pj> Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924073975447 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 924 073 975 447 DATE DUE GAYLORD PRINTED IN US A Production Note Cornell University Library produced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. It was scanned at 600 dots per inch resolution and compressed prior to storage using CCnT/ITU Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell's replacement volume on ps^r tiiat meets tiie ANSI Standard Z39.48- 1992. The production of this volume was supported by the United States Department of Education, Higher Education Act, Tide II-C. Scanned as part of the A. R. Mann Library project to preserve and enhance access to the Core Historical Literature of the Agricultural Sciences. Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series The Literature of the Agricultural Sciences. 1991-1996, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. -a HiMmmiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiimiiiimiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiMrtiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiit HOW TO USE CEMENT for CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION jor TOWN and FARM Including Formulas, Drawipg and Specific Instruc- tion to Enable the Reader to CoastructlParm and Town fiqulpment. ^ AN IDEAL BOOK FOR AGRICULTlTRAl. SCHOOiLS. BY H. COLIN CAMPBELL, C. E. Director Editorial and Advertising Bureau Portland Cement Association, Contributing Editor to Numerous Farm, Trade and Technical Periodicals. Comatl UnivcrsHy Library TA 681.C35 How to use cement for concrete construct 3 1924 003 641 317 iiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiDiiiiiiiiiiiirii dMjyright^ 1920 by STANTON & VAN VLIET CO. Entered Stationers Hall, London, "England. C3? lbOT9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Aggregates Defined 26 Aggregates, Size of 27 Bank-run gravel 29 Grading aggregates 30 Importance of clean materials 27 Testing sand for organic impurities -.' Washing aggregates 28 Barns 229-242 Birdhouses, Stucco 186-189 Block 135-141 Curing block 139 Laying block walls 139 Merits of block 135 Mixtures to use 137 Molds and machines 135 Oiling molds 137 Surface finish of block 141 Varied uses of block 140 Cattle Dipping Vat 173-179 Cisterns 105-118 Design for cistern with filter 210-215 Repairing leaks in 113 Cold Weather Concreting 251-255 Compressive Strength of Concrete 38 Concrete 29-35 Plain and reinforced 29 Concreting tools 33 Fundamental principles 24 How to make and use. : 24 Ideal concrete mixture 30 Proportioning and mixing 32 Proportioning concrete mixtures 35 Quality of mixing water 34 Quantity of mixing water 34 Storing materials for 25 Watertight concrete 31 Weight of 22 Concreting in Cold Weather 251-255 Culverts 222-228 Size of waterway required for various areas to be drained.. 228 Dairy or Milkhouses 302-307 Data on Weights and Measures 22 Design for Cistern with Filter 210-215 Details of Form for Steps 45-46 Dipping Vat ".173-179 Drain Tile 346-349 Driveways 376-380 Dusting of Floors 130 Farming with Concrete 7-17 Fences and Posts 350 Finish of Concrete Surfaces 193-203 Page Floors, Walks and Other Pavements 119-134 Dusting of 130 Reinforcing floors 119 Types of Construction 119 Forms ■ 39-60 Correct and Incorrect Methods of Cutting Joints in Forms. 44 Details of form for steps 45-46 Form for simple flower box : 313 Form removal . .■ 54 Forms for feeding floor or barnyard pavement 121 Importance of strength and bracing S3 Metal forms 40 ■ Quality of lumber 43 Setting up forms '. 50 Simple principles illustrated 56-60 Taking down forms 52 Wood forms 42 Foundations and Walls 81-98 Bearing power of soils 97 Casting posts in place 95 Depth of foundation 85 Drainage around footings 88 Estimating tables for foundations and walls 97-98 Estimating tables for quantities of materials required 99-100 Examples of use 100-104 Expansion joints 94 Footings • • 81 Mixtures for walls and foundations 84 Plaster or stucco walls 96 Reinforcing walls 83 Variety of concrete walls 89-92 Variety of forms 92-94 Wall finish 94 Wall thickness 82 Fruit or Vegetable Storage Cellars 180-185 Garages 153-156 Garden Bench 313 Hog Feeding Floor 120 Advantage of one-course construction 121 Preparing the site 122 Protecting the work 124 Size of slabs 124 Hoghouses 293-301 Hog Wallows 317 Hotbeds and Cold Frames 207-209 Houses 285-292 Icehouses 326 Implement Sheds 142-152 Plans for 143, 145, 147. 148. 149, 150 Indoor Floors 128 Barn 129 Dusting of floors 130 Quantities of materials for walks and floors 134 Page Reinforced floors 133-134 Inlet and Outlet Fixtures for Tanks 113 Introduction 6 Manure Pits ■ 320 Milkhouses or Dairy Houses 302-307 Natural Cement 21 Placing Concrete 77-80 Completing a part section 79 Depth of layers 17 Leaving work in proper condition to resume 80 Spading tools 7i> Tamping and spading 78 Variations and methods of 79 Porches and Steps 339-345 Portland Cement 18 Composition of 19 Definition of 19 Processes of manufacture 20 When discovered 18 When first made in United States 18 Posts and Fences 336, 350 Poultry Houses 166-172 Protecting Finished Work 37 Recommended Concrete Mixtures 73-76 Repairing Leaks in Tanks and Cisterns 113 Reinforcement ; 61-72 Materials used 66 Planning and laying out 71 Principles of 62 Reinforced floors 133-134 Roofs 372-375 Rubble Concrete 204-206 Septic Tanks 243-250 Silos — monolithic, block and stave 256-284 Smokehouses 216-219 Steps and Porches 339-345 Details of form for steps 45-46 Stucco 361-371 Stucco Birdhouses 186-189 Surfaces, Concrete 193-203 Finish of 193-203 Methods of obtaining finishes 196-201 Obtaining color effects 201 Surface variety with stucco 202 Variety of finishes 193-196 Tanks 105-1 18 Inlet and outlet fixtures for 113 Repairing leaks in tanks and cisterns 113 Reinforcement 107 Requirements 105 Shapes of 106 Tennis Courts 157-165 Tile, Drain 346-349 Page Tools for Concreting 220-221 Tree Surgery 333 Troughs 105-118 Walks 12S Causes of walk and floor failure .127 Width of walk and size of slab 128 Watertight Basement Construction 190-192 Well Lining and Platform 308-312 INTRODUCTION. For a number of years there has been a growing tendency in city, town ant* country to build with greater thought of the future. Many penons have reahzed that some of the building methods far too common in the past have, in a short time, proved most costly in spite of the seeming low first cost. De- preciation has been rapid, continual maintenance in the form of paint, repair and general upkeep costly, and within a relatively short time depreciation has progressed to such a point that the cheapest recourse has seemed rebuilding. When this rebuilding has been done with permanence and fire-safeness in view by using concrete, those who have witnessed the fruits of their labors have soon realized that any slight increased first cost of concrete has soon been offset because first cost has proved to be last cost. The author desires to mention here that in addition to claiming some special knowledge on the many and varied uses of concrete, he also was raised on a farm and operates one at the present time. For that reason, pursuit of the engineering profession has never made him lose sight of a farmer's view- point and needs, and in his own farming practice he has had many opportunities to prove the economy of concrete first and last. Also, long association with the Portland Cement Associa- tion in the preparation of its many informative booklets on concrete has favored him with access to material which other- wise would not have been available to make this book as com- prehensive and practical as it is felt has been done through this fortunate connection. THE AUTHOR. Chicago, October, 1919, FARMING WITH CONCRETE. Most of those unpleasant chores which in the past have made the farm boy and girl look cityward have had their origin in such uninteresting and unending performances as forever repairing, painting straighten- ing up and cleaning around and in farm buildings — never getting anything really done because always working under the handicap of buil-'.ings and fences that would not stay built, that were always needing some kind of repair. That lack of durability which has characterized farm and town buildings in the past is easy to explain, and perhaps one day it had a satisfactory excuse. A glance at typical farm and small town structures in many parts of the country makes it clear that little plan- ning for the future was done when plans for the pres- ent were made. Some years ago wood was more plen- tiful and much cheaper than now, was usually near at hand, and because the building problem was not analyzed then as now, seemed well adapted to all im- mediate needs. The small town carpenter was sufficiently skilled to build a fairly good farmhouse, barn or other structure and usually planned as he went along. Frequently the farmer himself was an amateur carpenter of no little ability and due to a mistaken notion that first was more important than last cost, it was natural that construc- tion which soon proved of temporary character was chosen in place of that more closely approaching per- manence. Such wide propensity to build upon the sand rather than the rock must be paid for. It is paid for 8 FARMING WITH CONCRETE in large measure by the enormous annual fire losses which this country suffers, averaging as they have in the neighborhood of $250,000,000 yearly for a number of years. Fire insurance does not protect against loss except in a small degree. It returns part of the loss in money but can never replace the loss of labor and materials. In this respect every fire is a distinct drain on our natural resources, while every building planned and built with a view to longest possible life may be classed as an asset, something which increases our na- tional wealth. But fire loss is not the only loss. Depreciation on the classes of construction that have been most com- mon in the past is so rapid that to maintain buildings in the nearest possible condition to new throughout a peri- od of say twenty years, requires an amount of money nearly equal to and perhaps greater than first cost. So in the end cheap structures are the most expensive. Painting, repairing rotted parts, pointing up poorly laid masonry, putting on new roofs from time to time take money and represent lost labor and waste capital. Concrete has been a great medium in making for greater efficiency in town and country. There is not a farm task that must be carried on where buildings and other farm improvements are of concrete that is not, as a result of its use, more of a pleasure and less of an expense. Let us remember that concrete is the nearest approach to permanence yet discovered in a build- ing material. The man who foots the first bill foots the last one at the same time. No painting is required, there is nothing about it to rot; it is in the highest degree sanitary. It prevents the enormous losses due to rats and mice. It is wind, fire and earthquake proof. No farm building can be named that cannot be built of concrete, wholly or in part, and cannot be better built FARMING WITH CONCRETE 9 of concrete than of any other material. To prove this it is only necessary to make an imaginary tour around an imaginary farm and see where concrete may be used. In the barnyard is the old wood .watering trough which is forever going to pieces because left empty for sun and wind to work havoc upon. Finally it rots out and needs replacement. Nothing like this happens when the trough is built of concrete. It will not only be permanent, it will be clean and easy to keep clean. Leaving it empty will not cause it to go to pieces. Wet or dry it cannot rot. There are no hoops about it to tighten, nothing to rust out, no need of painting or oth- er repairs. The same holds true of feeding troughs. Think of the old splintering filth soaked floors in the barn, stable and other out buildings. How much of the daily labor that is now expended in useless endeavor to clean up and keep them clean would be done away with forever by replacing such construction with per- manent concrete floors, upon which a few bucketfuls of water could be thrown or a hose turned on, followed by a good scrubbing with a broom and then by cleanli- ness? How much more would the stock enjoy their food and drink from clean concrete mangers? How much safer would the general health of the stock be with the sanitation of concrete everywhere about them, and how many millions of dollars a year does this country lose through epidemic stock disease due almost wholly to insanitary stock quarters and surroundings? How much of the manure that the stock makes is now lost simply because there' is no watertight manure pit in which to hold it until convenient time comes for haul- ing it out into the fields? Millions of dollars of soil fer- tility are lost this way through improper handling of 10 FARMING WITH CONCRETE Stable wastes and the consequent loss of the valuable fertilizing elements which they contain. The progressive farmer today would not think of farming without a silo. But has he a concrete silo, permanent and fireproof, a sure safeguard against loss of valuable food supply by fire instead of one in im- minent risk of suddenly going up in smoke with the re- sultant loss of a whole season's crop? Is there a per- manent concrete barnyard wall enclosing the barnyard, built to stand, and serving as a windshield to make the barnyard fairly comfortable for outdoor exercising of stock on cold days? How about the barn? Are the old boards coming loose every little while, sometimes falling of?? Are there cracks between them through which drafts con- tribute to cold and pneumonia in stock? Do the stock have to wade through and stand in mud to get the feed which you throw out to them in the barnyard, and how much of such feed do they really get? Is it not true that they would enjoy their food on a clean smooth concrete floor just as you do on a clean inviting table cloth? Would not all the loss which now takes place be saved by feeding on a concrete barnyard pavement and at the same time would not sanitation of the barnyard be so improved that disease if it got a foothold could not maintain it? Every bit of barnyard droppings could be swept into the manure pit. Not a particle of the fer- tilizing value of the stock waste would be lost. Every rain would help to .keep the concrete pavement clean and sunlight would do its share to prevent or kill dis- ease germs. This is only a hasty glimpse around the barn surroundings. There is no farm where milk is not produced at least on a limited scale if not as a specialty. Milk, if one expects to sell it nowadays, must be produced under FARMING WITH CONCRETE H cleanly surroundings. Babies live or die on milk. There is no other food upon which the public is more dependent. There is none so dangerous to the public as milk that has not been properly handled from the time it is drawn until it reaches the consumer or im- properly handled at any stage of that journey. A.i old filthy ramshackle shed over the spring is not a good place to keep milk, neither is the habit of keeping it in a bucket hanging on a rope dropped down the well good practice. There should be a concrete milk house on every farm large enough to meet the requirements. Arrangements should be made to supply to this house a plentiful supply of clear cool water or to have avail- able a home stored stock of ice that can be used to keep milk cool in cans in a concrete milk cooling tank until taken to town or to the nearby creamery. Frequently it is convenient and easy to combine the milk house with an ice house and if so concrete construction is best for both. Wood sills and lower por- tions at least of frame construction soon rot away. Be- sides, strange as it may seem, spontaneous combustion is not uncommon in ice houses and fire may destroy all of the winter's harvest. Inside the milk house a concrete tank for milk cool- ing, a smooth, dense, watertight concrete floor, con- crete foundation for the milk separator and a smooth, dense wall surface of concrete make for a measure of sanitation that can hardly be duplicated in any other way. Neither hot nor cold water injures concrete and when milk house cleaning day arrives, hot water and scrubbing is all that is necessary to make the house clean and sweet and keep it so. On many farms a special barn is devoted to dairy stock. These animals need well lighted, well ventilated, clean sanitary fly-proof quarters, if they are to give lots 12 FARMING WITH CONCRETE of pure, high grade milk. Concrete in dairy barn con- struction makes for cleanliness, sanitation, fire safeness, and profitable milk production. With concrete floors, concrete mangers, concrete manure gutters connecting with the concrete manure pit, thus saving both liquid and solid manure, the ideal barn is evolved. In this hurried trip over our imaginary farm, we could probably think of more uses for concrete about the dairy house. These few, however, are enough to suggest its possibilities and a reason for singling it out for preference as a building material. An examination of the poultry house and the require- ments for profitable poultry raising points to concrete. Clean water and clean food are just as good for poultry as for other farm animals. Concrete water founts and feed trays would be a good thing. Rats are a great enemy to poultry, especially to the young chicks, and they are very fond of freshly laid eggs. Concrete foun- dations and concrete floors will build out rats and there- by increase poultry and egg profits. Feed stored in the poultry house may best be kept in a concrete feed bin. The whole poultry house in fact, excepting possibly the roof, may most conveniently and best be built of con- crete in some one of the various ways in which this building material may be used. In no other branch of stock raising is cleanliness more important than in hog raising. On the average farm we find filthy leaky wood floors and filthy water- ing and feeding troughs. Not being able to provide his own quarters and feeding facilities, a hog, in spite of the unfortunate reputation clinging to him, would prefer to eat and sleep amid cleanly surroundings rather than the reverse. Remember that it is the owner who has made the hog what he is. Of course today almost anyone would build the hog house foundation of concrete and FARMING WITH CONCRETE 13 possibly would use concrete for the floors. No trouble follows the use of concrete floors in stock quarters if the animals are kept well bedded. Concrete fkoors can be no colder than the interior of the building in which they are located. If the building itself is too cold for the animals, naturally the floor will be too cold. There should be a feed bin of concrete in the hog house too. Rats can't get into that. But there is no use stopping with floor, foundation, feed and watering troughs. The walls also should be of concrete for just the same rea- sons as have been given for using concrete throughout other structures. Just as in the barnyard we need to introduce the economy and sanitation resulting from the concrete pavement, we need a concrete feeding floor in the hog lot. No more throwing corn into the mud to be trampled under foot and have half of it lost. All the trouble of scrubbing and dipping hogs in the old fashioned ways can be done away with by letting them attend to it themselves and they will do it very willingly if provided with a clean concrete hog wallow. The hog makes his own wallow of mud in the absence of being provided with one that is clean and can be kept clean. Emptied and scrubbed out occasionally and filled with clean water upon which a little germicidal solution can be poured, the hog will keep himself free from insect pests and skin diseases which are almost wholly the result of filthy insanitary quarters. Some farmers think more of their out buildings and stock than they do of the house, the housewife and the family. Leaving the farm buildings for a minute and going into the farm house we can soon see how the ex- amination we have made of the other buildings points to the advantageous uses of concrete around the house. Of course, like any other structure, a house should rest 14 FARMING WITH CONCRETE on a good foundation. It can't be much of a house on a poor foundation, so we might as well start with concrete. The concrete foundation well made will give us a clean dry cellar which is what we want, and we won't forget to lay a concrete floor to finish up the job as it should be. We will have to get in and out of the cellar at times and will need steps. Wood steps do not last very long when they are in contact with the soil, so we might just as well build the steps and their side walls of concrete. The house porches, both front and rear, give a good deal of trouble if built of wood. Use con- crete there. The great variety of ways in which con- crete can be so used, namely in the form of block, rail- ings, columns, singly and combined, makes it possible to build a concrete porch in keeping with the house no matter of what material it may be made. Many trips have to be made from the house to the wood shed, to the smoke house and to other out build- ings. Sometimes this route looks more like a trail of mud than anything else. That would never happen again if there were concrete walks leading from the house to all those places to and from which trips must be frequently made in all kinds of weather — especially where the women folks have to travel more or less. We might as well think a little more of the women any- way, their lot is none too easy, shut up as they are on the farm, kept away from town by bad roads and forever cleaning up the tracking of mud. on their floors, rugs and carpets due to the filth brought in by the farmer and his help. Let's not leave the house without remembering that many farm houses today are being built of concrete be- cause the ones first built of this material have proved so thoroughly the adaptability of concrete that the day is fast approaching when it will be the almost FARMING WITH CONCRETE 15 universal house building material. The very nature of concrete properly used makes it provide a house which has a dry interior and one least affected by wide range of temperature changes outdoors. The well curb and platform ought to be of concrete because pure drinking water is very important. Weil water can readily be contaminated from slops and other waste carelessly thrown on the ground from the back porch. Today the farmer is in a position to enjoy and to want practically all of those appointments in the house that make the city home so convenient. The farm home without indoor toilet and bath is no place to live, but these conveniences on the farm demand that proper provision be made for disposing of household wastes. The farm home is not fortunately located as is the city one where the modern plumbing system can be readily connected to the city sewerage system. However, con- crete has in a great measure helped to solve the sewage disposal problem on the farm. A concrete septic tank is a miniature waste disposal plant which properly in- stalled is almost automatic in its operation and safe- guards farm folks from the continual risk attendant on the use of the old time cesspool. Most farm women will go to considerable trouble to collect rain water for wash day. They want soft water. All of the labor of collecting it can be done away with by building convenient to the back porch a concrete cistern into which water from roofs of farm buildings can be led and stored for the usual Monday needs. All around the home grounds concrete will add a little touch of cheer and utility, if concrete posts are used for the grape arbor, concrete flower boxes set on concrete pedestals in convenient nooks around the house 16 FARMING WITH CONCRETE and concrete lawn seats invitingly placed in shady spots. The time of day can be learned from the concrete sun- dial. There are other buildings to be built of concrete. A root and vegetable storage cellar and machine shed where implements can be kept from that rapid and cost- ly depreciation resulting from leaving the plow or other implement at the end of the last furrow or where the last job was finished at the end of the season. A smoke house, rat-proof concrete grain bins and concrete corn crib. An elevated water storage tank placed on top of the silo to furnish an immediate supply of water under pressure in case fire should break out in any of the buildings. Nearly every farm today has an automobile. The concrete garage would not only safeguard the automo- bile from injury due to a fire in nearby buildings, but would prevent the menace of having the automobile and the inflammable oils necessary to its. operation from be- coming a menace to other buildings. The garage, therefore, should be of concrete. Out in the fields the farm furnishes other sugges- tions where concrete may be used most profitably and to best advantage. A culvert across some waterway that must be kept open and that separates adjacent fields which must be reached frequently by team and wagon. A drainage system in which concrete tile are used to reclaim lands now too wet for profitable cultivation or else kept entirely out of cultivation because a swamp the greater part of the year. Concrete fence posts do away with that never end- ing replacing and repairing of fences that will not stay built. FARMING WITH CONCRETE 17 A concrete dam to make a fish pond or an ice pond. Concrete troughs in the pasture lot. Concrete casing for the spring. Concrete lined irrigation ditches to prevent that waste of water which is so costly in that portion of the country where water has a money value little realized by those who have plenty. Evidently there are other opportunities for using con- crete on the farm, and if by chance in our hurried tour among the buildings and over the land we have for- gotten to name some structure, we have proved that those to which we have applied concrete are no different from the ones that we may have overlooked and that we can use concrete for them also. When fire starts among the farm buildings it gener- ally eats them up. Nothing but ruins remain in place of the well equipped plant which may a little while be- fore have been paying good dividends. Fire, tornado and lightning are continual hazards on the farm. With fireproof construction naturally there is permanence, and concrete means both. It means also better sanita- tion and numberless other things which no kind of im- permanent and fire trap construction can offer. Our American farmers have only recently learned through a costly war what part of our national waste they are responsible for; have only just had the lesson of thrift and investment brought home. They are all interested in permanent buildings, better agriculture, all around general efficiency on the farm, and particu- larly in the profit which results from introducing and maintaining these efficiency measures. On the farm to- day all around general efficiency has its highest repre- sentation in permanent fireproof sanitary concrete buildings. PORTLAND CEMENT. Portland cement was first made in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer of Leeds, England, whose process consisted in calcining a mixture of limestone and clay and reducing the resulting clinker to a powder. To this substance he gave the name of portland cement, because when it hardened a yellowish gray mass was produced resembling in appearance the stone found in the various quarries on the Isle of Portland south of the coast of England. This explains the origin of the name portland cement. All portland cements are manufactured cements and for that reason it is possible to regulate or control their quality with extreme exactness, thus enabling the pro- duction of a uniform material. Of all the cementing ma- terials, portland cement ranks highest in hydraulic activ- ity In fact, portland cement hardens most uniformly under water, and regardless of the manner in which used, whether in a mortar or to make concrete, sufficient water must be used in the mixture to insure full effectiveness of its cementing qualities. First Portland Cement in the United States. It was not until 1875 that true portland cement was made in the United States. This was produced by a company near Allentown, Pa., in what is now known as the Lehigh District, where a greater quantity of portland cement is made today than in any other section of the United States. About the same time that the company pro- duced portland cement, a plant was built at South Bend, 18 PORTLAND CEMENT 19 Ind. Shortly afterward plants were built at Wampum, Pa., Kalamazoo, Mich., and Rockford, Me. From a pro- duction of about 83,000 barrels in 1880 and less than 1,000,000 in 1895, the total annual production of portland cement in this country has risen to over 90,000,000 barrels. Portland Cement Defined. The Standard Specifica- tions for Portland Cement adopted by the American So- ciety for Testing Materials define portland cement as "the finely pulverized product resulting from the cal- cination to incipient fusion of an intimate mixture of properly proportioned argillaceous and calcareous mate- rials and to which no addition greater than 3 per cent has been made subsequent to calcination." This definition contains some formidable words and may need explanation. Reduced to simple language, portland cement is: First, composed of limy and clayey substances. Second, these materials must be properly proportioned, which includes selecting and screening the raw material. Third, the correctly propor- tioned materials must be thoroughly mixed, which means that they must be dried and finely ground so that this mixing will be possible. Fourth, the correctly propor- tioned and mixed materials must be burned to a clinker under a degree of heat that will cause them to fuse or melt. Fifth, this slag-like product, or clinker, must be ground to a powder. Composition of Standard Portland Cement. The last clause in the definition provides for the addition of a small amount of some material to regulate the setting time, but limits the quantity of such a material to pre- vent adulteration of the cement. 20 PORTLAND CEMENT The composition of a standard portland cement is usually within the following limits : COMPOUNDS PER CENT LIMITS Silica 20 to 24 Alumina S to 10 Iron Oxide 2 to 5 Lime 60 to 65 Magnesia 1 to 4 Sulphus-oxide .5 to 1.75 Distribution of Raw Materials. Nature has provided an abundance of the limy and clayey materials suitable for the manufacture of portland cement. The limy or calcareous variety is always in the form of calcium car- bonate, such as limestone, chalk, marl or the precipi- tated form obtained as a waste product from the manu- facture of alkalies. The argillaceous or clayey division includes clay, shale and slate, cement rock and selected blast furnace slag. Cement is made in this country from all these materials, each plant using one of the calcareous combined with one of the argillaceous materials. Classification of Processes of Manufacture. Portland cement may also be considered as belonging in one of three classes, according to the method of manufacture, which are as follows: 1. Wet Process 2. Semiwet Process 3. Dry Process In the wet process, confined principally to plants using marl, the raw materials are ground and fed into rotary kilns in the form of a "slurry" containing suffi- cient water to make it of a fluid consistency. In the semi-wet process a similar but drier slurry is used, while in the dry process, raw materials are ground, mixed and burned in the dry state. Most of the cement manufactured in the United States today is made by plants operating the dry process. NATURAL CEMENT The cement industry in the United States began with the discovery in 1818 of a natural cement rock in Madi- son County, N. Y. Seven years later, cement rock was found in Ulster County, N. Y., along the Delaware and Hudson Canal, and in 1828 a mill was built in Rosen- dale, N. Y. It was from this place that the natural cement obtained its name, that is, natural cement in this country has usually been referred to as Rosendale ce- ment. James Parker's patent already referred to in- volved the manufacture of natural cement. Natural cement has good hydraulic qualities, but it has been al- most entirely superseded by portland cement because of the superior strength, hardness and more constant com- position and quality of the latter. Natural cements are made from cement rock, which is clayey magnesium limestone, containing clayey matter varying from 13 to 35 per cent and usually containing a comparatively high percentage of magnesium carbo- nate. Louisville cement is similar to Rosendale cement but contains less magnesia. It is made from cement rock found in the vicinity of Louisville, Ky. Natural and portland cements should never be mixed. To use natural cements successfully requires a greater degree of skill and attention than is necessary with port- land cement. If too much or too little water be used in the mortar or concrete mixtures in which natural cement is the binding material, it will harden unequally, crack and adhere badly to the aggregates. Natural cements are but little used today. 21 USEFUL DATA Weights and Measures. Portland cement weighs 376 pounds per barrel net. Portland cement weighs per bag 94 pounds net. In proportioning mixtures 1 bag or sack, 94 pounds net, is considered as 1 cubic foot. Natural cement weighs per barrel net, 282 pounds; per bag, 94 pounds. Loose Portland cement averages per cubic foot about 92 pounds. Weight of paste of neat portland cement averages per cubic foot about 137 pounds. Volume of paste made from 100 pounds of neat port- land cement averages about .86 cubic foot. Weight of Portland cement mortar in proportions 1 -2^2 averages per cubic foot 135 pounds. WEIGHT OF PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PER CUBIC FOOT Cinder concrete averages 112 pounds. Conglomerate concrete averages 150 pounds. Pebble concrete averages 150 pounds. Limestone concrete averages 148 pounds. Sandstone concrete averages 143 pounds. Traprock concrete averages 155 pounds. A carload of portland cement varies from 400 to 600 sacks or bags. All mills now pack portland cement in standard pack- ages (cloth sacks and paper bags) weighing 94 pounds net and considered as 1 cubic foot when proportioning mixtures by volume, which is the common method. Four of such sacks or bags make a barrel. Cloth sacks are billed to the cement purchaser, and when empty they may be returned to the dealer from' whom the cement 22 USEFUL DATA 23 was purchased, or to the mill, and the manufacturer will buy them back if they are in good condition and suitable for further use as cement containers. A cement sack which has been wet, torn, or otherwise rendered unfit for use, will not be redeemed. Although cement is sometimes packed in paper bags, this practice is not so general as the use of cloth sacks. A charge is made for packing cement in paper bags. These, of course, are not redeemable. In returning cloth sacks for redemption, railroad com- panies require that the sacks be bundled in a certain manner. Cement mills also have regulations governing the return of sacks. Any railroad freight agent can in- form a shipper as to how sacks must be bundled and marked to come within the requirements of railroad rules governing such shipments. WHAT CONCRETE IS, HOW TO MAKE AND USE IT Some Fundamental Principles. When portland ce- ment, sand, and pebbles or broken stone are properly combined, mixed with water and allowed to remain un- disturbed, the resulting mass will finally become as hard as stone. This is concrete. In other words, concrete is artificial stone — a manufactured product — so its quality depends largely upon the materials of which it is com- posed and the care used in combining and placing the mixture. While in the plastic state concrete is placed in forms prepared especially to receive it, and the fact that when it hardens it assumes the shape of any mold or receptacle in which placed, has made it one of the most useful and adaptable of building materials. Almost every one has some knowledge of the possible uses of concrete, but a great many persons who know how it may be used to build permanent, expense-proof, fireproof concrete structures are not fully impressed with the fact that concrete must be made and used according to well defined rules or principles if success in its use is to follow. Many people think that success with concrete work, that is, the satisfaction from using concrete as the build-" ing material for any structure, depends largely if not en- tirely upon the portland cement. This is true only in part. Of course the portland cement must be good, but so must the other materials. The sand and pebbles or broken stone must be clean, hard and durable. They must be well graded from fine to coarse so that voids or 24 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 25 air spaces in their bulk or volume are reduced to a mini- mum, for only in this way is it possible to obtain a dense mixture, and with good materials density means strength. Mixing water must be clean, free from oil, acids and alkali. The materials must be proportioned by careful measuring — not by guess. Little thought need be given to the portland cement. All of the well-known brands are manufactured to meet what are known as "Standard Specifications," that is, the Portland cement sold today has been so carefully made that when placed on the market its quality is beyond the question of users. If this were not so, manufactur- ers of cement could not long stay in business. Quality must be high to meet the requirements of Standard Specifications, and these have been made to establish the quality that has been found necessary for portland cement concrete. Storage of Cement. The only thing that can happen to portland cement between the time it is made and pur- chased by the intending user, is that a careless dealer may have stored it in a damp place. If this happens to be the case, the cement will have caked. Any lumps in a sack of cement that cannot be broken by gentle pres- sure between one's fingers or in the hand should be dis- carded. Lumps of- that kind are indication that the ce- ment has been exposed to dampness, and it should not be used. Sometimes cement piled in sacks at the bottom of high piles will apparently cake in the sacks owing to the weight of the pile, but such caking lumps are readily broken under slight pressure of the hand and therefore are no indication that the cement has in any way been damaged in storage. It is therefore of prime importance that cement be carefully stored until it i§ U§«d, It 26 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE should never be piled upon the ground because the ground always contains some moisture and the cement will absorb this and very soon start to harden. Aggregates. In speaking of the various materials of which a concrete mixture is composed, the sand and pebbles or broken stone are referred to as aggregates. Sand is called "fine aggregate," while broken stone or pebbles are called "coarse aggregate." Sometimes fine stone screenings of specified size are used in place of sand, and when so used may be considered as sand. In describing the requirements which sand and peb- bles or broken stone must meet in order to be suitable for use in concrete work, it is usually stated that the sand (or stone screenings if these are used instead of sand) shall be free from all such foreign material as loam, clay and vegetable matter, or humus. It is also necessary that the sand be of a kind that has had its origin in a tough, durable rock. >Ji V _ _ Oravel screened for a concrete mixture, separating the fine and coarse materials. This illustrates clearly how much greatly in excess 0/ coarse material the sand is in the average gravel bank. HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 2l Size of Aggregates. The maximum size of the mate- rial commonly referred to as sand is usually fixed at ^4 -inch, and from that size downward it should be uni- formly graded to the finest permissible particles, with, however, the coarser particles predominating. Such grading contributes to the strength and density of the concrete in which used, because sand so graded will have a small volume of voids or air spaces in its bulk and this v/ill help to produce a dense concrete, which also means a strong and water-tight concrete. Clean Materials Important Pebbles or broken stone must also be free from the same classes of foreign mate- rial that would be objectionable in sand. In addition, the particles should be free from any coating of clay, dust or other matter, because the presence of such a coat- ing will keep the cement from coming in contact with the surface of the particles and thus prevent it from per- forming the duty intended, namely, that of eventually binding the sand and pebbles together into a solid mass like stone. Pebbles or broken stone as used in the general run of concrete work may range in size from 54 up to 1J4 inches or more in maximum dimension, de- pending upon the class of concrete work for which the concrete is to be used. TESTING SAND FOR ORGANIC IMPURITIES A simple test has been developed for determining whether a particular sand contains sufficient organic im- purities to make it unfit for use in concrete. This test is one that can be made by anybody, and in a short time. A 12-ounce graduated prescription bottle is filled up to the 4j^-ounce mark with the sand to be examined ; then a 3 per cent solution of caustic soda is added until the level of the liquid reaches the 7-ounce mark. The bot- tle is corked and shaken thoroughly and then set aside for 24 hours. 28 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE By observing the color of the liquid, the quality of the sand for concrete may be determined as far as the pres- ence of organic impurities is concerned. If this liquid shows practically clear or not darker than a straw color, the sand may be considered as sufficiently free from organic impurities to be used in all classes of concrete work. If the liquid is more nearly a dark amber color, the sand should not be used for concrete excepting where the work is relatively unimportant. If the liquid is darker than this, the sand contains too large a percent- age of organic impurities and is unfit for use in concrete It is possible that by washing sand which is unsuit- able, it may be improved somewhat in quality but usu- ally it is more economical to obtain sand from another pit than to attempt to improve the sand which the test shows unsuitable. The graduated prescription bottle and the 3 per cent solution of caustic soda can be obtained from any drug- gist. Pebbles or broken stone also should be hard, tough and durable. In heavy foundation work the maxi- mum size of pebbles or broken stone may range up to 2 inches or more, while in. thin wall sections, especially where metal is used to reinforce the concrete, the coarse aggregate should not exceed ^ of an inch or 1 inch in greatest dimension. Washing Sand and Pebbles. Sometimes the only materials that a farmer can get for concrete work con- tain so much loam, clay or other foreign material that it is necessary to wash them before using in a concrete mixture. Sand and pebbles or broken stone can readily be washed by shoveling them into a trough set at an angle of about 35 or 40 degrees and turning water from a hose into the upper end and causing the materials to tumble down the length of the trough. If a suitable screen is placed at the lower end of the trough, the sand HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 29 can also be separated from the pebbles and the materials screened at the same time they are washed. Plain and Reinforced Concrete. Concrete may be either plain or reinforced. The former consists merely of a mixture of portland cement, sand, pebbles or broken stone and water, placed in wood or metal forms that will give the mass the required shape or outline when hard- ened. Reinforced concrete is plain concrete into which steel in one of a number of different forms is embedded while placing the concrete. Concrete, like many building stones, is very strong in bearing loads that are placed directly upon it, that is, it is strong in compression, but it is not so strong in re- sisting loads or strains that tend to bend it or pull it apart, that is, it is relatively weak in tension. That is why steel is embedded in concrete used for certain parts of a structure or certain classes of structures, since it gives to concrete the strength it lacks, as steel is very strong in withstanding pulling or bending strains. The use of steel in this way also results in considerable econ- omy of concrete, because if the steel were not used it would be necessary to make the concrete much more massive, hence unnecessarily expensive. Bank-Run Gravel. By far the commonest mistake that is made by most persons who lack a thorough un- derstanding of what is required in concrete work, is that of thinking ordinary sand and pebbles as found mixed in the gravel bank on the farm or near by, are suited for concrete mixtures. No more serious mistake could be made. Almost without exception such sand and peb- bles as found mixed in the pit are unreliable for con- crete mixtures, because bank-run material contains far too great a quantity of sand in proportion to the amount of pebbles for the best strength and density of concrete. It will be found that bank-run gravel contains 40 per 30 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE cent or more of voids or air spaces. That is, if you were to take one cubic foot of such material and place it in a box that would exactly contain it, you would find that sufficient water could be poured into the box to equal nearly one-half of a cubic foot, indicating that the mate- rial had that volume of voids or air spaces in its bulk. The only way to use the bank-run material is to pass it over a screen so as to separate the sand from the peb- bles and then reproportion them in definite volumes. It may be necessary to pass the coarse material over a sec- ond screen so as to exclude all particles measuring over a certain maximum. For instance, if the work being done would not permit of using pebbles larger than 1 or \y2 inches in greatest dimension, then the material would have to be passed over a screen that would allow such particles to pass through and reject any larger ones. The Best of Grading Still Leaves Some Voids. No matter how carefully materials such as sand and pebbles or broken stone may be selected, the bulk will contain some voids or air spaces. A certain volume of pebbles, say 3 cubic feet, will require nearly 1 J4 cubic feet of sand to fill the air spaces in its bulk ; but the sand also has a similar quantity of voids or air spaces, and these like- wise must be filled by using portland cement. The Ideal Concrete Mixture. This brings us to the ideal concrete mixture, which is one in which the air spaces in the bulk of pebbles are reduced by the sand and the air spaces in the bulk of sand reduced by the port- land cement. As ideal conditions cannot be obtained, it is necessary to be satisfied with the closest possible ap- proach to the ideal. This is accomplished by so propor- tioning the various materials as to have the volume of sand about equal to one-half the volume of pebbles, and the volume of portland cement approximately one-half of the'volume of sand. This system of proportioning will HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 31 produce a volume of sand-cement mortar slightly in ex- cess of that required to fill the air spaces in the pebbles, and for general use will produce as near an ideal mixture as it is worth while attempting. A simple example will show why the foregoing prac- tice is necessary. A 1 :2 :4 mixture, for instance, means 1 sack (or 1 cubic foot) of portland cement; 2 cubic feet of well-graded sand and 4 cubic feet of well-graded peb- bles or broken stone. When these materials are prop- erly combined and mixed with water, the resulting bulk will slightly exceed 4 cubic feet. This proves that the sand has gone to fill up the voids or air spaces among the pebbles, and that the cement has gone to fill up the voids or air spaces in the bulk of sand. Now if instead of using the definitely proportioned 1 :2 :4 mixture, the concrete worker takes 1 sack of portland cement and mixes it with 6 cubic feet of bank-run material, he would then have 6 cubic feet of concrete containing 1 sack of cement as against slightly over 4 cubic feet containing the same quantity of cement. Remembering that in the 6 cubic feet of bank-run material, the voids or air spaces are nearly half the bulk, he can see that the 1 sack of cement has not nearly filled these air spaces, so 6 cubic feet with 1 sack of cement will not be as strong concrete as the other mixture, neither will it be dense nor water- tight. How to Make Concrete Watertight. Much concrete has been made in the past that has failed to give the good results and service that every one has a right to expect of this wonderful building material. But good results cannot be expected if these little principles of correct concrete practice are disregarded. We often hear that concrete work is not watertight. Water cannot pass through a structure that has no voids or air spaces in it, each connected with another, so as to 32 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE form easy channels for the passage of water. Water- tight concrete may be secured for all practical purposes, first, by paying particular attention to selecting well graded materials, then correctly proportioning them, using the correct amount of water, mixing thoroughly, following careful methods of placing the concrete, and finally, giving it proper protection against too rapid drying out after placed. All of these subjects will now be touched upon briefly. Proportioning and Mixing Concrete. After having selected proper materials and correctly proportioned them, comes the subject of mixing. Concrete can be mixed either by hand or by machine. Good concrete can be made either way. Of course, there is a litle more labor to hand mixing, but for many pieces of farm con- struction the expense of a machine mixer does not seem warranted. However, since concrete construction is go- ing on all over the country, farmers would find it very advantageous to unite in bearing the cost of purchasing a small power-operated mixer that each could use by prearrangement when needed. It would take only a little time to make such an investment a paying one, and each one's contribution to the community mixer would soon be forgotten. Mixers of this kind that are very reliable can be purchased for from $75 upward.' For ex- ample, a power-operated mixer for community use cost- ing, say, $125 complete with gasoline engine all mounted on a wheeled truck, would keep anyone who used it once from ever attempting to mix concrete by hand. There is always a tendency to slight hand mixing, thinking that the last turning was enough when one more would have given it just the additional mixing needed. If one has to mix concrete by hand, a few simple rules for doing it must be observed. Portland cement, al- though sold by the barrel, is generally shipped and ob- HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 33 tained by the user in sacks. These sacks weigh 94 lb. net, and in proportioning concrete mixtures are consid- ered equal to one cubic foot. Cement therefore need not be measured, but arrangements must be made for meas- uring the sand and pebbles or broken stone. The most convenient device for doing this is a very simple one, merely a bottomless box which can be made so as to hold 1 cubic foot or 3, 4 or 5 cubic feet. If holding more than 1 cubic foot, then marks should be placed on the inside to indicate the depths corresponding to a volume of 1, 2, 3 or more cubic feet. A mixing platform is also re- quired. This may be approximately 8 by 10 feet in di- mensions, and should be made of lumber planed on one side and preferably tongued and grooved so as to fur- nish a smooth surface for shoveling, and tight joints. These strips should be nailed to 2 by 4's set up on edge, sufficient being used to make the platform stiff when working upon it. It is also well to put strips of 2 by 2 or similar material around three edges of the platform to prevent materials or the concrete from being shoveled off while mixing, also to prevent water carrying cement with it from running off the board when adding water to the combined materials. Simple Tools Only Are Needed. The tools used for concrete mixing are few. Square pointed shovels, pails or hose with nozzle for adding water, wheelbarrows for perhaps wheeling the concrete to the place where it is to be dumped, are about all that are needed. In hand-mixing the measured quantity of sand is spread upon the mix- ing platform. On top of this is dumped the required amount of cement. The two materials are then turned a number of times until the absence of streaks of brown and grey indicate that they have been thoroughly com- bined. Now the mixed sand and cement are leveled off to a thin layer on the mixing platform. Pebbles or 34 HOV/ TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE broken stone, first thoroughly wet, are measured in the bottomless box. If a 1 :2 :3 mixture is being prepared there will have been mixed 1 sack of portland cement and 2 cubic feet of sand. On top of this there will be dumped the measured 3 cubic feet of wetted pebbles or broken stone. The broken stone and the mixed sand and cement should then be turned together several times until they have been fairly well combined, when water should be added slowly by pouring out of a pail or pref- erably by spraying on with a hose, some one turning the materials constantly while water is being added to pre- vent cement from being washed out of the mixture. Amount of Water to Use. It is difficult to state the exact amount of water that should be used with any batch of concrete. It is far easier to describe a certain consistency which can readily be recognized after a little practice. Because sand may dry out when exposed to the wind and sun, certain batches may require more water than others, but if enough water is used so that the resulting mixture after being thoroughly turned four or five times is of a pasty or jelly-like consistency, this is the end which should be sought. Too little water will produce a mixture that cannot be consolidated to proper density in the form. Too much water will pro- duce a mixture that will be sloppy and that in handling will cause the cement-sand mortar to separate from the pebbles. Such concrete cannot be placed so that it will have uniform density. The pebbles will drop out of the mixture and lie in pockets or bunches in the mass and will thus produce not only an unpleasing surface when forms are removed, but will also cause weak spots and spots that will permit water readily to pass through the work. Use Clean Water. It is necessary that the water used in a concrete mixture be clean. Water that is HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 35 cloudy has clay or other foreign material floating about in it and is bound to in some degree affect the strength of the concrete. Water carrying a floating scum of oil or grease should not be used for concrete mixtures. Machine mixing of concrete, as has already been mentioned, is preferable. A machine does not get tired, and if the batches are kept in the machine long enough, say not less than a minute or one minute and a half, it is almost certain that the concrete will be well mixed. Of course, in using a batch mixer it is necessary to ob- serve certain requirements. The drum must not be re- volved too rapidly because then the materials will tend to cling to the inner surface of the drum and will not be tumbled about sufficiently to be thoroughly mixed one with the other. Most concrete is not mixed long enough. All specifications for concrete work are now endeavoring to spe > ly a stated time that the materials shall be kept in the drum. If all concrete mixtures were kept in the mixer for at least lyi minutes there would be much better concrete as a result. Methods of Proportioning Mixtures. Concrete mix- tures, as has been intimated by sever,al examples previ- ously given, are usually proportioned by volume. A sack of Portland cement is considered equal to 1 cubic foot. Mixtures are generally referred to as 1 :2, 1 :2 :3, 1 :2 :4, etc. In the first instance this means that the figure 1 stands for sack or 1 cubic foot of portland cement, and the second figure for 2 cubic feet of sand or other fine material. That is, the 1 :2 mixture is a mortar mixture. In the second example the first figure stands for one sack of Portland cement, the second for 2 cubic feet of sand or other fine aggregate, and the third for 3 cubic feet of pebbles or broken stone. The same applies to the 1 :2 :4 mixture and for other varying proportions sometimes used. 36 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE While on very large jobs it pays to make accurate tests to determine the volume of voids in the sand and pebbles or broken stone so exact proportioning can be done, such refinements are not necessary on the average small jobs such as the usual run of home concreting. For this reason it has become common practice to pro- portion concrete mixtures by what is known as arbi- trary methods. A table of such suggested arbitary mix- tures follows. It will be noted in the various mixtures recommended that in practically every case the volume of pebbles or broken stone recommended is approxi- mately double the volume of sand recommended, and that in the richer mixtures which are intended for work requiring strength and watertightness, the volume of cement used is about half the volume of sand. Referring again to the quantity of water required in a concrete mixture, it should be mentiond here that water is a very important ingredient in concrete. Cement is the binder which firmly unites the sand and pebbles or broken stone into what eventually becomes a mass of artificial stone. It is the changes taking place due to the combination of cement and water that make the cement act as a binding material, and it cannot perform this binding action unless there is enough water to bring about the desired end. These changes resulting from the combination of cement and water are scientifically referred to as "hydration." This is in reality a process of crystallization. If there is not enough water in a concrete mixture, not all of the cement will be trans- formed as desired, hence its full effectiveness as a bind- ing material will not be secured. On the ofher hand, if there is' too much water used, the results will be almost as bad as though too little is used. Too much water pro- duces an effect that is generally described as drowning HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 37 the cement. The importance of correct amount of water therefore is not to be disregarded. Protection of Work When Finished. This suggests that after a concrete mixture has been prepared and placed in the mold or form that is to give it the required shape, every means should be taken to prevent the con- crete from drying out too rapidly, because if the water that was added when mixing the concrete is lost by evaporation, the result will be practically the same as though too little water were used in the mixture. Another thing should be borne in mind. Just as soon as water is added to the materials for a batch of con- crete, the setting action in the cement, which is what causes it to harden, begins very quickly, and no time should be allowed to elapse between mixing and placing the concrete. It should be deposited in the forms just as soon as mixing is complete. In no case, however, should any concrete that has been mixed more than 20 or 30 minutes be used. The hardening action will have progressed far enough so that disturbing the mixture by remixing to soften it so that it can be handled, will weaken the binding effect of the cement and will thus produce a weaker concrete. Different kinds of concrete work require protecting in different ways. Also concrete work done in summer must be protected in a different manner than that done in winter. As regards concrete work in winter or cold weather, more will be said later. Concrete deposited during the summer should be kept from drying out until it has properly hardened. Most people think that the hardening of concrete is due to a process of drying while in reality the opposite is true; that is, concrete hardens better and more uniformly in the presence of water than under other conditions; so after the concrete has been placed in the forms, some means must be taken to see 38 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE that none of this water is lost. It is all necessary to the changes that will take place in the cement, thus produc- ing what really is concrete. On heavy mass work, such as heavy foundations which are almost entirely below ground, not so much artificial protection of the work is necessary. Usually if the forms are left in place and the work is wetted down several times daily by sprinkling from a hose, all of the protection required will have been given. But on walls, pavements, walks and floors, all of which have a large area exposed to air and to the sun, it is neces- sary to apply some kind of a covering to the concrete just as soon as this can be done without marring the surface, usually two or three inches of moist sand or sawdust or a covering of hay or straw kept wet by fre- quent sprinklings for several days, accomplish the de- sired protection for floors and walks, while walls may be protected by the forms and wet down several times daily. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE Strengths given may be expected from concrete made from standard portland cement and first-class sand and coarse aggregate, for concrete which has been well mixed and cured without drying out. Mix by Average Compression Strength of 6 by 12-inch Cylinders Volume (lb. per sq. in.), at the ages of 1 mo. 3 mo. 6 mo. 1 year 1:3 :6 1200 1700 2000 2400 1:25/^:5 1600 2200 2600 300O 1:2 :4 2100 2700 3100 3S0O 1:2 :3 2200 2900 3300 3700 l.iy»:3 2600 3300 3700 4100 MAKING FORMS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. Immediately after mixing concrete is a plastic mate- rial, that is, it will assume the form of any receptacle in which it be placed. This characteristic of concrete is what makes it so comparatively easy to build or mold structures of it having almost any desired shape. Forms or molds, therefore, may b^ defined as the re- ceptacles in which concrete mixture is placed immedi- ately after mixed so that when it has hardened the con- crete will have the shape desired or intended. Materials Used. Molds or forms for concrete are made from a variety of materials, depending somewhat upon the structure or object being built and shape which it is desired to give the object and the number of times it is desired to use the forms. Concrete forms can be made wholly of wood, or of wood metal lined, or entire- ly of metal, or in some cases plaster of Paris. Cast iron S«ctional Plan of Form tor Product with proiKting SMrtaus Fluted Column Correct and Incorroct mothod* Sectional plan of form for fluted column and section of product with projecting surfaces shounng correct and incorrect methods tn each case of dividing; form. 39 40 MAKING FORMS and steel forms or molds are used in -machines that make concrete block, brick, tile, sewer pipe, ornamental cast stone trim, etc. Wood forms also are used for such objects but as the products just mentioned are usually cast or molded in large quantities, economy re- sults from using a type of form or mold that is suffi- ciently durable to permit frequent and repeated use. Metal Molds. Metal molds, or wood molds metal lined, are used when it is desired to give the concrete §'bM^ s^^f^^i-^ Spacing block IMmd IViithei^ Sketch of forms in place for constructing concrete foundation wall above ground, showing how provisions are made to form window opening in wall. a particularly smooth surface and also where it is desired to repeat the construction of the same object or surface a number of times and therefore increase the life or length of service of the forms. Forms Must Be Carefully Made. Form work is a very important step in the use of concrete for any build- ing construction. No structure or object made of con- crete can be truer in shape or form than the form or mold in which it is made and for small objects, such as flower vases, urns, flower boxes and other ornamental products, careful work done on the forms is well repaid in the satisfaction which the finished concrete work will give. MAKING FORMS 41 Practically every class of concrete work requires some form construction. The only exception to this is that when concrete for a foundation is being placed in a trench excavated in firm, self-sustaining earth, there need -■? T Method o] making concrete Hock with lugs cast on the block to permit using simple form construction consisting of two or more planks as described in the text. Notice that by clamping the plank either against lugs or outside face of block, wall thickness can be varied within considerable limits. Blocks are first laid «p i» columns, then the core is filled Kith concrete. Combination of block and monolithic wall construction produced by using the block and form system described in connection therewith, aa shown in the preceding illustration. 42 MAKING FORMS be no forms for that part of the work underground — the walls of the trench will serve. For the work above ground, forms are needed. Wood Most Used. In the average run of concrete form work wood is used to a greater extent than any other material. For such structures as circular tanks and silos there are various types of metal molds on the Sketch ahoieino movable form panels for foundation or wall con- atruetion, ilUutrating alao atop in the form to enable buildini; complete one aection and providing a proper vertical joint. MAKING FORMS 43 market devised with special reference to the class of work mentioned. There are also various types of so- called form systems, most of which, however, are patented and therefore cannot be used without paying the patentee some royalty, and these systems frequent- ly involve metal or metal lined forms. Because of the fact that no two concrete structures are rarely if ever alike, wood is more adaptable form material than any other even when certain sections of a structure must be practically duplicated a number of times on various parts of the surface. Wood forms, can be so standardized, that is, built in such a combination of units, that they are very serviceable for such re- peated use. «0M .".". .ch showing a type of movable concrete form for foundation or wall construction. Quality of Lumber. When wood is used for con- crete forms it is necessary that a good grade of lumber be used, especially where the appearance of the finished 44 MAKING FORMS surface is important. For work that is not to be ex- posed to view, high grade lumber is not so necessary. The wood should be free from warp, knots and other imperfections that would leave their imprint on the finished concrete surface, for while in a plastic state concrete very readily takes the imprint of any irregulari- ties or rough surface with which it may be in contact. For ordinary concrete work, such as foundation walls and other surfaces which are not to be permanently ex- posed to view, the lumber used need not have the smooth, regular finish otherwise desirable. The prin- cipal thing to observe in such a case is that the lumber is sufficiently strong, as it will in some cases be used where the forms will have to support . a considerable weight of concrete until the concrete has hardened. Unplaned lumber will do where the concrete surface is VKorrscr m«tnod or maHlnv Corrmct ms-thod of mahinQ jolfM* for circular fbrm Joints for Circular Form* Correct and incorrect methods of cutting jointt iti form u»ed on circular object. to be hidden from view; otherwise planed lumber is preferable because of the smooth, finished surface that can be secured on the concrete and also because con- crete will stick less to smooth than to unplaned lumber. Generally, air-seasoned lumber is better than green or kiln-dried lumber. Green lumber is likely to dry out after built into forms, causing joints to open and result in leakage of water from the concrete, carrying With it MAKING FORMS 45 cement while the concrete is placed. Kiln-dried lumber is likely to bulge and swell up when the wet concrete is placed in contact with it. Lumber dressed on both sides and edges may some- times be necessary because sheathing boards used on forms that are to serve for a concrete surface eventiially to be exposed must be of uniform thickness otherwise when nailed to the studs the inside face of forms will be very irregular and this irregularity, due to differences in thickness of the sheathing, will be reproduced on the concrete surface. Where forms must necessarily be built very tight, tongued and grooved lumber or a stock known as ship- lap is often used for form sheathing. Beveled edge sheathing stock has its advantages because if the lumber should swell after the forms have been made, the edges will slip past each other without causing warping or bulging of the boards. Detailt of form eonatruction for terrace or timilar concrete — \? L I J ^ Site 5!5 ^H^^/\J^~v A Elevation and aection of concrete paneled wall auggeating method of form conatruction and giving plan of column and coping. 52 MAKING FORMS on the outside and held in proper relative position te each other by braces or spacers placed between and touching opposite form faces. These spacers are usually held in position during the concreting by drawing the opposite form sections together by means of wire ties. Small holes are bored in the sheathing and a wire hoop passed around both forms through these holes and then Forms tor concrete icatering trough itluatrating aUo concrete in place and poaition of reinforcement. tightened by twisting between forms. As concrete is placed in forms, the wood spacers holding blocks the correct distance apart are removed. The ties are left in the concrete, the wire being cut when forms are taken down, the projecting ends being cut off slightly back of the face of the concrete and any hole on the surface filled with mortar. Wetting Down Forms, When forms are set up and firmly braced in position, they should be thoroughly wet down immediate'ly before concrete is placed or ii MAKING FORMS 53 they are used a number of times, it is best to grease them before set up by painting on a mixture of linseed oil and kerosene or soft soap. Each time after the forms are used they should be thoroughly cleaned before again used and they should also be wet down thoroughly or wiped with an oil soaked rag before placing concrete. Joint cancre^ Y //oor Suggested form for concrete foundation such as would be used for gasoline engine or cream separator. Notice that the concrete floor is laid separate from the foundation. The sketch suggests the templet by means of which rods to attach engine to founda^ tion are suspended in the form while placing concrete. One detail of the sketch shows bolt encased in pipe sleeve. Some- times this arrangement is used when desiring to fix the bolt firmly afterward by means of molten m,etal. Failure May Follow Faulty Forms. Some so-called failures of concrete work have had their origin in faulty form construction. This is particularly true of floors and arches. The form studs or supports were not strong S4 MAKING FORMS enough to hold the load of concrete or the entire form was too weak to permit bracing and holding true to line while the concrete was hardening, and hence gradual settlement or change in position of forms has occurred while the concrete was undergoing early hardening, re- sulting in the small cracks in the concrete already men- tioned. These naturally increase in size just as soon as the structure is loaded. They frequently may be suf- ficient to cause failure immediately after forms are re- moved. Form Removal. Some failures of concrete structures have resulted from removing forms from the concrete too early. Concrete hardens quite differently under different weather and temperature conditions and under different conditions of moisture content. That is, a so-called dry concrete and very wet mixture will neither harden as uniformly nor as reliably as one containing exactly the correct amount of water. Moist, warm weather pro- duces conditions most favorable to rapid and uniform hardening of properly mixed concrete. Cold weather delays hardening greatly and in an uncertain degree, de- pending upon the degree of cold. It might be safe to remove forms in from 12 to 24 hours from some piece of work done in warm weather, while it might be neces- sary to leave forms in place for two or three days or even more in cold weather. In general, massive walls that have no load to carry other than their own weight permit form removal ear- lier than some other portions of the structure. Forms should not be removed from under floors until all danger of collapse has passed, that is, until the concrete is evi- dently thoroughly hardened. This applies also to roof slabs and arches. No specific rule can be laid down for the exact time which must elapse before forms can be MAKING FORMS SS ipnaffvz. e/oekste I — Seafntf bfeek* ■Sfafi* Buupeated form for concrete foundation where both outer and inner forms are necessary because of the earth being unstable. Tha right hand portion of the sketch shows concrete in place with anchor bolt set in the foundation for the purpose of securing wood sill of the superstructure. Various details on the drawing should make the construction clear. 56 MAKING FORMS safely removed. This is something that only experience and good judgment can determine. Some Simple Form Principles Illustrated. An ex- ample of how important it is to carefully plan forms or molds for some classes of concrete work is illustrated in some accompanying sketches. Division points for circular or irregularly shaped objects must be along such lines as to permit form removal with least resistance or friction that might injure the green concrete. At no point should any section of the form bind or cling to any part of the concrete object as the least sticking to the con- crete makes it likely that the surface of the portion will be marred or broken. As an example of this, take a mold intended for a fluted column such as shown in the left-hand sketch on page 39. This column is illustrated as having twenty-four flutes. In this case it is necessary to so divide the form that each section may be withdrawn in the direction of the arrowhead without any binding at any point. In other words, six divisions of the form are necessary. The dotted lines parallel to the direction of the arrowhead show that the form will clear all flut- ings without breaking the edges. In this particular case the flutings are shallow. If they were deeper a still greater number of divisions of the form would be neces- sary to permit removing it without injuring the deli- cately molded concrete edges. It is always necessary to first lay out a column like this in plan so that by drafting computations one can determine the number of sections required for the form. This particular form illustrated is supposed to be of cast iron. Of course such a form could be made of wood by a skilled wood worker, but it is hardly likely that the average worker in concrete will attempt form construction of this kind. The drawing is given mere- ly as an example of the point to be brought out. MAKING FORMS 37 The sketch at the right on page 39 shows in section a form for some concrete product having projecting sur- faces such as pilasters or lugs. The form is shown partly filled with concrete to illustrate the object supposedly be- ing molded in it. hir// mf/r form form shoivm^ stop boaref in p/aee . Method of placing stop board in forms when it is desirable to build one section complete to top of forms and leave work in such condition that when the adjacent section is concreted the groove shown in the sketch to the right will be formed in the concrete previously placed so that a tight joint can be made between these sections. There is a correct and incorrect way for making forms for such objects. Segment e has joints in the middle points of projections 1. When withdrawn in the direc- tion of the arrowhead, the form will clear the concrete as is indicated by the parallel dotted lines ff. This is the correct method if the form is divided into four seg- ments similar to e. If, however, the form is divided into 58 MAKING FORMS four segments similar to a, having the joints midway between two projections, the segments cannot be vyith- drawn in the direction of the arrowhead nor in any other direction without breaking the edges of the projection as shown by the parallel lines bb. If the edges of the pro- jection on the product are parallel with the line drawn ■eby4-JneA*^ 3*afM9 Moe/cs 9tak* Suggeated form for inside face of concrete foundation wall where outside forms are not needed and where possible the excavation is to be used as a cellar. through the center of the product, as shown in c, then joints midway between the projections would be per- missible and the forms could be divided into four seg- ments similar to c. These segments can be withdrawn in the direction of the arrowhead as indicated by the dotted lines d. If the form were divided into eight parts MAKING FORMS 59 then each part would be similar to segments g, which could be withdrawn in the direction of the arrowhead without injuring the edges of projections as is shown by line h parallel to the face of the projection. Some simple form details are shown in another sketch which illustrates a form for a solid concrete block 9 inches square by 10 inches high. This form may be built of 1 or 1^ inch lumber. The ends of sides b have cleats nailed to* them as shown at c. These cleats hold the sides a securely in position while concrete is being placed in the form. The sides lettered b are held in position either by clamps and wedges or by any con- venient method. To prepare for use, the four sides are set up on a work bench or table to which pieces corresponding to d are nailed in position to hold the form secure. Nails used to hold these blocks in position should be driven in only part way so that when starting to dismantle the form Method of building and setting form for that portion of a concrete foundation above ground where the trench has been made in firm soil thus making forms below ground unnecessary. 60 MAKING FORMS they can be readily withdrawn without any violent ef- fort that might injure the concrete. These are simple form details but their application may be extended to any larger objects since fundamental principles are shown. Frequently forms made for some cylindrical object are divided along such lines as to divide the object into two supposedly equal parts. An examination, however, will prove that these parts are not equal or true halves. Often the cut is made so that the dividing line is to one side of the true diameter. A sketch on page 44 illus- trates this. The parts a and b shown in the sketch at the left of this illustration are not equal halves because the divid- ing line was to one side of the true center or diameter. Therefore, when attempting to remove the form section a it will bind, because it includes a circumference greater than half of the circle. This is better illustrated in the center sketch. By far the safest way is to divide such forms into three sections, shown in the right hand sketch, which makes certain that there can be no binding on the concrete face when forms are removed. A method of cutting wood so that the grain will run the long way of the pieces regardless of their number is shown in a sketch on page 49. The wood is cut into diagonal sections and assembled by cleats screwed to the sections as illustrated. The center is then sawed out along the inner dotted circle to prevent splitting. Pieces of this kind should be of at least 1^ to 2 inches thick lumber. REINFORCEMENT. Concrete is either plain or reinforced. Plain concrete means concrete that is placed in forms or otherwise used without any steel rods or other metal embedded in it. Reinforced concrete is concrete in which there is embed- ded steel rods, wire mesh, metal fabric or some kind of similar materials intended to increase its tensile strength. Concrete is very strong in compression, that is, in sustaining or bearing a load placed immediately upon it and which does not subject it to any strains other than supporting that load. This refers to loads acting down- ward on mass concrete like a fountain. Concrete has but little strength in resisting tension, that is, loads or strains that tend to bend it or pull it apart. For ex- ample, a cube of concrete, say 1 inch square, would Sup- port a large load placed directly upon it. If we take this cube of concrete and increase its dimensions by changing it into a column say 1 inch square and 10 inches high, it might still sustain a considerable load but other strains would be brought to bear upon it because of its length and would break it. If we took this same column, 1 inch square and 10 inches long and laid it down as a beam, supporting each end and leaving the middle unsupported, it would not carry anywhere near the same load placed at its center as it would standing in a vertical position acting as a column. Again if we took a beam of concrete and fixed it so that it would remain supported at one end only, the other end projecting outward, the beam would not have to be made very long before it would break of its own 61 62 REINFORCEMENT weight. The breaking of the beam supported at one end as just described is due to tension or the pulling and bending loads exerted on the concrete. However, a way exists to take full advantage of the compressive strength of concrete and at the same time make use of its full tensile strength by embedding rein- forcement in it. This reinforcement is usually in the form of steel rods which may be round, square, or of various deformed types, or reinforcement may be various Sttction through Vase showing Reinforcement developed Sheets as they appear lying on flat surface Plon of Sheets Assembled. Developed Sheet Mith lop Method of cutting and shaping reinforcement for a certain type of concrete flower urn. forms of woven wire mesh or fabric, or deformed sheet metal of various kinds which commercially is known by numerous trade names, such as "expanded metal," etc. Principles of Reinforcing Illustrated. The principle of reinforcing in simple terms is that the steel being strong in resisting pulling strains makes up for this de- ficiency in the concrete and when placed in the concrete takes all the tension because if the concrete is of the right REINFORCEMENT 63 consistency when placed and is properly so as to every- where surround the reinforcement, it will adhere firmly to it and thus cause the reinforcement to take the pulling or bending strains. The principle of reinforcing can be illustrated by sev- eral simple examples. The accompanying figure is in- tended to illustrate a beam made of two pieces, connected by a hinged joint, no matter how this joint may be de- vised. In the opening above the joint is supposed to be a block of rubber. In the opening at the bottom there is shown a coiled spring. This beam, as will be noticed, is ^ — ffuhhsr u^ Cof/ed spring ^ '^3upport Support^ Sketch illustrating the manner in which a load on a concrete beam, develops on the beam the forces of compression and tension. supported at each end but not in the middle. Therefore, when a load is placed on top of the beam it will bend ar the hinged joint. As a matter of fact, it is likely to bend at this joint without load other than its own weight, but for purposes of illustration it is not necessary to consider this fact. One can readily see that supported as the beam is at each end, when it begins to bend under load the gap where the rubber is placed will tend to close and squeeze the rubber, thus deforming it as shown in the sketch. This deformation is the result of compression. At the same time the gap at the bottom of the beam will open because of bending under load and the spring will be stretched. The rubber receives the force of compression while the spring receives the force of tension. The 64 REINFORCEMENT 7/S "i^ y^ ) 1 r. 1 1 ij // "■- / \, ,-^^ TTIT ' /'''\,-^^' "'.zz'.:'.'"". — " "^^■L-a^rnn cf — ^^^t ^ Tl ^^^ * j] ^r^T-*-*^' " 1 1 1 1 1 II Method of developing a sheet of reinforcement for use in reinforc- ing a hemiapherical concrete object auch as a flower vase. REINFORCEMENT 65 spring being of metal will, of course, tend to resist the tension as much as it can — in other words, will tend to take up this strain and the stronger the spring the greater resistance it will have to bending; therefore, the less bending will take place in the beam. If the beam were made solid and instead of the coiled spring had a steel rod embedded throughout its length, say ^-inch or more from the lower face, the adhesion be- tween concrete and the steel would compel the steel rod to remain fixed and to resist effectively the tendency of the beam to bend under load. In other words, the steel rod would take up the pulling or tensile strain exerted by the load. (a) (b) Sketch shoioing principle of stirrup reinforcement in beams. Another sketch illustrates the principles of reinforce- ment further. The upper view shows a number of boards piled one on top of the other with the ends supported. We will suppose thes^e are J/^-inch boards 18 or 20 feet long. Anyone who has laid a thin board like this on two supports as shown knows that the board will sag in the center, merely of its own weight. If any load is put upon it, it will sag still more. The same applies if one board be placed upon another — sagging continues. How- ever, if we take these boards before placing them in this 66 REINFORCEMENT position and bolt them together as shown in the lower sketch, the tendency to sag will be greatly resisted if not entirely prevented. This is because the bolting together prevents the surfaces in contact from slipping past each other as they do when not bolted as shown in the upper sketch. In reinforced concrete beams, rods with what are known as stirrups properly connected to and extending from these rods up in the beam will take care of the same strains in the concrete as are illustrated at "a" in the planks under load. Materials Used to Reinforce Concrete. Not every material can be used to reinforce concrete. The principal reason why steel is used, is because steel and concrete expand and contract under temperature changes^ in al- most exactly the same degree. This is very necessary in reinforcing material because if expansion and contraction were not uniform the difference of expansion between re- inforcement and concrete would cause the bond between the two materials to break, thereby destroying the effec- tiveness of the reinforcement. Steel is placed in the concrete where if will best resist tensile strains. This means that it is necessary that there be determined a correct point or location for the rein- forcement to secure its full effectiveness. Great refine- ments of location are not necessary in some particular cases. Reinforcement is sometimes used to counteract crack- ing of long sections of walls, due to expansion and con- traction under extremes of temperature. In a beam, re- inforcement is placed along its lower section sufficiently embedded in the concrete to prevent exposure to fire. Usually from 1 to lj4-inches back of the lower face is all the protection that is needed although its exact position with respect to furnishing the greatest effective strength REINFORCEMENT 67 must be determined by the design of the particular sec- tion of the structure. Steel is also protected from rust by .being embedded in the concrete because well made concrete is damp-proof and effectively excludes moisture. A column or fence post should be reinforced so that it will resist tension on all sides, because in a fence post as it is in use, pulling strains may come upon it from any one of four directions. The strains that are brought to bear upon a loaded column may be illustrated in a very simple manner. Take a sheet of tissue paper, form a cylinder from it and fill the cylinder with sand. If handled very carefully the tis- sue paper will withstand the tendency of the sand to burst the paper, but it requires only slight pressure from one's hand applied to the top of the filled paper cylinder while it is standing on one end to cause the paper to burst, thus releasing the sand. This simple exainple illustrates the crushing effect of loads on concrete col- umns. To resist such loads columns must be reinforced. How reinforcement helps can be illustrated by suppos- ing the cylinder just described were made of tin instead of paper. One can readily see that it would require con- siderable load on top of the sand to burst the tin con- tainer encasing it. This partly illustrates the principle of reinforcing columns, which consists of embedding suitable vertical steel rods in proper position, near the corners of square columns and placed at proper intervals inside the circumference of a circular column ; then hoop- ing these vertical rods with wire. These examples are given merely to illustrate the principles of reinforced concrete since the subject of rein- forced concrete design is a very technical one and only acquired after considerable study of the underlying prin- ciples of engineering design involved. 63 REINFORCEMENT As previously mentioned, not every kind of material is suited for reinforcing concrete. This may be further amplified by saying that not every kind of steel is suit- able for reinforcing concrete. Generally speaking, va- rious forms of round or square rods or bars are more ex- tensively used in reinforcing concrete than any other material. However, various mesh fabrics and so-called expanded metals are considerably used and they are just as effective if used with proper regard for the tensile strains which must be taken up or counteracted. Various kinds of patented bars are on the market. Most of these involve some alteration of the shape of the bar, such as forming lugs or projections on its surface when the metal is rolled, and in this way attempting to counteract the tendency of the steel to slip in the con- crete; in other words, increasing the mechanical bond. However, tests have shown that if concrete is properly proportioned and placed at the right consistency so that everywhere it is in perfect contact to enable it to effec- tively bond with the entire surface of the reinforcement, the deformed or patented types of bars have no particular merits to recommend them for choice in the ordinary classes of concrete construction. Many of the reinforcing meshes or fabrics are not un- like woven wire fence, except, however, that the meshes or openings in them are of uniform size throughout the width and length of the material. So-called expanded metal is made from sheets of steel of various thicknesses, depending upon the use to which the reinforcement is to be put, these sheets being slotted or cut at regular in- tervals so that they may be pulled apart or expanded, thus increasing their area and thereby forming sort of a lattice-work fabric. The advantage of many of these expanded or metal fabrics is readily apparent when they are used in con- REINFORCEMENT 69 Seci-jon i'hrough Basin showing reinforcement. \Nire these ro£^s at a/ I in tersecfions. ■Splice Method of aaaembling rod reinforcement for boiol or basin of oonsrete bird bath, fountain or similar ornamental object. 70 REINFORCEMENT nection with stucco or other plastered surfaces. They provide a good bond or key for the cement mortar and are also fireproof. Being thoroughly protected by the concrete they are practically permanent since the con- crete prevents moisture from rusting them. Many of the mesh fabrics or different types of ex- panded metal are particularly suited to reinforcing small ornamental objects of thin wall sections, such as small troughs, tanks and flower boxes. Much dissatisfaction with concrete work attempted by the novice or beginner has resulted from the belief that almost any kind of scrap metal such as barbed wire, chain, old pipe, etc., would do for reinforcing. This is not true. Only material intended for reinforcment should be used as such. Steel for reinforcing, either in the form of rods, mesh or fabric, is supposed to have a certain chemical composition, resulting in giving it a certain strength and other properties. For that reason it is not likely that rods that may be obtained from the local blacksmith, for example, are either the best or cheapest. Naturally rods and the various other kinds of rein- forcing material are limited as to length of pieces. There- fore, in use it is necessary to splice reinforcement to make it continuous where so desired. Ends of mesh should be lapped 4 inches or more and bound together securely by wires. A good rule for lapping rods is to lap them from SO to 60 times their diameter. Rods and other reinforcing material must be han- dled properly. Rust or mill scale should be removed from it by brushing with a wire brush before placing in the forms to be embedded in the concrete. It is necessary to bend rods and mesh to conform to certain shapes of the structure. Reinforcement should not be bent suddenly. Frequently this will csiuse frac- REINFORCEMENT 71 ture. It should be shaped gently and by exerting a uni- form steady strain until it has been given the proper lines. Planning or Laying Out Certain Reinforce- ment. Whenever ex- panded metal or wire mesh is used to rein- force small objects, such as flower boxes, bird ,, bath basins, fountain p.y. j bowls or small tanks or \>;?1 troughs, it is necessary to cut the flat sheets so that the reinforcement can be bent up and joined to conform to the general lines of the prod- uct. This is called de- veloping the sheet of re- inforcement. For ex- ample, in order to have the reinforcement for the basin of the fountain as shown on page 117 conform to the shape of the basin, it will be necessary to cut the flat sheet as shown in the accompanying illustration. After the necessary cuts have been made, the sheet should be bent along the dotted lines as shown, and the laps securely wired together with black stove wire. The greater the diameter of the bowl to be reinforced the greater the number of radial cuts required to enable shaping the reinforcement properly. A sketch on page 64 shows a convenient method of lay- ing out developed sheets for bowls that are not so flat as the fountain bowl just referred to. In this case the flat Method of placing reinforcing rods over window and door openingm and at the corners of such open- ings when made in a concrete wall. 72 REINFORCEMENT sheet consists of eight equal sectors although the part sketched shows only 23^ of these. When these sectors are bent up so that their edges meet, they form a hemisphere. The length of this flat sector along the center line is equal to the length of the arc of a circle shown in the upper part of the drawing. In this example it was found con- venient to divide the sector into eight equal parts each 2^ inches long. The 90-degree vertical arc is also divided into eight equal parts, the length of each being 2^ inches as measured on the circumference. The di- mension at the outer edge of the flat sector is 11 inches Method of cutting mesh reinforcement hefore liending it to proper position to conform with general shape of the object. or j4 of the circumference at the outer edge of the rein- forcement at p, when the sectors are bent into the form of a hemisphere. A practical and simple illustration of developing these sheets may be had by taking an orange and cutting it in half, then making cuts from the diameter down to the stem end, removing the peeling and laying all of it flat on a table. This illustration is a counterpart of the sketch shown and described. LIST OF CONCRETE MIXTURES AND CLASSES OF WORK FOR WHICH RECOMMENDED 1 :1 :1 Mixture. This mixture is sometimes used as the wearing course of floors subjected to heavy traffic and where steel tired vehicles must use it frequently. Greater wear is obtained from such a mixture by using, if possible, an aggregate consisting of granite or trap rock. 1:1:1J^ Mixture. This mixture is used for the top course of two course driveways and similar pavements in which the pebbles or broken stone are graded J4 to J4 inch. As a rule neither this nor the first mixture will be found necessary in the average farm concrete work al- though where the classes of concrete construction referred to are subjected to heavy traffic such mixtures will insure better wearing qualities of the concrete. 1:2:3 Mixture. Concrete roofs on silos, icehouses, and other farm buildings where concrete roofs are used are generally made of this mixture. It is also used for one course walks, floors, driveways, alleys, fence posts, sills and lintels, watering troughs and tanks, and for other work requiring dense strong concrete. Cisterns and foun- dation walls that are to be more or less continually sub- jected to ground water and which must resist its pressure may best be built of this mixture. 1:2:4 Mixture. This is the mixture most commonly used for such classes of reinforced construction as walls, suspended floors, beams and columns. Sometimes it is possible to use a 1 :2 :4 mixture for practically all of the work for which a 1 :2 :.3 mixture is recommended but in 73 74 TABLE OF MIXTURES making this substitution it is very necessary to determine that the materials are well graded and that a dense concrete will be secured. A 1 :2 :4 mixture is also used for bridges and culverts, for the foundations for machinery such as cream separators, gasoline engines and for concrete work that is generally subjected to the strains of vibration. 1:25^:4 Mixture. This is a common mixture to use for silo walls, grain bins, plain building walls above founda- tion when stucco finish is not to be applied, walls of pits, or basements subjected to considerable exposure to mois- ture but practically no direct water pressure, manure pits, dipping vats, hog wallows, backing of concrete block that are to be finished with a special facing mixture and for the base of two course driveway pavements. 1:2%:S Mixture. This mixture is commonly used for walls above ground which are to have a stucco finish. It is sometimes used in foundation work but is generally a richer mixture than is required for the average building foundation except where the foundation wall must form a tight enclosure. It is also used for the base of two course sidewalks, feeding floors, barnyard pavements and other two course plain floors laid immediately on the ground. 1:3:6 Mixture. This is used for mass concrete such as retaining walls of heavy section, for heavy foundations such as a barn would require and for heavy footings. Cement Mortars. Mixtures such as 1 :1, 1 '2, 1 :3 as has already been explained, are generally used to designate mortars. Such a mixture implies that there is no coarse, aggregate, in other words, that there is nothing used but cement, sand and water. 1:1^ Mixture. This mixture is used as inside plas- tering of water tanks, silos and bin walls where such plas- TABLE OF MIXTURES 75 tering is necessary, and for facing outside surface of walls below ground where necessary to afford additional protec- tion against the entrance of moisture. As a rule plastering of a concrete surface is not to be recommended. Necessity of this should be prevented by mixing the concrete of correct consistency and properly spading it against form face when placing. 1 :2 Mixture. This mixture is used as a scratch coat on exterior plaster work as stucco. It is also used as a facing mixture with selected aggregate for concrete block and similar concrete products. Sometimes it is used as a wearing course for two course walks and floors like barn- yard pavements and feeding floors, but such construction preferably should be of the one course type. 1:2J4 Mixture. This mixture is used as the inter- mediate and finish plaster coats on stucco work. It is sometimes used for making fence posts when coarse ag- gregate is not used, but it makes fence post construction unnecessarily expensive and therefore should be used only when suitable coarse aggregates cannot be obtained. 1 :3 Mixture. Concrete block and concrete brick are made of 1 :3 mixture. It is also used for concrete drain tile and pipe when coarse aggregate is not used. Orna- mental concrete products are generally made of 1 :3 mix- ture. In this connection it may be well to mention that in many ornamental products the minimum size of coarse ag- gregate cannot exceed J4 inch because of the very thin sections in which concrete must be placed. The foregoing table of recommended mixtures is some- wljat of an arbitrary one. The mixtures are recommended for the various classes of work listed because they have been found satisfactory under average conditions. They are all safe mijrfures to use where it is not possible to 76 TABLE OF MIXTURES make scientific tests to determine whether or not a leaner mixture might be used, providing the aggregates possess the required grading. As these facilities are not within the reach of the average worker it is always best to be on the safe side and place reliance on these recommended mixtures. PLACING CONCRETE On large engineering structures there are a number of ways in which concrete may be placed in the iornis after mixing. The home worker, however, usually can- not make a profitable use of most of these methods, nor is it desirable that he should use them. For the average structure, placing concrete is merely a matter of trans- ferring it from the mixing platform to the forms by means of shovels, buckets or wheelbarrows. Place Immediately After Mixing. Concrete begins to harden, within a comparatively short time after the mix- ture has been completed, so the mixed concrete should be placed in the forms or molds as soon as possible. It will usually be found convenient to move the mixing board to different locations on the job so that concrete may often merely be shoveled direct from the board into the forms, as when a concrete foundation is being placed. When the concrete is being placed in the foundation trench, it is well to lay boards or planks along and across the trench, especially if no forms are being used, so that fresh earth will not be knocked into the concrete. All concrete work should be so planned that the quantity of concrete to be placed during a working day or whatever time is set aside to the work, can be estimated with such accuracy that when quitting time comes the job may be left in condition suitable for resuming concreting later. Depth of Layers. Concrete should be deposited in layers of uniform thickness throughout the enclosure formed by the forms. From 6 to 8 inches is the greatest depth that should be placed at one time, the reason for this being that in spading or tamping the concrete it is 78 PLACING CONCRETE not possiblb to spade clear through a layer of any greater depth, making certain that it will bond or unite with the layer previously placed. Sometimes the concrete is placed so as to complete various sections the full depth of the forms or full height of the concrete section being built, thus making the work on that section practically continuous; in fact, it is best to arrange for as continuous concreting as possible, be- cause in this way the construction seams necessarily formed where one day's work stops and another begins, will be fewer in number. Tamping and Spading. For some foundation work concrete is mixed to merely damp earth consistency. In placing such concrete, vigorous tamping is necessary to insure greatest possible density. Where concrete con- taining more water is being placed, that is, concrete of a quaky concrete is spaded or puddled' in the form. This the mixture does not permit tamping, as blows from the tamper would dislodge the concrete. Therefore, the quaky concrete is spaded or puddle in the form. This settles it to utmost density and in doing so releases air bubbles that may be entrapped in the concrete. Spading next to form faces is very important, because it produces a dense surface, forces back the particles of coarse aggre- gate and thereby allows the sand cement motar to flow next to the form face and as a result produces a smoother, more uniform surface. Another reason is that thorough spading increases density and hence watertightness. Tool to Use for Spading. For average use a spading tool may very conveniently be made out of a piece of hardwood board, 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick, shaped to have a ckisel edge at the lower end and cut away at the upper end to form a convenient handle ; or an old garden spade may be flattened out, or an old garden hoe can be PLACING CONCRETE 79 converted into a spading tool in the same manner. JNar- rower spading tools are needed sometimes when working the concrete around reinforcement and in narrow spaces. Vsiriations in Methods Due to Class of Work. Natur- ally the method of placing concrete will vary slightly, depending upon the nature of the work. For walks, floors and similar pavements the concrete is usually wheeled from the mixing platform in wheelbarrows, or shoveled into and dumped from buckets on the spot where it is to be leveled off. In the case of troughs and watering tanks, the operation of concreting should be as continuous as possible to prevent construction seams. The floor or bot- tom of a watering trough or tank is concreted to half the depth of the floor, then reinforcement is placed, the inside form quickly set in position and fixed in proper relation to the outside form, and concreting resumed before that concrete first placed can commence to harden. Between narrow forms concrete should be placed in thinner layers because of the difficulty of spading in the narrow space. Also under such conditions only one form section should be boarded up the full height so that the other may be boarded up as concreting progresses. If this is not done, the depth in the forms will be too great for spading. Another precaution that must be taken is not to allow concrete to drop through too great a height when placing. From 6 to 8 feet is the maximum distance through which it should be dropped. If allowed to fall through a greater distance, there is certain to be more or less separation of materials, which results in the forma- tion of pebble pockets. Completing a Part Section. Sometimes it is neces- sary that a certain section of wall, for example, be finished complete to the top of the forms within a definite time. In such a case the next section like it will not join with 80 PLACING CONCRETE the first properly unless some special provision for join- ing is made when placing the first section. This is easily done by blocking a board in the forms with a beveled 2 by 4 or similar strip nailed to the face of the board against which concrete is being placed, to leave a verti- cal mortise in the end of the wall. Then when concrete is placed in the next section the board stop is taken out. The concrete previously placed acts as an end form against which the fresh concrete is placed, which forms a tenon fitting in the mortise, arranged for by the 2 by 4 as above described. Leaving Work in Proper Condition to Resume Con- creting. In spite of the desirability of arranging for con- tinuous concreting, it is rarely possible, especially on large structures, to carry on the work uninterruptedly. For this reason it is necessary to leave the work of one day in such condition that it will be easy to resume con- creting the next day without leaving any objectionable joint or defect where the two days' work join. To pro- vide for this the concrete last placed in the form should be left slightly rough by scratching with a stick and when concreting is resumed the next day this roughened surface should be washed off and given a coat of cement water paint. With this precaution taken there will be little evidence of the construction seam and leakage through the joint will have been prevented. CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WALLS Concrete the Ideal Foundation Material. Every building possesses two parts common to every other building — foundations and walls. Concrete is the home worker's ideal building material for both. The very ease with which it may be made to fill any kind of excavation simplifies foundation construction by comparison with any kind of masonry. The work can be done rapidly and with relatively unskilled labor and as concrete has great compressive strength it makes an unequaled foundation for any building. As a matter of fact, concrete is about the only foundation material used today, regardless of the material used in the superstructure. Of course different kinds of foundation work require slightly different plan- ning and construction details. For example, a founda- tion that might do for a small dairy building would not do for a heavy barn. Soil conditions vary in different localities. It is therefore necessary to know something of the possible supporting or bearing capacity of the soil so that the foundation may be planned and laid in accord- ance with the soil on which it is to rest and the load which it is to carry. Footings. Where soil conditions lack the best sup- porting capacity, a foundation wall is usually started on a footing if the load to be supported is more than the average. A footing is a wider section of concrete vary- ing in thicknes^ to meet conditions, laid in the bottom of the foundation trench on which the foundation wall proper is started. For example, the foundation wall may be 6 inches thick, while the footing would be a section of 81 82 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS concrete, say, 12 inches wide and 8 to 10 inches thick so that through the footing a greater area of soil would be covered and the load of the building distributed over this greater area by the footing. For barn walls a footing 2 feet wide and 12 inches thick is generally sufiScient. For buildings the size of the common house a footing 18 inches wide and 12 inches thick is a fair average, while Attractive concrete block wall or fence enclosing home grounds. footings 12 inches wide and from 8 to 10 inches thick will serve for small farm buildings such as hog and poultry houses. Wall Thickness for Some Typical Farm Buildings. As it is not always convenient to determine the actual bearing capacity of the soil, the common practice is usually to lay a footing anyway just to be on the safe side. As 6-inch walls are usually the maximum for small FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS S3 farm buildings such as dairy, poultry and hog houses, a 10-inch footing for the foundation may be considered wide enough. Wall thickness like foundation thickness is governed by the character of the building that is to be supported. Twelve inches is generally safe for basement barns. For the average residence and small barn, a 10- inch wall is usually sufficient, while for smaller struc- tures 8 or 6-inch walls will answer. Reinforcing Walls and Openings in Them. Eight- inch concrete walls and those of lesser thickness should be reinforced above ground with J^-inch round rods Concrete steps and concrete retaining wall for terrace. placed at the center of the wall, spaced 2 feet center to center vertically and horizontally. For walls thicker than 8 inches, two such sets of reinforcing should be used, one set 2 inches from the exterior face and one set the same distance from the interior face of the walls. Extra rods should always be placed parallel to the sides of door and window openings and 2 or 3 rods should be placed diagonally at each corner of door and window openings. Ordinarily foundations need no reinforce- ment. 84 -FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS Concrete Mixtures for Walls and Foundations. Heavy walls below ground may be made of concrete mixed in the proportion of 1 sack of portland cement to 2J^ cubic feet of sand and 5 cubic feet of clean pebbles or broken stone. Sometimes a 1 :3 ;6 mixture will answer but the richer mixture should always be used where the wall is to enclose a cellar or basement which it is particu- larly desired should be kept dry. Walls above ground should be 1 :2 :4 or 1 -ly^ A. Concrete Vlock hamyard enclosure wall. Concrete Should Not Be Dropped Through Too Great Distance. Care should always be taken when placing concrete in wall or foundation forms not to drop it through too great a height as this will cause a separation of materials as mentioned in another section on the plac- ing of concrete. Protection of Finished Work. It is very important that concrete walls be protected against drying out after the concrete work has been finished. Because they ex- pose a large double surface area to sun and wind, it is best to leave forms in position a few days longer than actually necessary from the standpoint of safety to the FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 85 concrete and to keep all of the work thoroughly wet down. Extra Rich Mixture Where Soil Is Wet. Sometimes it will be found necessary, because of soil conditions re- sulting from a constant surplus of water in the soil, or due to temporary rising of ground water level, to use a 1 :2 :3 mixture for foundation wall construction in order to make certain that the wall will be watertight. Method of laying out a square comer for a concrete foundation photographically illustrated. Depth of Foundation. Excavations for foundations should in all cases extend far enough below ground level to reach firm soil and also to be beyond all probable dis- turbance due to upheaval from frost. If not placed with regard to these conditions cracking of the walls may result. Form Construction. Form construction is of the simplest and for that portion of the foundation below 86 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS ground, forms will not be required, provided the exca- vated trench has firm earth walls. Since the foundation wall must correspond to the lines of the interior of the building, it is very necessary that the foundation be carefully staked out. This is a very simple matter and is illustrated in an accompanying picture and sketch. A stake is set where it is desired one corner of the building shall fall. From the stake a string is stretched to another stake set at a position and dis- tance corresponding to another corner on the same side Concrete panel wall. The posts serve to give the pilaster effect. This wall is built of precast units Hke boards. of the building. From this second stake a string is stretched to a third stake to be set at a point correspond- ing to the length of this side of the building. Before setting the third stake, however, it is necessary to square up the corner at the location of the second stake. This is done by measuring ofif a distance of 8 feet from the center of the second stake back toward the first stake and setting a pin in the string at this 8-foot point, and then a distance of 6 feet is measured from the center of the second stake along the string toward the third stake and FOUNDATIONIS AND WALLS 87 this 6-foot point marked in the same manner. The per- son holding the third stake then moves it back or forth to the right or left as may be necessary, keeping the string tight meanwhile until the distance between the two pins where they are stuck in the strings is exactly 10 feet. The third stake should then be driven. The Concrete foundation with anchor bolts for sill in place. corner marked by the third stake can be squared in the same manner and so on. Brace Forms Well. Forms for walls should be well braced because unsightly bulges on the surface will re- sult from the weight of wet concrete spreading forms un- less they are firmly braced. 88 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS Drainage Around Footings. In soils that are not nat- urally well drained it is sometimes necessary to lay a tile drain at the bottom of the foundation trench leading to some natural outlet, otherwise a house cellar, for ex- ample, may be damp at certain seasons of the year owing to water leaking into the cellar because of a faulty con- struction joint in the wall when concrete was placed or because the joint between floor and wall was not properly sealed. If concrete is properly proportioned and placed Concrete foundation complete ready for the superstructure. at right consistency, this trouble will not be encountered, so the only excuse for laying a drain as suggested is to prevent a possible happening due to faulty workmanship or the omission of some detail. Careful Placing of Concrete. On concrete wall work above ground, it is necessary to use a great deal of care in building the forms so that the exposed concrete sur- face will have a pleasing appearance when forms have been removed. Except only when it is intended that some after-treatment shall be given to the surface, such as a coat of stucco, for example, slight irregularities in the surface do not make much difference. These can readily be removed or rubbed down by going over the FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 89 surface in one of the several ways described under sur- face finishes. Usually when placing concrete for walls that are after- ward to be stuccoed, the concrete is not so thoroughly spaced next to the outside form face but merely against the inner form face and between forms, thus intentionally allowing a few pebble pockets to exist on the outer wall surface so that through these a better bond or key will be secured for the stucco plaster. Concrete walls besides forming a part of a building, for example, are used to enclose barnyards and feeding lots, are used to hold back the earth of a terrace, or may serve to line an excavation that is intended to be used as a reservoir, etc. Sketch for concrete gateway posts and monolithic toatt. Variety of Concrete Walls. Concrete walls may be considerably varied in appearance, depending upon how they are bufft. They may be of monolithic concrete, which in turn may be plain or reinforced. They may be of concrete block, either solid or hollow, or they may be of precast units like slabs, or they may even be of units exactly like those employed in building cement stave silos. In fact, one of the recent extensions of use for ce- ment silo staves is to build walls for small farm build- ings. A number of poultry bams and hoghouses have been built in this way. While monolithic walls used as enclosures may be either plain or reinforced, it is usually 90 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS economical to reinforce them because by so doing, thinner sections of concrete can be made to serve the same purpose and the reinforcement does not cost as much as the saving made possible by using the thinner reinforced sections. Except for the building of forms intended to give added ornament to a wall, form construction is simple and requires practically no skilled labor. Lumber used for wall forms if carefully handled can readily be made available for some other purpose as it is rarely necessary to cut stock lengths except to make them of uniform length, so the lumber is not injured and hence the actual cost of building forms with respect to the wall alone is not great. Concrete block walls, as the name implies, are laid up of precast block just as any other jointed masonry con- struction is laid. Such walls while attractive are neces- sarily less substantial than those built of monolithic con- crete, particularly of reinforced monolithic concrete. Any unequal settlement of a block wall is certain to result in unsightly cracks opening up the mortar joints, the repair of which is difficult as far as concealing the defect goes, and the fact that the wall has settled out of line will al- ways attract attention to this evidence of faulty work- manship. However, such happenings can be prevented by carefully building the foundation of the wall and mak- ing certain that settlement will be safeguarded against by providing a footing sufficient to carry the load. Per- haps concrete walls built of reinforced precast units such as slabs three or more inches thick and any convenient square dimension to permit easy handling in place are next best to the monolithic wall. The particular ad- vantage of the precast slab wall is the ease of assembling units and the absence of forms required on the job, ex- cept those needed for casting the posts, Such a wall has FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 91 92 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS a panel and pilaster effect, the posts being the pilasters and the slabs the panels. The same applies to walls which may be built of cement silo staves although these cannot be considered so attractive as the other type because of the greater number of pilasters and panels and the smaller units, so the use of concrete silo staves for such walls has been confined largely to enclosure of the barn- yard or feed lot. Sketch showing method of laying out concrete toundations in order to square corners. Part of the trench is illustrated as excavated in order to visualize better the operation. Variety of Forms That May Be Used. There are two general types of forms used in the construction of mono- lithic walls. Wood forms built for a large section or the entire wall before concreting is begun and portable wood or metal forms erected in place for a particular stretch of the work and changed by being passed ahead and set up as the work progresses. Forms of the first type are usually built where they are used and if they are care- fully planned before lumber is cut, there need be but little waste of the material. The same applies to sec- FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 93 tional forms also. Sectional or unit forms of wood can be used a number of times, and added life can be insured them by facing the side to lie next to the concrete with metal. This not only protects the sections against early injury from setting up and knocking down but results in securing a more even surface to the finished concrete. As enclosure walls are usually built as a finishing touch, to some ground or location, it is always desirable that the concrete present an attractive appearance after the job is finished. For this reason all effort expended to insure correct forms is well repaid in the added at- tractiveness of the finished work. For some work, tongued or grooved lumber will give best results. Units * '!*.' '21 '*' *7^^ tl* • '" '.?*H», vi.— Perspective sketch of finished concrete fence. or panel sections must be well braced to prevent bulging when concrete is rammed in place. One and one quarter inch sheathing with studs every two feet and sufficient bracing will probably be satisfactory. Long as well as short braces should be used and the longer the pieces the more of them there should be because of the tendency of long sticks to bend or sag. 94 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS The average barnyard wall is rarely more than six feet high and concrete is usually placed between forms by dumping from hand buckets or wheelbarrows run up runways. Where concrete is being mixed by hand, the mixing board should be moved with sufificient frequency so that unnecessary carrying of concrete will be avoided. Wall Finish. The plain concrete wall surface is mo- notonous and there is considerable opportunity for re- lieving this monotony when building this wall, especially some enclosure or retaining wall, by planning the forms so that depressed or raised panels will be formed on the exposed surface. Expansion Joints. The principal reason for reinforc- ing concrete walls is to prevent cracking from possible [. g".! settling and from temperature \\ ^ (^^inforcing changes rather than because of J \\ i-~f /-— ,^- f^tf any need of supporting loads. ^"^ As a matter of fact, the con- J^i" crete wall which serves merely s"^ as an enclosure wall has no -Ji"!*— load to support other than its Oetails of posts and panels • i ^ t- ■ j shotoing various dimen. OWn weight. txpansion and aions and the position of , ,. • j i r t reinforcing. contraction are provided for by joints in the work; in other words, every 25 or 30 feet one section ends and another begins. The two usually abut each other by one end of the wall having a tongue or tenon on it and the other a mortise. To give a pilaster and panel effect, however, the mortise is generally formed in the post that corresponds to the pilaster and the panel by being cast into the mortise acts as the tongue. In this way openings or joints due to contraction are not noticeable. It is possible however, to do away entirely with expansion or contraction joints by uniform and con- tinuous reinforcement throughout the wall. In such case the steel takes all the tension when concrete is expanding. FOUNDATION'S AND WALLS 95 Casting Posts in Place. The average monolithic wall is more or less of a unit built structure. As mentioned previously, monolithic posts are generally cast first with a mortise in two opposite faces. When the concrete in these posts has been hardened so that forms may be removed, the unit sections for the wall proper are set up and the stretches between posts concreted after rein- forcement has been placed in position. In such a case the posts are of more massive section than the wall, partly for economy of concrete in the intervening sec- tions or slabs.- As in the case of other concrete work, plans may be made when doing the concreting or after it is finished to give the wall any one of a number of sur- face finishes. Typical examples of concrete enclosure walls are shown in accompanying sketches and photographic illus- trations. One illustration suggests a simple method of form construction adaptable to all types of plain sur- faced concrete wall, that is, a wall which is not to be or- namented by raised or depressed panels. It will be noticed from these sketches also that wall thickness can be varied almost at will without any particular change in the forms, this being regulated entirely by the dimen- sions of the block forming the posts, when cast. These posts may be cast monolithic in place or as is most com- mon, be made of precast hollow block laid up and then filled with concrete. In either case reinforcement should be set in the corners of the square indicated as an open- ing in the section. If hollow block are used in building up these columns, the core should be filled with a rather wet concrete thoroughly settled in the cores so that it will perfectly unite with the four reinforcing rods. A little examination of this sketch "will show how readily sections of the posts may be modified by simply planning the forms differently so that different wall thicknesses 96 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS may readily be secured and also the pilaster effect be ob- tained by merely clamping the form sections against dif- ferent faces or projections on the posts or columns. This type of form construction has almost unlimited adapta- bility in building all classes of walls. In fact, one to three courses or tiers of plank may be used in accordance with 8^0" mm i' !' !l I I ii I Hj ! i! i< ! i j^MM! Ml! LliJl I ! I «^ M ■Form boards nhick. i'*2 'Lnd form. -W/re fabri'cvn^a reinforcing. V^g'A ^yi'Nakfi ^S-Z'xd"/ e"x4 "5i-udJing. S^OTc. /«.& Pieces 3-O'c.fo c. Section and elevation of concrete panel fence. the number of workmen on the job and the speed with which they can do concreting. Also the system is par- ticularly adapted to the construction of residences or building walls as will be seen in the sketch suggesting a corner of a building. Plastered or Stucco Walls. Sometimes walls are built after the same manner as stucco work is done. FOUNDATION'S AND WALLS 97 However, such walls cannot be expected to give very satisfactory service unless the foundation frame on which the stucco is applied is of metal throughout. The posts to which metal lath are to be attached should be em- bedded in the concrete foundation and set perfectly plumb and the metal lath firmly stretched between them. The plaster is then applied in the same manner as de- scribed elsewhere in this blooklet in the discussion of stucco. A very pleasing and desirable finish can be given to concrete walls by precast caps set on columns and stringers placed on walls, or when planning the forms arrangements can be made to cast these finishing details monolithic with the remainder of the wall. BEARING POWER OF SOILS Supporting Power In Tons per Sq. Ft. Rock — in thick layers, in natural bed 200 Qay — in thick beds, always dry 4 Clay — in thick beds, moderately dry 2 Qay — soft 1 Gravel and coarse sand, well cemented 8 Sand — compact and well cemented 4 Sand — clean and dry 2 Loam soils 0.5 CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS, WALLS, ETC. 1 Cu. Ft. Sacks of 1 Cu. Yd. Bbl. of Concrete Cement Concrete Cement 1 :1 .1 .5404 1:1:1 3.375 l-.VA-.S .2808 1 ■.U4 :3 1.895 1:2:4 .2220 1:2:4 1.496 1:2H:5 .1848 1:254:5 U47 1:3:6 .1570 1:3:6 1.060 98 FOUNDATION'S AND WALLS H an fa K o > O h u fa fa # o ■9 n s g H i; g i^ u fa s § H U Pi >r M u ^ ^ es ^ 2 I § H ^ s s 10 e4M 09 94 cqeq jj . . . .© oooo o .... • t- cxin to c- U3 • < • - 1-t o caoor-cD .... .^taocivw w : : : i^'^'i^'^i • - • ■ l-H O »H i-t tH rH rj- • . . -N-^US^twOO *^m * ' ' ''AW3COIAU3 V ... 'OOOOOO 4^ • CO -^ •* oi • • • • ■ o o o (3 . 00 ,H t- 00 -■ (Q u3 CO 94 eg M*^ oooo . n CO CO rH o ■ ■ • • t- 00 C-» U3 • o o o C - o> w ^ ^ — JS Oa ,-1 fH »H iH oooo , A eg l> V ^ eo^ COM o rtD9 c-toeaoo wn coiaeoi-4 13 Ca fH »H 1H iH t-l 4J rn OOO ACOOC4 o ■ OOi I-IOC4CO eq iH eg eiCMM ii H ■vt- oi>--^w ■55 ON T-t NiHtH 5«S c« C4 00 ooeoud B^ u 00 O -^ CO N O *£; ^ r-t i-( *-H rH iH t ca t- c^oooeo 00 w n c« oo «] i-i 1-t iH r-( eg d ^1 c rtlH «J»-40N ■0 Oi tH OS »hOO £0 r-to OlH O iHiHrH Ir" ■^O 9» OOOM «ou3cgeMO0> h^ Sii ccco ■* «eg'^ VA to in-^ to LA t- 1- ^3 c ■ s . :^ t-oa QOAoooo OOOOOO 1'^ ad 6 O A tHCOOIA L '«I« 04 1-1 O A C« H» tH^ r>t 1-1 B ^CM eo -v IS d eo ^ u» |2«S 04 t-l fH iHi-l 04 CO M eg eo 'A'^ t-t04 0404e4M CONVENIENT ESTIMATING TABLES AND EXAMPLES OF USE. For convenience, concrete is usually mixed in batches, each requiring one sack of cement. The following table shows the cubic feet of sand and pebbles (or crushed stone) to be mixed with one sack of cement to secure mixtures of the different proportions indicated in the first column. The last column gives the resulting volume in cubic feet of compacted mortar or concrete. TABLE I Mixtures. Materials. Vol. in Cu. Ft. Cement Pebbles Pebbles in Sand or Stone Cement Sand or Stone Sacks Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. Mortar Concrete 1.5 2 3 1.5 3 2 3 2 4 2.5 4 2.5 5 3 5 1.5 1.75 2 2.1 3 2.8 1.5 3 3.5 2 3 3.9 2 4 4.5 2.5 4 • 4.8 2.5 5 5.4 3 5 5.8 The following table gives the number of sacks of ce- ment and cubic feet of sand and pebbles (or stone) required to make one cubic yard (twenty-seven cubic feet) of compacted concrete proportioned as indicated in first column : 99 100 ESTIMATING EXAMPLES TABLE II Mixtures Quantities of Materials Pebbles Stone or Cement Sand or Stone Cement Sand Pebbles 1 1.5 in Sacks Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. 2 15.5 23.2 3 12.8 25.6 1.5 3 9.6 28.8 2 3 7.6 11.4 22.8 2 4 7 14 21 2.5 4 6 12 24 2.5 5 5.6 14 22.4 3 5 5 12.5 25 3 6 4.6 4.2 13.8 23 12.6 25.2 Example I. How much cement, sand, and pebbles will be required to build a feeding floor 30 by 24 feet, 5 inches thick? Multiplying the area (30 by 24) by the thickness in feet gives 300 cubic feet, and dividing this by 27 gives 11 1/9 cubic yards as the required volume of concrete. A one-course floor should be of 1 :2 :3 mixture. Table II shows that each cubic yard of this mixture required 7 sacks of cement, 14 cubic feet of sand, and 21 cubic feet of gravel or stone. Multiplying these quantities by the number of cubic yards required (11 1/9) gives the quan- tities of material required (eliminating fractions) as 78 sacks of cement, 156 cubic feet of sand, and 233 cubic feet of pebbles or stone. As there are 4 sacks of cement in a barrel, and 27 cubic feet of sand or pebbles in a cubic yard, we shall need a little less than 20 barrels of cement, 6 cubic yards of sand, and 9 cubic yards of pebbles or stone. Example II. How many fence posts 3 by 3 inches at the top, 5 by 5 inches at the bottom, and 7 feet long can be made from one sack of cement? How much sand and pebbles will be needed? ESTIMATING EXAMPLES 101 Fence posts should be of a 1 :2 :3 mixture. Table I shows the volume of a one-sack batch of this mixture to be 3 9/10 cubic feet. The volume of one concrete post, found by multiplying the length by the average width and breadth in feet (7 by % by ys) is 7/9 cubic foot. By dividing 3 9/10 by 7/9 we find that five posts can be made from 1 sack of cement when mixed with 2 cubic feet of sand and 3 cubic feet of pebbles. Example III. What quantities of cement, sand and pebbles are necessary to make 100 unfaced concrete blocks, each 8 by 8 by 16 inches? The product of height, width and thickness, all in feet (2/3 by 2/3 by 4/3) gives 16/27 cubic foot as the con- tents of a solid block. As the air space is usually esti- mated as 33 1/3 per cent, the volume of concrete in one hollow block will be 2/3 or 18/27 or 54/81 cubic foot ; in 100 blocks the volume of concrete will be 5400/81 or 66 2/3 cubic feet, which being divided by 27, gives a little less than 2j4 cubic yards. Unfaced concrete block should be of 1 :2^ :4 mixture. Table II shows that each cubic yard of this mixture requires 5 6/10 sacks of ce- ment, 14 cubic feet of sand, and 22 4/10 cubic feet of pebbles. Multiplying these quantities by the number of cubic yards required (1^) gives the quantities of mate- rial required as 8 2/5 sacks of cement, 21 cubic feet of sand, and 33 3/5 cubic feet of gravel. Example IV. How many 6-foot hog troughs 12 inches wide and 10 inches high can be made from 1 barrel of cement? Use a 1 :2 :3 mixture. Table I shows the volume of a 1-sack batch of this mixture to be 3 9/10 cubic feet. As there are 4 sacks in 1 barrel, a barrel of cement would be sufficient for four times 3 9/10, or 15 6/10 cubic feet of concrete. The product of the three dimensions, all in feet, gives the volume of one trough as 5 cubic feet. 102 ESTIMATING EXAMPLES However, approximately 30 per cent of this volume is in the open water basin or inside of the tank, leaving 3 5/10 cubic feet as the solid contents of concrete in one trough. Dividing 15 6/10 by 3 5/10, we find that 4 troughs (and a fraction over) can be made from 1 barrel of cement when mixed with 8 cubic feet of sand and 12 cubic feet of pebbles. QUANTITIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT, SAND AND PEBBLES OR CRUSHED STONE FOR 100 SQUARE FEET OF CONCRETE 10 INCHES THICK, EQUAL TO 3.08 CUBIC YARDS Proportions Quantities Cu. Ft. Cu. Yd. Sacks of Cu. Ft. Pebbles Sacks of Cu. Yd. Pebbles Cement of Sand or Stone Cement of Sand or Stone 1 60.2 2.23 1^ 47.7 2.65 2 39.4 2.92 2V2 33.8 3.13 3 29.S 3.29 1 'i' 41.7 1.54 l'.S4 \V2 3 234 1.30 2.60 2 3 21.5 1.59 2.38 2 4 18.5 1.37 2.74 2y2 4 17.2 1.59 2.54 2J/. 5 15.4 1.43 2.86 3 5 142 1.58 2.64 NOTE — These quantities can be safely used for estimating, order- ing materials, and, after the work is done, as a check to prove that the required quantity of cement has been used. Actual quantity of materials used in the concrete should not vary more than ten per cent above or below the quantities given in the table. This table can readily be used for any concrete struc- tures which can be measured in area and which are of uniform thickness over any considerable area, such as walls, floors, and walks. The following examples illustrate the use of the table : Example 1. Required the quantity of materials for a 12-inch thick basement wall, 6 feet 5 inches high above footing, for a house 25 feet by 40 feet outside dimensions. ESTIMATING EXAMPLES 103 The footing 1 foot 6 inches and 6 inches thick. Concrete proportioned 1 :3 :5. Wall: Lcnrth of wall 25 + 25+39 + 39=128 ft. Height of wall 6 ft. 5 in.=6 5/12=6.417 ft Area of wall=12gX6.417=S21.4 sq. ft. Thickness of wall=12 in. Quantities of materials for wall concrete: Factor for multiplying units in table= 821. 4X12=8. 214X1. 2=9. S56S; Take 9.86 100 10 Sacks of cement=14. 2X9. 86=140.0 Cu. yd. of sand=l. 58X9. 86=15. 6 Cu. yd. of pebbles or crushed stone=2. 64X9. 86=25.0 Footing : Length of footing=25. 5 + 25. 5 + 37. 5+37. 5=126 ft Width of footing=l ft 6 in.=l 6/12=1.5 ft Area of footing=126X 1.5=189 ft Thickness of footing=6 in. Quantities of materials for footing: Factor for multiplying units in the table= 189 X 6=189 X . 6=1 . 134=1 . 13 100 10 Sacks of cement=14. 2X1. 13=16.0 Cu. yd. of sand=1.58X1.13=1.8 Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=2. 64X1. 13=8.0 Total quantities of materials : Sacks of cement=l 40 +16=156.0 Cu. yd. of sand=15.6+1.8=17.4 or 17.5 Cu. yd. of pebbles=26. 0+3=29.0 Example 2. Required the quantities for a concrete floor for a basement. Interior dimensions of the base- ment 23 feet by 38 feet. Floor 5 inches thick over all, with 4-inch base of concrete proportioned 1 :2j4 :5, and 1-inch wearing course composed of cement mortar pro- portioned 1 :2. Area of floor=23X 38=874 sq. ft Factor for multiplying quantities in table for ba8e= 874X 4=8.74X.4=3.5 100 10 Quantities of materials for base concrete: Sacks of cement=15. 4X3. 5=54.0 Cu. yd. of sand=l. 43X3. 5=5.0 Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=2. 86X3. 5=10.0 Factor for multiplying quantities in table for wearing aurface= 874X 1=8.74X.1=.9 100 10 Quantities of materials for wearing surface mortar: Sacks of cement=39.4X .9=35.5 Cu. yd. sand=2.92X .9=2.6 cu. yd. Total quantities of materials for floor: Sacks of cement=54.0 + 35.4=89.6 Cu. yd. of Eand=5.0+2.6=7.6 or 7.6 Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=10.0 104 ESTIMATING EXAMPLES SURFACE AREA (IN SQUARE FEET) OF CONCRETE SLABS OR WALLS OF VARIOUS THICKNESSES AND PROPORTIONS THAT CAN BE MADE WITH ONE SACK OF CEMENT Thickness Concrete Mixture of Slab or Wall 1:2:3 1:2:4 1 :2H :4 1:2^:5 1 :3 :5 in Inches 3 15.52 17.88 19.42 21.77 232 314 13.31 15.33 16.65 18.67 19.9 A 11.64 13.41 14.56 16.33 17.4 4H 10.36 11.93 12.96 14.53 15.5 S 9.31 10.73 11.65 13.06 13.9 5J^ 8.46 9.74 10.58 11.86 12.6 6 7.76 8.94 9.71 10.88 11.6 6H 7.18 8.27 8.98 10.07 10.7 7 6.65 7.66 8.33 9.33 9.9 8 5.82 6.70 7.28 8.16 8.7 10 4.66 5.36 5.83 6.53 6.9 11 3.88 4.47 4.85 5.44 5.8 12 3.32 3.83 4.16 4.66 4.7 14 2.91 3.35 3.64 4.08 4.3 16 TANKS, TROUGHS, CISTERNS, AND SIMILAR CONTAINERS FOR LIQUIDS Requirements. The most important requirement of a structure that is to hold any kind of liquid is that it be watertight. It is very important, therefore, that in using concrete for troughs, tanks, cisterns and similar struc- tures, some greater care perhaps be taken in selecting, proportioning, mixing and placing the concrete than Concrete milk cooling tank. would be absolutely necessary in connection with some other classes of concrete work. Hog wallows, dipping vats and manure pits properly fall into the classification of tanks because the prime essential of these structures is that they hold liquid. For that reason they are grouped under this one heading for 105 106 TANKS convenience in describing the fundamental principles of concrete construction as applied to structures which firs.t of all must be watertight. Shapes of Tanks. Tanks may be either rectangular or circular, but because form construction is easier, usually a square or rectangular structure is adopted in prefer- ence to the circular one. However, if one desires to build a circular stock tank for example, the principles of form construction applying are well illustrated by the home Concrete swimming pool and pergola suggesting an attractive and enjoyable addition to the home grounds. made silo forms described elsewhere, which need little modification to make them fit the requirements of circu- lar tank construction. Continuous Concreting Desirable. In planning to build a trough or tank every effort should be made to arrange to carry on the concreting continuously. This is the surest way to prevent leakage, if concreting is other- wise after good practice. For tanks that are to hold water a 1 :2 :3 concrete is recommended. For manure pits TANKS 107 and hog wallows a 1 :2 :4 or possibly 1 :2^ :5 mixture will serve if the materials are thoroughly graded and care- fully proportioned. Reinforcement. Because of the pressure exerted by contained contents, tanks and troughs must be rein- forced. Each structure of this kind is, therefore, a prob- lem of itself, but for the purpose of example we will take a watering trough such as might be used in the barn- yard, 30 inches wide, 18 inches deep and 6 feet long, in- Outside forms set up for concrete watering trough. Reinforcement is also shown in position. side dimensions. There are a number of ways of going about the building of such a tank, but perhaps the one illustrated in an accompanying drawing is about as good as any to follow. First, outside forms are set up. Then concrete is placed to half the thickness of the floor slab and reinforcement set in position. Then the re- mainder of the concrete placed to the floor. Then the in- side form is set and concreting continued for the sec- tion corresponding to the side walls and ends of the tank. ' For a tank of this size either J4-inch round rods or tri- angle mesh fabric such as described in the section under 108 TANKS reinforcement may be used. If rods are used they should be continuous from top of side down through bottom and up opposite side and the same in ends so that the rein- forcement forms what amounts to a cage or basket. The rods should be tied together where they cross with soft iron wire so as to hold them in correct position while Concrete fountain or iird fount. placing the concrete, and care should be taken not to dislodge reinforcement while spading the concrete in the forms. Consistency of Concrete. No other class of concrete construction requires greater care in mixing and placing concrete. Consistency must be exactly right^a quaky mixture. Spading must be thorough against both form faces to produce a dense, watertight surfa,ce. Form^ TANKS 109 should not be removed until a day or two after the last concrete has been placed, and until removed the entire work should be covered up with hay or straw to keep the concrete from drying out. When forms are removed any irregularities in the surface due to neglect to thor- oughly spade the concrete should be patched up with a cement mortar and if desired to give a more even fin- ish, the surface may be rubbed down inside and out with Ornamental concrete bird hath. a wood float or with a carborunduin brick as described under rubbed surface finishes. Batter of Inside Wall Face. It will be noticed in the sketch that in the inner wall faces slope or have a batter. The purpose of this is to relieve pressure of ice due to freezing of water, as the battered sides tend to cause the ice as it forms to rise and as thickness increases, it will bow up in the center and take most of the press away from walls, no TANKS Importance of All Details. Probably no other class of concrete construction has been responsible for so much complaint concerning the merits of concrete as have concrete tanks. Lots of leaky tanks have been built, lots of tanks have gone to pieces after building and therefore the builders were convinced that concrete was not a good building material. Invariably the cause of Rectangular concrete watering trough with concrete pavement around it. Such a pavement is desirable to keep the surroundings from becoming a mudhole. these troubles can be traced to disregard of some seem- ingly trivial yet very important fundamental that was not observed. Old iron or other scrap material has been used for reinforcement instead of rods or mesh especially intended for the purpose. Care has not been taken, per- haps, to properly lap reinforcement where it was neces- sary to splice it. Laps have perhaps been allowed to fall near a corner i,nstead of at the center of an end or side TANKS 111 thus making the hoops or bands of reinforcement prac- tically continuous around the structure. Again, forms have been removed and the concrete allowed to dry out rapidly without any means taken to protect it from sun and wind. As mentioned a number of times, concrete ^ /6-ffaffe sheefsfiee/^ tyireiTi& sf} re/nforcement- PL/ftkN. Details of simple small concrete watering trough or feed box with mesh reinforcement. The upper left hand sketch illustrates steel cover which will 6e used m case this is employed as a feed box. I will not acquire proper strength or density unless during the first week or so after placed it is kept thoroughly wet down so that the necessary chemical action in the ce- ment can take place. Stopping Concrete Work to Resume Later. If by any chance concreting on a tank of this kind cannot be continued from start to finish, then a special provision 112 TANKS not so far described should be taken when the work is stopped to prevent leakage through a construction seam. This is usually done by embedding a strip of tin say six inches wide for three inches of its width all around in the concrete placed in the forms along a line corresponding Varioi>k Wire mesh reJ/fforcemenf-^ SECTION yfim mesh ~^igW.^-*iy:tf:rr>!Tjf??jtir3:.-;iij Section. W^Voriolfle ± Plan Demon for small concrete tray intended for poultry feeding. to the center of the wall section, and leaving the con- crete each side of it roughened to provide better bond for the next concrete when work is resumed. Before re- suming work the concrete surface in the form should be washed clean and painted with cement paint and the TANKS 113 three inches of tin strip exposed should be painted in the same manner and fresh concrete placed before this ce- ment paint has had a chance to commence hardening. Inlet and Outlet Fixtures. In pfenning forms and setting them up for building a tank like described, it is necessary to arrange for inlet and outlet pipes so that the tank can be kept filled and easily drained when neces- sary to clean it out at intervals. The outlet should be so arranged that its top will be level with the top of the floor in the tank and should be threaded on the inside to permit screwing a piece of pipe into it that will stand up to a height corresponding to the desired water level. In such a case the pipe serves also as an overflow outlet. Pavement Around Tank. A concrete watering, trough, especially in the pasture lot and barnyard should have a paved area around it for cattle to stand on while drinking so that the ground in the vicinity of the tank will not become a mudhole. How a pavement of this kind should be built is described in another section where floors, walks and similar pavements are discussed. REPAIRING LEAKS IN CONCRETE TANKS AND CISTERNS Leaky concrete troughs, tanks or cisterns result from one or more of several conditions. The concrete mixture may not have been properly proportioned so as to reduce voids tc a minimum ; too little water may have been used, thus making it impossible to puddle the concrete in the forms to maximum density; too little reinforcing may have been used, resulting in cracks due to settlement, earth pressure, or expansion under temperature changes, or the concreting may not have been carried on con- 114 TANKS tinuously, thus producing construction joints or seams through which leakage could take place. Although pre- vention is better than cure, nevertheless some of these faults of construction can, in a measure, be remedied by various treatments. When leakage from a cistern or a tank consists merely of slight seepage of contents through the walls, a coat- , N^ ^' fforijijnZa/ roeZs '^ \ 7' an cenAe-rs^ bo/f erery ENLAR6E0 DETAIL AtX ^^■'C^anne/ proAec/f'ffrr Part plan Hoxe: A conven/enZ /enf/A fi>r ffiis fank is /o'-6' inaiefe. "Various details of concrete milk cooling tank. ing of cement plaster may. be applied to the interior of the tank as a preventive. Preparatory to applying this coating, the surface to be treated should be thoroughly cleansed by scrubbing with a good stiff brush, and water, or better still, wash the surface with a solution of 1 part hydrochloric acid to 3 or 4 parts water, allowing this to remain for a few moments and then thoroughly rinsing TANKS lis off the concrete surface with clean water. The acid treatment will remove the cement coating from the particles of sand, thus exposing clean surfaces, to which the cement plaster will more readily bond or adhere. Immediately before applying the cement plaster, the cleansed surface should be painted with a grout of neat cement mortar mixed to the consistency of cream. This grout can be applied with an ordinary brush, but should not be used very far in advance of the plastering, so that the grout paint will not have had opportunity to com- mence hardening before the plaster is applied. Plastering mortar for this purpose should be mixed in the proportion l:lj^. No more mortar should be mixed than can be used within 30 minutes. It can be applied with a steel trowel and the surface should subse- quently be worked thoroughly as soon as possible with a wood float to make a dense, impervious coating. Final finishing may be done with a steel trowel. After having finished the plastering, the surface must be protected from too rapid drying out, by being kept wet for several days to insure uniform curing or hardening of the mor- tar, and hence preventing cracks. Another method sometimes used to repair leaky tank walls consists in applying to the inside of the structure a solution of what is known as sodium silicate, commer- cially called "water glass." This chemical is dissolved in water in the proportion of 1 part silicate to 3 or 4 parts of water, depending upon the porosity of the wall surface. Two of three coats of this solution applied at intervals of 24 hours may be necessary to fill up the pores in the concrete. Effectiveness of the sodium silicate application depends upon a chemical combination be- tween the silicate and alkalis present in the concrete, re- sulting in the formation of insoluble compounds. 116 TANKS Cracks in tank, trough or cistern walls may some- times be repaired by cutting out on each side of the crack so as to form a V-shaped groove, say lyi inches deep and about an inch wide at the surface. After hav- Plam or BiKD Bath Plah.ofForm fok Basin CuevATioii OP BiKD Bath Plan or Coite. Details of concrete pedestal and bird bath basin shoviing form and core for basin assembled. Some woodwork on a lathe is neces- sary to make a form of this kind. ing been thoroughly cleansed out, this groove may be calked with oakum soaked in tar, so that about one-half of its depth is filled. The remainder of the groove should be filled with cement mortar mixed 1 :2. Or, after having calked the bottom of the crack with oakum, a plastic mix- TANKS 117 ture consisting of pine tar and portland cement combined in proportions so as to make a paste as stiff as can be con- veniently handled, can be worked into the groove. This preparation may harden slightly while being used, but Elevation of Woter Fount Plan of Core. Modification of the concrete bird bath adapting it to a bubbling fountain. With this exception form construction is exactly the same as in the former case. can be kept plastic by subjecting it to moderate heat in the metal receptacle in which mixed. Where cracks are due to insufficient reinforcing or to lack of reinforcing, the repair, methods suggested will 118 TANKS. be of little or no avail. About all that- can be done in such case is to build a new structure or at best, to use the old one as an inner or outer form and deposit a new shell of concrete inside or outside of the old structure. This may be from two to four or more inches thick, de- pending upon conditions, and to prevent a recurrence of the cracking, should be properly reinforced. 1 :2 :3 mix- ture of properly graded materials mixed with the right amount of water and properly placed, is insurance against leaky construction. CONCRETE FLOORS, WALKS AND SIMILAR CONCRETE PAVEMENTS General. Concrete floors, walks and some other types of concrete pavements may well be grouped for descrip- tion under one head since they have in common the same features. Minor variations apply only to certain details of construction as relates to the particular use to which the floor or pavement is to be put and these differences will be pointed out in the description of the various classes of floors or pavements. On the farm concrete floors are used in the horse bam, cow barn, corn crib, hog house, poultry house, dairy build- ing, ice house, farm residence — everywhere in fact a floor may be needed, and such concrete floors as barnyard pave- ments and hog feeding floors are not unlike any other kind of concrete floor. A still further extension of the concrete floor is the driveway. Types of Construction. Concrete floors, walks and other pavements are of two classes, depending upon the manner after which they are built, that is, they are either one course or two course construction. In one course con- struction a relatively rich concrete such as a 1 :2 :3 mixture is used throughout and placed in one operation, while in two course construction a leaner concrete, that is, one con- taining less cement, such as a 1 :2^ :5 mixture is used for the base and a richer sand cement mortar such as a 1 :2 or 1 :2j^ or some similar mixture is used for a top or wearing course. When Reinforced. Concrete floors that are supported only around their edges, that is, like a floor in a barn hayloft, must be reinforced. Sometime^ other classes of 119 120 FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS concrete floors are reinforced, but in general because of their location and use reinforcement of floors and pave- ments laid on the ground is dispensed with by making them thicker. Hog Feeding Floor. Perhaps the most profitable floor that a farmer can build is a concrete feeding floor in the hog lot. There is not only a greater gain in weight of hogs fed on such a floor because of the cleanliness of the surface and hence freedom from risk of stock diseases, but Concrete floor in place for concrete corn crib. there is the economy resulting from the fact that less feed is required to produce a given gain in weight of stock be- cause none of the feed can be trampled in the mud. Concrete feeding floors can be cleaned readily by scrubbing, and if need be, may be disinfected by adding some germicidal solution to the washing water. Every rain helps to clean the surface and sunshine exerts its beneficial influences in destroying and preventing dis- ease germs, FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS 121 Concrete feeding floors may be likened to a series of concrete sidewalks placed side by side. The average con- crete walk is a stretch of concrete, say 4 or more feet wide, divided into slabs 4, 5 or 6 feet long, and if the walk were taken up in stretches and these laid side by side there would be formed a sort of a checker board of concrete slabs which would represent the concrete feeding floor. To meet all desirable requirements a feeding floor must have a surface that will be even, yet not too smooth to en- danger the safety of animals when walking on it ; it must be easily kept clean; not absorb waste that may be dropped upon it, and should not provide a breeding place for rats, mice or other pests. The concrete floor meets all require- ments that could be named for a feeding floor. Advantage of One Course Construction. Generally speaking, for feeding floors, barnyard pavements and walks one course construction is to be preferred. In two course construction there is always a possibility that the concrete for the first course will have begun to harden before the top, or wearing course, can be placed, and if that is the case, there is likely to be difficulty later from the top crack- ing because not bonded to the base. For this reason the one course floor is preferable. Forms Required and Manner of Setting. Forms re- quired for building a concrete feeding floor or laying con- crete pavement in the barnyard are simple. The two classes of construction may be covered in one description since what applies to one applies almost literally to the other. Ordinarily hog feeding floors should not be less than 4 inches thick. However, it would be better to make them 5 inches. Barnyard pavements are likely to be subjected to the traffic of loaded wagons so they should be not less than 6 inches thick. Forms used should be of lumber, one dimen- sion of which is equal to the proposed thickness of the 122 FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS floor. For example, if a feeding floor or barnyard pave- ment is to be 6 inches thick, 2 by 6's staked to true line and proper grade will be suitable material to use for f Qrms. The forms are so staked to place that the area for each slab is marked out, and when concreting is started, alternate slabs are concreted first. Preparing the Site. Where the soil is well drained no special subbase or foundation need be provided. All that Concrete feeding jtoor or barnyard pavement. is necessary is to dig off all turf, vegetable or other perish- able material and fill soft spots or other places where soil is yielding, by digging out and replacing the waste material by clean gravel well compacted. The entire area should be brought to uniform grade, and consolidated so that the sup- port for the floor will everywhere be unyielding. If the soil is not well drained it is advisable to build up the area slightly where the concrete is to be laid by placing a subbase of 6 or 8 inches of clean cinders free from ash, or a similar layer ofclean gravel, When such a fill is used it should FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS 123 be well compacted and should serve to raise the area where the floor is to be laid above other surroundings, because if this is not done, the area beneath the floor will become a sump or water hole that will collect and retain water. If this should freeze solid the resulting expansion will cause upheaval of the slabs. After such upheaval slabs rarely or never return to the original uniform level. When a sub- base is necessary, one or two tile lines should be laid so that all possibility of water remaining beneath the pavement will be prevented. Mixing and Placing Concrete. After having set the forms securely in place, mix 1 :2 :3 concrete, using enough water to make a quaky consistency. Immediately place the concrete in forms. This can be done by dumping from wheelbarrows or buckets, or with shovels. When forms have been slightly more than filled, they are struck off level with the top of forms by using a strikeboard moved back- ward and forward and advanced slightly each time with saw- like motion. The concrete should be of such consistency that it cannot be tamped yet will be so stiff that it will require scraping from wheelbarrow or bucket. If it is mixed to this consistency then it will be possible to finish the surface with- in twenty minutes or half an hour after the concrete is placed and one finishing with a wood hand float will be all that is necessary. The wood float if properly used will not only make a dense, compact surface, but leave a slightly gritty texture to the floor that will provide a secure foothold both to persons and to live stock that must walk over it. Steel troweling should be avoided because of the tendency to produce too smooth and slick a surface in this manner and also because overtroweling, which is quite likely to happen in the attempt to finish a true surface, will bring an excess of cement to the surface and so reduce the wearing quality of the floor. 124 FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS Size of Slabs. Concrete feeding floors are usually laid in slabs from 6 to 10 feet square. Barnyard pavements are usually laid in slabs about 10 feet square. When con- crete of the slabs first placed has hardened so forms can be removed, the hardened concrete serves as forms for plac- ing concrete for alternate slabs. Care should be taken when setting forms for a feeding floor or barnyard pavement that the cross pieces marking the boundaries of various slabs are so set that after the first slabs have been concreted, i? .,,.>,..-..-' 1 r^^l-^;:-<:'"'^''''^*K ■\. i^' ' ■ '\i&^ ^l^ss^r '^'^'^^i^pei^mmmmmBm Another example of concrete feeding floor where a smaU watering or feeding trough haa been cast monolithic with the floor. lines marking slab joints will be continuous in both direc- tions over the floor. How this should be arranged for is shown in an accompanying sketch which illustrates some of the cross pieces staggered, thus providing for the continu- ous slab lines as mentioned. Protecting the Work. Just as soon as the surface of a concrete feeding floor or barnyard pavement has hardened sufficiently to withstand pressure from one's thumb, the concrete should be covered with some protective material such as a layer of moist earth, sand, sawdust or straw and WALKS 12S this covering be kept wet by occasional sprinkling for at least ten days so that the concrete will harden in the pres- ence of moisture rather than dry out. As mentioned else- where, the large area which a floor surface exposes to the atmosphere, makes it particularly necessary that such a cov- ering be applied if concrete is to develop satisfactory wear- resisting hardness. After such protection as described has been given for a week or ten days, the covering may be re- moved and the floor put to its intended use. In the case of a barnyard pavement, however, thought must be given as to whether it is likely loaded wagons are to use the pavement and these should not be allowed on it until the concrete is at least three weeks old. Barnyard pavements and feeding floors are types of floors that rarely or never are reinforced. Common practice in constructing a concrete feeding floor is to provide a curb or apron at least around three sides of the floor to prevent animals from shoving grain off while feeding and also to prevent rats from burrowing beneath the floor and hogs from rooting under it. Such a curb may be 4 inches thick and 18 inches deep, 3 or 4 inches of which should extend above the level of the floor. CONCRETE WALKS Similar to Floors. In most essentials concrete walks are like concrete feeding floors and barnyard pavements. If one course concrete construction is used, mixing and plac- ing is just the same as described for feeding floors and barnyard pavements. If the location where the walk is to be built is not well drained, provisions similar to those de- scribed for feeding floors should be made so that the con- crete will lie on a cinder or gravel fill from which free drainage is assured by tile outlets every 20 or 30 feet. It is best, however, to dispense with fills under walks and 126 WALKS floors if possible to build up with the natural soil a good free drainage area upon which to lay the concrete. Unless the cinder or gravel fill is always well drained it becomes nothing but a sump for water, and defeats the very purpose for which it was intended. Width of Walk and Size of Slabs. Concrete walks vary in width depending upon the use to which they are to be put. In many cases a walk 30 inches wide would serve Concrete feeding floor placed immediately at the entrance of the corn crib. Not a good location perhaps but convenient for feeding. between and around many of the farm buildings. Certainly 3 feet would be the average width. Slabs should not have more than 36 square feet area. To secure free drainage from the surface, all pavements are either crowned slightly at the center or laid to a slight slope from one side to the other. In the case of a feeding floor or barnyard pavement, the custom is to slope the floor slightly in two directions and to place a gutter along one edge connected with a tile line leading to a manure pit so that all the fertilizing elements WALKS 127 washed from the floor will be carried to the pit. In the case of a concrete walk, the strikeboard used to strike ofif the concrete is sometimes cut out on the lower or striking face so that it will give a slight crown to the walk, making it say ViOT Yz inch higher in the center than at either side, or the walk may be sloped slightly all to one side at the rate of not more than 5^ inch to the foot. Walks like this from the kitchen door to the iarn do much to lighten farm housework. Causes of Failures Too Commonly Seen. Nearly every one has seen concrete walks that were no recommenda- tion of thcmaterial. The reasons for failure, however, are very evident to one who knows and appreciates good con- crete practice. When the various slabs of a walk are out of level, it is certain that one of two things if not both of these 128 WALKS happened: Either the foundation was unstable or the soil was not well drained so that heaving resulted and was fol- lowed by unequal settlement. Many walks may be seen where the surface is going to pieces. These are usually examples of two course construc- tion and have failed due generally to the contractor skinning the job by putting little or no cement in the top course, or laying it of so dry a mix that what little cement there was in it could not perform its bonding or binding function ; or if the concrete mixture of the base was as it should be, then scaling of the top was due to the top course not being placed until after the base had so hardened that the top could not bond to it. One very important detail of concrete walk construction and one which if observed would go far to prevent many poor concrete walks which we now see, is to protect the concrete after placed. One rarely sees a concrete sidewalk job that is protected from sun and wind or other drying in- fluences by a covering, and yet this is one of the most im- portant details of construction. As in the case of feeding floors and barnyard pavements, a concrete sidewalk should be covered for a week or ten days and the concrete kept moist so it will harden properly. Wood float finish for a sidewalk is preferable to the smooth finish obtained by a steel trowel. Floors Indoors. Interior floors laid on the ground, such as concrete floors in the horse barn, cow barn, milk house, corn crib, and ice house, are built after the same principles as described for walks, feeding floors and barn- yard pavements, except that as the floors are indoors less consideration need be given to expansion and contraction. Because the floors are not exposed to such extremes of tem- perature as outdoor pavements, there is no necessity of lay- ing the concrete in small sections or slabs like used for walks and feeding floors. In indoor floors the width of slabs or BARN FLOORS 129 stretches concreted is usually determined by the amount of concrete that can be placed continuously within a given time. Barn Floors. Floors in dairy barns and horse stables generally involve construction of mangers, feed alleys, and *0 2''Ae' J 2-H6'. 9fake^. I ^M>/e Aonf tnter- /or forms ere p/acee//o moke joints con/'m- uous. ab. ■e'-or -e'-o"- ■6'-0'- Plan 0/ concrete feeding floor intended prinoipally to illuatrate manner of staking out forms ao that lines marking slabs will be con- tinuous. manure gutters, at the same time the floor is laid. Typical sections of a dairy barn floor as built when stock are faced in and faced out are shown in accompanying sketches. Usu- ally for this work forms are so staked into position that cer- tain stretches of the floor like stall floor and gutter, manger and feed alley, are built as separate operations instead of at- 130 BARN FLOORS tempting to construct the entire section with respect to ts surface contour at one time. There have been many conflicting opinions advanced as to the advisability of concrete floors in dairy barns, that is, allowing the concrete surface to be exposed in the stall where the animals must lie down. It is probably true that in cold climates it is objectionable for stock to lie immediately on the concrete. Of course if bedding could always be kept in place it would prevent contact between animals and floor, but as it usually is trampled about, leaving a certain area of the con- crete exposed, it is well perhaps, to lay on top of a concrete base in the stall some of the several kinds of stall paving block such as cork block, so that the animals will not have to lie on the concrete. In warm climates this is unnecessary. Certainly if the concrete is too cold to lie upon it must be because the interior temperature of the barn is too cold to be comfortable for the stock. Concreting of feed alleyways and driveways in the dairy, horse barn, general purpose barn, or hog house is just the same as for concrete feeding floor, barnyard pavement or walks. All interior floors in stock quarters at least should be finished with a wood float to provide the even, yet gritty texture which such method of finishing secures. There is no need of describing details of other indoor floors laid on the ground. It might be mentioned, however, that the concrete floor in the corn crib should be sloped out- ward so that if rain blows in between slats it will drain away quickly. Also to prevent too rapid wear of shovels when shoveling corn out of a crib the corn crib floor may be smoothed off slightly with a steel trowel instead of being left with the wood float finish. Dusting of Floors. One might think that because the indoor floor is not exposed to sun and wind the protective covering recommended for feeding floors and other outdoor pavements is not necessary. This, however, is not the case FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS 131 }^ 132 WATERTIGHT FLOORS because one complaint sometimes made of concrete floors is that they dust under traffic. This dusting is due entirely to the fact that the water necessary to proper chemical changes in the cement evaporated from the surface and prevented completion of these chemical changes. Under traffic a cer- tain amount of surface will wear off and produce the dusting complained of, which could have been prevented by imme- diately covering the concrete and keeping the surface moist. Dusting and disintegration of concrete floors are also due to improper selection of materials and to incorrect consistency of concrete. Sand that is too fine, that is, which is not graded from fine to coarse, or sand which contains clay, loam or other foreign material, is certain to produce a concrete that will dust or wear unevenly. The same results may be expected from concrete mixed too dry or too wet, particu- larly if mixed too wet. The reason for this is that it takes so long for the concrete to harden sufficiently to permit finishing that in the attempt to get the required finish it is gone over a number of times usually with steel trowels, and this fre- quent troweling breaks up the process of crystallization in the cement while it is hardening or setting and eventually destroys its ability to resist wear. Concrete Floors Watertight. Concrete floors and pavements are dense and watertight if the concrete is prop- erly proportioned, mixed to correct consistency, and pro- tected after finished. Damp floors are due almost entirely to improper proportioning of materials or too dry a concrete mixture. Special treatments to secure watertightness are not necessary if concreting has been done correctly. If, how- ever, one insists on using any of the so-called water-proofing compounds they should be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations, and if these are noted carefully it will be seen that they always include what has REINFORCED FLOORS 133 elsewhere been detailed as good concrete practice ; namely, insistence is placed on proper proportioning and mixing of well graded clean materials. Consistency of Concrete. The proper amount of water to use in a concrete for floor construction is about one gallon to each cubic foot of concrete in place. This, it can readily be seen, cannot be an invariable rule because of the variation in moisture content of the sand, pebbles or broken stone. But when the sand is merely damp, the one gallon to each cubic foot of concrete in place will be a very close approximation of the quantity required to produce the right consistency. Another indication of correct consist- ency will be that the concrete is sticky and pasty. It takes considerable "elbow grease" to compact it, strike it off and work it to the required surface finish with a hand float. If it can be floated too easily then it can be floated too quickly and this is an indication of too much water in the mixture. Reinforced Floor Over Stock Quarters in Barns. One of the ideal details of a concrete stock barn such as the usual general purpose barn is to have a reinforced floor over the stock shutting them off from the upper portion of the bam, which is usually a haymow or storage space for other combustible contents. Many a valuable dairy herd has been saved through the forethought of the builder in- corporating a reinforced concrete floor in his barn design as above described. However, no general rules other than the rules of concrete practice can be given for building such a floor. It must be reinforced in accordance with the span covered and the loads to be carried, but no barn housing stock should be built without incorporating this safeguard. Several times in the past two or three years fire has broken out in various parts of the country in bams built in this manner and in every case all of the stock beneath the floor have been saved and in some cases were not removed from REINFORCED FLOORS the structure during the progress of the fire. It can readily be seen that such a detail while adding somewhat to the first cost, returns its cost manyfold on the first occasion that it is put to the test of fire above. M o o •-) 1^ Q < t a CO ft, feOw O CO M w < ^"« osg Si o** m < K < 'JJl . \0 ro O I^ ■* Ti 00 VO ^(/JOO'OOOO'oo u 0^ vD ^ PJ 0\ t^ m oi CO Tj-" lo xd ^* tN.* 00 0\ i t-'vor^ooO'-'CMTMn ^ -OOO VO"^ f^o f^u^ ^c/3cJodddddC> • «o eg o OS fN. \D "^ »o ^^iiS\£ivdt>^odOvd i .^Sooc^'-iN'^'nvo M-B'*r;oo«'>NP;^N ^JScT»-¥>ovO\Ot^OO 'Tooddoooo O u I Q \£) \q m ^. ^T^J fM, ^^ ^ lo so rs oo' On d ^ ■OCV|Tf>£J{>0\'-ipr> ^Q5t^ooONd'-fOf dddd'-^— ■« ~!°^-<»-io>2ir^ooooa< -W dodooooo I [jTi;>'>»ovor>;oooqoN S V k B • Oji B O «o CM 0\ vo 55 o 00 [/jdddoddd M ^ o o < , •0 0^ O^0\0n0nO\ '-'cvirjco'^iovors' u : V ■■c BO ■^'■kj •Em ■ CO Ov VO CO O VO CO •OrtrtCMco'■ K u 4) .5 ■ '-• vO C^ tN. CO 0\ lo « •OrtSJcMCMCOcOTT bF? f2dc5C)dCic>C> 5" B • S'O SB a" 1"" co^vdtNiosdrsi S 01 Ou ^-H t-N 2g,g • >k g:^ :« .::?J ::?i {H cv) CO CO 'jr ^m ir, vp B u ^ V Hi— I ,-1 f^ ^^ ^- fsj BUILDING BLOCK Early Use. No doubt a great deal of the widespread popularity which concrete now enjoys as a building ma- terial on the farm is due to the extensive use made of concrete block. As sometimes happens, however, the manufacture of a good product in a general way often falls to those who fail to observe requirements that lead to success and some years ago concrete block suffered in reputation solely because many people thought con- crete block making easy or they were not willing to apply the principles of good concrete practice. They did most of the things that should be avoided or failed to observe the essentials leading to success. Fortunately this early condition has about corrected itself. Merits of Block. Like all other concrete work, con- crete block appeal strongly to the home worker because all materials excepting the cement are usually near at hand and can be obtained for little more than the labor necessary to dig and haul them. Scarcely any commu- nity is without the sand and pebbles required for aggre- gate. Still another appeal made to the home concrete worker by concrete block is that they can be made in small quantities at odd times and little by little in this manner a stock of first class building material may be accumulated that can be used during other convenient intervals to build sanitary, lire-proof, rat-proof buildings of all kinds. Molds and Machines. Only little equipment is re- quired for block manufacture if they are to be turned out in limited quantities. Anyone with average carpenter skill can make several home-made molds following a de- 135 136 BUILDING BLOCKS sign similar to that shown in accompanying sketches. A sand and gravel screen will complete the equipment necessary to provide a means for profitably using spare time on rainy days. If, however, considerable building is to be done, the speed of manufacture will be limited by such molds and it may be advisable to purchase one of the various types A good example of the use of concrete block' in torn construction. of block machines now on the market, some of which can be obtained for as little as $50 and can be relied up- on to turn out thoroughly satisfactory block. As a mat- ter of fact, this item of cost is not a large one and will readily be absorbed if any number of structures are to be built or any considerable number of block are re- quired. If a machine of greater possibilities and capacity is desired, several farmers can unite as in the case of pur- BUILDING BLOCKS 137 chasing other concreting equipment and can get one of the higher priced machines which can be devoted to com- munity use. In using the home-made mold shown, after the con- crete has been placed in the mold and tamped to the bottom of the core openings, the two cores are inserted -and concrete placed and tamped around and above them. Cores should be made from three thicknesses of wood, fastened together by long screws and the grain of the wood should run in opposite directions so as to prevent warping. In order that such a home-made mold may be more durable and that the finished block may have a bet- ter surface appearance, the inside face of the several parts of the mold should be lined with galvanized iron. This will not only assist to prevent the wood from warp- ing, but will make removal of the block from the mold easier. Oiling Molds. All parts of the mold against which concrete is placed should be oiled at each filling with a mixture of kerosene and raw linseed oil. Mixtures to Use. Clean, well graded sand and pebbles, properly proportioned mixtures, just the right amount of water, thorough tamping of the concrete in the form, and proper curing or hardening of the finished product is equally as important in concrete block manufacture as in any other use of concrete. Some people follow a wrong practice in making concrete block from a mixture consisting of 1 part cement to 4 or 5 parts of sand. Block made of concrete thus proportioned will be weak and are certain to be porous. The proper proportions for ordinary concrete block are 1 :2J^ A. Ordinarily the maximum size particles or pebbles or broken stone should not exceed ^ inch in greatest dimension. A properly graded mixture like this, providing the correct amount of water is used, means that the concrete block, and con- 138 BUILDING BLOCKS sequently the wall built of them, will be watertight if mortar joints are well filled. When materials have been thoroughly mixed, the concrete should be placed in the mold little by little and as placed thoroughly tamped so that a slight flushing of water to the surface will be evident. A word of caution may be given here concerning the far too common tend- some details ot home made concrete block mold and u sketch of the finished block cast in this mold. ency of block makers to use less water than is required for best results. Of course, for production in reasonable quantity, the block must be removed from the mold im- mediately after manufacture so the concrete mixture cannot be so wet that the blocks will fail to retain their shape when removed from the mold. However, the gen- eral tendency among those making concrete block is to use so little water that the resulting block are porous. BUILDING BLOCKS 139 Curing the Product. "Curing" is the term used to refer to the final process which block must undergo to gain proper strength. In large commercial concrete product plants the block are steam cured just as has been mentioned elsewhere in connection with concrete drain tile. However, the average home worker cannot equip himself with facilities to cure concrete block in this way, so it is necessary for him to resort to other means of properly hardening the product. The place used to manufacture them should be a tight shed or cellar so that when the block are removed from the mold they can be protected from wind and sun and in addition be covered with wet straw, hay or burlap to prevent them from drying out too rapidly. This cover- ing should be kept wet for several days, say a week or more, after which it may be removed and the block piled out of doors to finish hardening under natural conditions. If the precautions outlined are followed, the block may be used in any ordinary construction 30 days after manu- facture, but should not be used before that time has elapsed. Laying Up in Walls. Before laying concrete block in a wall they should be thoroughly saturated by im- mersing them in water or drenching with water applied from a hose. Ordinary sprinkling will not do. This wet- ting is necessary to keep the dry block from absorbing so much water from the mortar in which they are laid as to prevent the mortar from firmly uniting with the block faces and thus producing tight joints. Particular care is necessary to insure joints being thoroughly and uni- formly filled with cement mortar. Mortar for laying block should be mixed in the proportion of 1 sack of Portland cement to 2 cubic feet of clean, well graded sand. It is permissible, but not necessary to mix with this an amount of hydrated or thoroughly slacked lime 140 BUILDING BLOCKS not exceeding 10% of the weight of the portland cement used. Lime does not add to the strength of the mortar but makes it fatter, as masons say; that is, it works more readily under the trowel. Mortar joints should average about ^-inch thick. Some Uses of Block. Among the more recent uses to which concrete block have been found especially adapted is the building of corn cribs. This class of Assembled form for home made concrete block and sketch of core form used to cast blocks below. structure of course requires a special type of block in which there are openings to permit ventilation of the stored contents. Several manufacturers of concrete block machines make metal molds for making corn crib block. When the farmer has provided himself with a corn crib block mold and a mold for making standard types of concrete building block, he is prepared to manufacture any build- ing needed on the farm except a silo. Among the particular applications of hollow block construction the milk house and the ice house may be mentioned as conspicuous examples of concrete block efficiency. The hollow spaces introduced in the block BUILDING BLOCKS 141 provide air cells in the finished wall which tend to in- sulate the inside of the structure from sudden outside temperature changes. In this way the interior may ue kept at a reasonably uniform temperature. Surface Finish. In some types of structures, particu- larly residences, it is often desirable to vary the plam surface appearance of the concrete. During the past few years some very pleasing effects have been accomplished in surfacing concrete block with various selected mate- rials such as crushed granite, crushed marble of various colors, mica, quartz, crystals, or several of these com- bined. The method of using these surface coatings is relatively simple. The block are laid face down in the mold or machine, the material selected for the facing material is prepared by using 1 part of portland cement to 1J4 or 2 parts of crushed material such as marble, quartz, crystal, etc. Place % to Yz oi this mixture in the mold and then fill with the regular concrete mixture. Care should be taken that both mixtures are of a uniform consistency so that they will firmly unite. More details of surface finish for concrete applicable also to concrete block are given in another section treat- ing of surface finish of concrete. HOUSING FARM IMPLEMENTS. Sun and rain are largely responsible for the rapid depreciation of farm implements left exposed to the ele- ments after use. On far too many farms today the plow, harrow, cultivator and grain drill, harvester and even more expensive implements are left at the end of the last furrow or row, or in the field where last used, exposed to the elements until wanted for the next season's use. In Monolithic concrete implement or machine shed. attempting to limber these up for the required efficiency when the crops of another season must be cultivated or harvested, it is usually found that rust has tightened parts so that something must be broken to start things going or sun has split woodwork so that it is all but useless. It is this neglect which causes any implement to depreciate more rapidly than any kind of normal use associated with proper care. A number of the large man- 142 IMPLEMENT SHEDS 143 144 IMPLEMENT SHEDS ufacturers of farming implements have compiled figures showing the rate of this depreciation of farm machinery resulting from exposure to the weather and general im- proper care or abuse, and they have almost uniformly reached the conclusion that 75 per cent of depreciation is caused by exposure and only 25 per cent from the wear and tear of actual use. On too many farms there is no suitable place to store machinery. Of course on some farms there is a limited amount of storage space available in some of the build- ings or on the barn floor but implements run into these buildings are often in the way when indoor chores must be performed during bad weather so must be moved from time to time to permit carrying on such work. The only logical solution of the machinery proposi- tion on the farm is an implement shed. The wonderful improvements in farm machinery of all kinds resulting in farm implements demand that machinery be protected in farm implements demand that machinery be protected and cared for in a building provided exclusively for such purpose. A machine shed need not be an elaborate nor expensive structure, but, like all modern farm buildings it should be of permanent construction and fireproof. Probably concrete is the cheapest in the end because of the protection it will afford to the implements housed in it and from the fact that as a structural material it is proof against depreciation common to other building materials and which causes such costly and continuous maintenance. Although the exact number of automobiles owned by farmers is not definitely known, it is certain that the number is large and it is rapidly increasing. Recent estimates place the number of automobiles in the United States at about 6>^ million and it is estimated that this total will have grown to 8}^ million within the next two IMPLEMENT SHEDS 145 Alternative elevations illuatrating flat and pitcA«d roo/a for «oncr»tt machine ahed. 146 IMPLEMENT SHEDS years. At the present time manufacturers say that from 60 to 70 per cent of their output goes to rural owners. From these figures it may be inferred that within the two-year period mentioned, farm-owned automobiles will outnumber those owned in the cities and towns. Then there is the tractor which is just coming into its own. Outdoor storage is no better for the tractor than for any other implement and while it may be true that few farAi- ers would think of leaving the tractor nor the automo- bile out of doors, it is a fact that one or two other implements that are left so exposed are frequently equal in value to the one or two so carefully housed. Every tractor should be given proper shelter and so should every automobile and since there are a number of things to be considered in providing this shelter, it is well to study ways and means by which it may be secured. The farmer uses his tractor not only for plowing, planting, mowing and harvesting, but for sawing wood, threshing and other minor power needs on the farm; therefore the implement shed should be so built that the quarters provided for the tractor may be convenient for running belting to a line shaft and thereby providing the machinery necessary to a workshop which can be quartered in one end of the implement structure. At very little extra cost the implement shed can be made large enough not only to hold the tractor and automobile but the farm motor truck, a vehicle that is also becoming a common piece of farm equipment. Every farm needs a worlcshop where simple repairs can be made to the farm implements without the neces- sity of going to the nearest town for a mechanic, whose services would not be needed if the farmer were equipped to do what a mechanic is usually called in for. Nothing can destroy property more rapidly than fire and in plan- ning an implement shed, this fact should be kept fore- IMfLEMiENT SHEDS 147 most in mind. Too frequently there is displayed the ill- advised practice of erecting a structure usually cheaper in itself than one of the implements it is supposed to protect. Even the cheapest piece of mechanical equip- ment on the farm represents considerable investment, and protection should be afforded both from within and from without. Transverse section through concrete machine shed showing various dimensions where flat roof is used. In general, it may be said that an implement house or shed should be a low structure with a clear height of 8 or 10 feet and a depth from front to back of at least 16 feet. Length will be governed entirely upon the quan- tity or number of implements to be housed. The front should preferably face east. Arrangements should be made to close the front against severe storms. This can be done by hanging curtains of canvas on rollers so that these can be held down when occasion demands. Several interior appointments will make the shed more conven- ient and useful. At one end there may be a combined garage and workshop; at the other a separate housing 148 IMPLEMENT SHEDS for the tractor. Where an automobile or motor truck is kept, there should be a pit in the floor, making it con- venient to get at and repair machinery from underneath or to clean the machinery. Such a pit should be from 3 to 4 feet deep and 3 feet wide and 4 to 5 feet long. The garage quarters should be floored with concrete. The implement shed, proper, needs no floor but should be filled in enough with well "compacted gravel containing plenty of sand, so that the soil will drain freely. Concrefe b*am/o supporf -vf-<>-- roofaner bracMet S^^l? Lh SECTION A-A Al4^- Tramverse section through concrete machine shed showini; various dimentiona where pitched roof ie used. Accompanying sketches suggest an implement shed designed to be of reinforced concrete. The walls should be 8 inches thick and should be reinforced with J^-inch round rods placed every 2 feet, vertically and horizon- tally. Corners should be tied in by 4-foot lengths of rod bent around corners and laid every foot or 18 inches horizontally. Two rods set diagonally with each corner of window and door openings should also be placed in IMPLEMENT SHEDS 149 the wall to prevent cracking at these points. Concrete block also may be used for wall construction. In such case no reinforcement will be required except in lintels over doors and windows. Large sliding doors or swing- 30 efegree pitch bV ©ECTION B-B. Cy/in> 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 • 1 1 — ■ /«'-«- 5 l6'-6' ^ .Zl!-d' i' Joint tk t O 1 Cour/^st * O .1 •c^ ipesZt a 5 i 1 * N " '■ ■■"" ■ eo'-o' ^ ' r n P/an shomn^ Consfrifct/on Joints- Plan «bou»nff concrete iointe in concrete tennia court. 162 TENNIS COURTS pavement. If the soil is of sandy texture and therefore likely to be free draining this subbase will not be re- quired. When a subbase is used it must be properly connected to tile lines to prevent retention of water be- neath the concrete. Of course when a gravel or cinder subbase is necessary the site of the intended foundation must be excavated enough so that the finished pavement surface will lie at a proper level in relation to the court surroundings. It is good practice, however, to grade the ground up to the court so that the court surface will be somewhat above the greater portion of the surround- ings. This will insure better drainage of the foundation. Forms. Forms should consist of 2-inch material of suitable width laid true to line and grade, the latter to provide for a slight pitch in the pavement from the net line toward the back of the court, thus insuring quick drainage of the concrete surface following rain. Proba- bly a pitch of 1 inch in the distance from the net line to court lines will be sufficient for each half of the court. Provision should be made to use the joint between sec- tions at the net line as an expansion joint, this being done by placing a wood or metal strip about Yz inch thick where this line is to fall and after concrete has been placed removing the strip and filling the joint with hot tar or asphalt. Also arrangement should be made to embed a ring at the middle of the court along the net line for fastening the tape that holds the net in proper position at its center. Thickness of Slabs and Reinforcement. Concrete slabs composing the court should consist of a 3-inch base with IJ^-inch wearing course, making the total slab thickness 4J^ inches. In other words, the tennis court should be of two course construction because of the requirements to be met in surface finish. The 3-inch base should be composed of 1 :2j/$ :4 concrete, in which TENNIS COURTS 163 «■ o 1 ^ i , \ •< « "5 O % J Q ? ^ ^-6 If r 4-''e^ < c-" 2t /»•»/■ 1 Post. K^ •N •|.^ v •♦>» .^ ^ 1 ^_ ^1 * « « ^ NJ, 1 ,S5 A « 1^" •1 ^^ : ^^ «» 2^ 1^ 5i •^ ^ ^ ^i ' Plan aho\Bing painted court liTte^, 164 TENNIS COURTS the coarse aggregate up to lj4-inch in maximum dimen- sion. The top or wearing course should consist of a 1 :2 cement mortar in which the sand is coarse and well graded. Slabs should be reinforced with ^-inch round rods spaced 12 inches center to center each way or with suitable mesh fabric or similar material having an equiv- alent cross sectional area of metal. After placing the base, reinforcement should at once be properly spaced and pressed into the fresh concrete and the top or wear- ing course immediately laid to insure a perfect union between base and top. If mesh reinforcement is used it should be placed lengthwise of the section and lapped 4 inches, or the width of one mesh. Reinforcement must not be continuous across joints as slabs must be laid in- dependent of one another. Then any unequal settlement or heaving that may possibly take place will not crack or otherwise injure the slabs. Placing Concrete. In mixing the concrete it should be made as stiff as possible to work it. The base, how- ever, may be made somewhat wetter than the top or wearing course. If the top course mortar is made as stiff as can be handled it will work up sufficient additional moisture for free finishing by being floated into place. Concrete should be carefully placed to produce a fairly level surface, thus insuring a uniform thickness of slabs. After the surface has been struck off and floated evenly with a wood float it should be finished fairly smooth with a steel trowel but care should be used not to overtrowel and thereby make the surface too smooth and hence slippery. Marking Court Lines. Court lines may be perma- nently marked in the concrete by inlaying a white cement mortar in a groove provided by making suitable arrange- ments when slab forms are staked to position, or the court lines can be marked on the concrete surface by TENNIS COURTS 165 painting. However, painted lines will need renewal from time to time and the inlaid ones will be permanent. The whole court must be covered after concreting has been finished with a protective layer of earth kept wet for a week or ten days to enable the concrete to cure properly. Some objection may be made to the possibility of the finished surface causing excessive light reflection during bright sunny days. The natural gray of cement finish may be darkened by adding one pound of lamp black to each sack of cement used in the wearing course. POULTRY HOUSES OF CONCRETE. On the average farm, poultry is kept simply as an adjunct of the kitchen or as a source of pin money for the women folks. Under usual conditions found on the farm poultry rarely if ever yield the returns that would be possible if given the same care and attention as are devoted to other farm animals which are regarded as more or less of a specialty. An example of the use of cement staves similar to those used in building cement stave silos for poultry house construction. In these days of back-to-nature and open-air poultry houses, concrete offers some distinctive advantages for poultry house construction. Fowls can withstand very dry cold if well housed but cannot long thrive where dampness and drafts, prevail. The board or dirt floor is not a good stamping ground for poultry in cold weather. If the poultry house happens to be built ^of frame throughout, such a structure cannot be kept sanitary. 166 POULTRY HOUSES 167 It soon becomes the finest kind of a breeding place for lice which infest the fowls housed under such insani- tary conditions and very greatly restrict the egg output. Every poultry house needs thorough disinfection from time to time, for on such disinfection largely depends the health of fowls and the profit of keeping them. Just as fruit trees require spraying at regular intervals for maxi- mum fruit yields so the hennery requires frequent atten- tion. A good example of the combination of m^nolithie concrete ami concrete block in poultry house construction. Concrete Highly Sanitary. Certain building mate- rials afford less attraction to vermin than others. Wood construction harbors every kind of filth and vermin and can hardly be efficiently disinfected. A concrete floor eliminates part of the trouble but it is best to have walls also of concrete. The hard impervious surface can easily be washed down and thoroughly disinfected by an occasional coat of whitewash arid offers the best 168 POULTRY HOUSES possible solution of desirable environment for fowls both in winter and in summer. Location. A poultry house should be located on soil that is either naturally dry or may be properly drained by artificial means. A slight rise of ground providing a southern exposure to insure plenty of sunlight is best. Buildings which face the south get the greatest exposure I— ! — le-o- —J 1 Flan for concrete poultrj/ home. to the sun's rays and in other respects are warmer, drier and generally better than buildings not so located. If impossible to place the poultry house so that the main exposure is south then an eastern exposure is preferable to a western one as the morning sun is much more agree- able than afternoon sun. Two prime requisites of successful poultry raising are plenty of sunlight and good ventilation. Most poultry POULTRY HOUSES 169 houses lack sufficient ventilation, which is of greater importance than sunlight. Plenty of air insures the health of poultry but arrangements for ventilating the structure must always be such that drafts will be avoided particularly in the section where the roosts are placed. Dampness in poultry houses, especially in cold weather, is generally the result of insufficient ventilation. An jr-Coplnff fc> ' ^Coping 7 ^aaft '/ator Srads Section of concrete poultry house. indication of this will be the formation of condensation of the walls from the vapor laden air of the breathing fowls. Disease germs cannot thrive where sunlight is a long and frequent visitor and the value of sufficient window openings in poultry houses cannot be overestimated. One should remember, however, that while a house without plenty of sunlight is likely to be damp and dreary, a house containing too much glass frontage will be hot during summer and extremely cold during winter nights. The best method of securing proper light and ventilation is to use a combination of cloth and glass windows. Roof or wall ventilators may also be used in connection 170 POULTRY HOUSES with such windows if desired. About one square foot of window area to 10 square feet of floor area equally divided between cloth and glass windows is generally sufKcient to give good light and ventilation. 'Screen anaf Curfa/n -p? "Front elevation showing glazed and cloth covered openings. EAST Elevation Suggested end elevation for concrete poultry house. Poultry houses should be so built that thorough cleaning of them will be easy. Wall surfaces should be made smooth and free from projections. If care is POULTRY HOUSES 171 taken when placing concrete block or building monolithic concrete, a smooth wall surface can be produced without need of any other finish in the form of plaster. Windows should be so located that they may be kept as free as possible from accumulations of litter. Size of House. In determining the size of the house consult the recommendations of the various bulletins is- sued by State Agricultural Departments on the subject of poultry raising. As a rule it is better to allow too much floor space than too little. The larger the pen T ^ ■« n <» g= F ^ * r~ i a □□ u m mm OB Front Elevation end ELEVA.Tiofi Suggested front and end elevations of concrete poultry house the less floor space will be required per fowl. One hun- dred hens will thrive in a pen 20 by 20 feet. Above all, poultry should not be crowded, as when kept in close quarters the lack of room for exercising results in con- siderably decreased egg production. A concrete floor is a very desirable feature of a poul- try house because with it in combination with a concrete foundation, the poultry house becomes easier to clean and keep clean. It may be laid as soon as the foundation is in place and should be placed at sufficient height above level of outside ground to prevent water from running in. Such floors should never be left bare when in use. They should be covered with about 3 inches of sand or earth, which should be replaced as often as necessary to keep it from becoming sour from accumulations of drop- 172 POULTRY HOUSES pings. On the sand or earth covering of the floor there should be placed several inches of straw which in addi- tion to providing warmth makes it necessary for the fowls to scratch for their feed which should be thrown to them in the straw, thus forcing them to take the necessary exercise. No matter how cleanly the surroundings of a poultry house may be as regards freedom from lice, fowls like a wallowing place, and a sand bath is a very desirable ap- pointment of the poultry house. A small area should be curbed off in one corner of each section of the house to be used as a sand bath where the fowls may wallow at pleasure. Sand within this curbing should be kept dry and clean and as an aid to this a little finely powdered coal ashes may be mixed with it. Some persons use ashes only in the wallowing box, but as these unmixed with sand attract moisture more readily, it makes it necessary to change them oftener. DESIGN AND DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR CONCRETE CATTLE DIPPING VAT. Profit of Dipping Vat. Farmers and stock raisers have long since passed the stage where they regard stock diseases as acts of Providence. They realize that most stock diseases are preventable and usually originate in some insanitary condition which might readily have been forestalled by proper sanitary measures. Without san- itary buildings and such improvements, it is impossible to keep all of the farm animals free from disease at all times. The dipping vat is really nothing but a wallow for animals larger than hogs. The Texas fever tick for example can be most effectively combated by dipping the animals in certain medicinal solutions. The simplest way to do this is to make them do the work themselves by forcing them to plunge into and swim through some kind of a vat containing the medicated solution. Prop- erly constructed a concrete dipping vat is permanent and after built the only expense of treating stodc is the expense of necessary solutions. Requirements. There are a number of important fea- tures which should be considered when building a dip- ping vat. The site selected for its location should be well drained and permit the use of sufficient area of ground so that the chute can be built with dipping pen and two additional pens for holding cattle prior to dip- ping and after dipping until they have dried sufficiently to be turned loose. Accompanying sketches show in detail principal features of a concrete dipping vat that is advocated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and of which thousands have been built through various tick infested regions of the South. 173 174 CATTLE DIPPING VAT Excavation. Excavation for this vat should be made to conform to its outside dimensions and shape. Inside dimensions of the vat are shown in the drawings. No outside forms will be needed if the earth is self-support- ing. Surface of the ground should slope away from the vat, pens and chute in all directions. Any earth that View of concrete dipping vat in use. must be returned to where excavated, should not be replaced until after the concrete walls of the vat have thoroughly hardened. Two lj4-inch drain pipes should be provided in the 4-inch coping between the vat and the dripping pen to permit drippings of the solution to flow back into the vat. Two similar drains should b^ CATTLE DIPPING VAT 175 176 CATTLE DIPPING VAT provided in a curbing at the lower end of the pen to permit rainwater to drain off to the outside of the pen. When the vat is in use these two drains should be plugged. One side of the wall of the dipping vat should be provided with a 2-inch overflow pipe set in the wall at a point 6 feet above the bottom of the vat, the top of the pipe to be provided with a valve and connected to a suit- able drain. Construction Details. The specifications for concrete materials with respect to clean, well graded, properly proportioned and mixed materials should be observed in this as in any other concrete work. Forms should be built of 1-inch boards dressed on one side and two edges nailed to 2 by 4-inch studs placed about 24 inches on centers. They should be substantial, unyielding and so built that they will conform to the dimensions and con- tour of the vat and should also be as tight as possible to prevent leakage of mortar while placing concrete. If 2-inch planks are used as sheathing the studs may be placed 3 feet on centers. In case the soil is not firm enough to stand up after the excavation has been made, exterior forms similar to the inner ones should be used, extending from the top to the bottom of the vat. After the reinforcement has been set in place the side and end wall forms should be lowered into the excavation and supported on the bottom by several pieces of small stone or concrete block about 6 inches thick. This blocking will permit the concrete for the floor to flow under the forms to the required depth of 6 inches. In order to place and spade the concrete properly it is desirable to nail the lower 3 feet of boards to the studding before lowering the form into position. Stay lath should be nailed to the studding at convenient places in order to hold the upper ends of studs in proper position. The remaining boards which make up the form and which CATTLE DIPPING VAT 177 have been previously cut to the required lengths should be placed- in position successively as described later. Reinforcement should be completely erected in place and fastened to the forms at convenient intervals so that it will retain its shape and position while concrete is being deposited. The forms for the walls should remain in 178 CATTLE DIPPING VAT place until they may be safely removed as will be men- tioned later. Concrete should be mixed 1 :2j/$ :4, remembering that enough water should be used to produce a quaky con- sistency. The concrete should be placed in such a man- ner as to permit the most thorough compacting or set- tling into all recesses of the forms. This may be done by having only about 3 feet of form boards in place at the bottom of the forms and depositing concrete in lay- ers of 6 to 8 inches. When the concrete has been brought up to a height of 3 feet, two or three more sheathing boards may be placed in position and nailed to the stud- ding; and so on. The concrete should be placed in con- tinuous horizontal layers and vertical joints should be avoided wherever possible. The exit incline may be built by embedding a piece of 2 by 4 lumber in the con- crete or by building steps as shown on the drawing. Concrete for the floor of the dripping pen, vat and chute should be deposited to the depth of 6 inches. It should be struck ofif with a strikeboard at the require'd point and finished with a wood float to leave an even yet gritty texture to the surface. All concrete must be pro- tected for several days by covering or wetting, preferably both, so as to keep it from drying out. If the vat is built in a soil that is self-supporting wall forms may be removed after 48 hours. If the soil is not self-supporting they may be removed after 48 hours but the back filling should not be done for at least three or four weeks after the forms have been taken down and the vat should not be filled for at least five weeks after form removal. For ordinary cattle, dipping vats should be about 5 feet wide at the top and 3 feet at the bottom, and from 7 to 7^ feet deep at the entrance end. The length CATTLE DIPPING VAT 179 should be about 50 feet for cattle, as this will make cer- tain of keeping them in the tank for at least one minute. Sheep and hogs require a smaller vat, say about 3 feet wide at the top, 2 feet at the bottom, with a maxi- mum depth of 5 feet 6 inches at the entrance end, and a length from 30 to 40 feet. As concrete will not rot, rust or otherwise deteriorate, the construction is permanent. The economy of such -IZ-0 m% SIDE FQRM C^^ :^/x6 D1DR3RM s'-^ p-»'-*'-*| Ijj*"' Shallow outside form Small stones or concrete blocHs to sut^jort inside form SECTION Showing FoRh/is IN Place Details 0/ forma for concrete cattle dipping vat illustrating alao the method of setting forms in excavation, construction can be proved in almost a minute. One need lose but a single high priced animal to have lost more money than the most elaborate dipping vat would cost. This proves that prevention is not only better than cure but usually far cheaper. The only care that concrete dipping vates require is to have them enclosed so that persons or animals cannot accidentally fall into them. STORAGE CELLAR FOR FRUIT OR VEGETABLES. Every farm needs facilities for storing such crops as beets, potatoes, apples and similar produce which may easily be kept throughout the winter either for stock feeding or domestic use, in a proper storage cellar. In Concrete root or vegetable storage cellar. some cases suitable storage facilities may be arranged in the cellar or basement of one of the outbuildings. Often, however, these are built without cellars and the logical solution of the storage cellar problem is to build a structure exclusively for the purpose. The modern root or vegetable storage cellar is an ex- tension of the old practice of digging a hole in the 180 VEGETABLE STORAGE CELLAR 181 ground, covering the crop to be stored with hay or straw, and then covering the whole pile with earth, leaving some kind of vent or opening in the top of the mound for ventilation. Such method of handling any large quantity of crops involves of course considerable ■fCMeial Vsnf-ilator ^ EaHh fill T■■■^-,■^^■■■^'■^■^.■*■■,■^;^".' i6"xl6"yenHhifer flue with damper Door3'j,7i ,''Fresh airiniake wi-f-h hinged door- oyer opening. Water ■fani^- ^1 Concrete f/oor 3-6"ivide. I \t^fx4'&oard^ Pr^ I \\^/fhi' spaces I v^ ^ S*^ ^^~^resh air intake "^ //4-inch at each end for clamps. Provision for the center bars or T strips to support the edges of the strip can be made by nailing blocks to the strips on the under side before placing in position. The strips should be tapered slightly to make withdrawal easy and they should be removed as soon as the concrete begins to harden. Forms can be removed as soon as concrete has hardened. During this time, however, concrete should be HOT BEDS AND COLD FRAMES 209 protected by some kind of a covering to prevent rapid drying out as has been described in connection with other concrete work. r Stanc/art/ 3'-o'x e'-o* e^oub/e ff/aj&cf sash . ±MmL f^g^ '^^ 'Section A-Ar^'i Section through concrete hotted giving varioui dimenaiona and sug- gesting the manner of preparing the bed with manure and soil for operation. The only difference between a hotbed and a cold frame is the manner in which it is to be used. If the bed is to be used as a cold frame the proper amount of soil is thrown back into the excavation when the form has been removed and the bed covered with glazed sash. To operate as a hotbed the excavation should be 2 feet deep measured from outside ground level, in which 18 inches of fresh horse manure should be packed, well mixed with leaves, and should then be covered with 4 to 6 inches of rich soil. Surplus soil from the excavation can be banked around the outside wall of the bed to help retain warmth generated in the interior. Put on a sash and place ther- mometer inside of the bed. The temperature will shortly begin to rise and the rise will soon be rapid. After reaching a certain maximum it will begin to fall. When the temperature has dropped to 85 or 90 degrees Fahren- heit seeds may safely be planted. The manipulation of the sash afterwards will depend entirely upon outside weather conditions, and how rapidly it is desired to force or how much to retard the growth of plants. DESIGN FOR CONCRETE CISTERN WITH FILTER Concrete Ideal for Cisterns. Sometimes cisterns are built wholly or in part above ground, yet the natural place for such a structure is below ground. A cistern is nothing more or less than a tank required to keep clean water in storage without loss from leakage. It is there- fore necessary that the structure be watertight. Cis- terns have been built of such masonry as brick and stone but this cannot be depended upon to be watertight unless plastered, since leakage is almost certain to take place through mortar joints. For that reason concrete construction is perhaps more adaptable to the require- ments than other materials. Steel tanks have been used for cisterns but from the very nature of the material it is subject to rust and cannot be regarded nearly as per- manent as concrete. Shape and Forms. Since the advent of the commer- cial silo form used by rural concrete contractors in build- ing concrete silos, many persons have had circular cis- terns built. The home-made silo forms illustrated else- where in this book can be adapted to circular cistern construction if required, but unless one has already built such forms for use in constructing a silo, it is easier to build forms for a rectangular cistern. In order to illustrate the principles of constructing a rectangular concrete cistern, the accompanying sketches have been fully detailed and show a cistern 7 feet square by 6 feet deep. A very advantageous detail of this cistern is the filter built on and as a part of the cistern cover slab. Rainwater enters this filter through the 6-inch 210 CISTERN WITH FILTER 211 tile drain shown and goes into the settling compartment containing the screen. This screen helps to prevent refuse such as leaves and other rubbish from going im- mediately into the filter compartment and thus clogging the filter material. The approximate capacity of this, cistern is 70 barrels. Materials Should All Be Ready Before Starting Work. Before commencing to build a concrete cistern all necessary materials should be on hand. It is always well to have a slight excess of materials over and above those required, to provide for slight loss due to waste in mixing and placing or to shortage through possible miscalculation of quantities required. The first thing to do is to lay out a square on the ground 8 feet on each side. If the earth is firm enough to serve as an outside form no other form will be needed. If, however, the earth has a tendency to cave, it will be necessary to make the excavation larger so that outside forms can be erected. As the concrete floor of the cistern is 5 inches thick the excavation should be made deep enough to allow for this and for the 3 feet of earth covering shown on the cistern roof. The cistern filter is 4 feet 8 inches by 3 feet 4 inches and covered with a reinforced concrete slab. Forms. All necessary forms should be built before commencing the excavation so if a sudden shower comes up forms can be quickly placed to prevent the earth from caving if it becomes water soaked. One-inch boards 4 or 6 inches wide, nailed to 2 by 4 inch uprights or studs placed 2 feet apart will make suitable forms. It will be noticed that two sides of the filter compartment have 6-inch walls which correspond to the wall, thickness of the cistern, thus simplifying form construction in carry- ing this part of the work up into the filter. One-inch boards 4 by 6 inches wide nailed to 2 by 4-inch uprights 212 CISTERN WITH FILTER or studs placed 2 feet apart will make suitable forms. The excavation as suggested should be made deep enough to provide for the small footing extension of the side walls, which extend below the floor slab. In this work it is expected that concrete for the side walls will be placed before the concrete floor is laid. Concreting of walls should be as continuous as possible to prevent construction seams or joints. Reinforcement Horizontal reinforcing consists of ^-inch round rods spaced 6 inches center to center. The spacing of reinforcement for the various depths inside and out is shown to the left of section A-A in the sec- tion of concrete wall. Vertical reinforcing for the side walls should consist of rods long enough to permit of ends being bent over into the concrete roof or cover ^b when this is the case. A plan of reinforcing for the lOof shows in position a section of filter walls and the spacing of reinforcing rods for the cover slab,' these rods also being ^-inch in diameter. Other sketches show de- tails of the copper filter screen, the concrete filter slab on which the screen is placed, the removable cover for the filter compartment and the reinforcement for this cover slab. Vertical reinforcement in the cistern walls consist of J4-inch round rods spaced 16 inches center to center and turned 18 inches into the roof slab. Concreting. After the concrete has been placed for the side walls up to the bottom of cover slab the work may stop until the concrete has hardened sufficiently to permit removing forms, following which the concrete floor can be laid. A j4-inch beveled strip of siding should be set all around the bottom of wall at floor level against the offset of the footing and after the concrete floor has been placed and has hardened, these strips should be removed and the space left by them filled with hot tar to form a leak-proof joint. When the floor has CISTERN WITH FILTER 213 e'-o' r^-ii-t|±|^l \€liMi.nd5-^ ft Topfleivef Manhe/e Cener anc^ /f»itjfyratment. tpT-i-1 ' apacatf e' on bent dawn /a* .into tral/a. Cistern Cepacify • 70 Uff iU-~) /terijohtg/ mfs, ',' / , \'d/ammfw. i! ^l-pipe. ' /o^itmp. 7'-o' 1 Siatf!;^gea^M;^^:?SJg^ia!i!J^^ fit/arS/aS. % Verticat roels^i'dtam. spaceet /e " on cent*rs ontt tvmoet /a "into roo^ 3/at. SECTIOM A-A. \^l*'^ Detailei de»ign for concrete datern witli water filter. 214 CISTERN WITH FILTER hardened, which will require several days, studs can be set up to support the form on which the roof or cover slab concrete is to be placed. A hole should be left in this form, located to correspond to the location of the manhole in the filter so that after the roof has been con- creted, entrance can be obtained to the cistern for knock- ing down the studs and removing forms. Wherever reinforcement crosses or intersects it should be tied together with small iron wire so that rods will be held in their proper position and will not be dis- placed. 'Concrete should be mixed not leaner than 1 :2 :3. It should be of quaky consistency so that it will settle to all parts of the form and around reinforcing with slight puddling. Make certain that the concrete is thor- oughly puddled around the concrete bricks or blov-.ks used to support the forms at the bottom, at the same time taking care not to cover up these so as to prevent removing them when taking down forms. Wedging up the forms in this way at the bottom by placing these wedges under the studs allows the form to be dropped slightly and released when time to remove it. Concrete should be placed as continuously as possi- ble in courses not exceeding 6 or 8 inches entirely around and in the spate between forms and should be well spaded next to faces so as to force back the coarse materials in the concrete and bring a film of mortar against the forms, thus resulting in a dense, smooth and consequently impervious surface. If outside forms are not required, use care when plac- ing concrete so as not to knock down dirt into it. If this happens porous pockets will be formed and prob- ably leaks will result. Continuous concreting is desir- able because in this way all concrete will be placed against fresh concrete, that is not hardened, and thus leaky construction seems will be avoided. CISTERN WITH FILTER 215 If an overflow opening is desired, arrange this at the proper level and connect it to a suitable outlet. The inlet pipe from the house drains should be placed as much below ground as depth of the structure will per- mit so as to prevent freezing. Two weeks after the last concrete has been placed it should be safe under usual summer weather conditions to remove the cistern roof forms. Material used in the filter compartment for filter- ing the water consists of a layer of granular charcoal about 18 inches deep, on top of which is a 6 or 8 inch layer of clean well graded sand and gravel. A screen of J4-inch mesh copper wire is placed over the pipe opening into the cistern in what has been already referred to as the settling compartment. This screen is held in posi- tion by the bafHeboards as shown. It would be well to thoroughly wash out the cistern before filling with water for the first time although this will not be necessary un- less the water is to be used for domestic purposes other than laundry work. DESIGN FOR CONCRETE SMOKEHOUSE Practically all the meat in the country originates on our more than 6,000,000 farms, yet on the large ma- jority of these there are no real provisions made for 'ygnff/efora pons uni 'er \ i:Ttmp..ro^» S'ctra. irr tafh aJrect- I'ena, SECTION B-B Section sTiowing plans 0/ smofcehouse and firebox, also potition of ventilators. killing animals for home use or preserving meat in any way. This is an economic waste, for these farms all use meat and purchase it at a profit to someone else. Each farm, therefore, should have its own smokehouse where the meats may be prepared for use and preserved until needed. Curing by pickling and smoking has been practised for centuries. On the modern farm the work is considerably simplified by the erection of a concrete 216 SMOKEHOUSE 217 smokehouse. Suggested plans for such a structure are shown herewith. T)rpe of Structure. The smokehouse may be either rectangular or circular. It is convenient to build the circular form where one has access to commercial silo "section C-C. 2X7'^'''"" Ventilators End, and side elevations of concrete smokehouse. forms or the home made silo forms illustrated elsewhere in this book may be adapted to circular smokehouse con- struction. Concrete is ideal for the smokehouse because it is fireproof, rat-proof and can be made theft-proof. Circular smokehouses are to be preferred as compared with square ones as the distribution of smoke is much better. 218 SMOKEHOUSE The fire box should be located entirely outside of the smokehouse proper to insure uniform smoke distribution and better regulation of the fire. Down draft into the flue leading to the center of the smokehouse reduces the draft somewhat, making a denser smoke, which is the desired result, and tends to deposit particles of ash which might be carried out of the firebox. As much care should be taken in building a smokehouse as is applied to any other reinforced concrete structure. In Section B-B |. S'-O' — Br SSSSsSSSSSSSSSSSSi^^ \ S'openinff^ ^\\sWs\\\ssp| -•' «!< Smo/ee) d-- ^^SS\\\SW| "1 5ECTI0N A-Av. BmizontaX section of concrete amokehouae. the firebox where exposure to heat will be greater, addi- tional care must be taken to secure hard, tough, durable sand and pebbles for some materials such as limestone are apt to crumble under the continuous action of the heat. It would be better to line the fire box compart- ment with J^-inch sheet steel cut and formed to the required dimensions. This when in place will serve as the inside form for the firebox. > Although concrete is fireproof it is not intended to be used where exposed to constant, and intense heat. Plenty of reinforcement should be used. The vertical rods in the side walls SMOKEHOUSE 219 should be long enough to be bent over into the roof slab about 12 or 18 inches. It is well to have a number of small ventilators so that one or more may be closed to reduce the draft and to properly distribute the smoke throughout the chamber regardless of the direction of the wind. Dimensions of the house may vary somewhat for local conditions. It is preferable to hang meat at least 7 feet above the floor both to secure a more even smoking and to prevent too much heat from reaching it. Block also may be used for building smokehouse walls, care being taken to fill all the joints so they will be leak-proof. In either case practically the same de- tails should be observed although no reinforcing will be required when 8-inch block are used for walls. As the interior of a structure of this kind will be subjected to considerable heat, it is important that the concrete be at least thirty days old before fire is started. If this pre- caution is not observed, the concrete will dry out instead of harden properly, causing it to be soft and crumbly hence less durable. TOOLS FOR CONCRETING. One feature of concrete work that makes a strong appeal to the average user is the fact that no costly equip- ment in the way of tools need be purchased unless de- sired. That is, practically all of the tools actually needed can be picked up at home or be home made. Anything other than these are likely to be more in the nature of a convenience than a necessity. The first tool needed is a screen over which gravel may be passed to separate sand and pebbles. This screen should be ^ inch square mesh or of slotted wire mesh that will permit passing all particles J4 inch or under. The screen may be built of 2 by 4 frame to which the mesh or netting is nailed and should have two legs hinged at one end to enable setting the screen at an angle of 45 degrees with the vertical when in use. Another screen may be needed of 1 or IJ^-inch mesh so that the pebbles may be passed over this screen if there be any considerable number of larger particles to be excluded. Square pointed shovels are needed for mixing. A water barrel and pails for handling water are re- quired. A strikeboard, which may be any straight piece of lumber from one to two inches thick and from 4 to 6 inches wide, will be required to strike off the surface of concrete when laid in such work as floors or walks for example. A wood hand float or trowel is needed for finishing concrete surfaces. A hose is convenient if there is a supply of piped water. 220 CONCRETING TOOLS 221 A mixing platform made of tight 1 by 4 tongued and grooved boards nailed on two or three 2 by 4-inch studs is needed, depending upon the size of platform to be built. Strips should be nailed around three edges of this platform to prevent shoveling off material when turning in the process of mixing. A steel plastering trowel may be needed for occa- sional use. A measuring box which is nothing but a bottomless frame of one, two or four foot cubic capacity, is also re- quired. If this is more than one cubic foot capacity, marks should be placed on the interior to indicate capaci- ties at various levels. A tamper made out of a piece of 6 by 6 or 8 by 8 timber 12 inches long with a round handle set in a hole bored in the block is another tool required. Spading tools to agitate and settle concrete in the forms have been described under placing concrete. A wheelbarrow is always convenient if concrete must be moved any distance after mixing. A power operated mixer is very desirable if any quan- tity of concrete is to be mixed because it makes work easier. Various kinds of small tools such as groovers and edgers intended for making joints where slabs adjoin and slightly curving edges of walks and outer margins of slabs are also convenient to have when laying floors and walks. If any considerable quantity of reinforcement must be shaped, some one of the several varieties of bending devicies may be required, but as a rule these are not necessary where reinforcement no larger than ^ or J4- inch rods are being used, as these can readily be bent to required shape around and over improvised blocking fixed on firm wood platforms rigidly supported. CONCRETE CULVERTS When Culverts Are Needed on the Farm. Many farms are crossed by a creek or small stream that divides the farm so that it is necessary to provide crossings of the stream at various points that farm implements may be taken from one field or part of a farm to another. In the past the farm bridge across the small stream has usually been two stringers with planks laid over them — a structure that would generally wash out every time there was high water or if it did not do that would soon go to pieces because of the temporary makeshift nature of the construction. Durability of concrete and its strength are its chief advantages when used for bridges or culverts. Most state highway departments have more or less standard- ized designs for small bridges and culverts so that after meeting foundation requirements a design appropriate to practically any locality where no greater span than 20 feet has to be provided for can readily be obtained from these various state highway standards. For that reason the following description will confine itself to the prin- ciples of culvert construction. If the farm needs are such as to need a structure from 18 to 20 feet in span, it is suggested that the intending builder communicate with his state highway department and see whether or not a certain standard design cannot be adapted to the particu- lar requirements in question. Types of Culverts. The simplest form of culvert is that made of precast pipe. Usually concrete pipe is the type employed. Pipe culverts are adapted to all sizes of openings from 12 inches upward to the largest size 222 CONCRETE CULVERTS 223 of pipe made, providing the larger size will otherwise suit the location. No waterway openings smaller than 12 inches should be installed because smaller sizes easily become choked with leaves and other debris. The box culvert, as the name implies, is merely a long box with concrete top, sides and bottom. Sometimes in building box culverts the concrete floor is omitted and the sides extended down a short distance into the stream bed. This, however, is bad practice where the location of the culvert is such as to expose it to handling a large Concrete culvert under roadway, which serves also as a cattle passage- way, making it unnecessary for stock to cross the roadway. volume of water during a short period of time. In such a case the culvert is likely to be washed out by undermin- ing. The box culvert is in effect a small bridge with top slab. As this top slab has to bear the heavy loads im- posed upon it by the vehicles using it, it must be rein- forced with steel rods or heavy mesh fabric. The box culvert is the most generally used of all concrete culverts because only simple forms are required and the concret- ing is easily done. The finished structure is also strong and durable. 224 CONCRETE CULVERTS Another type of culvert is the arch, which is different from the one just described because the top is circular instead of flat. There is one advantage in the arch culvert for small spans. In a small arch little or no reinforcing is required. Against this advantage is the disadvantage that form work is more difficult and costly. The required area of waterway for culvert openings Concrete pipe culvert loith concrete headwall. is given in an accompanying table. These figures are presented merely as a basis on which to estimate the approximate area of opening required. Careful study of the drainage area which the culvert is to serve is necessary in order that determination can be made with reasonable accuracy. Concrete Mixture and Other Requirements. For concrete culverts the proper mixture is 1 :2 :4. Pipe culverts can be installed when the necessary concrete pipe may be conveniently obtained from a nearby pro- ducing plant. It is not practicable, however, for the home worker to make his own concrete pipe. They CONCRETE CULVERTS 225 should be made of 1 part portland cement to 3 parts sand if no coarse aggregate is used and of 1 :2 :4 mixture where coarse aggregate is used. In installing concrete pipe culverts the pipe are laid in a carefully prepared trench properly curved at the bottom to evenly support the pipe. Back filling and roadway cushions must be carefully placed and compacted in layers so that the con- centrated loads of vehicles will be distributed over a large area and not come directly on a small portion of the pipe. Foundations. For the smaller size of arch and box culverts in firm soil the side walls in themselves consti- tute sufficient foundation, but where soft or doubtful soil conditions are found and for the larger sizes of culverts it is well to provide a spread footing under the side walls. Often the culvert floor is considered as the foundation footing. In such a case the floor acts as a beam and should be reinforced in the same manner as the culvert top except that the steel is placed in the upper instead of lower part of the slab. Forms and Reinforcing. The forms required for small culverts are so easy to build that they require practically no illustration. All flat slab or box culverts regardless of size should be reinforced. Reinforcing may be in the form of bars or woven wire fabric. As a rule such reinforcing is placed with its center point lyi inches from the bottom of the slab. This applies to the top slab, but when the floor is reinforced the metal as already mentioned is placed the same distance from the upper face of the slab. Reinforcing should be bent down and up into side walls a suitable distance. It should be held the required distance from the form by means of block spacers and should be tied at intersections so that it will remain in correct position during concreting. 226 CONCRETE CULVERTS Wing Walls. For retaining the roadway fill or ap- proach to the culvert and to prevent erosion by the stream, every culvert should have end or wing walls. Where concrete pipe culverts are used such walls are generally built straight and parallel with the roadway. The top thickness of end walls for pipe culverts should be not less than 12 inches and as a general rule the thick- ness at the bottom should be 4/10 the height of the wall. The foundation footing under the wall is made 6 inches Simple box culvert such as would supply a ieant existing on many farms. wider than the wall. End and wing walls for box or arch culverts are either straight and parallel with the road or flared at an angle to it. The flared wing wall is more efifective in confining the roadway fill and should be used wherever practicable especially on the upstream end of the culvert. The top of the wing wall slopes to conform to the slope of the road fill which in general is 1 to Ij^. End and wing walls are frequently reinforced in order to reduce the quantity of concrete required. CONCRETE CULVERTS 227 228 CONCRETE CULVERTS The saving, however, with respect to such walls used as a part of small culverts is usually so small as to be more than offset by the additional labor and care necessary to shape and place the reinforcing. A concrete floor should be built in all concrete cul- verts. Its even, regular surface assists to prevent chok- ing of the waterway and erosion and undermining of the foundations. A vertical cutoff wall at each end of the floor extending down 2 feet is added protection against undermining. For very small culverts the floor is made continuous with the walls and thus acts practically as a foundation. In larger culverts the floor is laid usually as a 6-inch pavement between the walls. In order to properly distribute concentrated loads the roadway covering over all culverts should be not lesh than 12 inches. This applies strictly to culverts on the farm and is not to be interpreted as the requirement for such culverts when placed on a main traveled highway. Care should be taken not to remove the forms nor expose the slab covering to the weight of traffic until the concrete has sufficiently hardened to be proof against failure. SIZE OF WATERWAY REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS AREAS TO BE DRAINED Area Area of Waterway Drained Needed (in Sq. Ft.) Steep Rolling Flat Slopes Country Country 10 S.6 1.9 1.1 " 20 9.4 3.1 1.9 30 12.8 43 2.6 40 1S.9 S.3 3.2 SO 18.8 6.3 3.8 60 21.6 7.2 4.3 80 27 8.9 S.4 100 32 106 6.3 125 37 12.S 7.5 ISO 43 14 8.6 200 S3 18 10.6 300 72 24 IS 400 89 3Q 20 CONCRETE BARNS. General. Probably the most important structure in the farm building group is the barn. When the farmer specializes in milk production the dairy stock are usually kept in a barn provided especially for them. Where, however, farm stock includes many horses and dairying Another example of concrete llock tn barn coiistructMH. This siruo ture is a general purpose barn. is not a specialty, the so-called general purpose barn is a popular type. The general purpose barn probably has the greatest interest to most farmers and is a great con- venience because it enables the farmer to carry on a great deal of his virork within the walls of a single struc- ture. However, dairy requirements in many states do 229 230 CONCRETE BARNS not permit cows to be stabled in the same quarters with horses or other stock where the litter is not removed daily, so progressive farm building planners have devel- oped many practical designs that are a close approach to the ideal. More consideration is given to good looks than for- merly. Barns might just as well be made to look at- tractive as the reverse. The extra thought involved in HcSd^H^^^H^^HR^^^HP^ '^^m^"^ s^''^sisii^ssi9^siiam«Jup^iBBB^^Km- . i'*ii^^H . ' ■ /. ' ' " - ■ ' ' .. '■'■--:■ '■■::':'- ■ :' ■■^■■4:: ''.', ■■''■'T:, ■. Interior of concrete dairy iarn slioroing consistent use of concrete mangers, passageway and floors. planning for looks calls for only a little more effort and adds greatly to the value of the structure, to the satis- faction of the owner, to the selling value of the farm and to the farm folks who must meet the building every day face to face. Foundations. Everything must have a starting place. There is no better start for any farm building than a concrete foundation. This is particularly true of a build- ing which is to house dairy stock, because only with CONCRETE BARNS 231 concrete construction can the high degree of sanitation necessary to the production of high grade milk be main- tained. Although the all-concrete barn has arrived in some sections of the country, it will probably be some years before structures of this kind are numerous enough to be commonplace, but that day is coming and is much nearer than it was two or three years ago. The next best thing to the all-concrete barn is the barn having an Interior of circular concrete dairy barn. all-concrete basement and first story. In the general purpose barn this is ideal. It fits in well with the favor which is now being enjoyed by the plank frame barn which is also within the range of the average labor skill to construct; so much of the advantages of concrete in barn construction, especially in general purpose barns where the lower portion of the structure is to serve also as dairy stock quarters, can be secured by extending the foundation far enough above ground to make it actually 232 CONCRETE BARNS form the first story of the structure, then building a re- inforced concrete floor to separate the stock from the haymow or upper portion of the building. This makes the first story concrete enclosed, with all the resulting protection against fire. Such a floor must be designed for the particular structure, but with this done the actual work, of building can be carried on by anyone who is able to carefully follow plans and willing to observe every requirement of concreting practice. Concrete Mock horse tarn. Barns may also be built of concrete block. Likewise they may be built of stucco on wood or metal frame. Ventilation Important. In stock quarters it is very necessary that there be a proper ventilating system. This is particularly important in cold weather. The moisture laden air exhaled from the animals' lungs will condense on the concrete and in extremely cold weather will form frost which is evidence that there is insufficient ventila- CONCRETE BARNS 233 tion. Many persons think that when frost forms on the interior wall in this way it is an evidence of moisture coming through the wall. If a suitable system of ven- tilation is installed, however, this notion is disproved. The old style barn used to get all the ventilation it needed through cracks, but modern barns are built more nearly airtight so far as wall surfaces go and a proper ventilating system must be arranged. The haymow or Concrete barn built of cement staves similar to those used in silo construction. The silos shown at the end of this barn are also cement stave construction. upper portion of the general purpose barn does not need systematic ventilation like the stock quarters, nor does ventilation mean merely openings and outlets without any particular regard for their correct distribution. Some effective means must be provided for intake of fresh air, otherwise ventilation, which means the removal of foul air and the taking in of fresh air, cannot be accomplished. Unventilated or poorly ventilated quarters are disease breeders. Proper ventilating flues will have all the char- acteristics of a good chimney. 234 CONCRETE BARNS Interior Arrangement. In designing a dairy bam proper arrangement of the floor plan is important. It is usually desirable to place cows in two rows as this re- quires less labor in feeding and makes the handling of stable wastes easier. The cross section and plan shown represent a popular arrangement in which the cows face out. Some farmers prefer to have the cows face in, claiming that the light is better and the barn can be This concrete block dairy ham is on the farm of an enterprising Indiana farmer. made narrower. Choice seems about evenly divided with respect to the two plans. When the cows are faced out, two feeding alleys are necessary and one manure alley, thus increasing the labor of feeding, while decreasing the labor of cleaning the barn. Tbe Situation is exactly the reverse when cows face in ; namely, there is one feed- ing alley and two manure alleys. Windows. Windows in a dairy barn should be ar- ranged to furnish light only, although when open con- CONCRETE BARNS 235 siderable fresh air will be admitted. They should be screened as should all other openings to prevent entrance of flies and thereby to insure that stock will be more contented when compelled to be housed the greater por- tion of the time. Sixty cows will find ample space in this barn, which is 35 feet wide. This is considered sufficient to provide proper working space in front of and between the two rows of cows. Any lesser width would crowd the feeding and litter alleys, while greater width would mean unnecessary expense for construction as well as coniinued extra expense for operation. Construction Features. This plan is adaptable to monolithic concrete, concrete block or stucco on frame construction. It is planned for a one-story structure only and reinforcement required in the walls is merely that necessary to take care of temperature changes and consists of rods spaced 2 feet center to center in both directions and set diagonally as described elsewhere at corners of window and door openings. The depth and size of the barn foundation depends upon the weight of the structure. In any event it should go down to firm bearing soil and below possible frost penetration. The width of footing depends somewhat on the loads which walls have to carry and on the sus- taining power of the soil. These subjects have been discussed under the head of foundations. Perhaps the greatest hindrance to progress in design of dairy bams has been the tendency to follow the style of other buildings in the neighborhood, thus perpetuat- ing faults and continuing incorrect practice with more or less waste and the resulting dissatisfaction. Every bam should be planned with particular reference to the service required of it, considering local conditions but disre- garding local peculiarities which are often false guides. By making an effort to have every bam meet in the best 236 CONCRETE BARNS possible manner the particular needs in each individual case, a greater measure of convenience and lower cost of operation and maintenance will be secured. Silos with respect to the dairy stock quarters are usually located so as to be connected to and continuous Filling time is on at this monolithic concrete aHo. Manure gutters from the dairy ham converging to discharge their contents into the manure pit. Vnfortimately this pit has not been huilt of concrete, so is probably losing a good portion of its valuable contents. CONCRETE BARNS 237 137 i a 9 S S I 5 S £ _ 8 s i 238 CONCRETE BARNS with the feed alley from the chute by which silage is thrown down. In the plan presented feed rooms are adjacent to each silo and the feed alleys connect with the silo chute as suggested above. To adapt any plan to the requirements of the general purpose barn, arrangements should be made to shut oiif by a concrete wall the quarters of the dairy stock from the quarters of other live stock. The design may be expanded by certain fixed units, the only difference being H'«ft— Ceoss Se:ctio/i Section of concrete dairy barn corresponding to the plan on page. in the way the interior space is disposed of. In such a plan it may be more convenient to locate the silo at the center of one side of the barn so feeding of silage will be convenient with respect to both classes of animals housed. Circular Bams. Both dairy and general purpose barns of the circular plan have been increasing in popu- larity of late years. There are many examples of such structures throughout the country, a large number of CONCRETE BARNS 239 240 CONCRETE BARNS which have been built of concrete block or concrete ap- plied in other ways and the usual interior arrangement of such a barn is to have the silo at its center. This plan is ideal with respect to ease of feeding silage. There is little carrying of the material required to place it in the mangers. Size of Stalls. Length of cow stalls usually depends on the size of stock kept. Three feet 6 inches is usually considered the standard width although for small stock 3 feet 4 inches is sometimes considered standard. Spec- ing of barn bents or posts sometimes makes it necessary for the designer to vary the width of stalls a trifle. A 14-foot bent accommodates 4 stalls Syi feet wide, a 10- foot bent 3 stalls 3 feet 4 inches and a 12-foot beftt 4 stalls 3 feet wide. The length of stall should vary with the breed of cow which is to occupy the stall. Guernseys and Jerseys are kept clean and sleep comfortably in stalls 4J^ feet long, while Holsteins and the larger breeds of cows require a stall 5 feet deep. Floors should have a slope about 1 inch between the foot and the head of the stall to cause liquids to flow into the manure gutter. Gutters are usually 16 to*18 inches wide so that they can readily be cleaned with an ordinary shovel. They should have a slope of ^ inch per foot for drainage. This is sufficient to carry off water when the stable is flushed out. Gutters should connect to a pipe line which leads to a concrete manure pit. When the row of stalls is over 100 feet long it is best to have several points of drainage to the pit. Mangers of Concrete. Concrete mangers have now practically replaced those of wood in the modern dairy barn. Although they cost more in the first instance than wood they are permanent and sanitary. Metal mangers also are used. These are sometimes hinged so as to be easily raised out of the way for cleaning. Floor man- CONCRETE BARNS 241 242 CONCRETE BARNS gers are used to serve as troughs for watering the stock. Concrete mangers should be made continuous, with a drain at one end for cleaning out when flushing with water. The slope should not be so great as to cause water to run too much to one end. The manger should be nearly 3 feet wide. If it is too wide it will be neces- sary to walk in the feed trough to stanchion up the cows. The front of the manger may be from 18 inches to 2 feet high. Back may be from 4 to 12 inches high. In the latter case it is cut down where the stanchions fit so as to allow the animals to lie down comfortably. The curb prevents the animals from throwing feed under their feet and thus wasting it. Feed alleys are often made too narrow. When the alley is used for no other purpose than to carry hay and grain to the stock 3 feet is wide enough but less than this makes a cramped passageway. If space can be spared 4 feet wide will be better. ^ CONCRETE SEPTIC TANKS Because the farm home does not enjoy the advan- tages of the city one, which can be connected with the city sewer system, is no reason why the farm home should not have the conveniences of indoor toilet, bath and kitchen sink. These are regarded as necessary ap- pointments of the home designed for comfort and con- venience and are just as feasible on the farm as in town, if proper provision is made to dispose of the natural household wastes. There is nothing that contributes more to the danger of disease than such careless disposi- tion of household slops as throwing them out on the ground where flies can infest the decomposing material and in turn, carry it around through the house, contam- inating food and thus endangering health. Aside from the actual danger of such a possibility is the disgust attending it. Careless methods of disposing of house- hold wastes, such as garbage and other refuse of house- keeping, have caused epidemics of disease with resulting heavy and needless waste of human life. Concrete septic tanks solve the problem of disposing of household wastes from a modern plumbing system on the farm where of course a city sewer is not available. It must not be thought, however, that the concrete septic tank is a cure-all for the house sewage problem, that is, it is not as good as a modern sewerage system and is intended only as the best substitute where another sew- erage system cannot be made use of. Properly built and cared for, a concrete septic tank has many advantages over the cesspool. The cesspool merely holds its filthy contents until necessity compels it to be emptied and 243 244 SEPTIC TANKS the contents disposed of in some manner. Usually dis- posal is accomplished by pumping out the cesspool into a tank wagon and distributing the wastes over the ground, allowing soil absorption and sun to take care of final disposition. At best this is a dangerous and offen- sive practice. The concrete septic tank will transform the wastes from the house plumbing so that their final disposal in Tiew of concrete septic tank with syphon set and inner forms in position. The wall dividing the two compartments has not yet been placed. a safe, sanitary manner is a simple, almost natural, process. Concrete septic tanks are not hard to build, nor are they expensive. Once in operation, they cost little or nothing to keep in order and may be relied upon to give satisfactory service indefinitely. The principle on which such tanks operate is one of rotting or decomposi- tion. That is, the solids and semisolids which enter the first compartment from the house drain are digested or SEPTIC TANKS 245 liquified by certain bacteria such as develop in all vege- table or animal matter when it starts to rot or decom- pose. Usually a septic tank is rectangular and divided into two compartments as shown in an accompanying illustration. The first, or left-hand, compartment is fre- quently referred to in several ways. Generally it is called the settling chamber or "sludge" chamber. The second, or right-hand compartment, which is smaller than the first, contains a device known as a siphon and for that reason is called the siphon or "dosing" chamber. Some so-called septic tanks which have been recom- mended as suitable for handling farm house sewage have been built without the siphon fitting shown in this second compartment. For reasons which will be made plain later, such tanks become — once they are filled — nothing but continuous flow cesspools, and therefore the effective final disposal of wastes cannot be accom- plished because of clogging of the soil in the disposal field, due to continual trickling of contents from the tank. The siphon chamber receives the overflow from the first compartment and because of the siphon, which is automatic in operation, is emptied at regular intervals into a tile line leading to a disposal field where the dis- charges leak out through the open joints of the tile line and so seep into the soil where soil bacterial action does the rest. Experience has proved that in the septic tank sewage will, if confined in a practically airtight and dark com- partment, soon commence to break up, due to develop- ment and action of bacteria. These feed, as it were, upon the solids and semisolids in the wastes, thus con- verting them into gas and relatively harmless compounds. It must not be understood, however, that this bacterial action destroys disease germs. The discharges from the tank through the operation of the siphon must still be 246 SEPTIC TANKS properly cared for to prevent them from being a possible source of disease. Practically all successful septic tanks embody the features of design shown in the accompanying illustra- tion. They may appear somewhat different but in essen- tials are the same. Sewage must enter from the house at one end of the tank and leave at the other end. Flow through the tank should be slow and as uniform as possible, otherwise the solid matter will not have time to settle. Sewage must enter the tank below the normal 4-' Cone, wis /n/etpi t>e c/eanouf pipe Section a- a. Section through concrete septic tank. level of contents. A rectangular form of tank is best. Depth should not be less than 4 feet below the opening of the pipe which discharges wastes into the tank. The total depth of fluids in the first compartment should not be less than 5 feet. If practicable, a greater depth is desirable. After having remained in the first compart- ment a sufficient time, solid matter is destroyed and the liquids overflow into the second, or siphon compartment. From this compartment the discharges must be carried SEPTIC TANKS 247 by a tile made of dense, non-porous tile laid with ce- mented joints to the area where final disposition is to be made of the wastes. This is generally referred to as the disposal field. If surroundings are such that a certain area of ground can be set aside for the purpose, surface irrigation may be used. This means allowing the liquids discharged from the siphon compartment to flow over the land where they are acted upon by the sun and soil bacteria. In such a method of disposal it is necessary to select an area where all wastes may not immediately be washed into some nearby stream, thus fouling the water. Per- haps the best method is subsoil or subirrigation disposal bj' tile lines such as indicated in another sketch, which shows the general method of laying tile lines. As a rule, this system requires less attention and the discharges from the tank are entirely out of sight at all times. Once started, the septic tank is self-operating on ac- count of the automatic siphon. Siphons can be so timed that the frequency of discharge of contents from the siphon compartment can be at, say, 4, 6 or 8-hour inter- vals during the 24 hours. These intermittent discharges cause the entire contents of this compartment to be emptied into the tile line and thereby result in flushing it and giving the soil also a chance to rest, as it were, between various discharges, thus preventing it from being clogged up. Experience seems to prove the desirability of building a septic tank of sufficient capacity to contain 24 hours' flow of sewage from the average house. Ca- pacity is usually determined by estimating that the dis- charges into the tank will range from 30 to 50 gallons per person per day. The length of the tank should be about twice its width so that uniform velocity of flow through it may be obtained. 248 SEPTIC TANKS Concrete is by all odds the best material for septic tank construction. It is necessary first that a septic tank be free from masonry joints which, if by chance, are not properly laid, will result in leakage and hence possible contamination of drinking water due to the filtering of impurities from the tank through the soil. Inlet pipe to (and outlet pipe from) the first compartment or sludge SECTION A-A HORIZONTAL Section S'-Z" .t-^ -r==f r-f Tf '^r=^ S|-J Afcrn- \\ A ! ill Men- -Xik ! I ! a. I -T-i" Atan- I r r Man- fiot» .. I itS^iiiri^SF I Roof Plan. Horizontal section and roof plan showing reinforcement for concrete septic tank. chamber, is a 4-inch concrete tile with T head so that the lower portion of this head will extend down into the tank contents and thus prevent disturbing of the scum in this tank when house sewage enters. The outlet pipe is of the same material and form to prevent overflow from drawing out any of this scum, which must be re- tained in the tank and not be disturbed any more than SEPTIC TANKS 249 ^ a, s ■a o •8 8 a Tile oiBPoaAu System por. ScPTrc Tank Joinfe cemenAs^ Jof'nts cemenfcef. I o 2S0 SEPTIC TANKS necessary, as it is the culture bed for the bacteria which act on the sewage. Form construction is not unlike that which would be required in building a cistern such as is described elsewhere. Suitable provision must be made for setting the siphon and the pipes connecting it with the tile line leading to the disposal field. Walls of the septic tank are 6 inches thick and the floor slopes from 6 inches to 5 inches at the center where it is connected with an outlet that may be used annually or oftener if necessary to remove the accumulations at the bottom of the tank. Usually once a year is all the cleaning that such a tank requires if operating effectively. Reinforcement for the side walls may be J^-iiich round rods placed every 6 inches center to center, both vertically and horizontally and across the tank floor up into sides and ends. Reinforcement for the roof or cover is ^-inch round rods spaced 8 inches center to center. The cover slab for the manhole is cast separately and reinforced with J4-Jnch round rods or mesh. In install- ing the tank, the tile line leading from house to the tank should be laid with absolutely tight cemented joints and if the tank must of necessity be so located that it is within 25 or 50 feet of the well, the tile leading from the tank to the disposal field should be laid with tight cement joints until the end of this line has reached a point at least 200 feet from the well furnishing the house water supply. The various state departments of health issue bulle- tins illustrating and describing septic tanks and the proper method of installing and operating them. These bulletins can be obtained from these departments free of charge. HOW TO DO CONCRETE WORK IN COLD WEATHER Many persons think that with the approach of cold weather the possibilities of concreting are past for a cer- tain season. This is true only in part, depending upon the severity and duration of the cold. Naturally the farmer will not care to continue outdoor construction during the winter months, although there are many kinds of concrete work, such as building stock tanks, feeding floors, etc., which may be done during the intervals of milk weather providing there is no frost in the ground upon which the construction is to be erected or made. Work That Can Be Done in Cold Weather. It is possible to successfully lay concrete foundations and to complete construction which must be finished for use during the winter, even after freezing weather has set in, provided certain precautions are rigidly observed. To appreciate the importance of these precautions it is nec- essary to call attention to the fact that concrete hardens slowly when the temperature is 55 degrees or lower and hardening is retarded in proportion to the corresponding •low range of temperature until the freezing point is reached. On the other hand, concrete hardens with de- sired rapidity in the presence of warmth and moisture; therefore, any means that can be applied to maintain these desirable conditions for say 48 hours after placing the fresh concrete, contributes to the possibility of suc- cessfully doing concrete work under conditions of low temperature that would otherwise be unfavorable. Arranging for Concrete Work in Cold Weather. One of the shortest cuts preparatory to carrying on some con- 251 252 COLD WEATHER CONCRETING Crete work in cold or freezing weather is to arrange to store sand and pebbles somewhere indoors so as to pre- vent the material from freezing or becoming filled with frost. If such facilities cannot be arranged, the materials may be heated in one of several ways immediately before combining them, so as to thaw them out and raise the temperature of the materials to a point that will give enough warmth to the concrete when mixed so that with lk"^JJS ^mmt u "•* " • "■ ^ -^ ^^0^-'^:'.^A^*-:-' ■-.■ ^£^M %: ■■y"' In cold weather aggregrates may 6e heated hy piling on and around an old stove pipe and building a fire in the ptpe as suggested in this illustration. other protection it will have time to harden before it can be affected by freezing. Heating Materials. One of the easiest ways to heat sand and pebbles is to take a section of old smokestack, lay it on the side, build a fire inside of it and pile the aggregates over and around this improvised stove. Ce- ment being only a small part of the concrete mixture need not be heated. Care should be taken not to heat the aggregates above say 200 degrees becaus some sands COLD WEATHER CONCRETING 2S3 jand pebbles or broken stone are injured by overheating. Mixing water also must be heated. This can be accom- plished in several ways. If there is a large feed cooking kettle on the place this often will serve the purpose. Or if any of the buildings have a heating plant operated by a steam boiler, a steam pipe can be run into a barrel and the water kept near the boiling point until used. The aim should be to heat the aggregates and water so that when the concrete is mixed and placed it will have a temperature of about 80 degrees. No aggregates 'should ever be used in a concrete mixture if there is frost in them. Protecting Against Freezing. For mass construction such as foundation walls, the freshly placed concrete will hot need as much protection as will be required for work more exposed, like floors and pavements ; therefore, after distributing the concrete in the foundation trench or forms all that may be necessary, unless the temperature is below freezing, will be to cover the top of the concrete with 10 or 12 inches of hay or straw laid on building paper or canvas. If the forms are tight the heat given to the concrete through warming of materials will attord sufficient protection to prevent freezing during the period required for early hardening; otherwise, and if tempera- ture is likely to go far below freezing, it is necessary to hang canvas, building paper or similar covering over the outside of forms to prevent immediate contact of severe 'cold. The forms should be clean and free from ice or snow before concrete is placed. During the periods of mild weather, barn floors may be conveniently made in such sections that a portion of the old barn floor may be used while the new is in progress. Even with all desirable precautions taken, concrete will harden more slowly in cold than in warm weather and it will be necessary to 254 COLD WEATHER CONCRETING keep concrete floors made in winter out of use longer than if they were laid under more favorable conditions. Fixing Up a Winter Workshop. Concrete block and fence posts may be made indoors during the winter in a cellar or shed where the temperature can be maintained at 50 degrees. Utmost care must be taken to prevent fresh concrete from freezing during the first two or three days. One of the best methods is to store in a tight room and cover the block or posts with 12 inches or more of straw and to make certain that the temperature does not drop below 50 degrees. No precaution is too insigni- ficant to be observed in winter concreting, but the fol- lowing summary of essentials should at all times be uppermost in mind: Heat hastens the hardening of concrete. Cold re- tards it. Temperatures which may not be low enough to pro- duce freezing often delay hardening very materially. Do not expect concrete placed under unfavorable tem- perature conditions to be safe for use as soon as though placed during warm weather. Do not use salt in the mixing water. This will help to resist low temperature but is likely to result in a con- crete of doubtful strength. Examine all aggregates before using and make cer- tain that they are free from frost or frozen lumps. Place each batch of concrete immediately after mix- ing. Temperature of concrete when placed should be at least 80 degrees. If the concreting is unavoidably delayed or when it has been finished, immediately give the work all required protection by such covering as necessary to prevent freezing for 48 hours. COLD WEATHER CONCRETING 255 Examine the work carefully before removing forms.. Frozen concrete often appears like thoroughly hardened concrete. Applying hot water or the flame from a blow torch to the concrete surface will disclose whether it is hardened or merely frozen. Whenever buildings may be heated either by continu- ous heating from a steam pipe, boiler or other source of supply or by placing small oil stoves or other portable means of heating, such precautions will give added as- surance of success. CONCRETE SILOS Silo Requirements. Once a silo marked a dairy farm, but when farmers found out that any live stock would not only eat but thrive on silage if judiciously fed, the silo became largely the mark of an up-to-date farm. The advantages of silos are almost too numerous to mention. Practically every farmer who has built one and enjoyed its advantages for a little while is able to name a number of reasons why no farm where live stock is kept, especially dairy cattle, can afford to be with- out one. A silo 60 feet high and 14 feet in diameter will hold approximately 400 tons of silage — 400 tons of clean, suc- culent fodder that can be kept for feeding until needed and when most needed, and frequently it is most needed during the summer when pastures have dried up and grass is scarce or short. Any kind of silo that will keep silage is a good investment from a certain standpoint but today invest- ments are viewed largely from the standpoint of con- tinuous profit with least maintenance and a concrete silo, being permanent, not only preserves feed but maintains profit longest because requiring little or no maintenance. The best silo will be airtight, moisture-proof, fire- proof, frost-proof, strong, durable, require little or no maintenance, be round in shape, have smooth exterior walls, and be permanent. Frost-proofness is largely govv erned by location. Silage will freeze in some latitudes to a greater or less depth in any silo regardless of the building material used. This is because economy of construction prevents making the walls thick enough to 256 SILOS 257 resist freezing during long spells of the most severe weather, but the amount of freezing in various types of silos is usually so small as to be negligible. Besides, freezing does not hurt silage if it is fed as soon as thawed Cement stave silo with cement stave chute. out and not allowed to freeze and thaw several times before feeding. Monolithic Concrete Silos. Concrete can be used in a number of ways in silo building. Either the single wall monolithic silo may be built, or the double hollow mono- lithic wall, or solid or hollow concrete block wall, or 2S8 SILOS cement plaster wall, or cement stave. Any one of these ways of using concrete if used eliEectively will produce a silo that will have most of the qualities of the ideal silo described, because concrete is moisture-proof, rat-proof and fireproof. With the modern commercial silo building equipment, perfect round structures are easy to build. Some types of silos other than concrete require no end of maintenance annually if they are kept in condition fit for use. When empty they are likely to blow down at any time because they lack the necessary weight for sta- bility. In addition they cannot be expected to have a long hfe in service because the materials of which they are made or the manner of using those materials pre- vents any approach to permanence. First, we will consider the monolithic silo which, with- out intending comparison unfavorable to the other types of concrete silos, probably comes in for special prefer- ence because, as its name implies, it is one single mass when finished and possibly the most stable, enduring structure of the kind that can be built. Although handy farmers can put up their own con- crete silos, regardless of the particular way in which concrete is used it is always best to give the work to a contractor who specializes in it. A certain amount of suitable equipment is required which the average farmer may not find it profitable to provide just to build one or two silos. In some states the local department of agri- culture has bought commercial silo forms and hires them out to persons desiring to build concrete silos, and some- times furnishes one of the agricultural department rep- resentatives to advise upon or to supervise the work while in progress. However, the farmer who decides to build his own monolithic concrete silo will find concrete construction admirably adapted to his purposes and abilities. With SILOS 259 the exception of an experienced foreman, or the super- vision of the farmer himself if he is skilled in the funda- mentals of concrete practice, nothing but ordinary labor 2.X2- -Tapereeich 2x6 ripped on line of ho/es Details of form for continuous doorway openings. is needed. The usual farm help can readily do the work. Sand and pebbles are on the farm or can be had for the cost of digging and hauling. 260 SILOS DIAMETER OF SILO REQUIRED TO FEED VARIOUS NUMBERS OF ANIMALS Approximate Minimum Number of Each Kind of Minimum Stock to be Fed from Each Size Silo Diameter lbs. to be Dairy Beef Stock SOO-lb in Feet Fed Daily Cows Cattle Cattle Calves Horses Sheep 10 S2S 13 21 26 44 48 175 12 755 19 30 38 63 69 252 14 1030 26 41 52 86 94 344 16 1340 34 54 67 112 122 446 18 1700 42 68 85 142 155 567 20 2100 53 84 105 175 191 700 APPROXIMATE CAPACITY OF SILOS (Diameter is shown at the top of the columns and depth at the left) Height of Inside Diameter of Silo in Feet and Capacity in Tons Silo 10 Feet 12 Feet 14 Feet 16 Feet 18 Feet 20 Feet Feet Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons 28 42 61 83 30 47 67 91 32 51 74 100 ui 34 56 80 109 143 36 61 87 118 155 i96 38 66 94 128 167 212 40 70 101 138 180 229 280 42 109 148 193 244 299 44 117 159 207 261 320 46 170 222 277 340 48 236 293 361 SO 310 382 QUANTITY OF SILAGE REQUIRED, AND ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF SILO FOR THE DAIRY HERD Feed for 180 Days Feed for 240 Days No. of Estimated Estimated Dairy Tonnage of Size of Silo Tonnage of Size of Silo Cows in Silage Diam- Silage Diam- Herd Consumed eter Height Consumed eter Height Tons Feet Feet Tons Feet Feet 13 47 10 30 63 10 36 IS 54 11 30 72 11 36 20 72 12 32 96 12 39 25 90 13 33 123 14 37 30 108 14 34 144 15 37 35 126 IS 34 168 16 37 40 144 16 35 192 17 39 45 162 16 37 216 18 39 50 180 17 37 240 19 39 60 216 18 39 288 20 40 70 2S2 19 40 336 20 46 SILOS 261 What diameter of silo to choose is governed by the number of animals to be fed, the height of the silo and the length of the feeding season to be provided for. Whatever the dimensions, they should be such as to accord with the number of animals to be fed that daily feeding operations will insure the removal of at least a 2-inch layer of silage daily. Accompanying tables show the diameter of silos re- quired to feed various numbers of animals, the quantity of silage required, and economical diameter of silo for the dairy herd, and approximate capacity of silos of various heights and diameters. Type of construction has nothing to do with location. A silo should, of course, be located where it serves the greatest convenience in feeding. At one end of the barn or at the middle at one side, connected to the barn by a short passageway usually solves the problem of location. The greatest convenience is found when the passageway from the silo to the feed alley in the barn is continuous. The site and size of the silo having been decided upon, the area to be excavated should be marked out. A sweep or string with marker at one end and the other attached so that it will swing freely from a stake at the desired center of the silo can be used to lay out the line corre- sponding to the structure's circumference. This area should then be excavated four or five feet so that the floor or bottom of the silo will be about that distance below ground level. This is desirable because the height of the silo above ground is reduced by this amount, thus making a shorter distance through which to haul scaf- folding and other equipment when building; it also makes the distance shorter for blowing the cut silage when filling the structure, and insures that the foundation starts below frost level and probably on good firm soil. 262 SILOS Face Inner form with to gauge gal. iron. /■Cut out , [for 2x4"-^ 2'/ Afake 4 form 18 gauge gal iron. See note beiow ■ Make 4- "■ Cut off these pnojectlona [after form is assembied. MakeaafZxIZ Make 4 r VJEDGE Make 2 of hardwood t'thick. NCTTE- It intermittent^doors are to be used trim two ribs "E'on dotted line. Pttaili of inner form for home made ailo form SILOS - 263 Five feet below ground is as great a depth as desirable because when feeding the last silage out it is incon- venient to throw it through a greater height. At the center of the floor provision should be made for a drain that will connect with a line of tile so that any surplus liquids from the silage may be led away to some outlet. Too great an accumulation of these liquids in the silo subjects it to the bursting pressure of this liquid content. The drain should be trapped with an or- dinary gooseneck or similar trap to prevent air from entering the drain. No forms will be needed except for the exterior wall face below ground if the earth where the excavation for the foundation is made is firm enough to be self-support- ing. If it is not that firm then the excavation will have to be made larger as shown in one of the illustrations so that outside as well as inside forms can be set up. This sketch also shows the width and thickness of the average footing and the thickness of the floor ; also the method of connecting trapped tile drain to the outlet at the center of the floor. If no outside forms are used below ground, care must be taken when placing concrete not to knock down any of the earth into the concrete, thus producing pockets in it. For floor and footing a 1 :2j4 :5 concrete is used. The table of mixtures and the explanation of proportioning and mixing concrete explain what this means. If the ground on which the silo is built is not per- fectly firm so as to provide good support for the struc- ture, a wise safeguard is to widen the footing to 3 or 4 feet and to reinforce it with ^-inch round steel rods, 30 or 40 inches long, depending upon the width of the footing. These rods should be laid 8 inches apart across the footing and about 1J4 inch from the bottom. As the concrete is being placed for the footing, vertical re- 264 SILOS inforcement in the form of ^ or J^-inch square rods are set along a line corresponding to the center of the foot- ing 30 inches apart so that as concreting progresses these rods will be in a position at the center of the wall and project into it. Twnety-four hours or more after the footing has been placed, concreting of the walls may begin. The length of time depends on the weather. In moderately warm, pleasant weather twenty-four hours is sufficient time, I i>Jvii -Rafter hook, 4-"x2"strap iron. See deta/l above. Wall of silo ■Outer form •S" post- Part aedvynal onA perapsctive iketck shovAng meihod of setting form tor concrete roof. while in cold weather twice as long may be necessary. Before the walls are started the floor should have been laid and when concreting of the walls is begun, the sur- face of the footing should be brushed free and clean of loose material and thoroughly wet, then painted with a mixture of cement and water mixed to creamlike con- sistency so that there will be a good bond between foot- ing and concrete for the wall. For walls a 1 :2j^ :4 concrete is used. • SILOS 265 Home made forms can be built by any person having average skill with carpenter tools. The forms for the courses are usually made 36 inches deep and in two or more sections. This depth makes it easy to place 32 inches of concrete at each setting of forms, the remaining 4 inches being an allowance for lap of forms over the concrete of the course last placed. J *3 f Raising hoohs — ^.^^ fl-ug I f t f i ISgauge V'lz"-^ gal. iron. a=al-Op Make 2 3ee tab/e for tenffth Note- Sections may be made of two pieces boited togetiier for /arge size siios. ^i\r Lug MalieiZ „ ," „ BOLT ±K/o" Hook 6 required Ma/te 4- OUTCR rOfiM Borne detaila of the outer form for home made silo forms. This form, as described in the text, is made of metal. To get the correct curve for the inner form the usual practice is to mark out a circle on a level floor by using a sweep similar to that described for laying out the cir- cumference of the silo when making the foundation ex- cavation. This circle should have the same diameter as the inside diameter of the silo for which the forms are to be made. The sweep also serves to mark the pattern for 266 SILOS the ribs, E, F, G, as shown in an accompanying illustra- tion. When these ribs have been sawed out to shape, each of the sections S which make up the inner form is built of 2 by 6-inch studding, indicated by T. The pieces S are set into the ribs while the pieces T and R are nailed between ribs. When building the various sections suffi- cient forethought should be exercised to make certain that they may be assembled as shown in the illustration on page 262 with openings for the wedges at opposite points on the forms. Two types of doorways are used on silos — intermit- tent and continuous. Which type is used is largely a matter of individual fancy as either is perfectly satisfac- tory. If intermittent door openings are to be used it is a good plan to provide a flat place 2 f^et 4 inches wide on Inside diameter ofsilo Inner form ribs /B gauge gal. Iron 3b wide. Z pes.. ZO gauge gal. Iron iS^ae.Bpcs., length of each o/ece. Distance A Distance B length of each piece. C izrt. 4'-6r A'-li" zr-s" 4'-ei-" Mf. " S--4." ^•-IIV Z4.-7'' yS-'-e" 16 - 6'-l" 'S'-9^" 27'- 9" 6'-3" 18 - s'-ioi", 6'-7r 30'-IO±" 7'-0^" ZO' 7-7ir" 7'-S±" 34.-0" 7-/0" Table showing details and dimensions of reinforcement. one section so that the door form need not be curved. Each section should be squared accurately and faced with 20-gauge galvanized sheet iron nailed in place with six-penny nails. Then the sections should be assembled in the circle which was drawn and be bolted together top and bottom with 2 x 6-inch strips. Forms should be marked so that they will always be assembled in exactly the same way. After the forms have been assembled for the first time the projections on the ends of the ribs F and G are SILOS 267 cut off. This will allow the forms to collapse when the wedges are removed. The outer forms are made of two sections of 18-gauge galvanized iron fitted with lugs for tightening and with hooks for raising as illustrated in one of the sketches. The construction of a form for making intermittent doorway openings is shown on page 259 in the left-hand sketch. This consists merely of a frame of 2 by 6-inch lumber tapered J4 inch on each side to make form re- moval easier ; 2 by 2-inch pieces nailed to the frame pro- vide recesses for the door. This form is used in alter- nate settings of the wall forms, thus spacing the doors about 2j4 feet apart. The continuous door frame 'is shown on page 259 at the right. It is made of two pieces of lumber 2 by 6 inches by 8 feet. Holes lyi inches in diameter, 2 feet apart are bored in each piece with centers 2 inches from the edge. The pieces thus bored are then stripped along a line corresponding to the diameter of the holes, dividing the form into an inner and outer section to facilitate re- moval. Pieces of 2 by 2-inch lumber tapered slightly on one side are nailed to the inside frame. When using this form 1-inch doorway rods are placed in the holes. Cleats and spacing bars are then tacked in place to hold it upright at proper distance apart. Arrangement of reinforcement at the doorway is illus- trated in one of the sketches. The vertical rods at door- way sides should be J^ inch in diameter if the silo is of lesser capacity than 100 tons, and % inch in diameter for larger silos. When intermittent doors are used enough extra rods are placed above and below the door to compensate for the area of steel of the horizontal rods which, because of doorway openings, has been omitted at these points. 268 SILOS Doors for either type of doorway are made of two thicknesses of matched flooring nailed together at right angles to each other and having a layer of waterproofed building paper, such as tar paper, between them. Doors used on silos having continuous doorway openings are generally 3 feet high. Opening for door F Intermittent door Method of placing reinforcement in silo wall where intermittent door- way openings are used. When a silo has been filled with silage the contents subject the walls to considerable pressure. This is greatest at the bottom and greater at the bottom than usual when there is considerable liquid content held in the silo. To enable the walls to successfully resist the bursting pressure resulting from the weight of contents, the wall must be reinforced. Continuous reinforcement in the form of hoops is embedded at the center of the wall of monolithic silos. As the pressure in silos in- creases toward the bottom, more reinforcement must be SILOS 269 used in the lower portion of the structure than nearer the top. The amount of horizontal reinforcement re- quired if rods are used is shown in the table on page 272. The following example will explain the method of de- termining from this table what reinforcement to use. For an inside diameter of 14 feet the table specifies J^-inch round rods. The column at the extreme left of the table gives the distance from the top of the silo at intervals of 5 feet. Taking as an example a silo 40 feet high, run down the column to the line 35 to 40 feet, then read across the column shown under the diameter 14 feet. This gives the spacing as 12 inches which means that there must be a horizontal ring of J^-inch steel every 12 inches for the first 5 feet above the floor. For thfe next 5 feet the spacing changes to 14 inches and be- comes greater as the top is approached. How the spacing varies may be determined by simply reading the column under 14 feet diameter at the top. This method of de- termining horizontal reinforcement applies to all heights and sizes of silos. If square rods are used instead of round the spacing may be increased 30 per cent. In no case, however, should spacing be greater than 24 inches. Vertical reinforcement is needed in all monolithic silos and usually consists of ^-inch or J^^-inch steel rods spaced 30 inches apart along a line corresponding to the center of the silo wall. Either square, square twisted or round rods may be used but for convenience in wiring horizontal reinforcement in proper position, the square twisted rod is preferable. Various kinds of metal fabric, among them one com- monly referred to as triangle mesh, may be used as silo reinforcement instead of rods, but it is necessary to know that when substituting such mesh for rods, the correct amount of metal is being used. An accompanying table 270 SILOS s s 2 o o 5 d OS 3 0) o C i-trH^C4e4i.^^ tH C4 e>4 < " " ^t: ^ iH V d d a, a rj ^ iHi-i^^NNeq iH iH e4 04 e^ C9 5*® g , 11 tl CO 5 ^ » » _ p^H J iH^rti-*^«ieq N eq ,H rH C4 M "^" s H g "S '2 "S a*° J < B S C a k rt S d d d » Z T*i2 AOsANca^A A oa O) oe4Ac«o»c4 L, e TJ Q xj ^^ OOOrHrHtHO O O O O^Of-lOrH -7;} S a S" ~ * g 2 ""2 ,= * * "S » rtS; d d d »„ &, d « « « a% ~ 1 *4^^^^f-)»i 04 eq e 0> m Su r. 'T' 2; OOOOOtHiH tH O O O © O S'S ri ^ r-t iH fH fH iH iH *H C4 04 C4 04 04 Qi tt O „ a iaaOr-(«i>oeo w o> w lO oo o *•'" v^ O iH *-4 04 oa 04 CO eo eo co ^ ^ ^ la S-^ i«2= = = = = - = = = . = = §1 P-"vi lOOOrH^t-O CO to A 04 lO HH»4C40^C«> vf n to -^ •* SILOS 271 will help one to determine what style and how much mesh should be used for silos of various heights and diameters. Those fundamentals described elsewhere and pointed out as necessary to other concrete construction, apply to silo building. Definitely proportioned mixtures; clean, well graded aggregates; the correct amount of mixing r L 7-7- 7 Z"xe" rafter :) Catena- Cut 4- I.IZ ■Cut3if woven wire mesh reinforcement and with rods according to the size of the silo. For a silo 16 feet in diameter and less a J^ inch square rod with ends securely hooked together is placed around the base of the roof. For silos larger than 16 feet in diameter two of these rods should be used. The ends of the vertical rods projecting from the wall are bent over and buried in the concrete of the roof.- A }i inch or ^ inch rod is placed entirely around the filling window opening. SILOS 277 Concrete for the roof is mixed 1 :2 :3. The roof should be of an average thickness not less than 3 inches. The chute is fastened to the silo wall so as to enclose the doorways. It not only serves to protect from the weather and to prevent the scattering of silage as it is thrown down for feeding but if built of concrete as it should be, will protect the doors from fire. A chute 2J^ feet square inside is a convenient size. Where home made forms are used the chute is most easily built after the silo walls have been completed. When these are built, however, ^ inch rods 2 feet long are placed in the walls at each side of the doorway 2 feet apart vertically. They are hooked around the wall reinforcement and are bent up so they can be laid next to the outer form. When the form is removed these rods lying at the surj face of the concrete are bent straight so as to project into the chute and tied securely to the silo. Wood forms may be used for building the chute and the concrete should be reinforced with ^ inch rods 2 feet apart hori- zontally and vertically. In some silos having continuous doors, the heavy bars extending across the doorway openings are used instead of a special ladder. It is better, however, to provide a ladder on the inside of the chute. In a monolithic con- crete chute this can be done by setting U shaped rings of Yi inch iron in the holes left in the concrete, these holes being formed by tapered wooden plugs placed in the wood forms where the holes are desired. The following table which is based on a proportion of 1 :2j/2 :4 for wall and 1 :2j^ :5 for foundation and foot- ing, shows the quantity of concrete materials required for monolithic silos of various types, exclusive of roof; 278 SILOS QUANTITY OF CONCRETE MATERIALS FOR MONOLITHIC SILOS OF VARIOUS DIAMETERS These figures include footings and floor but not roof. Walls 6 inches thick. Continuous doors 2 feet wide. Figures are for barrels of cement and cubic yards of sand and pebbles: For Each Addil tional Inside For Silo 30 Feet High 5 Feet in Height Diam. Cement Sand Pebbles or Stone Cement Sand Pebbles or Stone Feet Bbl. Cu. Yd. Cu. Yd. Bbl. Cu. Yd. Cu. Yd. 12 35 13 21.5 4.8 1.8 2.9 14 40.5 15 25 5.6 2.1 3.4 16 47 17.3 28.7 6.4 2.4 3.8 18 53 19.6 32.6 1.Z 2.7 4.3 20 59 22 36.5 8.1 3.0 4.8 Frequently those desiring to build their own mon- olithic concrete silos have found it possible to provide themselves with commercial forms such as used by the rural contractor by interesting a number of their neigh- bors to join them in purchasing such equipment, and although the forms illustrated and described will result in a perfect silo if properly used, the commercial forms will be found much more convenient and satisfactory. They are built of sheet steel braced with angle iron and in other ways specially constructed so as to be rigid and easily handled. All commercial forms have certain gen- eral principles in common. They consist of rigid sheet metal properly stiffened, made in sections, each section being a part of a complete circle corresponding to the inner and outer circumference of the silo. These sec- tions are fitted with easily adjustable clamps to permit holding the sections firmly together. Because of their rigidity and accurate fit, the assem- bled form is easy to manipulate in raising and gives a true even wall surface. SILOS 279 When several farmers combine to purchase forms as suggested, the unit cost to each does not materially afltect the cost of the finished silo. In fact, where eight or ten silos are to be built with community owned forms as suggested, it is likely that the form cost of each silo will be less than the cost of the home made form built especially to serve one usage. After the ' community owned forms have served the purpose of those for whom they were originally obtained, they being durable and •Taper each side f Forma for arranging doorway optninga. long lived if properly handled, may be rented to others equally desirous of using them and thus may eventually be made to return their entire first cost. Concrete Block Silos. Block silos, as the name im- plies, are built of concrete block similar to those used in other concrete block construction with the exception, however, that the block are molded in special machines whereby they are given a form corresponding to part of the circumference of a circle so that when laid a course completes a circle. 280 SILOS Diatanee from top efsih Diameter of silo (Inside) IZft. Id. ft. /6/'t /fl^t ZO/t feet — 0- — / — — — = = z^= = ^ = z — ^_ / ^^ 1— . 1 — ■M* y ^— ^^ / ■■■ — — — — _» — ^ — — a — 4. - — o — — / — — 0— ^— fl ^— — ^-^ — / — — tf — — / — II /I E^£ -^~ J^ ^Mortar Joints € — — / — -1- Inches apart — o — — / — — — O — / — — / — 6 - — — _ / ^— "— 1 — — / — / — / — EfE to - — 1 — — / — / ..». # i.^ — / — — 1 — — / — _ / ^—i _ y ^_ — f.— It - — / — ^7 — — . / ~— -^ / — — / — — y— — / — ^_ y _ h"~ / — ~ — 2 — 14. - - 1— -/ — — / — — 2 — — / — — 2 — — / — / — / — ^-'Z — — / — — / — _^ / ... ^_ / ~~ — 2 — 16 — — 1— — 1 — -^2 — _£ _ — / — —z — — / .^ — / — 2- — /— — 1 — — 2 ^~ ^ 2 _— — / — a - ', — 2 — ^ / ^^ — 2 — 1:1 = — / — — / — ~i~ fNo.3 wires iO - — z — -'z- — 5 — — 2 — — 2 — — 2 — — 2 — above this — 1 — — 2 — — 2 — — 2 — line. It - — z — — ?— — 2 — — /— — ^ — — 2 — — 2 — — 2 — — z — — 2 — -^ — — 2 — — 2-; > C^inen round 24 - -^- — 2 — — 2 — -i- ^ t6 — 1 — 2 — 1^/ — rods below — 1 — z|zi -/^^ — 2 — this line. — z — — 2 — — 2 — / ^ — / — Z6 — — 2 — — . 2 — L_ / _ — / ~~ — 2 — — 2 — T ~~" / — — 2 — ._ f ■■ — — 2 — ^~' 2 "^ — 2 — — / — 30 — — z — — z — — 2 — — 2 — yfC — / — — 2 — — 2 — — 2 — -L- y — — 2 — — / — 32 — —2 — — ^— : ^ / ^~ .. y — — / — -l- — 2-y _ ^ ^_ ■^ / *^ — 2 — — 2^ — / _ _^ i— — / — 34 - — z — — 2 — — / — — 2 — — 2 — ■r / — / — 2 — — / — 36 — F/— ^ / ^~ ^ / _ — 2 — ^^ 2 ~^ -2 — —5 — -_ / '•« — / — » 9 _ — / — ^*^ ^i~ — 2— J 30 - ~*2 ~7 — / — _ / ^~ — • / i— >j — 2 — "^ Z ^r = f= _ 9 — « — 2 — — /— ■ -^ Z T^ — 7 — — / — — 2 — AO - -zt— — /— -2 — —2 — Table ahovAng m^fhoi of Aetermining retruired quantity and «paei«9 0/ rein/orcomant. SILOS 281 The details of block making given elsewhere apply to the making of silo block. These block can be home made but usually the limited use made of them by the farmer, say for one or two silos, does not warrant the purchase of a machine to make them so it is generally best to buy block of a nearby cement products plant. Such block are more likely to be uniform and well made and insure a more satisfactory job. Excavation, floor and footing for the concrete block silo are exactly described for the monolithic silo. As a matter of fact, all well built silos, regardless of the ma- terials used, must depend on concrete for the floor, foot- ing and foundation wall. After the floor and footing is twenty-four hours or more old, the first course of block may be laid on it. The line along which to lay this can be marked on the top of the footing by a sweep just as the circumference for the monolithic silo excavation or wall is marked out. The first course of block should be laid carefully to line, bedded in about J4 inch of 1 :2 or 1 :2j^ cement mortar. In each course the block are so arranged that they break joints. An even number of block or half block complete the circle. As the block are laid the wall should be fre- quently plumbed to insure that it is being laid up truly vertical. The average home builder is not so competent at masonry work as he may be with concrete or other farm building or repair, so it will generally be found desirable to have a brick mason lay the block. In this way a more attractive structure can be obtained, the work will be done more quickly and, the chances are, at no greater expense. Block silos also must be reinforced. Provision for reinforcement, which is confined to horizontal hoops, is usually made by casting a groove in the upper face of 282 SILOS the block. Usually ^^ inch rod or No. 3 wire is used as reinforcement, laid in the mortar joints. The table shows the quantity of this reinforcement necessary at each joint. As in monolithic silos, the pressure is greater at the bot- tom; therefore two strands of wire are not sufficient at the bottom of a large block silo, so a ^ inch round rod is specified for the lower portion, that is, in each joint of the lower 6 feet of the wall. From that point upward % inch wire or rods are used. This wire usually comes in coils and must be partly straightened before using to make it convenient to lay in the mortar joint. This can be done by pulling it from the coil through a piece of % inch gas pipe about 30 inches long, this being curved slightly in a direction reverse to that de- sired to straighten the wire. Intermittent doors with concrete door frames are to be preferred for a block silo. The interior of the block silo may be given a coat of cement water paint like that used on the monolithic silo. The roof and chute may be built in about the same manner except that the chute instead of being monolithic concrete is usually built of block specially made for this purpose. Cement Stave Silos. Both monolithic and concrete block silos meet all requirements of the ideal silo. These requirements are also met by the cement stave silo, one of the newer types of concrete silos but one that is com- ing rapidly into popular favor. This silo is known as the cement stave silo because of the units of which it is built. These are slabs of concrete 2J^ to 3 inches thick, 10 to 12 inches wide and from 28 to 30 inches long, depending upon the particular type or stave of unit. When used to lay up the wall the staves are set on edge and usually are made so one stave interlocks with adjoining ones. There is some difference in methods prevailing among the different stave manufacturers or SILOS 283 systems of building stave silos as to how staves join in the wall, but in the main these slight differences are not of great consequence since all types of cement staves produce a first class silo and choice of any type is there- fore largely a matter of personal fancy. Like the other types of concrete silos described, the cement stave silo is wind-proof, rot-proof and fireproof. The weight of concrete stave silos makes them particu- larly stable even when empty. There is no known in- stance of any concrete stave silo having blown down. Foundation construction for the cement stave silo is like that already described for monolithic and block silos. Excavation, foundation and floor having been Jt^^J'tlf^-^'^""^ r i'i^ie' carriage bolta^ £thicK add Z piece \f ' ^----^ Jt..,^^iM»i Sketch shovring Aetils of doorway construction. made, the first course of staves is set upon the founda- tion, formed of full and part length staves alternating. This starts the breaking of joints which is maintained to the top row, this row being finished exactly as the start was made, namely with full and part length staves. As each course of staves is placed in position, a steel band or hoop is put on and tightened. When the struc- ture is finished more hoops must be added on the lower part of the silo to insure that spacing is closer there than at the top because of the added pressure on this portion of the structure walls. When all of the staves have been set, the hoops are tightened to take up any slack. The inside wall of the cement stave silo is usually painted with a cement water paint. This fills the small 284 SILOS water pockets on the surface of the foundation and seals the seams between adjoining staves and gives a smooth, even, watertight surface. Cement stave silos can be built with continuous door- ways from top to bottom without weakening the struc- ture. Specially designed door frames of concrete or steel are used and both types have given excellent satisfaction. Door openings are usually about 24 by 36 inches which allows plenty of room to remove silage. Convenient lad- der steps are provided and doors fit tight to door frames to keep out air. Cement stave silos, like monolithic and block silos, should be equipped with a chute. This can be built of staves similar to those used in building silo walls. One particular advantage of the cement stave silo which has been responsible for its increase in popularity in the last two years or more is the fact that it can be very quickly erected. Speed of construction is neces- sarily limited on monolithic silos because forms can be set but once every twenty-four hours. This limits the amount of work that can be done to one lift of forms. The cement stave silo can be built in less time than any other type of masonry silo. An average sized one is usually built complete in three days. It is not recom- mended that any one attempt to erect his own cement stave silo. Many cement product plants are now spe- cializing in the manufacturing of cement silo staves and in addition thereto usually contract to erect the silo. As a rule the cement stave silo is equipped with a galvanized metal roof. NOTE : The author Is indebted to the Portland Cement association for the drawings and most of the data in this section on Silos. HOW CONCRETE MEETS HOME REQUIREMENTS Before the intending home worker starts to build he usually has given considerable thought to the various things that he would like to incorporate in his home. If he has done this he has probably formed a mental picture of a structure that, to him at least, represents the ideal. The home or house must be attractive both inside and out. It must make possible comforts which he wants and en- Concrete block farmhouse and concrete block watt enclosing the hfOuse grounds. joys. It must not be too costly ; it must express the builder's ideas of type of architecture ; and if it does all these things and has these good points it will prove a source of satis- faction to the builder and owner and will likely prove a good investment. Having all of these recognized good points will make the house possessing them attractive to some one else, which is desirable if through necessity the owner is com- pelled at some time to sell it. 2SS 286 THE CONCRETE HOUSE What a home costs in the first instance is not its total cost. Expenditures for insurance, painting and other main- tenance and repair represent a part of the investment and should be considered as part of the cost. How much the total of these additional items can be reduced depends on how well built the house is, and particularly how nearly it meets the idea of permanence. In order to appreciate the deficiencies of existing houses, whether in the country, small town or city, we must re- member that fireproof construction has been the exception An example of concrete architecture in which the monotony of the concrete surface is relieved by combining with brick. rather than the rule, particularly in the home, and this is due almost entirely to a mistaken idea that the cost of building fire-safe and for permanence is beyond the average home builder's ability to meet. Foundations are usually built as nearly permanent as modern knowledge and skill can make them, yet when the foundation is finished the house builder often ends with a firetrap. The past two or three years have seen greater use of concrete in home building than perhaps any ten or twenty years preceding. There are a number of ways in which THE CONCRETE HOUSE 287 concrete can be used to secure desirable degrees of fire- safeness in a house. One of these consists of erecting a structural frame of steel to which metal, lath or fabric is fastened and over which there is applied Portland cement stucco. This subject has been covered in another section so will not be repeated here. In steel frame construction metal lath or fabric is also attached to the frame on the interior, enabling interior plastering to be applied and thus resulting in thorough fire- proofing of the steel frame. Partitions may be of steel frame and metal like the exterior walls or they may be of hollow cement tile, clay tile, concrete brick or concrete block. Floors and roofs may be solid slabs of reinforced concrete or may be concrete tile or reinforced monolithic concrete. Metal lath is attached to the underside of beams to receive plaster of ceilings. Another method consists of making walls of concrete block or similar units, with partitions, floor and roof as just described. Concrete block walls may be solid or hol- low. The same applies to partitions. In another system walls, partitions, floors and roofs may be monolithic concrete throughout, reinforced if necessary. Such houses are built by depositing the concrete mixture into previously erected forms in exactly the same manner as would be used to build any other structure on the farm. Still another system of which many types have been developed is what is known as the unit system. In each so-called unit system the fundamental principles involve using precast reinforced units. Slabs are then set up and fixed into position. The advantage of such system is that designs may be largely standardized without sacrifice to variety from an architectural standpoint. Walls, partitions, floors and roofs may be solid or hollow, and also may be precast and assembled at the site of the structure. 288 THE CONCRETE HOUSE The concrete house, regardless of the system employed to build it has a measure of stability not secured by any other building material. Monolithic concrete makes the house like one solid stone. It will grow stronger with age. Masonry however, well laid, is a collection of small units and cannot be expected to have anywhere near the same stability. For this reason the order of preference for the type of construction used in concrete houses may be first Concrete house with molded atone courses intended to resemble this class of masonry. monolithic concrete construction, then some one of the unit types, preference being given to the construction in- volving the largest units. One should not overlook the distinctive merits of con- crete block because these units are easy to obtain of high class quality, and workmen can be found in any community who can carry out the plans. Concrete provides a sure barrier to the entrance of rats and mice, and because of the natural density of the material does not afford permanent lodging places for disease germs and vermin. THE CONCRETE HOUSE 289 The ideal home is one in which a comfortable tempera- ture can be maintained, summer or winter, one requiring relatively little effort to keep warm during cold weather. No other material makes these ends possible in so great a degree as concrete. The adaptability of the material is such as to make it possible to follow any admired type of architecture, in fact the artistic possibilities of concrete have been given far too little appreciation. Monotony of plain An example of stucco construction. walls can be relieved by careful planning of forms to intro- duce raised or depressed medallions, moldings and other simple embellishments that give decorative finish in keeping with the structure or the material. If block are used a type should be chosen that does not have a face attempting to imitate rough cut stone. Concrete being a distinctive build- ing material and possessing within itself unusual merits and possibilities, should not be used to discredit either itself or another building material by trying to imitate something that it is not. 290 THE CONCRETE HOUSE Tiicre are rnauy tyiies of concrete block on *he market which are dependable and the use of which produce eco- nomical construction. The particular advantage of block is that with some of the approved types it is easier to secure hollow wall construction than by any other use of concrete and the ad'/aniage of hollow wall construe. lori is that the dead-air space thus introduced in the wall insulates the in- terior of the house from extremes of outside temperature. The thickness of concrete walls for two-story house Monolithic concrete bungalow with stucco finish. would ordinarily be 12 inches for the lower floor and 8 inches for the second floor. These dimensions may, how- ever, be varied under certain conditions, such as the size of the house, loads which must be carried by the walls, and other considerations which would necessarily enter into the widely varying possibilities of concrete design. The matter of reinforcing concrete walls or other parts of a structure has been greatly simplified in late years by the introduction of various patented forms of metal fabric or wire lath. THE CONCRETE HOUSE 291 There are many possible ways of using concrete for floors in the concrete house and one will not realize the full benefits of the construction material unless it is used everywhere it can be. In cold climates walls should either be double, or when plastering is done furring should be so placed that the top coat is brought out a sufficient distance from the concrete to introduce a dead-air space for insulation. If this is not done there will be dampness on the concrete wall due not to An example of the architectural possibilitlea of concrete in home building. moisture passing through the concrete but to condensation of moisture from the interior atmosphere when it comes in contact with the relatively colder wall surface. An example of this can be found in the pitcher of ice-water brought into the warm room. The pitcher does not leak but immediately condensation from interior atmosphere forms on the cold surface of the pitcher. An important detail when considering fire-safe construc- tion of any house is the stairway. In case of fire, stairways serve as flues and help fire to spread. Stairs can be built of reinforced monolithic concrete or of precast units prop- erly assembled. Either system is effective. Interior floors 292 THE CONCRETE HOUSE can be made very attractive by proper surface finish. If they are built of two course construction as is usual in residences, then the top or wearing course can be composed of a mixture of either gray or white cement and selected aggregates such as markle or granite chips, and when the concrete has hardened the surface can be ground down by using one of the several types of rotary floor polishing ma- chines, thus exposing the aggregates and giving them a polish. Exterior finish of concrete can be modified in many ways as described elsewhere under concrete surface finish. This discussion of concrete for house building has not been presented with the expectation that the home worker will aspire to build his own house but rather to acquaint him with the possibility and desirability of this material in home building. Concrete means the elimination of insurance on the building and doing away with the cost of upkeep and repairs. For this reason it is important to learn that what seems cheapest in the beginning is likely to prove the most expensive in the end. In from five to eight years after the average house has been built cost of repairs becomes an im- portant item, and long before that time the concrete house from its economy in freedom of maintenance, fire-safeness and other desirable qualities will have proved itself not only the better investment from the investment standpoint but actually cheaper. CONCRETE FOR THE HOGHOUSE Hogs respond just as quickly to good treatment — ^to clean, healthful, sanitary quarters — as do any other live stock. . In fact they are very easily affected by extremes of heat and cold and their quarters should be planned and built with this fact in mind. Especially do the newly farrowed pigs require necessary protection from the elements. With- Attracfive concrete block hog house. out warm quarters they cannot be expected to do well. They must also have dry quarters, abundance of light, which means sunlight, and must have housing under conditions that permit efficient ventilation. They must have an abundance of pure air. Sanitation is all important and nothing else can be maintained in such a thoroughly sanitary condition as concrete construction. Concrete walls and floors are 293 294 HOGHOUSES without cracks and crevices in which filth can lodge, and such surfaces are easily disinfected when necessary. Per- manence comes in for consideration nowadays and concrete secures this end. Reasonable first cost is also met by concrete, and ultimate cheapness results from the fact that the annual maintenance expenditures that are necessary to wood structures are done away with entirely. An accompanying design points out the possibility of one other feature which is too often overlooked in planning Monolithic concrete hog house. Notice windows in the roof so placed as to insure sunlight in both rows of pens. farm structures, that is, a reasonable degree of attractive- ness. There is no longer the necessity of erecting ugly or at least unattractive farm structures since that wonderfully adaptable material, concrete, is limited in its possibilities only by the ingenuity of the man who is using it. A little fore- thought in the way of planning a pleasing exterior for any building is well repaid through the years which one must look at and use it. The site for the hoghouse should be carefully chosen. The building should be located so that it will be convenient to a suitable hog lot or range and convenient also for feed- ing. Other chapters have discussed some of the necessary HOGHOUSES 29S -UIO-UZZ- ,<7-,2|-.^,^-|'.g^?h^^.6«-,2^„6^*-|;2;Z 1 296 HOGHOUSES adjuncts to hog raising such as hog wallows and' feeding floors. These will not be touched upon in this chapter. It goes without saying that a modern hoghouse should be served by such appointments. The site should be chosen with particular reference to good drainage. If good natural drainage does not exist, then the area which is to be used for the hoghouse should be prepared for the purpose. The entire site which will eventually be concrete floored should be prepared for the purpose by digging off all vegetation 2if* Kattmra £A'oA fKtana Ibundatton te ^Sdmlow froat and te ^^ SECTION A-A ' |./«%j Detailed cross section of the structure suggested in the preceding plan. and refuse matter and preparing an 8 or 10-inch subbase of well compacted clean gravel containing but little sand. Footings for the walls should extend a sufficient distance below ground level to prevent possible disturbance from frost. Before walls have been concreted, provision must be made to insert drains that will serve to keep the subbase for the floor well drained. The house should face south. The upper tier of windows will admit the sunlight to the back, or north side pens. Gates and panels at the front of pens are removable, this being provided for by a flange set into the concrete floor attached HOGHOUSES 297 by bolts to another flange which in turn has pipe threaded into it, thus forming posts to which panels and gates may be hung. Fenders in the pens are attached in a similar manner SECTION A-A ss'-o" Plan of concrete koghouae with double row of pens. and are built of 2-inch galvanized pipe, threaded into the flanges and connected up with elbows. Two pens, one at each end, or one pen, if that will provide sufficient accom- 298 HOGHOUSES Sus/>*naea \ / cei/ing — ■ ; SECTION A-A t/M i/ro'm. Part section of concrete hoghouse showing how the design meets : guirementa as to permitting sun to reach both rows of pens. North c- South Elevation Suggested end elevation of concrete hoghouse. HOGHOUSES 299 modation, can be entirely concrete walled and made to serve as a feed room, or if two are used for this purpose, one may contain the feed cooker. While concrete floors are not cold for stock if the animals are sufficiently bedded, hogs are a little more dif- ficult to provide for in this way than other animals, since their tendencies are to disturb a bed prepared for them, thus they would lie on the concrete surface a greater portion of the time. It is therefore well to build a removable slat floor in one corner or at one side of the pens for a bed. te'Gfobe renf/'/afyr. z. Cast and west Elevation Suggested side elevation of concrete hoghouse. In ordinary weather proper manipulation of the windows will secure necessary ventilation without exposing the ani- mals to drafts. In cold climates or during extreme cold spells it is usually advisable to provide some means for heat- ing the hoghouse so that a proper degree of warmth may be maintained. One or two small oil heating stoves will usually be found sufficient under most cases where artificial heat is necessary. A concrete driveway through the center of the hoghouse permits entrance of team and wagon so that feed can readily be hauled in or the wagon used when desired to clean out pens, Pen floors should be sloped slightly toward the 300 HOGHOUSES gutters at each side of the driveway and the driveway in turn sloped from its center toward the gutters so that when washing pens and driveway, the liquids will be conveyed to the drain, this leading to a manure pit where all liquid fertilizer may be conserved. DoorfXM siring If? , \m Tt I ■^s«&- ir/re neffyhff parf///oi?s — ) V^ fenafers "7 J lY/re ne///f?ff J par^/'t/ons ^ TYPlCiM- UA.VOUT OF PEN concrete co/u/?fi7. Enlarged details of various features of pen. On the average farm the hoghouse is the poorest or most neglected building of the farm group, and the worst adapted to the purpose for which it is used. Good barns and good other buildings may be seen on many farms but the hoghouse is generally given scant consideration. It is just as good economy to put up hoghouses that will be free from maintenance and that will help the hogs to help you make money as it is to put up good buildings for any other farm use. HOGHOUSES 301 No piggery is fit for its purpose unless there is direct sunshine on the floor of every pen, dryness, warmth; fresh air, freedom from draughts, and sanitation. No one can afford for any purpose, a building so expensive that interest and depreciation will eat up its usefulness, and such a '^ I -e'-o'- tl^/re neff-in^ ■ rr/re nernn^ -\ \ pane/ Coffcrete feecf/no \^hprfff/7/o Ci/Tcfer fiY/unefer f/oorj ifneces^ar/' 6ECTION B-B Details of fender and typical floor section. building may quite readily be built by the misguided use of impermanent materials and unnecessary frills that will make the burden of its upkeep soon prove it the most expensive structure in the end. The first cost of concrete is the only one. The maintenance, sanitation and all other good quali- ties are built into it at the time it is planned and con- structed, if forethought and good workmanship are always on the job. CONCRETE FOR THE FARM DAIRY HOUSE National health requires that milk and cream be produced under the strictest sanitary surroundings, that they be quickly cooled to the required temperature and kept free from contaminating influences until marketed. Economy Monolithic concrete milk-house. requires that labor-saving equipment be used and that per- manent, fireproof, rat and vermin-proof, sanitary materials be used in the construction of the dairy house. For esthetic reasons a material must be selected harmonizing with the neighboring buildings on the farm. Concrete has been found especially suited to the strictest dairy house requirements of every section of the country. The accompanying plans, 302 MILKHOUSES 303 showing a concrete dairy house, represents a structure adapted to the average farm. The size of the dairy house is largely dependent on the n— i-^^^f-i—Mi -i-H l-t — I M — . J J l _.! — Ij Section and elevation of circular concrete milk cooling house showing position of reinforcement and other details. size of the herd, whether whole milk or only cream is saved, frequency of trips to market, and possibly other conditions. One should avoid making the house so large Alternate floor plans of circular concrete milkhouse showing two types of milk cooling tanks. as to serve as a storage house or repository for miscellane- ous farm tools and equipment which should be kept else^ where. The dairy house should be for one purpose only 304 MILKHOUSES and extra size should be for possible dairy requirements only. The dairy house should be easy of access from the house, the barn and the icehouse, as well as close to the driveway, for easy loading oa the wagons for town trips. Wall reinforced wiih % round rods as shown. Rods doubled around openings and confinous around corners. Diagonal rods £-6' long of- corners of openings. Perspective elevation of rectangular milk cooling tank, illustrating position and method of placing reinforcement. The site should be high to provide drainage for sanitation. A shady spot is an advantage in summer, although the sterilizing effect of sunshine should not be overlooked. Good drainage is necessary. To the natural drainage of the soil must be added the waste from the cooling tank as well as the waste from the floor drain. Where con- siderable water is used for cooling, supplied either from MILKHOUSES 305 springs by gravity or from wells by pumping, a liberal sized drain must be laid to a suitable outlet. The frequent washing down which the entire interior of the house should receive makes adequate drainage imperative. 9^0" '.TS-TT*— .-^ .-r. -rr s^-. rr.rK-y- "^ -] nieh ^^ar paper joir^ Coo/in.persq.H: ^ Place re/nfohcmg J4. above bottom of roof. 8-^0" ■ _L ■^ .ft. ■■'?.-e..:-.°:-—-i>. f..--».,-. :!i &ottom, of •Fipundaf-ion\ to be be/oi^ frost \ ' Vertical section through rectangular concrete milk cooling hbuae, showing reinforcing requirements for roof slab. More concrete dairy houses will help to save a part of the 30 per cent waste of dairy products now common on the average farm. They will make the work easier as well as more profitable. CONCRETE LINING FOR THE WELL Importance of Keeping Drinking Water Pure. One of the most necessary appointments of the farm is a well to furnish a supply of good, pure drinking water, and a well should be so located and lined that the water will be protected against all possibility of contamination from outside sources. The old wooden well lining and cover not only permits particles of soil and vegetable matter to drop into the water but soon reaches a state of decay when it becomes a source of danger to life and to limb from con- tamination and possibility of accidents. The top covering becomes loose, boards are pushed into or dropped down the well and the opening is a serious menace to farm ani- mals and children about the place. How to Line a Well With Concrete. Concrete well lining and platform will overcome and for all time prevent 308 WELL LINING 309 these dangers. The concrete well lining should extend down into the well from 6 to 8 feet or sufficient depth to Some details of forma for building concrete well lining. prevent burrowing of animals and seepage through the upper layers of soil. In localities where an underground water stratum of undesirable quality is found at greater depth than this, the lining should be extended down far enough to exclude such water. In lining a weir with con- crete first remove the top cover as well as the old lining down to the desired depth. At that depth a platform must be built to form a stage on which to work. This platform may rest on the old lining or else be supported against the soil within the well. With this platform in place and all of the old lining thoroughly removed, forms for the new lining may be built. These should consist of 310 WELL LINING 1 by 4 inch strips beveled at the edge to permit their being placed around in a circle with tight joints facing the con- Canfs cuffro/r? 2''xe*' Plan of Forms Sketch showing method (>f huttding forma and oasemhHng them for oonoretb well lining. Crete. One of the accompanying illustrations shows this in the sectional plan of forms. These boards should be WELL LINING 311 braced by 2 by 4's at sufficient intervals to insure that they will not bulge or give w^ay under the pressure of the fresh concrete. These forms are 4 feet long as shown in the sketch of the vertical section and are so bolted together that they are easily collapsible when necessary to take them down. As a rule only interior forms will be needed if they are braced and blocked sufficient distance from the earth wall when concreting. After the form section has been filled with concrete the forms should be left in place P/atform Plan Section through well showing concrete lining and platform at ground level. until the concrete has thoroughly hardened. Then they may be removed and a support or platform built for cast- ing the concrete cover slab or if this is not too large to be handled in place by three or four men, it may be cast separately in a form made for that purpose and when it is hardened be moved to its position over the well curb. A platform not less than 4 inches thick and reinforced with J4 Jnch round rods 8 or 10 inches center to center should be made. An opening must be provided for insert- ing the pump and another one to serve as a manhole which 312 WELL LINING may be necessary if the well has to be cleaned out at some time. A tight fitting concrete cover should be made for Plan of concrete pavement on ground around well lining or curb. this manhole, provision being made for it when the cover slab or platform is cast. The edges of the manhole open- ing should be beveled and the cover for the manhole open- ing correspondingly beveled to fit into this opening. Concrete for a well lining platform should be mixed not leaner than 1 :2 :4 although a 1:2:3 mixture is pref- erable. The pebbles or broken stones used should not exceed 1 inch in largest dimension. DETAILS OF A FORM FOR A SIMPLE FLOWER BOX In the section on forms there was illustrated details of a form for solid concrete block 9 inches square by 6 inches high. Accompanying sketches show how this form, by slight extension, may be adapted to casting an object with raised panels, or if raised panels are not wanted, then 1 Eleva+ion. De+ail of side'c* 'i mimm^mm. n SAcfion A-A. depressed ones may be provided by cutting out suitable recesses in the inside form face. By a little elaboration this form can be extended to cast a rectangular flower box. Forms necessary are similar in every respect to the simple 313 314 FLOWER BOXES square forms previously illustrated and described be- low. In order to prevent the sides of the form from bulging in or out when placing or tamping concrete, braces should be placed at convenient points along the "ground rod % 2 Hedge. ^ L Side Elevation ~7^ Wedge/ ff-frf' ^ Bloch lal ^ ^ •^froundrod f'Exterior form. I ;: ■::'//////////////r'y/////mmyM^^^^^ Plan of Form and (fore Assembled. Birfension of the preceding design adapting it to a longer type of flower hox. sides. These will keep the form pieces properly lined up. Blocks a and b are nailed to the work bench to keep the outside form and core from shifting. The upper sketch shows a variation of the form to provide for depressed panels. Section throughf form show- ing concrete in place and core for small rectangu- lar flower box. Various details of form construc- tion and elevation of rectangular flower box showing method of vary- ing exterior by changing from depressed to rawed Form Assembl«d Showing panels. Concrcta in place DETAILS FOR CONCRETE GARDEN BENCH One of the most attractive pieces of garden furniture that can be made of concrete is a lawn seat such as shown in sketches detailed herewith. The form for the seat slab consists of part a. This has mitred joints and as assembled Elevation or BCncm End Clcvation Inverted puan of 8la.b yefeata Section through SlaS Form. Tietails of concrete lawn or garden seat showing bottom plan of slab, side and end elevation and section through slab suggesting method of constructing forms. is held in position on the workbench by small blocks. Part a when made of the shape shown should always terminate in a small member c. If the curve is brought down to a feather edge the concrete soon slivers off. Mortises are formed by holding part 4 in position shown .315 316 GARDEN BENCH by means of cleats e extending across the top of the form. Legs of the bench are shown as the pieces /, g, h, j, k, I, m. Piece / is cut out from- one piece by a band saw and the surface smoothed with sand paper. Brackets are formed by nailing parts h to the side. Sides are cut out at the top for brackets. Part / is nailed to parts h. Part t is nailed to the work bench in proper position, the legs right Cufotif Section G-G. Plan of Form with Top Piece removed. Details of form construction for casting legs for lawn bench. side up. Concrete is placed in the form from the top after which piece k is set in place and the opening "l filled with concrete. Care should be taken to have the tenon / and mortise d in proper position so seat slab can be properly assembled. Reinforcement in the seat slab may be J4 inch round rods spaced 6 inches center to center or some one of the several kinds of reinforcing fabrig. Reinforcement should be placed near the lower edge of the slab. CONCRETE WALLOW FOR THE HOG LOT One of the most profitable structures for the farm where hogs are kept is a concrete wallow where the animals can cool their skin during hot weather and can find the great comfort that the hog wallow affords in helping to rid them of lice and other parasites. In the sketches shown of a concrete hog wallow it will be seen that many of its details are like the concrete manure pit or concrete trough. The wallow, of course, is built so that the top of side walls is at about ground level. Excavation should be made the required depth, which in this case is 2 feet below grade, and the soil where the floor or the bottom of the wallow is to be laid should be thoroughly compacted. Various sketches show the details Concrete hog wallow which has the added feature of a roof to protect animals from heat of sun. that make almost all features of the construction self-evi- dent. One of the sketches shows a section which illus- trates the simple forms necessary for this work. A footing 317 318 HOG WALLOW is shown on the side and end walls but this is not neces- sary unless the soil is not firm. Reinforcement of the walls consists of ^4 inch round rods spaced 6 inches apart 1]^ affirm wman aicMrmffen h ma^m m^jforoMitrflrmsalf^ tUttlltnpnitm iia»^ mhmn fnr//5 aa^ fife/fi7f9 ffr» _ . eenatruetm^ saparakfy. J. •^ ^Pi^httalk.— Mittet ereNt9rfoo90 sot/. Dafoi/affoeffitf fo ^ usatf nfh^n fivaf /s tf»»p-\ Jlprvn Section \ Focf/tfff Curbing --? ^'-raw'jiy^ ^ r — ri — . — r~ r — IT "!^T — I L^ — Li J 1 i 1 — S-i 1 /Vfff/hfi Side Elevation ifischargt CoffcrmSg irmOi. ^r Joint ^roynef Jnttar fyem of mo/// s ■ Corruffatmd ine/ihm Crnnbima oii9r- Plan Transverse and longitvMnal sections of concrete hog wallow showing suggested details of form construction, also a plan of the wallow giving all dimensions. center to center horizontally and 2 feet vertically, these rods being tied together where they intersect. Arrange- ments must be made for an inlet pipe, which by suitable valve connection, can also be made to serve as overflow when the required quantity of water is in the tank. At one end the wallow floor slopes upward to make it easy for animals to get in and out of the wallow. This HOG WALLOW 319 sloped section is shown with small corrugations in the surface provided to enable the animals to secure a more certain foothold when entering and leaving. At the en- trance end there is shown a concrete pavement placed there to keep the immediate surroundings at entranceway from working up into a mudhole. This pavement is 5 feet wide and 8 feet long. The interior dimensions of the wallow are 7 feet 6 inches by 9 feet for the top portion with an added 4 feet 6 inches of length at the end where the floor slopes upward for an exit. In concreting a 1 :2 :4 or 1 :2j^ :4 mixture may be used of quaky consistency. Enclosure walls are built first. After these are hardened and forms may be removed, the con- crete floor is laid, remembering to provide suitable arrange- ments for inlet pipe. An earth fill is placed to required grade at the end where the floor slopes upward for an exit. The hog wallow should be located where it will be convenient to pipe clean water into it and likewise to drain and clean when necessary. This suggests a slightly elevated spot as a desirable location. It is very easy to arrange an accessory compartment or pit in which a valve mechanism can be placed similar to those used in connection with flushing bowls of the interior toilet. Such mechanism will automatically control the amount of water kept in the wallow. Various kinds or types of solutions are on the market which can be poured into the wallow and will float on the surface, thus making the application of medication or in- secticides automatic. In other words, the hog will do the work himself. DESIGN FOR CONCRETE MANURE PIT Manure Pit Saves Waste. The U. S. Department of Agriculture has estimated that millions of dollars worth of fertilizer could be saved annually if every farm had a concrete manure pit where stable wastes could be properly conserved. p^^"'"'"~ A fine covered concrete manure pit imth, double litter carrier. This structure makes certain that all of the valuable contents of the manure will be preserved. A manure pit is a form of tank in that it must be watertight to hold liquid contents which are the most valu- able part of stable manure. It is also desirable that the pit be roofed over to prevent surplus water from rains ac- cumulating in it and thus preventing controlled decomposi- tion of the contents. Manure pits are made in various ways, depending upon the location and quantity of manure to be handled into them. Some are built so that the top or side walls are level with the ground ; some are built so that the floor is on 320 MANURE PIT 321 a level with the ground and the side walls two or three feet above it; some are built with the i^oor below ground and walls partly below and above, in addition to which they are frequently arranged so that a wagon can back into one end or perhaps drive in one end and out the other. Particular style of pit will necessarily be governed by in- dividual requirements. J5_ ■e'-TOt 0' Piicti floor 11 =FF Plan Hanhelt 7'4'rota apoMf ^■^/fsm/u firm nlnfenm^ a oiTe€.imrs manfmffoorfajtefra- Sotfi iwfm>/fy fuini/. ffsaff, trai irir» Plan and section of concrete manure pit with cistern. Details. Accompanying drawings suggest plans and sections of small concrete manure pits with cistern. The cistern is desirable in order that excess liquid content may flow into it and from this container be pumped to a tank wagon for distribution over the soil as desired. The con- 322 MANURE PIT struction of this cistern is in all fundamentals the same as that of a cistern illustrated and described elsewhere for water. The plans show principal details of the work. At one end of the pit is a gutter to which excess liquids drain and are led to the 6 inch tile line entering the cistern. The floor of the pit is pitched slightly so that liquids will drain towards this gutter. Walls of the -pit are 6 inches thick at the top and battered on the inside so that they are 15 inches thick at the bottom. Inside depth of the pit is 2 feet 8 inches. It is paved with a concrete floor 5 inches thick. I Vi /O/hr Corruqations 2. Plan % ■^24fi.- 10 in-. -afi-^ Plan 0/ concrete manure pit with cistern. This plan provides driveway slope by means of which wagons may he backed into the pit for loading. If the soil is firm no reinforcement is required in the floor, but if not firm then the floor should be reinforced with J4 inch round rods spaced every foot or 18 inches center to center or with some one of the several kinds of wire mesh fabric used as concrete reinforcement. The cistern which is shown in secti&n with the section of the concrete manure pit has about a 5 feet clear depth for liquid without permitting return flow to the manure pit. It is 3 feet wide by 5 feet long inside measurements. Re- MANURE PIT 323 324 MANURE PIT inforcement of manure pit side walls is not necessary ex- cept to prevent possible settlement. Otherwise the only reinforcement needed will be two rods about 4 feet long, bent around each corner and embedded in the concrete to prevent cracking at corners from expansion due to tem- perature changes. Capacity of pit must be regulated by the number of stock to be kept. A pit of the dimensions shown in the drawings is of sufficient capacity to accommodate the stable wastes from about IS cows. Usually the manure pit is a\(s''xi4' Rafters 24-"ctrs. ^ Pitch ■e\e"xlyi!* 7 • i.S s.t S.( 40 IS «.o s.s »7 10.6 It.l 1S.8 IB.O 17.1 IS.t IS.S lO.f o.t «.l «.r S.I S.S 7.7 S.S (.f 7.1 7.7 S.S ll.S IS.t Table giving dimensions of fence posts, volume of concrete per post, with amount of reinforcing material required for the various sizes, and quantity of cement and other materials for ten posts. Many different makes of commercial molds are on the market. If any large quantity of posts is to be made {orm$ should be of metal, as they are not subject to warp- FENCE POSTS 359 ing and serve almost indefinite use if properly cared for. The home made mold shown will make posts 7 feet long, 3 by 3 inches at the top and 5 by 5 inches at the bottom, making four posts at one operation. Removing Post From Mold. After the concrete has been in the mold 12 hours, the wedges in the end are knocked out, releasing the clamps which hold the sides in place so that the sides and partitions may be removed and the posts allowed to remain undisturbed on the pal- let until they have become strong enough to handle. Oiling Forms. The form lumber must be protected from warping by painting with two or three coats of linseed oil and kerosene, which will also prevent con- crete from sticking to the mold. The posts should be allowed to remain several days lying flat until they have ">.:•;•■■•♦.■ •-■■.■.v-.« Typical sections of concrete fence posts showing proper position of reinforcement in the sections illustrated. sufficient strength to permit up-ending, but they should not be stacked against each other until they are ten days or two weeks old. Neither should they be allowed to dry out after making but should be protected in the same manner as described for concrete block, by covering* with wet burlap or other material or by frequent sprink- ling so that they will harden instead of drying out. Comer Posts and Gate Posts. Corner posts should be larger than line posts and should have additional re- inforcement. 8 by 8 inches is a good size for corner posts 'and they should be reinforced by 4 9/16 inch steel rods or other reinforcement of equal cross section. Gate posts are generally still more massive and be- cause of that are usually cast in place, forms being made in position where the post is to stand. Reinforcement 360 FENCE POSTS required for such posts will depend upon the length of fence line attached to them and the strain or pull exerted by that line, also by the weight of gate that is to be hung to the posts. In general the principles of fence post manufacture apply to the making of posts intended for lighting stand- ards, for clothes line posts and for hitching posts. For gate posts, corner posts and hitching posts some or- nament may be required. This can readily be intro- duced by so planning the mold that depressed or raised panels or designs as wanted can be provided for before placing the concrete. Also it may be required to give some posts a special surface finish. If so the principles of surface finish as described in another section may be applied. STUCCO Cement plaster when used to finish the exterior wall of a structure, sometimes when used for interior decora- tion, is usually referred to as stucco. Stucco work has the advantage of being done without the use of forms and when carefully done gives an attractive appearance to the building so treated. In the case of a frame struc- ture its strength and durability are also increased; like- wise there is a measure of fire protection secured. Stucco has come in for an increasing share of use within recent years, not only for the exterior finish of new buildings but for renovating old frame structures on which the siding or weatherboarding has become so dilapidated as to need replacement. When built new from the ground up, the stucco house consists of a tim- ber frame covered with cement plaster. Stucco work as here referred to should not be confused with the ordinary plastering done with lime-sand mortar. In the modern acceptance of the term, stucco is a cement-sand mortar in which there may be a small quantity of hydrated lime, added to increase plasticity or ease of working the mor- tar when applying. Aside from its artistic possibilities, stucco represents real economy. It is practically no more expensive to build a stucco house than one of frame throughout, and if properly built, the stucco-covered frame residence or building will be a money saver because stucco requires no painting and serves to lengthen the life of the under- lying frame or timbers in a remarkable degree. The stucco surface is watertight; it affords a great degree of protection against fire from outside sources if the roof 361 562 STUCCO of the structure is also of some fire-resisting material such as cement shingles; and with concrete foundation, stucco will produce a house that is ratproof. For best results, cement plaster for stucco finish should be applied to metal lath or woven mesh fabric which has previously been fastened to the building studs or sheathing. Another method consists of plastering over wood lath, nailed directly to the wood studs or to furring strips nailed over the sheathing or perhaps over SfUCCOy, a^g»atf \-»TvT . -fc-^ ev»agiaipocsygog^gfcByqg.^«ga a^^L- r.1^^^,^^^ W^oror asphalt ^ck plaster coaf ^^waterproofing. crimped furnn^^Interior plaster ■ i-i -■■•"- 'I'l •• ■ -■■•-••- ■■■■'■■■■•■■ '.■ . ■ . ^. STUCCO ON METAL LATH BACK PUSTERED WALL f 3 facing and insulation not shown) the siding, although it would in all cases be better to re- move the siding before furring and lathing the surface to be stuccoed. Several firms now specialize in manufac- turing so-called metal lath and woven wire mesh fabric intended solely for use as a groundwork for stucco. Framing of studding should be carefully done so that the structure to be stuccoed will be stiff enough to form a rigid support for the lath and plaster; otherwise, if there should be settlement or movement of the struc- ture, cracks will eventually follow in the plaster. Dwell- ings should be covered with sheathing boards to which some type of waterproof building paper should also be applied, before attaching furring strips. In covering old frame buildings the furring strips may be nailed di- rectly upon the weatherboards when the surface is firm and regular, but removing the weatherboarding first is by STUCCO 363 / f/oorjo/sf f/re s^op form (mefa/hth ormxx/) ti — /a//? •f/re s/ojo lYafer proof poper I ^f/re s/qp f////o^ d/oc^s Section through house wall ahowing prtncipol detailt of framing and other work preparatory to applying a coat of stucco. - 364 STUCCO - far the better way of preparing the surface for stucco. Wood furring strips may be used, and should not be less than J^ inch thick and about 1 inch wide. Some- times ^-inch round rods are used with metal lath as furring strips to hold the lath out from the sheathing boards, thus creating a space back of the lath for the plaster to "key", the lath being wired to the rods, which are in turn stapled to the sheathing. Metal lath is made both with and without stifTeners, these being in the nature of ribs formed in the material at the time it is punched or cut in manufacturing, and with metal lath, metal furring should be used as wood strips are necessarily more bulky, thus interfering with the clinch or bond of the plaster and preventing a thor- ough coating of the lath at that particular point. Furring strips and studding should be spaced not more than 16 inches apart in order to give sufficient stiff- ness to the lath. Each furring strip, whether of wood or metal, should be securely attached to the studding sheathing, or weatherboarding, at distances not greater than 1 foot apart. One kind of metal lath made from slotted metal is formed into a variety of shapes with different sized open- ings and can be obtained in various weights; that i^, stamped out of steel of varying thickness. The lath is usually coated to temporarily protect the metal from rusting. This type of lath provides a good support for the first plaster coat because of the rough or uneven surfaces, which catch and hold the plaster, but the cut edges of the metal have a tendency to rust where there is any dampness unless the lath is thoroughly covereA with plaster on both sides to protect it from atmospheric changes. Wire lath is made from strong wire of different sizes woven to form a network of fabric having meshes about STUCCO 365 one-third of an inch square. Such lath comes both japanned and galvanized. Generally speaking, the gal- vanized type is preferable, if it has been galvanized after the fabric has been woven, as the coating thus assists to form a tie or bond where the wires of the fabric cross or intersect., Sixteen-inch spacing of furring and stud- ding accommodates 36-inch wire lath, allowing it to lap 2 inches on the side. For straight walls, lath made from No. 18 wire is recommended but for shaping cornices, it is better to use a Hghter wire (such as No. 21), as this can more easily be bent to the desired form. Care should be taken to stretch wire lath well over the framework, otherwise when applying the first coat of plaster, the Stucco^ — 1 vt"Criiinped Vsfud ^"^^'"^ I Interior plasier. li'Sheafhing Ylaid horizontally J Waferproof paper. STUCCO ON METAL LATH . WITH WOOD SHEATHING lath will bend back in places under the pressure of the trowel, thus interfering with the clinches of the plaster upon the mesh and giving the wall an uneven surface. Metal lath should be lapped at least 1 inch wherever joined and fastened to the furring strips or studding in such a manner as to avoid sagging or bulging. When fastening metal lath to metal furring or to overlapping sections of lath, it should be wired to them; for this pur- pose No. 18 soft iron galvanized wire is recommended. Wood lath is often used for exterior stucco work as well as for interior plastering but considerable care must be taken to select good lath and to see that they are well wet down before applying the plaster. If the lath are 366 STUCCO not wet enough, they will absorb moisture from the plaster, while if too wet they will shrink later and sep- arate from the plaster in places, thus weakening the key. In either case, cracking is likely to follow and the plaster may finally fall off. With metal lath, danger of shrink- age is avoided and the additional cost is not sufficient to warrant one in using wood lath. When wood lath are used, they should be placed so that spaces between them are about J/^ inch wide and they should be nailed securely at each point of intersection with a stud or furring strip. At corners, wood lath should be covered with a strip of wire netting or fabric to prevent cracks in the wall at these points. Stucco is used also to renovate old brick structures and to give a desired surface finish to concrete walls, whether the latter are of monolithic or block construc- tion. In applying cement plaster or stucco to walls of concrete or masonry, the surface of the wall must be roughened to provide proper bonds for the plaster and must be thoroughly cleaned by brushing and washing in order to remove all loose particles, dust, etc. These precautions are not necessary in connection with con- crete walls from which the forms have just been re- moved; that is, concrete that has been recently placed, and if in doing such work it is intended to eventually apply stucco, it would be well to not spade the concrete in the forms next to the form faces, thus allowing small gravel pockets to be formed which will assist in pro- viding a good key or bond for the plaster coat. In masonry walls, such as brick construction, mortar joints should be picked out to a depth of at least }4 inch from the face of the wall, so as to increase the bond between the new plaster and the old wall surface. Where surfaces have been painted, all paint must be re- moved, otherwise the plaster will not adhere. Chim- STUCCO 367 neys should always be furred and lathed before they are stuccoed, otherwise the combination of heat from within and cold from without soon causes the plaster to crack and fall off. All walls must be thoroughly drenched im- mediately before stucco is applied to prevent the surface from absorbing water from the plaster, which is neces- sary to proper hardening. Stucco is usually applied in three coats, designated as the first coat, intermediate coat and the finish coat; but when plastering on masonry the intermediate coat is sometimes omitted and the finish coat applied directly to the first coat. For best results, no plaster coat should be more than J4 inch thick. When the framework of the 5TUCC0 ON METAL LATH WITH WOOD SHEATHING , ^ft/e-ca-~^ .fvood furring sfTipsi'KZ'-/B"cfrs^ STUCCO ON WOOD LATH WITH WOOD SHEATHING wall is composed of wood studding, lath and plaster are usually applied to both sides of the studding, forming a double wall, but for small buildings and sheds, the plas- ter covering on metal lath applied to the studding outside is often all that is required. This is particularly true of the average farm outbuilding. In such a case the lath should be given a coat of plaster on the inner surface as soon as the first exterior coat has hardened sufficient- ly. This will thoroughly cover the metal and protect it against dampness which eventually would cause rust; in addition, it will add to the strength. 368 STUCCO In order to estimate the amount of cement and sand required to cover walls with stucco, the following table will be of assistance: NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF WALL SURFACE COVERED PER SACK OF CEMENT, FOR DIF- FERENT PROPORTIONS AND VARYING THICKNESS OF PLASTERING Proportions of Mixture Materials Sack Cn. Ft. Cement Sand Total Thtckneas of Plaiter % inch % Inch ' 1 Inch Sq. Ft. Sq. Ft. 8q. Ft. Covered Covered Covered 1:1 1:1}4 1:2 1:2 J4 1:3 1 VA 2 2'A 3 33.0 42.0 50.4 59.4 67.8 22.0 16.5 28.0 21.0 33.6 25.2 39.6 29.7 45.2 33.9 This table does not take into consideration waste of mortar. Waste, however, can be lessened by placing a plank on the ground at the base of the wall to catch plaster as it falls ; but plaster should never be used after it has once commenced to harden; therefore, only such a quantity as can be used within twenty or .thirty min- utes should be mixed at one time. For the first coat, a mixture of 1 part cement to 1J4 parts clean, coarse, well graded sand is recommended. Sometimes lime is used in the first coat as well as in sub- sequent ones but because of the danger of getting un- slacked lime into the mixture, only the product known commercially as hydrated lime should be used. If the home worker attempts to slack his own lime and there should happen to be particles in the lime putty which had not been thoroughly slacked, these would slack after they were on the wall surface, due to absorption of mois- ture, and in expanding would cause a pitting of the surface. The second and following coats should be applied only after the preceding coats have thoroughly hardened, but preferably before it has time to completely dry out. Th« first and second coats should be scratched with some STUCCO 369 kind of a toothed tool such as shown in an accompany- ing ilhistration. This will insure a better bond between Recessive coats. Immediately before applying a coat, tne preceding one should be thoroughly drenched and then painted with a grout of cement mixed with water to the consistency of thick cream. This grout may be applied with a whitewash brush, and the plaster must be put on before the cement paint' shows any sign of hardening; therefore, the preparation of surface should not extend very far in advance of applying the plaster. stucco coi *(. reft '■ \?'x?'furring^frips /Z"crrs- '^/o/cr/orp/osfvranmc/isf/ /ofA STUCCO ON CONCRETE BLOCKS OR OTHER MA50NPY Several surface finishes may be given to stucco — smooth, brushed, roughcast and pebble-dash. The smooth finish is obtained by bringing the final coat to a true and even plane with a wood float or trowel. The brushed surface is secured by the use of a wire brush or broom after the surface has partly hardened. This usually destroys any surface checks and other irregu- larities and gives a pleasing effect. To obtain a roughcast or pebble-dash finish, the final coat is dashed against the wall from the hand or from a paddle or swab of tightly-bound pliable twigs. Sometimes a portion of the sand is replaced by an equal amount of small evenly sized pebbles, these being thor- oughly wet and mixed in a thin cement-and-water paint, 370 STUCCO then thrown against the soft final plaster coat to which they will adhere by being partly embedded. Some prac- tice is required to produce a uniform surface finish hjt slap-dash or pebble-dash treatment. The texture of this finish will vary in accordance with the size of the pebbles used in the mixture. It is very important that dust an3 fine particles be screened or washed from the pebbles before they are us^d. In doing stucco work it is well to lay out the area to be done in any one day so that one entire wall section can be covered with plaster in one day's operation. This will tend to produce uniformity of texture and color. Great care should be used in measuring materials each time so as not to have variations in color owing to de- fering proportions of materials used. It is also very es- sential to protect the plaster from freezing temperatures by covering with some such protective covering as can- vas or burlap hung up against the walls and likewise to protect against too rapid drying out from sunlight or wind. In the latter case, the protective covering of can- vas or burlap should be kept wet and after the plaster surface has hardened sufficiently to permit spraying with water without injury, the wall should be kept well sprinkled for several days to insure that the plaster will harden under proper conditions, namely, in the presence of moisture. Sometimes colors are used in the finished coat; only permanent mineral pigments, however, should be used for this purpose and the variety of colors permissible is somewhat limited owing, to the fact that many colors fade. STUCCO 371 NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF WALL SURFACE COVERED PER SACK OF CEMENT, FOR DIF- FERENT PROPORTIONS AND VARYING THICKNESS OF PLASTERING Materials Total Tl bickness of Plaster ProDor- %ln. %in. lin. H4 1n. lUin. tioDs of sticks Co. Ft. Bushels Sa. Ft. Sq. Ft. Sq. Ft. Sa. Ft. So. Ft. Mlxt. Cement Sand Hair* Covered Covered Covered Covered Covered 1:1 1 H 33.0 22.0 16.S 13.2 11.0 V.VA V/2 % 42.0 28.0 21.0 16.0 14.0 1:2 2 Vi S0.4 33.6 2S.2 20.1 16.8 1:254 2J4 % S9.4 39.6 29.7 23.7 19.8 1:3 3 % 67.8 4S.2 33.9 27.1 21.6 *Used in scratch coat only. NOTE! — ^These figures are based on average conditions and may vary 10 per cent either way, according to the quality of the sand used. No allowance is made for waste. MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR 100 SQ. FT. OF SURFACE FOR VARYING THICKNESS OF PLASTER Proportions 1:1 l:i 1:2% 1:3 Tliicknesg c. Sd. C. Sd. c. Sd. c. Sd. in. sacks cu. yd. sacks cu. yd. sacks cu. yd. saicks CU. yd. ^ 22 0.08 l.S 0.11 1.3 012 1.1 0.13 y^ 3.0 0.11 2.0 0.15 1.7 0.16 1.5 0.17 y* 4.5 0.16 2.9 0.22 2.5 0.23 2.2 025 1 6.0 0.22 3.9 0.29 3.3 0.31 3.0 0.33 V/4 7.5 0.27 4.9 0.36 4.2 0.39 3.7 0.41 m 9.0 0.33 5.9 043 5.1 0.47 4.S O50 m 105 0.39 6.9 0.50 6.0 0.56 5.4 0.60 2 12.0 0.45 7.9 0.58 6.9 0.64 6.2 0.69 tt hydrated lime is used it should be added in amounts of from 5 to 10 per cent by weight of the cement. Hair is used in the scratch coat only in amounts of % bushel to 1 sack of cement These figures may vary 10 per cent in either direction due to the character of the sand. No allowance is made for waste. ' ROOFS Many concrete buildings fall short of what they should be, because finished with some kind of a roof other than concrete. Flat roofs are the simplest type of concrete roofs to build. They are particularly suited to small farm buildings and other small structures. Concrete roofs must be properly designed. To a cer- tain extent tables can be used for slabs of various thick- nesses and span where only small buildings are involved. For larger buildings, involving greater spans, roofs must be designed for the particular structure. The following table shows thickness of slab required for concrete roofs or roof slabs of various dimensions from four feet square up to sixteen feet square: TABLE I THICKNESS OF ROOF SLABS IN INCHES Width in Ft. Between Length of Roof in Feet Between Center Lines Center Lines of Walls of Walls 4 ft. 6 ft. 8 ft. 10 ft. 12 ft. 14 ft. 16 ft. 4 feet 2 in. 2 in. 2^ in. 2^ in. 2}^ in. 2j4 in. 2J4 in. 6 feet 25^ in. 2}^ in. 254 in. 3 in. 3 in. 3 in. 8 feet 3 in. 3^ in. 3J^ in. 3j4 in. 4 in. 10 feet 3J4 in. 4 in. 4j4 in. 4^ in. 12 feet 4 in. 4^ in. S in. 14 feet : 5 in. S J4 in. 16 feet 6 in. Load-^weight of roof +50 pounds per square foot 372 ROOFS 373 The following table shows the amount of cement, sand and pebbles or broken stone required for roofs of various area and thicknesses: TABLE CEMENT, SAND, AND STONE OR PEBBLES Required for Concrete Slab Roofs. Proportions for concrete 1 :2 :3. Each cubic yard of 1 :2 :3 concrete requires about 1.74 barrels of cement, .52 cubic yards of sand, and .77 cubic yards of stone. WIDTH OF SLAB IN FEET (BETWEEN EAVES) g g"S S 6 I'.'o 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 4 0.7 2.0 « y O « e„o 8 1.7 2.6 4.2 ^S„'^S 10 2.2 3.3 6.1 7.6 ^lloS 12 2.6 4.7 7.3 10.4 12. S °jej3v 14 3.0 S.5 8.5 13.7 16.4 21.2 S«S)-° 16 3.5 6.2 ,10.1 14.4 20.8 26.7 33.3 1/3 V V pS 4 1.4 - w*SS 6 2.1 3.9 •S^e 8 3.4 5.2 8.3 •"^SJ 10 4.3 6.5 12.1 15.2 « o I 12 5.2 9.4 14.6 20.8 25.0 "=45 « 14 6.1 10.9 17.0 27.3 32.8 42.5 .Hti-° 16 6.9 12.5 20.2 28.8 41.6 S3.4 66.6 •° BY, a V i> fc>JJ5 V 2 SS 4 2.1 .... "^ "oS 6 3.1 5.9 o « F. 8 5.1 7.8 12.5 -SSZS "> 6-S 9.8 18.2 22.7 S^o^ 12 7.8 14.0 21.8 31.2 37.4 ^■ojBo 14 9.1 16.4 25.5 41.0 49.1 63.7 ."(iJm-" 16 10.4 18.7 30.3 43.2 62.4 90.1 99.8 a. 374 ROOFS The following table shows the size and spacing of reinforcing rods for roof slabs of various dimensions : TABLE SPACING OP REINFORCING RODS IN INCHES Width in Size Feet between Length of Roof in Feet between Steel Center Lines Center Lines of Walls of Walls 4 ft. 6 ft. 8 ft. 10 ft. 12 ft. 14 ft. 16 ft, 4 feet.. U2 in. 9i in. Sin. gin. 8 in. Sin. Sin, n2in. 24 in. 36 in. 36 in. 36 in. 36 in. 36 in. 6 feet . . } 6 in. 4i in. 4 in. 4 in. 4 in. 4 in. , ( 6 in. 12 in. 36 in. 36 in. 36 in. 36 in. 8feet..( llin. 9i in. 9in. 7iin. 71 in. llin. 22 in. 36 in. 36 in. 36 in. 8iin. 7iih. 7 in. 6J in. 10 feet.. I 8iin. 16 in. 27 in. 36in. 6i in. Si in. 51 in. J 6i in. '12 in. 16 ia 12 feet.. 1 NOTE— Upper figures are for Across reinforcement; lower fig- 51 in. 44 in. 14feet. . I ures for long reinforcement.... 51 in. 8i in. 16 feet. . X 4 in. 1 4 in. . Load=weight of roof + 50 pounds per square foot. The following example shows method of using the three tables preceding: Example. Required, the thickness of slab, amount of concreting materials, spacing of lateral and transverse reinforcement, and the amount of reinforcing rods, for the flat slab roof of a building 12 feet by 14 feet in out- side dimensions, with 12-inch eaves on all sides. The size of the roof slab between the center lines of walls will be 13 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 6 inches. Referring to Table I, we run down the vertical column at the left to the smaller dimension of the slab, which in this case is 11 feet 6 inches. As this dimension is not given in the table we take the next larger, which is 12 feet. Running across horizontally to the larger dimension of the slab (13 feet 6 inches) we find that this is not given in the o e s o. o a. ROOFS 37S table, but that we must take 14 feet. In the square di- rectly below 14 feet, and horizontally opposite 12 feet, we find the required thickness of the roof to be Ayz inches. By reference to Table II, the quantities of materials required are easily obtained. The size of the roof over the eaves is 14 feet by 16 feet. The table is divided into three parts showing respectively the amounts of cement, sand and pebbles required for roofs of various sizes. The upper portion of the table gives the number of sacks of cement required and those be- low it give the number of cubic feet of sand and peb- bles or stone necessary. By referring to the table we find that the roof will require about 25 sacks of cement, 53 cubic feet of sand, and 79 cubic feet of pebbles or stone. The spacing of the reinforcing rods is shown in Table III. As the roof is 11 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 6 inches between center lines of walls, the next larger dimension shown in the table should be used. These are 12 feet by 14 feet. By running down the left hand vertical column to 12 feet, then running across hori- zontally to the 14 foot column, we find that cross rein- forcement (running parallel to the short sides of the house) should b^ 5^ inches apart, and the longitudinal rods (running the long way of the house) 12 inches apart. Round or square f^-inch rods should be used, as shown in the column to the right of the table. The roof being 16 feet long and 14 feet wide, over eaves, will re- quire thirty-four ^-inch rods 14 feet long, parallel to the short sides, and seventeen 9^-inch rods 16 feet long, parallel to the long side. CONCRETE DRIVEWAYS Construction Requirements. There are probably few who read this book that have not seen concrete streets, roads or alleys — ^perhaps all of them. Many farms lie along concrete roads that provide easy access to market, and the very utility of the concrete road and the service which it renders should prompt the farmer to connect his farm buildings with the main paved highway by a concrete drive. The construction of concrete drives of this kind is ex- actly like that applying to concrete pavement construction in general, the exceptions being that because of the nature of the traffic to which they are exposed, they have to be thicker than would be required for a feeding floor or barn- yard pavement for example. The first requirement is that there be a properly prepared foundation or subgrade. Ex- perience has proved that when cracks occur in concrete pavements they are due principally to settlement of the foundation on which the concrete is placed. If a concrete driveway is to be built directly upon an old driveway sur- face, this should be broken up several inches deep so that it can be leveled and given uniform compactness before any fresh material for filling or grading is placed. If fills have to be laid to establish the desired grade, material for this purpose should be deposited in layers 8 to 12 inches thick and rolled to uniform density with a heavy road roller or tractor or in some way given equally firm consolidation. Concrete should not be laid on fills that have not com- pleted settlement. Regardless of the amount of rolling given fills they will not be compacted as solidly as will result from allowing them to stand the proper length of time. Material for fills should be placed in layers of uniform thickness and dampened or sprinkled preparatory to rolling. DRIVEWAYS 377 Drainage Important. Proper drainage of the sub- grade where a driveway pavement is to be laid is equally as important as proper drainage for concrete highway pave- ment. Faulty drainage is responsible for cracked slabs due either to settlement or to the heaving from freezing and expansion of water retained beneath the concrete. A poorly drained subgrade is more likely to heave under frost action than one well drained. This heaving may cause ■ .■'■''■■■"■■.'' ■ ' Concrete driveway from the main road leading directly to the attrac- tive concrete block farm buildings. Note also that the entrance- way and the enclosure walls have been built of concrete block. cracking of the slabs and frequently they will fail to return to proper levels, thus causing unequal levels at joints of abutting slabs and in consequence unpleasant jolts to traffic when it passes from one slab to the other. Drainage of the surface of concrete driveways is pro- vided for in either of two ways. By crowning the surface of the concrete with a strikeboard cut to the required con- tour, making the pavement higher at the center than at the 378 DRIVEWAYS edges, or by laying the pavement in the form of an inverted crown so that the surface is dished and the pavement serves also as a drainage gutter. Anyone who his obser^'ed the average alley pavement has noticed that drainage is secured by making the pavement lower at the center than at th^ sides. Good Hard Aggregate Important. The selection of aggregates is important in concrete driveway construction; more important in some respects than other classes of con- crete work because pavements used as driveways are sub- jected to the impact and abrasion of vehicle traffic. Sand should be clean and hard and the coarse aggregate should be tough. Cleanliness of materials is very important be- cause of the constant abrasion of traffic which will disclose spots where foreign matter like loam or clay is in the concrete. One Course Construction Preferred. Although con- crete driveways are sometimes made of two course con- struction, one course is recommended for the same reason as given when singling this type of construction out for preference in building concrete walks. The quantity of materials required for a linear foot of concrete driveway of various widths and thicknesses is shown in accompanying table. It is important that concrete mixtures be rather stiff for this work so that considerable effort will have to be expended to float the concrete to required surface. Expansion Joints. Joints are usually placed in drive- way pavements to provide for volume changes in the con- crete due to variations in moisture content and in temperature. Usually these joints are placed from 35 to 50 feet apart straight across the pavement. In general joints should not be more than % inch wide and a prepared filler felt is used between slabs. It is very necessary that these joints be made truly vertical SQi that the ed|^es o| DRIVEWAYS 379 abutting slabs if they tend to rise *due to expansion or heaving will not slide over each other. The surface driveway pavements at joints should be exactly the same level at both sides of joints, otherwise there will be impact caused by traffic when crossing the joint. Finish edgOb Toh'nch ni- dius wif hedg- ing tool ■Not less than T. Some details of concrete driveway pavement when the surface is dished so that the pavement serves as a gutter. Reinforcement. Common practice is to omit rein- forcement in concrete pavements under 20 feet wide. Over that width, however, reinforcement should be specified. Mesh reinforcement is the material commonly used. The heavy wires should run perpendicular to the center line of the pavement. Each strip should be carefully lapped so as to develop the full strength of the metal. Forms and Other Details. Forms for driveway pave- ments may be 2 by 6's staked to proper line and grade. The subgrade or subbase should be sprinkled before cMi- 380 DRIVEWAYS Crete is placed to prevent it from absorbing from the con- crete water necessary to its proper hardening. A templet or strikeboard cut to the desired crown of the finished pave- ment is the most satisfactory device for obtaining the re- quired pavement contour. A strikeboard consists simply of a plain plank 2 to 3 inches thick cut on the bottom edge to the proper crown of the pavement. Usually a strip of iron is fastened to the lower edge to prevent rapid wear. After the pavement has been struck ofif as required, it is finished with a wood hand float. In concrete road con- struction the common practice, however, is to use a piece of belting seesawed and advanced across the concrete to finish the surface to desired regularity. When the hand float is used it is necessary to improvise a plank bridge across the concrete so that the workmen can do the floating from this bridge. Proper curing of concrete pavements has much to do with their success. As mentioned in discussing construc- tion requirements for floors and other types of pavement, the concrete should be covered immediately after it has hardened sufficiently to permit applying a layer of earth and should be kept wef! for a week or ten days by fre- quent sprinkling. Traffic of teams, loaded wagons and other vehicles should be kept off the surface until the con- crete is at least three weeks old. QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR LINEAR FOOT OF CONCRETE PAVING FOR THE WIDTHS AND THICKNESSES AT SIDES AND CENTER AS SHOWN Thickness Side and Cement Sand Rock or Pebbles Width Center (bbl.) (cu. yd.) (cu. yd.) (feet) (inches) 1:2:3 1:1/2:3 1:2:3 l-.lVi-.S 1:2:3 1:154:3 9 6-7 0.32 0.3S 0.10 O.Of 0.14 0.16 16 6-8 0.63 0.68 0.19 O.ls 0.28 0.30 18 6-8 0.71 0.77 0.21 0.17 0.32 0.34 20 6-8'^ 0.82 0.90 0.24 0.20 0.36 0.40 24 6-9 1.01 1.10 0.30 0.24 0.45 0.49 s GTE — Quan( tlUes based on the assum ption of 45% voids in the coarse aggregate. AUTOMOBILE AND MECHANICAL BOOKS Fine paper, profusely illustrated, silk cloth stiff covers, all titles in gold, size 5x8 inches. Cloth styles $1.25. Questions and Answers for Automobile Students and Mechanics. By Thomas H. Russell, A. M. M. E. 600 Ques- tions and Answers. Price $1.25. Automobile Troubles and How to Remedy Them. By Charles P. Eoot, Ex-Editor of Motor Age. 256 pages. Price $1.25. Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines. By John B. Bathbun, M. E. All styles engines, all fuels. 370 pages. Price $1.25. Automobile Driving Self Taught. By Thomas H. Rus- sell, A. M. M. E. 250 pages. Price $1.25. Motor Trucks, Automobile Motors and Mechanism. By Thomas H. 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