New York 
 
 State College of Agriculture 
 
 At Cornell University 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 Library 
 
 LB 1051.879™"""'"""""-"'"'^ 
 
 Experiments in educational psychology, 
 
 3 1924 013 081 736 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013081736 
 
EXPERIMENTS IN 
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
MCMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 
 
 LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 
 
 TORONTO 
 
EXPERIMENTS 
 
 IN 
 
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 If 
 DANIEL STARCH, Ph.D. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF WpCONSIN 
 
 ^to got* 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1911 
 
Copyright, 1911, 
 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published September, igil. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This book is designed to serve as a guide for laboratory 
 experiments in educational psychology. Only those ex- 
 periments have been selected which have a more or less 
 direct bearing upon educational problems. It is intended 
 to be a laboratory manual for experimental work done 
 parallel with an introductory course in educational psy- 
 chology, or in other introductory educational courses in 
 which the psychological aspect is emphasized. 
 
 No previous training in experimental work is necessary. 
 The directions are so given that in most experiments 
 relatively simple apparatus is used. For many experi- 
 ments the material is contained in the book, for others it 
 may easily be constructed, and for the rest it must be 
 obtained from the sources indicated in each case. 
 
 In pursuing the laboratory work the order of the chap- 
 ters permits of considerable flexibility. All chapters 
 except V and VI are independent of one another and any 
 desired order may be adopted. The work is intended to 
 occupy two hours weekly through one semester. It is 
 best to divide the class into groups of not more than eight 
 or ten, in charge of an instructor who shall see that the 
 experiments are done accurately and the notes written up 
 carefully. 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 In order to emphasize the practical aspects of the prin- 
 ciples brought out in the various experiments, a brief set 
 of exercises is placed at the end of each chapter which 
 should be worked out and handed in as a part of the 
 laboratory notes. Additional references are given to 
 excellent practical problems which may best be assigned 
 for discussion during the recitation hour. 
 
 I wish to express my obligations to Professor V. A. C. 
 Henmon, who suggested numerous changes in the manu- 
 script, to Dr. B. Q. Morgan, who read the manuscript, 
 and to Professor W. F. Dearborn, with whose cooperation 
 several experiments, particularly those in Chapters V, 
 VII, and VIII, were planned 
 
 D. S. 
 
 University of Wisconsin, 
 June, 1911. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Individual Differences i 
 
 II. Visual Tests and Defects 13 
 
 III. Auditory Tests and Defects . . . - 19 
 
 IV. Mental Images 25 
 
 V. The Trial and Error Method of Learning 34 
 
 VI. The Progress of Learning . . . . 41 
 
 VII. The Progress of Learning {Continued) . 47 
 
 VIII. The Transference of Training ... 71 
 
 IX. Association 86 
 
 X. Apperception 115 
 
 XI. Attention 133 
 
 XII. Memory 161 
 
 XIII. Work and Fatigue 172 
 
EXPERIMENTS IN 
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 
 
 Problem. The experiments in this chapter are intro- 
 duced with a threefold piupose: first, to show the nature 
 and amounts of difierences in mental abilities between in- 
 dividuals; second, to determine to what extent mental 
 ability in one direction is accompanied by ability in other 
 directions; and third, to demonstrate some simple and 
 accurate means of measuring mental functions. In order 
 to gain scientific insight into these problems, four tjrpes 
 of mental functions or abilities will be selected for measure- 
 ment, namely: memory, perception, controlled associa- 
 tion, and arithmetical ability. 
 
 Procedure, i. Memory, a. Auditory Memory Span. 
 The purpose of this test is to determine the largest number 
 of tmrelated words that can be recalled immediately after 
 one hearing. This test should be conducted by the in- 
 structor in charge and performed simultaneously by the en- 
 
2 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 tire class, as follows: Be prepared with pencil and paper. 
 The person conducting the experiment wiU read the follow- 
 ing groups of words at the rate of one word per second. 
 Immediately after each group is read, write in correct 
 order all the words remembered. Then the next group 
 wiU be read, and so on. Do not read the test words given 
 below until the experiment is finished. 
 
 Tree, box, chair, ice. 
 
 Floor, book, house, pipe, lake. 
 
 Fence, card, pin, lamp, coal, horse. 
 
 Wood, dog, stone, nest, ink, nail, leaf. 
 
 Wall, fork, glass, board, hat, cup, lead, cat. 
 
 Bench, snow, watch, man, rose, heart, gold, king, nose. 
 
 Girl, plant, bread, skate, roof, com, boy, door, face, key. 
 
 Compare your results with the lists as read and find the 
 largest ntunber of words remembered in correct order from 
 any one group. This is your memory span in the auditory 
 field. The use to be made of this measurement will be 
 pointed out below. 
 
 b. Memorizing. Learn the following stanza by reading 
 it through entirely, not by parts, and record the exact 
 time in minutes and seconds. Consider it memorized as 
 soon as you can repeat it without consulting the text. 
 
 A wanderer is man from his birth. 
 
 He was bom in a ship 
 
 On the breast of the river of Time; 
 
 Brimming with wonder and joy. 
 
 He spreads out his arms to the light, 
 
 Rivets his gaze on the banks of the stream. 
 
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 3 
 
 2. Perception of letters and words. 
 
 a. The E Test. Cross out with a short horizontal stroke 
 all the £'5 in the table below. Work as quickly as you can 
 without omitting any. Record the time. 
 
 FLESMRETHGAUDRETTE 
 BENUTROPAERBSESOTDE 
 MIALCXEREBTAFEELBAF 
 ERIGEEEHRELWOBECITO 
 NNEVEDESHDEWOLLEYET 
 HEENYLERITNEREVETAH 
 WTOPEEFOCESRUOCRETT 
 EELATEMTESTAEELPOEP 
 NETFOSEHISFDEKOYREV 
 NEEBBDAEDYETTERPDET 
 FLSEMDERAOREHTAFEMO 
 CEBNEHWZEVGEZQXKED 
 
 b. The e-r Test. Strike out with a horizontal line each 
 word that contains both e and r in the following text. 
 Record the time. 
 
4 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Sed quoniam, patres conscripti, gloriae munus optimis 
 et fortissimis civibus monumenti honore persolvitiir, con- 
 solemur eorum proximos, quibus optima est haec quidem 
 consolatio: parentibus, quod tanta rei publicae praesidia 
 genuerunt; liberis, quod habebunt domestica exempla 
 virtutis; coniugibus, quod iis viris carebunt quos laudare 
 quam lugere praestabit; fratribus, quod in se ut corporum, 
 sic virtutis similitudinem esse confident. Atque utinam 
 his omnibus abstergere fletum sententiis nostris consultis- 
 que possemus, vel aliqua talis iis adhiberi publice posset 
 oratio qua deponerentmaerorem atque luctumgauderent — 
 que potius, cum multa et varia impenderent hominibus 
 genera mortis, id genus quod esset pulcherrimum suis 
 obtigisse, eosque nee inhumatos esse nee desertos, quod 
 tamen ipsum pro patria non miserandum putatur, nee 
 dispersis bustis humili sepultura creates, sed contectos 
 publicis operibus atque muneribus eaque exstructione 
 quae sit ad memoriam aetemitatis ara virtutis. 
 
 Quam ob rem maximum quidem solatium erit propin- 
 quorum eodem monumento declarari et virtutem suorum 
 et populi Romani pietatem et senatus fidem et crudel- 
 issimi memoriam belli, in quo nisi tanta militum virtus 
 exstitisset, parricidio M. Antoni nomen populi Romani 
 occidisset. Atque etiam censeo, patres conscripti, quae 
 praemia militibus promisimus nos re publica recuperata 
 tributuros, ea viris victoribusque cumulate, aim tempus 
 venerit, persolvenda; qui autem ex iis quibus ilia promissa 
 sunt pro patria occiderunt, eorum parentibus, liberis, 
 coniugibus, fratribus eadem tribuenda censeo. 
 
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES S 
 
 3. Controlled Association, a. Opposites Test. Write as 
 quickly as possible the opposite to each word in the 
 following list. Record the time. 
 
 Strong Dark 
 
 Deep Rough 
 
 Lazy Pretty 
 
 Seldom High 
 
 Thin FooUsh 
 
 Soft Present 
 
 Many Glad 
 
 Valuable Strange 
 
 Late Wrong 
 
 Rude Qtiickly 
 
 b. Genus-Species Test. Write the name of some par- 
 ticular object for each of the class names in the following 
 list, as for example, tree-oak. Work as quickly as possible 
 and record the time. 
 
6 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Book State 
 
 City 
 
 Writer 
 
 Scientist 
 
 River 
 
 Wood 
 
 Flower 
 
 Animal 
 
 King 
 
 Grain 
 
 Poet 
 
 Building 
 
 U. S. president 
 
 Fruit 
 
 Battle 
 
 Musician 
 
 Lake 
 
 Street 
 
 Nation 
 
 4. Arithmetical Ability, a. Addition. Add as rapidly 
 as you can the following sets of numbers. Record the 
 time. 
 
 364 
 
 692 
 
 756 
 
 637 
 
 743 
 
 479 
 
 423 
 
 945 
 
 482 
 
 274 
 
 334 
 
 498 
 
 247 
 
 926 
 
 762 
 
 652 
 
 973 
 
 958 
 
 496 
 
 968 
 
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 7 
 
 b. Subtraction. Perform the subtractions indicated in 
 the following nvimbers. Record the time. 
 
 984 
 
 724 
 
 982 
 
 768 
 
 83s 
 
 845 
 
 328 
 
 476 
 
 372 
 
 657 
 
 862 
 
 987 
 
 597 
 
 984 
 
 942 
 
 465 
 
 348 
 
 435 
 
 756 
 
 453 
 
 Results. In order to show the bearing of these experi- 
 ments upon the question of individual difEerences, it is 
 necessary to obtain the data of the tests from each mem- 
 ber of the class and to compare them with one another. 
 Construct a table to show the name and records of each 
 individual. See Table I. 
 
 Draw a curve of distribution for the results of each test 
 showing how many individuals belong to each grade of 
 abihty. For example, in the memory span test, let the 
 abscissffi represent the different numbers of words re- 
 called and the ordinates the number of persons possessing 
 these different spans. See the curves in Figs, i and 2. 
 In the other tests, the intervals of time should be graded 
 by thirty, fifteen, or ten-second steps. Thus, for the 
 £-test, find how many persons finished in from 20-29 
 seconds, 30-39 seconds, etc' 
 
 'To economize time, the person in charge should construct the 
 table on the board in cooperation with the class, each person in 
 turn reading off his records. If the class is smaU, the records in 
 Table I should be used in addition to the ones obtained. 
 
8 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 TABLE I 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 II 
 
 ■g 
 
 O 
 
 E 
 
 la 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 P4 
 
 13 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 0. 
 a 
 
 
 go 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 3' 45" 
 
 50" 
 
 2' 20" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 2' 
 
 I' 5" 
 
 50" 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3' 
 
 50" 
 
 2' 
 
 2' 20" 
 
 l' 10" 
 
 45" 
 
 35" 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 2' 
 
 45" 
 
 3' 30" 
 
 I' 45" 
 
 l' 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 45" 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 I' 50" 
 
 45" 
 
 I' 40" 
 
 I' 5" 
 
 l' 
 
 I' 5" 
 
 45" 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 2' 15" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 45" 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2' 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 3' 
 
 3' 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 2' 
 
 2' 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 I' 
 
 45" 
 
 2' 30" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 2' 
 
 2' 30" 
 
 3' 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 2' 55" 
 
 I' 
 
 2' 4" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 l' 
 
 I' 
 
 40" 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 4' 
 
 30" 
 
 l' 40" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 l' 
 
 I' 
 
 40" 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 35" 
 
 3' 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 2' 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 40" 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 30" 
 
 40" 
 
 I' 
 
 30" 
 
 I' 
 
 I' 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 3' 
 
 58" 
 
 I' 35" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 l' 10" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 45" 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 2' 
 
 45" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 45" 
 
 H 
 
 7 
 
 2' 
 
 i' 
 
 3' 
 
 i' 
 
 I' 35" 
 
 i' 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 2' 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 2' 45" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 l' 30" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 45" 
 
 i6 
 
 5 
 
 2' 
 
 i' 
 
 3' 
 
 I' 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I' 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 3' 30" 
 
 50" 
 
 2' 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 40" 
 
 i8 
 
 5 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 30" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 i' 20" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 30" 
 
 35" 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 I* 20" 
 
 30" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 I' 27" 
 
 I' 
 
 I' 
 
 37" 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 4' 15" 
 
 45" 
 
 2' 35" 
 
 i' 
 
 (' 10" 
 
 40" 
 
 45" 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 3' 
 
 45" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 l' 
 
 I' 
 
 45" 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 4' 12" 
 
 45" 
 
 2' 
 
 i' 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 40" 
 
 19" 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 2' 
 
 30" 
 
 i' 
 
 i' 
 
 55" 
 
 35" 
 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 2' 
 
 50" 
 
 I* 35" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 i' 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 ■ so'' 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 3' 
 
 45" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 i' 
 
 35" 
 
 45" 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 2' 
 
 30" 
 
 2' 
 
 45" 
 
 45" 
 
 50" 
 
 40" 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 2' 
 
 50" 
 
 2' 
 
 I' 
 
 i' 
 
 30" 
 
 45" 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 4' 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 I' 
 
 50" 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 50" 
 
 4' 
 
 3' 10" 
 
 1' 
 
 40" 
 
 30" 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 2' 20" 
 
 50" 
 
 4' 10" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I' 25" 
 
 2' 30" 
 
 I' 50" 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 45" 
 
 3' 
 
 I' 50" 
 
 '' 10" 
 
 i' 
 
 30" 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 50" 
 
 2' 20" 
 
 I' 50" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 I' 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 2' 
 
 45" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I* 35" 
 
 1' 25" 
 
 I' 22" 
 
 I' 
 
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 
 
 TABLE I (Continued) 
 
 
 is 
 
 bo 
 
 ■g 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 
 .9 
 
 1 
 
 Cl 
 u 
 
 s 
 
 34 
 
 7 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 20" 
 
 I' 40" 
 
 I' 
 
 52" 
 
 24" 
 
 20" 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 3' 15" 
 
 45" 
 
 2' 30" 
 
 I' 8" 
 
 48" 
 
 39" 
 
 27" 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 I' 45" 
 
 48" 
 
 3' 21" 
 
 55" 
 
 31" 
 
 I' 52" 
 
 2' 26" 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 3' 
 
 I' 
 
 2' 38" 
 
 I' 25" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 38" 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 2' 30" 
 
 35" 
 
 2' 
 
 I' 5" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 i' 
 
 I' 
 
 39 
 
 5 
 
 I' 28" 
 
 43" 
 
 4' 52" 
 
 4' 20" 
 
 I' 36" 
 
 I' 16" 
 
 45" 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 40" 
 
 2' 15" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 30" 
 
 25" 
 
 41 
 
 6 
 
 3' 
 
 30" 
 
 3' 10" 
 
 2' 15" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 i' 
 
 30" 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 I' 35" 
 
 54" 
 
 4' 4" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 I' 16" 
 
 I' 4" 
 
 48" 
 
 43 
 
 7 
 
 4' 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 3' 30" 
 
 4' 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 46" 
 
 45" 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 
 3' 
 
 30" 
 
 I' 53" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 I' 18" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 55" 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 I' 40" 
 
 58" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 I' 22" 
 
 r 15" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 I' 2" 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 4' 
 
 i' 
 
 2' 
 
 I' 50" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 I' 30" 
 
 58" 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 2' 
 
 30" 
 
 4' 30" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 I' 25" 
 
 I' 18" 
 
 46" 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 55" 
 
 I' 10" i' 40" 
 
 I' 55" 
 
 I' 20" 
 
 48" 
 
 Fig. I. — Memorizing. 
 
10 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Discuss the following questions: 
 
 I. To which grade of ability do the majority of indi- 
 
 FiG. 2.— E Test. 
 
 viduals in these tests belong, superior, medium, or 
 inferior? 
 
 2. If you divide the entire range of abilities into three 
 equal parts, what proportion of individuals belong to each 
 part? For example, what percentage of persons have a 
 memory span of from four to five, six to seven, eight to 
 nine? In this manner make a composite table of all the 
 tests to show the percentage of persons in each third. 
 
 3. On the basis of these distribution curves, would it 
 be fair to divide a group of persons into, for example, 
 two distinct groups, bright and dull? Why? 
 
 4. How much better are the superior individuals than 
 the inferior ones? For example, in the E test in Table I, 
 
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES II 
 
 the best record is 20 seconds, while the lowest is i minute, 
 30 seconds. That is, the best one is four and one-half 
 times as fast as the slowest one. Construct a table to 
 show this comparison for all the tests. 
 
 5. What application has the curve of distribution to the 
 assignment of grades in school studies? 
 
 The following are the grades of a class in psychology: 
 86, 80, 86, 83, 78, 80, 88, 8s, 82, 83, 86, 88, 84, 84, 88, 83, 
 86, 88, 86, 83, 90, 86, 86, 86, 84, 80, 86, 80, 82, 78, 82, 88, 
 86, 80, 86, 84, 93, 86, 68, 85, 84, 86, 84, 90, 88, 88, 86, 80, 
 86, 93, 82, 88, 86, 90, 82, 78, 97, 75, 73, 78, 86, 86, 82, 86, 
 88, 78, 80, 86, 82, 90, 70, 80, 90, 84, 82, 76, 86, 78, 84, 84, 
 88, 83, 70, 86, 84, 82, 90, 82, 88, 78, 88, go, 86, 86, 93, 78, 
 86, 86, 90, 75, 86, 84, 76, 84, 76, 84, 75, 84, 86, 70, 90, 95, 
 90, 84, 80, 93, 70, 82, 80, 84, 83, 86, 83, 86, 86, 86, 84, 84, 
 82, 86, 83. 
 
 Construct a distribution curve. Should this curve be 
 similar in form to the curves obtained from the experi- 
 ments? Why? What criticism of these grades can you 
 suggest? 
 
 6. One of the most significant facts of individual differ- 
 ences is that persons ranking high in one ability are as a 
 rule not equally superior in other abilities. A bright pupil 
 in history may not be much above the average in arith- 
 metic, and vice versa. 
 
 In order to demonstrate in a rough way to what extent 
 such relations or lack of relations between mental fimc- 
 tions exist, draw a circle around each of the five best 
 records made in each of the eight tests. How many 
 
12 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 persons, if any, come within the first five in all the tests? 
 If a person's abilities are equally superior, or nearly so, 
 in all the functions tested, all his records should be found 
 among the first five. 
 
 Indicate the five poorest records in each test by squares. 
 Are the persons who make the poorest records in memor- 
 izing the same as those who make the poorest in the other 
 tests? How many are the same? Similarly, compare the 
 memory span with the memorizing test, and likewise the 
 other pairs of tests.^ 
 
 For further practical exercises and applications to 
 school work see Thomdike, Principles of Teaching, pp. 
 98-104. 
 
 ' The accurate way of representing relations between mental 
 capacities is by means of the coefi&cient of correlation. See Thom- 
 dike, Educational Psychology, First Edition, p. 26. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 VISUAL TESTS AND DEFECTS 
 The eye is the most important avenue of information. 
 
 » 
 
 The need of care in preventing abuse and in correcting 
 defects is patent to everyone. Every teacher should know 
 something of the common types of visual defects, and how 
 to detect them. 
 
 I. Far- and Near-Sightedness. In order to see an 
 object distinctly the rays of light from that object must 
 come to a sharp focus upon the retina. If not, the object 
 appears blurred. 
 
 a. The Function of Accommodation. Accommodation 
 is the change in the shape of the crystalline lens in order 
 to focus the image upon the retina. For a distant point 
 the lens flattens and for a near point it bulges. 
 
 Set the end of a ruler against the cheek below the right 
 eye so that it points in the direction of sight. Close the 
 left eye. Hold a pin (point upward) at a distance of 
 about thirty centimetres so that the point can be seen 
 distinctly. Then gradually slide it along the edge of the 
 ruler toward the eye until it comes to the place where the 
 point begins to blur. Slide it outward until the point 
 again appears- distinct. This is the near point of vision. 
 
 13 
 
14 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Measure and record the distance from the eye. Make 
 five measurements for the right and five for the left eye. 
 For the normal eye, at the age of twenty, this distance 
 is about twelve to fifteen centimetres. For the near- 
 sighted eye it is less, and for the far-sighted eye it is 
 more. 
 
 Hold the pin at the distance just determined and set 
 a page of print about twenty centimetres beyond the pin. 
 Notice that as you focus on the pin the print appears 
 blurred. As you focus on the print the pin appears 
 blurred. Notice also the feeling of effort or strain in the 
 eye as you shift from the print to the pin. 
 
 In myopia, or near-sightedness, the eyeball usually is 
 too long. The image is formed at a point in front of the 
 retiaa. In hyperopia, or far-sightedness, the eyeball is 
 ordinarily too short and the image would be formed at a 
 point back of the retina. In the latter case it requires 
 constant strain of the ciHary muscles to see near objects 
 distinctly. 
 
 Defects of accommodation are accentuated in large part 
 by the effort and strain in the ciliary muscles which con- 
 trol the lenses when looking at objects near by, as, for 
 example, in reading. They may also be due to loss of 
 elasticity in the lens or lack of responsiveness in the ciliary 
 muscles. When the eyes are at rest they are focussed for 
 distant points. Demonstrate this by closing yotir eyes 
 for a few seconds, and then opening them. Notice that 
 they are adjusted for distant objects and that it requires 
 special effort to focus them upon the page in front of you. 
 
VISUAL TESTS AND DEFECTS 1$ 
 
 b. Snellen's Test} Hang the chart on the wall in good 
 light, but not in direct sunlight. Be seated directly in 
 front of it at a distance of twenty feet. Test each eye 
 separately. Hold a card in front of one eye while the other 
 eye is being examined. Do not press against the eyeball. 
 Begin at the top of the chart and read aloud down as far 
 as you can. The experimenter stands near the chart 
 and takes note of the errors. Record the results of each 
 eye separately in terms of a fraction in which the num- 
 erator is twenty and the denominator is the number at 
 the right of the last line read correctly. Thus, if the 
 fraction is It, it means that the last line read correctly 
 is the one marked twenty feet, the distance at which the 
 normal eye should be able to read it. If the fraction is 
 f-Q, or less, the eye is probably near-sighted. If the lo 
 or 15 feet lines can be read the eye is probably far-sighted. 
 In either case, it shoiild receive the attention of a phy- 
 sician. 
 
 It is well to use several different vision charts so that 
 the letters may not be memorized. If only one chart is 
 at hand the results should be verified by covering with two 
 cards all the letters in a given line, except the one to be 
 read. Expose the letters in irregular order. 
 
 2. Astigmatism. Use the chart which has the radiating 
 lines. These are nximbered like the figures on a clock. 
 Hang the chart in good light and sit at a distance of twenty 
 
 ' Snellen's Vision Charts, Cogan's Prism Chart, and Holmgren's 
 worsteds can be obtained from F. A. Hardy & Co., 131 Wabash 
 Ave., Chicago. 
 
1 6 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 feet. Cover one eye with a card, while the other eye is 
 being tested. Look at the chart and notice whether any 
 of the radii appear darker. Record these by their num- 
 bers. To the normal eye the radii should appear equally 
 distinct. If they appear considerably different the eye is 
 astigmatic. 
 
 3. Strabismus, or Heterophoria. This includes all those 
 defects which are due to the lack of proper coordination 
 of the two eyeballs so that the two eyes do not converge 
 simultaneously upon the same point. This condition is 
 due to the fact that the external muscles of the eyes are 
 not properly counterbalanced. The extreme form is 
 commonly called cross-eyes. There are, however, many 
 slight degrees of strabismus which can scarcely be noticed 
 and yet have a very detrimental effect upon vision. The 
 unbalanced eye receives a distorted image and the btir- 
 den of sight falls upon the other eye. Demonstrate this 
 by looking at some object, say a book, and pressing yoiu: 
 finger against the lower side of one eyeball. Notice the 
 distortion of vision. 
 
 To detect the presence of strabismus, make the follow- 
 ing test: Hang the Cogan Prism chart about six inches 
 away from the wall. Place a Hghted candle or lamp just 
 back of the small opening at the centre of the chart. 
 Take a position twenty feet from the chart so that the 
 eyes are on a level with the aperture. The light must be 
 seen directly through the opening. 
 
 Close one eye and hold the red glass close before the 
 other eye, so that the red image can be seen. Then look 
 
VISUAL TESTS AND DEFECTS 17 
 
 with both eyes at the flame and notice the location of the 
 red image. Does it coincide with the yellow flame? If 
 not, record its position in terms of the circles and radii of 
 the chart. Shift the glass to the other eye and again 
 record the position of the red image. If the eyes are in 
 perfect balance the two images should coincide. If not, 
 the degree and natiire of the deviation wiU be indicated by 
 the distance and direction of the red image from the 
 yellow flame. 
 
 4. Color-blindness. Take the three standard colors, 
 labelled A, B, and C, of Holmgren's worsteds and place 
 them on the table a foot or more apart. Select from the 
 other worsteds aU those which are like or similar to each 
 of the three standards. Arrange the colors in each group 
 in the order of their brightness. Do this as quickly as 
 you can. Record the time required and the order of the 
 worsteds by writing down their numbers in the order in 
 which you arranged them. 
 
 Defective color vision will be indicated by the long time 
 required to arrange the worsteds and by the confusion 
 of the colors. The grouping of the worsteds is correct if 
 they are arranged in the order in which they are num- 
 bered. Red-green blindness, the most common form, 
 will be revealed by the confusion of the red and the green 
 yams. 
 
 Discuss the following questions: 
 
 1. What use may a teacher make of the knowledge of 
 the visual defects of individual pupils? 
 
 2. How may she assist such pupils? 
 
l8 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 3. How woiild color-blindness be a drawback in school 
 work? 
 
 For further practical exercises see Thomdike, Princi- 
 ples of Teaching, 17-20. O'Shea, Dynamic Factors in 
 Education, Ch. 17. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 AUDITORY TESTS AND DEFECTS 
 
 The school is concerned with two auditory problems, 
 acuity of hearing and discrimination of pitch. The former 
 is of interest to every teacher, the latter is of importance 
 primarily to the teacher of music. 
 
 I. Acuity of Hearing. The problem is to determine 
 whether an individual's hearing is normal or whether 
 there is any degree of deafness present in either or 
 both ears. Several forms of tests will be used. 
 
 a. The Watch Test. Perform the experiment in a quiet 
 room. The subject is seated on a chair. Fasten the zero 
 end of a tape measure to the back of the chair just behind 
 the ear to be tested. The other ear should be closed with 
 cotton. Hold the watch so that it can be heard readily. 
 Then gradually move it outward along the aural axis 
 (the line passing through the two ears) until it can no 
 longer be heard. Hold the tape with the other hand and 
 measure the distance of the watch from the ear. Then 
 begin from a position where it can not be heard and move 
 it toward the ear. As soon as it can be heard, stop and 
 measvure the distance. Always hold the watch in the same 
 
 19 
 
20 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 way with the same side toward the ear. Move it at the 
 rate of about one inch per second. Make five in" and 
 five "out" measiirements for each ear in the double fatigue 
 order, that is, three on the first ear, five on the second, 
 and two more on the first. Average the results for each 
 ear separately. 
 
 The advantages of this test are that it is simple, con- 
 venient, and sufficiently accurate for crude measurements. 
 Its disadvantages are that watches differ and that the 
 sound is rhythmic, which is apt to deceive the listener 
 into hearing the ticking when he actually does not. In 
 order to make the records of different persons compara- 
 ble, the same watch should be used.^ 
 
 b. Seashore's Audiometer. This is an accurate, con- 
 venient instrument, and on the whole the best for measur- 
 ing acuity of hearing.^ 
 
 Adjust the strength of the electric current by means of 
 the resistance plugs and the galvanometer tmtil the needle 
 of the latter rests on the central cross bar. Connect the 
 receiver with the audiometer and mount it on a tripod 
 in another room. The subject is seated so that the ear 
 
 'The Politzer acoumeter may be used in exactly the same 
 mamier as the watch. The sound in this instrument is produced by 
 a small metallic hammer. It is superior to the watch in that the 
 stimuli are uniform and can be produced at will. 
 
 ^ A description of this apparatus may be found in the Univ. of 
 Iowa Studies in Psych., 1898, II., 158-163. It consists essentially 
 of a series of induction coils by which the stimulus can be varied 
 from very weak to moderately strong intensities. The instrument 
 can be obtained from C. H. Stoelting Co., 121 N. Green St., Chi- 
 cago. 
 
AUDITORY TESTS AND DEFECTS 21 
 
 can be held as close as possible to the receiver without 
 touching it. A key and telegraph sounder should be 
 set up, the former being placed in the hands of the subject 
 and the latter in the room with the audiometer. The 
 subject responds on this key whenever he hears the stim- 
 ulus from the receiver. 
 
 The sliding key on the audiometer is for the piurpose 
 of changing the intensity of the stimulus. To make the 
 measurements, begin with a sound which can easily be 
 heard. Diminish the intensity of the stimulus step by 
 step until the subject no longer responds. Give the stimuli 
 at irregular intervals of from three to six seconds, so that 
 the subject may not tend to respond rhythmically. 
 Record the last sovmd heard. Begin several units below 
 this point and increase the intensity of the stimuli until 
 the subject again responds. Record the first one heard. 
 In this manner make five measurements on each ear in 
 the double fatigue order. Average the results. Compare 
 them with the watch test. Is the acmty of the two ears 
 the same? 
 
 c. The Whisper Test. This test may be omitted, but it 
 is introduced here because it is often a serviceable method 
 in the school-room. The pupil is stationed at a distance 
 of fifteen or twenty feet from the examiner with one ear 
 toward him. Then a series of twenty -five words, prefer- 
 ably numbers, are spoken in a whispered voice. After 
 each word the child writes down what he heard. Ten or 
 twelve pupils may easily be tested at one time. Then 
 the pupil turns so that the other ear is toward the exam- 
 
2 2 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 iner and the test is repeated. After the test, the pupil's 
 list is compared with the examiner's list, and the per- 
 centage of errors determined. It requires some practice 
 on the part of the examiner to whisper the words fairly 
 uniformly. The results are entirely relative, and different 
 pupils must be compared with one another. The pupU 
 who has considerably more than the average percentage 
 of errors should receive medical attention. The one great 
 advantage of the whisper experiment is that it tests 
 hearing of conversational speech, which is not the case 
 when mechanical stimuli are used. 
 
 2. Discrimination of Pitch. One of the essentials for 
 musical training is the capacity to make fine discrimina- 
 tions of pitch. A convenient and accurate method of 
 testing musical discrimination is afforded by a series of 
 eleven graded tuning-forks ^ which range in pitch from 
 435 vibrations (the standard) to 465 vibrations. The 
 forks between these limits are graded in the following 
 order, each being so many vibrations higher than the 
 standard: J^, i, 2, 3, 5, 8, 11, 17, 23, 30. 
 
 Mount a speaking-tube so that the subject may hold 
 one end of it to his ear. The experimenter holds the 
 
 ' This series can be prepared from a set of A forks whose prongs 
 are approximately three and a half inches long. They can be ob- 
 tained through any music dealer. One of the forks is selected as 
 standard and the others are tuned according to the required interval 
 above the standard by filing the ends of the prongs until they have 
 the desired pitch. They can be tuned accurately by comparing each 
 fork with the standard and with one another and counting the beats. 
 This method of testing was first devised by Seashore. See Univ. of 
 Iowa Studies in Psych., II., 55-64. 
 
AUDITORY TESTS AND DEFECTS 23 
 
 vibrating forks at the other end of the tube. If no speak- 
 ing tube is at hand, the forks may be held close to the ear. 
 Or, better, roll a sheet of paper to make a tube an inch 
 in diameter and hold that to the ear. The stimuli can 
 thus be given more uniformly than by holding the forks 
 to the ear. 
 
 The experimenter strikes the standard and the highest 
 fork and holds them in rapid succession before the tube. 
 They should be struck as uniformly as possible and held to 
 the tube not longer than two or three seconds, with as 
 short an interval between the two forks to be compared 
 as possible. The subject indicates whether the second is 
 higher or lower than the first. If the answer is correct the 
 standard and the twenty-three fork are compared in the 
 same manner. If that judgment is correct, the standard 
 and the seventeen fork are taken, and so on imtil the 
 subject makes a mistake. Then, with these two forks, 
 make twenty trials and record each judgment as right or 
 wrong. If less than seventy per cent, of the answers are 
 correct, make twenty trials with the standard and the 
 fork next above the one just used. If more than eighty 
 per cent, are correct, make twenty trials with the standard 
 and the fork next below the one used. The two forks 
 with which approximately seventy-five per cent, of the 
 answers are correct may then be regarded as the measure 
 of the threshold of pitch discrimination. An average is 
 difficult to give because individuals diSer greatly in this 
 respect. For viniversity students the average is between 
 five and eight vibrations. 
 
24 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Discuss the following questions: 
 
 1. In what ways may the teacher assist a deaf pupil? 
 A pupil deaf in one ear only ? 
 
 2. What changes would you suggest to be made in the 
 musical instruction of a pupil who has poor discrimina- 
 tion of pitch? ^ 
 
 ' Cf. Seashore, Educational Review, Vol. 22, p. 75. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 MENTAL IMAGES 
 
 The problem is to determine the relative predomi- 
 nance of the different types of mental images.^ 
 
 I. The Frequency of Different Classes of Mental 
 Images. Determine this by the association method in the 
 following manner. The material to be used consists of 
 the columns of words printed below. Cover with a piece 
 of paper all the words except the first column. With 
 another piece of paper cover this coltmin also. Slide it 
 down far enough to expose the first word. Then in a 
 short sentence write in your notebook an answer to this 
 question, " What do you think of as soon as you see that 
 word?" For example, if the word is " grass," it might 
 suggest at once imagery of this kind, " I think at once of 
 the green appearance of a meadow." Or, if the word is 
 " shoe," it might suggest such an answer as this, " I 
 _ think of the pinching of my new shoe." Do not try to 
 make a selection, but write down whatever comes to your 
 mind first. Write your answer qviickly and proceed to 
 
 * The student should be familiar with the meaning and nature of 
 mental images. Some standard text on psychology may be consulted, 
 e. g. James, Psychology, Chap. 19; or Angell, Psychology, Chap. 8. 
 
 25 
 
26 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 the next word by sliding the paper down to expose it. 
 Answer the same question with regard to this word. 
 Similarly, work through the entire list of words. Num- 
 ber your answers. Keep all the columns covered except 
 the one you are using. The purpose of this is to avoid 
 as far as possible the associations with other words except 
 the one before you. 
 
 Nouns 
 bell 
 piano 
 railroad 
 music 
 storm 
 
 6. clock 
 
 7. hammer 
 
 8. drum 
 
 9. wagon 
 10. dog 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 3- 
 4- 
 5- 
 
 II 
 
 Verbs 
 
 1. whistle 
 
 2. sing 
 
 3. knock 
 
 4. cry 
 
 5. laugh 
 .6. hiss 
 
 7. rattle 
 
 8. bark 
 
 9. march 
 10. whisper 
 
 III 
 
 Nouns 
 
 iron 
 
 stove 
 
 knife 
 
 cap 
 
 needle 
 
 snow 
 
 soap 
 
 8. brush 
 
 9. wool 
 10. apple 
 
 IV 
 
 Verbs 
 
 1. couch 
 
 2. walk 
 
 3. bum 
 
 4. run 
 5- sting 
 
 6. write 
 
 7. bite 
 
 8. pull 
 
 9. lift 
 10. fall 
 
 Put the results in the form of a table showing how many 
 of the forty words aroused visual images, auditory, motor, 
 tactile, etc. In the illustrations given above, " grass " 
 brought out visual images, " shoe " at once suggested 
 tactile images, etc. Calculate the percentage of each 
 class.'^ 
 
 ' PfeifEer, L., Ueber Vorstellungstypen, Padagogische Monograph- 
 ien, 1907, Leipzig. 
 
MENTAL IMAGES 27 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 FREQUENCY OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF IMAGES OF 
 TWENTY-SIX PERSONS 
 
 Visual Auditory Motor Tactile Miscellaneous 
 
 1 25 9 6 
 
 2 37 2 I 
 
 3 18 10 7 5 
 
 4 26 8 4 I 
 
 5 25 9 3 I 
 
 6 15 12 4 9 
 
 7 16 13 6 5 
 
 8 19 14 5 2 
 
 9 19 9 7 I 
 
 10 24 7 6 
 
 II 15 13 2 10 
 
 12 36 4 
 
 13 15 10 5 10 
 
 14 20 10 8 2 
 
 15 28 9 2 I 
 
 16 31 6 I I I 
 
 17 16 8 7 3 6 
 
 18 15 8 8 8 I 
 
 19 16 10 10 4 
 
 20 19 5 10 5 
 
 21 15 10 8 6 I 
 
 22 23 II I 5 
 
 23 12 II II 6 
 
 24 16 10 10 4 
 
 25 12 12 9 5 2 
 
 26 17 II 8 3 I 
 
 Averages.. 20.4 9-3 5-8 3-8 .7 
 
 Percentages 51. 23.3 14.5 9.5 1.7 
 
 2. The Vividness of Mental Images. This is to be 
 
 determined by an introspective questionnaire. Use the 
 
 following list of questions.' 
 
 ' From Seashore, Elementary Experiments in Psychology, 106— 
 III, by permission of Henry Holt & Co. and the author. 
 
28 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 " This is a distinct exercise in introspection. It is best 
 to keep the eyes closed as you introspect. If the observer 
 does not have strong imagery he may be lost in the effort 
 to create an image out of the retinal light. To avoid this, 
 it is best to think of the object as in a distant place; for 
 example, the rose on the bush. 
 
 " Sometimes the image comes in the most reahstic way 
 when it comes without effort as a sort of a reverie image 
 which passes the mental horizon. As a rule, it is best not 
 to direct the attention primarily to the detail of the image, 
 but rather to the effort to recall the fact; when the fact 
 comes into consciousness the character of the image may 
 be observed. 
 
 " Fix clearly in mind and use as consistently as possible 
 the following scale of degrees of vividness: 
 
 0. No image at all. 
 
 1. Very faint. 
 
 2. Faint. 
 
 3. Fairly vivid. 
 
 4. Vivid. 
 
 5. Very vivid. 
 
 6. As vivid as in perception. 
 
 " Answer the following questions by writing after the 
 number of the question the nimiber which denotes the 
 degree of vividness characteristic of your image. Instead 
 of taking the questions in the order given, foUow the order: 
 I-i, II-i, III-i, IV-i, V-i, VI-i, VII-i, VIII-i, 1-2, II-2, 
 III-2, IV-2, etc., 1-3, II-3, III-3, IV-3, etc. Introspective 
 
MENTAL IMAGES 29 
 
 notes to supplement the numerical answers are very 
 desirable. 
 
 1. Visual. — I. Can you image the color of — (a) A red 
 rose? (b) A green leaf? (c) A yellow ribbon? (d) A 
 blue sky? 
 
 2. Can you image the brightness of — (a) A white tea- 
 cup? (b) A black crow? (c) A gray stone? (d) The 
 blade of a knife? 
 
 3. Can you image the form of — (a) The rose? (b) The 
 leaf? (c) The teacup? (d) The knife? 
 
 4. Can you form a idsual image of — (a) A moving ex- 
 press train? (b) Your sharpening of a pencil? (c) An 
 up-and-down movement of jj^our tongue? 
 
 5. Can you image simultaneously — (a) A group of col- 
 ors in a bunch of sweet peas? (b) Colors, foniis, bright- 
 nesses, and movements in a lansdcape view? 
 
 6. Can you compare in a visual image — (a) The color 
 of cream and the color of milk? (b) The tint of one of 
 your finger-nails with that of the palm of your hand? 
 
 7. Can you hold fairly constant for ten seconds — (a) 
 The color of the rose? (b) The form of the rose? 
 
 II. Auditory. — i. Can you image the sound of — (a) 
 The report of a gun? (b) The clinking of glasses? (c) 
 The ringing of church bells? (d) The hum of bees? 
 
 2. Can you image the characteristic tone quality of — 
 (a) A vioUn? (b) A cello? (c) A flute? (d) A comet? 
 
 3. Can you repeat in auditory imagery the air of — (a) 
 Yankee Doodle? (b) America? 
 
 4. Can you fonsv auditory images of the intensity of a 
 
20 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 violin tone — (a) very strong; (b) strong; (c) weak; (d) 
 very weak? 
 
 5. Can you form auditory imagery of the rhythm of — 
 
 (a) The snare-drum? (b) The bass-drum? (c) ' Dixie,' 
 or other air heard played? (d) Tell me not in mourn- 
 ful numbers ' spoken by yovirself ? 
 
 III. Motor. — I. Can you image, in motor terms, your- 
 self — (a) Rocking in a chair? (b) Walking down a stair- 
 way? (c) Biting a lump of sugar? (d) Clenching yotir 
 fist? 
 
 2. Does motor imagery arise in your mind when you 
 recall — (a) A waterfall? (b) A facial expression of fear? 
 (c) The bleating of sheep? (d) Two boys on a teeter- 
 board? 
 
 3. Aside from the actual inceptive movements, do you 
 get motor imagery when recalling — (a) A very high tone? 
 
 (b) A very low tone? (c) Words like 'Paderewski,' 
 ' bubble,' ' tete-a-tete,' ' Hurrah!'? 
 
 4. Can you form motor images of — (a) An inch? (b) 
 A yard? (c) A mile? 
 
 5. Can you form a motor image of — (a) The weight of 
 a pound of butter? (b) Yoxir speed in ruiming a race? 
 
 (c) The speed of an arrow? 
 
 IV. Tactual. — i. Can you form a tactual image of the 
 pressure of— (a) Velvet? (b) Smooth glass? (c) Sand- 
 paper? (d) Mud? 
 
 2. Can you form tactual imagery of the following im- 
 pressions made in the pahn of your hand — (a) The size 
 of a certain coin? (b) The form of the same coin? (c) 
 
MENTAL IMAGES 31 
 
 The direction of a line traced by a pencil point? (d) The 
 intermittent touch of a vibrating body? 
 
 3. Can you form tactual imagery of — (a) The flow of 
 water against the finger? (b) The sensation from a pres- 
 sure spot? (c) The weight of a particular coin in the 
 hand? 
 
 V. Olfactory. — i. Can you image the odor of — (a) Cof- 
 fee? (b) Camphor? (c) An onion? (d) Apple-blossoms? 
 
 2. Can you image odors from — (a) A meadow? (b) 
 A confectioner's shop? 
 
 VI. Gustatory. — i. Can you image the taste of — (a) 
 Sugar? (b) Salt? (c) Vinegar? (d) Quinine? 
 
 2. Can you image the taste of — (a) An apple? (b) A 
 chocolate cake? (c) Beefsteak? 
 
 VII. Thermal. — i. Can you image the coldness of — (a) 
 Ice cream? (b) A draught of cold air? (c) The sensa- 
 tion from the stimulation of a cold spot? 
 
 2. Can you image the warmth of — (a) Hot tea? (b) A 
 warm poker? (c) A warm bath? (d) The sensation from 
 the stimtilation of a warm spot? 
 
 VIII. Pain. — I. Can you secure a sensory image of the 
 pain of — (a) The prick of a pin? (b) Running yovu: finger 
 along the edge of a sharp knife? (c) A toothache or head- 
 ache? (d) The stimiilation of a pain spot?" 
 
 Find the average for each of the eight classes of images 
 and plot a ciu-ve as in Fig. 3, in which the horizontal Hne 
 represents the types of images and the vertical line the 
 averages of their vividness. 
 
 3. Another method which is useful primarily to dis- 
 
32 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 r — 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 I I m IE ¥ 51 mun 
 
 Pig. 3. — Records of Two Persons 
 
 tinguish the visualizer from the auditory-motor individual 
 is as follows: 
 
 Commit to memory the accompan3ring pattern of letters 
 by reading from left to right. 
 
 k n p 
 s o h 
 ■g r w 
 
 Lay the book aside and attempt to recall the three ver- 
 tical columns beginning at the bottom. Then recall the 
 diagonals beginning at the left, then the vertical columns 
 beginning at the top, and finally the horizontal lines be- 
 ginning at the right. Are you able to do this without 
 having to repeat the letters until you come to the desired 
 one? For example, in recalling the vertical coliunns from 
 below, do you have to repeat the letters tmtil you come 
 to the first one in the last line? Or can you visualize the 
 entire pattern and read off, as it were, from the mental 
 picture the particular succession of letters called for? 
 The latter person would be predominantly a visualizer, 
 
MENTAL IMAGES 33 
 
 while the former woxild be predominantly an auditory- 
 motor person. 
 
 Discuss these questions: 
 
 1. In which school studies and exercises would strong 
 visual imagery be a distinct advantage? Motor imagery? 
 
 2. What advantage might there be for a teacher to 
 know what her dominant class of imagery is? If a 
 person is strongly of one type, illustrations and explana- 
 tions in teaching are apt to be taken from that field of 
 imagery. How would these affect pupils of a distinctly 
 different type? 
 
 3. Would it be advisable to separate pupils into differ- 
 ent classes according to their prevailing imagery? See 
 Thomdike, Principles of Teaching, 89. 
 
 4. Is it advisable to appeal to only one type of imagery 
 in teaching? 
 
CHAPTER V 
 THE TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD OF LEARNING 
 
 Types of Methods. There are three methods by which 
 the doing of a definite act may be learned. 
 
 a. By trial and error, that is, by making random 
 attempts until by chance some attempts are successful. 
 
 b. By imitation, that is, by observing the performance 
 of the act and then attempting to copy it. 
 
 c. By reasoning, that is, by attempting to think it out 
 and then proceeding accordingly. 
 
 The most fundamental of these is the trial and error 
 method. The acquisition of all motor control is accom- 
 pUshed primarily by this method. The others serve only 
 as supplementary aids. For example, in learning to strike 
 a ball with a bat the boy begins by attempting to strike it. 
 He will probably not even succeed in touching it until 
 after several attempts, when the ball and bat happen to 
 meet. As he continues, the successful trials become more 
 and more frequent, while the failures gradually diminish. 
 Learning to strike the ball may possibly be facilitated 
 by observing and imitating an expert batter, but the 
 attempt to reason as to how to strike would probably be 
 of little or no assistance in this particular case. 
 
 34 
 
THE TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD OF LEARNING 35 
 
 The Problem of the Experiment is to demonstrate the 
 trial and error method of learning, its nature and sig- 
 nificance in learning to coordinate perceptual and motor 
 factors. To show this satisfactorily it is necessary to 
 test the process of learning a relatively new and undevel- 
 oped act. For this purpose we shall use mirror writing. 
 This consists essentially in the establishment of a new 
 connection between hand movements and the visual per- 
 ception of these movements as seen in a mirror. 
 
 Material and Apparatus. Prepare the following material 
 for the experiment: Lay a piece of cardboard back of 
 Fig. 4. Prick through the page with a pin at the apexes 
 of the twelve angles of the star outline. Connect these 
 points with straight lines and then trim the card to pro- 
 duce a six-pointed star pattern. Lay the pattern on a 
 sheet of paper and trace a line around it, making an out- 
 line like Fig. 4. Insert the arrow and cross line in their 
 appropriate places. Draw eleven such outlines, each on 
 a separate sheet of paper. ^ 
 
 Set a mirror on the table about eighteen inches from 
 you and facing toward you. Set it in a vertical position 
 and at right angles to your median plane. The mirror 
 must be at least six by six inches. It may be held in 
 position by means of books or other convenient objects 
 placed against it. The face of the mirror, however, must 
 be left free. 
 
 Procedure. Lay one of the star outlines on the table 
 
 * In order to economize time, it is well to have a rubber stamp 
 made by means of which the patterns may be prepared quickly. 
 
36 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 just in front of the mirror so that the arrow is nearest 
 the mirror. Fasten the sheet to the table with two pins. 
 By means of a pencil trace with the left hand just one-half 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 of this outline. Begin at the crossbar and go in the 
 direction in which the arrow points. Record on this 
 outline the exact time in seconds which it took to trace 
 this half. Also label it properly as being the first half 
 done with the left hand. Lay this sheet aside. Then trace 
 with the right hand the remaining ten outlines, doing each 
 one completely. Number them in the order in which 
 
THE TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD OF LEARNING 37 
 
 you do them. Record on each the time required to do 
 the tracing of that particular outline. 
 
 Observe your hand only in the mirror. Never observe 
 it directly. To guard against this a piece of cardboard 
 can easily be clamped to a tripod to intercept the direct 
 view. Follow the line as closely as possible. As soon as 
 you notice that the pencil is beside the line, attempt to 
 get back. In doing this, do not lift the pencil from the 
 paper. The first tracing wiU usually be difficult. It is 
 therefore important to persist. 
 
 Results. Construct a table to show (a) the time in 
 seconds required for each tracing, and (b) the number of 
 errors made in each tracing. By an error is meant a 
 correcting movement as shown in Fig. 5. Each attempt 
 to return to the line, whether successful or not, is counted 
 as an error. Plot the results in two curves, placing the 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
38 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 number of trials on the horizontal line and the time and 
 errors on the vertical Une. See Fig. 6. 
 
 Discuss the following points: 
 
 I. Examiae the two or three places in your first tracing 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 which were especially difficult, such as are shown in Fig. 5, 
 where a large number of random movements were made in 
 all directions. Did you find in these difficult places that 
 the determination to move in a certain desired direction 
 resulted in movement in that direction? Or, did you find 
 that you were about as apt to go in some other direction ? 
 The experiment shows that you learn to trace the line 
 by the "try, try again " method. Thinking, or making 
 up your mind to move here or there gives little or no 
 assistance. 
 
THE TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD OF LEARNING 39 
 
 2. Did you notice any feeling of pleasure or satisfaction 
 when you were successful in retiiming to the line? If so, 
 in what way would that help in the later records? 
 
 3. In what respect is your process of learning in this 
 experiment similar to a child's learning to write? 
 
 4. Is the latter more difficult for the child than the 
 former is for you? If so, why? 
 
 The importance of the method of trial and error in the 
 development of the motor life of the child is exceedingly 
 great. We can realize its significance only when we 
 remember that all of the activities which involve muscular 
 coordination are acquired by this method. It is in this 
 manner, for example, that the child learns to reach suc- 
 cessftilly for an object before him. Many random attempts 
 to reach are made until the hand grasps the object. 
 He learns to walk, to control his head, to move the arms 
 and fingers in desired ways largely by trial and error. Of 
 coiurse, for many of these activities there are instinctive 
 tendencies, but these are for the most part indefinite and 
 often consist of little more than a great abundance of 
 impulses to act. 
 
 It seems, therefore, important that the teacher should 
 know the nature and meaning of the trial and error method, 
 that she should realize its fimdamental importance in the 
 development of child life, that she should understand what 
 school exercises are learned wholly or largely by this 
 method and which can be acquired more quickly by stim- 
 ulating other modes of learning, and that she should 
 appreciate something of the difficulty in acquiring accu- 
 
4° EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 rate muscular control such as is involved in, for example, 
 learning to write. 
 
 For more complete discussion of the practical and 
 theoretical bearings of this mode of learning the following 
 references may be consulted: Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals 
 of Child Study, pp. 81-86. O'Shea, Dynamic Factors 
 in Education, pp. 110-121. Bagley, The Educative 
 Process, pp. 242-243. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 I. Rate of Improvement 
 
 The Problem is to determine (a) the general rate of 
 improvement, (b) whether improvement progresses at a 
 uniform rate from beginning to end, and if not, when it 
 is most rapid and when least rapid, (c) whether there 
 are periods of improvement and retardation, and (d) the 
 effect of a long interval of rest. 
 
 For the investigation of these problems the type of 
 learning begun in the last experiment will be continued. 
 It is well adapted to this pirrpose for the reason that a 
 considerable amount of improvement can be accomplished 
 in a relatively short period of time and for the reason that 
 considerable practice has already been attained in it. 
 
 Material. Prepare twenty-five star outlines as directed 
 in the last chapter. 
 
 Procedure. Continue the mirror tracing exactly as 
 directed before. Try to improve as rapidly as you can, 
 both in the time and accuracy of tracing. In order to 
 avoid the disturbing effect of fatigue it is weU to alternate 
 the preparation of the outlines with the tracing. For 
 example, prepare five outlines, then trace five, etc. Num- 
 
 41 
 
42 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 ber the tracings in the order in which you do them. 
 Record on each the exact time reqiiired to trace it. After 
 all the tracings are done return to the one begun with the 
 left hand and finish the remaining half. 
 
 Results. Construct a table showing the time and errors 
 of each record. Plot curves from these data, making them 
 continuous with the curves drawn of the ten records made 
 in the preceding chapter. Indicate the points of junction 
 by short cross lines. Calculate the percentage of improve- 
 ment, comparing the last right-hand tracing with the first. 
 Do the same for the two left-hand outlines. 
 
 State your conclusions, and in connection with these 
 discuss the foUovdng points: 
 
 1. Which part of the curve shows the most rapid im- 
 provement? Would you expect to find the same fact in 
 all forms of learning? 
 
 2. Is there any indication of periods of more rapid 
 improvement followed by periods of little or no improve- 
 ment, or possibly even loss? What explanation can you 
 suggest? 
 
 If no distinct periods or " plateaus " are recognizable, 
 it is probably due to the fact that the practice has not 
 been continued long enough. These " plateaus " can 
 be seen in Fig. 6, which represents one himdred tracings 
 made at the rate of one a day for one hundred consec- 
 utive days. 
 
 3. Does the time curve show improvement at the same 
 or at different periods from the error curve? For example, 
 in Fig. 6 the two curves show parallel improvement during 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 43 
 
 the first rapid period of learning. After that the error 
 cvirve continues to improve, while the time curve actually 
 shows a loss until the former has reached its " dead level," 
 after which the time curve begins to drop again. This 
 would indicate that a plateau shows lack of improvement 
 only in the particular phase of the learning process repre- 
 sented by that particular curve, and that there is more 
 rapid development in some other phase of the process. 
 
 4. Examine the individual records to see whether im- 
 provement in time is more frequently accompanied by 
 little or no improvement in errors than by distinct reduc- 
 tion of errors. 
 
 5. What is the effect of the long interval between the 
 tenth and eleventh records, that is, the last record of the 
 preceding chapter and the first of this one? 
 
 6. Compare the improvement of the left hand with the 
 right hand. How do you explain it? What significance 
 might this have for the spread of practice? 
 
 2. Factors Affecting the Rate of Learning. Selecting 
 the Successful Trials 
 
 Problem. The progress of learning depends largely 
 upon the selection of the successful acts and the corre- 
 sponding diminution of the random and unsuccessful acts. 
 Whatever factors condition the emphasis and selection of 
 the successful trials promote the rapidity of learning. 
 
 The problem of this experiment is to determine the 
 effect of selecting the successftil acts. For this piupose 
 
44 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 we shall compare a process of practice in which such selec- 
 tion is present, with practice from which it is absent. 
 
 Material. Several sheets of paper and a pencil. 
 
 Procedure. Close your eyes and draw with the right 
 hand twenty-five circles approximately two centimetres 
 in diameter. The arm shoiild not rest upon the table, 
 but should be supported entirely from the shoulder. The 
 aim in drawing is to make complete circles. Attempt to 
 stop as nearly as possible at the point from which you 
 started. The distance between these two points will be 
 considered the error. Draw slowly and carefully, taking 
 from five to ten seconds for each circle. Make the circles 
 in rows either across the page or down the page, in order 
 that you may know later the exact order in which they 
 were drawn. It is important to keep the eyes closed dtrring 
 the entire task. After you have drawn the last circle 
 turn over your sheet and lay it aside, before you open 
 your eyes. 
 
 On the next sheet draw another series of twenty-five 
 circles. In this series open your eyes between the con- 
 secutive drawings, to- see the circle just drawn, but keep 
 the eyes closed while the circles are being drawn. It is 
 important to draw slowly and carefully. 
 
 Results. Meastire the error in each circle by measuring 
 in millimetres the distance between the beginning point 
 and the ending point. Construct separate tables for the 
 two series. Average the errors by groups of fives as shown 
 in Table III. From these 'averages plot curves as shown 
 in Fig. 7 and designate them as series I and II. 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 
 
 
 
 EYES CLOSED 
 
 
 
 1st 5 
 
 2nd 5 
 
 3rd 5 
 
 4th 5 
 
 Sths 
 
 4 mm. 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 5-2 
 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 4.6 
 
 4.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 5-8 
 
 EYES OPEN BETWEEN TRIALS 
 
 2 
 2 
 6 
 2 
 2 
 
 2,8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 3 
 o 
 o 
 
 1.8 
 
 6.2 
 
 5' 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 Ser/es I 
 
 Series IL 
 
 5 10 15 20 Z5 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 I. How do these series compare? What inference would 
 you make with regard to learning with the knowledge of 
 
46 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 one's progress as compared with learning without the 
 knowledge of one's progress? 
 
 2. Should written work and examination papers be 
 returned to the pupils? Should the degree of success be 
 indicated? What reason can you give for pointing out 
 the commendable as well as the erroneous points? 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING (Continued) 
 
 Problem. In the experiments performed thus far the 
 learning process consisted mainly in the formation of 
 motor and perceptual coordinations. In the following 
 experiment the learning wiU consist in the establishment 
 of associations between two classes of visual sjnnbols, 
 both of which are perfectly familiar in themselves. The 
 motor coordinations to express these symbols are also 
 well established. 
 
 The specific problems are (a) to study the progress of 
 learning in this new field and to compare it with the pre- 
 ceding type, (b) to find further factors which influence 
 the rapidity of learning, such as the length of different 
 periods of work and of different periods of rest, mental 
 and physical conditions, etc. Incidentally we shall also 
 obtain data on the transference of training, which will 
 be used later. 
 
 The Material is supplied ia the following pages. It 
 consists of sets of pages headed with an imitation type- 
 
 47 
 
48 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 writer key-board.^ Each letter of the alphabet is enclosed 
 with a number in a circle. Below this " key-board " is 
 the reading matter which is to be transcribed. This read- 
 ing matter is diSerent on the various pages. 
 
 Procedure. The task of the experiment consists in 
 substituting the numbers for the letters in the spaces 
 below. In order to obtain data in regard to the influence 
 of intervals and lengths of work periods, it is necessary 
 to divide the class into three equal groups.^ One group 
 should work for ten minutes at a time twice a day with an 
 interval of at least five hours between the two periods. 
 The second group should work for twenty minutes once 
 a day, and the third group should work for forty minutes 
 every other day. Each person should continue the work 
 for six days. The group working every other day should 
 work on the first, third, and fifth day. The total time 
 in each group will be 120 minutes. The periods of work 
 should be as nearly as possible at the same time of the 
 day. Record in the proper places in the margin the date 
 and time of day. No effort shoxild be made dxiring the 
 intervening intervals to memorize the numbers and their 
 letters. Do not leave blank spaces between the words 
 in making the substitutions. Begin a new line for each 
 line of print, always using the line of spaces opposite the 
 line of print. In case of those letters for which two digits 
 must be written, for example 18, both digits should be 
 
 This type of substitution test was originally devised several years 
 ago by Jastrow. 
 
 ^ Each group should contain at least ten persons. If the class is 
 small it had better be divided into two groups only. 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 49 
 
 placed in one square. Work as rapidly as you can with- 
 out making errors. Do not stop to correct errors if you 
 make any. Have a watch on the table before you and 
 make a check mark at the end of every five minutes. In 
 order that this may be done with as little disturbance as 
 possible, begin work when the minute hand is on a num- 
 ber. After each period of work record any observations 
 that may bear upon the experiment. Note yoiu- general 
 mental and physical condition. Note in particular during 
 the coiu-se of the learning (a) the time when you know 
 the first numbers without consulting the key-board, (b) 
 the time when the first complete words can be written 
 without consulting the key-board, and (c) the time when 
 you know all or practically all substitutions. 
 
so EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 ® 
 
 © 
 
 84,976 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 79,821 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63,442 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21,629 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 57,183 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32,761 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 95,146 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28,349 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 73,862 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 91,563 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 5^ 
 
 In order to obtain data on the transference of practice, 
 perform the following test before undertaking the above 
 learning. Substitute as quickly as you can the S3mibols 
 for the numbers on page 50. Record the exact length 
 of time required to do this. After completing the reg- 
 ular substitution experiment repeat the same test using 
 the material on page 68. Record the time. Preserve 
 these " before " and " after " tests for use in a later 
 chapter. 
 
S2 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 
 /^ /^ 
 
 _ ( Q^ (ay 
 
 /Ok ^-^ ^-^ 
 
 (Sj .^-v ^^ 
 
 ^^ fj2) C<s^ 
 
 /-v vi/ ^^ 
 
 Cm) ^^ ,,^ 
 
 vy /;?\ /0\ 
 
 (3) ^ 
 
 (^ Z^ 
 
 vcy r^ /Os 
 
 ^ (xs) (M 
 
 /^ ^^ 
 
 w ^-N /'^ 
 
 ^^ ^H^ (n^ 
 
 x-^ vfy \y 
 
 (^V x^ /-x 
 
 ^^ (^ ^ 
 
 (^ (^ 
 
 1 0"I 
 
 Vi/ /TTs /;-N H 
 
 (^9 (^^ ^ 
 
 /C\ ^-^ ^--^ - 
 
 ®® 
 
 And now leaving these life 
 failures, as I may call them, 
 I will ask why there are ao 
 many failures at the 
 university (it is the 
 privilege of the preacher to 
 wander from one topic to 
 another, in the hope that he 
 may say something which 
 comes home to the minds of 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 S3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ao 
 k> 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 £ 
 
 OS 
 
 J3 
 
 § 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 x> 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 > 
 
 "d 
 
 •a 
 
 a 
 
 a. 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 "S 
 
 1 
 
 "1 
 
 a 
 
 & 
 
 1 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 .2 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 S! 
 S 
 J 
 13 
 
 >> 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 c; 
 
 >- 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 c 
 
 *& 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 •Q 
 
 © 
 
 i 
 f 
 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 £ 
 
 "a 
 o 
 
 ® 
 
 i 
 
 § 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 a 
 '^ 
 
 a 
 
 OJ 
 
 1- 
 
 o 
 
 it! 
 © 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 E 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 E 
 
 O 
 C) 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 § 
 E 
 E 
 o 
 
 .2 
 
 0. 
 
 
S4 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 1 1 1 TT" 
 
 
 /'^ /^^ 
 
 (Q^ (ot 
 
 /-N viy v^ 
 
 (^9 ^- /^^ 
 
 ^-^ (G^ r< s^ 
 
 /-^ v_; V-/ _ 
 
 (CQA ^^ 
 
 ^--^ /^ 1^ 
 
 (O j^ (^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 vz/ /-^ /7^ 
 
 (x^ (c^^ 
 
 /->^ v^ v^ 
 
 C""7 --. ,<^ 
 
 ^-^ (^ ( N^ 
 
 ^-. VC7 VJ/ 
 
 r^*) - " 
 
 V-y /CN /C>v 
 
 .-V W \£/ 
 
 
 vv r^ r^ 
 
 ^ (w=) (d:s) 
 
 /C\ ^-^ ^-^ 
 
 ®(v 
 ®® 
 ®® 
 
 of diet and exercise are hardly 
 thought of by them. " I can 
 work 80 much better at night " 
 ia the constant reply to the 
 physician or elder friend who 
 remonstratea; and they are 
 apt to be asaured that no 
 practice which is pleasant to 
 them can ever be injurioua to 
 health. They find the memory 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 & 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 c 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 ■c 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 s 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 a 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 •1 
 
 IS 
 
 "S 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 .2 
 
 T3 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 OS 
 
 .2 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 d 
 "3 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 § 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 "3 
 
 1 
 
 § 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 <: 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 1 
 
 la 
 
 V 
 
 o 
 £ 
 
 ® 
 O 
 
 ■f 
 
 P 
 
 i 
 
 13 
 O 
 O 
 
 "3 
 
 
56 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 
 /""N /^^ 
 
 (oh C&ij 
 
 /c\ vy vy 
 
 (^7 x^ /^ 
 
 ^^ (G^ r<^ 
 
 /-^ vi/ vV 
 
 f OQt") ..-^ 
 
 ^-^ /C^^ /Q\ 
 
 (Gj^ (^ 
 
 <Q^ 
 
 vc/ /-^ /7> 
 
 (x^ (q-5^ 
 
 /^^ vy ^--^ 
 
 V""7 /-^ /^ 
 
 ^^ (^ (N^ 
 
 /->v VC7 V-y 
 
 IM X ^-^ 
 
 ^^ (^ {^ 
 
 (^ (3; 
 
 1 f '^«i 
 
 vi/ /^ /^ 
 
 ^-^ (uj.) (ccs) 
 
 /C^ ^^ ^^ 
 
 ®G 
 
 own health and morals ia the 
 greatest trust which is com- 
 mitted to a young man; and 
 often and often the losa of 
 ability, the degeneracy of 
 character, the want of aelf- 
 control ia due to hia neglect 
 of them. 
 
 There are other waya in 
 which this want of aelf- 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^~"" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — - 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 -- 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 ~ 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >> 
 
 d 
 
 s 
 
 'i 
 
 o 
 
 •g 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 .9 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 S? 
 
 Xi 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 £■ 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 .S 
 
 a 
 « 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 M 
 
 8 
 
 g 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 © 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 j: 
 
 3 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 ta 
 
 ■i 
 
 s 
 o 
 
 o 
 .9 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .§ 
 
 OS 
 
 ■a 
 
 p 
 o 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 a 
 1 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 s 
 
 .9 
 bo 
 
 1 
 a 
 
 s 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 s 
 s 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 13 
 
 bD 
 
 a 
 "m 
 3 
 
 .9 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 a 
 
 'a 
 
 1 
 
 ■i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 § 
 
 
S8 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 1 
 
 /^\ /^\ 
 
 (o^ (m 
 
 /C\ ^-^ ^^ 
 
 i^V x-x /^\ 
 
 ^^ (G^ ( <^ 
 
 ^-v V3/ ^^ 
 
 M ^ ^-^ 
 
 \y /O |0 
 
 (0£^ Vl7 
 
 ^ 
 
 Vzy /^\ ^r\ 
 
 ^^ (i^ (M 
 
 /--N Vy V-y 
 
 (•"7 ^^ /-^ 
 
 ^-^ (^ (n^ 
 
 ^^^^ y^ 
 
 ( M X ^--v 
 
 ^-^ /^ /^ 
 
 (^ (Dcj) 
 
 1 fin] 
 
 Vw/ r\ r\ 
 
 ^ (w=) (as) 
 
 /r\ ^-^ ^-^ 
 
 ®G 
 ©® 
 
 take the pains to be cured; 
 the inaccurate, desultory 
 knowledge/ of many things is 
 more acceptable to his mind 
 than the accurate knowledge 
 of a few, and so he grows up 
 and goes into life unfit for any 
 intellectual calling, unfit 
 for any business or profes- 
 sion. Then again there is 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 .1 
 
 .s 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 V 
 
 "E 
 
 "3 
 
 a 
 
 •c 
 
 a 
 «a 
 
 1 
 
 "o 
 
 g 
 i 
 
 .9 
 "3 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 .2 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 e8 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 C3 
 
 f 
 1 
 
 § 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 ■s 
 a 
 
 OS 
 e9 
 
 a 
 
 ID 
 
 i 
 
 -cl 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 M 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 en 
 V 
 
 >> 
 
 £ 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 OS 
 
 M 
 S 
 
 — 
 
 m 
 
 D 
 
 .s 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 XI 
 
 S 
 
 ■s 
 
 a 
 < 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 ID 
 
 4 
 £ 
 
 O 
 ■a 
 
 s 
 
 .9 
 "S 
 
 1 
 
 DO 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 1 
 •§ 
 
 >■ 
 
 o 
 
 .a 
 1 
 
 C3 
 
 S 
 
 .9 
 
 
6o EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 
 
 
 /T\ /I^ 
 
 
 _^ (Q^ (g?S) 
 
 
 /^ ^-^ ^^ 
 
 
 \^y /^ ^^ 
 
 
 ^-^ (Q\ (<i 
 
 
 ,^^ VZ/ ^^ 
 
 
 (CO-) .-^ /-N 
 
 
 ^-^ /^ (Qi 
 
 
 Cfy v^j^ 
 
 
 ( Vo\ 
 
 
 Viz /r\ /TN 
 
 
 ^ (xj) (M 
 
 
 /^ ^-^ 
 
 
 v7 /->^ /^ 
 
 
 ^^ ^2^ M 
 
 
 /-^ vcy vy 
 
 
 (^7 ^-^ >^-N 
 
 
 ^^ (^ /Q) 
 
 
 (^ ;^ 
 
 
 1 O") 
 
 
 Kl/ /Ov /0\ 
 
 
 ^-^ ( Wj) (0=1 
 
 
 /C^ ^^-^ ^--^ 
 
 
 ©® 
 ®® 
 
 as well as in Classics, in 
 Natural Science as well eib in 
 literature, in Law aa well as 
 in History; there are 
 students who have no power 
 
 of thinking, no clear recol- 
 lection of what they have 
 read, no exact perception of 
 the meaning of words. 
 
 There is another intellect- 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 6l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ~ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 -- 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 --- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 -- 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 -- 
 
 - 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .a 
 
 g 
 a 
 a 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 •§ 
 1 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 q 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 .9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 « 
 p. 
 
 03 
 
 C 
 
 ■E 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 CD 
 JZ 
 
 s 
 i 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 g 
 
 a 
 s 
 
 -a 
 .■§ 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 § 
 
 ■s 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 ca 
 
 .2 
 
 c 
 
 CI 
 
 Si 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 .2 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 .2 
 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 a: 
 
 & 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 .S 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 CD 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 U 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 .2 
 
 o 
 
 £ 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 "S 
 
 a 
 .S 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 
62 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 
 /^N /^^ 
 
 (ah (g?8) 
 
 /Z\ ^-^ ^^ 
 
 ( ^3 ^-s ^^ 
 
 ^^ (G^ ( <^ 
 
 ^^ viy ^^ 
 
 (cQ^ r: ^^ 
 
 v^ /Qv (Q^ 
 
 (Oj^ Vc/ 
 
 (^ 
 
 v3/ ^^ /TN 
 
 (12^ (^5) 
 
 ^-N vy V-^ 
 
 V""7 ^-^ /^ 
 
 ^^ (^ (nI^ 
 
 ^-N \zy vV 
 
 ( '^^ .->. ^-v 
 
 V^ /Cn /O 
 
 (^ (D^ 
 
 1 Onl 
 
 vcy r^ /0\ 
 
 "^ (uz) (ccs) 
 
 /:r\^-^ ^^ 
 
 ®G 
 ©® 
 ®® 
 
 may sometimes arise only from 
 simplicity and ignorance of 
 the world. There are natures 
 who are always dreaming of 
 full theatres, of audiences 
 hanging on their lips, who 
 would like to receive for all 
 their actions the accompany- 
 ing meed of approbation. A 
 young person is about to make 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 ■g 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 cd 
 
 ® 
 
 ID 
 
 .2 
 a 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 © 
 
 •s 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 _a 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 1 
 
 
 B. 
 !>> 
 § 
 
 a 
 g 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 1 
 f 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 bD 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 cd 
 
 i 
 
 £ 
 
 d 
 p. 
 S 
 P. 
 
 s 
 
 (9 
 
 1 
 13 
 
 a> 
 
 "1 
 
 .S 
 *C 
 
 .2 
 c 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 & 
 
 to 
 a 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 B 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 E 
 
 s 
 
 .5 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 .5 
 
 •0 
 ■a 
 
 v 
 
 3 
 .0 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 oa 
 
 ■a 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 .s 
 
 g 
 
 13 
 
 03 
 f 
 'ft 
 
 i 
 
 
 R 
 bO 
 
 a 
 £ 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 "a 
 
 d 
 
 -E 
 ft 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 d3 
 
 •ja 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 1 
 
 d 
 « 
 
 d 
 .2 
 
 i 
 
 ft 
 
 >< 
 
 
64 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 
 /■^ /"^ 
 
 (a) (g?s) 
 
 /^ ^-^ ^^ 
 
 ( sj ^^ 
 
 ^^ (G^ ( <^ 
 
 ^^ VZ7 ^->^ 
 
 (^^ ^ /^ 
 
 ^--^ /C^ (^ 
 
 (o£) V^y 
 
 ^ 
 
 Vcy /-^ /T^ 
 
 zT i^v \^y 
 
 r^^^ 
 
 w ^^ /-^ 
 
 ^-^ (2^ ( M 
 
 ^-^ ^07 v^ 
 
 (^7 ^-^ ^-v 
 
 ^^ /Cn (O 
 
 v>3/ v3/ 
 
 ( oA 
 
 ^ /<7\, /On 
 
 r w^' r q:s^ 
 
 /0\ ^-^ ^-^ 
 
 ©G 
 ©® 
 
 ®® 
 
 very best leaaon which he haa 
 ever had in life. Let him try 
 again — (there waa one who 
 said that he had tried at many 
 things and had always suc- 
 ceeded at laat). Let him try 
 again, and not allow himself 
 by a little innocent merriment 
 to be deprived of one of the 
 greatoat and most useful 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 -— 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 -- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 a 
 :§ 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 .2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 .a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 •g 
 
 .2 
 a 
 
 a 
 .a 
 
 1 
 .9 
 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 
 <u 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 ■s 
 
 .3 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 'S 
 a 
 
 ■a 
 1 
 
 to 
 
 .a 
 ■c 
 
 P. 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 :a 
 ja 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 S- 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 c 
 
 
 
 Xi 
 
 .2 
 
 1 
 
 OS 
 
 a 
 
 •3 
 t 
 
 0. 
 
 s 
 
 >> 
 
 ■a 
 >> 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 £ 
 
 1 
 Eh 
 
 i 
 5 
 
 a 
 S 
 
 •s 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 ! 
 
 'S 
 -a 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 
66 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 
 /^2\ /Ok 
 
 _ (Q^ (0?S) 
 
 /^ ^-^ ^-^ 
 
 \^ /-N r^ 
 
 ^-^ (Qi (<s) 
 
 ^^ v^y ^^ 
 
 (CQ") -^ /-^ 
 
 V^ /Ov (O 
 
 (0£) l^ 
 
 (^ ^ 
 
 w /^ /0\ 
 
 X (^') v^ 
 
 /O ^-^ 
 
 W ^-N /^ 
 
 ^-^ (22) (ns^ 
 
 /^ v_y v^ 
 
 (^7 >^-V /-N 
 
 ^^ (^ (Q) 
 
 i^ v^ 
 
 (O") 
 
 vi/ /77v /^ 
 
 f w=) r oc^ 
 
 /Ok ^^--^ ^-^ 
 
 ©G 
 ®® 
 
 hands. They attempt fine writ- 
 ing, which of all kinds of writ- 
 ing is the worst ; they loae 
 the aenae of proportion; they 
 deem anything which they 
 happen to know relevant to the 
 subject in hand. They pay 
 little or no attention to the 
 most important of all 
 principles of composition — 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 ^~ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 a> 
 
 a 
 a 
 8 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 a 
 1 
 a 
 s 
 
 >5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 >-; 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 % 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 03 
 
 •a 
 S 
 
 1 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 £ 
 g 
 
 > 
 ID 
 
 V 
 
 a 
 •J 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 >. 
 
 
 a 
 
 •a 
 
 0) 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a; 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 
 a 
 .s 
 
 •c 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 .2 
 1 
 
 be 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 •1 
 
 w 
 a) 
 fl 
 
 a 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 p. 
 
 .a 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 "5 
 
 1 
 
 0. 
 
 £ 
 p. 
 <]) 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 "o 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
68 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 ©(D©(D© 
 ® 
 
 27,516 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33,821 
 
 
 
 
 
 97,473 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 62,978 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31,542 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17,143 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26,981 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35,724 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16,315 
 
 
 
 
 
 14,923 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING 
 
 69 
 
 123456789 10 111213141516171819:20 21222324 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Results. Count the number of substitutions made 
 during each five-minute period. Construct a table show- 
 ing in different columns the date and time of day, the 
 number of substitutions for each five-minute period, and 
 brief introspective comments. Plot a curve in which the 
 five-minute periods are represented on the horizontal line 
 and the number of substitutions on the vertical line. See 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 State your conclusions and discuss the following points: 
 
 I. Compare your curve with the curve obtained on the 
 
 basis of the mirror tracings, particularly with regard to 
 
 the rate of learning, rapid improvement at first and slower 
 
 progress after that. 
 
70 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 2. Does the present curve reveal any plateaus? How 
 many? 
 
 3. Can you trace any connection between these stages 
 and your introspective notes? For instance, between your 
 general physical and mental condition and retardation 
 or rapid learning. If your curve has distinct stages, notice 
 particularly whether these coincide with the times, for 
 example, when you first knew all the substitutions, or 
 when you were able to write complete words and phrases 
 without consulting the key -board. 
 
 4. What significance do the plateaus have in the learn- 
 ing process? 
 
 See Swift, Mind in the Making, pp. 206-218. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING 
 
 Problem. The object of this experiment is to determine 
 (a) to what extent, if at all, special training in one mental 
 function improves other mental functions, and (b) to find 
 some of the factors in such transference.' 
 
 The Material for this experiment is supplied on the 
 following pages. Do not read or examine any of it until 
 you are ready to use it, and then concern yourself only 
 with that portion of it which you are about to use. In 
 order to insure this condition, cover with a sheet of paper 
 all material which is not used at the time. 
 
 Procedure. The usual method of determining by experi- 
 ment the transference of training is to test a variety of 
 mental functions, then to undertake a long course of train- 
 ing in one specific direction and finally to test again the 
 same functions as were tested before the training. The 
 
 ' The problems involved in the transference of training are 
 usually discussed in educational literature under the heading of 
 formal discipline, which is the doctrine that the mental discipline 
 gained in the pursuance of school studies improves one's ability to 
 perform other activities. 
 
 71 
 
72 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 long practice course is called the training series, and the 
 short tests performed before and after the practice are 
 called the test series, or end tests. 
 1 In this experiment the test series consists of: 
 
 a. A test of immediate auditory memory. 
 
 b. Learning French vocabulary. 
 
 c. Memorizing a group of ten syllables. 
 
 d. Memorizing a stanza of poetry. 
 
 The training series consists in learning Italian vocab- 
 ulary. 
 
 Proceed as follows: 
 
 a. The span of immediate auditory memory is to be 
 tested in the same manner as in Chapter I, except that 
 the following groups of letters are to be used instead of 
 words. These groups shoidd be read to the class at the 
 rate of one letter per second, reading one group at a time 
 and presenting the groups in order of size, from the small- 
 est to the largest. After a group has been read the class 
 writes down immediately aU the letters remembered of 
 that group and in the order in which they were presented. 
 
 1 p k r 
 
 b s y g n 
 
 k f c q m d 
 
 h b n f t V X 
 
 Iprdmhck 
 
 qwfrbhpmt 
 
 dlznqjsvrf 
 
THE TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING 
 
 73 
 
 b. Look through the list of French words below to 
 see if you already know any of the words. Strike out those 
 you know and enough others to leave only ten words. 
 If none are familiar strike out the last five words. Then 
 learn the English equivalents of these ten. Record the 
 exact time in minutes and seconds required for the learn- 
 ing. Consider them learned as soon as you are able to 
 give the English equivalents upon seeing the French words. 
 Have a piece of paper at hand to cover the English words 
 to find out whether you are able to do this. 
 
 chainage 
 eveque 
 verbeux 
 -rivage 
 delit 
 appui 
 semelle 
 loilu je 
 mordre 
 
 . boutis 
 -f gacher 
 
 ■ galbe 
 reveur 
 trochet 
 
 .ressui 
 
 survey 
 
 bishop 
 
 verbose 
 
 shore 
 
 offence 
 
 support 
 
 foot 
 
 vehicle 
 
 bite 
 
 rooting 
 
 temper 
 
 outline 
 
 dreamer 
 
 cluster 
 
 lair 
 
 c. Memorize the following stanza of poetry. Record 
 the exact time required. Consider it memorized as soon 
 as you are able to repeat it without consulting the text. 
 
74 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 From rocky cleft the torrent dashes; 
 
 Down, down he comes with thunder-shock; 
 The sturdy oak beneath him crashes, 
 
 And after rolls the loosened rock. 
 Amazed, o'erjoyed, with awe and wonder 
 
 The traveller stops and gazes round; 
 He hears the all-pervading thtmder. 
 But cannot tell from whence the sound, 
 c. Memorize the ten syllables below so that you are 
 able to repeat them from memory in the correct order. 
 Record the time. 
 
 dut 
 nof 
 tep 
 rain 
 rus 
 nir 
 len 
 zat 
 sim 
 pez 
 The training series consists of i8o Italian words and 
 their English equivalents. They are divided into six 
 groups of thirty words each. You are to learn the Enghsh 
 equivalents in the same manner as the French vocabulary. 
 Memorize one group a day. Record the time. Do the 
 learning as nearly as possible at the same time of the 
 day on six successive days. After the completion of this 
 practice, repeat the tests performed before the training, 
 using, however, the new material provided on later pages. 
 
THE TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING 
 
 75 
 
 acca 
 
 cuoio 
 
 accio 
 
 costa 
 
 acqua 
 
 destro 
 
 alia 
 
 ne 
 
 ballo 
 
 ermo> 
 
 here 
 
 fetta 
 
 caffo 
 
 tufEo 
 
 gabbo 
 
 carda 
 
 quatto 
 
 cambo 
 
 acre 
 
 raja "^ 
 
 rilevo 
 
 una 
 
 ritrorso 
 
 everse 
 
 falda 
 
 elmo 
 
 dolo 
 
 fin 
 
 disfetto 
 
 dtta 
 
 zero 
 
 leather 
 
 that 
 
 rib 
 
 with 
 
 skilful 
 
 market 
 
 thence 
 
 dance 
 
 desert 
 
 drink 
 
 bit 
 
 add 
 
 ruin 
 
 jeer 
 
 town 
 
 still 
 
 truck 
 
 sour 
 
 turnip 
 
 crumbs 
 
 omen 
 
 stubborn 
 
 ruined 
 
 plait 
 
 helm 
 
 fraud 
 
 until 
 
 affronts 
 
 town 
 
76 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 II 
 
 afEare 
 
 battello 
 
 agio 
 
 lana 
 
 ala 
 
 legnoso 
 
 balia 
 
 majo 
 
 befEa 
 
 marra * 
 
 botte 
 
 talpa 
 
 calco 
 
 otta 
 
 prezzo 
 
 conto 
 
 raggio 
 
 cardo 
 
 elce 
 
 scuro * 
 
 tale 
 
 ritto 
 
 scalzo 
 
 mezzo 
 
 monco 
 
 lucco 
 
 lira 
 
 omo 
 
 libbra 
 
 conti 
 
 business 
 vessel 
 comfort 
 wool 
 wing 
 woody 
 judge 
 tree 
 joke 
 spade 
 tub 
 mole 
 drawing 
 hour 
 prize 
 prudent 
 ray- 
 thistle 
 oak 
 dark 
 like 
 
 upright 
 naked 
 half 
 
 maimed 
 gown 
 harp 
 man 
 pound 
 accounts 
 
THE TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING 
 
 77 
 
 III 
 
 fieno 
 
 mazzo 
 
 bagno 
 
 fitto 
 
 pesca 
 
 mena 
 
 berza 
 
 miglio 
 
 flato 
 
 bianco * 
 
 miro 
 
 fondo 
 
 blando 
 
 frego 
 
 gaffo 
 
 brama 
 
 frutta 
 
 mosca 
 
 butima 
 
 nano - 
 
 fuoco 
 
 gamba 
 
 nece 
 
 caccia 
 
 gatta 
 
 netto 
 
 caldo 
 
 guida 
 
 ogni 
 
 nuto 
 
 hay 
 
 bunch 
 
 bath 
 
 thick 
 
 sport 
 
 plot 
 
 skin 
 
 mile 
 
 gust 
 
 white 
 
 strange 
 
 land 
 
 soft 
 
 dash 
 
 stupid 
 
 wish 
 
 dessert 
 
 fly 
 
 crowd 
 
 dwarf 
 
 fire 
 
 leg 
 
 death 
 
 hunt 
 
 cat 
 
 clean 
 
 hot 
 
 leader 
 
 every 
 
 sign 
 
78 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 IV 
 
 nord 
 . prode 
 zana 
 lasso, 
 dazio 
 prova 
 degno 
 rame 
 burla 
 desto • 
 refe 
 lena 
 dicace 
 legna 
 remo 
 dolce 
 letto 
 saldo 
 doge 
 scolio' 
 arbusto 
 lino 
 scorso 
 dorato 
 lode 
 seno 
 dosso 
 lucro 
 torvo 
 stufa 
 
 north ' 
 
 bold 
 
 basket 
 
 error 
 
 tax 
 
 trial 
 
 worthy 
 
 copper 
 
 joke 
 
 brisk 
 
 thread 
 
 breath 
 
 ghb 
 
 fuel 
 
 oar 
 
 sweet 
 
 bed 
 
 firm 
 
 captain 
 
 note 
 
 shrub 
 
 fiax 
 
 error 
 
 golden 
 
 praise 
 
 breast 
 
 back 
 
 gain 
 
 grim 
 
 stove 
 
THE TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING 
 
 79 
 
 V 
 
 fune 
 
 imo 
 
 calze 
 
 orzo 
 
 incauto 
 
 uscio - 
 
 carta 
 
 intacto 
 
 caso 
 
 came, 
 
 abbisso 
 
 pigro 
 
 pegno 
 
 manto 
 
 mastice 
 
 vinto — 
 
 barba 
 
 foggia 
 
 gita 
 
 inno • 
 
 canotto- 
 
 zolla 
 
 corsa 
 
 lento 
 
 guerra 
 
 storta 
 
 nodo 
 
 sponda 
 
 bardo 
 
 sabbia 
 
 rope 
 
 deep 
 
 stockings 
 
 barley 
 
 careless 
 
 door 
 
 paper 
 
 complete 
 
 accident 
 
 meat 
 
 gulf 
 
 idle 
 
 pledge 
 
 much 
 
 glue 
 
 vanquished 
 
 uncle 
 
 fashion 
 
 journey 
 
 hymn 
 
 ship 
 
 dod 
 
 run 
 
 slow 
 
 war 
 
 retort 
 
 knot 
 
 brink 
 
 poet 
 
 sand 
 
8o EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 VI 
 
 estro 
 luine 
 esile 
 tutto 
 lutto 
 vallo 
 ^mosca 
 gambo 
 ferita 
 ebumio 
 smalto 
 vispo 
 zuffa 
 manso 
 mastio 
 torto 
 bacio 
 finche 
 giomo 
 lordo" 
 latte 
 vezzi 
 sugo 
 gioco 
 grido 
 stima 
 neve 
 sommo 
 gia 
 rotto 
 
 genius 
 
 Ught 
 
 thin 
 
 aU 
 
 grief 
 
 fence 
 
 fly 
 
 stock 
 
 cut 
 
 ivory 
 
 enamel 
 
 quick 
 
 fight 
 
 tame 
 
 hinge 
 
 wrong 
 
 kiss 
 
 until 
 
 day 
 
 awkward 
 
 milk 
 
 charms 
 
 sap 
 
 trick 
 
 cry 
 
 esteem 
 
 snow 
 
 top 
 
 once 
 
 broken 
 
THE TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING 8l 
 
 Repeat the end tests using the following material: 
 
 a. Immediate auditory memory. 
 
 1 k b h 
 
 g 1 d s p 
 
 f b w k n t 
 
 y n c r d h j 
 
 zqtndrkv 
 
 hjnxqdfmb 
 
 cmstvrbhpq 
 
 b. French vocabulary. Again cross out all the words 
 you know and enough others to leave only ten words. 
 
 tuyau 
 
 pourchas 
 
 liste 
 _paquis 
 
 colon 
 
 sparte 
 
 ecueil 
 
 hoiale 
 
 moellon 
 
 tamis 
 
 roupille 
 
 autan 
 
 calcet 
 
 curet 
 _£k»n 
 
 tube 
 
 pursuit 
 
 band 
 
 pasture 
 
 farmer 
 
 broom 
 
 rock 
 
 surge 
 
 sandstone 
 
 sieve 
 
 jacket 
 
 wind 
 
 mast-head 
 
 skin 
 
 thief 
 
82 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 c. Stanza of poetry. 
 
 And, as the boy, with hopeless longing — 
 
 When stolen freedom yields no rest, 
 But home-thoughts to his heart keep thronging — 
 
 Fhes to his injured mother's breast; 
 So Music has the power to charm us, 
 
 When turned from Nature's simple truth; 
 From cold and foreign ways to warn us 
 
 With the old feelings of our youth. 
 
 d. Syllables. 
 
 nop 
 
 tud 
 
 dal 
 
 ros 
 
 mac 
 
 biz 
 
 jip 
 lor 
 fip 
 ruv 
 
 Results. Construct a table similar to Table IV, show- 
 ing the learning times of the different groups of the train- 
 ing series, and of the different test series. Calculate the 
 percentage of improvement in the training series by com- 
 paring the last day's record with the first day's record. 
 Similarly, calculate the percentage of difference between 
 the tests after the training and before the training. 
 
THE TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING 83 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 RECORD OF ONE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 End Tests Training Series End Tests Percentage 
 Time Time for Each Time Gain or 
 
 Before Group After Loss 
 
 French 4 min. i aomin. 2^min. +31 
 
 Poetry 7 min. 2 20 min. 5 min. + 29 
 
 Syllables 5 min. 3 16 min. 2j^min. +50 
 
 Memory Span 6 letters 415 min. 6 letters o 
 
 5 12 min. 
 
 6 12 min. 
 
 The improvement in the second end tests is not entirely 
 due to transference from the training series, but is due 
 in a small measure to the benefit derived from the first 
 end tests. This is shown by performing the end tests 
 on a group of individuals with an interval of one week 
 oetween the two tests and without taking the training 
 tests. A test performed in this manner with eleven 
 individuals showed an average improvement of 5 per cent, 
 in learning French vocabulary and of 10 per cent, in 
 learning poetry, and with twenty-eight subjects the im- 
 provement in learning syllables was 2 per cent. These 
 percentages must be subtracted from the improvement 
 in the regular experiment in order to obtain the amount 
 of improvement due to transference. 
 
 Turn to the experiment in Chapter VII and compute 
 the percentage of improvement in the end tests, namely 
 in the substitution of symbols for numbers. Find also 
 the percentage of improvement in the training series itself 
 and compare it with the improvement in the end tests. 
 Twenty -nine persons doing the end tests without the train- 
 ing series showed a gain of 4 per cent., which must be 
 
84 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 deducted from the percentage of improvement shown by 
 the subjects who took the training series. 
 
 Turn to Chapter VI and calculate the percentage of 
 gain in time and errors in the two tracings made with 
 the left hand. Compare this with the improvement in the 
 practice of the right hand.' The records of twelve sub- 
 jects showed that the left hand made 90 per cent, as much 
 improvement as the right hand.^ 
 
 Questions: 
 
 1. Which experiments in the end tests are most like 
 and which least like the training series? Which show the 
 largest amount of improvement? What general principle 
 would you formulate? 
 
 2. In general how much improvement is transferred? 
 
 3. In the light of your results discuss this statement: 
 " A change in one fimction alters any other only in so far 
 as the two functions have as factors identical elements." 
 (Thomdike, Educational Psychology, First Edition, p. 80.) 
 
 4. What bearing have these experimental results upon 
 the question of mental discipline of school studies? Would 
 training derived from one study help in the ptorsuit of 
 others? If so, to what extent? 
 
 For further practical exercises see Thomdike, Prin- 
 ciples of Teaching, 249-256; O'Shea, Education as Ad- 
 justment, Chapters 13 and 14. 
 
 ' This type of transference of practice of one organ of the body 
 to its bilaterally symmetrical organ is called cross-education. Its 
 bearing upon the whole problem of transference among mental 
 functions is only indirect. 
 
 * Starch, Psych. Bulletin, 7, 1910, 20-23. 
 
THE TRANSFERENCE OF TRAINING 85 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF GAIN IN END TESTS (30 OBSERVERS). TRAINING 
 SERIES CONTINUED ONE WEEK 
 
 I . 
 2. 
 3- 
 
 4- 
 
 5 
 
 6. 
 
 7- 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 10. 
 II . 
 12. 
 13- 
 14 ■ 
 15 
 16. 
 
 17- 
 18. 
 
 19- 
 20. 
 21 . 
 22. 
 
 23- 
 24. 
 
 25- 
 
 26. 
 
 27- 
 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 
 Average 13 17 29 
 
 French 
 
 Poetry 
 
 SyUables 
 
 Memory Span 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 62 
 
 14 
 
 II 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 75 
 
 -12 
 
 -22 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 69 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 -3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 -26 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 -14 
 
 21 
 
 - 7 
 
 39 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 -25 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 - 4 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 - 4 
 
 
 
 -II 
 
 - 7 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 -24 
 
 8 
 
 55 
 
 17 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 ASSOCIATION 
 
 I. The General Law of Association 
 
 The law of association simply stated is this, Things* 
 experienced together tend to recur together. The appli- 
 cations of this law to teaching are very obvious and very 
 wide. Theymay be summed up under two principles, " Put 
 together what you wish to have go together," and " Re- 
 ward good impulses." ^ 
 
 The force of the law of association may be demonstrated 
 very simply in this manner: Find the number of seconds 
 required to repeat the alphabet as quickly as possible. 
 Next find the time reqtdred to repeat the alphabet back- 
 wards. Explain the difference. 
 
 In the next experiment commit to memory the seven 
 Spanish words printed below in Group I. While doing 
 this keep the English equivalents covered with a piece of 
 paper. Always repeat the words in order from the top 
 of the column. Then cover the Spanish list and memorize 
 the EngUsh words in their order. After you have learned 
 both lists lay the book aside and find the time it will 
 
 ' That is, ideas, mental states or processes. 
 
 ^ Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, p. i lo. 
 
 86 
 
ASSOCIATION 
 
 87 
 
 take you to recall from memory the Spanish words in 
 their order and the correct English equivalent of each. 
 While you are learning do not compare the two lists. 
 
 Memorize the words in the second group, but in this 
 case read the Spanish word and the English equivalent 
 together. As soon as you know them, lay the book aside 
 and find the time required to recall the foreign words and 
 their meanings. Explain the difference in time between 
 the recalling of the two groups. 
 
 
 GROUP I 
 
 
 lutea 
 
 
 oriole 
 
 moUeta 
 
 
 biscuit 
 
 poder 
 
 
 power 
 
 despensa 
 
 
 pantry 
 
 elenco 
 
 
 catalogue 
 
 conata 
 
 
 effort 
 
 obra 
 
 GROUP II 
 
 work 
 
 tenue 
 
 
 thin 
 
 vera 
 
 
 edge 
 
 hondon 
 
 
 bottom 
 
 redro 
 
 
 behind 
 
 desvan 
 
 
 garret 
 
 dedo 
 
 
 finger 
 
 lecho 
 
 
 couch 
 
88 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 TABLE VI 
 
 TABLE OF NINETEEN PERSONS, SHOWING THE TIME IN SECONDS OF 
 RECALLING THE TWO GROUPS 
 
 Group I Group II 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 ID 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 i6 
 
 17 
 
 i8 
 
 19 
 
 Average 35.5" 13" 
 
 2. Specific Laws of Associatioa 
 
 Problem. The object is to demonstrate the laws accord- 
 ing to which ideas or mental states are associated. Why 
 does a given idea bring to mind a certain idea rather than 
 some other? For example, why does " December 2sth " 
 bring to mind " Christmas " rather than " President 
 Johnson's proclamation of pardon "? What determines 
 which one of a score of possible connections shall be made? 
 
 25 
 
 10" 
 
 17" 
 
 5" 
 
 16" 
 
 9" 
 
 50" 
 
 10" 
 
 56" 
 
 6" 
 
 30" 
 
 10" 
 
 35" 
 
 10" 
 
 25" 
 
 15" 
 
 40" 
 
 9" 
 
 20" 
 
 6" 
 
 50" 
 
 5" 
 
 22" 
 
 12" 
 
 45" 
 
 35" 
 
 S3" 
 
 18" 
 
 45" 
 
 18" 
 
 40" 
 
 20" 
 
 30" 
 
 8" 
 
 55" 
 
 30" 
 
 20" 
 
 6" 
 
ASSOCIATION 8g 
 
 The Material is supplied on the following ten pages. 
 It is imperative that you should not examine it except 
 under strict experimental conditions. Therefore, do not 
 turn to it until you are ready to do the experiment. The 
 material is composed of syllables and numbers. Each 
 series is composed of ten pairs of syllables and numbers 
 printed side by side. Take a sheet of paper, at least 
 twelve centimetres square, and cut crosswise in the centre 
 of it a rectangular aperture, 5 mm. by 4 cm. This will 
 serve as a simple means of exposing the pairs of syllables 
 and numbers for uniform intervals of time. 
 
 Procedure. Turn to Series I and immediately lay the 
 sheet of paper over the page so that the aperture exposes 
 nothing but the words " Series I." Each pair in the series 
 is to be exposed for three seconds. The time is indicated 
 by your partner, who taps on the table every three sec- 
 onds. Take hold of the sheet of paper with the right hand 
 and at the first tap slide it down to expose the first pair, 
 at the next tap slide it down to expose the second pair, 
 and so on through the entire series. Give your entire 
 attention to the particular pair exposed. Pronounce to 
 yourself both the syllable and the number. As soon as 
 you have finished, sUde the sheet of paper down and 
 expose the set of syllables (test series) on the lower 
 half of the page. Be sure, however, not to imcover any 
 part of the upper series (stimulus series). These syllables 
 are the same ones used in the stimulus series, but they 
 are arranged in different order. Your partner again taps 
 at intervals of three seconds. Begin at the top and write 
 
go EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Opposite each syllable the number that comes to your 
 mind as the one seen with it in the stimulus series. Pass 
 to the next syllable at the next tap, and so on. If no 
 number is recalled leave the space blank. Work through 
 the other nine series in exactly the same manner. Allow 
 an interval of at least two minutes between the successive 
 series. Before working out the results your partner 
 should go through the experiment also. 
 
92 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 SERIES I 
 
 
 var 
 
 
 37 
 
 mUp 
 
 - 
 
 9i 
 
 tib ^ 
 
 
 31 
 
 soV 
 
 
 57 
 
 raz 
 
 
 89 
 
 mup 
 
 
 95 
 
 vej 
 
 
 63 
 
 zik 
 
 
 17 
 
 tev 
 
 
 40 
 
 kes 
 
 vej 
 
 sov 
 
 mup 
 
 var 
 
 tib 
 
 raz 
 
 tev 
 
 zik 
 
 kes 
 
 5? 
 
94 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 SERIES II 
 
 
 rad 
 
 43 
 
 guf 
 
 21 
 
 dut 
 
 25 
 
 nib 
 
 27 
 
 WAP 
 
 S3 
 
 cag 
 
 86 
 
 taz 
 
 97 
 
 ber 
 
 34 
 
 fan 
 
 69 
 
 tim 
 
 24 
 
 taz 
 
 
 fon 
 
 
 tim 
 
 
 cag 
 
 
 wap 
 
 
 dut 
 
 
 rad 
 
 
 ber 
 
 
 nib 
 
 
 guf 
 
 
96 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 SERIES II] 
 
 [ 
 
 rol 
 
 S8 
 
 kuf 
 
 73 
 
 jer 
 
 46 
 
 kus 
 
 65 
 
 pif 
 
 39 
 
 geb 
 
 64 
 
 mez 
 
 IS 
 
 fex 
 
 35 
 
 jer 
 
 46 
 
 ffl 
 
 79 
 
 kuf 
 
 
 pif 
 
 
 fex 
 
 
 jer 
 
 
 ffl 
 
 
 rol 
 
 
 kus 
 
 
 geb 
 
 
 mez 
 
 
98 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 SERIES IV 
 
 ren 
 
 
 67 
 
 siur 
 
 
 49 
 
 kep 
 
 
 8S 
 
 luf 
 
 
 26 
 
 Har 
 
 
 92 
 
 kain 
 
 
 33 
 
 tuc 
 
 
 28 
 
 sor 
 
 
 SI 
 
 LOD 
 
 
 68 
 
 zan 
 
 ren 
 
 kep 
 
 tuc 
 
 sur 
 
 zan 
 
 lod 
 
 luf 
 
 ka,m 
 
 sor 
 
 dar 
 
 32 
 
lOO EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 SERIES V 
 
 
 bal 
 
 
 98 
 
 hon 
 
 
 76 
 
 ker 
 
 
 23 
 
 liu 
 
 
 68 
 
 rad 
 
 
 55 
 
 bus 
 
 
 19 
 
 pex 
 
 
 83 
 
 Uu 
 
 
 68 
 
 rul 
 
 
 47 
 
 fos 
 
 hon 
 
 rad 
 
 ker 
 
 fos 
 
 bal 
 
 rul 
 
 Uu 
 
 pex 
 
 bus 
 
 94 
 
I02 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 SERIES VI 
 
 
 mep 
 
 36 
 
 vib 
 
 78 
 
 lat 
 
 90 
 
 vul 
 
 18 
 
 zed 
 
 29 
 
 kas 
 
 54 
 
 REN 
 
 72 
 
 dov 
 
 88 
 
 cer 
 
 93 
 
 tis 
 
 60 
 
 cer 
 
 
 ren 
 
 
 zed 
 
 
 lat 
 
 
 mep 
 
 
 tis 
 
 
 dov 
 
 
 kas 
 
 
 vul 
 
 
 vib 
 
 
I04 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 SERIES VII 
 
 mol 
 
 91 
 
 gir 
 
 20 
 
 lez 
 
 66 
 
 pof 
 
 38 
 
 reb 
 
 16 
 
 lem 
 
 99 
 
 zat 
 
 48 
 
 neb 
 
 SO 
 
 pof 
 
 38 
 
 tid 
 
 25 
 
 mol 
 
 
 lez 
 
 
 reb 
 
 
 zat 
 
 
 pof 
 
 
 tid 
 
 
 neb 
 
 
 lem 
 
 
 gir 
 
 
I06 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 SERIES VIII 
 
 cak 
 
 
 8i 
 
 mun 
 
 
 S6 
 
 KEX 
 
 
 13 
 
 gam 
 
 
 96 
 
 jik 
 
 
 30 
 
 hun 
 
 
 59 
 
 dut 
 
 
 74 
 
 seb 
 
 
 33 
 
 bic 
 rd 
 
 jik 
 
 kex 
 
 cak 
 
 hun 
 
 seb 
 
 rd 
 
 mun 
 
 gam 
 
 dut 
 
 bic 
 
 42 
 II 
 
Io8 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 
 SERIES IX 
 
 dak 
 
 
 14 
 
 vof 
 
 
 70 
 
 zib 
 
 
 82 
 
 Hs 
 
 
 44 
 
 med 
 
 
 71 
 
 mib 
 
 
 62 
 
 vof 
 
 
 70 
 
 sim 
 
 
 56 
 
 len 
 
 
 34 
 
 ner 
 
 mib 
 
 dak 
 
 ner 
 
 sim 
 
 vof 
 
 med 
 
 Us 
 
 zib 
 
 len 
 
 27 
 
no EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 SERIES X 
 
 
 no£ 
 
 45 
 
 rus 
 
 80 
 
 cem 
 
 64 
 
 fop 
 
 37 
 
 mig 
 
 29 
 
 Ian 
 
 87 
 
 LOR 
 
 53 
 
 tal 
 
 16 
 
 bax 
 
 42 
 
 ges 
 
 61 
 
 nof 
 
 
 cem 
 
 
 mig 
 
 
 lor 
 
 
 bax 
 
 
 ges 
 
 
 tal 
 
 
 Ian 
 
 
 fop 
 
 
 rus 
 
 
112 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Results. The purpose of the experiment is to demon- 
 strate the fotu' laws of association. 
 
 a. Primacy. Other things being equal, the first asso- 
 ciation is most apt to be recalled. 
 
 b. Frequency. Other things being equal, the most fre- 
 quent association is most apt to be recalled. This is 
 illustrated in series i, 3, 5, 7, 9, in which one syllable 
 occurs twice with the same number. 
 
 c. Intensity. Other things being equal, the most in- 
 tense or most vivid association is most apt to be recalled. 
 This is illustrated in series 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10, in which one 
 pair is printed in much larger type. 
 
 d. Recency. Other things being equal, the most recent 
 association is most apt to be recalled. Primacy and recency 
 are illustrated in each series by the first and last pairs. 
 
 Construct a table to show the number and percentage 
 of correct associations. Follow Table VII as model. 
 The results of Series I or any other series should not be 
 counted if they were vitiated by incorrect performance 
 
 of the experiment. 
 
 TABLE VII 
 
 In series I, correct associations 3 
 
 by pfimacy i 
 
 by recency i 
 
 miscellaneous i 
 
 In series II, correct associations i 
 
 by recency i 
 
 by intensity i, etc. 
 
 Total possible associations by primacy 10 
 
 " frequency 5 
 
 " intensity 5 
 
 " recency 10 
 
 " " " miscellaneous 65 
 
ASSOCIATION 113 
 
 Percentage of correct associations made in each case: 
 
 by primacy, 5 out of 10 possible ones 50% 
 
 by frequency, 3 out of 5 possible ones 60% 
 
 by intensity, 4 out of 5 possible ones 80% 
 
 by recency, 4 out of 10 possible ones 40% 
 
 miscellaneous, 14 out of 65 possible ones 21% 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 TABLE OF RESULTS OF TWENTY-EIGHT PERSONS 
 
 Primacy Frequency Intensity Recency Miscellaneous 
 
 I 5 2 I 7 12 
 
 2 6 3 I 4 22 
 
 3 10 I o 4 21 
 
 4 o I 2 3 13 
 
 5 8 3 2 6 9 
 
 6 6 o 2 2 6 
 
 7 8 I 4 5 18 
 
 8 2 o I 6 I 
 
 9 4 I I 8 14 
 
 10 5 I 2 4 7 
 
 II 4 o o I 27 
 
 12 5 I I 3 9 
 
 13 6 4 3 5 23 
 
 14 3 2 I 6 4 
 
 15 3 I 2 3 17 
 
 16 2 3 I 3 22 
 
 17 6 2 3 3 15 
 
 18 7 o 5 6 o 
 
 19 6 I 3 o 16 
 
 20 4 3 I 2 23 
 
 21 6 3 o 4 28 
 
 22 4 I 5 6 14 
 
 23 3 I 3 5 12 
 
 24 2 I o 2 15 
 
 25 ■■ 7 3 3 6 29 
 
 26 4 o I 5 14 
 
 27 8 I I 3 27 
 
 28 9 2 o o II 
 
 Average.. 5.1 1.5 i 75 4-0 i5-3 
 
 51% 30% 35% 40% 24% 
 
 \ 
 
114 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Questions: 
 
 1. Give several illustrations from your own experience 
 in school in which the laws of association were applied 
 correctly. Several in which they were applied incorrectly. 
 
 2. How would the laws of association apply to the 
 learning of correct grammatical forms? Spelling? Para- 
 digms? Dates of history? 
 
 For a very excellent list of questions and specific exer- 
 cises/^ee Thomdike, Principles of Teaching, pp. 1 12-123. 
 
 /, / 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 APPERCEPTION 
 
 Apperception is the " manner in which we receive a 
 thing into our minds " (James). It includes all the pro- 
 cesses by which we read meaning into sense impressions. 
 One person calls an object a useless stone; another calls 
 it a fossil of the carboniferous age. The two persons re- 
 ceive the object differently, they give different meanings 
 to the same sense impressions. Each gives that particular 
 interpretation which is most in accord with his particular 
 mental make-up. 
 
 The General Problem of the experiments in this chapter 
 is to illustrate the facts of apperception, that the mind 
 always endeavors to give some meaning to every incoming 
 impression, whether new or old, and to find some factors 
 which determine what meaning shall be given to a par- 
 ticular impression. 
 
 I. To demonstrate the meaning tendency of the mind. 
 
 a. Turn to the ten ink blots and write into your note- 
 book the first thing that each one suggests or represents 
 to you, that is, the first meaning which naturally comes 
 to you as you see each one. Do not study them or try 
 to force a meaning into them. 
 
 "5 
 
Il6 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Figs. 9, 10, 11. 
 
APPERCEPTION 
 
 117 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Figs. 12, 13, 14. 
 
n8 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 8 
 
 e 
 
 10 
 
 Pigs. 15, 16, 17, 18. 
 
APPERCEPTION II9 
 
 The experiment clearly demonstrates that the mind 
 normally attempts to interpret every sensation. It tries 
 to give meaning even to those impressions which are 
 entirely without meaning and unlike anything previously 
 experienced. The ink blots are in themselves without 
 significance, and were not made with the intention of 
 representing anything. The meaning you give to each is 
 entirely imposed upon it. The mind is persistent in giving 
 meaning to its sensations because meaningless things have 
 no value or significance. The mental development of a 
 child is largely a development of apperception. 
 
 b. Turn to the ten syllables given below. Write in 
 your note-book what each one reminds you of or suggests 
 to you. 
 
 nof 
 
 cem 
 
 mig 
 
 lor 
 
 bax 
 
 ges 
 
 tal 
 
 Ian 
 
 fip 
 
 rus 
 Here again the same fact is illustrated. The mind 
 gives meaning even to the meaningless. These three- 
 letter syllables do not constitute words or symbols, yet 
 each one almost without exception stirs up some associa- 
 tion or other and forthwith it has meaning. 
 
I20 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 c. As soon as a meaning has been given to impressions 
 they at once become definite according to the particular 
 meaning imposed. Find the frogs in Fig. 19, and notice 
 
 By permission of Century Company^ 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 that as soon as you have found them the blur springs into 
 definite outline. The external stimulus is motilded accord- 
 ing to the meaning given. 
 
 d. In the developed adult mind the interpretative ten- 
 dency is so dominant that the attention is primarily upon 
 the meaning aspect, to the neglect of the actual sense 
 stimuli upon which the meaning is based. Only the slight- 
 est hint needs to be given to make the mind see this or 
 that particular object. The mind, as it were, supplies 
 the necessary material to fill out the picture. To demon- 
 strate this point, ask an assistant to set the book at a 
 distance of twenty or twenty-five feet from you to show 
 Fig. 21, on page 130.^ Do not look it up yourself, as it is 
 
 'The experiment can best be performed by the entire class 
 simultaneously, in which case the instructor in charge should place 
 
APPERCEPTION 121 
 
 important that you should not see the figure at close range 
 until after the experiment. Make a duplicate freehand 
 drawing of the figure thus shown. Put in all the lines and 
 details that you see. 
 
 Compare your drawing with the figure in the book. 
 Explain the difference. The mind reads meaning into 
 sense impressions, supplies details and makes the external 
 stimulus conform to the apperceived meaning. Fig. 26, 
 on page 183, is a typical sketch drawn under experimental 
 conditions. 
 
 2. The particular meaning given to a group of sensa- 
 tions is determined by the previous experiences of the 
 individual. 
 
 a. Compare your record of the iiik-blot test with that of 
 one other person. For this piupose make a table num- 
 bering in the first column from i to 10, in the second col- 
 umn place opposite each number the meaning you gave 
 to each blot, and in the third the meanings given by the 
 other person. 
 
 b. Construct a similar table for the syllable test. In 
 addition, state so far as you can why each syllable re- 
 minds you of this or that word or object. Obtain similar 
 statements from the person whose record you have. 
 These introspective statements show, however super- 
 ficially, that the same impressions are apperceived differ- 
 ently by different persons because of different past 
 experiences. 
 
 the book at the required distance. No one in the class should be 
 nearer than twenty feet. 
 
12 2 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 c. The richness of the meaning or completeness of the 
 meaning which we give to a sense impression depends 
 upon the number and richness of the associations con- 
 nected with that sense impression. After each one of the 
 following words write the nanles, or simply a check mark, 
 of as many different actual situations or particular ex- 
 periences as you can recall, in which each was involved: 
 I. Midas; 2. Flatiron Building; 3. Railroad; 4. Tobog- 
 gan; 5. Poetry; 6. Psychic Medium; 7. Skeeing; 8. Tel- 
 escope; 9. The 'L"; 10. Grain Binder.* See for 
 illustration Table IX. If any word calls up many asso- 
 ciations, stop with ten. 
 
 TABLE IX 
 
 1. Midas 
 
 2. Flatiron Building 
 
 3. Railroad . ' . . 
 
 4. Toboggan 
 
 5. Poetry ... 
 
 6. Psychic Medium .... 
 
 7. Skeeing ... 
 
 8. Telescope 
 
 9. The"L" 
 
 ID. Grain Binder 
 
 Represent your results in a carve. Put on the hori- 
 zontal line the numbers of the words and on the vertical 
 lines the numbers of associations. See Fig. 20. 
 
 d. The nature of our past experiences and associations, 
 then, determines how we shall interpret and react to 
 
 * Of course very familiar concepts are bound up with such a 
 wealth of associations that many are beyond recall and yet con- 
 tribute to the significance of the concept. The words chosen for the 
 text include some very familiar concepts and some very vmfamiliar. 
 
APPERCEPTION I 23 
 
 present stimuli. This entire system or range of acquired 
 experiences is in general equivalent to the range of in- 
 formation which a given individual possesses. The total 
 bulk of one's information or experience is sometimes called 
 the " apperceptive mass." The Australian bushmen call 
 a book " mussel " because it opens and shuts like a shell- 
 fish. Their range of information did not include expe- 
 riences with books. 
 
 The following is designed as an information test.' 
 
 " Below are loo words, phrases, or abbreviations, 
 largely technical, which are designed to test the range of 
 your information. Consider each one carefully, and place 
 after it one of these four marks: 
 
 " (i) the mark D if j^ou could define it as exactly as 
 words are ordinarily defined in the dictionary. 
 
 " (2) the mark E if you could explain it well enough to 
 give some idea of its meaning to one who is not familiar 
 with it, though 5'ou could not give an exact definition 
 that would satisfy an expert. 
 
 'From Whipple, Psych. Rev. 16, 1900, 347-351- 
 
124 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 " (3) the mark F if the word is merely roughly familiar, 
 so that you have only an indefinite idea of its meaning 
 and could not use it intelligently. 
 
 " (4) the mark N if the word is entirely new and 
 unknown to you. 
 
 ageratum 
 
 cleistogamous 
 
 infusoria 
 
 puer 
 
 amphioxus 
 
 cosmogony 
 
 intaglio 
 
 pyramidal tract 
 
 amphora 
 
 cotangent 
 
 Kepler's law 
 
 quadratics 
 
 annealed 
 
 dibble 
 
 kilogram 
 
 rococo 
 
 Anthony Wayne dietetics 
 
 kinesthetic 
 
 R. S. V. P. 
 
 apocalypse 
 
 dryad 
 
 kinetic 
 
 scherzo 
 
 architrave 
 
 electrolysis 
 
 Les Mis^rables 
 
 semaphore 
 
 aujourdhui 
 
 Elohim 
 
 linotype 
 
 simony 
 
 Babcock test 
 
 entree 
 
 logos 
 
 spoils system 
 
 base-hit 
 
 Eocene 
 
 luff 
 
 Stoicism 
 
 Bernard Shaw 
 
 Euclid 
 
 Malthus' law 
 
 synecdoche 
 
 Bokhara 
 
 f-64 
 
 metacarpal 
 
 testudo 
 
 Braille 
 
 f. 0. b. 
 
 midiron 
 
 tort 
 
 call-loan 
 
 gambit 
 
 MiUet 
 
 trephine 
 
 calorie 
 
 gasket 
 
 mitosis 
 
 triangulation 
 
 cantilever 
 
 glycogen 
 
 morgen 
 
 trilobite 
 
 Caedmon 
 
 gneiss 
 
 nada 
 
 triple-expansion 
 
 catalepsy 
 
 golden section 
 
 natural selection undistributed 
 
 cephalic index 
 
 guimpe 
 
 noi 
 
 Utopia [middle 
 
 ceramics 
 
 hedonism 
 
 ohm 
 
 vantage-in 
 
 chamfer 
 
 hemiptera 
 
 parallax 
 
 way-bill 
 
 Chartism 
 
 homiletics 
 
 peneplain 
 
 Weismannism 
 
 chlorine 
 
 hydraulic press 
 
 Pestalozzi 
 
 wigwag 
 
 chromosome 
 
 impetigo 
 
 Polonius 
 
 X-Ray 
 
 clearing-house 
 
 impressionism 
 
 pomology 
 
 Zionism 
 
 Results, a. Cotmt the number of each class. 
 
 b. State the meaning briefly of all the words you 
 marked F which are also marked F by one other person 
 in the class. Make a comparative table. 
 
APPERCEPTION 125 
 
 3. The particular meaning given to a group of sensa- 
 tions is determined not only by the general mass of 
 previous experiences but also by the particular system 
 of past associations dominant in the mind at the time, 
 that is, the meaning is determined by the present setting 
 of the mind. 
 
 a. Turn to the following ten lists of skeleton words. 
 Fill in the missing letters to make words. The number 
 and the position of the letters to be supplied are indicated 
 by the dashes. Take the groups in the order in which they 
 are numbered. Work as rapidly as possible, and record 
 the time required for each group. If a skeleton does not 
 suggest the missing letters within a reasonably short time, 
 say twenty to thirty seconds, leave it blank. 
 
 I II 
 
 The following are miscel- The following are names 
 
 laneous notms. of articles of dress. 
 
 1. P — er I. Gl-v- 
 
 2. N-m- 2. -at 
 
 3. H-b-t 3. T-e 
 
 4. S-C--1 4- P-n 
 
 5. V-l-e 5- C- -t 
 
 6. P-n 6. -o-l-r 
 
 7. B- -k 7- B- - t-n 
 
 8. St-e-t 8. -e-ch--f 
 
 9. -o-se 9- Sh-e 
 10. Gl-s- 10. C- -f 
 
126 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 The following are names of 
 
 The following are names of 
 
 household furnishings. 
 
 familiar fruits. 
 
 I. C-a-r 
 
 I. A- -le 
 
 2. L-m- 
 
 2. C-e — ^y 
 
 3- B-d 
 
 3. 0-a-g- 
 
 4. R--k-r 
 
 4. P1-- 
 
 S. T-l^- 
 
 5. L n 
 
 6. C--t-in 
 
 6. B--a-a 
 
 7. D — ss-r 
 
 7. -pr — ot 
 
 8. P-ct-re 
 
 8. P-a-h 
 
 9. D--k 
 
 9. Gr-p- 
 
 10. St-v- 
 
 10. P--r 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 The following are names of 
 
 The following are miscel- 
 
 weU-known American 
 
 laneous nouns. 
 
 authors. 
 
 
 I. E — ^rs-n 
 
 I. Fl-o- 
 
 2. L-we — 
 
 2. T-e- 
 
 3. H--m-s 
 
 3. W-te- 
 
 4. R-l-y 
 
 4. P-n--l 
 
 5. B--a-t 
 
 5. N-m--r 
 
 6. W-i- -i-r 
 
 6. K:--f- 
 
 7. C--p-r 
 
 7. R-v-r 
 
 8. P-- 
 
 8. W-g- - 
 
 9. I-v-n- 
 
 9. Sq--r- 
 
 10. V- -D-k- 
 
 10. -n-m-1 
 
APPERCEPTION 
 
 127 
 
 VII 
 
 
 
 VIII 
 
 The following are names 
 
 of 
 
 The following are names of 
 
 pieces of American 
 
 
 familiar domestic 
 
 money. 
 
 
 
 animals. 
 
 I. P-nn- 
 
 
 I. 
 
 -o-se 
 
 2. N-c- -1 
 
 
 2. 
 
 d-g 
 
 3- C- -t 
 
 
 3- 
 
 C-w 
 
 4. Q-a-t-r 
 
 
 4- 
 
 C--f 
 
 5- B- -1 
 
 
 S- 
 
 S--ep 
 
 6. D-m- 
 
 
 6. 
 
 -at 
 
 7. -o-l-r 
 
 
 7- 
 
 H-g 
 
 8. S-lv-r 
 
 
 8. 
 
 Chic 
 
 9. C — p-r 
 
 
 9- 
 
 D--k 
 
 10. G-ld 
 
 
 10. 
 
 T- -k-y 
 
 IX 
 
 The following are names of 
 university studies. 
 
 1. F-e-c- 
 
 2. L ^n 
 
 3. H-s-or- 
 
 4. -th-cs 
 
 5. B-t-n- 
 
 6. G-rm-- 
 
 7. E-g- -s- 
 
 8. -n-t-my 
 
 9. P — s-cs 
 10. Ge-l-g- 
 
 X 
 
 The following are names of 
 American cities. 
 
 1. B--t-n 
 
 2. N-w — r- 
 
 3. Se--tl- 
 
 4. Chic 
 
 5. St -o- -s 
 
 6. D-n--r 
 
 7. 0--h- 
 
 8. P-rt--nd 
 
 9. B--f--o 
 10. -Ib-n- 
 
128 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Find the average time required to do Groups I and VI 
 and the average time for the other eight groups. How do 
 they compare? Explain the difference. 
 
 In each group, except I and VI, a specific system of 
 associations is made prominent at the outset; that is, 
 the mind is " set " in a specific way, with the result that 
 (a) the meanings of the skeletons arise much more rapidly 
 and (b) they are in accord with the particular set of 
 associations present. This point is demonstrated by the 
 fact that twenty -two skeletons are alike. Yet in each 
 group a different meaning arises according to the set of 
 the mind. If you noticed during the experiment that 
 any skeleton was like one you had in a preceding group, 
 indicate which ones. 
 
 The ones alike are I 6 and II 4 
 
 I 9 and VIII I 
 
 II 2 and VIII 6 
 II 5 and VII 3 
 II 6 and VII 7 
 II 7 and IX I 
 
 II 10 and VIII 4 
 
 III 9 and VIII 9 
 
 IV 5 and IX 2 
 
 V 7 and VII 9 
 VIII 8 and X 4. 
 
I . 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 7-. 
 8. . 
 
 9- 
 
 10. . 
 
 11 . . 
 
 12. . 
 
 13 ■ 
 
 14. . 
 
 15 ■ 
 16. . 
 17.. 
 18. , 
 19. . 
 
 20. . 
 
 21 . . 
 
 22 . . 
 
 23 • 
 24.. 
 
 25- ■ 
 
 26. . 
 
 27. . 
 
 28. . 
 
 APPERCEPTION I 29 
 
 TABLE X 
 
 RECORDS FROM TWENTY-EIGHT PERSONS 
 
 Av. of Groups 
 
 Av. of the 
 
 I and VI 
 
 other groups 
 
 I' 55" 
 
 
 23" 
 
 35" 
 
 
 22" 
 
 55" 
 
 
 24" 
 
 28" 
 
 
 24" 
 
 30" 
 
 
 8" 
 
 2' 35" 
 
 I' 
 
 18" 
 
 i' 10" 
 
 
 42" 
 
 2* 30" 
 
 
 51" 
 
 46" 
 
 
 30" 
 
 52" 
 
 
 28" 
 
 2' 30" 
 
 i' 
 
 I" 
 
 43" 
 
 
 30" 
 
 1' 45" 
 
 i' 
 
 20" 
 
 r 22" 
 
 
 44" 
 
 32" 
 
 
 24" 
 
 37" 
 
 
 25" 
 
 2' 45" 
 
 i' 
 
 8" 
 
 32" 
 
 
 28" 
 
 I' 10" 
 
 
 40" 
 
 55" 
 
 
 25" 
 
 I' 52" 
 
 i' 
 
 15" 
 
 2' 30" 
 
 
 40" 
 
 40" 
 
 
 20" 
 
 I' 25" 
 
 
 36" 
 
 I' 15" 
 
 
 16" 
 
 27" 
 
 
 14" 
 
 55" 
 
 
 32" 
 
 55" 
 
 
 26" 
 
 Average i' 15" 36" 
 
 b. Look for just an instant, not more than a second, at 
 Fig. 22. Record what it represents. Then look at it for 
 
13° EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 several seconds and again record what you observe. 
 Explain the results. 
 c. What is the " meaning " or suggestion of the foUow- 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 ing phrases? It may be necessary to read each one 
 several times. 
 
APPERCEPTION 131 
 
 (i) Pas de lieu Rh6ne que nous. 
 
 (2) Von der Vottei mit is. 
 
 (3) Gui n'a beau dit, qui sabot dit, nid a beau dit elle. 
 
 (4) Main die Uhr onbiss Nuss'. 
 
 Both of these experiments demonstrate in different 
 fields the fact that the meaning read into sensations 
 depends upon the set of the mind. In case of Fig. 22 the 
 
 Curiduici von It. CuddCA 
 
 Is FrMkiiin •■ M. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 meaning suggested is " brain," and the outlines and con- 
 volutions are seen in accordance with it. In case of the 
 foreign phrases the set of the mind is either " French " 
 or " German," and you endeavor to give them meaning 
 accordingly. The dominant set of associations makes it 
 difficult to see or rather to hear the meaning of these 
 " Enghsh " sounds.' 
 
 ' If you have failed to discover the meanings you will now notice 
 that the sounds are identical, or nearly so with 
 
 1. Paddle your own canoe. 
 
 2. Wonder what time it is. 
 
 3. Gin a body kiss a body need a body tell. 
 
 4. Mind your own business. 
 
132 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 The principles of apperception have a very important 
 application to teaching. First, link new information to 
 the information, experiences, and associations which the 
 learner already possesses. Second, prepare the proper 
 apperceptive basis in the pupU for the reception of new 
 material. 
 
 For practical exercises and applications to specific 
 problems, see Thomdike, Principles of Teaching, pp. 
 44-50; O'Shea, Education as Adjustment, Chapter 12. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 ATTENTION 
 
 Two of the main problems of attention with which the 
 teacher is constantly concerned are: How to secure the 
 attention of pupils to the work in hand, and how to hold 
 the attention after it has been sectired. What are the 
 laws of attracting attention, aiid what are the laws of 
 sustaining attention? 
 
 I. Laws of Attracting Attention. These will be stated 
 after the experiments have been performed. Proceed 
 therefore at once to make the following tests. 
 
 The Material to be used consists o£ groups of words. 
 Each group is to be seen for oiUy five seconds. To insure 
 this condition, the material for each experiment is printed 
 on a separate leaf, so that only one group can be seen at 
 a time. The interval of five seconds is to be indicated by 
 your partner, who wiU tap on the table at the beginning 
 and at the end of the interval. Have the book before you 
 and be ready to turn the leaf at the first tap. Look at 
 the words until your partner taps again. Then turn the 
 book over and write into your note-book all the words 
 that you remember having noticed. Designate them as 
 
 133 
 
134 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Group I. Do not attempt to memorize any of the words, 
 but rather look passively at the whole group. 
 
 In this manner continue the experiment with the re- 
 maining eight groups. Have an intermission of at least 
 one minute between the successive groups. 
 
ATTENTION I3S 
 
 GROUP I 
 
 term cast hang look WAIT 
 
 down keep CARE draw vein 
 
 sort grow bind THAN face 
 
 cold PLAN come view mark 
 
 suit call WORK poor evil 
 
ATTENTION I37 
 
 GROUP II 
 
 bite STAY give rise have 
 
 stop take jerk PICK snap 
 
 play wake TRIM this from 
 
 COAT pull pain bold push 
 
 pour hill busy BLOW leaf 
 
ATTENTION 139 
 
 GROUP III 
 
 blue pray beat here want 
 
 that pick rude time your 
 
 zeal damp turn just with 
 
 tUt fall iron once yard 
 
 more step thou lead find 
 
ATTENTION 141 
 
 
 GROUP rv 
 
 
 heir 
 
 clad 
 
 make 
 
 live 
 
 fold 
 
 tell 
 
 rear 
 
 reef 
 
 firm 
 
 wing 
 
 fire 
 
 hand 
 
 rock 
 
 will 
 
 yam 
 
 form 
 
 mind 
 
 walk 
 
 gold 
 
 fear 
 
 part 
 
 like 
 
 pass 
 
 moat 
 
 room 
 
ATTENTION 143 
 
 
 
 GROUP V 
 
 
 ayo)v 
 
 irjiii 
 
 av€v 
 
 send 
 
 VIKY] 
 
 0/XO)S 
 
 pure 
 
 KVOIV 
 
 C<^vr] 
 
 aAAa 
 
 Sopv 
 
 XuTn; 
 
 lark 
 
 Kayo) 
 
 X"P 
 
 mule 
 
 aTTO^ 
 
 (DTK 
 
 (Sous 
 
 ywT? 
 
 turep 
 
 )(l,<l)V 
 
 eirrjv 
 
 milk 
 
 axpt 
 
ATTENTION 
 
 US 
 
 
 I 
 
 [JROUP VI 
 
 
 £7rTa 
 
 wall 
 
 ^r]iu 
 
 cwpa 
 
 SlKtJ 
 
 avTi 
 
 vSatp 
 
 rrjKiD 
 
 ICTtOi 
 
 mode 
 
 irXeo) 
 
 aa-TV 
 
 lark 
 
 Xeyo) 
 
 apfjja 
 
 oirws 
 
 ■yciKi) 
 
 /StOS 
 
 moon 
 
 jnevo) 
 
 aix<(u 
 
 land 
 
 (TCOOS 
 
 avrjp 
 
 OTrao) 
 
ATTENTION ^47 
 
 GROUP VII 
 fare good hard gray home 
 
ATTENTION 149 
 
 
 GROUP VIII 
 
 
 what 
 
 hate shot gone 
 
 roll 
 
 seem 
 
 hope , gate mean 
 
 hair 
 
ATTENTION 151 
 
 GROUP IX 
 
 head wood hear each lime 
 
 gush when calf some chin 
 
 horn comb song free less 
 
 boat hole long knot cure 
 
 slow coal sick lend crow 
 
ATTENTION 153 
 
 Resiilts. The four laws demonstrated above are: 
 
 a. The law of intensity. Other things being equal, the 
 amount and degree of attention depends upon the inten- 
 sity of the stimulus. Groups I and II contain each 
 twenty-five words, of which five are printed in large 
 capitals. These will arouse more intense sensations and 
 consequently are more apt to be noticed. 
 
 b. The law of contrast. Other things being equal, the 
 amount and degree of attention depends upon the con- 
 trast of the stimulus with other stimidi. Groups III and 
 IV contain each twenty-five words, of which five are 
 printed in italics. 
 
 c. The law of clearness or comprehension. Other things 
 being equal, the amount and degree of attention depends 
 upon the ease of apprehending the impressions, or upon 
 the clearness of the impressions. Groups V and VI are 
 composed of Greek words with the exception of five 
 English words in each group. Because of the famihar 
 or clear meaning of the English as compared with the 
 Greek words, they are more apt to be noticed and remem- 
 bered. We attend with difficiilty to the meaningless or 
 to the absolutely new. 
 
 d. The law of counter attractions. Other things being 
 equal, the amount and degree of attention depends upon 
 the absence of counter attractions. That is, the smaller 
 the number of objects is, the greater are the chances 
 that a given object will attract attention. In Group VII 
 there are only five words, all of which will ordinarily be 
 noticed in the allotted time. In Group VIII there are 
 
154 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 ten words, of which usually not more than five will attract 
 suf&cient attention to be remembered. Hence the chances 
 are about one in two that any particular word will be 
 noticed. In Group IX, which contains twenty-five words, 
 the chances are one in five that any given word will be 
 noticed. 
 Construct a table like the following one: 
 
 TABLE XI 
 Intensity. Groups I and II 
 
 8 of the lo large words were noticed ' .* . . = 80% 
 
 4 of the 40 miscellaneous words were noticed = 10% 
 
 Contrast. Groups III and IV 
 
 9 of the 10 words printed in italics were noticed . . =90% 
 2 of the 40 miscellaneous words were noticed = 5% 
 
 Clearness. Groups V and VI 
 
 6 of the 10 English words were noticed = 60% 
 
 I of the 40 Greek words was remembered = 2/^ % 
 
 Cotmter attraction. Groups VII, VIII, and IX 
 
 4 of the 5 in Group VII were noticed = 80% 
 
 5 of the 10 in Group VIII were noticed =S°% 
 
 4 of the 25 in Group IX were noticed =-= 16% 
 
 ' The word noticed in each case means of course that the words 
 attracted sufficient attention to be remembered until they could be 
 written down. 
 
ATTENTION 
 
 I5S 
 
 TABLE XII 
 
 RECORDS OF TWELVE PERSONS 
 
 I . 
 2. 
 3- 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 7- 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 
 10. 
 
 II . 
 
 12 . 
 
 Intensity Contrast 
 
 Clear- 
 ness 
 
 Miscella- 
 neous 
 
 Counter attraction 
 
 Groups 
 I. II 
 
 Groups 
 III, IV 
 
 Groups Groups 
 V,VI ItoVI 
 
 Groups VII, VII) 
 
 ,IX 
 
 50% 
 
 60% 
 
 80% 
 
 7-5% 
 
 100% 
 
 50% 
 
 12% 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 24 
 
 O 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 24 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 
 80 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 6o 
 
 lOO 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 12 
 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 6o 
 
 70 
 
 6 
 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 6o 
 
 go 
 
 70 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 12 
 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 70 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 Average ... 38 . 5 65 80 8.1 
 
 98.5 46.7 18.5 
 
 2. The Fluctuation or Shifting of the Attention. Our 
 
 attention shifts continuously from moment to moment. 
 Even with great effort it is impossible to keep the attention 
 focussed for more than a few seconds upon the same idea 
 or object. 
 
 a. Look steadily at the central line in the " book " 
 figure below. You vnH notice that the figure " flops " in 
 and out. Part of the time it looks like a book open 
 toward you, and part of the time like a book with its 
 back toward you. Make a two minutes' record of these 
 alternations. At the signal " now " from your partner, 
 look steadily at the figure. Do not change your point of 
 fixation. When the figure appears like a book open toward 
 
IS6 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 you say " in." At the moment it shifts over so that the 
 back of the " book " stands out toward you say " out," 
 and so on for two minutes. Do not try to make the fig- 
 
 FiG. 23. 
 
 ure change, but allow the alternations to occur at their 
 natural rate. Your partner follows the second-hand of 
 his watch and records the position of the hand each time 
 you say " in " or " out." The record will be similar to 
 the following one: 
 
 In.. 
 Out. 
 
 •IS 23 30 38 47 57 5 14 
 19 26 35 42 50 I 10 etc. 
 
 Compute the average length of the " in " and of the 
 ' out " periods separately. 
 
ATTENTION 
 
 IS7 
 
 TABLE XIII 
 
 RECORDS OF TWELVE PERSONS, SHOWING THE AVERAGE DURATION OF 
 THE "in" and "out" PERIODS 
 
 I . 
 2. 
 3- 
 4- 
 5- 
 
 6. 
 
 7- 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 lo. 
 II . 
 
 12. 
 
 "In" periods 
 4-4" 
 5-1" 
 8.2" 
 3.0" 
 3.2" 
 
 5-2" 
 3.0" 
 6.9" 
 2.0" 
 50" 
 3.2" 
 4.0" 
 
 4-4" 
 
 'Out" periods 
 7.6" 
 
 4.8" 
 
 Average 
 
 b. (i) Look at the figure below for two minutes and 
 notice that your attention periodically wanders off to 
 something else. As soon as you catch your attention off 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 the figure, bring it back. Call out " now " each time you 
 have to force your attention back to the figure. Your 
 partner records the time in the same manner as in the 
 preceding experiment. Calculate the average length of 
 the periods. 
 
 (2) Look at the same figure for two minutes, but this 
 
IS8 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 time try to work out in your mind the following questions 
 about the figure: How long is the diameter of the circle? 
 What is the width of the bar and of the circular line? 
 What different things does the figure represent to you, 
 or of what does it remind you? etc. 
 
 If your attention should shift to anjrthing not connected 
 with the figure call out " now " and your partner will 
 keep a record as before. How does this test compare with 
 the preceding record with regard to the number of times 
 the attention shifted away from the problems coimected 
 with the figure ? ' 
 
 3. Concentration of Attention. Turn to Fig. 23 and 
 repeat the experiment under 2 a. Take a two minutes' 
 record in exactly the same manner, but in this experiment 
 
 TABLE XIV 
 
 RECORDS OF TEN PERSONS, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TIMES THE 
 ATTENTION SHIFTED FROM THE FIGURE UNDER THE CONDITIONS 
 OF EXPERIMENT b (l) AND b (2) 
 
 b (I) b (2) 
 
 1 25 times 5 times 
 
 2 15 10 
 
 3 12 5 
 
 4 4 o 
 
 5 9 3 
 
 6 7 3 
 
 7 6 o 
 
 8 7 4 
 
 9 8 o 
 
 10 6 9 
 
 Average 9.9 times 3.9 times 
 
 * See James, Talks to Teachers, loi. 
 
ATTENTION 
 
 159 
 
 TABLE XV 
 
 RECORDS OF TEN PERSONS, GIVING IN THE FIRST COLUMN THE AVERAGE 
 DURATION OF THE "in" PERIODS WHEN AN EFFORT WAS MADE 
 TO HOLD THE FIGURE AS "iN," AND IN THE SECOND COLUMN 
 THE NORMAL DURATION OF THE "in" PERIODS TAKEN FROM 
 TABLE XIII 
 
 1 . 
 
 2 . 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 7- 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 
 10. 
 
 17- ' 
 
 4-4" 
 
 I8. ' 
 
 5.1" 
 
 16.7' 
 
 8.2" 
 
 9- ' 
 
 3-0" 
 
 8.5' 
 
 3-2" 
 
 21.2' 
 
 6.9" 
 
 4.2' 
 
 2.0" 
 
 20. ' 
 
 5.0" 
 
 5-9' 
 
 3-2" 
 
 4.6' 
 
 4. " 
 
 Average . 
 
 12.5" 
 
 4-5" 
 
 attempt to hold the figure in the " in " position. If it 
 shifts into the " out " position try to get it back as soon 
 as possible into the " in " position. Find the average 
 duration of the " in " periods. How do they compare with 
 the normal length of the " in " periods as found in experi- 
 ment 2 a? 
 
 Discuss the following questions: 
 
 1. Give an illustration from school work of securing 
 attention through the law of intensity, through the law 
 of contrast, through the law of clearness, through the 
 law of counter attraction. 
 
 2. Which laws are most suitable as permanent means 
 of securing attention? 
 
l6o EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 3. What practical applications has the principle in- 
 volved in experiment b (i) and (2)? 
 
 For further practical exercises see Thomdike, Prin- 
 ciples of Teaching, 107-109; O'Shea, Dynamic Factors 
 in Education, 24-25. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 MEMORY 
 
 The practical problem in the field of memory is, How 
 may we memorize or learn in the most economic manner? 
 A considerable mmiber of principles of economy in learn- 
 ing have been established by extensive investigations . The 
 experiments that foUow will deal with only a few of these 
 principles. 
 
 I. Learning in Parts or as a Whole. Is it more eco- 
 nomical to memorize a given amount of material piece- 
 meal, or as an entirety? For this test the following two 
 selections of poetry from Lorenzo's Laudi Spirituali are 
 to be used. 
 
 Memorize selection A part by part, making such divi- 
 sions as seem convenient. Consider it memorized as soon 
 as you are able to repeat it correctly without looking at 
 the book. Record the number of minutes required. In 
 both of the following selections work as intensively as you 
 can and try to disregard any prejudice that you may have 
 as to what the best method of memorizing is. 
 
 i6i 
 
l62 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 SELECTION A 
 
 let this wretched life within me die 
 That I may live in thee, my life indeed; 
 
 In thee alone, where dwells eternity, 
 While hungry multitudes death's hunger feed. 
 
 1 list within, and hark! Death's stealthy tread! 
 
 I look to thee, and nothing then is dead. 
 Then eyes may see a light invisible 
 And ears may hear a voice without a sound. 
 
 After a few minutes' rest, memorize selection B by read- 
 ing the entire selection through from beginning to end 
 each time. Continue this tmtil you are able to repeat it 
 without constdting the text. Work with maximum con- 
 centration, as in the first selection. 
 
 SELECTION B 
 
 When, sweet and beauteous Master, on that day, 
 Reviewing all my loves with aching heart, 
 
 I take from each its bitter self away. 
 The remnant shall be thou, their better part. 
 
 This perfect sweetness be his single store 
 
 Who seeks the good; tliis faileth nevermore. 
 
 A thirst unquenchable is not beguiled 
 
 By draught on draught of any running river. 
 
 How do the two methods compare? The greater 
 economy of the " whole " method does not always appear 
 in shorter amount of time required for it, but often in the 
 greater permanence which is indicated by the shorter 
 
MEMORY 163 
 
 time necessary to releam material acquired by the 
 " whole " method. To demonstrate this point, find the 
 time necessary to releam the two selections either twenty- 
 four or forty-eight hours later. 
 
 TABLE XVI 
 
 RECORDS OF SIX PERSONS 
 
 Part method Whole method 
 
 1 3' 2' 15" 
 
 2 3' 2' 45" 
 
 3 5' 7' 
 
 4 5' 3' 42" 
 
 5 7' 50" 7' 30" 
 
 6 5' 3' 
 
 Average 4' 48" 4' 22" 
 
 2. The Effect of Incorrect Repetition. The problem of 
 the next experiment is to determine the retarding effect 
 of incorrect repetitions upon the speed of learning. 
 
 Obtain a deck of ordinary playing cards. Remove 
 from it all the aces, kings, queens, jacks, and tens, leaving 
 altogether thirty-two cards. Take eight pieces of paper 
 and number them from two to nine. Place these on the 
 table before you about six inches apart, in irregular order, 
 in the form of a semicircle. Shufifie the cards well. Take 
 them into your left hand with their backs turned toward 
 you. Then distribute them as rapidly as you can into 
 eight piles indicated by the slips of paper. That is, put 
 all the fours on one pile beside the slip bearing that niun- 
 ber, and all the fives on one pile, etc. Try to avoid all 
 mistakes. If you discover having made a mistake, do 
 
1 64 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 not stop to correct it, as you would lose too much time 
 on account of it. Record the exact time required to make 
 the distribution. In this manner make ten distributions. 
 Then have your partner rearrange the eight slips of paper 
 in a different order. Before doing this, write down the 
 order in which the slips are placed. Make two distribu- 
 
 ' TABLE XVII 
 
 RECORDS OF THIRTEEN PERSONS 
 
 I 54 55 
 
 2 49 45 
 
 3 43 4° 
 
 4 43 40 
 
 5 41 38 
 
 6 43 41 
 
 7 40 38 
 
 8 38 39 
 
 9 39 35 
 
 10 36 37 
 
 Rearranged order 
 
 II 60 52 
 
 12 44 45 
 
 Original order 
 
 13 48 43 
 
 14 45 35 
 
 15- 
 16. 
 
 17- 
 18. 
 
 19- 
 20. 
 
 40 
 44 
 39 
 38 
 38 
 37 
 
 3 4 5 
 
 60 82 49 
 
 58 68 42 
 50 69 40 
 55 60 38 
 50 50 37 
 
 54 55 33 
 
 59 52 36 
 50 47 30 
 49 45 33 
 • • 45 32 
 
 55 69 45 
 55 60 40 
 
 49 50 40 
 
 • • 46 34 
 
 •■ 47 38 
 
 .. 48 32 
 
 • • 45 • ■ 
 
 6 7 
 
 55 69 
 
 55 69 
 
 50 63 
 
 48 55 
 
 48 50 
 
 42 43 
 
 42 40 
 
 38 40 
 
 37 42 
 
 35 40 
 
 8 9 10 
 
 52 69 60 
 
 44 54 54 
 
 43 54 51 
 
 40 57 48 
 
 40 52 44 
 
 38 49 40 
 
 37 54 43 
 
 36 48 45 
 
 36 56 43 
 
 37 50 39 
 
 II 12 13 
 
 70 65 60 
 
 60 60 58 
 
 54 52 50 
 
 56 50 55 
 47 50 50 
 
 57 44 54 
 56 47 55 
 50 45 59 
 50 44 50 
 50 44 49 
 
 45 69 40 54 53 56 55 55 
 
 45 55 37 52 54 57 55 55 
 
 38 54 42 46 54 50 50 49 
 
 37 40 38 .. 45 46 48 .. 
 
 37 •• 36 •• 44 ■• 47 •• 
 
 35 38 .. 42 .. 
 
 tions according to this new arrangement. Then place 
 the slips in the same order as they were originally and make 
 
MEMORY 165 
 
 several distributions until you shall reach the speed you 
 had attained before the two incorrect distributions. Be 
 sure that the cards are thoroughly shuffled before each 
 distribution. 
 
 Make a table of yoiu: results similar to the sample 
 records given in Table XVII. 
 
 3. Pauses in Memorizing. The object of the following 
 test is to determine the effect of a short pause after learn- 
 ing. Use the following lists of words. Your partner will 
 read to you each list once, reading at the rate of one word 
 per second. Immediately after the first list has been 
 read turn to some earlier part of the book and engage 
 in rapid reading for thirty seconds. When the thirty 
 seconds are over, which will be indicated by your part- 
 ner, write down as many words of the Ust read to you as 
 you remember. 
 
 After about two minutes, Ust two will be read to you. 
 But during the thirty seconds following that, you are 
 not to work, but to allow your mind to rest or wander 
 as it will. However, do not repeat the words that were 
 
 1. Poor, bind, draw, look, hang, sort, vein, plan. 
 
 2. Evil, mark, wait, face, than, view, work, come. 
 
 3. Call, grow, cast, term, down, suit, cold, leaf. 
 
 4. Care, bold, trim, take, bite, stop, wake, pain. 
 
 5. Blow, busy, coat, ptill, pour, stay, jerk, have. 
 
 6. Pick, this, rise, snap, give, from, more, that. 
 
 7. Tilt, step, zeal, fall, thou, damp, iron, find. 
 
 8. Lead, blue, turn, once, pray, rude, just, yard. 
 
l66 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 read to you. Then write down all the words you remem- 
 ber. 
 
 In like manner use the remaining lists of words. The 
 odd-numbered lists are to be followed in each case by 
 rapid reading for thirty seconds, and the even-numbered 
 lists by rest periods of thirty seconds. 
 
 The following lists are to be used upon your partner: 
 
 1. Here, want, your, beat, room, gold, time, rock. 
 
 2. Rear, moat, walk, hand, tell, heir, pass, mind. 
 
 3. Fire, like, part, form, will, fear, clad, reef. 
 
 4. Make, firm, live, yam, wing, fold, good, hard. 
 
 5. Home, fare, roll, mean, gone, gray, shot, hope. 
 
 6. What, seem, hate, crow, lime, chin, cure, lend. 
 
 7. Knot, free, some, each, slow, coal, sick, boat. 
 
 8. Long, comb, song, less, calf, when, wood, dust. 
 
 TABLE XVIII 
 
 RECORDS OF TEN PERSONS, SHOWING THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF WORDS 
 REMEMBERED PER GROUP 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Average . 
 
 Pause 
 
 Pause 
 
 Occupied 
 
 Unoccupied 
 
 4-7 
 
 5-7 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3-5 
 
 5-3 
 
MEMORY 167 
 
 Find the average number of words remembered from 
 the odd-ntimbered and the average number remembered 
 from the even -numbered Usts. 
 
 4. Comprehension and System. The purpose of the 
 next two tests is to demonstrate two maxims of memory, 
 (a) Understand what you wish to remember, and (b) sys- 
 tematize what you wish to remember. 
 
 a. Sense versus Nonsense Material. Things understood 
 clearly are remembered more readily. To show this 
 experimentally, compare the length of time required to 
 learn ten monosyllabic noims with the time required to 
 learn ten nonsense syllables. A list of syllables was 
 assigned for memorizing in Chapter VIII, and the results 
 of this test may be used for comparison, so that no new 
 hst needs to be learned. 
 
 Find the time reqmred to learn the following Ust of ten 
 words: 
 
 spade 
 
 moon 
 
 fox 
 
 com 
 
 road 
 
 town 
 
 mink 
 
 Hght 
 
 sand 
 
 knife 
 Compare the time of this with the time needed for the 
 first list of syllables in Chapter VIII. The sense material 
 
l68 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 at once arouses so many more connections that it is 
 remembered much more readily. 
 
 TABLE XIX 
 
 RECORDS OF ELEVEN PERSONS 
 
 Syllables Words 
 
 I I' 8" 40" 
 
 2 i' 50" 
 
 3 2' 30" 42" 
 
 4 I' 40" r 5" 
 
 5 I' 45" 
 
 6 I' 20" 55" 
 
 7 3' 2' 
 
 8 1' 30" I' 
 
 9 3' I' 45" 
 
 10 2' 30" 2' 
 
 II i' 20" 30" 
 
 Average i' 49" i' i" 
 
 b. Find the time required to commit to memory the 
 following list of items. Consider them learned as soon as 
 you are able to repeat, in the order in which they are 
 printed, all the items, and their equivalents or dates, 
 without consulting the text. Learn by the " whole " 
 method, that is, read the entire list each time. Work as 
 intensively as you can. 
 
MEMORY 
 
 169 
 
 LIST A 
 
 Battle of Poitiers 
 
 1356 A. D. 
 
 Katheko = 
 
 come dovra 
 
 Karphe = 
 
 hay 
 
 782+465 = 
 
 1247 
 
 Invention of grain-binder 
 
 1854 A. D. 
 
 624+832 = 
 
 1456 
 
 Arch of Constantine built 
 
 314 A. D. 
 
 Zulon = 
 
 timber 
 
 901+477 = 
 
 1378 
 
 Battle of Colline Gate 
 
 82 B. C. 
 
 758+546 = 
 
 1304 
 
 Invention of typewriter 
 
 1855 A. D. 
 
 Harkos = 
 
 oath 
 
 683+459 = 
 
 1 142 
 
 Ochthe = 
 
 bluff 
 
 After a few minutes of rest leam the following list of 
 items. Proceed also by the " whole " method. Record 
 the time. Work intensively. 
 
170 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 LIST B 
 
 Five historical dates: 
 
 Destruction of Corinth 146 b. c. 
 
 Battle of Strassburg 357 a. d. 
 
 Battle of Agincourt 141 5 a. d. 
 
 Invention of cream separator 1879 a. d. 
 
 Invention of gasoline engine 1875 a. d. 
 
 Five Greek words: 
 
 
 Chalepos = 
 
 difficult 
 
 Chrema = 
 
 wealth 
 
 Phluaros = 
 
 nonsense 
 
 Poleo = 
 
 to sell 
 
 Skeneo = 
 
 to encamp 
 
 Five additions: 
 
 
 593+854 = 
 
 1447 
 
 697+561 = 
 
 1258 
 
 729+637 = 
 
 1366 
 
 823+576 = 
 
 1399 
 
 945+363 = 
 
 1308 
 
MEMORY 171 
 
 Both lists contain the same number of items of each 
 class. In List A they are arranged in chance order, while 
 in List B they are systematized and grouped according to 
 their classes. 
 
 Compare the time of learning the two lists. What in- 
 ference do you draw? 
 
 TABLE XX 
 
 RECORDS OF TEN PERSONS 
 
 List A List B 
 
 I . 12' 5' 
 
 2 10' 5' 
 
 3 19' 14' 
 
 4 9' 7' 
 
 5 15' 12' 
 
 6 15' 9' 40" 
 
 7 11' 30" 6' 
 
 8 14' "' 
 
 9 20' 14' 
 
 10 15' 8' 10" 
 
 Average 14' 3" 9' n" 
 
 Discuss the following questions: 
 
 1. Give several concrete applications of the principle 
 that the " whole " method is better than the " part " 
 method in learning. 
 
 2. Give several instances in which the detrimental 
 effect of incorrect repetitions would be shown. 
 
 3. Give one illustration in the study of history and one 
 in the study of geography of the principle involved in 
 experiment b. 
 
 For additional exercises consult Thomdike, Principles 
 of Teaching, 123-127. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 WORK AND FATIGUE 
 
 The object of the experiment in this chapter is to demon- 
 strate some means of measuring continuous work, and to 
 show the changes and, particularly, the eflEects of fatigue 
 in continuous work. 
 
 I. Mental Work and Fatigue. In order to measure 
 mental fatigue, it is necessary to employ a form of test 
 which involves the lowest minimum of muscular and 
 sensory work. Many such tests have the objection of 
 involving considerable muscular activity. For example, 
 the cancellation test is largely a test of fatigue of eye 
 muscles. The tapping tests likewise are tests mostly of 
 muscular fatigue. 
 
 The type of work which has proved most successful 
 is some form of arithmetical calculation. In the pres- 
 ent experiment the work will consist of mental addi- 
 tion. 
 
 Be comfortably seated in a quiet room. Your partner 
 
 will announce to you a nimiber consisting of two digits. 
 
 Add six to this ntmiber, then add seven to this new stmi, 
 
 and then eight to that, then nine, and then again six, 
 
 172 
 
WORK AND FATIGUE 173 
 
 seven, eight, and nine in rotation, etc. When the sum 
 has reached one hundred or more drop the extreme left 
 hand digit and continue with the two remaining digits. 
 For example, if the number given you were. 80, then your 
 consecutive sums would be 80, 86, 93, loi, 10, 16, 23, 31, 
 etc. Yoxir partner will aimounce a new number every 
 thirty seconds. In each case add six, seven, eight, and 
 nine in rotation to the sum you get after each addition. 
 In order to imderstand thoroughly the conditions of the 
 experiment, use for preliminary trials the following two 
 numbers which will not occur among the numbers of the 
 regular experiment, 40, and 60. 
 
 Close your eyes and add just as rapidly as you can. 
 Your partner will give you a new number every thirty 
 seconds. Speak your sums aloud so that your partner 
 can hear them and follow the columns below, which give 
 the correct succession of answers. If you make a mistake 
 he will write your number opposite the correct one. At 
 the end of every thirty seconds he will make a check mark 
 to indicate how many numbers you had added and at 
 the same time give you a new number which will be the 
 one at the top of the next column. Lose no time when a 
 new number is announced, but start at once with it and 
 add at your maximum speed until another niunber is 
 given you, and so on. 
 
174 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 46 
 
 66 
 
 53 
 
 73 
 
 61 
 
 81 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 76 
 
 96 
 
 83 
 
 103 
 
 91 
 
 II 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 33 
 
 21 
 
 41 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 36 
 
 56 
 
 43 
 
 63 
 
 51 
 
 71 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 66 
 
 86 
 
 73 
 
 93 
 
 81 
 
 lOI 
 
 Now begin with the regular experiment. The ntunbers 
 to be announced every thirty seconds are the ones at the top 
 of the columns. It is absolutely necessary that you should 
 work just as hard and as fast as you can. The entire test 
 will take thirty minutes, as there are sixty columns.' 
 
 The class should be divided into two groups. One 
 should work continuously for thirty minutes, while the 
 other should take a rest of two minutes after the first 
 fifteen minutes of work. 
 
 'The numbers that are used for "starters" comprise all the 
 numbers between o and 100 which will not produce sums whose right 
 hand digit is o. All these were omitted because the additions in 
 such cases are decidedly easier. 
 
 The columns are long enough so that no one is apt to go beyond any 
 one in the allotted thirty seconds. If this should occur your partner 
 should make a check mark for every number beyond the column. 
 
WORK AND FATIGUE 175 
 
 28 
 
 52 
 
 33 
 
 58 
 
 26 
 
 81 
 
 46 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 53 
 
 34 
 
 58 
 
 39 
 
 64 
 
 32 
 
 87 
 
 52 
 
 78 
 
 74 
 
 59 
 
 41 
 
 65 
 
 46 
 
 71 
 
 39 
 
 94. 
 
 59 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 66 
 
 49 
 
 73 
 
 54 
 
 79 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 67 
 
 93 
 
 89 
 
 74 
 
 58 
 
 82 
 
 63 
 
 88 
 
 56 
 
 II 
 
 76 
 
 2" 
 
 98 
 
 83 
 
 64, 
 
 88 
 
 69 
 
 94 
 
 62 
 
 17 
 
 82 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 89 
 
 71 
 
 95 
 
 76 
 
 I 
 
 69 
 
 24 
 
 89 
 
 15 
 
 II 
 
 96 
 
 79 
 
 3 
 
 84 
 
 9 
 
 77 
 
 32 
 
 97 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 88 
 
 12 
 
 93, 
 
 18 
 
 86 
 
 41 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 94 
 
 18 
 
 99 
 
 24 
 
 92 
 
 47 
 
 12 
 
 38 
 
 34 
 
 19, 
 
 I 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 99 
 
 54 
 
 19 
 
 45 
 
 41 
 
 26. 
 
 9 
 
 33 
 
 14 
 
 39 
 
 7 
 
 62 
 
 27 
 
 53 
 
 49. 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 23. 
 
 48 
 
 16 
 
 71 
 
 36. 
 
 62 
 
 58 
 
 43 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 29 
 
 54 
 
 22 
 
 77 
 
 42 
 
 68 
 
 64 
 
 49 
 
 31 
 
 55 
 
 36 
 
 61 
 
 29 
 
 84 
 
 49 
 
 75 
 
 71 
 
 56 
 
 39 
 
 63 
 
 44 
 
 69 
 
 37 
 
 92 
 
 57 
 
 83 
 
 79 
 
 64 
 
 48 
 
 72 
 
 53 
 
 78 
 
 46 
 
 I 
 
 66 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 73 
 
 54 
 
 78 
 
 59 
 
 84 
 
 52 
 
 7 
 
 72 
 
 98 
 
 94 
 
 79 
 
 61 
 
 85 
 
 66 
 
 91 
 
 59 
 
 14 
 
 79 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 86 
 
 69 
 
 93 
 
 74 
 
 99 
 
 67 
 
 22 
 
 87 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 94 
 
176 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 35 
 
 11 
 
 36 
 
 62 
 
 98 
 
 43 
 
 85 
 
 5t 
 
 66 
 
 22 
 
 41 
 
 17 
 
 42 
 
 68 
 
 4 
 
 49 
 
 91 
 
 57 
 
 72 
 
 28 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 49 
 
 75 
 
 II 
 
 56 
 
 98 
 
 64 
 
 79 
 
 35 
 
 56 
 
 32 
 
 57 
 
 83 
 
 19 
 
 64 
 
 6 
 
 72 
 
 87 
 
 43 
 
 65 
 
 41 
 
 66 
 
 92 
 
 28. 
 
 73 
 
 15 
 
 81 
 
 96 
 
 52 
 
 71 
 
 47 
 
 72 
 
 98 
 
 34 
 
 79 
 
 21 
 
 87 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 78 
 
 54 
 
 79 
 
 5 
 
 41, 
 
 86 
 
 28 
 
 94 
 
 9 
 
 65 
 
 86 
 
 62 
 
 87 
 
 13 
 
 49. 
 
 94 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 73 
 
 95 
 
 71 
 
 96 
 
 22 
 
 58 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 II 
 
 26 
 
 82 
 
 I 
 
 77 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 64 
 
 9 
 
 51 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 88 
 
 8 
 
 84 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 71 
 
 16 
 
 58 
 
 24 
 
 39 
 
 95 
 
 16 
 
 92 
 
 17 
 
 43 
 
 79 
 
 24 
 
 66 
 
 32 
 
 47 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 ;■ 26 
 
 52 
 
 88 
 
 33 
 
 75 
 
 41 
 
 56 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 32 
 
 58 
 
 94 
 
 39 
 
 81 
 
 47 
 
 62 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 14 
 
 39 
 
 65 
 
 I 
 
 46 
 
 88 
 
 54 
 
 69 
 
 25 
 
 46 
 
 22 
 
 47 
 
 73 
 
 9 
 
 54 
 
 96 
 
 62 
 
 77 
 
 33 
 
 55 
 
 31 
 
 56 
 
 82 
 
 18 
 
 63 
 
 5 
 
 71 
 
 86 
 
 42 
 
 61 
 
 37 
 
 62 
 
 88 
 
 24 
 
 69 
 
 II 
 
 77 
 
 92 
 
 48 
 
 68 
 
 44 
 
 69 
 
 95 
 
 31 
 
 76 
 
 18 
 
 84 
 
 99 
 
 55 
 
 76 
 
 52 
 
 77 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 84 
 
 26 
 
 92 
 
 7 
 
 63 
 
WORK AND FATIGUE 177 
 
 38 
 
 73 
 
 25 
 
 41 
 
 76 
 
 12 
 
 78 
 
 13 
 
 95 
 
 31 
 
 44 
 
 79 
 
 31 
 
 47 
 
 82 
 
 18 
 
 84 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 37 
 
 51 
 
 86 
 
 38 
 
 54 
 
 89 
 
 25 
 
 91 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 44 
 
 59 
 
 94 
 
 46 
 
 62 
 
 97 
 
 33 
 
 99 
 
 34- 
 
 16 
 
 52 
 
 68 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 71 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 25 
 
 61 
 
 74 
 
 9 
 
 61 
 
 77 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 14 
 
 49 
 
 31 
 
 67 
 
 8i 
 
 16 
 
 68 
 
 84 
 
 19 
 
 55 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 38 
 
 74 
 
 89 
 
 24 
 
 76 
 
 92 
 
 27 
 
 63. 
 
 29 
 
 64 
 
 46 
 
 82 
 
 98 
 
 33 
 
 85 
 
 I 
 
 36 
 
 72. 
 
 38 
 
 73 
 
 55 
 
 91' 
 
 4 
 
 39 
 
 91 
 
 7 
 
 42 
 
 78 
 
 44 
 
 79 
 
 61 
 
 97 
 
 II 
 
 46 
 
 98 
 
 14 
 
 49 
 
 85 
 
 51 
 
 86 
 
 68. 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 54 
 
 6 
 
 2a 
 
 57 
 
 93 
 
 59 
 
 94 
 
 76. 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 63 
 
 15 
 
 31' 
 
 66 
 
 2. 
 
 68 
 
 3 
 
 85. 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 69 
 
 21 
 
 37 
 
 72 
 
 8 
 
 74 
 
 9 
 
 91 
 
 27 
 
 4-1, 
 
 76 
 
 28 
 
 44 
 
 79 
 
 15 
 
 81 
 
 16 
 
 98 
 
 34 
 
 49 
 
 84 
 
 36 
 
 52 
 
 87 
 
 23 
 
 89 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 58 
 
 93 
 
 45 
 
 6i- 
 
 96 
 
 32 
 
 98 
 
 33 
 
 15 
 
 51 
 
 64 
 
 99 
 
 51 
 
 67 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 4 
 
 39 
 
 21 
 
 57 
 
 71 
 
 6 
 
 58 
 
 74 
 
 9 
 
 45 
 
 II 
 
 46 
 
 28 
 
 64 
 
 79 
 
 14 
 
 66 
 
 82 
 
 17 
 
 53 
 
 19 
 
 54 
 
 36 
 
 72 
 
178 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 86 
 
 92 
 
 18 
 
 63 
 
 45 
 
 91 
 
 16 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 23 
 
 92 
 
 98 
 
 24 
 
 69 
 
 51 
 
 97 
 
 22 
 
 88 
 
 94 
 
 29 
 
 99 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 76 
 
 58 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 95 
 
 I 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 39 
 
 84 
 
 66 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 44 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 48 
 
 93 
 
 75 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 53 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 54 
 
 99 
 
 81 
 
 27 
 
 52 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 59. 
 
 29 
 
 35 
 
 61 
 
 6 
 
 88 
 
 34 
 
 59 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 66. 
 
 37 
 
 43 
 
 69 
 
 14 
 
 96 
 
 42 
 
 67 
 
 ^3 
 
 39 
 
 74 
 
 46 
 
 52 
 
 78 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 51 
 
 76 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 83 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 
 84 
 
 29 
 
 II 
 
 57 
 
 82 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 89 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 91 
 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 64 
 
 89 
 
 55 
 
 61 
 
 96. 
 
 67 
 
 73 
 
 99 
 
 44 
 
 26 
 
 72 
 
 97 
 
 63 
 
 69 
 
 4 
 
 76 
 
 82 
 
 8 
 
 S3 
 
 35 
 
 81 
 
 6 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 13" 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 14 
 
 59 
 
 41 
 
 87 
 
 12 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 19" 
 
 89 
 
 95 
 
 21 
 
 661 
 
 48 
 
 94» 
 
 19 
 
 85 
 
 91 
 
 2ff 
 
 97 
 
 3 
 
 29. 
 
 74 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 2Z^ 
 
 93 
 
 99 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 38 
 
 83 
 
 65 
 
 II 
 
 .-^■- 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 44 
 
 89 
 
 71 
 
 17 
 
 " 42 
 
 8 
 
 '4 
 
 49 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 51 
 
 96 
 
 78 
 
 24 
 
 49 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 59 
 
 4 
 
 86 
 
 32 
 
 57 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 
 64 
 
WORK AND FATIGUE 179 
 
 75 
 
 21 
 
 96 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 83 
 
 55 
 
 61 
 
 56 
 
 32 
 
 8i 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 89 
 
 61 
 
 67 
 
 62 
 
 38 
 
 88 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 55 
 
 6t 
 
 96 
 
 68 
 
 74 
 
 69 
 
 45 
 
 96 
 
 42 
 
 17 
 
 63 
 
 69 
 
 4 
 
 76 
 
 82 
 
 77 
 
 53 
 
 5 
 
 51 
 
 26 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 13 
 
 85 
 
 91 
 
 86 
 
 62 
 
 II 
 
 57 
 
 32 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 19 
 
 91 
 
 97 
 
 92 
 
 68 
 
 18 
 
 64 
 
 39 
 
 85 
 
 91 
 
 26 
 
 58 
 
 4 
 
 99 
 
 75 
 
 26 
 
 72 
 
 47 
 
 93 
 
 99 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 83 
 
 35 
 
 81 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 92, 
 
 41 
 
 87 
 
 62 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 49 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 98 
 
 48 
 
 94 
 
 6a 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 56 
 
 e 
 
 77 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 
 64 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 37 
 
 13 
 
 65 
 
 II 
 
 86 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 
 73 
 
 45 
 
 51 
 
 46 
 
 22 
 
 71 
 
 17 
 
 92f^ 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 79 
 
 51 
 
 57 
 
 52 
 
 28 
 
 78 
 
 24 
 
 99 
 
 45 
 
 51 
 
 86 
 
 58 
 
 64 
 
 59 
 
 35 
 
 86 
 
 32 
 
 7 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 94 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 67 
 
 43 
 
 95 
 
 41 
 
 16 
 
 62 
 
 68 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 81 
 
 76 
 
 52 
 
 I 
 
 47 
 
 22 
 
 68 
 
 74 
 
 9 
 
 81 
 
 87 
 
 82 
 
 58 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 29 
 
 75 
 
 81 
 
 16 
 
 88 
 
 94 
 
 89 
 
 65 
 
 16 
 
 62 
 
 37 
 
 83 
 
 89 
 
 24 
 
 96 
 
 2 
 
 97 
 
 73 
 
l8o EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 93 
 
 65 
 
 71 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 52 
 
 33 
 
 58 
 
 26 
 
 81 
 
 99 
 
 71 
 
 77 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 58 
 
 39 
 
 64 
 
 32 
 
 87 
 
 6 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 28 
 
 41 
 
 65 
 
 46 
 
 71 
 
 39 
 
 94 
 
 14 
 
 86 
 
 92 
 
 36 
 
 49 
 
 73 
 
 54 
 
 79 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 95 
 
 I 
 
 45 
 
 58 
 
 82 
 
 63 
 
 88 
 
 5^ 
 
 II 
 
 29 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 51 
 
 64 
 
 88 
 
 69. 
 
 94 
 
 6? 
 
 17 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 58 
 
 71 
 
 95 
 
 76 
 
 I' 
 
 69 
 
 24 
 
 44 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 66 
 
 79 
 
 3 
 
 84 
 
 9 
 
 77 
 
 32 
 
 53 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 75 
 
 88 
 
 12' 
 
 93 
 
 18 
 
 86 
 
 41 
 
 59 
 
 31 
 
 37 
 
 81- 
 
 94 
 
 18 
 
 99 
 
 24 
 
 92 
 
 47 
 
 66 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 88 
 
 I 
 
 2S 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 99 
 
 54 
 
 74 
 
 46 
 
 52 
 
 96 
 
 9 
 
 33- 
 
 14 
 
 39 
 
 7 
 
 62 
 
 83 
 
 55 
 
 6j 
 
 5 
 
 IS 
 
 42. 
 
 23 
 
 48' 
 
 16 
 
 71 
 
 89 
 
 6; 
 
 &7 
 
 II. 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 29 
 
 54 
 
 22 
 
 77 
 
 96 
 
 68 
 
 74 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 55 
 
 36 
 
 61 
 
 29 
 
 84 
 
 4 
 
 76 
 
 82 
 
 26. 
 
 39 
 
 63 
 
 44 
 
 69 
 
 37 
 
 92 
 
 13 
 
 8& 
 
 91 
 
 35 
 
 48 
 
 72' 
 
 53 
 
 78 
 
 46 
 
 I 
 
 19 
 
 91 
 
 97 
 
 41 
 
 54 
 
 78 
 
 59 
 
 84 
 
 52 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 98 
 
 4 
 
 48 
 
 61 
 
 85 
 
 66 
 
 91 
 
 59 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 56 
 
 69 
 
 93 
 
 74 
 
 99 
 
 67 
 
 24 
 
WORK AND FATIGUE 
 
 l8l 
 
 Construct a curve, similar to the one in Fig. 25, to show 
 the number of additions made in every five thirty-second 
 period. Also indicate whether you belong to the group 
 with or without the two minutes' rest. 
 
 It is perhaps impossible to select an activity in which 
 there is no increase in efficiency due to practice. The type 
 of work used here involves a relatively small amount of 
 practice. It is obvious that the two factors of practice 
 and fatigue which appear in all continuous work tend to 
 counteract each other. The former tends to make the 
 ciurve rise while the latter tends to make it drop. The two 
 factors may, however, be separated. If we aUow a period 
 of rest of two minutes at the end of every five minutes of 
 work we reduce the effects of fatigue and get the natural 
 rise of the ctirve due to practice. The upper one in Fig. 25 
 is the composite cvuve of seven persons obtained in this 
 manner. The lower one is the composite of ten persons 
 working continuously. The former may be called the 
 practice curve and the latter the fatigue curve. The 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
1,82 EXPERIMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 average gain of the seven records in the practice curve, 
 comparing the last five half -minute periods with the first 
 five, is 57 per cent., while the average gain of the ten 
 records in the fatigue curve is lo per cent. 
 
 2. Muscular Work and Fatigue. Perhaps the best 
 apparatus for measuring muscular work and fatigue is the 
 Mosso ergograph, which is to be used in this experiment.' 
 
 Fasten the fingers, hand, and forearm of the right arm 
 firmly in the arm rest, leaving only the middle finger free. 
 Attach the finger cap to the middle finger so that the wire 
 is taut when the finger is in resting position. With this 
 finger lift the weight regularly every two seconds. Follow 
 a metronome which has been set to beat sixty times per 
 minute. On the first stroke raise the weight as high as 
 you can and on the second lower it to the resting position, 
 then on the next stroke lift it again, etc. Make a maxi- 
 mum puU each time and continue tmtil the finger is com- 
 pletely exhausted. After a rest of thirty seconds make 
 another record in the same manner. To show the effect 
 of different intervals of rest, half of the class should rest 
 thirty seconds and the other half one minute between 
 the two records. 
 
 Dip the record paper in shellac and hang it up to dry. 
 After it is thoroughly dry mount it upon stiff paper and 
 preserve it among yotu: notes. Compare the number and 
 
 ' This experiment will require careful supervision by the in- 
 structor in charge to see that the apparatus is properly set up. 
 
 The ergograph may be obtained from C. H. Stoelting Co., I2i 
 N. Green St., Chicago, 111. 
 
WORK AND FATIGUE 
 
 183 
 
 height of the pulls made in the two records. Also notice 
 whether there axe any rhythmic variations in the decrease 
 of strength. 
 
 U. 
 
 Si 
 
T 
 
 HE foUowinif pages contain advertisements of 
 
 a few of the Macmillan publications 
 
 on Psychology, etc 
 
PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 A Text-Book of Psychology. By Edward Bradford Titchener. Part I. Pub- 
 lished in New York, 1896, as "An Outline of Psychology." Published under 
 present title, 1909. Cloth, 311 pp., izmo, $1.30 net 
 
 An Outline of Psychology. By Edward Bradford Titchener. Published in 
 New York, 1896. Ten reprints. New edition with additions, 1908. 
 
 Cloth, 37Q pp., i2mo. $1.30 net 
 
 A Primer of Psychology. By EdWard Bradford Titchener. Published in 
 New York, 1898. Second edition revised, 1899- Seventh reprint, igo6. 
 
 Cloth, 316 pp., i2mo, $1.00 net 
 
 A First Book in Psychology. By Mary Whiton Calkins, Professor of Philosophy 
 and Psychology in Wellesley College. Published in New York, 1910. 
 
 Cloth, 424 pp., i2mo, $1.00 net 
 
 An Introduction to Psychology. By Mary Whiton Calkins, Professor of Phil- 
 osophy and Psychology in Wellesley College. Published in New York, 1901. 
 Latest "reprint, 1905. Cloth, 512 pp., i2mo, $2.00 net 
 
 Outlines of Psychology. An Elementary Treatise, with Some Practical Applica- 
 tions. By JosiahRoyce, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of the History of Philosophy 
 In Harvard University. Published in New York. 1903- Latest reprint, 1906. 
 
 Cloth, 3Q2 pp., i2mo, $1.00 net 
 
 Erperimental Psychology. A Manual of Laboratory Practice. By Edward 
 Bradford Titchener. 
 
 Vol. I, Qualitative Experiments. Part I, Student's Manual. 
 
 Cloth. 214 pp., 8vo, $1.60 net 
 Part II, Instructor's Manual. Cloth. 456 pp., 8vo. $2.50 net 
 
 Published in New York, 1901. 
 
 Vol. II, Quantitative Experiments. Part I, Student's Manual. 
 
 CloiJt, 208 pp., 8vo, $1.40 net 
 Part II, Instructor's Manual. Cloth, 453 pp., 8vo, $2.50 net 
 
 Published in New York, 1905. 
 
 Experimental Psychology and Its Bearing upon Culture. By George Malcolm 
 Stratton, Associate Professor of Psychology in the University of California. 
 Published in New York, 1903. Cloth, 331 pp.. j2mo, $2.00 net 
 
 Genetic Psychology. By Edwin A. Kirkpatrick. Published in New York, 1909. 
 
 Cloth, 373 pp., i2mo, $1.25 net 
 
The ETolution of Mind. By Joseph McCabe. Published in London, 1910. 
 
 Cloth. 287 pp., 8vo, $2.00 net 
 
 Psychology: Normal and Morbid. By Charles A. Mercier. Published in 
 London, 1907. Cloth, 318 pp., 8vo, $4.00 net 
 
 Studies in Clinical Psychiatry. By Lewis C. Bruce, M.D., G.R.C.P.E. Pub- 
 lished in London, 1906. Cloth, 246 pp., 8vo, $4.00 net 
 
 Clinical Psychiatry. A Text-book for Students and Physicians. Abstracted and 
 adapted from the seventh German edition of Kraepelin's "Lehrbuch der 
 Psychiatrie." By A. Ross Diefendorf. Published in New York, 1902. 
 Second edition, 1907. Cloth, 562 pp., 8vo, $3.75 net 
 
 Neurological and Mental Diagnosis. A Manual of Methods. By L. Pierce Clark, 
 M.D., Neurologist, Vanderbilt Clinic, Columbia University, and A. Ross 
 Diefendorf, M.D,, Lecturer in Psychiatry in Yale University. Published 
 in New York, 1908. Cloth, illustrated, 188 pp., i2mo, $1.25 net 
 
 The Major Symptoms of Hysteria. Fifteen Lectures Given in the Medical School 
 of Harvard University. By Pierre Janet, M.D. Published in New York, 
 1907- Cloth, 337 PP-, i2mo, $1.75 net 
 
 A Text-Book of Insanity. By Charles Mercier. Published in London, 1902, 
 
 Cloth, 222 pp., i2mo, $1.75 net 
 
 The Animal Mind. A Text-book of Comparative Psychology. By Margaret 
 Floy Washburn, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Philosophy in Vassar College. 
 Published in New York, 1908. Vol. II in the Animal Behavior Series. 
 
 Cloth, 333 PP; i2mo, $1.60 net 
 
 The Dancing Mouse. A Study in Animal Behavior. By Robert M. Yerkes, 
 Ph.D., Instructor in Comparative Psychology in Harvard University. Vol. I 
 in the Animal Behavior Series. Published in New York, 1907. 
 
 Cloth, illustrated, 290 pp., i2mo, $1.25 net 
 
 Animal Intelligence. Experimental Studies by Professor Edward D. Thorndike, 
 of Teachers College, Columbia University. Vol. Ill in the Animal Behavior 
 Series. Cloth, viii-\-2Q7 pp,, i2mo, $1.60 net 
 
 Esthetic Principles. By Henry Rutgers Marshall, M.A. Published in New 
 York, i89S- Latest reprint, 1901. Cloth, 201 pp., i2mo, $1.25 net 
 
 Consciousness. By Henry Rutgers Marshall. Published in New York and 
 London, 1909. Cloth, 686 pp., 8vo, $4.00 net 
 
 The Psychology of Religious Belief. By James Bissett Pratt Ph.D. Published 
 in New York, 1906. Reprinted. 1907. Cloth, 327 pp., i2mo, $1.30 net 
 
The Principles of Religious Development. A Psychological and Philosophical 
 Study. By George Galloway. Published in London, 1909. 
 
 Cloth, 362 pp., 3vo, $3.00 net 
 
 Social Psychology. An Outline and Source Book. By Edward Alsworth Ross. 
 Professor of Sociology in the University of Wisconsin. Published in New 
 York, 1908. Cloth, 372 pp., i2mo, $1.30 net 
 
 Mind in Evolution. By L. T. Hobhouse. Published in London.'igoi. 
 
 Cloth, 406 pp., 8vo, $3.25 net 
 
 Home: the Relation of the Treatise of Human Nature. Book I, to the Inquiry 
 Concerning Human Understanding. By W. B. Elkin, Ph.D. Published in 
 New York. 1904. Cloth, 330 i>i>., i2mo, $1.30 net 
 
 The Psychology of Thinking. By Irving Elgar Miller, Ph.D. Published in 
 New York, 1909. Cloth, 303 pp., i2mo, $1.25 net 
 
 Experimental Psychology of the Thought Processes. By Edward Bradford 
 Titchener, Sage Professor of Psychology at Cornell University. Published 
 in New York, 1909. Cloth, 308 iii?., $1.25 net 
 
 Lectures on the Elementary Psychology of Feeling and Attention. By Edward 
 Bradford Titchener. Published in New York, 1908. 
 
 Cloth, 404 pp., i2mo, $1.40 net 
 
 Instinct and Reason. An Essay concerning the Relation of Instinct to Reason, 
 with Some Special Study of the Nature of Religion. By Henry Rutgers 
 Marshall, M.A. Published in New York, 1898. 
 
 Cloth, 573 pp., Svo, $3-50 net 
 
 Structure and Growth of the Mind. By W. Mitchell. Published in London, 1907. 
 
 Cloth, 512 pp., Svo, $2.60 net 
 
 Why the Mind has a Body. By C. A. Strong, Professor of Psychology in Columbia 
 University. Published in New York, 1903. Reprinted, 1908. 
 
 Cloth, 355 pp., Svo, $2.50 net 
 
 The Essentials of Psychology. By W. B. Pillsbijry, Professor of Psychology, 
 University of Michigan. Cloth, xi+362 pp., $1.25 net 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
 
By W. B. PILLSBURY 
 Attention 
 
 Cloth, 8vOf $2.75 net 
 
 "It is a clear, conservative, and comprehensive presentation of the psychology 
 of attention from a particular point of view. The chief business of psychology is 
 regarded as the analysis of mind into sensations as its structural elements, and the 
 determination of the ways in which these elementary states function in combina- 
 tion in higher mental processes. From this point of view Professor Pillsbury leaves 
 nothing to be desired. Defining attention as 'an increased clearness and prom- 
 inence of some one idea, sensation, or object, whether remembered or directly given 
 from, the external world, so that for the time it is made to constitute the most im- 
 portant feature of consciousness,' he finds it to depend not upon some original 
 conative effort, but upon two general factors, 'the present environment on the one 
 side, and the entire past history of the individual on the other.' It is the excellence 
 of Professor Pillsbury's book which has emphasized for us the diflSculties on which 
 we have commented. It is a valuable contribution to psychological literature." — 
 N. Y. Evening Post. 
 
 "The work is a complete and admirable handbook to a well-rounded treatment 
 of a topic of prime importance to the student of psychology. Naturally the topic 
 is eo central to the group of problems that constitute modem i^sychology that the 
 work touches upon many of the vital issues of a growing science, and summarizes 
 a body of doctrine indispensable to the right understanding of what mental pro- 
 cesses are." — Science. 
 
 "The book presents a minute analysis of ail the conscious processes to which 
 the concept of attention can be applied. Professor Pillsbury's work will command 
 instant recognition." — Philosophical Review. 
 
 The Essentials of Psychology. Just ready. ClotK xi+362 pp., $1.23 net 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 64-66 FIFTH AVEiraz, NEW YORK 
 
By JAMES MARK BALDWIN 
 
 Ph.D., LL.D., Hon. D.Sc. (Oxon.). formerly Professor of Psychology at Princeton 
 and Johns Hopkins Universities. 
 
 Mental DeTelopment in the Child and in the Race. Methods and Processes. By 
 James Mark Baldwin. Cloth, 477 pp., 8vo, $2.25 net 
 
 This treatise is worked out on the theory of the analogy between individual 
 development and race development. The subject-matter is divided into four 
 parts. The Introduction and Part I are devoted to the statement of the genetic 
 problem, with reports of the facts of infant life and the methods of investigating 
 them. They also give researches of value for psychology and education. 
 Part II states in general terms the theory of adaptation. Part III presents 
 in detail a genetic view of the progress of mental development in its great 
 stages, Memory, Association, Attention, Thought, Self -consciousness, Volition. 
 Part IV is a summary. 
 
 Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development. A Study in Social 
 Psychology. By James Mark Baldwin, Professor in the Johns Hopkins 
 University. Cloth, 606 pp., 8vo, $2.60 net 
 
 The present essay inquires to what extent the principles of the development 
 of the individual mind apply also to the evolution of society. 
 
 Development and Evolution. Including Psychophysical Evolution, Evolution by 
 Orthoplasy, and the Theory of Genetic Modes. By James Mark Baldwin. 
 
 Cloth. 395 PP-, 8vo, $2.60 net 
 
 The present volume takes up some of the biological problems most closely 
 connected with psychological ones and falling under the general scope of the 
 genetic method. 
 
 Thought and Things. A Study of the Development and Meaning of Thought, 
 or Genetic Logic. By James Mark Baldwin. Published in London, 1908. 
 
 Two volumes. Cloth, 8vo, each, $2.75 net 
 
 Vol. I, Functional Logic, or Genetic Theory of Knowledge. 273 pp. 
 
 Vol. II, Experimental Logic, or Genetic Theory of Thought. 436 pp. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK