in almost all the veins and 142 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. mantos ; in these it is found more or less alone, whilst in the veins it is intimately mixed in large or small particles with pyrites and zinc blende, frequently crystallised in cubical octahedronal forms, both equally developed. It has been found in the form of stalactitic pipes in the Carahuacra mine, San Francisco. Under the name of acerillo, the miners denote a galena which exhibits small leaves, very minute and brilliant, intimately mixed with laminated zinc blende, and which is very rich in silver ; that of the San Antonio mine, Nuevo Potosi, contains eight per cent, of silver. This species corresponds to that called by Breithaupt galena rutilante. In Tuctu the cavities or fissures which exhibit pyrites of the before-mentioned manto, there has been found a metal of steel grey colour and metallic lustre, crystallised in groups of tabular form, which show on the surface numerous triangular faces, and small combinations of the cube and the octahedron with truncated angles, showing serrated forms. Senor Domeyko found its specific gravity 6'46 — 6'57, and on analysis to yield : — Lead 62'I7 Zinc i6'S9 Iron 172 Sulphur l8'28 9876 This simple constitution, and its physical properties, make it appear to be a new species ; it requires to be more closely studied, if it really be so. Bourmonite (sulphide of copper, lead, and iron) is found in the Cerro of Chupra, in the district of Marcapomacocha, according to Senor Raimondi. Alabandite, or manga?iblende (sulphide of manganese), constitutes one of the predominating ores in the vein of San Antonio mine, Nuevo Potosi, accompanied with pyrites and zinc blende, galena, and silver ore, being found there with distinct cruciform aggregations of crystallised cubes, but no well-developed crystals have been observed. They are likewise found in the Buenaventura mine (Yacu- mina). The miners call it alcafor. The analysis of a ORES IN THE YAULI DISTRICT. 143 sample from the San Antonio mine, by Senor Raimondi, shows — Manganese 6276 Sulphur, 37 'oo Silica o'i2 Iron trace 99-88 Zinc blende (sulphide of zinc) is, after pyrites, the most frequently-occurring mineral. It is mostly found mixed with pyrites and with galena. Its ordinary colour is brownish yellow to brilliant black on a cleavage face. It is called incensiado. In Sulfurosa, Tuctu mines, and in the Carahu- acra vein it occurs of a mulberry-colour, accompanying the rich ore of these veins. It has also been observed in well- developed crystals. Cinnabar. — It is known only in the Pucayacu mine, in Tunabamba, in grains enclosed in white yellowish sand. Fyrite {bronce). — It is the most common mineral ; it is present in almost all the veins, silver as well as copper, mixed with other minerals, and in Tuctu, accompanied with quartz, it forms a gangue mass four metres in diameter. It is found frequently in the gangue mass of Tuctu ; they show crystals of sixteen to twenty milimetres, exhibiting the perfect cube with brilliant faces, without any combina- tion, or the cube combined with the pyritoedre, and others forming pentagonal dodecahedrons, or by the pyritoedre with six of its edges lightly truncated by the cube. It is also found in the Carahuacra vein, as sandy crusts on ruby silver. Peruvite {silbenmsmuth-glanz) is a rare mineral, disco- vered in Morococha, and described for the first time by Prof Rammelsberg (1876 " Monastbericht Academic Wis- senschaften," Berhn, p. 700). It is pliable, and of grey colour, its specific gravity being 6.92 ; its composition, according to Professor Rammelsberg, is — I 2. 3. Bismuth 52-17 49'28 49'90 Silver 25-72 25-17 26-18 Lead 2-58 8-00 4-59 Copper 0-30 Sulphur 16-33 ir56 97-10 100-01 144 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. The difference in the amount of lead, and the fact that the quantity of silver and bismuth change when the former increases, show that the lead does not belong to the combination, but has been mixed with it in the form of galena. The mineral has been found in small quantity in the Matilda vein, Cerro Nuevo Potosi, accompanied with ar- gentiferous grey copper ore, galena, pyrites, zinc blende, and quartz. Other combinations of sulphur and bismuth show themselves in the quebrada of Piedra Parada, on the western descent of the principal Cordillera. Sulphide of Freisslebenite (antimony, silver, and lead) occurs in the San Cayetano, an old mine in Anticona, with calcite. Pirargyrite {rosicler, or ruby silver). — Is very abundant, but it is found only in grains or in great and small particles mixed with other minerals ; it has not been seen crystallised. In the Carahuacra vein it is accompanied with zinc blende and quartz ; in the Volcan mine (Pucaurco), with argenti- ferous grey copper ore, galena, and quartz ; in the Talisman mine (Santiago), with argentiferous grey copper ore, galena, and quartz ; it is observed in small quantity in the Buena- ventura mine (Yacumina), with argentiferous grey copper ore, pyrites, galena, zinc blende, alabandite, and quartz. Boulangtrite (sulphide of antimony and lead), containing silver, is found, accompanied with galena, in Antarangra. Tetraedrite (argentiferous grey copper ore pavonado). — Is shown invariably to contain silver. When the percentage in silver is considerable — 8 to lo per cent. — the miners call it pavonado fino. It is the principal silver-bearing mineral of the Yauli region, since it occurs in the greatest number of veins, in some accompanied by other minerals — princi- pally native silver, ruby silver, and argentite, same as in the Volcan, Santiago, and Buenaventura mines ; and in other places being the only ore of value, as in the Libertad mine (Anticona), and in the veins of Nuevo Potosi. Gene- rally it is found mixed with other minerals — pyrites, zinc blende, and galena — in beautiful crystals of the colour between steel grey and black. Tennantite (arsenical grey copper ore, pavonado de cobre). — Is found in the mine of Senor de la Carcel, in the Cerro Cajoncillo, accompanied with enargite pyrites, zinc blende, galena, megabasite, and quartz, and also in ORES IN THE YAULI DISTRICT. I4S a vein to' the south of the Lake Huacracocha, frequently crystaUised. Professor Breithaupt has given the ore of the Seiior de la Carcel mine the name of sandbergerita, because he found some difference in its character from that of the others. The form of its crystal is the tetrahedron combined with the dodecahedron; its cubical cleavage, hardness = 4I— 4f; specific gravity = 4'369, and its composition, according to Senor Merbach : — Copper 4 1 'oS Lead 277 Zinc 7'I9 Iron 2-38 Antimony 7 ' ' 9 Arsenic '475 Sulphur 25'I2 100 '48 Aletieghinite (sulphide of antimony and silver) is found in the Cerro Chupra, district of Marcapomacocha. Stefanite (sulphide of antimony and silver) has been found in tubular crystals in the cavities of the quartz of the Cara- huacra vein. Polibasite (antimony, sulphur, and silver, with some arsenic and copper) occurs in tubular hexagonal crystals ; it has been observed in the Independencia mine, Cerro Potosi, near Morococha. Enargite (maciza) in cross-like forms of prismatic crystals, very distinct. It is found in considerable quantity in the San Francisco mine, near Morococha, accompanied with pyrites, megabasite, wolframite,' and quartz, constituting the useful mass of the vein ; in the Senor de la Carcel mine, Cerro Cajoucillo, accompanied with tennantite, pyrites, zinc blende, megabasite, and quartz. The analysis of Professor Plattner shows : — Copper 47 '20 Iron o'57 Zinc o'23 Silver 0'02 Antimony i*6i Arsenic 1 7 '60 Sulphur 32'22 99'45 ' Tungstate of iron and manganese. 146 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Halite (common salt and gemma salt) is found in con- siderable masses in San Bias, near the town of Ondores, and in the Cerro de la Sal in the Montana. Fluorspar is comparatively rare in South America, and does not occur in the veins of this district, but has been found in laques or cavities of the limestone, in the cuttings of the Oroya Railroad, two kilometres south-west of Yauh. It occurs in these cavities in small crystals of calcite, resting upon which there has been found, in some, crystals of fluorine of 10 to 15 millimetres, the cube and dodecadron combined, with salient angles of construction cut short by a tetrakishexahedron, having a beautiful clear violet colour, and it is also accompanied with crystals of quartz. Hematite (olgiste iron) has been found in small quantity in small fine micaceous iron sheets near Tuctu, towards the south-west. Magnetic iron ore. — On the southern side of the Lake Morococha there are some veins which contain this mineral in compact pieces, accompanied with quartz. Manganite. — Pyrolusite and other oxides of manganese enter into the composition of the pacos, frequent in the veins of this district, in those of Nuevo Potosi, whose ley of ordinary silver is of 0^05 to o'2o per cent. At times this kind of paco has an appearance of scoria, for which it is called paco choreado, and contains 8 per cent, of silver. Limonite, porous and earthy granite, is found on the surface of the manta of pyrite in Tuctu, and in spots on the soil in some other places, as near the lake Morococha' on the road leading to Yauli. It also enters, with earthy hematites, into the composition of the Colorados pacos, as in the Anticona veins. Stibenite (sulphide of antimony) is found in the Cara- huacra vein, accompanied with steinmannite. Quartz (quijo) is almost the only gangue which, accom- panies minerals in the veins, being found very frequently crystaUised. It is, besides, an essential component of the crystallised rocks of the Eastern Cordillera, and of the sandstones of the eastern, being shown also subordinately in the propilitas. ' " Morococha " means "coloured lake." ORES IN THE YAULI DISTRICT. I47 Roionite (silicate of manganese) is frequently found in veins mixed with quartz and with rodocrosite, forming with them the gangue which accompanies the metallic ores called quijo rosado. This is considered as rich ore, being found associated with argentiferous grey copper ore, con- taining a high ley of silver. Anfibol forms part of the propilita^ and trachyte of the Western Cordillera, being distinguished by its beautiful crystals, that which is contained in the rock being desig- nated as anfibolique andesite. Asbestos is found accompanied with serpentine and dolomite in the Cerro Nuevo Potosi. Granite, compact, opaque, dark brown-yellow colour, which changes to green and grey ; it is only known in the immediate neighbourhood of Morococha, where it forms a layer of 3 metres thick. The finer variety of granite is partly constituted by the closely-connected grouping of diminutive crystals ; well-developed crystals are also found, very few being transparent. The most common forms are the dodecahedron and the icositetrahedron ; likewise they present some combinations of those two with the hexahe- dron, and of the same with the tetrakishexahedron. Ac- companied with the granite are found calcite and quartz crystals. Biotite (mica) in hexagonal prisms is abundant in the crystalline rocks of the Oriental Western Cordillera, and even in the sandstone and conglomerate near to Yauli, on the north. Muscovite (Muscovy glass) is found on the crystallised rocks of the Oriental Cordillera. Feldspar. — The constituent element of the granite of the eastern chain, of the Cordillera trachyte on the chief Cordillera, and the plagioclas (oligoclase, labradorite) of the propilite and trachyte. ChrysocoUa (silicate of copper) is found at times in the copper veins, viz., in the San Antonjo mine, Nuevo Potosi. Talc enters into the composition of the crystalline slates of the Eastern Cordillera. ' "Propilita," dioritic trap, composed of plagioclas and amfibol, with mica and grains of quartz. L 2 148 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Sepiolite (meerschaum) is found in the Cerro Nuevo Potosi (Tayacasa), according to Serior Raimondi. Glaucolite has been observed in a sandstone of the Cerro Alpamina, and in some other stratified rocks. Serpentine is found with much frequency, forming nodules and small veins of clear grey and greenish yellow in the calcined rocks in the neighbourhood of the Moro- cocha lake. Serpentine is sometimes intimately mixed with calcite ; some of the spherical concretions present on the surface of the ground are composed solely of serpentine, the latter being found in the centre mixed with carbonate of lime. The analysis of Senor Paz Soldan shows the presence of carbonate of lime in the sample examined in this locality. Haloisite. — Compact, of a greyish white colour, is found in the San Pablo mine, Cerro Nuevo Potosi. Pyromoj-phite (phosphate of lead) is found in specks and very small crystals, accompanied with galena, in the Manto of Toldojirca. According to Raimondi, it is found in small hexagonal prisms in some parts of the Marcapo- macocha district, and in the Cerro Chupra of that same district. Mimetene (arsenite of lead) accompanies the former in the same Manto of galena, in the form of specks and very small crystals. Nitratine (nitrate of soda, saltpetre). — According to Senor Galvez, in the meseta^ of Tarmatambo, quebrada of CoUana, at one league from Tarma, on the road to Jauja, there existed at the end of the past century a number of surface mines, from which the people of that district extracted saltpetre for making gunpowder. All the works were of shallow depth, not exceeding 2-50 metres {= 8 feet), with the exception of one which reached 1170 metres (= 38 feet 3 inches), in which the saltpetre was found half a yard thick. Likewise in the town of Tapo, in the Acobamba district, they worked saltpetre. In Paz Soldan's " Geography," p. 245, reference is made to the first of these places, classifying the substance as nitrate of soda. ' Meseta means an elevation with a flat summit. ORES IN THE YAULI DISTRICT. I49 Megabasite, in flat or needle-like prisms of grey colour yellow to red, the surface longitudinally striated, is found in the copper mines, Senor de la Carcel, Cerro Cajoncillo, and San Francisco, near to Morococha, accompanying enargite and other minerals of said veins. They show also tubular crystals of one centimetre long and wide, owing to the predominance of macropinacoide, the surface of which is vertically striated and ends in an inclined face, or by the half macrodoma. The colour of these great crystals, is greyish black, but the prisms, one millimetre thick, are half transparent, of reddish colour. They are arranged in radiated groups. It has perfect brachydiagonal cleavage. Two analyses, made in Morococha, gave the following results : — a h Tungstic acid 74'oo •■■ 75'i2 Oxide of manganese 24'5i ... 23'2i ,, iron 1-49 ... 1-42 loo'oo 9975 In a the mineral was decomposed, being funded with bisulphate of potassa (determining the tungstic acid by difference) ; and in b the decomposition was made by hydro- chloric acid. In both cases the bases predominate. Wolframite. — In the San Francisco vein, near to Moro- cocha, there is found, in company with megabasite, prismatic traces of wolframite, formed by the breaking up of the macro and brachydiagonal cruciform crystals. This wolfra- mite is of opaque blackish-red colour, exhibiting a reddish grey streak, and, with borax, before the blowpipe gives the colour of iron, whilst megabasite gives a yellow powder and manganese reaction in the borax bead. Melted with saltpetre and soda, both give the same reaction. Scheelite is shown in very small quantity, accompanied with megabasite, in the Sehor de la Carcel mine, Cerro Cajoncillo. Barytine is very scarce in this district. It has only been observed in the .Seiior de la Carcel mine, Cerro Cajoncillo, in very small proportion, in fine rhombic prisms of two milHmetres long, white colour, or striated yellow on the surface. Anglesite, in beautiful crystals, has been observed ISO THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. accompanying the galena in the San Antonio and San Jose mines of the Cerro Toldojirca. It is likewise found in the Cerro Chupra mines in the Marcapomacocha district. y«.f^.— White, of saccharoidal, grainy structure, forms con- siderable deposits on the stratiiied rocks of the table-land. It is found in the Cerro Alpamuia (at the south of the lake Huacracocha), near the Oroya, at a short distance to the north of Saco, and at two kilometres from Huaipocha on the road to Tarma. Transparent crystals, of three centimetres, produced from Sincamachay, showed the combination of the prism with the chinopinacoid, the negative hemi- pyramid and the positive orthohemidoma forming together a pyramid with rounded faces. Melanterite (sulphate of iron) is found in Tuctu; a powder covering the masses of the surface of the pyrites. Calcite. — Enters into the composition of the sedimentary rocks, and as such is abundant, but as gangue in mineral veins is very scarce. It has been observed crystallised in the small granite of the neighbourhood of Morococha, and in the*cavities of hmestone where fluor spar is found in the cuttings of the railroad about two kilometres to the south- west of Yauli. In form of stalactite (licamancha) it is present at different points on the banks of the river Yauli ; and in form of toba, pointed and porous (singa), in Yauli, Chaplanca, and Saco. Parts of pisolitic structure have been found between the toba of the baths of Yauli. Dolomite is shown in the Cerro Nuevo Potosi (Tayacasa), with asbestos and serpentine, according to Senor Raimondi. Siderite (carbonate of iron) has been found in the San Francisco and Cueva mines, Carahuacra vein, in lenticular crystals. Rodocrosiie (dialogite, carbonate of manganese) forms, mixed with quartz and rodoraite, the quijo rosado, which accompanies the argentiferous ores of some veins, as of San Antonio, Nuevo Potosi, of Elvera, in the same Cerro, and others. In small rhomboedric crystals, of rose colour, it is shown in the Senor de laCarcel mine, Cerro deCajoncillo. Aragoniie, in fibrous crusts of white to clear green colour, has been found in the San Antonio mine, Cerro Nuevo Potosi. Cerusite (carbonate of lead). Its presence is frequent in the veins which contain galena. It has been observed in ORES IN THE YAULI DISTRICT. 151 beautiful crystals, accompanying said mineral, in the Manto of Toldojirca (San Antonio and Libertadora mines), and the San Jose mine of the same Cerro. Malachite and Azurite (carbonate of copper) are regular associates of the minerals in the gangue mass of grey copper ore and of galena ; on the Manto of Toldojirca both are present very frequently, the azurite in very small crystals. IS 2 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER IX. On the Minerals of the Ancachs Department. Translated Extracts from the " Esticdio solre Exploration y beneficio de los Minerales del Departamento de Ancachs" by Maurice du Chatenet. Lima, 1883.1 THE Department of Ancachs is, without doubt, one of the most celebrated for the number of metalliferous veins which traverse its mountains ; and, even in the event of there only existing in Peru this single mineral region, it would be in justice considered the centre most favoured by nature, from the point of view of its valuable mineral pro- ducts. The Cordillera of the Andes in general is rich in mineral deposits of all kinds, but it appears that in this Department there have been more eruptions than in other places, and this has given passage with greater facility to the different metallic emanations in that region ; not only the metalliferous veins abound, but also the deposits which offer one of its richest treasures, viz., coal. In this Depart- ment there is found nearly all the ores which are utilised in metallurgy, viz., gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc, mercury, iron, antimony, &c., and, besides, numerous beds of coal. Unfortunately, the distance from the coast, and want of means of transport, prevent them being applied to a useful purpose. As in all places, gold is found in two kinds of deposits, in veins, and the old and contemporary auriferous alluvials, which can be always considered to be derived from the auriferous veins of previous origin. These veins are found in the neighbourhood of the alluvials, which have been formed in great part by the rounded stones coming from the cajas of fragments of quartz, and ot other ores which are observed in the neighbourhood. The ' "Anales de Construcciones Civiles y de Minas del Peru." Published by the School of Mines, Lima, 1883. ITINERAJRE a t rave m IE DtPARTtfWENT O'ANCACHSfPEROU Dpcss^ par M.Ch. Wiener EchclJc de Vodomct. Itinepairc O CiaiaA I f,-Y!^i^^) O C-ipiLilde Provincial Jvf^ ^T^-Sti-ir-i^ iBriiliroBS v^ „ ,, ,, , , , Crorepap Eriurd MAP OF THE ANCACHS DEPARTMENT. FaicJ>ag-e 152. MINERALS OF THE ANCACHS DEPARTMENT. 153 gold in these alluvials, or lavaderos, is always accompanied with magnetite, which leads to the confirmation of the idea that the gold which is met with on the surface is derived from veins, since these latter contain iron pyrites in greater or less proportion, which from analysis is known to be transformed into magnetic oxide. The auriferous veins have opened a passage in the eruptive granitic rocks in some places near the coast, in the mountains 'to the north of the Department, in the Cordillera Blanca, in the province of Huari, &c. These rocks differ essentially from those which are crossed by veins of silver, by the presence of either mica or quartz. They are chiefly mica, granite, and gneiss ; but it is necessary to observe that these granites cannot be considered as of very ancient origin, because in them quartz is at times very scarce, and at others does not exist at all. Its structure is not very crys- talline. Crystallised quartz constitutes the principal part of the material which fills the veins of gold ; there can also be found in them other ores, such as iron and copper pyrites, grey copper, galena, and blende of different sul- phides of antimony. In parts of the vein near the sur- face there are found oxidised matters, or auriferous pacos, resulting from the maximum of oxidation with the minerals existing below. In the present condition of the place, and the state in which the roads are found, it can be said with certainty that the immense riches of Ancachs lie in its numerous veins of silver, which offer to the explorers of our times and to those of the future an element of work 01 production of indefinite duration. As sedimentary deposits, the Department of Ancachs shows in some places those of transition — micaceous or talcose slates — lying above the granite rocks, in which there have been traced veins of gold, and which are again found on the other side of the Maranon, where deposits of gold abound ; the trias (or new red sandstone) in the valley of the Maranon, where there are many springs of salt water, gives hope of the dis- covery of gemma salt ; the Jurassic deposit, which appears to be the most interesting of these sediments by its extent and richness of ore ; the cretaceous rocks above the eastern decline, the waters of which pass to the Atlantic ; and the quaternary alluvial deposits. 154 THE AMAZON PROIVNCES OF PERU. Whatever may be the nature of the ores, they are almost always accompanied with a gangue of quartz, and are very rarely calcareous or argillaceous. Many veins are found separated from their astiales by salbandas well defined, which ought to materially facilitate the work of demolition. From the point of view of its mineralogical composition, the ores may be divided into three great categories — pyrites, galena, and grey copper ore, according as the useful material predominates in the deposit. Besides these three principal classes, there may be added a fourth, the pacos, which is a product of the oxidation of the preceding kinds of ores, and which only exists in the upper parts of the veins, and then only at a certain depth. We will here point out a very important fact, which is general in all the district, — the presence of antimony in all the ores rich in silver. It may be said that there is no silver ore of any richness which is not antimonious. There have been in the metallic emanations which have con- tributed to the filling of the veins, a union so great between silver and antimony, that ores which yield only anti- mony as the constituent metal, and which have not been found argentiferous in other parts, as stiblite, show a ley of silver which reaches at times to one thousandth. However, this simple sulphide never forms rich ore ; the kinds most argentiferous are the complex and antimonious sulphides. It is in these that the function which antimony performs can be more readily perceived, and to better prove the enrichment which its presence originates. It is easily proved, that all the deposits in which iron or copper pyrites, and pure galena, exist alone, are always poor, and that they become rich when in the same vein the ores indicated become antimonious ; and it is on that account that in certain veins, tabicados (rubannes), th^ present workers do not break down, and only treat the antimonial zones. This, it appears to me, is a very important observa- tion, because it gives very useful indications in the working or in the exploitation of mines, and likewise because in that which refers to the metallurgical treatment of the ores, it will be necessary to be always taken into consideration to select the most advantageous methods. The veins of pyrites are industrially the least worthy MINERALS OF THE ANCACHS DEPARTMENT. 155 interest, because they are the least rich in silver. They may contain iron or copper pyrites, and frequently both at the same time. When there are only these two metals, the richness rarely reaches twenty marcs per cajon ; the same happens when copper only exists in a state of sulphide, simple or mixed with iron pyrites. At times it is sufficient, the presence of streaks of grey copper, to increase the richness very much. Certain veins contain large masses of almost pure galena ; in this case, as in the preceding, the richness of silver does not exceed some twenty marcs the cajon. The galena is generally accompanied with other ores ; pyrites, zinc blende, sulphide of antimony, and grey copper ore ; the two latter always enrich it considerably. Antimonious galena is always richer than pure galena, especially when it contains a little grey copper ore ; in this case it is generally a little auriferous. When these two con- ditions are combined, the galena contains a ley of from 30 to 35 marcs per cajon, and often of 60, 100, 200 marcs, and even more, as can be seen in the veins of Huapula, near Pueblo Libre, of Huancapeti, of Collaracra, near Recuay, and of Muta-burros, on the Patara mountains, near Macate. The richest deposits are those of grey copper ore, or paiwnado (argentiferous grey copper ore), as the Peruvian miners call it ; this ore exists in them only rarely, and is almost always mixed with other kinds, the most frequent being iron pyrites. Its ley of silver is almost always above 40 marcs, and often exceeds 80 to 100 ; it reaches at times 300 to 400 marcs, and even more. The pacos are minerals of earthy and lithoide appearance, in which all the materials have suffered a complete oxida- tion. They proceed, without doubt, from the preceding kinds, and they are found in the same deposits as they are, but only in the parts near to the buzamientos. Knowing the nature of the ores below, it is easy to deduce that of the pacos on the surface. The metals are oxidised, and the sulphur has disappeared when it has not been able to form sulphates undecomposed by the heat. It is thus that iron pyrites has been converted to peroxide; copper pyrites, a mixture of oxide of iron and oxides and carbonates of copper ; the galena, carbonate and sulphate of lead j anti- 156 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. mony, which yields by its oxidation an acid product and a fixed one, has formed combinations with the metallic oxides, different antimoniates, which may be observed in the pacos of the antimonious veins. We observe that all the pacos are more or less hydrated, and that the structure of the veins in the oxidated parts has experienced incontestible changes, losing its regularity and its symmetry; the filling up has a confused appearance. The richness of the pacos is naturally in proportion with that of the sulphurated materials, which exist at a great depth, but with some exceptions it may be said to be almost always inferior COAL DEPOSITS IN THE ANCACHS DEPARTMENT. On the contrary to what happens in other places of the Cordillera, where the progress and development of the mining industry are kept back for want of fuel, this region is one of the richest in coal, as if nature had designed to give it, at the same time with its magnificent metallic mines, the most useful element to enable it to withdraw profit from them. This stratum of coal cannot be regarded as belong- ing to the carboniferous formation, properly so called, as it is found in the Jurassic sandstone, that is to say, the de- posits which are richest in veins. Thus, as in the metallic mines, coal unfortunately does not exist on the coast, but all the provinces of this Department are abundantly pro- vided with it, especially that of Huaylas, where there is a populous district, near the principal towns, and in mining districts which, without doubt, will have a great future. The principal places of exportation of ore are from the mines of Pasacancha, in the province of Pomabamba ; Cajavilca, in the province of Huari ; Huallacanca, in that of Cajatambo ; Huancapeti and CoUaracra, near Recuay ; Coyrosho, Huapula, Colquipocro, near Caraz ; and Palara, near Macate. The greater part of the mines are at a distance of one to three leagues from the river Santa, and three days by road from the ports of Huarmey, Casma, Tamanco, and Chimbote. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. I57 PROFESSOR ORTON ON THE ANCACHS MINES. Professor Orton says : — " The most numerous and pro- mising silver mines in Peru are, without doubt, located in the Department of Ancachs, just north of Lima ; not because it is a richer region than the Eastern Cordillera, but because it is the only district which has been scien- tifically explored. This has been done by the accom- plished naturalist. Professor Raimondi, under the patronage of Mr. Henry Meiggs. The report recently published at Lima contains assays of specimens from the most valuable mines in which the silver occurs. It appears (i.) that silver is not very common in the native state; (2.) that the minerals richest in silver are pyrargyrite (rosicler, or ruby silver), and stephanite (brittle silver glance) ; (3.) that the greater part of the silver, however, is extracted from tetrahedrite, galena, and many mineral oxides {pacos or colorados) ; the pacos richest in silver are those which result from the oxidation of stephanite and pyrargyrite ; the poorest are found in the great part of oxide of iron, in which the silver is minutely disseminated in the native state ; (4.) it is worthy of notice that the silver ores are constantly associated with antimony. Even the galenas, having a cubical structure, always contain a small per- centage of antimony. In general it may be said that the silver of Peru, as of Chili and Bolivia, whether native or in the form of chloride, sulphide, or amalgam, occurs chiefly in the oolitic and porphyritic series near intrusive diorite. " Some specimens from Ancachs show the maximum yield of a variety of ores : — native silver, with arsenuret of silver, panabasite, pyrites, and blende, 4,284 marcs to the cajon ; argentiferous tetrahedrite with pyrargyrite, free from gangue, i,g66 marcs; argentiferous tetrahedrite, malachite, and azurite, 500 marcs; sulphide of antimony, silver, lead, copper, iron, and manganese, 606 marcs ; antimonial silver, lead, and copper, with chrysocolla, 524 marcs ; cerusite, with antimonial silver, lead, copper, and iron, 756 marcs; anti- monial silver, lead and iron, with sulphide of silver and antimony, 680 marcs; argentiferous tetrahedrite, with 15S THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. galena and blende, 676 marcs; malinowskite — crude, 572 marcs, pure, 1,191 marks; argentiferous antimonial silver, 312 marcs; sulphide of silver in composition with galena and anglesite, 712 marcs ; anglesite, chloride of silver, and antimonial lead and silver, 560 marcs ; argentiferous galena and tetrahedrite, 532 marcs; argentiferous jame- sonite, 340 marcs; antimonial silver, lead, copper, and iron, with cerusite and malachite, 408 marcs." THE MINES OF SALPO, QUIRUVILCA, AND HUAMACHUCO. Extract translated from a Report of M. D. Estevar Delsol, dated Lima, 1880.1 These mines, situated in the provinces of Otuzco and Huamachuco, in the Libertad Department, were surveyed by M. Delsol in 1878. The rocks which form the ridges, comprised between the sea and the Sierra, from Trujillo to the vicinity of Challacocha, four leagues from Otuzco, are in great part syenites. Sometimes there are found diorites on the road, called " Siete Vueltas" (seven turns), which follows the left bank of the river Moche, as occurs near the town of Poroto, between Trujillo and Poroto. These ridges are not very elevated until after passing Poroto, where they begin to rise considerably, and on arriving at Challacocha the syenitic ridges may be estimated at an altitude of between 2,000 to 3,000 metres. Before arriving at Challacocha the stratified rocks begin to appear, which form all that part of the country, and extend from that place to Huamachuco from west to east, and from Llaray to Usquil from south to north; these strati- fied rocks probably extend to the Maraiion. The aspect of the country is worthy of notice. The traveller on leaving the syenitic hills passes through very rugged places and very deep ravines ; the river runs between two rows of hills, which are so narrow that there is hardly room for its ' "Anales de Construcciones Civiles y de Minas del Peru." Published by the School of Mines, Lima, 1883. THE SALPO MINES. 159 channel ; the altitude of these hills may be estimated at about 1,000 metres (3,280 feet) from the level of the river. On the road from Usquil to Otuzco there is a quebrada, called Quebrada Honda (deep ravine), a name it well deserves, the mountains which form it being at the least 1,500 metres (4,926 feet) high from the bottom of the ravine. The same configuration is observed within five or six leagues from Challacocha, between Otuzco and Quiru- vilca, and there begins what is called \!a&jalca or the pima, an elevated plain or plateau, very extensive, the elevation of which is about 3,500 to 4,000 metres, or about 11,796 to 13,125 feet. At this place the quebradas (ravines) are seldom met with, and those that do exist are not deep, and it is difficult to meet there any regular decline whatever ; a greater part of the water proceeding from the rains or springs cannot flow, and remains stationary in low places, giving origin to numerous pools and lakes. SALPO. The mineral deposit of Salpo contains an unlimited number of veins and fissures, of which very few are at the present time working; among them may be mentioned those of Salpo, Millhuachaqui, Salpito, and of one or two veins near Millhuachaqui. The Salpo vein is the most im- portant vein of the country. It has been explored over one and-a-half leagues (four miles) in extent, from the bank of the river Moche, where it appears up to Cochaya, to the south-east of Salpo, where it disappears ; however, at Uirumalqui, two leagues beyond, another vein is met with, having the same course as that of Salpo, and the appearance and composition of which led the miners of the country to think that it is only the prolongation of the Salpo vein, so that it would thus have a known length of over three and a half leagues (about nine miles). The thickness of this vein is as notable as its length, being, at the smallest dimension, five yards, and measuring at times eighteen. The principal vein has a width of seven or eight yards, and separated from it by sterile parts are two small veins, which probably unite with it lower down. Besides, many other veins are met with, so that many miners consider this vein to be not a single vein, but a conjunction of l6o THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. veins running parallel. The course is north-west to south- east, and its inclination 90°, that is to say, it is almost vertical. The Salpo hill is situated at the limit of the stratified rocks, and is formed of the green sandstone on the surface; below follows the Alimosca (so called from its porphyritic- looking rock), with an eruptive appearance, very character- istic ; and, lastly, the syenite, in which the various mines are situated below that of Salpo, the veins of which we will speak of hereafter. The nature of the ore varies with the depth ; on the surface the small quantity which was taken out at the commencement of the working of the Salpo vein contained a considerable amount of gold, for which reason alone they only refined this metal ; but soon after- wards the quantity of gold diminished, whilst that of silver rapidly increased, so that the miners refined the latter metal. The ore which replaced the />ai:o, contained in great part quartz with copper pyrites, or sulphate of copper simple or complex, the gangue being always very abundant in the principal vein. Sometimes in the sterile parts are found some small veins, very rich but very narrow, it being always observed that the narrow veins are usually much richer in silver than the broader ones ; generally in the same vein the wide parts are richer than the narrow parts. After the copper ores, the miners meet with, at a depth of about 40 to 50 metres (132 feet to 164 feet), galena, which afterwards becomes very abundant. The latter being of little ley, and the miners not knowing how to convert it in the reverberating furnace, and to refine it afterwards for amalgamation, nor to refine it directly by smelting, they abandoned the mines where it appeared, as by example, that of Carabamba. By this it will be seen, as Senor Raimondi says in his work upon the mines of Peru, that the rocks which form the cajas of the vein have a con- siderable influence on the nature of the ore, galena almost always appearing in the ca/as of the eruptive rocks. The following is a list of the mines on the Salpo vein : — Mirador de San Jose. — This mine extends for 40 yards in the vein, and is 5 metres thick. The ore was paco, afterwards sulphates, and finally galena^ and yielded 6 to 7 marcs per cajon. It is abandoned. THE SALPO MINES. l6l Alta Gracia. — Worked 40 yards in the vein; abandoned. La Cruz. — Worked 40 yards in the vein ; width of vein, 5 metres ; also worked in two small veins. Ore — pacos, sulphates, galena. It yields from 10, 20, to 30 marcs per cajon. It likewise yields gold, as do nearly all the Salpo ores. They extract from each cajon one ounce of fine gold, by means of grinding. By the machines, with the sutil, a little more is extracted. It is being worked at present in two shafts, about 60 to 70 metres (197 feet to 230 feet) deep. The others are inundated. La Merced. — Worked 80 yards in the vein ; abandoned. It fell in many years ago by bad working, and after the falling-in, or sallamo, as they call it, they continued widen- ing and penetrating in the nearest mines. Now it exhibits a cavity of 80 metres long, 12 or 15 wide, and 40 deep. When it fell in they were extracting ores yielding 60 marcs, but generally it did not yield more than 12 marcs. The width of the vein is 7 mfetres (23 feet), and the ore is the same as that of the La Cruz mine. Carabamba. — Mine not worked; 100 yards in the vein. The same ore as in the above. The shaft reached water at the same time as the galena and copper were met with ; the ley did not exceed 10 to 12 marcs. It gave a regular ore, from 10 to 80 marcs, in great abundance, with parts yet richer. Width of the vein, 7 to 9 mfetres ; shaft 75 metres. La Descubridora. — Two hundred yards of shaft in the vein belonging to Senor Solar, who is now working it. The same ore as the previous mine. They also find the acerillo, which they call a pavonado (argentiferous grey copper ore, with steel and shining specks), the ley rising to 50 marcs. The ore regularly yielded from 10 to 20 marcs. The shaft is under water. One working only, called the Azules, the ore being bluish at some 30 yards deep. La Lumbrera. — Two hundred yards in the vein ; un- worked ; under water. Ore like the preceding, but much poorer. It does not yield more than 10 marcs in the richest parts. Portugal. — Has a shaft of 200 yards sunk into the vein, and belongs to Senor Munoz, who for some time worked it for copper, the ley being from 15 to 22 per cent. The 1 62 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. ore also contains a little gold, and about 6 marcs of silver. Width of the vein, lo metres; tunnels, 20 metres. Crudista. — Width of the vein, 10 metres. Pacos and sulphates of 6 to 8 marcs of ley. Near Cerro de Salpo are small mines, amongst which La Resurreccion, about 3 kilometres (if miles) from Salpo, worked by Senor Huauy, contains copper ore which produces up to 100 marcs to the cajon from smelting and 75 only from crude. It is from 5 to 6 centimetres wide. Millhuachagui.' — The Cerro of Millhuachaqui is crossed by several veins ; the principal is Millhuachaqui, known for the regularity and quantity of silver it produces. Its ley gives 6 to 8 marcs. Often rich parts are found giving 30, 40, and 60 marcs. There are thirteen mines in this vein. San Jose. — Abandoned on account of inundation. The ordinary ore yielded 100 marcs. It was very common to meet with the accrillo and the polvorillo (sulphate of silver), which is still found in parts where they are working. Native silver is also found, in pieces exceeding one pound in weight. It is possible that it would be profitable to endeavour to drain out the water and to renovate the mine. La Descubredora. — Vein 2 metres to 2\ wide ; pacos and sulphates of 20 marcs ; inundated. El Carmen. — Vein 2 metres wide ; pacos and sulphates of 12 to 20 marcs; inundated. Concepcion. — Vein 25 metres ; pacos and sulphates, 8 to 30 marcs. Not worked. La Esperanza. — Vein i to 2 mfetres. Ley of ore 12 to 60 marcs. Inundated at 80 metres from the surface. Ell Turgo, San Teresa, La Victoria, El Rosario, San Jeronimo, Yankee Doodle, San Domingo, and Shalgon, containing leys of 8 to 15 marcs. Not worked. Salpito Mine. — The vein is 40 centimetres wide. The ore consists of accrillo and negro ; its ley is from 30 to 70 marcs, its passages reach to 50 mfetres. It is at present not worked. Pique de Salpito. — Vein 40 to 50 centimetres ; ore, black — accrillo and polvorillo (sulphate of silver). It contains gold. Its ley of silver varies from 30 to 300 marcs ; that of 300 is what they csX\ pavonado Jino. At present they are THE QUIRUVILCA MINES. 1 63 working a piece of ground containing an average of 1 50 marcs. This mine is better worked than all the others, the owner having adopted the European system. There are twelve workings, with fifty labourers in each. Achupillai. — Separated from the others by a ravine ; vein 50 centimetres, ley 15 marcs. ]\[ine not worked. QUIRUMLCA. Quiruvilca is situated at the south-west of Otuzco, about 10 leagues from the town, in the highest point of the Puna, and near the road from Huamachuco to Otuzco. The composition of the ore is as follows : — On the surface, as in all the veins of the country, pacos are found to 20 metres of depth : copper pyrites, with panizo, the name they give to the white argillaceous earth, which comes, as. is probable, from the same stockwerk of the veins. After- wards some small parts of pavonado, mixed with copper and iron pyrites. Lastly appears the pavonado, always mixed with pyrites. The gangue is composed of quartz and of sulphate of baryta with panizo. Quartz is found in greater quantity with iron pyrites, whilst, when blende is shown, sulphate of baryta predominates. The miners have noticed that the sulphate of baryta is generally a good ground for silver, that is to say, the ores which contain much sulphate of baryta are rich in silver, which applies, according tO' Senor Raimondi, to all the Peruvian ores. All these ores- are much richer than those of Salpo and Millhuachaqui. The galenas yield 25 to 30 and upwards marcs by smelting, owing to the presence of a small quantity of pavonado. Nearly all the ores contain gold, principally near the surface.. Plata Pina, of the S. Andres mine, has i per cent, of gold. They only refine the ores containing 15 marcs per cajon. The cerros which form the mineral deposit of Quiruvilca are the following : — The Cerro of Midipuida, with the mines Midipuida, La Peha Colorada, La Merced Grande, La Merced Chica, all working at the present time ; the Cerro of Llacapucio, with the mines of San Pedro and San Pablo San Andres, San Francesco and Jesus, in actual work ; the Cerro of Chonta, the Cerro of Casa Pablo, the Piedra Parada, with the mine of same name, the Papelillo, the M 2 164 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Cruz-pampa, the Torao, the San Lorenzo, San Felipi, San Antonio. The vein of La Pena Colorada gives galena, zinc blende, and with pyrites and a little pavonado (argentiferous grey copper ore), 20 marcs. The La Merced Grande Mine is the most important of all. It has six workings, and twenty workmen. Its pits are 70 mfetres deep, and one under water. The mine is drained by two tunnels. The ore is pavonado (argentiferous grey copper ore), with zinc blende, and yields, on an average, 40 marcs the cajon. San Andres gives 30 to 35 marcs on an average. A sample of good ore from this mine has given by the Coppel test as much as 190 marcs per cajon. The Papelillo ore yields 20 to 25 marcs. All the veins are narrow, with few exceptions, seldom exceeding 40 cen- timetres wide. The greater part of the mines are not deep, •on account of water appearing very quickly ; without doubt ithe water could be easily drained, as Quiruvilca is situate in the highest part of the Puna. In summer the mines are ;almost dry, and many which in winter are not worked have workmen in them in summer. With simple machinery all could be drained, but as there is such an abundance of good ore, nothing is more easy to commence a new mine when one is charged with water ; it is for this reason we see so .many mines abandoned. THE GOLD MINES OF HUAMACHUCO. Huamachuco. — The veins in the neighbourhood of Hua- machuco are very numerous, and the mines of this province yielded much gold in the time of the Viceroys. At the present time, in the neighbourhood of the town, there is no work going on, except in the Cerro de Toro. This Cerro is situated about one league (three miles) from Huamachuco, towards the Maraiion, and consists of two distinct formations ; the south-west part is formed of sand- stone quartz, it is the least in altitude and extent ; the other part, towards the north-east, is formed of green sand- stone, which has the same appearance as in Quiruvilca, 'so that in this cerro the separation of the two classes of rocks is clearly seen, which can be observed as far as the Cerro Negro, and even farther. It is necessary to study with some THE GOLD MINES OF HUAMACHUCO. 165 attention the aspect of the country, and compare it with that which is observed in the Puna, to be able to affirm, as we have done, that the quartz is anterior to the green and purple sandstones. Up to the present time the Cerro del Toro mines have only produced gold ; but it is probable that if the work is continued silver ores may be met with, because there, as in Salpo, it happens that the auriferous pacos which are found on the surface are replaced by degrees by pavonados (argentiferous grey copper ores), or sulphates of other metals. In the part of the cerro containing quartz the auriferous paco forms three very distinct veins — two near the extremity, and the third towards the interior, near the separation of the quartzose and green sandstone. Besides the veins, there are hilitos (small threads), which cross them but have been but little worked. The direction and inchnation of the veins are the same as that of the capas (stockwerk) of the rock, so that they may be called vetas-capas. The direction, east and west, is pretty regular,, but the inclination varies at each moment. The width is half a yard, on an average. In the part of the cerrO' where the green sandstone is found, it cannot be said that the veins are well formed, the rock being traversed in all parts by numberless hilos (threads), fissures, and small threads, forming a vast network which completely covers it. Some of them have a regular ore, but are generally poor, the ore being found good only in the points where the veins meet ; but the threads and fissures being so numerous, the points of meeting are also plentiful, so that the conjunction gives a very good ore Some of the threads are a little wider than the others, measuring five and sometimes ten centimetres (four inches), in which case the inclination and direction is generally more regular. There are two mines in this cerro at present working ; one in the sandstone quartz, which follows a very narrow fissure of one to two inches wide, and the other in the green sandstone, which follows a pretty regular fissure about ten centimetres (four inches) wide. In the former the paco disappears, and has been replaced by pyrites and pavonado (argentiferous grey copper ore) ; at the same time the fissure has become wider, measuring ten to fifteen centi- metres, and affording pyrites with spots of pavonado and 1 66 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. specks oipolvorillo. In the latter almost the same thing has occurred. In the shafts the pavonado begins to be visible, with copper pyrites as the paco diminishes ; these ores are found in the cajos, which are mineralised, but it is probable that afterwards all the fissures nay have filled, it being . possible then to work it for silver. The greater part of the gold produced in Huamachuco comes from the Indians, who occasionally refine the ore, and extract sufficient gold to enable them to buy aguar- diente and get intoxicated. The Cerro Negro is traversed by numerous veins, the tracings of which are seen in the slopes and on the summit of the cerro. We have already said that its composition is the same as that of the Cerro del Toro — that is, sandstone quartz on the west and green sandstone on the east. The veins have galena and pavonado, but the pavonado of the Torro Cerro is a lead pavonado, and very difficult to refine, as we have already said referring to Quiruvilca ; it is crude, principally on account of the quantity of lead .and antimony it contains, and although at times it is very rich, the miners do not derive any benefit from it. M. Delsol visited two pits, the first situated upon a vein, the course of which stands north and south, 80° to the east. It is very extensive, its inclination being about 45° to the south. They call it Colpa Blanca A paco was worked upon the surface, and afterwards a pavonado, the ley of which produced 130 marcs by Cupelation. It was aban- doned, water having been met with. The other pit is La Gedinda, the direction of which is north-east to south-west, with an inclination of 75° towards the north. This vein yields a lead pavonado, the ley of which is 150 marcs per cajon, according to the miners of Huamachuco. Not being able to extract more than seven to eight marcs by amalgamation they abandoned it. In the Tambello mine, situated on the Tambello Cerro, at 45 miles to the north-east of Salpo, three very narrow fissures of pavonado ore were worked, but very rich, their width not exceeding 5 to 6 centimetres ; the cajas being very hard, the working is difficult and costly ; however, the ley of the ore is very considerable, yielding 400 marcs per cajon, permitting the payment of all the expenses. COAL MINES. 167 Joined to this mine there is that of Chinchin, also pavonado, 40 centimetres (16 inches) wide, with a ley of 120 marcs. In Igre is situate the Milagro mine, which has given a metal of 360 marcs. In Aguifiuay, two leagues from Santiago de Chuco, there are many galena mines of 80 marcs and 50 per cent, of lead. Two are at present working ; the ore is refined in reverberating furnaces. In Cochaida, 4 leagues from Quiruvilca, there are some pavonado mines of 120 to 130 marcs, which belong to Senor Calinge, and are being worked. On the road from Quiruvilca to Llaray, on arriving about half way, there is a cerro of sandstone quartz, already men- tioned, called the Pedernal, where gold is found in con- sideral abundance with the paco ; there are various excava- tions in this cerro, but all abandoned on account of the very hard rock. COAL MINES. Coal is very abundant in the province of Huamachuco. There are numerous beds of this combustible of consider- able thickness found in the sandstone quartz. There are seven or eight beds of coal at present worked, and those known are much more numerous. Near Huama- chuco there are two mines worked which are li mfetre and 2 metres thick respectively ; in Llaray, the stratum which produces coal is in its narrowest part 4 metres thick. Near the Victoria smelting works coal is mined for smelting the ores. In conclusion, it may be said that there is more coal in the province of Huamachuco than the whole of Peru could consume in a thousand years ; consequently, it is not the difficulty of finding fuel, but of finding a method of re- fining, in which coal can replace such expensive articles as quicksilver and salt. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER X. The Gold Mines of Peru. THE wealth of Peru has always been proverbial in precious metals, and, with regard to gold, it is sufficient to consult the ancient historians to gain some idea of the quantity of this precious metal, the exist- ence of which was shown by the many objects of art which were found in the temples of the Incas at Cuzco, Paccha-CamaCji and other places at the time of the Conquest, and as also by the large amount of gold which the unfor- tunate Inca, Prince Atahualpa, gave for his ransom at Cajamarca.^ Gold is found in almost all parts of Peru, in the low lands as well as in the high peaks of the Cordil- leras. THE GOLD MINES OF CARABAYA. The provinces of Carabaya and Sandia, situated in the department of Puno, in the elevated regions of southerrj Peru, are both exceedingly rich in gold. The following extracts from Professor Raimondi are, by his permission, translated from his treatise on the " Minas de Oro de Carabaya," published in the "Anales de Construcciones Civiles y de Minas del Peru." (Lima, 1883.) The discovery of gold in Carabaya is attributed to some Spanish fugitives from the armies of Pizarro and Almagro in the days of the Conquest, who appear to have been the ' Paccha-Camac signifies " He who created tlie world out of nothing," ixova paccha, "the earth," zxAcamac, the present participfc of caman, "to produce something from nothing." The doors of this temple were of gold, richly inlaid with precious stones and coral. ^ Prescott says, p. 3. vol. ii. : — "The amount of gold the Spaniards took from the Incas was three and a half millions sterling." Grave par Ed^trJ THE GOLD MINES OF CAR ABA Y A. 1 69 founders of the opulent town of San Juan del Oro In the year 1553 the discoverers carried to Spain as a present to the Emperor, a large nugget of gold in the form of a horse's head, weighing 4 arrobas (100 lb.), which was found in the first washing place at Inahuaya.^ Writing in 1553, Ciezo de Leon speaks of the gold of Carabaya in these terms : — " In the Serrania mountain is situate the renowmed and exceedingly rich river Caruaya, where in former years more than 1,700,000 dollars of gold was extracted." 2 Jt yy^s in 1849 that the cascarilla gatherers discovered large deposits of auriferous earth in the Quebrada of Challuma, situated on the river Huari-huari, which lower down its course bears the name of Inambari, and receiving all the rivers of the province of Carabaya and Sandia, flows into the Beni. The river Challuma takes its name from the point of its fall into the Huari-huari, up to a place called Quimsamayo, distant a little less than three leagues, at which place the river Challuma is formed by the union of three streams — the Chaupimayo, the Quimsamayo, and the Pucamayo. All the auriferous deposits discovered in 1849 and 1850 were in the Que- brada of Challuma, and its affluent, the river Pucamayo. The names of the places where gold was found, are : — Pusupunco, San Simon, San Jose, Cangali, Cementerio, Alta Gracia, from which Senor Don Jose Poblete ex- tracted an immense quantity of gold, obtaining 43 ozs. from a single trough of 15 lb. of earth; and lastly, Quimsamayo, where gold was discovered in 1849. The places where gold was found in the Quebrada of Pucamayo are : — Natividad, situated near the union of the Pucamayo with the Chaupimayo; Tablahuasi,ashort distance above Natividad; San Pedro, at two cuadras above Tabla- huasi, from which Senor Don Miguel Arias extracted a nugget weighing 2 7 ozs., and from one trough of earth 3 lb. 5 ozs. of gold. Further above are Santa Fortunata and Mercedes ; in the latter Senor Rodriguez found a nugget weighing 40 ozs. ; Media Luna, which produced a nugget of 29 ozs. ; Puerta Libre, Rosario, where Sefiores Carpio, Teran, and Lira found a nugget weighing 36 ozs. ; and ' Cosme Bueno — " Ephemeride, del ano 1768," ' Ciezo de Leon — "Chronica del Peru," cap. cii. 170 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. lastly, Carrizal, which also yielded a quantity of gold. Less than a mile distant from Puerta Libre, is the Cerro de Ccapac-orcco, or Montebello, where gold is found in veins. An immense deposit of auriferous land extends three leagues from the hills of Comuni and Ananea to the Potro. All the deposits of auriferous earth lie upon slate and sandstone, which are generally disposed in vertical layers. No machinery has been brought to bear upon these mines, owing to the difficulty of transport; they are worked in a very primitive manner, viz., by the quimbalete, which consists of a kind of mill formed by a large stone, with a cavity in which they crush the ore by means of another stone, which is usually put in motion by means of the feet. The difficulty which exists for crush- ing the quartz is so great that the miners prefer to extract the gold from the alluvial soils, the working of which is much more simple, and it can be carried on a large scale, when a considerable quantity of water is used. The following is the method of working gold from the ancient alluvial soils in the province of Sandia. When a deposit of auriferous earth is discovered, or, as they call it, rebosadero (an older alluvial deposit), which is not always easy to find when the land is covered with a dense vegeta- tion, the first operation which has to be performed is to remove the carga, that is, the part formed of earth and sterile stones, which covers the auriferous deposit called venero. As the carga is at times more than 50 metres (164 feet) thick, it is necessary to employ a convenient method to get rid of this immense deposit of useless soil. For this purpose water is conveyed by means of an aque- duct from a river, situated at a higher level. The water is, by means of the aqueduct, stored in a pond, to which they give the name of cocka (which in the Quechua tongue means " lake"). This cocha is provided with a flood gate, to open and let out the water as required. When the gate is opened the water rushes forcibly upon the ground, carrying away with it a large quantity of earth and stone.^ Men with bars break up the soil, to facilitate its being carried away. These operations are continued until the ' A method used largely in California, where they make high reservoirs, with flood gates, and wash down sections of mountains. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 171 auriferous ore layer is reached, which is recognised by the appearance of stones, bearing margajeta and huincho (iron pyrites and ohgist). GEOLOGICAL FORMATION OF THE GOLD REGION. The predominating rocks in all the Nevada Cordilleras, which traverse the provinces of Carabaya and Sandia, and the ramifications of this great chain which form the numerous quebradas of these provinces, are argillaceous talcose slates belonging to the silurian formation. These rocks are found in an upright position, standing on edge, varying very much as to their direction and inclination, but generally almost vertical, rising at times like gigantic, sharply-cut walls. A very noticeable example of this dis- position of the layers of slate is observed about a mile beyond the Tambos of Pucaruma, on the road from the town of Quiaca to the Quebrada of Tambopata, where the rock is in the form of a vertical wall over 150 metres (492 feet) above the ground. These slates, in many parts of the Crucero road, to the mines of Challuma, are more or less metamorphosed, that is, they are formed by the injec- tion of silica into them, and do not show- that laminated structure which generally characterises them. The most notable example of the metamorphism of the slate is observed in a pass situate at two leagues distant from the town of Phara. In this place the slate, without losing its stratification, shows an almost crystalline structure, with grains of quartz and feldspar, and laminae of mica ; so that it forms an intermediate link between sedimentary and crystalline rocks. The most common phenomenon which the slates in the province of Sandia and Carabaya present, is that they are found in distinct connexion with the veins of quartz, more or less auriferous, as can be seen between the Tambos of Uco and Huaturo, between Phara and Huma- bamba, in the Cerro de Ccapac-orcco, or Montebello, in the Cerro Ananea, near Poto, &c. &c. Slates are not the only sedimentary rocks present in the auriferous region of the province of Sandia, but there is also observed a species of grauwack and old sandstone in distinct 172 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. colours, varying from white to yellow, and red, and large de- posits of earth debris. The sandstone resting on the slate is commonly presented in vertical layers, more or less meta- morphosed. The principal places in the province of Sandia where the sandstone appears are near the Tambo of Uco, and a league below Uco on the road from Phara to Challuma, also a mile below the town of Sandia ; and near the river Huari-huari, in the great valley, in the vicinity of the town of Poto, and near the lake of Comuni, at the foot of Cerro Ananea. The alluvial earths under consideration are the most important, since it is from them that nearly all the gold has been extracted. Almost the whole of the enormous quantity of gold which the province of Sandia (formerly Carabaya) has produced has been obtained from the allu- vial earth. These lands divide themselves into ancient and recent alluvial deposits. We may classify amongst the former the great deposits of auriferous earth formed in remote periods, and which are now found at a higher level, above the present beds of the rivers ; and amongst the latter, the debris which the rivers and lakes deposit at the present time. It is from the ancient alluvial that the precious metal is extracted in the neighbourhood of the celebrated villa of San Juan del Oro, in the old mining district of Aporoma, situate between the rivers Machica-mani and Pulipuli, in the districts of the Quebradas of Challuma and Puca- mayo, and they are also still extracting at Poto. All these deposits of auriferous earth rest upon slate and sandstone, which rocks are generally found deposited in vertical layers. To form an idea of the origin of these rich deposits of auriferous earth, it is necessary to suppose that in some locahties, as can still be observed, the layers of slate had a transverse direction to the quebradas, thus forming a dyke which held back the water from a great extent of country, forming in this way a great lake, whose waters rose to the summit of the natural barrier. The river which carried along in its current the gold and stones contributed its waters to this lake, which, by the action of the water, loosened the veins which were found in its course. The gold, with the stones and the earth, entering the lake, were deposited at the bottom according to the order of their GEOLOGICAL FORMATION OF THE GOLD REGION. I 73 density, so that the precious metal went, by degrees, accumulated at the bottom of the lake, at the same time as the earth and rounded stones were again filling the cavity. Later, either by the continual erosion of the water above the layers of slate which were forming the transverse barrier, or by an accidental cause which might have broken the natural dyke, the water of the lake found an escape and left dry the great deposit of earth and gold which had accumulated at its bottom. If, now, the water of the river which flows down the quebrada, passing over this great deposit, should go on excavating in its course, the con- continual action of the water will cause it to wear itself gradually deeper until, reaching the naked rock, it will form on one side, or probably on both sides of the quebrada, a deep fissure of auriferous earth above the actual level of the river, as those which have been worked lately on the Quebradas of Challuma and Pucamayo. In the mining district of Poto, the deposit of auriferous earth appears to have been formed in a distinct manner, since it offers some peculiarities which have been observed, that the stones and the gold have not been deposited in water, but that they have come dragged along in the form of clay. This immense deposit of auriferous earth extends from the Cerros Nevados of Comuni and Ananea up to the town of Poto, and is some three leagues in length. This land does not possess the reddish colour which is noted in almost all auriferous lands, which is owing to the peroxide of iron. The auriferous earths of Poto are of grey colour, and are formed of quartz stones, slate, and a metamorphic sandstone, accompanied with a marly earth. If we observe the stones which form this land it is seen that they have a not very rounded form, so that we can deduce that they have not rolled much, and, consequently, the gold which this land contains has not come from very far. On the other hand, the marly nature of the land and its inclined position, and the heaps of stone which it occasionally contains, show that these have not been deposited in tranquil water. Lastly, if this auriferous earth had been deposited in water, all the gold would have been found in the bottom ; here, on the contrary, it appears that they find gold, although in less quantity, also in the marly 174 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. mass, which leads us to believe that the gold and the stones were carried in a thick mass, in which they have not been able to be deposited at the bottom with facility. If to this is added that these auriferous earths extend up to the Cerro Nevados, it can be almost certain that its formation and translation is owing to inundations of thick mud, in accordance with the phenomenon of the glaciers. In respect to the land of recent alluvial, we can cite the land which is deposited at present on the shores of the river Huari-huari, or Inambri, from which is extracted every year a large quantity of gold. Passing now to the eruptive rocks, we can say that in this region, comprising the object of our study, they are very rare. ]3etween these rocks we ought to mention, in the first place, granite, the eruption of which is owing to the intro- duction of the slate of the numerous veins of auriferous quartz, although this rock has seldom issued from the surface. We can, however, cite an example of granite formation, near the Tambo of Huancarani, on the road from the town of Crucero to that of Phara. Other eruptive rocks, sufficiently rare, in the province of Sandia, are the porfidicas, which Senor Raimondi has observed in one place, and this near the beautiful lake of Aricoma, on the road from Crucero to Phara, where these have been introduced between the layers of slates, so that we can see the/(7^y?^^.r alternating with thelayers of thelatterrock. As regards the trachyte rock, although Senor Raimondi has not been able to discover the true place where its erup- tion has been made, a sure proof of its existence in the province of Sandia is a great deposit of conglomerate and trachyte matter, which commences near Accokunca, on the road from Crucero to Poto, and extends for over two leagues. This deposit at some points has been furrowed and cut by water, giving rise to isolated masses of the most capricious forms. WORKING GOLD IN THE BEDS OF THE RIVERS. Although many individuals extract gold from the rivers, washing the sand in troughs, — in the province of Sandia, however, they employ for this purpose a particular method, ..;##: WM GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. I 75 which is very ingenious. This method is employed in pre- ference in the beds of the rivers Huari-huari, Pulipuli, Ccapacmayo, Pacchani, and in general on all the shoals which at times are covered with water in the rainy season when the rivers are increasing, and consists in forming on the beds of the rivers, when they are dry, a kind of paving which they designate in the country with the name of Tocellas. For this purpose they employ stones of medium size, that is, almost of the same dimensions as those they use to pave the streets, only they take care to select the flattest ones. These stones are placed in an inclined position, working so that one rests upon the other, in the same way of the current of the river. This disposition of the stones is indispensable, because if they place them in a contrary way they hardly obtain any gold. When the time of increase in the rivers has arrived, the water invades the beaches, flushes over this pavement, and carries with it the gold, which by its density falls in the interstices which the stones leave ; whilst, if they collect the stones in a con- trary way, the water charges with force in the cavities, and carries the nuggets of gold outside. The rainy season ended, the water of the river retires, and leaves a new dry bed ; they then remove the pavement and wash the sand in troughs. The Indians, who commonly devote themselves to this work, calculate beforehand, according to the extent of this pavement, how much gold they can probably collect, and it appears that in certain places they obtain a regular quantity of gold for each superficial square yard of paving. In the bed of the river Huari-huari, below the mouth of the river Challuma, they calculate the quantity of gold they can collect from these pavings at two drachms per square yard. This mode of collection of gold can be com- pared to a store in which they collect stones to gather gold. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. There is no doubt whatever that the earth which con- stitutes the provinces of Sandia and Carabaya is very rich in gold, and it is surprising that a region which in ages past has given such large quantities of the precious metal, is found to-day — with the exception of Poto — almost 176 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. abandoned. Some believe, perhaps, that the gold mines in the province of Sandia have been exhausted ; this is a great euor, since from whence comes the gold which is daily brought down by the rivers Huari-huari, Pulipuli, Ccapacmayo, Pacchani, &c. ? It is clear that these rivers must derive their gold from the veins or from great deposits of auriferous soils ; and if it is true that in the Quebradas of Challuma and Pucamayo they have only worked the deposits of auriferous earth which were found in sight, there still remain immense quantities to be worked. Thus, for example, in the old mining district of Aporoma there is yet work enough for very many years to come, and if that place is abandoned on account of the expenses re- quired to procure the necessary water to wash the aurife- rous earth, this difficulty would disappear on the formation of a Company with capital, which would employ all the perfected methods which are used in the present day in works of this kind. There has not yet been made any lengthened study of this region of Peru, and only the auriferous deposits have been worked which by pure casualty have been discovered. The veins are as yet almost virgin, and if some of them have a ley of gold — the working of which does not repay a private individual who conducts his operations on a small scale by the primitive quimbalete — it would bring greater advantages to a Company which refines in a single day a larger quantity of ore than a private individual could crush in many months in his mill. In order that the working of gold in the province of Sandia may be effected on a large scale, it is necessary, in the first place to make good roads to permit free transport by animals, and consequent intro- duction of requisite machinery, as well for washing the auriferous soils as for crushing the ores. Only a person who has personally visited the interior of the province of Sandia can form an exact idea of the roads which have to be traversed to go to the Quebradas of Challuma and Pucamayo, and many people on first seeing the broken state of the ground, and the thick vegetation of the Montana, would believe the opening of a good road impossible. However, although the ground offers great difficulties at present, the making of roads is not impossible, since all REPORTS OF TRAVELLERS ON THE GOLD MINES. 1 77 is reduced to the question of money. I do not doubt for a moment that with the opening of good roads, a lengthened study of the territory of the province of Sandia, and the employment of machinery, such as that which is in use at the present tiaie in California, Australia, &c., that remote and rich region would afford remuneration for many generations, in as great quantities of gold as those which have made the name of Carabaya so celebrated. REPORTS OF ENGLISH TRAVELLERS ON THE GOLD MINES OF PERU. The intrepid explorer. Doctor Edwin Heath, reports to the Royal Geographical Society : — As would naturally be expected, the streams flowing from the auriferous Andes are full of gold. In the ravine of Tipuani (15° 31' lat. and 68° 5' long.) the blue clay slates associated with gold extend to the river Beni. The gold of Carabaya (lat. 14*^ long. 69°) has been famous for centuries, and in Marcapata. is the golden hill of Camanti, about fifty miles from Cuzco. The golden hill of Camanti was first made known in 1788,, and in this century Companies have been formed to work it. Next to Marcapata are the beautiful ravines of Carabaya, also famous for their gold washings, their coca estates, their coffee and fruits, as well as for their chinchona bark. But the products of the ravines and of the vast plains beyond are not confined to the precious metal. Gold is far from being, the most valuable branch of their varied sources of wealth. This is the region of the chinchona bark, the richest in quinine, of the finest coffee and cocoa in the world, of many kinds of rare and beautiful cabinet woods, and of inex- haustable supplies of india-rubber. Mr. Minchin, in a report to the above-mentioned Society^ says : — In the rivers of Tipuani, Challuma, Cajones, on the Andes of Peru and Bolivia, and others which descend from the high Cordilleras, very rich deposits of gold exist, which, in spite of the rugged nature of the country and the impossibility hitherto of obtaining adequate machinery, have at all times yielded largely. The gold in this case is found collected in the " bed rock " usually met with a few yards below the river bed, and is also disseminated through strata in the adjoining mountains. N 178 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Gold deposits also exist at San Simon on the Itenez, in the hilly district of San Javari, on the right bank of the river San Miguel (lat. 13° and long. 70°), where mines are at present worked in a primitive state. PRECIOUS STONES. There are Jews at Santarem who go up the Tapagos river and bring down gold-dust and diamonds ; the latter afford a great profit, and are chiefly found on the Sierra, which lies between the sources of the Tapagos and the Paraguay rivers, on the borders of Bolivia. There is every reason to believe that diamonds will also be found at the sources of the Peruvian rivers which descend from the eastern slope of the Andes, so soon as those regions are explored. The ancient Spanish writers make frequent mention of emeralds and precious stones, in the works of art made by the Incas. "The figure of the sun (at Cuzco) was engraved on a massive plate of gold of enormous dimen- sions, thickly powdered with emeralds and precious stones." — " Cieza de Leon Cronica," cap. xliv., xcii. "Sarmiento Relacion MS.," cap. xviv. "There were (at Cuzco) a large quantity of vessels of gold and of silver, and emeralds, vases, pots, and all sorts of small vases, all of fine gold." — "Sarmiento Relacion MS.," cap. xxiv. "Emeralds they obtained in considerable quantity from the barren district of Atacama. They had turquoises also." — Garcilasso, "Com. Real," Part I, lib. viii., cap xxiii. "The clothes of the Inca nobles were made of vicuna wool, some em- broidered with silver and gold, others with emeralds and precious stones." — " Cieza de Leon Cronica," cap. cxiv. THE MINING LAWS OF PERU. The mining laws of Peru were reformed by a new law passed by Congress, January 12, 1877, which reformed the old laws very considerably, establishing a new basis for mining property, and introducing other important reforms for the protection of this industry. The mining laws of THE MINING LAWS OF PERU. 1 79 various nations were studied, and the new laws were, in part, based upon the law at present in force in Spain. The new laws are thus laid down : — Art. I. — Creates a tax of 15 soles (60s.), paid half-yearly, for the possession of each holding of mines. Art. 2. — This tax extends to coal and petroleum. Art. 3. — Declares this contribution not to exempt mines, although they may be surface mines or other works which, according to the law, may be permitted. Art. 4. — Declares that the tax has to be paid to the officer indicated by the Government, that is, the Treasury. Art. 5. — Prescribes that the punctual and continual pay- ment of the tax is essentially requisite for the possession and legal proprietorship of the mine, if worked or not. He who ceases to pay it half-yearly loses indefeasibly his right. Art. 6. — The possession of a mine is rendered void if it happens that it is lost through its owner having failed to pay the tax. Art. 7. — The Judge will not furnish recourse to opposi- tion to the petition for a mine, if that recourse is not accom- panied with proof of the opposer having paid the tax in the last six months. Art. 8. — All right of property is indivisible for the pay- ment of the contribution. Art. 9. — Enacts that each one of those who litigate for a mine must pay the tax integrally, and that he who does not pay it punctually loses his right. Art. lo. — The payment of the tax is to commence, as in effect it did commence, from the ist of June, 1877, to be confirmed in future in the two latter months of each half-year, without adjournment being allowed. Art. II.— Disposes that the funds proceeding from the tax be applied, — ist, to the special School of Mines ; 2ndly, to the support of a special body of mining engineers, who may lend their services at the deposits ; and, srdly, to the general encouragement of mining. Art. 12. — Prescribes the proceedings that owners of mines have to observe to register their titles, from the date of the commencement of the law. Art. 13. — The territorial deputations will keep a register of mines, in which an account is kept of the titles they issue. N 2 ISO THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. Art. 14. — The copies of the titles issued by the delegates will be remitted officially immediately to the Direction of the Administration of the Ministry of Finance, which is the central office, to take integral account in another register. The copies are archived, and a receipt given to the interested party. Art. 15. — The Direction will form a padron-general or Register, divided into mineral districts, in which will be inscribed, — ist, the name and kind of the mine; 2nd, the name of the proprietor ; 3rd, the number of holdings of each ; and 4th, the contribution which he has to pay. Art. 16. — This padron is published in Lima in the months of March and September of each year, and in April and October there are remitted officially to the prefects, sub-prefects, and territorial dignitaries, the necessary copies of the part which corresponds to his territory for its publi- cation in the Departments. The padrons are renewed in this way every six months. Art. 17. — In the half-yearly padrons the mines whose owners may have paid the tax in the last half-year, are only recorded according to the report of the receiving office of the claims newly adjudicated. Art. 18. — The receiving offices will remit to the Direction in February and August of each year a report or account of the properties which may have paid the tax in the previous half-year. Art. 19. — Those who may not have paid in the previous half-year lose their property absolutely, which may be applied for by others, without the last possessor being able to oppose. Art. 20. — The judges of the first court exercise in their own provinces, — if there be no territorial deputies, — the administrative and judicial functions of these provinces ; Art. 21. — In which case none of those functionaries can exact for the duties they perform beyond the place of their residence more than 10 soles for all expenses in the first league of distance, and 2 soles for each extra league, it being understood for one single league the going and return. The clerks will receive the half of this sum, and experts what they stipulate with the interested party. THE MINING LAWS OF PERU. lol Art. 22. — Though strangers can acquire and work mines in all the territory of the Republic, enjoying all the rights and remaining subject to all the obhgations of the natives respecting the property and workings of the mines, they cannot exercise judicial functions in the government of the mines. Art. 23. — Building-stones, sands, chalks, clays, slates, and similar materials, belong to the proprietor of the land, and their working is not subject to the mining laws. In the lands of that State or of the municipalities their use is common to all, excepting the contracts made for the latter with any particular. Art. 24. — The engineers appointed to the mineral dis- tricts are obliged to dictate a practical course of subterranean works, and the building up of the mines ; to make master miners act according to the direction of the School of Mines. Art. 25. — This law does rot include saltpetre mines. Arts. 26 and 27 enact that a law be dictated, and the resolutions necessary for the carrying out of this law (as in effect has been afterwards done), be drawn up, and the laws which are contrarv to it cancelled. II. COAL AND PETROLEUM MINES. With respect to these mines a special law was dictated on the 17th of April, 1873, which is still in force. Its principal dispositions are reduced to this : — The acquisition of holdings is free and gratuitous for natives and foreigners in the lands of the State ; it is likewise the same in the com- munal lands, but by paying to the municipality the rates for the superficial land occupied; it is equally so in the case of private lands, by paying to the owner for the superficial land an d the damages. The extent of the holdings in this class of mines is from 40,000 square metres upwards, and should n ot be less in width than 40 lineal metres. Com- panies le gaily organised can be possessors up to five holdings, and even ten if they were the discoverers. The hold ings which, after one year's possession, are not found in a ctive and regular work, are liable to-be dispossessed, and cann ot be possessed again by the same persons. In other resp ects these mines fellow the ordinary regimen. 102 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. In all classes of mines a person or Company can possess whatever number of holdings he may please, by private title of purchase, gift, or inheritance, beyond those which they are entitled to hold according to the laws. III. — MINERAL SUBSTANCES SUBJECT TO MINING LAWS. Respecting the laws which have been set forth in the preceding pages, it is intended that the working of all kinds of mineral substances be subjected to the mining laws, with exception of lime, clay, colouring earths, marble, and all those nsed for building purposes. Art. 22, tit. b, of the Decrees gives a very clear explana- tion upon this point, and lays down that one can discover, register, and petition before the Deputies, not only for lands producing metals, but likewise for those containing precious stones, half metals or metaloids, gemma salt, fossils of all sorts, and even bitumen and asphaltic rocks. There are, however, various distinctions to be made. IV. — QUICKSILVER, SALTPETRE, NITRATE OF SODA, BORAX, SALT, AND PEAT AS REGARDS THEIR CONNEXION WITH THE LAW. Quicksilver, which was reserved by the Spanish Govern- ment when they pubHshed the Laws of i8 1 1, is now free to be worked for trading purposes, and it is now on the same footing as the other minerals as to the mode of possessing them. Saltpetre (nitrate of soda) and Borax (borato de cal), are monopolised and declared fiscal property. All disco- very, then, which may be made of these substances, should be announced to the Government. Formerly the posses- sion of holdings of nitrate of soda and borax was made before the Mining Deputies ; but the abuse and conceal- ment which was made of all the nitrate of soda lands by covetous and untrustworthy speculators, by favour and condescension of the functionaries, brought about the Government prohibition to concede new holdings, even before having decreed the monopoly. Touching Guano, which, although a fossil substance, is not mineral, it is not, nor has it ever been, subject to the mining laws. It is subject, like nitrate of soda, to THE MINING LAWS OF PERU. 183 the monopoly of the Government, and it is the practice to concede to the discoverer of new deposits a premium more or less considerable, according to the importance of the discovery. Salt was formerly reserved by the Spanish Government. Although by Art. 15, tit 13 of the Decrees it is declared that salts of all kinds can be discovered and claimed by any person, it provides likewise that this should be brought to the knowledge of the Government to determine as to the working, refining, distribution, and price of the salt, in Order not to prejudice the revenue. The country being emancipated in 182 1, there was promulgated two years afterwards the first political constitution of Peru, in which all prohibitions were abolished. Notwithstanding what has been laid down by the Decrees respecting the possession of salt mines, and that there are examples of petitions being lately made of this class of holdings before the Deputies, at the present time the salt mines are subject only to the municipal regulations, the corporations of which permit the free traffic in them through their respective territories, col- lecting only a small duty for each arroba or stone of salt extracted, with the object of being able to maintain the deposits in a good state, order, and preservation. Not- withstanding, there are some salt mines in private lands, whose owners work them without either the Ayantamientos, or any person whatever, throwing the least obstacle in their way ; which proves that, in spite of what is laid down in the Mining Decrees, the general opinion of the country is that the salt mines are the property of the owner of the soil. There are persons who think that salt ought to be reserved by the Government, as is the case in some European states, as that no one better than it has the means of preserving the good condition of the salt mines, and of working them and distributing the article according to the demands of the towns. We do not participate in this view of the case, and we have faith in the prin- ciple of absolute liberty to legitimate industries ; because only in the seat of liberty, flourish work and industry, and whatever restriction is placed upon the working of them, beyond the exigencies of morality and public health, only serves to drive them off from the road of prosperity. 184 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. As regards Peat, a half fossil and half vegetable fuel, there has been nothing prescribed by the law in a definite way. The Mining Decrees can classify it amongst the bituminous substances mentioned in Art. 22, tit. 6, as science classifies the peat amongst the mineral fuels ; ' but on no occasion have persons taken possession of deposits of peat m conformity with the mining laws ; and their ownership has, by custom in Peru, been held by the owner of the land. In the interior, that is, in the regions of the Andes, it is almost the only fuel which exists, of which certainly no one would pretend to deprive the proprietors. And, moreover, the species of peat which we possess (cha7nfd)^ not being a product of the subsoil but of the surface, which commonly serves for the sustentation of the flocks in certain seasons, ought to be always considered as part of the property of the soil. V. —THE TAX OF FIFTEEN SOLES, AND ART. V. OF THE REFORM LAVS'S. As regards the tax of fifteen soles, it has been calculated in the just proportion suitable to the exigencies of the -country, so that it may not be very irksome for the miner, who works his holdings with more or less profit, nor re- main to be a heavy charge for him who does not work his mines, but contents himself with the vain title of holder, withdrawing himself to the active work of other industries. The part in the law of reform which alarmed the miners of the country most was Art. 5, by which it is permitted to keep the ownership of a mine, although it be not worked, so long as the half-yearly tax is paid. They said that this was to annul those mines, since it kept them from being worked, and making any production. The force of this argument was, without doubt, more apparent than real ; because in a country like Peru, where there is a scarcity of industries and labourers, where the mines are counted by thousands and miners by tens, it is rare that a mine not worked by its owner may have sufficient importance, that others may have the desire to undertake the working of it. In all cases those examples are exceptional, and by them ought not to be judged the established principle of keeping THE MINING LAWS OF PERU. 1 85 the possession of a mine, although it be not worked, so long as the owner pays his contribution. If the opposite system were adopted, besides that the measure would be ineffectual in the sense of increasing the production, there would likewise be lost the fund which the tax now produces, which is so use- ful to the general interests of the mining industry by the seasonable application which law gives it. It is not difficult to agree upon the working of a mine with the owner, which is a mine not worked, since the desire to derive some profit from it will make him accept equitable conditions, if he has confidence in the carrying out of the new under- taking. Our opinion would be different if it treated of a populated industrious country, and one less abundant in mines than Peru, since in the former case all would be worked, as with abundant capital, the power of working, and other elements, nothing would be wasted. It would be pre- judicial to keep the proprietorship of the mines in inactive hands by the petty interest of a contribution. This situation is not yet ours ; if it will fortunately come later on, then there will be a suitable innovation made. THE ADVANTAGES WHICH THE MINING LAW OFFERS. From the examination of our mining laws, there result the following facts : — 1. Tl^at the working and possession of mines in Peru is entirely free for natives and foreigners, without other obligation than the tax of fifteen soles half-yearly paid for each holding. 2. That the punctual payment of this contribution, being once made, and registration of the title or adjudication having been effected, secures the mining property from all usurpation, and even from all contentious htigation ; since against the certificate of payment nothing can be objected, neither has the judge even power to admit an objection. 3. That the administration of justice in mining matters is summary, and founded on good faith, to suit the require- ments of commerce. 4. That the administrative faculties imposed upon the territorial Deputies, amply provide for the good govern- 1 86 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. ment of the works and the preservation of order in the deposits. 5. That the country is solidly established in mining in- struction by means of the special School of Civil Construc- tion and of Mines, which is the best institute of its kind in South America ; that the legal proceeding to examine and possess mines is exceedingly simple, and of little cost, since the law has fixed even the price which has to be paid for the journey of the functionaries who are engaged in these duties. PROCEDURE FOR THE OBTAINING OF TITLES. Supposing that a foreigner resident in Peru wishes to acquire and work mines, the first thing he has to do is to inform himself of the situation of the principal mining centres, of the quality of the mines, and conditions more or less favourable of the place. This point decided, and the mineral selected in which he wishes to undertake his workings, he should examine in the official newspaper for the last padron published, in order to satisfy himself which are the mines in that place which have ownership. Established there, and knowing already the properties which are legally owned, it is easy to examine those that are free, and possess that which suits him best, by means of an application in the form we have detailed in explaining the laws. The Judge, or the Deputy in the absence of the former, delivers his order for possession, ordering the same to be published ; a pit may be opened or a working may be washed, according as it is a new or an already worked mine, and the hills are cited, if there are any. The pit opened or the works prepared, within ninety days in the first case and sixty in the second, the Deputy proceeds with the interested party, the clerk, and engineer or expert, to the site of the mine, recognises it, measures the property, gives possession, and fixes the stakes or boundaries. These steps being taken and registered in the proper book by the clerk, who makes an extracted copy of the principal parts at the expense of the interested party, the Deputy remits it by post to the Direction of the Administration for official registration, and to inscribe it in the padron of mines. The original title remains in the possession THE MINING LAWS OF PERU. 187 of the owner for his security ; should it be lost, or he does not wish to take out a new copy at 'the Deputy's office or at the Direction, it is sufficient, with the padron published twice yearly, for the security of his property. RESPECTING MINING LEGISLATION. By Senor Habich, Director of the School of Mines. Mining property in Peru consists in the concessions that are made in superficial unities called Fertenencias. A mining pertenencia (claim), in conformity with the Mining Decrees, is a superficial piece of land of 20 to 40,000 square yards, or 13,975 m., according to the inclination of the vein. The pertenencia of coal, in conformity with the Law of 28th April, 1873, has 42,000 m. The old pertenencias, like a part of the Cerro de Pasco, previous to the year 1785, measured only 1,800 square yards, or 1,258 m. The pertenencias in the gold deposits, — placeres rebosaderos, or natural washing-beds, — have no fixed dimensions ; the State assigns them according to acknowledged conveniences. SECURITY ENJOYED BY FOREIGNERS ENGAGED IN MINING IN PERU. From the Report on Mines by Dr. R. M. La Fuenti, 1883. The insecurity and want of guarantees to foreigners in Peru, and, in general, in the South American Repubhcs, which are so much affected by political controversies, have been spoken of with much exaggeration. This opinion, although accepted blindly in Europe by persons who do not take the trouble to inquire into the real facts, is unfounded almost in its totality. On the contrary, if any persons in Peru hold guarantees and full liberty for working, they are foreigners, and if there has been by chance any instance of offences committed against them, they have been very rare indeed, and have been effectually repressed by the authorities. The character of the inhabitants of this country is benign and tolerant, and we are not aware of late years of any attempt being committed against the persons or interests ISS THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. of foreigners, who have taken no direct or active intervention in pohtical questions, and even if such has been the case, they have been treated with remarkable consideration and kindness. We are persuaded that there will not be found a single person who can reasonably say that his interests have been usurped, that any extraordinary contribution has been exacted of him, or that he has been directly injured in his establishment or dwelling. During vehement political commotions, all possible guarantees and protection have been extended to foreigners, whom the people have never ceased to respect and treat with regard. There is, then, not the slightest motive for fear on the part of strangers who may wish to establish them- selves in our mining districts ; they may be perfectly certain that they will there hold, in their persons and interests, as much security as in any other civilised country. Their own interests ought to prompt them to come, because they will find on all sides abundant mines of precious metals ; and if the country is wanting in general in good roads and other necessary elements, these can be made without great difficulty up to the point of contact with the various railways, of which some are now working, and others in the course of completion. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 189 GENERAL REGISTER OF MINES (PADRON DE MINAS) FOR THE SECOND HALF-YEAR OF THE YEAR 18S6. TUMBES. Mine. Proprietor. Number of holdings. Petroleum Faustino G. Piaggio 20 AMOTAPE. Petroleum | Juan B. MuUoy y Juan B. Thorndicke ..( 9 PIURA. Sulphur I J. M. Noriega y Gavino Menchaca &| others 12 Gold and Silver... Silver Coal. TRUJILLO. Handforth Hope Jones . Baltazar Remoliff y C . HUAMACHUCO. Santiago Calderon Luis G. Albrech Miguel Porturas Nicolas Rebaza Luis G. Albrech Coal... Silver Silver and lead . Gold and silver . SALPO. Pedro T. Larrairaga Manuel M. Quevedo Vicente Gonzalez Pinillos .. T. Fernandez Castro Adeodato Salas Martin Hermanos Ricardo Martin Hermanos.. Juan Mason Adeodato Salas Silver CAJABAMBA. Santiago Martin Jose Santiago, Ricardo, Alberto, Elias y Elias y Eliseo Martin Manuel Jose, Juan Jose y Felipe Veles- moro I I 10 3 4 7 I I IQO THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. HUALGAYOC. Mine. Proprietor. Number of holdings. Silver Copper Copper and lead M. I. Prado y Jose A. Goyburu Jesiis Carrera y Sra. Odiaga Lucas Ortiz y F. Carrillo Joaquin Bernal Herrera y Jose C. Miranda Maria Arana Jose Mercedes Farje y C" Jose C. Apesteguia Francisco Santolaya Joaquin Bernal Frac. Santolaya y M. Imaiia Miguel Imaiia Baldomero Herrera Gregorio Gonzalez C Eloy Santolaya Diego Chico Francisco y Eloy Santolaya Inocencio Lavalle y Eloy Santolaya... M. Munoz, sobrinos y E. Santolaya ... Luis Garcia y Stgo. Odiaga Herminia S. de Imana Carlos Van Isschott Jose Maria Gallardo y S. M. Omontes Jose M. Farje y Felix J. Omontes ... Jose M. Farje Miguel Imana y E. Sanchez Mateo Gallardo y C. Prado Executors of de Bernal y J. M. Herrera J. M. Herrera, hermanos y Exequiel Ibanez Oswaldo Galvez Agustin Iturbe Jose del C. Omontes y M. Portal & others Tomas Quevedo Luis Garcia y Eusebio Ascurra Jose Lucas Ortiz J. M. Farje & others Inocencio Lavalle Jose Ine Aristi, E. Santolaya y Diego Chico Jose Quiroz J. Quiroz, Juan Lopez y R. Hoyos . . . Eliseo Munoz GENERAL REGISTER OF MINES. HUALGAYOC — continued. 191 Mine. Proprietor. Number of holdings. Silver and lead Elizeo Munoz . . .. I Copper and lead... Juan C. Munoz y C I 3 3 I Silver and copper CoDoer " " Coal Tuan C. Munoz, N. Tello, J. \arela Cristobal Thill y C 2 2 Gold and silver . . . C. Tillit y Van Isschott I Silver Silver CONTUMAZA. Miguel de La Puente... IIUARI. Coal. Not stated Juan F. Remy y C Dionisio Vizcarra Bar y A. Schreiber E. R. Gonzalez, F. R. y Escalanle Ciro S. Hudson y Paulino del Rio Ciro S. Hudson Vicente Lezameta Miguel Michelerio, Francisco Andavaca, Santiago Chena y S. Grasano J. M. Loli Rafael Soils M. Robles Arnao y J. de Mata Ames .. Jose V. Egusquiza y M. N. Jimeno Vicente Lezameta Ciro S. Hudson y Lizardo del Rio Juan C. Eyzaguirre Jose Escalante & others L. Ames & others Hamson Hermanos y C' R. MazzinayP. Cafferata Caffereta, Canepa y La-Torre Cafferata y Masini Lutgardo La Puente & others Jose Lagunas & others Socd. Sokoloskiy Thierry R. MazzinayP. Cafferata Nicanor Ariza y C. Caceres Compaiiia Minera de Quito Agustin Villon y C" 192 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. PALLASCA. Mine. Propiietor. Number of holdings. Silver Tuam S. Bartolome Therry 2 " 9 2 " J. S. B. Terry y A. Basallo " Victor Rosazza 2 Coal. Gold Toribio Alvarez I Gold washing 33 >j POMABAjMBA. Silver I Genonimo Cisneros „ I Jose Estrada y C Silver Coal. CAJATAMBO. Jose D. Bahamonde y Ca Pedro Prario Julio Camara Andres A . Alvarez Jose del C. Reyes Jose D. Bahamonde Manuel T. Gonzalez M. T. Gonzalez, S. P. Dunstan y T. F. Reyes Manuel Ipince Felix Octavio Camara Simon P. Dunstan y C' A. Osterloch y A. Schultz Felipe B. Mayta e hijos Carlos A. Haag Mariano Lizarribar, Carlos Mognaochi, Luis y P. Peraldo Guillermo Renwinck Isidro Espejo y M. Sosa y Arevalo Isidro Espejo Manuel I. Romero Manuel y Emilio Ghidoli Damaso Fuentes Rivera Pedro Prario I 2 I 4 10 I 2 I 2 I 3 8 2 2 6 I I I 3 3 3 I GENERAL REGISTER OF MINES. 193 CAJAMARCA. Mine. Proprietor. Number of holdings. Silver Alberto JTartini 5 Mercedes Bardales T. Mariano Cacho ... " Francisco M. Santolaya Coal Rafael Villanueva Manuel Romero Silver and lead ... Seed. Minera de Chilete 8 Silver and copper Gold Carolina V. de Puga 3 I Manuel Valero de Lopez Silver HUAYLAS. J. M. Torrance, for the Compania Patara Julian Duran de la Torre Dionisio Huici Benjamin Olivera Jose Chanca Juan M. Figueroa y Candido Vilas Ricardo Rey y Basadre M. Guerrero, D. Pardo & others Placido L. Angeles y HH Vicente Zzeza y P. Renaud Pablo Valle Leon Empr. Minera de Uchcu J. y B. Velez y Escudero Brayson y Hermanos Francisco Andabaka Federico Alegre Jose Laguna Antonio Lucar Francisco de Usua Juan B. y Roberto Brayson Santiago Bernardini y C' Juan M. Figueroa Jose Lagunas Eduardo Chueca Conrado Bassalik y Manuel Torres Enrique Mendez & others Maria Jesus Uuran Enrique Philipp Juan H. Torrance Manuel J. Beteta O 17 I 2 4 I 2 6 I I I I 6 2 2 2 I 4 I I 14 2 5 6 2 I I 2 I I I 194 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. HUAYLAS — continued. Mine. Silver , Coal Silver and lead Copper Coal Silver and Sulphur Proprietor. Number of holdings. Mariano M. Villafranca Bartolome Visbal Enrique Almandas y socios Carlos Pierola Jos^ R. Terry Jose A. Lopez y Jose A. Romero Javier Ramirez e hijos, Buenaventura y Lesco Ramirez Eduardo y Ricardo Mendez Carmelo Botello Mendoza & others . . . Eduardo Chueca Jose Laguna y C Mariano Minaya y Villafranca Juan B. Robles Pedro Laguna Simon A. Montaiiez Juan M. Figueroa Pablo Valle y Leon M. M. Villafranca y E. F. Sanchez ... Julian Duran la Torre Benjamin Olivera Geronimo Cisneros Juan B. y Roberto Brayson Conrado Bassalik y Manuel Torres . . , Carlos Pierola y Florentine Mendoza Luis Smith, for the Compania Mineral de Uchcu Adolfo Arambulo y Juan P. Castillo Jose E. Hidalgo, S. Giraldo y P. Cochachin Carlos A. Chueca J. M. Torrance, for the Compania Patara Jose Rossasa HUAYLLURA. Gold I Aurelio Garcia y Garcia | PALMADERAS. Gold I Aurelio Garcia y Garcia | ORCOPAMPA. Silver I Oscar Keren | GENERAL REGISTER OF MINES. 195 RECUAY. Mine. Silver It iy 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 3) 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 Silver and copper. 33 33 .■ Coal 33 33 33 33 3) Copper Silver Proprietor. Number of holdings. Wainwright, executors of Custodio Bohorques Antenor Pozo Caceres Hermanos Manuel y Vicente Caceres y A. Clark ... Juana Lugo de Icaza Jose Laguna Juan M. Remy yC Socd. Sokoloski y Thierry Juan M. Loli, A. A. Antunez, J. M, Morales, H. Gomez, y A. Larranaga, Oscar Peterson M. Alzamora, A. Icaza, Manuel S. Morales y Juan Loli Bartolome y Lorenzo Torres Cayetano Diaz Luis Smith y Pedro C. Infante Jose Patrocinio y M. E. Sanchez Sokoloski y Thierry Manuel J. Morales y socios Jose Laguna, C. Figueroa y M. S, Alegre Jose Laguna y Manuel Lazarte Empresa Minera de Uchcu Manuel Palma Juan M. Remy y C Socd. Sokoloski y Thierry Sokoloski y Thierry y D. Caceres Aloys Schreiber y Cayetano Diaz Eugenio y E. Tarazona Pedro G. Mejia Miguel Ibeta, executors of Pedro Cafferata ACARI. J. L. Tondicke y Vicuna . HUANCAVELICA. Carlos M. Pflucker y HH Juan Iramategui Manuel Picasso y HH Martin Fitz, Mauri y Angeles Lenci O 2 2 I 2 I 2 I I I 31 I 2 2 4 I I I 4 5 2 I 2 I I 2 I I 1 I 2 I 54 29 3 4 196 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. HUALLANCA. Mine. Proprietor. Number of holdings. Silver Jose Y. Duran 5 J. I. Duran y Elisa Theobal de Duran... Mana Bustamante Andrea Huaynate Jose Bermudez 3 2 Jose Pique Torres & others CERRO DE PASCO. Silver Jose Gregorio Trelles Juan Languasco Juan Patricio Pio Canta & others Juan Palacios Pedro Pablo Santa Maria Manuel Clote y J. R. Azcarate Hijos del Coronel Juan J. Salcedo ... Benito Antonio Ijurra Manuel Mier y Teran Jose Malpartida M. A. de La Torre Bruno F. Morales Mari'a Moreno Benito Ijurra Manuel Loayza y J. M. Maurtua C. Izola, M. Dumacith y D. Mazzini Lagravere e hijos y Maria Moreno ... Gregorio A. Duran Jose Aveleyra Eduardo O. de Villate& others Templeman Bergman y C" Jose Gallo Compaiiia La Esperanza M. Loayza, J. Canessa y P. Venegas Manuel Loayza y M. Lavado Leandro del Campo Manuel Ex-Helmes Andres Lodoverasa I 3 I 3 2 5 4 4 6 I 16 2 I I I I I I 2 4 I 3 I I I 2 2 I I GENERAL REGISTER OF MINES. 197 CERRO DE PASCO — contuiued. Mine. Silver Proprietor. Toribio A. Vial y J. M. Maurtua Presentacion Benavides Juan Costa M. de la Sierra y Andrea Cabidia E. O. de Villate, executors of Pedro Narvaez Lagravere e hijos Eulalia Santivaiiez Juan de Ugarte Melchora Vaquero Francisco Sagastabeytia Francisco Sagastabeytia, E. Gomez Hurtado y M. S. Jurado Agustin Tello Guillermo Cheneman y R. Adams C. Minaya, A. Languasco y A. Maghella Julian Minaya Manuel Chavez Jose M. Escurra y Erasmo Fernandini... Jose M. Maurtua Jorge E. Steel Juan A. Gordillo Severino Lobaton y C" Ignacio Alvarez Pedro Rossi Juan Mayta Juan Esparza Josefa Navarro Ignacio Rey por la casa Steel Jorge E. Steel por M. Gutierrez Rosa Mercedes Amalia y F. Riglos Herederos de Jose Aveleyra Manuel Damaso Tello Juan Languasco y C' Escolastica Falcon Ditto (in ligitation with D. L. Contreras) Apolinario Franco Eduvijes Campo Redondo de Matute ... Manuel I. de La-Torre Antonio Cardenas Carmen Cardenas de Maurtua Pedro Caballero y Valbertini y C Isabel Alvarado Cirilo Bazo Number of holdings. I I 2 I II I 32 I 2 I I 5 9 2 4 I 19 3 I II I 3 I I I I 6 5 4 6 S. I 4- 3 2 S 7 10 I I L I I 198 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CERRO DE PASCO — continued. Mine. Proprietor. Number of holdings. Silver Mercedes Bony S Ditto (in litigation with Buenaventura del Castillo) s Ditto (in litigation with la Sociedad Colquijirca) I 19 " Jose Maria Maurtua 2 Kederico Verastegui I 5 5 2 Felix y R. Otero Manuel Sanchez Cossio Pio Canta 4 4 Juan e Isidro Rodriguez y J. Barrera . . . Tiburcio Matos I Justo R. Ascarate yC'' I 2 3 Maria Moreno V. de Puch (in litigation with Dr. D. M. Maiz) 8 Silver MINAS DE PLATA PROVISIONALES. P. Steel G. Negrete, por M. Guzman Ceverino Lovaton J. Duran RamadoryJ. H. Rivas ; Bernardo Efio Andres Trujillo J. J. Valdivieso ; Justo R. Ascarate Manuel Moreno y Mais Pedro Narvaez Manuel Pardo L. C. Contreras J. Teresa de Fano ... D. A. Gordillo Carlos Minaya Benito A. Ijurra Manuel S. de La-Torre Andres Trujillo, L. A. Flores y C. Merino Andres Pajares Manuel A. de La-Torre A. H. de Ortiz y M. Nano Luis Marques 2 I I I I I 2 2 I 12 I I 2 2 3 4 I r I 3 2 3 GENERAL REGISTER OF MINES. CERRO DE PASCO — continued. 199 Mine. Silver Coal Not stated Proprietor. Number of holdings. Silver and lead Juan e Isidro Rodriguez Juan Languasco J. R. Azcarate y J. M. Escurra Sociedad Internacional Casimiro Noria Francisco Martinenchi Sociedad Colquijirca A. Gonzalez C. Minaya Pedro Narvaez y Benito A. Ijurra Erasmo Forzano Victoriano Rivera Jesiis Gutierrez Manuel N. Valdizan Gallo por Wenceslao Jimeno Leon Becerra Clodomiro Cardenas Manuel Mier y Teran Juan Rodriguez Agusto Lequerica Asuncion H. de Ortiz y Manuela Nano . P. Roman y L. de La Puente Jose Rufino Cardenas Casimiro Minaya Jaime Garreta y Toribio Diaz Compania La Esperanza Claudio Gutierriez Guillermo Myers Felipa Tello de Sanchez J. y Purificaciou Sanchez & others .. Juan A. Gordillo Toribia Diaz Ricardo Myers Federico Verastegui Manuel Benavides y Maria Lugo Manuel Benavides J. Steel y C» provl Sociedad Internacional provl Ignacio Alama provl Carolina Pellegrin y F. Alania Vicente Cabiedes Manuel Arrieta Clodomiro Cardenas y Manuel D. Ortiz 200 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. YAULI. Mine. Silver Proprietor. Pflucker Hermanos Compaiiia de Minas del Carmen Montero Hermanos Francisco Mendizabal yC Jose Maria de La-Torre Federico Fernandini J. M. Mendizabal y R. Cruz Mariano Mendizabal y HH Compaiiia San Luis . . .• Carlos M. Pflucker HH Jose Sebastian Argumedo T. Conroy y T. A. Gorre F. Piana y L Nigra Ricardo M. Mahr J. Schultzy C Emiliano Llona yC Francisco Mendizabal R. Mahr y J. Urizar P. Sieveking, F. La Torre Bueno & others Tomas Conroy Carmen K. de Mendizabal Aurelio Bravo Francisco B. Mendizabal Enrique J. Garland F. de La-Torre, B. J. Sieveking & others Enrique Stuber Jose Bannoni Julio DieckchfF Edmundo Solff J. Galvez, Tomas Barnar y Jorge Paque Pedro Felix Remy Alvino Carranza y Alejandro Haza ... Emiliano Llona Emiliano Llona y C* Marcelino Botoni y Carlos Duteran . . . Calixto Landa y T. Gorje F. J. Alvarez y J. Zacharias Demetrio F. Bravo Felipe Guerra Teofilo Gore y Pedro Villanueva Lizandro Montes Number of holdings. 17 9 27 I 4 I 2 I I 9 I I 4 3 I 4 4 3 4 3 2 I I 4 3 3 2 I I 3 I 2 I 4 I I I r 3 I 4 GENERAL REGISTER OF MINES. YAULI — continued. Mine. Proprietor. Number of holdings. Silver Bias Buscoviche y H. 2 Cinnabar Montero Hermanos I Coal Cailos M. Pflucker HH. 5 Silver and copper Francisco Alvarez I SilvE Silver, lead and sulphur HUAROCHIRI. Sociedad de los Andes Compania de Minas Americana Leonidas Aveleira Demetrio Olavegoya Compaiiia Casapalca Jose Pereyra Amalia G. de Solis D. Olavegoya, executors of Enrique J . Garland Geraldo Garland Pablo G. Solis A. Garland y C' Enrique Juan Garland Juan Harris y J. P. Sewell Juan Harris Compaiiia de Minas del Carmen Aveleira yC* Silver.. .Silver j Copper I Silver Silver and lead ... Coyper and silver Alejandro Delboy y C" JAUJA. Bernardo Pruss YAUYOS. Matias Flores ICA. A. Garland yC CHANCAY. Jacinto Arrieta Luis Peraldo & others Federico Verastegui y Manuela Bao AREQUIPA. Carlos Wagner y C" 2 3 2. 3 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. PUNO. Mine. Proprietor. Number of holdings. Silver Adolfo Guinacci, Francisco Bonati y Geronimo Costa " I Juan Martin Echenique I Adrian Moens .. I 7 3 Quicksilver Geronimo Costa Gold Justa R. Valdez, Luis Dahnsen y Jorge Yoskuhl )» Jos^ Maria Pena 2 Not indicated CASTRO VIREYNA. I C. M. Pfluckery HH CAYLLOMA. Gold and silver... | Maleo Corona y C ... Silver Copper ... Not stated LAMPA. Mariano y Lorenzo y Carrion Manuel Jaen y Marcelino Salas Feliciano Rivas Agustin Pastor y Feliciano M. Rivas Agustin Pastor y Federico Luna SUMMARY. Silver Mines 1,171 70 66 29 25 23 20 16 13 12 4 4 I I I Coal Copper Petroleum Gold and Silver Silver and Lead Silver and Copper Gold Not specified Sulphur Silver and Zinc Cinnabar Pyrites Silver and Quicksilver.. Gold Washing 1.456 The Register also contains the official number of the mime, the name, dimensions, and the locality in vfhich it is situated. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 203 CHAPTER XI. Political Organisation.— Departments and Provinces.— Education, &c. THE Peruvian Republic proclaimed its independence on the 28th of July, 1821. The executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic, whose term of office lasts four years. The executive functions are shared with the President and Vice-President by five Ministers of State, who are responsible for the acts they countersign. The constitution of the State is divided into three independent bodies, — the executive power, the legislative power (a Senate of 50 and a Chamber of no members), and the judicial power. Each province, as also the capital, Lima, elects its deputies by the indirect vote of the people, who nominate the electors, and these the President of the Republic, the senators, and the deputies. The Repubhc is divided into nineteen Departments, which are governed by a prefect ; and the departments into provinces, which are each governed by a sub-prefect. The President elects the prefects and sub-prefects. All questions of disputed claims against the Government are settled by the Supreme Court of Justice. The provincial constitutions are bound to insure to each province its administration of jus- tice, its municipal system, and primary education. The local government, or municipal corporation, established in each town, is caXled Juntas Munidpales. The members are elected from amongst the most influential inhabitants, who conduct all matters relating to local affairs. The chief magistrate, or mayor, is called the Alcalde Municipal, and the other members of the corporation are the Teniente Alcalde, Syndic (judge), two Jucces de Paz (justices of the peace), and three Regidores (aldermen). Serious charges are tried by Xh&Juez Derecho, or judge of the province, and the capital of each Department has a supreme court, where cases of importance are dealt with, the highest tribunal being the Supreme Court at Lima. 204 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. MALE POPULATION OF PERU, ACCORDING TO THE OFFICIAL CENSUS OF 1876. Obliged to pay the Personal Tax according to the law of November 14, 1886.^ DEPARTMENT OF ANCACHS. HUARI. Chacas 5,826 HuARi 4,503 San Luis 3,797 Llamellin 3,638 Huachis 3,256 Uco 2,436 Huantar 1,747 San Marcos 1,608 Chavin i,547 Aija Carhuaz Cotaparaco HuARAZ ... Yangas Marca Pampas Pararin Pariacoto . Recuay Yungar HUARAZ. HUAYLAS. Ancachs Caraz Huata Huaylas Macate Mato Mancos Pamparomas Pueblo Libre Shupluy Quillo 28,358 2,518 8,258 1,105 6,891 1,401 925 1,650 820 741 2,275 1,033 27,617 7,491 4,225 748 2,630 1,712 953 1,381 I.S5I 1,842 924 812 24,269 CAJATAMBO. Acas Ambar Andajes Aquia Caujul Cochas Cochamarca Cajacay Cajatambo Chiquiam Gorgor Huasta Huancapon Huayllacayan Mangas Ocros Oyon Pacllon Pachangara Ticllos 422 404 306 642 477 262 356 812 1,251 1,021 956 796 465 709 783 1,097 1,290 525 588 1,142 14,304 pallasca. Cabana 1,670 CORONGO 2,791 Llapo 1. 153 Pallasca 3,261 Tauca 1,334 10,209 POMABAMBA. Parobamba 3,586 Piscobamba 7,339 POMABAMBA 4,550 Sihuas 4,19s 19,670 ' This law established a tax to be paid by all males above twenty- one years and under sixty years, of one sole, paid half-yearly by those living in the Sierra, and two soles by those living on the Coast. MALE POPULATION OF PERU. 20S DEPARTMENT OF KTSCKCHS— Continued. SANTA. Casma 4>i89 Huarmey 651 Moro 1,698 Nepena 3,652 Santa 2,157 Yautan 424 12,771 SUMMARY. Huari 28,358 Huaraz 27,617 Huaylas 24,269 Cajatambo 14,304 Pallasca 10,209 Pomabamba 19,670 Santa 12,771 137,198 DEPARTMENT OF AMAZON. BONGARA. Copallin 311 Jumbilla 375 Peca loi San Carlos 348 Shipasbamba 300 Yambrasbamba I79 1,614 Chachapoyas. Ealsas 188 Chachapoyas 1,863 Chiliquin 288 Chuquibamba 168 Huancas 3 '4 Jalca 565 Levanto 188 Leymebamba 429 Molinopampa 328 OUeros 426 Omia 249 Qujnjaica 533 Santa Rosa 161 San Nicolas 832 Soloco 445 Soquia 557 Totora 428 7,962 Luya. Bagua 24g Colcabamba 282 Colcamar 526 Conila 401 Jamaica 279 Lamud 831 Lonya Chico 537 Lonya grande 47 1 Laja 637 Ocalli 310 Ocumal 409 Pisuqui 295 San Geronimo 401 Santo Tomas 596 Tingo 366 Yamon 149 6,738 SUMMARY. Bongara 1,614 Chachapoyas 7,962 Luya 6,738 16,314 2o6 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. DEPARTMENT OF APURIMAC. ABANCAY. Abancay 2,417 Circa 945 Curahuasi 2,404 Lambrama 1,165 Pichishua 1,272 8,203 andahuaylas. Andahuaylas 2,187 Chincheros 3,573 Huancarama 2,870 Huancaiay 3, 057 Occobamba 1,966 Ongoy 1,483 Pampachiri 2,217 San Geronimo 4,207 Talavera 2,175 23,735 antabamba. Antabamba 1,508 Oropesa 593 Pachaconas 445 Sabayno 860 aymaraes. Colcabamba Chalhuanca Chapimarca Sorayo Tapayrihua 1,844 2,532 1,004 1,842 1,739 8,961 cotabambas. Cotabambas 2,081 Chuquibambilla 2,443 Haquira ',453 Huayllati 1,882 Mamara 1,944 Mara 2,461 Tambobamba 2,407 3,406 14,671 summary. Abancay 8,203 Andahuaylas 23, 735 Antabamba 3,406 Aymaraes 8,961 Cotabambas 14,671 58,976 DEPARTMENT OF AREQUIPA. CASTILLA. LA UNION. Andagua 513 Aplao 968 Chachas 855 Choco 515 Huancarqui 1,768 Orcopampa 600 Pampacoica 3,345 Uraca 775 Viraco 3,275 12,614 Alca COTAHUASI . . Charcana Huaynacotas Pampafnarca Quechualla . . Sayla Tomepampa . . Tore 3,040 1,436 510 1,082 668 417 665 461 742 9,021 MALE POPULATION OF PERU. 207 DEPARTMENT OF AREQUIPA — continued. arequipa: Arequipa 12,733 Cayma 1,589 Characato 852 Chiguata 776 Paucarpata 1,480 Pocci 724 Quequena l,o74 Sabandia 524 Sachaca 1,329 Socabaya 1,327 Tiabaya 1,465 Uchumayo 531 Vitor 803 Yanahuara 2,010 Yura 462 27,679 camana. Acari 1 1 1 97 Atiquipa n8 Camana 2,883 Carabeli 1,883 Chala 207 Chaparra 361 Huanuhuanu 141 Jaqui 376 OcoSa 685 Quicacha 423 Sihuas 284 Yauca 158 8,716 ISLAY. ISLAY 1,046 Quilca 331 Tambo 3,598 4.975 CAVLLOMA. Achoma 320 Cabanaconde 1,116 Callalli 535 Caylloma 1,157 Coporaque 290 Chivay 597 Ichupampa 208 Lari 332 LIuta 442 Maca 243 Madrigal 228 Sihuas 651 Tapay 687 Tisco 707 Tuti 522 Yanque 783 8,818 CONDESnVOS. Andaray 623 Cayaracu 373 Chuquibamba 2,527 Salamanca 963 Yanaquihua 738 5,224 SUMMARY. Arequipa 27,679 Camana 8,716 Castilla 12,614 Condesuyos 5,224 Cajdloma 8,818 Islay 4,975 La Union 9,02i 77,047 208 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. DEPARTMENT OF AYACUCHO. CANGALLO. Canaria i.ioi Cangallo 1,565 Carapo 57^ Colca 622 Chuschi 1,260 Hualla 1,925 Huambalpa — Huancuraylla 557 Paras 764 Sancos 914 Totos 769 Vischongo 55^ 10,611 HUAMANGA. Acos VinchoR 1,668 AYACUCHO 4,618 Chiara 918 Quinua 1,739 Santiago 1,821 Socos Vinchos 2,342 Tambillo 2,035 15,141 HUANTA. Huamanguilla 2,442 HuANTA 3,048 Luricocha 1,927 7,417 LA MAR. Auco 2,377 Chungui 2,253 San Miguel 4,562 Tambo 3,3i8 12,510 LUCANAS. Aucara 947 Cabana 1,062 Charhuanca 3S2 Chipao 843 Huacaiia 488 Laramate 1,542 Otoca 703 Pacyo 540 PuQUio 1,572 Querobamba 931 Sancos 540 San Juan 939 Santa Lucia 382 Soras 430 11,301 PARINACOCHAS. Colta 822 CORACORA 2,023 Corculla 774 Chumpi 872 Lampa i,78S Oyolo 1,035 Pacapausa 1,641 Pararca 749 Pausa 1,197 Pullo 1,094 11,992 SUMMARY. Cangallo 10,611 Huamanga 15,141 Huanta 7,417 Lucanas 11,301 Parinacochas 11,992 La Mar 12,510 68,972 MALE POPULATION OF PERU. 209 DEPARTMENT OF CAJAMARCA. CAJABAMBA. Cachachi I>5'7 Cajabamba 1,827 Cauvay 603 Colcabamba 713 Huceyllabamba 648 Pampa 829 NuiSunabamba 519 Purihual 435 Sayapullo 75 1 Sitacocha I1292 9,134 CAJAMARCA. Asuncion 2,016 CAJAMARCA 6,937 Cospan 1,644 Chetilla 690 Encanada 1,391 Ichocan 2, 238 Jesus ^,498 Llacanova 619 Magdalena 449 Matara 748 San Marcos 3,452 San Pablo 3,746 26,425 CELEDIN. Celedin 1,943 Chumuch 866 Huashmin 580 Huauco 898 Lucmapampa 684 Sorochuco 1,308 6,279 CONTUMAZA. Cascas 1,760 Contumaza 2,577 Guzmango 1,255 Trinidad 982 6,574 CHOTA. Cachen i,i8i Cochabamba 1,333 Cutervo 3, 182 Chata 6,463 Huambos 1,522 Lajas 1,926 Llama 1,384 Paccha 836 Pion 366 Querocoto 1 ,032 Socota 1,003 Tacabamba 3,898 24,126 HUALGAYOC. Bambamarca 3,947 Hualgayoc 4,285 Llapa 2, 203 Niepos 1,457 San Gregorio 1,084 Santa Cruz 3,429 San Miguel 5,143 21,548 JAEN. Bellavista 281 Callayuc 535 Colasay 1,096 Cujillo 435 Jaen . 569 Chores 123 Jaen 509 Pimpingos 494 QuerocotiUo 788 Sallique 370 San Ignacio 675 San Felipe 386 Tabaconas 364 6,625 2IO THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. DEPARTMENT OF CAJAMARCA — continued. Brought forward 48,412 Chota 24,126 Hualgayoc 2 1, 548 Jaen 6,625 SUMMARY. Cajabamba 9,I34 Cajamarca 26,425 Celedin 6,279 Contumaza 6,574 Carried forward 48,412 100,711 PROVINCE OF CALLAO. Callao, including Bellavista 20,218 DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO. AUTA Limatambo Zuritc AcoMAYO ... Pomacanclii Rondocan ... Sangarara ... Calca Lares . . . Pisac . . . Coporaque Checca Langui Layo Ocoruro Pichihua . . Yanaoca . . Yauri 3,918 3,122 3,561 10,601 3.153 2,522 1,391 1,732 8,798 3.367 1,475 2,256 7.098 4.233 1,918 1,613 1,112 478 1.570 1,841 4,451 17,216 CANCHIS. Cacha Checcacupe Marangani Pampamarca SiCUANI Tinta 'Belen Matriz San Bias d, ^ S. Cristobal , Santa Ana Santiago . . . . O is. Jeronimo . San Pedro San Sebastian .... CHUMBIVILCAS. Capacmarca Colquemarca Chamaca Lititaca Sto. Tomas and Llusco. Velille 2,446 2,851 2,143 1,166 6,437 2,908 17,951 536 3,820 803 537 39S 6ii 1,296 1,389 1,098 10,485 S94 3,207 874 3,550 782 9,007 MALE POPULATION OF PERU. DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO — continued. PAUCARTAMBO. Caycay Colquepata Ccatcca Challabamba PAUCARTAMBO QUISPICANCHI. Marcapata Ocongate Oropeza Quiquijana Urcos Accha CoUcha Ccapi Huanoquite Omacha Paruro ... 1,609 1,059 1.483 1,100 1,871 7,122 1,028 i>3S4 2,260 3.113 2,484 10,239 894 894 1,270 1,259 2,459 urubamba. Maras OUantay-tambo Urubamba CONVENCION. Echarati Huayopata Occobamba Santa Ana summary. Acomayo Auta Calca Canas Canchis Convencion Cuzco Chumbivilcas Paruro Paucartambo Quispicanchi Urubamba 3,083 1,308 3,467 7,858 1.329 926 794 2,326 5,375 8,798 10,601 7,098 17,216 17,951 5.375 10,485 9,007 8,464 7,122 10,239 7,858 120,214 DEPARTMENT OF HUANCAVELICA. castrovireyna. Arma 899 Castrovireyna 679 Cordova 1,775 Chavin 768 Huachos 626 Huangascar 691 Huaytara 474 Pilpichaca 824 Chocarvo 1. 229 7.965 tayacaja. Auco Colcabamba Huaribamba Locroja Mayoc Pampas Paucarbamba Sakabamba Surcubamba 1. 315 2,227 1,861 1,664 1,885 3,806 2,470 2,450 1,464 19,142 P 2 212 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. DEPARTMENT OF HUANCAVELICA — continued. ANGARAES. ACOBAMBA 3,804 Caja 2,316 Julcamarca 3,597 Lircay 3,244 12,961 HUANCAVELICA, Acoria 4,437 Conayca 1,221 HUANCAVELICA 3,970 Moya 2,174 11,802 SUMMARY. Angaraes 12,961 Castrovireyna 7,965 Huancavelica 11,802 Tayacaja 19,142 51,870 DEPARTMENT OF HUANUCO. dos de mayo. Aguamiro 1,280 Banos 1,127 Chavin 1,745 Chupan 1,633 Huallanca 849 Jesus 1,298 Obas 1,667 Pachas 1,701 11,301 HUANUCO. ~~~~ Chinchas 1,354 Higueras 1, 918 Huacar 2,821 HuANUCO 5,134 Panas 2,413 Pozuzo 248 Santa Maria del Valle . 3,307 17,195 HUAMALIES. Arancay 687 Huacaybamba 1,362 Huacrachuco 2,312 Llata 2,246 Monzon 783 Pinza 1,984 Singa 1,412 10,786 SUMMARY. Dos de Mayo 11,301 Huamalies 10,786 Huanuco 17,195 39,282 MALE POPULATION OF PERU. 213 DEPARTMENT OF ICA. ICA. ICA 4,916 Nazca 1,716 Palpa 1,901 Pueblo Nuevo 2,244 S. Juan Bautista 3,734 Santiago i,473 Yauca 610 16,594 CHINCHA. Chincha Alta 8,259 Chincha Baja 4,690 Humay 1 ,010 Pisco 4,217 Tambo Mora 416 18,592 SUMMARY. Chincha 18,592 lea i6,S94 35.186 DEPARTMENT OF JUNIN. JAUJA. Apata 3,854 Cincos 1,782 Comas 2, 604 Concepcion 2,526 Huaripampa 2,703 jAUjA 10,341 Mito 2,368 Orcotuna 2,440 28,618 PASCO. """""" Cariva 4,356 Cerro 4,775 Chacayan 2,709 Huancabamba 428 Huariaca 4,327 Huayllay 491 Ninacaca 1,282 Yanahuanca 3,912 22,280 HUANCAYO. ^^~' Coica 2,556 Chongos 1,645 Chupaca 5,729 HuANCAYO 4,902 Carried forward 14,832 Brought forward 14,832 Pariahanca 2,632 San Geronimo 2,940 San Juan 1,691 Sicaya i,4So Zapallanga 4,950 28,49s Acobamba 4,878 Carhuamayo 2,296 Chanchamayo 1,071 Junin 3,872 Marcapomacocha 630 Tarma 6,667 Vitor 618 Yauli 2,572 22,604 Huancayo 28,495 Jauja 28,618 Pasco 22,280 Tarma 22,604 101,997 214 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU DEPARTMENT OF LAMBAYEQUE. LAMBAYEQUE. Ferrinafe 4,041 Jayanca 1,597 LAMBAYEQUE 4,315 Mochumi 1,121 Morrope 2,435 Motupe 3, 1 10 Almos 2,075 Pacora 814 Saks 5,944 Sanjose 867 26,319 CHICLAYO. Chiclayo Chongoyape Eten Lagunas ; Monsefii Picsi Reque Sana 6,775 990 2,063 S85 4,341 2,004 780 1,715 19,253 SUMMARY. ~~'^^ Chiclayo 19,253 Larabayeque 26,319 45,572 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERTAD. PATAZ. Bambamarca Buldibuyo Cajamarquilla Chilia Huancaspata . . . ^ . . . Huaylillas Guayo Parcoy Pataz Soledad Tayabamba Uchumarca PACASMAYO. Chepen Guadalupe Jequetepeque Pacasmayo Pueblo Nuevo Sanjose San Pedro 753 1,177 687 1,853 2,239 504 459 921 2,100 274 3,046 274 14,167 2,417 2,150 463 566 460 747 2,541 9,344 OTUZCO. Charat 877 Huaranchal 398 La Cuesta 321 Lucma 907 Marmot 415 Otuzco 5,238 Salpo 1,034 Sinsicap 1,245 Usquil 3,939 TRUJILLO. Ascope Chicama Chocope Huanchaco Mngdal. de Cao Moche Payjan Santiago de Cao Simbai Trujillo Viru 14,374 3,657 1,452 1,904 350 562 669 1,52s 1,296 654 5,58s 1.740 19,394 MALE POPULATION OF PERU. 215 DEPARTMENT OF LIBERTAD — continued. HUAMACHUCO. HUAMACHUCO 7,301 Marcabal 1,263 MoUepata 2,774 Stgo. de Chuco 5,882 Sartirubamba 1,702 18,922 SUMMARY. Huamachuco 18,922 Otuzco 14,374 Pacasmayo 9,344 Pataz 14,167 Trujillo 19,394 76,201 DEPARTMENT OF LIMA. CANTA. Araguay Atavillos altos Atavillos baj os Canta Huamantanga Lampian Pacaraos S. Buenaventura .... Canete.... Coayllo Chilca Lunahuana Mala Pacaran .... San Luis .. HUAROCHIRI. Caiampoma Casta Chorrillos Huarochiri Matucana Olleros Quinti San Damian San Mateo Santa Eulalia 659 673 814 1,340 1,842 804 664 708 7,504 2,996 630 1,076 2,960 1,344 743 3,093 12,842 524 552 861 809 1,086 314 837 644 832 665 7,124 Aucallama. Barranca Chancay . Checras .. HUACHO Huaura , . . Ihuari Paccho . . Pativiica . Sayan Supe CHANCAY. LIMA. Ancon Ate Barranco Carabayllo Chorrillos . ( Ctel. 2° 8,541 . O Id. 2° 14,479 • n \ Id. 3° 10,131 . S I Id. 4» 10,503 , " L Id. S''",58S. Lurigancho Lurin Magdalena Miraflores Pachacamac Surco ■0 1,559 1,596 3,158 I, J 54 4,864 2,602 759 1,203 2,611 1,554 1,704 22,764 379 2,107 553 3,190 2,373 52,239 1,036 1,049 1,089 682 756 1,310 66,763 2l6 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. DEPARTMENT OF LIMA — continued. YAUYOS. Ayaviri 463 Chupamarca 809 Huanec 1,04 Laraos . Omas 1,837 320 Pampas 1,183 Tauiipampa Vinac Yauyos 497 361 1,110 7,628 summary. Canta 7,504 Canete 12,842 Chancay 22,764 Huarochiri 7,124 Lima 66,763 Yauyos 7,628 124,625 DEPARTMENT OF LORETO. ALTO AMAZONAS. Andoas Balzapuerto Cahuapanas Jeveros Lagunas Santa Cruz Yurimaguas 603 732 853 733 470 652 4,043 BAJO AMAZONAS. IQUITOS 1,565 Loret o 786 Nauta 1,699 Parinari 578 Pevas 584 5,212 HUALLAGA. Catalina 232 Juanfui 466 Lamas 4,302 Pachiza 45 1 Saposoa 1,992 Sarayacu 317 Tarapoto 5,440 Tingo Maria 763 13,963 moyobamba. Calzada 526 Habana 614 Moyobamba 4,728 Rioja 2,315 Soritor 743 8,926 SUMMARY. Alto Amazonas 4,043 Bajo Amazonas 5,212 Huallaga 13,963 Moyobamba 8,926 32,144 MALE POPULATION OF PERU. 217 PROVINCE OF MOQUEGUA. Carumas 1. 154 Yehuua i>oo7 Ilo 494 MoQUEGUA 4,272 Onrate 1.733 Puquina 1 , 799 Torata 2,757 Ubinas 1,303 14,519 DEPARTMENT OF PIURA. AYABACA. Ayabaca 7,459 Cumbicus 2,35° Chalaco 2,531 Frias 3,92° Suyo 1,151 17,411 huancaeamba. huancabamba 5,073 Huarmaca 2,636 Sondor 737 8,446 PAYTA. Amotape 1,503 Arenal 336 Golan 986 Huaca 1,299 Payta 1,053 Querecotillo 1,697 SuUana 3,204 10,16 TUMBES. Corrales 1,078 S. Juan de la Virgen. ... 568 Tarumilla 167 TuMBES 1,127 2,940 PIURA. Castilla 620 Catacaos 9,187 Chulucanas 2,711 Morropon 2,301 PlURA 2,962 Salitral 613 Sechura 4,534 Tambo Grande 3,§96 26,824 SUMMARY. Ayabaca 1 7,41 1 Huancabamba 8,446 Payta 10,168 Piura 26,824 Tumbes 2, 940 65,789 2l8 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. DEPARTMENT OF PUNO. AZANGARO. Achaya , 905 Arapa i)798 Asillo 3,093 AZANGARO 4,846 Caminaca 1,004 Chupa 1,679 Munani l>300 Potoni 702 Pupuja 2,284 Putina 1,803 Saman 2,407 San Anton 802 San Jose 973 23,596 CARABAYA. Ajoyani 172 Ayapata i ,096 Coasa 882 Corani 478 Crucero 590 Ytuata 797 Macusani 720 Ollachea 517 Usicayos 409 5,66i PUNO. Accra 4, 142 Atuncolla 1,031 Cabana 1,926 Capachica 2,936 Caracoto 2,451 Coata 775 Chucuito 3,381 Juliaca 3,124 PaucarcoUa 1,019 Pichacani 969 PuNO 3,574 San Antonio 341 Tiquillaca 1,097 Vilquo 1,473 28,239 CHUCUITO. Desaguadero 448 Huacullani 967 Ylave 5,544 Jijl'r 2,913 Pisacoma 560 Pamata 1,972 Santa Rosa 752 Yunguyo 3,856 Zepita 4,097 21,119 HUANCANi. Cojata 1,189 Conima 1,616 HUANCANE 4,670 Inchupalla 1,314 Moho 3,729 Pusi 1,057 Rosaspata 1, 771 Taraco 2,063 Vilque chico 4,639 22,048 LAMPA. Ayaviri 3,737 Cabanilla 2,383 Calapuja 338 Cupi 376 Lampa 3,202 Llali; 386 Macari 2,473 Nicasio 486 Nunoa 1, 188 Ocuviri 475 Orurillo 2,535 Pucara 1,704 Santa Rosa 1,468 Umachiri 974 Vilavila 303 22,028 MALE POPULATION OF PERU. 219 DEPARTMENT OF PUNO — continued. SANDIA. Cuyo-Cuyo 1,I45 Patambuco 801 Poto 412 Phora 945 Quiaca 427 Sandia 2,560 Sirca 376 6,666 SUMMARY. Azangaro 23,596 Carabaya 5.66l Chucuito 21,119 Huancane 22,048 Lampa 22,028 Puno 28,239 Sandia 6,666 129,357 GENERAL SUMMARY OF DEPARTMENTS. Departments. Total Male Population. Foreign Male Population. Peruvians from 21 to 6oyrs. Total liable to pay tax. Amazonas Ancachs .... 16,314 137,198 58,976 77,047 68,972 100,711 20,218 120,214 51,870 39,282 35,186 101,997 45,572 76,201 124,625 32,144 14,519 65,789 129.357 10 4,396 27 2,180 66 6.973 133 13 253 5.944 647 4,226 9,547 32,222 373 874 1,261 825 7,155 53,264 26,491 31,251 32,070 38.981 5.487 53,743 21,694 15.635 13.434 42,086 17,180 28,639 40,352 11,819 5.615 24,711 55,770 7.165 57,660 26,518 .33,431 32,136 39,491 12,460 53.876 21,707 15,888 19,378 42,733 21,406 38,186 72,574 12,192 6,489 25.972 56.595 Apurimac Arequipa Ayacucho Cajamarca Callao Cuzco Huancavelica . Huanuco lea Lambayeque . . . La Libertad ... Moquegua Puno Tacna Total Males ... „ Females. Grand total . . . 1,316,192 1,305.732 70,480 525,377 595.857 2,621,924 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. EDUCATION. Education has received great attention at the hands of the Government of late years in Peru. There are six universities, — at Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa, Truxillo, Puno, and Guamango. The State supports thirty-three colleges for men, and eighteen for women ; 1,578 schools for boys, and 729 for girls. Lima itself has eight national colleges; one for the study of jurisprudence ; an ecclesiastical seminary ; a college for the study of medicine and other sciences; one for secondary instruction ; a normal school ; a naval and military institute ; a college for obstetrics ; a school of art and trades; an industrial municipal school; and the School of Civil Engineering and Mines. Altogether there are 112 establishments in Lima for educational purposes, thirty-nine for boys, sixty-eight for girls, and six mixed. The money voted by the State for educational purposes in 1877 amounted to 2,124,407 soles (^^431, 102) a year. The School of Civil Engineering and Mines was founded in 1876, with a staff of eminent professors; this institution, which is the first of its kind in South America, is doing inestimable service in preparing the youths of Peru with a sound and practical knowledge of engineering and mineralogical science, which is indispensable for the pursuit of mining industry, and exceedingly necessary in a country like Peru, upon which its future so much depends. There are also in the capital the following public establishments : — a public library, museum, gallery of paintings, meteorological observatory, seventeen hospitals and asylums; seventeen societies, including benevolent and charitable institutions, gymnasium, &c. ; seventeen clubs, in- cluding English, German, and Italian, English cricket, lawn tennis, &c. Peru has produced many excellent sculptors and painters. Amongst the latter the name of Monteros stands pre- eminent. His celebrated painting, " The Funeral Obsequies of Atahualpa, the Last of the Incas," has been described as a grand masterpiece, and one of the most famous of modern paintings. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. EMINENT MEN OF SCIENCE. Peru has produced many eminent men in literature and science, amongst whom Senores Mariano Fehpe Paz Soldan and Antonio Raimondi will be ever remembered in the country's history for their deep researches, and the valuable works they have contributed for their country's fame and benefit. The former is famous for his renowned travels and geographical surveys. He has left a most complete geographical work of the country — an atlas and a dictionary, the most perfect work ever published. It is from Senor Paz Soldan's Atlas that the map which accompanies this work has been carefully compiled. Peru has only lately mourned the loss of her eminent citizen and devoted worker, Senor Paz Soldan, who died on the 31st December, 1886, aged sixty-five years, it is said of broken heart at his country's misfortunes. In the " Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society," for June, 1887, Mr. Clements Markham, C.B., pays a just tribute to the memory of the late Senor Paz Soldan, who was an honorary member of the Society. The name of Senor Antonio Raimondi is honoured throughout the whole scientific world for his valuable con- tributions to all branches of science. He is one of the most eminent men Peru has ever produced. His energies in promoting the interests of Peru have been ceaseless. He has travelled from one extremity of the country to the other, fearless of dangers, — amongst the savage tribes, studying their customs, and descending unknown rivers, collecting minute accounts of all the natural history, geography, geology, antiquities, botany, zoology, mineralogy, &c., of the country ; and he has compiled several stu- pendous volumes relating to his studies. Thanks to Providence his valuable life is yet spared to Peru, and he is still actively engaged in completing his great work in order that the vast resources of the country may be properly known. 222 .THE AMAZON- PROVINCiS OF. PERU. ' On many pccasioris. thg'se two eminent., men have contri- buted papers of gre^t interest to the ■ Royal Geographical Society, London, and lately the worthy Chairman said in reference to .the^e .devoted scientists — "That so long as Peru has such men as Paz Soldan and Raimondi to guide her, she must progress.'' CHARACTER OF THE PERUVIAN PEOPLE. The hospitality of the Peruvian people is acknowledged by all Eurepeans who have visited Peru. They are also very charitable, -as testified by the numerous institutions supported by voluntary contributions. The Peruvian ladies are well known for their domestic attachment and patriotism. -Their merits were admirably displayed (Turing the late war, when they made great sacri fices for their country's- cause, by giving up, not only their money, but their jewellery and other valuables. Eminent English and German travellers to Peru have testified to the noble a,nd genial character of the Peruvian ladies. Dr. Hutchinson, late H.B.M. Consul to Peru, in his work, " Two Years in Peru," says :^" Much has been said, and with very good reason, of the beauty of the ladies of Lima. During my two years' residence out there, I have seen many of them exceeding, in every grace of woman- hood, even the angelic designs of Dr. Fuentes' work. But as I know a good deal has been written condemnatory of their moral character, for which depreciation I believe there exists little foundation, I consider it my duty to protest against such unmanliness. I have often heard the changes rung upon the same topic, in reference to Paraguay, the Banda Oriental, and the Argentine Republic, with all of which I am acquainted for fifteen years ; and I have no hesitation in saying, from my experience of South America, that not only regarding Peru but elsewhere, within my know- ledge, they are perfectly foundationless and equally untrue." The ladies of Lima, in addition to their unimpeachable morale, can courit amongst them numbers of high literary celebrity. PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS. 223 k Stevenson says, op. cit., vol. i, p. 390 : — " Chastity is more common, and infidelity more uncommon, amongst the Peruvians than in most countries of the Old World." Doctor von Tschudi, the great German traveller, thus describes the beauty of the Peruvian ladies: — "Nature has lavishly endowed them with many of her choicest gifts. In figure they are unustially slender, and rather tall ; and they are especially remarkable for small, elegantly formed feet. Their fair faces are animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their features are pfeasing ; the nose being well formed, though in general not small ; tlje mouth invariably adorned with two rows of brilliant white teeth; and their long black hair, arranged in plaits, falls gracefully over the bosom and shoulders. Add to all this a captivating grace of manner and' deportment, joined to an exceeding degree of gentleness and amiability, and it will, be readily admitted that the Limena (a Lima lady) is a noble specimen of female loveliness." PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS. , The following are Daily newspapers : — El Comercio, El Nacional, La Opinion National, El Bien Publico, La Epoca, El Peru, El Artesano. Bi-vs^EEKLY : — El Sol, La Voz Monastica. Weekly : — Revista Catolica, El Progreso, Perlas Flores, Revista Social, La Liiz Electria, L^Echo du Peru. Fortnightly : — El Monitor Medico, El Alteneo de Lima, La Voce d' Italia. Monthly : — La Revista Masonica, La Cronica Medica, La Gaceta Cientifica, Boletin de Minos, Boletin de la Academia, Libri de Medicina, La JLo?neopaiica, La Ilus- tracion Popular, La Rosa del Feni, Boletin de Adnanas, El Peruano (Official Gazette). . 2 24 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER XII. Emigration Laws. LAW FOR EUROPEAN IMMIGRATION OF 1 873. UNDER the enlightened government of Don Manuel Pardo, in 1873, statutes were drawn up, and a Society organised called the European Immigration Society, divided into five sections, for the purpose of establishing European colonies in Peru, as follows : — 1. England and Ireland. 2. France, Belgium, and Switzerland. 3. Germany, Austria, and Holland. 4. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 5. Italy, Spain, and Portugal. The following is a copy of the law passed by Congress : — MANUEL PARDO, Constitutional President of the Republic. Whereas the Congress has passed the following law : — The Congress of the Peruvian Republic considering : — It being unquestionable that immigration contributes to the prosperity of nations, has passed the following law : — Article i. — The Executive Power is hereby autho- rised — (i.) To expend the sum of 100,000 soles yearly in the encouragement of European immigration, on the basis which may be most suitable to each nation and to each kind of labouring class. (2.) To distribute to the immigrants irrigated lands belonging to the nation. EMIGRATION TO PERU. 225 (3.) The colonists will be obliged to repay the Treasury the expenses they may occasion, excepting those of transport, according to the conditions the Government may establish. Given in the Government House, Lima, the 28th day of April, 1873. ,c- jx r Manuel Pardo, President. V ig" ; j Francisco Rosas, Minister of the Interior. According to the report of the Society, issued in 1S76, 916 immigrants were sent from Europe, of which 856 were Italians, 35 Spaniards, 17 French, i German, and 7 mis- cellaneous nationalities. These were successfully established in various parts of the country, 380 of them being located in the Chanchamayo valley — the cost of their pas- sage, implements, seeds, and materials, &c., being defrayed by the Peruvian Government — where they cultivate coffee, cocoa, rice, maize, tobacco, vanilla, plantains, pines, yucas, camiotes (kind of potato), papayas, &c., and possess horses, mules, pigs, cows, and poultry. Notwithstanding the attacks they at first received from the Indians (Chunchos), the colony is now progressing favourably, and is the first step for more extensive colonisation. EMIGRATION TO PERU. Extract front Report of the Peruvian Commissioners at the Agricultural Congress of Paris, 1878. The important question of immigration, and principally that of establishing European colonies in Peru, is one of those questions the solution of which interests in the highest degree the agricultural and commercial industries of the country in general, as well as its economic future ; it is for this reason that the Peruvian Government endeavours to favour immigration by all possible means. Up to the present time — if it is true that the efforts of the Administration have been crowned with a certain amount of success, since many immi- grants have already settled in Peru — it is none the less true Q 226 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. that this result does not appear, however, to be altogether satisfactory, especially when we compare the immigration to Peru with that which flows from the Old Continent, for example, to the United States, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic. Peru offers to colonists, as much by its agri- culture as by its mines, conditions as advantageous, if not better, than those of any of the countries of North and South America can offer them. The Peruvian people are affable and kind. In temperament they sympathise well with the European. How could it happen otherwise, when Peruvians of the well-to-do class are of European origin ? Their habits and customs are those of the European race, their tendencies and aspirations the same. Peruvians see in the European immigrant a brother ; they open their arms and offer him the greatest hospitality. The Peruvian Legislation is one of the most liberal, having been built up upon those of several European nations. The laws reconcile exclusive rights to nobody : foreigners and native suhjects are treated upon the same footi7ig. "The State, with the object of favouring immigration, makes gratuitous concessions of land to the colonists, on conditions especially advantageous, and such as no other country can equal. The Houses of Assembly and Repre- sentatives have at various times voted considerable sums of money for the purpose of increasing and facilitating European immigration. In fact, the expenses of transport of the immigrants from their countries to the place of colo- nisation have been entirely defrayed by the State, which, moreover, has paid to the colonists a certain daily sum of money, and has supplied them with implements, tools, seeds, and domestic animals on very advantageous con ditions, according to the regulations of the Immigration Society. Notwithstanding all these advantages, immigration to Peru has only been in limited numbers, and not in pro- portion to the advantages that the country offers. Amongst the primary causes of this, the principal obstacle to European immigrants coming to Peru is the great distance that they have to travel before arriving at the place of their destination, in comparison with that which separates them from the United States, Brazil, or the Argentine Republic. When emigrants embark at their own expense, it is the EMIGRATION TO PERU. 227 question of economy in money and time, which places them in the necessity of preferring the nearest centres of colo- nisation. Another cause is that Peru is one of the Republics in South America the least known and appre- ciated in its just value. Its institutions, far from being in decay, have entered the broad path of progress, and it is a country a hundred times, or rather a thousand times, richer than many think it to be." "The Peruvian Government reserves the works on the coast for the Chinese immigrants, directing all its efforts for European colonisation to one of the most beautiful and most fertile regions of the whole world, — the Chanchamayo Valley. This region is situated on the eastern descent of the Andes, about 300 kilometres (186 miles) from Lima. It belongs to the great valley of the Amazon, and more especially to the Ucayali, the principal affluent of the Amazon. This valley takes its name from the principal river which waters it, the Chanchamayo, formed by the junction of the Tulumayo and the Ulcumayo. The Chan- chamayo, — the general course of which is more or less W.N.W., — receives on its left bank the waters of the Paucartambo, where it takes the name of Perene, which runs in an easterly direction, and afterwards receives, on its right bank, the Ene, formed by the Apurumac and the Montaro ; it continues the same course, under the name of the Tambo, and afterwards, flowing northerly, it unites with the Urubamba to form the Ucayali, wliich, in junction with the Maraiion, constitutes the greatest river of the globe, known under the name of the Amazon. It is to the high part of the valley, watered by the Chanchamayo, Perene, and the Tambo, and their branches, that the Peruvian Government directs European emigration. "Although the climate of the Chanchamayo is warm and humid, it is, nevertheless, well known to be very healthy, and hence it is that efforts have for a long time been made to profit by its very advantageous conditions. A line of railroad which is to unite the Pacific coast with the fruitful zone of the Montana, and with other centres not less important from a mineral point of view, has already reached the summit of the Cordilleras, where the locomotive gives forth its shrieking whistle after rising to the height of 4,800 Q 2 228 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. mfetres (15,744 feet) without having to pass over a steeper gradient than four per cent. ; in spite of that the direct dis ■ tance that it passes does not exceed 170 kilometres (105 J miles). The Transandean Callao-Lima Oroya Railroad, which, without contradiction, is one of the boldest under- takings that has been constructed up to the present time, will shortly place the rich Chanchamayo region in com- munication with the Pacific coast. This fertile valley can also be placed in connexion with the Atlantic, by means of steamers which navigate the Amazon, and which, proceeding up the Ucayali, the Tambo, and the Perene, come within some twenty leagues of the centre of the colony; or better, from the Ucayali, entering by the Pachetea, they can reach the waters of the Pichis, at the foot of the northern slope of the Cerro de la Sal (Salt Hills). " Administratively the Chanchamayo district is situated in the province of Tarma, under the jurisdiction of the Junin Department. The geographical position of Fort San Ramon, situated at the angle formed by the confluence of the Tulumayo and the Oxabamba, to form the Chan- chamayo, is at a height of 825 metres (2,706 feet) above the level of the sea, and, according to Werthemann, is 11" 6' 33" lat. S., and 77° 37' 36" long. W. from the meridian of Paris. The present centre of the colony is La Merced, situated on the left bank of the Chanchamayo about eight kilometres down the river from the San Ramon fort. This town, which at present numbers about 300 colonists, stands 730 metres (2,400 feet) above the level of the sea, and occupies the site of an old Indian encampment. "The climate of the Chanchamayo valley, as we have already said, is warm and humid. Rain falls in this valley frequently and copiously from October or November to April or May. The days are tolerably warm, and the nights somewhat cool. The maximum and minimum tem- perature varies between thirty and sixteen degrees centi- grade. The mean annual temperature can be based upon regions climaterically analogous, comprised between twenty and twenty-one degrees centigrade. In spite of the high temperature, during the dry season the air remains almost saturated with humidity, and the wet and dry bulb ther- mometers show but little difference of temperature, according EMIGRATION TO PERU. 229 to the result of the observations made by A. Werthemann. From a hygienic point of view, this warm and humid climate, without rigorous winters to invigorate the organism, would appear to be unhealthy for Europeans, compared with analogous climates, in which the white man has to abstain from hard and continuous work. Nothing of this kind is, however, manifested here; epidemic complaints are altogether unknown in Chanchamayo. This exceptional circumstance removes from this locality the inconveniences of its intertropical situation, preserving for it the advantage of being a healthy region. This is, no doubt, owing to its height, which reaches to 1,000 metres (3,285 feet), and this situation makes it accessible to the fresh breezes from the east, which during the day moderate the heat of the sun, and prevents the stagnation of the miasms which would otherwise be formed under the combined and destructive influence of heat and humidity. The intermit- tent winds which blow on the Cordilleras also refresh these valleys. The absolute absence of epidemics in the Chanchamayo valley, and the freedom with which the white man can support himself there, working in the sun, without too much fatigue and without injury to his health, as has been proved by experience of over twenty years, that is, from the time when the first colonies were established in this valley, demonstrate that the presumed unsuitability of colonising the regions of the torrid zone with European populations is without foundation. "The establishment of European colonies in the Chan- chamayo and in the neighbouring regions, appears to us, at once, a solved problem, and as such, from under other points of view, a problem which interests greatly the economic condition of Peru, and explains at once the efforts which the Government are making to colonise these regions, and the considerable expense which has been incurred in the construction of a line of railway across the steep summit of the Cordilleras, a gigantic work, the transcendental importance of which is far from being appreciated. " 230 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. EMIGRATION TO PERU. The laws of Peru allow European immigration, and grant protection to foreigners in building on their property equally with natural-born citizens. The Peruvian Government grants 250,000 square metres of land free to every able-bodied person, upon condition that it is brought into cultivation. CODIGO CIVIL OF PERU. Extracts from the Civil Code of the Laws of Peru relating to Peruvian and .Foreign Subjects : — ■ Art. 30. — The Constitution designates who are Peruvians, and who are foreigners. Art. 31. — All Peruvians enjoy civil rights, unless they are such persons upon whom the law expresses prohibition. Art. 32.— The civil rights are independent of the quality of citizens. (In whatever station of society a person may be, all enjoy the same rights.) Art. 33. — Foreigners enjoy in Peru all the rights apper- taining to the security of their persons and of their goods, and the free administration of the same. Art. 34.' — The acquisition of immovable property and the conditions of the trading of foreign subjects will depend on the treaties concluded with their respective nations, and of the laws and special regulations made. Art. 35. — As regards the succession of foreign subjects, what is laid down in the chapters relative to the same in this code will be observed. Art. 36. — No inhabitant of Peru can exempt himself from the fulfilment of the obligations contracted in the Republic made in conformity with the laws. Art. 37. — Peruvians as well as foreigners domiciled in Peru, wherever they may be, can be cited before the tribunals of the Republic for the fulfilment of the contract which they may have entered into, even if in a foreign country, on matters which the laws of Peru allow to be contracted. CODIGO CIVIL OF PERU. 23 1 Art. 38. — Foreigners who may happen to be in Peru, although not domiciled, may be compelled to fulfil any contract entered into with a Peruvian, although in a foreign country, upon matters which may not be prohibited. Art. 39. — The foreigner, although he may be absent from the Republic, may be cited before the tribunals of it. I St. When the matter treats of any action concerning goods which are in Peru ; 2nd. When it treats of any civil action, in consequence of crime or of a fault, which the foreigner may have committed in Peru ; 3rd. When it treats of an obligation contracted with the foreigner, in which it may have been stipulated that the tribunals of Peru should decide the controversies relative to it. Art. 40. — Whenever the matter treats of an obligation contracted in a foreign country, the laws of the country where it has been entered into will serve to adjudicate upon the contract, in so far that it may not be prohibited by the laws of Peru. The laws of Peru will only have effect when the contracting parties submit themselves to them. Art. 41. — A Peruvian woman married to a foreigner, or a foreign woman married to a Peruvian, follow the condi- tion of their husbands. If they so wish, the first may recover, and the second may keep, the quality of Peruvian citizenship, providing they reside in Peru. Art. 42. — The privilege of civil rights may be suspended or lost, whenever a person may be so prohibited by the law. Art. 43. — There cannot be solicited in Peru the fulfil- ment of obligations contracted between foreigners in a foreign country, except in the event that both parties sub- mit themselves to the tribunals of the Republic. The Civil Code lays down the law upon all matters referring to commercial transactions, &c., and a copy is deposited in all the Peruvian consular offices in England. 232 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. PROTECTION TO FOREIGNERS IN PERU, LAW AFFECTING EMIGRATION. The following is the communication made to Mr. Thomas J. Hutchinson, late H.B.M. Consul in Peru, by the chief law officer, Senor Paz Sold an, on the above subject. Citizenship in Peru is obligatory on no one, nor is it denied without a just cause. To effect it there is first re- quired the desire and request of the foreigner. The wish to be naturalised as a Peruvian must be first expressed ; he must be twenty-one years of age, and possess some profes- sion or trade, besides which he must be inscribed on the Civil List in the form prescribed by law. (Article XXXV. of the Constitution.) Article XIX. of the Civil Register regulations sets forth the formalities, which are exceedingly easy and liberal, where- with such an inscription is to be made. There have been established, and are in operation at the present time, many mercantile companies, many industrial, farming, manufac- turing, saltpetre, mining, navigation, irrigation, and railway undertakings, whose promoters, owners, and agents are not citizens of Peru. Many other persons belonging to different countries have entered into contracts with the Government concerning various works, and have solicited and obtained the concession of privileges, in whose quiet possession they still are. It may be said that the greater part of the riches of Peru, and the most lucrative enterprises, are in the hands of foreigners without their having been called on to take out their papers as citizens. Foreign capital, which has been spent in taking advantage of the various kinds of resources that the country possesses, can reckon on every assurance of legal guarantees. Regarding many of these the nation has guaranteed them interest, which is a favour that has seldom been granted to the natives of the country. The advantages and protection which foreigners find in Peru have led some of them to believe that they were in a better position, and even more privileged, than our own people. On this account some have pretended that poli- tical disturbances should not affect them, or that the State PROTECTION TO FOREIGNERS IN PERU. 233 should indemnify them for the losses which are the result of civil conflicts ; in short, that there should be for them a special legislation, which in their own country they cannot find, and which they would look for in vain. These are facts which are patent and known to all ; they are more decisive and conclusive than any measures that could be brought forward to prove that foreigners possess in Peru every guarantee that can be desired in the following of their trade and the employment of their capital. Contracts entered into with them are scrupulously carried out, and justice is done when a proper claim is presented ; they are on this account content with Peru and with its Govern- ment. If they ever suffer in person or interests it is not from the fault of the Administration, but because passions, vices, and crimes are common to men and peoples ; it is a fatal leprosy which affects the human race spread over the face of the globe. Between the Government of Peru and that of Her Britannic Majesty there exists a treaty of friendship, com- merce, and navigation, in which the rights, guarantees, and protection which the subjects and citizens of both countries are to enjoy when residing in either territory are declared. The ordinary laws of Peru concede to British subjects greater and more extensive rights than are set down in that treaty. They can freely enter Peru, reside where they like, get married, make a will, and dispose of their property as they wish, or, dying intestate, their heirs are protected. They can inherit real or personal property, obtain exclusive pri- vileges, carry on manufactories, or establish any kind of industry, but subject to the same laws. The Fiscal has gone into the foregoing explanations to satisfy the desire of the Honourable Charge d' Affaires of Her Britannic Majesty on the one hand. They are favour- able to his industrious countrymen who come to live in this country, bringing with them as capital their trades, economy, and work, under the protection of our laws. On the other hand, they are for the benefit of the country itself, and principally because at the time when a law affect- ing foreign emigration has been passed, emigrants may be aware of the guarantees, rights, liberties, and protection which they may hope for on arriving in Peruvian territory. 234 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. The desire of the Peruvian Government to encourage European colonies is testified in the Bill which passed Congress in 1873, when the sum of 40,000 soles, or about ;^8,ooo, was voted to bring some schoolmasters to Peru from Europe. A large number of English artisans have for many years been established in Peru, living there on affectionate terms with the people, connected with the important English commercial companies, amongst which are the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, the Callao Dock Company, the Callao and Lima Railway, the West Coast of America Telegraph Company, and others, besides which many private commercial firms hold large estates in Peru, who employ many Englishmen. TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP, COMMERCE, AND NAVIGA- TION BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND PERU. Celebrated the 10th of April, 1850, as follows : ARTICLE I. There shall be perpetual friendship between the Republic of Peru and her Majesty, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, her heirs and successors, and respective citizens. ARTICLE II. There shall be reciprocal liberty of Commerce between the terri- tories of the Republic of Peru and the dominions of Her Britannic Majesty. The citizens and subjects of both countries respectively will enjoy full liberty and security to enter with their ships and cargoes in aU places, ports, and rivers of the territories of the other, in which is permitted, or will be permitted with other nations. Both may establish themselves, and reside in whatever part of the said territories respectively, hire, and occupy houses and stores that they may require, and trade either by wholesale or retail in all classes of productions, manufactures, and merchandise of legitimate commerce, enjoying the same exemptions and privileges as the citizens and natural subjects, submitting themselves, however, to the same laws, decrees, and established uses to which the citizens and natural subjects are subject. In the same manner the ships of war and mail ships of each country respectively, will have liberty to enter in all ports, rivers, and places of the territories of the other, in which is permitted, or may be permitted to enter ships of war, and mail steamers of other nations ; and can anchor, remain and repair in them, subject always to the laws and regulations of the respective country. Coast-wise traffic is not included, wtiich each country reserves for itself respectively, and which they will regulate according to their own peculiar laws. TREATY OF COMMERCE. 235 ARTICLE III. The two contracting parties agree that in whatever favour, privilege, or exemption of commerce or navigation which may have been ceded, or may in future be conceded to the citizens or subjects of the other States, it will make extension to the citizens or subjects of the other contracting party gratuitously, if the concession in favour of the other State has been gratuitously, or by means of an equivalent com- pensation, if the concession may have been conditional. ARTICLE IV. There will not be imposed other or higher duties on the importation in the Republic of Peru of any article, production, or manufacture of the dominions of Her Britannic Majesty, neither will be imposed other or higher duties on the importations in the dominions of Her Britannic Majesty of any article, production, or manufacture of the Republic of Peru, than those which are paid or will be paid for the same article, production, or manufacture, of any other foreign country, neither will they impose other or higher duties in the territories or dominions of each one of the contracting parties, on the exportation of any article for the territories or dominions of the other, than those which are paid, or will be paid, on the exportation of the same article for any other foreign country. There will not be prohibited the importation of any article, production, or manufacture of the territories of each one of the contracting parties, in the territories of the other, without that the prohibition is extended equally to the importation of the same article, production, or manufacture of any other country, neither will be prohibited the exportation of any article of the territories of each one of the contracting parties to the territories of the other without the prohibition be extended equally to the exportation of the same article, production, or manufacture for the territories of all other nations. ARTICLE V. They will not exact other or higher duties on account of tonnage, lights, port, pilotage, and salvage, in cases of damage or shipwreck, or other local charges, in the ports of the Republic of Peru on British ships over 200 tons, than those that are paid in the said ports by Peruvian ships of the same burthen, or in the ports of the territories of Her Britannic Majesty to Peruvian ships of over 200 tons burthen, than those that are paid in the same ports by British ships of like burthen. ARTICLE VI. The same duties will be paid for the importation in the Republic of Peru of any article that can be legally imported, if the said importa- tion be made in British ships, as if it be made in Peruvian ships ; and the same duties will be paid for the importation in the dominions of Her Britannic Majesty of any article that can be imported legally if the said importation be made in Peruvian ships, as if it be made 236 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. in British ships. The same duties will be paid, and the same discounts, premiums, and liberties will be conceded on the exportation to the Peruvian Republic of any article that may be legally exported, if said exportation be made in British ships, as if it be made in Peruvian ships ; and the same duties will be paid, and the same discounts, premiums, and privileges will be conceded on the exportations of the dominions of Her Britannic Majesty of any article that may be legally exported, if said exportation be made in Peruvian ships as is made in British ships. ARTICLE VII. The merchants, captains of ships, and all citizens or subjects of both countries respectively, will have, in the territories of the other, full liberty to manage for themselves their businesses, or confide to the person they wish to employ as agent, broker, factor, or interpreter, and without that they may be obliged toemployotherpersons than thosethat employ the natural born of the country, or to pay to those that they employ greater salary or remuneration than pay in like cases the same natural born subjects. The Peruvian citizens in the dominions of Her Britannic Majesty, and the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty in Peru, will enjoy full liberty, as that which now enjoy, and the same that in future will enjoy the natural born subjects of each country respectively, to buy and sell to whom they wish the effects of legal commerce, and fix the prices which may appear to them, without that can be prejudiced by any privilege granted to other individuals to buy or sell ; subjecting themselves, however, to the contributions or general taxes established by law. The citizens and subjects of each one of the contracting parties will enjoy in the territories of the other the most efficacious protection in their persons and properties ; may have recourse to the tribunals of justice to reclaim what may be expedient for their rights; and can employ in all their causes lawyers, procurators, or agents of whatever kind they may deem expedient, enjoying in this respect the same rights and prerogatives as the natural born citizens or subjects. ARTICLE VIII. In all that has relation with the Council authority of the ports, shipping, discharge of the ships, deposit and security of their cargoes, products, and effects, succession of goods, furniture, by will or of other manner, and free disposition of any property, furniture, by sale, gift, exchange, or by will or of any other mode, as well as by what is done to the administration of justice, the citizens and subjects of each one of the contracting parties will enjoy, in the territories and do- minions of the other, the same privileges, freedom, and rights as the citizens and natural subjects, and will not be subject in such cases to pay other or higher duties than those that are paid or will be paid by the respective citizens or natural subjects, subjecting themselves always to the laws and local statutes in force in said territories or dominions. If any citizen or subject of one of the contracting parties die intestate in the dominions or territories of the other, the consul-general, consul, or vice-consul of the nation to which the deceased has belonged, in TREATY OF COMMERCE. 237 benefit of the legal heirs or creditors, and as much as the laws of each country may permit it, can take charge of the goods that the deceased may have left, until there may be named an administrator or executor in conformity to the laws of the country in which the death may have taken place. ARTICLE IX. The citizens of the Republic of Peru in the dominions of Her Bri- tannic Majesty, and the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty in the Republic of Peru, will be exempt from all forced military service either on land or sea, and of all loan, exaction, or military requisition, and cannot be obliged to pay, under any pretext, neither other or higher imposts or ordinary contributions than those that are paid or will be paid by the natural citizens or subjects. ARTICLE X. Each one of the two contracting parties agrees not to take knowingly into his service, or retain in it, the citizens or subjects of the other that may have deserted from naval or military service, and on the con- trary, will expel such from its service whenever required by the other to do so. In case of deserting from ships, the authorities are to give assistance to apprehend and restore them. ARTICLE XI. provides for permission of consuls to reside in each country for the protection of commerce. ARTICLE XII. provides for the protection of the commerce and subjects in case of war ; citizens of each country will be allowed six months for those re- siding on the coast, and one year for those in the interior, to settle up affairs and accounts. All citizens may remain in the country un- molested ; neither the debts or public funds, or the shares in companies are liable to confiscation or embargo. ARTICLE XIII. provides for the enjoyment of full liberty as regards religious creeds. ARTICLE XIV. In case of shipwreck the goods to be faithfully delivered over to the owner. ("Palmerston. Signed in London, April 10, 1850.-^ J. De Osma. I H. Labodchere. 238 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. CHAPTER XIII. Trade between England and Peru.— Commerical Statistics. THE PACIFIC STEAM NAVIGATION COMPANY. THE entire service of mail and passenger steam com- munication along the coast of Peru is served by an English company known as the Pacific Steam Navi- gation Company. This company was organised in 1839, and commenced their operations with two steamers, the Peru and Chili. Although, at first, the promoters suffered loss, it soon recovered, and the company, under skilful management at home and in Peru, has risen by degrees to becorne one of the largest and best-paying of English steamship companies afloat. The growth of trade between England and Peru is exemplified by the fact that this company has now a fleet of no less than forty steamers, which are employed along the coast of Peru, and with England via the Straits of Magellan, with a tonnage of 96,844, employing 2,500 hands. The company's head- quarters in Peru are at Callao, where they have extensive engineering works for the repairing of their fleet, a steam- laundry, a bakery, and a butchery with yards for cows and sheep, for provisioning their ships. The company employ at Callao a large staff of no less than 200 English mechanics, who form an important colony, reside in houses erected by the company, and possess their own hospital and theatre. The coast of Peru is one of the most healthy quarters of the globe, and the large staff ashore, as well as that afloat, TRADE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND PERU. 239 enjoy as perfect health there as in Europe. The company runs steamers weekly from Callao to Panama in connexion with the Royal Mail Steamers leaving Colon twice a month for Southampton, and also with the Pacific Mail Companies' line of steamers via New York, and the French Packet via. St. Nazaire. The steamers leave Liverpool every alternate Wednesday, calling at Bordeaux on the Saturday, and at Lisbon the Wednesday following, and touching at Rio Janeiro and Monte Video. The steamers of this company bring to England from Peru large quantities of sugar, wool, cotton, and silver ore, besides bark, orchilla, and other valuable produce. They take back to Peru full cargoes of English manufactured goods. The importance of the trade between England and Peru is illustrated by this company's business. THE AMAZON STEAM NAVIGATION COMPANY. The company's fleet comprises 25 steamers, from 300 to 1,000 tons. The company commence their service at Para. There are three services monthly to Manaos, the principal city on the Amazon, the distance from Para being 927 nautical miles. From Manaos There are steamers leaving once or twice a month for Iquitos, which is about 1,150 nautical miles from Manaos. The following vessels comprise the company's fleet : — Vessel. Tonnage. Nom. H.-P. Marajo I>039 ... 240 Belem 681 ... 180 Manaos 681 ... 180 Ycamiaba 414 ... 100 Obidos 414 ... 100 Inca 414 ... 100 Joao Augusto 240 ... 160 Amajas 240 ... 140 Moju 270 ... 50 Madeira 680... 180 Andira 351 ... 100 Ariman 142 ... 95 Jurua 351 ■• 100 Vessel. Tonnage. Maua 681 lea 681 Cameta 681 Ituxy 289 Para 68o Dom Pedro II 555 Imperatriz Theresa . 775 Juruty (screw) 164 Santarem (twin screw) 690 Macapa ,, 690 Princessa Isabel,, 763 Conde d'Eu „ 689 Nom. H.P. .. ISO .. ISO .. ISO .. 130 .. 130 .. 90 .. 130 .. 60 .. ISO .. ISO •■ 134 .. 125 240 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. TRADE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND PERU. SUG.\R IMPORTS. Sugar is now extensively grown in various parts of the Republic, and has become an important industry. In the north, around Truxillo, Chimbote, and Lambayeque, the canes can be cut within six months after planting. The labour employed is chiefly Chinese. The following have been the importations into England of sugar from Peru, 1870-1886 : — Bags. Tons. Value £ Sterling. 1870 2,510 251 5,020 I87I 43.500 4.350 87,000 1872 65,500 6,550 131,000 1873 159,500 15,950 319,000 1874 237,000 23,700 512,112 1875 500,000 50,000 1,000,000 1876 503,000 55,030 1,390,700 1877 633.700 63,370 1,901,000 1878 565,000 56,500 1,204,648 1879 714,000 71,400 1,370,979 1880 495,000 49.503 1,115,768 1881 433.633 43363 713,661 1882 431,888 43.188 702,923 1883 344,786 34,478 464,221 1884 265,652 26,565 316,154 1885 448,15s 44,815 440,846 1886 329,697 32,969 335,755 Total... 6,172,521 621,982 ;^i2,oio,887 TRADE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND PERU. 241 Amount of Specie {Silver Coin and Bars, Gold Bars, Dust, &^(:.) imported into England from Peru at the port of Southampton alone, from 1864 to 1886. Value £. Sterling. Value £. Sterling, Value £. Sterling. 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 I87I 1,121,809 1,004,636 1,122,053 1,064,731 664,017 222,796 384,762 263,548 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 32,804 290,221 307,571 547,001 629,115 633,000 617,000 167,293 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 234,540 299,000 191,888 440,667 5.848,352 3,224,005 1,166,095 Total amount of specie imported at Southampton alone, from Peru, from 1864 to 1886, ^1^10,238,452. Importations of Alpaca Wool to England from Peru during the years 1881 to 1886. >: 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 a, S Stock. Stock including inferiors. Current Prices. Arequipa. Tacna. pkgs. 19,613 38,451 13,838 66,725 33,792 26,437 pkgs. 22,507 40,624 24,464 53,854 33.054 38,075 pkgs. fleece 10,872 inferior 1991 fleece 10,653 infer. .1,080 fleece 997 inferiors 9 fleece 13,189 inferiors 887 fleece 13,253 inferior 717 fleece 1,615 inferiors 125 pkgs. } 12,863 }ii,733 } 1,006 } 14,076 }i3,97o } 1,740 1/3 to l/S l/li to 1/3 1/2 to 1/5 l/o to 1/3J /llUoi/lJ /ll to l/l l/oi tol/2i /ilitoi/oj /iiitoi/oj /lo to /ii / 9 to /9J /lO to /lOj 00 00 < > w H O g O & 111 O H a < I.J o o Bi 00 mroinovo «\ovo rhoo •-« tJ- ii co »n m o Ot^OOO •-•COMiH -^OVON NW Tj-00 VO o\foa\w N t-^-^mch« o movo ^vo m •^ « rocONN M ^ ■^J-o-)00 t^in tovo N •^^N ■«;^lr^loO^^* mvO \O00MU-i»-iOi^l>»ChO\<-«Tt fTJvO O^00 "% .:3- « t^ J>* 1-1 rooo O I^^ MC^t-iO'-«'^W00 g" oo rorCvD 00 o vo 'o'lnoloo tC --i *ri n -^ S O IH 1-. «-.t^ ■^oo ^ n '.0 O -=J-roO "^O lO^O 00 HI '^On^h.vO roN «^0 t^ON^o "T-D O N ■^ MMi-iro ^l^^"^ Htvo "O 00 rt- O O rovO ro -^ O ON OnoO On r^ h. oO « O N W ■^Hi ONM00t'*I>.t^fOi'^0 M fO 00 xooo HI i-i ON >J^ lOOO r^i>~ii-i w^J:^0nN'O On 00 00 HiTj- TrhTj-co-^OrOHiiHmmOvo "^ to vOM*0 8 o o li-l lO On ro ON i-i ON i^wONcn: : : • :onn : :.::.irj wfo vom. w On On Q Q Q Q ^ OWO Tf -^ On M : : : : :oo w h.oo : : : : : oo i^ : n=i ■^ 00 ^ tn s fO 00 N O O Q Q m On 5 O O O 00 1/1 ri M ro oo H( H !>, 00 ::.:.vo rr^Tt '.::.: ^oo - •j:3 t^ ?^ 8 8 8 8 M t^ tJ- r^ r>. ro On :*:: :ONk-iroo ::::"00n; \0 N^O OOvn. 00 u-icn a2^88 88 M t-i rot^ t^ \0 vo : ■ : iToocToiC vooo : -^ rO(r);....ror>.- « M CO a> ui • . w o wi a> o ta a a a o . m o "^\o w" ■^ NO vn -^ Onu^O o^ xni- Mvo CN tn cn r^ m r^ in u-t ;^ u- O fO fO i-« OO CTn w Q -^MD "^ 1 00 1 O O^00 in u-» 1 O 0^ "^ 0^ •-» o -'J- « CO vo t^uniTM^ mo^ 00 "8*:: i>*^o t-^ ■rj-u-)O0 o i>, ^o oo *^ o^ fOi-i 1-n^o VOO •-< On 0^^0 t>. OO ^ CO ^ 00 VD LO 11 00 J>. vo^O "^ iTv. ro^O ON tn »n\o m CD O T)X) vO u^oc rr-i w t^ r>. On r^ 1 m 1 I !>. O 00 00 n 00 -d- M O m ON 1 t^ 1 inr^-O 00 ro [ VO 1 q o^ q inMD VO 1 XTi rt- m\o i>. -^NO lo cDON 1 -^ 1 00 ON VO CO 1 ON r>. -^ Ti- o >J-) O Tt-OO o o 1 M VO t^'O i-O ON O 00 oo vnr^ 1 00 f "- ^^^o rrt "-^ roi>.NO HH CM m 1 f^M^" N lA Lr> ro ■^VO ^"in 1 On f CO ON in 1 O I i-i 1 00 -d- ON o \J~i Tj- o ^ : c en "■ o vc c O ON a HH^ ON ON locT : c : Ti- : c ^ o ^ Th ro o Qvr^ xn : <^ : 4 : . in . c ^ OJ t/i - 2. V a> 3 C > = -g= [ > -^ " > >.> M w > Of c •-• -H c o (L» C tfl OJ u a s a o 1" 'o c ^ o > R 2 lO -H O lOOO 00 Tj- VD 11 PO ON fo r^'O ONLnrot~N.vo ON ^^ r->. ^ ^: Ln T^h ON t--» t-H Q r^oo i co ^n poo\ iJ^0000N0N'-''O CO "^ lONO ro t^ CO « lo CO tJ- cT : vo" rT ro ^od" ►-Tvo" tC ro po r^ tJ- 00 u-l i^ CX3 "-» 11 M 00 ri- s? > lO M 00 rn ro M »J-)00 ON CnOO 00 1 00 Th ro ro r>. O iJ^oo 1 ON r^ T^j-roivO O t^roi^ -^00 O 00 w r^ ON \D ro ON O -noo lo o r-^ Lo U-) n t-^oo n MD ON r-- U-) O ro ^-00 ON N M u-i^O ro r:t- p-i ^ Lo-O J-l M 00 r-^ ij*i 1 ON ro 00 OO M 00 1 M ^ to vO O ON o o -^ OO r^LO ON r^ M ON Lio 1^ LO tJ- N ^ rOOO ro ro ro On Th O OO fO N t^ lO ro to cq oo « (y O fO ONOO TtOO to N VO tou-1 O to t-s. On\0 ^ vO ^ ON ro M ro nOO O ^ to On ON N r^ "-I "^ -^ ro O to n ONr^ -^ 1 to 00 .r->. to *>. ro pi p ^ :^ * fe C > S 5 u o •^ U, ■ HI (^ V 4J 2 £■■« ^ 2 «; c " §-"■ '^ TRADE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND PERU. 245 THE FOLLOWING ARE AMONGST THE PRINCIPAL ENGLISH COMPANIES AND MERCHANTS RESIDENT IN PERU. The Pacific Steam Navigation Co Callao and Lima Railroad Co Callao Dock Company London Bank of Mexico and South America West Coast of America Telegraph Co Arica and Tacna Railroad Co Callao. Arica. Messrs. Duncan Fox & Co Paitaand Callao. Graham, Rowe, & Co Callao. Bates, -Stokes, & Co ,, Isaacs & Co ,, Raymond, Morrison, & Co ,, Grace Bros. & Co ,, Grunning & Co ,, E. Haines & Co ,, H. Lambert & Co , , Fry & Sons ,, Bailey Bros ,, Blacker & Co Payta. Mr. C. Cox Salaverry. Messrs. Hope, Jones, & Co ,, Mr. H. Clarke LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ENGLISH FIRMS TRADING WITH PERU. Messrs. Graham, Rowe, & Co Merchants Duncan, Fox, & Co Baring Eros C. de Murietta, & Co. A. Gibbs, Sons, & Co. J. H. Schroeder & Co. Kleinwort & Co Bates, Stokes, & Co.... F. W. Glover & Co.... A. R. Robertson, Esq Merchant Messrs. Rosing Bros Merchants ,, Melcher, Rungs, & Co ,, ,, Horstman & Co ,, ,, J. H. Burchard & Co. ,, The Union Bank of London ... Liverpool. Manchester. London. Liverpool. Manchester. London. 246 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ENGLISH FIRMS TRADING WITH PERU — contimied. The London Bank of Mexico and South America ... ... London. Messrs. Fruhling & Goschen... Merchants ... „ „ A. Morison&Co ,, ... Liverpool. ,, Warburg & Co ,, ... Manchester. ,, Mathison & Beausire... „ ... Liverpool. „ Geo. Curling & Co. ... „ ... London. G. A. Witt, Esq Merchant ... „ Messrs. Sharps & Wilkins Merchants ... ,, ,, W. &J. Lockett ,, ... Liverpool. ,, Geo. Rodger & Co. ... „ ... Manchester. ,, Leisler, Bock, & Greig ,, ... ,, „ S. Albrecht & Co ,, ... ,, „ Fry, Miers, & Co ,, ... ,, ,, G. Roskill „ ... ,, ,, Kessler & Co ,, ... ,> „ W. F. Dawson & Co. ,,, ... ,, „ Spicer Bros Paper Manufacturers Alton, Hants. ,, A. King, Brown, & Co. Merchants ... London. ,, G. Powell & Co ,, ... ,, ,, A. Levy & Co ,, ... ,, ,, David Storer & Sons... ,, ... ,, ,, Haines, Batchelor, & Co ,, ... ,, ,, Bishop & Lacey „ ... ,, ,, Price Bros ,, ... ,, ,, Isaac & Samuel ,, ... ,, „ H. Kendall & Sons ... ,, ... ,, ,, A. Lambert & Co. ... ,, ... ,, ,, F. Huth & Co ,, ... Liverpool. Mr. W. H. Fletcher Merchant ... ,, ,, E. Richter ,, ... ,, Messrs. T. Williams & Co. ... Merchants ... ,, ,, Brownells & Co ,, ... ,, ,, Hainesworth, Watson, & Co „ ... ,, ,, Wideman, Brocher, & Co „ ... London. Mr. C. T. Hegan Merchant ... „ Messrs. T. W. & J. Walker ... Merchants ... Wolverhampton. „ Mildred, Goyeneche & Co ,, ... London. „ Goodall & Co „ ... ,, „ T. & H. Littledale & Co Produce Brokers ... Liverpool. „ Littledale, Ragg & Co. Wool Brokers ... ,, A. Guillaume, Esq Merchant ... London. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 247 MINING STATISTICS.' Published by the direction of the School of Mines, Lima. LIST OF MINING PROPERTIES (OWNED) AS REGISTERED IN THE PADRON DE MINAS, CORRESPONDING TO THE SECOND HALF OF THE YEAR 1886. General Resume. Silver mines 1,171 Coal mines 70 Sulphur mines 12 Silver and zinc mines . . 4 Copper mines 66 Petroleum mines 29 Silver and gold mines 25 Silver and lead mines 25 Silver and copper mines... 20 Pyrites mines 1 Silver and quicksilver mines 1 Gold washing I Not specified 13 Total mines 1,458 MINERALS EXPORTED FOR THE YEAR 1 885. Silver ore Argentiferous lead .. Plata Piiia, and in ba Copper 4,096,968,25 kil. 455,012,00 „ rs 7,190,21 „ 164,038,00 „ 4,723,208,46 PORTS OF SHIPMENT. Kil. From Callao and its outports ... 3,624,693,00 ,, Pisco 329,819,06 ,, MoUendo ... 182,466,25 ,, Salaverry ... 131,806,55 „ Pacasmayo... 454,423,60 MINERAL deposits; Kil. From Ancachs 1,924,618,00 ■,, Arequipa ... 8,152,25 „ Cajamarca... 454,423,60 „ Huancavelica 112,244,39 „ lea 203,076,67 ,. Tunin 2i;o,os2,00 ,, Libertad 131,806,55 „ Lima 1,464,541,00 „ Cuzco 174,314,00 Total 4,723,208,46 Total 4,723,208,46 ' Extracted from "La Quia de Lima," 1887. 248 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. WITH DESTINATION TO THE FOLLOWINS COUNTRIES, To Germany 2,750,164,75 kil. „ England 1,829,057,53 „ „ France 129,936,00 ,, ,, United States 209,00 ,, ,, Destination not specified 13,841,18 ,, Total 4,723,208,46 ,, SALT. Respecting salt, Senor Habich, Director of the School of Mines, says that by pretty exact calculation the workings in the year 1885 amounted to 21,500 metrical tons, of which 8,000 tons were exported to Chili, Ecuador, and Colombia ; the other portion has been distributed in the consumption of 2,700,000 inhabitants, at the rate of seven kilogrammes each person, and the rest in the industry of the amalgamation of silver, calculated at 50,000 kilogrammes. Neither coal nor sulphur has been much worked. Petroleum is abundant in the provinces of Payta and Tumbes, and is at present worked, but in a reduced quan- tity. In the year 1885, the Zorritos mines, the property of Senor Piaggio, produced, kerosene, 84,310 gals.; benzine, 3,600 gals. ; lubricating oil, 7,200 gals. ; dark oil, 72,000 gals., or, say, a total of 167,110 gals.= 670,000 litres. CUSTOM HOUSE REVENUES.— LIST OF BRITISH CONSULS IN PERU. CUSTOM HOUSE REVENUES OF THE REPUBLIC FOR THE YEAR 1886 COMPARED WITH THE YEARS OF 1876 AND 1866. Year. Callao. Other Custom Houses. 1866 1876 1886 $ 2,876,473,71 3,561,037,05 3,362,918,03 $ 1,033,245,54 1,580,627,31 Showing that the receipts at the Callao Custom House have now assumed the same proportions, or nearly so, as before the war. POSTAGE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND PERU. 249 LIST OF BRITISH CONSULS IN PERU, 1887. Charles Edward Mansfield Consul-General George Wilson Vice-Consul Octavius Stokes Consul Henry W. Isaacson Vice-Consul Alexander Blacker ,, George E. Steel Acting-Consul Frederic Robillard ^'ice-Consul W. Valentin Fry ,, Alexander Herlley „ Olive G. Jones „ Geo. E. Steel Acting-Consul Fredk. Heaton Vice-Consul Lima. Callao. ») Lima. Payta. Cerro de Pasco. Mollendo. San Jose. Arequipa. Pisco. J* Guanape. TELEGRAPH LINES WORKING AT THE PRESENT DATE. Between Payta and Piura 70 , , Ferreiiafe and Lima 959 ,, Lima and Callao 13 „ ,, and Chorrillos 15 „ Chincha and lea 115 „ Camana and Sama 520 „ Mollendo and Arequipa 203 Under repair : — Between Piura and Ferreiiafe (extension) 330 ,, Chorrillos and Chincha 210 kil. Total , 2,435 The following are the places served by the lines of tele- graph, at which there are telegraph stations : — Payta, Piura, Ferreiiafe, Lambayeque, Chiclayo, Eten, Pacasmayo, Cho- cope, Trujillo, Salaverry, Chimbote, Casma, Huarmey, Barranca, Supe, Huacho, Chancay, Lima, Callao, Chincha, Pasco, lea, Camana, Quilca, Mollendo, Pacocha, Moquegua, Locumba, Sama and Arequipa. Peru is connected by tele- graph with England and all parts of the world : — POSTAGE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND PERU (INTERNATIONAL). Letters for each per 3 oz. 4d. Postal-cards ijd. Commercial Papers per 2 ozs. id., minimum... 2jd. Newspapers, each per 4 ozs. id. Samples, for each (maximum weight) per 2 ozs. id. Printed papers of al! kinds per 2 ozs. id. 250 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. POSTAGES (internal). Letters, for each fifteen grains, or fraction 10 cents. Postal-cards 3 )> ). reply-paid 6 Printed matter, books, and illustrated periodicals, 15 grms. 6 Parcels, for each 50 grains, or fraction 8 Samples ,, ,, ,, 8 POSTAGES, LOCAL (IN THE TOWNS). Letters, for each 15 grammes, or fraction 2 Postal-cards, each 2 „ ,, reply-paid 4 Registration of all correspondence, in addition to the postage 30 Correspondence not prepaid is charged double postage. NATIONAL REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE 1887-1888. RECEIPTS. S. Customs 5,076,874 Post-office 167,760 Direct contribution 2,246,695 Railways 61,500 Telegraphs 39,ooo Other receipts 500,008 88,091, 837*00 EXPENDITURE. Secretary of State. S. House of Senators 70,420 Secretary of , , 31,002 House of Deputies 132,622 Secretary of , , 47, 789 Executive Power S4,ooo Ministry 73,66o Prefectures 280,872 Post-office 164,956 Telegraphs 57,564 Engineers 26,400 Pohce 1,523,954 Additional 41,676 Carried forward S 2,504,4i5'oo NATIONAL REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 25 1 NATIONAL EXPENDITURE — Continued. Brought forward S 2,S04,4I5'00 Ministry of Justice. S. Ministry 20,160 Library and National Archives 6,760 Universities S3>i64 Worsliip 150,804 Justice 526,580 Penitentiary 37)076 School of Mines 39,000 Extraordinary expenditure 9, 200 Public beneficence i)873 Additional expenses 98,600 5943,21700 Treasttry. S. Ministry 36,120 Head Tribunal of Accounts 41,160 Casa de Moneda 21,240 Casas Fiscales 78,528 Extraordinary 25,000 Director - General of Customs and its Dependencies 333)320 Additional expenses 630,532 S 1,165,900-00 Ministry of War. Ministry S 24,900-00 Army. Generals S 37,320-00 Inspection of Infantry, Cavalry, and Na- tional Guard 22,080-00 Inspection and General Commandant of Artillery 8,040-00 Infantry regiments 698,088-00 Class schools 75. 936-00 Cavalry squadrons 201,643-00 Medical corps 3,360-00 Artillery 133,179-20 Powder magazine 6,480-00 Saluting Batteries of Callao 2, 880 -00 War Office expenses Si>i097S General expenses of the branch establish- ments 52,760-00 Accidental expenses 80,000-00 Army-clothing establishment 99,400-00 Military instruments 30,000-00 l,S02,27S"9S Carried forward S 6,140,707-95 252 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. NATIONAL EXPENDITURE— irO«ft'««^> >. ° 4 .. ' The legal rate of exchange is 4s. in English, 5 francs in French. In May, this year, the sole was quoted in Lima at 2s. iid. It falls and rises according to the price of silver, and the requirements of the Exchange Market. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 253 POUNDS STERLING IN SOLES AT VARIOUS RATES OF EXCHANGE. Per Sole. ;^i. £^-. £!>■ £\. ;^5. £(>. £l- £?>. £% Pence. s. c. s. c. s. c. s. c. s. c. s. c. s. c. s. c. s. c. 44 5-45 10.91 16.36 21.82 27.27 32-73 38.18 43-64 49-09 43 5-58 II. 16 16.74 22.33 27.91 33-49 39-07 44-65 50.23 42 5-71 1I.43 17.14 22.86 28.57 34-29 40.00 45-71 51-43 41 5-85 II. 71 17-56 23-41 29.27 35-12 40.98 46-83 52.68 4° 6.00 12.00 18.00 24.00 30.00 36.00 42.00 48.00 54.00 39 6. IS 12.31 18.46 24.61 30-77 36.92 43-07 49-23 55-38 38 5-3^ 12.63 18.95 25.26 31-58 37-89 44.21 50-53 56.84 37 6.48 12.97 19-45 25-95 32.43 38.92 45-40 51.89 57.38 36 6.66 13-33 20.00 26.66 33-33 40.00 46.66 53-. 33 60.00 35 6.8s 13.71 20.57 27-43 34.29 41.14 48.00 54.86 61.71 34, 7.05 \ii,.\i 21.18 28.23 35-29 42-35 49.41 56-47 63-53 334 7.16 14-33 21.49 28.66 35-82 42.99 50.15 57-31 64-47 33 7.27 14-55 21.82 29.09 36.26 43-43 50-91 58.18 65-45 32i 7.38 14-77 22.15 29-54 36.29 44-30 51.69 59.08 66.46 32 7.50 IS- 00 22.50 30.00 37-50 45.00 52.60 60.00 67.50 3ii 7.61 15.22 22.83 30-44 38-05 45.66 53-27 60.88 68.49 3', 7-73 IS. 46 23.19 30.92 38.65 46-38 54. 1 1 61.84 69-57 30I 7.8s 15-70 23-55 3'-4? 39.26 47.10 54-95 62.40 70.25 30 7-97 15-94 23-91 31-88 39-85 47-82 55-79 63.70 71.73 294 8.08 16.16 24.24 32-32 40.40 48.48 56.56 64.64 72.72 29 8.21 16.42 24.63 32.84 41.05 49.25 57-47 65.68 73-89 28i 8-34 16.68 25-32 33-36 41.70 50-04 58.38 66.72 75-06 28 8.47 16.94 25.41 33-88 42,35 50.82 59.29 67.75 76.23 27i 8.60 17.20 25.80 34-40 43.00 51.60 60.30 68.80 77.40 27 8.74 17.48 26.22 34-96 43-70 52-44 61.18 69.82 78.56 26i 8.87 17-74 26.61 35-48 44-35 53-22 62.07 70.96 79.83 26 9.01 18.02 27.03 36.04 45.05 54.06 63.09 72.08 81.09 254 9-15 18.30 27-45 36.60 45-75 54-90 64-05 73.02 82.35 25 9.29 18.58 27.87 37-16 46.45 55-74 65-03 74-32 83.61 24 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80. CO 90.00 WEIGHTS. In trade the old measures of Spanish origin are employed, their chief equivalents being : — 1 marco = about J lb., or correct English weight, 7'38s ozs. 2 „ „ „ I lb. „ ,, „ ,, 14770 » larroba „ 25 lb. „ „ „ ,, 25-32015. I quintal , „ loolb. ,, ,, ,, ,, Ioi'28o ,, 254 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. WEIGHTS — continued. eoluTntaU 3 tons of 3,000 lb. each. I tonelada i ton, or coiTect English weight, 0^904 ton. I vara or yard 33 English inches. 1 pulgado, or inch ... -i^ of an English inch. I cuadra 142 '063 yards. 10,000 square varas. . . 2 j acres. I league 3 miles, or 3 '229 English miles. LIQUID MEASURE. I cuartilla 7'S49 gallons. 1 cuarta i'046 pints. I frasco 0'523 gallons. I galon 0'836 ,, I barril 16728 ,, I pipa loo'37o ,, CORN MEASURE. I fanega 3°'i97 >. APOTHECARIES WEIGHT. I grano 0769 grains. I ovala 9'23i ,, 1 escrupiilo 0'923 scruples. I dragma o-923drachm. I onza 0'923 ounce. I libra medici 0760 pound. I castellano 72 grains. KILOMETRES AND MILES. KILOMETRES INTO MILES. Kiloms. Miles. Kiloms. Miles. Kiloms. Miles. I 0-621 12 7-453 50 3I.0S 2 I -242 13 8-074 60 37-26 3 1-863 14 8-695 70 43'47 4 2-484 15 9-316 80 49-68 S 3-105 16 9-937 90 55-89 6 3-726 17 10-558 100 62-10 7 4-347 18 11-179 200 124-2 8 4-968 19 11-800 300 186-3 9 5-589 20 12-421 400 248-4 10 6-21 30 18-63 500 310-5 II 6-831 40 24-84 1,000 621 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 255 MILES INTO KILOMETRES. Miles. Kiloms, MUes. Kiloms. Miles. Kiloms. I i-6og 12 19-31 5° 80-47 2 3'2i9 13 20-92 60 96-56 3 4-828 14 22-53 70 112-65 4 6-437 IS 22-15 80 128-75 S 8-047 16 25-76 90 144-84 6 9-660 17 27-37 100 160-93 7 11-27 18 28-98 200 321-86 8 12-87 19 30-59 300 482-79 9 14.48 20 32-20 400 643-72 lO 16-09 30 48-28 500 804-66 II 17-70 40 64-37 1,000 1,609-3 KILOGRAMMES INl'o ENGLISH WEIGHT. Grm. kilogs lb. OZ. Kilogs tons cwt. qr. lb. OZ. I O-O3S I = 2 3i 5 ) . 0-176 2 , , 4 6i 10 , I 0-353 3 . I 6 9* 20 , > 0-705 4 . , 8 13 30 , > 1-058 5 . 1 II oi 40 , ) 1-410 6 , , 13 3l 5° , I 1-763 7 . . 15 61% 60 , ) 2-116 8 , , 17 loi 70 J . 2-469 9 , 19 134 80 , I 2-822 10 , > 22 of 90 ) > 3-175 II I ) 24 4 IOC , . 3-527 12 , , 26 7 200 , J 7-05 13 . , II 250 i , ; 8-8 14 . ) 2 14 300 , . 10-5 IS . , 5 I 400 J > 14-1 15 . , 7 4 500 i 1-6 17 , , 9 8 600 > Si 18 , ) II II 700 , 8-7 19 , , 13 14 750 1 , 10-4 20 , I i6 I 800 , 12-2' 21 , 1 18 5 900 > 15-75 22 , , 20 8 2S6 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. KILOGRAMMES INTO ENGLISH WEIGHT— < onhr ued Kilogs tons cwt. qr. lb. oz. Kilogs tons cwt. qr. lb. oz 23 = I 22 n 71 = = 16 S 24 . > I 24 IS 72 , . 18 12 25 , > I 27 2 73 , , 20 15 26 , , 2 I 5 74 , . 23 2 27 . , 2 3 8 75 . . 25 5 28 , > 2 S 12 76 , . 27 9 29 , . 2 7 IS 77 , > 2 I 12 30 , , 2 10 2 78 , , 2 3 15 31 . . 2 12 5 79 , ) 2 6 3 32 , ) 2 14 9 80 , > 2 8 6 33 , , 2 16 12 81 , . 2 10 9 34 , 2 18 IS 82 , . 2 12 12 35 , . 2 21 3 83 , ) 2 15 36 , I 2 23 6 84 , , 2 17 3 37 , , 2 25 9 85 , . 2 19 6 38 , 7 2 27 12 86 , > 2 21 9 39 . . 3 I 15 87 , , 2 23 13 40 , 3 4 3 88 , , 2 26 41 , , 3 6 6 89 , . 3 3 42 , . 3 8 9 90 , . 3 2 7 43 . , 3 10 13 91 , , 3 4 10 44 , , 3 13 92 , 1 3 6 13 45 , . 3 IS 3 93 , > 3 9 46 , > 3 17 7 94 , . 3 11 4 47 , , 3 19 10 95 , , 3 13 7 48 , > 3 21 13 96 , , 3 15 10 49 , > 3 24 97 , , 3 17 13 SO , > 3 26 4 98 , . 3 20 I SI . , 7 99 , , 3 22 4 S2 > , 2 10 100 , , 3 24 7 S3 , . 4 13 200 , , 3 3 21 S4 , . 7 I 300 , . 5 3 17 S5 , . 9 4 400 , , 7 3 14 S6 , > II 7 500 , , 9 3 10 S7 , > 13 II 600 , , II 3 7 S8 , , 15 14 700 , , 13 3 3 S9 . . 18 I 800 , . 15 3 6 60 , , 20 4 900 , , 17 2 24 61 , , 22 8 1,000 , > 19 2 21 62 , ) 24 II 2,000 , , I 19 I IS 63 , , 26 14 3,000 , , 2 19 6 64 , . I I 4,000 , , 3 18 2 26 65 , , 3 5 5.000 , , 4 18 I 19 66 , . 5 8 6,000 , , S 18 12 67 , 1 7 II 7,000 , , 6 17 3 4 68 , I 9 IS 8,000 , , 7 17 I 21 69 , . 12 2 9,000 , . 8 17 14 70 . . 14 5 10,000 , , 9 16 3 6 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 257 REDUCTION OF ENGLISH INTO PERUVIAN WEIGHT. Oz. kilogs. grms. Qrs. kilogs. grms. I = ... .. 28 I ... 12 ... 70 2 )> ... •• 57 2 „ ... 25 ... 40 3 »j ... .. 85 3 ., ■•■ 38 ■•• 10 4 J) ... ... 113 Cwt. kilogs. S 6 ... ,., ... 142 ... 170 1 = 2 , = 50-80 , ... ... iOf6o 7 8 ... ... ... 198 ... 227 3 4 1 152-40 , 203'20 9 10 ... ... • ■■ 255 5 6 254-00 , 304-80 II )) ... ... 312 7 35S'6o 12 13 ... ... ... 340 ... 369 8 9 . , 406-40 , 4S7'2o 14 j» ... ■ ■• 397 10 , , 508-00 15 )) ... ... 425 II 12 , 558-80 609-60 Lb. I 2 3 4 5 6 J5 kilogs. ... ... ... 1 ... I grms. .■■ 454 ... 907 ... 361 ... 814 13 14 15 16 17 , 660-40 , 711-20 , 762-00 812-80 863-60 J) ) y ... 2 ... 2 ... 268 ... 722 18 , 19 914-40 , 965-20 7 )» ■ ■■ 3 • ■■ 175 Tons kilogs. 8 )S ■•• 3 . . . 629 I = ... ... 1,01500 9 )} ... 4 ... 82 2 , 2,032-10 lO )» ... 4 •■■ 536 3 3j048-io II n ... 4 ... 990 4 , 4,064-20 12 )) ■•■ 5 • •■ 443 5 , 5,080-20 13 j» • •■ S ... 897 6 6,096-30 14 3J ... 6 • .. 351 7 7.112-30 15 )) ... 6 ... 804 8 , 8,128-40 i6 )5 ... 7 ... 258 9 9,144-40 17 }) ... 7 ... 711 10 , 10,160-50 i8 9; ... 8 ... 165 II 11,176-50 19 ... 8 ... 619 12 ,, 12,19260 20 )J ... 9 ... 72 13 „ 13,20860 21 )J ... 9 ... 526 14 14,224-70 22 )3 ... 9 ... 980 IS 15.240-70 23 )3 ... 10 ■ ■■ 433 16 ,, 16,256-80 24 }) ... 10 ... 887 17 „ 17,272-80 25 )) ... II ... 341 18 18,288-90 26 J J ... 11 ... 794 19 19.304-90 27 JJ ... 12 ... 248 20 „ 20,321-00 258 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. REDUCTION OF INCHES INTO CENTIM:fcTRES. Inches. I 2 3 4 4i 5 6 7 8 ■9 10 II 12 13 I3J 14 15 16 17 18 Yards. o o o o Centim. 5 7i 10 Hi I2f i7f 20^ 23 25I 28 3oi 33 34i i 354 38 404 43 451 Inches. 19 20 21 22 22^ 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 31I 32 33 34 35 Yards, o o o o 8 o o o o o o o I o o o o Centim. 48i 5o| 53i 551 57 584 61 634 66 684 71 734 76 78I 80 8ii 83i 86i REDUCTION OF YARDS INTO METRES. Yards. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Metres. Cen. o 9ii 9 10 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 83 74 66 57 49 Yards. 23 24 25 26 27 28 40 29 32 3° 23 31 14 32 6 33 97 34 89 35 80 36 72 37 63 •38 54 39 46 40 37 41 29 42 20 43 12 44 [etre s.Cen 21 3 21 95 22 86 23 77 24 69 25 60 26 52 27 43 28 35 29 26 30 17 31 9 32 32 92 33 83 34 75 35 66 36 58 37 49 38 40 39 32 40 23 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 259 REDUCTION OF YARDS INTO M^TRES- Yards. 45 46 47 48 49 SO 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 Metres. Cen. 41 42 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 15 6 80 72 63 55 46 38 29 21 12 3 95 86 78 69 61 52 43 35 26 18 9 o 92 84 75 66 58 49 41 32 24 Yards. 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 no 120 130 140 150 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 continued. Metres. Cen. 73 IS 74 6 74 98 75 89 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 85 85 86 87 90 91 100 109 118 128 137 182 274 365 457 549 640 731 822 914 81 72 64 55 47 38 29 21 12 4 95 87 78 69 61 52 44 58 72 87 I 16 88 32 75 19 63 7 55 13 REDUCTION OF METRES INTO YARDS. Centim, 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Ins. or Yds. 2 o 4 "i oi °l of of of 04 5? 71 9l 13I i7l 1 91 Centim, 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Ins. or Yds. 21J oi 231 of 2Sf oj 275 o| 294 of 314 oj 33.i o| 354 I 371 I S 2 26o THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. REDUCTION OF METRES INTO YARDS — continued.- Metres. Yds. Eighths. Metres. Yds. Eighths I ., = ... I I 47 ■ . := . 51 3 2 .. „ ... 2 I 48 . 52 4 3 3 2 49 ■ 53 5 4 ■ • .. •■■ 4 3 50 • 54 5 S 5 4 SI • 55 6 6 6 4 52 . 56 7 7 7 5 53 ■ 58 8 8 6 54 . 59 9 9 7 55 • 60 I ID ...... II 56 . 61 2 II .. „ ... 12 57 . . 62 3 12 13 I 58 ■ 63 3 13 .. „ ... 14 2 59 . 64 4 14 15 3 60 . • 65 5 15 .. „ ... 16 3 6i . . 66 6 i6 17 4 62 . 67 6 17 .. „ ... 18 s 63 . 68 7 i8 •■ 19 5 64 . 70 19 ,.,,... 20 6 65 . 71 I 20 21 7 66 . 72 I 21 • • ., ..• 23 67 . 73 2 22 .. ,, ... 24 68 . 74 3 23 25 I 69 . 75 4 24 .. ,, ... 26 2 70 . 76 4 25 27 3 71 • 77 5 26 .. „ ... 28 3 72 . 78 6 27 29 4 73 ■ 79 7 28 30 5 74 . 80 7 29 .. „ ... 31 6 75 • 82 30 .. „ ... 32 6 76 . 83 I 31 33 7 77 • 84 2 32 35 78 . . 8s 2 33 .. „ ... 36 I 79 ■ 86 3 34 37 I 80 . 87 4 35 38 2 81 . 88 5 36 39 3 82 . 89 5 37 • • ., •■■ 40 4 83 . 90 6 38 41 4 84 . 91 7 39 .. „ ... 42 5 ?5 ■ 93 40 ■■ 43 6 86 . 94 41 44 7 87 . 95 I 42 .. „ ... 45 7 88 . 96 2 43 47 7 89 . 97 3 44 48 I 90 . 98 3 45 • ,. ■■• 49 2 91 ■ 99 4 46 50 2 92 . 100 s WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 261 REDUCTION OF MliTRES INTO wvsis—cotitimied. M(!tres. Yds. E ghths. Metres. Yds. Eighths 93 ■• = • lOI 6 230 ... = .. 251 6 94 ■■• ,, . 102 6 240 262 4 95 ■■■ ., • 103 7 250 ... „ .. 273 4 96 ... ., . .. 105 260 ... ,, .. 284 3 97 .■■ ,. • 106 I 270 295 3 98 ... „ . 107 I 280 ... ,, .. 306 2 99 ... „ . 108 2 290 ... ,, .. 317 2 100 ... ,, . 109 3 300 ... „ .. 328 no ... „ . 120 2 400 .. 437 3 120 ... „ . 131 2 500 .. 646 6 130 ... „ . 142 2 Ooo ... ,, .. 656 I 140 ... „ . 153 I 700 ... „ .. 765 4 ISO ... „ . 164 I 800 .. 874 7 160 ... „ .. 175 900 ... „ .. 984 2 170 ... „ i85 1,000 ... ,, .. 1,093 5 180 ... „ 196 7 2,000 2,187 2 190 .. 207 7 3,000 ... ,, .. 3,280 7 200 ... ,, .. 218 6 4,000 ... ,, .. 4,374 4 210 ... „ 229 6 5,000 ... ,, .. 5,468 I 220 ... „ 2+0 5 10,000 ... ,, .. 10,936 2 TARIFF OF PASSAGE FARES FROM ENGLAND TO PERU. TO THE PACIFIC COAST OF PERU. The present 3rd class fares to Callao are : — By the Pacific Steam Navigation Company from Liver- pool ; departures twice a montli vid Straits of Magellan £2(, o o By the Royal Mail Company's steamers from Southamp- ton ; departures twice a month viA Panama, 2nd class .£29 15 o The steamers of the West India and Pacific Steamship Company also leave Liverpool every Saturday taking passengers for Peru z-id Panama. TO THE EASTERN PROVINCES OF PERU. Third class fare to Para (at the mouth of the Amazon) by Messrs. A. Booth & Co. 's steamers from Liver- pool, but less according to number of passengers ... ^12 10 o By the Amazon Steam Navigation Company's steamers from Para to the Upper Amazons to Loreto... By arrangement. For a sound organised scheme of emigration the Government would no doubt place two or three of theii steamers at the disposal of a society. The long and costly journey vid Straits of Magellan and vid- Panama has checked emigration from Europe to Peru, 262 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. but as soon as the Panama Canal is opened that drawback will be removed and persons will be able to take passages to Callao as cheap as to Buenos Ayres (;!^io). TARIFF OF FREIGHTS AND PASSAGES Per Royal Mail Company's Steamers from Southampton, leaving that port bi-monthly. Ports. From London and Manchester. From other places. Fine Goods. Coarse Goods. Fine Goods. Coarse Goods. Callao Paita, Pimentel, Eten, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Tumbes, Santa, Chim- bote, Samanco, Casma, Huarmey, Supe, Hu- acho, Chancay, Ancon Cerro Azul, Tambo de Morro, Pisco, Quiica, Lomas, Chala Moll- endo, Arica, Ilo, Pis- 70/- 90/- 120/- 65/- 90/- 120/- 80/- 100/- 130/- 75/- 100/- 130/- Per ton of 40 feet measurement. All with 5 per cent, primage. 1st Class. 2nd Class. Servants. Passages to Callao I £6-^ o o | ;^29 15 o | £^^0 13 4 ,, to Paita I 56 o o I 27 10 o | 36 o o RATES OF HOMEWARD FREIGHT. Cocoa from Callao ;^I0 Cotton, in pressed bales, Paita 6 Bark from Paita 9 ,, ,, MoUendo 8 ,, „ Arica 7 Ore ,, Callao 4 Hides, salted or raw 6 ,, dry 6 Wool, pressed 8 Tobacco in serons 7 General merchandise 6 O o per ton and 5 per cent, primage. ) , and ■Jper cent. 10 , , and Sper cent. 10 , , and Sper cent. , , and 5 per cent. J , 1 > , , THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 263 COST OF VOYAGE UP THE AMAZON. The passage from England to Para from Liverpool is ;j^i2. los. third class, and ^^25 first class. The following is Professor Orton's description of a voyage up the Amazon : — "At the Hotel Commerceo, at Para, you pay I OS. a day for first-class accommodation. Steamers leave Para for Mariaos the 2nd, 9th, and i8th of each month. Suppose that on the i8th you board one of the Brazilian steamers for Manaos, fare fifty-four dols., time six days. In this voyage of 1,000 miles, you will discern the marvellous wealth of tropical vegetation. The prin- cipal points of interest are Braves, the enchanting channel of Tajupura, the table-hills of Almeirim, the romantic port of Alegre, stately Santarem, picturesque Obidos, and enterprising Serpa. Do not fail to have a row on the River Rio Negro, and to visit the cascade in the forests. Sept. 12 you will embark on the Icamiaba, and enjoy another charming voyage of 1,000 miles, fare forty-five dols., time six or eight days. The most important places, on the middle Amazon, are Ega, Foente Boa, and San Paulo. Tabatinga, the termination of the voyage, is the frontier fortress of Brazil. There you exchange steamers, taking the Peruvian steamer Moroiia or Fasfassa, which will leave Tabatingo for Yurrimaguas, on the Huallaga, Sept. 21st, fare 70 dols. = ^14- The steamer runs only in the day- time, and stops at numerous points, so that you have a fine opportunity of studying the wild exuberance of Nature on the Upper Maranon, where the forest is more magnificent than lower down. The places of chief interest are, Mancal- lacta, Iquitos, Nanta, and San Regis. At Iquitos, an enter- prising village of 2,000 souls, the steamer stops six days. Here are the Government ironworks of Peru, carried on by English mechanics. You will reach Yurrimaguas Oct. 5th. " From Yurrimaguas you may follow Herndon's track, if you choose, taking canoe up the Huallaga to Tingo Maria, and thence by mule to Lima. But I advise an easier route : — hire a boat and three Indians (twenty dols.) for Balsa Puerto, time five days. Thence foot it four days to Face page 265. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 265 CONCLUSION. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS, FROM the preceding chapters we may draw the fol- lowing conclusions : — First. That Peru, by its great variety of vegetable produc- tions and its illimitable resources in the precious metals, stands unsurpassed by any nation. Second. That it is a country highly favourable for Euro- pean immigration, as, by reason of its physical position, and the so-called Humboldt current flowing from the Antarctic regions, it enjoys a much lower temperature compared with other countries in the same latitude. The climate generally is a genial one, varying from that of the south of England to that of the south of Italy. On the Andes there are places not to be surpassed in the world for the relief of bronchial and pulmonary complaints. Third. That it is unique and excels other countries in many rare and choice products — such as india-rubber, Peru- vian bark, coca, a drug which has lately been brought into use by medical science ; alpaca and vicuna wools, &c. The country contains, from one extremity to the other, a boundless supply of gold, silver, coal, and other minerals. Fourth. That it produces corn, fruits, and vegetables in abundance ; and, with regard to the potato, it is gratifying to find that blight does not attack it, as in other countries. Fifth. That extensive tracts of land are granted free to all colonists on arrival in Peru, who are secured in their property equally with that of natural-born subjects, and are received in the country with welcome. T 266 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. A country outside the present flow of emigration, but awaiting the accomplishment of the grand work which Providence has placed in the mind of the immortal genius, M. de Lesseps, to carry out for the world's benefit, Peru dreams a dream, and anticipates her destiny ; a dream of welcoming multitudes of an active and industrious race of people; a dream of her uncultivated lands returning abundant harvests, and bleating with numerous herds and flocks, her mountains pouring out their precious treasures which are so bountifully stored in them ; and throughout the length and breadth of the land the light of peace and prosperity shining, never to be extinguished. When we consider that Peru contains 500,000 square miles, or nearly 320 millions of acres, upon which at present there are only two and-a-half millions of people, what a glorious prospect lies before the colonist ! Here there is abundant scope for the exercise of both his energies and capital, sufficient to keep millions of people in active employment for many generations. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 267 APPENDIX. THE GOLD MINES OF PERU.i PRODIGAL Nature, which has heaped upon Peru so many riches, has not been less generous in endowing this privileged countr)' with numerous mines, or ^\■ashings, of the most precious metal — gold. There is no region in Peru which does not offer some gold deposit ; the hillocks which form small chains in the flat region of the coast, the deep valleys of the Sierra, the elevated and rugged Cordillera, the virgin forests of the Montana ; in short, all afford mines or wash- ings of gold. There are, of course, places where the quantity of gold contained in the auriferous earths is altogether too small to pay the e.xpenses of extraction, but there are many places where the mines and washings return large profits. This wealth of gold is confirmed by the ancient historians in treat- ing of the ransom of tlie Inca Atahualpa, on which occasion the conquerors were struck with amazement at seeing the enormous quantity of manufactured articles of gold in the country. Under the Spanish sovereignty, — if we mayjudge from the numerous surface mines, caves, ruins of houses, mills and quimbaletes for crushing the auriferous ores, — gold mining was very active, but the absence of any data respecting its production is very remarkable. At the present time the working of gold mines in Peru is very much restricted, only being carried on in a very few places, and on a very small scale. It is truly surprising that a region so rich in gold should hardly figure among the countries producing this precious metal. Is it that the gold mines of Peru are exhausted ? Assuredly not ! since the rivers Huari-huari and Inambari in the provinces of Sandia and Carabaya, the river Maranon in Chuquibamba, Uco, Balzas, the livr Tabluchaca at the foot of the town of Pallasca, and many others, Z.K. continually bringing down in their sands numerous particles of gold. From whence do these rivers derive the gold? It is un- questionable that they derive it from the cerros' and deposits of auriferous earths through which the rivers run. It may be asked, — What is the cause of this decadence of the gold industry ? In my opinion, there are numerous causes to account for this depression. The principal are: — (i) The want of association. ' By Seiior A. Raimondi, translated from the " Anales de Con- strucciones civiles y de Minas del Peni," vol vi. Published by the School of Engineers. Lima, 1887. ^ A hill. U 268 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. (2) Want of capital to undertake costly works, such, for example, as the construction of aqueducts to carry the necessary water for washing the auriferous earth. (3) Bad administration, in many cases capital being consumed in superfluous works, leaving no means to carry out those that are necessary. (4) Want ot technical knowledge. We must, however, admit that the condition of the mining industry in late years has very greatly improved. With the construction of rail- roads, the means of transport have been facilitated. The establishment of a School of Mines, with an efficient teaching staff, is gradually extending metallurgical science and the proper method of mining operations. A number of gold mines, — at the present time abandoned, as not pay- ing expenses, on account of the small ley of their ores, — could by the aid of improved machinery and modern methods of working be made to yield rich returns. I will not omit a new stimulus which may favour the gold mining industry in the suggested international coinage, which is causing an alarming depreciation in the value of silver, and consequently a relative increased value of gold. It is necessary, then, that the miners should not lose the opportunity of working the precious metal. THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOLD IN PERU. In the coast regions, where the hills are almost exclusively formed of crystalline rocks, gold is found in veins of quartz which have opened a passage in the granite and syenitic formations. In this region the auriferous quartz is almost always accompanied with oxide of iron, hydrated (limonite) or anhydrate (oligist iron compact and micaceous). The proportion of oxide of iron which accompanies the auriferous quartz varies considerably, so that it presents all varieties, from while quartz with small ferruginous sjDOts, to a red rock highly charged with oxide of iron, the latter forming nearly the whole of the auriferous material, quartz being present almost as an accidental occurrence. The quartz in the auriferous ores of the coast varies considerably in its aspect, being found crystallised in prisms, in grains partly crystallised, agglomerated and united with the oxide of iron, and in more or less compact amorphic masses like scoria. In this region the auriferous quartz is often found associated with other minerals, such as a talcose substance of white colour, very soft to the touch, with silky gloss like silver ; pieces of carbonate of lime of laminated structure ; and limonite of resinous appearance. Native gold is sometimes found on the coast, together with copper ores, in which is observed chalkosina,' covellina,- fillipsita,^ chalkopyrita,'' ziguelina,* malaquite,' atacamita,' and crisocola or silicate of copper. In the Sierra regions, where the sedimentary rocks predominate, not only are there veins of gold in the crystallined earths, but they are present also in the metamorphic rocks, occurring usually between the sedimentary and eruptive rocks. Gold occurs in these veins both in ' Prosulphide of copper. ' Sulphide of copper. ' Sulphide of copper and iron. "* Copper pyrites. ^ Protoxide of copper. ° Carbonate of copper. ' Oxychloride of copper. APPENDIX. 269 the native state with pj-vites or sulphide of iron, or accompanied by other metallic sulphides more or less argentiferous, such as panabas,' bournonita,^ jamesonita,'' galena, &c. Goklin|the Sierra region occurs not only in veins or fissures, but also as scales or grains in ancient and modern alluvials, constituting, in the former the auriferous deposits- locally known as rebosaderos and aventaderos, in the latter the lavaderos (washings) which are almost unknown in the coast region. In the Eastern Cordillera and in the Montana region gold is usually found in quartz veins, interspersed with talcose and argillaceous slates. The quartz which accompanies gold in this region is usually white, and at times it contains spots of oxide of iron, in this case it is never found in such abundance as in the auriferous minerals of the coast. IWispikel or arsenical pyrites, in small quantities, is sometimes found in auriferous quartz in this region, but principally in that of the province of Sandia. There are large deposits of auriferous earth in this part of Peru, and it is from this place that the largest nuggets of gold have been obtained. In order to give some idea ot the dissemination of gold in Peru, we will briefly review all the places in the Republic where, according to my knowledge, gold has been found, following the Departments in geographical order from north to south. Department of Loreto. — In this Department there are many gold washings in the province of the Alto Amazonas, between the celebrated Pongo of j\Ianseriche and the mouth of the river Iluallaga. The principal washings are the Chaupirumi, Pucayaco, Puruaga, Calen- tura, Achual, Limon Nitagua, &c. These have been worked for two cen- turies, but were temporarily abandoned in consequence of the continued assaults made by the savages inhabiting that region. In the year l857) they destroyed the neighbouring villages of Barranca and San Antonio. In the year 1867, Captain D. M. A. \'argas, in his ex- ploring voyage by steamer on the rivers Morona and I^Iaraiion, visited these A^ashings, and at a place called Huaslica observed the operation of gold washing practised by the Indians, and was astonished at the richness of those regions. At the present time there are several persons M-ho derive considerable profit from these gold workings. Gold IVas/nngs on the banks of the Rher Napo. — The important river Xapo, which takes its rise in the Republic of Ecuador, brings down in its sands a good deal of gold in grains and very fine flakes, uhich the Indians extract by means of troughs. Osculati, who descended that beautiful river in the year 1846, says that the Indians pay their tribute to the Government of Ecuador by means of the gold which they remove from the sand brought down by the river, fiUing with it some small canes which hold a fixed measure of the precious metal, and if they have collected more gold than is necessary to pay their contribution, they fling the surplus into the river. The Department of the Amazonas. — The principal place where gold is met with in the Amazonas Department is the district of St. Thomas, • Sulphide of copper, antimony, and arsenic. '■^ Sulphide of lead, copper, and antimony with silver. " Sulphide of antimony and lead with silver. U 2 270 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. situated in the province of Luya. The mines are 2 leagues from the town of St. Thomas, and 15 leagues south of the city of Chachapoyas. The auriferous cerros are the San Jose and the Chururco, the principal vein being known as the Chururco, which is 800 metres long, and 3 to 24 centimetres broad. This vein is known as the Reo, where it crosses the Reo Quebrada, and in the other range it is known as the Culquinchar. There is another vein known as the Horabuena, which is 30 to 50 centimetres wide. These veins run through a formation of lalcose and micaceous slate, gold being found in a quartz bed, accom- panied with oxide of iron and pyrites in variable proportion. The quantity of gold varies from -^ oz. to 4 oz. per ton (i4'37 grms. to Ii5'oo grms. per metric ton). In this locality there are several kinds of gold ore, each having a particular name. There are four principal varieties: — (i) Nusco, (z) Panal de rosa, (3) Higado, (4) Bronce. The first, the Nusco, is the most esteemed, on account of its being the richest and the most easy to work. It has a darkish colour, and consists of a heterogeneous mass of oxides of iron and manganese, with talcose slate and quartz. This variety crumbles in the fingers, the particles of gold being visible. The second, the Panal de rosa, is composed of quartz, more or less full of cavities. Gold is also visible, but this ore is not so much appreciated as the former, being more difficult to work. The third variety, the Higado, is an oxide of iron, which sometimes accompanies the Nuscoor the Panal de rosa, and isfound in small isolated masses. This variety has rarely any visible particles of gold, but yields it in a state of minute grains, which makes it imperceptible to the eye. The fourth, the Bronce, is a sulphide of iron, which also yields gold, but it is necessary to calcine the ore to extract the metal. Previous to 18S0, the extraction of gold in this locality was con- ducted in tlie most primitive manner and only on a small scale, by means of quimbaletes or mills, in which the ore was ground, amalgamation being carried on at the same time ; it took a whole day to refine a single quintal of ore. In the same year D. A. Wertheman organised in Chachapoyas a small company for woiking the gold mines of St. Thomas, and constructed a machine to mill the ore, and worked the mines. Unfortunately, after having extracted a little of the precious ore, proving in n praclical manner that these mines could be worked with profit, the unfortunate war with Chili interrupted the works, and the want of labourers, the difficulty of communication, and obstacles of all kinds, made it im- possible to continue the operations. The Washings of Patahuachana. — In the Amazon Department there is a gold washing at a place called Patahuachana, situated at the mouth of the River Nieva, in the Mararion ; but it is not worked, on account of the remoteness of the place, and its being inhabited by the Aguarunas savages. This washing was visited in 1859 by an expedition headed by the Bishop Ruiz, with the object of opening a road between Chachapoyas and the Maraiion. Auriferous Sands in the Afaraiton near Balsas, — At the point where APPENDIX. 271 the Maranon is crossed, on llie way to Cajamarca and Chacha- poyas, is situated the town of Balsas, and close by is the Honda Quebrada, at the entrance to which the sands on the banks of the WaraRon contain a fine quality gold. The Huakarumi Washing. — The Department of Piura has a gold washing in the Quebrada of Hualcarumi, 3 leagues north of the town of Ayabaca, the capital of the province of the same name. The gold is found in an alluvial earth, which rests on the crystalline and porphyritic rocks. According to Professor Olaechea, who has given a description of this auriferous deposit, the gold is in a state of fine powder, the grains varying to the size of a pea, and by a test that he made by washing a certain quantity of earth, he obtained gold to the amount of I "87 grms. per metrical ton. Gold Mine in the District of Frias. — In addition to the gold wash- ing at Hualcarumi, the Department has a gold mine situated between the town of Frias and the hacienda of Yanango, in the Province of Ayabaca. The gold is found in the quartz forming a vein in the syeniiic rock. This mine, it appears, has been abandoned on account of its small ley of gold, which, according to samples assayed, does not average one ounce per cajon (60 quintals). II ashing of Goldin the Province of Jaen. — In the northern part of the province of Jaen, belonging totheDepartmentof Cajamarca, and almost on the borders of Peru and the Republic of Ecuador, is situated the town of San Ignacio ; a gold washing is located about half-a-league from the town. This auriferous deposit is found near the hacienda of Tomaqui, but it cannot be worked on a large scale on account of the scarcity of water. For several years the sub-Prefect of the Province of Jaen, Sefior De Jose Maria Villanueva, worked this washing, and constructed a small reservoir which filled durmg the night, using the whole of the next day for separating the gold. Auriferous Sand in the River CJiinchipe. — About 2 leagues N. E. of the town of San Ignacio is the river Chinchipe, the source of which is in the Republic of Ecuador. In the bed of this river gold is- found, which coulcl be extracted with advantage were it not for the distance from Cajamarca {70 leagues), the want of necessities, and bad roads. The Gold Mines of Asuncion. — About two leagues .S.W. of the town of Asuncion in the province of Cajamarca, and about nine leagues from the latter town, are situated the gold mines of Capan, in a metamorphic sand hill. The gold is found in the quartz with oxide of iron, iron pyrites, copper pyrites, and magnetic iron ; and also in an earthy ore composed of oxide of iron and copper ore called paco. The pyrites which I have had occasion to analyse contain from I to 2j oz. of gold per cajon (io'4 grms. to 26 grms. per metrical ton), whilst the paco contains varying amounts up to 4 oz. per cajon (41 '5 grms. per metrical ton). The mines are badly worked, the excavations only being made where the ore is good. About one league from the Capan mines is the Cerro Colladar, and in Chirinpata several mines are extensively worked, with large and commodious tunnels, and many wells with veins of paco ore, which alternate with laminated carbonate of lime and pyrites. In the valley 272 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. at the foot of this cerro there is to be found, at a place called Sapii, the remains of a machine where the ores of Chirinpata were worked ; there is also observed in various places the primitive quimbaletes, or machines, which are still used in certain parts of Peru. The principal mines are Chirinpata, La Colorada, El Chino, &c., and if we may judge by the internal workings, these mines must have yielded a large quantity of gold ore. Unfortunately the ores which remain are very poor ; lately, having had occasion to analyse various samples of paco, the result yielded on an average only 12 adarmes (J oz.) of gold per cajon of 60 quintals {3 tons), which corresponds to 6'46 grms. per metrical ton. The carbonate of lime containing specks of pyrites yielded hardly any traces of gold. In the upper part of the cerro a vein of blende with iron has been found. The Gold Miii^s of Carachugo. — Almost on the summit of the Cor- dilleras, between Cajamarca and Yanacancha, there are several deposits of desraontes', and some mines which were worked by the ancient Indians, in the interior of which various stone implements have been found, which were used in working the auriferous ore. These mines, now abandoned, are known as the Carachugo, and have been worked in very porous quartz, presenting the appearance of scoria. The surface mines are very large, but badly worked. Cerro del Toro. Department of La Libertad, — About half a league west of the town of Huamachuco rises the El Toro hill, composed of sandy soil in almost vertical layers, and between these are several layers of bluish red clay which form a vein or manto. In these clayey layers there is found at times a kind of talcose clay having the appearance of ashes, containing an appreciable quantity of gold. This manto, known as El Carmen and El Rosario, runs S. S.W. to N.N. E. between layers of whitish sand, sloping towards the ■cerro (S.E.E. ) at an angle of 80°. The surface of this manto is i foot wide, but below it spreads out so that at a certain depth it is niore than 2 metres wide. This manto has been worked for a considerable length of time, and it had, when I visited this place, a run of 124 metres. About 50 metres further on, Senor Liberato Jara, commenced a shaft, cutting the manto transversely, and worked over 40 metres. Don IManuel Lavado continued the work for a furlher 25 metres, and lastly, Don Juan Lopez Reyna finished it, having cut the manto at the 3 metres. The direction of this shaft is from N. W . to S. E. Seiior Reyna worked another pit, to which he gave the name of San Francisco many copper mines, viz., the Canza, the Tingue, and the Yauca, -which, produce very varialsle kinds of ores, comprising — cuprita (protoxide of copper), chalcosina (prosulphide of copper), covellina (sulphide of copper), chalcopirita (sulphide of copper and iron), fillipsita (sulphide of copper and iron accompanied with carbonate of lime), atacamite- (oxychloride of copper), malachita (carbonate of copper), azurita. (sulphide of copper and iron), cuprocalcita (carbonate of protoxide: of copper and lime), crisocola (silicate of copper), limonite (peroxide of iron hydrated), &c. These ores are frequently accompanied -with pyrites, quartz, calcite, yeso, &c., but seldom with native ore. Native X 284 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. ore is found in sandy ores in an irregular manner, the ore appearing only mow and then, so that some portions of the copperous ores extracted ^re entirely sterile of gold. The Mmeral Cerro of Ciiico Criiccs. — Another instance of the j3re- sence of gold, in an accidental manner, in copper ores, is seen in the Tnineral cerro of Cinco Cruces, situated in the province of Chincha, about ■eight leagues from Pasco. The ores of this cerro more or less resemble those lof Canza and Tingue ; occasionally some appear containing native gold, and visible to the naked eye. A fine sample from the Juanita mine in my collection presents the native ore in a very thick limonite, showing chalcosina, accompanied with crystallised atacamita in small prisms, and quartz. Gold is present at the junction of the <;halcolite and quartz, forming, as it were, a boundary line between the •ores. As I have said before, the presence of gold in these ores is not constant, many samples from the Juanita mine, analysed, did not show any trace of gold ; in others it occurred in some quantity. Gold Mines of Nazca. — Near the town of Nazca there is an auriferous cerro, known as the Cerro Blanco. Gold is found, but not visible to the naked eye, in quartz with oxide of iron. The richness of gold in this ore varies considerably. A collection of various samples averaged 22 grms. of gold per metrical ton (about 2 oz. per cajon). The Professor -of Mineralogy in the Peruvian School of Mines recently procured several specimens of the auriferous ores from Nazca and its vicinity. The specimens obtained from the principal shaft of Cerro Blanco, which is 300 metres long, were : — 1st. Ferruginous quartz with limonite. This specimen appeared to be formed of some angular stones united by a kind of silicious cement. 2nd and 3rd. A conglomerate of small quartz, more or less ferru- ginous, with small quartz crystals. 4th. A mixture of quartz, oligist iron and limonite, with small scales -of talc. 5th. Oligist iron with quartz and limonite. 6th. A conglomerate composed of angular quartz, coloured ex- teriorly by oxide of iron. An analysis of these specimens mixed together exhibited a ley of gold of 10 grms. per metrical ton, a little less than i oz. of gold per cajon. This result is almost identical to that obtained a few months previously from the analysis of a collection of ores from the same cerro, sent me by Mr. Elster. However, the ore being scattered in a very irregular way in the quartz veins, it is probable that richer specimens may be obtained. It is certain that the Cerro Blanco veins ought to give a considerable proportion of gold considering the shaft is 300 metres long, and is extensively worked, together with other secondary ones. Professor Olaechea says there is a tradition that until a recent period an Indian by himself extracted every day from one of these mines an ounce of gold ; the mine from which this quantity of gold was obtained is unknown. The specimen of auriferous ore brought by Professor Olaechea from a cerro situated at three leagues south of Nazca, is formed of quartz -with oxide of iron and silicate of copper of bluish green colour. APPENDIX. ^85 Having examined this specimen with a glass, I was enabled to discover in the silicate of copper some small particles of gold ; and an analysis of a portion of the specimen resulted in obtaining a ley of gold equal to 260 grms. per metrical ton, or nearly 25 oz. ol gold per cajon. This specimen, compared with the preceding result, is ver); rich in gold, and it is very probable that the tradition refers to this cerro and not to the Cerro Blanco, as it would only be necessary to refine one load of mineral, which can be easily done in a day, to obtain over an ounce of gold. This deposit is at present worked by the Indians. The specimen brought by Professor Olaechea from the vicinity of the Chillo Hacienda is formed of white quartz with small ca\-ities and coloured exteriorly by oxide of iron. This specimen yielded on analysis only traces of gold, but as the analysis had been made from a single sample, it is possible it was almost sterile ; a larger quantity would probably give a larger amount. There are auriferous deposit^, but little known, near the hacienda of S. Geronimo, at a short distance of the town of Santa Lucia. DEPART.MEXT OF HUANCAVELICA. In the Department of Huancavelica, the number of places where gold is found is very few. The following are those in which the presence of gold has been noted. Cerro de Potocche. — The Cerro de Potocche, called by some Potocchi, is situated near the town of Huancavelica, and has silver, gold, and copper mines. A specimen taken from Los Santos Inocentes mine, composed of paco with a little azurite and malachite, gave on analysis a ley of silver equal to 48 marcs of silver per cajon, and 3 oz. of gold {31 '24 grms. per metrical ton). Jtikani Mine. — About 8 leagues from the town of Huancavelica, in the direction of the town of Lircay, is situated the Cerro of Julcani, where there are hundreds of surface mines, many of thembeing worked by open cuttings in a N.N.W. to S.S.E. direction. The metallic ore forms many small veins, or rather small mantos, which alternate with vertical capas of a dioritic rock, which appears almost stratified. The Julcani mine contains silver ores ; but in the central and most elevated portion of the cerro there are gold mines known as De Corihuacta. The gold is found in a porous quartz with stains of oxide of iron, the metal being visible. The Lircay Mines. — About li league N.E. of Lircay, a town belonging to the province of Angaraes, some mines are found, known as the Viscachas, and also as the Lircay mines, on account of their proximity to the town. These are silver mines, the gold mines are found in the elevated cerro. Gold Mines of Coris. — In the upper part of the town of Coris, belonging to the province of Tayacaja and near the lake Pumacocha, some gold mines exist, from which very rich specimens have been obtained. A specimen given me by Sefior De Felician Urbino presents native gold in an arborescent form and as small threads upon a ferrufnnous quartz. X 2 286 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. DEPARTMENT OF AYACUCHO. This Department has many gold mines, which were at the commence- ment of the present century being worked. There are 41 mines of this metal, viz. ; 5 in the province of Lucanas, 18 in Parinacochas, 4 in Cangallo, and 14 in Huanta, but at the present time they are almost all abandoned, and no data whatever exists denoting precisely where these mines are located. The better known are those near the town of Chaypi, and in the Cerro of Luicho. Gold Mines of Chaypi. — In the vicinity of the town of Chaypi, belonging to the district of Pullo, Province of Parinacochas, are found the cerros of Pullo, Chaypi, and Tocota, which have many gold-mines, now almost all abandoned. The gold is found in the quartz, which forms numerous veins in the granitic and syenitic rocks, of which almost all the cerros of that region are composed. The State engineer, Seiior Babinski, who visited the place two years ago, says that the veins that he had occasion to examine did not contan gold visible, but yielded from 3 to 5 oz. of gold per cajon (31 '34 grms. to 52 grms. per metrical ton) ; and he believes that among the numerous mines in that locality there may be some that are richer which could be worked with advantage. According to local tradition, there existed in former time over 30 mines, among which the richest were the Muchadero and S. Luis mines, which were worked for over 80 years ; the first is about five leagues south of Chaypi, the latter a little distance from this town. About three leagues from Chaypi, towards Pullo, is the Ancocola mine, now completely abandoned, which yielded in former times very rich ores ; it is stated that on one occasion from a single basket containing 6 arrobas ( 1 50 lb. ) of ore, 90 oz. of gold were extracted. Unfortunately the enemy most to be feared in all mines — water — appeared, hindering the working and causing the mines to be abandoned. About two leagues north of Chaypi is the Lambramani mine, which is abandoned on account of being flooded ; and about the same distance to the south is the Yamcama mine and the washing of Pisacaya. The Salinas mine, near Tocota, has a vein one metre wide, but is not worked for want of air. In the vicinity of Tocota there are many other abandoned mines, viz., Mollehuaca, Tocota Grande, S. Andres Grande, S. Andres Chico, El Diablo, El Triunfo, Los Torrecillas, Santa Rosa, La Cupitana, El Cobrizo, &c. This region appears to be very auriferous ; when it rains, the water running through the ravine near Chaypi, grains and even small nuggets of gold are seen in the sand and stones. At the time Seiior Babinski visited this place a miner named Buenaventura Rosellini was working some mines on a small scale, grinding and amalgamating the ore by means of the quimbalete, and selling the gold extracted to the Chala merchants. It is to be hoped, however, that some day a company will be formed to work these mines on an extensive scale, as the positive existence of gold, the agreeable climate, and the easy methods APPENDIX. 287 of communication which exist with the port of Chala, are favourable conditions for the organisation of a mining company. The Gold Mines of Otoca. — Near the source of the river Ingenio, which waters a part of the Department of lea, and in territory belonging to the province of Lucanas, are situated the towns of Otoca and Chavincha, in the vicinily of which are many gold mines, now abandoned. These mines, discovered between 1670 and 1673, Pro- duced large quantities of this metal ; the fifth part, paid to the King of Spain, was equal to 80,000 dollars annually. The Gold Mines of the Cerro of Luicho. — About two leagues N.W. of Panza, the ancient capital of the province of Parinacochas, lies the auriferous Cerro of Luicho. In geological structure this cerro is a more or less metamorphic sand, like that of the Huallura deposit, only in the latter the layers of sand are almost vertical, while those in the Cerro of Luicho are almost horizontal. This formation is Soo metres thick, the summit of the cerro is 3,400 metres above the level of the sea, and the lower part 2,600 metres. In this cerro there are many mines which were formerly worked, the principal are (i) La Descubridora, (2) El Choclon, (3) San Agustin, (4) La Piedra Lipe, (5) Santa Barbara, (6) Labor Negro, (7) Boca de Sarate, (8) Copacabana, {9) Tajo de Velido, (lo) Boca de Acuna, ( 1 1 ) Tunas-pata. The terrible earthquake in the month of August, 1868, destroyed a greater part of the galleries, so that it is now impossible to reach the walls to examine the nature of the ore, in order to ascertain if it is as rich as Indians describe it. Seiior Babinski did not find the ore in the veins still visible as rich as it is reported to be. However, with the help of a microscope, he discovered some specks of gold, which proves that the mines are not completely exhausted. In the Cerro of Luicho, besides these veins there is also an auriferous alluvial. This earth is composed of sand, pebbles, gravel, clays, and very large rounded stones, resting upon the rocks from which it ilerives its origin. According to the miners of the district, gold is found disseminated in this earth in the form of grains, flakes, and at times nuggets ; but Seiior Babinski says that, after a careful exami- nation, he had not been able to find either grains or nuggets, but only very thin flakes, and its separation by the puruna would cause considerable difficulty. He also examined the residue, and only met with very slight specks of gold. In the year 1876, a company was formed to work the gold from the alluvial earth, but it was found that the necessary water was very scarce, consequently it was decided to construct an aqueduct to bring a supply from another place. The execution of this work was entrusted to Seiior Mabila, who in a short time succeeded in bringing ^vater from a place called Ispanu, situated about 6 leagues off, running in the aqueduct all the water issuing from the hill. This aqueduct, although it is not a perfect construction, fulfils the object for which it is used. After allowing for all sources of loss, there is received at Luicho one cubic foot, or 27 litres, of water per second, a sufficient quantity to wash the soil. The Society sent for a practical miner from California, Seiior D. Carlos Hern, who con- structed a machine to wash the soil on a large scale. According to data 288 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. obtained on the spot by Seiior Babinski, the owners calculate to extract 4 adarmes, or J oz. for each 6 arrobas of earth, which corresponds to about 94 grms. of gold per metrical ton ; but, according to the analysis of several samples he obtained, the richness in gold may be calculated at lo grms. per metrical ton, about i oz. of gold per cajon. Notwithstanding the yield of gold, the sufficient water supply, and the place enjoying a 'very agreeable climate, the company broke up its works without assigning any cause for doing so, consquently the Luicho remains almost abandoned. Gold and Silver Mines of Maran. — About three leagues south of the town of Panza, lies the village of iVIaran, and on the other side of the river Lampa there is an abandoned gold and silver mine. The mine is called the Esperanza, and it is situated in a deep hole about 15 metres above the river. Senor Babinski, who visited this place in 1882, had to make use of ropes and ladders to reach the top of the mine. He says, "the %'ein is almost perpendicular to the river, and runs from east to west, and has p vein 10 centimetres ^vide on top, which appears to increase in thickness below. The walls of this vein are porphyritic, and the gangue or matrix is composed of sulphate of baryta and quartz. The mineral is a grey copper ore, which on analysis yielded 12 marcs of silver and 6 oz. of gold per cajon. It contains also a high percentage of copper. This mine was worked prior to 1868, but was abandoned on account of the difficulty of extracting the ore. In the vicinity of this mine there are various other surface mines of very little importance, the working of which is very difficult, from being located in almost inaccessible places." Gold Washings of the MontaHa of Huaftta. — In various places in the Montaiia of Huanta, and in the valley of Simariba and Aeon, gold washings are met with, but the superstitious ideas of the inhabitants impede the working of them, as they believe that if the gold is extracted, all their plots of sown land will not yield, and consequently they would be reduced to starvation. DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO. In the extensive department of Cuzco the province of Paucartambo is veiy rich in gold. There is no doubt the ancient Peruvians extracted a considerable quantity from this district. The part of the province of Paucartambo containing the most gold is the basin of the river Mapacho, from its source near the town ot Ocongate to the town of Paucartambo, the capital of the province. The predominating rock in this region is slate, alternating from talcose to micaceous slate, and in some places to a very argillaceous slate, which imperceptibly passes to hard talcose clays, which rest upon the former. Gold is found almost always in the quartz, which varies very much in its appearance, being more or less white and com- pact, or more or less porous and stained with limonite. This quartr forms many little veins in the slate, which are at times very rich in gold, but are generally not very thick. Commencing at the source of the river Mapacho, which is also known APPENDIX. 289. as the Ocongate or Paucartambo, according to the districts, through, which it flows, the following mines are met with : — Gold Mines of Huiscapata. — The mine of this name is situated on the right margin of the river, about a quarter of a league from the town, in a very pleasant valley. The rock is an argillaceous slate, easily divided. The surface mine is situated at a place where various small veins of quartz cross one another. They are now obstructed, as all the superficial workings have fallen in. The prin- cipal vein runs from east to west, and is formed of porous quartz, coloured with o.xide of iron. The Huiscapata mine was famous for its large yield of gold to its original owner, Seiior D. Evarito Gallareta,. who worked it from the surface some eighty years ago. When the- mine was at its greatest deptli from the surface, there were over ten working passages, and a large quantity of native gold in sight. It became inundated with water, which choked it in a few hours. The owner constructed a drain, with the object of emptying it, but did not connect it with the inundated workings. He commenced another drain, but having no special knowledge of the work required, expended money uselessly, without obtaining the desired result. These tunnels are at present inaccessible, having fallen in. Another tunnel was afterwards opened on the west side of the course of the principal vein, probably with the object of striking the inundated workings, but without any result. Some are of opinion that it is impossible to carry off the water from the mine by means of tunnels, because they believe the inundated workings are below the level of the river. On the hank of the river, at the foot of the mine,- are the ruins of the hacienda, where the ores were refined. Gold Aline of Carliimyo. — Less than I league from the town of Ocon- gate, on the right margin of the river, in a ravine, is the gold mine- of Carhuayo, which has recently been discovered, and is, perhaps, the only mine in the province of Paucartambo which is being permanently worked. The auriferous quartz of this mine is very white, somewhat compact, and slightly transparent ; it has seldom any traces of oxide of iron, but presents occasionally small stains of sulphate of copper, and small globules of native copper. This quartz does not form a true vein, but a manto, and runs parallel to the stratification of the slate, which is clayey, talcose, and ferrruginous, and in some parts has a semi-crystalline structure, from the presence of granite modifying its- nature. This auriferous manto is almost horizontal, running S.E. to iS^.W., and has a variable thickness of 20 to 25 centimetres. In this- mine gold is found more abundantly near the upper wall. Senor Gohring, who visited this mine, says that he found in ther cuttings in the vicinity of the auriferous manto many stones garnished with gold. At the time he examined this mine the working was divided into four parts, resembhng tunnels, the largest being 24 metres, and the smallest 5 ; but according to a later communication from the owner, Senor D. Frederico Chacon, the workings have been extended 7'5cv metres in length. Two of the workings had gold visible to the naked eye disseminated in the quartz in the form of filaments and grains. The refinery is situated near the mine. The grinding and amalgamation are performed in quimbaletes, which scarcely grind 50 lb. of ore per 29ampas, near the Arequipa railroad. Two specimens collected in the valley — the first, a silicate of iron, with distinct blue stains of silicate of copper — gold is found so minutely disseminated in the mass that it is difficult to collect the metal by washing the milled ore. A quantitative analysis of a quantity of ore gave a ley of gold of 9374 grms. per metrical ton {9 oz. of gold per cajon). The other specimen was composed of quartz with talc and small copperous stains. This specimen gave on analysis a ley of gold of 83 -33 grms. per metrical ton (8 oz. per cajon). Gold Mines, 5 Leagues from Vitor near Siguas. — Seven years ago I received from Arequipa a specimen of auriferous ore from this mine. It was very peculiar on account of the material in which the gold was found. This material is a kind of anagenite (sulphide of copper and arsenic), of reddish colour, formed in its upper part of coarse grains of quartz and talc, of grey colour with semi-metallic brilliancy, united by a cement of felspar and quartz in much finer grains. The gold is found scattered in this rock in very fine scales, visible to the eye, and very abundant. The Gold Mines near Quishuavani and Huasamayo. — In the Uchu- mayo district, in the province of Arequipa, there are two places, called Quishuarani and Huasamayo, with auriferous quartz veins, but very Y 300 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. little worked. In Quishuarani there is a mill, where they refine the ore extracted from the mine, about 400 yards from the left bank of the river. Gold associated with other Minerals. — A few years ago I received from Arequipa a specimen of ore, locally known as liga colorada, from the Carmen mine in the Cerro de la Trinidad, 2 leagues S.E. of Tiabaya. This ore is composed of cerusite (carbonate of lead), with sili- cate of iron (a kind of jasper), and green stains of chrysocolla (silicate of copper), which, on analysis, gave a ley of silver equal to 19 '2 marcs per cajon, and 83'33 grms. of gold per metrical ton (8 oz. per cajon). The Gold Mines of the Province of Camand. — In the province of Camana there are gold mines in the Achatayhua and Huanuhuanii hills. In the latter there are many surface mines, the principal being the Santa Rita mine. Four leagues from Chala there are various copper mines, and one of gold, called Lucmila. The richest locality in the province is Posco. The Gold Mines of Posco. — These mines are 9 leagues from the town of Caraveli ; although these are but little known, they have produced large quantities of gold, and have been worked with considerable activity for over forty years. The workings are very deep, with many surface mines in the same vein. The rock is syenite, varying to talcose. The Posco ravine is very narrow, and has a stream of water, which is used in the quimbaletes for grinding the ore. In this ravine there are ruins of many huts and a chapel, with stone walls cemented with mud, which contains gold . When I visited this mineral district (Nov. 18, 1863), there were two or three persons occupied in washing and re-washing the loose refuse earth to extract the little gold it contained. At the beginning of this year (1887) Senor Onorata Montoya began to work the Posco mine, and had the good fortune to find a small vein which produced half an ounce of gold from 6 arrobas of ore (208 '2 grms. per metrical ton). The Posco gold is generally whitish and under ley, but there are several mines which yield the best quality gold. DEPARTMENT OF PUNO. Of the seven provinces comprising the Puno Department, only two contain rich gold mines — the Carabaya and Sandia. The provinces of Sandia and Carabaya are situated in the most remote region of Peru, bordering Bolivia, and are, for the most part, on the further side of the Eastern Cordillera, a continuation of those of Bolivia, where the elevated peaks Illimani and Sorata stand pre-eminent ; so that, in order to enter these provinces, it is necessary to cross this gigantic chain by narrow, broken pathways. This region has produced, and still continues to yield, immense wealth, so much so that the Cara- baya region has been considered the richest in gold in the whole of South America. Its gold mines are, without doubt, the most ancient, as the name Carabaya, more or less modified into Caruaya, Collahuaya, &c. , is cited by ancient historians as a place very rich in gold. According to tradition a large nugget in the form of a horse's head, weighing 4 arrobas (100 lb.), was extracted from the Inahuaya ravine, APPENDIX. 301 and another seen by Garcilaso,' the historian, resembling a man's head, was found in 1556 in a crack in the rock. The Mines and Gold Washings of the Province of Sandia. — The province of Sandia, created in 1875, forms part of the ancient pro- vince of Carabaya, and the district of Poto, in the province of Huancane, contains gold both in the alluvial deposits and in the quartz. The principal gold mines and washings of the province of Sandia are the following : — The Mineral Deposit of Poto. — This important mineral deposit is situated in the south of the eastern Cordillera, traversing the province of Sandia, and near the source of the river, passing the town of Crucero, the ancient capital of the province. Its climate is very cold, on account of its great elevation, 4,717 metres above the level of the sea. The gold is found in a brown soil, composed of quartoze rock, slate, and a metamorphic sand with marly earth, distinguishing it from other auriferous earths, which are commonly of a reddish colout. The auriferous earth forms immense deposits, measuring three leagues in length, extending from the heights of Comuni and Ananea to the town of Poto. The auriferous earth contains many angular stones, which proves that they have not been subjected to the action of water, but that they have been brought down in thick masses of clay. Another fact in support of this is the mode in which the gold is pre- sented ; instead ol being found in the lower part of the alluvial deposit, it is found throughout the m.ass ; only in some parts of the marly earth, called llinqui, no gold occurs. Large nuggets are not found in this deposit, the largest being only one adarme (hardly I '8 grm.), the gold generally being very fine. Dif- ferent names are applied in the neighbourhood to the gold, according to its division : afrechoso is gold in small scales, like bran ; natoso, smaller, easily carried by water when washed in troughs ; polvillo, gold finely divided, which commonly is extracted by amalgamation. The Poto deposit would yield large quantities of gold if a greater quantity of water were obtainable, but unfortunately it is very scarce, notwithstanding its being so near the immense Cerros Nevados. The water for the washing of earths is brought by means of an aqueduct from a small lake at the foot of the Nevado Comuni, three miles distant, to a depOt called Cocha de Pampa Blanca. This depot sup- plies water to two others, one called Cocha del Carmen ; the other, Cocha de S. Antonio. On account of the scarcity of water, the same system of working cannot be adopted as in the other places in the pro- vince, where large quantities of water are thrown upon the soil until the layer which contains gold is reached. In Poto they make a great number of surface mines, from ' to ij yard apart ; then opening a large hole in the earth separating one mine from another, finally cutting away the pillars or bridges, and allowing the ground to fall, an operation called chaquipaqui, cutting the feet. The soil dug away falls into a kind of aqueduct or channel, and is broken up, in order that it may be carried away by the water, the heaviest portion containing gold ' Garcilaso — "Comentarios Reales," libro viii., cap. xxiv. y 2 302 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. and stones remaining. As soon as a certain quantity is collected, they remove the stones from the deposit which remains in the channel, and afterwards the earth, then known as quinto, and transport it to the machine, where the gold is extracted. The Gold Mines in Cerro Ananea. — About three leagues N. E. of Poto, and in a nevado cerro near Comuni, are the ruins of the town of Ananea, respecting which there is no historical data. The ^remains of a church are standing, showing that it was founded by the Spaniards. The place is 5,210 metres above the sea, in the region of perpetual snow. Near the ruined town are many surface mines full of water, in many of which are seen beautiful stalactites of ice. These mines are excavated in a manto, following the layers of ferruginous sl^te, the course of which is N. 15 E. to S. 15 W., inclining to the S.S.E. at an angle of 30° to 35°. Two veins of quartz have been discovered in a dun-coloured rock, known as lunar ; in one, a few inches wide, coal is visible ; the other, nine inches wide, contains very fine gold. The cause of the abandon- ment of Ananea is unknown ; but it is believed to have been owing to the discovery of gold in Poto, and the mines having filled with water. Mineral Deposit of S. Juandel Ore. — There is no data respecting this celebrated deposit, nor of the opulent town of S. Juan del Oro, which appears to have been the first founded by the Spaniards in the woody region of Carabaya, forming part of the province of Sandia. It is remark- able that the place where the imperial town of S. Juan del Oro stood is not accurately known. Some believe that it was situated in the Quebrada of Sandia, while it is affirmed by others to have been in the Quebrada of Tambopata. Having had occasion to consult some ancient documents, I have come to the conclusion that the town existed in the Quebrada of Tambopata, about one league from a place called Villa, or Villapata, or Meseta de la Villa. According to tradition, the dis- covery of gold in Carabaya, and the foundation of the Villa de S. Juan del Oro, is attributed to some Spanish fugitives from the armies of Pizarro and Almagro. The town rose to 3,000 inhabitants ; but the greed for gold divided them into parties, causing their fall, so that in 1768 Dr. Cosme Bueno says tlie celebrated Villa only reckoned six families of Indians, and as many Spaniards.' At the present day all the inha- bitants have disappeared, and the site of the town is unknown. The Mineral JJeposit of Aporoma. — In a ridge dividing the rivers Machicamani and Pulipuli, which descend the Nevada Cordillera to the river Inambari, to the right of the road leading from Phara to La Mina, there existed in former times the Aporoma deposit, with its rich gold mines. Although it is unknown when gold was dis- covered and when the town was founded, at all events it was posterior to the foundation of La Villa de S. Juan del Oro. Aporoma has yielded immense quantities of gold, and in proof of the richness of its mines is the immense outlay which was made in constructing a road and an aqueduct over two leagues long, the greater part of which is cut in the solid rock. According to a manuscript in my possession, 997,000 eastellanos of gold were expended in the construction of this aqueduct. ' Cosme Bueno — " Efemerides " for the year 1768. APPENDIX. 303, The principal mines are Allpacato, S. Juan de Pablocoya S. Gero- nimo, S. Bernahe, and Mirabella. These mines in the middle of the past century were very extensively worked, so much so that the working, was only continued with difficulty and to little advantage. From that time the district rapidly decayed and became depopulated, so that at the beginning of the present century it was found, like S. Juan del Oro, completely uninhabited. However, in the last few years some mines • have been worked. Discovery of Cold in the Quebrada of Challuina. — It is scarcely fifty years ago since nearly all the gold mines in the province of Sandia were stopped, when some cascarilla gatherers discovered the presence of gold in a place called Quimsahuaci ; but it was only in the follow- ■ ing year (1849) that other persons, sent by Seiior Pableto de Coaza in search of cascarilla, arrived in the Quebrada of Challuma and dis- covered large auriferous deposits. In a very short time they spread abroad the discovery of this valuable find ; the forest and solitary quebrada was quickly peopled with eager searchers for- gold. The magic power of this metal converted this remote corner of the Republic into a centre ot commercial activity; a town was built which received the name of Versalles ; a society was formed called Trasandina ; and, lastly, no lack of quarrels and litigation in connexion with the ownership of the richest lands. Mining gangs overran the whole quebrada, and new aventaderos andrebosaderos werediscovered, from which great wealth was extracted, so that they weighed the gold by romanas (ordinary balances) like common goods. All the deposits of auriferous earth discovered in 1849 and 1850 in this region were in this quebrada and in the Pucumayo. The places yielding a notable quantity of gold, commencing at the lowest part, are : — Pusupunco, San Simon, San Jose, Cangali, Cemcnterio, Altagracia, where from 15 lb. of earth 13 oz. of gold were extracted, and, lastly, Quimsamayo. In the Pucumayo valley gold was found in the Natividad, Talbahuasi, and San Pedro, from which a nugget weighing 27 oz. was taken, and from 3 lb. of earth 5 oz. of gold were obtained. Above this place are Santa Fortunala and Mercedes, where a nugget weighing 40 oz. was found ; Media Luna, which produced a nugget of 29 oz. ; Rosario, where another nugget weighing 36 oz. was found ; and, lastly, a place called Carrizal. Gold is found in the rebosaderos in small scales and nuggets of various size. On one occasion I saw a nugget weighing 53 oz. extracted by Seiior Rodriguez from the Quimsamayo mine. The gold is of good quality, almost always . exceeding 23 carats. A specimen from this place on analysis yielded the following results : — Gold ... ... 96 '46 per cent. Silver 2-50 „ Copper 0'04 ,, Iron ... 0'30 ,, The operation of working gold in the alluvial soils in the qnebradas of Challuma and Pucumayo is conducted in the following manner : — A rebosadero being found, the trees and vegetation covering it are cut down, the carga or sterile earth which covers the venero is then re- 304 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. moved by means of water. For this purpose an aqueduct is con- structed from the river at its highest point above the deposit. At the end of this aqueduct is a deep pit or reservoir called a ccocha (lake), with a flood-gate which, when opened, causes the water to flow with great force upon the earth ; men armed with bars break up the earth into small pieces. This work is continued until the venero is reached, known by the presence of heavy stones of margajeta and humcho (pyrites and oligist iron). The stones, called cascajeo, are removed, and only the auriferous earth remains, which is called quinto. The final operation, known as the lava, is the name given in this province to a kind of canal with stone walls, where the gold is separated. The lava is constructed as follows : — In the inclined portion of the channel a smooth plank is fixed, at the end of which a hole is dug, beyond this ,a baize cloth is laid some distance along the course. Small cylindrical pieces, 3 to 4 inches in diameter, of the roots of the sano-sano are arranged transversely in the hole. These pieces are called colon-colones. On the baize is placed a. mat made of canes, arranged crossways and tied at the ends. The auriferous earth, is thrown on to the plank and washed away by water, leaving the nuggets and larger particles of gold on the plank, the finer being retained by the colon-colones, and the still finer dust by the mat and baize. The Gold Mines of Ccapcu-orcco or Montebello. — Near the source of the Pucumayo, a branch of the Challuma, there is a very rich cerro called Ccapac-orcco (meaning rich cerro) or Montebello, which has very rich veins. In this cerro there is a vein called the Sacramento, which runs S. by E. to N. by W., almost in the same direction of the layers of slates which form the cerro. Near this vein is another, the Recompensadora, on the side of a quebrada S.S.W. to N.N.E., dechningto the S. by E. at an angle of 30° to 35°. Several deep workings in this vein show that it has been worked with advantage. At the time I visited this cerro '(October, 1864), a cutting was projected to run through the quebrada with the object of meeting these workings, to facilitate operations. The gold is accompanied with quartz, commonly called quijo. This material varies in aspect, sometimes almost white, at other times showing reddish stains of oxide of iron, with several small cavities ; stains of arsenical pyrites or mispikel, more or less auriferous, are common. The richness of the gold varies infinitely, from quartz almost sterile to very rich gold, occurring in the form of specks, threads, small leaves, or thick crusts, called franja or charperia. Quartz, with gold not visible to the eye, has given on analysis from 60 to 120 grms. per ton. Other samples, with gold visible in small specks, have yielded 200 to 500 grms. per ton, and specimens with charperia 2 to 3 per cent. The gold is of very good quality, as shown by the following analysis : — Gold... ... ... ... ... 97'io per cent. Silver ... ... ... ... I '80 ,, Copper ... ... ... ... 004 ,, Iron ... ... ... ... ... o'8o ,, This specimen had the peculiarity of containing a larger proportion of iron than all the other specimens I have analysed. APPENDIX. 305 Gold Washings in the Shoals of the River Huari-huari at Inambari. — Generally speaking, all the rivers in the province of Sandia contain gold, the richest being the Puli-puli, the Ccapacmayo, Pacchani, the Challuma, and the Huari-huari or Inambari. The workers not possessing the necessary capital to extract gold from the rebosadero, devote themselves to the washing of the river sand in large wooden troughs holding about 15 lb. each. The gold from the river Inambari is of superior quality, a specimen collected near the mouth of the Challuma, yielded Gold 97'30 per cent. Silver 2-40 „ Copper 0-03 ,, Iron 0-05 „ Gold Mines of the Province of Carahaya. — This province, although not so well known as that of Sandia, is perhaps quite as rich in gold. Dr. Cosme Bueno, speaking of this province, says ' " Almost the whole of the ground appears to be mixed with gold. When they clean the cistern of the spring in the square of Ayapata, they find in it chips and even small nuggets or grains of gold." The richest gold-bearing districts are OUachea, Ayapata, Juata, Coasa, and Usicayos. The district of OUachea contains a gold washing called El Asiento, worked many years ago but now abandoned. Ayapata with gold washings on the banks of Fhe rivers Piquitiri and Cajitiri, affluents of the river San Gavan. Several years ago D. Agusta Aragon, owner of the Hacienda San Jose de Bellavista, in the San Gavan valley, discovering in the quebrada of Cajatiri the remains of a work made by the Spaniards to deviate the river, determined to work the auriferous sands. At the time of my visit to this remote region, I assured myself of the presence of gold in the sands of this river. The Juata district has some celebrated washings in the river Mucumayo, which together with the Caxili flow into the Ayapata or Esquilaya. The washings of Mucumayo were worked during the Spanish dominion, and in later times. The gold is sometimes found in large nuggets. One found in 1851 weighed 49 oz. 12 adarmes. The district of Coasa has several washings, which are little known ; the principal is that of Antiuno, situated in a quebrada of that name ; the stream joins the Inambari on the right bank. In the months of July and August the river Antiuno becomes for the most part dry, and dividing into several branches leaves small shoals of sand very rich in gold, but the working is somewhat dangerous, on account of the savages. Gold is also found in the Quebrada of Anccoccala, where there are many surface mines, veins, and rebosa- deros. The district of Usicayos contains rebosaderos in the Quebrada of Macho-tocuma. The inhabitants extract gold from the shoals of the Inambari, by means of tocUas. Gold Mittes of the Province of Azdngaro. — In the Muiiani district. ' Cosme Bueno — " Efemerides " for the year 1768. Odriozola — "Documentos Literarios del Peru," vol. iii., p. 102, 3o6 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. belonging to the province of'Azangaro, gold mines exist ; the principal one is the Cano-grande, which, at the commencement of the present century, produced one quintal of gold annually. CONCLUSION. It is evident from the foregoing that the places in Peru bearing gold are very numerous ; although all the places cited are either directly or indirectly known to me, it is probable there are many others which are unknown. Gold being so generally scattered throughout the whole of the Republic, it is realiy surprising that so many mines are abandoned, although they were previously worked with considerable profit. It is true there are mines which are not in favourable conditions to be worked, either from the small quantity of gold, the variableness of the veins, which at times present large spaces completely sterile, or from the want of the necessary water. There are, however, many which do not present any such obstacle ; and if the works were carried on, on a large scale, would give rich returns, e.g. the Santo Tomas mines ; those in the provinces of Pataz Union and Paucartambo ; in the washings of Pallasca, Huari, Chuquibamba, Huayllaripa and Antabamba ; the washings and rebosaderos on the banks of the Inambari, Mucumayo, and Aporoma. The most important gold-bearing regions in Peru are, undoubtedly, the provinces of Sandia and Carabaya, and if as yet they have only yielded a small portion of the wealth they contain, it is not for want of gold and water, but from their being situated in the most remote corner of the Republic and the want of easy means of communication, the rugged pathways being only available on foot. To fully develop these auri- ferous deposits it is necessary to construct good horse-roads for the transport of the workers and machinery. I am of opinion that before undertaking great expenses in the working of the mines and gold washings in these provinces, a com- pany should be formed to prospect them, with the object of examining beforehand all the places where there is any probability of finding veins or deposits. The river Inambari and all its tributaries ought to be carefully examined, and in the event of meeting with gold, it would be easier to discover , from whence it came, surveying the quebrada to its source. This class of work should be conducted by practical men, who have devoted themselves in California to discovering gold. I do not doubt that with the opening of good roads, and a systematic survey of the Sandia and Carabaya provinces, the employment of machines like those used in California, Australia, and other places, this region will yield, for many generations, as large quantities of gold as that which made the name of Carabaya so celebrated. THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. 307 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX, Alcumbrera auriferous cerro, 290 Ananea auriferous cerro, 302 Ancachs Department, 275 Anccoccala washings, 305 Ancon gold mines, 282 Antabamba gold washings, 294 Antiuno washings, 305 Aporoma, mineral deposit, 302 Apurirnac Department, 292 Arequipa Department, 295 Arequipa gold mine, 295 Asuncion gold mines, 271 Auccampa gold washings, 294 Aventaderos auriferous depobit, 303 Ayahuaya gold washing, 294 Ayacucho Department 286 Azangaro gold mines, 306 Bronce, auriferous ore, 270 Cachendo quebrada, 299 Cajamarca Department, 271 Cajas gold washings, 274 Cajatiri washing, 305 Camana gold mine, 3(X> Cam ante auriferous cerro, 292 Capan gold mine, 271 Capana hacienda, 290 Carabaya gold mines, 305 Carachugo gold mines, 272 Carhuayo gold mines, 289 Cayumba gold mines, 2S0 Ccapac-orcco auriferous cerro, 304 Ccorimina gold mine, 282 Cerro de S. Francisco gold mine, 273 Cerro del Toro gold mine, 272 Cerro de Pasco gold mine, 281 Challuma auriferous quebrada, 303. Chaypi gold mines, 286 Chichina hacienda, 290 Chinchao gold mines, 280 Chinchil auriferous cerro, 273 Chinchipe auriferous sand, 271 Chirinpita gold mine, 272 Chiriiipuquio gold mines, 290 Chuquia gold mine, 277 Chuquibamba gold washing, 279 Churo, gold washings, 291 Chumbivilcas gold mines, 292 Cinco Cruces mineral cerro, 284 Cocha-cocha mineral hacienda, 290 CoUadar auriferous cerro, 271 Conclusion, 306 Condesuyos gold mines, 299 Ccoris, gold mine, 285 Coxchic gold mine, 299 Cusipata hacienda, 290 Cuzco Department, 288 3o8 THE AMAZON PROVINCES OF PERU. FriAS gold-mine, 27 1 Gl&ANTE gold mine, 274 Gold associated with copper ores, 283 Gold associated with other metals, 278 Gold in the sand of the rivers, 281 Guadalupito hacienda, 275 HiGADO auriferous ore, 270 Hualcarumi washing, 271 Hualque hacienda, 290 Huancavelica Department, 285 Huancoy mines, 278 Huanuco Department, 279 Huanuco gold mines, 280 Iluanzo auriferous cerro, 298 Huarmey gold mines, 278 Huasamayo gold mines, 299 Huatocto hacienda, 290 Huayllapana gold mines, 299 Huayllaripa gold washings, 293 Huayllura gold mines, 295 Huaynapata hacienda, 290 Huayo gold mines, 283 Huiscapata gold mine, 289 Humapauciri gold mine, 296 ICA Department, 283 lea gold mines, 283 Incacancha gold mines, 291 Jaen gold washings, 271 Janca gold mines, 277 Jembon auriferous cerro, 273 Jesus auriferous earth, 280 Julcani mines, 285 Lahuisto washings, 290 Lima gold mines, 282 Lircay mines, 285 Loreto Department, 269 Luicho gold mines, 287 Lurin gold mines, 282 Macate gold mines, 277 Machaypata auriferous quebrada, 290 Macho-tacuma rebosadero, 305 Maran gold and silver mines, 28S Maranon auriferous sands, 270 Marcopata mill, 290 Mishito auriferous cerro, 273 Montaiia of Paucartamba wash- ings, 292 Montaiia of Huanta washings, 288 Montebello auriferous cerro, 304 Montesclaros gold mines, 297 Morococha gold mine, 281 Mosca gold mines, 281 Mucumayo washings, 305 Napo gold washings, 269 Nazca gold mine, 284 Nusco auriferous ore, 270 OCORURO mines, 299 Otoca gold mines, 287 Pachachaca auriferous river, 29s ■ Palmadera gold mine, 296 Pallasca washings, 275 Pampacocha hacienda, 290 Pamplona gold mines, 278 Panal de Rosa auriferous ore, 270 Panao gold mines, 280 Pantipata Aventaderos, 290 Pararapa gold mines, 298 Parcoy gold mines, 273 Paruro gold mines, 292 Patahuachana washings, 270 Pataz gold mines, 272 Paucamarca gold mine, 281 Paucartambo mines, 290 ■ Picha gold mine, 298 Pichiuca hacienda, 290 Piedras Gordas, presence of gold, 282 Piquitire gold washings, 305 Piura Department, 271 Playeros, 275 Posco gold mines, 300 Poto mineral deposit, 301 Potocche mineral cerro, 285 Puno Department, 300 Puyhuancito auriferous cerro, 273 Puyhuan Grande auriferous cerro, 273 QuiLLO gold mine, 277 Quishuarani gold mine, 299 Rain washing, 279 Rebosadero auriferous deposit, 303 San Juan del Oro mineral de- posit, 302 San Francesco auriferous cerro, 273 San Matia cerro, 280 Sandia gold mines, 301 Sanii auriferous cerro. 282 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX^ 309 Sarumillo auriferous cerro, 273 Tajo gold mine, 274 Tocota mine, 286 Toro auriferous cerro, 272 Trujillo gold mine, 274 Uco gold washings, 276 Umana hacienda, 290 Union Province, 295 Virona gold mines, 292 Vitor gold mine, 299 Yauli gold in silver ores, 281 Zalpo mines, 275 FINIS. WVMAN AND SC'.NS PRINTERS GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.C, Mining Exhibition in Lima, 1888. T N order to give impulse and development to the Mining *- Industry of Peru, the Peruvian Government has resolved to hold a Mining Exhibition at Lima, to be opened on the 28th of July, 1888. English manufacturers are invited to send exhibits. The articles which will be admitted are such as steam-engines, pumps, mineral crushers, gold and silver washing and testing apparatus, transfer railway waggons, electric lights, signals, &c. All goods destined for the Exhibition must be so marked, and they will be admitted free of Custom House and Municipal duties. By order, H. GUILLAUME, Consul- General far Peru, in Southampton. January, 1888. NOTICE TO ENGLISH EXHIBITORS TO THE Mining Exhibition in Lima, 1888. English manufacturers desiring a representative at the forthcoming Mining Exhibition should communicate with Senor Don A. Espinosa, Mining Engineer, care of Doctor M. T. Espinosa, Calle de la Pelota, Lima, giving him particulars required for their exhibits, who will receive same and give attention to all instructions English exhibitors may send him.