Cornell University Library Z 6684.E9L7 An annotated bibliographMof evaporation 3 1924 014 553 352 ittc^-AKSPTA^ia? ,»i$ia0^is^aY m^^^^ ,B» IPav'dfSS^EidP.iBIJriNptgp:©,]!!'. The original of tiiis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014553352 Beprlnted from Monthly Weathbe Review for June, September, and November, 1908, and February, March, April, May, and June, 1909. AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OP EVAPORATION.' By Mrs. Grace J. Livingston. Dated Washington, D. C, January 8, 1908. INTRODUCTION. The aim of the bibliographer has been not merely to give a list of the titles of publications bearing on or referring to the ^ubject of evaporation, but to set before the reader a suffi- oi^ently full summary of each reference, so far as it has been act^essible, so that the actual work need not be consulted ex- cept in cases where the fullest information is required. Arti- cles bearing on the subject from the point of view of the me- teorologist, the agriculturist, the irrigation and hydraulic engineer, have been included wherever found. Hygrometry, however, has been regarded as a distinct subject and only articles which deal with the subject in a general way, or which relate it in any way to the measurement of evaporation have been included. Evaporation from plants, or transpiration, has not been specifically included, as that subject has been so thoroly reviewed by Burgerstein, Transpiration der Pflanzen. The subject thus restricted has been interesting, mainly historically, as showing a development similar to that in all sciences, from the theoretical and vague to the experimental and definite. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century the attention of men of science was centered almost entirely on philosophical discussions of the physical nature of the phe- nomena. There were, with one or two exceptions, no attempts to devise instruments for actually measuring the rate of evapo- ration which might be expected under given conditions, or for relating the amount to other measured phenomena. Dalton, at the very beginning of the nineteenth century, may be regarded as the first to give definite direction to the interest already aroused in this subject, and by his researches to have laid the foundation for all future work along this line. The impetus thus furnished, fostered in the latter half of the century by such an enthusiast as G. J. Symons, has lasted to the present time. The simple laws which he pointed out have been the starting point for all the work undertaken by later mathema- ticians who have attempted to show definite relations between evaporation and the meteorological elements which infiuence and determine it. ^he bibliographical study has been interesting secondarily ■a's'showing the actual degree of knowledge Which has been obtained regarding the subject in all its relations, and finally as pointing out the direction in which further investigation must be conducted in this " most desperate branch of the most desperate science, meteorology." 'This bibliography is published at the urgent request of many investi- gators who have examined the manuscript. It has not been practicable to verify all the formulas and references nor to insert any Illustrative figures.— (7. A. Acknowledgments are gratefully extended to the officials of the Library of the Weather Bureau at Washington, D. C, and of John Crerar Library at Chicago, where this work has been mostly pursued, for their courtesy in granting free access to their shelves. For the inspiration of the work and for the use of a MS. bibliography of this subject including titles up to 1884 the bibliographer is deeply indebted to Prof. Cleve- land Abbe, the Editor of the Monthlt Weather Review. LIST OF ABBBBVIATIONS FOE TITLES OF PBBIODIOALS. Amer. jour, sci Amer. met. jour Amer. nat Ann. agron Ann. ohim. et phys . . Ann. Scole nat. agr. Montpellier. Ann. inst. met. Ecu- mania. Ann. Landw Ann. oflc. met. Ann. Phys Ann. Phys. und Chem Ann. ponts chauss ... Ann. rpt. Smithsn. inst. Ann. soi. ind Ann. soc. agr. Lyon . , Ann. SCO. met Ann. ufflc. cent. met. Ital.- Anz. k. Akad. Wissen. (Wien.) Arch. med. Aarau . . . . Arch. sci. phys. et nat . Athen Atti. accad. pent, nu- ovi Lincel. Atti r. accad. Lincei . Atti soc. veneto-tren- tina sci. nat. Bayer, met. ephem. . , Bibl. ital Bibl. univ Bol. soc. geog. Lima . , Boston jour. phil. arte. American journal of science. New Haven, Conn. American meteorological journal. Boston, Mass. The American naturalist. Boston, Mass. Annales agronomiques. Paris. Annales de chimie et de physique. Paris. Annales de I'doole nationale d'agriculture de Montpelier. Montpellier, France. Annales de I'institut mStSorologique de la Bou- manie. Bucharest. Annalen der Landwirtschaft in den preussischen Staaten. Berlin. Annales de la oflcina meteorologica Argentina. Buenos Aires. Annalen der Physik. Halle. Annalen der Physik und Chemie. (Poggendorf) Berlin; (Wiedemann) Leipsic. Annales des ponts et chaussees. Paris. Annual report of the Board of regents of the Smithsonian institute. Washington. Annales scientiflque et industrieile. Paris. Annales de la sociStS d'agriculture, histoire naturelle, et arts utiles, de Lyon. Lyon, France. Annuaire de la sociSte meteorologique de France. Paris. Ahnali dell'ufaoio eentrale di meteorologia itali- ana. Turin. KaiserUche Akademie der Wissenschaften. (Wien.) _ Mathematisch-naturwissenschaft- liche Klas'se. Anzeiger. Vienna. Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles. Geneva. Athenaeum. London. Atti del I'accademia pontificia dei nuovi Lincei. Eome. Atti della reale accademia dei Lincei. Bome. Atti della societa veneto-trentina di scienze naturali. Padua. bayerische Akademie der Wis^tf^ Meteorologische Ephemeridear IvS^ Milan, (ossia glornale di Kdnigliche schaften. nich. Biblioteca italiana. letteratura, etc.) Biblioteca italiana, ou Tableau des progr&s des sciences et des arts en Italic. Turin. Biblioth&que universelle de Geneve. Geneva. Boletlndelasociedadgeogrd&ca de Lima. Lima, Peru. Boston journal of philosophy and the arts. Bos- ton, Mass. Brit, ralnt Bui. acad. Imp. sci . . , Bui. acad. scl. de Bel- gique. Bui. assoc. scl. de France. Bui. dir. agr. et com. (Tunis.) Bui. int. de I'obs. de Paris. Bui. mens. obs. phys. cent. Bui. m6t. H6rault ... Bui. soc. philom .... 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Woburn exp. fruit farm rpt. Zeits. Arch. Ver. Zeits. Deut. geolog. Oes. Zeits. Gewasserk Zeits. f. Naturw. Halle. Zeits. Oest Ges. Met Zhur. opuitn. agron. (Euss. Jour. exp. Landw.) Society instituted in the State of New York for the promotion of agriculture, arts, and manu- factures. Transactions. Albany. Transactions of the royal Irish academy. Dublin. Transactions of the royal Scottish society of arts. Edinburgh. Transactions of the South African philosophical society. Cape Town. Provincial utreohtsoh genootschap van kunsten, en wetenschappen. Aanteekenlngen van het verhandelde in de sectie-vergaderingen. Ut- recht. Van Nostrand ' s engineering magazine. New York . V. S. geological survey. Water supply and irri- gation papers. Washington. Wittenbergisohes Wochenblatt zum Aufnehmen der Naturkunde und des oekonomisehen Ge- werbes. Wittenberg. Woburn experimental fruit farm. Keports. Lon- don. Zeitschrift des Architecten und Ingenieur Ve- reins. Hannover, Germany. Zeitschrift der Deutschen geologischen Gesell- schaft. Berlin. Zeitschrift fiir GewSsserkunde. Leipsic. Zeitschrift fiir die gesammten Naturwissen- schaften. Halle. Zeitschrift der Oesterreiohischen Gesellschaft fur Meteorologie. Vienna. Zhurnal opuitnoi agronomii. (Kussisohes Jour- nal fiir experimentelle Landwirtschaft.) St. Petersburg. 1670. Perrault, Claude. Observations sur I'evaporation de I'eau et sur I'effet du froid sur dif- ferent huiles. (1670.) Hist. acad. sci., 1666-86, 1:116-6. (1733.) Various liquids were exposed to evaporation duriug cold weather. Water evaporated considerably, oils of bitter almonds, olives, aniseed, walnut, and' turpentine evaporated a little, and linseed oil and oil of sweet almonds none at all. 1687. Halley, Edmund. An estimate of the quantity of vapor raised out of the sea by the warmth of the sun, derived from an experiment shown before the Eoyal Society. Pfiil. trans., 1687, 16:366-70; also abridged in Phil, tvaasr., abridged, 1683-94, 3:387-90. (1809;) A salt solution of the concentration of ordinary sea water (1:40), lost by evaporation at the rate of 0.1 inch in 12 hours. From this it was calculated that the amount evaporated from the Mediterranean in a summer day is at least 5,280 millions of tons. The acceler- ating Influence of wind on evaporation was observed. 1690. Halley, Edmund. An account of the circulation of the watery vapors of the sea, and of the cause of the springs. Phil, trans., 1690, 17:468-73; also abridged in Phil, trans., abridged, 1683-94, 3:327-30. (1809.) Advances the theory that evaporation is partly caused by heat expanding water particles into hollow shells lighter than air. Suggests that the air imbibes a certain quantity of aqueous vapor and retains it " like salts dissolved in water," 8 1692. Sedileau. , v t. > j * Observations sur la quantity de I'eau de plule tombee a Paris, durant prfes de trols annees, 1686-90, et de la quantity de 1' Evaporation. (1692.) Mem. acad. sci., 1666-99, 10:27-36. (1730); also Hist, acad. sci., 1686-99, 2:63, 87, 133-5; also Coll. acad. fran9., 1754, 1:267-61. An experiment carried on from June, 1688, to December, 1690, with evaporation of water showed an average annual amount at Paris of 32.1 inches. The annual rainfall was 19 inches. The rate was found to be higher from small vessels than from larger ones. 1694. Halley, Edmund. An account of the evaporation of water, as it was experimented in Gresham College in the year 1693, with some observations thereon. Together with a table showing the quantity evaporated each day, with the heights of the thermometer and barometer. Phil. Trans. , 18:183-90. (1694); also Phil, trans., abridged, 1683-94, 3:658-9. (1809.) The low annual evaporation rate of 8 inches, observed from water not exposed to sun and wind, as compared to the annual rainfall of 19 inches at Paris or 40 inches near Lan- caster, is believed to show that the sun and wind, especially the wind, are the important factors influencing evaporation. 1709. Gauteron. Observations sur I'evaporation qui arrive aux liquides pendant le grand frold, avec des remarques sur quelques effets de la gelee. M§m. acad. sci. 1709, (— ):451-71. An ounce of water allowed to freeze and exposed from 6 p. m. to 8 a. m., lost 24 grains by evaporation. A comparative experiment with various liquids at a low temperature re- sulted as follows: Ice lost S6 grains; walnut oil, not frozen, 40 grains; brandy and oil of turpentine, not frozen, 54 grains each. Mercury and olive oil were unchanged by the exposure. 1712. Miiller, Johann Heinricli. Exercitatio. De exhalatlonibus, tamquam proxima meteorum ma- teria. (Joa. Miiller resp.) AltorflcB. (Altdorf.) 1712. 4to. 1715. Barlo'w, E. Meteorological essays. London. 1715. " How Vapors, raised by the Sun to several Heights in the Air, grow, by their Descents, condensed into Bain, and Hail, of divers sorts." p. 43-48. 1729. Desaguliers, Jean Theophile. All attempt to solve the phenomenon of the rise of vapours, the for- mation of clouds and the descent of rain. Phil, trans.. No. 407, 36:6. (1729); also Phil, trans., abridged, 1724^34, 7:323-31. The the ry expounded by Dr. Niewentyt and others, (see Niewentyt's Beligious Phil- osopher, Contemplation 19, Sections 13-25) that particles of fire separate from sunbeams and combine wiih particles of water to make molecules specifically lighter than air, where-', fore ihey rise until the air about them is of the same specific gravity ai themselves, and that rain is produces by the separation of these particles of fire and water, is objected to on the ground that fire has not been proven to be a distinct element, and that the caused of rain given are contrary to experience. Experimental evidence is presented, favoring the idea that heat gives elasticity to fluids, causing the particles to exert a force of expansion at great distances. Refers to the work of Halley, (1687, 1690, 1694. ) 1732. MuBBClienbroek, Petro Van. Ephemerides meteorologlcse, barometricBS, thermometricee, epl- demicsB, magnetics, ultrajectines. Phil, trans., 37:357-84. (1732.) Evaporation for the year from a free surface of water was 32 in. 2.75 lines, (Eh.1,2 with a rainfall of 25 in., 1.25 lines, (Rh.). sRhenish measure is indicated by (Rh.) and frenoh measure by (Fr.). The rhenish fool was to the firench foot as 139:144.— ff.J.i. 1734. Du Fay. Observations m^t6orologiques faites k Utrecht, pendant I'ann^e 1734, eztraites d'une lettre de M. Mussohonbroek. M6m. acad. sci., 1734, (— ):564-6. The evaporation for the year I7S4 at TJtrecht was 26 in., 3 lines (Rh.), and the rainfall was 35 in., 11 7/9 lines (Eh.). The annual average rainfall at Fans is taken as 24 in. (Rh.). 1735. Du Fay. Observations m6t§orologiques faites 4, Utrecht, pendant I'annSe 1735, extraites d'une lettre de M. Musschenbroek. M6m. acad. sci., 1735, (— ):581-4. Evaporation was 23 inches, 2 lines; the rainfall was 26 inches, Ig lines (Bh. ). 1736. Du Fay. Observations mSteorologiques faites k Utrecht, pendant I'annee 1736, extraites d'une lettre de M. Mussohenbroelr. M6m. acad. sci., 1736, (— ):503-5. Evaporation was 28 inches, 11 lines (Fr.), with a rainfall of 22 inches, 9f lines (Fr,). 1741. Baziu. Observation sur I'evaporation de I'eau. (Communicated by M. de Keaumur.) Hist. acad. sci., 1741, ( — ):17-19. Evaporation was found to be more rapid from moist potter's clay than from a free water surface. It is suggested that this may be due to the difference between the temperatures of the two substances and somewhat to the Inequalities of the surface of the soil. 1742. Bouillet, Jeaif. Sur I'evaporation des liquides. Hist. acad. sci., 1742, ( — ):18-21. The theory that the circular motion of fluids causes the particles at the surface to ^ss off tangentially is considered a sufficieot explanation for the fact of evaporation. The process is regarded as a solution of these particles in air. 1743. Stock, J. C. Dissertatio. De exhalationlbus sive effluviis. (Joa. Jac. Algoewer resp.) Jenae. 1743. 4to. 1744. Kratzensteins, Christian Gottlieb. Theorie de I'elevation des vapeurs et des exhalaisons, d^montree mathematiquement. Bordeaux. 1745. 4to. Abhandlung vom Aufsteigen der Diinste und DSmpfe, welche von der Akademie zu Bordeaux den Preis erbalten. Halle. 1744. (Translation of the above.) According to Saussure (1783), Kratzenstein estimated the vapor vesicles thrown off by evaporation as being of the diameter of a hair. Bichmaiui, Georg Wilhelm. Qua ratioue Instrumentum, quo quantitas aquae, calore atmos- phaerae naturali ex superflcie aquae certa in aerem elevatae commode mensuratur, construi debeat. Comment, acad. sci. Imp. Petrop., 1744-6, 14:273-5. Describes an instrument for measuring evaporation, ia which the vessel containing the evaporating water is paitially sunk in a larger closed vessel also containing water. 1746. Wallerius, Nils. Hon, Hvarigenom&tskilliga Katurens lagar, ang&ende Yattnets och andra flytande Materiers utdunstande, frambringas. Svenska ve- tensk. Akad. Handl. 1746, 7:1-21, 145-76. See German translation of 1752. 10 1747. Blchmann, &. W. Inquisitlo in legem, secundum quam calor fluidi in vase eontenti, oerto temporis intervallo, in temperie aeris constanter eadem de- orescitvel crescit et detectio ejus, simulque fchermometrorum per- feote concordantium eonstruendi ratio hino deduoto. Novi com- ment, acad. sci. imp. Petrop., 1747-8, 1:174-197. Summ., 50-51. The law deduced from observations Is that the variations in the temperature of water, relative to that of the surrounding air, are directly proportional to the surfaces exposed and to the difTerences between the temperatures of the water and the air, and inversely to the masses. Hence the differences between the temperatures of the air and the water de- crease in geometrical progression if the time intervals succeed each other in arithmetical progression. Rlchmann, G. "W. Tentamen, legem evaporationis aquse calidee in esre frigidiori con- stantis temperiei definiendi. Novi comment, acad. sci. imp. Pe- trop., 1747-8, 1 :198-205; Summ., 51. Observations on evaporation of warm water in colder air of a constant temperature, seemed to show that the quantity evaporated is proportional to the successive differences of the difTerences between the temperature of the water and that of the air. Bicliiuann, Q-. "W. Tentamen esplicandi phenomenon paradoxon, scilicet thermometro mercuriali ex aqua extracte mercurium in sere, aqua calidiori, de- scendere et ostendere temperiem minus calidam ac reris ambientis est. Novi comment, acad. sci. imp. Petrop., 1747-8, 1:284^290; Summ., 55. As a thermometer is drawn from water Into air warmer than the water, the temperature indicated contioues to fall because the evaporation of the thin layer of water clinging to the bulb of the thermometer cools it. 1751. Le EOy. Memoire sur I'el^vation et la suspension de I'eau dans I'air, et sur la rosfie. M6m. acad. sci., 1751, (— ):481-518. Observations and experiments are cited to prove the theory that the solution of water in air follows the same Jaws as solutions of salts in water and other solutions. Richmanu, G. "W. Atmometri sive machines hydrostaticsB ad evaporationem aquee certee temperiei mensurandam aptee constructio talis, ut ope ilius decre- mentum paucornm granorum observari et lex evaporationis con- flrmari possit. Novi comment, acad. sci. imp. Petrop., [1749-501, 2:121-27; Summ., 9. (1751.) A closed cylindrical air chamber slides between stationary vertical rods inside of a larger coveied vessel containing water. From the upper wall of the air chamber three small rods project vertically thru holes in the cover of the outer vessel and form the support for the metal evaporating vessel. The total weight of the evaporating vessel and contents the rods and the air chamber, are balanced by the weight of the water displaced by the sub- merged part of the system. Any loss In weight due to evaporation causes a corresponding rise of the evaporating vessel and can be calculated therefrom. Bichmann, Or. W. Inquisitio in rationem pheenomeni, cur aqua profunda in vasis homo- gensB materisB plus evaporet quam aqua minus profunda, et con- flrmatio experimento nova ratione Instituto. Novi comment acad. sci. imp. Petrop., [1749-50], 2:134-44. (1751.) Experiments with evaporation from water surfaces at different depths in vessels of simi- lar material showed that less evaporation takes place from the shallower water The cause of this seems to lie in the observation that if the ratio of the whole surface of the larser mass to the whole surface of the smaller is less than the ratio of the greater mass to ihe lesser mass, then the latter assumes the temperature of the air more quicklv than does the former, and vice versa. This is not believed to be applicable to large natural bodies of water, since many complicating differences arise. Bichmann, G. "W. De evaporatione ex aqua frigidori aere observationes et consectaria Novi comment, acad. sci. imp. Petrop., [1749-50], 2:145-61; Summ.] Experiments with evaporation from water colder than the air above it showed the fol- lowing relations: Condensation, and not evaporation, occurs when the temnerature of tho air is between 60" and 70° F. if the temperatu^re of the water is mo?e than Ts?'M?wi?, and also when the temperature of the air is between 75° and 87° if the water is 20° oolde^. A discussion of the application of these facts to general meteorology follows. 11 1752. ■Wallerius, Nils. Versuohe, wodurch verschledene Gesetze der Natur die Ausdiinstung des Wassers und anderer fliissigen Materien betreffend, entdeckt werden. Svenska vetensk. akad. Handl., 1746, 7:1-21, 145-176, Uebersetzt von A. G. Kastner. Hamburg. 1752. Describes experiments with a weighing evaporometer extending thru 5 years, from which the! following laws are deduced: Evaporation is proportional to the suiface in con- tact with the air; increased temperature increases evaporation; increased movement of the air increases evai)oration. The addition of salt (NaCl) and saltpeter (KNOa) to water hindered evaporation at first but^not finally. This initial decrease is believed to be due to the cold produced upon the addition of the salt. Sugar and vitriol were used as solutes without the retarding effect. Milk evaporated as rapidly as water until the cream was formed, when the rate decreased. Alcohol, wine and ouve oil were also experimented with. 1753. Baron. Experiences sur l'6vaporation de la glace. M6m. math. phys. acad. sci., 1753, (— ):250-68. Discusses the fact shown by Sedileau and Mariotte, and later confirmed by Gauteron and Mairan, that ice evaporates. In January, 1753, Baron's experiments showed that ice always evaporates more or less, but not proportionally to the coldness of the air. He con- siders that the phenomenon is due to the blowing off of fine particles of water by the wind, and that it is " not true evaporation, " 1756. Franklin, Benjamin. Physical and meteorological observations, coniectures, and supposi- tions. Bead June 3, 1756. Phil, trans., 55:182-92. Considers evaporation a chemical solution of water in air. 1757. Franklin, B[enjauiin]. Letter to John Lining, 1757. Published in his Complete Works, edited by John Bigelow, 1887; 2:498, and 3:22. Also translated in Obs. Phys., 1773, 2:453-7. An experiment was repeated which had been described by Professor Simson of Glasgow, which consisted in keeping wet the bulb of a thermometer with alcohol and thereby pro- ducing a temperature several degrees lower than it would otherwise have. The cooling effect of evaporation is further discussed in 3:22. 1763. Desag'uliers, Jean Theophile. A course of experimental philosophy. London. 1763. Lecture 10, Hydrostatiks, 2:249-374. Discusses at length the nature of evaporation, refuting the idea that particles of fire unile with particles of water to lift them into the air; and the other idea that water in sunshine forms spheres with an "aura or finer air" Inside which buoys them upward. Proposes the idea that heat increases therepellant force between the particles, a solid thus becoming a liquid and a liquid a gas. 1764. Haller, Albrecht v. Sur rSvaporation de I'eau salee. Mem. acad. sci., 1764, ( — ):9^74. Also abstracted In Hist. aoad. sci., 1764, ( — ):25-31. *A salt solution was found to evaporate less rapidly as it became more concentrated. Gives tables of evaporation from salt water in large shallow basins from March to October in the years 1769-64, with the state of the sky, the average daily temperature, and the product in salt at the end of each experiment. ' From these observations the annual evap- oration at the salt works of Bevaix in Switzerland is valued at 22 in., 1.25 lines. 1765. Hamilton, Hug'h. A dissertation on the nature of evaporation and several phenomena of air, water, and boiling liquors. Phil, trans., 1765, 55:146-81. Also translated in Neu Hamburg, Mag., 1767, 2:147-92. Befutes all earlier theories which assign " rareiSetion by heat" as the chief if not the only cause of evaporation. Considers the process to be nothing more than a gradual solu- tion of water in air, produced and promoted by the same means— attraction, heat and motion— by which other solutions are affected. Gives experiments, observations, and discussion. 12 1766. Hamilton, Hugh. On the ascent of vapors, the formation of clouds, rain, and dew, and on several other phenomena of air and water. In his Philosoph- IcalEssays: London, 1766, 8vo; 2d ed., 1767, 12mo; 3d ed., 1772, 12mo; 4th ed., 1783, 12mo. Also in his Works: London, 1809, 2 vols. 8vo. Same as article of 1765, 1770. Lavoisier. De la combinaison de la mati^re du feu aveo les fluldes 6vaporables, et de la formation des fluides Slastiques aeriformes. MSm. acad. sol., 1770, (— ):420-32. The cooling produced by evaporation is advanced as proof of his theory that there is an absorption of ''matiSre du feu" or "Igneous fluid" m the formation of vapors, or that vapors are a result of the combination of the " matlSre du feu " with the fluid. 1771. Kames, H. H. On evaporation. Essays obs. phys. lit., 1771, 3:99. Also translated in Obs. phys., 1773, 2:97-104. Further support is given to the theory that evaporation is a solution of water in air. 1773. Gabler, P. M. Theoria vaporum. Ingolstad. 1773. 4to. 1774. Ootte, P. Traits de M6teorologie. Paris. 1774. xxxvi + 635. 4to. Reviews various theories of evaporation, p. 39 et seq. Discusses (p. 61) evaporation from Ice, quoting Gauteron (1709). Sedilean (1692), is quoted, p. 817. Cotte gives 28 inches as the amountof annual evaporation at Montmorenci, from two years' observations. The size, nature, and exposure of the vessels employed are considered to have a marked influence on the rate of evaporation. He believes Musschenbroek showed that evaporation does not take place equally from two vessels of the same length and breadth but of difTer- ent depths; it is more rapid from the deeper vessel. M, found that the cubes of the quan- tities evaporated from two vessels are to each other as the heights of the fluids in the vessels. (Additions de M. Musschenbroek aux experiences de PAcad. del cimento in Col- lection acad6mique, vol. 1 (part, etrang.): 142, n. d. Cotte also refers (p. 307) to a large number of experiments on evaporation of water and ice conducted by J. Broval (M6m. de I'Acad. de Stockholm), Hales (Vegetable Statics. London, 1726), Desaguliers (Cours de phys. expfir. , vol. 2, p. 345, translation of P. Pezenas), Musschenbroek (Cours de Phys., vol. 2, p. 301, translation of M. Sigaud deLabond). 1775. Barker, Robert. The process of making ice in the East Indies. Phil, trans., 1775, 65 (pt.2):252-7. Also Phil, trans., abridged, 1770-76, 13:644-5. The cooling produced by evaporation is taken advantage of in the East Indies where ice is made by leaving water in porous clay pans over night. 1777. Dobson, Matthe'w. Observations on the annual evaporation at Liverpool, in Lancashire; and on evaporation considered as a test of the moisture or dsy- ness of the atmosphere. Phil, trans., 1777, 67:244^59. Also Phil, trans., abridged, 1776-80, 14;137-43. Also abstracted in Obs. phys., 1779, 13:81-5. The rate of evaporation is cons' dered to be a more accurate test of the moisture or dry- ness of the air than the quantity of rainfall. A table shows the mean monthly evaporation rainfall, temperature, and velocity of the wind, and also a comparison of the evaporation rate for the different seasons of the years 1772-5. The annual evaporation at Liverpool from four years' observations, is given at 36.78 in., wiih a rainfall of 37.43 in Hallev's experiments are referred to, (1687, 1690, 1694). also those of Cruquius, who observed an annual evaporation at Delft, of 30 inches from water set in the open air but not in the sun and wind. Experiments showing that evaporation did not take place from water placed in a vacuum seemed to prove that air is a chemical solvent of water and as such is an im- portant cause of evaporation. Heat, when of a sufficient degree being another cause may produce this eflfect without the intervention of air, the evaporation proceeding rapidly in an exhausted receiver as in the experiments of Dr. Irving in Phipp's Voyage to the North Pole, p. 211. 13 Hunter, Alex. Georglcal Essays. York, England. 1777. Essay VIII, On air dis- solving water, p. 95-130. Diaousses the general facts and theory of evaporation. The author takes the position that evaporation Is merely a form of solution, the water dissolving in the air. 1779. Fontana, I'Abb^. Memoire sur I'evaporation des fluides dans I'air non renouvelle. Obs. phys., 1779, 13;22-38. Experiments seem to show that the more volatile fluids such as ether, which evaporate so easily in the free air, do not evaporate at all when enclosed in air-tight vessels, and that even the action of heat upon these fluids does not increase the rate, proving that there is no sensible evaporation of liquids, although naturally volatile, if the air Is not renewed. 1780. Achard. Dissertation sur la cause d'616vation des vapeurs. Obs. phys., 15:463-77. (1780.) Supports the solution theory of evaporation. Achard. MSmoire sur le froid produit par I'evaporation. Obs. pliys., 16:174-86. (1780.) Quotes letter to Dr. Lining from B. Franklin (1757). Gives tables of results obtained from observations on the lowering of the temperature of many different liquids when subjected to evaporation. Schotte, J. P. Journal of the vfeather at Senegambia during the prevalence of a very fatal putrid disorder, with remarlis on that country. Phil, trans., 1780, 70 (pt. 2): 478-506. The author refers (p. 486) to the enormous rate of evaporation at St. Louis, or S^nSgal, 16° N. lat., 16° W. long., where the natives cool water in tanned leather bags hung in the open air. Also quoted by Watson, 17S1. 1781. Cotte, Louis. EKperienoes sur les quantites d'evaporations relatives k la hauteur et au diametre des vases qui servent 4 les mesurer. Obs. phys., 1781, 18:308-9; translated in Mag. neu. Phys. und Naturgesch., 1 (pt. 3):36-42. (1785.) Experiments to determine the influence of the dimensions of the containing vessel on the rate of evaporation (cf. Cotte, 1774) show that evaporation has no relation to the height of the vessel, that it is not proportional to the volumes nor to the exposed amount of the interior surface of the walla, but that there is as much variety in the results as there is in the form of the vessels used. "Watson, Richard. Chemical Essays. London. 1781. 5 vol. 12mo. 7th ed., 1800. In volume 3, essay 2 (p. 51-74), the evaporation from an adre of "dry ground" is esti- mated to be over 1,600 gallons In 12 hours of a hot summer day, and more if the ground is moist In essay 3 (p. 75-117) the process of evaporation is likened to the solution of salts in water. Essay 4 (p. 119-142) contains a discussion of the cooling produced by evaporation, as shown by experiments with the wet bulb thermometer, and by the methods employed in hot countries of cooling wine, water, etc., by wrapping wet cloths about the flasks, or by keeping them in porous jars or If^ather bags. He oites Professor Braun's table of the de- grees of cold produced by the evaporation of different fluids (Novl camment, acad. sci. imp. Petrop., 1764, 10). 1782. Eason, Alexander. On the ascent of vapor. (1782.) Mem. lit. phil. soc, 1785, 1 :395-405. Sch-waiger, Herculanus. Beschreibung eines Verdiinstungsmessers. Bayer, met. ephem., 1782, 2. 1783. Paterson, J. De evaporatione oompleotens. Edinburgh. 1783. Svo. 14 Saussure, Horace Ben^dicte de. , .. Essals sur l'Hygrom6trie. NeuohMel. 1783. xxiv+367. 2 pis. 4to. Essay 3 deals with the theory of evaporation in which it Is concluded that: (1) evapor^ tjonis the effect of the Intimate union of elementary heat with water whereby is formed an elastic fluid, called vapor, rarer than air; (2) this vapor is called pure elastic vapor when formed in a void, or when its abundance and sustained heat give it force to repel the air which presses It; (3) but when this same vapor cannot entirely surmount the com- pressive force of the air, It penetrates and mingles with it and undergoes a true dissolu- tion, and is then called dissolved elastic vapor; (4) when the saturated air Is allowed to fireclpitate the vapor which it contains, this water sometimes takes the form of vesicles or ittle bubbles; these vesicles, filled with and enveloped by a rare, light fluid, float and rise because they are specifically lighter than air, and constitute vesicular vapor;_ (5) when the elastic vapor, or the vesicles themselves, are condensed in full drops, differing from rain drops only by their extreme smallness. they are still very different from vapor, properly speaking/ but as they float in the air and can even be sustained for some time by its move- ment and by Its viscosity, they are classed with vapors and called concrete vapor. The essay closes with a discussion of the theories and experiments of Kratzenstein, Priestley, NoUet, CuUen, Lambert, Rlchmann, Mussohenbroek, Wallerius, Kraft, Gauth- eron, Haller. Sch-waiger, Herculanue. Descriptlo atmidometrl nostri et methodi quam in observando adhi- bemus. Mannheim ephem. soc. met. palat., 1783, 4:300. Titius, J. D. Ueber die Ausdiinstung des Elses. Wittenberg. Woohenbl., 1783, 16:309-10. Discusses the results of Braun and Saussure concerning evaporation of ice, and concludes that evaporation follows the same general law in the case of lee as in that of water, except at the moment of freezing, when the evaporation appears to be greater than it should be. 1784. Saussure, H. B. de. Versuch jiber die Hygrometrie. Uebersetzt aus dem franzosisohen von Johann Daniell Titius. Leipsio. 1784. 8vo. Translation of his Essals sur I'Hygrometrie of 1783 (q. v.). 1786. Bosentbal, Gottfried Erich. Ueber P. Cotte's Versuch die StSrke der Ausdunstungs im Kuclislcht auf die Hohe und den Durchmesser der Gefasse die zum Maasse gebraucht werden. Mag. neu. Phys., 1786, 1 (pt. 4):142-54. It is claimed that the law of difterences, for evaporation from different vessels, which Cotte (1781) failed to find. Is as follows: (1) dishes of like height and surface give like evaporation in the same time and placej (2) dishes of like height and unlike evaporating surfaces give the same evaporation if reckoned by depth, but different if by volume; (3) In the case of dishes of different heights, with like or unlike evaporating surfaces, the depth of water lost by evaporation Is proportional to the square roots of their heights. "Williams, Samuel. Experiments on evaporation, and meteorological observations made at Bradford, in New England, in 1772. Trans. Amer. phil. soc 1786, 2:118-41. In experiments with evaporation from two small vpssels, the amount lost from the one refilled every week was found to be greater than that from the dish which was refilled only once a month. A vessel floated in the Merrimac River during a calm, rainless week lost 0.16 in. by evaporation, while a similar vessel freely exposed in the open air lost 1 50 in Evaporation was found to be greater from soil covered with vegetatLon than from equai areas of free water surface. 1788. Ootte, P. MSmoires sur la meteorologie. Paris. 1788. 2 v. 4to. Discounts ( 1 :100) the influence of moonlight on evaporation. Reviews ( 1 :17B-265) ex- Eerlmental and theoretical invesiigations of various physicists, including Wallerius Lam ert, Mussohenbroek, Van Swlnden, Elchmann, Kratzenstein, Bamberger Homberir Desagullers, Franklin, Karnes, Dob'oo, Achard, etc. Describes experiments a's in 1781 to ascertain the Influence of the diameter and ht-ight of the containing vessels upon the rate of evaporation. Describes (1:280) a simple evaporator used by Chevalier de la Mark Discusses (1:480) the cooling effect of evaporation as demonstrated with the moistened bulb of a thermometer. ' ' 15 1789. Saussure, H. B. de. Col du Geant; experiences sur I'^vaporatlon. Obs. phys., 1789, 34:161-80. Translated in Jour. Phys., Leipsio, 1790, 1:453-73. Reprinted in Voyages dans les Alpes. Geneva, 1779-96. 4 vols., 4to. Evaporation from a molBt piece of linen stretched in a frame, was observed on the Col du G6aat, where the air pressure is only 18 in. 9 lines, and at Geneva, Switzerland, where It is 27 in. 3 lines, with the result that "other things being equal, a lowering of the pres- sure of the air by approximately a third makes the quantity of evaporatioh more than twice as great." Deals also with the cooling effect produced by evaporation. 1790. Deluc, John AndreAW. Seconds lettre k M. Delatndtherie sur la ciialeur, la liquefaction, et r^vaporation. Obs. pliys., 1790, 36:193-207. Translated in Jour. Phys., Leipsic, 1790, 2:402-29. ^ Discusses theories to explain the process of evaporation. That of the solution of water by air is considered "a vague hypothesis without solid foundation and useless to explain the phenomenon." He mainta'ns that evaporation proceeds from the union of lire with the molecules of the liquid. Hube, J. M. Ueber die AusdiinstuBg iind ihre Wlrkungen in der Atmosphere. Leipsic. 1790. 2 vols, in 1. 8vo. Monge, G-aspard. Sur la cause des principaux ph^nomenes de la metSorologie. Ann. chim. phys., 1790, 5:1-71. The vesicular hypothesis of evaporation is rejected in favor of the theory of the solution of water vaporin the air, on the following grounds: (1) Aii in absorbing water preserves its transparence, which could not happen if the water was merely suspended by some mechanical means; (2) the solvent power of air diminishes as the quantity of water dis- solved increases, so that an actual saturation is reached; (3} the point of saturation varies with the temperature of the air, so that air saturated at a high temperature coDtains more water than air saturated at a lower temperature; (4) if air saturated with water is cooled it becomes supersaturated and abandons the water which its former higher temperature permitted it to retain. It is concluded that, since these circumstances ordinarily accom- pany all solutions and are generally regarded as characteristic of them, the absorption of water by air is the result of a true solution. 1791. Deluc, J[oliii] A[ndrew]. Examen d'un memoire de M. Monge, sur la cause des principaux phenomfenes de la mdtSorologie. Ann. chim. et phys., 1791, 8:73-102. Translated in Jour. Phys. Leipsic, 1792, 6:121-48. It is maintained that Le Boy's experiments at Montpelier, which Monge (1790) accepted as decisive proof that evaporation is the solution of water in air, are better explained by considering hre as the sole agent. Vassali-Eandi, A. M. Esame delle teorie dei principali fenomeni della meteorologica del Sign. Monge, coile riflessione del Sign. . Biblioteca oltre- montana. Turin. 1791. 1792. Deluc, John Andre"W. On evaporation. Phil, trans., 1792, 82:400-28. Also in Phil, trans., abridged, 1791-96, 17:259-63. Translated in Jour. Phys. Leipsic, 1794, 8:141-60, 293-302. The fact that every liquid cools, when it evaporates is considered a most decisive reason for the opinion that the dissolution of water, observed in the phenomenon of evaporation, results directly from the action of heat without the Intervention of air. Hygrology is defined as the science of the causes of evaporation and the modifications of evaporated water. A discussion of hygrometry follows with the conclusion that the product of evapo- ration is always an expansible fiuid which afifects the manometer by pressure and the ' hygrometer by moisture, without any hitherto perceived influence from the presence or absence of air. 1793. Dalton, John. Meteorological observations and essays. London, 1793. p. xvi-f 208. 8vo. 16 The process and circumstances promoting evaporation are described in Pt. 2, Essay 6, p. 132 et sea. Heat, dry air, and decreased pressure of tlie atmosphere upon the evapo- rating surface are emphasized. In the author's experiments, the rate of evaporation from water, " pretty much exposed to sun and wind," never exceeded 0.2 in. daily. ^ In March the daily average was 0.033 in. It is considered probable that " the evaporation both from land and water, in the temperate and frigid zones, is not equal to the rain that alls, even in summer." Wistar, Caspar. Experiments and observations on evaporation in cold air. Trans. Amer. phil. soc, 1793, 3:125-33. The author believes these experiments and observations support Delue's theory, which ascribes the *' smoking " of water to the passage of " heat " or '' fire " from the moist body into the air around it, a process which does not depend "upon a po8itive> degree of heat, but merely an excess of it in the moist body when compared with the air to which it is exposed." 1794. Sen£f, Brdmann Friedrich. Beobachtungen und Versuohe uber den Erfolg versohiedener Ab- dtiiistungs-Arten des susses Wassers aus Salz-Soolen auf Salz'- werken nebst Folgerungen daraus. (1775, May-Oct.) Jour. Pbys. Leipslc, 1794, 8:84^94, 357-66. Evaporation from water freely exposed from May to October, inclusive, in a small tin vessel amounted to 24 inches, 13/24 lice; the rainfall for the same lime being 9 inches, 2i linci. Experimems made wiih aqueous salt solutions of different strengihs showed that the strongest soluti'ms lo-t least by evaporation. From a table giving ihe resulti of simi- lar experiments under different temperatures, it may be calculated that the ratios between evaporation rates from difierent solutions approach each other as the temperature increases. Zylius, J. D. O. Ueber Herrn Deluc's Lehre von der Verdunstung und dem Begen. Jour. Pliys., Leipslc, 1794, 8:51-64. After discussing the nature of evaporation the author concludes that it is an actual solution of water in air. 1799. "Wistar, Caspar. Experiments on evaporation. Trans. Amer. phil. soc, 1799, 4:72-3, Also in Med. repos., 1801, 4:179-80. His conclusions are similar to those in his paper of 1793. 1800. Heller^ Egidius. Ueber den Einfluss des Sonnenlichts auf die Verdunstung des Was- sers. Ann. Phys., 1800, 4:210-22. Describes observations which tend to show that, the temperature of the air remaining constant, evaporation varies with the amount and strength of sunlight falling on the evaporating surface. 1801. Dalton, John. New theory of the constitution of mixed aeriform fluids, and par- ticularly of the atmosphere. Jour. nat. phil. chem., 1801, 6:241-4. Proposes " four suppositions in respect to the affections of the particles of one elastic fluid toward those of another," and adopts the idea ihat " particles of one elastic fluid may possess no repulsive (or attractive) power, or be perfectly inelastic with regard to ihe par- ticles of anoiher: and consequently, the mutual action of such fluids, or the action oithe particles of one fluid on those of another, will be subject to the laws of inelastic boiiiea." Two mixed fluids, " whatever their specific gravity may be, will immediately, or in a short time, be intimately difihsed thru each other, in such a manner that the density of each considered abstractedly, will be uniform thruout." Thepartiolea " will diffuse themselves thru any given, space, occupied by a very rare medium, in the same manner as they would do in a vacuum, each particle being impelled as far as possible from its neighboring par- ticle; only the diffusion of each may be a little retarded by the other." "The vapor of water and of every other fluid which does not unite chemically with the azotic and oxy- genous gases of the atmosphere, and without any regard to its pressure on the surface of the earth, being totally uninfluenced by any other pressure than that arising from the weight of their own particles; in short, each vapor, in regard to pressure, is in the same circumstance as if it were the only elastic fluid constituting the atmosphere." "Tho»e fases and vapors press separately on the surface of the eartu; and any one of them may e withdrawn or another addq,d to the number, without materially disturbing the rest, or in any way affecting their density. The above doctrine necessarily requires the force of vapor from any fluid to depend solely upon temperature, and consequently to be the same in any gas as in an exhausted receiver." 17 Eenustaedt, S. F. Versuche iiber den Einfluss der Elektrioitat auf die Verdtinstung und meteorologlsche Folgerungen daraus. Ann. Phys., 1801, 7:501-11. A mass of air, of known volume at the freezing point, was enclosed over a water seal and heated to 100° (F. ?). The air expanded a certain amount and, upon being recooled to freezing, resumed Its original volume. The satne air was then subjected to the action of electricity from an electrical machine, cooled, heated, and recooled, as before, when the air appeared to have been permanently expanded. The author concludes that this permanent expansion resulted from the permanent elasticity given to some of the water vapor by the electricity. Mons, J. B. V. Censura oommentarii a Wieglebo nuper editi, cui titulus: de vaporis aquel in aerem conversione. Brussels. 1801. 4to. Also, Chem.' Ann., 1801, 1 :76-84, 129-43, 185-200. Parrott, G. F. Grundzuge zu einer neuen Tlieorie der Ausdiinstung und des Nieder- schlags des Wassers in der Atmospliare. Mag. f. neu Zustand Naturk., 1801, 3:1-57. An extensive series of experiments, with deductions from his own and others' work, results in an elaborate theory of the phenomenon of evaporation, and of cloud and rain formation. The theory is based on several erroneous conceptions, e. g., that evaporation from ice is oxidation. Parrott, G-. P. Vermisohte physikalische Bemerkungen. Ann. Phys., 1801, 10:166-218. A distinction is assumed between physical and chemical evaporation; the former is sup- posed to be dependent on the temperature and the latter on the oxygen content of the air. 1802. BSokmann, Carl Wilheliu. Einige Vorlauflge Bemerkungen iiber Herrn Prof. Parrott's neue Tlieorie der Verdvinstung und des Niederschlags des Wassers in der Atmosphare. Ann. Pliys. Leipsio, 1802, 1 1 :66-88. The author doubts the validity of the experimental evidence furnished by Parrott (1801) and the theoretical conclusions of his paper are controverted. Dalton, John. Experimental essays on the constitution of mixed gases; on the force of steam or vapor from water and other liquids in different temperatures, both in a Torricellian vacuum and in air; on evap- oration and on the expansion of gases by heat. Mem. lit. phil. soc, 1802, 5:535-602. Translated in Bull. soc. philom., 1803, 3:189-91; also in Ann. Phys., 1803, 12:310-18. The theory of the chemical solution of water vapor in air is declared to be complex and attended with diMculties, such as that it can exist independently in a vacuum at any tem- perature. Adopts a theory which admits of a distinct elastic vapor in the atmosphere at all temperatures and uncombined with either of the principal constituent gases. Some general laws of evaporation established by others are exprest. The objects of the essay are; (1 ) to determine the effect of temperature on the rate of evaporation ; (2) to determine the relative evaporability of different fluids ; (3) to find a rule for ascertaining the quantity and effect of water vapor previously in the air; (4) from these and other facts to obtain a true theory of evaporation. A table shows the force of vapor and the full evaporating power of every degree of temperature from 20° to 85° exprest in grains of waterraised per minute from a vessel 6 inches in diameter, suppos- ing there were no vapor already in the atmosphere. He determined, by weighing, the amount of water evaporated from two tin dishes, one 6 inches in diameter and ^ inch deep, the other 8 inches in diameter and i inch deep; and found that, for high temperatures, the rate of evaporation was exactly proportional to the vapor tension. To test this principle for low temperatures it was found necessary to consider the partial pressure of the water vapor actually existing in the atmosphere. It is concluded that the evaporating force is equal to the vapor tension at the temperature of the water, diminished by that at the tem- perature of the air. The same principle was found to hold below the freezing point. He refers to Saussure's experimental determinations of the amount of elasticity imparted to dry air by imbibition of aqueous vapor, and shows that the results coincide rather closely with his own. Dalton, however, considers that Saussure placed too much confidence in his Iliair?] hygrometer, and that his observations seem to corroborate the theory that aqueous vapor is a distinct elastic fluid rather than a chemical solution of water in air as he sup- posed. ABE 2 18 Dalton, John. Experiments and observations made to determine whether the quan- tity of rain and dew is equal to the quantity of water carried off by rivers, and raised by evaporation; with an Inquiry into the origin of springs. Mem. lit. phil. soc, 1802, 5:346-72. Trans- lated in Ann. Phys., 1803, 15:249-78. The annual rainfall over England and Wales ia estimated at 31 inches, and dew-fall at 6 inches, while the runoff of the rivers accounts for only 13 inches, leaving 23 inches to be accounted for by evaporation. An experiment was made with a cylindrical tinned Iron vessel, 10 inches in diameter and 3 feet deep, with two tubes inserted in one side and turned downward (for collecting surplus water in bottles), one tube near the bottom, the other an inch from the top. This cylinder was filled with gravel and sand to the depth of a few inches, then with fresh soil, and the whole was sunk in the ground, the side bearing the tubes being exposed. The layer of soil was kept saturated with water. Three years' observations (1796-S) in which the annual average rainfall was found to be 33.S6 inches, showed the evaporaUon from soil to be 25.14 inches, and that from a free water surface, 44.43 inches. Hence, he concluded that: (1) under the above circumstances, 25 inches of the rainfall and the 5 inches estimated for dew, making a total of 30 inches, are evaporated annually; (2) the quantity of evaporation increases with the rainfall, but not proportion- ally; (3) there is, apparently, no great difference between the amount of evaporation from bare earth with sufficient depth of soil, and that from ground covered with vegetation. The difference between the amount calculated as available for evaporation and the ob- served amount, is taken to support the theory that the 'earth derives a supply of water from some subterranean reservoir. Reasons, however, are given for considering the ob- served evaporation as perhaps greater than the actual, and it is finally concluded that " the rain and dew of this country are equivalent to the quantity of water carried off by evaporation and the rivers." Dalton, John. New theory of the constitution of mixed gases elucidated. FhU. mag., 1802, 14:169-73. Also Jour. nat. phil. chem., 1802, 3 (n. s.):267-71. Translated in Ann. Phys., 1803, 12:438-45. A further explanation of the same theories announced in 1801. Kirwan, Bichard. Of the variations of the atmosphere. Trans, roy. Irish acad., 1802, 8:278-330. In the chapter on evaporation, the causes of evaporation are said to be " heat, affinity to atmospheric air, agitation, electricity, and light." Discusses Saussure's experiments with a card supersaturated with moisture, which lost 2 grains in a quarter of an hour when elec- trified, while another, not electrified, lost H grains. Beprints Saussure's table (1789) comparing evaporation at different altitudes. 1803. Cotte, L. Observations mStSorologiques faites k Hontmorenci pr&s Paris pen- dant I'annge 5 (1797) de la B^publique. Mem. inst. nat. sci. et arts, 1803, 4:261-5. The amount of evaporation for the year 1797 is reported as 18 inches, with a rainfall of 26 inches, 6.8 lines. (Fr. 7. ) Dalton, John. Eine neue Theorie ilber die BeschaSenheit gemischter luftformiger Fliissigkeiten, besonders der atmospharischen Luft [aus Jour, nat. phil. chem. 5:241]. Ann. Phys., 1803, 15:385-95. Translation of Dalton, 1801. Dalton, John. Versuche iiber die Expansivkraft der DSmpf e von Wasser und andern Plussigkeiten, sowohl in luftleeren BSumen als in der Luft [aus Mem. lit. phil. soc, 5:550, et seq.]. Ann. Phys., 1803, 15:1-24. Dalton, John. Versuche fiber die Verdunstung [aus Mem. lit. phil soc 5-574 et seq.]. Ann. Phys., 1803, 15:121-43. . ■' • . Dalton, John. Sur 1' expansibility des gaz m61ang6s avec les vapeurs, extraite et traduit du Repertory of Arts par Houry. Jour, mines, 1803 14:33—6. 19 Gilbert, Ludwig 'Wilhelm. Elnlge Bemerkungen zu Dalton's Untersuohungen iiber Verdiinst- ung. Ann. Phys., 1803,' 15:144-68. Discusses the theories ot evaporation held by Dalton, Saussure, Deluc, etc. Hermstaedt, S. F. Observations sur une mSthode d' Evaporation spontanea de I'eau des putts sallns h, la temperature de I'atmosph&re; considerations sur le degrd d'utilitS des applications qu'on pourrait faire dans les salines du Boyaume, et recherclies sur les causes physiques qui concourrent pour produire cette Evaporation. M6m. acad. sci., 1803, (— ):91-104. Also Samml. Deut. Abh. Akad., 6:63-73. Also Neu. aUg. Jour. Ohem., 1804, 2:317-34. Parrott, G. P. Ueber Herrn Wrede's Bemerkungen gegen seine hygrologische Tlieorie. Ann. Phys., 1803, 13:244-50. Answer to Wrede's criticisms in connection with the theories announced in the papers of 180t. (See Wrede, 1803.) Paxrott, a. P. TJeber den Phosphor, das Phosphor-Oxygenometer, und einige hygrologische Yersuche, in Beziehung auf Herrn Prof. B5ckmann's voriaufige Bemerkungen iiber diese Gegenstftnde. Ann. Phys., 1803, 13:174-207. Answer to Bockmann's criticisms of his theories. (See Bockmann, 1802. ) "Wrede, B. P. K. Eritische Bemerkungen iiber einige neuere Hypothesen in der Hy- grologie, besonders iiber Parrott's Theorle der Ausdiinstung und Nlederschlagung des Wassers in der atmosphSrischen Iiuft. Ann. - Phys., 1803, 12:319-52. Discussion and criticism of Parrott's (1801) theory of chemical and physical evaporation, Hube's (1790) vesicular system, etc. 1804. Soldner, Jobaun von. tJeber das allgemeine Gesetz fiir Expansivkraft des Wasserdampf es durch Warme, nach Dalton's Versuohen; nebst einer Anwendung dieses Gesetzes auf das Yerdiinsten der Fliissigkeiten. Ann. Phys., • 1804, 17:44-81. A mathematical discussion of the law of Increase of vapor tension for every degree of rise in temperature, and the application of this law to the evaporation of liquids. Discusses Dalton's law and develops a formula hy which, from the elastic force and the observed evaporation of any liquid at its boiling point, the evaporation at any other temperature may be determined. 1805. Blanchet, P. On the vapor which rises from the surface of the Biver St. Lawrence during the severe cold of winter. Med. repos., 1805, 3:154-5. Mayer, Johann Tobias. Lehrbuch iiber die physische Astronomie, Theorie der Erde und Meteorologie. G-ottingen. 1805. , Discusses, p. 168-81, the influence of different temperatures of both the evaporating sur- face and the surrounding air, on the rate of evaporation; also the influence of sunlight and of different surfaces and depths of the evaporating mass. Defines the atmometer as a glass vessel filled with water, the evaporation from which is measured by a graduated scale or hy weighing. For the best results- it should be floated on the surface of some large body of water. Discusses the seasonal variations in the amount evaporated. 1807. Plauguerges, Honor6. Memoire sur le rapport de I'evaporation spontanSe de I'eau avec la chaleur. Jour, phys., Paris, 1807, 70:446-53. Translated in Jour. nat. phil. chem., 1810, 27:17-24. 20 Experiments to determine wnether evaporation is proportional to the extent of surface exposed, or is dependent on some function of the other dimensions of the body of water, asMosschenbroeV and Cotte asserted, proved that it is simply proportional to the surface exposed. Experiments to determine the effect of heat seemed to show that, while the degrees of temperature vary in arithmetical progression, the corresponding losses by evap- oration vary in geometrical progression. The following formula shows the relation: 3,= (4.4). (2.7182818)"''®'"*^, in which x represents the degree of temperature on Deluc's thermometer and y the corre- sponding evaporation, exprest in parts of the scale used. For the evaporation in milli- meters y must be multiplied by ?M7, or we may substitute 0,6268843 for the coefficient 4.4 in the equation. Soldner, Johann v. Nachtrag zu der Abhandlung iiber das allgemeine Gesetz der Expan- sivkraft der Wasserdampte. Ann. Phys., 1807, 25:411-39. This is a continuation of his paper of 1804, and a discussion of Dalton's law of vapor tension. 1809. Cotte, Louis. Memoire sur r^vaporation. Jour, phys., Paris, 1809, 68:434-41. 1810. Ootte, Louie. M^moire sur I'^vaporation. Jour, phys., Paris, 1810, "70:206-8. D'Aubuisson de Voisan, J. F. Notice sur la quantity d'eau en vapeur oontenue dans I'atmosphfere, sur la diminution de density qui en resulte, et sur le produit de l'6vaporation en un temps determine. Jour, mines, 1810, 27:411-9. In discussing the laws of vapor tension and density he derives a formula for the dimi- nution of the density of air due to water vapor. The annual average weight of the vapor contained in a cubic meter of air Is given as 9.0 grams, and the annual average diminution of density is 0.0029, the density of air being 1.0. A formula is derived for the quantity of water, Q, evaporated at temperatures between 60° and 100°: Q^Tuy, where 0' is the elastic force of vapor at the temperature, and n is a constant to be determined by experiment. Tables show the monthly evaporation calculated for Geneva, that observed at the Observa- toire de Paris in 1809, and the evaporation at different elevations as observed by Hum- boldt, Gay-Lussac, and Saussure. Fischer, Ernst Gottfried. Darstellung und Kritik der Verdiinstungslehre naoh den neuesten besonders den Daltonschen Versuchen. Berlin. 1810. 8vo. Flauguerges, Honor6. MSmoire sur le rapport de I'fivaporation de I'eau aveo I'humiditS de I'air. Jour, phys., Paris, 1810, 70:157-67.. Translated in Jour, nat. phil. ohem., 1812, 32:330-9. In an experiment to asceriain the influence of humidity on evaporation, air was dried by exposure to lime for three weeks. A vessel was then filled with this air by, displacement of sand and it was found that, at a constant temperature, the rate of evaporation from a water surface exposed therein decreased in geometrical progression with the increase in humidity. The author concludes that the rate of evaporation is proportional to the amount of additional water vapor needed for saturation; and points out that this agreement with the law of solution of solids in liquids appears to confirm the hypothesis of Musschenbroek and Le Eoy that evaporation of water is merely a solution of this substance In air. Fol- lowing Saussure, the author determined the absolute humidity of saturated air at 66° F. and announced formulas for finding the point of saturation at any t«mperature, and for calculating the evaporation at any temperature and humidity. The latter formula is; j:=[(2.72)"'''^ — 0] (0.341ineB), where E is the evaporation in lines in 24 hours at the temperature z of De Lnc's thermom- eter, and in air which contains z cubic lines of water in the cubic foot. 1812. Oarradorl, O-ioacbino. Dell' evaporazione del ghiacdo e della neve. Gior. fis. chim., 1812, 5:203-8. 21 Upholds the theory of the affinity of air and watet, and that evaporation is a combina- tioaof molecules of water wiih"la materia del calonco termico," 1. e., the " element" of fire. When vater is changed to ice, the affinity of cohesion or aggregation, is changed to chemical affinity or composition. More force is required to evaporate ice than water, because of this chemical af&nity. 1813. LeBlie, John. A short account of experiments and instruments depending on the relations of air to heat and moisture. Edinburgh. 1813. p. 178. 1 pi. (See Brandes, 1823.) Discusses the cooling produced by evaporation, and the different methods. of cooling water, etc., employed by people living in hot countries. Describes a dijferential ther- mometer used as a hygrometer, consisting of two glass air chambers oonnecied by a tube containing sulfuric acid (H2-O4I. His atmometer is a thin ball of porous earthenware, 2 or 3 inches in diameter, with a small neck which ip cemented to the lower end of a long and rather wide closed tube, graduated so that each division corresponds to an internal section equal to a film of liquid that would cover the outer surface of the ball to the thick- ness of 1/lOOOth part of an inch. In still air the indications of the atmometer and hygrom- eter were found to have the following relation: 1/20 of a hygrometer degree == 1/1000 inch of evaporation. 1814. Vassali-Eandi, A. M. iSaggio dl un trattato di meteorologia, memorla ricevuta li 19 Die, 1814. Mem. soc. ital. sol., 17:230-55. A general account of meteorological Instruments which Includes a description of an atmidometer (p. 242), 1816. BeUani, Augelo. Kiflessioni critiche intorna aU' evaporazione, colla descrlzione di un nuovo atmidmometro. Gior. fis. chim., 1816, 9:102-14, 188-206, 250-62, 417-46. Abstract in Bibl. ital., no. 6, Milan, 1816. Trans- lation of abstract In Bibl. univers., 1816, 2:153-9. Discussion of work by Leslie and others concerning the cold produced during evapora- tion. Reviews general laws and theories of evaporation as explained by Saus^ure, Lav- oisier, Cotle, Gay-Lussao, Dalton, Flauguerges, etc. Holds with Klrwan and Richmann that the temperature of the air in contact with the water has considerable iofiuence on the rate of evaporation. According as the temperature of the air is equal to^ warmer than, or colder than the water the evaporation will be slow in the first case, nothing in the second, and rapid in the third. (Quotes from ancient writers on the subject. Thilo, Ludwig. Ueber das Yerhaltniss der Ausdtinstung auf dem Meere und auf dem Lande. Arch. Med. Aarau, 1816, 1 :250-6. 1818. Sohon. Die Witterungskunde in ihren Grundlagen. Wurzburg. 1818. Discusses methods of measuring evaporation and experiments of Musschenbroek (see Cotte, 1774, and Saussure, 1789). 1820. Anderson, Adam. Description of a new atmometer. Edinb. phil. jour., 1820, 2:64-7. Translated in Jour. Chem. Pbys., 1820, 28:326-8. Presents objections to the ordinary shallow dish for ascertaining the " dissolving power " of the air, and also to Leslie's porous bulb atmometer. The latter is objectionable on ac- count of the impossibility of using it in frosty weather and during showers, when rain is forced into the interior. Anderson proposes an instrument which consists of an hermetically sealed system' of glass bulbs and tubes containing only alcohol and its vapor, and so arranged that when the two biilbs are at different temperatures the liquid contained in the one bulb will be con- densed in a second bulb and collected in a graduated tube attached to thelatter. The con- densing bulb is covered with wet silk or paper and evaporation therefrom cools the con- denser to a temperature below that of the other bulb. The amount of alcohol collected in the graduated tube is a measure of the amount of evaporation during the corresponding time period. The apparatus is inverted to bring the distilled alcohol again into the origi- nal bulb. A scale was made for the instrument by comparing its operation with the amount of water lost from a free water surface. 22 Bellani, Angelo. Descrlzlone di un nuovo atmldometro per servire di oontlnaazlone e fine alle riflessioni critiche intorno all' evaporazlone. Glor. fls. chlm., 1820, 3 (decade 2):166-77. Also reprinted, Pavia, 1820. The evaporating surface of this instrument consists of a porous clay disc which closes the mouth of a metallic vessel connected thru a stop-cock with a second vessel which has a hinged cover. The first vessel is also connected laterally with a horizontal graduated ?'lass tuhe of small bore having its free end open to the air. The second vessel is so placed bat when filled its water level is not higher than that of the clay disc, but is considerably higher than the graduated tube. The whole system having been filled with distilled water and the stop-cocS closed, evaporation from the clay surface removes water from the primary vessel and air enters the open end of the glass tube, forcing the meniscus backward at a rate which Indicates the rate of evaporation. When the water meniscus approaches the attached end of the glass tube the tube is refilled by opening the stop-cock between the two vessels. 1823. Brandes, Heinrioh Willielin. tJebersetze aus d. Engl, ins Deutsche u. commentirte: Leslie — Kurzer Berlcbt von Yersuchen u. Instrumenten, die sich auf d. Yerhalten d. Luft zur Warme u. Feuohtigkeit beziehen. Leipsic. 1823. 8vo. (See Leslie, 1813.) Vassali-Eandi, A. M. Descrlzlone di un nuovo atmldometro per misurare I'evaporazione dell' acqua, del ghiaccio, e di altri corpe a varie temperature. Bicevuta Aprile 29, 1823. Mem. soc. itai. sci., 1823, 19:347-53. The author describe^ a sensitive balance with a thermometer su<«pended from one end of Its beam and dipping into the cup containing the substance whose evaporation is to be studied. He emphasizes the fact that two atmometers to be compared must be exposed under exactly similar conditions. Vassali-Bandi, A. M. Nota sopra le straordinarie variazioni del barometro, sopra il masslmo grado di caldo e di freddo, la quantity della pioggia, della neve, e dell' evaporazlone, che si osservarrono nel 1821, con alcuni cenni sopra le quality dell' annata. Mem. r. accad. Torino, 1823, 27:xU- Prinsep, J. Description of a pluviometer and an evaporometer constructed at Benares. Asiatic researches, 1825, 15:(app.), xlll-xv. 23 He describes and figures an atmometer consisting of an exposed cup connected with a graduated tube of smaller diameter and at a lower leTel, this tube being eupplied with a piston for drlTlng water into the cup. The instrument is operated by first filling the tube to the standard level and then forcing water by means of the pision, into the cup from which it Is in like manner withdrawn to standard level at the end of a given time, note being made of the ditTerence In the position of the piston at the beginning and end of the operation. The ratio between the diameters of the cup and the tube gives the magnifica- tion of the observed loss. 1826. Sohiibler, Gustav. Beobachtungen iiber die Verdunstung des Eises. Naturw. Abh., 1826, 1:211-8. Also general conclusions in Quart, jour, sci., 1829, 1 :187. A table of observations of evaporation ftom January 1 to February 28 shows the amount lost from a surface of ice or water, the average temperature of the period, the average rela- tive humidity, and the average height of the barometer at 65° F. During certain dry, cold weather the evaporation from ice in twenty-four hours was twice as great as from an equal surface of water in the middle of February during mild, cloudy weather. From these ob- servations It is concluded that "evaporation of ice is far more considerable than has been supposed, and that in certain natural circumstances it may even surpass that of water." 1827. Hallstr6m, G. G. De hygrometrico aerls statu tempore aestivo anni 1826 observato Aboa. (Diss, acad.) Aboae. (Abo, Finland), 1827. 4to. EallstrSm, G. G. Obeervationes circa evaporationem liieme proxime elapsa institutae. (Diss, acad.) Aboae. (Abo, Finland), 1827. 4to. Klaproth. Sur Tevaporation de I'eau & une haute temperature. Ann. chem. et phys., 1827, 35:325-9. Experiments with water drops on a very hot metal surface much above the boiling point of water, showed that the hotter the metal the less rapid was evaporation. Meikle, Henry. Bemarks and experiments relating to hygrometers and evaporation. Edinb. new phil. jour., 1827, 2:22-32. He presents some experiments and formulas connected with the use of the hygrometer as a measure of evaporatioo. , Pouillet. Memoire sur I'Slectrlclte des fluides Slastiques, et sur une des causes de rSlectriclte de I'atmosph&re. (Lu k I'acad. des sci., le 30 Mai, 1825.) Ann. ehim. et phys., 1827, 35:401-20. The author describes experiments which show that the electricity accompanying vapori- zation is due to the more or less intense chemical action which takes place between the elements of the liquid and the vessel which contains it. This fact is considered proof that the electricity of the atmosphere can not have the origin which Volta is said to have assigned to it, 1. e.. the natural evaporation from land and sea, 1828. Scbr5n, Hermann Lud'wig Friedrich. Beschreibung, Gebrauch und Eigenschatten des Hyetometers und Atmometers. Met. Jahrb. Jena, 1828, 6:135-44. 1829. Experiments on evaporation made in the vicinity of Calcutta. G-len. sci., 1829, 1:286-90. In connection with the manufacture of salt at Ballyaghat near Calcutta, the rate of evaporation from enclosed tanks of from 150,000 to 850,000 square feet area and 3 to 4.5 inches depth, was studied. The experiments being on such a large scale many sources of error were necessarily considered. After discussing and allowing for these, the conclusion is reached that the evaporation rate for this place is at least as follows: January, 3 Inches; February, 6 inches; March, 7 inches; April, 9 Inches; and May, 9 inches. Experiments on evaporation performed at Vera Cruz in 1818- Glen. Sci., 1829, 1:335-7. 24 These experiments on evaporation from water are compared witli tliose near Calcutta, iB#ii*iKa 1/10 inch in winter, 2/10 to 3/10 inch in summer. A table of the monthly evaporation near London from 1807 to 1815, shows an average total for the year of 30 75 inches. He considers that the best instrument for measuring evaporation is a " shallow, metallic cistern" provided with a scale of three diagonals, engraved on an oblong plate of glass, the divisions of the scale to be 1/10 inch a^art, and th^ descent in proportion of 1/lOOth to each division. Klee, Franz. Priifung der Lehre vom Druck der Luft, nebst einer neuen Theorie iiber die Verdiinstung und Bildung der NiederschlSge in der At- mosphare. Mainz. 1837. Svo, Pouillet. ;6lements de physique exp^rimentale et de meteorologie. Paris. 1837. '2 vols. Svo. See 1 :261, 291, 303-6, 555 et seq.; and 2:629-30. Pouillet supports a theory of evaporation agreeing in the main with that of Dalton, [Dal- ton, 1801 and 1802, 1st title]. The rate of evaporation depends, not onl^ on the, movement of the air^ but on the difference between the pressure of ihe vMior forming and that of the vapor already formed in the air. He quotes Dalton's law. Evaporation is also propor- tional to the extent of surface exposed. In discussing the cold produced by evaporation, the author states that 1 grain of water vaoor, formed by evaporation, has absorbed a quantity of latent heat capable of raising 500 grains of water 1° in tempera ure. In vol- ume 2 it is maintained that atmospheric e'ectricity res'ilts from ihe chemical segregations accompanying evaporation from the surface of the earth. 1838. Espy, J. P. Experiments on spontaneous evaporation. Franklin inst. jour., 1838. 22:74-5. He describes simple experiments with evaporation of water from porous pots and tumblers sunk in the ground, from moist earth, and from wet towels in motion and at rest; and gives the accompanying temperatures of the air and the dew-point. Leslie, J. Treatises on various subjects of natural and chemical philosophy. Encyclopedia Britannica. Edinburgh. 1838. In the chapter on Meteorology, p. 402-537, the porous clay atmometer is described as in his paper of 1813. Ageneral review of the theoretical side ot the subject includes the vesicu- lar theory held by Halley, Leibnitz, Mussehenbroek, Desaguliers, Kratzenstein; and the advance made in 1750 by Hamberger, who attributed evaporation to a real solution of mois- ture in the air, and by Le Roy who followed along the same lines. The experiments of Wallerius, Mussehenbroek, Eichmann, Saussure, and Kirwan are given critical attention. It is maintained that the full cooling effect on the wet-bulb thermometer may be obtained without the whirling practised by Saussure. 26 1840. Kamtz, Ludwig Friedrich. Vorlesungen liber Meteorologie. Halle. 1840. p. tis, Jy-s. A general discussion. Verdttnstung. Gehler's Physikallsches Worterbuch. Leipslc. 1840. 9 (pt. 3): 1720-50. The artide VcrdUnstung gives a surrey of the literature of the subject up to 1840, includ- ing the work of Dalton, Schtlbler, and others. 1842. De la plule et de I'lnfluence des forets sur les cours d'eau. Ann. ponts ohauss., 1842, 3 (2): 184^209, 197-201. In discussing the effects of evaporation and its immense rSIe in nature, the author presenta tables of rainfall and evaporation in France, together with the average monthly height or the Seine. The object is to show that the greatest evaporation follows close upon the great- est rainfalK but that the highest stage of the Seine occurs when the rainfall and evaporation are least It is calculated that evaporation reduced the volume of water In the Seme from 7 to 3, or more than half, and that the reduction would not have been as great if the banks ha4 been foi-ested instead of being bare as was the case at that time. Bowell, O-. A. On the retardation of evaporation by electric Insulation, Proo. Ashmol. soc, 1841, 23:7. Also Phil, mag., 1842, 20:45-6. Experiments on the relative evaporation of water from an insulated vessel and an uninsu- lated one, showed an excess of evaporation from the latter of 14 dwts., 9 grains. The au- thor belives that if omplete insulation could be maintained, no evaporation would take place at moderate temperatures, Saigey. Petite physique du globe. Paris. 1842. p. 108-12. The yearly evaporation at Paris from circular dishes, 30 or 60- centimeters in diamete^ and 10 or 20 centimeters deep, is stated to be about 800 mm. when the dishes are half filled with water. 1844. Baily, J. On the Isthmus between the Lake of Grenada and the Pacific. Jour. roy. geog. soc, 1844, 14:127-9. An incidental remark in this article states that, according to various calculations, the average annual evaporation in inter-tropical climates amounts to 39 inches. Iiidnard. Sur le melange de I'eau de mer d, I'atmosphere. M4m. soc. agr., Bayeux, 1844, 2:289-90. 1845. Daniell, John Frederic. Elements of Meteorology. London. 1845. 2 v. Volume 2, p. 25, 66, 220, 236. According to this author, " the hygrometer may be applied to indicate the force and quantity of evaporation." Refers to Dattou's law that the quantity of water evaporated in a eiveu time, bears a definite relation to the force of vapor at the game temperature. A table shows the full evaporating force of every degree of temperature from 18° to 85° F. Discusses the conditions and laws of evaporation from water and soil. Laidlay, T. W. Observations on the rate of evaporation on the open sea; with a de- scription of an instrument used for indicating its amount. Jour. Asiat. soc. Bengal, 1845, 14:213-6. Also abstracted by Blanford, 1877. Leslie's atmometer is described and criticized as lacking simplicity of construction and use. An instniment of his own invention consists of a small glass tube, closed at both ends, at the lower end by means of a plug of some porous substance as wood. The tube is filled with dis- tilled water and attached to a scale upon which the amount lost from the tube by evaporit< tion from the surface of the plug may be observed. Observations were made with this in- strument hung in the shade but freely exposed to the wind, on board ship between Eng- land and e^cutta. The daily average, from lat. 37° 15' S. to lat. 24° 25' S., was 0.398 inches, and thru the Tropics 0.809 inches. A table of von Humboldt's results of observations in 27 similfir reeions with Seine's hair hygrometer, reduee4 by d'Aubiiisson's formula, glies a mueh amaller rate. Laidlay explains the discrepaacies by the fact that Deluc's hygrometer takes no account of the important agencr of the wind, Laidlay's instrument, suspended in the shade on an open verandah in Calcutta, gave a dally average evaporation of 0.607 inches for the year. Parkes, Josiah. On the quantity of rain compared with the quantity of water evapo- rated from or filtered thru soil; with some remarks on drainage. Jour. roy. agr. soc, 1845, 5 (1st ser.): 146-58. The author describes experiments by John Dickinson, to determine the percentages of rainfall which percolate thru the soil or evaporate from its surface. Besides a rain gage, he emi>Ioyed for this purpose a cylinder filled with soil and sunk in the ground, this cylinder having a false perforated bottom and a receptacle beneath for collecting the percolation water. This lower receptacle communicated by a small tube with a second vertical cylinder below the level of the other, the diameter of the second bearing some convenient ratio to that of the first. The percolation water is measured by means of a graduated stem borne on a float in the second cylinder. The evaporation includes that due to the plant growth on the surface of the soil. The results of eight years' observations, 1836-43, show the annual evaporation to be S7.6 per cent of the rainfall, or 16.3 inches. Other estimates are quoted, Begnault, Victor. Etudes sur I'hygrometrie. C!ompt. rend., 1845, 20:1127-66, 1220-37. Also Ann. ohim. et phys., 1845, 15 (3d ser.):129-236. Translated from Comptes rendus in Ann. Phys. und Chem., 1845, 65:135-58, 321-60. Also Soi. mem., 1846, 4:606-60. The first part (p. 1128-66) contains: (1) a table of the varying tensions of water va^or in saturated air at a series of different temperatures; (2) a table of the varying densities of water vapor in saturated air at different temperatures; (3) a table of similar densities in air of different degrees of humidity below saturation. The second part (p. 1220-37) de- scribes methods of determining the relative humidity of the air: (1) the chemical method; (2) that founded on the changes occurring in hygroscopic materials; (3) that of the con- densation hydrometer; (4) that founded on the indications of the wet and dry-bulb ther- mometers. This is followed by formulas and tables. Rowell, Gr. A. On the phenomena of evaporation, the formation and suspension of clouds, etc. Edinb. new phil. jour., 1845, 38:50-6. Eeviewed in Franklin Inst, jour., 1847, 44:340-3. The autfior is of the opinion that vaporization is produced by an increase in the electrical charge of the water panicles and that condensation is due to a decrease in or removal^ this charge. Thus evaporation is considered a phenomenon of static electricity. This theory is elaborated at length and a number of meteorological phenomena are considered from this standpoint. 1846. LudlO'w. Observations on evaporation made at the Bed Hills, near Madras, in 1844. Madras jour. lit. sci., 1846, 13:87-93. Also quoted by Blanford, 1877. By careful experiments he compared the rale of evaporation from an evaporator floated on the surface of a large tank, with that from an evaporator on land some distance from the tank, and found one-fifth less evaporation from the tank exposure than from the land exposure durHig the hottest months of the year. The results show a gradual increase in the ratio between the two, but this is at least partially accounted for by the fact that the depth of the water in the tank diminished about 6 feet f^om April 1 to August 20. He concludes that "depth is important in such reservoirs, the amount of evaporation not only Increasing with surface but inversely as the depth." The rainfall during the period was 8 inches, the total fall in the water level of the tank was 83 inches, and the evai>oration 53 Inches, so that only three-eighths of the amount disappearing was available for irrigation. Tables of results, including temperature observations, etc., are given. 1847. DaubrSe, G. A. Observations sur la quantite de chaleur annuellement employee 4 evaporer de I'eau k la surface du globe, et sur la puissance dy- namique des eaux courantes des continents. Abstractvby the author, C!ompt. rend., 1847, 24:534-50. German translation in Ann. Phys. und Chem., 1847, 71 (3d ser.):17a-5. In calculating the amount of heat annually consumed in evaporation, the total evapora- tion is considered equal to the total rainfall on the surface of the earth, which is estimated as 703,435 cubic kilometers, equivalent to a layer of water having a uniform depth of 1.379 28 tneters over the entire earth. This amount of evaporation eonsames nearly one-third of the heat annually received from the Bun. The total energy of evaporation is estimatett as more than 1,800 times that manifested hy the flowing waters of the earth, the latter ap- proximating 9,000 million horse-power. Glaisher, James. , j. iu Hygrometrloal tables, containing temperature of the dew-point; the elastic force and weight of vapor; degree of humidity; weight of air, etc.; corresponding to all readings of the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers between 10° and 90° [F.]. With directions for using, and explanation of the theory and uses of the dry- and wet- bulb thermometers. London. 1847. First edition. 8vo. Babinet, J. Note sur un atmidoscope. Compt. rend., 1848, 27:529-30. He describes an instrument somewhat similar to Leslie's (1813), in which evaporation takes place from the surface of a reservoir of porous clay filled with water. The reservoir is supplied from a vertical tube connected therewith and at a lower level, and the evapor^ tion is measured by the lowerine of the water level in the latter. The advantage is claimed f )r this instrument over the ordinary hygrometer, of being influenced by the movement of the air and of registering the integrated eftect from the beginning of the experiment. Cartillon, O. Synthase de quelques metfiores dependents du phfinom^ne de I'evaporation de I'eau. Trans. Roy. soc. arts, sci., Mauritius, 1848, 2:97-118. Rowell, Q. A. On the cause of evaporation, rain, hail-stones, and the winds of the temperate regions. Ept. Brit, assoo. adv. sci., 1847. (Notices p. 41.) Repeats his hypothesis expounded in 1845. 1848. Vall6s, P. Projet de des6chement et d'irrigation du lac de Grand-Lieu. Ann. ponts chauss., 1848, 16:158-251. Dissusses, p. 226-81, the relaiive intensity of evaporation. Besults obtained from 1782- 1801 by GaUndrelll and Couti are quoted from de Prouy's w6rk on the Pontirte marshes '(?). A table givrs the annual average evaporation as 2,362 meters and the ratios accord- ing to the seasons. The daily evaporation at Nantes is calculated at 0.005 meters. 1849. Bulst, Or. On the saltness of the Bed Sea. Trans. Bombay geog. soc, 1849, 9:38-48. It is stated incidentally (p. 39), that the temperature of the surface of the Red Sea varies from 65° to 85° F., that the diffference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb Is from 25° to 40° F., and that the average evaporation at Aden is 8 feet per year. .Cbamock, J. H. On suiting the depth of drainage to the circumstances of the soil. Jour. roy. agr. soc, 1849, 10:507-19. In connection with percolation experiments, from 1842 to 1846 inclusive, the following average annual data are presented in tabular form: (1) rainfall, 24.6inches; (2) evaporation from a water surface freely exposed to sun and wind, 35.05 inches; (3) evaporation from Tvater shaded from sun but exposed to wind, 23.35 inches; (4) evaporation from drained soil, 19 76 inches; (5) evaporation from saturated soil, 32.68 inches. Dalton's observations (1802, 2d title) in similar experiments are quoted, together with those of Dickinson (Parkes, 1845). Harting', Pieter. Drie nieuwe physische wertingen-Hygrometer, Brijfbalans, en Atmometer of Verdampingsmeter. Utr. Anteek. prov. genoots., 1849, (— ):6-18. Norton, W. A. On the diurnal variations In the declination of the magnetic needle, and in the intensities of the horizontal and vertical magnetic forces. Amer. jour, sol., 1849, 8 ;350-64. Abstracted by Kamsay. 1884. 29 He attributes the daily decrease in the horizontal force of the magnetic needle, between 4 and 10 a. m., to the evaporation of the dew or rain that has fallen during the night. Schubler, G. G-rundsHtze der Meteorologle In n&herer Bezlehung auf Deutschlands Klima. Leipsic. 1831. First Edition. Neu bearbeitet [2d Edi- tion] von G-. A. Jahn. Leipslo. 1849. Evaporation is dlBCUst on p. 72-80. 1850. Kunzek, Aug'ust. Lehrbucti der Meterologie. Vienna. 1850. Gives definitions of Yerdttnstung and Verdampfung (p. 95), and discussion of evapora- tion In general (p. 96). Lenz, H. F. E. Beitrag zur Bestimmung der in St. Petersburg verdiinst^nden Wds- sermenge, Mel. phys. et cliim., 1850, 1:226-38. Also Bui. aead. imp. sci., 1851, 9:ool. 86-94. The loss of weight by evaporation from two small brass dishes of water, was observed dur- ing the winter of 1849-SO. The apparent disagreements between the evaporation rate on the one hand, and the temperature and humidity on the other, are explained by wind condi- tions, the Importance of which as a factor influencing evaporation is emphasized. Com- parisons of the evaporation from ice with that from freezing water, show the latter to have, the higher rate. A curve of bi-hourly readings of evaporaiion is seen to follow the daily march of temperature. He also compares the diurnal and nocturnal rates of evaporation. Vall6s, F. Note sur une exception remarquable que pr^sente la mesure de I'evaporation naturelle k Saint-Jeane-de-Losne, Dijon, Pouilly et La Roohe-sur-Yonne. Ann. ponts ehauss., 1850, 20:383-93. Ab- stract in Bogers Field, 1869. According to this paper hydraulic engineers have generally considered the amount of evaporation in France to be much greater than the rainfall. Seven years' observations on the Canal de Bourgogne at the places mentioned show, however, that only once did the evaporation exceed the rainfall, and that the average evaporation is less than half what it had hitherto been considered. (See Tarb6, 1852, for similar results.) 1851. Charig-Harsaines. Sur les travaux de la rlgole deriv^e de I'Yonne pour ralimentation du point de partage du canal du Nivernais. Ann. ponts ehauss., 1851, 1 (3d. ser.):289-333. In Note A, p. 320-4, are described observations on evaporation from the Languedoc canal lor the 320 days that the navigation of the canal annually lasts, and the result showed a loss of 0,812 meter. The results obtained by Halley, Sedileau, and Cotte are quoted, and the ratio between the evaporation at different seasons of the year, as estimated by Vall6s and Cotte, Is discust. Espy, James. Third Eeport on Meteorology to the Secretary of the Navy. Wash- ington, 1851. He reports, p. 19, experiments on the relative lowering of temperature produced by the evaporation oisea water and fresh watei from the bulb of a thermometer. An equal depres- sion was thought to have been observed in bolj cases, wherefore it is assumed that evapora- tion from sea water is the; same as evaporatk n from fresh water under the same circum- stances. Miller, J. F. On the relation of the air and evaporation temperatures to the tem- perature of the dew-point, as determined by Mr. Glaisher's hygro- metrical tables founded on the factors deduced from six-hourly observations made at the Eoyal Observatory, Greenwich. Phil, trans., 1851,(— ):141-8. Notice in PhU. Mag., 1 (4): 168. A comparison of dew-points determined by the use of Dailell's hygrometer and the wet- and dry-bulb themjiometers proved the extreme accuracy of felaisher's tables. Experiments on the evaporation of water in a small copper vessel exposed Kt sun and wind, but partially sheltered at night and in wet weather, showed an annual average for the six years, 1843-8, of 30.011 inches with an average annual rainfall of 45.25 Inches. ^^' 30 Miller, J. P. Synopsis of meteorological observations made at Wliltehaven, Cum- berland, in tlie years 1848-50. Edinb. nety phil. jour., 1848, (— ): 55; 1849, (— ):53; 1851, (— ):234. Includes obserratlons on evaporation. 1852. Ne'wman, J. -.oun jtiAsunA e Description of a new evaporating gage. Phil, mag., 185^, 4(4).6d4^b. Describes aa atmometer similar in design to tliat of Frinsep, 1825. Begnault, V. Etudes sur I'liygrometrie. Compt. rend., 1852, 35:930-9. Ann. ohlm. et phys., 1853, 37:257-85. Translated from Ciompt. rend, in Ann. Phys. und Ohem., 1853, 88:420-32. Bepeats statements of 1845, and develops formulas for the psychrometer. Tarb6. Note sur ia mesure de I'fivaporation k la Roche-sur-Yonne, pendant les annee9^1846 & 1850. Ann.ponts chauss., 1852, 3:249-52. Ab- stracted by Rogers Field, 1869. The evaporating basin employed in these experiments was made of masonry 8 feet 24 Inches square andl foot 4 inches deep, and lined with zinc. Readings were taken once a month and the basin refilled to a standard level on a graduated scale flxt to one of the inside faces. The evaporation from this basin was found to be nearly equal to the rainfall, thns confirming the results obtained by Vall^s, and contrary to previous observations. 1853. Aymard, Maurice. Sur les Irrigations de la Metidja et les cours d'eau de 1' Atlas. Ann. ponts chauss., 1853, 6:46-131. Experiments to determine the efiect of air movement upon evaporation gave a daily average of 0.000659 meter and 0.000471 meter for the check. The following comparable figures are quoted from de Qasparin's Gours d' agriculture, vol. 2, p. 306: 0.000437 meter per day at Orange; 0.000130 meter at Gavaillon; 0.000508 meter at Aries; 0.000400 meter at Mar- seflles; 0.000491 meter at Borne. Olark. On the amount of evaporation from two surfaces of water, each 9 square feet in area, the one under cover, the other open to the slty and on all sides; and the fall of rain received in a vessel of the same extent in the year 1852 in the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich. Athen., 1853 (—): 198. The level of the evaporating surface is here observed by means of a float attached to a fine thread wound about a cylinder which ia connected with an index hand moving over a dial. The dial is graduated in convenient units for measuring evaporation in terms Of the subsidence of the evaporating surface. Another thread bearing a balancing weight ia attached to the cylinder and is wound in the opposite direction, so that when the water Burface rises, as daring rain, the movement of the index is reversed. Besults for the year show 10.3 inches evaporated from a water surface under a shed, and 25.8 Inches from on0 freely exposed to the weather. The rainfall for the year was 31.8 inches, on 165 days. Drian, Aitad. Note sur I'^vaporation negative. Ann. soc. agr. Lyon, 1853, 6: 418-21. Investigations show that when the temperature of the dew-point is higher than that of the evaporating surface atmospheric moisture is deposited upon that surface. This process is termed " negative evaporation." Foumet, J. Bemarques sur " Note sur I'evaporation negative " par Aim^ Drlan Ann. soc. mfit., 1853, 1:234-7. It is pointed out that whenever the temperature of the water in the evaporating dish il below that of the dew-point, while that of the air is higher, condensation instead of evan- oration takes place. The most favorable seiison for observing this phenomenon is said va be in October, and a table of results>iobtain|d October 20-25 [1853?] Is given. Observations with the condensation hygrometer, as wi^ as with the thermometer, were found to run parallel to those of the evaporation. This paper also reviews the work of Vignon 1858. Marcet, Francois. , ' Recherches sur I'evapor^ifon des liquides. Arch. sci. phys. et nat. 1853, 22:305-28. Abstract by the author in Compt. rend. 1853* 36:339-41. Also abstracts in " London Repertory of Patent Invenl tions," Jan., 1854;/ln Franlilin inst. iour., 1854, 57:278; Dingler's Polytech. Jour., _128:51-2; and Zeits. f. Naturw., 1 :218-9. Trans- lation from Blbl. unlv., April, 1853, in Phil, mag., 6(4):385-7- also Ann. Physd und Chem., ErgSnzungsband, 4:345; Cosmos 185l' 2:358-9. I 31 These researches were undertaken as the result of a letter by August de la Bire publisbed in Gomptes rendus for October, 1851. This letter explainea former glaciation as due to the cold of evaporation experienced by recently formedland masses during the evaporation of the water which covered them. This cold is supposed to have been very intense on ac- count vf the siliceous materials mingled with the water. Marcet ooncludes firom his experiments that: (1) The temperature of the evaporating lur- fiace is always lower than thatof the atmosphere, the difference depending on the tempera- ture of the latter. (2) The temperature and rate of evaporation of such liquids as water and alcohol vary accordingto the nature of the vessel in which they arecontafned. (3) The surfaces being identical, the mass or depth of the liquid seems, within certain limits, to fovor evaporation. (4) A salt solution similar to sea water evaporates less rapidly than freshwater, consequently its temperature is lowered less by its evaporation. (6) Water mixt with sand so that a layer of water floats above the saturated sand, evaporates more than water alone and consequently becomes colder by evaporation, the difference in tem- perature rarely exceeding 0.5'^ G. The author concludes that his experiments tend to confirm the opinion of de la Bive concerning the cause of the appearances of anclentglaciers, Vall6s, P. Kouvelles remarques sur la ph^nom^ne de I'Syaporatlon naturelle. Ann. ponts chauss., 1863, 5:269-80. The author attempts to establish .more firmly his statement of 1848, that the ratio of evaporation according to the seasons is 1: 2; 3:'l. This had been .challenged by GhariS- Marsaines, 1851, and vallSs finds so many conflicting numbers that 'he comes to no definite conclusion. Vignon, E. Notes sur des bassins d'Svaporation employes dans la service du canal du Nivernais et de la riviere Yonne. Ann. soc. mSt., 1853, 1:36-40. The atmometer used in this case was a cylindrical veF>sel 80 centimeters in diameter and 3S centimeters high. On one side, at 25 centimeters ftrom the bottom, a vertical funnel connects with the interior, while on the other, at the same height, is attached a tube bear- ing a cock. The 25-centimeter level is marked on the inside by three vertical points. Wdter lost by evaporation is restored to this level thru the funnel from a graduated meas- uring dish, the diameter of which bears such a relation to that of the evaporating vessel that the reading is much magnified. If, owing to rain, the water rises above the 25-centi- meter level, it can be drawn off by means of the cock until the three points just touch the surface of the water. 1854. Gaugain, J.-M. Note sur I'electrlcitfi qui aocompagne l'6vaporation de I'eau salee 6t sur I'orlgine de I'dlectrlcite atmosph&rique. Compt. rend., 1854, 38:1012-15. In experiments similar to those of Pouillet, 1837, using Volta's goldleaf electroscope and a marine salt solution, it was found that electricity is manifested exclusively during the decrepitation which succeeds the spheroidal state, the quiet evaporation which operates when the crackling has ceased never giving any sign of electricity. It was concluded, therefore, that atmospheric electricity can not be jattributed to the chemical segregations which take place during the tranquil evaporation of the waters of the sea, Gaugain, J.-M. Sur le dfiveloppement d'eleotricltfi qui accompaf;ne I'^vaporation des. dissolutions aqueuses. Compt. rend., 1854, 39:231. Experiments with the electricity accompanying evaporation lead to a conclusion similar to Pouillet's, which ascribes the electricity to the friction between the evaporating liquid and the walls of the vessel. Geddes, George. Bain: evaporation and filtration. Trans. N. Y. State agr. soe, 1854, 14:150-64. In connection with a consideration of evaporation from soil, Henry Tracy, in a report t* the Canal Board. 1849, p. 17 (?), is quoted as stating that the annual evaporation in 1836 from a surface of ground near Boston was 19.43 Inches; in 1837, 14.95 inehesj and in 1838-,. 21.49 inches: the rainfall for the same years being 35.26, 26.65, and 38.11 inches, respectively. Tables of evaporation from a water surface at Ogdensburrand Syracuse are also given. 1855. Buist, George. On the means of determining the actual amount of evaporation from the earth's surface. Met. soc. rpt., 1855 (— ):6. Chapman. Object of the salt condition of the sea. Phil, mag., 1855, 9 (4):236-8. Experiments showed that the evaporation from rain water exceeded that from a 2.6 per cent salt solution by 0.54 per cent for the first twenty-four hours, by 1.04 per cent after forty-eight hours, and by 1.46 per cent after seventy-two hours. Each experiment lasted six days and resulted in analways increasing ratio as the solution became more concentrated. It is considered that this fact points to the conclusion that the salt condition of the sea is a self-adjusting phenomenon mainly Intended to regulate evaporation. 32 Drew, John. Practical Meteorology. London. 1855. p. 30-2, 161 . The process of evaporation, its cooling effect, and the Taiious methods of measuring the amouht are discussed. Glaisher's tables are quoted from Phil, mag., 1818 : 1 , to illustrate the diurnal range of the dew-point and of the temperature of evaporation »8 shown hy the wet-bulb thermometer. From one daily observation of either the monthly mean may be deduced. Jahn, Gt. A. Handbuoh der Witterungskunde. Leipslc. 1855. p. 107-10, 211-13. Discussion of methods for determining evaporation and the conditions influencing it. Meikle, Henry. Evaporation. Encyc. Brit., 1855, 8th ed., 9:496-515. Presents historical sketch of various investigations of evaporation pursued by Desagu- lier-, Clement, Saussure, Deluc, Dalton, Desormes, Gay-Lussac, Halley, Dobson, Dalton and Hoyle, Daniell, Anderson, Meikle, etc. Prestel, M. A. F. Das Vaporimeter oder die Psyohrometer-Skala, etc. Emden. 1855. 1856. Blake, W. P. On the rate of evaporation on the Tulare lakes of California. Amer. jour. sci... 1856, 21(2): 365-8. The observed evaporation from a shallow pan, sheltered from the sun but exposed to wind, showed the yearly depth of evaporation in this region to be 7 feet, 7y inches. A table gives the daily rate of evaporation, temperature of the air and water, with remarks on wind, etc., during the four days, August 26-9, 1853. It is concluded that evaporation from these lakes is equal to, if not greater than, the supply. Coffin, James Henry. Psychrometrical table: for determining the elastic force of aqueous vapor and the relative humidity of the atmosphere from indica- tions of the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers, Fahrenheit. Wash- ington. 1856. p. 20. Also in Smiths, misc. coll., etc. 1862,1. Hopkins, T. . On certain arid countries and the cause of their dryness. Jour. roy. geog. soc, 1856, 26: 158-73. Eeviewed by Bamsey, 1884. Treats of the rSIe of vapors and their condensation in the movements of the atmosphere. Mitchell, A. Description of a new atmometer, or evaporometer. Jour. soc. arts, 1856, June 6. Also, London. 1856. 8vo. Details of construction and diagrams are given of a constant-level apparatus for measur- ing evaporation, on the general principle of the fountain ink-stand or bird's drinking cup. The author holds that " the atmometer is a supplement to, not a substitute fur the hygrometer." Beischauer, C. See Yogel, K. August, und C. Beischauer. Vogel, K. August, und O. Reisohauer. Ueber ein Atmidometer neuer Construction. K. bayer. Akad. der Wiss. Munich, Gelehrte Anz., 1856, 42: 15-6. , Two earlier forms of " atmidometer," the " atmidoscope " of Babinet and Newmann's evaporating gage are described. A new form cons'sts of a balance bearing above one end of its beam a pan wiih the evaporating water, while a weight is suspended below. The other end bears a pointer, which shows on a dial the amount evaporated. This instru- ment has the advantage over the hygrometer that it can be left for a long" time and will give the mean for the period, a result impossible to obtain with the latter unless it is read very often. "Way, J. Thomas. On the composition of the waters of land-drainage and of rain Jour roy. agr. soc, 1856, 17(1): 123-62. Quotes Parkea, 1845, on results of Dickinson's experiments with evaporation from soil bv means of the Dalton gage. Presents annual and monthly tables. 1857. Sandeman, Patrick. Monthly tables of daily means of meteorological elements during 11 years, commencing January, 1846, [at the] Observatory, George- town, Demerara, British Guiana. Greenock. 1857. 33 An account of intermittent obserTatioDS of evaporation up to 1853, followed by columns of daily eraporation with monthly totals from January, 1853, to Deeemberj 1866. . The rainfall and eTaporation, in inches (?), for the respective months of 1856 is as follows: Evaporation . Baiufall Jan, 4.017 2.019 Feb. 4.( 0.963 Mar. 5.172 1.665 Apr. 4.025 3.056 May. 2.740 10. 232 June. 2.305 16. 7(j5 July. 2.052 18. 230 Aug. 1.840 7. 806 Sept. 3. 069 5.804 Oct. 3.071 3.145 Nov. 2.604 6.776 Dec. 2,360 17. 336 1858. Jenyns, Leonard. Observations in meteorology (being chiefly the results of a meteor- ological journal kept for nineteen years at Swaffham Bulbeck in Cambridgeshire). London.- 1858. Discusses the effect of rainfall and humidity on the local climate, aod the influence of moisture on sensible temperature. According to this author, dry weather in winter feels colder than moist. The conditions most favoring evaporation are heat, dry air, and diminished pressure on the evaporating surface. Howard's (1837) figures for daily evap- oration are quoted. The relative humidity and dew-point are determined by means of Danlell's hygrometer. 1860. Babington, Benjamin Guy. On spontaneous evaporation. Keview of a communication to the Eoyal Society, November 24, 1859. Phil, mag., 1860, 10(4):314:-7. Keviewed in Fortschr. derPhys., 1859, 15:358-9. Dissolved substances infiueoce evaporation in various ways. The influence of different solutes mav be estimated by comparing the rate of evaporation of their solutions with that of pure water. Evaporation is retarded in proportion to the quantity in solution, and does not depend on the specific gravity of the solution. In aqueous solutions of eaits the re- tardation does not appear to depend upon the acid radical, altho it is not altogether inde- pendent of the influence of the base. With some exceptions, salts with two equivalents of an acid radical have greater retarding influence than those with one equivalent. Some salts in aijueous solution appear not to retard evaporation, and some seein actually to accelerate it. Dre-w, John. Practical Meteorology. 1860. (2d ed. edited by Frederic Drew.) London. See Drew, 1855. Miihry, A. Allgemeine Geographisohe Meteorologie. 1860. Leipsic and Heidelberg. On page 140 he gives a general discussion of evaporation as inflenced by humidity, sea^ sons, time of day, and wind. Quotes Schtlbler's results of observations with a weighing . atmometer (1826). Gives the results of Dalton's experiments showing the influence of higher temperature in increasing evanoration. Discusses geographic distribution of hu- midity which he regards as the most important factor influencing evaporation, especially where climates are compared. The psychrometer is considered to be the real measure of the evaporating power of the air. Describes an atmometer similar to Lament's (1868). It consists of a small open glass evaporator borne on a bent graduated tube which connects with a lower reservoir, the latter furnished with a second opening above closed by an air-tight cock. After filling the reservoir with water and noting the height ou the scale, water is brought to the proper level in the evaporator by forcing air into the reservoir thru the upper opening and the cock is closed. After the instrument has been exposed to evaporation the cock is opened and when the water is again at the same level in reservoir and tube the change in position of the water surface on the scale of the tube shows the amount lost by evaporation. The physiological and pathological eflfects of dry and moist climates enter into the dis- cussion. Ruinet. Note sur r^vaporation. Ann. ponts. chauss., 1860, 20:150-60. Ab- stracted by Bogers Field, 1869. Describes observations at Dijon from 1846-52, which show a continuation of the low rate of evaporation mentioned by Vall^s (1850). This recent low rate is explained as due to the dinereace in the size and nature of the instruments by which the phenomenon had been observed. Small basins become unduly heated and cause a much nigher rate than larger ones. Were similar instruments employed the rate from the Canal de Bdurgogne would probably not be so difTerent from rates elsewhere observed. It is concluded that " the evaporation which really takes place from the surface of a large natural extent of water is far from being as great as the observations on a small scale would lead one to suppose." Schmid, Ernst Srhard. Lehrbuch der Meteorologie. Leipsic. 1860. p. 595-600. ABE 3 34 Quotes Dalton's tables, as reduced by SchUbler to Parisian feet and inches, showing evaporation from a square foot of water surface in a quiet, previously dried atmosphere, at difierent temperatures during twenty-four hours. Tables compiled from Schtlbler's and Kamtz's results show the yearly evaporation at 26 stations in France, Germany, England, etc., and at Cumana. The rate of evaporation shows merely a general agreement with the average temperatures of the various places. Sohttbler's table of the daily evaporation in the shade at Tubingen, is found to be of less value than that of Stark, who observed the dally evaporation in the sunshine at Augsburg for fourteen years. The ratio obtained from the latter observations in the sun, is two or three times higher than that from the former in the shade. An important factor influencing evaporation is shown to be the action of ascending air currents in accelerating the propagation of water vapor into the upperregions of the atmos- phere. Schtlbler's tables showing the effect of wind, also the results of his experiments comparing evaporation from moist garden soil with that from water, are quoted, (richubler, 1826, 1831; E£mtz, 1840.) Schulze, Franz Silhard. Beobachtungen flber Verdunstung im Sommer 1859. (Gekronte Preisschrift.) Rostock. 1860. 4to. Reviewed by KSmtz, 1862. 1861. Miihry, A. A. Ueber ein einfaches schSrfer messendes Atmometer. Ann. Phys. und Chem. (Poggend.), 1861, 113:305-3. The principal of measuring evaporation by reduction of surface, used by Newman and Prinsep, is more elaborately developed in this instrument which the author calls a micro- atmometer. Beischauer, C. Q. Ueber die Abh&ngigkeit der Verdunstung von der Gro8se der Exponirten OberflSche. Ann. Phys. und Chem. (Poggend.), 1861, 114:177-86. Also, Zeits. f. Naturw., 19:331-2. Review In Fort- schr. der Phys., 1861, 17:386. Comparison of evaporation from water surfaces of different areas exposed fur four days In a closed laboratory give the following results: Surface 100 278 450 1905 Evaporation 100 260 448 1266 Unger, F. Neue Untersuchungen uber die Transpiration der Gewachse. Sitz- ber. k. Akad. Wiss. (Vienna), math, naturw. Kl., 1861, 44:181-217, 327-68. A comparison of transpiration with evaporation. 1862. Beardinore, Nathaniel. Manual of Hydrology. London. 1862. p. 296, 325, 332-5. General discussion of the process of evaporation and the difficulties of measuring it Cites the results of Howard, Daniell, Watson, etc. Gives the tables of A. Golding, state engineer at Copenhagen, showing evaporation from water at Endrup, from short grass and from long grass during the years 1849 to 1859. Table of monthly rainfall and evaporation for the ten years, 1844-1853, at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire, and at Whitehaven, Cumber- land. Table of rainfall, evaporation, and temperature at Little Bridy, Dorset, and at Ead- cliffe Observatory, Oxford. Tables of tropical evaporation at Demarara or Georgetown British Guiana, and at Bombay. ^ ' Herschel, Sir John F. "W. Meteorology. Enoyo. Brit., 2d ed., Edinburgh. 1862. For the evaporation of water, its rate at various temperatures, p. 50: of ice and snow d 125; acMleiated by wind and other causes, p. 60 and 125; abstraction of heat by v> 51- eier- tncity developed by, p. 132. ''^' ' "^ He quotes the resuHs of Pouillet, presented to the Academy of Sciences in 1825 From experiments on the problem of the eWioity developed by evaporation he concludes thS the simple change of state from the sofld or liquid to the vaporous of any substance is unac- companied by electrical excitement. The evaporation of pure water or of any other rafr- stance not decomposed or partly decomposed in the act, produces no electricld excitement whatever; but when evaporation is accompanied by chemi'clil change electricity is dTveloMd Water evaporated fl-om alkaline solutions carries off "resinous" Ind leaTes bphinr-'^Stll ous • electricity The reverse is the case when water evaporates from an ldd„r from neutro-sahne Bolutions, e. ^., that of sea salt, or from heated iron which it oxidikes HU final conclusion is that the immense evaporation both from sea and land, and the vital nri cesses going on, furnish at least the chief supply of electricity to the air. "^ Ea,mtz, Ii. F. Ueber Verdunstung. Dorpat. 1862. 4to. Also Repert. f. Met. Dor- P&t, 1862, 2 •200-3. 35 A general discussion of reasons for observing eraporation in the shade or in the sun, is followed by a review of the work of Schulze. The author in his own experiments to com- pare the rate of evaporation from pure water with that from various moist soils and from plants, used freely exposed glass vessels of equal height and surface, and the amount lost by evaporation was determined by weighing. From June 26 to the end of October the total evaporation from moist garden earth was 17.836 g., ftom saturated garden earth, 20.912 g., and from water, 16.448 g. Only in August was the rate from water higher than from moist soil. Saturated bog soil, with water-holding power of 170 per cent, lost 21.10 g. This ex- cess of evaporation f^om the bog soil over that from water is explained by a probable small temperature difference in favor of the dark, opaque bog soil. The final conclusion is that, in general, soil covered with vegetation evaporates more than bare soil; and that the rate of evaporation from the Busslan steppes is probably lower than it would be if they were covered with trees. Krecke, — . — . Het Klimaat von Nederland. Gives the amount of evaporation for 1862 at Holder, Utrecht, Kniesdorp, and Oudorp. See H. W. Dove, 1864. Lamont, Johann N. Dalton's theory of vapor and its application to the aqueous vapor of the atmosphere. (Extr. from a letter by Lamont, dated Munich, Aug. 28, 1862, to Professor Kamtz at Dorpat), translation byW. T. Lynn, Phil, mag., 1862, 24:350-8. Keprinted in Proc. Brit. met. soc, 1863, 1 :310-8. Review of Dalton's (1801, 1802) theory regarding the mixture of vapor with the atmos- phere. Lament's experiments lead him to conclude that Dalton's theory, in so far as it assumes that the air and vapor existing in the same space are independent of each other, is unfounded and that in his opinion the facts are " that the air exerts a pressure upon the vapor and the vapor upon the air." The data furnished by the psychrometer are regarded as expressions of local humidity. Miihry, A. A. Ellmatographische Uebersicht der Erde, in einer Sammlung authen- tischer Berichte mit hinzugefilgten Anmerkungen zum wlssen- schaftlichen und practischen GebrSuche. Heidelberg. 1862. A general discussion on p. 701-7. No'wak, Alois. Weitenweber — Mittheilungen aus einer grosseren hydrologisch- meteorologischen Studien des Harm Dr. Nowak uber das Todte Meer und Ihre Verdunstung. Sitzb. k. bohm. Ges. d. Wiss. (Prag), 1862 (pt. 1): 27-30. This is a study of the inflow and evaporation from the Dead Sea, the former being 315 inches annually and the latter only 60 inches. The excess inflow is supposed to drain into a cavity between the crust and the center of the earth, to emerge later as springs or vapors. Schmid, E. E. Grundriss der Meteorologie. Leipslc. 1862. p. 125, 188-9. Ocean currents are attributed to the action of rain and evaporation. Scbilbler's (1831) attempts to measure the evaporation from soil and plants are reviewed. Previous obser- vations of this phenomenon are regarded as having only a very inferior value. Tait, Prof. [Peter G.] and J. A. Wanklsm. Note on the electricity developed during evaporation and during effervescence from chemical action. Eeprinted in Phil, mag., 1862, 23(4):4:94^6, from Proc. roy. soc. Bdinb., February, 1862. Experiments with evaporation of drops of water on hot metal plates, and the electricity accompanying the process, lead to conclusions in harmony with those of Gaugain, 1854. Tate, Thomas. Experimental researches on the laws of evaporation and absorption, with a description of a ijew evaporometer and absorbometer. Phil, mag., 1862, 23(4): 126-35, 283-9, 494; 1863, 25(4): 331-42. Synopsis by Cleveland Abbe, 1890. The rate of evaporation is directly proportional to the difference in temperature indi- cated by wet- and diy-bulb thermometers and the velocity of the wind, and inversely proportional to the pressure of the atmosphere. From damp porous substances of the same material It is proportional to the extent of the surface exposed without regard to the rela- tive thickness of the substance. From different substances it depends on the roughness or inequalities on their surface, evaporation being greatest from roughest surfaces. From equal surfaces of the same material it is the same in quiet atmosphere whatever the incli- nation of the surface. A horizontal plate with the damp face upwards evaporates as much as with the damp face downwards. Rate of evaporation is influenced by the elevation above the ground, also by radiation from surroundinf: bodies. Describes an atmometer consisting of an open cylindrical tank exposing a water surface of 80 square inches and having a bent tube leading from it supported at an Inclination of 1 36 in 50. A fall of 1/50 inch in the water level in the cylinder will cause the water surface in the tube to move thru the space of 1 inch, thus magnifying the cylinder change hy 50. The cylinder is also provided with a displacement gage which may be deprest until the water in the tube is again brought to the original position when the reading on the gage will give the number of cubic inches evaporated. Wanklyn, J. A. See Tait, Professor, and J. A. Wanklyn. 1863. Airy, G. B. Note on the theory of vapor pressure. Proo. Brit. met. soc., 1863, 1:365-6. Discussion of Dalton's laws and theories as attacked by Lamont, 1862. Bloxham, John Charlton. On the theory of vapor pressure. Proc. Brit. met. see, 1863, 1 -.362-5. Further discussion of Dalton's theory of vapor pressure and laws governing it, as attacked by Lamont, 1862. Cornelius, C. L. Meteorologie. Halle. 1863. p. 240-4. Describes atmometers of MUhry, 1861; Babinet, 1848; Saussure, 1789; and the experi- ments of Marcet, 1853, and Schttbler, 1826, 1830, 1831. Nowak, A. F. P. Hydrologisch-meteorologische Studie tiber das Easpische Meer und die Verdunstung. Sitzber. k. bohm. Ges. d. Wiss. (Prag), 1868, 2 (pt. 2): 13-23. Gives calculations of the inflow and evaporation from the Caspian Sea similar to those made for the Dead Sea (Nowak, 1862). The excess of the inflow in this case is 33 cubic inches more than a German cubic mile. Nowak, A. F. P. Das Mittellandische Meer und der Ocean iiberhaupt gegenuber ■ der Verdunstung. Lotos, 1863, 13:116-20, 137-44, 155-60, 169-75. The Mediterranean, like the Caspian and Dead Seas [Nowak, 1862 and 1863, (1)], receives much more water than evaporates from it. It is believed that since the excess can not flow out into the ocean at the surface nor by submarine currents it does so by underground channels. Symons, G-. J. Evaporation. Brit. Rainf., 1863, (— ):12. Emphasizes the importance of improving the means of measuring evaporation from the earth's surface. Vivenot, Rudolph von. TTeber einen neuen Verdunstungsmesser und das bei Verdunstungs- beobachtungen mlt demselben einzuschlagende Beobachtungsver- fahren. Vienna. 1863. 8vo., p. 36. See also Kepert. der Phys., 1866, 1 :203-30, and Sitzber. k. Akad. Wlss. (Vienna), math, naturw. Kl., 1863, 48,(pt. 2):110. A vertical, graduated tube leads from the under surface of the evaporating vessel and its enlarged free end plunges into a stationary vessel of mercury, a suitable mechanism providing for vertical movements of dish and tube. After the evaporating vessel and tube are filled with water to the desired level they are raised until the water surface stands at zero on the ^aduated tube, and the position of the mercury meniscus is noted by means of an ivory point attached to a scale. .Vessel and tube are returned to their original posi- tion and the evaporation is allowed to proceed until a reading is desired, when they are once more raised until the mercury stands at the level previously noted. The wa*er sur- face in the tube now stands somewhat below the zero on the graduated tube and the read- ing on this scale indicates the amount lost by evaporation. * 1864. Cantoi4> Giovanni. Osservazloni su la evaporazlone e la dlffusione del liquide, e su la imbibizione del solldi porosl. Rend. r. ist. Lomb., 1864, 1 : 183-95 Dovie, Heinrich 'Wilhelni. Die Wltterungserscheinungen des Nordlichen Deutschlands In Zelt- raum von 1858-63. Berlin. 1864. 4to. p. 49-60. Also Preusslsohe Statistlk, No. 6. Berlin. Quotes rates of evaporation for the years 1856-63, obtained by Gube (1864) at Zechen near.Guhrau, Silesia. The rates for night, forenoon, afternoon and the entire dav are averaged by months and seasons. The average annual amount for these years was 16 2S9 37 Inches. To this is added a table of obseiTations by Bippe at SUlze (Beitriigen zut Statist ik MecklenbuTgB, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 145) , shoving the daily mean rate for each month of the years 1856-60. The mean yearly amount at Sillze was 22.68 inches. Temperature is regarded as very important in determioing the evaporation rate. A final table is quoted from Krecke, 1862, containing the evaporation rates fur 1862, in millimeters, at the four cities, Helder, Utrecht, Kniesdorp, and Ondorp. The lowest rate is 536 milli- meters, for Helder, and the highest 807.6 millimeters, for Kniesdorp. Qrouven, A. Meteorologische Beobachtungen nebst Beobachtungen iiber die frelwillige Wass^rverdunstung und fiber die Warme des Bodens in verschiedenen Tlefen im Jahre 1863 zu Salzmiinde (bei Halle). Halle. 1864. 8vo. GubOj Friedrioh. Die Ergebnisse der Verdunstung und des Niederschlages nach Mes- sungen an neuen, zum Theil registirenden Instrumenten auf der kSnigl. met. Station Zechen bei Guhrau. Mit einem Vorworte von H. Dove. Berlin. 1864. 8vo. See Dove, 1864. Prestel, Michael Aug'ust Friedrioh. Die Aenderung des Wasserstandes der Fliisse und Strome in der jahrlichen Periode, als der jahrliohen periodischen Zu- und Ab- nahme des atmospharischen Niederschlags und der Verdunstung genau entsprecbend an Beobachtungen nachgewiesen. Ber. Deut. Naturf., 1864, 39:69-77. Also Zeits. Arch. Ver., 1864, 10:col. 411-23. It is here maintained that the rainfall, combined with the amount of evaporation, com- pares more closely with the curve of the river stages than does the rainfall curve alone. In support of this, tables and figures compare rainfall and evaporation at Emden, at Magdeburg on the Elbe, at KUstrin on the Oder, and at Fi*ankfort on the Oder, with diagrams showing the curves of water supply of the respective rivers. Another diagram presents curves of yearly change in water-level of the Rhine at Basel, of the temperature on the St. Gothard, and of the ground-water at the foot of the Alps, showing that the yearly curve of the water- level at the headwaters of the Bhine follows very closely the temperature curves of the higher Alpine regions. Prestel, Michael August Friedrioh. Ueber denVerdunstung8me8ser(Atmidometer). Ber. Deut. Naturf., 1864, 39:84-6. Also 111. Zeitg., 1864, 43:17. This instrument is a simple constant-level apparatus, consisting of a cylindrical reservoir standing in a shallow, open pan. Water flows out of the reservoir when the level of the water in the pan is low enough to allow air to enter the former. (See Simmonds, 1867, and Prestel, below.) Prestel, Michael August Friedrioh. Die Regenverhaltnisse des Konigreicbes Hannover, nebst austuhr- licher Darstellung aller den atmosphSrlschen Nlederschlag und die Verdunstung betreffenden Grossen welche beim Wasserbau sowie beim rationellen Betriebe der Landwirtschaf t in Betracht kommen. Emden. 1864. 4to. 1 oh., 2 pis. A full description is given of the evaporation gage described in the preceding paper. Ob- servations of evaporation at Zwauenburg, Utrecht, 1743-1841; and at Helder, Utrecht, and Dijon, 1353-62; the latter giving night and day rates with both and averages for each month, are tabulated. Another table brings together the maximum, minimum, and mean at Zwanenburg, Utrecht, Helder, and Dijon, averaging respectively for the year 591.07 mm., 821.55 mm., 601.44 mm., 601.04 mm. The monthly average for these places is added and a discussion of the relation between rainfall and evaporation follows. Symons, G. J. Evaporation. Brit. Kainf., 1864, ( — ). A table presents rainfall and evaporation at different stations. Attention is drawn to the suspicious variations in the records, probably owing to the different methods of observing, 1865. Fletcher, Isaac. Remarks on the rainfall among the Cumberland Mountains, and on evaporation. Brit. Rainf., 1865 (— ):20-2. Includes a table of monthly evaporation measured by a gage similar to a rain gage. Hildebrandsson, H. H., and P. G. Rosen. N&gra undersSkniugar om det tryck, vattenangen under afdunstning ut afvar p4 den omgifvande lutten. Ofvers. k. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl., 1865, 21:123-34. 38 Discussion of Dalton's laws in connection with investigations as to the pressure exerted on the surrounding air by water vapor during evaporation. Prestel, M. A. F. Der Verdunstungsmesser (Atmometer) in seiner einfachsten Form. Ber. Deut. Naturf., 1865, (—): 101-3. Also Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1866, 1 : 192-4. Also translated by Simmonds, 1867. The same instrument described in the author's paper of 1864. Rosen, P. G., and H. H. Hildebrandsson. See Hildebrandsson, 1865. Tacchini, P. Atmometro di Vivenot. Bui. met. oss., 1865, l(No. 4): 2. Description ofVivenot's (1863) atmometer. Vaillant. De I'influence des forets sur le regime des sources. Les Mondes, 1865, 8:674-9. From the results of experiments with the transpiration from the branch of an oak tree it is estimated that a whole tree, about 21 meters high and 2.65 meters in circumference, would tran-pire, on a day in summer, more than 2,000 kilograms, or 2 cubic meters, of water. He concludes that the trees of a forested country cause it to have less [ground] water than it would possess if planted with cereals. Vivenot, Rudolph von. Sulla temperatura, ed umidita dell'aria e sulla evaporazione in Palermo osservazione meteorologiche. Palermo. 1865. Re- printed from La Sioilia. 1866. Collin, A. Atmidom^trie. Eeoherches exp6rimentales sur I'^vaporatlon. M6- moire couronnee par I'Aoademie des Sciences. MSm. soc. agr. Orleans, 1866. Also, Orleans. 1866. 8vo. Abstract in Compt. rend., 1864, 58:666. Also, Fortsch. f. Met., 1872, (— ):211. The object of this paper is to show the inaccuracy of a rule, attributed to Halley, accord- ing to which the evaporation from a mass of water bears the ratio 5:8 to the amount of rain and snow fallen in the same space and time. The memoir is based on nineteen series of observations, four lasting twenty years, the fifth ten years, the rest only from four to seven years. The observations were from five stations on the Canal of Burgundy, three on the Canal of the Marne, four on the Garonne, seven on the Canal of Nivernais. The evap- orators exposed a surface of water more than six square meters in area. The maximum ratio between rainfall and evaporation was found to be 1.46 at Montr§jeau and the mini- mum 0.54 at Gondrexanges. It is concluded that there is no uniform ratio between the two. Dennis, W. O. On surface evaporation. Ann. rept. Smithsn. inst., 1866, (—): 402. A letter to Professor Henry describes experiments conducted at Key West, Fla., which show that sea water evaporates slower than fresh water, and that the rate of evaporation of the former decreases as saturation is approached. Pelisch, J. Was in der Luft vorgeht. PopulSre Vortrage iiber Meteorologie Berlin. 1866. Pages 183-94 discuss the laws governing evaporation and its Importance to vital phe- nomena. Grouven, A. Ueber das Verhaltniss zwischen Wasserverdunstung und Eegenfall und dessen agronomische Bedeutung. AUg. Land. Forstw Zeite 1866, (— ):16. ■ *■' Home, D. Milne. Letter of 2d April, 1866, to Alexander Buchan. Jour Spot mof soc, 1864-6, l(n.s.):330. ' ' Eamsay, 1884, quotes this author as asserting that the rate of evaporation from harp or partially bare soil is higher than from soil well covered with grass: and hleher from aanrt^ loam than from clay. " oauuy MarklLam, C. R. On the effects of the destruction of forests in the ghauts of India on the water supply. Jour. roy. geog. soc, 1866, 36:189. The removal of forests is regarded as undoubtedly increasing evaporation and the rani,! ity of rnn-off, as may be seen in the hill districts of India where the floods caused hv thi monsoon rains are yearly increasing in size and violence. ^ 39 Scheuzl, Guido. Ueber die GrSsse der Verdunstung in Of en. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1866, 1:177-81. The extreme drought which had prevailed in Hungary led the author to investigate the rate of evaporation from water. Beischauei's (1856),Muhry's (1861), and Vivenot's (1863) atmometers and their studies of evaporation are reviewed. A simple apparatus, ascrihed to Vivenot, consists of a pan with a tube and stop-cock below to £ulow tne contents to be drawn off and measured. The water is measured at the beginning and end of the experi- ment, the difference less the amount of rain fallen in the meantime, is the amount evapor- ated. Observations of evaporation, rainfall, and vapor pressure from June, 1863, to June, 1866, are tabulated. He finds no agreement between the rate of evaporation and the mean monthly temperature, since the wind enters as a factor in one case and not in the other. The evaporation for the three years was 2186.97 lines (Fr.), ayearly average of 60.75 inches; the total rainfall was only 566.77 lines (Fr. ), yearly average, 15.74 inches. This difference is considered a sufficient explanation for the drying up or the Neusiedler See. From the above results the amount evaporated from the Flatten See, 9.5 square miles in area, is esti- mated at not less than 63,269 million cubic feet for the three years. Vivenot, Kudolph von. Beltrage zur Kentniss der klimatischen Evaporationskraft und deren Beziehung zu Temperatur, Feuchtigkeit, LuftstrSmungen und Nie- dersohlagen. Erlangen. 1866. 8vo. A rep rt on four independent sets of observations of evaporation made with the instru- ment described by Vivenot, 1 863. It is accompanied by tables and com;^arative curves of temperature, humidity, direction and velocity of wind, cloudiness, precipitation, etc. The stations were Eltville, on the Rhine, October 8 to December 12. 1861; Lilienfeld, in the Aus- trian Alps, October 13 to Kovember*4, 1862; Vienna, September 1 to October 12, 1862; and Palermo, Sicily. November 16 to April 10 1865. The evaporation observations at Eltville are compared with those at Utrecht and Holder as recorded in 1861 by the Meteorological Institute of the Netherlands. The evaporation at Vienna is compared with observations by Sonklar, eight miles south of Vienna. These curves show no close agreement, the whole curve for the latter place being higher, due probably to a difference in the protection from wind. These comparisons lead to tbe gen- eral conclusion that it is necessary to have similar instruments similarly exposed to get comparable results. Improvements on tbe instrument described in the previous article are detailed and tables for correcting the results obtained are added. 1867. A Handy Book of Meteorology. Edinburgh. 1st ed., 1867, p. 82-6; 2d ed., 1868, p. 145-167. The process of evaporation is discussed in a general way (p. 82-86). Several instruments are described, viz, Mitchell's " evapometer," on the bird-fountain principle; Proctor's evaporometer, similar to Mitchell's but fitted with a diagonal scale; a Leslie atmometer, con- sisting of a graduated glass tube connected with a hollow, porous ball. The loss of heat accompanying evaporation is touched upon, and evaporation from differ- ent soils is discust in some detail. Evaporation is said to be greater from the surface of loose earth than from a water surface, until the earth is so far dried as to be of a light color. By an experiment it was shown that evaporation from saturated moss greatly exceeds, on the first dav that from water; but on the second day the evaporation from water is in ex- cess, and still more so on the third day, altho the moss is still wet ten inches below the sur- face. Quotes Home, 1866. It is pointed out that evaporation depends on the extent of the evaporating surface in contact with the air; but that as evaporation from soil proceeds, the rate Is modified by the facility with which water is drawn by capillarity from the interior to the evaporating surface. Cantoni, Giovanni. Evaporimetre costrutto nell' ofQcina "Teonomasio italiano" di Milano. Met. ital. sup., 1867, (— ):38-9. A glass cylindrical evaporating vessel is fitted with a small adjustable cone, whose point indicates the standard ftvel of the water. The whole is protected from rain by a metal shelter. Haughton, Samuel. On the evaporation of a water surface at St. Helena. (1864.) Proc. roy. Irish acad., 1867, 9:126-47. Experiments carried on for two years with similar evaporators, one fully exposed, the other set in a large tub of water, showed a rate nearly 60 per cent higher from the former than from the latter. Henry, D. F. Table X, showing the evaporation and humidity for different winds at Milwaukee, for 1862-4. Also Tables Y and Z, showing tempera- , ture, humidity, and evaporation at Milwaukee, 1862-4. Ept. Chf . Eng., 1867:599, 785-95. 40 From these tables it is concluded that evaparation is but slightly affected by the direction or velocity of the wind, that it is almost inversely proportional to the increase in humidity and directly proportional to the temperature. Lyell, Sir Charles. Principles of Geology. London. 1867. 10th ed. p. 286, 497. Calls attention to the fact that dry winds evaporated snow very rapidly. The evaporation from some lakes is said to be equal to the quantity flowing in, notably in the Caspian (see Nowak, 186ii). Lyell regards evaporation as a competent cause of oceanic currents, hence such currents might in some cases "afford valuable evidence as to Ihe distribution of aque- ous vapor." Quoted by Ramsay, ISS-l, Ragoua, Domenioo. SuUe osservazioni eseguite nel E. Osservatorio dl Modena. Met. ital. sup., 1867, (—): 13-17. Also noticed In Zeits. Oest.'Ges. Met., 1867, 2:380. Evaporation measured by Vivenot's (1863) atmometer, as improved by the author, leads to the formula ;?= 12.711mm. +0.02623 mm. ( —0.14869 mm. U, in which t= the temperature of the air °C., and t/^the relative humidity. The evaporation rate from a freely exposed surface was three or four times greater than from a Vivenot atmometer, the annual amount from the former being 8,463 millimeters; that from the latter, 940 millimeters. The rainfall for the same period was 567 millimeters. A table compares results from several different instruments. The rate of evaporation from several salt solutions is compared with that from pure water (see Hann, 1868). Raulin, P. V. De Tevaporatlon h Toulouse et dans le sud-ouest de la France. Eev. Boc. sav., 1867,1:155-64. It is pointed out that " observations of evaporation should complement tlioee of rain for the solution of a large number of questions relating to agriculture, to public works, and to industry." Tables present the evaporation at Poitiers (1789-91), Niort (1S02-20), Saint Maurice and le Girard (1777-83), La Eochelle (1781-4), Bordeaux (1776-84, 1853-5, 1854-64), Cadillac (1856-64), Langon (1S58-64), Agen (1857-64). Toulouse (1785-87, 1816-64), Rieux (1783-91?), and Montrejeau (1857-64). Acomparison of evaporation and rainfall at Orange shows an excess of the former in the case of six instruments, and the opposite in the case of four others. Ga-'parln is referred to as stating that in Italy evaporation is almost double the rainfall, while at Rome and Lisbon it Is almost triple. Recommends obseivatlons with vessels surrounded by large bodies of water. Simmonds, Or. Harvey. Evaporation from rain-gages. Proc. Brit. met. soc, 1867, 3:326-8, 426-8. The error due to evaporation is reported as small if the readings are made only once a month. Simmonds, Gr. H. The evaporation gage (atmometer) in its simplest form. Proc. Brit, met. soc, 1867, 3:337-9. Translation of " Der Verdunstungsmesser (atmometer) in seiner einfachsten Form," by M. A. F. Prestel, 1865. See Prestel, 1864, 2d title, for a description of this instrument. Symons, G. J. Evaporation from rain gages. Proc. Brit. met. soc, 1867, 3:408-11. Comments on Simmonds', 1867, paper of the same title. Symons, G. J. Iteview of Saussure's Essais sur I'hygrometrie. Symons' met mag 1867,2:66-8,88-90. See Saussure, 1783. Symons, G. J. Evaporators and evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1867, ( ):9-10. Evaporation is declared to be "the most desperate branch of the desperate science of meteorology," owing to the great number and variation in the factors to be considered For instance, the evaporation from soil involves the nature of the soil and subsoil the inclination of the ground, the presence or absence of vegetation, the nature of the veieta- tion, the aspect of the ground, almost every variation In climate, temperature wind rain humidity, sunshine and cloud, the physical characteristics of the district proximitT'to the sea, altitude, etc. j uo He suggests an elaborate plan for comparing evaporation from water, grass growlnir on clay, grass on sand, grass, corn and roots on the soil of the district, the soil of the distript with no vegetation, peat, etc. Taochlni, P. Suir evaporazione osservata in Palermo nel 1865 e 1866. Bui. met oss., 1867, 3:1-10, 17-19. Translated in Ann. rpt. Smithsn IriRt 1870:457-66. 41 Eraporatlon is compared firom two atmometers, the GaBparin and tbe Vivenot, from May, 1865, to December, 1866. Accompanying the table of daily observations with the Vivenot are observations of the monthly average temperature, Iiumldity, and velocity of wind, whence is derived tbe equation : .B=0.2067B / —0.01517 jr+ 0.11006 F, t being the temperature [of the air] in °C., S the humidity in lOOtha of saturation, F the hourly velocity of the wind in kilometers. The observed and calculated values of monthly evaporation and their differences are tabulated, also the mean temperature and the mean quantity of rain. A table of seasonal and annual evaporation is added. The annual evap- oration was 2^ times the rainfall. The actual results from the Gasparin apparatus are corrected by comparison with the Vivenot. A table shows the monthly sine of the sun's altitude, the degree of cloudiness, force of the wind, the daily and monthly evaporation from the Gasparin, the monthly rate from the Tivenot, and the difference. A second equation is derived : ■ £'=0.20676*— 0.06517 £" + 0.2642 J— 0.06Sir-f-2.9227 sin A, in which Via the cloudiness exprest in lOOths of the sity obscured, sin h the sine of the meridian altitude of the sun, and the rest as above. A table of observed and calculated results is followed by a table of mean temperature, mean humidity, sin h, daily evapora- tion, and total evaporation for the seasons and year. The total evaporation for the year was nearly three times the rainfall and equal to one and one-third that shown in the shade by the Vivenot. Other comparative stedies are described, showing the relation between the day and night rates, and the seasonal differences. Tacchini, P. Esperienze sui vasi evaporatorl. Bui. met. oss., 1867, 3:53-5. Evaporation tiom. a Gasparin atmometer was compared with that from five glass tubes of different diameters, from June 25 to July 4, 1867. The Gasparin has a surface of 10 square deciineters; the diameters of the tubes were: tube 1 = 28 mm., tube 2^20 mm., tube 3 = 10 mm., tube 4 = 8 mm., and tube 5 = 7 mm. The respective amounts evaporated were 1.00, 1.96, 2.13, 1.73, 1.47, 1.28 millimeters. Tacchini, P. Sui dlametro o larghezza dei vasi evaporatorl, e della differenza fra I'evaporazione del giorne e della notte. Bui. met. oss., 1867, 3:65-8. Also in Gior. sol. nat., 1867, 3:65-8. A comparison of the rates of evaporation from five tubes of different diameters, allowing them to evaporate without refilling after each observation. The table gives the distance of the water surface from the top and the amount evaporated. The rate diminishes as the .distance from the top increases and as the diameter of the tube diminisbes. A coef^cient is deduced by which the normal evaporation for each tube may be determined, supposing the refilling to have taken place. Ratios between evaporation from a Gasparin atmometer and five tubes show little variance at night compared with similar ratios for the daytime, when the ratio is highest between the Gaspann and the tubes of the largest diameter, smallest with those of the smallest diameter. The reason for this result is believed to be the fact that the tubes of large diameter had a higher temperature than those of smaller diameters, even higher than that of the Gasparin. 1868. Buchan, Alexander. A handy book of meteorology. Edinburgh. 1868. 2ded. p. 148-54. Ebermayer, E. Aufgabe und Bedeutung der in Bayern zu forstlichen Zwecken errichteten meteorologiechen Stationen. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1868, 3:97-108. Emphasizes the importance of having at all meteorological stations, comparative observa- tions of evaporation of water in forests and in open places. Hann, Julius. Verdunstung des Meerwassers. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1868, 3:505. Compares the results of the observations by Ghapmann, 1855, and Kagona, 1867, on the evaporation from salt and fresh water. Ghapmann found salt water evaporated only 0.64 as much as fresh water. Bagona in his first experiment found a similar result; but in his second it appeared that the relation varied so much with the temperature and humidity of the air that sometimes the evaporation from salt water exceeded that from fresh water, ^'either of these observers gives the strength of the salt solution used. Henry, D. F. Tables of evaporation from observations by the Survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes. Tables showing comparative readings of evaporators in lake and river, open air and water. Ept. Chf. Eng., 1868:976-80. Tables of evaporation and temperature at Milwaukee, Wis., for November, 1861: May- October, 1862; April-October, 1863; Aprll^uly, 1864. The mean dally temperature in degrees divided by the mean daily evaporation in inches yields a rather constant ratio between these two factors from whichsa table is compiled showing the mean daily evapora- tion in decimals of an inch for each month at Superior, Wis., from 1862-67: at Ontonagon, Mich., from 1861-65: at Milwaukee, Wis., from 1861-67: at Tawas, Mich., from 1861-66; at Thunder Bay Island, Mich. , from 1861-66; at Detroit,.MIch., &om 1861-64; at Monroe, IHch. , 4:2 • from 1863-67: and at Cleveland, Ohio., from 1861-67. The evaporators used in the experi- ments were fully exposed to the sun. A few experiments with one evaporator in the usual position and one floated in the water, showed that the lake evaporation is probably not over 64 per cent of that shown by the land instruments. A table compiled according to this correction shows the daily evaporation, the daily amount of rain, and mean temperature at the several lake-survey meteorological stations for the diflerent ^ears. These figures show a somewhat regular relation between the evaporation and the rainfall, the mean being the same for all latitudes. The relation between the mean temperature and the evaporation is still more regular and decreases with the latitude. Another table shows the mean dally evaporation, amount of rain, temperature, latitude and longitude at the several stations, from which is calculated: the daily evaporation Irom Lake Superior^O.0436 inch, from Lake Mlchlgan = 0.0617 inch, from Lake Huron = 0.0672 inch, and from Lake Ontario= 0.0642 inch. Jahn, G-. A. Handbuch der Wltterungskunde. Leipsio. 1868. 3d ed. See Jahn, 1855. Lamont, Johann von. Ein neuer Verdunstungsmesser. Eepert. derPhys., 1868, 4:197-200. AlsoZeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1869, 4:81-6. The evaporating cylinder is connected with a reservoir in which slides a piston which can be raised or lowered so as to fill or emptj the evaporating dish. The piston is first raised until the water stands at the opening into the evaporating cylinder, and a reading is taken of the water l^vel in the reservoir by means of a scale attached thereto. The piston is then prest back and the dish fills. At the end of the period the piston is raised until the water again stands in the opening, and a reading on the scale is again taken, the difference between the two readings gives the amount of water evaporated. The author recommends the use of this instrument for determining humidity also. In his experiments he finds a greater evaporation from smaller evaporating dishes, but in a constant relation. B.ag'ona, D. Osservazioni sulla evaporazione eseguite nel B. Osservatoria di Modena, 1867. Mem. reg. accad. soi. Modena, 1868, 9:186. Also, Modena. 1868. 4to. p. 39. Symons, Q-. J. Evaporation. Brit. Bainf., 1868:( — ). Table of monthly evaporation atStrathfield Turgiss, Hants. Casella's so-called "evapora- tor" (?), was used with rather unsatisfactory results. Vogel, K. August. Ueber den Einfluss des Bodena auf den Wassergehalt der Luft. Sitzber. k. bayer. Akad. Wias. math. phys. Kl., 1868, 2:497-500. Reference is made to previous experiments which showed that evaporation ia greater •from soil without vegetation than from soil with, and that the kind of soil is also an im- portant factor. Further experiments determined (by absorption in sulfuric acid) the amount of water actually present in the air above fallow ground and above that covered with vegetation, showing a higher absolute humidity over the latter. 1869. Dufour, Louis. Note sur la difference entre la pluie et I'evaporation observee [pend- ant 1869] k. Lausanne. Bui. soc. vaud. sei. nat., 1869, 10:233-48. Translated in Zelts. Oest. Ges. Met., 1872, 7:113-23. Also quoted and abstracted in Arch. sci. phys. et nat., 1870, 37:243-51. Also abstracted in Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1873, 1:112. Emphasis is here laid on the Importance to meteorology of the determination of both rainfall and evaporation. The sicclmeter invented by the author measures directly the difference between these two elements. It consists of an open vessel set tightly into the upper portion of a deeper vessel. The former is provided with a vertical tube passine thru its bottom and extending nearly to its rim. Tie upper vessel is filled with water to the top of the tube and is then allowed to evaporate and collect rain in the open air If rain fills the upper vessel above the level of the tube water will run over into the lower vessel and thus any excess of rainfall or evaporation may be determined. Conditions influencing evaporation are discust and a curve presents the variation In the level of water exposed in the above manner. There is also a rSsumS of observations from 1865-1868. The approximate mean annual excess of rain is 288 millimeters the meiin annual evaporation is 669 millimeters, the rainfall is 937 millimeters. ' """a" Field, Rogers. Notes on evaporation from a water surface. Being short abstracts of three papers in the Annales des ponts et chauss6es. And a note on experiments by Mr. Greaves, at Lea Bridge. Brit Hainf 1869 (—): 157-62. ' ■"*'°^-' -See Ruiuet, 1860; Tarb§, 1852; and VallSs, 1850. 43 Field, Rogers, and G. J. Ssrmons. On the determination of the real amount of evaporation from the surfafee of water. Ept. Brit, assoo. adv. sci., 1869, 39:25-6. Briti Eainf., 1869 ( — ): 151-76 (App.). Also Van Nostrand's engin. mag., 1870, 2; 143-7. Abstract in Symons's met. mag., 1869, 4: 132. Describes the hook-gage devised by Field and used for measuring the height of water in a tank or reservoir. If the point of the hook is ever so slightly raised above the surface it raises a small cone of water with it which is at once rendered visible by the distortion of the reflection. If, on the other hand, the point is deprest below the water, it carries the water down with it, and forms a depression which also causes distortion of the reflection. It is, therefore, only necessary to adjust the hook so that there shall be no distortion, and the point will then be precisely level with the surface of the water. Tabulates the rates of evaporation from Gasella, Symons, and Phillips evaporators during part of July and August, 1869, at Camden Square, London, together with the temperature of the water in each instrument, also computes the evaporation from the indications of the hygrometer. Fletcher, Isaac. Bemarks on the rainfall among the Cumberland Mountains, for the years 1865-7, and on evaporation. Brit. Eainf., 1869, ( — ):36-9. From a table of the monthly evaporation at Tarnbank, Cumberland, as measured from a gage similar to a rain gage, it is concluded that the rainfall and evaporation for this region are nearly equal, that is, between 46 and 47 inches. Henry, D. F. Tables of evaporation from observations by the Survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes. Tables showing comparative readings of evaporators in lake and river, open air and water. Ept. Chf. Eng., 1869:602-5. (Continued from 1868). The diiferences between simultaneous readings of an evaporator at the meteorological station and one placed in the St. Clair Eiver, nrom August 10 to September 14, 1868, are tabulated. The total laud evaporation' was 4.039 inches, mat in the river was 1.997 inches. Similar observations on the Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers gave similar results. The amount of rainfall over the lake and its water-shed, and the ratio between rainfall and outflow in 1868 on Lakes Huron, Superior, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario are tabulated; also the amount of rainfall minus the evaporation from the lake surface, and the ratio between evaporation and outflow at the several stations foi; each lake in 1863. Hildetarandsson, H. H. Historlsk redSgorelse for de vigtlgaste istigerna on vfltskors af- dunstning. Tidskr. math, fys., 1869, 2:26-37. Hosaeus, A. Die Wasserverdunstung einiger Kulturpflanzen. Ann. Landw. , 1869, 53:259-71. Chiefly a study of transpiration from different crops, with some consideration of evap- oration from soil. Lamont, J. von. Verschiedene Elnriohtungen des Verdunstungsmessers. Munch. Stern. Wochenbl., 1869:234-5. Also Eepert. der Phys., 1870, 6:113-6. Different methods of measuring evaporation are described. One form of instrument - consists of two reservoirs, one closed the other open.connected at their bases by a graduated tube containing an air bubble. As water evaporates from the open dish, the air bubble changes position, and the difference in readings on the scale gives the amount of evapora- tion. Lamont, J. von. Bemerkungen Tiber das Messen der Wasserverdunstung in fr«ier Luft. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1869, 4:241(-6. Gives the details of further experiments comparing evaporation from water in dishes of different sizes. Eepeats the table given in Lamont, 1868. Advises experiments to com- pare evaporation in different exposures. Suggests the use of the atmometer as a psy- chrometer, as it determines the average humidity for any given period, an advantage over the usual method which only determines It for momentary periods. Mari6-Davy, H. Atmidomfetre k vase poreux de Babinet. Nouv. met., 1869, 2:253-4. This atmometer consists of a porous vessel, similar to those used in ordinary electric bat- teries, closed by a stopper bearing a glass tube of small bore which leads to a copper cylin- der, furnished laterally with a vertical glass tube graduated in millimeters. The porous vessel is filled with water and remains filled by capillarity, in spite of the evaporation which operates at its surface, and although the level of the water in the reservoir is lower than the evaporating surface. The section of the sppply reservoir is only 0.0879 of the evaporating surface; this ratio can be varied at will. An extreme sensibility is claimed for this instrument, together with the possibility of following from hour to hour the pro- 44 greBS of evaporation and of obtaining at a given hour and dWi ?»« «ff««t "?us Mgli^dTd " perature, tJie state of the sky, the moTement and humidity of tji^ »'J' f ^.v to remSln for L an apparatus suitable for experimentation rather than «» '°»tf"Xd ^ator oaTcar^SS a long time comparable to itself. Unless It is supplied ^"l" .^»*\"«A,J!?f?IiKi^f^^^^ salts llissolved In the water gradually incrust the pores ""destroy theperm^^ clay, which may be restored by washing with a very weak solution »£ »<=®*'° "^J^y.^ f„ * table showing the hourly rate for July 7-8. When the l?°f\Zjj^JZX'^i^^„i^'^ this surface il found to be almost as rapid as that from a f"e ^J**! ="!i?™'J»^\^^^^ account the temperature of the evaporating water. . Evaporation " P™P»'''°°»| *» of satui ference between the actual tension of water vapor in the a^rt^nJa?,?™ ofThe Dorous rated air at the temperature of the evaporaiing surface. The *«mperalare »f *f « P"°"f surface is lower than that of the surface of freely exposed water, b««»?=« „'"*''« gRYnlhe the evaporating surface is warmed by diffusion from the main ^,o^l°^Zl^l'HMmm mI former diffusion is very slow. In one afternoon the porous vessel eTaE''™*^" l;*^!™"'™;^ mean temperature of 27.6° C, while an ordinary atmometer lost 2.844 mm. at a mean temperature of 33.6° C. Sur r6vaporation du sol. Arch. sci. phys. et nat., 1869, 36:27-33. Also summarized in Proo. inst. civ. engin., 1876, 45:56. Experiments were made at CaWve, near Nyon, Switzerland, with drain gages 1.2 meters deep containing a compact and impervious subsoil. The average annual rBlnaUjl867--», was 41 inches, 70 per cent of which evaporated, and 80 per cent percolated into the ground. Symons, G. J. and Rogers Field. See Rogers Field. Symons, Q-. J. Evaporation. Brit. Ealnf., 1869, (— ).• Tables compare results of evaporation observations with various atmometers, which are described. They generally consisted of vessels, more or less protected from overheating, for determining the amount lost from a free water surface. Those of Beverly, Bulst, Casella, Dalton, Dines, Greaves, Howard, J. F. Miller, S. H. Miller, Mitchell (bird-fountain de- vice), Proctor, Sharpie, Steinmetz, are of this form. 1870. Ansted, D. T. , „ Physical Geograpliy. 1870. 4th ed. p. 285-6. Abstract in Eamsay, 1884. Refers to the enormous force consumed In the evaporation of water from the ocean. Esti- mates total annual rainfall of the earth at not less than 200 millions of millions of tons Assuming the evaporation to be equal to the rainfall, an average of about 7,000 pounds o' water evaporate every minute from each square mile of ocean surface. " The conversion o' this into vapor, conveyance thru the air, and recondensation means a force equivalent to the lifting of very much more than 1,600.000 millions of millions of pounds of water one foot high per minute of time during the whole period." This does not include the large evapo- ration from the land surfaces of the earth. Dines, <3-eorge. Evaporation. Symons's met. mag., 1870, 5:70-2. Eevlew in Brit, rainf., 1889, (— ): 24-5. Compares the rates of evaporation from five evaporators of different sizes, the largest li feet in diameter, and finds the largest lost less than | of the amount lost by the smallest. The temperature of the water in the largest evaporator varied from 32° to 77° in April, while the liver temperatures varied from 39° to 60.3°; in June the temperature of the former varied from 33° to 84°, but the river varied only from 46° to 66.8°. The influence of tem- perature upon the rate of evaporation is shown by the following observation: " In a room of which the temperature was 62°^ water of that temperature evaporated at the rate of 0.003 inches per hour (about 26 inches in a year), and water at 88° evaporated at the rate of 0.016 inches per hour (about 131 inches per year)." Dines, Q-[eorge]. On evaporation and evaporation gages, with some remarks on the formation of dew. (1870.) Short abstract and note In Nature, 1870, 3:79; Proc. Brit. met. soc, 1871, 5:199-213. Experiments in evaporation from water at temperatures below 176° F. showed that evap- oration goes on until the temperature of the water, falling lower than that of the air, ap- proaches the dew-point; that condensation occurs at temperatures of 32° and higher until the dew-point is again approached. The dew-point thus indicates very closely the line of .demarcation between evaporation and condensation. Dalton' s formula, Vip=E (where D is the vapor pressure in inches of mercury at the temperature of the water minus that at the dew-point, and x is a constant determined by experiment), is considered approximately correct when water temperature and dew;j>oint are far apart, but uncertain when these tem- peratures closely approach each other. Efxperiments showing the influence of heat are de- scribed, together with others in which the depth of the water below the edge of the vessel exerted considerable influence on the amount of evaporation. Evaporation from sea water amounted to 4^ per cent less than that from rain water, and this difference increased with increasing concentration. 45 Dufour, Louis. Observations siccimStriques k Lausanne. Bui. soc. yaud. scl. nat., 1870, 10:555-6. Also Les mondes, 1873, 31 :570-2. Also Bui. Int. obs. Paris, June 17-18, 1873; Mar. 26-27, 1875. Also conclusions in Arch. soi. phys. et nat., 1870, 37:245; 1875, 52:241-3; 1875, 53: 129-31. The Bicolineter described in Dufour, 1869, showed almost equal rainfall {855 millimeters) and evaporation (860 millimeters) in 1869. Dufour, Charles, and F. A. Forel. Kecherches sur la.eondensation de la vapeur aqueusa de I'alr au contact de la glace et sur I'^vaporatlon. Bui. soc. vaud. sci. nat., 1870, 10:621-84; Les mondes, 1871, 26:129-36, 183-9, 242-51. Abstracted in Arch. sci. pbys. et nat., 1871, 40:239-73; Ann. chim. et phys., 1871,25.80-1; Naturforscher, 1872, 5:59-60. A study of the hy^rometric action of glaciers on the atmosphere and vice versa. Con- clusions; (1) Withair having a vapor pressure less than 4.6 millimeters condensation or evaporation will take place at the surface of the glacier according to the relative pressures of the water vapor of the air and that of the ice. These actions tend to counterbalance each other. (2) Condensation takesplace whenever the atmospheric vapor pressure is ahove 4.6 millimeters. (8) The total result of condensation and evaporation must he very much in favor of the latter. (4) The glacier by these counteracting influences tends to restore the pressure of the water vapor in the air to 4.6 millimeters, except in the case of conden- sation at temperatures lower than zero. (5) Since, in the latltuaes studied, the average hygrometric capacity of the air is above 4.6 millimeters pressure, the glacier exercises a very powerful drying Influence on the atmosphere. (6) Condensation tends to prevent the extension of the glacier owing to the heat which it frees. Forel, F. A., and Charles Dufour. See Dufour, Charles, and F. A. Forel. Hajech, Camillo. Bicerche sperimentali suli' evaporazione di un lago. Bend. r. ist. lomb., 1870, 3 (2) -.785-90. Compares the evaporation from three similar instruments exposing a free water surface - 1 decimeter square, one floating on the surface of the lake, the second on land near the the lake, and the third on land, but farther from the Take. The results obtained from August 31 to October 7, show: (1) The maximum mean hourly evaporation occurred from all three on the same days, viz, September 16 and 17. (2) The quantities evaporated from the three in the daytime, were to each other as 100:140:149; when the sky was cloudy as 100:130:130; after sunset as 100:156:22S; and for the entire day as 100:l'i0:180. Henry, D. Farrand. Tables of evaporation from observations of the survey of the northern and northwestern lakes. Tables showing comparative readings of evaporators in lake and river, open air, and water. Ept. Chief Eng., 1870: 570-3. A table of results shows the difference between simultaneous readings of the evaporator at the meteorological station and one placed in the water at Youngstown, N. Y. , from June 11, to September 23, 1869. Evaporation was greatest on land, the ratio between the two being 0.^8. Thermometric observations of the air, of the surface of the water in the evaporators, and in the lake showed no definite ratio between the water temperature and the rate of evaporation. Lamont, Johann von. Langsam Verdunstung des Wassers in engen B5hren. Munch. Stern. "Wochenbl., 1870, (— ):263. Moscati, Pietro. Lettera al Signer de Saussure con la descrizione d'un atmidometro e d'altre maochine altinenti alia meteorologia. n. p. 1870. 4to. Pfaff, A. B. L F. Ueber den Betrag der Verdunstung einer Elehe wahrend der ganzen Vegetationsperiode. Sitzber. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss. math. phys. Kl., 1870, 1:27-45. Also Ber. Phys. Med. Soc, 1870, 2. Abstracted in Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1871, 6:10-2. Also Naturforscher, 1871, 4;85-7. Also Gaea, 1871, 7:247-9. See Hann, 1871, for the results of FfafPa experiments. Bisler, E. Evaporation du sol et des plantes. Arch. sci. phys. et nat., 1870, 37:214-28. Also Zeits. f. JTaturw., 1872, 6:117-9. The monthly evaporation during 1869 from soil of different depths is calculated from the difference between the amount of rainfall and the amount artificially drained off, the latter 46 amount being at least partially corrected by a periodic determination of the moisture con- tent of the soil. Somervllle, Mary. Physical Geography. London. 1870. 6th ed. p. 223. The fact that the sea water of the Southern Hemisphere contains more salt than that of the Northern is suppo-ed to he due to the greater evaporation in the former, caused by the southeast trade winds blowing over a greater expanse of water than the northeast. It is compuied that 186,240 cubic miles of water are evaporated (annually ?) from the surface of the globe, chiefly from intratropical seas. This would cause a lowering of the sea level by 5 feet annually. The equilibrium In these seas, thus disturbed, is restored by means of currents. Strachan, Robert. Lament's vaporimeter. Symons's met. mag., 1870, 5:73-4. For a description of this instrument see Lament, 1869. Sjrmons, Gr. J. On evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1870, (— ):175-83, (app.). Experiments were carried on at Strathfield Turgiss with different evaporators, including Howard's, Miller's (a tin vessel with overflow, felt ijrotected). Miller's sand evaporator, a glazed earthenware jar set in the ground, a glass cylinder, Proctor'p, Sharpies', Fletcher's, etc. , of various sizes, etc. Observations on the temperature of the water in each showed that vessels which absorb heat most readily allow much more evaporation than others, A table gives the amount of evaporation for 1870 at various localities in Great Britain, with a description of the methods employed. The large tank used at Strathfleld Turgiss is especially notable. Vogel, K. A. Versuohe uber die Wasserverdunstung auf besStem und unbesatem Boden. Abh. k. Bayer. Alsiad. Wis. math. phys. Kl., 1870, lOr 321-55. From experiments similar to those of his previous paper (see 1868) it is concluded that evaporation is greater from limestone soil than from clay soil; greater from unplanted soil, both clay and limestone, than from planted; but greater from peat soil when planted than when unplanted. Results obtained with the "atmidometer, (see Vogel and Belschauer, 1856), showed differences similar to those observed in the absolute humidity of the air over the diflferent soils. 1871. Buchan, Alexander. Introductory Text-book of Meteorology. Edinburgh. 1871. See Buchan, 1868, for an account similar to that on p. 88-91 of this work. Casella, L. Catalogue of Soientiflo Instruments. London. 1871. 8vo. p. 24. Two metal vessels are described for measuring evaporation from a free water surface, also a recording instrument, in which the changes in the level of a water surface are communi- cated to a recording cylinder by means of a float and pulley. Doctor Babington's " atmi- dometer" for measuring evaporation from water, ice, or snow, is mentioned on page 21, but not described. Dines, Q. Eeply to "On Evaporation of Water," by Henry Hudson in Symons's met. mag., 1871. Symons's met. mag., 1871, 6:190-2. The following statements, made in a previous article, 1870, are reafirmed: " When the air is saturated with moisture and the water is of the same temperature as the air, neither evaporation nor condensation can take place." " Except as it affects the dew-point, it is a matter of little consequence whether the air is saturated or not; other circumstances being the same, it is the dilference between the temperature of the water and that of the dew- point which determines the amount both of evaporation and condensation." The author's experiments with the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers in obtaining the dew-point lead him to think that they can never give more than an approximation to the moisture in the atmosphere Hudson's conclusion that water may evaporate at a temperature several de- grees below the dew-point when the air is nearly saturated. Is refuted. Dufour, Louis. Surle siocim&tre. Ann. chim. at phys., 1871, 23:78-80. The siceimeter is designed to measure the difference between evaporation and rainfall (see Dufour, 1869.) Hann, Julius. Ueber den Einfluss der Baume auf die Feuchtigkeit der AtmosphSre und des Bodens. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1871, 6: 10-12. TheexperimentsofUnger, 1861, Vaillant 1865, and PfaflF, 1870, in attempting to calcu- late the total evaporation from a large tree by means of the observed amount evaporated from a single branch are here reviewed. According to Pfaff an oak tree having 700 000 leaves, each with a surface of 2,325 sq. mm., would evaporate from May 18 to October' 24 120,000 kg. This means an evaporation from the surface of the ground which the tree cov- ered, of 6.39 meters while the rainfall for that area is only 0.65 meter. According to Hann however, this does not show the amount that would evaporate under natural condiiions' 47 In the woods the temperature ia low, the humidity is high, and the air movement very sluggish. At night evaporation ceases and dew is formed, and in the daytime only a very small portion of the leaves at the top are subjected to the conditions under which the branches were placed in Pfaffs experiments. Hann, Julius. Verdunstung auf den Azoren und auf Madeira. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1871, 6:411. Table of monthly percentage of clouds, evaporation in millimeters, wind velocity, etc., from December [1864?]' to January, 18S7. Hofifmann, H. Untersuohungen iiber die Bllanz der Verdunstung und des Nieder- schlages. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1871, 6 : 177-81. Versuchsstat. Org., 1872, 15:95-104. Abstract in Naturforseher, 1871, 4:324^5. English abstract by Kobert Warington, in Jour. Chem. Soc, 1872, 10:1038-9. Eeviews the work of TJnger, Schttbler, Laws, Hartig, Saussure, Pfaflf', etc. 0nger's ob- servations that a water surface evaporates about three times as much as a plant of the same surface, and that a forest in leaf evaporates much more than a water surface of the same area as the ground covered "by the forest, are contradicted by Hartig who showed that evaporation from a water surface or from bare soil is greater than from a forest. Schlihler's results are quoted, showing daily evaporation to he, from a water surface, 1 line; from lurf, 2 to 3 liups; from bare soil^ 0.60 lines: and from forest, 0.25 lines. The author's own experiments, at the Botanical Garden in Seissen, Germany, with evap- oration from a water surface in a glass vessel, showed a total amount lost by evaporation from May to September for 3 years (1855-8) to he 55.86 inches, with a rainfall of 45.68 inches. The author believes, however, that soil would not lose moisture at the same rate as the water surface in the experiment, the upper layers of the soil jirotecting the lower. He considers it important^ therefore, in a dry climate lo keep the soil covered with moss or dead leaves to prevent its drying out. Hudson, Henry. On evaporation of water. Symons's met. mag., 1871, 6: 166-8. Challenges the conclusions drawn by Dines, 1870, concerning the point at which water will cease to evaporate and condensation will begin, and apparently concludes that water will evaporate when at a temperature several degrees below the dew-point. The statements in this paper are vague and were later refuted by Dines, 1871, Mann, R. J. On evaporation, rainfall, and elastic force of vapor. Proc. Brit. met. soc, 1871, 5:285-97. Also London. 1871. 8vo. From experiments with evaporation of water at different temperatures, the following formula is derived: The depth of evaporation in inches per hour ^ 1.5 \1 T-t-K (~\iD where y^the absolute temperature {°F.) of the surface of the water (that is, 461°-|-the ordinary scale); e^the vapor pressure in inches in air; ej^the vapor pressure at the tem- perature of the evaporating water, and i>=the density in pounds avoirdupois per cubic foot of the vapor at the temperature of the water. Altering the formula so as to use Glaisher's hygromelric tables only, a complicated expression is deduced, together with a simpler one which is sutficiently approximate. The latter is as follows: E=O.Oi X (the vapor pressure at the temperature of the water) — (the vapor pressure at the temperature of the air), i. e., ,B=0.04 (Ci — e). It is concluded that evaporation depends almost wholly on the three factors, the area of the water surface, the temperature of the water at its sur- face, and the vapor pressure in the air above the water. The retarding influence of the height of the rim of the vessel above the evaporating surface is also shown. Experiments with evaporation from sea water resulted in a rate of evaporation 5 per cent smaller than that from fresh water. The evaporation from the eastern side of the North Atlantic is calculated at 58.56 inches annually. Risler, E. Evaporation du sol et des plantes. Arch. sci. phys. et nat., 1871, 42:220-63. Zeits. f. Naturw., 1872, 6:117- lb. Continuation of the author's paper of 1870. 1872. Abbot, Francis. Kesults of five years' meteorological observations for Hobart Town, with which are incorporated the results of twenty-five years' obser- vations previously published by the Eoyal Society of Tasmania, and completing a period of thirty years. Tasmania. 1872. 8 p. A pluviometer and an evaporator were employed for these observations. The latter is a dish 5 inches in diameter, having an overflow pipe a little below the rim. A table shows the total excess of evaporation over rainfall at Hobart Town for the five yeare 1866-70 was 95.58 inches. The average annual evaporation is 42.18 inches and the rainfall 23.06 inches. 48 Buys-Ballot, O. H. D. Ueber die Verdunstung von einer WasseroberflSche. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met., 1872, 7:223-5. Refers to the work of Sohulze, Vogel, Yiveaot, Field, and Symons. Emphasizes the need of having a large evaporating surface, also the need of protecting the walls of the vessel either by sinking it in the ground or placing it in a larger reservoir of water. A table of results obtained by A. Erlich Sterk with two instruments, one small and unprotected, the other a large cylinder placed in a larger reservoir, shows a diifereoce of 250.6 millimeters in a year. The difference is greater in the daytime than at night, 209 millimeters for the former and only 41.7 millimeters for the latter. The author obtained only 70 millimeters difference in similar experiments, but his smaller instrument was somewhat shaded.' Buys-Ballot, C. H. D. Suggestions on a uniform system of meteorological observations. Utrecht. 1872. 56 p. Advises uniformity of apparatus for measuring evaporation. Buys-Ballot, O. H. D. , Indications de deux Svaporim&tres, I'un expose selon la mani&re habituelle, 1' autre nageant dans I'eau libre, ou dans un tr&s-grand reservoir. Bui. int. de I'obs. de Paris, 4 Juin, 1872. Fritsch, Karl. Bemerkungen fiber die Beobachtungen mit dem Yerdunstungsmesser. Zeits. Oest. G-es. Met., 1872, 7':124-7. Emphasizes the important influence which the exposure of the atmometer may exert on the rate of evaporation. Summarizes the results of observations at Prague from 1833-37, at Vienna from 1868-70, by Vivenot in 1866-7, and Sohenzl in 1863-5. Karsten, Gustav. Luftfeuchtigkeit, Niederschiage, Verdunstung, in den Herzog- thumen. Beltr£ge zur Landeskunde der Herzogthiimer Schleswig und Holstein. Eeihe II, Heft II. Berlin. 1872. 4to. Xjemoine, G. On the relation of forests to hydrology. Paper read to the British Association, Brighton meeting, 1872. Abstract in Symons's met. mag., 1872, 6:161. Describes experiments by Chapman on evaporation in South Africa. Two jars were sunk in the ground, one protected by a bush and the other in cleared ground. The rate from the latter jar was more than double that from the former. The evaporation during the hot, windy, dry season of the district, is believed to exceed by 384,000 gallons, the amount that would have been evaporated if the bush and grass had not been burned off. Moureaux, Th. Note sur TatmismomStre de M. Piche. Bui. int. de I'obs. de Paris, 2, 3, Juin, 1872. PfaflF, Fr. Versuche uber Verdunstung. Zeits. Deut. Geolog. Ges., 1872, 24: 401-9. The evaporation atErlangen from pure water and from a 2.5 per cent salt solution for a year resulted in totals of 750 and 659 millimeters, respectively, or as 100 to 87. Observa- tions of evaporation from pure water for the two years previous, and of the rainfall which in all three years surpassed the amount evaporated from salt water, led to the conclusion that salt could not be obtained here by natural evaporation from a bay separated from the Piche, Albert. Note sur l'atmismom6tre, instrument destinfie h mesurer l'6vapora- ^*i!S; ^"'- ^^^°°- ^°'- dePrance, 1872, 10:16&-7; alsoSci. pourtous, J?^?' 17=226; Ann.soi. ind., 1872, 16:58-60; and Zeits. Oest. Ges Met, 1873, 8:270-1. ooT^Q^n'"^*^""?"*^''"^'^'?''''/ vertical graduated glass tube, 1 centimeter in diameter 23 to 30 centimeters long closed above and provided with a ring by which it can brsus ?«,*^?-. ^'^^ '"''^ H- "'^* 'J*'' 7**«^* '=''^'="'»'^ P^oe of mo5t Slotting pape? wfth an area of 8 square centimeters, is clamped over the open end, the whole iSvemd and the water allowed to evaporate from the surface of the piper, ihe differences in the h«ffh? of the water m the tube give the amounts evaporated. '^ A minute opening in?heoente/of the paper allows air to rise and take the place of the evaporated water. Prettner, Johann. ^^1^70®*°?" *''°^'"''^^° Yerdunstungsmesser. Zeits. Oest. Ges. Met. n.JdT^llVmTrilhl^tndlr'Stefer''''"''^"'^"^''^ ''»'- for evaporation. A fixt 49 Bagona, D. Sulla evaporazione dell' aqua salea. In Lettere meteorologiche al conte Gt. Vimeroatl. Eev. sci. ind., 1872. Also Florence. 1872. 8vo. Symons, J. Q-. On evaporation. Brit, ralnf., 1872, (— ) :11-15. Eefers to a self-recording atmometer devised by Symons and Field. A table sbows the rate of evaporation in diftbrent localities, measured by various methods. Evaporation was generally 10 to 16 per cent less in 1871 than in 1870. A table of monthly evaporation in the neighborhood of Manchester is appended.. Volpioelli, Paolo. Sulla evaporazlone del liquidl, favorita della elettricitft. Att. r. accad. Lincel, 1872, 25:63-6. Provenzali.ln theilev. sci. ind. de 1871, p. 119, stated that, " The action of static electricity on the evaporation of liquids is a fact that has generally past unnoticed, neither do I know that any one has ever closely examined It." Volpicelli shows that this statement is un- f rounded, since many eminent investigators have attempted to solve this problem. He escribes the researches of Cavallo, Hermbstadt (See HermstSdt, 1801), Van Marum, Sohtlb- ler, Muncke, Kollet, and Beccaria. With the ezception of Van Marum and Muncke, who obtained negative results, all the experiments together with his own which he describes have shown that electrification of water increases Bie evaporation from it. 1873. Buys-Ballot, O. H. D. A sequel to the suggestions on a uniform system of meteorological observations. Utrecht. 1873. See Buys-Ballot, 1872, Ist title. Decharme, C. Effets frigoriflques produits par la capillarite jointe k I'evaporation; Evaporation du sulfure de carbone sur du papier spongieux. (Ex- trait). Compt. rend., 1873, 77:998, 1157. A porous paper dipping into carbon bisulphide and supported in the air, is described as a very simple hygroscope. The drier the air, the less the cooling, the less rapid the evapo- ration, and the less the deposit of crystals. Delesse, A. and A. de Lapparent. Influence des forgts sur la quantity de pluie et sur I'evaporation. Kev. geol., 1873, 11. Also Bui. assoo. scl. de France, 1873, 12:190-1. Dufour, Louis. Observations siceimfetriques k Lausanne. Bui. soc. vaud. sci. nat., 1873, 1 1 : 151-62, 329-32; 1873, 12 : 162-9. C Evaporazione comparata, etc. Ann. met. ital., 1886, parte I< Author s abstract In Met. Zelts., 1889, 6: [31]. The evapOTation in Mexico, in the shade, both observed and calculated, is compared with that at Modena. The rate is higher in Mexico from October to April, and lower from May to September. A comparison oi the evaporation in the sun for both places shows similar differences in the rates. In both cases the rates for the two regions become equal toward the last of September and the last of April. The ratio between the evaporation in sun and shade was calculated, and a table compares the ratios obtained for Mexico and Modena. The annual curve of this ratio is shown to be identical with that of the relative humidity. The relation of the maximum and minimum to the spring equinox and the solstices is discussed. Russell, Thomas. Differences of still and -whirled psyohrometers. Mo. weather rev., 1886, 14: 299-300. Emphasizes statistically the need of active ventilation of the wet- and dry-bulb psy- chrooieter. Shidlovski, P. Diffusion der Gase and DSmpfe duroh porSse K5rper. Jour. Russ. phys. chem. see, 1886, 18(6): 182-204. Abstract in Beibl. Ann. Phys. und Chem., 1887, 11: 618-20. Discusses the rate of the diffusion of vapor through a porous cylinder. Sjrmons, G. J. On the evaporation from a water surf ace. Brit, rainf., 1886,(-): 14^17. Describes the method of observing the evaporation from the large tank at Camden Square. A small still-well is made by means of a box, 4 by 4 bv 12 inches, having a small hole in the bottom. By means of the hook-gage variations in the level can be read to 0,01 inch. Teisserenc de Bort, Leon. M6t4orologie. Eev. scl., 1886, 36: 528-32. Teisserenc de Bort, LSon. L' Evaporation. Efesumfi d'un travail de M. Kagona.et des reeher- ches plus r6centes de M. Houdaille. Ciel et Terre, 1887, 2: 510-12. Beview of Bagona, 1886, (1st title). Gives Hondaille's formula (see- Houdaille, 1885, 3d title). Venukoff. Sur la Vitesse de dessechement des lacs dans les olimats sees. CSompt. rend., 1886, 103:1045. Abstract in Ann. soc. m6t., 1887, 35:18. From the statement of the Bussian explorer, Nicolski, that the level of Lake Balkash, (area about 19,000 square kilometers), is lowered Imeter every fourteen or fifteen years, it is calculated that the amount of wat^r annually evaporated must be 1,300,000,000 cubic meters, if none is lost undergroand. Under the inttnence of this rapid evaporation the southern part of the lake is gradually being transformed into a deposit of salt, as is also the case with the Caspian Sea, an already dry climate is becoming drier. 1887. Ch.abaueix, J. B. M6moire sur I'evaporation du sol. Bui. mgt. H6rault, 1887. Continued from 1886. Davis, "W. M. Water vapor and radiation. Amer. met. jour., 1887, 3:443-4. Discusses relation between size and speed of evaporation of water particles ff oating in the air. de Touchimbert. Observations mSteorologique faites 4 Poitiers en obtobre et novem- bre, 1886. Ann. soc. m6t., 1887, 35:46. The evaporation for October was 33 millimeters, for November, 26 millimeters. Denza, P. Francesco. Meteorologia Elementare di Eoberto H. Scott. (Translation). Milan. 1887. See Scott, 1887. Harreaux. Observations hydromgtriques de la Beauoe. Ann. soc. m6t. 1887 Compares the rates of evaporation from various surfaces under different exposures Observations for the first three years showed an excess of evaporation equal to the cube ot 71 the rainfall for the same period; iiil876 rainfall and evaporation were equal; in the follow- ing years the rainfall exceeded the evaporation, and the levels of wells and streams rose accordingly. (See Harreaux et Graget, 1886. ) Hauvel, Charles. Du r61e de la vapeur d'eau dans I'atmosph&re. Ann. soc. m6t., 1887, 35:6-7, 9-15. Study of evaporation as influenced by the " atmospheric tide." Hepites, S. C. Evaporation de I'eau. Ann. Inst. m6t., Boumania, 1887, 3:124^7. Daily records of evaporation by Wild's recording evaporometer show two maxima for the year, 3.3 millimeters on May 21 and 3.1 millimeters on September 24. The total annual evaporation was 325.5 millimeters. Other tables show the monthly, seasonal, diurnal, and nocturnal rates. The ratio of the nocturnal to the diurnal rate was 3.53 in 1886 and 3.41 in 1887. Xlein, Hermann J. Allgemeine Witterungskunde. Leipsic, Vienna, and Prague. 1887. p. 78-80. General discussion of the laws and the methods of measuring evaporation. Leg'ras. Surun evaporomfetre ^ temperature regulier. (Resum6 par M. Teis- serenode Bert). Ann. soc. mfit. 1887, 35:241-2. This atmometer is similar to the rain gages issued by the royal Belgian observatory to its meteorological stations It consists of an evaporating dish set into a much larger ves- sel, also containg water, and designed to reproduce the temperature and hygrometrio con- ditions of a natural stream. Gives the evaporation for May, June, July, October, and November, 1886, as 59.6, 34.2, 34 7, 28.3, and 21.8 millimeters, respectively. Milani, Gustavo. Meteorologla popolare. Florence. 1887. p. 90-2. Short discussion of the process and importance of evaporation. Mohn, H. Grundziige der Meteorologie. Berlin. 1887. 4th ed. See Mohn, 1875. Murray, John Bainfall and evaporation on the land surfaces of the globe. Ab- • straots in Scot. geog. mag., 1887, 3:65-77; Met. Zeits., 1887, 4:63; Forsch. Geb. Agr. Phys., 1888, 10:457-9. Evaporation is computed from therun-oflE and rainfall in different latitudes of-the earth's surface, as follows: Latitude. Evapora^ tion. Rainfall. o Mm, Mm. 50-60 N. 365 555 40-50 N. 510 745 30-40N. 835 955 20-30 N. 805 940 10-20 N. 885 1,430 lON.-lOS. 1,375 1,775 20-40 S. 951 1,225 Mean. . . 965 1,240 These are amounts of evaporation as related to temperature, humidity, and rainfall, while rainfall does not enter as a factor in the record of an evaporometer which shows only what would evaporate with a constant water supply. Estimates that not less than 87,000 cubic kilometers of water evaporate annually from the land surface of the globe, Peek, CuthtaertB. , ^^ ^ ^ -r, , ^ Evaporation experiments at Rousden Observatory, Devon, England. Amer. met. jour., 1887, 4:2-3. Abstract. in Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1887, 13:242-3. The evaporation from soil with turf and from water was measured by means of two similar tanks, 24 x 24 x 16 inches, freely exposed to the air, but protected from the sun's rays by a louvred wooden screen. The total annual evaporation from the soil was 24.79 inches, and from the water 22.81 inches. Bitter, Charles. , , , , u t ^ j Actions 616mentaires dont depend la croissance des nebules et des hydromgtgorites. Ann. soc. m6t., 1887, 35:361-432. 72 History of earlier Tiews of the formation of atmospheric vapor and dieoUBSion of the same from the modern point of view, Scott, R[obert] H. Elementary Meteorology. London. 1887. 4th ed. p. 95-103. (Trans- lated by P. F. Denza, 1887. q. v.) The process, effects, and importance of evaporation are discussed. The rainfall and evaporation on the earth's surface are believed to nearly balance each other. Symons, O. J. The Camden Square evaporation experiments. Brit, rainf., 1887, (_):38-9. Results of measurements at the tank at Camden Square for 1887 and to June, 1888. "Warington, R. A contribution to the study of well waters. Jour. chem. soc, 1887, 51:52. Considers the effect of vegetation in increasing evaporation from the soil. "Woeikof, Alexander. Ellmate der Erde. Jena. 1887. 2 vols. Estimates annual evaporation from the Caspian Sea as 1090 millimeters. (Yol. 2, p. 265. ) "WoUny, B. Forstlich-meteorologlsohe Beobachtungen. Forseh. Geb. Agr. Phys., 1887, 10:415-46. Abstracts in Exp. sta. rec, 1895, 6:197-9; Met. Zeits., 1896, 13:362-4; also by Abbe, 1895. An investigation of the rates of evaporation iiom different soU mulches. Conclusions: (1) The soil evaporates more water than the various mulches. (2) Of all the mulches ex- perimented with, moss evaporates most, then follow oak leaves, beech leaves, fir and pin* needles, with but small differences. (3) The thinner the mulch the greater the evaporation perimented with, moss evaporates most, then follow oak leaves, beech leaves, fir and pine needles, with but sma" '"' -. . - .. .... ...... (Continued in 1890.) 1888. Abbe, Cleveland. Treatise on meteorological apparatus and methods. Ann. Bpt. Chief Signal Officer for 1887, Pt. 2 (App. 46). Washington. 1888. Discusses methods of measuring evaporation and of the temperature and rate of the same in connection with the h^rgrometric conditions of the air. Beriews work on vapor pressure and latent heat of vaporization by Ivory, Apjohn, Begnault, Glaisher, Eilmtz, Wllllner, Stefan, Maxwell, Chistoni, Doyfire, Angot, Swor^rkin, Pernter, and Ferrel. The observa- tions by Fitzgerald and the formula derived by him are presented in detail. Chabaneiz, J. B. M^moire sur 1' evaporation du sol. Bui. met. H6rault, 1888. Continued from 1886 and 1887. G-reeley, A. W. American Weather. New York. 1888. 8vo. (Jeneral discussion (p. 45-48) of the various classes of evaporometers. Hann, J. Beobachtungen uber Verdunstung in der Eolonie New South Wales. Met. Zeits, 1888, 5:323. Summarizes the results of observations of evaporation in New South Wales made by H C Russell in 1885. (See Symons, 1890. ) MtiUer-Erzbaoh, W. Die Bestimmung der Durehschnittstemperatur duroh das Gewioht von verdampfter Flusslgkeit. Met. Zeits., 1888, 5:453-9. Determines the average temperature of the air by measuring the loss in weight through evaporation of various liquids. The results agree closely with the means of thermomefer readings. Bussell, T[lioma8]. Depth of evaporation in the United States. Mo. weather rev 1888 16:235-9. The evaporation from the Piche evaporometer was compared with that from a free water surface in a small dish, both dish and Piche being exposed in the standard louvred shelter of that date. The^epth of evaporation recorded by the Piche and the average wind velocity at 19 different stations during June to September, 1888, are tabulated. Also determines the relative amounts lost by evaporation from stationary and whirling Piche for velocities of 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 miles per hour. The rate of evaporation at Signal Service stations is then computed from the means of the tridaily readings of the wet-bulb and dew-point for the period December, 1887, to January, 1888, Inclusive, using the following formula (no wind term is used because of the shelter exposure): ^ 80 f-^HL+MPsLZM), 73 In which p„=the Tapor pressure for the mean monthly temperature of the wet-bulb ther- mometer, j)^=Tapor pressure for the monthly mean dew-point, 6=mean barometric pres- sure, ^ = 1.96, and 5=43.9. He compares these computed values with those observed at the Boston waterworks by Fitzgerald; and by means of them constructs a chart of lines of equal annual depth of evaporation at the U. S. Signal Service stations for the period Julv . 1887, to June, 1888. '^ " Symons, G. J. The Camden Square evaporation experiments. Brit, rainf., 1888, (-):42-3. Tables of evaporation from the large tank at Camden Square from July, 1888, to June, 1889, inclusive. .< > . > 1889. Oampidoglio, R. Oaservatorio del. Osservazioni meteorologlciie del R. Oaservatorio del Campldoglio. Attl r. accad. Linoei, 1889, 5: (4). The daily evaporation in millimeters and the monthly totals from January to July, 1889, show variations from 54.33 millimeters in February to 149.40 millimeters in July. Carpenter, L. Or. Evaporation from tanks placed in the ground and also from tanks floating In the water. Ciolo. exp. sta., 2d Ann. Kpt., 1889, p. 49-76. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1890, 2:394. A table presents the monthly evaporation for the years 1887-9 at Fort Collins, Colo., from tanks S by 3 by 3 feet and also from smaller tanks to determine the influence of size and material on evaporation. The evaporation computed from the following expression differed only slightly from the observed amount: Evaporation in inches for 12 hours = 0.1934 (T — t){l -1-0.005 «j), in which ris the vapor pressure at the temperature of the water surface, t the vapor pressure of the air, and w the velocity of the wind in miles per 12 hours. For a whole day the formula becomes, £=0.3868 ( T— 0(1-1- 0.0025 w). Fitzgerald's formula is quoted: £(24 hours) =0.3984 (^—^(H- 0.0208 mi). The close agreement of these coeffi- cients, derived from investigations carried on under as different circumstances as these, strengthens confidence in either formula, and makes it probable that the true value of the coefficient is not far from 0.39 or 0.40. (See Bigelow, 1907. ) Davis, "Walter Gr. Ligeros apuntes sobre el clima de la Bepiiblica Argentina. Buenos Aires. 1889. p. 238-40. Table^ of evaporation from water in sun aud'^shade, for .the years 1886-1888, inclusive, show an annual average of 2292.7 millimeters in the sun and 1169.6 millimeters in the shade. Comparative experiments on evaporation from a copper dish, a ^lass dish, and a Wild bal- ance, gave in the sun 1320.7 millimeters for the first, 1088.5 millimeters for the second, and 1252.2 millimeters for the last; in the shade 648.8 millimeters for the first, and 624.1 milli- meters for the last. Demangeon, A. , Climatologie d'Epinal (Vosges). Besumg g^ngral pour 10 ans, de 1872 A, 1881, des observations mfetdorologiques faites k Epinal. Eplnal. 1884. 216me. tlrage, 1889. This lithographed sheet, 10 by 16 inches, presents a table of monthly and annual means of all the meteorological elements, including observations with a psychrometer and a Fiche evaporometer, extracted from the " Resume general detains " published by the same author. The mean monthly and annual rainfall and vapof pressures at !^pinal for the period 1872- 81 are shown in the following table. The evaporation Is here omitted since the table gives no denomination fur its figures. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Deo. Year. Rainf.. Vap. pr Mm. 119.2 4.83 Mm. 70.0 5.19 Mm. 75.1 5.86 Mm. 75.0 6.45 Mm. 72.4 7.52 Mm. 89.9 10. 52 Mm. 108.6 12.09 Mm. 94.9 11.75 Mm 78.8 9.56 Mm. 98.9 7.33 Mm. 82,9 5.84 Mm. 68.4 4.94 Mm. 964.0 7.68 Grossmann. [L.] Beitrage zur Geschichte und Theorie des Psychrometers. Met. Zeits., 1889, 6:121-30, 164^76. Discusses the history and theory of the psychrometer. Seyf ert, T. Der Einfluss des Bedeckens und des Mlschens der Moorboden mit Sand auf seine Verdunstungs- und Temperaturverhaltnisse. Mitt, z. FSrderung der Moorkultur, 1889, Nos. 17, 18: 205-23; Centbl. Agr. Ohem., 1889, (— ):678-80. Abstract in Forsch. Geb. Agr. Phys., 1880, 13:63-4. ABB 6 74 Experimeots in evaporation from natural moor soil, from the same with sand mixed into the surface layer, and from the same with sand on top but not mixed in, for the period June to October, gave amounts in the proportion, 100:38:20. The effect of a surface layer of sand in retarding evaporation is clearly shown. Syraon, G. J. On the amount of evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1889, (— ):18-43. A complete r6sum§ of all previous reports of evaporation published in " British Bainfall ' ' from 1867 to 1887, together with descriptions and drawings of the various instruments used at Strathfield Turgiss. Tables of daily evaporation at Camden Square from July, 1889 to June, 1890, and the totals and maxima for each month and year from 1885-1890 are given. Tacchini, P. Temperatura ed evaporazione a Massaua. Atti r. accad. Lincei, 1889, 5 (4):329-30. Investigations show that evaporation at Massaua is almost twice that at places whose mean temperatures are but han as high. Place. Mean annual tempera^ ture. Mean daily evapora- tion. Bari 15.7 29.8 17.6 Mm. 3.1 Massaua 7.3 Eeggio (Calabria).... 3.6 Voeikov. See "Woeikof . "Waldo, Frank. Distribution of wind velocities in the United States. Amer. met. jour., 1889, 6:309-10. Discusses the relation between the distribution of wind velocities and evaporation. De- scribes Russell's (1886, 1888) experiments in this line. Woeikof, Alexander. Der Einfiuss einer Sohneedecke auf Boden, Klima, und Wetter. Geog. Abh., 1889, 3 (Hft. 3):99. Although the air above a large extent of snow is usually saturated owing to the continual evaporation from the snow, certain winds are so dry that the evaporation can not always maintain this saturated condition of the air. A greater dryness in the air above snow may also result in decreased evaporation due to the lower temperature of the snow compared that of the air. 1890. Abbe, Cleveland. Preparatoiy studies for deductive methods in storm and weather predictions. Ann. Bpt. Chief Signal Officer for 1889. Washing- ton. 1890. App. 15, p. 117-21. Discusses the various factors influencing the rate of evaporation. For meteorological purposes evaporation from a free water surfare, or preferably from moistened clom or paper, as in the ordinary psychrometer or in the Piche atmometer, is considered a suffi- cient indication of the evaporating power of the air. Presents the conclusions reached by Tate; the formulas derived by Weilenmann, Stelling, and Fitzgerald; and Russell's com- parisons of evaporation with changes in wind velocity. Battelli, Angelo. Sull' evaporation dell' acqua e del terreno umido. Nuovo cimento 1890, 28(3):247-56. Abstract in Naturw. Kunds., 1891, 6:27o'; Ann. ufflc. cent. met. Ital., 9:—; Met. Zeits., 1891, 8:394. Comparative measurements of evaporation, both in sun and shade, from a free water sur- face and from soil saturated with water, at Chieri (Turin). Also observed a Piche atmome- ter, a psychrometer, and an anemometer. (See Battelli, 1892. ) Briickner, Eduard. Verdunstung einer Schneedecke. Met. Zelts., 1890, 7:150-2. Review of Voeikov, 1889 and 1890. According to Briickner condensation ordinarilv oc- curs on snow, rather than evaporation from it. ' Oolin, R. P. B. Observations met6orologiques faites k Tananarive. Obs roy de Madagascar. Tananarive. 1890. 2vols.8vo. Review in Svinons's met. mag., 1892, 27:38-40. oj^mouss 75 Hla evaporator consists of a zinc tank, 40X40x2.5 inolies, inclosed in a wooden box. A table gives the evaporation for the first ten days in February, 1890. Ekholm, Nils. Zur Frage iiber die Verdunstung einer Sciineelage. Met. Zeits., 1890, 7:224-6. Notice In Forspli. Geb. Agr. Phys., 1890, 13:475. Discusses the question raised by Voelkov (1890), who declared that snow will evaporate when the temperature of the air is below zero. Houdaillo, F. Mesure de r^vaporation diurne; description d'un 6vaporom&tre en- registreur. Bui. m6t. H6rault, 1890. See Houdaille, 1892. Conclusions: (1 ) Daily evaporation as measured by the Piche atmometer is very irregular as compared with that from an evaporating surface more naturally exposed to ihe action of the wind and nearer the temperature of the air. (2) A continuous record of the rate of evaporation is important for meteorology and for various industries. (3) Describes a recording "evaporometer," which employs the registering mechanism of the Kiehard ther- mograph. ^4) This Tate is always much higher in the daytime than at night, generally at least three times higher. (5) The maxima are determined by the predominance of one of the three factors, temperature, relative humidity, and wind velocity. Specifies objections to the Piche atmometer. Describes his own atmometer, which consists of an evaporating surface of blotting paper clamped on a brass plate connected with a graduated Mariotte's tube. An opening, 2 mm. m diameter, in the brass plate allows the liquid supplied from the tube to keep the paper constantly soaked. Moulan, T.-O. Quantites d'eau evaportes ou absorbSes par la v^gStation dans la bassin de la Gileppe. Ciel et terre, 1890, 1 1 :328. Approximate estimate of the water absorbed or evaporated by vegetation. Kussell, Thomas. Evaporation. Mo. Weather Eev., 1890, 18:290. Table 1 shows the depth of monthly evaporation for 1888-9, as measured in a pan and by a Piche atmometer, at Sweetwater Dam, San Diego County, Cal. Table 2 shows the depths of evaporation observed at a number of stations in 1888-90 with Piche atmometers. Tables 3 and 4 show the depths evaporated from pans at stations olher than those where the Piche had been used. Symons, Q-. J. On the amount of evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1890, ( — ): 17-31. Deals in detail with the work of Dines, 1870; Evans at Nash Mills, Hertfordshire (see Greaves, 1876); Greaves, 1876; Lawes at Rothamsted; S. H. Miller at Wisbech, 1878; Peek at Rousdon Observatory, near Lyme Regis, Devon; and Russell at Sydney, N. S. W. Symons assumes that at Sydney a facsimile of the Strathfield Turgiss tanks would lose about 30 inches a year. van Bebber, W. J. Lehrbuch der Meteorologie. Stuttgart. 1890. p. 103-9. General discussion of the process of evaporation, with a description of the Piche atmome- ter. Results of Eser, Ebermayer, and Stelling are reviewed. Woelkof, A. Verdunstung einer Schneelage. Met. Zeits., 1890, 7:38-9. Points out that evaporation will take place from the surface of snow as long as the air tem- perature is below zero. (See Briickner, 1890.) WoUny, E. Forstlich-meteorologisehe Beobachtungen. (Zweite Mitteilung.) Forsch. Geb, Agr. Phys., 1890, 13:134.-84. Continued from 1887. (See Wollny, 1895, for summary.) 1891. Allen, H. N. See Brace, de W. B., and H. N. Allen. Brace, de "W. B., and H. N. Allen. Meteorological observations for 1890. Nebr. exp. sta. bul., 1891, 4 (no. 27):33-72; Exp. sta. rec, 1891, 3:29. Gives the results of observations with 6 Piche evaporometers from June to October, sus- pended at elevations of 22, 40, 60, 80, and 100 feet. [Bartet.] Influence de la futaie de hgtre sur les pluies, I'evaporatlon et la temperature de I'air. Ciel et terre, 1891-2, 12:313-9. Quotes observations near Nancy by Mathieu in 1867-77. In discussing the influence of a beech forest on rainfall, evaporation, and temperature at Bellefontaine from 1878-«8 Bartet ound the following data: 76 In open. Annual evaporation (millimeters) 146. 4 472. 1 Annual rainfall (millimeters) 722. 8 852. 2 Evaporation as per cent of rain 205^ 66^d Batio of evaporation , | 1 3.22 The general results, at Nancy and Bellefontaine are in mutual accord. De Heen, P. Becherches surlavitesse d' evaporation des liquides pris au-dessous de la temperature d'SbuUitlon. Bui. acad. sci. de Belgique, 1891, 21(3):H-25, 214-9, 798-810. Review in Oiel et terre, 1891. 12: 49-51. Abstract, Met. Zelts., 1891, 8:351. Concludes (1) The rate of evaporation increases at first rapidly with the wind velocity, but with higher velocities the increase is more gradual. (2) For any wind velocity evap- oration is directly proportional to the vapor pressure. (3) ^Evaporation is proportional to the molecular weight X vapor pressure. Further experiments show that a current of saturated air is capable of raising molecules from the surface of the water. A formula is derived for expressing the rate of evapora^ tion: ti = .4 ii" ( 100 — 0.88 + F* ) where A^a, constant, F = the vapor pressure at the temperature of the liquid, and V= wind velocity. Observes that all evaporometers acting by imbibition must furnish too small results since the soaked surface is cooled by the evaporation. This influence is barely perceptible at the free surface of a liquid, as convec- tion tends to counteract it. Greely, A. "W. Irrigation and water storage in the arid regions. (A report on the climatology of the arid regions of the United States with reference to irrigation.) 51st Cong., 2d Sess., House of Kep., Ex. Doc. No. 287. Washington. 1891. A compilation of data on rainfall and evaporation in the various arid regions of the world, with particular reference to the extensive arid regions of the United States. Appen- dices contain curves of precipitation, evaporation, amount of sunshine, and normal tem- perature and weight of aqueous vapor, also tables and charts for Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California. "These curves are composite ones, made up from selected stations, and therefore fairly represent evaporation conditions over the States or sections to which they pertain." Hann, J. Beobachtungen fiber Verdunstung zu Strathfleld Turgiss, 1870-1883. Met. Zeits., 1891, 8:118-9. Describes methods of observing evaporation at Strathfleld Turgiss and Camden Square, London, England, and compares thfe results with the evaporation measured by Tacchini in southern France and by de Lesseps at the Suez Canal. [Royal' Meteorological Society.] Exhibition of rain and evaporation gages. Amer. met. jour 1891 7:561-2. The evaporation gages shown at the Eoyal Meteorological Society's I2th Annual Exhibi- tion of Instruments included several Instruments employed for measuring the evaporation from a free surface of water, and others for use with growing plants. Symons, G. J., Jolin "W. Tripe, and "William Marriott. Twelfth Annual Exhibition of Instruments by the Koyal Meteoro- logical Society, held March 3-19, 1891. (Juart. iour rov met soc, 1891, 17:180-92. Describes most of the instruments exhibited, notably the evaporometers designed bv Baliington, Lamont, Wild, delaEue, Piche, Richard, and a collecdon of instruments ex- hibited by Symons. An evaporometer designed for use w^th growing plants is also de- BCriD6Cl (p. lo7f ]j QB* J Symons, G. J. On the evaporation from a water surface at Camden Sauare London Brit, rainf., 1891, (— ):24-5. ' """""• Gives tables of the daily evaporation from the standard tank from Jul v laqi t/i Tmio 1892; also tables of the monthly and annual lotals and maxima for 1886 to 1892 ' ' trie, "Willi. Zur Beurtheilung der Evaporationskraft eines Klimas. Met. Zelts. 1891, oi91— 6. InvestigaUons with a Wild evaporometer lead to a formula employing the nsvchrometer differences and the wind velocity, viz: v=AS(,t-l')w, where «=t6e rite of^evapSfo" 77 yl=a constant, < and (' = the psyohrometer temperatures. The value of A varies con- siderably with the season. 1892. Battelli, Angelo. Comparison de I'fevaporation d'une surface d'eau et d'une surface de terra humide. Abstract in L'atmosphfere, Octobre, 1892, (— ):145- 148; Cleletterre, 1892-3, 13:436. From the experiments detailed in Batelll, 1890, he concludes: When the temperature of the air is rising, evaporation from saturated soil is in general, greater than from a surface of still water; when the temperature is decreasing, evaporation from the soil diminishes more rapidly than that from water. The evaporation from a free water surface Increases more rapidly with the velocity of the wind than that from moist soil. The higher the relative humidity the greater is the proportion of water evaporated from saturated soil in comparison to that evaporated from still water. Evaporation from water in the sun is greater than that in the shade, not only daring the day hut also during the following night. Brace, de W. B. Mean relative evaporation at six different elevations. Nebraska exp. sta. bul., 1892, Ko. 20: 215-51. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1892, 3:799. Increase in evaparation is shown with increase in altitude. Continuation of his experi- ments of 1891. Carpenter, L. G-. Irrigation engineering. Colorado exp. sta., ann. rpt., 1891:45-57. 1892. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1892, 4:368-9. A table showS comparative rates of ev^oration from wateir in tanks placed in the ground at Fort Collins, Divide, and Eockyford, Colo., and from tanks floating in a canal and a lake. King, F. H. Investigations relating to soil moisture. Wisconsin exp. sta., ann. rpt., 1891:100-34. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1892, 4:122-9. Experiments show that spring plowing checks the evaporation of soil water. The mean dally rate of evaporation from cultivated soil was 0.665 lbs., and from uncultivated soil 0.808 lbs. per sq. foot. Houdaille, P. Marche diurne de I'evaporation k Montpellier, 1891-2. Bul. met. Herault, 1892, (— ):59-78. Review in Met. Zeits., 1893, 10:431-2. The curve of a self-recording evaporometer running for409 days, during the years 1891-2, shows three distinct periods, Irom midnight to sunrise, from sunrise to sunset, and from sunset to midnight. These periods correspond to equally distinct periods in the rate of evaporation from soil and from plants. The maxima and minima fov these periods show interesting variations. The average ratio between daily and nocturnal evaporation is 3.82, varying from 6 90 in August to 1.63 in December. Gives a resumS of the experiments by HSpites, 1887. Diagrams compare evaparation with relative humidity, temperature, and wind velocity. Houdaille, F. Kecberches experimentales sur I'influenoe de la vitesse du vent, de la radiation solaire, et de I'etat electrique de I'air dans le ph4- nomgne de I'evaporation. Ann. 6cole nat. agr., Montpellier, 1892, 6:197-247. An investigation of the Influence of the velocity of the wind upon evaporation disclosed the following facts: (1) The increase in the rate of evaporation with air movement is very rapid for low velocities, but at 4 meters per second and higher it becomes almost propor- tional to the wind velocity. (2) The increase of the rale of evaporation is proportional to the increase in wind velocity independently of the difference (i?—/), the diflSerence be- tween the vapor tension' at the surface of the liquid and that of the air. (3) The relation of the evaporation from a surface of 13 sq. cm. to the air current and to (F—f) Is given by the formula, P= 1.475 (F—/) -I- 0.726 [(/!'-/)«+ 10 (i?-/)]^[P^ + 17 V]^. (4) When, under the action of the wind, the evaporating surface cools considerably, the rate of evaporation should rather be compared to the factor (*''—/), in which F' is the vapor pressure at the temperature t' of the wet-bulb. (5) The ratio between the rates of evaporation from different surfaces remains almost constant and independent of the wind velocity. A study of the influence of Bolarx«diatiott*<»wed (1) that the increase of evaporation due to solar radiation is almost proportional to the intensity of the latter whatever may he the initial value of the evaporation, as measured in shade and in quiet air. (2) The co- efScient of the utilization of solar heat in vaporization varies between very wide limits according to the temperature, humidity of the air, and the intensity of insolation. (3) A high electric tension causes a rather rapid increase in the rate of evaporation. Houdaille, F. Eecherches experimentales sur le phfinomfene de I'evaporation. L'atmosph&re, August, 1892, (— ):101-5. 78 Latham, Bald-win. Presidential Address to the Boyal Meteorological Society. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1892, 18:53-67. Abstract in Symons's met. mag., 1892, 29:10-11. Discusses the laws and conditions governing evaporation. Describes experiments show- ing the influence of capillary action in increasing the evaporating surface, and thus the amount of evaporation. A diagram compares evaporation, differences in vapor pressuie, temperatures of air, water, and dew-point. Latham's evaporometer forms the frontispiece to Brit, rainf., 1897. Muller, P. A. Ueber die if'rage der Verdunstung der Schneedecke. St. Petersburg. 1892. 47p. 4to. From Eepert. f. Met., 14:No. 4. Abstract in Ciel et terre, 1893, 14:192; Met. Zeits., 1892, 9:(80). In 27 per cent of the hourly observations condensation took place at the surface of the snow, while evaporation occurred in the remaining 73 per cent. Paris, Observatoire de la Tour Saint Jacques. Monthly meteorological tables for 1892. L'atmosphere, 1892. These tables include daily observations of a Piche evaporometer and of a self-recording instrument. Schubert, J. Das Klima von Eberswalde nach 15-iahrigen Beobachtungen, 1876- 1890. Met. Zeits., 1892, 9:233-5. The average monthly evaporation varies from 7.5 mm. in December to 62,4 mm. in June The annual average is 405.5 mm. Symons, G-. J. Evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1902, (— ):15-23. Evaporation results are quoted from the Massachusetts State Board of Health Report on Water Supply and Sewage for 1890. Compares the evaporation at Lawrence, Mass., with that at Philadelphia, Pa., at Otterbourne, Hants, at Strathfleld Turgiss, and Camden Square, London, Eng. 1893. Hann, J. Houdaille's TJntersuchungen fiber den tSglichen Gang der Verdun- stung zu Montpellier. Met. Zeits., 1893, 10:431-2. Beview of Houdaille, 1892, 1st title. Hubbard, Gardiner G. BelatioDS of air and water to temperature and life. Nat. geog. mag., 1893, 5:112-4. Scattered facts concerning evaporation are cited. Kerner, Fritz von. Korrespondirende Berggipfel and Thalbeobachtungen der Tempera- tur, Feuehtiglieit und Verdunstung. Met. Zeits., 1898, 10:269. An increase in the amount ot evaporation trom 0.6 millimeter at 1,215 meters alti- tude, to 0.9 millimeters at 3,274 meters, is attributed to the decrease in the air pressure since there was no wind. Piche, A. Le deperditometre. Paris. 1893. 4 p. 8vo. From Compt. rend, assoc. franj., Congrfes de Pau, 1892. Diagram and description of an instrument to indicate " sensible temperatures." Symons, G. J. Experiments on evaporation at Southampton Waterworks, and at Oamden Square. Brit, rainf., 1893, ( — ):23-6. Presents the usual records for" he large tanlcs. van Bebber, W. J. Meteorologie. Leipsle. 1893. .tJZlta^rl^llui!^^%l^V^'''''''^''''^''''«' "^•■'^'^'"S evaporation from "Waldo, Frank. Modern Meteorology. London. 1893. 8vo. p. 149-53, 205-7, 438-40. Discusses the best methods for investigating evaporation; describes the Piche and Wild eyaporometers, and gives numerous statistics of evaporation from water soils nlants VtVT Discusses the influences of light and temperature and summarizes Wollnv's exnerimVnt« m soil moisture and evaporation. ' <:j>.[":iiuibui.s 79 1894. Abbe, Cleveland. Humidity. Mo. weather rev., 1894, 22:407, 453, 496. Fitzgerald's (1886) formula for determining average vapor pressure is presented. The evaporometer is spoken|of as an '* integrating hygrometer." Britzke, O. Ueber den jg^hrllchen Gang der Verdunstung in Kussland. St. Peters- burg. 1894. 54 p. 4to. Eepert. f. Met., 17, No. 10. Eeview Met. Zeits., 1895, 12:(76)-(77). Tables of temperatures, relative humidity wind velocity, evaporation and the relation between the rainfall and evaporation. The observations have considerable value, according to Kassner, owing to the fact that they were made at so many different stations with similar apparatus, the Wild weighing evaporometer similarly exposed in a Wild thermome- ter shelter, and for long periods of time. King, F. H. Studies relating to ground water and soil moisture. Wisconsin exp. sta. rpt. for 1893, p. 167-200. 1894. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1896, 7:565-7. It is stated that annual evaporation from manured soil exceeded that from unmanured by 108.5 tons per acre. In two experiments with -tubes of sand, one wet with distilled water, the other with a solution of potas'«ium nitrate, capillaryjascent and evaporation from the surface was shown to be 22,84 per cent greater in the presence of the potassium nitrate. Moore, John "William. , Meteorology. London. 1894. p. 181-5. Various methods of observing evaporation are described. Ruvarac. Ergebnisse der ombrometrischen Beobachtungen in Bohmen fiir 1893. Technlsches Bureau des Landesculturrathes. Prag. 1894. See Ruvarac, 1895, and Richter, 1895, for results. Symons, G-. J., and H. So-werby "Wallis. Experiments on evaporation at Southampton Waterworks, (Otter- bourne, Hants), and at Camden Square. Brit, rainf., 1894, ( — ): 21-4. The two similar tanks show an annual rate of 19.5 inches at Otterboume, and 14,5 inches at Camden Square, London. Todd, Charles, Meteorological work in Australia, a review, n. p. 1894. 25 p. 8vo. (Eeprinted from Bpt. Australasian assoc. adv. sol., 1893.) Sum- mary in Symons's met. mag., 1895, 30:44-5; Met. Zeits., 1895, 12:36-7. Gives table of mean evaporation at Adelaide for 23 years, and at Alice Springs for 1890-2. The annual aveiage at Adelaide is 55,58 inches; at Alice Springs, 98,55 inches in 1891, and 100,35 inches in 1892. The average rainfall at Adelaide for 54 years is 21,08 inches; at Alice Springs for 19 years, 11.25 inches, (See Todd, Chas,, 1879.) Tomlinson, S. Bainfall and evaporation observations at the Bombay Waterworks. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1894, 20:63-70. Gives temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, etc, at Coloba Observatory, the evapora- tion at the Bhandarwada Filters and elsewhere. Also the approximate average evapora- tion that may be expected monthly from a water surface in the neighborhood of Bombay, showing the highest rates in March, April, and May, and the lowest in July, August, and September, The annual total from a surface of 1 square toot is 85.5 inches, from a reservoir of 10,000 square feet, 76,0 inches, and from a lake of 300 to 3,000 acres, 62.3 inches. Vermeule, 0[omelius] C[larkson]. Keport on the water supply, water power, the flow of streams, and attendant phenomena. Final Kept. , State Geologist of New Jersey, Vol. III. Trenton. 1894. Formulas for evaporation are developed from the values of the annual rainfall and the mean annual temperature, but in most oases the computed values fail to agree with those obtained by observation. Abstracted by Rafter, 1903, "WoUny, B. Forstlioh-meteorologische Beobachtungen. Dritte Mitteilungen. Forsch. Geb. Agr. Phys,, 1894, 17:153-202. Abstract Exp, sta. rec, 1894, (-):-; Met. Zeit., 1896, 13:76-7. 80 Describes experiments comparing the evaporation from pine trees, bircli trees, grass and fallow land with ihe rainfall. The results of this and previous papers in 1887 and 1890 are summarized in WoUny, 1895. See also Abbe, 1895. 1895. Abbe, Cleveland. The meteorological work of the U. S. Signal Service, 1870 to 1891. Kpt. Internat. Meteorol. Cong., Chicago, August, 1893. TJ. S. Weather Bureau, Bui. 11, pt. II (Apr., 1895), p. 232-285. Regular observations of evaporation were inaugurated by the Signal Service in 1885, and T. Bussell's "investigation of the influence of the wind on the indications of Piche's ap- paratus and his estimates (Russell, 1888) of the general depth of evaporation throughout the United States, mark out the path that must be pursued by future investigators in this line." Abbe, Cleveland. Note by the Editor. Mo. weather rev., 1895, 23:421-2. Notice in Exp. sta. rec, 1897, 8:111. Beprinted, Nature, 1896, 54:283. Translation of summary of WoUny's (1895) investigations on evaporation. Bebber, "W. J. van. Hygienlsehe Meteorologie. Stuttgart. 1895. General discussion on p. 150-2 of the process of evaporation, the factors influencing it, and the Fiche evaporometer as a suitable instrument for measuring its amount. Harrington, Mark W. Sensible temperatures. Paper read before the American Climatologi- cal Association in Washington, 1894. Review in Amer. met. jour., 1895, 12:93-4. Points out that the sensible temperature is lowered by the absorption of heat due to evap- oration. Houdaille, F. M6t6orologie agricole. Paris. 1895. p. 36-9, 103-4, 124-5. This publication recounts the results of much of the author's previous work on evapora- tion, adding nothing new to the conclusions reached in preceding papers. Krebs, "Wilbelm. Verdunstungsbeobachtungen mit dem Doppelthermometer. Met. Zeits., 1895, 12:38-9. The discussion started in this paper regarding the psychrometer as a measure of evapo- ration, is dealt with at greater length in 1904. PagTie, B. S. Sensible temperatures, or the effect of heat on the body in California. San Francisco. 1895. Reprinted, Amer. met. jour., 1895, 12:196-8. Treats of ihe well-known fact that the body is cooled by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, Penok, Albrecbt. Evaporation in central Europe. Reviewed in Geog. jour., 1895, 5:583. Direct measurements of evaporation in Austria and Bavaria since 1821 and In Prussia since 1876 indicate an average yearly evaporation in north Germany of 15.7 inches, de- creasing southward to about 11.8 Inches. A marked Increase is shown in the Hungarian plain, 25.6 inches at Budapest and still more in the southeastern aistricts. An almost uniform decrease of 60 per cent is observed in forest stations, compared with the open country, while a remarkable increase is noticed In towns. In Vienna the evaporat on ex- ceeded that in the immediate neighborhood by 5.9 inches. Classifies the monthly curves of evaporation according to districts. The total aqueous vapor passing into the air over a large area is estimated from the total rainfall and the total calculated discharge by rivers the difference beln^ taken as the amount of evaporation. From these results iie concludes that evaporation is influenced to some extent by the rainfall itself. Russell, Thomas. Meteorology, weather, and methods of forecasting. Descriptions of meteorological instruments and river flood predictions in the United States. New York. .1895. 8vo. On p. 47 describes the Plche atmometer and an experiment showing the effect of various wind velocities on evaporation. On p. 70-1 compares the depth of water evaporated at various stations. Symons, Or. J., and H. Sowerby "Wallis. Percolation experiments at Apsley Mills, Hemel Hempstead Brit rainf., 1895, (— ):26-35. The results of percolation experiments at Apsley Mills, conducted by Sir John Evans are tabulated, according to seasons for the 12 years, 1883-94, as follows: ' 81 Rainfall, percolation, and evaporation at Apaley Mills, I88S-94. Rain. Sand, 3 feet. Sand, 5 feet 2 inches. Percolation. Evaporation. Percolation. Evaporation. 12.55 13. ,51 26.06 S.91 12.55 16.46 8.64 0.96 9.60 3.94 12.67 16.51 Winter 94 Year 9.65 Clialk, 3 feet 3 inches. Chalk, 5 feet 2 Inches. 1.83 10.42 12.75 10.72 3.09 13.81 1.97 15.25 12.22 10.56 Winter 3.26 Year 13.84 Ordinary soil, 3 feet 3 inches. Ordinary soil, 5 feet 2 inches. Percolation. Evaporation. Percolation. Evaporation. 1.54 11.21 12.75 10.01 3.30 13.31 1.59 10.97 12.56 10.96 Winter. 2.54 Year 13.50 Symons, G. J., and H. Sowerby "Wallis. Experiments at Southampton Waterworks and at Camden Square. Brit, rainf., 1895, (— ):36-9. Evaporation observations at Camden Square from 1885 to 1395 and at Otterbourne from 1892 to 1895 show an annual average for the former place of 14.66 inches, and 20.46 inches for the latter. ■Wallis, H. Sowerby. See Symons and Wallis. WoUny, E. Untersuchungen fiber die Verdunstung. Porsch. Geb. Agr. Phys., 1895, 1 8 :486-516. Beview in Met. Zeits. , 1896, 1 3 :362-4; by Abbe, 1895; Ciel et terre, 1896, 17:570-1; Centbl. Agr. Ohem. (Bieder- mann), 1897, 26:74^7. " Lysimeters " (zinc boxes 400 square centimeters in cross section and 30 centimeters deep), standing in the open with a 15-oentimeter layer of soil in them, and weighed every five to nine days, furnished the following results: (J) Soil evaporates less than a free water surface. (2) Sand evaporates least, loam most, while bare turf and humus or vegetable mold are intermediate. (3) Evaporation from soil is increased by a cover of vegetation. (4) Evaporation depends on meteorological conditions and on the quantity of moisture in the soil. (5 and 6) Temperature is the most important factor affecting evaporation, modi- fied by other factors, mainly by the amount of water supplied by the substratum. (7) For evaporation from a free water surface, from saturated soil and from ordinary moist soil whether covered with living plants or not, the important elements to be considered are temperature, relative humidity, cloudiness, direction and velocity of the wind, and the amount of rain. (8) Sometimes a soil covered with plants evaporates more than a free water surface. (9) The amount of water evaporated from a soil covered with plants and not irrigated can not be greater than the quantity received by the soil before or during the period of growth. But swamp lands, lands well irrigated and free water surfaces evaporate, under favorable conditions, a greater quantity of water than corresponds to the larv ooiver «...■»»— .^uu.. — .. ...»• .. .- . ^ .--■■■ ^ . plants are better developed, stand closer together, or have longer period of growth and vice versa. 1896. Boggs, Edward M. ,,,„„„ .^^ „« Arizona weather. Arizona exp. sta. buL, 1896, No. 20. Evaporation at Tucson. Ariz., was observed by means of a galvanized-lron tank, 6 by 4 by 4 feet sunk in the ground. The water always stood within a few inches of the top, and its level was read by means of a Boyden hook gage reading directly to 001 foot, plMed in a still we] diameter, tions from 82 somewhat lees than is commonly attributed to this region. The evaporation from a second tank containing growing waterlilies was only 1 per cent less than from the first. Biililer, A. tJntersuohungen iiber die Verdunstung des Wassers aus dem Boden. Mitt. Schwelz. Centralanst. forstl. Versuchsw., 1895(?), 4:315. Reviewed in Met. Zelts., 1896, 13:(22); Mo. weatlier rev., 1896, 24:374; Ciel et terre, 1896, 17:21-2. Experiments were made at Adiishurg from June 27 to September 1, 1894, with evapora- tion from loamy clay in five metal boxe^, 20 centimeters square and 10 centimeters nigh, one placed level and four on an incline of 30° and facin" the four cardinal points of the com- pass. The following rates were obtained: Horizontal, 100; north exposure, 91; east ex- posure 87.5; south exposure, 100.6; west exposure, 100.5. The ratios for diflTerently shaded plots were: for unprotected soil, 100; one-fourth covered, 88; one-half covered, 71; three- fourths covered, 62. Evaporation was found to be the most rapid from noon to 3 p. m. Crosby, D. J. Temperatures and evaporation in different soils. Michigan exp. sta. bul., No. 125, p. 30-2. Quoted in Exp. sta. rec, 1896, '7:373-5. lu experiments on evaporation from sand, clay, loam, and muck, it was found that the sandiest water most rapidly; loam, clay, and muck following in the order named. The surface temperature, however, was highest in muck and lowest in sand, but at depths of 3 and 6 inches the sand was the warmer. When the light-colored sand was covered with lamp black and the dark-colored muck with white lime, this order of temperatures was rever&ed, showing that the color of the surface largely controlled the temperatures below. Milne, John. Movements of the earth's crust. Geog. jour., 1896, 7:229-55. On p. 242-3 the author discusses the influence of evaporation on the movements of the earth's crust. Applying the figures obtained by Miller, 1878, he shows that " the greatest displacement of a horizontal pendulum ought to be expected when such an instrument was placed on the boundaries of two areas respectively covered with soil and grass. On a fine day the differential evaporation effect on the two sides of the instrument would be equivalent to moving a loadTof about 2.5 tons per 29 yards squarcfrom the ground covered with grass, which is quite sufficient to produce many of the observed eflfects." Miiller, P. A. Ueber die Temperatur und Verdunstung der SehneeoberflSche und der Feuchtigkeit in ihre Nahe. Mem. acad. imp. soi., St. P6ters- bourg, Phys. Math. 01., 1896, 5 (8), No. 1. Also St. Petersburg. 1896. 38 p. 4to. Review in Met. Zeits., 1897, 14: (12). Discusses observations on the surface temperature of snow, the temperature and relative humidity of the air in its neighborhood, and its evaporation. The author emphasizes the point that condensation occurs when the difference between the dew-point of the air and the temperature of the surface of the snow is positive, evaporation occuring when this dif- ference IS negative. Penck, A[lbreclit]. TJntersuohungen iiber Verdunstung und Abfluss von grSsseren Land- Mchen. Geog. Abh., 1896, 5:461-508. Review in Met. Zeits., 1897, 14: (55). Abstract in Geog. jour., 1897, 9:563-4. studies of the monthly variations in the relation between the rainfall, drainage, and evaporation of the river Elbe in Bohemia. The average rainfall for 1888^1890 was 696 milli- meters, runoff, 214 millimeters, and evaporation, 482 millimeters, the evaporation factor being 69.2 per cent of the total loss. The average evaporation factor for 1893-4 was 76 per cent. Biehter's (1895) similar factor for the latter period is quoted. Evaporation is mr- ther arranged according to temperature, rainfall, seasons, etc., and formulas for determin- iog the same are devised. Phillips, "W. P. R. Sunstroke in California and Arizona. Mo. weather rev., 1896 24:454^6. Quotes Fitzgerald's (1886) formula for calculating evaporation, in connection with an investigation ofthe evaporation from the human body to prove that, in accordance with statistics, sunstrokes occur as often in localities where the relative humidity is low as where it is high. Schierbeok, N. P. Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs For- handlingar, 1896, No. 1. Copenhagen. A mathematical treatment of the subject of evaporation. (See Schwalbe 1902 for his formula.) ' ' Ssrmons, Gr. J., and H. Sowerby Wallis. Evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1896, (— ):27-31. Tables give daily evaporation at Camden Square, Middlesex, Isfield Place Sussex Otter- bourne, Hampshire, ana Kennick Reservoir, Devon, from July, 1896 to June 1897.' 83 Trabert, Wilhelm. Neue Beobaohtungen tiber die Verdamplungsgeschwindiskeit. Met. Zeits., 1896, 13:261-3. The formulas of Dal ton, Stefan, and Sohierbeck are presented. The author's own for- mula, a modification of Schierbeck's(1896), is V=kil+(i.t)w^ ('»— e).. Where F=the rate of evaporation, «=a constant, for measuring evaporation from soil. rr \ ouv; King, P. H. Irrigation and drainage. New York. 1899. The transpiration of plants and the slow rate of evaporation from a dry soil are dealt witn on p. 4b-54 and 98. Minssen, G-uilherme. Lyceu Kio Grandense de Agronomia de Pelotas. Contribuigao para o estuda da Climatologia do Bio Grande do Sul. Observaei6nes meteorologica feitas durante o anno de 1899. Weekly observations at Pelotas, Brazil (lat. 31° 30' S.), of evaporation from water with monthly and yearly totals for 1899; also weekly, monthly and yearly avera^from 189^9 The results show an antipodal yearly march of evaporat on comparaWe wUh thTt of the northern hemUphere. The monthly average during 1893-9 varie^JZ 66 5 millfmeters in June to 140.1 in December, the annual average being 1157.7 millimeters. '"■'"■""'^rB in 87 Baulin, F. V. E6sum6 des observations atmldomfetriques (Evaporation) faltes dans la Peninsule Iberlque de 1857 k 1890. Ann. soc. met., 1899. Ke- printed Tours. 1899. 20 p. gr. 8vo. Wallis, H. Sowerby. Records of evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1899, (— ):31-4. Table of evaporation at Camden Square, London, 1885-99. Evaporation records for 1899 at eight stations, five of which use the standard tank, 6 by 6 by 2 feet, are published, together with a table of the observations at Croydon b^ Baldwin Latham. 1900. Brovra, H. T., and F. Escombe. Static diffusion of gases and liquids in relation to the assimilation of carbon and translocation in plants. Phil, trans., 1900, 103: 283-91. Abstract in Annals of Botany, London, 1900, 14:537-42. The rate of diffusion of aqueous vapor through small apertures is controlled by the linear dimeosioDS of the aperture and not by the area; the velocity of flow varies inversely as the diameter of the opening. Critically reviews other work along this line, especially that of Stefan (1873). Davis, Walter Q. Clima de Cordoba. Ann. oflc. met., 1900, 13:492-505, 573-97. This report contains very complete tables of temperatures of evaporation, and of compar- ative rates of evaporation from six dishes of different size, material, and exposition. The temperature of evaporation was shown to be lower than that of the air, the difference aver- aging 3.81° C. for the year. The greatest difference was 4.81° in September and the least 2.70° C. in June. The hourly means for 1889-98 are tabulated. The comparative observa- tions were made with (1) two brass dishes 10 centimeters deep, exposing 314 square centi- meters surface, one in the thermometer shelter, the other fully exposed to the weather; (2) two Wild balances, whose dishes have a surface of 250 square centimeters and a depth of 45 millimeters at the edge and 30 millimeters in the center, having the same exposure as the metal evaporators; (3) a glass dish exposing 380 square centimeters evaporating wirface and 13 centimeters deep exposed near the other evaporators; (4) a square, zinc- lined tank of brick, 80 centimeters deep and exposing a surface of 1 square meter. This tank is buried in the ground so that its water level is at the level of the contiguous soil and about 10 centimeters below the edges of the tank. The water level is read by a micrometer screw. Readings were taken every two hours, night and day, with all the instruments, except the glass dish and the tank which were read only once in 24 hours. The results of all these instruments are compared in detail and a study is made of the influence of the direction and force of the wind upon evaporation. The amounts of evaporation in 2 hours corresponding to increments of 5 kilometers in wind velocity are tabulated separately. Escombe, F See Brown, H. T., and F. Escombe. Exner, Felix M. Messungen der tagliohen Temperaturschwankungen In versehledenen Tiefen der Wolfgang-sees. Sitzber. k. Akad. Wiss. (Vienna), math, naturw. Kl., 1900, 109 (pt. 2a):905-22. A table of the evaporation accompanies other meteorological data. Latham, B. The climatic conditions necessary for the propagation and spread of the plague. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1900, 26:37-94. The greatest amount of evaporation or exhalation would take place with the maximum temperature of the ground and the minimum dew-point, and it is shown that the rise and fall of these differences agree in a remarkable manner with the rise and fall of the plague. Taking into consideration the wind and its influence on evaporation, the author used Dr. Pole's formula for calculating evaporation: E = ^ (loo — w) ' ™ which T equals the temperature of the ground, t the temperature of the dew-point, and w the wind velocity in miles per hour A equals a coefficient, 80 for Bombay, and B is the evaporation or ex- halation In depth per Jay in inches. Diagrams show curves of the teusional difference agreeing with that of death from plague in Bombay. Lippincott, Joseph Barlow. Storage of water on the Gila River, Arizona. Water sup. and irr. papers, 1900, No. 33. Quotes (p. 32-4) evaporation observations by the U. S. Geological Survey in Arizona and estimates fee rate of evaporation from the reservoir at Buttes, Ariz. Maluschitski. . ^ , ,, , On the value of evaporometrio observations to agricultural practice. Izv. Moscov. selsk. khoz. inst. (Ann. Inst, agron. Mosoou), 1900, 6:325-403. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1901, 13:427. 88 studies the evaporation from a free water surface and from soils. For a free water sur- face Miohelson aud Wild atmometers were used, and Wild's was found the more reliable. Evaporation from soil was determined by means of large zinc lysimeters. From his own experiments and a survey of the literature the author concludes: " Since the structure ol the soil and the state of its surface exert an Immense and varied Influence on the stored-up humidity as well as on the evaporation, no correlation can be established between the evaporation from a water surface and that from a cultivated soil, and still less in the case of a soil covered with plants." Rykachev, M. New evaporometer for the study ot the evaporation from grass and observations with it in 1896 at the Constantine Observatory. Zhur. opuitn. agron. (Kuss. Jour. exp. Landw.), 1900, No. 1, 1:115-7. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1901, 13:428. This apparatus consists of three rectangular zinc boxes, the outer one sunk In the ground, the other two fitting tightly into it, one above tbe other, the upper one containing soil with sod. Excess of rain water percolates into the middle box and maintains a constant degree of humidity in the lower layer of the upper vessel. The amount lost by evaporation Is de- termined by weighing the upper and middle boxes together. The temperatures of the soil and of the water in the lower box were recorded. The Indications of this instrument were found to be two or three times greater than those of a Wild atmometer. Saussure, Horace B6n6dicte de. Versuohe iiber die Hygrometrie. Neuchatel, 1783. Herausgegeben von A. J. Oettingen. 2 vol. (Ostwald's Klassiker der exakten Wis- sensohaften, Nos. 116, 119. Leipsio. 1900.) See Saussure, 1783. Scott, R. H. Results of percolation experiments at Rothamsted, September, 1870, to August, 1899. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1900, 26:139-51. Table I gives the annual amount of rain, and of percolation as measured at three depths, 20, 40, and 60 inches, in gages similar t6 those described by Lawes, Gilbert, and Warington, (1881). Table II gives the monthly average for the entire period, and also the same grouped into half-yearly periods, September to February and March to August. Table III gives the actual monthly measurements for each year of the series. The evaporation may be ob- tained by subtracting the amount of percolation from the amount of rain. "Wallis, H. Sowertay, and Hugh Robert Mill. Records of evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1900, (—):46-9. Abstract Met. Zeits., 1902, 19:281. Comparative tables of evaporation at various stations. Summarizes results at Camden Square for 1885-1900 and Latnam's results at Croydon. "Warington, Robert. Lectures on some of the physical properties of the soil. Oxford. 1900. Evaporation from a free water surface, from bare soil, and from soil covered with vegeta- tion are discussed in some detail on. p. 107-26, quoting results of Ebermayer, E^ing, Greaves, etc. 1901. Abbe, Cleveland. The rainfall and evaporation of Great Salt Lake. Mo. weather rev., 1901, 29:68-91 Quotes A. J. Henry's table of the rainfall over the water-shed of Great Salt Lake, and estimates the rate of evaporation from salt water by applying Russell's (1888) observed rate from a fresh water surface. Alberti, Vittoria. Sul clima di Napoli, riassunto generale delle osservazionl meteoro- logiche fatte nella R. Specula de Gapodimonte 1888-1900. Atti. r. ist. sci., Naples, 3:(ser. 5), No. 4. Reprinted, Naples. 1901. 24 p. Page 82 gives the monthly and annual evaporations at ITaples from 1886-1900, with five- year means. The annual average is 730 millimeters, the maximum monthly rate, 100.1 millimeters (August), and the minimum, 34.4 millimeters (February). Balcb, B[dwin] S[wift]. Evaporation under ground. Mo. weather rev., 1901, 29:545. Ab- stract in Exp. sta. rec, 1901, 13:828. Maintains that underground evaporation does not cause an appreciable lowering of tem- perature and that the cold within ice caves must be wholly due to the low temperatures of winter. Bok, O. Die Breusch. Zeits. GewSsserk., 1901, 4:1-48. 89 A table on p. 45 gives the mean monthly depth of evaporation, together with results of obseryations of evaporation in meadow and forest, and the differences for the years 1891-5. Tables of rainfall, air temperature, relative humidity, and the water level of rivers are Carpenter, L. C, and R. B. Trimble. Meteorological observations for 1900. Colo. exp. sta. 13th Ann. rot Denver. 1901. 56 p. Evaporation observations similar to those described in 1889. The monthly means during the years 1887-1900 vary flrom 1.24 inches in December to 5.63 inches in July. The mean annual evaporation was 41.16 inoheJand the average annual rainfall, 14.14 inches. Chandler, Albert E. Water storage on Cache Creek, California. Water sup. and irr. pa- pers, 1901, No. 45:36-7. Gives a table of the annual evaporation from Clear Lake, near San Francisco, for the years 1874-99, as observed by the State Engineering Department of California. Davis, Arthur Powell. Hydrography of the American Isthmus. Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. Sur- vey, 1900-01, (— ), Part iv, p. 507-630. The evaporation from pans floating in Lake Nicaragua was observed at four stations. The monthly amounts for 1900 varied from 3.46 inches in August to 6.08 inches in May; the total amount for the year was about 52.4 inches. Galli, D. Ignazio. Esperienze coll' evapbrimetro a llvello costante. Atti accad. pont. nuovi Lincei, 1901, 54:94. In August, 1900, the author inaugurated comparative observations of evaporation of wa- ter in similar atmometers, one placed in the shade, but freely exposed to the wind; the other in the sun all day. No results are given. (See also Glalli, 1899. ) Grunsky, C. E. Water appropriations from King's River. In report of irrigation Investigations in Cal., prepared by Elwood Mead. California exp. sta. bul., 1901, No. 100:259-325. The experiments made by the California State Engineering Department under William Hammond Hall in 1881-5 at Kingsbury on King's Elver are described in the Appendix, p. 323-5. Two pans 36 by 36 by 15 inches with the water surface 5 inches below the rim were used, one floated in the river, the other placed on the bank. The average annual evaporation from the former was 3.851 feet, and from the latter 4.958 feet. The tempera-' ture of the water in the floated pan and of the river water were usually the same, while the water temperature in the pan on the ground varied considerably, being sometimes higher and sometimes lower than that of the river water. Hann, Julius. Lehrbuch der Meteorologie. 1st edition. Leipsio. 1901. 805 p. A general survey of evaporation on p. 207-12. The phenomenon is defined as a function of temperature, humidity, wind velocity and air pressure. The formulas for calculating evaporation derived by Dalton, Weilenmann, Stelling, de Heen, Schierbeck, Trabert, Stefan, etc., are quoted. Ing'ham, W. Statistics dealing with evaporation, rainfall, and delivery of streams in Devonshire. Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, 1901, 33:500. Abstract in Proc. inst. civ. engin., , 150:506. Measurements of evaporation Irom a free water surface in a tank at Kennioh, Devon- shire for the years 1897-1900, show an annual average amount of 20.88 inches, or 50.81 per cent of the rainfall. Eecords of rainfall on the Torquay watershed lor 23 years are also given. Konig, Friedrich. « ., . ^ t, ^ j j- Die Verteilung des Wassers uber, auf und in der Erde, und die daraus sich ergebende Entstehung des Grundwassers und seiner Quellen mit einer Kritik der bisherigen Quellentheorien. Ges- childert fur Tiefbautechniker, technisohe Porst-, Montan- und LandwirtsobaftslehraBstalten, sowie zum Selbstudium. Jena. 1901. 7 vol. A general discussion of the conditions favoring evaporation appears in vol 4, p. 53-69. By modifying the Dalton formula he calculates the yearly rates of evaporation for different mean annual temperatures. The rates corresponding to 0°, 5", 10", 15°, 20°, and 25° C. would be 340 720, 1,030, 1,650, 2,270, 3,500 millimeters. These agree with the amounts actually Jtaerved arfcumani, Venezuela, 3,520 mm.; at Madeira, 2,030 mm.; atSidney, 1,200 mm.; ABB 7 90 for Holland, 600-800 mm.; for the English coast, 900 mm.; for London, 650 mm.; and 800 mm. for East Scotland. • Manson, Marsden. Features and water rights of Yuba Kiver, Oal. In report of irriga- tion investigations in California prepared under the direction of Elwood Mead. Oal. exp. sta. bul., 1901, No. 100: 115-30. A table of evaporation at Lake Fordyce (alt. 6,S00 ft. ) from Aug. 10-31, 1900, appears on p. 126. The daily average was 1/6 inch. Miiller-Brzbach, W. Das Messen des Dampfdrucl^es durch Yerdunstung. Sitzber. k. Akad. Wiss. (Vienna) math, naturw. Kl., 1901, 110(pt. 2a):519- 36. The author concludes from his experiments that the vapor pressure of liquids may be determined with sufficient accuracy and more easily by evaporation than by manometric measurement. Olmsted, Frank H. Physical characteristics of Kern river, Cal. Water sup. and irr. papers, 1901, No. 46:25. General statement of the losses due to evaporation and seepage. Oppokow, B. Das Verhalten des Grundwassers in der Stadt Neshin im Zusam- menhange mit den meteorologlschen Elementen. Zeits. GewSss- erk., 1901, 4:76-99. Tables of rainfall, 1885-99, and evaporation, 1895-9, show an annual average for the for- mer of 539 millimeters and for the latter of 379 millimeters. Schuyler, James D. Problems of water storage on torrential streams of southern Cali- fornia, as typified by Sweetwater and San Jacinto rivers. In re- port of irrigation investigations prepared under the direction of Elwood Mead. Calif, exp. sta. bul., 1901, No. 100:353-95. The average annual rate of evaporation from Sweetwater Reservoir, from observations of several years, is 4.5 feet (p. 357). Smythe, 'William B. The irrigation problem of Honey Lake Basin, Cal. In report of ir- rigation investigations prepared unker the direction of Elwood Mead. Exp. sta. bul., 1901, No. 100:71-113. The experiments of the California State Engineering Department, covering a period of five years, show the evaporation from Buena Vista, Kern, and Tulare lakes, which closely resemble Honey Lake, to be from 3.5 to 4. 75 feet per year (p. 75). Taiboku Meteorological Observatory. Meteorological observations in Formosa, 1896-1901. Formosa. 1901. The monthly evaporations at Taihoku, Taiohu, Tainan, Taito, Koshun, Hokoto, and Kee- lung are given on p. 131-3. At Taihoku the monthly amount varies from 49. 8 millimeters in February to 180.9 millimeters in July, and the annual average is 1266.2 millimeters Ta- bles of mean daily amounts and of daily maxima are also given. Trimble, R. B. See Carpenter, L. C, and K. E. Trimble. U. S. Geological Survey. Operations at river stations, 1900. Ept. of the Division of Hydro- graphy. Water sup. and irr. paper, 1901, No. 52:501. ■Wallis, H. Sowerby, and Hugh Robert Mill. Eeoords of evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1901, (— ):28-34. Tables of evaporation for 1901 at nine stations, seven of which use standard tanks 6 feet square, with tables comparing evaporation throughout England, from 1888 to 1900 The average annual losses from the tank at StrathBeld Turgiss, 18.03 inches for fourteen veura 1870-83)^ from Miller's sand-protected evaporator at*Lowe8toft,2™27 inches for t/entv years (1878-97); from the tank at Camden Square, 15.19 Inches for sixteen yea™ (18S5-WOof from Latham's floating atmometer at Croyden, 16.81 inches for fourteen years (1888-1901) 1902. Der Einftuss des Waldes auf die Verdunstung der Feuohtlgkeit in ^Pi^loo^^^®^*"^*^' (^"s^i*°-) Lesoprom. vest., Moscow, 1902,(4) 91 Abbassia Observatory. Keport on meteorological observations, 1900. Public Works Depart- ment of Egypt, Survey Department. Cairo. 1902. Tables of hourly evaporation (Wild evaporometer) and daily totals for the year 1900, snow an annual evaporation of 1778.7 millimeters. Davis, "Walter G. Climate of the Argentine Kepubllo compiled from observations made to the end of the year 1900. Buenos Aires. 1902. Observations described in Davis, 1900, are continued on p. 83-90, with tables inoludlne results from 1886-1900. r , s Desenzano, Osservatorio Meteorologico. Osservazloni meteorologiche. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1902, (—): 421-26. ^ ■^ The total evaporation at Desenzano, at the south end of Lake Garda, for the year from September, 1901, to August, 1902, inclusive, was 688.9 millimeters, the monthly amounts varying from 140 millimeters in February to 181.9 millimeters in Jilly. Hungary. Konigliche Ungarische Eeiohsanstalt fur Meteorologie und Erdmag- netismus, Jahrbueh, 1902, 32:97. The daily evaporation at 0-Gyalla during 1902 was 1.4 millimeters. Jaubert, Joseph. Annates de I'observatoire municipal (Observatoire de Montsouris), 1902, 3:137-41, 222-6, 301-3. The Piche evaporometer was employed at Montsouris and at the Tour St. Jacques in Paris. The water was usually frozen in the winter months. At Hontsouri? the monthly amount varied from 40.7 millimeters in October to 148.0 millimeters in July, and at the Tour St. Jacques from 69.3 millimeters in October to 177.8 millimeters in July. Lippinoott, J. B. Storage of water on King's river, Cal. Water sup. and Irr. papers, 1902, No. 58:22-4, 81-2, 99. Tabulation of the observations of evaporation at Kingsbury, Cal., reported by Hall (1886) and quoted by Grunsky (1901). Summary of measurements made in King's river canals in August and September, 1901, to determine the loss by seepage and evaporation. Meiaino, Osservatorio Meteorologico. Osservazloni -meteorologiche. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1902, (— ): 428-32. The maximum observed monthly evaporation for the year, September, 1901, to August, 1902, was 57.7 millimeters in July, 1902. Eecords were not obtained during the winter months owing to the freezing of the water in the instruments. The type of instrument is not indicated. Okada T tJeber die Evaporationskraft des F6hn. Met. Zelts., 1902, 19:339- 42. In Japan the foehn is usually a northwest wind of considerable violence and greatly ac- celerates the rate of evaporation from water in a small copper dish freely exposed in an open place. Observations are tabulated. Ridg-way, O. B. Experiments In evaporation. Wyoming exp. sta. bul.. No. 52. Laramie. 1902. For these experiments a tank was used having a perforated bottom and containing soil supplied with water from a larger reservoir directly below, the whole apparatus being sunk in the ground. Water was supplied to the reservoir through a tube leading from the sur- face of the ground. A float in the tube actuated a pointer moving over a graduated scale which reached above the ground, and showed the variations of the water level. The rate of evaporation from soil, with the water level maintained 6 inches below the soil surface, was 95 per cent of that from a free water surface in the evaporation tank. With the water level 12, 18, and 22 inches below the soil surface, the evaporation was 70, 45j and 35 per cent respectively. Loosening the soil once a week to the depth of 2 inches diminished the evaporation 10 per cent; to the depth of 4 inches, 23 per cent; and to 6 inches, 45 per cent, Salo. Osservatorio Meteorologioo. Osservazloni meteorologiche. Comment, Ateneo, Brescia, 1902, ( — ): 434^7. The average daily evaporation at Said, on Lake Garda, for the year September, 1901, to August, 1902, inclusive was 2 2 millimeters. Sohwalbe, O-. tJeber die Darstellung des jahrllches Ganges der Yerdunstung, Met, Zelts., 1902, 19:49-59, 92 The following formula for calculating evaporation is presented: v'=^'(/—/'), where v'= calculated evaporation, X'^a constant embracing the wind factor and varying from 0.46 to 1.2 at different places, (( — <') = the difference between the readings of the wet- and dry- bulb thermometers. This formula was tested at 19 stations in Enssia. Curves comparing the observed and calculated values, v and u', at several places, lead to the conclusions; (1) (t—t') is a relative measure of the evaporation.. (2) The yearly march of {i — t') and v both depend on the sun's declination and in the same way. There is a concise discussion of the formulas developed by Dalton, Stefan, Weilcnmann, Stelling_, de Heen, Ule, Krebs, Schierbeck, and Trabert, and a uniform notation is em- ployed in writing them. Taylor. L. H. Water storage In the Truckee Basin, Calltornia-Nevada. Water sup. and irr. paper, 1902, No. 68: 34-6. Monthly evaporation observed from a tank floated on the surface of Lake Tahoe, Cal., from May, 1900, to December, 1901, together with calculations of the inflow and outflow, served to determine the reduction of the lake level, which corresponded very closely with the reduction as observed by means of a fixed gage. The results of evaporation at Heno, Nev. , during 1894, from a somewhat smaller tank sunk in the gvound and surrounded with moist soil are tabulated. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. Report on irrigation investigations for 1901. Off. Exp. Sta., 1902, Bui. 119. On p. 92, 294, 334-6, and 353 are records of evaporation secured by agents of the Office of Experiment Stations at various places in Arizona, Colorado, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, New Jersey, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. "Wallis, H. Sowerby, and Hugh Robert Mill. Eecords of evaporation. Brit. Bainf., 1902, (— ): 49-53. Tables similar to those of the preceding years. For succeeding records see Mill, Hugh Eobert. 1903. Barus, Oarl. Absence of electrification in oases of sudden condensation and of sudden evaporation. Phys. rev., 1903, 16:384. Ordinary evaporation and condensation have long been known to be unaccompanied by electrification, but when a mass of water is suddenly shattered as in jets, there is a marked production of electricity. The question arose, therefore, as to whether the absence of an electric effect in ordinary. evaporation and condensation cases was not due to the fact that the charges vanish too quickly to be noticeable. Further experiments, however, with sud- den condensation and evaporation showed an absence of electriflcation. Batavia, Koninklijk magnetisch en meteorologisch Observa- torium. Results of meteorological observations made at the experiment sta- tion " Oost-Java " at Pasuruan, during the year 1902. Natkdg. Tljdsch. Ned. Ind., 1903, 62: 267-72. Includes observations on evaporation. Bok, Oscar. Verdunstungsmessungen nebst Untersuohungen tlber die Verdunst- ungshohen an den forstlich-meteorologischen Stationen in Elsass- Lothringen. Beitr. Geophysik, Leipsio, 1903, 6:1-16. Desenzano, Osservatorio Meteorologico. Meteorologia. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1903, (— ) :139-43. The monthly evaporation at Desenzano for the year from September, 1902, to August, 1903, inclusive, varied from 14.70 millimeters in January to 113.80 millimeters in August. Hall, A. D. The soil. An introduction to the scientific study of the growth of crops. New York. 1903. Discusses (p. 120-2) the amount of heat required for evaporation, with tables and curves 01 soil temperatures showing the cooling effect of the evaporation of soil moisture. The advantage of cultivation of the surface soil in decreasing evaporation, owing to the break- ing of the capillary channels, is pointed out (p. 92-101) and King's experim?nts with glass cylinders full of fine sand are described. "^ ® Hann, J. J. R. SmMoto— Experimente fiber Verdunstung. Met. Zeits., 1903 20:517-8. Discusses the experiments of Sutton (1903) and Latham (1897-1904), on the influence o 93 different methods of measuring evaporation, and considers: (1) tlie size of the evaporator, (i) the capillary attraction of the walls, (3) the enamelling of the outside surface, (4) the material of the instrument, (5) the influence of relative humidity and wind velocity, (6) the probability that the influence of the surface temperature of the water has been over estimated. Jaubert, Joseph. Notice sur I'^vaporomfetre de Montsouris. Ann. obs. Montsouris, 1903, 4:30-2. Describes an instrument for measuring evaporation from soil. It consists of a sheet iron box, 30 by 30 by 30 centimeters, filled with soil in which grass is allowed to grow. The variations in weight of the soil are registered automatically by a steel-yard balance on which the box rests. The whole is placed in the ground, so that its upper surface Is on a level with that of the surrounding soil. The excess water in the box may be drawn off by means of a pipe soldered to the bottom of the box. The author believes the disadvan- tage of this method of determining soil moisture to lie In the fact that the soil in the box dries out more rapidly than natural soil, the latter being able to draw new supplies of moisture from lower layers. Jelinek, Carl. Jelinek'sPsyohrometer-Tafeln erweitert und vermehrt von J. Hann, neu herausgegeben und mit Hygrometer-Tafelnversehenvon J. M. Pernter. Piinfte erweiterte Auflage. Leipsio. 1903. Liudgren, Waldemar. The water resources of Molokai, T. H. Water sup. and irr. paper, 1903, No. 79:48. The probable amount of evaporation was calculated from the rainfall and runoff for sep- arate areas. Meiumo, Osservatorio Meteorologico. Meteorologia. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1903, (— ):144^7. The average daily amount [of evaporation] for the year was 2.4 millimeters. Mill, Hugh Robert. Eecords of evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1903, ( — ):38-41. The evaporation for the year (11 stations) was 17.7 inches. Latham's table of evapora- tion at Croydon appears as usual. The water In his 5-inch exposed vessel evaporated twice as much during the winter and spring, and In the summer only about 1.5 times as much as that In the l^inch floating evaporator. A second table lay Latham shows the amount of percolation at several stations. Miiller-Erzbach, "W. Der Dampfdruck des Wasserdampfes nach de'r Verdampfungsge- schwindigkeit. Sitzber. k. Akad. Wiss. (Vienna) math, naturw. Kl., 1903, 112(pt. 2a):615-20. The vapor pressures derived from the rate of evaporation from tubes are found to agree closely with those given by Begnault. Naples. B. Osservatorio di Oapodimonte. Osservazioni meteoriche. Eend. soc. sci., 1903, 9(3d ser.):16, 65, 98, 146, 168, 184, 219, 261-4, 307. The monthly evaporation for 1903 varied from 38.1 millimeters in January to 112.3 milli- meters in September, with the rainfall varying from zero in August to 196.4 millimeters In December. Okada, T. Verglelchende Messungen der Verdunstung des Meerwassers und des Siisswassers. Met. Zeits., 1903, 20:380-4. Under similar conditions, the ratio between the mean daily evaporation from salt and fresh water at Azino, Japan, was 0.950, and nearly constant for all seasons. Tables show the daily maxima and the monthly means from January, 1895, to December, 1901. The most Important elements Influencing evaporation are thought to he air temperature and Insolation. Devises the formula I) = ax-\- fty. Where Z> == fresh water minus sea water, X = temperature of the air, y = daily duration of sunshine, (i, &, = constants, = 0.079 and 0.076, respectively, at Azino, in western Japan. Oppokow, B. Zur Frage der vieljahrigen Abflussehwankungen in den Bassins gros- ser Pliisse, im Zusammenhang mit dem Gang der meteorologisch- en Elemente. Vergleichende Untersuchung des Abflusses im Ge- biete des Dnjepr oberhalb der Stadt Kijew und der oberen Elbe in Bohmen. Zeits. Gewasserk., 1903, 5:340-65. 94 Includes curves of rainfall, evaporation, and runoff from 1874-94, with a table of -the yearly amounts from 1875-94 on the Elbe in Bohemia. Perman, D. E. P. The evaporation of water in a current of air. Communicated by Prof. E. H. Griffiths, F. B. S., to the Eoyal Society, February 19, 1903. Nature, 1903, (— ):477. Rafter, George W. The relation of rainfall to runoff. Water sup. and irr. paper, 1903, No, 80:30-43. Papers by Vermeule (1893 and 1900) are abstracted. Computes the evaporation from the Muskingum basin, N. Y, (0?). Definition and tables of so-called ' ' negative evaporation " are added. Russell, H. O. Besults of rain, river, and evaporation observations made in New South Wales during 1900. Sydney. 1903. Salo, Osservatorio Meteorologioo. Meteorologia. Comment. Ateneo, Broscia, 1903, (—): 148-55. ^The average daily evaporation from September, 1902, to August, 1903, inclusive, was 2.4 millimeters, Sutton, J. R. Besults of some experiments on the rate of evaporation. Trans. So. African phil. soc, 1903, 14, pt. 1. Be view in Met. Zeit., 1903, 20: 517-8. Beprinted, 23 p., 8vo. Compares the evaporation from various containers and from a Piche tube. Finds that the latter instrument is especially susceptible to the influence of the wind. The experi- ments of 1900 lead to the conclusions: (1) The humidity of the air exerts the most powerful influence on the rate of evaporation. (2) A wind factor is needed. (3) The great perturb- ing influence attributed to the temperature of the water has not been wholly confirmed. Experiments with colored glass over the evaporating surface show that for each 1° excess of temperature due to such influence the depth of annual evaporation will increase by 1.5 inches. Ule, Willi. Niederschlag und Abiluss in Mitteleuropa. Forschungen zur Deut- schen Land^s- und Volkskunde, Stuttgart, 1903, 14:435-516. In the upper Saal valley the average rainfall for the 20 years, 1882-1901, was 615 milli- meters, and the average run-off 170 millimeters. The run-off is 27.5 per cent, the evapora- tion is estimated at 51.5 per cent, and vegetation uses 21 ^er cent. This would make the average annual evaporation for this region about 316.7 millimeters. Vlasov, V. A. Observations m6teorologiques de la station du champ d'expfirience de Poltava, 1886-1900. Vol. II : Depdts atmosph&riques, evapora- tion, etc. (Bussian and french.) Poltava. 1903. 633 p. 1904. Batavia, Koninklijk magnetiscb en meteorologiach Observa- torium. Besults of meteorological observations made at the Experiment station "Oost-Java" at Pasuruan, during the year 1902. Natkdg. Tijdsch. Ned. Ind., 1904, 63:220-5. Includes observations on evaporation. Black, "William Gait. Observations of rain, dust, and evaporation, Edinburgh, 1903. Sy- mons's met. mag., 1904, 39:29. Bologna, Osservatorio della R. XJniversita. Osservazioni meteorologiohe fatte durante I'anno, 1903. Mem. ac- cad. sci., Bologna, 1904, 1, (6th ser.): 325-53. The total evaporation for 1903 was 1234.5 milUmet«rs, the rainfall was 547.9 millimeters. Burgerstein. Die Transpiration der Pflanzen. Jena. 1904. An exhaustive and critical bibliography of works dealing with transpiration from plants. Ourtls, Richard R. Water-vapor. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1904, 30:193-209, 95 A general survey of the physics of evaporation with a statement of the relative amounts 01 rainfall and evaporation In the British Isles. Desenzano, Osservatorio Meteorologioo. Osservazioni fatte nel 1903. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1904, f— V 185-9. '^ ' The total evaporation for the year September, 1903, to August, 1904, inclusive, was 852 7 millimeters. . o , , , Gibbs, L. Evaporation from the land. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1904, 30- 39-40. Discusses literally and graphically the effect of the duration and character of the rainfall on the evaporation. Hungary. Konlgliohe Tlngarische Beichsanstalt fiir Meteorologle und Erdmag- netismus. Jahrbuoh, 1904, 34:218, 219. At Nagytagyos the total evaporation for 1904 was 852.4 millimeters, and at Temesvir 494.4 millimeters, Jaubert, Joseph. Observatoire Municipal [de Paris], (Observatoire de Montsouris) Annales, 1904, 4:19, 94-6, 220-4, 383-7. At Montsouris the monthly totals varied between 92.6 millimeters in October to 173.5 millimeters in July; at the Tour St. Jacques they varied between 41.4 millimeters in Octo-' ber to 118,1 millimeters in July. No records are given for the winter months. Kimball, Herbert Harvey. Evaporation observations in the United States. Mo. weather rev., 1904, 32:556-9. Beprinted U. S. Dept. Agric, Weather Bur., No. 327. Washington. 1905. Quotes Rafter's (1903) computations of evaporation from the run-off and rainfall over a watershed for different localities during long periods. Two other methods of determining evaporation are considered as of more practical importance — by direct measurements ft-om properly exposed water surfaces, and by computations based upon the temperature of the water surface and the values of certain meteorological elements. The formulas of T. Russell, Fitzgerald, Carpenter and Stelling are compared and discussed. An account of experi- ments made by the U. S. Geological Survey in 1838 in the arid regions is followed by a table of measured annual evaporations at various stations, for the purpose of checking Rus- sell's computed values. Reproduces T. Russell's chart of evaporation over the United States. Krebs, Wilhelm. Ueber Verdunstungsmessungen mit dem Doppelthermometer fiir klimatologische und hydrographische Zwecke. Verhdl. Deut. phys. Gesellsch., 1904, 6:278-9. See Erebs, 1905. Luedecke, Carl. Ueber die Gr5sse der Bodenverdunstung bei verschiedenen Tiefe des Grundwasserspiegels. Kulturtechntker, Breslau, 1904, 7:195-8. Memmo, Osservatorio Meteorologioo. Osservazioni fatte nel 1903. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1904, ( — ): 190-7. The total evaporation for the year from September, 1903, to August, 1904, inclusive, was 390.1 centimeters. Mill, Hugh Robert. Becords of evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1904, 44:46-51. Gives observations from the same stations as in 1908. The results obtained at the eleven stations average 17.32 inches, with a rainfall of 26.49 Inches. MitBoherlioh, Alfred. Ein Verdunstungsmesser. Landw. Vers. Stat., 1904,60:63-72, and 1904, 61:320. The author considers measurements of evaporation from open vessels of little value for agricultural purposes, since the instrument usually can not be placed in the open on ac- count of rain, and because the edge of the vessel always protects the surface of the water from the full action of the wind. He devises an instrument essentially that de.scribed by Babinet 1848 and Marii-Davy, 1869. The evaporation per square centimeter Indicated by this instrument was to that from a free water surface as 1.94 to 1 for a large cylinder, and 1 29 to 1 for a smaller one. This apparatus exposed in the writer's experimental field at Kutsehlau near Sohwiebus, Brandenburg, ftom April 5 to July 20, 1903, Indicated an evapo- ration of 190.14 millimeters, while the rainfall was 206.50 millimeters. At Kiel the evapo- 96 ration was only about one-half to one-third that at Kutschlau and the rainfall was consid- erably greater. Recommends this evaporometer as a substitute for the registering hair hygrometer. Naples. R. Osservatorio di Capodimonte. Osservazioni meteoriehe. Eend. accad. sci., fls. math. Sez., Naples, 1904, lO (3d ser.): 38, 78, 180-1, 267-9, 323-6, 400. The monthly amounts of evaporation in 1904 varied from 46.9 millimeters in January to 134.6 millimeters in July. The rainfall varied from 17,6 millimeters in July to 157.1 milli- meters in October. Okada, T. Evaporation in Japan. Bui. cent. met. obs., Japan, 1904, No.'l:31. Evaporation is observed at fifty stations in Japan. The evaporometer is a cylindrical, zincrlmed copper vessel, 20 centimeters in diameter and 10 centimeters deep. A table of comparative observations in sun and shade for 1891-1893 shows that the difference is great- est in summer and least in winter. Tables of the mean daily and the monthly evaporation for the fifty stations show minima in January and June and a maximum in August. Geographically the annual evaporation in Japan decreases from 1,910 millimeters at Koshun in the southwest, to 734 millimeters at Kushiro in the northeast. The annual rainfall usually exceeds the evaporation. The monthly evaporation at twelve stations is shown graphically and a chart presents the distribution of evaporation over Japan. Oppokow, E. Zur Frage der vieljahrigen Abflussschwankungen in den Bassins grosser Fliisse, im Zusammenhang mit dem Gang der meteorolo- gischen Elemente. Vergleiehende TJntersuohung der mittleren Abflusswerthe im Flussbeoken des oberen Dnjepr und der oberen Elbe in Zusammenhang mit der Prage fiber Charakter und Gren- zen des Einflussen der Lokalitaten elnes Flussbeckens auf den Abfluss. Zeits. GewSsserk., 1904, 6:1-23. The percentage of the rainfall evaporating from a bare moor soil was found to be 29.3, and the run-off 59 per cent. For a mixture of moor soil and sand lying over moor soil the figures were 26.5 and 63 per cent. For moor soil covered with coarse sand, 11.6 and 87 per cent. Oppokow, B. Zur Frage der vieljahrigen Abflussschwankungen in den Bassins grosser Flusse, im Zusammenhang mit dem Gang der meteorolo- gisohen Elementen . Ueber Auf speicherung und Consum der Feucht- igkeit im Bassin des oberen Dnjepr. Zeits. Gewasserk., 1904, 6: 156-75. The evaporation and seepage are calculated from the rainfall and run-off. Tables and curves are presented for the basin of the Dnieper, and tables fromi R. Scheck and Ule for the baain of the Saal, 1872-1901. (See Ule, 1903. ) Oppokow, E. Einige Daten fiber die Schwankungen des Abflusses und der abso- luten Verdunstung in den grossen Flussbassins im Zusammen- hang mit den Klimaschwankungen und dem Einfluss der Boden- und Pflanzen-Bedeckung. (Russian.) P6dologie, St. Petersburg, 1904, 6:182-9. Russell, H. O. Results of rain, river, and evaporation observations made in New South Wales during 1901-2. Sydney. 1904. Salo, Osservatorio Meteorologico. Osservazioni fatte nel 1903. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1904, ( V 198-204. '' The average daily amount for the year September, 1903, to August, 1904, inclusive, was 2.7 millimeters, ranging between 0.6 millimeters in December, and 6.4 millimeters in July. Sutton, J. R. On certain relationships between the diurnal curves of barometric pressure and vapor tension at Kenilworth (Klmberley), South Africa. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1904, 30:41-55. A modern discussion of the physics of evaporation with consideration of the theories proposed by Dalton, Lament, and Deluo. Concludes that changes in the barometer may be due to changes in the vapor pressure rather than to those of temperature. Sutton, J. R. Results of some further observations upon the rate of evaporation. Rpt. So. African assoc. adv. sci., Johannesburg. 1904. Experiments from 1900r-04 with a Piohe atmometer and the evaporometer described in 97 Sutton, 1903, shows the highest rate from the Piche in the daytime, but not at night It is concluded that this may be due to the stronger winds of the day, and possibly to the greater range of tha temperature of the water in the Piche. Quotes similar results by ahaw. In summer the ratios between the instruments are more nearly equal than in winter. A mathematical discussion seeks to determine the relation of the diflerent factors which influence the evaporation rate. 1905. Abbe, Cleveland. . The Piche evaporometer. Mo. weather rev., 1905, 33:253-5. Summarizes Eussel's (1888) results. Describes the Piche atmometer, and gives a table showing the effect of wind upon the rate of evaporation. " The true method of treating evaporometers of all kinds within instrument shelters is to consider them as Integrating hygrometers. For such exposures the total evaporation during an hour or a day is a simple result of ihe temperature, the wind, and the dryness. Knowing the two former and the measured evaporation, we may compute the average drynpss. This average dryness is a much more important datum to the meteorologist uian is the measured evaporation to the climatologist. Of course, hydraulic and irrigating engineers need to know the loss of water by evaporation, but in nature this is so mixed up with seepage, leakage, and consumption by animals and plants, that our meteorological data are of comparatively of little impor- tance. For the agricultural engineer the lysimeter and Symons' evaporometer, 6 feet square, are essential apparatus, but for the meteoroloijist an integrating hygrometer, such as the Piche evaporometer reallv is, is the important instrument." Bacon, Arthur A. The equilibrium pressure ot a vapor at a curved surface. Phys. rev., 1905, 20:1-9. Discussion of the laws regulating the equilibrium between evaporation and condensation at the surface of a liquid in capillary tubes, with a resume of the history of the subject. Bentley, Richard. The growth of instrumental meteorology. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1905, 31:173-92. Two paragraphs on evaporometers occur on p. 185 and 196. Richard's (1898) self-record- ing evaporation gage and Symons's evaporation tank are described. Boname, P. Meteorologie. Eap. ann. sta. agron. Mauritius, 1905, ( — ):1-10. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1906, 18:311. The annual evaporation in Mauritius for 1905 was 376.2 millimeters, with a rainfall of 2,410.2 millimeters. This is said to have been an unusually wet year. Briickner, Eduard. Die Bilanz des Kreislaufs des Wassers aut der Erde. Geogr. Zeits., 1905, 11:436-45. Abstract in Arch. sci. phys. et nat., 1905, 20: 427-30. General survey of the evaporation measurements made in different parts of the earth and the part played by evaporation in the cycle of the waters of the earth. Day, "W. H. Experiments on evaporation and transpiration. Ann. rpt. Ontario agr. coll. and expt. farm, 1905, 31:40-2. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 17:841. Studies on ihe amount of water required by wheat, barley, oats, and peas show that bar- ley requires the least water for growth and peas the most. An attempt to use the Piche evaporometer for purposes of comparison showed that several instruments " would not re- cord the same amount under the same conditions nor even amounts bearing constant ratios to one another." Desenzano, Osservatorio Meteorologico. Osservazioni fatte nel 1904. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1905, ( — ) : ' 157-61. The monthly evaporation for the year from September, 1904, to August, 1905, inclusive, varied from zero in December, and 1.2 millimeters in January to 104.2 millimeters in August. Fortier, Samuel. Loss of water by evaporation. Engin. rec, 1905, 51:430. Very comprehensive experiments in evaporation, undertaken by the Office of Exp. Stas. and the State of California, show that the amount of evaporation is largely dependant on the temperature of the water. The rate of evaporation from cultivatett soil seems to de- pend on the amount of soil moisture, on the temperature and physical character of the soil, the condition of the atmosphere, the wind, etc. Experiments in irrigation indicate that surface flooding is most wasteful and that furrows 12 inches deep conserve much more moisture than do shallow furrows of 3 inches. The average evaporation under each meth- od, during September and October, was 6428, 5581, and 4811 cubic feet per acre, respectively. ABB 8 98 Gessert, F. Die Grundwasserverdunstung In Steppen, speciell Siidwest-afrika. Zelts. Kolonialpol., Berlin, 1905, "7: 301. Translated by L. Laloy in Bui. soc. geog., 1905, 12:53-5. The cause of the high evaporation rate from the steppe soils of Southwest Africa are given as: (IJ circulation of air through the porous soils due to differences in temperature. (2) destruction of forests which formerly covered the soil, by erosion and periodic Durning. (3) strong capillary action. Evaporation is shown to produce an increase in the salt content of the upper layers of the soil. The amount of evaporation is estimated as probably more than the rupoff ot streams. The remedies for excessive evaporation are believed to lie in changing^ evapora- tion from the depths to the surface, either by pumps in some particular cases, or in a more general manner by reestablishing a plant cover such as dates and cactus. Hall, A. D. The Book of the Kothamsted Experiments. London. 1905. xl, 294p. Results of percolation experiments, averaged for each month for 34 years (1871-1904), ap- pear on p. 22-3. The average annual rainfall was 28,98 inches, of which 15.8 inches was evaporated or retained by the soil in a 20-inch gage, 14.25 inches in a 40-inch gage, and 15.19 Inches in a 60-inch gage. Hungary. Konigllohe TJngarische Keichsanstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmag- netismus. Jahrbuoh, 1905, 35:224, 225. The monthly evaporation in 1905 at Temesvir varied from 8.2 millimeters in January to 81.3 millimeters in July, with a total for the year of 430.4 millimeters. At Nagytagyos the monthly amount varied from 6.7 millimeters in November to 72,9 millimeters in August, with a total of 331.3 millimeters. Krebs, Wilhelm. Ueber Verdunstungsmessungen mit dem Doppelthermometer fiir klimatologisohe und hydrographischo Zweoke. Met. Zeits., 1905, 22:211-21. Measurements of evaporation from tanks placed in the waters of Mansfelder Lake in June, 1894, in Flatten Lake, in October, 1894, and in White Lake in the High Vosges in July, 1903, are compared with the readings of the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers. Memmo, Osservatorio Meteorologico. Osservazioni fatte nel 1904. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia, 1905, ( — ): 162-5. The total evaporation for the year, from September, 1904, to August, 1905, inclusive, was 344.1 millimeters. The water in the instrument was frozen during the three winter months. Mill, Hugh Robert. Relation of evaporation from a water surface to other meteorological phenomena in 1905, at Camden Square. Brit, rainf., 1905, 43:35-9. Curves of the evaporation, temperature, etc., at Camden Square, are presented. When the curve of the rate of evaporation was below the average for the year it followed that of the mean temperature; when it was above the average it followed those of the duration of sunshine and the black-bulb temperature. The wind appeared to have little effect at any time. Mill, Hugh Robert. Records of evaporation. Brit, rainf., 1905, 45:40-4. Evaporation for the year, averaged from records at eleven stations in the British Isles was 17.72 inches, with a rainfall of 25.35 inches. ' Mitscherlich, Alfred. Bodenkunde fiir Land- und Forstwirte. Berlin. 1905. In section 35, p. 204-13, the author discusses evaporation from soil. He cites Eser Eber- mayer. Meister, Vogel, and Wollny on the influence of the size of the soil particles the kind of soil, the vegetation, the inclination of the surface, the depth of the ground water and the capillary power of the soil, tillage of the soil, and mulches. Additional tables on p. 300-3 compare evaporation from free water surfaces with that from various kinds of soil and vegetation. Salo, Osservatorio Meteorologico. Osservazioni fatte nel 1904. Comment. Ateneo, Brescia 1905 f— "i • 168-71. '''-'■ The average daily evaporation varied from apparently zero in February and March and 0.7 millimeter in December to 4.3 millimeters in July. Shohusev, S. [V]. La m6thod de determination de I'humidite des sols CEusslan 1 Pedologie, St. Petersburg, 1905, 7:63-6. ' '' 99 Shipohinskii, V. V. Un cas d'6vaporation. (Kussian.) Met. Vest., 1905, 15:87-95. Slovinskii, . [Meteorological observations for the year 1905 at the Plotl agricul- tural experiment station.] Godlohnuii Otchet Ploty. Selsk. Khoz. Opuitn. Stantzil., 1905, 11:1-24, 121-4. Abstract,. Exp. sta. rec, 1906, 18:311. Observations on evaporation, in connection with other meteorological data. Strachan, Richard. On percolation gages. Horological journal, London, 1905, 47:115-7. Several well-known percolation gages and those used at Bothamsted are described; also a self-recording apparatus designed and constructed by Messrs. Kichard Fibres, Strachan, Richard. On evaporation gages. Horological journal, London, 1905, 47 :129-34, 157-61; 1905, 48:19-24, 40-5, 50-4. General discussion of various classes of evaporometers, with detailed historical and bib- liographical survey of examples of all kinds, and some treatment of evaporation from a mathematical point of view. Strachan, Richard. Measurement of evaporation. Quart, jour. roy. met. soe, 1905, 3 1 : 277-84. Evaporation (15.04 inches) as calculated from the meteorological data for 1S9S obtained at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, is compared with the observed evaporation at Cam- den Square (15.16 inches) and at Rothamsted (15.67 inches). Discusses Pole's formula (see Latham, 1900), and two proposed by R. J. Mann (1871), all of which are regarded as in- applicable. Abbe and Fitzgerald are quoted, and T. Russell's experiments on the influence of 'he wind on a Piche tube. " The necessity, however, is made apparent of improving the accuracy of evaporometers, and of the importance of achieving a standard instrument of this class." The formula used at the Royal Observatory for calculating evaporation is as follows: The depth of water evaporated in a month ^ 13.59 ( V — v) ab, where V= vapor pressure at the temperature of the air, v = vapor pressure at the dew-point, a ^ mean daily temperature ot the evaporating water, and 6 ^ coefficient of expansion of water. Transeau, Edgar N. Forest centers of eastern America. Amer. nat., 1905, 39:875-89. See also Ann. rpt. Mich. acad. sol., 1905. Draws lines of equal ratios between rainfall and evaporation in eastern North America, Russell's (1888) chart being used as the basis for the evaporation data. Finds that these lines iodicate "climatic centers" corresponding in general with the centers of plant distri- bution which latter are resultants of temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, and rainfall. "Wada, Y. Japanese meteorological service in Korea and Manchuria. (Trans- lated by Ur. S. Tetsu Tamura.) Mo. weather rev., 1905, 33:397-9. At Chemulpo Observatory the total evaporation from an 8-inch evaporometer for the year June, 1904, to June, 1905, was 1254.8 millimeters. The monthly rates varied between 175.6 millimeters in June, 1905, and 59.0 millimeters in January, 1905. The total rainfall for the year was 707.6 millimeters. 1906. Alfaro, Anastasio. Costa Bican cllmatological data. Mo. weather rev., 1906, 34:60, 305. The total evaporation for January, 1906, was 62.5 inches, and for March, 67.9 inches. Boulatovitch, M. Meteorological observations for the year 1906 at the Ploti Agricul- tural Station. Godlohnuii Otchet Ploty. Selsk. Khoz. Opuitn. Stantzil, 1906, 12:1-34, 229-34. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 19: 616. Evaporation for the year is given as 27.56 inches, the mean of 12 years being 32.78 inches. Day, W. H. Evaporation. Ann. rpt. Ontario agr. coll. and exp. farm, 1906, 32 : 31, 32. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 19:11. Observations of evaporation from a reservoir during the six months, June to November, showed a loss of 37.69 inches, or about 10 inches more than the mean annual rainfall for this place. 100 Fritsche, Kichard. Niederschlag, Abfluss und Verdunstung auf den Landfl&chen der Erde. Inaug. Diss. Halle-Wittenberg. Halle. 55 p. 8vo. Zeits. Gewasserk., 1906, 7:321-70. Keviews, Naturw. Rundschau, 1907, 22:111; Petermann's Mitteil., 1907, 53:16 (Literaturbericht); Exp. sta. rec, 1908, 20:114. General estimates of annual rainfall, run-off, and evaporation on the land surfaces of the globe, revised from Murray (1887), and BrUckner (Met. Zeits., 1887, 4: [63]), and gives a table of evaporation according to latitude. (See also BrUckner, 1908.) O-inestous, O. Meteorology of Tunis, winter of 1905-6. Bui. dir. agr. et com., Tunis, 1906, 10:114^28. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1906, 18:10. Sumarizes observations on pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfall, evaporation, etc., at a large number of stations in different parts of Tunis. Hann, Julius. Tfiglicher und jfihrlicher Gang der Verdunstung in Sudindien. Met. Zeits., 1906, 23:428-9. Describes some experiments carried on at Trivandnim from 1857 to 1863 by John Allen Brown. Two evaporators, having exposed surfaces of 100 square inches, were filled with sea water, and placed, one in the shade, though exposed to wind, the other in the sun. The evaporation maxima fell in March and September, the minima in June, July, and No- vember. The table of mean daily evaporation gives the annual amounts of 1032.36 milli- meters in the shade, and 2523.94 millimeters in the sun. Henry, Alfred J. Salton Sea and the rainfall of the Southwest. Mo. weather rev., 1906, 34:557-9. Shows that the Salton Sea could not affect the rainfall of the Southwest. Hilgard, E. "W. Soils, their formation, properties, composition, and relations to climate and plant growth in the humid and arid regions. New York. 1906. xvii, 593 p. On p. 192-4, 253-66, and 455 discusses the relation of evaporation to agriculture. On p ■ 253 the section " Evaporation " includes a general discussion of evaporation from soil and water surfaces. Fortier's (1905) experiments showing the influence of temperature on evaporation from water, are described, and a table of evaporation in different climates is presented. Keeling, B. F. E. Note on evaporometers. Mo. weather rev., 1906, 34:157. An account of^the results of comparisons of the indications of various evaporometers as made at Helwan Observatory, Helwan, Egypt. The results are given in tabular form, and show that the mean ratio of the Piche to the Wild evaporometer readings is 1.44, that of the Wade to the Wild is 1.37, and that of the Wade to the Piche is 0.96. The ratio Piche to Wild, 1.44, is about 10 per cent greater than that found by T. Russell, but this difference is probably to be explained by thedifference in the dimensions of the instruments. 'Describes the Wade evaporometer designed by E. B. H. Wade, of the Survey Department of Egypt. Keller, H. Niederschlag, Abfluss und Verdunstung in Mitteleuropa. Zentral- blatt der Bauverwaltung, Berlin, 1906, 26:279. Also Jahrb. Ge- wasserk., Besond. Mitt., Berlin, I, 1906, 4, p. 43. The main results may be tabulated as follows: Region. 1 Rainfall. ! Run-off. Evaporation. North-central Europe. ... Mm. Mm. 610 150 962 ! 602 714 ' 268 Mm. 460 460 446 Central Europe in general. Ladd, E. F. Summaries of temperatures, rainfall, sunshine, and evaporation. North Dakota exp. sta. rpt. for 1905,(— ):16-19. Summary in Exd sta. rec, 1906, 18:10. ■' f The mean temperature for 1905 was 39.43° F., the total rainfall was 30.76 inches the evaporation for the five months, May to September, was 26.45 inches. A comparison be- tween the rainfall and evaporation for the corresponding periods of the years 1902 1905 shows usually an excess of evaporation, 1.96, 2.56, and 2.74 being the ratios althoueh in 1905 they were practically equal. ' " 101 Leake, H. M. Some preliminary notes on the physical properties of the soils of the Ganges Valley, more especially. In their relation to soil mois- ture. Jour. agr. sci., 1906, l:454r-69. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1906, 18:13. The determinations of percentage of soil samples indicate a loss by evaporation equiva- lent to 210 tons of vater per acre from October 10 to November 21, or an average dally loss of 4 tons per acre. This is thought to be much higher than the actual. Livingston, Burton E. The relation of desert plants to soil moisture and to evaporation. Carnegie Inst. "Washington, Pub. 50. Washington, 1906. 78 p. Studies of evaporation rates from soil and water were made at Tucson, Arizona, in the summer of 1904. It is shown that the relatively high moisture content in the deeper layers of clay soils in this region is due, in part, to the fact that the evaporating power of the air is so excessively high that the movement of the soil water can not keep the upper layers moist, and a dry mulch forms which tends to prevent further evaporation. Describes a porous clay evaporometer essentially the same as those employed by Babinet (1848), MariS- Davy (1869), and Mitscherlieh (1904). It is pointed out that the evaporating power of the air can not be shown by the psychrometer, as this leaves out of account the factor of air currents. Next to an evaporometer the stationary wet- and dry-bulb thermometers, placed in the open air, are considered the most reliable instruments for estimating evaporation. The ratios between ihe reading of the evaporometer and transpiration from plants in- dicate a physiological regulation of evaporation within the plant. Comparative experi- ments were made with an air current at various velocities produced by an electric fan; a velocity of 4.6 meters per second increased evaporation 250 per cent, and a velocity of 8. meters per second increased it 450 per cent. Luedecke, Carl. Das Verhflltniss zwischen der Menge des Niederschlages und des Sickerwassers. Mitt. Landw. Inst., Breslau, 1906, 3:615-46. Manila Central Observatory. Meteorological data reduced from hourly observations. Phillipine Weather Bureau Bulletins, January to July, 1906. Manila, P. I. The record of evaporation at Manila may be tabulated as follows: Month. Evaporation. Rainfall. In sun. In shade. 1906. Mm. 192.2 219.7 Mm. 91.1 104.5 Mm. 12.7 February March . . 13.4 April 313.5 246.2 158.9 177.1 is3.6 125.9 84.5 94.5 4.9 M^y June July 358.4 154.9 310.2 Mill, Hugh Robert. Becords of evaporation and percolation. Brit, rain., 1906, 4:0:i6-5i. Eev. in Kature, 1907, 76:587. Abst., Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 19:711-2. The evaporation at 11 stations averaged 18.07 inches with a rainfall of 30.15 inches. This article is accompanied by a plate showing comparative curves of evaporation and other meteorological data, as in 1905. A table prepared by David Ronald compares evapora- tion from sandy soil, as calculated from rainfall and percolation, with evaporation from free water surface at Cauldhame, Falkirk. The rainfall was 89.93 inches, the evaporation from sand 19.83 inches, and evaporation from free water surface, 13. 51 inches. According to Latham's experiments in 1806 chalk allows less percolation and consequently greater evaporation than gravel. Miller, N. H. J. , , The amount and composition of the drainage through unmanured and uncropped land, Barnfleld, Bothamsted. Jour. agr. sei., 1906, 1:377-99. With the aid of gages he estimates the annual evaporation from undisturbed soil during the period 1870-1905, grouping it under various amounts of rainfall. The evaporation of ice. Mo. weather rev., 1906, 34:526-8. Careful determinations of the loss of weight of ice, due to evaporation for short periods and at temperatures below 0°C., showed that the rate of evaporation increases with the temperature and atmospheric pressure. It is further shown that the rate is proportional to the area exposed. 102 Neruchev, M. Precipitations, their income and outgo in relation to droughts. Zap. Imp. Obsch. Selsk. Khoz. ¥uzh. Koss., 1906, No. 4^6. Abstract in Zhur. opultn. agron., (Euss. Jour. exp. Landw.), 1907, 8:119-120; Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 19 :414. The droughts in southern Russia are attributed not to deficient rainfall, but to the high evaporation which considerably exceeds the rainfall. Newton, ■William B. The aquameter. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1906, 32:11-13. Notice in Science, 1906, 23(n. s.):853. A r6sum€ of the princifjles of hygrometry and the use of wet- and dry-bulb thermome- ters. The "aquameter" is designed to show the amount of water vapor contained in a certain amount of air by measuring, by means of a mercury column, the change in pres- sure produced by absorbing the water vapor with phosphoric anhydride. Praagh, L. V. Meteorology of the Transvaal. From "The Transvaal and its Mines." London and Johannesburg. 1906. p. 90-3. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 19:711. Evaporation in the Transvaal is approximately three times the ralntall. The mean annual rainfall for 14 years at Pretoria was 26.31 inches. R6thly, A. Die Verdampfungsverhaltnisse von Siofok. (Magyar.) IdSj. Buda- pest, 1906, 10:76-8. Savinov, S. I. Verdunstung im Schatten. (Russian.) Met. vest., 1906, 16: 349-54. Sch-wab, Franz. Ueber die Verdunstungsmessungen in Kremsmtinster. Met. Zeits., 1906, Hann Band: 23-35. Discusses the various methods of observing evaporation practiced at Kremsmtinster from 1824 to the present time. Annual rates varying according to the exposure and in- struments, from 1358.9 mm. to 228.9 mm, are recorded. Rates from other places are quoted. The daily curve of evaporation was studied with the Wild atmometer from June, 1904, to September, 1905, The ratio between the nocturnal and diurnal amounts is shown to vary wiih the temperature, from 2.8 mm. in June to 1.5 mm, in November. The daily maximum always occurred between 2 and 4 p. m. , coincident with the temperature maxi- mum aod the relative humidity minimum. Seelhorst, C. von. Peuohtigkeitsverhaltnisse elnes Lehmbodens. Jour. Landw., 1906, 54: 187-206. Determinations of the moisture content of the soil showed that rye used much less soil wat«r than wheat, oats demanded a large amount of water and clover the most. Peas used a relatively small amount and potatoes the least. Seelhorst, C. von. Wasserverdunstung und Wasserabfluss eines gebrauchten Lehm- und Sandbodens. Jour. Landw., 1906, 54:313-5. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 18:617. Observations of drainage and evaporation from loam and sandy soils in large vegetation tanks, from October, 1904 to March. 1906, show that evaporation was largest and drainage smallest from the loam during the fall and winter, the same being true of the sandy soils in summer. The evaporation was as a rule smaller, and the drainage larger, from the sandy soil than from the loam. Greater evaporation from the sandy soil was observed only during a period of high temperature and heavy rainfall in summer. The greater evaporation from the loam soil is attributed to slower percolation and greater capillary capacity in this soil. Seelhorst, O. von. TJeber den Wasserverbrauch von Eoggen, Gerste, Weizen und Kar- toffeln. Jour. Landw., 1906, 54:316-42. Careful experiments at Gettingen in 1905 on the amount of moisture used and evaporated by rye, oats, wheat, and potatoes in loamy and sandy soils. Strachan, Richard. Methods ot estimating evaporation. Horological Journal 1906 48:79-80, 95-6, 160-2, 178-80. Compares and discusses formulas for calculating evaporation, including Mann's n871t Fitzgerald's (1886), Weilenmann's (1877), Stelllng's (1881), and Strachan's (1905). Vernon, J. J. Irrigation. New Mexico Exp. sta. rpt., 1906. p. 29-38 Abstract Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 19:384. Evaporation for a year at the New Mexico experiment station amounted to 58 inches. 103 Victoria, Ernesto Or. Evaporaci6n y f rio producido por ella en Lima. Bol. soc. geog. Lima, .nrihL°T.ill\?i'°°'*J^P°™™' ^^^ ?i«tliod of observing the Piche evaporometer are de- T^i I 'i^ f ^^'*'' ^° account of the causes which favored or retarded evaporation. Ihe daily maximum evaporation in the sun and shade, from 1897-190S, fell usually in Feb- w'hn'iKTL ' . *^u ™™'»?;™ 'n J"'? or August. A study of the depression of the wet-bulb thermometer both in the sun and shade, shows an increase in arithmetical pro- gression, from autumn to summer, the amount varying during the year from 0° to 10°C. Lonoluaes that this cooling varies inversely with barometric pressure, relative humidity, and rainfall, but directly with temperature, the hours of sunshine, and the direction oi the wind. Tables of all observations are presented. 1907. Abbot, H. L. Ealnfall and outflow above Boliio, in the valley of the Chagres. Mo. weather rev., 1907, 35 :74-5. Eeview in Met. Zeits., 1908, 25: 326-30. From the difference between the rainfall and the total river flow, the average annual evaporation on the Isthmus of Panama (lf98-1906), is estimated as 38.29 inches. Direct measurements by the pan method show 0.135 inches per twenty-four hours in December 1906. 0.167 inches for January, 1907, and 0. 181 inches for February, 1907. The first method gives negative evaporation for these months. Abe, K. On the density of snow on the ground and the evaporation from its surface. (Japanese.) Jour. met. soc. Japan, April, 1907, 26. Badgley, "W. F. Evaporation from the soil. Quart, jour. roy. met. soc, 1907, 33 :18'2. An unsatisfactory attempt to measure the evaporation from soil by collecting on a cold surface and weighing the vapor rising from a certain area. Barbour, Percy E. The Salton sea. Journal of Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 1907, 10:165-71. An estimate of the annual evaporation from the Salton Sea based on estimates of the time and quantities of water required to fill the Salton Sink to various levels. Bigelo'w, Frank H[agar]. Studies on the phenomena of the evaporation of water over lakes and reservoirs. (I) The proposed study on the problems of evapora- tion at the Salton Sea, California. Mo. weather rev., 1907, 35: 311-6. Beprinted, Washington, D. C, 1907. An account of proposed cooperative study of evaporation on a large scale at the Salton Sea by the U. S. Geological Survey, the U. S. Keclamation Service, and the U. S. Weather Bureau. Describes the conditions to be expected in the arid regions of the West, the past history and future possibilities of Salton Sea, the need for investigation of evaporation, and the present favorable opportunity for studying the phenomenon as it is occurring naturally from this lar^e isolated water surface. The need for further research into the theory of evaporation is shown by a comparison of formulas previously developed. The formulas quoted, with the exception of Bussell's, are transcribed into a uniform notation, and be endeavors to show their lack of agreement. Discusses Stefan's thermodynamic- theory of evaporation, and presents the general theory of evaporation. Boulatovitch, M. and A. Winkler. Meteorological observations at the Ploti Experiment Station, 1907. Godlchnuil Otohet Ploty. Selsk. Khoz. Opuitn. Stantzii, 1907, 13 : 1-53, 161-7. Exp. sta. rec, 1909, 20:616. The total evaporation for 1907 was 28.3 inches, the average annual for 13 years was 32.& inches. The rainfall for 1907 was 11.37 inches, the average annual for 13 years being 16.26 inches. The mean relative humidity for 1907 was 70 per cent, and the average tempera- ture 7.8°C. Bucking'ham, E. and F. K. Cameron. Studies on the movement of soil moisture. U. S. Bur. Soils, Bui. 38. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 18:820. Evaporation from points below the surface of soils in tumblers or small cylinders, under various conditions, while measureable is quite small and negligible in comparison with the losses taking place at or very near the surface. A comparison of loss of water from a soil under arid and humid conditions shows it to be much more rapid at first under the arid conditions, so rapid "as to overtax the soil's ability to move water from within to the sur- face by capillarity." A dry layer is therefore formed which keeps the losses far below those from the soil under humid conditions where the capillary flow to the surface pre- sists until the moisture content of the whole soil is very low. 104 Oameron, F. K. See Buckingham, E. and F. K. Cameron. Pritzsche, R. Niederschlag, Abfluss und Verdunatung aut den Landflaohen der Erde. Zeits. Gewftsserk., 1907, 8:74. Grravelius, Harry. TJntersuohungen zur Abflussfrage. Zeits. GewSsserk., 1906,8:15-37. Hoyt, John Clajrton and Nathan Clifford Qrover. Biver discliarge. New York. 1907. The authors declare that the difference between the annual rainfall and run-off repre- sents very closely the annual evaporation. Evaporation influences both the total and the seasonal ilow of streams. The annual evaporation from water surfaces is estimated asvary- ing from 20-40 inches in the humid Eastern States to 70-100 inches in the arid West. Dis- cuss briefly the effect of the character of the soil and vegetation on evaporation. Keeling, B. F. E. The climate of Abbassia near Cairo. Cairo. 1907. Eeview in Met. Zeits., 1908, 25:458-60. Evaporation was measured at the observatory at Abbassia by means of a Wild evapo- rometer placed in the thermometer shelter. The average monthly amounts for the years 1900-1903 varied from 46 millimeters in January to 214 millimeters in June; the annual average was 1577 millimeters. Knoche, "Walter. Die Verdunstungs- und Kondensation-Grenze an der Wolkenober- flache. Met. Zeits., 1907, 24: 369-71. A mathematical discussion of the relations between condensation on and evaporation from the surface of clouds. Ladd, B. F. Evaporation from water surfaces. North Dakota Exp. sta. rpt., 1907, pt. 1, p. 33-6. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1909, 20: 515. This report contains, according to the Experiment station record, "a record of observa- tions on evaporation from the surface of water contained in a galvanized iron tank, the evaporation during 1907 being compared with that of five previous years and with the rain- fall during the same period." Iiivingston, Burton E. Evaporation and plant development. Plant world, 1907, lO: 269- 76. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1908, 19:1024-5. Describes a simplification of his evaporometer (see 1906) for general ecological and physi- ological work. Discusses an experiment which shows that the evaporating power of the air may be so high that the rate of transpiration exceeds the rate of moisture supply, even though the soil be kept well watered. Iiuedecke, Carl. Das Verhaltniss zwischen der Menge des Niederschlages und des Sickerwassers nach Englischen Versuchen. Kulturteohniker, 1907, 9: 101-26. Merriman, Thaddeus. Baintali and run-off of the Catskill mountain region. Mo. weather rev., 1907, 35:109-18. Enumerates and discusses (p. 114-5) the general laws of evaporation over large districts, and calculates the percentage of rainfall evaporated over the Croton, Pequanac, and Sud- bury watersheds under various temperatures. Merz, Alfred. Beitrfige zur Elimatologie und Hydrographle Mittelamerikas. Mitt. Verein Erdk., Leipzig, 1906, (— ): . Reprinted Leipsic, 1907. 96 p. 3 PI. Review in Met. Zeits., 1908, 25: 326-30. An elaborate discussion of the rainfall and run-off in various regions of Central America Evaporation is considered equal to the rainfall minus the run-off. The annual amount of evaporation from Managua Lake is reported as 1,675 millimeters, with a rainfall of 1 185 millimeters, and from Nicaragua Lake the figures are respectively 1,809 and I 599 milli- meters. In the flood region of the San Juan the rainfall varies from 1,709 to 3* 263 milli- meters, with corresponding evaporation rates of 1,177 and 1,110 millimeters. The reviewer considers that the observations on these lakes probably give greater amounts than the reality, and finds it interesting tocompare these numbers with the fantastic amounts up to 7 meters a year, which were formerly assumed for tropical oceans. ' Mill, Hugh Robert. Records of evaporation and percolation. Brit, rainf., 1907,47:44-51. The usual data are given. The accompanying plate presents comparative curves of evapo- 105 wi™^^^''!^®',,"??'*''™'''!'''^' .•**'"■ »" " 1908 ™d 1806, inoluaing the record of a new ;?„« .2'v*'',® Wilson radio-Integrator. The curve made by this Instrument closely re- sembles that of evaporation from an exposed water surface during August and September, but during h oyember and December it is quite characterless. The evaporation curve follows those of duration of sunshine and black-bulb temperature in summer, and those of mean temperature of water and soil at 1 foot depth in winter. The curve of wind velocity here seems to have very little relation to that of evaporation. Latham's tables, Hall's at Rot- hamsted and Eonald's at Cauldhame, Falkirk, are included. Rykaohev, M. (New evaporometer for observing evaporation from grass, and the first observations with this Instrument at the Constantine Obser- vatory In 1896.) Mem. acad. imp. aol., St. Petersburg, phys.-math. Cl., 7 (ser. T), No. 3. Stevens, J. S. Meteorological conditions at Orono, Maine. XJnlv. Maine Studies, No. 7. 52 p. Chart 1. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 19:311. Includes results of a series of special observations on the evaporation of snow, ice, and liquids. Summers, W. L. Seml-arld America, its climate compared with that of South Austra- lia. Jour. dept. agr., So. Aust., 1907, 10:411-4:. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 18:1022-3. The evaporation in the semi-arid regions of America is said to be less than in those of South Australia. Sutton, J. R. A contribution to the study of evaporation from water surfaces. Scl. proc. roy. Dublin soc, 1907, 1 1 (N. s.) : 137-78. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 19 :617-8. The amount evaporated at Kimberley from a Piche evaporometer was 84.48 inches, and from a screened metal vessel, 14 inches in diameter and 18 inches deep, 65.94 inches. Tinsley, J. D. Forty years of southern New Mexico climate. New Mex. Exp. sta. bul., No. 59. Abstract in Exp. sta. rec, 1907, 18:611. Review in Bul. Am. geog. soc, 1907, 39:419. The evaporation in this region is given as 5 to 6 feet per year. Todd, Sir Charles. Meteorological observations made at the Adelaide Observatory and other places in South Australia and the Northern Territory dur- ing the year 1905. Adelaide. 1907. Beview in Met. Zeits., 1908, 25:478-9. The results obtained by Sir Charles Todd show a monthly average evaj>oration, for the years 1870-1904, varyine from 32 millimeters in June to 226 millimeters in January; the average annual evaporation is 1,396 millimeters. "Wilcox, Lucius N. Irrigation Farming. New York. 1907. On pp. 149 and 464, the relation of evaporation to agriculture, especially in the arid re- gions, IS treated, with estimates of amounts evaporated daily from canals and reservoirs, Winkler, A. See Boulatovltch, A. and A. Winkler. 1908. Bigelow, Prank H[agar]. Studies on the rate of evaporation at Beno, Nev., and In the Salton Sink. Nat. geog. mag., 1908, 19:20-8. The author describes the Salton Sea and its origin. It has been generally supposed that the depth of the annual evaporation from the surface of this sea is as much as 8 feet, but the author believes, on the-lrasis'Of experiments made at Beno, Nev. (cf. next entry), that it may not be more than 4 or 5 feet. Bigelow, P[rank] H[agar]. Studies on the phenomena of the evaporation of water over lakes and reservoirs. II. The observations on evaporation made at the reservoir in Beno, Nev., August 1 to September 15, 1907. III. Discussion of the observations made at Beno, Nev., August 1 to September 15, 1907. Mo. weather rev., 1908, 36 :24-39, Charts 17-27. Beprinted, Washington, D. C, 1908. 106 The author describes the Reno, Nev. , reservoir, the general conditions of the experi- ments, and the methods of observing. He calculates tables of vapor pressure and evapora- tion at Reno, Nev., August 1-10, 12-17, 1907. Five towers were erected for the purpose of studying evaporation and the phenomena most closely related to it. These towers were located on an east and west line crossing both basins of the reservoir, and exposed to con- ditions ranging from arid, over an unirrigated field, to humid over an irrigated alfalfa field. Twenty-nine galvanized-lron pans were employed, Three 6-foot pans were floated in water at the foot of towers 2, 3, and 4, two others were on the ground at the foot of towers 1 and 5. Pans 2 feet in diameter were placed on the towers at levels of 0, 2, 7, 16, 25, 35, and 45 feet. Sling and floating psychrometers [see Marvin, 1909, 3d title] were used to find the temperatures and vapor pressures in and neartbe pans. The level of the water was read by means of a vertical scale tube. Readings were taken of all the instruments every three hours from 5 a. m. to 8 p. m., and also at 1 a. m. The author concludes that " the location of the pans relative to the water of a reservoir is of primary impoitance in measuring the total amount of evaporation and that observations on a pan away from the water can not be transferred to the water surface itself, except with the utmost caution." The observations show the existence of a vapor blanket extending some 30 feet above the surface of the reservoir, and a similar, but less perfect blanket, over the alfalfa field. The author develops the following formula: E=qf(h) e^? (1+Aw), at where .E= evaporation, h^ height above water surface, e ^ vapor pressure at the dew- point, de/ds= rale of increase of vapor pressure with rise of temperature, A = 3, constant modifying the wind, w= wind velocity in kilometers per hour, and Qf(A) = a complex variable depending on h. In a summary the author describes a modified form of the Fiche atmometer, which it had been hoped could ultimately be substituted for the large pans. A general conclusion is that the vapor blanket above the reservoir seems to conserve about I of the water that would otherwise be lost by evaporation. Boname, P. Meteorology. Sta. agron. Mauritius, Bui., 16:1-15. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1908, 20:212. Presents records of evaporation in Mauritius during 1906 and 1907. Briickner, Eduard. Niederschlag, Abfluss, und Verdunstung auf den Landflachen der Erde. Met. Zeits., 1908, 25:32-5. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1908, 20:114. The author compares estimates made by various writers, of total rainfall, runoff, and evaporation on the land surfaces of the earth. Points out Uiat over the water surface of the earth evaporation exceeds precipitation, but that 92 per cent of the moisture evapora- ted falls again upon the water surface of the globe. Over the lands evaporation is decidedly less than precipitation, about 2 : 3. About 70 per cent of the precipitation on the land sur- face is derived from evaporation from the land. Day, F. H. Deficient humidity. Mo. weather rev., 1908, 36 -AOi-G. In course of studies on the physiological effects of indoor aridity the author carried out several comparisons between the indications of various instruments for determining dew- point and vapor pressure, viz, chemical analysis, stationary wiok-psychrometer, Regnanlt hygrometer, and the whirled psychrometer. He finds a close agreement between the results by the chemical method and the whirled psychrometer, and Regnault's dew- point apparatus. Etna Observatory. Meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Catania, 1892 bis 1905. Met Zeits., 1908, 25:137-8. Observations by A. Ricco and Cavasion, at the base station of the Etna Observatory show a monthly evaporation varying from 1.80 centimeters in January to 5.55 centimeters in July, with an average monthly total of 3.27 centimeters. Gager, O. Stuart. The evaporating power of the air at the New York Botanical Garden. Mo. weather rev., 1908, 36:63-4. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec 1908 19:1010-11. Experiments to determine the evaporating power of the-air were carried on at the New York Botanical Garden from June 10 to October 14, 1907. Employed three different Livine ston evaporometers which gave results varying from 4.84- to 12.10 Inches aocordine to ex- posure. The rainfall for the period was 9.32 inches. The difference between rainfall and evaporation is regarded as an index of the evaporating power of the air for the aiven station. ® Hall, A. D. The Soil. An introduction to the scientific study of the growth of crops. New York. 1908. In a chapter on tillage and the movements of soil water the author points out the effect of cultivation in checking evaporation from the soil. cuoi-u 107 Livingston, B[urton] B. A simple atmometer. Science, 1908, 28(n. s.):319-20. -^JiV'l'.™'^^ * modifloation of the eTaporometer described in 1906. The indications of any ?^5v,?lIT^l' ""^* ^^ corrected by acoefficient obtained by comparing it with a standard instrument. Keoommends this instrument for studies dealing with the relations be- tween meteorological conditions and plant growth. Livingston, Burton E. Evaporation and plant habitats. Plant World, 1908, 1 1 :l-9. Re- view, Exp. sta. rec, 1908, 19:1025. ■\?''' »? of the evaporating power of the air in several plant habitats at St. Louis and Col- umpia. Mo., leads to the conclusion that the marked differences In the weekly rates, as indicated by Livingston evaporometers, may furnish a measure of the conditions control- ling the character of the'vegetation. The weekly rates of several evaporometers exposed at altitudes between 2,412 and 8,000 feet in the neighborhood of Tucson, Ariz., showed a decrease from 298 to 138 cubic centimeters. Livingston, Burton E. Evaporation and centers of plant distribution. Plant World, 1908, 1 1 :106-12. The author discusses the relation between the evaporating power of air to the geographic distribution of vegetation in the United States. " To test the value of evaporation alone as a criterion for relating plant distribution to climatology " porous cup evaporometers of the pattern described above [first paper], were exposed at a number of places in the United States. The resulting weekly rates for seventeen weeks, June 3 to September 30, 1907, are to be considered '' only as relative measures of the evaporating power of the air." Grouping the results according to the plant centers represented, when the evaporation for the conifer region is taken as unity, the deciduous forest center becomes 1.15 and the deserts of the soufh west, 2.86. These number are found to form a series similar to that obtained by Transeau y905). The author concludes that the evaporating power of the air offers a promising criterion for relating vegetational centers to climatic factors. Norton, J. H. Quantity and composition of drainage water and a comparison of temperature, evaporation,and rainfall. Jour. Amer. chem. soc, 1908, 30: 1186-90. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1909, 20:814^15. Studies in the drainage basin of Eichland Creek, Madison and Washington counties, Ark. , showed that during the growing season evaporation was more than 90 per cent of the rainfall, and the ratio for the whole year 70 per cent. Schubert, [Johannes]. Der Wasserhaushalt an der Erdoberflache. Met. Zeits., 1908, 25: 415-6. In a paper before the Dresden Geographical Society on the relations between rainfall and evaporation, Schubert states that a long English record of the percolation through soil shows the evaporatioa is about one-half the rainfall. Brilckner and Fritsche are cited as authorities for the statement that the total annual evaporation from the land sur- faces of the globe averages 61 centimeters and the rainfall 87 centimeters. For the districts with no run-off the tw6 phenomena are considered to balance each other at 3S centimeters. Keller's still closer estimate for middle Europe gives average evaporation for the years 1851-1890, 44.6 centimeters with a rainfall of 26.8 centimeters. Sprung, A. Die registrierende Laufgewichtswage im Dienste der Schnee-, Kegen- und Verdunstungsmessung. Met. Zeits., 1908, 25: 145-54. Describes a self-registering sliding weight balance for measuring snow, rain, and evapo- tion, and presents tables and register curves. Transeau, Edgar N. Tlie relation of plant societies to evaporation. Bot. gaz., 1908,45: 217-31. Abstract, Exp. sta. rec, 1908, 20:224. From his efforts to obtain quantitative measurements of the various environmental fac- tors influencing plant societies, the author concludes that comparative evaporation data " would be far more valuable than the usual temperature and relative humidity readings." The instrument used for measuring this factor was the porous cup atmometer described by Livingston (1908). The standard instrument placed m the garden of the Station for Ex- perimental Evolution, Long Island, N. Y., evaporated 1,657 centimeters during twelve weeks, May 20 to August 11, inclusive. Other instruments evaporated, according to envi^ ronment, from 10 per cent to over 120 per cent of the amount given off by the standard instrument. The author considers that the use of this instrument will be of the greatest importance in the study of habitat conditions, since its surface is constant and continually exposed In the s.ime way, thus furnishing data which may be directly related to the plant. Voeikov, Alexander. The study of evaporation. Mo. weather rev., 1908, 36: 63. The author suggests that the discrepancies between the various formulas for evaporation which were pointed out by Bigelow (1907) may be due to the fact that the anemometers are usually placed higher than the evaporometers. Local conditions of exposure may so dis- 108 turb the relatioDS that coefficients deduced from one set of observations will give smaller values than another set for the same wind velocity. A table of results obtained at Finsk and Vasilivichi (June to September, 1897) is given as a case in point. The monthly amount at the former place varied from 34.5 millimeters in September to 71.4 millimeters in June, and at the latter place from 52.9 millimeters in September to 96.6 millimeters in June. Ward, Robert DeCourcy. The relative humidity of our houses in winter. Boston surg. and med. jour., 1900, March 1. Beprinted in Jour. sch. geog., 1902, 1 : 310-17. Abstract, Mo. weather rev., 1908, 36 : 281-3. This is a series of comparative observations on the relative humidity within and without a hot-air heated house in Cambridge, Mass. The author shows that the air within such a house in winter is usually as ar id as the air of the deserts of the globe, and sometimes even exceeds this. He comments on the physiological effects of the sudden transition from the arid indoors to the usual winter outdours. Doctor Barnes' table of similar observations in the hospitals of Boston is added. 1909. A[bbe], 0[leveland]. The psychrometer: Rotated, whirled, ventilated. Mo. weather rev., 1909, 37:23. Emphasizes the necessity for accurate instrumental determinations of the relative humidity in biological investigationp. Compares the relative accuracy of results obtained by means of the O'Gara (1909) rotation psychrometer, the sling psychrometer, and the Ass- mann aspiration psychrometer. A high grade of thermometer is necessary in psychrometric work, and the reduction tables must be adapted to the style of thermometers used. Jefferson, M[ark] S. W. Winter aridity indoors. Jour. sch. geog., 1902, 1:. . .Reprinted, Mo. weather rev., 1909, 37:62-3. The author, stimulated by Ward's paper (see 1908) , calculates th* actual volume of water which should be evaporated by a heating and ventilating plant and added to the warm air in order to preserve a healthful indoors numidity during the winter. He finds that each individual may require from 3.7 quarts up to as much as 13.7 quarts daily to properly moisten air derived from outdoors and raised to 70° F. by the heating plant of the bouse. A schoolhouse would need 200 gallons daily for each 100 pupils sheltered, under the aver- age conditions described by Ward (1908). Marvin, Charles Frederick. The pressure of saturated vapor from water and ice as measured by different authorities. Mo. weather rev., January, 1909, 37:3-9, chart 37-11, XI. This paper reviews and compares vapor pressure measurements, formulas, tables, etc., by Regnault, Broch, Juhlin, Marvin, Thiessen and Seheel, Bamsey and Young, Battelli, Caiileiet'and Colardeau, Holborn-Hennlng, Ekholm, Landolt and Bornstein, \viebe and others. It also gives a short bibliography. Marvin, Charles Frederick. A proposed new formula for evaporation. Mo. weather rev., Febru- ary, 1909,37:57-61. The author points out the fundamental faults in the evaporation formulas commonly employed, and proposes the foim of equation dF/dt=C/B. (e.+e„-2ej) /(-)/(»), where C^constant, 5=barometric pressure, e,, e„, ed,^vapor pressures corresponding to water surfaoe temperature, air temperature, and dewpoint temperature respectively, /(e)= function of the vapor pressure to be evaluated by the observations, as also /(«), depending on the wind effects. Marvin, Charles Frederick, Methods and apparatus for the observation and study of evapora- tion. Mo. weather rev., April, May, 1909, 37: 141-6, 182-91. Part I discusses methods, formulas, etc. Part II describes and illustrates instruments and apparatus for measuring and automatically recording evaporation chiefly from pans. O'Gara, P[atrick] J. A portable rotation psychrometer. Mo. weather rev., 1909, 37:22-3. Describes a form of whirled psychrometer improvised by attaching two spherical-bulbed thermometers to opposite sides of one dasher of tbe ordinary egg beater, and removing the other dasher. The gears give a linear velocity of 25 feet per second and the steel dasher serves as an admirable protection for the thermometers, while the whole apparatus can be safely and accurately placed where the observations are particularly desired. ADDENDA. 1787. Salnt-Lazare, Bertholon de. De r616ctrlcit6 des m6t6ores. Paris. 1787. 2 vol. 8vo. In vol. 2, p. 84-99, he discusses evaporation. 109 1891. Marvin, Charles Frederick. Eeport of vapor pressure measurements and normal barometer con- struction. Pt. I.— Maximum pressures of aqueous vapor at low- temperatures. Ann. Kpt. Chief Signal Officer for 1891, (App. 10). Washington. 1892. 8vo. p. 351-383. Special precautions were observed in this work to eliminate errors dne to the use of im- pure water, the presence of air in the space occupied by the Tapor, and on account of un- equal capillary action. Water previously freed from air by boiling was finally distilled in a vacuum at a temperature but slightly above freezing. The pressure was measured in highly exhausted U-tube mercury manometers 25 to 30 millimeters in diameter. The re- sults brought out the distinct difference between vapor pressures over ice and over water subcooled as much as 20 Fahrenheit degrees below freezine, but yet retaining its liquid state. The observations were carried to — 60°F., and a limited number of measurements were made between 32° and 80° F. Juhlin, Julius. Bestimning af VattenAngans Maxlmi-spSnstighet ofver is mellan 0° ooh — 50°C., samt ofver flytande Vatten mellan -1-20° ooh —13° C. Blhang till E. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handlingar. Band 17, Afd. I, No. 1. Stockholm. 1891. Abstract, Met. Zeits., 1894, 11 :98-9. This investigation into the vapor pressures of water vapor over ice between 0° and —50° C, and over water between +20° and — 18° C., gave Juhhn results closely concordant with those obtained simultaneously by Marvin, 1891. Juhlin and Marvin worked simultane- ously and by very similar methods, but independently and in ignorance of each other. Juhlin presented his results to the Eoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences on February 11, 1891, and Marvin reported his to the Chief Signal Officer, TJ. S. A., on June 30, 1891. (See Marvin, 1909, first title.) SUPPLEMENTAKY LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS FOB TITLES OF PERIODICALS. Abh. k. bayer. Akad.. Wiss., math.-phys. Kl. Ann. met. ital Ann. obs. Montsouris . Ann. soc. met. ital Atti. r. ist. sci., Naples, Bdbl. Ann. Phys. und Chemie. Beitr. Geophysik. Leipsic. Ber. Deut. Naturf Ber. Phys. Med. Soc. Bot. gaz Bui. Amer. geog. soc. Bui. cent. met. oba. Japan. Centbl. Agr. Chem. (Biedermann). Comment. Ateneo, Brescia. Godlchnuii Otchet Ploty. Selsk. Khoz. Opuitn. Stantzil. Koniglieh-bayerische Akademie der Wissen- schaften, Mathematisch-physikalisehe Klasse. Abhandlungen. Munich. Annali della meteorologia Italiana. Modena. Annales de I'observatoire mSt^orologique munici- pale de Montsouris. Paris. Annuario della " societS. meteorologiche italiana. Turin. Atti della reals istituto d'incoraggiamento delle scienze naturali, economiche, e technologiche. Naples. Beiblatter der Annalen der Physik und Chemie. Leipsic. Beitrage zur Geophysik. Zeitschrift fur physikal- ische Erdkunde. Zugleich Organ der Kaiser- lichen HauptStation f iir Erdbeben-forschung zu Strassburg i. E. Leipsic. Amtliche Berichte fiber die Versammlungen Deutcher Naturforscher und Aerzte. Leipsic. Verhandlungen der physikalisch-medezinischen Societat zu Erlangen. Continued as Sitzungs- bericht. Botanical Gazette. Chicago. Bulletin of the American geographical society. New York. Bulletin of- the Central meteorological observa- tory, Tokyo, Japan. Tokyo. Biedermann's Central-Blatt f iir Agrikulturchemie und rationellen Landwirtschatts-Betrieb. Leip- sic. Commentari dell' Ateneo di Brescia. Brescia. Godichnuil Otchet Plotyanskoi Selsko-Khozyaist- vennol OpuitnoJ Stantzii. (Annual report of the Ploty agricultural experiment station). Odessa. 110 Jour. met. soc. Japan, Jour. Scot. met. soc. . . Kulturtechniker Landw. Vers. Sta M6m. acad. imp. sci., St. Petersburg, phys.-math. cl., Mem. accad. sci., Bologna. M6m. soc. agric, Bayeux. Met. council rpt Min. proc. intercol. met. conf. Mitt. Landw. Instit. . Mitt. Verein. Erdk., Leipsic. Naturw. Runds Nebr. exp. sta. bul . . . Natkdg. tidjsch. Ned. Ind. Naturforscher, Berlin. Petermann's Mittheil. Plant World Rend, accad. sci., fis. math, sez., Naples. Rpt. Australasian as- soc. adv. sci. Rpt. So. African as- soc. adv. sci. Selsk. Khoz. i Lyesov. Sta. agron. Mauri- tius, Bul. Trans, roy. soc. arts, sci, Mauritius. U.S. Bur. Soils, Bul.. Verhdl. Deut. phys. Gesellsch. Versuchsstat. Org Zap. Imp. Obshch. Selsk. Khoz. Yuzh. Ross. Zeits. Kolonialpol., Berlin. Journal of the meteorological society of Japan. Tokyo. Journal of the Scottish meteorological society. Edinburgh. Der Kulturtechniker. Breslau. Die Landwirtschaftlichen Versuchs-Stationen. Berlin. Mfimoires ^e 1' academic imperiale des sciences de St. Petersbourg. Accademia deUe scienze dell'istituto di Bologna. Memorie. Bologna. Soci6t6 d' agriculture, sciences, arts, et belles lettres. Memoires. Bayeux. Report of the Meteorological Council to the royal society, for the year ending March 31. London. Minutes of the proceedings of the intercolonial meteorological conference at Melbourne. Mittheilungen der Landwirtschaftlichen Institut der koniglichen Universitat Breslau. Berlin. Mittheilungen des Vereins ftir Erdkunde zu Leip- zig. Leipsic. Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau. Brunswick. Bulletin of the Nebraska experiment station. Naturkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie. Batavia. Der Naturforscher. Wochenblatt zur Verbreitung der Fortschritte in der Naturwissenschaften, Berlin. Petermann's Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes' Geographischer Anstalt. (Supan). Gotha. The Plant World. Tucson, Ariz., and Washing- ton, D. C. Rendiconti dell' academia delle scienze fisiche e mathematiche sezione della Society, Reale di Napoli. Naples. Reports of the Australasian association for the advancement of science. Reports of the South African association for the advancement of science. Sel'skoeKhozyafetvo i Lyesovodstvo (Rural Econ- omy and Forestry). St. Petersburg. Colony of Mauritius Station agronomique. Bulle- tin. Mauritius. Soci6t6 royale des arts et des sciences de I'lle Maurice. Transactions. Port Louis, Mauritius. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bulletins of the Bureau of soils. Verhandlungen der Deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft. Berlin. Die LandwirtschaftUchen Versuchs-Stationen. Berlin. Zapiski Imperatorskagho Obshchestva Selskagho Khozyalstva Yuzhnol Rossii. (Memoirs of the imperial society of rural economy of southern Russia.) Odessa. Zeitschrift ftir Kolonialpolitik, Kolonialrecht und Kolonialwirtschaft. Berlin. Ill 1908. Bigelow, F. H. Studies in the plienomena of evaporation of water over lakes and reservoirs. IV.— The progress of the research in 1908, and the proposed campaign for the years 1909 and 1910. Mo. weather rev., 1908, 36:437-445. After a brief statement of the extension of the net of evaporation stations and the plans for the observations at these, the author goes on to a brief analysis of his theory and his second formula for discussing evaporation observations. This second formula is . E,=CaXO.m'f^ • % (1+Aw). employing the same notation as above. He gives examples of computations by this for- mula, and also of how he would abbreviate the extensive computations it involves, by means of certain mean daily values. The Q-coefficients for Bene, Nev,, Indio and Mecca, Cal., are then compared. It ap- pears that while the above formula eliminates the vertical variations of this coefficient at any one locality, it yet varies from station to station. The 1909 campaign is designed to aid in explaining this variation. A set of special observations at the Indio, Cal., railroad station showed how results may vary even under identical meteorological conditions, simply as the result of differences in the positions and sizes of contiguous pans. These campaigns are regarded as preliminary ones, designed to develop the problems to be solved. OOBEIGENDITM. 1896. Sohierbeck, N. P. Sur la Vitesse de I'^vaporation au point de vue special des relations physiologiqueS. Overs, k. Danske Forhandl., 1896, No. 1, 30 p. Abstract in Fortsch. der Phys., 1896, 25, pt. ii: 308-9. Investigates the relation between rate of evaporation and the condition of the atmosphere, using the formulas of Dalton and Stefan; his experiments confirm the Stefan formula. He finds the coefficient of evaporation directly proportional to the absolute temperature. The volume of vapor passing through a cross section of unit area in a unit of time at a tem- perature of 0°C. and pressure of 760 millimeters is expressed by the equation v = K/h.\og 1=5^, -D— /l where B ^ air pressure, A=:height of the pan's rim above the water surface, /= vapor pres- sure at temperature of the air, /i^ vapor pressure at the temperature of evaporation, JJC= constant. Also finds that the evaporation is proportionil to the square root of the rate of boiling; and that the difference/—/! is not a measure of the rate of evaporation. The drying power of a climate is expressedjby log|=i(l-|-aO»^, -"— /i /i to be measured by the highest grade thermometers, w = wind velocity. [Keprinted from Monthly Wbathbb Review, 1908, 36: 181-186; 301- 306; 375-381. 1909, 37: 68-72; 103-109; 157-160; 193-199; 248-252.] 113 AUTHORS INDEX. Abbe, C, 2,66,72,74,79,80,83,84, 88,97,108. Abbot, PYancis, 47. Abbot, H. L., 103. Abe, K., 103. Achard, 13. Airy, G. B., 36. Alberti, Vittorio, 88. Alexandre, F., 57. Alfaro, Anastasio, 99. AUen, H. N., 75. Alston, Garwood., 83. Anderson, Adam, 21, 24. Angot, Alfred, 72, 86. Ansted, D. T., 44. Apjohn, 72. Aristotle, 24. Aymard, Maurice, 30. Babinet, J., 28, 43. Babington, B. G., 33. Bacon, A. A., 97. Badgley, W. F., 103. Baily, J., 26. Balch, E. S., 88. Barbour, P. E., 103. Barker, R., 12. Barlow, E., 8. Barnes, N. H., 83. Baron, 11. Bartet, 75. Bartoli, A., 55. Barus, C, 92. Bateman, J. F., 51. BatteUi, A., 74, 77. Baumgartner, G., 53. Bazin, 9. Beardmore, N., 34. Beaudrimont, A., 57. Bebber, see van Bebber. Bedford, Duke of, 84, 86. Bellani, A., 21, 22, 24. Bentley, R., 97. Bertholon de Saint-Lazare, 108. Bigelow, F. H., 103, 105, 106, 111. Binnie, A. R., 51. Bischof, K. G. G., 25. Black, W. G., 94. Blake, L., 65. Blake, W. P., 32. Blanchet, F., 19. Blanford, H. F., 63, 61. Bloxham, J. C., 36. Boggs, E. M., 81. Bok, O., 88, 92. Boname, P., 97, 106. Borius, 57. Bostock, J., 22. Bouillet, J., 9. Boulatovitoh, M., 99, 103. Boussingault, J., 55. Boekmann, C.W.,17. Brace, deW. B., 75, 77. Brandes, H. W., 22. Braun, 13. Britzke, 0., 79. Broval, J., 12. Brown, H. T., 87. Brown, J. C., 52. Bruyn, see de Bruyn. Bruckner, E., 74, 97, 106. Buchan,A.,39,41,46. Buckingham, E., 103. Buist, G., 28, 31. Buys-Ballot, C. H. D., 48, 49. Buhler, A., 82. Burgerstein, 1, 94. Calandrelli, 28. Cameron, F. K., 103. Canestrini, E., 83. Cantoni, G., 36, 39, 53, 55, 57, 58. Carl, P., 63. Carpenter, L. G., 73, 77, 84, 85, 89. Carradori, G., 20. Cartillon, C, 28. Casella, L., 46. Chabaneix, J. B., 67, 68, 70, 72. Chandler, A. E., 89. Chapman, 31, 48. Charifr-Marsaines, 29. Charnock, J. H., 28. Chistoni, 72. Clark, 30. Coffin, J. H., 32. Colin, R. P. E., 74. CoUin, A., 38. Cornelius, C. L., 36. Cotte, L., 13, 18, 20. Cotte, P., 12, 14. CroU, J., 59. Crosby, D. J., 82. Cruquius, 12. Cunningham, A., 63. Curtis, R. R., 94. Dalton, J., 1, 15, 16, 17, 18. Daniell, J. P., 22, 26. Daubrge, G. A., 27. D'Aubuisson de Voisan, J. F., 20. Dausse, 26. Davis, A. P., 83, 89. Davis,W.G.,73,87,91. Davis, W. M., 70. Day, F. H., 106. Day,W.H.,97,99. de Bruyn, H. E., 83. de Heen, P., 76. 114 de Lapparent, A., 49. de la Rive, A., 31. de la Rue, W., 54. de Le^ep, F., 76. de Saint Lazare, B., 108. de Touchimbert, 70. de Voisan, see D'Aubuisson. Decaudin-Labesse, 63, 66. Decharme, C, 49, 52. Delesse, A., 49. Deluc, J. A., 15, 16. Demangeon, A., 73. Dennis, W. C., 38. Denza, F. P., 70. Desaguliers, J. T., 8, 11, 12. Descroix, L., 66. Desormes, 32. Dewar, D., 63. Dieulafait, 65. Dines, G., 44, 46. Dippe, 37. Dobson, M., 12, 32. Dove,H.W.,24,36. Doy&e, 72. Drew, F., 33. Drew, J., 32, 33. Drian, A., 30. Du Fay, 9. Dufour, C, 45. Dufour, L., 42, 45, 46, 49, 51. Eason, A., 13. Ebermayer, E., 41, 49, 51, 58, 59. Ekholm, N., 75. Escombe, F., 87. Eser, C, 66. Espy, J. P., 25, 29. Evans, J., 80. Exner, F. M., 87. Felisch, J., 38. Ferrel, W., 72. Field, R., 42, 43. Fischer, E. G., 20. Fitzgerald, D., 68, 72. Flauguerges, Honorf, 19, 20. Fletcher, I., 37, 43. Fontana, I'Abbd, 13. Forel,F.A.,45. Fornioni, G., 61. Forster, A., 59, 61. Fortier, S., 83, 97. Fjournet, J., 30. Franklin, B., 11. Freeman, S. H., 64. Frisiani, P., 53. Fritsch, K., 48. Fritsche, R., 100, 104. Gabler, P. M., 12. Gager, C. S., 106. Galli, D. I., 86, 89. Garban, 61. Gaugain, J.-M., 31. Gauteron, 8. Gay-Lussac, 32. Geddes, G., 31. Gessert, F., 98. Gibbs, L., 95. Gilbert, J. H. , 61. Gilbert, L. W., 19. Ginestous, C, 100. Glaisher, J., 28, 72. Golding, A.. 34. Gravelius, H., 85, 86, 104. Greaves, C., 42, 52. Greely, A. W., 72, 76. Greiner, J., 52. Grossmann, L., 73. Grouven, A., 37, 38. Grover, N. C., 104. Gruget, 69. Grunsky, C. E., 85, 89. Gube, F., 37. Gugliemo, G., 61. Guillemin, A., 67. Haberlandt, 66. Hajech, C.,45. Hall, A. D., 92, 98, 106. Hall, W. H., 89. Haller, A. von, 11. Halley, E., 7, 8. Hallstrom, G. G., 23. Hamberger, 14. Hamilton, H., 11, 12. Hann, J., 41, 46, 47, 72, 76, 78, 89, 92, 100. Harreaux, 69, 70. Harrington, M.W., 80. Harting, P., 28. Haslam, E., 67. Haughton, S., 39, 59. Hauvel, C., 71. Heinz, E. A., 85. H6jas, A., 85. Heller, E., 16. Henry, A. J., 100. Henry, D. F., 39, 41, 43, 45. H6pites, S. C., 71. Hermstadt, S. F., 17, 19. Herschel, J. F. W., 34. Hilgard, E. W., 100. Hildebrandsson, H. H., 37, 43. Hippocratus, 24. Hoffmann, H., 47. Hohnel, Fr., 58. Holbrook, J., 24. Homberg, 14. Home, D. M., 38. Hopkins, T., 32. rios9i(*im A 4^ HoudaiU'e, F., 67, 68, 69, 75, 77, 80, 83. Hough, G. W., 51. Houry, 18. Houzeau, J. C., 59. Howard, L., 25. Hoyt, J. C, 104. Hubbard, G. G., 78. Hube, J. M., 15. Hudson, H., 47. Humber, W., 52. Hunter, A., 13. Ideler, I. L., 24. Ingham, W., 89. Ivory, 72. Jackson, L. d'A., 68. Jahn, G. A., 32, 42. Jaubert, J., 91, 93, 95. Jefferson.M. S.W., 108. Jelinek, C, 93. Jenyns, L., 33. Johnen, A., 54. Johnson, S. W., 55. Juhlin, J., 109. Karnes, H. H., 12. Kamtz, L. F., 25, 26, 34, 72. Karsten, G., 48. Kastner, A. G., 11. KeeUng, B. F. E., 100, 104. Keller, H., 100. Kerner, F. von, 78. Kimball, H. H., 95. King, F. H., 77, 79; 86. Kirwan, R., 18. Klaproth, 23. Klee, F., 25. Klein, H. J., 71. Knoche, W., 104. Konig, F., 89. Kratzenstein, C. G., 9. Krebs, W., 80, 84, 95, 98. Krecke, 35. Kunze, M. F., 60, 61. Kunzek, A., 29. Labond, S. de., 12. Ladd, E. F., 100, 104. Laidlay, T. W., 26. Lalanne, 65. Lamont, J. von, 35, 42, 43, 45, 46, 54. Lancaster, A., 59. Langer, Th., 64. Lapparent, see de Lapparent. Latham, B., 64, 65, 78, 84, 87. Laval, 60. Lavoisier, 12. Lawes, J. B., 61. Leake, H.M., 101. L6ger, A., 54. Legras, 71. Lemoine, G., 48. Lenz, H. F. E., 29. Le Roy, 10. 115 Leslie, A., 49, 55, 56. Leslie, J., 21, 22, 25, 56. Lignard, 26. Lindgren, W., 93. Lining, J., 11. Lippincott, J. B., 87, 91. Livingston, B. E., 101, 104, 106, 107. Lommel, E., 60. Lorenz, J. R., 56. Ludlow, 27. Luedecke, C., 95, 101, 104. Lyell, C., 40. Lynn, W. T., 35. Malusehitski, 87. Manson, M., 90. Mann, R. J., 47. Marcet, F., 30. Marid-Davy, F., 69. Mari6-Davy, H., 43, 49, 50, 54, 56, 69. Mark, Chevalier de la, 14. Markham, C. R., 38. Marriott, W., 51, 76. Marvin, C. F., 108, 109. Masoart, E., 56. Masure, F., 60. Maxwell, J. C., 62. 72. Maxwell, W., 85. Mayer, J. T., 19. Mazelle, E., 86. Meikle, H., 23, 32. Merriman, T., 104. Merz, A., 104. Milani, G., 54, 71. Mill, H. R., 88, 90, 92, 93, 95, 98, 101, 104. Miller, J. F., 29, 30. Miller, N. H. J., 101. Miller, S. H., 50, 54, 56. Milne, J., 82. Minssen, G., 86. Mitchell, A., 32. Mitchell, F. C., 101. Mitseherlich, A., 95, 98. Mohn, H., 52, 58, 67, 71, 86. Monge, G., 15. Mons, J. B. von., 17. Moore, J. W., 79. Morgenstern, L., 52. Moscati, P., 45. Mott, A. J., 50. Moulan, T.-C, 75. Moureaux, T., 48. Miihry, A. A., 33, 34, 35. Miiller, J. H., 8. MuUer, P. A., 78, 82. Miiller-Erzbach, W., 72, 90, 93. Muneke, G. W., 24, 26. Murphy, P., 25. Murray, 24. Murray, D., 53. Murray, J., 71. Musschenbroek, P. van, 8, 12. 116 Neruchev, M., 102. Newman, J., 30. Newton, W.B., 102. Niewentyt, 8. Nicolski, 70. Norton, J. H., 107. Norton, W. A., 28. Nowak, A. F. P., 35, 36. O'Gara, P. T., 108. Okada, T., 91, 93, 96. Olmsted, F. H., 90. O'Meara, P., 65. Oppokow (Oppokov), E., 90, 93, 96. Osnaghi, F., 51. Pague, B. S., 80. Pallich, J. von., 84. Parkes, J., 27. Parrott, G. F., 17, 19. Paterson, J., 13. Peek, C. E., 71. Penck, A., 80, 82. Perman, D. E. P., 94. Pernter, J. M., 72. Perrault, C, 7. Petruschevski, P., 64. Pfaff, A. B. I. F., 45. 46. Pfaff, F., 48. Phillips, W. F. R., 82. Piche, A., 48, 55, 78. Pickering, S. U., 86. Pole, 87, 99. Pouillet, 23, 25. Praagh, L. V., 102. Prestel, M. A. F., 32, 37, 38, 40. Prettner, Johann., 48. Prinsep, J., 22. Rafter, G. W., 84, 94. Ragona, D., 40, 42, 49, 54, 56, 58, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70. Ramsay, A., 67. Raulin, F. V., 40, 87. Regnault,V.,27,30,72. Reischauer, C. G., 32, 34. R^thly, A., 102. Richman, G. W., 9, 10. Ridgway, C. B., 91. Riegler, W., 58. Risler, E., 44, 45, 47. Ritter, C, 71. Robie, D., 64. Rosen, P. G., 37. Rosenthal, G. E., 14. Rowell, G. A., 26, 27, 28. Royal Meteorological Soc, 76, 84. Ruinet, 33. Russell, H. C, 58, 61, 94, 96. Russell, T., 70, 72, 75, 80. Ruvarac, 79. Rykachev, 86, 88, 105. Saigey, 26. Saint Lazare, see de Saint Lazare. SaUes, A., 66. Sandeman, P., 32. Saussure, H. B. de, 14, 15, 45, 88. Savinov,S.I., 102. Schenzl, G., 39. Schierbeck,N.P.,82, 111. Schmid, E. E., 33, 35. Sehon, 21. Schotte, J. P., 13. Schron, H. L. F., 23. Schubert, J., 78, 107. Schubler, G., 23, 24, 29. 34. Schulze, F. E., 34. Schuyler, J. D., 90. Schwab, F., 102. Schwaiger, H., 13, 14. Schwalbe, G., 91. Scott, R. H., 51, 70, 72, 88. Sedileau, 8. Seelhorst, C. von, 102. Senff, E. F., 16. Seyfert, T.,73. Shaw, W. N., 54, 62. Shidlovski, F., 70. Shchusev, S. V., 98. Shipchinskii, V. V., 99. Simmonds, G. H., 40. Skinner, J. D., 59. Slovinski, 99. Smythe, W. E., 90. Soldner, J. von, 19, 20. Somerville, M., 46. Sresnevski, B., 64, 66. Sprung, A., 68, 107. Stefan, J., 50, 62, 72. Stelling, E., 53, 60, 62, 64. Sterk, A. E., 48. Stevens, J. S., 105. Stevenson, P., 50. Stock, J. C, 9. Strachan, Robert, 46. Strachan, Richard, 99, 102. Summers, W. L., 105. Sutton, J. R., 92, 94, 96, 105. Sworykin, 72. Symbns, G. J., 1, 36, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 49, 50, 53, 59, 62, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86. Tacchini, P., 38, 40, 41, 56, 74. Tait, P. G., 35, 68. Tamura, S. T., 99. Tarbg, 30. Tate, T., 35. Taylor, L.H., 92. Teisserenc de Bort, L., 70. Thilo, L., 21. Thomson, C. W., 57. Tinsley, J. D., 105 Titius, J. D., 14. 117 Todd, C, 57, 59, 79, 105. Tomlinson, S., 79. Trabert, W., 83. Tracy ,H., 31. Transeau, E. N., 99, 107. Trimble, R. E., 89. Tripe, J. W., 76. Tromelin, G. Le G. de, 66. Twigg, R. H., 83. Ule, W., 76, 84, 94. Unger, F., 34. U. S. Geological Survey, 90. Vaillant, 38. Valles, F., 28, 29, 31. van Bebber, W. J., 55, 75, 78, 80. van Tricht, P. V., 64. VassaU-Eandi, A. M., 15, 21, 22. Venukoff, 70. Vermeule, C. C, 79. Vernon, J. J., 102. Victoria, E. G., 103. Vignon, E., 31. Vines, B., 67. Violi, A., 62. Vivenot, R. von, 36, 38, 39. Vlasov, V. A., 94. Voeikov, seeWoeikow. Vogel, K. A., 32, 42, 46, 57. VoUand, 59. Volpicelli,P.,49. Volta, 23. vonHaller, A., 11. von Kerner, F., 78. von Lament, see Lamont. von Mons, see Mons. von Pallich, see Pallich. von Seelhorst, see Seelhorst. von Vivenot, see Vivenot. Wada,Y.,99. Waldo, F., 74, 78. Walker, E., 22. Wallerius, N., 9, 11. WaUis, H. S., 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 92. Wanklyn, J. A., 35. Ward, R. deC., 108. Warington, R., 47, 61, 72, 88. Watson, R., 13. Way, J. T., 32. Weilenmann, A., 55. Weitenweber, 35. Wheeler, W. H., 57. Wiegleb, J. C, 17. Wiedemann, G., 65. Wilcox, L. N., 105. Wild, H., 51, 54. Williams, S., 14. Winkler, A., 103. Wistar, C., 16. Woeikow, A., 72, 74, 75, 107. WoUny, E., 52, 60, 63, 67, 72, 75, 79, 81, 86. Wrede,E.F.K., 19. WuUner, 72. Zeithammer, L. M., 55. Zylius, J. D. O., 16. 118 GEOGRAPHIC INDEX. (Localities for which evaporation data are given or referred to.) Abbysinia, Massaua, 74. Adlisburg, 82 (Switzerland). Africa, see also Algeria, Cape Colony Senegal, Tunis. Atlas mountains, 30. Massaua, 74. South Africa, 48, 52. Kimberley, 83, 96, 105. Southwestern steppes, 98. Van Wyk's Vley, 83. Algeria, 30. Constantine, 65. Metidja, 30. America, Central, 104. America, North, see also United States and individual States of. Eastern, 99. Semi-arid, 105. Arabia, Aden, 28. Argentine Republic, 73, 91. C6rdoba, 87. Arizona, 76, 82, 83, 87, 92. Buttes, 87. Phoenix, 83. Tucson, 81, 101, 107. Arkansas, 107. Atlantic ocean. North, 47. Australia, see also New South Wales, Queensland. Australia, 61, 83, 105. Adelaide, 57, 59, 79, 105. Alice Springs, 79. Northern, 105. Austria, 56, 58, 80, see also Hungary. Bohemia, 79, 82. Elbe river, 82, 93, 96. Kremsmtinster, 102. LiUenfeld, 39. Prague, 48. Triest, 86. Vienna, 39, 48, 55, 80. WoKgang lake, 87. Azores, 47. Bavaria, see Germany. Belgium, la Gilleppe, 75. Bohemia, see Austria. Brazil. Pelotas, 86. British Guiana. Georgetown (Demerara), 32, 34. British Isles, see England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland. Canada, 68. Cape Colony. Cape of Good Hope, 52. Cape Town, 52. Caspian Sea, 36, 40, 72. CaUfornia, 76, 80, 82, 85, 97. Buena Vista Lake, 90. Clear Lake, 89. Colorado Desert, 111. Fresno, 85. Honey Lake, 90. Indio, 111. Kern Lake, 90. Kern River, 90. Kings River Canals, 89, 91. Kingsbury, 89, 91. Lake Fordyce, 90. Lake Tahoe, 92. Mecca 111. SaltonSea, 100, 103, 105. Sweetwater Dam, 75, 90. Tulare lakes, 32, 90. Colorado, 65, 76, 85, 89, 92. Divide, 77. Fort Collins, 73, 77, 83, 84. Rockyford, 77. Costa Rica, 99. Cuba, Habana, 67. Dead Sea, 35, 36. Denmark. Copenhagen (Endrup), 34. Earth, general, 27, 44, 46, 65, 71, 97, 100, 104, 106, 107. Egypt, 68. Abbassia, 91, 104. Helwan, 100. Suez Canal, 76. Nile River, 58. England, 18, 34, 68, 86, 90, 92, 93, 95, 98, 101, 104. ApsleyMills,80,81. Bedford, 64. Bolton-le-Moors, 34. Cauldhame, 101. Croyden, 65, 84, 87, 88, 90, 93, 105. Cumberiand County, 30, 34, 37. Cumberland Mountains, 37, 43. Devon, 71, 75, 82. Dorset, 34. Greenwich, Royal Observatory,29, 99. Hants,' 42, 46, 67, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 81,82,90. Harpenden, see Rothamsted. 119 England — Continued. Hemel Hempstead, 80, 81. Herts, 52, 61, 75, 88, 98, 99, 101, 105 Kennich Reservoir, 82, 89. Lancashire, 34. Lancaster (Gresham College), 8. Lea Bridge, 42. Little Bridy, 34. Liverpool, 12. London, 25, 90. Camden Square, 43, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, 87, 88, 90, 98, 99. Lowestoft, 90. Manchester, 24, 49. Nash Mills, 75. Otterbourne, 78, 79, 81, 82. Oxford(Radc]iffe Observatory), 34. Rothamsted (near Harpenden), 52, 61, 75, 88, 99, 101. Rouseden Observatory, 71, 75. Southampton Waterworks, 78, 79 81 82 Strathkeld Turgiss, 42, 46, 67, 74, 75, 76, 78. Sussex, Isfield Place, 82. Swaffham Bulbeck, 33. Tarnbank, 43. Whitehaven, 30, 34. Wisbech, 56, 75. Woolwich, Royal Arsenal, 30. Europe, 100, 107. Finland, Abo, 23. Florida, Key West, 38. France, 19, 26, 34. Agen, 40. Angoulgme, 57. Aries, 30, 66. Beauce, la, 69, 70. Bellefontaine, 75, 76. Bordeaux, 40. Cadillac, 40. Canals — Bourgogne, 29, 33, 38. Languedoc, 29. Marne, 38. Nivernais, 29, 31, 38. Cavaillon, 30, 66. Dijon, 29, 33, 37, 66. fipinal, 73. Garonne River, 38. Girard, 40. Gondrexanges, 38. Grand-Lieu, lac de, 28. H^rault, 67, 68, 70, 72. Langon, 40. Marseilles, 30, 66. Montmorenci, 12, 18. MontpelUer, 15, 69, 77, 78, 83. Montrgjeau, 38, 40. Montsouris, see Paris. Nancy, 52, 75, 76. Nantes, 28. France — Continued. Niort, 40. Neusiedler Lake, 39. Orange, 30, 40, 66. Orleans, 60. Paris, 8, 9, 20, 26, 78, 91, 95. Montsouris, 54, 55, 56, 91, 95. Poitiers, 40, 70. Pouilly, 29. Rhone, delta of, 65. Rieux, 40. Roche-sur-Yonne, 29, 30. Rochelle, 24, 40. Saint JeaTie-de-Losne, 29. Saint Maurice, 40. Seine River, 26. Toulouse, 40. Yonne River, 29, 31. France, south of, 65, 76. Germany, 29, 34, 55. Augsburg, 34. Bavaria, 41, 52, 80. Breusch River, 88. Eberswalde, 78. EIsass-Lothringen, 92. Eltville, 39. Emden, 37. Erlangen, 48. Frankfort-on-Oder, 37. Giessen, 47. Gottingen, 102. Guhrau (Zechen), 36, 37. Hannover, 37. Kiel, 95. Ktistrin-on-Oder, 37. Kutschlau (Schwiebus), 95. Magdeburg, 37. Mansfelder Lake, 98. North Germany, 80. Saale River, 94, 96. Salzmtinde, 37. Schleswig-Holstein, 48. Seissen, 47. Silesia (Zechen), 36, 37. Strassburg, 59. Siilze, 37. Tubingen, 24, 34. Wiirzburg, 24. White Lake (High Vosges), 98. Globe, see Earth. Great Britain, 50, 95, see also Eng- land, Scotland, Wales. Great Lakes, of North America, 41, 42, 43. see also Lakes Huron, Michigan, Erie, etc. Hawaii, Territory of. Honolulu, 85. . Molokai,93. Holland, see Netherlands. Hungary. Budapest, 39, 80, 85. 120 Hungary — Contintied. Nagytagyos, 95, 98. Ofen, 39. 0-Gyalla, 91. Plains of, 80. Flatten Lake, 39, 98. Si6fok, 102. Temesvdr, 95, 98. India, 51, 53. Bhandarwada Filters, 79. Ballyaghat (Calcutta), 23, 24. Benares, 22, 24. Bengal, 61. Bombay, 24, 34, 68, 79, 87. Calcutta, 23, 24, 27. Coloba Observatory, 79. Ganges Canal, near Roorkee, 63. Ganges Valley, 101. Ghauts, 38. Madras, 53. Red Hills, near Madras, 27. Roorkee, near, 63. Nagpur, 51, 53. Rajputana Tanks, 68. Trivandrum, 100. Vahar Tanks (Bombay), 68. Indian Ocean,' 26, 53. Italy, 40, 61. Acireale, 66, 67. Ban, 74. Bologna, 94. Campidoglio, 73. Catania, 106. Chieri, near Turin, 74. Desenzano, 91, 92, 95, 97. Etna Observatory, 106. Garda Lake, 91. Memmo, 91, 93, 95, 98. Modena, 40, 56, 58, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70. Naples, 88, 93, 96. Falermo (Sicily), 38, 39, 40, 56. Fontine marshes, 28. Reggio (Calabria), 74. Rome, 24, 30, 40. Sal6, 91, 94, 96, 98. Turin, 22. Japan, 91,96. Azino, 93. Formosa, 90. Koshun, 96. Kushira, 96. Taihoku, 90. Java. Pasuruan, 92, 94. Korea. Chemulpo, 99. Madagascar. Tananarive, 74, 75. Maine. Madeira, 47, 89. Orono, 105. Massachusetts. Boston, 31, 69, 73. Beacon Hill Reservoir (Boston), 69. Chestnut Hill Reservoir (Boston), 69. Lawrence, 78. Mauritius, 97, 106. Mediterranean Sea, 7, 36, 57, 65. Mexico, 70. Vera Cruz, 23. Michigan, 82. Detroit, 41. Monroe, 41. Ontonagon, 41. Saint Clair River, 43. Tawas, 41. Thunder Bay Island, 41. Mississippi River, source, 59. Missouri. Columbia, 107. St. Louis, 107. Montana, 92. Nebraska, 75, 77. Netherlands, 90. Delft, 12. Helder, 35, 37, 39. Kniesdorp, 35, 37. Oudorp, 35, 37. Utrecht, 8, 9, 35, 37, 39. Zwanenburg, 37. Nevada, 76, 92. Reno, 105, 111. New Jersey, 79. New Hampshire. Bradford, 14. Merrimac River, 14. New Mexico, 76, 92, 102, 105. New South Wales, 58, 72, 83, 94, 96. Lake George, 83. Sydney, 75, 89. New York. Catskill Mountains, 104. Croton River, 104. Long Island, 107. Muskingum River, 94. New York City, 106. Niagara River, 43. Ogdensburg, 31. Fequanoc, 104. Sudbury River, 104. Syracuse, 31. Youngstown, 45. Nicaragua. Lake of Granada, 26, 89, 104. Lake Managua, 104. San Juan River, 104. North America, 99. North Dakota, 100, 104. 121 Ocean, open, 26, 31, 44. see also At- lantic, Pacific, etc. Ohio. Cleveland, 42. Ontario, 97, 99. Panama. Bohio, 103. Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, 78. Peru. Lima, 103. Philippine Islands. Manila, 101. Portugal, 87. Lisbon, 40. Queensland, 59. Red Sea, 28. Massaua, 74. Roumania, 71. Russia, Asiatic. , European, 60, 79, 85. Abo (Finland), 23. Astrakhan, 85. Constantine Observatory, 88, 105. Dnieper River, 93, 96. Dorpat (Jurjiev), 35. Lake Balkash, 70, Moscow, 85. Neshin, 90. Nikolaiev, 85. Nukuss, 64. Pavlovsk, 62, 65, 85. Pinsk, 108. Ploty, 99, 103. Poltava, 94. St. Petersburg, 29, 51, 85. Saratof, 85. Skopin, 85. Tiflis, 53. VasiUvichi, 108. Vishni-Volotshek, 85. Saint Helena Island, 39. Saint Lawrence River, 19, 43. Saint Louis, see Senegal. Scotland. East Scotland, 90. Edinburg, 56. Falkirk, 101, 105. Glencorse Reservoir, 56. Reivoch Burn, 49. S^n^gal, 13, 57. Senegambia, 13; 57. Sicily, see Italy. South Australia, 105. Spain, 87. Madrid, 84. Switzerland, 25. Basel, 37. Bern, 61. Bevaix, 11. Calfeve, 44. Col du G6ant, 15. Davos, 59. Geneva, 15, 20. Lausanne, 42, 45, 49, 51. Nyon (Cal6ve), 44. Saint Gothard, 37. Tasmania. Hobart Town, 47. Transvaal, 102. Tropics, 26. Tunis, 100. United States, 72, 74, 76, 80, 83, 95, 104, 107, see also individual States. Utah, 76, 83, 92. Fort Douglas, 83. Great Salt Lake, 88. Logan River, 83. Venezuela. Cumand, 34, 89. Wales, 18. Washington, State of, 92. Wisconsin, 77. Milwaukee, 39, 41. Superior, 41. Wyoming, 92. Laramie, 91.