CX>RNELl UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRA RlhS 
 
 ITHACA, N. Y. 14853 
 
 Fine Arts Ubmty 
 Sibley HaU 
 
I 3 1924 063 909 596 
 
 I — ci. 
 
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 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924063909596 
 
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Period Furnishings 
 
 AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORIC FURNITURE, 
 DECORATIONS AND FURNISHINGS 
 
 By C. R. CLIFFORD 
 
 FULLY ILLUSTRATED 
 
 Published by CLIFFORD & LAWTON 
 NEW YORK 
 
l\,Sb(a^^7 
 
 Copyright, 1914 
 By Clifford & Lawton 
 
INTRODUCTORY 
 
 l 
 
 N PRESENTING this work upon the period furnishings of the house, cov- 
 ering historic furniture, fabrics, wall treatments, fitments and accessories, I 
 would lay emphasis upon the fact that the subject cannot be grasped by blind 
 groping or desultory reading. We cannot comprehend by simply memorizing 
 dates and incidents. We must know the underlying origin and impetus and the growth 
 of the styles as influenced primarily by the events of history and all that makes 
 history ; the development of nations, their social customs and their characteristics. 
 There are no short cuts to be taken in a spirit of impatience. But to the man who 
 is not easily discouraged at the outset this line of study opens a field of world- 
 wide and compelling interest. If he approaches the subject with an orderly mind he 
 will comprehend from the first the broad distinctions and soon begin to differentiate 
 in the more subtle details of decoration. 
 
 Since the study must be systematic, I have prepared charts showing the de- 
 velopment of races as well as charts showing the development of nations. These 
 give us a retrospect of relationship which will prepare the student to comprehend 
 the later chronological chart which shows the development of the decorative styles. 
 The diflferentiation between the periods can be made in many cases only by a knowl- 
 
 "hronological consistency satisfies one's sense of 
 in the decoration of a room as comfort in the fur- 
 
 ERRATA 
 
 REVISED EDITION, 1915. 
 
 Some of the apparent contradictions of date are 
 due to the fact that in some cases dates are given to 
 establish historic developments and in other cases art 
 developments. 
 
 Page 8, first column, English Renaissance. Dates 
 of English Renaissance should be 1509-1603, although 
 Jacobean is a development of the Renaissance and ex- 
 tended beyond 1603. See Jacobean. 
 
 Page 6. Under Spanish-Portuguese. Misplacement 
 of type. Should be 1095, not 1905. 
 
 truction and application, but in its associations. An- 
 ig the five orders, the Ionic, the Doric, the Corinthian, 
 omposition upon which these orders were founded 
 ut are based upon .the nature of the human 
 of construction. We must work in accordance with 
 f men of culture and perception. The outward forms 
 nes, ornament and coloring, the temperament and 
 stages art became altered by elimination, by absorp- 
 tically new types and new forms ; but running through 
 losition and proportion. 
 
 rts and the development of distinct periods from the 
 gh Greece and Lower Italy, through Asia Minor, 
 urts of Samarkand. We note the influence of the 
 the desultory expression of a struggling Gothic art 
 ote the awakening finally in Italy during the Four- 
 lacteric era the Renaissance. As the Renaissance 
 
 ^ , j--^ _. j...^ — - classic arts of Greece and Rome, it was affected by 
 
 local influences. Religion and commerce alike left their imprint, until finally with the opening of the 
 Seventeenth Century distinct forms varying with the temperament of the nations and of the individual 
 craftsmen, and affected at all times materially by the wealth of suggestion which came through the chan- 
 nels of foreign intercourse, made their appearance. If we would grasp the meaning and the feeling of 
 what, for want of a better term, we call the decorative periods, we must comprehend the influence in each period 
 of the four prime factors in the development of art, namely, temperament, religion, commerce, and education. 
 If within the limits of this book I have been able to elucidate the subject sufficiently to give the student 
 an intelligent grasp of the essential points, I have accomplished all that I set out to do. For the benefit of 
 those who would pursue the investigation further, I append a list of books to which I have had access and 
 from which I have reproduced many illustrations. I wish to express my sense of personal obligation to the 
 authors of these books, whose original investigations have made them the highest authorities, each upon his 
 own special branch of this subject, and whose works I have found invaluable sources of information. 
 
 C. R. CLIFFORD. 
 
^ 
 
A SERIES OF TABLES TRACING THE ORIGIN AND 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONS, WITH THEIR 
 
 VARIOUS ARTS, PRODUCTS, ETC. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONS. 4000 B. C— 100 B.C. 
 
 BABYLONIAN. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 4000. Ancient Babylonian. 
 1300. Conquered by Assyria. 
 600. Regained independence 
 after many wars as New 
 Empire of Babylon. 
 500. Became Persian Prov- 
 ince. 
 
 EGYPTIAN. 
 
 4000. Ancient Kingdom. 
 3000. Middle Kingdom. 
 2000. New Empire. Highly 
 civilized. 
 
 500. Became Persian Prov- 
 ince. 
 
 300. Late Art Period. 
 Greek invasion of Alexan- 
 der of Macedonia. Ptolemy 
 I, general under Alexander, 
 was placed over Egypt and 
 added Lower Syria, Pales- 
 tine and Cyprus. 
 100. Conquered by Rome. 
 Egyptian descendants were 
 called Copti. 
 
 ASSYRIAN. 
 
 3000. Chaldean Period. 
 2000. Assyrian Period. Col- 
 onized from Babylonia. 
 625. Conquered by Medes. 
 500. Median Empire cover- 
 ing Lydia and Phrygia in 
 Western Anatolia. 
 300. Invasion of Alexander. 
 lOO. Assyria, Mesopotamia 
 and Babylonia made Roman 
 Provinces. 
 
 PERSIAN. 
 
 4000. Before the dawn of 
 history in Europe, the Ar- 
 yan tribes of Asia migrated 
 East as far as India and 
 West to Greece. The Iran 
 Plateau lay between Cas- 
 pian Sea and Indian Ocean 
 m Central and Western 
 
 Asia. Those settling in 
 North were called Medes; 
 those South, Persians; those 
 West, Celts. 
 
 1200. Bactrians, Medes and 
 Persians occupied the Iran 
 Plateau. 
 
 500. Supremacy of Median 
 Period passed to Persians, 
 who formed Empire. Syria, 
 Phoenicia, Cyprus, Judea and 
 part of Arabia paid tribute. 
 200. Parthian Empire dom- 
 inated a vast territory from 
 250 B.C. to 220 A.D. Sassanian 
 Empire held sway 220-640 
 A.D. 
 
 PHOENICIAN. 
 2000. Highly civilized. 
 1300. Colonies in Crete, 
 Cyprus and Rhodes. 
 1100. Tyre, famous city, 
 fell repeatedly under Assyr- 
 ian rule. 
 
 500. Subject to Persia. 
 300. Invasion of Alexander 
 of Macedonia. 
 
 HEBRAIC. 
 
 2000. Empire of Shepherd 
 Kings on frontier of As- 
 syria. 
 
 1500. Migrated to Egypt. 
 1100. David King df Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 1000. King Solomon. 
 600. Kingdom divided into 
 Israel and Judea. 
 500. Jerusalem Jews became 
 subject to Babylonia, Assyria 
 and Rome. 
 
 200. Emancipation of Jews. 
 100. Jerusalem captured by 
 Pompey (63) ; Jews become 
 Roman subjects. 
 100. Herod recognized by 
 Romans King of Judea (40). 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 1900. Pelasgians from South- 
 western Asia Minor, original 
 Greeks. 
 
 1100. Pelasgians called Hel- 
 lenes divided into Dorian 
 and Ionian tribes. 
 600. Spartan Supremacy. 
 Ionic Art Period. 
 290. Corinthian Art Period. 
 300. Macedonia having be- 
 come leading State in Greek 
 Empire 336, Alexander of 
 Macedonia waged war against 
 Persia and the East and 
 conc[uered all Asia as far as 
 India, spreading Greek cul- 
 ture. Antioch, Syria, Alex- 
 andria, Rhodes, Asia Minor 
 became Eastern centers of 
 Greek Art. 
 
 200. Macedonia becomes 
 Roman Province. 
 
 SPANISH— FRENCH 
 —PORTUGUESE. 
 
 2000. Celts settled in and 
 about Spain. 
 
 1900. Phoenicians visited 
 Spain. 
 
 1300. Portugal was ancient 
 Iberia. 
 
 1200. France was peopled 
 by Teuton tribes and called 
 Gaul. 
 
 600. Celts dominated Spain. 
 500. While the Celtic tribes 
 and the men of Gaul (orig- 
 inally Teutons) were all 
 termed Gallic people, they 
 gradually formed distinct di- 
 visions. 
 
 100. ' At the opening of 
 Christian era all the Gallic 
 country came under Roman 
 conquest. 
 
 ROMAN. 
 
 700. Mythical Period. 
 400. Empire dismembered. 
 200. Conquest of Spain and 
 Gaul. , ,, 
 
 100. Destruction of Mace- 
 donian Monarchy by Ro- 
 mans. Invasion of England. 
 
 ETRUSCAN. 
 
 1200. Aryan tribes of Asia 
 living North of Rome and in 
 country now Tuscany. 
 600. Period of highest devel- 
 opment. 
 
 Subjugated by Romans, 351 
 B.C. 
 
 TEUTONIC. 
 
 600. Tribes of barbarians 
 called Teutons occupied ter- 
 ritory now Germany, Prus- 
 sia, Holland, Belgium, Ba- 
 varia, Scandinavia, North- 
 ern Italy, Saxony. 
 50O. Scandinavia, covering 
 Denmark and Sweden, occu- 
 pied by Finnish tribes. In 
 Denmark dwelt Saxons, An- 
 gles and Jutes. 
 200. Dominated by the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 CELTIC. 
 
 2000. Aryan tribes from 
 Asia living North of Rome 
 and in country now Tus- 
 cany. First of the Aryans 
 to settle in Western Europe. 
 They occupied the country 
 now France, but then called 
 Gaul, and together with Teu- 
 ton tribes who found their 
 way West and settled there, 
 were included among the 
 CJallic people. Period of 
 highest development. 
 600. Subjugated Spain. 
 500. Reached Great Britain. 
 100. Gallic tribes formed 
 divisions distinct from Celtic 
 tribes and at opening of 
 Christian era were con- 
 quered by Caesar, Emperor 
 of Rome. 
 
CHRONOLOGY SHOWING THE 
 
 Batavians, 78; British, 1 
 
 BurEundians, 28; Byzantine, 10; Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Finns, 65; Franks, 37_; German Kingdom, 33; 
 •* , , J Saracens, 62; Saxons, Angles, Jutes, 66; Scandinavians, 63; Scotch, 82; Slavs and 
 
 A.D. 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 ROMAN. 
 
 (1) Destruction Pompeii 
 and Herculaneum, 79 A.D. 
 Roman Empire extended 
 over Greece, Italy, the Gre- 
 cian Islands, Cyprus, Crete, 
 Rhodes, Cyrene, Carthage, 
 Spain, France, Germanic 
 Countries and Western Asia, 
 including Armenia and 
 Mesopotamia. 
 
 (2) Hadrian successor to 
 Trajan abandoned Armenia 
 and Mesopotamia. 
 
 (3) Constantine, Emperor, 
 became protector of Chris- 
 tians. Accepted Christian 
 religion 328. 330 changed 
 capital of Empire to Byzan- 
 tium. (See 10.) 
 
 (4) Roman Empire dismem- 
 *| bered 455. Invasion of Van- 
 c dais. (See 28.) 
 
 BYZANTINE. 
 
 500 
 
 >» (5) 590. Gregory I Bishop 
 ^ of Rome. 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 (6) 751. Rome independ- 
 ent. First Papal States. 
 (See 21 and 48.) 
 
 (10) Byzantine Empire 
 under Constantine. By- 
 zantium changed to Con- 
 stantinople. This con- 
 stituted the Eastern 
 Division of Roman Em- 
 pire. (See 3.) 
 
 (See 16, 17, 18.) 
 
 800 
 
 900 
 
 (7) 800-1200. Saracenic in- 
 fluence prevailed. 
 
 (II) 527. Justinian be- 
 gan twenty-year war 
 which destroyed influence 
 of Goths and Huns. 
 (See 29.) 
 
 (12) 7C0. Lombards (or 
 Langobards) conquered 
 the greater part of the 
 Byzantine Empire in 
 Europe. (See 48.) 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 (14) Italy originally a 
 term applying to the 
 peninsula divided into 
 Upper, Central, Lower 
 Italy and Islands, Sicily, 
 Sardinia and Corsica. 
 At opening of century 
 Italy was included in 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 (15) 320. Langobards 
 were located on Lower 
 Elbe. (See 30.) 
 
 (16) Invasion of West 
 Goths 400. 
 
 (17) 476. Odoacer be- 
 came Prefect of Italy. 
 
 (18) 452. Huns under 
 Attila invade Italy. 
 Venice founded by 
 Italian refugees. 
 
 (19) 568. The Lango- 
 bards conquered Italy 
 south to Tiber. (See 67.) 
 
 (20) 590. Gregory I 
 Bishop of Rome. Begin- 
 ning of Papacy. 
 
 (21) 751. First Papal 
 States. (See 48.) 
 
 (22) 773. Lombardic 
 Kingdom destroyed by 
 Charlemagne, Charles the 
 Great, who became King 
 of Italy. (See 48 and 
 67.) 
 
 (13) Until 1057 Eastern! (23) 800. Charles re- 
 or Byzantine Empire was g '^'^^'^ offlce of Emperor 
 
 ^ under Macedonian rule, o of West. 
 
 « Byzantine art flourished i-|l 
 until the conquest of the 
 
 t^ Eastern Empire. Muham- 
 
 ^ med II destroyed By- 
 
 ^ zantine or Eastern Em- 
 
 (8) 966. Dominated 
 (jerman nations. 
 
 by 
 
 i; pi re, in 1453. 
 
 (24) 961. First Empire. 
 
 TEUTONIC. 
 
 (25) Teutons occupied ter- 
 ritory now Wurtemberg, Ba- 
 varia, Bohemia, Saxony, 
 Hesse, Holland, Hanover, 
 Prussia, Swiss and Tyrol 
 Alps and Scandinavia. Re- 
 ligion of nature worship. 
 
 (26) Many small tribes in 
 close relation with Romans. 
 
 (27) 320. Beginning of 
 migration of Germanic 
 tribes. 
 
 (28) Alani located on low- 
 er Volga; East Goths, South- 
 ern Russia; West Goths, 
 Eastern Hungary; Vandals, 
 Southwestern Hungary; Su- 
 evi, Bohemia, Moravia and 
 Bavaria; Burgundians on 
 the Rhine; Ripuarian 
 Franks; both sides lower 
 Rhine; Sohe Franks at 
 mouth of Rhine. 
 
 (29) West Goths laid waste 
 Macedonia and Greece, and 
 invaded Italy, 400. 
 
 (30) Langobards on lower 
 Elbe. 
 
 (31) 476. Odoacer recog- 
 nized by Eastern Emperor 
 as Prefect of Italy. (See 17 
 and 18.) 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 Roman province. _ 
 
 (35) 
 
 (36) 170. First 
 
 church at Lyons. 
 
 Christian 
 
 (37) 350. Invasion of 
 Franks. (See 28.) 
 
 (32) See SO. 
 
 (33) 919. Henry I founded 
 German Monarchy. 
 
 (34) 966. Holy Roman Em- 
 pire of German nations. 
 
 (38) 400. Invasion of Van- 
 dals, Suevi and Alian. (See 
 28.) 
 
 443; Burgundians, Visigoths 
 and Franks settled in upper 
 Rhone. (See 28.) 
 
 (40) 450. Huns under At- 
 tila ravage Gaul. 
 
 (41) 486. Monarchy estab- 
 lished by Clovis. 
 
 (42) 511. Division of King- 
 dom with four court camps 
 Metz, Paris, Soissons and 
 Orleans. 
 
 (43) 561. Second Division. 
 Austrasia with capital at 
 Rheims. Population chiefly 
 German. Neustria capital 
 Soissons, Burgundy capital 
 Orleans. Population of last 
 two Celtic. 
 
 (44) 620. Dagobert. 
 
 (45) 632. Third Division. 
 Austrasia, principally Ger- 
 man Neustria, Northern 
 France, not reckoning Bre- 
 tagne and Burgundy. 
 
 (46) 687. Pipin of Aus- 
 trasia became head of the 
 Kingdom of Franks. 
 
 (47) 732. Martell, son and 
 successor of Pipin, drove out 
 Arabian invaders. 
 
 (48) 751. Langobards 
 (Lombards) having con- 
 quered almost all Byzantine 
 territory^ in Europe, except- 
 ing Venice, Ravenna, Naples 
 and Rome, Pope Stephen III 
 sought aid of Pipin the 
 Short, who drove back the 
 Lombards and was rewarded 
 by being placed at head of 
 First Papal States. 
 
 (49) 772. War with Sax- 
 ons (pagans). Absorption of 
 Saxon land. (See 66.) 
 
 (50) 843. Empire divided 
 into East and West Frank- 
 ish Empire, which eventu- 
 
 ' ally became Germany and 
 France. 
 
 " (51) 986. Hugh Capet 
 chosen king of French mon- 
 j archy. 
 
 3 (52) 911. Northmen (or 
 ui Normans) gained permanent 
 g foothold in Normandy vifith 
 g sovereignty over Brittany, 
 E and with Rouen as capital. 
 §, (See 92.) 
 
 1000 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONS 
 
 Huns, 18; Irish, 84; Lombards-Langobards, 12; Moors, 62; Normans, 86; Papal States, 21; Poles, Bohemians, Russians, 76; Roman, I; 
 Finns, 73; Spanish, 55; Teutons, 25; Vandals, 28; West Goths, 21; Norsemen, 52. 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 (S3) 205. Spain regarded 
 as Roman province. 
 
 MOORISH. SCANDINAVIAN. 
 
 (65) Occupied 500 B.C. by 
 Finns and wandering Teu- 
 tons. In Denmark dwelt 
 Saxons, Angles and Jutes. 
 At beginning of century, 
 Odin leader of Asas, be- 
 tween Black Sea and Cas- 
 pian, passed into Scandi- 
 navia and subdued Denmark, 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 RUSSIAN. 
 
 FLEMISH. 
 
 (78) Occupied by Bata- 
 
 (73) Slavs and Finns lo- 
 cated between Black Sea 
 and Baltic. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 See also Celtic. 
 
 (81) England, B.C., occupied 
 by barbarous tribes. Phoeni-' 
 cians visited England at an 
 early period. Celts settled 
 there 500 B.C. Roman inva- 
 sion, 58 B.C. Roman con- 
 quest of Southern England 
 43 A.D. 
 
 (82) 81. Roman power ex- 
 tended as far as Scotland. 
 
 (54) 406. Invaded by 
 Vandals, Suevi and 
 Alani. 
 
 (55) 414. West Goths (60) Kingdom of Vandal (66) Saxons, Angles and 
 (Visigoths) founded founded in Northern Jutes lived in Denmark. In 
 kingdom of Toulouse. Africa. Becomes naval 450 many settled in England. 
 
 power. (See 79.) 
 
 (56) 507. 
 till 711. 
 
 Goth kingdom (61) Vandals controlled (67) The Lombards entered 
 
 Coast of Africa. 
 
 Italy from Slav territory. 
 
 Berbers were the natives Founded powerful nation 
 
 of Barbary. 
 
 568-774 which was destroyed 
 by Charlemagne. (See 22.) 
 
 (74) 500. Extended West 
 to Balkan Peninsula, Bo- 
 hemia and the Tyrol. 
 
 (79) 449. Angles and (83) 410. Withdrawal of Ro- 
 Saxons (pirates) settled man legions, 
 on Coast of Flanders. (84) 440. St. Patrick con- 
 Were called in by Brit- verted Irish to Christianity. 
 ons to help repel their (85) 449. Jutes from Den- 
 enemies of the North, mark and Angles and Sax- 
 now Scotland. ons from Flanders, pagans 
 
 came ostensibly to help Brit- 
 ons against their foes. Many 
 Britons migrated to Wales 
 and Gaul, where country of 
 their settlement was called 
 Bretagne (Brittany). 
 (86) 500. Great Britain 
 ruled by petty kingdom of 
 Saxons, Angles and Jutes. 
 
 Slavic mon- 
 thirty-seven 
 
 (75) 623. 
 
 archy for 
 
 years. 
 
 {76) 660. Separate mon 
 
 archies of Poland, Bohe 
 
 mia and Russia. 
 
 (57) 711. Goth kingdom (62) 700. Saracens, corn- 
 destroyed by Moors. pleting conquest of By- 
 
 (58) 755. Caliphate of zantine Africa, the Ber- 
 Cordova brilliant period hers who accepted Islam 
 of supremacy. together with other 
 
 settlers and joined the 
 Arabians under the name- 
 of Moors. 
 
 (63) 711. Moors invade 
 Spain. 
 
 (64) 755. Establish Cali- 
 phate of Cordova. 
 
 600. Christianity preached. 
 Ethelbert, King of Kent, was 
 converted. 
 
 (87) From Sixth to Twelfth 
 Century Ireland famous in 
 art and literature and sent 
 Christian missionaries over 
 all Europe. 
 
 (68) 800. Gorm first King of f77) 862. Bands of (80) 800. Independent (88) 827. Egbert First Sax- 
 Denmark, Pagan Sweden Swedes of Scandinavia Duchies Brabant, Flan- on King. 
 
 attained greatest' power of subjugated Slavs and laid ders, Guelders, Holland, (89) 852. Dublin conquered 
 the Scandinavian kingdom, foundation for future Zealand, Hainault and by Norwegians or Northmen. 
 Russia. the Bishopric of Utrecht. (90) 828. Ravages of North- 
 
 men, Scandinavian vikings. 
 
 (69) 930. Christianity in- 
 troduced. 
 
 (70) Denmark. United king- 
 doms from 850 to 1520. 
 
 (71) Sweden. Qlaf 993. 
 First Christian King of 
 Sweden. 
 
 (59) 1031. Dissolution of 
 Caliphate of Cordova. 
 
 (72) Norway. Christianity 
 introduced Norway, 1030, by 
 Irish missionaries. 
 
 (91) In 1014 Irish defeated 
 Danes and I^orsemen. 
 
 (92) 1066. Conquest of Eng- 
 land by Normans of Nor- 
 mandy (Norsemen). 
 
 (93) William the Conqueror 
 carrying French art into 
 England. 
 
AD. 
 
 1000 
 
 1100 
 1200 
 
 1300 
 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 1000. Western Europe, par- 
 ticularly Italy, threatened 
 by the Northmen, Hungari- 
 ans and the Saracens as well 
 as by the Feudal system 
 which levied heavy taxes 
 upon cities to support the 
 Lords of the Fief, banded 
 together in protective league 
 and a number of confedera- 
 tions were the result. 
 Venice, Genoa and Pisa did 
 great Italian trade with the 
 East. A Lombard league was 
 formed of the exiled Milan- 
 ese and a number of the 
 cities of North Italy. 
 1032. Kingdom of Germany, 
 Kingdom of Italy and King- 
 dom of Burgundy constituted 
 the Holy Roman Empire, 
 Germany extending from the 
 Mediterranean Sea north to 
 Denmark. 
 
 1100. Venice, which had its 
 beginning in 400 in the huts 
 of refugees who fled from the 
 Huns, became famous. 
 1261. Period of greatest pros- 
 perity for Genoa. 
 1261. Michael Palaeologus 
 put an end to the Latin 
 Empire. 
 
 1300. Venice at height of 
 her power. Supreme on the 
 Mediterranean Sea up to 
 Fifteenth Century, when the 
 conquests of Ottoman Turks 
 destroyed her Eastern rela- 
 tions and the trade went to 
 the countries further West. 
 
 1400. Florence famous for its 
 manufacture. Fell into the 
 hands of the Medici. 
 
 EARLY RENAISSANCE. 
 1400-1600. Florentine Renais- 
 sance. 
 
 1400-1600. Milanese Renais- 
 sance. , , 
 1450. Italy came to the close 
 of the Middle Ages with no 
 national government. The 
 greater part of the popula- 
 tion was divided between 
 the five States, the Duchy of 
 Milan, the two nominal re- 
 publics of Venice and Flor- 
 ence, the Papal States and 
 the Kingdom of Naples in 
 the South. 
 
 1490-1600. Venetian Renais- 
 sance. 
 
 1444-1643. Roman Renais- 
 sance. 
 
 1453. Flight of Greek schol- 
 ars to Italy, where they 
 taught Grecian arts, science 
 and literature. 
 
 1500-1540. High Renaissance. 
 1540-1643. Late Renaissance. 
 
 1600 
 
 1700 
 1800 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONS 
 
 FLEMISH-DUTCH. 
 
 1000. Netherlands (Low- 
 lands) during large part of 
 Middle Ages were divided 
 into a number of petty prin- 
 cipalities. 
 
 SPANISH— 
 PORTUGUESE. 
 
 1300. Flanders came into 
 possession of House of Bur- 
 gundy and soon all of the 
 other petty provinces were 
 acquired by Charles the' 
 Bold, the last Duke of Bur- 
 gundy. At his death the 
 Netherlands fell to his 
 daughter Mary and finally 
 into the possession of her 
 son. Emperor Charles V of 
 Spain. The great cities of 
 this country were Ghent, 
 Bruges, Mechlin, Liege, 
 Tournai, Courtrai, Brussels 
 and Antwerp of the South 
 provinces and Haarlem, 
 Delft, Leyden, Amsterdam, 
 Utrecht and Rotterdam of 
 the North. Some of them 
 were city republics. 
 
 1809. Papal States seized by 
 Napoleon, 
 
 1830. United Italian prov- 
 inces. 
 
 1861. First Italian Parlia- 
 ment. Victor Emanuel first 
 King of Italy. 
 
 1866. Venetia added to the 
 Kiijgdom. 
 
 1870. France withdrew 
 support of the Pope, Rome 
 became a portion of the 
 Kingdom of Italy and Italy 
 became a united nation. 
 
 1871. Papal troops were dis- 
 banded. Pope was given the 
 Vatican as a residence and 
 secured _ in the exercise of 
 his spiritual functions. 
 
 1500. During reign of Charles 
 V, 1515-1555, the Northern 
 Netherlanders were treated 
 with great cruelty in effort 
 to check growth of Protest- 
 antism as well as subjugate 
 the people who denied Span- 
 ish authority. The struggle 
 lasted forty years. 
 
 1576. Holland, Zeeland, 
 Gelderland and Utrecht, the 
 northern provinces of the 
 Netherlands, entered into a 
 union eventually the found- 
 ing of the Dutch Republic. 
 
 1577. All provinces united 
 to drive the Spanish soldiers 
 from the country. Help 
 furnished the Hollanders by 
 the English. 
 
 1579. The States of North- 
 ern Netherlands became 
 known as -the seven united 
 provinces. The Southern 
 States now Belgium con- 
 tinued Catholic and loyal to 
 Spain. 
 
 1609. France and England 
 became involved through 
 sympathy with the Nether- 
 lands, Philip III granted a 
 truce which became an ac- 
 knowledgment of the inde- 
 pendence of the Northern 
 Netherlanders, who formed 
 the Dutch Republic. The 
 Dutch became famous as 
 great sailors, replacing the 
 Portuguese in the settlement 
 of the trading posts in the 
 East Indies. 
 
 1813. Formation of King- 
 dom of the Netherlands and 
 Austrian Belgium. 
 1830. The Belgians declared 
 themselves independent of 
 Holland, and the Kingdom 
 of Belgium was established. 
 
 1000. Spain divided by many g crusade, 
 petty governments, some of^" 
 them Christian kingdoms, g 
 Asturia, Castile, Navarre, § 
 Aragon, as well as a number E 
 of small MohammedanJg 
 States. Portugal part ol" 
 Spain. g 
 
 1905. County of Portugal a| 
 Spanish peninsular. Under u 
 Burgundian control. Son o^j™ 
 Count Henry of Burgundy"^ 
 made King of Portugal. 
 1096. County of Portugal 
 revolted. 
 
 FRENCH. ENGLISH. 
 
 .1060-1108. Philip I. First 1066-1087. William the 
 
 Conqueror. 
 
 1087-1100. William II. 
 
 1140. Kingdom of Portugal. 
 
 GOTHIC PERIOD. 
 
 1108-1137. Louis VI. 
 1137-1180. Louis VII. 
 1180-1223. Philip II. 
 
 1238. The Moors in Spain 
 since 1238 were confined to 
 the Kingdom of Granada. 
 
 1383. Greatest power of 
 Portugal. Conquered Tan- 
 giers. Formed Christian 
 Kingdom in North Africa. 
 Voyages and discoveries. 
 Following the Turkish con- 
 quest of Constantinople, 
 European traders endeavor- 
 ed to discover a direct ocean 
 route to India, which led 
 eventually to the discovery 
 of America. 
 
 1400. Through the Fifteenth 
 Century Portugal sailors 
 penetrated into the mysteri- 
 ous tropical seas and dis- 
 covered new islands off coast 
 of Africa. 
 
 1492. Spain conquered Gran- 
 ada. Columbus presented to 
 Portugal plans of explora- 
 tion, and failing assistance, 
 was about to offer services 
 to France or England when 
 the capture of Granada 
 promised the necessary 
 means from the country of 
 his adoption (Spain) with 
 the result known to history. 
 
 SPANISH RENAISSANCE. 
 
 1500. Portuguese Renais- 
 sance. 
 
 1500. Opened possessions in 
 Persia and India. Active 
 in America. Subjugated parts 
 of South America. 
 
 122,-? 12:6. 
 1226-1270. 
 1270-1285. 
 1285-1314. 
 
 1314-1316. 
 1316-1322. 
 1322-1328. 
 1328-1350. 
 1350-1364. 
 1364-1380. 
 1380-1422. 
 
 1422-1461. 
 1461-1483. 
 1483-1498. 
 1498-1515. 
 
 Louis VIII. 
 Louis IX. 
 Philip III. 
 Philip IV. 
 
 Louis X. 
 Philip V. 
 Charfes IV. 
 Philip VI. 
 John II. 
 Charles V. 
 Charles VI. 
 
 Charles VII. 
 Louis- XI. 
 Charles VIII. 
 Louis XII. 
 
 FRENCH RENAIS- 
 SANCE. 
 1515-1547. Francis I. 
 1529. Reformation. Gobe- 
 lins manufacture tapes- 
 try. 
 
 1547-1559. Henri II. 
 1559-1560. Francis II. 
 1560-1574. Charles IX. 
 1574-1589. Henri III. 
 1589-1610. Henri IV. 
 1598. Edict of Nantes. 
 
 1600. Spanish withdrawal 1604. French East India 
 
 from Netherlands. Co. established. 
 
 1610. Moors expelled from 1610-1643. Louis XIII. 
 
 Spain. 1611, 1615, 1642. French 
 
 1640. Following the loss of East India Co. charters 
 
 the Netherlands, Spain lost renewed. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Louis XIV. 
 become royal 
 
 dictator of 
 
 1643-1715. 
 tjobelins 
 property. 
 Le Brun 
 styles. 
 
 Beauvais Tapestry Works 
 established. 
 
 Chinese characteristics 
 introduced. 
 
 1685. Revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes and 
 consequent flight of 
 many Protestant work 
 people. 
 
 1715-1774. Louis XV. Ro- 
 coco Period). 
 1774-1792. Louis XVI. 
 (Mane Antoinette). 
 1793-1795. Revolutionary 
 Period. 
 
 1795-1804. Directoire or 
 Transition Period. 
 David the prime influ- 
 ence in decoration. 
 1804-1814. Empire. David 
 dictator of style. 
 
 1100-1135. Henry I. 
 1135-1154. Stephen. 
 1154-1189. Henry II. 
 EARLY ENGLISH 
 GOTHIC. 
 1189-1199. Richard I. 
 1199-1216. John. 
 
 1216-1272. 
 1272-1307. 
 
 Henry IIL 
 Edward I. 
 
 1307. Decorated Oothic. 
 
 1307-1327. Edward II. 
 
 1327-1377. Edward III. 
 
 1377-1399. Richard I. 
 
 1399. Perpendicular 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 1399-1413. Henry IV. 
 
 1413-1422. Henry V. 
 
 1422-1461. Henry VI. 
 
 1461-1483. Edward IV. 
 1483. Edward V. 
 
 1483-1485. Richard. 
 
 1485-1509. Henry VII 
 
 (founder of Tudor line). 
 
 ENGLISH RENAIS- 
 SANCE. 
 
 1509-1547. Henry VIII 
 (John of Padua, archi- 
 tect). 
 
 1534. English Reforma- 
 tion. 
 
 1547-1553. Edward VI. 
 1553-1558. Mary. 
 Elizabethan. 
 1558-1603. Elizabeth. 
 
 1602. Dutch East India 
 Co. established. 
 1603-1649. Jacohean(many 
 Flemish and German 
 workmen settled in Eng- 
 land). 
 
 1603-1625. James I (found- 
 er Stuart period, beginning 
 of American settlement). 
 1620. Settlement at Ply- 
 mouth, Mass. 
 1625-1649. Charles I. 
 1653-1659. Cromwellian. 
 Many Royalists fled to 
 France. 
 
 1660. Exiled Royalists 
 returned from France. 
 1660-1685. Charles II. 
 1660. London East India 
 Co. established. 
 1685-1689. James II. 
 1685. Revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes brought 
 many French and Flemish 
 weavers and woodwork- 
 ers to England. 
 1689-1702. William and 
 
 Mary. 
 
 1702-1714. 
 
 1714-1727. 
 
 1727-1760. 
 
 1776. 
 
 tion 
 
 8ueen Anne, 
 eorge I. 
 — George II. 
 American Revolu- 
 and establishment 
 
 of the United States. 
 1760-1820. George III. 
 1830-1837. William IV 
 1837-1901. Victoria. 
 
THE PERIOD STYLES CLASSIFIED BY CENTURIES 
 
 Beginnings 
 OLD BABYLONIAN 4000 B. C. 
 
 EGYPTIAN 4000-332 
 CHINESE 3S00 
 
 ASSYRIAN 2286-608 
 
 Chaldean Period 2286-1300 
 
 Assyrian 1300-625 
 
 Median 640-558 
 Babylonian 608-538 
 INDIAN 2000 
 GREEK 1900 B. C.-168 A. D. 
 
 Doric 700, Ionic 600, Corinthian 290 
 
 JAPANESE 1200 
 
 ETRUSCAN 1044-238 B. C. 
 (Tuscan) 
 
 ROMAN 753 B. C.-45S A. D. 
 Following the Greek orders, Doric, 
 Ionic and Corinthian ; also the Tus- 
 can and Roman Composite 
 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE 558 B. C. 
 BUDDHA PERIOD, India, 500 
 
 CELTIC 200 B. C.-llOO A. D. 
 
 POMPEIIAN 101 B. C.-79 A. D. 
 
 PARTHIAN EMPIRE, Persia, 250 
 B. C.-220 A. D. 
 
 Developments 
 FORTIETH CENTURY B. C. 
 THIRTY-FIFTH CENTURY B. C. 
 Mythic Period 3500-2200 
 Egyptian Middle Empire 3000-2100 
 
 TWENTY-SECOND CENTURY B. C. 
 First Emipre Chinese 2200 
 Assyria included the Medes, Persians, 
 
 and Babylonians 
 Chaldean Period 2286-1300 
 
 TWENTIETH CENTURY B. C. 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY B. C. 
 Graeco-Pelasgic 1900-1384 
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY B. C. 
 India Brahma Period 1400-500 
 
 THIRTEENTH CENTURY B. C. 
 Assyrian 1300-625 
 
 TWELFTH CENURY B. C. 
 TENTH CENTURY B. C. 
 SEVENTH CENTURY B C. 
 Greek Doric 700 
 
 ■ SIXTH CENTURY B. C. 
 Japanese Empire 660 
 Median Empire (Assyrian) 640-558 
 Empire of babylon t)J8-Sj8 
 Greek Ionic 600 
 
 FIFTH CENTURY B. C. 
 Chinese Confucius 500 
 
 THIRD CENTURY B. C. 
 Graeco-Roman influence 
 Greek Corinthian 290 
 Hellenistic 290-168 
 
 Etruscan cities subjugated by Rome 350 
 
 SECOND CENTURY B. C. 
 
 FIRST CENTURY B. C. 
 
 Greek Arts absorbed by Romans 
 Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Composite and 
 
 Tuscan : the "five orders" 
 Pure Greek 100 B. C.-79 A. D. 
 Egypt became Roman Province 
 
 Endings 
 
 CHINESE Mythic Period, 2200 B. C. 
 
 CHALDEAN Assyrian 1300 
 GRAECO-PELASGIC 1384 
 
 End of Assyrian Period 625 
 Dissolution of Assyrian Empire 608 
 BRAHMA Period, India, 500 
 MEDES Conquered by Persians 558 
 BABYLONIAN EMPIRE incorporated 
 by Persians 538 
 
 ETRUSCAN 238 
 
 EGYPT became Kingdom 332 
 
 Etruscan Art Period 238 
 
 NORTHERN AND SCANDINA- 
 VIAN 100 A. D. 
 ROMAN GERMANIC 100-700 
 SASSANIAN EMPIRE, PERSIAN, 
 220-641 
 
 BYZANTINE 328-1453 
 
 ARABIAN 571 
 MOHAMMEDAN PERSIA 641 
 
 MOORISH 711-1610 
 ROMANESQUE 700-1100 
 ROME Independent. First Papal States 
 751 
 
 FLEMISH 850-1758 
 
 FIRST GERMAN EMPIRE 961-1806 
 
 SPANISH, FIRST CHRISTIAN 
 KINGDOMS 1037 
 
 NORMAN OR ENGLISH ROMAN- 
 ESQUE 1066-1189 
 
 GOTHIC 1100-1550 
 
 FRENCH GOTHIC 1108-1515 
 Early English Gothic 1189-1307 
 
 SECOND CENTURY A. D. 
 
 Roman Empire extended over Greece, 
 Germanic Countries, Italy and West- 
 ern Asia. See Chronology of Devel- 
 opment of Nations. 
 
 THIRD CENTURY A. D. 
 FOURTH CENTURY A. D. 
 Constantine changed name of Byzantium 
 to Constantinople 330 
 
 FIFTH CENTURY A. D. 
 ORIENTAL ROMAN 
 Result, of absorption of ideas from 
 Armenia and Mesopotamia 
 
 SIXTH CENTURY A. D. 
 
 Beginning of Mohammedanism, 571 
 Best Byzantine Period 550-1000 
 SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. 
 Saracenic Conquests in Byzantine Em- 
 pire, Persia, India and Spain 
 Saracenic Conquest of Spain 711 
 Caliphate of Cordova enjoyed bril- 
 liant art period until 1031 
 
 NINTH CENTURY A. D. 
 Arabian or Saracenic Conquests affect- 
 ing Sicilian Arts 
 Russia under Byzantine influence 800 
 Independent Countship 850-1404 
 TENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 Russia under Celtic influence 
 
 ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 William the Conqueror 1066-1087 
 William II 1087-1100 
 Active trading with the East 
 Wars of the Crusaders 1096-1270 
 TWELFTH CENTURY A. D. 
 Continuation Romanesque Period 
 Henry I 1100-1135 
 Stephen 1135-1154 
 Henry II 1154-1189 
 Late Byzantine 
 Saracenic and Sicilian arts merged 
 
 GREEK 168 
 PARTHIAN 220 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE dismembered 455 
 
 t 
 
 SASSANIAN EMPIRE 641 
 
 ROMAN GERMANIC 700 
 
 BEST BYZANTINE PERIOD ended 
 1000 
 
 CELTIC 1100 
 ROMANESQUE 1189 
 
THE PERIOD 
 
 Beginnings 
 
 ALHAMBRAIC PERIOD IN 
 SPAIN 1200-1300 A. D. 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE ESTAB- 
 LISHED IN ASIA 1258-9 
 Supremacy 1298 
 ENGLISH DECORATED GOTHIC 
 1307-1399 
 Perpendicular Gothic 1399-1500 
 FLANDERS 1404 
 /EARLY ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 1400-1500 
 ^FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE 
 / 1400-1600 
 
 MILANESE RENAISSANCE 1400- 
 
 1600 
 ROMAN RENAISSANCE 1444-1643 
 TURKISH EMPIRE 1453 
 /■ Byzantium conquered by the Turks 
 /ENGLISH RENAISSANCE 1458- 
 1603 
 
 ELIZABETHAN 1558-1603 
 /HIGH ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
 1500-1540 
 ,- LATE RENAISSANCE 1540-1643 
 FRENCH RENAISSANCE 1502-1643 
 .SPANISH RENAISSANCE 1500 
 / PORTUGUESE RENAISSANCE 
 1500 
 GERMAN RENAISSANCE 1550 
 
 JACOBEAN 1603-1649 
 DUTCH REPUBLIC 1609 
 
 (Compose4 of the seven United 
 
 Provinces) 
 CROMWELLIAN 
 LOUIS XIII, 1610-1643 
 LOUIS XIV, 1643-1714 
 QUEEN ANNE, 1702-1714 
 GEORGIAN, 1714-1820 
 COLONIAL, 1727-1820 
 LOUIS XV 
 
 ROCOCO PERIOD, 1715-1774 
 LOUIS XVI, 1774-1793 
 DIRECTOIRE, 1795-1804 
 EMPIRE, 1804-1814 
 COLONIAL LATE CLASSIC 
 
 PERIOD, 1804-1820 
 VICTORIAN, 1837 
 ART NOUVEAU, 1898 
 
 STYLES CLASSIFIED 
 
 Developments 
 THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 
 Height of Moorish Art 
 
 Arabians and Saracens dominated by 
 
 the Turks and Turkish dominion in 
 
 Asia established 1258 
 Ottoman Empire 
 Venice became famous as an art center 
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 Covering reigns of: 
 
 Edward II, Edward III, Richard II, 
 
 Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI, 
 
 Edward IV, Edward V, Richard III 
 FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 Great Trading Period of Flanders and 
 
 Italy. 
 Florence famous for manufactures 
 Gobelins established dye works 1440, 
 
 which afterward becaine famous for 
 
 manufacture of tapestries 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 
 Age of Oak 1500-1660 
 
 Portuguese opened East India Trade 
 1500 
 
 Henry VII, Founder ENGLISH TU- 
 DOR Line, 1458-1509 
 
 Henry VIII, 1509-1547 
 
 Elizabeth, 1558-1603 
 
 Founded by Louis XII, 1502-1515 
 
 Francis I, 1515-1549 
 
 Henri II, 1549-1559 
 
 Francis II, 1559-1560 
 
 Charles IX, 1560-1574 
 
 Henri III, 1574-1589 
 
 Henri IV, 1589-1610 
 
 In 1576, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht. 
 Gelderland, Gromingen, Friesland and 
 Overyssel became known as the Seven 
 United Provinces and asserted inde- 
 pendence. The Southern Provinces, 
 which form modern Belgium includ- 
 ing Flanders, which fell to Spain after 
 the abdication of Charles I, continued 
 under Spanish domination. 
 
 India, Mogul Empire, 1525-1748 
 
 Russian Empire, 1547 
 
 The Reformation, 1529 
 
 Portuguese Settlements in Persia 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 
 Age of Walnut, 1660-1700 
 
 Moors Expelled from Spain, 1610 
 
 Dutch and East India Trading Com- 
 panies Organized, 1600 
 
 New York Settled by Dutch, 1613 
 
 James I (founder STUART 
 PERIOD), 1603-1625 
 
 Charles I, 1625-1649 
 
 Inigo Jones, dictator of English 
 styles, 1625-1652 
 
 Commonwealth England, 1653-1659 
 
 Inception Queen Anne, 1660. Some- 
 times called Stuart Period 
 
 Charles II, 1660-1685 
 
 James II, 1685-1689 
 
 William and Mary, 1689-1702 
 
 Dutch and East India furnishings largely 
 imported through Dutch and English 
 Trading Companies. 
 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
 brought many French and Flemish 
 weavers and woodworkers to Eng- 
 land 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 
 Age of Mahogany, 1730 
 George I, 1714-1727 
 George II, 1727-1760 
 George III, 1760-1820 
 
 (Age of Chippendale, Sheraton, Adam 
 
 and Hepplewhite) 
 Flanders subjugated by the French, 1758 
 Russian Arts under French influence 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 
 
 BY CENTURIES 
 
 Endings 
 
 Alhambraic Period 1300 
 Early English Gothic 1307 
 English Decorated Gothic 1399 
 
 Byzantine 1453 
 
 Perpendicular Gothic 1458-1500 
 
 FRENCH GOTHIC 1515 
 High Italian Renaissance 1540 
 
 VENETIAN RENAISSANCE ended 
 
 1600 
 English Renaissance 1603 
 MOORISH 1610 
 Late Italian Renaissance 1643 
 French Renaissance 1643 
 ELIZABETHAN 1603 
 JACOBEAN 1649 
 Crorawellian 1659 
 CHARLES II 1685 
 
 William and Mary 1702 
 
 Louis XIII 1643 
 
 QUEEN ANNE 1714 
 
 Louis XIV 1714 
 
 Rococo 1774 
 
 Louis XVI 1793 
 
 FLANDERS subjugated by the French 
 
 INDIA MOGUL EMPIRE 1748 
 
 Directoire 1804 
 
 EMPIRE 1814 
 
 GEORGIAN 1820 
 
 COLONIAL 1820 
 
 VICTORIAN 1901 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL RACES AND PEOPLES AND DATE OF THEIR ORIGIN 
 
 Black Race 
 
 (Ethiopian or 
 Negro), 
 
 Yellow Race 
 (Mongolian or 
 Turanian), 
 
 Tribes and peoples whose true home is Central and Southern 
 Africa. 
 
 r (1) Chinese (3500 B.C.), Burmese, Japanese, and kindred 
 
 peoples of Eastern Asia; (2) Nomad: Tartars, Huns, Par- 
 
 thians, Mongols, etc., of Northern and Central Asia and of 
 
 Eastern Russia; (3) Turks, Magyars, Hungarians, Finns, 
 
 I ancient *Scythians, Lapps and Basques, of Europe; (4) 
 
 I Malays of Southeastern Asia and inhabitants of many of 
 
 L the Pacific islands; (S) Esquimeaux and American Indians. 
 
 White Race 
 OR Caucasian, 
 
 Hamites 
 
 Semites 
 
 Aryans, 
 or Indo- 
 Europeans ' 
 
 Egyptians, 4000 B.C. 
 
 Libyans (Berbers, subsequently Moors), North Coast 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Assyrians, 2286 B.C. 
 
 Phoenicians, 1100 B.C. (Cyprians, Rhodians.) 
 Hebrews, 1900 B.C. Empire of Shepherd Kings in East- 
 ern Egypt (Hyksos). 
 Aramaeans (occupying old Syria, Mesopotamia and 
 
 Babylonia). 
 Arabians, 571 A.D. (followers of Mohammed, Saracens). 
 
 r Hindus, 2000 B.C. 
 
 ^-'- \ Kf640B.C. 
 
 t- Persians, 558 B.C. (followers of Mohammed). 
 
 r Greeks, 1900 B.C. 1 1 
 
 Classicals I Romans, 753 B.C. 
 
 I Etruscans. 
 
 Celts 
 
 originally 
 from Asia, 
 2000 B.C. 
 
 Byzantines. 
 
 Gauls. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 Bretons of Brittany. 
 
 Romans 
 
 Celts 
 
 Germanic \ 
 
 French. 
 Spaniards. 
 Italians. 
 Portuguese. 
 
 ) 
 
 Teutons . 
 
 Slavs . 
 
 Germanic tribes, Franks and Goths, 
 Germans, Flemish, Dutch, Swiss, Scan- 
 dinavians, Swedes, Norwegians and 
 Danes, Angles, Saxons and Jutes — the 
 English sprung from the four latter 
 tribes. 
 
 Russians. 
 Poles, etc. 
 
 * Authorities differ regarding the Scythians, who 2000 B.C. occupied a vast section of Europe north of the Black and 
 Caspian Seas. Some believe the Scythians were Mongols, others maintain Aryan origin, from which the Slavs descended. 
 
 BARBARIC DESIGN 
 
 BABYLONIAN 
 ARCHAIC 
 
 PHCENICIAN, 
 OLD ARAM,£AN 
 
 t 
 
 k ¥ 
 
 4- 
 
 ^ e 5 
 
 ^ 
 
 ll'X 
 
 <^ A 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 V i 
 
 <\A<^ 
 
 w 
 
 HEN man the bar- 
 barian carved some 
 mystic sign upon his 
 club or battle-axe, he had no art 
 in his soul and no conception of 
 Ornament. For centuries that 
 are gone and are still to come, 
 designs or signs or marks, may 
 be regarded as designs to ex- 
 press thought, without any con- 
 ception of an artistic idea. 
 Hence we must not regard Design and Ornament as 
 analogous terms. Ornament came with civilization, 
 Design was of utilitarian impulse. It was smybolical. 
 If we contemplate some phases of Oriental art, 
 especially the tribal forms, we find innumerable ex- 
 amples of design that are far from ornamental. 
 
 Long before the dawn of history we find two dis- 
 tinct races in Asia, the- Turanian or Mongolian, and 
 the Caucasian. The Mongolian or Yellow race in- 
 cludes the Chinese, the Tartars, the Mongols and 
 Turks; the Caucasian race includes the Egyptians, 
 
 Assyrians, Arabians, Hindus, Persians, Greeks and 
 Romans. The broad plateau of Iran in Asia was in- 
 habited on the north by the Medians and on the south 
 by the Persians. Many of their people, together with 
 broken tribes of other Aryans, traveled east to the dis- 
 
 MEANING 
 
 DUTUKE 
 CHARACTER, 
 B.C. MOD 
 
 ARCHAIC 
 CUHEIFORM, 
 B. C. 2500 
 
 ASSYRIAN, 
 B.C. 700 
 
 tATE 
 
 BABYLONIAN, 
 
 B.C. 500 
 
 I. 
 
 The sun 
 
 <> 
 
 <^ 
 
 ij 
 
 4T 
 
 2. 
 
 God, heaven 
 
 ^ 
 
 ►^ 
 
 »^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 3- 
 
 Mountain 
 
 ^< 
 
 ^< 
 
 Y 
 
 i< 
 
 4- 
 
 Man 
 
 /WTK 
 
 ^^ 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 5- 
 
 Ox 
 
 =I> 
 
 ^> 
 
 i^i 
 
 ^i 
 
 6. 
 
 Fish 
 
 ^ 
 
 4 
 
 fK 
 
 M< 
 
BARBARIC DESIGN 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 A 
 
 rp 
 
 dJ 
 
 n 
 
 
 trict adjoining India, and in the great sub-division of 
 the Turanian races of China great hordes traveled 
 west, until the Aryan and Turanian characteristics 
 were merged in broken clans, the class that we now 
 term Turkoman. 
 
 Where civilization advanced and the arts flour- 
 ished we have design as a concrete form of 
 decoration and best exemplified in the work of 
 Persia and Arabia, but with the hundreds and 
 thousands of nomadic tribes design had been 
 used to express an abstract thought or sym- 
 bolism without heed for beauty, and these pic- 
 torial forms were at best crude ornament. 
 
 As a means of expression the 
 nomads or wandering tribes as well 
 as the savages of all countries early 
 devised a form of picture language, 
 and certain signs understood by 
 them became in time tribal marks 
 or involved possibly religious feel- 
 ing. Thousands of these people 
 living only by conquest traveled 
 about from place to place in vast 
 ravaging hordes. One can com- 
 prehend the conqueror of one band 
 adopting with pride some symbol 
 from the trappings of his fallen foe 
 because this predatory instinct and 
 boastfulness was manifest in the 
 Empire styles, when bits of Italian 
 or Egyptian decoration were strung 
 together to commemorate the con- 
 quests of Napoleon. 
 
 Then, again, in the crude in- 
 terchange of tribal courtesies and 
 in the common assimilation of 
 migratory people signs, ideograms 
 and phonograms, having no mean- 
 ing beyond being the reminder of 
 some experience, were much used. 
 It is natural, moreover, that in the 
 use of simple signs or de- 
 signs the same thing 
 should be commonly used 
 by many people in many re- 
 mote parts of the world, 
 and parts of squares and 
 circles have been used uni- 
 versally for thousands of 
 years to indicate various 
 ideas, making it impossible 
 for one to fix a definite meaning for these designs or 
 to determine by their presence a definite point of 
 origin. 
 
 The writer some time ago had occasion to illus- 
 trate the illusions which arise from the use of angles, 
 and with no thought but to accomplish this purpose 
 
 usage. 
 
 The above is from a Greek tablet 
 and shows apparently the origin of 
 three borders — the water line border, 
 the barber pole and the reciprocal 
 trefoil border. 
 
 Ill 
 
 III 
 
 1 I 
 
 I I 
 
 A^ 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 A 
 
 Dxe 
 
 <e^ — < 
 
 A series of illusions respecting straight lines 
 and angles ; similar figures appear in Kurdis- 
 tan rugs. 
 
 & 
 
 It." 
 
 ti 
 
 Alaskan. "Record of a hunt." See text. 
 
 ^ HI ^O 
 
 Egyptian. 
 
 the accompanying design was prepared to show that 
 notwithstanding appearances the straight lines en- 
 closed between acute or obtuse angles are of the same 
 
 length. 
 
 In the preparation of the story of Oriental design 
 the writer is interested to note that his illusion illus- 
 trations, prepared at a time when his mind was 
 far from the Orient, may be regarded as ex- 
 cellent examples of Mongol detail. Every 
 figure in the illusion figures is to be found in 
 Kurdistan designs, emphasizing the fact that 
 simple pictorial expressions are of world 
 They occur to the minds of all people 
 and of all. countries, and are not 
 sufficiently intricate to constitute 
 an original thought. 
 
 Perhaps the most important 
 influence on the use of design was 
 the common employment of pic- 
 ture-writing. The researches of 
 the Bureau of Ethnology, Wash- 
 ington, incline one to believe that 
 picture language was introduced by 
 prehistoric America to China. 
 Alexander Speltz, in his great work 
 on "Styles of Ornament," encour- 
 ages this belief by many examples 
 of prehistoric design from North 
 and South America. 
 
 The native designs of old 
 Mexico suggest the Anatolian. 
 The native designs of the Aztecs 
 suggest Egyptian, and we com- 
 mend the reader for further study 
 of this subject to "Unknown Mex- 
 ico," by Carl Lumholtz, or to the 
 Government Exploration Reports 
 on the Tussayan and Hopi Indians, 
 descendants of those living cen- 
 turies ago in the deserted villages 
 of Arizona and Mexico, Central 
 and South America. 
 
 In the illustration of 
 old Maya designs it is not 
 difficult to trace motifs 
 identical with those of the 
 Mongol districts of the 
 Caucasus. The Maya In- 
 dians were the most ad- 
 vanced of the North Amer- 
 ican aboriginal races. They 
 had books, paper, picture language, were sun wor- 
 shippers, built well and carved well, had paved roads 
 of stone and communicated by couriers. Their houses 
 were decorated and the temples of Yucatan were built, 
 if we are to believe the archaeologists, when Egypt 
 was a wilderness. 
 
 ^ 
 
 7^ 
 
 X 
 
 @-= 
 
 10 
 
BARBARIC DESIGN 
 
 The Smithsonian Institute has given 
 to us a great number of ilhistrations 
 showing the sign language of the Maya, 
 and we find here also the tree of life, the 
 latch-hook, the square and rhomboid, the 
 octagon, the overlapping wave design, the 
 fret, the swastika and the trefoil. 
 
 We can turn to Aztec and Peruvian 
 decoration and find designs almost pure 
 Turkestan and Caucasian. Forms of a 
 cross that are often seen in Caucasian rugs 
 are illustrated by Lumholtz as represent- 
 ing conventionalized forms of the Mex- 
 ican toto blossom. Mexican water motifs 
 are the same as Caucasian, and the use of 
 florals and geometrical figures gives evi- 
 dence of a common inspiration — an in- 
 spiration that nature gives to the primi- 
 tive mind. There is further interest in the 
 fact that in all countries some flower — 
 the iris, the lotus, the lily, the acanthus, 
 the palm, the poppy, the toto blossom — is 
 utilized for its symbolic significance. With 
 the Mexican Indians flowers, blossoms 
 and birds have a strict religious meaning. 
 Indeed, the Huichol Indians never pluck 
 a flower unless with pious intent. It is 
 safe to assume that no savage ever sat 
 down to the work of ornamentation un- 
 less it expressed thought, and such 
 thoughts were naturally simple and con- 
 fined to simple means. The records of 
 an Alaskan hunt we reproduce as an ex- 
 ample from Meyer's "Prehistoric Times." 
 The translation follows: 
 
 I go by boat (indicated by a paddle held 
 upright — I sleep one night (hand at side of 
 head denotes sleep) — on island with two huts — 
 I go to another island — two people sleep there — 
 a sea lion I hunt with harpoon — I return by 
 boat with companion (indicated by two oars) 
 to my lodge. 
 
 SQlaCE 
 
 
 Mexican 
 
 .AW 
 
 Hopi. American Indian. 
 
 ^ n ilj :^ :)t 
 
 In this system of writing the char- 
 acters are crude pictures of material 
 
 objects and no extensive vocabulary Q ^^f jju d; "\<. — As 
 is required to cover the needs of a -^^ "^ '^ rT^ t\ 
 
 savage people. A picture of an 
 eye would indicate the order of 
 
 sight, or the persorial pronoun, or Chinese 
 
 vigilance, or other meanings, ac- 
 cording to circumstances. A lot of 
 zigzag lines falling from a parallelogram would in- 
 dicate rain. 
 
 The great chasm between picture writing and sign 
 writing was partially bridged by the Chinese who, as 
 early as 2000 B. C, employed a system wherein every 
 word of the language was represented by a symbol. 
 Then came the Egyptian system and the Babylonian 
 
 system of cuneiform writing, 2000 B.C., 
 a system generally adopted in Western 
 Asia, employing the use of a wedge- 
 shaped stylus. Much of the writing was 
 stamped upon clay. For thousands of 
 years the cuneiform system of writing 
 was lost. In 1618 de Sylva Figueroa, of 
 Spain, investigated the inscriptions and 
 fixed them as Turanian. Hence it is rea- 
 sonable, in view of the purely angular 
 character of Mongol decoration, to trace 
 much of its inspiration to the early knowl- 
 edge of cuneiform writing. 
 
 In the excavations of ancient Troy, 
 the buried cities of Illios and Hissarlic, 
 certain decorative forms of these cunei- 
 form records, found upon coins and tab- 
 lets, have been adopted as fetishes of 
 the people, especially in the Kurdistan dis- 
 trict, much as the people of America adopt 
 the swastika under the vague impression 
 that it is a good-luck sign. 
 
 From the coins and tablets of these 
 old Trojan ruins of Asia Minor we find 
 the swastika so common and in so many 
 forms, or rather alterations, that we be- 
 lieve that the latch-hook of this district 
 and the Caucasus, and even of the Turko- 
 man district, is a lingering swastika in- 
 fluence and not a wave sign. We find in 
 Asia Minor the swastika in its true form 
 as well as distortions of these forms, 
 sprawly shapes, sometimes representing 
 stars or trees or animals. It is impossible 
 to trace the meaning of the signs because 
 we find them among so many people at 
 periods widely separate. The term is 
 thought by some to mean eternity. The 
 swastika enclosed within a circle gives a 
 suggestion of flight, progress. We have 
 seen the swastika with the extending lines 
 leg-shaped, sometimes eight and ten in- 
 stead of four legged. 
 
 Zmigrodski, the anthropologist, 
 classifies these distortions under 
 ^ what he calls related swastikas. 
 
 »n> /\ Unquestionably the swastika orig- 
 inated as a thought expression, 
 which in time became a fixed sym- 
 bol of general world use. 
 The United States Government, in the Smith- 
 sonian report of 1894, published the results of its re- 
 search and showed that the swastika had been found 
 in almost every part of Europe and was identical with 
 the same form used in prehistoric America. It was 
 known in India and ancient Bactria (East Turkestan), 
 in Rhodes, Northern Europe, Southern Europe, Asia 
 
 II 
 
BARBARIC DESIGN 
 
 Minor, Greece, Rome, Byzantine, Northern Africa, 
 Great Britain and America. Ancient Troy was full of 
 the swastika, and it appeared on the coins of the classic 
 Orient, Babylonia, Assyria, Chaldea and Persia. 
 
 The French Government discovered the swastika 
 throughout Armenia and in the Caucasus district. So 
 any assumption that it has restricted or local mean- 
 ing is untenable. 
 
 In searching for the origin of the star, the octagon 
 and the triangle we are brought frequently to the 
 doors of Constantinople. We may go back to India 
 and the Brahmans and we find the triangle as a sec- 
 tarian mark. The combination of two triangles gives 
 us the six-pointed star. The combination of two 
 squares gives us the Mohammedan eight-pointed star, 
 and the five-pointed star is supposed to be a Christian 
 symbol. Yet if we go back to the period of Christian 
 enthusiasm in the Byzantine Empire we will find the 
 Brahman and Mohammedan eight-pointed star in uni- 
 versal use. The marble mosaic which covered the 
 floors contained geometrical shapes innumerable. The 
 five-pointed, six-pointed and eight-pointed star is sim- 
 ply a geometrical combination of squares and circles. 
 After the fall of Constantinople the beauty of its deco- 
 rative system was promptly copied by the Moham- 
 medans, quick to perceive a means of beautifying with- 
 out the use of animal forms, interdicted by the Koran, 
 and we trace this Byzantine influence through the 
 Anatolian Peninsula and the Caucasus. 
 
 Tradition states that the crescent was adopted and 
 used in Constantinople as an omen of protection like 
 the winged asp and ball of Egypt. When the Mace- 
 donian hordes approached old Byzantium by stealth 
 the crescent moon arose and revealed their presence 
 and saved the city. The crescent was then adopted 
 generally as a good-luck symbol. In after years when • 
 Contantinople fell to Turkish dominion the crescent 
 was seized upon as a valuable symbol. 
 
 Geometrical design had a wide influence upon 
 the arts of all Asia, with the exception of Persia. The 
 Arabians developed a remarkable system of strap- 
 work, scroll and circular design strictly .geometrical, 
 and even when the Arabian system became floriated it 
 was the juxtaposition of floral details geometrically 
 arranged and interwoven. We find the same system 
 in China, where geometrical forms of the fret similar 
 to the Greek fret, geometrical circles and diamonds 
 and octagons are used universally, but have no rela- 
 tionship with similar designs of the Greek and Roman 
 Empires. We find in China the eight-point decoration 
 that is adopted generally through the Turkoman dis- 
 trict and found frequently in Afghanistan rugs. It 
 implies Mongol influence. The same thing is common 
 in Gothic decoration. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 SACRED 
 iVVOUNTAIMS 
 
 CONSTELLATIOW 
 
 O 
 
 CAUCkSIAM 
 STAR 
 
 o 
 
 WORLD 
 
 Design is not always decoration, but decoration 
 is always design. There is much that interests us m 
 aboriginal design in the ^V 
 effort to express some /V\ 
 material thought or idea 
 of beauty. But there is 
 greater satisfaction in 
 contemplating a perfect- 
 ed system of decorative 
 
 unity. 
 
 Decoration repre- 
 sents a development of 
 civilization and culture. The Arabians as 
 world conquerors left the imprint of their 
 decorative art for thousands of miles around 
 them, but they absorbed little, and to the 
 end Arabian art was true to its ancient 
 
 forms. 
 
 With Persia, however, the best period 
 of its art progress may be traced direct to 
 the influence of Shah Abbas, who in the 
 Sixteenth Century sent his best artists to 
 Italy, where they studied under the tutelage 
 of the great Renaissance designers. All that 
 is most beautiful in Persian art may be 
 ascribed to the Renaissance and Arabian 
 influences. 
 
 We do not forget that for centuries 
 before Christ the Persians were in close in- 
 tercourse with the Assyrians and Egyptians 
 and their art flourished accordingly, nor 
 that early Persian art was strongly As- 
 syrian and Babylonian. 
 
 But this was not the art that became 
 in years afterwards indigenous to the soil, 
 the art which, freed of Mohammedanism, 
 embodies the presentation of nature forms, 
 floral and animal, and presents a unity of 
 design brought into coherent relationship 
 by the principles underlying the best Ital- 
 ian school. 
 
 We can continue the work of Arabian 
 and Persian design satisfied with the deco- 
 rative charm that it possesses. But the 
 mere fact that with most of the Oriental 
 designs we search for the meaning, the sym- 
 bolic underlying story that is told, shows on 
 its face that the mere picture is not. satis- 
 fying, and as a decorative composition it 
 does not appeal to us, but only interests 
 because enigiiiatical. r-4-» 
 
 i 
 
 LISHTNINO 
 
 Altars 
 
 s 
 
 SUN 
 
 STORAA 
 
 RAJ^) 
 
 AP&HANISTAN 
 MOTIF 
 
 ^ 
 
 KEyori\Ffe 
 
 12 
 
3 4 5 
 
 7 8 
 
 s3> C><q If =*= 5« ffi y. 
 
 10 II 
 
 1. 2, 3. Marks of Brahma. 
 
 4, 5, 6. Latin, Greek, St. An- 
 drew's Cross. 
 
 7, 8, 9. Chinese and Indian 
 Swastika. 
 
 9. Ideogram of Ancient Troy. 
 
 1. Moslem Comb and Star 
 of Bethlehem, Turkish. 
 
 2. Knot of Destiny, Chinest 
 origin. 
 
 3. Effulgent Star, Caucasian. 
 
 iz 13 M 
 
 IS '* 17 
 
 10. Maltese Cross. 
 
 11. Monogram of Christ. 
 
 12. Tau Cross or Thors Ham- 
 mer, top line sometimes bent 
 Y shaped. 
 
 |8 
 
 13. Egyptian Cross. 
 14 and IS. Celtic. 
 
 16. Swastika. 
 
 17. Ancient Troy. 
 
 18. Ancient Georgia. 
 
 -Si 
 
 
 
 Kurdistan and North 
 Persian motifs. 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 k 
 
 ^>K***X^ 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4. Altar designs. 
 
 5. Solomon's Signet. 
 
 6, 7, 8, 9. Forms of altar, or 
 tree of life. 
 
 Gothic geometric 
 divisions. Note 
 
 characteristic of __^^ .^^ __^___^____ 
 
 Afghanistan. i^^ IkS £f2 ^^^^"'^'"x.-"^^ 
 
 Old Mexico. 
 
 
 Mexican. 
 
 Old Mexico (Huichol). Note similarity to Turkoman, Caucasian and Chinese. 
 
 DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS, 
 
EGYPTIAN DESIGN DETAILS 
 
 The top line shows the lotus bud, pad and blossom. 
 
EGYPTIAN 
 
 EGYPTIAN— Old Empire, 4000-3000 B.C. Middle Em- 
 pire, 3000-2100 B.C. New Empire, 2100-324 B.C. Graeco- 
 Roman Revival, 324 B.C. to 300 A. D. 
 
 Egypt, 332 B.C., became a Greek kingdom; 30 B.C. 
 became a Roman province until the Mohammedan in- 
 vasion, 640 A.D. 
 
 EGYPTIAN weaving most ancient known in- 
 dustry. Egyptian linens famous, embroidered 
 with gold, silver and purple. 
 
 The moment we leave the age of savagery and 
 man clothed in animal skins, we reach the stage of 
 weaving. Clothing was the first necessity of mankind. 
 
 Tombs of Egypt, 2800 B.C., illustrate weavers at 
 work. One shows a man weaving a checkered rug. 
 Monuments of ancient Egypt and Syria show the 
 manufacture of rugs and fabrics, 2400 B.C. 
 
 Nine 'hundred and eight B.C., Egyptian canopy 
 cloths of fine character, embroidered and of a patch 
 character. 
 
 The history of lace begins definitely with 900 A. 
 D., but drawn-work and nettings were of prehistoric 
 origin. 
 
 Fabrics dating 1000 B.C. are preserved in the 
 Louvre, Paris. 
 
 Three thousand five hundred and fifty B.C., 
 building of the pyramids. Following the Stone Age, 
 came the Age of Copper, Age of Bronze, Age of Iron. 
 
 As early as 2100 B.C., Egypt was highly civilized. 
 In buildings moldings were seldom used. Chambers 
 
 were decorated with illustrations representing in- 
 dustries. 
 
 Carvings, instead of standing out in relief, were 
 sunken and the ground stood out, a system exactly 
 opposite to the Assyrian system, where the ground 
 was depressed and the subject stood out in relief. 
 
 Decoration full of gold and brilliant colors, the 
 triad form being popular (black, yellow and red), 
 (red, blue and white), (dark blue, light blue and 
 white), (cream color, blue and black), (dark red, 
 medium yellow and blue). 
 
 Orname,nts were frequently in hieroglyphics. 
 
 Among motifs and designs were the sun, the 
 beetle, the cobra or serpent, feathers, papyrus buds 
 and reeds, lotus, date-palms, the lily, zigzags for wa- 
 ter ways, herbs, animals, fan-shaped ornaments, nude 
 figures, winged human figures, human faces, the ram, 
 sparrow hawk, sacred tree. 
 
 Late Egyptian furniture had rope or rush covered 
 seats. 
 
 Egyptian wall treatments, confined to frieze deco- 
 rations against plain walls. Couches were made low; 
 no foot boards; small rests at head to fit under the 
 neck. Stools often had wooden bottoms, but couches 
 were always plaited. Six hundred B.C., seats were of 
 harrow strips of leather plaited ; furniture often wood 
 inlaid with metal. Seats were curved to fit the figure. 
 
 Egyptian. 
 
 Babylonian- Assyrian. 
 
 15 
 
BABYLONIAN— ASSYRIAN 
 

 
 BABYLONIAN— ASSYRIAN-PERSIAN 
 
 ASSYRIAN, Persian, Babylonian and even 
 Egyptian arts in the Early Centuries B.C., were 
 *■ so merged as to be indistinguishable to all but 
 the most careful archaological student (see "Chart of 
 origins"). The illustration below is Persian, although 
 it contains distinct Egyptian as well as Assyrian char- 
 acteristics. 
 
 Persian ornament in the popular conception dates 
 from the Islam or Mohammedan period in the Seventh 
 Century A.D. 
 
 BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN : 
 
 Old Babylonian, 4000 B.C. 
 Chaldean Period, 2286-1300 
 B.C. Assyrian Period, 1300- 
 625 B.C. Median Period, 
 640-558 B.C. Late Baby- 
 lonian, 608-538. 
 
 EXCAVATIONS in N i n- 
 eveh, Nimroud and 
 Khorsabad aflford proofs of 
 the existence of civilization 
 in Babylonia 4000 B.C. But 
 in this wide country, embrac- 
 ing Assyria, Babylonia, 
 Egypt, Chaldea, Media and 
 
 Persia, there was such a mixture of peoples, each suc- 
 cessively subjugated by first one then another, that 
 the arts of all must be regarded as common to the 
 whole. 
 
 Three thousand B.C. in Southern Babylonia a 
 number of independent cities; Erech, Ur, Larsam; 
 Agade, Babylon. Kingdom of Elam, East of Baby- 
 lonia, supreme 2300 B.C. About 1900 B.C. Kingdom 
 of Semitic Assyrians founded, which later developed 
 
 the great cities of Asshur and Nineveh. 
 
 M^MM^^^§^Mm^S^ 
 
 mx&mt-^^^^mmm 
 
 Persian, showing Egyptian and Assyrian influences. 
 
 Six hundred and sixty-eight B.C. Esarhaddon 
 king, Assyria became world power. As in Egypt, so 
 in the adjoining river- valley countries, the lotus flower 
 or the lily played an important role in ornamentation. 
 In the earliest periods Assyria was famous for its 
 weaving. It is impossible to fix the date of em- 
 broideries or fancy needlework, but it is fair to assume 
 that as weaving was, next to the building of the hut 
 and the making of the battle-axe, the first industry, it 
 
 was likewise the first to par- 
 take of decorative character. 
 In the early period the 
 furniture was of metal and 
 wood or wood inlaid, with 
 metal. 
 
 Seven hundred B.C. 
 magnificent epoch. At Koy- 
 unjik the palace had seventy- 
 one halls and chambers, two 
 miles of wall decorations. 
 Conspicuous features of de- 
 sign were bulls, lions and 
 eagles. At Nimroud the 
 beams of the palaces were of cedar wood carved. 
 
 It will be noted that in 993 the walls of King 
 Solomon's Temple were covered with carved cedar 
 and olive wood in styles like the Assyrian stone sculp- 
 tures, utilizing much winged decoration and lily forms. 
 At this period Hiram of Tyre was famous for his 
 bronze work. Much gold was used in ornamentation. 
 Fabrics were ornamented in minute diaper patterns 
 with bands or borders. The faces in the mural deco- 
 rations were in profile. The palm, date, vine, fig tree, 
 
 Persian. 
 
 17 
 
PERSIAN— PHOENICIAN— HEBRAIC— INDIAN 
 
 fern, lily and tall grass were much used. The sacred 
 tree was conspicuous in design, with wave and guil- 
 loche ornamentations ; fir cones radiated from rosette 
 centers. Carved ivory was plentiful; iron seldom 
 used ; emblems usually bronze ; ornamentation of vivid 
 color, gold and silver and delicate painting; eagle- 
 headed lions, winged bulls, human figures with wings 
 and eagle heads. Babylonia and Assyria in constant 
 war; their arts were merged. Assyrian ornament 
 copied much that was Egyptian. 
 
 Examples of Assyrian furniture are very rare, 
 as the climate did not contribute to the preservation of 
 
 Asia Minor. The art that we regard popularly as 
 Persian is the later Islam art of Mohammed. 
 
 PHOENICIAN. 
 
 THE Phoenicians were commercial people. Two 
 thousand B.C. they were settled on the coast of 
 Syria and had trading stations and colonies in Greece, 
 Italy, Gaul and Africa. They were traders and had 
 no art beyond that of local jewelers. 
 
 HEBRAIC. 
 
 THE Hebrews of Palestine were dependent on the 
 Phcenicians for their technique, the Mosaic laws 
 forbidding pictures and images prevented the free de- 
 
 r«3A»:J>!W:.4iBiBirai»a*i«fflffiii«iiiraraKiiiBinrBi]iiiBniii!r^^^ 
 
 'Miw ^)']t^-\]\>Wim\n^li^-irAt/,f m'f^//wV'^^m^^u'-^m^m-iw*'\^MW\\\K^\'^A^l^y'i^v 
 
 Ancient Persian, showing Assyrian origin. 
 
 woods, which occasionally in Egypt lasted through the 
 centuries. In many places only the bronze and ivory 
 mountings of feet and ends of chairs have been found. 
 The furniture of the Hebrews was, in the early 
 centuries, of the same character as Assyrian. 
 
 PERSIAN— 5S8' B.C. Persian Empire, 558-330 B.C. Par- 
 thian Empire, 250 B.C.-220 A.D. Sassanian Empire, 220- 
 641 A. D. Mohammedan Persia, 641 A.D. 
 
 DISUNION and unrest, in the Asia of olden times, 
 confused the arts. Ancient Persian Ornament 
 shows few characteristic peculiarities, Egyptian, As- 
 syrian, Babylonian and Grecian influence being all dis- 
 cernible. Indeed, the buildings of the Persian kings 
 were erected by men who were prisoners in the coun- 
 tries of Babylonia, Egypt and the Grecian colonies of 
 
 velopment of art among the Jews. King Solomon's 
 palace and the temples were the work of Phoenicians. 
 
 INDIAN— 2000 B.C. First Period, 2000 B.C.-152S A.D. 
 Brahma, 1400-500 B.C.; Buddha, 500 B.C. Mogul Em- 
 pire 1525-1748 A.D. English Control, 1748-1858 A.D. 
 English Empire, 1858 A.D. 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL research reaches no farther back 
 in India than a few centuries B.C. This early 
 art was influenced by Persian and Grecian. The term 
 Indian is geographical and has no ethnological signifi- 
 cance. There is no such thing as homogeneous Indian 
 art. It was a country of many races, Aryan and Tur- 
 anian, of Brahman, Buddhist and Mohammedan de- 
 ^•elopment. The Mohammedan phase, which was the 
 most lasting, will be considered later. 
 
 i8 
 
Greek. 
 
 GRECIAN— ROMAN — POMPEII AN 
 
 GRECIAN -Graeco-Pehsgic 1900-1384 B.C.; Doric, 700 
 B.C.; Ionic, 600 B.C.; Corinthian, 290 B.C.; Hellenistic, 
 290-168 B.C. ; Etruscan, 1040-238 B.C. 
 
 GREEKS inherited the arts of Persia and Babylonia. 
 Starting with 1900 B.C., the Pelasgic period 
 was based on Assyrian. F-arly Greek couches nothing 
 more than large stools. In the Sixth Century B.C. 
 Greek and Roman beds were of marble, terra-cotta, 
 bronze, wood, bone and ivory ; used for reclining at 
 meals as well as sleeping. Ancieiit Greeks learned 
 their art from Egyptians, but a purely decorative 
 Greek de\ice is the anthemion, which with the acan- 
 thus can be traced back hundreds of years in Egyp- 
 
 tian forms. The Greek sy.steni was. to build within 
 squares. Frets were common. Decorators painted in 
 fresco and in strong colors ; blue and Tyrian purple 
 much in use. .Vt an early date conceived a system of 
 applying blue in proportions equal to yellow and red 
 combined, yellow in three parts, red five parts and blue 
 eight parts. First Greek and Roman couches covered 
 with skins or felt materials. Mattresses used Third 
 Century B.C. with coverlets and draperies, in broad 
 stripes of solid colors; pillows various shapes covered 
 with linen, wool, leather and silk. Pillows filled with 
 refuse wool, vegetable fiber, feathers. No record of 
 uses of cotton. Silk much used and draperies described 
 
 Greek Ornament. 
 
 19 
 
Pompeiian. 
 
 WALLDKOfVATIOn in THE 
 CA5A DEL LADIMriTO. POMPEII 
 
DETAILS OfV ROMAN ORNAMENT. 
 
Roman. 
 
 as having nap on one or two sides (velvet) in color- 
 ings of purple, scarlet and gold. Fabrics woven in 
 pattern or embroidered. Thin linens, tapestries. 
 Much material brought from Babylonia. 
 
 Greek furniture inlaid with precious metals; 
 bronze and polished silver mirrors. Beds of wood 
 often ornamented in tortoise shell, veneers of fine 
 wood. Wood finished in oil, wax and stains, some- 
 times painted, never varnished ; solid carvings. 
 
 Tenth Century B.C., Homer the poet referred fre- 
 quently to the bed. 
 
 Seventh Century B.C., couches were made with 
 ledges built on a rectangular plan as well as with 
 turned ledges. First they were frame works ledged 
 with a flat surface upon which furs were piled up. 
 Then the upper part was furnished with headboards 
 and footboards. 
 
 Sixth Century B.C. gives us beds so draped that 
 the construction of the frame is hidden. 
 
 In the Fifth Century B.C. beds and furniture were 
 common, rectangular and turned legs being used. 
 Wood, bronze and other metals. Some authorities 
 maintain that iron was used in beds as early as 427 B.C. 
 
 Four hundred B.C., Greek embroiderers produced 
 beautiful results. 
 
 Pelasgic Greek was largely based on Assyrian 
 ornamentation. The Greek honeysuckle can be traced 
 to Assyria, also the vitruvian scroll and the guilloche. 
 
 Etruscan — A bronze Etruscan bed exists from the 
 Seventh Century B.C. 
 
 ROMAN— 7S3 B.C.-45S A.D. 
 
 R.OMAN. 753 B.C., Roman houses divided into sep- 
 arate rooms for dresses, cupboards, lockers, 
 lounges, articles of luxury. Fabrics of many kinds 
 developed the Greek style. Great love of pomp and 
 splendor. Elaborated the Corinthian principles; 
 
 Roman. 
 
 22 
 
utilized pineapple, vine, palm, i\y, poppy, winged dol- 
 phins, winged horses. Like the ("irecians, the Roman 
 wall treatments were confined to frieze decorations 
 against the plain wall. First couches covered with 
 wool material and skins, in time became elaborated 
 beds with head and foot pieces. No upholsterings ex- 
 cept movable pillows. Ma.rble couches were common, 
 and wood beds ornamented in precious metals, tortoise 
 shell and ivory. Late Roman furniture had rush and 
 reed plaited seats. Beds used for reclining at meals. 
 
 Roman furniture was decorated with paintings 
 and inlay veneer, Tarsia work forming complex deco- 
 rations. Roman houses were furnished with cup- 
 boards, shelves, wardrobes, lockers and general furni- 
 ture superior in comfort to Fourteenth and Fifteenth 
 Centuries, Europe. 
 
 Ancient Phrygian and Lydians occupying western 
 Anatolia made embroideries at a period prehistoric. 
 The Roman word Phrygio means embroiderer. 
 
 POMPEIIAN— 100 B.C.-79 A.D. 
 
 POMPEiiAN. Development of the Roman arts which 
 finally became almost pure Greek; beautiful 
 mosaics, still life, human and divine figures, complete 
 pictures on the walls which were frequently painted 
 in reproduction of oil paintings by Gre^v masters. 
 Pompeiian wall space divided into dado, middle and 
 upper section, dado generally black with simple orna- 
 ments; purple, green, blue or violet middle space en- 
 lightened with one or more figures or landscapes, hav- 
 ing one or more borders. Upper space usually white. 
 System of dark dadoes and light friezes generally em- 
 ployed. Delicate garlands, fruits, masks, animals, imi- 
 tating nature. (In England 1762-1792 the brothers 
 Adam almost reproduced Pompeiian style.) 
 
 WALL DECORATION. 
 
 Grecian and Roman — In Greece much modeling 
 in plaster and stucco, drawn upon a coat of wet plas- 
 ter spread on the wall and built up. Fresco and tem- 
 pera or distemper painting widely practiced. Decora- 
 ti\'e borders frescoed and painted in subjects religious 
 as well as legendary, showing hundreds of Greek 
 and Roman gods ; modern or superior deities ; the Genii 
 and inferior deities; the demi-gods and heroes, and 
 illustrations of events in Greek and Roman mythology. 
 Statuary and sculpture, as well as paintings, partook of 
 these subjects. Greeks love color. Used it in ex- 
 travagant proportions in their paintings and frescoes. 
 Massive walls show not only historical and religious 
 subjects, but paintings of still life, city and country 
 scenes, flowers and nature showing perspective. Un- 
 like Egypt and Assyria where walls were all cov- 
 ered, Greek and Roman walls were usually treated 
 with deep friezes or upper thirds. Ceilings were elab- 
 orate, divided into geometric sections, octagonal forms 
 and squares. Mosaic brought to its greatest perfection 
 for wall pictures, pavements and floors. 
 
 Pompeiian — Pompeii and Herculaneum were 
 centers of late art of highest Roman type. Myth and 
 religion subservient to the beautiful. Perspective 
 scenes elaborately painted ; gods, hill and valley, palaces 
 and cottages, water-views, mountains, scenes of travel, 
 commerce and warfare. High dadoes filled with model 
 figures. 
 
 In private houses walls were frequently com- 
 l)letely covered by paintings executed direct on plaster. 
 Sometimes divided into panels with small pictures in 
 minute panels above larger panels. Mosaic work of 
 most exquisite character. 
 
 Pompeiian. 
 
 23 
 
CELTIC ORNAMENT. 
 
 The floriated form is the Romanesque influence developing about 700 A.D. 
 
 influence. 
 
 The animal form is the Scand 
 
 inavian 
 
IT 
 
 Types of Scandinavian Furniture. 
 
 NORTHERN 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN OR 
 
 S' 
 
 NORTHERN— 100-1299 A.D. 
 CANDINAVIAN: A 
 geographical term 
 covering Sweden, 
 Norway and Denmark. 
 Northern or Norseman was 
 an adjective term applying 
 not only to the Scandina- 
 vians but to the men of the 
 "North Country." 
 
 The term Norman was a 
 contraction of Norseman, 
 the people living just 
 north of the Gallic country. 
 
 Scandinavia until nearly 1000 A.D. was pagan. 
 Its art reflected in a realistic manner the traditions of 
 the country. 
 
 According to Scandinavian legends there were 
 wrapped in the history of the country's origin in- 
 trigue, treasure and murder. It is unnecessary to 
 tell the story (see history), but decorative art util- 
 
 ized a system of interlacements not balanced like the 
 Celtic, but confused lines and chaotic traceries 
 intermingled with figures of the otter, the 
 dragon, the horse, bags of treasures, human figures 
 in conflict. 
 
 The Celts and Scandinavians became in time 
 closely related. From 1000 to 1100 A.D. Celtic influ- 
 ence was felt on account of the Celtic missionaries who 
 went north from Ireland and preached the doctrines 
 of Christ in the North country. But after the year 
 1100 we find plant life introduced, realistic verdure 
 of Roman character, the same that prevailed among 
 the Normans and Anglo-Saxons who at this time were 
 enthusiastic in religion and naturally absorbed the art 
 characteristics of the papal states. 
 
 CELTIC— 2000 B.C. -1100 A.D. 
 
 THE Celtic nation of Western Europe was anni- 
 hilated before the Christian era, but the Celts 
 settling in Great Britain, principally in Ancient Hiber- 
 nia (Ireland) left lasting evidence of their art even 
 
 On the left, 
 Scandinavian or- 
 nament ; on the 
 right, Celtic. 
 
 25 
 
SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT 
 
NORTHERN 
 
 during the sway of paganism which pre\'ailed up to 
 400 A.D. Celtic art sliowed interlaced cnrxed lines 
 sometimes utilizing exaggerated hinl forms inter- 
 woven, but, unlike Scandina\ian, the interlacenienls 
 showed balanced relation. 
 
 From 900 to 1100 A.D. Romanesque inlluenee was 
 strong in Celtic art, due to the enthusiasm and pre- 
 eminence of the Irish in religion, art and education. 
 Ireland, independent up to 1172, w.is cnncpiered hy 
 the English. Celtic art underwent :i radical ch.nige 
 by the introtluction of Romanesque tior.d characteris- 
 tics during" the Tenth Century. Intersection was char- 
 acteristic of the art as in Moresque and Arabian, but 
 intersection in Celtic art, unlike the geometric Mmnasli. 
 or the flat con\'entionalized \egetalion and leaf forms 
 suggested b\' Arabian, is alwa\s intersection of simple 
 circular or cur\'ed bands, somelimes inlroducing ani- 
 mal or bii\l forms, \\dien dragons and animal forms 
 are introduced one ma\' deled Scandin.avian inllucncc. 
 
 Balanced relations prevail in Celtic intersection 
 design. 
 
 RUSSIAN— 500 A.D. 
 
 OKN.'VMENT of Celtic character is often seen in wdiat 
 is known as Russian art. I-tussia was settled 
 X()2 .\.l), by .Scandinavians. Ixussia developed during 
 I be l\iim,inesi|uc period u\> to 1100, a period of high 
 rebgiiius fer\'(ir, and this period afleeted the char- 
 acteristics (if Scandinavian art. Subsequent to 1100 
 ( >rienlal influence was strong in Russia. 
 
 NORMAN. ENGLAND — 1066-1189 A.D. (See Roman- 
 
 l'S(||l('. ) 
 
 Till', Ndrmans were the Norsemen and inherited 
 the early Scandina\-ian arts ; but at the time the 
 Normans gained a foothold in Normandy, 911 A.D., 
 and at the time they con(|uered pjigland, 1066, they 
 were under the b^rencb-Romanesque art influence. 
 
 BYZANTINE 
 
 BYZANTINE— 328-500. Roman-Clirlstiaii, 550-800, Orien- 
 tal splendrir. 850-1005. Maccdnnian or Roman Classi- 
 
 B 
 
 Chair of Dagobert ; 
 Seventh Century. 
 
 YZANTINK orna- 
 mentation covers 
 three periods. The 
 first from 328, when By- 
 zantium, under Constan- 
 tine, became capital of the 
 Eastern Division of the 
 great Roman Empire, and 
 Christianity was made the 
 estaljlisbed State religion. 
 Most distinctive epoch, un- 
 der Justinian, was from 
 527 to about 600. A pe- 
 riod of torpor followed un- 
 til 850, wdien under ^Macedonian rule it became classic. 
 The close historical relations between Byzantine 
 and the Roman-Italian people naturally merged the 
 arts, and we have terms confusing. 
 
 Mediseval art is arbitrarily fixed between 450 and 1150. 
 Romanesque art is the art influenced by the Romans 
 from 700 to 1100, when Gothic bcsan. 
 
 Lombardic Romanesque, the Romanesque of the Lom- 
 bards, began 773. 
 
 Early Christian began 330, extending over 200 years. 
 Norman Romanesque was the Romanesque of the Nor- 
 mans, beginning 911 and finding its best expression in 
 England subsequent to the conquest of the Normans, 1066, 
 hence sometimes called English Romanesque. 
 
 Prior to 550 the term Early Christian applied to 
 that period when Christianity was accepted as the State 
 religion by the Byzantine Empire. Christian sym- 
 bolism soon found its way into Byzantine art, and from 
 the dismemberment of the Roman Empire, 455, these 
 Christian characteristics of design were al)sorbed and 
 
 adopted generally outside of Byzantium, but espe- 
 cially by the Goths who ruled Italy until 555, as well 
 as b)' the Lombards who settled in Northern Italy 
 568. 
 
 r.vzrmtinc art \\-as characterized by sharp acan- 
 thus foliage united with Christian emblems, circle, 
 cros^, criiw.ai, \-ine, do\'e, peacock; figure sculpture 
 
 Byzantine faliric, showing the ogival form of design. 
 
 27 
 
BYZANTINE 
 
 .<>*«<««<> si«aiii>«ai«i<i*ai(iiai*eesoea« 
 
 Q»<IHIII|l(IM!l<IP®i»OB.«K(JI«eOOO 
 
 •M«*i* uaaa'Jf •»«••••• «»««i«cBiii0«(iiifhi.,5tii.ai.ii»(ii»»iBia.o»<(«i^il)O0«0 
 ^^^^ •^OC»Cjy!«ji«><I»<«»»{Im*(lnf»clffloay 
 
 
 
 yi 
 
 3 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 ^ffli 
 
 
 1 
 
 ie99a4»'3UijaiO><i><ii>c»a)tiia){ii'<i)(r.'ir>uwufiii'i«p>ii'WiQi'QiiHiiij|]iei 
 
 goyg,A4,tD«99>9a'iViii)flidMii>4>iiiwii'On(iia>C)iioOdI)'U)OC»Mtho««|)te»Aadp 
 
 »900«OOOOOOOil»04i<I»ll>4]i«(ItU)WI&(»deiOffi>4)>tl|i4ft«ail4ll«)0««*J»V*S«|>. 
 
 j»J5J(*«fcw* j^iioaninivfliiii)flti(niijn>fli(pfltii»fi.©)ii,tt«ffl(g»ooffl^-iiitnBw«e>o«(.. 
 
 ifdOi3'»C&tf9#«MiDn>ti)4UI|i4J<<ll)OilNlt01|iiI'<ll)d}d»<|>«i»e(IIHIIiqN[)«»(»«)Uill)||iiffiOA(l)n«l»OOttl 
 
 »9a<ac»utijoa>(jo.i;»n4]imi)i'>iHr)<»ii»o$iN>ffli'i»i]]jidiiibitDeiiiiW(ii'O0!i»vima«)O«»u^ 
 jooug(OOOOa«a'&©(J'Oiiwiiiiiiif#<iti0ijff)fiii4iS(]i.iD'«ip©OTNao«r.®©in*»o«*'©--'^^ 
 »j'Oc3>i»4iOQ»aooffi0c]^«><n[|iO'rniei'O)<9i)4ioa»n)n>iD>nii!iiiiH)otO/(i'«HEJvn>eor(i 
 ii09QOeoaoddf«ina quill [I II (.11 I>mi!J !!>>'> <l)<ll«l4^(lHD'l|H»<ll>w;>C'4^(l^«< no <»%»«:> 
 
 Byzantine embroidery from the tomb of Gunther, Bishop of 
 Bamberg, preserved at Ratisbon. 
 
 rarely used, group figures done in mosaics. Interlac- 
 ing circles, interlacing crosses in fret work, interlacing 
 guilloches finally conspicuous. 
 
 FABRICS. 
 
 Fabrics precedent of paintings. Ancient Babylon 
 renowned for its needlecraf t. All other nations learned 
 their art from Babylon, beginning with decoration of 
 animal skins, embroidering, mat-plaiting and finally 
 weaving. 
 
 We can go back to 3000 B.C. for a simple weav- 
 ing produced by a simple interchange of warp and 
 weft, but the complex manipulation of shuttles produc- 
 ing figures without embroidering or other extraneous 
 aids was not known until 200 A.D., when it was, un- 
 questionably, undertaken by Syrian weavers of the 
 Eastern Roman Empire. 
 
 Wool. Egypt, mistress of advanced civilization, 
 employed wool, hemp and flax. 
 
 Cotton. Greeks unacquainted with cotton until 
 333 B.C. The plant was indigenous to India, and not 
 until the invasion of Alexander the Great did it be- 
 come known to Europe. 
 
 Embroidery. In the earliest ages animal skins, 
 before the age of weaving, frequently embroidered or 
 decorated with stitches. Early Assyrians used em- 
 broidery. Egyptians and Greeks famous in the art. 
 Ancient Babylon, Egypt and Chaldea understood the 
 art thoroughly. 
 
 Beginning with Christian era an active commerce 
 introduced Indian and Chinese stuflfs, and the Italian, 
 Teutonic and French craftsmen were quick to adopt 
 Oriental methods. Art of embroidering became gen- 
 erally understood. Applique work was also under- 
 
 taken as well as tapestry weaving. Byzantine Empire 
 from 350 to 700 A.D. knew no limit to extravagance ; 
 decoration conspicuous in griffins, unicorns, lions, 
 tigers, elephants, eagles, peacocks, large and small cir- 
 cular bands, medallion shapes, golden apples, palms, 
 shrubs and flowers. Textile design decorated with 
 wheels or circular bands, lozenge patterns, squares, 
 hexagons, octagons, stripes, beasts and birds. 
 
 Biblical and mythological subjects; fabrics largely 
 used for hangings between colonnades as portieres. 
 
 A favorite arrangement of pattern employed pairs 
 of animals, or pairs of birds confronted and separated 
 by the sacred tree of the Persians. 
 
 Silk. Although commonly woven in China, 1200 
 B.C., not woven in Europe until 500 A.D., when the 
 Emperor Justinian secured through two Persian 
 monks a number of silk cocoons and worms which 
 they smuggled from China. 
 
 Six hundred A.D. Sicily, as well as Northern 
 Egypt, was making silks. 
 
 Four hundred A.D. Egyptian and Roman tap- 
 estries well known. Roman silks, possibly Syrian or 
 Persian manufacture, were sarcenets and taffetas, 
 damasks, brocatelles, lampas and velvets, and the same 
 period produced admirable tapestries and emt^ider- 
 ies. Byzantium became the seat for European silk 
 cultivation, and for five centuries, together with 
 Corinth and Athens, was prolific in weave craft. 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 Tables, chairs and beds followed the Roman 
 style, the legs often of turned wood. Ivory, carved 
 and inlaid, and metal, much used ; enamels and 
 gold, bronze and inlaid woods employed. Chair of 
 Dagobert (600) a fair example of the elaborateness of 
 the period. It is of gilt-bronze and one of the earliest 
 pieces. 
 
 Saracenic. Eleventh Century Silk Damask, showing Persian 
 and Byzantine influence. 
 
 28 
 
BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. 
 
 Showing Oriental as well as Classic influence of Tenth Centiu-y. 
 
:T^TmZ^}^]l^'M \i 
 
 AJJltP^^ftJ 
 
 ^^SfeBl^*^-^"^' '*' 
 
 fj^ 
 
 
 
 »K^lil' 
 
 [4p.^^ 
 
 P"wr^^ 
 
 
 
 yXyT^Pt^ ^ ) 
 
 ^^m^ 
 
 '' ^f^i^f^ >' "i' "*" 
 
 itifPixi^ 
 
 i^^myAiih 
 
 
 ^r^^ ^^^^^^"'f ■■^' 
 
 i^^^K^^^^P^s;;!^;:;; 
 
 
 W^^^7^^my.y,v.:^ 
 
 BYZANTINE ORNAMENT, 
 
No. 1. Perso-Byzantine, 700 A.D. No. 2. Romanesque, 1130 A.D., style of pattern evolved by system of intersecting 
 circles; popular at the beginnmg of the Gothic period. No. 3. French or German Romanesque, 1100 A.D. No. 4. 
 Section of style showing circles joined together by smaller circles; a system of design in vogue 1000 A.D. No. S. 
 French, Saracenic influence, 1100 A.D. No. 6. French-Romanesque, 1100 A.D. No. 7. Hispano-Saracenic, 1200 AD 
 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN-ROMANESQUE 
 
 IN T H E study of Early Christian, Byzantine and 
 Romanesque art one must never lose sight of 
 •the fact that at the beginning and the end of 
 
 these periods the Orient wielded an influence. 
 In 328, while preparing for battle, Constantine, Em- 
 peror of Rome, saw a cross in the sky, and accepting 
 it as an omen he embraced the Christian religion. The 
 capital of his new Empire was Byzantium, which 
 name he changed to Constantinople, and the Byzantine 
 Empire at the outstart covered much of Asia Minor, 
 Arabia, Egypt, North Africa and the country now 
 Bulgaria and Greece. Georgia, that portion of the 
 Caucasus frequently called Iberia, appears first in au- 
 thentic history in the time of Alexander the Great, but 
 in the Fourth Century it was part of the Byzantine 
 Empire. 
 
 From 550 to 800 Byzantine art was gorgeous in 
 Oriental splendor. The Saracens carried Islam art 
 throughout Persia, Palestine, Syria and Egypt in the 
 Seventh Century, over Africa and Spain in the Eighth 
 Century, and Lower Italy in the Ninth Century. 
 
 To arrive at a definite understanding of the char- 
 acter of design employed during the early Christian 
 and Romanesque periods we must consider two es- 
 sentials, Origin and Use. 
 
 In the Romanesque period there was no direct 
 relationship between the designs of mosaic, tile, stained 
 glass, furniture, carving, rugs, tapestries, silks and 
 other fabrics. 
 
 Tiles had been made for centuries and patterns 
 had been repeated and re-repeated. Colored glass 
 was made by the Egyptians 2000 years B.C., but the 
 earliest stained-glass windows are recorded as 525 
 A.D. None, however, is known to be still in exist- 
 ence made prior to 1108. Early examples found in 
 Romanesque windows of this date have little medal- 
 lions with primitive figures and ornaments, the pat- 
 terns reflecting the spirit of design which had been 
 done in textiles four and five hundred years previously. 
 
 In mechanical weaving, a repeated pattern must 
 have fixed dimensions, a restriction not affecting em- 
 broidering, tapestry making or mosaic work. 
 
 We have already seen that wools and linens, tap- 
 estries and embroideries were employed back in the 
 earliest ages. Simple mechanical weaving was known 
 in Egypt 3000 B.C., but the complex manipulation of 
 shuttles whereby figures were produced without em- 
 broidering was not practised until 200 A.D. 
 
 31 
 

 
 K^^ 
 
 W~~^ 
 
 NORMAN ROMANESQUE. 1000— llOi 
 
GERMAN ROMANESQUE. 1000—1100 
 
 MEDIAEVAL FURNITURE. 450—1150. 
 
^ 
 
 w^I 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 
 B 
 
 ft 
 
 i^^ 
 
 ft 
 
 Romanesque. 900-1100. 
 
 Illustrations 1, 2, 3 are doubtless tile illustrations, follow- 
 ing the simple forms used in mechanical textile weaving 200 
 A.D. The motifs here used are, however, heraldic. The 
 heraldic forms were adopted during the period of the First 
 Crusades, 1096 (the seven Christian Crusades ending 1270). 
 
 Illustration 4 follows the textile forms of the early By- 
 zantine, but the details filled in suggest the Saracenic. 
 
 Illustrations 5, 6, 7 follow the interlacement system, which 
 beginning with the Roman was revived with the Romanesque 
 and developed with the Gothic. 
 
 Illustration 9, like illustration 4, is of Byzantine origin 
 with Romanesque development 1000. 
 
 Illustrations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 Romanesque, direct Roman 
 origin. 
 
 Illustration 5 shows the framing which, developed just 
 prior to the Gothic, 1100. 
 
 Illustrations 6 and 8 are Romanesque, showing connecting 
 circles, 800. 
 
 Illustrations .9, 10, 11 represent the Arabian or Saracenic 
 development of the ogival form of design conspicuous in 
 Lower Italy, 900-1000. 
 
 The "ogival" form relates to the form of design developed 
 from 800 to 1100 A.D., where joining circles were brought 
 to acute angles at points of junctures, forming ovals or 
 ogival shapes. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANICAL TEXTILE DESIGN UP TO THE GOTHIC PERIOD. 
 
 THE development of design was necessarily slow ; 
 for many years repeat patterns were of the sim- 
 plest character. 
 
 B.C. Design consisted (1) of repeated lines, spots, 
 bands or stripes; (2) crossed lines or stripes; (3) 
 'by changing colors of lines, checks and trellises 
 were produced; (4) by changing proportions, 
 
 plaids were produced ; ( 5 ) then came rectangular 
 
 patterns and diamond shapes. 
 100 A.D. Development of circular or square frame. 
 200-600 A.D. Squares or circles filled possibly with 
 
 floral detail suggested by the Persian and Syrian 
 
 weavers. The same sort of thing was repeated 
 
 34 
 
EARLY CHRISTIAN— ROMANESQUE 
 
 again five hundred or six hundred years after- 
 wards in simple stained-glass effects. 
 
 400-600 A.D. Broken circles or circles joining the 
 upper and lower segments and spread out to form 
 bands. 
 
 600-1100 A.D. The use of circles continued, but they 
 were now linked together, large circles being 
 joined together by smaller circles at the points of 
 contact. The designs in and out of these circles 
 became more ornamental, developing by the end 
 of the Romanesque period great elaboration, and 
 
 hexagons (Saracenic) arranged with geometrical 
 
 nicety and elaborated in design. 
 
 Up to and including 1100 a common type of de- 
 sign was the persistency of balanced groupings of 
 birds, animals or men, facing or back to back. 
 
 From 800 to 1100 saw the development of the 
 ogival form or that form of design where the joining 
 circles were brought to acute angles at points of junc- 
 ture forming ovals or ogival shapes. The ogival form 
 continued, developing greater and greater elaboration 
 through the Gothic period. 
 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN- BYZANTINE- ROMANESQUE 
 
 "p HE accompanying chart shows better than anything else the 
 finally into the Gothic. Early Christian naturally expressed the 
 the Christian faith. .\s time progressed the Romanesque period 
 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN. 
 
 related periods of design which followed the Byzantine and developed 
 Byzantine or first Christian expression in art where that art symbolized 
 developed, which was a period of Roman revival. 
 
 BYZANTINE. 
 
 328 — 500 Roman Chris- 
 tian Period. Constantine, 
 Emperor, became protector 
 of Christians and , the Em- 
 pire constituting the Eastern 
 divisions of the Roman Em- 
 pire, 550. 
 
 550—800. ORIENTAL 
 PERIOD. This period was 
 largely aiTected by the Ori- 
 ental influence surrounding 
 Byzantine. 
 
 330—600. Early Chris- 
 tian. A term arbitrarily 
 applied to the art of the 
 countries influenced by the 
 religious enthusiasm of the 
 Byzantine Empire, by the 
 GOTHS of TEUTONIC anfl 
 SPANISH territory, the 
 early LOMBARDS who set- 
 tled in ITALY, 568, and the 
 Franks, who under Clovis 
 (the first of the Merovin- 
 gians to adopt Christianity) 
 became a Christian kingdom 
 about 500 A.D.— 750. 
 
 V tn 
 ^ Mrt 
 
 850—1005. CLASSIC PERIOD. Reflecting the 
 Roman spirit, which had already affected the Italian, 
 German and French arts. Christian symbolism did not 
 again become conspicuous until the beginning of the 
 Gothic, 1100. 
 
 
 _ oo 
 
 5iJ3 S 
 
 328 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 711 
 
 774 
 
 911 
 1066 
 1100 
 
 ROMANESQUE. 
 
 700 — 1100. A style affected by the Roman art developing about 
 700 and lasting until 1100, the beginning of the Gothic. 
 
 711. THE GOTH kingdom of Spain was destroyed by the 
 Moors and from this developed a Spanish art which was largely 
 Moorish affected by the ROMANESQUE. 
 
 In 774 Charlemagne destroyed the Lombardic Kingdom and 
 became Governor of Italy. The LOMBARDS had entered Italy 
 from Scandinavian territory and founded powerful nation 568 A.D. 
 They conquered almost all of the Byzantine Empire, except Venice, 
 Ravenna, Naples and Rome, and in later years their ROMAN- 
 ESQUE art became more strongly BYZANTINE. The period 
 showed the EARLY CHRISTIAN, the BYZANTINE and ROMAN- 
 ESQUE character. 
 
 In the Southern sections of their territory, especially Sicily, 
 there developed by the invasion of the Mohammedans a SARA- 
 CENIC art. 
 
 NORMAN was the ROMANESQUE of the Normans who 911 
 came down from the North country, gaining a foothold in Nor- 
 mandy and Brittany. In 1066 conquered England where NORMAN 
 ROMANESQUE was often called ENGLISH ROMANESQUE. 
 End of Romanesque Period and beginning of Gothic. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILE WEAVING 
 
 300 A.D. Weaving was understood in Egypt. Pos- 
 sibly earlier in Babylonia. Silk vieaving intro- 
 duced from China, where it was practised at a 
 remote period. 
 
 200 A.D; Complicated mechanical weaving done by 
 Syrian weavers in the Eastern Roman Empire. 
 
 300 A.D. Silks well known to Romans. Persian as 
 well as Syrian manufacture. Egyptian and 
 Roman tapestries in use. 
 
 500 A.D. First production of European ornamental 
 silks — sarcenet and taffeta ; Roman and Byzantine. 
 Constantinople imported looms for weaving silks 
 in the Persian and Indian styles. Introduced 
 sericulture from Chinese cocoons smuggled into 
 Constantinople by Persian monks, and became a 
 seat for European silk cultivation and manu- 
 facture. Produced taffetas, damasks, brocatelles, 
 lampas, velvets, embroideries, tapestries, and for 
 five centuries Constantinople, Corinth, Thebes and 
 Athens were prolific in weave craft. 
 
 600 A.D. Northern Egypt made silken fabrics. 
 
 700 A.D. Spain in latter part of 700 made progress 
 in silk weaving. Syrian silk merchants opened 
 warerooms in Paris. 
 
 800 A.D. Daughters of Charlemagne, France, taught 
 to weave silk. 
 
 800 A.D. Abdul-Raman II introduced the use of 
 "tiraz" (silk stuff embroidered). 
 
 900 A.D. Sicily and Spain alike showed Saracenic 
 design treatments in fine silks. 
 
 1000 A.D. Constantinople, Corinth, Thebes and 
 Athens practically monopolized the making of fine 
 fabrics. 
 
 1000 A.D. Roger Guiscard organized a silk factory 
 at Palermo, Sicily, Hotel des Tiraz, with Thebian 
 and Corinthian weavers, and according to some 
 historians it became the greatest silk manufactur- 
 ing city in the world. Scarcely less renowned 
 were Malaga, Murcia, Granada and Seville. Many 
 Italian towns also took up silk manufacturing. 
 
 35 
 
LATE ROMANESQUE OF LOWER ITALY 
 
 Showing Saracenic Influence. 
 
'(Hfel'Kt 
 
 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN. 330-600 
 
EARLY CHRISTIAN— ROMANESQUE. 
 
 Florence, Genoa, Venice, Bologna and Milan. 
 Saracenic and Greek silk weavers located in Ger- 
 many, the Netherlands, France and Great Britain. 
 
 1100 A.D. Towards the end of the Twelfth Century 
 Flemish weavers began the manufacture of wool 
 tapestries. Art developed to Arras, Valenciennes, 
 Tourney, Audenarde, Lille and Brussels. The 
 oldest tapestries in existence are of this era. Two 
 are in the Cathedral, Halberstadt, Germany. 
 
 1200 A.D. Persian silks famous throughout Europe 
 and copied generally. 
 
 1200 A.D. France began manufacture of tapestries. 
 
 1268 A.D. Madrid, Spain, organized tapestry factory. 
 
 1300 A.D. Spain began to degenerate as a producing 
 country. 
 
 1300 A.D. Arras, city south of France, made valu- 
 able wool tapestries up to 1477. 
 
 1300 A.D. Lucca, famous for silk weaving, Lucchese 
 weavers emigrated to Germany, the Netherlands, 
 France and Great Britain, in which countries silk 
 manufacture flourished up to 1500. 
 
 1300 A.D. Velvet is mentioned in the English inven- 
 tories and French documents'. 
 
 1300 A.D. Genoa, the center for Italian trade in the 
 East, introduces Eastern design. 
 
 1400 A.D. Spanish and Italian writers referred to 
 "velvets" or velvet stuffs. (See 1500.) 
 
 1400 A.D. Asiatic fabrics were taken in great quan- 
 tities by Europe. During Fifteenth Century Con- 
 stantinople and Byzantium were the chief markets 
 for supplying Oriental stuflis to Europe. 
 
 1400 A.D. While Italian wool tapestries were de- 
 signed by native artists, the workmen came from 
 Flanders. During 1400, when the Ottomans con- 
 quered Constantinople, they infused Orientalism 
 into Southeastern Europe, and the manufacturers 
 in the Ottoman towns — Anatolia — went into the 
 markets of Italy and France, Spain and Flanders. 
 This spirit brought political changes, new com- 
 mercial relations and the influence over the deco- 
 rative designs and decorative fabrics of all Eu- 
 rope. This Ottoman type was more Persian than 
 Saracenic. It was strongly floriated. 
 
 1432 A.D. Silks of Damascus were famous. 
 
 1466 A.D. Lyons, France, established silk looms. 
 Under Francis I silk weaving was encouraged and 
 many Italians employed. Turkey pre-eminent for 
 silks of Broussa, Diarbekir, Beyrout, Aleppo and 
 Damascus, Assyria. 
 
 1480 A.D. Beginning of needle-point lace work in 
 Italy. 
 
 1500 A.D. Spain weakly reflecting the character of 
 French and Italian styles. 
 
 1500 A.D. France, Germany, Holland and England 
 weaving fine silks. 
 
 1500 A.D. A continuance of inscriptional styles in 
 gold, "velvet," and satin, superseding brocaded 
 silks of early date. Materials heavier. 
 
 1500 A.D. According to the revenue records of Italy, 
 cloths of silk, satin damasks and velvets plain and 
 cut, were made "in a way unknown to the an- 
 cients." Prior to this date velvet was a material 
 that had been simply roughed up so as to appear 
 fluffy. England attempted during 1500 to make 
 satin damasks, velvets and cloths of gold, but soon 
 abandoned the enterprise. , 
 
 1515 A.D. Pope Leo X had tapestries made in Brus- 
 sels after cartoons by Raphael. 
 
 1539 A.D. Francis I established tapestry factory. 
 This was the beginning of Gobelin manufacture. 
 
 1600 A.D. Beginning of point Venise laces in Italy. 
 At this time similar laces were made in France and 
 in Flanders and Russia also. 
 
 1600 A.D. Showing Italian . character of design, 
 strongly influenced by Oriental. 
 Italian and Sicilian towns famous in silk manu- 
 facture. Also Tours, Nimes, Lyons, Avignon, 
 Paris, France. Flemish and Dutch were more 
 traders than producers. 
 
 1619 A.D. Mortlake Tapestry Works were estab- 
 lished near London by James I. Existed up to 
 Charles I. 
 
 1619 A.D. Gobelin Tapestry Works became royal 
 property of France. 
 
 1650 A.D. Lender Colbert many lace factories estab- 
 lished in France for the making of net laces. 
 
 1690 A.D. or thereabout, Beauvais Tapestry Works 
 established. 
 
 1700 A.D. French characteristics prevailed in French 
 manufactures. Many towns in France undertook 
 manufacturing. The French influence in designs 
 spread to Spain, England, Holland, Germany and 
 Switzerland during the flight of the weavers from 
 France at the time the Edict of Nantes in France 
 was revoked. 
 
 1700 A.D. Netherlands, Bruges satins famous. 
 
 1700 A.D. Flanders famed for its tapestries. 
 
 1750 A.D. Thousands of silk-weaving looms estab- 
 lished in England — in Spitalfields, Cheshire, York- 
 shire, Essex, Derbyshire, Lancashire and Nor- 
 folk. Large quantities of Chinese and Indian 
 silks used in England. 
 
 1759 A.D. Manufacture of printed linen authorized 
 and encouraged by French Government. The 
 most famous became known as Toile de Jouy. 
 
 1800 A.D. The Germans were great producers at 
 Crefeld, Elberfeld, and Barmen. 
 
 1800 A.D. Austria began the manufacture of silk and 
 1500 looms were soon in operation by imported 
 labor from Genoa and Lyons. 
 
 1800 A.D. Some silk was made at Stockholm, but 
 neither Norway nor Sweden had made history in 
 this business. 
 
 1800 A.D. Moscow and St. Petersburg established 
 silk looms in Russia. 
 
 1818 A.D. Bobbinet first made by machinery. 
 
 38 
 
ASIATIC 
 
 ORIENTAL-ISLAM-MOHAMMEDAN.-Arabian 571 A.D. Saracenic 571. 
 
 Turkish 1096. Ottoman 1360. Persian 641. 
 
 Moorish 711. Alhambraic 1250. 
 
 ORIENTAL ISLAM ORNAMENT. 
 
 THE term Oriental relates to the Far East or 
 Asia. 
 
 The term Islam relates to the religion which be- 
 gan with the birth of Mohammed, 571 A.D. 
 
 ARABIAN SARACENIC. 
 
 Native of Arabia. Arabian followers of 
 Mohammed, born 571, were called Saracens and 
 located at Medina; established Mohammedan re- 
 ligion 622. 
 
 634. Saracens conquered Syria, Palestine, 
 Phoenicia and Egypt. 
 
 641. Persia overthrown by Arabians, who 
 also conquered Northern Africa and captured 
 Rhodes. 
 
 700. Saracens conquered Byzantium and 
 Northern Africa; the Berbers accepted Moham- 
 medan religion, and with inhabitants of Greek and 
 Roman descent, became amalgamated with the 
 Arabians under the name of Moors; 711, crossed 
 to Spain, establishing the Caliphate of Cordova. 
 Saracenic conquests for many years extended over 
 Southwestern Asia up to the Mediterranean, in- 
 fluencing the arts of Spain, Southern France and 
 Southern Italy. Followed the use of flat con- 
 ventionalized interlacement of geometric accuracy, 
 thus unlike Celtic or Scandinavian, and unlike the 
 Ottoman form or later Turkish type. The Mo- 
 hammedan religion interdicted the use of animal 
 forms, and the law of the Koran was strictly 
 followed by the strict Mohammedans, hence 
 Arabian art was confined to conventionalized 
 forms, with occasionally Arabic inscriptions. 
 
 MOORISH. 
 
 The Moors were the Saracen converts from 
 Northern Africa who in 711 crossed to Spain. 
 The arts are sometimes called early Spanish. 
 
 1250. The Alhambraic period. By 1200 the 
 Moorish form of ornament embodied Arabian 
 ornament superimposed upon geometrical back- 
 ground framework. 
 
 1610. Moors expelled from Spain. 
 
 TURKISH. 
 
 Turks originally Tartan tribe, 226 B.C. Sel- 
 juk Turks, a term applied to Western Turks who 
 in 1096 held empire by conquest over many parts 
 of Persia and the West Coast of Arabia. 
 
 The Turks had no art excepting the art bor- 
 rowed from Persia and Arabia. (See Ottoman.) 
 
 OTTOMAN. 
 
 A band of wandering Turks aided the Seljuk 
 Turks, or Western Turks, in battle and conquered 
 the Arabians 1250. This was the beginning of 
 the Ottoman Empire and the arrest of the Arabian 
 conquests in Asia. 
 
 1360. Ottomans conquered Asiatic posses- 
 sions of the Byzantine Empire and Turkey in 
 Europe. 
 
 1453. Surrender of Constantinople to the 
 Ottoman Turks. 
 
 1480. Ottoman supremacy on the wane. 
 
 The Ottoman arts were the arts of the Otto- 
 man Turks or the Turks of the Ottoman Empire, 
 established 1259. Ottoman art was the develop- 
 ment of the Arabian with strong Byzantine influ- 
 ence even to the interdiction of animal life. A 
 characteristic was the use of conventionalized pea 
 forms and leaf and pod. 
 
 PERSIAN. 
 
 Islam effect upon Persia began 641, when 
 Persia was overthrown by Arabians. 
 
 750. Independent principalities sprang up 
 in Persia. 
 
 1605. Shah Abbas, ascending throne of Per- 
 sia, drove out the Ottoman Turks and Mongols 
 and recovered the country. 
 
 Islam effect upon- Persia 641, when Persia 
 was overthrown by the Arabians. As long as 
 Persia was dominated by the Arabians Persian 
 art was largely Arabian; but in 1605, with the 
 downfall of the Ottomans, Persia, through Shah 
 Abbas, developed to its fullest the native tenden- 
 cies, even to the adoption of European Renais- 
 sance forms and human, animal and bird forms. 
 Persian art had been always liberal, and even 
 when under Arabian control was never flat and 
 conventional, but realistic with florals, notably 
 pinks, hyacinths, tulips, roses, palms, pines, pome- 
 granates, pineapples and dates. 
 
 INDIAN. 
 
 1400 B.C. Brahma. 
 500 B.C. Buddha. 
 711 A.D. Arabian Invasion. 
 1525 A.D. Mogul Empire. 
 748 A.D. English Control. 
 
 Indian art was influenced by Mohammedan 
 up to the Sixteenth Century, and it broke away 
 from the restrictions of the Koran. 
 
 39 
 
ARABIAN ORNAMENT. 
 
 .^^?^''l~^'''^^^r^^<^^^f'^i of flat and geometric or vegetation forms, distinguished from Ottoman or the late Turk- 
 ish by bemg less rea istic. Inscriptional work often introduced. HuiAan or animal figureV are exo^essions of ouf 
 side influence, usually Persian. It is impossible to distinguish between Arabian and early types Lf Moo °'"^" 
 
MOORISH ORNAMENT. 
 
 Moorish (Arabian origin) developed finally the Alhambraic, an elaborate form. 
 
OTTOMAN ORNAMENT. 
 
 Ottoman Turkish developed a floriated Arabian form, with the pea vine and leaf as motifs. 
 
PERSIAN ORNAMENT. 
 
 o ixri, . A.oK,-:,,-, rhararteristics aooear in Persian design tliey point to the period of Arabian domination, 
 
 ^r/rrl^n form'' xpV"\s d'rX'Teelin'^ Persia recovered control of much of her terr.tory. Persian art 
 
 ine noriatea loriu c y reached its highest type of floriated form m 1500. 
 
■_, 
 
 # ISI 
 
 ^^M 
 
 H 
 
 I^^B 
 
 ^d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sWeiWI 
 
 
 I JSi 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 ^^f 
 
 TURKISH DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
Chinese Ornament. 
 
 CHINESE — INDIAN - JAPANESE - SARACENIC 
 
 CHINESE— Mythic Period 3S0O B.C. First Emperor 
 2200 B.C. Confucius SOO B.C. 
 
 Sung Dynasty, 960-1127; Han Dynasty, 1127-1279; 
 Yuan Dynasty, 1279-1368; Ming or "Bright" Dynasty, 
 1368-1628; Wan Lih Period, 1573-1620; Shun Chih 
 Period, 1644-1661; Kang Hsi Period, 1661-1722; Yung 
 Ching Period. 1723-1736; Kien Lung Period, 1736-1796; 
 Chia Ching Period, 1796-1821; Tau Kwang Period, 
 1821-1851. 
 
 CHINESE and Indian art are frequently confused 
 because they have much in common. Possibly 
 this condition may be accounted for by the influences 
 of Buddha. The Chinese employ an endless list of 
 deities, demons, monsters. They have eight immor- 
 tals and the figure eight is a favorite. They have 
 eight lucky emblems, eight Buddhist symbols, eight 
 ordinary symbols. We note also in Chinese frets and 
 geometrical details, forms identical with Greek. 
 
 Mythological art is an art of great study. To 
 comprehend its meaning one would have to be a Con- 
 fucionist, a Taoist and a Buddhist. Stripped of its 
 
 symbolism, Chinese art is an art of extravagant nature 
 forms, and in the past four centuries these forms were 
 undoubtedly influenced by Persian nicety and decora- 
 tive consistency. 
 
 INDIAN— Brahma 1400 B.C. Buddha 500 B.C. Arabian 
 Invasion 711 A.D. Mogul Empire 1525 A.D. English 
 Control 1748 A.D. 
 
 WOVEN brocades and silks of India were not de- 
 veloped as decorative arts until the Sixteenth 
 Century. While Indian art goes back to the remote 
 past, the art as we understand it is Islam. Having the 
 typical Mohammedan divisions of space, but more 
 flowing, having more freedom and grace, it is less 
 confined than the Arabian style. The Arabian inva- 
 sion of India began 711 A.D., and from that date 
 Mohammedan domination prevailed; but beginning 
 with 1500 Indian art broke away from the Koran re- 
 strictions and we have the elephant, lion, tiger, the 
 peacock and the human figure common accessories in 
 
 . 45 
 
PWrfTED COTTOn-l 
 inOIAM IB"C.tm' 
 
 INDIAN ORNAMENT. 
 
CHINESE ORNAMENT. 
 
SARACENIC 
 
 decoration. Indian ornament followed a profuse 
 floral system, and block prints in silk and cotton 
 reached a high degree of perfection during the Seven- 
 teenth and Eighteenth Centuries. The details are al- 
 ways worked out finely. 
 
 SARACENIC — 641 A. D, 
 Persia was conquered by 
 the Saracens or Arabians, 
 who by 711 had invaded 
 India, Spain, Turkestan 
 and Northern Africa. 
 
 827 A.D. Saracens set- 
 tled in Sicily. Early in 
 Tenth Century extended 
 their incursions into Italy. 
 
 1r IS impossible to clas- 
 sify Saracenic designs 
 
 under one grouping, for 
 
 the reason that the term 
 
 tpplies to the Arabian in- 
 fluences covering many 
 
 years and many countries. 
 
 (See Romanesque, Gothic 
 
 and Italian.) To com- 
 prehend the term Sara- 
 cenic one must study the 
 
 chronological history of 
 
 the Orient. Wherever the 
 
 Arabian or the Saracen 
 
 conquered there he left 
 
 his influence. The term is 
 
 adjective. It may apply 
 
 to much that would be 
 
 otherwise classified as 
 
 Romanesque, Norman, 
 
 Gothic, or Sicilian if the 
 
 Arabian characteristics 
 
 permeate the composition. 
 
 In Southern Italy and in 
 . Sicily the style which developed in the Ninth Century 
 
 was distinctly Saracenic. 
 If we study the Roman- 
 esque and the Norman 
 we find in the origin of 
 each the Saracenic su- 
 perimposed upon Roman 
 or Byzantine and we 
 have as a result a con- 
 fusion that is often 
 hard to analyze. 
 
 A design, there- 
 fore, Norman, Rom- 
 anesque or Byzantine 
 that is conspicuous by 
 its Arabian influence is 
 called Saracenic. 
 
 Under the Sara- 
 cens, textile fabrics 
 reached a high develop- 
 Saracenic. ment in color and ma- 
 
 Saracenic 
 
 terial. The arts culminated in the period 900-1200. 
 Though Mohammed forbade the wearing of silk, it 
 was largely used, and to evade the injunction cotton 
 was interwoven with it. Sicilian or Siculo-Saracenic 
 
 fabrics showed bands of 
 birds and animals, foliage, 
 inscriptions, in bltle, green 
 and gold on red ground. 
 
 Drawn gold thread 
 was not used in early fab- 
 rics, but gold leaf on pa- 
 per and then rolled around 
 a fine thread of silk was 
 manipulated. Sicilian fab- 
 rics of the Thirteenth and 
 Fourteenth Centuries are 
 frequently in purple 
 ground of twilled silk with 
 birds and foliage formed 
 by gold thread weft. 
 Saracenic or Hispano- 
 Moresque fabrics of Spain 
 are distinguished by the 
 splendid crimson or dark 
 blue conventional patterns 
 of silk upon yellow 
 ground, and by the fre- 
 quent use of strips of 
 gilded parchment in place 
 of the rolled gilt thread. 
 Undoubtedly under the in- 
 fluence of the crusades the 
 Sicilian weavers of the 
 Thirteenth and Fourteenth 
 Centuries produced many 
 fabrics enriched with 
 winged lions, crosses, crowns, rayed stars, harts, 
 birds, linked together with floriations or armorial 
 bearings. Late in 1200 this character of design was 
 introduced into Northern Italy. Genoa adopted much 
 that was Persian from the Twelfth to the Seven- 
 teenth Century, and in the Fifteenth Century, when 
 Louis XI encouraged the art of weaving in France 
 at Tours and later at Lyons under Francis I, the 
 Persian and Italian fabrics were closely followed, and 
 
 the vase pattern was 
 adopted. 
 
 The Oriental 
 character of design in 
 textiles did not en- 
 tirely disappear until 
 the gardens of Ver- 
 sailles and the Tri- 
 anons under Louis 
 XIV gave inspiration 
 to the use of Euro- 
 pean flora. 
 
 
 
 ^M 
 
 ^^^dWi 
 
 
 ^9 
 
 wr ffjy^j^ 
 
 
 m 
 
 Saracenic. 
 
 49 
 
Japanese Ornament. 
 
 JAPANESE— 1200 B.C. Empire established 660 B.C. 
 
 THERE is a close affinity 
 between the Indian and 
 Japanese arts, for Budd- 
 hism, introduced from India, exer- 
 cised pronounced influence upon 
 the people of Japan. We are in- 
 clined also to broadly associate 
 the Chinese and Japanese arts ; 
 indeed the differences are not 
 easy to determine. 
 
 In 1200 B.C. the Ainos, 
 people occupying islands east of 
 Asia, were conquered by bands 
 from the mainland. The con- 
 querors became known as Jap- 
 anese, but for centuries their 
 early arts were stimulated by 
 
 Indian. 
 
 their Chinese progenitors. Little by little, however, tion 
 
 they developed a great love of detail, a nice accuracy 
 of expression foreign to the Chinese spirit. They 
 employed less conventionality and more nature. We 
 nevertheless find in both Chinese and Japanese art 
 forms that are almost identical, and where that is the 
 case we can trace it to the influences of India. 
 
 We find in indigenous work of the Japanese a 
 great deal of nature study — butterflies, cranes, dragons, 
 peacock-feather patterns, flowers, tortoises, waves — 
 in fact, almost everything in nature, and the methods 
 are in most cases picturesque rather than fixed and 
 formal. 
 
 During the last fifty years Japan has studied and 
 complied with the demands of European taste, and 
 native art has consequently weakened. 
 
 At its best, it followed the methods of China and • 
 India and in most cases was content with reproduc- 
 
 K5KSKSK mimiumml 
 
 Indian Ornament. 
 
 SO 
 
GOTHIC INTERIOR, 1300. 
 
 From an old painting in Stuttgart, Germany. 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY GERMAN GOTHIC FURNITURE. 
 
 classic] 
 
 [romaxe^J 
 
 [SICILIASI 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF FLORAL GOTHIC MOTIFS. 
 
FRENCH : 
 
 ENGLISH : 
 
 GERMAN : 
 
 ITALIAN : 
 
 Gothic style originated in France: 
 
 Early Gothic or Crude Gothic, 
 
 Began, 12S0. 
 
 Began, 12S0. 
 
 1108 Abbey Church of St. Denis, 
 
 1189-1307. 
 
 
 But never freed itself 
 
 notable example. Cathedral of 
 
 Decorated or Ornamental, 1300- 
 
 SPANISH AND 
 
 from Classic and By- 
 
 Notre Dame, Paris, 1163-1182, is 
 
 1400. 
 
 PORTUGUESE : 
 
 zantine influences. 
 
 a fine example. 
 
 Perpendicular, 1399-lSOO. 
 
 Began, 12S0. 
 
 Dominated by Moorish 
 Character. 
 
 Gothic style had little 
 
 Early Period, 1150. 
 Secondary, 1200-1300. 
 
 Tudor Gothic, 1485-1S09. 
 
 development in Italy. 
 
 Flamboyant, 1307-1399. 
 
 DUTCH, BELGIAN AND TYROL 
 
 
 Influence lingered till ISIS. 
 
 GOTHIC : 
 Developments of French and 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 German. 
 
 
 
 GOTHIC 
 
 H E Gothic style was the 
 art expression having root in 
 the spread of the Christian 
 religion, and is full of Christian 
 "™^ symbolism. At first crude and 
 
 Romanesque or ^^^^y- '^ y^^^^e<i later to a highly 
 round-head Gothic ornate form of treatment. 
 
 Regarding the Gothic develop- 
 ment there is much confusion. It developed directly 
 from the Romanesque, a style which grew up in 
 Northern Italy; natu- 
 rally the Romanesque 
 characteristics 1 i n - 
 gered in its construc- 
 tion. Indeed, the late 
 Romanesque is called 
 the Round - Head 
 Gothic, its arches in 
 architecture being semi-circular, as distinguished from 
 the later Gothic development of poi|ited arches. 
 
 The Gothic period, extending as it did from 1100 
 to 1550 and influenced as it was by the Byzantine, 
 
 Gothic Fleurs-de-lis. 
 
 Saracenic, and finally Romanesque, naturally absorbed 
 many architectural characteristics as the style traversed 
 France, Germany Spain, Italy and England. And yet 
 all phases possessed a common floriation and universal 
 religious symbolism — the trefoil, the quatrefoil, curves 
 and arches, circles, triangles, religious figures — are con- 
 spicuous whether of the Gothic of Spain with Moorish 
 arch, or the Gothic of France with pointed spires, or of 
 England with its lancet as well as squat Tudor vaults. 
 One cannot too strongly emphasize the fact that 
 
 Gothic art was an 
 architectural art. It 
 was the art of the 
 builder, the sculptor, 
 the wood-carver, as 
 distinguished from 
 
 the art of the weaver. 
 Three in one. Quarry. ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^.^ ^^^.^^ 
 
 took inspiration mainly from Asia. Thus we find fre- 
 quently in the furnishings of a church, palace or cot- 
 tage, Gothic characteristics in all that was of the house 
 or building proper or of the cabinetmaker, and com- 
 
 53 
 

 
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A Fifteenth Century room in the Volpi Museum, Florence, the first illustration showing round arch Gothic, the 
 second illustration Transition Gothic. Walls of cosmatic mosaic introduced in the Thirteenth Century by Giovanni 
 
 Cosmato? Floor, tiles. Furniture, Sixteenth Century. 
 
GOTHIC 
 
 bined therewith textiles and 
 art treasures brought in by 
 the Flemish and Italian 
 traders from far Asia. 
 
 It is somewhat difficult 
 to understand the terms used 
 descriptive of the 
 Gothic epochs. In 
 order to assist in a 
 comprehension o f 
 these terms we repro- 
 duce the classifica- 
 tions of Sharpe, Rick- 
 man and De Cau- 
 mont. We prefer, 
 
 w 
 
 ITH the beginning of 
 
 ♦X***** 
 
 ♦ H-YYTT^ 
 
 simple crochet form, as it is 
 called, a terminal floriation. 
 At first crude, it soon de- 
 veloped into the 
 Decorative type, 
 characterized by nat- 
 ural foliage of many 
 kinds, with flowing, 
 undulating lines, 
 truer to nature than 
 Early Gothic and 
 treated in richness 
 
 however, that the 
 student shall follow 
 our own classification. The term "Transitional 
 Gothic" as shown by Sharpe is the same as "Norman," 
 applied by Rickman. The classifications are as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 SHARPE. 
 
 Romanesque : Saxon, 1066 A.D. ; Norman, 1066- 
 1145 A.D. 
 
 Gothic : 
 Transitional, 
 1145-1190 A. 
 D. ; Lancet, 
 1190-1245 A. 
 D. ; Cu r V i- 
 linear, 1245- 
 13 6 A.D. ; 
 Rectilinea r , 
 1360-1550 A.D. 
 
 RICKMAN. 
 RO M AN- 
 
 ESQUE : N o r - 
 man, 10 6 6- 
 118 9 A.D. ; 
 Early English, 
 1189-1307 A.D. 
 Gothic : 
 Decorated, 1307-1379 A.D. ; Perpendicular, 1379-1483 
 A.D.; Tudor, 1483-1546 A.D. 
 
 DE CAUMONT (fRENCH). 
 
 Romanesque: Primordiale, 400-900 A.D. ; Sec- 
 ondaire, 900-1100 A.D.; Tertiaire, 1100 A.D. 
 
 Pointed: Primitive, 1200; Secondaire or Rayon- 
 nant, 1300; Tertiaire or Flamboyant, 1400 A.D. 
 
 Gothic forms from which the trefoil and quatrefoil details 
 were taken, obtained by the use of circles. 
 
 Group IV (G). 
 
 Group IV (G). 
 See table of group classifications, for dates, 
 
 and profusion. Then 
 came the Perpendicu- 
 lar Gothic, arranged with more fixed geometrical rules 
 of construction, and introduced as motifs we find her- 
 aldic forms shields, badges and crests. The space to 
 be carved was divided into rectangular or lozenge 
 shapes and filled with ornament systematically. 
 
 At the time of the Norman conquest English 
 houses were usually one room. A hole in the roof 
 
 served to carry 
 out the smoke 
 from the fire, 
 and indeed 
 many houses 
 lacked c h i m - 
 neys in Eng- 
 land as late as 
 1500. 
 
 The tables 
 used were 
 mere planks on 
 trestles. 
 
 Chests were 
 common arti- 
 cles of furni- 
 _ ture, and may 
 be divided into 
 three classes, which are defined as follows: 
 
 First, the chest of the Early Gothic following the 
 Romanesque style banded in iron more for strength 
 than ornament. 
 
 Second, the chest heavily banded in iron and 
 painted. These were common during the Thirteenth 
 and Fourteenth Centuries. 
 
 The third type began with the Fifteenth Cen- 
 
 Group V. 
 
 Romanesque or 
 round-head Gothic. 
 
 Lancet. 
 
 Perpendicular. Tudor. 
 

 
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 HRij^5MftJ 
 
 'r. 
 
 _;^^v^i;;iS'* 
 
 -^^ly'' 
 
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 ^1» 
 
 ^L 
 
 ^»;.y,f^-^-.j 
 
 
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 K 
 
 V>^' 
 
 
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 ^^..»p'^jjj^ 
 
 pi 
 
 
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 V -A 
 
 
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 K^ft^^i 
 
 MM^ 
 
 ^^'^ji 
 
 M^ 
 
 --^ii^i'' 
 
 ^f9r\^' 
 
 
 f'* 
 
 
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 ^\ 
 
 
 /^i#„.f;>v/ ,1 
 
 
 'X.'K 
 
 
 
 *'■- '''"^vHi 
 
 
 "^^*^. 
 
 ■-'^r^i&r 
 
 l^jt«i. 
 
 «^ 
 
 v*-^^2i!?^ 
 
 ?^^^ 
 
 •■'i^iiirfv'^? 
 
 •^ 
 
 vs;^ 
 
 '=!,A,6^ 
 
 ^i^ 
 
 - .l5-r^ ■ ■ 
 
 Jllf^f^. 
 
 
 ■ii;-:'"--— ^ 
 
 
 ::2;;^%^ 
 
 rr^ 
 
 .«>^>V:':: 
 
GOTHIC 
 
 tury and was carved, following the architectural 
 forms. 
 
 Beginning with 1200 the walls of the houses were 
 wainscote (| and painted, often decorated with subjects 
 romantic, biblical and traditional. 
 
 The very rich used colored glass windows ; the 
 wainscotings of the rooms being primitive were fre- 
 quently hung 
 with tapestries 
 to check drafts.. 
 
 Domestic 
 furniture was 
 often painted in 
 bright colors or 
 rendered in tem- 
 pera o r wax. 
 Cupboards 
 showed Gothic 
 details of simple 
 character with 
 perforated doors 
 for ventilation, 
 as food was 
 often kept 
 therein. 
 
 In 1400 the 
 lower-floor room 
 of a house was 
 a combination 
 dining-room and 
 bedroom. The 
 furniture con- 
 sisted of a table, 
 a long bench 
 (with canopy 
 called a dossier) 
 ' seating four 
 persons, a stand- 
 ing cupboard, a 
 bed with heavy 
 curtains at the 
 foot, two buf- 
 fets, a table for 
 holding toilet 
 articles, a few 
 stools and a 
 prie-dieu. The 
 floor was strewn 
 with rushes, or 
 
 in the halls of the wealthy it was laid with Eastern 
 carpets. 
 
 Clothing was kept in an adjoining room, while 
 the bath was taken in a wooden tub drawn up to the 
 open fireplace. 
 
 About 1500 the large hall of the house was 
 the general sitting-room, reception-room and dining- 
 
 German, Fifteenth Century. 
 
 room combined, furnished with a long table, and 
 dossier. 
 
 Chests, benches and settles with occasionally an in- 
 dividual chair, a buffet, a side table, screen and one or 
 more cupboards, completed the furnishings. 
 
 This furniture was primitive, drawers in tables 
 not being introduced until late in 1400, nor was an 
 
 extension table 
 or a table with 
 added leaves in 
 use prior to 
 1500. The chest 
 was a favorite 
 piece of furni- 
 ture. In the 
 Royal presence 
 it would have 
 been a breach of 
 etiquette to sit 
 on a chair, but 
 proper to sit on 
 chest or coffer. 
 Towards the 
 middle of 1400 
 these chests be- 
 came decorated 
 with linenfold 
 panels in the 
 form of carving 
 that looked like 
 folds of linen. 
 The linenfold 
 pattern was first 
 used in screens 
 in the churches. 
 • Though Flem- 
 ish in origin, it 
 quickly became 
 identified with 
 English. It was 
 carried well into 
 the Renaissance 
 and lasted from 
 about 1450 to 
 1550. Towards 
 the close, 
 bunches of 
 grapes and pro- 
 fuse floriation 
 were introduced. 
 
 TEXTILE DESIGNS. 
 
 'he terms Gothic, Saracenic and Renaissance are 
 
 laxly applied. 
 In architecture and woodcarving, Gothic, for ex- 
 ample, defines an accurate development, but the fabrics 
 used in Gothic environment, even fabrics woven in 
 Italy, Germany and France, have little Gothic signifi- 
 
 Ti 
 
 57 
 
EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC 1189-1307. 
 
 To this floral form is added, in ecclesiastical work, religious symbols, the circle, the trefoil, quatrefoil, triangle, 
 
 crucifix, crown, chalice and cross. 
 
ENGLISH GOTHIC 1189-1509. 
 
cance. Throughout the Euro- 
 pean countries dominated by 
 Gothic feeling, weaving was 
 strongly influenced by the Sara- 
 cens. In lower Italy, Sicily 
 and Spain this fact is obvious ; 
 the weavers perpetuated in 
 their arts the Saracenic style 
 long after all traces of the 
 Orient had been obliterated by 
 architect and sculptor. The 
 traders of Flanders and Italy, 
 up to the fall of Constantinople 
 were active in the importation 
 of Oriental stuffs, which served 
 as a stimulus for European 
 workmen. 
 
 It was not until the Italians 
 
 Saracenic, Twelfth Century. 
 
 and French had practically lost 
 their Oriental commerce 
 that they turned their attention 
 to home manufactures; and not 
 until this condition arose, were 
 designs produced, consistent 
 with the character of the pre- 
 vailing arts. 
 
 The acanthus forms were 
 taken as motifs. 
 
 The Anthemion was gen- 
 erously utilized, as well as 
 fleur-de-lis. Laurel leaves and 
 wreath shapes were adopted, 
 and toward the end of the Six- 
 teenth Century European flora, 
 crowns and urns were a com- 
 mon source of inspiration. (See 
 page 52.) 
 
 1300. 
 
 North Italian, 1200. 
 
 1400. 
 
14S0. Group V (L). 
 
 1500. Group VI (N). 
 
 1500. Group VI (P). 
 
 Late English Gothic developed finally the 
 style known as Tudor (Tudor Gothic), the arches 
 of which were low and squat instead of angu- 
 lar. The panelings showed linenfold efifects and the 
 ..,?>.: tops of the folds were often 
 
 elaborated by floral details. 
 Outside the eccelsiastiCal 
 forms, leaf motifs were the 
 predominating Gothic charac- 
 teristic. Where the work 
 had religious significance the 
 design harked back to the 
 Byzantine, Romanesque and 
 Celtic. Thus in manuscript 
 ■ decoration of even a later 
 date we frequently note the 
 pea and pea-tendril types, the 
 penman finding special oppor- 
 tunities in the elongated 
 sweeps of the vine. '-^ 
 
 French — French archi- 
 tecture was bold and elabor- 
 ate, showing doorways en- 
 riched with statues. As a 
 rule, the floral leaves were 
 rounded and more full than 
 the English leaves. Clus- 
 tered pillars were almost qn- 
 known in France; observable 
 Late Italian Gothic. in Germany and England. 
 
 Netherlands — Tyrol — The arts of the Nether- 
 lands were influenced by France and Germany. 
 Wrought iron decoration in leaf and plant form was 
 popular. Tyrol Gothic, a type simple ^nd effective, 
 generously utilizing the work of '■■ * 
 the wood carver. 
 
 Germany — ^Although Ger- 
 many followed Late-Gothic ten- 
 dencies, it was not until 1350 
 in possession of an established 
 style. ;, It foUov^ed the vertical 
 more than any other and at an 
 early stage developed a fine sys- 
 tem of strap work in metal, in 
 which Gothic lines were closely 
 followed. The use of birds in 
 conjunction with leaf forms 
 was common and twisted spirals 
 and faces and armorial details 
 were often used. 
 
 GOTHIC FABRICS. 
 
 WE HAVE grouped as IV 
 and V, under the heading, 
 "Development of Mechanical 
 Textile Design," page 64, all 
 that may be regarded as con- 
 temporaneous with Gothic. 
 Group IV representing fabrics 
 between 1000 and 1350, Group 
 V between 1350 and 1500. Late Italian Gothic. 
 
FRENCH GOTHIC, 
 
GERMAN GOTHIC 
 
ISSO. Group VI (P). 
 
 1450. Group V (J). 1450 
 GOTHIC FABRIC DESIGNS. 
 
 1550. Group VI (P). 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANICAL 
 TEXTILE DESIGN -GOTHIC PERIOD 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, Corinth, Thebes and Athens prac- 
 tically monopolized the making of fine fabrics 
 1000 A.D. Towards the end of the Twelfth Century 
 Flemish weavers began the manufacture of wool tap- 
 estries. France and Spain also undertook the manu- 
 facture during the Thirteenth Century. The Orient 
 up to 1400 was famous throughout Europe for its fab- 
 ric creations, the Crusades being largely responsible 
 for the • distribution of fine examples. European 
 weavers copied liberally the Asiatic styles, and when 
 in the Fifteenth Century the Ottomans conquered 
 Constantinople, Orientalism was still further infused 
 throughout Southeastern Europe. 
 
 200-400. Group I (A) The development of circle 
 and geometric frames, sometimes filled with sim- 
 ple floral, bird or animal forms. 
 
 400-600. Group II (B) The utilization of broken 
 circles spread out to form bands. 
 
 600-1000. Group III (C) The use of circles linked 
 by smaller circles, with ornaments inside and out, 
 developing at length (D) the ogival form; often 
 (E) hexagon frame work. 
 
 1000-1350. Group IV (F) Repeated parallel bands 
 of ornamentation — detached details. 
 (G) Patterns animate and inanimate, enclosed 
 
 1500. Group VI (O). 
 
 1400. Group V (J). 
 
 1400. Group V (J). 
 
 1500. Group VI (P). 
 64 
 
1500. Group VI (M). 
 
 ISOO. Group VI (M). 
 
 1500. Group VI (N). 1450. Group V (K). 
 
 GOTHIC FABRICS. 
 
SPANISH GOTHIC. 
 
ITALIAN GOTHIC 
 
TYROL GOTHIC 
 
 OERMAN— NETHERLANDS 
 
Russian ornament has been at no time distinctive^.^^Itwrts^ w«e^^a 
 
 at first Tartaric, then Byzantine, then Celtic, 
 
1400. Group V (L). 
 
 1400. Group V (L). 
 
 1400. Group V (L). 
 
 in ogival framing and (H) combination circles 
 or scale patterns as well as geometric straight 
 line framing. 
 
 1200-1300 introduced as features of design 
 (I) eagles, falcons, shields, hounds, swans, foli- 
 ated crosses, crowns, rayed stars, lions, harts, 
 boars, leopards, sun's rays and castle motifs, espe- 
 cially in the fabrics of Italy and Sicily. 
 1350-1 500. Group V. A characteristic design of the 
 Fifteenth Century was the use of (J) reversed 
 curves so arranged that they made frames. 
 
 This form prototyped the Hogarth line of 
 beauty. (K) Another form was the intersection 
 of a' Hogarth panel by two bold curving stems 
 coming up through the bottom of the panel and 
 capped by a cone, pineapple or fruit device. 
 
 Still another (L) showed a serpentine stem 
 or winding trunk which ran through the Hogarth 
 pattern in the midst of a variety of botanical forms. 
 
 1500. Group VI. Designs adopted a free treatment. 
 (M) The plans of previous centuries were com- 
 bined and elaborated. 
 
 (N) Ornament was arranged within ogival 
 frames, springing out of the base of the frame to 
 which it seems to be attached. 
 
 (O) Interlacings of two frames of which 
 one is ogival. 
 
 (P) Ogival frames of leaves and flowers en- 
 closing a large concentric pattern. 
 
 (Q) Elaborated ogival frames caught to- 
 gether by crowns. 
 
 (R) The use of vases, urns, crowns and ani- 
 mals became common. 
 1600-1700. Group VII. (S) During 1600-1700 we 
 find an elaborate use of European garden flowers 
 instead of the purely tropical Persian verdure, 
 following, however, the general ogival form of 
 arrangement. 
 
 FL0WCR,-VA3E PATTERJH LATE 
 l6™CEriTURiC VEMETIAPi 
 
 DOUBLE MULLIOn PA7TC(V1 ITALIAO 
 l5"CCriTUR.Y MAhCHtJTtMlOCK collktiiim' 
 
 SinOLE A\ULLIOn PATTrUN 
 fLEAM3H l6"'^^Ji^:u^Y 
 
 ISOO. Group VI (M). 1500. Group VI (R). ISOO. Group VI (P). 1500. Group VI (P). 1500. Group VI (N). 
 
 70 
 
GOTHIC DINING-ROOM OF THE CHATEAU DE HAAR A HAARZUYLENS, NEAR UTRECHT. 
 
 PALAIS DE FONTAINEBLEAU 
 
Fl, 
 
 u 
 o 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 IT) 
 
 3 
 O 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 t-H 
 
 CO 
 
 W 
 
 n 
 o 
 
 I— I 
 
 K 
 pq 
 
 H 
 
 u 
 
 X 
 H 
 
 pel 
 
 H 
 
 h-l 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
GOTHIC 
 
 1700. Group VIII. (T) Pictorial tapestries and 
 prints. (U) Pure Renaissance styles or develop- 
 ments of that style— Louis XIV or XV. 
 
 (V) Oriental characteristics of either the 
 French or English styles, as shown in the scenic 
 bits of Chinese or East Indian life. 
 
 (W) Louis XVI. 
 
 (X) Classic revival examples as expressed 
 by the late Louis XVI, Directoire or Transition 
 period in France and the Adam school in Eng- 
 land. This period overlapped into 1800 and was 
 generally adopted in the American colonies. , 
 1800. Group IX (Y) Empire and Empire influence. 
 (Z) Art Nouveau. 
 
 
 ^^So 
 
 Floral forms within floral 
 ' forms. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 I<fc 
 
 OrnamentaT pome- 
 granates. 
 
 M 
 
 Rhodian rose.i 
 
 15 
 
 Cepty 
 
 PERSIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF FLORAL TYPES 
 
 DURING the Sixteenth 
 and Seventeenth Cen- 
 turies there were three 
 distinct types of fabric-design 
 popular in Europe, (a) the 
 Renaissance, (b) the Oriental- 
 Renaissance, (c) the Eu- 
 ropean floral. 
 
 (a) For centuries the 
 textile weavers of Europe had 
 been accustomed to follow 
 Oriental design (chiefly Per- 
 sian). Then came the pure 
 Renaissance as developed in 
 
 Iris, or fleur-de-lis. Sev- 
 enteenth Century Venetian 
 
 Italy (1400), in France 
 (1500), in England and 
 Spain (1500), and in Ger- 
 many (1550), and the Per- 
 sian pink and rose, the 
 Rhodian lily, the pomegran- 
 ate, cone and palm, gave 
 way, as motifs, to the Ro- 
 man, Greek and Egyptian 
 details, the anthemion, lo- 
 tus, iris and acanthus. 
 
 (b) During the Ren- 
 aissance much confusion 
 of types was precipitated by 
 the commercialism of the 
 Netherland States and the 
 explorations of the Portu- 
 guese, who in 1140 had 
 revolted from Spanish rule, 
 under which they had been 
 a province, and established 
 the kingdom of Portugal; the Portuguese during 
 the Fourteenth Century became famous sailors, and 
 early in 1500 opened possessions in Persia and 
 India. 
 
 Portuguese-Persian is the type of design (1500) 
 showing the Persian influences merged in the Portu- 
 guese, which at that time was developing the Renais- 
 sance spirit. 
 
 For centuries prior to the opening of the East by 
 Portugal, the twenty-one provinces of the Netherlands 
 
 Examples of Old Silk, 17S0. 
 
 had been active in commerce and famous for the great 
 cities of Ghent, Mechlin, Antwerp, Bruges, Amster- 
 dam, Leyden, Delft, Brussels and Rotterdam. After 
 the forty years' war with Spain, the Northern prov- 
 inces, which had been known early in the Seventeenth 
 Century as the Seven United Provinces of the Nether- 
 lands, formed the Dutch Republic and replaced the 
 Portuguese in the settlement of trading posts in the 
 East Indies (1610). 
 
 During the Sixteenth Century, involved as they 
 were with the Netherlands and, subsequently, with 
 France and England, who sympathized with the 
 Netherlands, the Spanish, their sea power gone, had 
 no means of continuing the commercial enterprises of 
 
 Portugal, and the Dutch 
 became paramount on the 
 seas. 
 
 (c) The French de- 
 veloped still another form 
 (the European floral) be- 
 ginning about 1650 under 
 Louis XIV, presenting the 
 ferns and flora of Europe, 
 especially the exquisite ex- 
 amples cultivated in the 
 Royal Gardens. 
 
 Oriental influence in 
 design has been stimulated 
 at various periods by polit- 
 ical and. commercial de- 
 velopments. The Dutch 
 brought East Indian types 
 into England under the 
 Elizabethan, Jacobean and 
 Queen Anne periods, and 
 English women perpetuated 
 Oriental art in their em- 
 broideries. It seems like an 
 anachronism in this Renais- 
 sance age. Chinese in- 
 fluence was strong during 
 the period in France un- 
 der Louis XV, and in Eng- 
 land under George II and George III. 
 
 Then again as late as 1760 British rule in India 
 began to stimulate a demand for Indian goods. 
 
 These phases must be considered in studying the 
 periods. 
 
 73 
 
1200. Group IV (I). Saracenic Influence. 
 ITALIAN GOTHIC. 
 
Fig. V. 
 
 Fig. IV. 
 (See description on next page.) 
 
 Fig. III. 
 
 FABRICS OF NORTHERN ITALY 
 
 FIFTEENTH— SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 HUH T 
 
 
 dcSbd 
 
 U'^m 
 
 siciuAn D™CErmiKr 
 
 HE Italian period of art 
 brought great prosperity to 
 Italy. Foreign courts 
 adopted Italian customs and cos- 
 tumes. Vast quantities of rich 
 hangings were used, and the most 
 gorgeous form of dress was 
 affected. John the Calabrian was 
 famous for a silk loom used in 
 the Fifteenth Century and this 
 loom was imported into France 
 during the reign of Louis XI 
 (1475) by the manufacturers of Tours. A loom asso- 
 ciated with the name of Dangon appeared at the be- 
 ginning of the Seventeenth Century and was hailed as 
 remarkable in its ability to facilitate the weaving of 
 fabrics in several colorings. As early as the Thirteenth 
 Century Borghesano of Bologna had invented a spin- 
 ning machine to which was due the superiority of Ital- 
 ian thrown silks. The processes of manufacture were, at 
 this period, greatly improved. In 1500 armures be- 
 came singularly rich. Cloths of gold were made, 
 figured velvets, damasks with broche effects and fancy 
 Velvets. 
 
 When the Arabs under Mohammed had con- 
 
 quered the countries of Persia and Syria they found 
 the manufacture of silk a flourishing industry. From 
 this period until the Fourteenth Century the silk in- 
 dustry was carefully fostered by the Mohammedans. 
 Next in importance and value to the precious stones 
 the chief treasures of the Caliphs of Bagdad, Cairo 
 and Cordova were their silken goods. Silk fairs or 
 markets were held periodically at Antioch, Rey, Or- 
 zeroum, Ispahan, Jerusalem and Mecca. The Jews 
 then, as now, were the bankers in the Mohammedan 
 districts and the purveyors of articles of luxury to 
 the wealthy Romans of the South, the Gallic Romans 
 of the West and the Goths of Northern Europe. 
 
 The Italians were first to travel over Asia Minor, 
 and together with the Jews, brought Mohammedan 
 products into Italy, Spain, France and England, 
 eventually establishing silk manufactories in Europe. 
 Notably in Sicily and Italy. Palermo, silk factory 
 started 1100; Lucca, famous for silk weaving 1300. 
 
 Persia was the original seat of art, and thence 
 Persian design spread and was adopted and adapted 
 in North Africa, Sicily and Arabia. 
 
 In the Thirteenth Century Italian designers were 
 inspired by Oriental art. In the Fourteenth Century 
 they modified their treatment of animal motifs, aban- 
 
 ;s 
 
FABRICS OF NORTHERN ITALY 
 
 doning the fan- 
 tastic type (See 
 Fig. 1) 
 adopted a 
 school of 
 employing 
 vine 
 leaf. 
 
 and 
 new 
 flora, 
 t h e 
 and oak 
 Venice 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 gave special at- 
 tention to com- 
 positions for al- 
 tar decorations, 
 (See Fig. 2.) 
 
 Specimens of 
 t h e Fifteenth 
 and Sixteenth 
 Centuries d i s - 
 play a lingering 
 trace of Ori- 
 ental art ty p e s 
 which appeared 
 and reappeared 
 for possibly 
 Lobed leaves, 
 
 commercial reasons. (See Fig. 3.) 
 rather Gothic in character, appeared in the Fifteenth 
 Century and were abandoned in the Sixteenth Century. 
 Thistles and flower artichokes often formed the center 
 of the composition, and around the central motif the 
 old geometrical lines were replaced by foliage forms, 
 forming curvilinear or ogival borders. 
 
 The magnificent Venetian velvet shown in Fig. 4 
 illustrates a varied ornamental framework of the char- 
 acter described. Floral effects were in some cases the 
 principal motif, in others the accessory ornament. 
 
 In Fig. 5 we show a fancy velvet of the Sixteenth 
 Century; a pale yellow ground is in silk armure, the 
 design produced by the cut velvet is in two delicate 
 colors, mauve and light green. The design is known 
 as the flowered Indian meadows, on account of the 
 numerous shades employed. 
 
 Sixteenth Century designers were artists having 
 remarkable facility of invention. The multiplicity of 
 rich silken stuffs illustrates very forcibly the luxury 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 in dress. Where gold or silver did not figure in the 
 design it appeared in the form of embroideries on 
 satin or velvet. It was a period of great prosperity 
 in Italian manufacture, especially the factories of 
 Lucca, Florence, Venice and Genoa. Italian work- 
 men, moreover, were in demand and taught their arts 
 contemporaneously at Avignon, Lyons, Tours, Barce- 
 lona, Bruges and London. Even at the end of the 
 Seventeenth Century (1685) official Lyons records 
 speak of Italian silk fabrics as forming the ideal models 
 which the weavers of Lyons were to keep always in 
 view as the standard of perfection. 
 
 During the Seventeenth Century, however, fash- 
 ions were no longer dictated from Italy. Paris be- 
 came the center and home of taste, and with the aban- 
 donment of long dresses the vogue for large designs 
 had vanished. Smaller compositions were executed 
 not only in dress but in upholsterings, and little by little 
 Italy lost its prestige. 
 
 KEY TO FABRIC ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. I. — Italian cloth of gold of the Fourteenth Century. Fabric with two wefts following each other; the green 
 silk weft forming the ground with the warp likeness in green silk; the gold weft forming the design. 
 
 Fig. II. — Italian cloth of gold of the Fourteenth Century; with figures. The ground is in satin weave, present- 
 ing a glazed effect ; the warp is light yellow, the weft crimson. This crimson weft and the gold weft succeed each 
 other. In the figures the face, the hand and the feet are executed with a supplementary weft of white silk. The turf 
 is formed by another supplementary weft in green, producing a twilled appearance. 
 
 Fig. III. — Fancy cloth of gold, with velvet ground, of Italian manufacture of the Fifteenth Century. Pomegranate 
 design. The cut velvet is of crimson shade ; the design being formed by the gold weft. The center of the pomegranate, 
 which is in small points, is in knotted gold weft; also called boucle or frise. < 
 
 Fig. IV. — Fancy Venetian velvet, with gold ground. The cut velvet is in crimson; the design, produced by the gold 
 weft, being raised. 
 
 Fig. V. — Italian fancy velvet, of the Sixteenth Century. Detached floral effects. 
 
 76 
 
Italian, Sixteenth Century. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE R E N i\ I S S A N C £ 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 Albert!, 1404 — 14"-'. 
 Early Renaissance, 1400 — 1500. 
 High Kenaissance, 1 500 — 1 540. 
 Late Renaissance, 1 540 — 1643. 
 Florentine Renaissance, 1400^—1600. 
 Brunelleschi, 1377 — 1446. 
 Borgognone, 1450 — 1 524. 
 Fra Angelico, 1387 — 1455. 
 Luca della Robbia, 1388 — 1463. 
 Botticelli, i447 — 1 5*0. 
 Andrea del Sarto, i486 — 1531. 
 Benvenuto Cellini, 1500 — 1571. 
 Venetian Renaissance, 1490 — 1600. 
 Palladio, 1 5 1 8 — 1 5&0. 
 Roman Renaissance, 1444 — 1 643 . 
 Donate, 1444 — 1515. 
 
 Giacomo Barozzio (.Vignola), 1507 — 1573. 
 Michael Angelo Buonarroti, 1474 — 1564. 
 Raphael, 1483 — 1520. 
 Milanese Renaissance, 1400 — 1600. 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 1452 — 15 19. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 French Renaissance, 1500 — 1643, a freely ornamented Gothic 
 introduced by Fra Giaconda, 1502, under Louis XII, de- 
 veloped by Francis I, who reigned 1515 — 1547. Leonardo 
 da Vinci, Seralio, Cellini, Italians, influencing the style. 
 E.\'GLISIL 
 English Renaissance, 1509 — intrnduced by Henry VIII, through 
 his architect, John of Pa^in.-i. 
 
 FLEMISH. 
 Flemish Renaissance, 1 507 — 
 Antwerp was destroyed in 1584 and the famous manufactories 
 
 were dispersed. 
 Dutch republic formed. 1581. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 German Renaissance, 1550 — founded by Albrecht Durer. 
 
 SPANISH. 
 Spanish Renaissance, 1500 — reflected the character of the Flem- 
 ish Renaissance introduced by Flemish artists. Carlos I was 
 born and educated in the Netherlands and upon attaining 
 the crown his advisers were Flemish. The style was termed 
 the Plateresque, and was a sumptuous mingling of Gothic 
 and classic details. 
 
 Italian, Sixteenth Century. 
 
 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 
 
Francis I, 1515. 
 
 By Du Cerceau, France, 1550. 
 
 Francis I 
 
 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
 See Chronology, 
 
 DURING the Fourteenth Century religion, art 
 and science expanded. Humanity broke the 
 feudal fetters and a new social life prevailed, 
 Stimulated by the study of the ancient arts and sciences, 
 And wider propagation of the Christian religion. This 
 period was the revival period (Italian Rinascimenta ; 
 French, Renaissance). 
 
 Italian — Brunelleschi was the first artist to study 
 the monuments of classic art. To his genius we owe 
 the Early Renaissance in Florence. The labors of 
 Brunelleschi and his followers were soon felt in other 
 Italian art centers, Rome, Milan, Bologna and Venice. 
 Its spirit was brought to Rome by Donato, the teacher 
 of Raphael. It supplemented the brickwork architec- 
 ture of Lombardi. It de- 
 veloped in Venice under Pal- 
 ladio. The student who un- 
 derstands his Greek and Ro- 
 man will very readily recog- 
 nize the Renaissance spirit, al- 
 though outside of Italy the 
 classic motifs were 
 often liberally in- 
 
 pages 77 and 114. 
 
 terpreted in combination with cartouche, strap forms 
 and shields; survival of Cfusader motifs. 
 
 The centaur, showing the fore part of a man and' 
 the hind part of a horse, was frequently combined 
 with a liberal system of scrolls. Masks, the female 
 form, birds, animals and trophies were conspicuous. 
 
 The furniture was sometimes supplemented by 
 painted decorations on gilt grounds prepared in a 
 gesso material. ^ 
 
 Italian tarsia (inlay) work, was a characteristic 
 type. Sometimes the inlays represented floral orna- 
 ment, sometimes landscapes and buildings. The tech- 
 nique came from Persian sources, but the designs 
 developed chiefly by the Venetians were usually 
 classic. In the decoration of 
 tables, chairs and cabinets 
 ebony, ivory and metal were 
 employed. 
 
 The marriage coffer, of- 
 ten in carved walnut, was a 
 popular article of furniture. 
 Chairs often carved 
 and all gilt. Cab- 
 
 French, Henri II. 
 
 Italian, 
 
 French, Henri II. 
 
 ;8 
 
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, SIXTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 Chair legs of early Sixteenth Century showed braces at bottom of legs. 
 
Italian Tarsia or Intarsia Work. 
 
 inets were made with veined marble tops and panels. 
 In the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries painted 
 plaques of porcelain took the place of these marbles. 
 
 In the Sixteenth Century Venice was renowned 
 for glass manufacture. Looking glasses were invented 
 1507 by two Murano glass makers named Andrea and 
 Dominico, who were given sole privilege to "make 
 mirrors of crystal glass for a term of twenty years." 
 Previous to this time mirrors were of polished metal. 
 The frames of these Venetian mirrors were carved to 
 represent doorways of windows, pilasters, friezes and 
 cornices ; sometimes' gilt. Beds were often four-posters. 
 
 Discoveries of the stuccoes of ancient Rome 
 aroused the Italian architects to a spirit of emulation 
 and the mural work became extravagantly elaborate. 
 Ground colors were laid on while the stucco was wet 
 and the details heightened. Sometimes gilt frames en- 
 
 closed magnificent paintings. The work of Raphael 
 and his followers was often applied to wall decorations. 
 The superb friezes and panels constituted the best work 
 the world has ever seen. 
 
 The age of oak extended from about 1500 to 
 about 1660. The age of walnut was then generally 
 taken up and extended to about 1700; mahogany 1730. 
 
 In 1530 furniture with a framework and panels 
 as well as chairs began to adopt a really new order. 
 Pieces of furniture became more complex, with 
 columns, porticos, pediments, niches, friezes, car- 
 touches, caryatids, etc., constituting veritable little 
 monumental facades. 
 
 In France the Italian and Flemish tastes influ- 
 enced development. In decorative art the form of 
 Renaissance known as Henry II lasted for half a 
 century. 
 
 Tl.-ilian l)ix- ijf (rabiiiel wurk. T.alL' Sixtrc'iilli Cculurv 
 
 80 
 
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
RENAISSANCE — ITALIAN — FRENCH 
 
 See Chronoloij} 
 
 IT I S difficult to differentiate between Italian and 
 the late French Renaissance. The French were 
 saturated with the Gothic spirit and for a time 
 it was difficult to displace the Gothic feeling. The 
 new art was finally established in France through 
 Cellini, Seralio, Primaticcio, Ilrosso and others who 
 came from Italy and by French artists who finally 
 went to Italy to acquire the newer style evolved from 
 the classic remains of ancient Rome. The great 
 French carvers of this period were Jean Goujon, 
 Nich. Bachelier, of Toulouse, Du Cerceau, who pub- 
 lished designs for all kinds of decorations and carv- 
 ings, and Hugues Sambin, of Dijon. Towards the 
 end of the Sixteenth Century and during the early 
 half of the Seventeenth the superb furniture was 
 covered over with fabrics to such an extent that little 
 by little the frame construction ceased to be visible. 
 
 Wood carving was one of the great glories of the 
 Flemish art throughout the Sixteenth Century. A 
 Flemish chair of the second half of the Sixteenth Cen- 
 tury is illustrated on page 85, and yet it might safely 
 be regarded as Italian. During the Seventeenth Cen^- 
 tury the Flemings devoted themselves mostly to th 
 carving of large pieces, chairs and small furnitur- 
 being produced frequently by means of turning lathes' 
 not requiring the skill of the carver. The style was 
 naturally Italian, although Spanish influence made it 
 self felt during the Spanish occupation of the Nether 
 lands in the latter part of the Sixteenth Century. 
 
 The term Renaissance in France, includes, accord- 
 ing to many writers, the style of Louis XIII. An over- 
 ; upholstered form eliminating the carved features may 
 be said to characterize much of the furniture of Fran- 
 cis I, Henri II, Francis II, Charles IX, Henri III and 
 Henri IV 
 
 We are disposed to recognize Boule of 
 the Louis XIV period as the promoter of mar- 
 quetry work, but inlays went back to the tar- 
 sias of Italy, Fifteenth Century, and during the ' 
 period of Francis I a great deal of Indian 
 work, inlays of mother-of-pearl, was intro- 
 duced by the Portuguese merchants. ^ 
 .Jnlays in exotic woods, ivoriesr-ebony and"^"^ 
 metal were also used in France, although 
 Filendt— catinetmakers, as a rule, confined 
 themselves to carrying in relief and ignored 
 the Italian colored marquetry in the style of 
 tarsia, intarsia pittoric and certosina. The 
 Gothic type lingered until 1525, and French 
 Renaissance frequently showed Gothic traces. 
 Unquestionably many Italians and Flemings 
 were employed in France. As, early as 1593 
 dressers, trestles, wooden bed-steads and 
 wooden chairs were upholstered. 
 
 83 
 
 y, page 114. ' 
 
 It is difficult to identify native French work because 
 the cabinetmakers travelled frequently from one town 
 to another wherever building operations might call 
 them and good wages were paid. Thus the Italians 
 were scattered over France and the work that they 
 produced was handed down to native workmen who 
 copied. French design may be characterized as an \ 
 over elaboration of the more classic Italian forms, I 
 which latter copied the old Roman and Greek in strict 
 conformity to tradition. J 
 
 We fail to find any means of determining defin- 
 itely the characteristics of the Norman school, the 
 Lyons, Tours, or Burgundy. We do well if we de- 
 termine approximately, a style like that of Francis I, 
 by the end of whose reign Gothic characteristics, and 
 especially those of the pointed arch had practically 
 disappeared. — -v 
 
 It must be recalled that the French had had broac| 
 experience in wood carving and naturally soon devel-i 
 oped a boldness and freedom of execution which gave 
 to tlieir late Sixteenth Century work characteristics 
 in no \\'ay to Ije confused with the more minute and 
 restricted treatment of the ItaHans. 
 
 The castles of Francis I, Blois, Chambord and 
 Fontainebleau Avere masterpieces of the French Ren- 
 aissance. 
 
 French life under Henri II, Charles IX and 
 Henri III, all semi-Italian princes, dominated by their 
 Florentine mother, Catherine de Medici, was luxurious 
 in the extreme. 
 
 P.otli Henri II and Henri IV styles showed a 
 prevalence of interlaced strap-work, delicate reliefs 
 and the use of the cartouche. 
 
 Late SixlcL'iith Century, Italian Renaissance. 
 
FRENCH RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT 
 
Louis XIII. 1'^"^" °"S'"' 1590. 
 
 FRENCH RENAISSANCE. 
 
The illustrations above, as well as those appearing at the head of page 87, are reproductions of Venetian and Genoese velvets 
 and gold brocades of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. The reproductions are one-quarter the size of the originals 
 
 which show colored motifs on gold ground. 
 
 FRANCIS I . 1515-1547 
 
 \- 
 
o 
 
 p 
 w 
 
 2 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
Venetian and Genoese \el\el and gold brocades of the late Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Originals in the 
 INInseunis of Berlin, Vienna, Munich, Dresden and Nuremberg, 
 
 FLEMISH RENAISSANCE 
 
 T 
 
 DEVELOPED FROM THE ITALIAN 1507. 
 
 See also page 114. 
 
 H E North country, now Hol- 
 land, and the South country, 
 which included Flanders, now 
 Belgium, were, tip to the period of 
 Spanish domination, of homogeneous 
 taste and character. With the Re- 
 formation came a gradual division 
 of interests and sympathies. The North country, in- 
 cluding about two-thirds of the Netherlands, estab- 
 lished the Dutch Republic, while the South country, 
 alienated from her Northern sister, soon lost su- 
 premacy in the arts. Upon the traders of Holland 
 fell the mantle of the Portuguese voyagers, and, in 
 India especially, they opened great avenues of trade. 
 
 For centuries the products of Flanders and later 
 the products of Holland poured into Great Britain. 
 England supplied most of the wool used in the manu- 
 facture of Flemish tapestries, and in Medieval day.s 
 could always depend upon the support of the Flemings 
 by her control of the wool situation. 
 
 From the date of the Dutch conqiiest over Spain, 
 1600, accomplished with English aid, the relations of 
 the two countries became still more intimate, afifect- 
 ing materially the decorative arts of England from 
 Elizabeth down to William and Mary. 
 
 In the Eleventh Century Cordova leathers, su- 
 perbly gilded and painted, were introduced into Flan- 
 ders; the term soon applied to similar leathers pro- 
 duced in Portugal, Flanders, France and Italy. Spanish 
 leathers (Cordova proper) were usually in high relief 
 and Saracenic design; leathers of Flanders and Italy, 
 frequently of calf, were of low relief in exceedingly 
 delicate design, mythological or ecclesiastical. 
 
 The earliest notable tapestries of Europe were 
 
 Flemish (1100). On account of the great import- 
 ance of the arts, the Duke of Burgundy adopted the 
 
 Flemish type, early Seventeenth Century. The prototype of the 
 late» English type. Known frequently as Charles II. 1660. 
 
 87 
 
RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT. 
 
 Late French showing influence of Flemish strap-work. 
 
FLEMISH RENAISSANCE 
 
 Golden Fleece as the title of the great order of Knight- 
 hood. In the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries the 
 
 tapestry makers of Italy, France, Germany and Spain 
 
 borrowed the tapestry arts from Flanders. 
 
 The furniture of Medieval days was mostly of a 
 
 fixed character. Cupboards, wardrobes and larders 
 
 were built into the panelings. Up to 1300 the carver 
 
 and carpenter were one and the same. Then came a 
 
 division of labors. 
 
 Carving was usu- 
 ally applied to fixed 
 
 parts of the house. 
 Crude beds 
 
 and benches were 
 
 supplied with 
 
 cushions carried in' 
 
 the chests. Walls 
 
 were hung with 
 
 printed linens and 
 
 tapestries. 
 
 In the Four- 
 teenth Century we 
 
 find not only 
 
 carved oak but in- 
 lays of ebony and 
 
 ivory. , 
 
 Hangings were 
 
 the chief feature of 
 
 the interior decora- 
 tion. The Italians 
 
 had a monoply of 
 
 the trade with the 
 
 Orient, and Europe 
 
 was supplied by 
 
 them with Oriental 
 
 rugs. Up to 1400 
 
 there was little 
 
 movable furniture 
 
 to be found even in 
 
 the palace — simply 
 
 benches, trestles 
 
 chests and forms. 
 
 The plain box or 
 
 chest when raised 
 
 on feet or legs was 
 a; dressoir, credence 
 or sideboard. The 
 armoire was de- 
 veloped by building 
 chest upon chest with open fronts. In some old Medie- 
 val manuscripts we find chests so large that, covered 
 with skins or matting, they were used for beds. The 
 difference between a dressoir and buffet was simply 
 that the dressoir was used for display; the buffet for 
 use. 
 
 The number of shelves on a dressoir was regu- 
 lated by etiquette. The common people could use a 
 
 EARLY DUTCH 
 
 dressoir wi'th two shelves, the nobility with three 
 shelves, the royalty four or five shelves. 
 
 In 1420 we hear of Cordova leathers being used 
 on the floor, around the bed, and of leathers for 
 chamber hangings. Charles V of France (1380) used 
 leathers on the floor in Summer time, and throughout 
 the period we find leathers used for upholstering. Dur- 
 ing the Fifteenth Century Flemish workmen emigrated 
 
 in great numbers 
 to England, .Spain, 
 Italy and even 
 Hungary. 
 
 The Flemish 
 were almost as cele- 
 brated for their 
 leathers as for their 
 tapestries. Gold 
 and painted 
 leathers were com- 
 mon, and red 
 morocco leathers 
 from Spain were, 
 from the begin- 
 ning of the Six- 
 teenth C e n t VI r y , 
 generally used for 
 wall hangings and 
 table covers. In 
 1539 the tapestry 
 factories of France 
 sent to Flanders for 
 her weavers. The 
 Flemish cabinet- 
 maker, architect 
 and weaver was in 
 great demand dur- 
 ing the R e n a i s - 
 sance, and in Spain, 
 France and Eng- 
 land he found con- 
 genial residence. 
 
 In the Seven- 
 teenth Century the 
 Dutch commerce in 
 the Far East not 
 only brought into 
 Europe vast stores 
 of Indian art, but 
 the masters of 
 vessels were commissioned by nobles and potentates 
 to bring home monkeys, parrots, peacocks, pheasants, 
 cats and dogs. 
 
 In 1609, the East India Company issued letters 
 for reserving "all strange fowls and beasts to be found 
 there, for the Council." The cockatoo and the parrot 
 in wicker cages were much in evidence in the paintings 
 of that period. Naturally the artists were much im- 
 
 89 
 
GERMAN RENAISSANCE (BEGINNING1550) 
 
FLEMISH RENAISSANCE (BEGINNING 1507) 
 
SWISS RENAISSANCE 
 
 RUSSIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
SPANISH RENAISSANCE 
 

 1. Detail of clioii- stallsi C6nvi|il of 
 San Marcos, Leon. 
 
 2. Gothic chair, Fifteenth Cenlinv. 
 
 3. "Samson," carved choir slall ni' 
 Leon Cathedral. 
 
 4. Armchair, Seventeenth Cenlinv, 
 Museum of Salamanca. 
 
 5. Spanish cabinet and staml, 
 carved chestnut, first half of Six 
 teenth Century, Victoria and AMhH 
 Museum. 
 
 6. Ivory box. Ninth Cenlnry. 
 Madrid Museum. 
 
 7. Chair and table, Salam;Mi<:i 
 Cathedral. 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^'^ut ^^.: ' 
 
 
 
 6 7 
 
 SPANISH RENAISSANCE. 
 
FINE OLD SPANISH LEATHERS. 
 
 The example at the upper left-hand dates from about 1730, the one at the right from about 1730. The specimen at 
 lower left-hand was made about 1660, and the remaining one dates from about 1730. 
 
 the 
 
RUSSIAN-SPANISH RENAISSANCE 
 
 pressed, and the Dutch embroideries and prints of 
 that age were full of Eastern character, floral and 
 animal. 
 
 France owed much to Belgium and Holland dur- 
 ing the first part of the Seventeenth Century, when 
 Flemish and Dutch 
 artists contributed 
 so materially to up- 
 building the French 
 industries. But 
 France repaid with 
 interest, for in 168.^ 
 the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes 
 sent 50,000 families 
 of the best French 
 blood, intellect, art, 
 culture and crafts- 
 manship into vol- 
 untary exile. 
 
 Russian Re- 
 naissance — The 
 Renaissance 
 reached Russia 
 through Italian ar- 
 tists, who worked 
 always svibordinate 
 to Oriental and 
 Scandinavian influ- 
 ences. Polish art, 
 however, was more 
 susceptible to 
 Italian feeling, and 
 the Renaissance 
 ornament of Po- 
 land was purer. 
 
 N R w E 
 GiAN Renais- 
 sance — Norway 
 and Denmark took 
 the .Renaissance 
 feeling from Flan- 
 ders. Norway 
 peasants were 
 natural wood- 
 workers. 
 
 Spanish R e - 
 naissance — In 711 
 the Moors invaded 
 Spain. In 755 they 
 established the 
 
 Caliphate of Cordova. In 1031 the Caliphate was 
 dissolved. Subsequent to 1200 the Moors in Spain 
 were confined to the Kingdom of Granada. By 1610 
 the Moors were expelled from Spain. 
 
 Early in the Middle Ages mansions of Spain were 
 furnished in a style of rude grandeur. They were 
 
 95 
 
 modeled after the Roman and Byzantine. In time the 
 fm-niture of Christian Spain was afifected by the Gothic 
 and Renaissance arts, with always a trace of the 
 Moorish. The furniture of the Middle Ages was 
 much the same throughout all Europe. 
 
 The older 
 Spanish furniture 
 was frequently 
 decorated with deli- 
 cate ironwork and 
 with columns of 
 bone or ivory, 
 painted or gilded, 
 often exhibiting 
 Moorish influence. 
 Some specimens 
 were richly inlaid 
 with silver. 
 
 The bedstead 
 was always a con- 
 spicuous feature of 
 the house and was 
 frequently of iron 
 or bronze. Wood 
 succeeded metal in 
 the latter part of 
 the Thirteenth Cen- 
 tury and the beds 
 grew even larger, 
 rising so high above 
 the floor that sets 
 of steps were re- 
 quired to climb into 
 them. Sometimes 
 these steps were in 
 themselves magnifi- 
 cent. Silver and 
 rich carvings, 
 elaborate mosaics, 
 were common. 
 
 Italian turned rail furniture. Illustrations 1, 3 and 4, Italian. Adapted 
 
 b}' Flemings, period Henri IV, France. Rail back chairs were common 
 
 in Flanders, England, France, 1660. In the latter country called Chaise 
 
 Cacquetoires. Chair in margin of page, probably Flemish. 
 
 A description of the 
 furniture and furnishings 
 would tax the imagination, 
 velvets and gold and even 
 precious stones being 
 woven into fabrics. 
 

 
 
 
 4- <UK4«^Fj*iiBff 
 
 
 
 ■ji -). 
 
 . t 
 
 4 4^. 
 
 
 l''t^ ^^r. .-_ 
 
 
 
 «*> 
 
 A PAGE OF SWISS COFFERS. 
 
RU S SI AN — SP ANIS H RENAISSANCE 
 
 Spanish leather of about 1700. 
 
 The homes of royalty were of extraordinary 
 magnificence, and while Gothic was the general ten- 
 dency during the Gothic period the Oriental influences 
 were conspicuous and the native Moorish a strong 
 factor. 
 
 By the time of the Renaissance the love of luxury 
 still further increased. We read of the one-hundred- 
 and-twenty-pound silver balustrade of Dona Juana, 
 sister of Philip II ; it stood around her bed. We read 
 of Turkish carpets, Spanish carpets, Toledo gold 
 cloths, wonderful embroideries and tapestries. 
 
 According to the Marquis of Monistrol, Spanish 
 furniture up to and including the beginning of the 
 Renaissance, consisted of burial chests, storage chests, 
 archive chests, treasure chests, brides' chests, chests 
 for storing arms, and grain chests. The Spanish 
 Moors employed but little furniture. The cushion was 
 viewed with much favor by Spanish Christians. 
 Among the Moors the cushion was used as a seat of 
 honor because it raised the occupant above the level 
 of those seated on the floor. The women of Christian 
 Spain were always given cushions while the men made 
 use of stools or chairs. 
 
 In the Seventeenth Century the dais or raised 
 platform was introduced. In 1515 the municipal laws 
 of Granada covered the "operations of the people who 
 worked in the street of chair-makers and carpenters." 
 These laws were found necessary owing to the false 
 and faulty workmanship prevailing at this time. In 
 Granada the laws provided, among other things, that 
 
 the work must be bought at public auction, where all 
 could discover its character. It must be thoroughly 
 dry and free from flaws. The law also covered all 
 the details of how a chair should be made and each 
 chair had to be stamped with the city mark and a 
 tax paid upon it. 
 
 During the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 
 large arm-chairs of quadrangular form were used. 
 The backs and seats were of leather and embroidered 
 stuffs. 
 
 Cabinets were an important part of the furnish- 
 ings. Cabinets and tables were inlaid with ivory, 
 tortoi.«e shell, ebony, bronze and silver. Frames in- 
 laid in this way were hung on the walls. Women sat 
 on low stools on the ground, Beds were hung with 
 rich brocades embroidered in gold and trimmed with 
 Point d' Espagne. On the splendid carpets were placed 
 silver braziers which burned crushed olive stones. The 
 walls were covered with tapestry and rich silks and 
 from early times stamped leathers, painted and gilded 
 "guadameciles" were used to a very great extent. This 
 stamped leather was also met with largely in England. 
 The word comes from the name of the village, Gha- 
 dames in Africa which was celebrated from the 
 Twelfth Century for this industry. The art was im- 
 ported by the Moors to Spain, Cordova becoming a 
 great center of the industry, though this leather was 
 made also at Seville, Granada, Toledo and Barcelona. 
 In 1575 the fame of Cordova for such leathers was 
 so great that the name "Cordova leather" was applied 
 to those made in other parts of Spain as a general 
 term. Leonard Will- 
 iams, the correspond- 
 ing member of the 
 Royal Spanish Acad- 
 emy, has made a deep 
 study of Spanish fur- 
 niture and we are in- 
 debted to his book on 
 "The Arts and Crafts 
 of Older Spain" for 
 the illustration here 
 shown. Nothing more 
 beautiful can be re- 
 produced than the 
 choir-stalls in the 
 Cathedrals of Spain. 
 The most notable ex- 
 ample of Spanish 
 Renaissance is doubt- 
 less the decoration of 
 the choir of the Ca- 
 thedral at Toledo. 
 
 Spanish Renaissance 
 Chair, covered with Gua- 
 dameciles. 
 
 97 
 
Tyrolean ornament. 
 
 SWITZERLAND AND THE TYROL 
 
 IT IS not easy to describe the arts of Switzerland. 
 Swiss museums are rich in the glory of the past. 
 Museums which contain interesting specimens of 
 the artistic productions of the different districts may 
 be found in Berne, Basle, Zurich, Aargau, Zug and 
 Geneva. In considering Swiss work we must consider 
 the geographical position of Switzerland. To the west 
 Switzerland was influenced by France, to the south 
 by Italy, to the east by Bavaria. In the Fifteenth and 
 Sixteenth Centuries the influences of Germany pre- 
 dominated. In the Seventeenth Century French art 
 was an influential factor. 
 
 The Swiss have been always cabinetmakers and 
 woodcarvers. Switzerland has been always famous for 
 its coffers, sometimes used for preserving treasures or 
 rare spices, garments or linens. In the houses of the 
 wealthy they served the purpose of a treasure chest or 
 safe. The lid was utilized as a seat and where large 
 enough it served also as a bed. At Versailles, France, 
 coffers were in general use as beds in about 1752. 
 When traveling the coffer served as a trunk. In Swit- 
 zerland these coffers were always elaborately carved. 
 
 Fig. 1 is a mixture of Gothic and Renaissance as 
 a Swiss peasant understood it. It is dated 1594. The 
 contours of the design are colored in order to throw 
 the ornament into relief. At the Historic Museum, 
 Basle. 
 
 Fig. 2, coffer from Canton Solothurm. The dol- 
 phins are peculiar to this Canton. 
 
 Fig. 3, dated 1626, probably a bridal chest with 
 inlay. Now in the museum at Zurich. 
 
 Fig. 4, a monastery coffer, date 1614, now at the 
 Zurich Museum. 
 
 Fig. 5, bedside coffer. 
 
 Fig. 6, Renaissance. The Renaissance began to 
 make itself felt in Switzerland from 1520-1530. It is 
 unusual at this period to find the field treated in divi- 
 sions, preference being for long flat surfaces upon 
 which to carve. In this example we have a different 
 design upon each field. 
 
 Fig. 7, early Fifteenth Century, with the iron 
 bands and clamps is decidedly Flemish. 
 
 Fig. 8, Fifteenth Century coffer. An excellent 
 type of Fifteenth Century peasant carving. 
 
 The Tyrol district is an Eastern continuation of 
 Switzerland, and is naturally influenced by Germany 
 on the North and East and Italy on the South. The 
 history of the Tyrol is partly German and partly 
 Italian. In early times the Tyrol district was con- 
 quered by the Romans, 15 B.C. Subsequently it was 
 overrun by German tribes. 
 
 For centuries the Goths occupied the district and 
 the pagan creed prevailed here until the Sixth Cen- 
 tury. Hence we have at all times the Gothic influence 
 and in the furnishing of their homes, simple in the 
 cottage life or elaborate in the palace structure, we 
 have also the influences of Northern Italy. One must 
 bear in mind that the Swiss are famous as wood- 
 carvers and their skill in this direction follows natural 
 forms, preserving usually the . Gothic characteristics. 
 In the use of fabrics the Tyrol people followed the 
 work of Northern Italy, but in their panel carvings 
 the work was typically native. 
 
 Tyrolean carved ornament. 
 
 98 
 
ENGLISH RENAISSANCE 
 
 ELIZABETHAN— JACOBEAN 
 
 A LIBERAL interpretation of what constitutes the 
 Enghsh Renaissance must carry the student 
 • back to the reign of Henry VIII, and at the 
 outset one must understand that the Renaissance cov- 
 ers all that period beginning with Henry VIII and 
 extending through the Elizabethan (the reign of Eliz- 
 beth, 1558-1603), and the 
 Jacobean (the reign of James 
 1, Charles I and the Cromwell ^ 
 period, 1603-1659), the Ital- 
 ian classicism of Inigo Jones 
 and the French classicism of j 
 
 Sir Christopher \Vren, ,j 
 
 through the Stuart or Jacobe- [; '? 
 an period well into the reign i, 
 of George II. Indeed, what I- 
 is generally regarded as the 
 Georgian period, prolific with 
 French Renaissance floriation, 
 is really the termination of the 
 English Renaissance. 
 
 The entire Renaissance development in England 
 is full of confusion because subdivided by historical 
 data in many cases confusing. 
 
 Under Henry VIII, Torrigiano, Ronezzano and 
 John of Padua introduced the Italian style 1512-1536, 
 but following upon Henry VIII's quarrel with the 
 Pope, the consequent change in religion and the im- 
 
 — STUART— CROMWELLIAN. 
 
 poverishment of England, the Italians, now regarded 
 with ill favor, returned home, leaving but little or no 
 influence behind them, and their field of occupation 
 was soon filled by Germans and Flemings. 
 
 Beginning with 1558, we have what is arbitrarily 
 called the Elizabethan, but Elizabethan, although the 
 reign ended with 1603, ex- 
 tended as a type clear through 
 the Jacobean period, and the 
 term Jacobean means simply, 
 if it m cans anything, an 
 Elizabethan development. The 
 term Stuart relates to that 
 period beginning with James 
 I and extending down to 
 Queen Anne — all subdivisions 
 of the Renaissance. 
 
 As early as 1556 great 
 quantities of Flemish cabinet 
 fronts and other cabinet work 
 were imported into England. 
 Elizabethan houses were built by German and Flemish 
 architects. Strap-work designs were common, male 
 and female figures with strap-work on the front in lieu 
 of clothes. To the Flemings we attribute the dia- 
 mond-shapes superimposed, in moldings, on square' 
 panels; the numerous juttings, and angles; the ex- 
 tensive use of turned work plain and carved frequently 
 
 1 ClKit 
 
 99 
 
ELIZABETHAN— JACOBEAN. 
 
JACOBEAN. 
 
 Jacobean or Jacobian : From Latin Jacobus, James; pertaining to the style of decoration of James I, 
 
Rennaissance— Elizabethan— The chairs on the top row represent the types prior to 1610, Elizabethan or Jacobean. The 
 
 second chair from the top is an English type beginning about 1650. The chairs of the bottom row are Charles II type, 1675 
 
 or thereabouts. The formation of the legs shows the French spirit, although the carving is of Flemish origin. 
 
Kli 
 
 z:uicniaM 
 
 - liu'dlicaii lull 
 
 glued upon panels on beds, round applied buttons, and 
 pendants and ovals set in relief upon panels, as well 
 as drop ornaments added below the table frames or the 
 center of arches in panels. 
 
 It was all Renaissance, whether from Italy or 
 through the more obscure channels of Germany and 
 Flanders. The Renaissance 
 movement, developed un- 
 der Elizabeth, was con- 
 temporary with a similar 
 movement in France, Flan- 
 ders and Germany. Hence 
 the presentation of styles 
 closely related. W'e asso- 
 ciate with the Elizabethan 
 liberally-paneled rooms and 
 stuccoed ceilings. We find 
 the guilloche, common in As- 
 syrian and Byzantine art, and 
 other simple details, m u c h 
 used at this time owing to the 
 fact that English workmen, 
 who copied the foreigners, 
 were restricted in their work 
 to simple details, necessitated 
 by the use of oak instead of 
 the softer walnut, and this 
 fact will aid one to de- 
 termine the origin of work 
 of this period. Flcmisli 
 
 Great importations 
 came from Flanders, so great in fact that Elizabeth 
 introduced prohibitive measures to stop the imports 
 and encourage English workmen. Elaborate interiors 
 were of terra-cotta. Stuccoed ceilings were of great 
 beauty, but the work was confined mostly to palaces. 
 
 The same characteristics followed through the 
 Jacobean period, 1603-1652. The cabinetmakers made 
 
 much of this patch-work furniture, and there was 
 much use of the "S" curve in cabinetmaking. Carv- 
 ing was in low relief. The "S" curve, the semi-circle 
 pattern and the interlaced semi-circle pattern and "C" 
 curves became more common with this period. 
 
 From the architectural standpoint this period is 
 conspicuous with the work 
 of Inigo Jones (born 1572 
 died 1653), probably 
 the first English architect 
 who practiced the Renais- 
 sance style in its simplicity. 
 Walpole says of him, "Eng- 
 land adopted Holbein and 
 Van Dyke ; she borrowed 
 Rubens, but she produced 
 Inigo Jones." Inigo Jones 
 studied closely the work of 
 the Italian Palladio, and 
 Charles I encouraged him 
 liberally. Here we have, 
 then, during this Jacobean 
 period furniture and furnish- 
 ings the work of the cabinet- 
 makers which was of a de- 
 cidedly hybrid type, and far 
 removed from the exquisite, 
 dignified and artistic work 
 purely Italian that was ac- 
 complished by j o n e a and 
 his contemporaries. 
 ' Inigo Jones died in 1653, and a few years later 
 Sir Christopher Wren became famous in a further 
 development of the Renaissance feeling. Sir Chris- 
 topher studied in Paris and was saturated with the 
 French Renaissance spirit, hence he was profuse 
 where Jones showed restraint. His style was almost 
 Baroque. Pendants of flowers, shells and fruits were 
 
 103 
 
ENGLISH RENAISSANCE 
 
 used in a prodigal spirit. Carving was of 
 elaborate and highly-ornamented character, 
 the reputation to Grinling Gibbons, 
 who was responsible for so much that 
 was good in carved 'foliage, birds, 
 fruits, shells, cupid faces, etc., that 
 Charles II employed him on the palace 
 work and subsequently, 1714-1721, he 
 was "m aster carver in wood" to 
 George I, with a salary of eighteen 
 pence a day. 
 
 While we frequently refer to this 
 prolific form of work made famous by 
 the efforts of Wren and Gibbons as 
 Georgian, we must understand that it 
 developed in the late Renaissance and 
 was a part of the Renaissance period, 
 and the Jacobean, Cromwellian 
 and Queen Anne belong in archi- 
 tecture to the Renaissance schools ; 
 thus we are confronted by confus- 
 ing data, throughout this entire 
 English history of decoration. 
 The furnishings were of a com- 
 mercial character and seldom, if 
 ever, connected with the a r c h i - 
 tectural spirit. 
 
 Frequently there was con- 
 sistency in the wood trims of the 
 house, mantels, panelings, wainscoting am 
 
 an over- 
 It gave 
 
 work done by the architect, but the work was not 
 carried into the furniture, which was usually of 
 Flemish, Dutch or French origin. 
 
 Wood-paneled chairs were not 
 generally displaced until the middle of 
 the Jacobean period. Then the Flem- 
 ish carved type appeared, which in 
 England is sometimes called Jacobean, 
 sometimes Charles I, and if cane- 
 seated, Charles II. It is easy to trace 
 the Flemish origin even if English de- 
 tails, crowned cupids surmount the 
 back ; and where the legs and the under- 
 bracing convey something of the Louis 
 XIV suggestion, we can account for 
 the French influence. With the re- 
 turn of the cavaliers to England, just 
 after Cromwell's downfall, 1660, 
 the royalists brought back with 
 their furnishings from France a 
 good deal of its furniture, and thus 
 we can trace the French spirit in 
 what we now regard as the 
 Charles II type. 
 
 This spirit was further ac- 
 centuated at a little later period 
 when, in 1685, the Edict of 
 Nantes was revoked and the 
 Protestant artisans of France, in- 
 1 stucco eluding many Flemish born, fled to England. 
 
 Late Elizabethan or Jacobean. 
 
 104 
 
- ,S 4 5 
 
 Illustration No 1 represents a Flemish type common also with the Italian. In France, 1640, the time of Louis XIIT, 
 this type IS called the chaise pcrroqiict or chaise cacquetoire. 
 
 No. 2 is called by English authorities, a Derbyshire or Yorkshire chair, being made in great quantities, 1650-1660. 
 
 Illustration No. 3, a Lancashire chair, about 1675. No. 4, 1650. Derbyshire 
 
 Illustration No 5, English, showing Spanish influence, doubtless the work of Flemish designers when under Spanish 
 domination, 1660. Yorkshire and Derbyshire. 
 
 JACOBEAN 
 
 JAMES I, 1603-1625, founder Stuart Period. 
 
 THE evolution of the spindle or rail-back chair 
 comes from the Italian through the Flemish and 
 French to the English, where it is arbitrarily 
 called Jacobean and even localized as Derbyshire, Lan- 
 cashire and Yorkshire. 
 
 Where the crown appeared, sometimes crown and 
 cupid, it was a Royalist design, and followed Charles 
 II's restoration. S and C shapes were frequently 
 seen upon chairs that were unquestionably of French 
 inspiration, a development following the social rela- 
 tions contemporary with Charles II. 
 
 Following the S-forms and the C-forms from 
 
 CHARLES I, 1625-1649, Commonwealth to 1659. 
 
 1585 to 1665, we find a chair with the top of its back 
 finished off fan-shaped and later still shell-shaped, 
 but this takes us well into the reign of Queen Anne. 
 
 Cane seats came in through the trading of the 
 East India Companies, but the exact date cannot be 
 fixed. It was in the neighborhood of 1650 in Eng- 
 land, 1620 France; the poet Chaucer, in his "Canter- 
 bury Tales," 1400, mentions wicker chairs. Mahogany 
 was not used until after 1700. 
 
 It must be recalled that all ceremonious and pre- 
 tentious form was confined to castles, and not until 
 late in the Seventeenth Century did the work of the 
 
 1680-1690. Note the French spirit in third table-leg, also those on extreme right. During the William and Mary period, about 
 
 1690, veneering became popular. 
 
 los 
 
AN JiLiZABJiTHAN DiNiNG-liOOM. 
 
 ^■=^t-„jr_ 
 
 
 POSTLIl" IIALI., GLOUCESTERSHIRE 
 From Xash''x 'Mansions of Eiighind in the Olden Times.''^ 
 
 ELIZABETHAN INTERIORS. 
 

 X 
 P 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 O 
 H 
 
 X 
 
 o 
 

 HARDWICK HALL — ELIZABET HAN, 1599 
 
bi I— I 
 
 >; O 
 
 •a 
 
 c 
 
 « 
 
 O 
 
decorator extend beyond the homes of the nobility. 
 In the palaces the ceilings were superb, the interior 
 woodwork was of a most 
 elaborate character ; one 
 must realize t h i s a n d in 
 watching the development of 
 furniture and furnishings 
 one must not confuse the 
 commercial work of the 
 artisan with the more pre- 
 tentious work of the archi- 
 tect. 
 
 In the homes of the 
 wealthy the walls were fre- 
 quently hung with tapestries, 
 ceilings elaborately stuccoed 
 often colored. Fabrics of 
 elaborate character, velvet, 
 brocades and damasks were 
 used and the floors were 
 covered with Oriental rugs, 
 excepting in chambers for 
 public use, on the floors of 
 which they scattered rushes. 
 It was an age of embroider- 
 i n g ; Flemish leathers and 
 embroideries of many vari- 
 eties were used. Panels 
 were full of heraldic devices 
 and crests. In small rooms 
 chintzes from India were 
 used. India prints in the 
 
 Oriental spirit were con- Italian, wood-cut illustration 
 
 1400, 
 
 spicuous in bed coverings, portieres, table covers and 
 balustrade hangings. There were no wall-papers used, 
 
 but prints of cotton or linen 
 or embroideries were in 
 general favor. 
 
 The upholsterings were 
 all that can be imagined. 
 
 Fabrics of every sort 
 were manufactured. 
 
 Glass mirrors were 
 made in Venice, 1507, when 
 methods had been discovered 
 of applying the metal leaf. 
 Mirror makers had their 
 own corporation. 
 
 During Elizabeth's time 
 a mirror was a rare posses- 
 sion and worthy of a rich 
 frame, but about 1685 the 
 Duke of Burgundy installed 
 a number of Venetians at 
 Lambeth, where they made 
 looking glasses. 
 
 (irandfather's clocks also 
 a]5peared about 1680. Queen 
 Itlizabeth had chartered the 
 East India Company in 1600, 
 but it suffered serious com- 
 petition with the Dutch, 
 French and Portuguese com- 
 panies. 
 
 The chair foot or the 
 1 e g terminal indicates, in 
 
 from Dante's "Inferno," 
 
 no 
 
i^^.^ 
 
 1550 
 
 1550 1518 1640 1580 1578 
 
 1670 1670 1660 
 
 1690 1714. 
 
 some measure, the period of the furniture. The scroll 
 foot was Flemish with French influence, of the type 
 that came in about 1670. 
 
 The fluted foot was Spanish in origin and goes 
 back to 1600-1700. 
 
 The ball foot or bulb foot is Early Dutch or 
 Flemish. 
 
 What is known as the spade foot came in with 
 the Sheraton and Hepplewhite period, late in the 
 Eighteenth Century. 
 
 The Renaissance feet were sometimes square 
 blocks, discs or balls in flattened form. Frequently 
 the legs rested upon parallel bars. 
 
 Various animal-feet were generally used by the 
 Greeks and Romans and we therefore find them to- 
 gether with scroll feet in good Renaissance examples. 
 They were not associated generally with Queen Anne 
 until the Eighteenth Century. Sometimes we find the 
 cabriole leg and claw foot in old Spanish pieces of the 
 Seventeenth Century, but they can be distinguished 
 
 The Oriental motif from which Elizabethan and Jacobean embroidering took inspiration. 
 
 Ill 
 
ENGLISH RENAISSANCE 
 
 from the Queen Anne 
 styles by the front, back 
 and side stretchers that 
 connect them near the 
 base. The claw-and-ball 
 foot was distinctly Queen 
 Anne, but the form came 
 through Louis XIV and 
 late Jacobean. 
 
 Fabrics. 
 
 Tapestries applied 
 above high wainscoting 
 were in common use. Some- 
 times tapestry hung down 
 over the panel. For a while 
 during the Wars o f t h e 
 Roses tapestries were aban- 
 doned in England but un- 
 der Henry VHI fresh im- 
 petus was given and later 
 some superb examples were 
 introduced in the Mortlake 
 factory established by 
 James I. Another very 
 popular fabric was a 
 "painted cloth," canvas 
 painted in mottoes. 
 
 In "Much Ado About 
 Nothing," Beatrice 
 says that she "got 
 all her wit from the 
 painted cloth hang- 
 ings." Embossed and 
 gilded leather, cloths 
 of gold and the 
 richest kinds of 
 silks and velvets 
 were in use and 
 what is referred to 
 as a novelty is 
 quoted by Pepys in 
 his diary, 1663, "I 
 bought my w i f e a 
 c h i n t , that is a 
 painted Indian cal- 
 ico for to line her 
 new study." The 
 term study at this 
 period must have 
 referred to a sort of 
 boudoir or library, 
 although in some 
 houses there were 
 
 On the right, typical 
 of Elizabethan em- 
 broideries. Sixteentli 
 and Seventeenth Cen- 
 turies. 
 
 rooms set aside for study. 
 In a few houses ceil- 
 ings were carved elabor- 
 ately, which style was imi- 
 tated in plaster. Windows 
 were furnished with little 
 diamonds or squares of 
 glass and often in the cen- 
 ter were armorial pieces. 
 Even at this time floors of 
 private chambers were of 
 inlaid wood. Green, yel- 
 low and crimson were 
 favorite colors for bed and 
 window draperies and the 
 materials were silk damask, 
 worsted damask, satin, silk, 
 or serge. 
 
 The names are not 
 easy to define. We know 
 that of the silken stufifs 
 there is a constant refer- 
 ence in old documents to 
 lustering, paduasoy, doubt- 
 less Padua soie (silk), 
 tabby, tafifeta, sarcenet, 
 cheney ( China ) . In woolen 
 goods we have reference to 
 serge, dorneck 
 (linen print), per- 
 p e t u a n a , mohair, 
 camoca or c a m a k , 
 camlet, say, serge, 
 rep, watchet, fustian, 
 damask, and kitter- 
 minster or kidder- 
 minster, some of 
 which were mixed 
 with camel's hair or 
 threads of silk. 
 There were also 
 dimity, flowered 
 chintz, and c a 1 1 i - 
 man CO (a glazed 
 linen), as well 
 as Turkey and 
 'wrought -work" 
 (which, of course, 
 was needlework). 
 East India goods, 
 such as printed 
 calico and seer- 
 sucker were of this 
 period. 
 
 White curtains 
 for the bed were 
 rarely employed, in- 
 
 112 
 
1640 
 
 1650 
 
 1660 
 
 1690 
 
 1690 
 
 variably satin and dimity being employed, 
 worked in colored crewels or worsted. 
 
 \'alances were much used ; leather, vel- 
 vet, brass nails, needlework, embroiderings, 
 were all popular. 
 
 As early as 1300 velvet is mentioned in 
 English inventories and French documents. 
 At that time it was a flock-like material. In 
 Italy, beginning 1600, design was still influ- 
 enced by the Orient, and France was a great 
 producer of velvets and damasks. 
 
 While silken stuffs had been made in 
 Europe at an early date (see page 35, chap- 
 ter on Development of Textile Weaving), it 
 was not until the commencement of the Euro- 
 pean trade with the East and the introduction 
 of silk culture into Italy and France that the 
 lower price of the raw material encouraged 
 the manufacture. In the time of Queen Eliz- 
 abeth a charter was granted to the Dutch 
 settlers in Norwich for figured loom weav- 
 ing, and damasks, flowered and striped, were 
 made. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
 1685, strengthened the English trade, and by 
 1700 Flemish and Huguenot weavers settled 
 in London, Spitalfields, Cheshire, Lancaster, 
 Derbyshire, Kent, Essex and Norfolk. 
 
 The illustrations on the right show the 
 Jacobean panel work of 1600-1620. The rest 
 of the pieces show the French development 
 immediately following the restoration of 
 Charles II, 1660, and the bulbous formations, 
 distinctly William and Mary. 
 
 The eight-legged chair would be properly 
 called Louis XIV, probably made by French 
 exiles, who settled in England in 1685. These 
 William and Mary styles were usually walnut, 
 and need never be confused with mahogany 
 of a later period. 
 
 "3 
 
THE RENAISSANC 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 1400-1500. Early Renaissance. 
 1400-1600. Florentine Renaissance: 
 
 Brunelleschi, 1377-1446. Borgog- 
 none, 1450-1524. Fra Angelico, 
 1387-1455. Luca della Robbia, 
 1388-1463. Botticelli, 1447-1510. 
 Andrea del Sarto, 1486-1531. 
 Benvenuto Cellini, 1500-1571. 
 1400-1600. Milanese Renaissance: 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519. 
 1444-1643. Roman Renaissance: 
 
 Donato Lazzari (Bramante), 1444- 
 1515. 
 
 Giacomo Barozzio, 1507-1573. 
 
 Michael Angelo Buonarroti, 1474- 
 
 1564. 
 Raphael, 
 1490-1600. 
 Palladio, 
 
 1483-1520. 
 
 Venetian Renaissance: 
 
 1518-1580. (See England, 
 
 1603-1649 for Italian influence.) 
 1500. High Renaissance. 
 
 (See also page 11) 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 FLEMISH. 
 
 1507 Development from Italian. 
 
 1540-1643. Late Renaissance. 
 
 1515. Francis I. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci and Cellini in- 
 fluenced the introduction of 
 Italian Renaissance. 
 Flemish workmen given generous 
 employment. 
 1549-1559. Henri II. 
 The furnishings up to Louis XIII 
 were similar to late Elizabethan. 
 (See English, 1603-1649.) 
 1559-1560. Francis II. 
 1560-1574. Charles IX. 
 1574-1589. Henri III. 
 
 1589-1610. Henri IV. 
 
 Edict of Nantes granting religious 
 freedom. 
 
 1604. Organization of East India 
 Trading Company. 
 
 1610. Louis XIII. 
 
 1643-1715. Louis XIV. 
 1642. Richelieu's East India Com- 
 pany. 
 
 1653. English cavaliers settled in 
 France after downfall of Charles I, 
 and on returning under Charles II, 
 brought back French influence in 
 art. 
 
 1685. Daniel Marot, one of the most 
 talented decorators who flourished 
 during -the reign of Louis XIV, fled 
 with other Protestants at the time 
 of the revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes, a measure originally granted 
 by Henri TV to allow toleration of 
 worship. When revoked in 1685 by 
 Louis XIV thousands of Protestants 
 fled to Holland and England. The 
 French style of Marot and his con- 
 freres became conspicuous in the 
 English period just prior to Queen 
 Anne. 
 
 1576. All Netherland provinces united 
 and drove out the Spanish. 
 
 1581. Foriiiation Dutch Republic. 
 Consisting of Holland, Zealand, 
 Utrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, 
 Friesland Overyssel. 
 
 1584. Antwerp destroyed. Famous 
 manufactures dispersed. Flanders, 
 Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, Ar- 
 tois, Hainault, Namur, Zutphen, 
 Mechlin became finally merged as 
 Belgium. 
 
 Dutch traders ruled the commerce 
 of the world. 
 
 1600. Spanish dominion overthrown. 
 
 1602. Dutch East India Co. incor- 
 porated. East Indian textiles and 
 pottery furnished Oriental motifs 
 for embroidery. 
 
 1613. New Amsterdam, America, set- 
 tled by the Dutch. 
 
 1648. Republic of the United Prov- 
 ince of the Netherlands recognized 
 by Spain. 
 
 1664. New Amsterdam was seized by 
 Duke of York, brother of Charles II, 
 and name changed to New York. 
 
DEVELOPMENT 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 1500. At first Moorish or Hispano- 
 Moresque. Italian style was adopted 
 gradually, developing what was 
 termed the Plateresque, a sumptu- 
 ous mingling of Gothic and classic 
 details. 
 
 1550. Carlos I was born and edu- 
 cated in the Netherlands, and upon 
 attaining the crown his advisers 
 were Flemish, and the late Spanish 
 Renaissance showed Flemish char- 
 acteristics. 
 
 1550. Founded by Albrecbt Diirer. 
 Perpetuated by Holbein and Peter 
 Vischer. 
 
 1509. Renaissance introduced by 
 Henry VIII, who employed many 
 Italian artists. This period is some- 
 times called Early English or Tu- 
 dor, Henry VII having founded the 
 Tudor line, 1485. 
 
 1534. Reformation. Departure of 
 Catholic Italian workmen from 
 England. , Italian influence was soon 
 forgotten in the employment of 
 German and Flemish artisans. 
 
 1558-1649. Elizabethan style. Devel- 
 opment along German and Flemish 
 lines. Protestant element. Dutch 
 commerce made such inroads that 
 Elizabeth took measures to check it. 
 The full development of Elizabethan 
 style included what is popularly 
 called Jacobean. 
 
 1500-1600. Portugal enjoyed monop- 
 oly of trade with India. 
 
 1600. Spanish withdrawal from the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1600. English East India Trading 
 Company incorporated. Charter re- 
 newed several times, and active up 
 to 1813, 
 
 1603-1649. Jacobean (Jacobus, James), 
 a continuance and full development 
 of Elizabethan. Under James I 
 came the classic development of 
 Inigo Jones (162S-1652), who studied 
 under Palladio, Italy. 
 
 1625-1649. Charles I. Charles be- 
 headed 1649, and many royalists fled 
 to France. 
 
 1653. Cromwellian. 
 
 1660. Charles II. To the Flemish 
 spirit was added French character- 
 istics through the sentiments ab- 
 sorbed by the exiled royalists who 
 now returned to England. 
 New Amsterdam seized (see Flem- 
 ish). 
 
 1685-1689. James II. 
 
 1689-1702. William and Mary. 
 
WILLIAM AND MARY PERIOD, ABOUT 1690 
 
Early Jacobean. 
 
 FOLLOWING THE JACOBEAN 
 
 CHARLES 11, 1660-1685. James II, 1685-1689. William and Mary, 1689-1702. 
 
 THROUGHOUT this entire period which fol- 
 lowr, the Jacobean epoch we have such a con- 
 fusion of styles, adaptations of French, Flem- 
 ish and Italian, that it seems absurd to attempt to 
 distinguish definitely the beginning and ending of 
 periods like the Cromwellian, which only lasted five 
 years, or the James K, 
 which only lasted four 
 years, or the William and 
 Mary, which lasted twelve 
 years. 
 
 It is impossible to draw 
 a strict line of demarca- 
 tion between the end 
 of the Jacobean and the 
 beginning of the Queen 
 Anne. Queen Anne 
 reigned 1702-1714, but 
 what is known in art as 
 the Queen Anne Period 
 had its inception in 1660. 
 One may say of this im- 
 mediate period that it is 
 Charles II if French in- 
 fluences are particularly 
 strong, or William and 
 Mary if Dutch influences 
 are prevalent, but Queen 
 Anne in its entirety was 
 strictly Dutch and, as will 
 be seen later on, had a 
 style distinctly its own. 
 Before reaching, however, 
 the narrowed confines of 
 the period that began in 
 1702 we have to do with 
 
 Chair with all covered frame, popular in France and 
 England as early as 1600. 
 
 the French-Flemish and the Flemish-Dutch, which 
 carries us through the late Jacobean and past the 
 James II, 1685-1689, and William and Mary, 1689- 
 1702. 
 
 Flemish characteristics began to depart and the 
 French details of Louis XIV were adopted in the 
 
 reign of Charles II. 
 History tells of the lavish 
 extravagances of his mis- 
 tresses, especially Louise 
 de Queroualle, who was 
 presented to Charles 
 through the instrumental- 
 ity of Louis XIV, for 
 whom she became prac- 
 tically a spy. The tastes 
 of the court were dis- 
 t i n c 1 1 y French. Chairs 
 with heavily upholstered 
 seats and backs became 
 popular. The cane chair 
 took on the scroll leg. In 
 1675 marquetried f u r n i - 
 ture came in. Lacquered 
 furniture became popular. 
 Again in that year we 
 notice the flat serpentine 
 stretcher, drop handles 
 and brass key escutcheons 
 to doors. Bedroom chairs 
 would often be made in 
 sets and covered with vel- 
 vet to match the hangings 
 of the bed. Double-seated 
 chairs or settees came into 
 use. The French leg and 
 
 "7 
 
FOLLOWING JACOBEAN 
 
 foot came in 1680— the S-shaped leg, serpentine like. 
 In 1685 came James II and a marked develop- 
 ment in furniture. With 1685 appeared the tall- 
 backed French chair. It was a more severe style of 
 furniture than that of Charles II. French dining- 
 room chairs were tall, narrow-backed, without arms 
 and with sometimes an upholstered seat. They had 
 the French characteristics. Towards the end of 
 James II and during the reign of William and Mary 
 the crest at the top of the back was often placed as 
 a finish to the back posts instead 
 of between them. 
 
 The strong French c h a r - 
 acteristics were due largely to 
 
 the work of Marot, a prominent 
 
 decorator who fled from France 
 
 at the time of the revocation of 
 
 the Edict of Nantes, 1685. 
 
 Many other French artisans 
 
 worked in England at this time, 
 
 just prior to the Queen Anne 
 
 period, introducing what ap- 
 peared to be anachronisms. 
 
 While cushioned seats were 
 
 not uncommon at an earlier 
 
 period, chairs made with fixed 
 
 upholstering did not come into 
 
 use until about 1550, the period 
 
 of Elizabeth in England and 
 
 Henri II in France. Henry 
 
 VIII had gathered together a 
 
 small army of 
 
 French, Italian and 
 
 German workmen 
 
 and at this early 
 
 date the Italian and 
 
 F'I e m i s h X chairs 
 
 were used, uphol- 
 stered seats and 
 
 backs. Prior to this 
 
 date the furniture 
 
 backs being carved did not encourage arm and back 
 
 upholsterings and movable cushions were common. 
 
 The chairs were without arms to accommodate the 
 
 monstrous skirts of the women. At the period of 
 
 James I the Farthingdale chair was popular. It had no 
 
 arms and allowed the dress to spread in all directions. 
 
 By 1620 we have the type illustrated where the frame 
 
 is entirely covered. 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE WOOD-FINISH. 
 
 The use of varnishes goes back 3,000 years. 
 The Egyptians were expert in the use of varnish, but 
 the Europeans learned their art from the Far East 
 Old English term, vernish; French, vernis; Italian, 
 vernice. 
 
 Italian Renaissance furniture probably received 
 an oil finish. Martin,, a carriage painter, born 1726, 
 
 Above, types of inception Queen Anne; 
 below, Cromwellian, 16S3-16S9. 
 
 rivalled the lacquers of China and Japan with a var- 
 nish which was hard and transparent, noW' known as 
 Vernis-Martin. From 4744 to 1764 Martin was 
 granted a monopoly to manufacture this lacquer. 
 
 Elizabethan and Jacobean oak furniture received 
 only a light coat of dark oil varnish. The pieces were 
 then rubbed with beeswax and given a rich tone. 
 
 It may be safely assumed that during the "Age 
 of Oak," 1500-1660, and the "Age of Walnut," 1660- 
 1700, little varnish was used. 
 
 Italian Renaissance furni- 
 ture, 1400-1643, was of oak, 
 lime, willow, sycamore, chest- 
 nut, ebony or walnut, and was 
 wax polished, oiled or left 
 natural. 
 
 The French, Flemish and 
 Spanish Renaissance, 1500-1643, 
 used a great deal of oak, chest- 
 nut and walnut polished, oiled 
 or left natural. The Portuguese 
 traders from about 1525-1576 
 and the Dutch traders subse- 
 quent to 1576, brought into 
 Europe a great many foreign 
 woods, but they were not to any 
 extent employed in the manufac- 
 ture of furniture until the middle 
 of the Seventeenth Century. The 
 finishing of woodwork was hand 
 polished. Indeed, in England it 
 was not until the 
 Queen Anne style 
 came in that we notice 
 any eflforts at e v.e n 
 shellacking. The old- 
 time cabinetmaker ob- 
 t a i n e d his toned 
 effects by exposing his 
 woods to the light un- 
 t i 1 the surfaces had 
 darkened, then he rubbed in the oil' and beeswax. Be- 
 ginning about 1680 a spirit and shellac preparation 
 was used. Then followed the Louis XIV period and 
 soon afterward Vernis-Martin and a host of imitation 
 varnishes. 
 
 As early as 1601 there are records of lacquer 
 ware brought from China and Japan, hence the term 
 japanned, as applied to lacquering. The Oriental 
 method required a vast degree of patience and skill, 
 sometimes requiring eighteen or twenty treatments and 
 never less than three treatments. The Chinese and 
 Japanese lacquer was derived from a juice of the 
 varnish tree, which hardened into a black resin. 
 Lacquer wares were brought into Holland; England 
 and France in large quantities throughout the Seven- 
 teenth Century, particularly by the East Indian Com- 
 
 Ii8 
 
FOLLOWING JACOBEAN 
 
 ]i;Lnios. C'aiie hclont^s essen- 
 tially 111 ilu' Jaculiran lU'iaod, 
 ]'' n l;- 1 a ii il alioiil Ui.SQ and 
 ].iiius \ I I I 1'' |- a II c e . riu- 
 eai'licsl Ihiil; elorks lielniii; to 
 llu' periiiil (if riiarles I I and 
 w ere inlaid. 
 
 I'"\eellenl n) a ]■ (| n e t i" v 
 
 W'uk I'ullnw ii|M I )utrll sl\k'S 
 
 was |Mi|)idar in kaij^land dni"- 
 ini; W illiani a n .1 M a r )■ ' s 
 r(.'t;inie \ eneernii; was fnsl 
 n^ed ui tlic rtai^n nf William 
 and .\lar\. nnlil wliieli lime 
 I iirmlnre had lieeii made suliil. 
 I 1k' liei^imiiiiL;' ni walinil 
 in England was about the 
 period of Charles II. Dur- 
 ing the Queen Anne period 
 the prevailing woods were 
 walnut, beech, holly, birch and 
 yew. 
 
 Cedar was used for room paneling in England as 
 early as 1678; also for chests. 
 
 A Farthingdale 
 
 Chair, 1620. See 
 
 first column, page 
 
 118. 
 
 English elm lias been always used, especially . 
 eliest drawers and tables. It lias a plain straight grain 
 •mil is iKit as attractive as oak. .Some of the Queen 
 Anne dressinf;^ tables were elm. Eahurmim, a native 
 wood ol the Alps, w,as excellent as a \eneerin,L;\ 
 
 William and Mary, 
 
 Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, from an old print. The Presence Chamber. No carpetings used, the floors strewn with rushes. 
 
 Tapestry on wall. 
 
 119 
 
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 Z 
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 X 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 D 
 H 
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 W 
 
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 2 
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 w 
 
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 h1 
 
Last half of the Seventeenth Century, from Charles II 1660. through William and Mary 1700. 
 Frequently showing direct French influence. 
 

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 H- 
 
 
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 S-o 
 
 
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 n>s 
 
 
 i-,H 
 
 
 •a 
 
 
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 trS 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 ■0 ja 
 
 
 
 
 tJ 
 
 
 •s-g 
 
 
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 U III 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 A«0 
 
 
 Ss . 
 
 
 Ini 
 e, a 
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 .SS2 
 
 
 ^"•3 
 
 
 «E^ 
 
 
 m 3 _ 
 
 • 
 
 i&^ 
 
 w 
 
 
 o 
 
 E.fi? 
 
 f^ 
 
 £^ . 
 
 < 
 
 ef. T 
 inlaid 
 periot 
 
 ta 
 
 •sgs 
 
 M 
 
 ^*s 
 
 <! 
 
 15 °-f 
 
 Z 
 
 •5 el 
 
 1^ 
 
 .2;2: 
 
 K 
 
 ster 
 Wil 
 re o 
 
 X 
 
 
 to 
 
 M 
 
 
 h) 
 
 S-w 
 
 z 
 
 ut 16® 
 made 
 The 
 
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 |i^ 
 
 <(! 5«s 
 
 C.-S u 
 
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 CO g^ 
 
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 bo" 
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 ■l-g 
 
 
Reading from left to right, the portraits above are those of Rembrandt, 1607-1669; Van Dyke, 1599-1641; Franz Hals, 1581- 
 
 1666; Rubens, 1577-1640. 
 
 THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE 
 
 Development of Baroque in Roman Renaissance, 1540— Classic influence of Inigo Jones (James I), Sir Christopher Wren 
 
 (Charles II, George I), Louis XIII of France. 
 
 DURING the period known as the Late 
 Renaissance, Michael Angelo, apostle of 
 free thought in art, broke away from the 
 fetters of classicism and produced some ex- 
 traordinary results. These forms in the hands of a 
 master were acceptable, but when others tried to fol- 
 low the results were less pleasing and became known 
 as Baroque. 
 
 Details were combined and superimposed in a 
 fashion extravagant and frequently grotesque. It was 
 the outcome of that universal spirit of unrest which 
 revolts at rule or order, and the effort to do something 
 different simply resulted in ornament that was impres- 
 sive and astonishing at the sacrifice of taste and unity. 
 The term Baroque became eventually an adjective ex- 
 pression for a corrupt style. 
 
 In France the Baroque was little in evidence. 
 In Germany it was passively accepted. We find 
 little Baroque in England for the reason that apart 
 from the work of John of Padua under Henry VIII 
 there was no Italian influence until James I, and then 
 the influence became Palladian or Classic, for through- 
 out the period of Michael Angelo, Palladio was 
 equally active in maintaining the integrity of the pure 
 style — Venetian Renaissance — and Inigo Jones in 
 England was a staunch Palladian. His work as well 
 as that of John Webb, Edward Carter and Nicholas 
 
 Stone, expressed admirably the pure Italian spirit. 
 
 The work of Sir Christopher Wren, Nicholas 
 Hawksmoor, Sir John Van Brugh, James Gibb, and 
 other eminent architects, continued the classic spirit 
 of the French style in architecture through the Crom- 
 wellian, Charles II, James II, William and Mary, 
 Queen Anne and well into the period of George I. 
 Sir Christopher died in 1723. Ceilings were all plas- 
 tered, stuccoed, flat or in relief, divided into panels 
 and circles, hexagons, and rhomboids, the borders 
 being enriched with flowers and fruits of all sorts, 
 well raised, following the extraordinary carvings of 
 Grinling Gibbons; borders were often flat ornaments 
 of Greek and Roman design or flowing Renaissance; 
 the panels were often painted. Indeed, painted ceil- 
 ings were common throughout the Seventeenth Cen- 
 tury, the great artists, even Rubens, lending their 
 talents to ceiling painting. 
 
 Sir Christopher Wren's work for William and 
 Mary and Queen Anne was augmented by the ceiling 
 and wall decorations of Verrio, the Neapolitan, who 
 also did wonderful ceiling work for Charles II, 
 prolific with goddesses, saints, satyrs, muses, cupids 
 and inspirations of the New Testament and Roman 
 History. 
 
 There was little or no Baroque in England ; there 
 was little in Holland, and even where it existed in 
 
 Reading from left to right, the portraits above are those of W. Jamnitzer 1508-1S8S; P. Vischer, 1460-1529; Albrecht Diirer, 
 
 1471-1528; H. Holbein, 1497-1543. 
 
 123 
 
Above, lambrequin ornamentation in the style of Louis XIII— XIV. Below, Baroque furniture of the end of the Renaissance. 
 
 France it cannot be said to have become a style; it 
 was rather a decadent taste indulged by the few and 
 condemned by the many. 
 
 With Louis XIII, 1610-1643, the French Renais- 
 sance came to an end. It was a period of assimilation. 
 French life vinder Henri II, Charles IX and Henri 
 III, semi-Italian princes, was dominated by Catherine 
 de Medici. Henri IV sent artisans to Holland to 
 study carving, and at the time of Louis XIII, decora- 
 tive art, as expressed by the work in his palace, was 
 Italian, German, Flemish and Swiss. A definite 
 French period did not develop until under Louis XIV. 
 
 In 1603 the Jesuits, who had been expelled from 
 France in 1595, were recalled and in their religious 
 zeal bent their efforts, especially in art, to the propa- 
 gation of the classic styles. Not only marquetry, ebony 
 furniture and painted furniture were made, but the 
 Oriental spirit during the reign of Louis XIII became 
 conspicuous in the woods that were used and the styles 
 of the fabrics. 
 
 Cane was imported as seat coverings. Chairs 
 were covered with leather or fabrics and upholstered 
 heavily. The reception bed was introduced. Ladie? 
 received their guests en deshabille, a fashion that pre- 
 
 124 
 
THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE 
 
 vailed in the reign of Louis XIV. The 
 fashion of covering furniture with drap- 
 ery can be traced back to the Fourteenth 
 Century in Italy. Bed draperies were 
 then used and canopies were in vogue ; 
 but the Louis XIII period may be said 
 to have introduced the use of table cov- 
 ers and scarfs. 
 
 The French silk industry developed 
 rapidly and quantities of costly materials 
 were to be had in France ; they were 
 hung upon the walls and displayed over 
 tables and screens. See page 131. 
 
 The cultivation of the mulberry tree 
 had been successful in the South. Lyons 
 was manufacturing great quantities of 
 taffetas. Weavers had come from Ana- 
 tolia to do embroidering in the Oriental 
 style (largely Arabian and Ottoman), 
 and before long France was also making 
 its first typical design, employing as 
 motifs the exotic plants found in the royal 
 garden. By the beginning of the Six- 
 teenth Century fancy silk manufacture, 
 including cloths of gold, velvet, satin, 
 silk and silk mixtures, had been intro- 
 duced in France; into Tours by Louis 
 XI, Lyons by Francis I, Paris by Henri 
 IV, Avignon by the Popes. 
 
 In the Seventeenth Century, Colbert 
 provided regulations covering the manu- 
 facture at Tours, Lyons, Paris and 
 N i m e s . Contemporaneously 
 were famous Venetian damasks, 
 L u c c a n damascenes, Genoese 
 velvets and mixtures called 
 filatrices, poplins, feradines, 
 Egyptian damasks, caflfarts, 
 Bruges satins, etamines, 
 fustians and dimities. 
 
 Italian manufacturers lost a 
 great deal of their German, 
 
 ■\bove, pedestal of the Louis XIIT- 
 period. 
 
 -XIV 
 
 Swiss, Flemish, English and Spanish 
 trade. Soon the American colonies were 
 heavy buyers of French stuffs. Paris 
 gained supremacy in matters of fashion. 
 The French styles were accepted in all 
 the capitals of Europe. 
 
 Jacquard has always received credit 
 for inventing a machine which bears his 
 name, but in 1605 Dangon made a ma- 
 chine which produced great complica- 
 tion of color effects. G a 1 1 a t i e r and 
 Blache in 1687 made a loom which en- 
 abled one to make easily small patterns. 
 Bonchon originated the idea of needles 
 pressed back by a cardboard on which 
 was traced the design. 
 
 Falcon, his assistant, increased the 
 number of needles and made the cards 
 revolve on two quadrangular prism 
 cylinders. The municipality of Lyons 
 recognized the superiority of this new 
 loom and allowed to Falcon a gratuity 
 of 1,500 livres. Genin in 1749 received 
 1,750 livres for having invented a loom 
 on which one could weave small fancy 
 stuffs without the help of a draw-boy. 
 Ponson in 1766 invented the loom for 
 the weaving of several armures at one 
 time. Vezier in 1798 made still further 
 improvements. Philip de LaSalle in- 
 vented a machine for reeding designs, 
 which brought about a considerable de- 
 velopment in the composition of 
 fabrics. He invented an attach- 
 ment by the aid of which the 
 draw-boy was able to do all his 
 work while remaining seated. 
 Finally he created the flying 
 shuttle. 
 
 Jacquard's machine was an 
 improvement on former inven- 
 tions, but what was accom- 
 
 Louis XIII. 
 
 125 
 
HENRI II, HENRI IV TO LOUIS XIII 
 1500-1600 Group VI (R). 
 
.. .. ■,-,>■.— ^: 
 
 lOUIS XVI CEILINGAND BORDER DESIGNS 
 
1710. Group VITI (U). Louis XIV. 
 
 1710. Group VII (S). Louis XIV. 
 
 1670. Group VII (S). Louis XIV. 
 
 LOUIS XIII AND LOUIS XIV. 
 
 1550-1650. Group VII (P). Late Renaissance, Henri II- 
 Louis XIII. 
 
plished by Jacquard about 1800 was accomplished in a 
 more primitive manner by Falcon in 1728. Hence the 
 tracing of the age of a fabric by the evidence of 
 Jacquard mechanism is fallacious. Contemporane- 
 ously we note the introduction through Italian 
 channels of the crystal and glass chandeliers, sconces 
 in the shape of arms fixed to the wall, the first hold- 
 ing the candle; also glass mirrors (invented in Italy, 
 1507), sometimes framed elaborately in gold and in 
 ebony or appliques of copper and silver. 
 
 This mirror was used in conjunction with the 
 bureau, which followed the introduction of the cabinet. 
 The term is carelessly used at present, but in the time 
 of Louis XIII the bureau was a chest set upon a table 
 and pushed back to afford a rest for the hand of the 
 writer. About 1700 this table was provided with 
 drawers and to-day this combination of drawers and 
 chests we call a bureau. 
 
 Good wood carvers were becoming scarce. They 
 
 had been sup- 
 planted by 
 workers in mar- 
 quetry and mo- 
 saic, after the 
 Italian fashion, 
 and spiral sup- 
 ports were gen- 
 erously used, 
 the chisel being 
 employed only 
 on the tops of 
 posts or im- 
 portant places. 
 The upholster- 
 ing of the furni- 
 ture was heavy 
 and comfort- 
 able and fixed 
 
 Above, illustration of a ceiling by Sir 
 Christopher Wren, showing the ex- 
 quisite carving of Grinling Gibbons. 
 Below, panel ornamentation fre- 
 quently referred to as Gibbons' 
 masterpiece. 
 
 128 
 
1620. Jacobean. James I. England. 
 
 1620. Salon at Fontainebleau. Louis XIII. 
 ENGLISH AND CONTEMPORARY FRENCH 
 
The pediment in tlie middle of the second row of ilkistrations slinwn above is the work of Inigo Jones. The two small 
 pediments of the bottom row are attributed to Kent. The others are the work of James Gibb. 
 
 to the structure. The room was draped and as the 
 woodwork was no longer beautifully carved, curtains 
 and fabrics were hung in profusion. 
 
 At the beginning of the Seventeenth Century 
 France greatly prospered. Damasks, damascenes, 
 fancy velvets, cloths of gold, taffetas, silk, wool, cotton 
 and other fiber mixtures, poplins, brocatelles, dimities, 
 fustians, filatrices and feradines, as well as fabrics 
 of low price were made, and Italy soon lost her 
 ascendency. To cap the climax the discovery of the 
 passage around the Cape of Good Hope (1579) 
 turned from the Mediterranean the trade in silks 
 from the Eastern part of Asia. 
 
 In the latter part of the Sixteenth Century and 
 
 the beginning of the Seventeenth, the closing of the 
 Renaissance, we find in fabric designs a great many 
 of the pure Renaissance types, including griffins, 
 birds, vases, bouquets, garlands, branches of leaves 
 and fruits, masks, serpentine meanderings, birds and 
 hounds. Oriental motifs, flowers, sprays, spots and cur- 
 ly-cues. Typical of the Louis XIII is the Arabian style, 
 a survival of the Arabian popular under Francis I, 
 sometimes called Moresque or Arabesque. As early 
 as 1540 books of patterns were issued at Lyons 
 and these Arabesque styles, which are conspicuous 
 again in the Louis XIIT period, were recommended 
 as elegant and refined. 
 
 Louis XIII. 
 
 130 
 
Louis XIII. 
 
 Characteristic design. 
 
 Under Louis XIII silk manufacture encouraged. 
 Note character of patterns. 
 
 INTERIOR AND FABRICS OF LOUIS XIII PERIOD. 
 
Characteristic furniture leg details of the Louis XIV Period. 
 
 LOUIS XIV 
 
 TH E period of Louis XIV is supposed to have 
 begun 1643, wlien the king was but five years 
 old. The art period starts properly at 1667, 
 when the Manufacture 
 Royale des Meubles de 
 la Couronne was estab- 
 lished by Colbert, to 
 promote the making of 
 tapestries, jewelry, fur- 
 niture and metal work, 
 just as the Academy of 
 Painting and Sculpture 
 had encouraged the 
 more dilettante arts. 
 The Gobelin factory, 
 and a little later the 
 Beauvais works, were 
 part of the enterprise, 
 and French art may be 
 said to have dated from 
 this organization. 
 
 Le Brun, chief 
 court painter to Louis 
 XIV, became director 
 of the Gobelin factory 
 and gathered about him 
 the most eminent artists 
 of the day, Vander- 
 meulen, Mansart, Hy- 
 vart, Monnoyer, the 
 two Boullognes, the 
 Coypel brothers, the 
 ebenists Cucci, Poitou 
 and the tapestry mak- 
 ers Jans and son. In 
 
 Boule Cabinet, Louis XIV. 
 
 1679 Jean Marot and his son Daniel, who left France 
 for Holland and England, 1685, did much to em- 
 phasize and popularize the Louis XIV type. Jean 
 
 le P a u t r e and his 
 brother Antoine became 
 authorities in wood 
 work, and the designs 
 of Jean Berain became 
 also a type. 
 
 Mazarin, himself an 
 Italian, drew many 
 Italian workmen to 
 France and naturally 
 Italian art strongly in- 
 fluenced the Louis XIV 
 style which closely fol- 
 lowed the Renaissance. 
 In tapestry work par- 
 ticularly we find pomp 
 and much dignity, 
 tableaux of classic 
 grandeur : "Victory and 
 Battle," the spirit of 
 "Valor and Conquest," 
 the "Purity of the Pas- 
 sions," the "Progress of 
 the Arts and Sciences" — 
 allegories of an exalted 
 nature. 
 
 It was an ambitious 
 period, stimulated by 
 the enthusiasm of the 
 Crown, and artists held 
 high position and there 
 was great incentive to 
 
 132 
 
LOUIS XIV 
 
 royal favor. The art of the Italian Caffieri was gor- 
 geous in gold and bronze. Andre Charles Boulle or 
 Boule brought the arts of the inlayer to the highest 
 possible degree. (Called also Buhl work.) 
 
 Mignard's ceihng paintings were superb. The 
 richest velvets, silks and Oriental carpets were used. 
 A great deal of gold stucco was employed together 
 with bronze, and damasks following the classic models 
 in an elaborate spirit. 
 
 Berain gave great freedom to the exercise of 
 Renaissance form, and towards the end of the Seven- 
 teenth Century contemporary scenic and genre details 
 were introduced, including Chinese. Ceiling work 
 was massive or dainty, hand-painted, wood molded or 
 stuccoed. Walk were covered with fabrics or deco- 
 rated in paint, leather or wood. 
 
 It was a period of luxury in the use of superb 
 beds and tapestries, hand-painted fabrics, damasks, 
 brocades and velvets, rich upholsterings, curtains, 
 bronzes, mirrors, clocks, screens, sideboards, porce- 
 lains and consoles. Huge pier glasses of great height 
 were employed, the frames carved in imitation of 
 palms. Bronze and marble were combined in mantel- 
 pieces. Marble-top tables held superb vases. It was 
 the period of Louis the Great, le grand monarque, 
 
 and the decorations reflected that spirit. It was an 
 age of conquest and naturally an age of absorption 
 and adaptation. 
 
 In 1659 France received German and Flemish 
 territory. In 1667 was the first war of conquest on 
 account of the Spanish Netherlands. Then followed 
 wars of conquest against Holland and the acquisition 
 of territory. All this had its influence upon the char- 
 acter of the decorations. The style was classic and 
 the Roman acanthus leaf was conspicuous until the 
 Louis XV period when the rock and shell and even 
 the stalactite forms were employed. 
 
 Wall decorations were usually of historical or 
 biblical or legendary character. 
 
 Companies were established to trade with the 
 East and West Indies in competition with the Dutch. 
 The faqade of the Hotel de Ville, commenced by 
 Francis I, was now finished. All France was 
 adorned with parks and public buildings and wall 
 panels and fabrics frequently presented scenic and 
 architectural designs. The French Academy was 
 established. It was the age of Corneille, Racine, 
 Moliere and La Fontaine. 
 
 It has been said that Louise de la Valliere and 
 
 Ceiling and panels by Inigo Jones. Epglish contemporary of Early Louis XIV. 
 
 133 
 
LOUIS XIV 
 
> 
 
 X 
 
 I— I 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 2 
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
LOUIS XIV 
 
Early Louis XIV. 
 
 
 Late Louis XIV. 
 
LOUIS XIV 
 
 Madame de Maintenon influenced the arts of Louis 
 XIV. On the contrary, the arts were stimulated by 
 
 the world force of 
 conquests and 
 state-craft, as dis- 
 tinguished fro m 
 the arts of Louis 
 XV, which were 
 stimulated by so- 
 cial life, elaborate 
 
 and European floriculture 
 became for the first time an 
 inspiration to the fabric de- 
 signers. The shell intro- 
 duced under Louis XIII 
 became employed as a dec- 
 orative motif ; also plumes, 
 feat hers 
 and bird 
 wings. 
 
 ostentation and extravagance. 
 Under Colbert, lace, silk and 
 porcelain factories were estab- 
 lished, and as a result designers 
 introduced as details of their 
 patterns ribbons, festoons, vases, 
 pottery, placques and statuary. 
 Magnificent gardens were built 
 
 Chaise Lounge, Louis XIV. 
 
 Daniel Marot, Louis XIV. 
 
 Berain, Louis XIV. 
 
ARTISTS AND ARCHITECTS. 
 
 CARVERS AND 
 BRONZE WORKERS. 
 
 EBENISTES AND 
 INLAYERS. 
 
 o 
 rt wis 
 
 iJ 1 "7 
 
 -^ '"^ lO 
 
 ?; o'^ 
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 m « 
 
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 I 
 
 o 
 
 w -! 
 X 
 
 o 
 
 in w 
 
 .-< o 
 
 D <! 
 O 6J 
 
 
 X&. 
 
 S2 S 
 
 O <M 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 S"l I 
 SOvOv 
 yjrx OS 
 
 u S D 
 
 :2i M 5 
 
 ,« 5 o 
 fcCU 
 
 Woo 
 
 Aman. 
 
 Du Cerceaii, Jacques An- 
 
 drouet. 
 Goujon, Jean. 
 Hainofer, Philippe. 
 Leonardo da Vinci, Seralio 
 
 and Cellini (Italians) infln- 
 
 enced thi.s period. 
 Martellange. 
 Sambin, Hugues. 
 Seibecq Francisque, called 
 
 De Carpi. 
 Stabre, Lanrent. 
 
 Bosse, Abraham. 
 De Brosse, Salomon. 
 La Sueur, Eustache. 
 Le-Brun, Charles. 
 Le Mercier, Jacques. 
 Lorrain, Claude. 
 Pouissin, Nicholas. 
 Primaticcio. 
 Villacerf. 
 Vouet, Simon, 
 
 Le Pot, Jean. 
 
 Belhn. 
 
 Berain, Claude. 
 Boullognes, The. 
 Coypelj Antoine and Noel. 
 D'Avilier, J. 
 De Espouy. 
 Francart 
 Hedouin. 
 
 Hongre, Louis le. 
 Le Brnn, Manager Gobelins, 
 1660. 
 
 Albadier, Jacques. 
 
 Audran. 
 
 Blondel, J. F. 
 
 Boucher. 
 
 Briseux. 
 
 Chamblin. 
 
 Cotelle. 
 
 Dagley (Le Sieur). 
 
 Dantin. 
 
 De Cotte, Jules Robert. 
 
 De Cuvillcs. 
 
 De La Salle, Philip. 
 
 Fissen, Ch. 
 
 Fragonard. 
 
 Germain. 
 
 Gillot. 
 
 Gravelotte. 
 
 Huet. 
 
 Jouy. 
 
 Lancret, Nicholas. 
 
 Berthault. 
 Cochin, Chas. Nic. 
 Coysevox. 
 
 * David, Jacques Louis. 
 De La Fosse, Chas. 
 Desprez. 
 De Wailley, Ch. 
 Drud'hon. 
 
 Dugourc, Jean Denis. 
 ♦Fontaine, Pierre Frangois. 
 Fragonard. 
 Goudouin, Jacques. 
 
 * Gouthiere. 
 Greunc, J. B. 
 Jouy. 
 
 Le Pautre, Jean and Pierre. 
 
 Loir, Nicholas. 
 
 iVIansart. 
 
 Marot, Antoine. 
 
 Marot, Jean and Son Daniel. 
 
 Mignard, Paul (Manager 
 
 Gobelins, 1690). 
 Monnoyer. 
 Rousseiet. 
 Van der Meulen. 
 Yvart. 
 
 Lathuile, J. P. 
 
 Leclerc, Sebastian. 
 
 Le Moyne, Frangois. 
 
 Le Prince. 
 
 Leroux, J. B. 
 
 Martin, J. A. 
 
 Meil, J. W. 
 
 Mcissonnier. 
 
 Natoire, Joseph. 
 
 Nilson, J. E. 
 
 Oberkampf. 
 
 Oudry, Jean Baptist e. 
 
 Patte, Pierre. 
 
 Pineau, 
 
 Revel. 
 
 Rubo. 
 
 Slodtz. 
 
 Tessier. 
 
 Watteau. 
 
 Lagrenee. 
 
 * Lalonde. 
 Le Doux. 
 
 Leleu, Jean Frangois. 
 Leonard. 
 Moreau, J. 
 
 * Normond 
 seph. 
 
 * Percier. 
 
 * Riesener. 
 
 *Rousseau, Jean Simon de. 
 
 Salembier. 
 
 Saunier, Claude Chas 
 
 Soufflot. 
 
 Van loo. 
 
 M., (Le Jeime). 
 Chas. Pierre Jo 
 
 * Caffieri. 
 
 * Cucci, Dominico. 
 
 Auguier. 
 Baronniere. 
 
 * Caffieri, Jacques. 
 Coysevox. 
 
 * Cncci. 
 Lespagnandel. 
 Tuby. 
 
 Babel, P. E. 
 
 Boffrand. 
 
 Bouchardon, Edme. 
 
 Caffieri, Jacques. 
 
 Cressent, Charles. 
 
 Duplessis. 
 
 Guibal. 
 
 Hervieux. 
 
 Lemoyne, M. 
 
 Pigole. 
 
 Pineau, Nic. 
 
 Sally. 
 
 Winant. 
 
 Bardin. 
 Falconet. 
 
 * Gouthiere. 
 Haure. 
 Martin. 
 Pajou. 
 
 * Roentgen. 
 
 * Thomire. 
 
 Bachelier, Nicholas. 
 
 Baumgartner, Ulrich. 
 
 Breughels. 
 
 De Vos. 
 
 De Vriendts, Floris. 
 
 Francks, the. 
 
 Barbet, I. 
 
 Bordoni, Francesco. 
 Branchi. 
 Giacetti, Luigi. 
 Golle, Peter. 
 
 Migliorini, Fernando and Ho- 
 ratio. 
 
 Armand. 
 
 Boule. 
 
 Cucci. 
 
 Denis, Louis. 
 
 Oppenordt. 
 
 Percheron. 
 
 Poitou. 
 
 Sommord. 
 
 Arnoult. 
 
 Bernard. 
 
 Boudin, L. 
 
 Dautriche, Jacques. 
 
 De Lorme. 
 
 Denizot, Piefre. 
 
 Dubois.. 
 
 (iarnile, Pierre, 
 
 Germain. 
 
 Gillot. 
 
 Joubert. 
 
 Leatz, I. P. 
 
 L'Avasseur. 
 
 Loriot. 
 
 Mignon. 
 
 Oeben, Jean Francois. 
 
 Pillement. 
 
 Riesener, Jean Henri. 
 
 Sulpice. 
 
 Beneman, Guillaume. 
 
 Bergeman. 
 
 Bertrand. 
 
 Birkle. 
 
 Blucheidner. 
 
 Carlin, Martin. 
 
 Deganlt. 
 
 Feuerstein. 
 
 Frost. 
 
 Girard. 
 
 * Jacob (Bros). 
 
 Joubert. 
 
 Leleu, J. Francois. 
 
 Levasseur. 
 
 Montigny. 
 
 Pasquier. 
 
 Richter, Chas. 
 
 Roentgen. 
 
 Saunier. 
 
 Schmitz, Peter. 
 
 Schneider, Gaspard. 
 
 Schwerdfeger. 
 
 Stokel, Joseph. 
 
 Weisweiler. 
 
 Linereux. 
 
 Desmalter, Jacob. 
 
 * The asterisks indicate 
 
 names of men who became famous in the Empire period. 
 
wmm 
 
 liW^^ 
 
 n" H E s E illustrations 
 present very clear- 
 ly the serious, classic 
 tendencies of tlie Louis 
 XIV period, as distin- 
 guished from the 
 whimsical, exagger- 
 ated and capricious 
 character of Louis XV. 
 
 The Regency was 
 the Transition Period 
 between late Louis 
 XIV and early Louis 
 XV. At this time the 
 classicism observed 
 and the Renaissance 
 principles followed by 
 Louis XIV gave way 
 to a predisposition to 
 modernize, and the 
 nymphs and satyrs as- 
 sumed the dress of the 
 day, a little low in the 
 neck and a little short 
 in the skirt, but never- 
 theless modernized. 
 
 The heroics of an- 
 cient Rome and Pom- 
 peii were succeeded 
 by a comedy spirit. 
 
 winged horses and fa- 
 bled lions disappeared 
 and monkeys, parrots, 
 cats and dogs and 
 farmyard creatures 
 took their place. 
 
 Finally, the artists 
 Watteau, B o u c h ct , 
 Lancret and Bouchar- 
 don abandoned alto- 
 getfier the legendary, 
 historical and Biblical 
 illustrations, scenes 
 which found expres- 
 sion in tapestries, ceil- 
 ing and wall decora- 
 tions, and cultivated 
 a modern spirit depict- 
 ing the life of the 
 ppople ; idealized, to be 
 sure, but of a contem- 
 porary character; so- 
 cial festivities, recrea- 
 t i o n s , occupations, 
 were the subjects treat- 
 ed, surrounded by a 
 decorative treatment 
 that developed finally 
 into the Rococo. 
 
 
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 iKi i\V^^^^'ii^l^PO^ft\ 
 
 
 
 1B^^2^\;^8^^^^H 
 
 Hk^i^^^^^^ A^T'^^^^ v^^^m 
 
 ^^^^/^^ii^^^^l^' 
 
 fffiH^^mJ/JjaltS^^^m^^^i^Sk 
 
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 i 
 
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 9 
 
 
 
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 M^^^^^^^^ 
 
 ■u^^^^'n^^ii'^^&iHfi^^ulH 
 
Fig. 4. Group VIII. Gros de Tours. 
 1700. Sky-blue ground, flowers, fruits 
 and leaves in blending shades broche. 
 Design of Revel, the pupil of Lebrun. 
 1700. 
 
 Fig. 6. Louis XVI. Fancy fabric manu- 
 factured by Philip de la Salle. Medal- 
 lion type. Ground of the medallion in 
 yellow satin. The fancy design is in 
 part broche. 
 
 Fig. 2. Group VII. Brocatelle. Period 
 
 of Louis XIII. The design is executed 
 
 in crimson on a yellow ground. 
 
 THE FABRICS OF THE XVI AND XVII 
 
 CENTURIES 
 
 FRENCH manufacturers of the Eighteenth Cen- 
 tury were equipped to produce exceedingly 
 rich stufifs ; foliage velvets in imitation of the 
 Venetian broche cut velvets, crepes, etamines, mixed 
 cottons, Levantines, plushes, fancy velvets, fabrics 
 with three and five colors in Turkish, Milanese, 
 Genoese and Venetian fashions. At the end of the 
 Eighteenth Century fewer metallic 
 threads were used in weaving and 
 the thick, heavy cloths of gold had 
 fallen into disfavor. 
 
 Embroidery at the same time 
 had done marvelously well. The 
 refining and spinning of gold had 
 been very successful in France, 
 and in all the countries of Europe 
 since the Fifteenth Century the art 
 of embroidering official robes and 
 ecclesiastical ornaments had devel- 
 oped considerably. 
 
 Oriental foliation and the vase 
 which had for a long time served 
 both before and during the Ren- 
 aissance in the decoration of fab- 
 rics are now revived ; one finds this 
 combination in Figure 4, which 
 shows a cut velvet on a gold 
 ground. The warp threads of the ^'^Execu'^eTSnder 
 
 velvets which make the fancy effects are crimson. It 
 
 followed the Chinese taste of the period. (See page 
 
 144.) At the end of the Sixteenth Century, designs 
 
 were of small dimensions — detached flloral pieces, 
 
 palms and fleurs-de-lis. They corresponded with the 
 
 less ample form of the garment. We reproduce 
 
 { Figure 1 ) the sketch of a fancy fabric with gold 
 
 ground, date 1610. The design is 
 
 Gros de Tours, raised on a gold 
 
 ground in a deep green shade. 
 
 Many striped fabrics are noted at 
 
 this period. 
 
 Under Louis XIII and Louis 
 
 XIV, 1610-1700, the composition 
 
 of fabrics took on a grandiose 
 
 style. Brocatelle (Figure 2) is a 
 
 beautiful specimen, Louis XIII: 
 
 red in color composes the body of 
 
 the fabric, and a yellow silk tram 
 
 thread is intertwined in a serge 
 
 weave in such a manner as to give 
 
 a brilliant ground ; the design is 
 
 raised and is worked out in a satin 
 
 weave with the crimson warp 
 
 threads. 
 
 This fabric may be assigned 
 
 /ON T^ 1 I.- J • to the latter years of the Sixteenth 
 
 (B). Dolphm design. „ , ■^ 
 
 Henry IV. 1610. Century. 
 
 140 
 
Fig. S. Group VIII (U). Taffeta 
 broche, about 1740, Louis XV. Rose- 
 colored ground with lace effect in 
 white. Flowers in gilt. 
 
 Fig. 8. Group VIII (U). About 17S0, 
 Louis XV. Pheasant design. Fancy 
 fabric manufactured by Philip de la Salle. 
 From the Lyons Industrial Museum of 
 Design. 
 
 Fig. 7. Group VIII (U). Partridge 
 design. About 1750, Louis XV. Fancy 
 fabric manufactured by Philip de la Salle. 
 From the Lyons Industrial Museum of 
 Design. 
 
 The great vogue of gardens under Louis XIV 
 brought about the adoption of architectural design — 
 green arbors, trees in full leaf, bouquets, etc. Revel, 
 the painter, a pupil of Lebrun, established himself in 
 Lyons at the beginning of the Eighteenth Century, 
 and gave a great impulse to this kind of ornamenta- 
 tion (Figure 4). 
 
 Under Louis XV rocks and shells entered into 
 the ornamentation of fabrics in 
 the Eighteenth Century. Fabrics 
 reflected all the fantasies oi 
 fashion. One sees the feathers 
 which women had placed in the 
 coiffures, ribbons, knots, pastoral 
 attributes, crooks, baskets, etc., 
 finely garlanded, also Chinese and 
 Japanese — whimsicalities. 
 
 Under Louis XVI the poetic 
 spirit of the designers was inex- 
 haustible and it is impossible here 
 to indicate the innumerable paths 
 in which it was successfully en- 
 gaged under the impulse of 
 the passing caprices of fashion. 
 Decorative art was admirably 
 comprehended and taste in com- 
 position was exquisite. 
 
 We have spoken of the num- 
 erous improvements in the art of 
 weaving made by Philip de la 
 
 Salle. In 1775 the Academy of Science commended 
 his work in engrossed eulogies and presented him 
 with a gold medal in 1783. An entire glass case in 
 the Industrial Museum of Lyons is reserved for this 
 remarkable manufacturer. It includes all types of 
 composition, arabesques, foliage, flowers, figures, 
 trophies, allegories, landscapes, country scenes and 
 Chinese ornaments. 
 
 Fig. 3. Group 
 vase design. 
 
 VI (Q). 
 
 Latter part 
 
 Century. 
 
 Pomegranate 
 of Sixteenth 
 
 1750. Group VIII (V). 
 A Jouy print. 
 
 141 
 
1643-1715. LOUIS XIV 
 
o 
 
 2 
 
 t3 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 <: 
 
 H 
 
 p— I 
 
 o 
 
 ft 
 o 
 w . 
 
 H 
 W 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 w 
 
 I— ( 
 
 o 
 
1643 1715. LOUIS XIV 
 
A fine old Buhl (BouUe) Secretaire, Louis XIV. 
 
 LOUIS XV 
 
 17 15 
 
 SELDOM in the history of the world has there 
 been greater exuberance of inflated wealth 
 than that which prevailed during the early 
 period of Louis XV. The first eight years constituted 
 the Regency ; medley of the mythological classic and 
 modern ; all parade and ostentation. 
 
 The austere, the serious and the heroic of Louis 
 XIV became full of abandon, frivolity and extrava- 
 gance. The monkey supplanted the Renaissance 
 masque, and the Chinese utterly routed Pompeiian bal- 
 ance. 
 
 Then came another phase, the Rococo, an im- 
 pressionistic form which, following in some degree the 
 curved outlines of the late Louis XIV, displaced the 
 acanthus floral motifs and substituted massings of 
 rock and shell and stalactite shapes, and the independ- 
 ence of execution, already developed in the Baroque. 
 
 Carvers presented a flower the size of a man's 
 head and beside it a pheasant no bigger than a canary. 
 Occasionally the Louis XV period showed phases 
 rational and charming, but the Regency and the Rococo 
 dominated the reign. 
 
 Perhaps the greatest maker of furniture was 
 Charles Cressent, who ranked with Boulle. Other 
 artists were Caffieri, Duplessis, Riesener, Le Roux, 
 
 17 74. 
 Oudry, Briseux, Pineau, de Cuvilles, Gravelot, 
 Boucher, Blondel, Babel, Germain and Joubert. 
 
 Oeben was a pupil of Boulle and in great favor 
 with Madame Pompadour. J. Henri Riesener was his 
 foreman. 
 
 About 1720 Louis XV dispatched an embassy to 
 the Emperor of China with goods ■ of rare value, 
 charged with a commission to encourage the opening 
 of more extensive trade relations. The emperor was 
 cordial in his reception of the king's messengers, and 
 returned magnificent gifts lavishly decorated. This 
 incident rendered the Chinese style fashionable in the 
 upper circles of France, and for some time thereafter 
 Chinese vases appeared in French textile designs 
 juxtaposed to dragons, birds, human figures, pagodas 
 and bits of scenery. A great amount of lacquer work 
 was imported and the lacquers thus introduced were 
 soon copied, the Vernis-Martin becoming especially 
 famous. Pronounced stripes were affected as crea- 
 tions of Madame Pompadour. 
 
 The word apartment at this time meant a com- 
 plete suite of living-rooms : vestibule, first and second 
 ante-chambers (for the servants and attendants, some- 
 times used as a dining-room), principal chamber salon 
 
 144 
 
LOUIS XV 
 
 and company-room or reception-room, bedroom, sev- 
 eral studies and wardrobe-room. 
 
 Each room had its own special decoration and 
 coloring. The bedroom was usually hung with the 
 same materials as the bed. Ceremonious visitors were 
 received here. The ceiling was painted and pictures 
 and mirrors wrought into it. White and gold was a 
 favorite composition, but bronzes and colors and ma- 
 
 hoganies and all kinds of woods were also used. The 
 room was usually longer than wide so that after the 
 bed and side furniture were placed the balance of the 
 room would be almost square. A niche or alcove was 
 often provided to receive the bed. The walls were 
 done often in hand-painted scenes, Chinese lacquered. 
 Thick-pile French carpets or Oriental carpets cov- 
 ered the floors. Draperies were profusely used and 
 
 Beds of the Eighteenth Century, Louis XV spirit. 
 
 MS 
 
Designs by Antoine Watteau. Louis XV. 
 
LOUIS XV 
 
 W'atteau's designs became exceedingly popular. Mis 
 ladies were depicted in fashionable attire and dainty 
 landscape scenes were presented. Romance and fash- 
 ion were merged. His subjects were "The Lady in 
 the Sleigh," "The Lady in the Swing," "The Courtier 
 
 were introduced into his palace at Versailles by Louis 
 I'Hongre. Thus we find that before Louis XV, the 
 Chinese tendency was strong. Robert Martin, born 
 1/06, as early as 1733 became known as vernisseur dii 
 roi Louis XV A brother was engaged in making 
 
 By Marot: Chin"'^ mflnence. Louis XIV. 
 
 and the Sheepherdess," "Frolic," "Folly," "The Danc- 
 ing Girl." The nude was liberally presented in the 
 great works of Boucher, Babel, Natoire, Fragonard 
 and Bouchardon. 
 
 In 1692 there was record of three factories in 
 Paris making "lacquer work and furniture in the Chi- 
 nese style ;" again under Louis XIV, Chinese lacquers 
 
 relief work in the Japanese and Chinese styles and 
 two sons also followed the manufacture of lacquers. 
 In 1744 the establishment of the Martin works, which 
 in 1748 became a Royal Manufactory, is accredited to 
 a Martin, born 1726, probably Simon Etienne 
 Martin Jr., doubtless a nephew of Robert, and the 
 work of the family was here concentrated. Vernis- 
 
 147 
 
1715-1723, Regency— The transition between Louis XIV and XV. 
 
Louis XV furniture and details. 
 
LOUIS XV 
 
 Martin, or Martin varnish, soon became the finish for 
 Louis XV furniture and hundreds of people were en- 
 gaged in making lacquers in the Martin style : red, 
 brown, gold, speckled bronze, even black, and the 
 walls of the daintiest boudoirs were finished in this 
 cornposition. 
 
 Ornamental bronzes also were much in evidence. 
 Corners of furniture pieces were ornamented in 
 bronze; panels were decorated in great profusion, and 
 upon all sides we note exquisite mantel ornaments, 
 clocks, vases, candelabra and sconces. Some furni- 
 ture was almost completely covered with bronze work 
 and wood carving was abandoned for this form of 
 decoration. Charles Cressent, famous in this period, 
 studied the BouUe methods, and we have in his work 
 not only bronze or ormolu decorations, but tortoise- 
 shell and marquetrie of the finest character. (See 
 table of Intarsia.) Probably the Rococo spirit was 
 carried to its best expression by Messonnier, who 
 brought with him from Italy the decadent baroque 
 and idealized it. He was designer to Louis XV and 
 to the royal houses of Germany, Portugal and Poland. 
 His interpretation of what was finally known as the 
 
 Rococo style became fashionable about the year 1730. 
 
 Walls and ceilings were decorated profusely with 
 female faces and forms, costumed and in the nude, by 
 Boucher, Watteau, Huet, le Prince, Gravelot and 
 Bouchardon. Glass chandeliers were of the most gor- 
 geous character. Huge mirrors were used not only 
 for wall panels but for ceilings, cut up and surrounded 
 by moldings and juxtaposed to painted scenes or dec- 
 orations. Oudry's famous cartoons, illustrating the 
 La Fontaine fables, were executed about this time in 
 Beauvais tapestry, and some of the finest work of the 
 Gobelins was undertaken, but the nudities of Boucher 
 and the frivolities of Watteau were the fashion, and 
 gave lasting imprint to the Louis XV period. 
 
 During the late years of Louis XV, and while 
 the wildest extravagances were being encouraged by 
 him, his favorite, Du Barry, and her satellites,, his 
 grandson was exploring the sciences. 
 
 The Dauphiness was a picture of refinement amid 
 ribaldry, culture amid chicanery, but she held aloof 
 from contamination, and the style known later as the 
 Louis XVI was a style which reflected Marie An- 
 toinette's personality. 
 
 Louis XV Details. 
 
 ISO 
 
A MANTEL PLACE AT VERSAILLES. LOUIS XV. 
 
Boudoir of Alarie Antoinette ; Louis XVI — Transition. 
 
 LOUIS XVI 
 
 17 7 4-1793. 
 
 HERCULANEUiM, for centuries buried beneath 
 the ashes of Vesuvius, was discovered about 
 1709. By 1748 Pompeii also had beeiTdis- 
 covered and excavations were successfully undertaken 
 in both cities. 
 
 The antiquities 
 brought to light aroused 
 great enthusiasm among 
 French artists and in the 
 latter half of the reign of 
 Louis XV this purely 
 classic feeling, this restor- 
 ation of pure Hues, Pom- 
 peiian lines, was strongly 
 in evidence. 
 
 In the closing years 
 of Louis XV's regime, the 
 style had fully developed, 
 and it continued under 
 Louis XVI, to which 
 period its development is 
 popularly attributed. 
 
 The Louis XVI style 
 was a reversion to the 
 early classic. It came back 
 to the straight legs of the 
 early Louis XIV, but fol- 
 lowed the models of the 
 
 Costnme and Furniture of the Louis XVI period. 
 
 architectural columns, rounded, but smaller at the base 
 or foot instead of smaller at the^top. No longer did 
 they use curved lines, the S shapes or the exaggerated 
 curves in the acanthus forms. There was a well-de- 
 fined effort to purify dec- 
 oration, which had run the 
 limits of extravagance. 
 Moreover, the petit salon 
 and boudoir had become 
 fashionable, hence a de- 
 mand for reduced propor- 
 t i o n s , daintier figures, 
 smaller furniture. The 
 tastes of Marie Antoinette 
 were simple and her judg- 
 ment and patrol age stim- 
 u 1 a t e d the new styles, 
 which following the lines 
 of least resistance, 
 adopted the classicism dis- 
 played in the Restoration 
 work at Pompeii. So 
 strong did this feeling be- 
 come that notwithstanding 
 the fanatical hatred and 
 destructiveness which fol- 
 lowed in the path of the 
 Revolution, the style con- 
 
 iSi 
 
LOUIS XVI FURNITURE DETAILS 
 
LOUIS XVI 
 
LOUIS XVI 
 
 tinned through the Transition or Directoire and into 
 the period of the Empire. We find the same spirit in 
 the English styles of the Brothers Adam, Hepplewhite 
 and Sheraton, modified but undisguised. Pagan deities, 
 masks and caryatides were replaced by suggestions of 
 pastoral simplicity : flowers, ribbons, festoons and the 
 depiction of peasant life, a little unreal in the diminu- 
 tive waist and high-heeled shoes and coiffures of the 
 shepherdesses, but dainty and charming. Chinese lac- 
 quers were much in vogue and Chinese pictorial and 
 scenic designs. 
 
 De la Londe published thirteen books of design 
 during the Louis XVI period which he called "The 
 Classic Taste." His work showed a fondness for the 
 fluted leg laced with ribbon. He utilized the bow 
 and quiver, the urn, lyre, garland, burning torch and 
 the ribbon in many forms. Le Prince was particularly 
 fond of pastoral accessories, groups of big pots, shep- 
 herd's crooks, spades, trowels, bird cages, thrown to- 
 gether in bunches with garlands and ribbons. Some- 
 times the oval frames of his chairs are supplemented 
 by a quiver of arrows or a garland of roses wherein 
 doves are nestled. 
 
 Salembier's books are devoted to the description 
 of ornamental trailing foliage, the arabesque, the acan- 
 thus, and the thistle leaf. Although these are motifs 
 which appeared for a hundred years previously they 
 are treated now in a more delicate fashion. And this 
 characteristic marks the style of the whole period — 
 
 delicacy, minuteness, grace. Vases were reproduced 
 after the fashion of the vases discovered in the restor- 
 ation, all Greek or Early Roman and all slender and 
 graceful. 
 
 In textiles we find ribbons and stripes inter- 
 mingled with flowers, winding ribbons and feathers, 
 medallions, columns, lyres, and occasionally heads of 
 Minerva or other classic subjects ; and ever conspicu- 
 ous was the stripe. Indeed Mercier in 1788 wrote, 
 "Everybody in the King's cabinet looks like a zebra." 
 To be sure Madame Pompadour had already set the 
 fashion for stripes, but Marie Antoinette sprinkled 
 her stripes with flowers and interwove them with 
 ornaments. It is a singular fact that while the Ger- 
 mans did little for their own country they established 
 through Riesener and Roentgen the fame of Louis 
 XVI furniture. Riesener was particularly happy in 
 his marquetry, introducing often painted porcelain, 
 chiselled copper and Sevres plaques. Roentgen's mar- 
 quetry also was full of the most minute shadings and 
 he together with a number of other noted cabinet- 
 makers followed the Boule (Boulle) style, and also 
 utilized plaques and china. 
 
 At this period it is sometimes difficult to find the 
 dividing line between the beds and sofas. Frequently 
 the head and footboards were of equal height and 
 exactly alike. The canopy was erected at the side in- 
 stead of the head of the structure. They were some- 
 times upholstered, sometimes lacquered, frequently 
 
 Louis XV Terminals. 
 
> 
 
 w 
 
 I— I 
 
 O 
 
LOUIS XVI 
 
gilded or all white and paneled with cane or left in 
 natural wood, ornamented with bronze, gilt or per- 
 haps ormolu. 
 
 Muslins, prints and silks were profusely used 
 for curtains, trimmed with cords and tassels. The 
 beds were usually curtained. Cornices were used 
 gilded and lacquered or white and gold. The com- 
 mode became popular and was often made of ma- 
 hogany or amaranth wood. The console or pier table 
 held its place, but was composed of straight lines, 
 
 with fluted legs, tapered. In the boudoir we find the 
 Chinese lacquer as well as the Vernis-Martin. Flower 
 tables were popular, writing tables, work tables, card 
 tables, and in this period was introduced also the 
 extension table. Dining-room chairs frequently had 
 cane backs or were covered with material to match 
 the walls. 
 
 Low ottomans were introduced, and while all 
 kinds of carpets were utilized Moquettes were the 
 most popular. 
 
 \^m mi:: 
 
 Louis XVI interior. 
 
 157 
 
Louis XVI, ht&ry and formal. 
 
APARTMENT OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, FONTAINEBLEAU. 
 
t3 
 
 pq 
 W 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 2 
 O 
 f^ 
 h) 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 W 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 »; 
 
 w 
 o 
 
 X 
 
The Classic feeling, Early Eighteenth Century : Upper illustra- 
 tion, Louis XVI; on the left, Sheraton; above, Hepplewhite. 
 
Showing the ilt-'taohcd us dislinyuisliod from tin.- coiiiu'clcd classic cumpositions of the Uircctoire and Adam work. 
 
 TRANSITION— DI RECTO I RE— EMPIRE 
 
 FoUtwing Louis X\'I, the Revolutionary Period, 1793-1795. Directorate, 179S-1799. 
 
 Consulate, 1799-1804. Empire, 1804-1814. 
 
 THE period immediately be- 
 fore and after the Transition 
 French was inspired by a 
 common enthusiasm, the French 
 and English developing the feeling 
 contemporaneously. The English 
 cabinetmakers, with the exception 
 of Chippendale, who af- 
 fected in many instances 
 the Rococo spirit applied 
 to Dutch structural lines, 
 were especially active in 
 this new classic school. 
 In France 
 David was the 
 genius whose taste 
 prevailed at the 
 close of the Louis 
 X\T period. 
 Coming at this time, when the political atmos- 
 phere was unfavorable to the presentation of the styles 
 of Louis X\'], David found ready acceptance for 
 his Rendition of the classic revival. He had studied 
 in Rome, where al^o the brothers Adam of England 
 had spent much of their early lives and naturally were 
 interested in the restoration work in the hurried cities. 
 Thus the development which followed Louis XVI in 
 France, as well as the contemporary period in Eng- 
 land, was saturated with the Italian spirit. 
 
 The art was Pompeiian idealized. 
 
 Following the Louis XVI period came the Revo- 
 
 Prench Directoire 
 
 lutionary, from 1793 to 1795; then what is known as 
 the Directoire, 1795 to 1804. This period, properly 
 called the Transition, carried the delicate Pompeiian 
 classicism of late Louis XVI into the more masculine 
 type of the Empire. 
 
 It was a period that frowned upon all that was 
 of royal suggestion, and designers and decorators en- 
 deavored to procure a style essentially new. The 
 Transition period was largely Roman; but with Na- 
 
 Empire. 
 
 i6i 
 

 tti>'^i|.«JX'^j^«g^'im'»^4.»-?t'^J^.A'^^^^ 
 
 liiuyiry. 
 
 poleon we had not only the inspirations of Italy but 
 Egypt. In woodwork there was little or no carving. 
 The decorative motifs were classic appliques on mas- 
 sive frames ; the wreath and laurel branch, the torch, 
 Napoleonic bee and crown became conspicuous ; winged 
 figures were popular as emblematic of liberty ; heads 
 of helmeted warriors, trophies of lances surmounted 
 by the Phrygian cap were significant details. 
 
 'After the 
 Italian and 
 Egyptian wars 
 the French 
 adopted boldly 
 all that was sig- 
 nificant of con- 
 quest. Occasion- 
 ally we find the 
 sphinx carved 
 into the arms of 
 the chairs, a re- 
 minder of the. 
 French expedi- 
 tion in Egypt. 
 
 The furni- 
 ture was of ma- 
 hogany, r o s e - 
 wood and ebony, 
 with brass 
 mountings. 
 Sometimes 
 the wood was in- 
 laid. Vases 
 found in tombs 
 were introduced 
 and the p a n - 
 ther's muzzle 
 and claw and 
 other chimerical 
 devices were in- 
 troduced. 
 
 In some 
 cases Egyptian- 
 and Roman ex- 
 am p 1 e s were 
 copied without 
 alteration. 
 
 It was a 
 style that was 
 
 Empire. Napoleon's room in the Grand Trianon. 
 
 massive, ponderous and ostentatious, and may be 
 broadly designated as modern classic. 
 
 Examples of ceremonial work are apt to be pomp- 
 ous, but private work along the Empire lines was usu- 
 ally no more afifected by what might be called national 
 motifs than American home decoration is influenced 
 to-day by the star-spangled banner or the spreading 
 eagle. While it is true the flambeau and wreath are 
 
 characteristic of 
 the- Empire 
 epoch, their ab- 
 sence is not in- 
 consistent with 
 pure Empire. 
 
 Furniture 
 ornament gilded 
 or made of cast 
 brass is not in it- 
 self a positive in- 
 dication of the 
 Empire period, 
 but classic forms 
 in metal orna- 
 mentation denote 
 Empire. 
 
 The spirit 
 of the Empire 
 was influenced 
 by a revival of 
 the more digni- 
 fied and pomp- 
 ous characteris- 
 tics of Roman 
 ornament, and 
 its detection de- 
 p e n d s on the 
 stately assemb- 
 ling of various 
 decorative units 
 in orderly and 
 oft repeated 
 forms as distin- 
 g u i s h e d from 
 the more c o n - 
 nected and elab- 
 orate ensemble 
 effects of the 
 Directoire style. 
 
 163 
 
i64 
 
EMPIRE 
 
IgjfJ,-. - , '■ 
 
 Examples of exquisitely-colored floral motifs, Indian. 
 
 PRINTED FABRICS AND PAPER 
 
 Don ie M..II 
 
 WHEN one thinks of the steam-driven me- 
 chanically engraved cylinders of the mod- 
 ern print factories, it seems incredible that 
 so much could have been achieved by the primitive 
 methods of the Persian and Indian printers, who 
 in the late Seventeenth Century supplied all Europe 
 with chintzes and 
 calicoes. 
 
 There is no 
 doubt that color 
 printing was 
 known to the early 
 Egyptians, 
 Persians, and 
 Chinese. Ancient 
 Mosul in the early 
 Christian Era was 
 famous for its 
 muslins ; and col- 
 ored fabrics, 
 printed, as well as 
 painted, were used 
 in Europe at an 
 early age, impossi- 
 ble to fix definitely 
 by any reliable 
 data. Block print- 
 ing on fabrics was 
 undertaken in 
 Italy during the 
 Thirteenth 
 
 Century. In the Fourteenth Century printed linens 
 were made in Flanders. 
 
 Painted cloths with stories or legends came into 
 use during the time of Henry IV, England, early in 
 the Fifteenth Century; some of them were intended 
 doubtless as mcjdels for tapestries; at a little later' 
 
 (!! period they were 
 15AUisKf Be .iouY„it,:.., vi ' dyed and painted, 
 
 possibly stenciled 
 and printed. 
 
 The Portuguese, 
 early in the Six- 
 t e e n t h Century, 
 1530, imported 
 "painted" h a n g - 
 ings from the East, 
 but whether done 
 by hand Or by pro- 
 c e s s and whether 
 or not the term 
 "painting" might 
 now be regarded 
 as printing, is a 
 question. It is a 
 noticeable fact that 
 the French n a m e 
 for the early imi- 
 tation of chintz 
 was Parses, u n - 
 doubtedly relating 
 to the Persian 
 
 Toile de Jouy, engraved from museum example. 
 
 i66 
 
'^iTT^^^'*'" ■''■""rf-^^'T'i^ W'-''^^-?*-rt- -sj*!-' 
 
 "-,-, ba 
 
 VSti 
 
 
 
 ^J 
 
 I'rom an Indian cotton-printer s book of patterns. 
 
 origin of chintz, a fact reasonable to conclude when 
 you consider that Persia was open to commerce at a 
 period a little earlier than India or China. 
 
 \\'hile we are accustomed to examples of extra- 
 ordinary richness of furniture and fabric during the 
 reigns of Louis XIV and Louis X\' — years of great 
 decorative wealth — it is a fact little known that 
 printed linens or painted linens, comrrionly called 
 India prints, became so popular in France and 
 threatened so seriously the prosperity of the silk trade 
 that many French factories took up the manufacture, 
 and Colbert, to 
 protect his pet 
 organization, pro- 
 hibited in 16 8 6, 
 under pain of 
 severe penalty, 
 either the m a n u - 
 facture or importa- 
 t i n of printed 
 linen. Neverthe- 
 less they were 
 m a n u f a c 
 tured clandestinely 
 and persistently 
 until finally the 
 authorities i n s t i - 
 tuted a plan of 
 searching for and 
 burning everything 
 in the nature of a 
 printed linen. 
 
 But the popu- 
 larity of the fabric 
 was too much for 
 the law to c o p e 
 
 JVA- 
 
 .t.l}-HUET« r;-».-^*iftit. 
 
 Intricate design worked out in colors; Jouy, 1745-1811. 
 
 with. Even Madame Pompadour herself had her 
 chateau at Bellevue decorated with contraband prints. 
 The term "painted" linen is often confusing. In 
 1759, when the French ministry decided to authorize 
 the manufacture of linens and cottons, the French in- 
 dustry may be said to have started, because heretofore 
 all that was done was done surreptitiously. By 1789 
 a hundred factories were in operation and Christopher 
 PhiHp Oberkampf, a German, had developed some 
 new methods at Jouy, near Versailles. He introduced 
 the "resist" method. The pattern was printed and 
 
 then the whole 
 fabric was dipped 
 in a dye; a deep 
 red, for instance. 
 Again the fabric 
 was submerged in 
 an acid bath which 
 withdrew the red 
 color wherever it 
 touched the lines 
 of the chemically 
 printed design, 
 leaving the natural 
 linen color. But 
 at the beginning 
 of the industry 
 they knew only 
 one mode of print- 
 ing — that of the 
 Orientals. The 
 linen was laid on 
 a table and the 
 workmen pressed 
 upon it by hand a 
 block of wood 
 
 167 
 
PRINTED FABRICS AND PAPER 
 
 engraved with the outHne of the design. The piece 
 then passed through the hands of the brushers, or 
 painters, who filled them in with a brush of various 
 colorings. 
 
 More slowly did they conceive the idea of print- 
 ing uniformly certain colors with the aid of second 
 plates which overlaid the lines or the outlines of the 
 first plate. In 1780 printing by copper plates made 
 its appearance. They were deeper plates and finer. 
 
 By . 1797 such progress had been made that by 
 cylinder printing, which at this date was introduced, 
 they were able to print in one day, on one machine, 
 the work ordinarily accomplished by forty-two .block 
 printers. 
 
 And now began not alone the art but the industry 
 of linen printing. The vast amount of material now 
 turned out was naturally of the French Transition or 
 Empire character. France, during the period of 
 Louis XV and Louis XVI, was rich in printed linens 
 and they were used in enormous quantities. 
 
 Paper in quantity or size was not made until the 
 Twelfth Century, and even then 13x26 inches was 
 considered a large sheet. The first mention of rag 
 paper we find is in Cluny, 1122. 
 
 Nobody knows when the first examples of wall- 
 paper were made in Europe, but if the record of 
 Herman Schinkel, the Dutch printer, is correct — that 
 he actually made wall-paper in Holland in 1568, 
 "printing roses and stripes on the back of common 
 ballad paper and applying it as a covering for his 
 . attic walls," he was undoubtedly inspired by some- 
 thing he had seen or heard of, possibly by the cloth 
 prints of early Flanders ; possibly by the "Domino" 
 papers of Italy or by the Portuguese imports, because 
 it is fair to conclude that Indian or Persian papers 
 had been introduced by the Portuguese traders fol- 
 lowing Albuquerque's settlements in Persia, 1505. The 
 Dutch were not active in the East until the downfall 
 of Spain and Portugal in 1600. 
 
 To be sure we have heard of Jehan Boudichon 
 and his fifty rolls of wall-paper for the King's bed- 
 chamber in 1481, but they were not rolls as we under- 
 stand the term; at that time paper was made in 
 squares about 36 x 15 inches. Continuous lengths were 
 not made until 1780-1800. The Boudichon papers 
 were scrolls and not fastened to the walls. We have 
 heard of colored papers for decorations at the time 
 of the entrance of Louis XIII into Lyons in 1507. 
 They were pictures on paper not applied to the wall, 
 but loosely hung. 
 
 The term "domino" was Italian and used in Italy 
 in the Fifteenth Century in relation to marble prints. 
 At first the paper was used only for box linings and 
 was usually stained irregularly, but French taste in- 
 troduced arabesques and finally figures and the manu- 
 facture continued steadily and developed eventually 
 
 to papers of larger size, and we have record, 1586, of 
 marbled papers and papers of all colors, and printed 
 with figures. 
 
 By 1700 there was hardly a house in Paris that 
 did not utilize this domino work on walls or screens. 
 They were printed from blocks of pear wood, finished 
 off in distemper colors, or dusted with powder, or 
 finished with a flock in imitation of flock cloths, some- 
 times referred to as velvets. In 1787 we find a de- 
 cree of the King declaring that the art of painting 
 and printing paper used in furnishings was a depend- 
 ence of the governing board of the Merchants-Pape- 
 tiers-Dominotiere-Feuilletinere, which shows that the 
 term "domino" still clung. 
 
 We take exception to the theory that the Chinese 
 were the first makers of wall-paper or that the Dutch 
 were the first importers. The fact that a printer in 
 Delh made paper in 1568 predisposes one to believe 
 that something of the sort had been already intro- 
 duced. Indeed we know that "domino" papers were 
 already made in Italy. Plowever, Chinese trade had 
 not been opened at that early date, but the Portuguese 
 early in the Sixteenth Century traded in Persia and 
 India. There is no authentic record of Chinese paper 
 until the reign of Louis XIV, 1643, when we began 
 to hear of "pagoda" paper for walls. 
 
 Towards the middle of the Eighteenth Century 
 wall-paper manufacture began to develop in France 
 and England-. It is probable that the first factory was 
 set up in France in 1746. The industry thrived, but 
 Chinese papers continued in popular use. Some of 
 them, highly artistic, were utilized by the wealthy 
 classes. Exquisite compositions of foliage and flow,- 
 ers, birds and butterflies, landscapes, water and sky 
 scenes, the work of the Japanese as well as the Chinese. 
 The paper was printed upon squares ; continuous rolls 
 were not undertaken until about 1790. The perfected 
 process, was patented in England about 1800, but our , 
 American records show that paper made in the roll 
 was advertised in this country in 1790. There is no 
 reason to assume that we were behind the times ; there 
 was wealth in America and the wealthy classes, even 
 at this early date, enjoyed the latest luxuries from 
 Europe. 
 
 Rococo. 
 
 1 68 
 
QUEEN ANNE, 1702-1714 
 
 W 
 
 HILE the term 
 Queen Anne begins 
 naturally w i t li i\w 
 reign of Queen Anne, 1702, 
 it had its inception witli the 
 close of the Jacobean. We 
 have illustrated already a 
 number of examples of late 
 Sevenlecnth Century Enghsh 
 furniture, which brings us up 
 to the period 1702. The in- 
 fluences of Louis XI\' were 
 disseminated both in Holland 
 and England by Marot and 
 Ho8*th type of Queen ^^^^^^ p^gnch artists, who had 
 Anne chair. r , , 
 
 fled in 
 
 ItiS."; at the 
 time of the Revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes. Unlike the turned 
 work, the bulbous forms of the 
 ^periods from Charles II to W'ill- 
 iam and Mary, we have the 
 terminals, the cabriole leg, the 
 stretchers and frequently the 
 pediment forms of the 
 French. The smooth splat is 
 always a Queen Anne char- 
 acteristic. The smooth 
 stretcher instead of the carved 
 and ornamented stretcher of 
 the Charles II period was a 
 natural development. There 
 were probably no smooth 
 
 splat-back chairs before 1700. There was probably 
 no smooth cabriole leg until 1702. 
 
 While the cane chair was found in the beginning 
 of Queen Anne's reign it had been identified with 
 earlier work and was, subsequent to 1700, succeeded 
 by upholstering of a substantial kind. Flat uprights 
 were also used in the backs of the chairs .which were 
 now more comfortable than in previous epochs, being 
 not only shaped to the back, but divested of carvings. 
 The seat became broader and the top corners of the 
 back were rounded. Shell details were conspicuous. 
 The claw and ball finally came in about 1708. To the 
 comfort-giving qualities of the smooth-backed, full- 
 seated chair were added comfortable upholsterings, 
 and the grandfather chair became popular, a form that 
 was begun as far back as 1680, but was not developed 
 to the full until well into the Queen Anne regime. 
 
 Double chairs or small sofas, called "love seats," 
 were only wide enough for two. The sides were 
 often in wings and when these wings extended very 
 high they were called draught-chairs. The width of 
 
 
 wm^^'^^m 
 
 Queen Anne "Love Seat.' 
 
 the chair seals at this time was due largely to the 
 flaring, voluminous costumes worn both by the women 
 and the men. 
 
 As far back as 1680 we find many examples of 
 record where the cabinetmaker has not used stretchers 
 between the legs of his chairs, but one may say ap- 
 proximately that the use of stretchers was practically 
 abandoned by 1708. 
 
 The tendency to simplicity of form expressed in 
 the furniture was extended to other woodwork of the 
 room. Over-door fitments were frequently of simple 
 pediment type. The woodwork was in most cases 
 walnut. There are records of mahogany as early as 
 1708, but its use was unusual. Gilt ornament and 
 marquetry and gilt furniture were common. A great 
 deal of Chinese wall-paper and 
 Chinese and Indian prints was 
 used. 
 
 Commercialism prevailed to 
 an extraordinary degree and both 
 the Dutch and the English East 
 Indian Trading Companies were 
 active. At this period 
 America naturally felt the 
 effects of this commercialism 
 and the colonies were satu- 
 rated with the Queen Anne 
 spirit. Indeed, to appreciate 
 fully the Colonial furnishings 
 at this time one must under- 
 stand the Colonial relations 
 with the mother country, for 
 while many American cabinet- 
 makers, upholsterers and decorators thrived in the 
 larger cities of the new country they accepted the fash- 
 ionable dictates of Europe and conformed to the con- 
 temporary styles. 
 
 "While much Colonial 
 furniture approximated the 
 Queen Anne type, the same 
 is true also of practically 
 the entire Georgian period, 
 so that any attempt to fix 
 Colonial by its resemblance 
 to Queen Anne alone is apt 
 to be misleading. 
 
 ■fBP 
 
 A Late Queen Anne Card Table. 
 "Cards in 1730 were the re- 
 source of all the world. Every 
 night for hours kings and 
 queens of England sat down and 
 handled their majesties of 
 spades and diamonds." — 
 Tliackeray. 
 
 i6g 
 
IN THE QUEEN ANNE PERIOD. 
 Bed in which Queen Anne slept on the occasion of her visit to Brympton. The bed is entirely covered with rose damask. 
 
IN THE QUEEN ANNE PERIOD. 
 
 Walnut bed, 1710, double frieze carved and gilded. Back is in four panels. 
 
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 ca -h 
 
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 -a 
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 "a 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 c 
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 ^ 
 
I— I 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 2 
 
 < 
 
 2 
 W 
 W 
 
 cy 
 
 < 
 U 
 
 >! 
 
 H 
 
QUEEN ANNE 
 
QUEEN ANNE 
 
 Queen Anne Chairs. 
 
 The term Colonial means anything from Jacobear 
 to the end of the colonies and even beyond. 
 
 Indeed for a 
 quarter of a cen- 
 tury after the 
 close of the colo- 
 nies we h a \' e a 
 definite style, 
 called late Colo- 
 nial or sometimes 
 Jeffersonian, that 
 is simply a reflec- 
 tion of the French 
 Empire, the same 
 type being adopt- 
 ed in England by 
 Thomas Hope. 
 1 The term Colo- 
 nial covers a wide 
 ■ range of thought. 
 It was during 
 
 the Jacobean pe- 
 riod that the first 
 
 settlers landed in 
 
 New England. 
 During the? 
 
 commonwealth 
 
 p e r i o d of 1653- 
 
 16 5 9, Virginia 
 
 and Maryland 
 
 profited by the 
 
 Royalist classes, 
 
 out of power in 
 
 England and 
 
 many of whom 
 
 were in exile. 
 During the 
 
 Queen Anne p e - 
 
 riod, which may 
 
 be said to have had its inception with Charles II, 1660. 
 
 the English laws restricted American imports to Eng- 
 land, and a great deal of East India goods came into 
 this country through English channels. 
 
 In 1685 the Edict of Nantes caused French emi- 
 gration, but it was not until later under George III 
 that the French spirit had any material influence. 
 
 In considering the Colonial style we must always 
 analyze it. We must determine always date and locale. 
 The Cottage Colonial of New England, late in the 
 Seventeenth Century, had nothing in common with the 
 Ceremonial Colonial of the late Eighteenth Century. 
 The styles covered a period of two hundred years. 
 We copied from the English, the Dutch and the 
 French. We benefited by the imports from Asia, par- 
 ticularly from the East Indies, and beginning about 
 
 the middle of the 
 Eighteenth C e n - 
 tury, from China. 
 There was wealth 
 here in many of 
 the cities and a 
 fashionable e 1 e - 
 ment that profited 
 by the best that 
 Europe afforded. 
 History tells 
 us of the progress 
 of the American 
 nation, and with 
 the knowledge of 
 the time and the 
 classes we c a" n 
 
 Queen Anne interior, showing characteristic furniture and draperies. 
 
 turn back to European chronology 
 and fix pretty definitely the char- 
 acter of the Colonial style. 
 
 On the left, Queen Anne chair seats. 
 
 «7S 
 
 Georgian. 
 
THE TRADES IN THE GEORGIAN PERIODS 
 
 EARLY in the century the gardens of the Em- 
 peror of China had been described by architects 
 to assist the taste in landscape gardening. In 
 1750 William Halfpenny produced a book of new de- 
 signs for Chinese temples, triumphal arches, garden 
 seats, and he says that at that time Chinese manner of 
 building was already introduced in England with suc- 
 cess. Another book, by Edwards and Darley, which ap- 
 peared four years later, was overcrowded with Chinese 
 suggestions, particularly frets. 
 
 The work of Mathias Darley belongs more prop- 
 erly to the post-Chippendale period because it was more 
 in sympathy with the Adam school. 
 
 Were it not for the literature of the times, the 
 catalogues issued by the various cabinetmakers and 
 even the architects, we would know little of the 
 subject. 
 
 We know that besides the great masters there was 
 an organization called the Society of Upholsterers and 
 Cabinetmakers, doubtless composed of many capable 
 men. A volume issued by this body is undated, but 
 probably came out before Chippendale's book, "The 
 Director." 
 
 Horace Walpole's interest stimulated the public 
 
 taste for the Gothic style and no book was complete 
 without designs for Gothic furniture; the "Society of 
 Upholsterers," published probably about 1750, was full 
 of Gothic suggestions. 
 
 Manwaring claimed that his book, published 1765, 
 showed the first suggestion for rural furniture made 
 from twisted limbs of the yew and apple trees. Man- 
 waring seems to have imitated all that was weak in 
 Chippendale. 
 
 Ince and Mayhew published a book that seems 
 like a caricature of the Chippendale style, and adopted 
 all that was flamboyant and exaggerated. They illus- 
 trated card tables with places for counters and stands 
 for candles. 
 
 The English architects, decorators and cabinet- 
 makers from the time of Inigo Jones developed rapidly. 
 He with John Webb, Edward Carter, and Nicholas 
 Stone, expressed the Italian spirit up to Cromwell, 
 1653. Sir ^Christopher Wren, Nicholas Hawksmoor, 
 Sir John Van Brugh and James Gibb became famous 
 up to and into the period of George I. From this 
 point we can classify the great leaders as Early 
 Georgian, Middle Georgian and Late Georgian. 
 
 EARLY GEORGIAN. 
 
 Period of George I, 1714-1727. 
 
 FTogarth, artist and critic, 1697-1764. 
 
 Grinling Gibbons, 1648-1721. 
 
 Sir Christopher Wren, 1632-1724. 
 
 Nicholas Hawksmoor, 1666-1736. 
 
 Isaac Ware, published "Complete Body 
 of Architecture," 17S0. 
 
 James Gibbs, 1694. 
 
 Sir John Brugh (contemporary). 
 
 Colin Campbell, published many books, 
 1781, 1795, 1798. 
 
 Richard Harris, first connected the 
 pendulum with a clock movement, 1641. 
 
 Thomas Archer (contemporary of Kent). 
 
 Abraham Swan, published "The British 
 Architect," \745. 
 
 William Kent, painter, architect and de- 
 signer, 1684-1748. 
 
 W. Jones, published "Gentleman or 
 
 Builder's Companion," 1739. 
 Sir Robert Taylor (contemporary). 
 James Paine, 1725-1789. 
 
 MIDDLE GEORGIAN. 
 
 Period of George II, 1727-1760. 
 
 Thomas Chippendale, 1708-1779; first 
 known plates dated 1753. His "Cabi- 
 netmaker's Director" came out in 
 1754, 1759, 1762. 
 
 Robert Manwaring, published book, 1765. 
 
 Edwards and Darley, published book, 
 1754. 
 
 Ince and Mayhew, published their book, 
 1762. 
 
 Sir William Chambers, published book 
 in 1760. 
 
 Copeland, issued work 1752. 
 
 Isaac Ware, best work about 1750-1756. 
 
 Mathias Lock, issued books, 1752, 1765. 
 
 Thomas Johnson, published volume of 
 designs, 1758. 
 
 J. Crunden, published books 1765, 1770, 
 1776, 1796. 
 
 Milton (contemporary). 
 
 Josiah Wedgwood, famous for plaques 
 and pottery, 1730-1795. 
 
 Overton (contemporary). 
 
 Francesco Bartolozzi, born 1710, re- 
 moved to England, 1767. 
 
 Mathias Darley, published his book 
 
 1754-1769. 
 William Halfpenny, issued a book on 
 
 Chinese architecture and furniture, 
 
 1750. 
 
 LATE GEORGIAN. 
 
 Period of George III, 1760-1820. 
 
 R. & J. Adam published their iirst 
 volume on Italian art, 1764. First 
 general volume of architectural de- 
 tails appeared in 1773, reflecting the 
 classic taste following the discoveries 
 of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 
 
 J. Carter, followed Adam style. 
 
 Antonio Zucchi, painter (worked for 
 Adam). 
 
 Society of London Cabinetmakers, 1770- 
 1800. 
 
 Angelica Kauffmann, ceiling and wood 
 
 painter (worked for Adam). 
 Cipriani, Italian designer; worked in 
 
 England, 1732-1785. 
 Pergolesi, painter, 1775 (worked for 
 
 Adam). 
 
 William Clement, made first long clock 
 
 case, 1780. 
 Columbani, 1775. 
 
 Sheraton, published great book, 1791. 
 Shearer, published book, 1787. 
 Hepplewhite, published book, 1789. 
 N. Wallis, published books of ornament, 
 
 1771. 
 
 George Richardson (contemporary). 
 Thomas Hope, published book in 1807. 
 George Smith, published Ijook in 1808- 
 1826. 
 
 Richard Gillow, 1800; improvements 
 
 and methods of table slides. 
 W. Thomas and Joseph Rose, painters 
 
 and decorators. 
 
 176 
 
Chippendale chair backs. 
 
 GEORGIAN— CHIPPENDALE-CHAMBERS 
 
 
 IN THE reign of the early 
 Georges, beginning 1714, there 
 was a mania for everything 
 French and for the Chinese motifs 
 popularized in England by Sir Will- 
 iam Chambers, to whom the cabinet- 
 makers and architects were greatly 
 indebted. 
 
 Chambers produced nothing 
 strikingly new but adopted much 
 that had gone before. He was de- 
 cidedly un-English. He had 
 made many voyages to East 
 India and had spent much of 
 his time in China studying the 
 habits, customs and architec- 
 ture of the people. 
 
 As early as 1757 Cham- 
 b e r s described a Chinese 
 room: 
 
 The side-walls are matted 
 ^ about three or four feet upward 
 
 from the pavement, the rest being cov- 
 ered with white, crimson or gilt paper ; 
 instead of pictures they hang on them 
 long pieces of satin or paper stretched 
 on frames and painted in imitation of 
 marble or bamboo, on which are writ- 
 ten moral sentences or proverbs. 
 Sometimes they hang a very large sheet 
 of thick paper covered with antique 
 Chinese paintings. The mov- 
 ables consist of chairs, stools and 
 tables, made sometimes of rose- 
 wood, ebony or lacquered work, 
 and sometimes of bamboo only. 
 When the movables are of 
 wood the seats of the 
 stools are often of marble 
 or porcelain. In the cor- 
 ners of the room are 
 stands four or five feet 
 high on which they set 
 plates of citron or other 
 fragrant fruits, branches of 
 coral, vases of porcelain and 
 glass globes containing gold '' '''* 
 
 All Chippendale pieces. Square legs were made by Chippendale about 17S0. 
 
 i;; 
 

 1 1^4^ -r^=^] 
 
 CHIPPENDALE. 
 
 ^^' Diric?rr'"'rtedT7s'/'Vhi'i1l1,'!itr.1 ^'C Chippendale'sfirst known book, "The Gentleman and Cabinetmaker's 
 Uirector, dated 1754. They illustrate three characteristic types, the Qassic, the French and the Chinese. 
 
 178 
 
GEORGIA N— C HIPPENDAL E— C H A M B E R S 
 
 fish, together with a certain weed somewhat resembling 
 fennel. On such tables as are intended for ornament they 
 place landscapes composed of rocks, shrubs and a lily which 
 grows among pebbles covered with water. But among the 
 principal ornaments arc the lanterns, of which there are gen 
 erally four, suspended from the ceiling. 
 
 Chambers had no idea of the effect that his 
 book would have, but the Chinese taste grew to extra- 
 ordinary dimensions. 
 
 In the reign of Queen Anne the custom of panel- 
 ing was partially kept up. The chinineypiece, however, 
 only went half-way up the wall'. White woodwork was 
 affected. Low, marble mantelpieces were used, but 
 with the beginning of the Georgian we had the great- 
 est possible variety of taste — classic, Roman, Turkish, 
 Pompeiian, French. Roy- 
 alty having set the fashion, 
 Chinese also became a 
 special fad. Not only were 
 Summer houses and other 
 buildings erected in C h i - 
 nese style, but it \v a s 
 mixed up with all the 
 ornaments of the period. 
 The walls of the rooms 
 were simply covered 
 with scenes of Chinese 
 life, bridges and boats 
 and impossible stair- 
 cases and mattings and 
 lacquers being abund- 
 antly in evidence. All 
 the furniture was mark- 
 ed by the Chinese influ- 
 ence, and Chippendale 
 
 affected with rare abandon the use of the pagoda, the 
 bell, dragons, and mandarins. Other architects fol- 
 lowed; even Lock, who was a student of the classic, 
 
 followed blindly with 
 Ince, Mayhew and 
 Manwaring, and sat- 
 isfied popular clamor. 
 Rounded wood was 
 used in the bamboo 
 fashion, but of turn- 
 ed beech and painted 
 in imitation of reeds 
 or cane. 
 
 Gothic was also 
 copied, and the flam- 
 boyant French was in 
 evidence. Frequently 
 in a room we find the 
 Chinese spirit com- 
 bined with Louis XV, 
 just as in France this 
 same combination 
 
 was very successfully efifected. 
 Just before the death of 
 George I, in 1727, the el^er 
 Chippendale came to Bngtend- 
 and began making furniture 
 founded upon the Queen 
 ^\nne fashions. He was 
 accompanied by a son, a 
 boy eighteen years of age, 
 also called Thomas Chip- 
 pendale, and the son ab- 
 sorbing the French taste 
 of the Louis XV period, 
 1715 to 1774, soon showed 
 his talent as a carver and a 
 joiner. Chippendale was 
 born 1708 
 
 ember 10 
 
 ppendale 
 
 and buried November 
 Probably he died No- 
 or 11. His first plates 
 dated 1753, and his book "The 
 Gentleman and Cabi- 
 netmaker's D i r e c - 
 tor," came out in 
 1754. The second 
 edition was brought 
 out in 1759, and the 
 third in 1762. This 
 was the first furni- 
 ture catalogue and it 
 sold for sixteen dol- 
 lars a copy. It was 
 issued under the pat- 
 ronage of a long list 
 of subscribers, mem- 
 bers of the nobility as well as cabinetmakers, among 
 them Ince and his partner Mayhew. 
 
 Although Chippendale was successful, he was no 
 more so than others and his reputation was largely 
 posthumous. It is seldom that we find records of his 
 name. Even 
 Walpole, who 
 left many mem- 
 oranda concern- 
 i n g designers 
 and decorators, 
 never alludes 
 to Chippendale, 
 and old Ameri- 
 c a n advertise- 
 ments fail ever 
 to mention his 
 name. His con- 
 temporaries 
 were Manwar- 
 ing, Mayhew, 
 Edwards, Bar- 
 ley, Mathias 
 
 179 
 
GEORGIA N— C HIPPENDAL E— C H A M B E R S 
 
 Lock, Copeland, Thomas Johnson, and Crunden. 
 
 The years of the first George, King of England, 
 were the transition years of wal- 
 nut and mahogany, 1714 to 1727. 
 From 1715 to 1720 Queen-Anne 
 styles became a little more squat 
 and heavy. 
 
 From 1720 to 1730 there 
 was a great deal of elaborate, 
 gilt furniture and about this 
 period we find what is known as 
 the lion pattern, lions' heads on 
 the knees of furniture legs. 
 Sometimes the lion's head or 
 mask is used as a center dec- 
 oration. The lion's paw was 
 used in place of the claw and 
 ball for the foot of the leg. 
 
 As early as 1720 we find 
 veneered mahogany, because 
 from 1715 to 1720 the solid 
 wood was not only very ex- 
 pensive but hard to manipu- 
 late. By 1721 Walpole was in 
 power and set the fashion for 
 mahogany in his use of it for 
 the magnificent doors at 
 Houghton, which he began to 
 build in 1721. Kent was the architect. Much 
 elaborate gilt furniture was used following the models 
 of the Flemish fashions. The splat back was universal 
 but this back was often elaborately carved. Middle- 
 
 Furniture on this page, 
 Chippendale. 
 
 class homes were furnished with furniture simplified 
 by the use of straight legs. 
 
 By 1733, Walpole succumbed to the demands of 
 the cabinetmakers and took the duty 
 ' off mahogany, and from this date ma- 
 hogany became generally 
 used. By 1733 the lion's 
 head was elaborated by 
 the addition of a ring in 
 the mouth. 
 
 By 1735, we find 
 the splat back opening 
 out into slits, sometimes 
 vase shaped. The hoop- 
 ed or rounded top of the 
 back departed and it 
 curled up at the corners. 
 This squaring up of the 
 chair back caught the 
 fancy of the trade gen- 
 erally. It seemed to 
 lighten the appearance 
 of a piece. The cresting 
 also of the back became 
 like a cupid's bow. This 
 bow effect together with 
 the claw - and - ball foot, 
 dates between 1730 and 
 1750. 
 By 1740 the cabriole leg had shed its masks and 
 lion's heads and was carved in low relief with the 
 acanthus and similar effects. The splat-back was now 
 being cut into strap devices which led up to the ribbon- 
 back of 1750. The years 1737 to 1750 saw the rise 
 of Chippendale and the full evolution of the square- 
 backed chair as distinguished from the hooped back. 
 Little by little the back had been punctured; little by 
 little the corners 
 of the back were 
 lifted square. 
 Then the punc- 
 turing of the 
 back b e c a me 
 more compli- 
 cated until it 
 developed finally 
 the ribbon back 
 typical of the 
 late period. 
 
 We note also 
 pierced rails and 
 elaborate orna- 
 mentation, fre- 
 quently uniting 
 Chinese and 
 Louis XV 
 motifs. 
 
 i8o 
 
We illustrate a page of Chippendale, showing the Chinese lattice and the 
 mixture of Louis XV. We also illustrate three chairs above, which are in 
 the Sheraton and Hepplewhite styles, and it will be noticed that the splat in 
 the Chippendale chairs invariably conies down to the back rail of the seat, \ 
 re-enforcing and strengthening the backs, while the backs of the Sheraton 
 and Hepplewhite were above the chair seat always. 
 
 i8l 
 
 \ 
 
CHINESE INFLUENCE IN THE LOUIS XV AND CHIPPENDALE STYLES. 
 
THE CHINESE SPIRIT 
 
 
 -1 f tf' V ~^- 
 
 ;-M-i; 
 
 •^,t</ . \'^ 
 
 
 
 J, ■> , » 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 
 WHILE the pop- 
 ular adoption 
 of Chinese decora- 
 tion in England can 
 
 be attributed to Chambers, the 
 taste was felt as early as Will- 
 iam and Mary, 1689 ; and even 
 earlier in France, 1660, under 
 Mazarin (Louis XIV). In 
 1720 Louis X\' dispatched an 
 embassy to China to encourage 
 greater trade relations, and 
 this step was followed by a 
 rage for Chinese stuffs. 
 
 Japan, on the other hand, 
 
 was a closed country for centuries, and Japanese art 
 was not known to commercial Europe until after 1854, 
 when Commodore Perry, who had entered the harbor 
 a year previously, effected a treaty between Japan 
 
 and the United States, fol- 
 lowed eight months later by 
 Japan's treaty with Great 
 Britain, a year later with 
 Russia, and three years 
 later with I'Vance. 
 
 What we regard as 
 the Chinese spirit i s n o t 
 necessarily pure Chinese. 
 Frequently the Chinese 
 spirit was merged with the 
 Gothic or with Louis XV, 
 or with some other French 
 and English style. 
 
 Indeed the pure 
 Chinese spirit, as shown, 
 particularly in the rugs 
 of China, was seldom 
 seen. The form utilized 
 was the adapted form 
 wherein the Gothic, 
 Louis XV or some con- 
 ventional background 
 was treated in Chinese 
 motifs, plucked from 
 the pottery and pro- 
 jected upon European 
 composition. In the 
 same way the architects 
 reproduced bits of land- 
 scape and laid garden 
 walks and grottoes, 
 from the suggestions 
 found in pottery. 
 
 183 
 
jf ^.,.KB Sa^&,^-£^j iicAs,^jasjaaaEaai:..^Sig'ai^^ss..,ag^^a^;afe-a 
 
 bJ,|.A^J-,^,aX ^.:^^AM^^^^ ^.^^/Aa-^Al Aj^4J,a^JX^■^^ 
 
 ™. 
 
 "*™"f^i"l^n! 
 
 <*V^>^^)"T^^A 
 
 ^" •^■■•M*»T«?W» crtti 
 
 ADAM— CEILING DETAIL FROM AN OLD ENGLISH HOME. 
 
Hcpplewhitc and Sheraton desk, wardrobe and cabinet feet. 
 
 HEPPLEWHITE 
 
 P 
 
 Chippendale's great book, 
 and 
 
 RIOR to Queen Anne 
 chimneypieces were 
 carried to the ceiling 
 as part of the woodtrims, 
 but by 1700 the chimney- 
 piece never went above 
 half the height of a 
 room. White trims were 
 also introduced at this 
 period and have clung, 
 more or less, especially 
 to small rooms requiring greater 
 light, to this day. 
 
 In 1755 Chambers, returning 
 from Italy with Cipriani, brought 
 back a number of Italian sculptors 
 who made mantels. These mantels 
 were put into a house independent 
 of the architect and established a 
 new height, sometimes four, five or 
 even six feet, but independent of the 
 woodtrims and usually marble or other 
 stone. They became an article of 
 general trade and were sold by the 
 fireplace fixture dealers. 
 
 1754. Hepplewhite's book, 1789. Sheraton's Cabinetmaker 
 Upholsterer's Drawing Book, 1791. 
 
 Chippendale Cabinet. 
 
 Another change came with Hep- 
 plewhite when wood mantels were in- 
 troduced. Wreaths of flowers and 
 classic details were painted on natural 
 wood with plaques introduced. 
 Fantastic elegance became the 
 fashion, and plain wood was elabor- 
 ately colored. Satinwood and ma- 
 hogany were mainly used, painted, 
 gilded and inlaid. 
 
 Contrary to the popular belief, 
 glass knobs were not made at this 
 period, but during the late Colonial 
 period in America and introduced 
 later into England, just as the use 
 of mahogany was common in 
 America for many years before 
 utilized by the English cabinet- 
 makers. Inventories and wills in 
 this country dated 1708, refer to 
 mahogany furniture, such pieces be- 
 ing solid and frequently in desks of 
 the Queen Anne style, with claw-and- 
 ball foot and serpentine front. 
 
 Hepplewhite had many contem- 
 
 Hepplewhite and Sheraton examples. 
 
 i8s 
 
HEPPLEWHITE. 
 
HEPPLEWHITE 
 
 poraries, few of whom have 
 survived in history. Among 
 the cleverest was Shearer, 
 a member of the Cabinet- 
 makers' Society. He prob- 
 ably was as well known in 
 his day as Hepplewhite. It 
 is a curious fact that wiiile 
 Hepplewhite's book was 
 full of chairs Shearer 
 makes no reference to a 
 chair, a fact possibly due to 
 an understanding with 
 Hepplewhite to avoid his 
 specialty. Shearer's furni- 
 ture, hke Sheraton's, was 
 full of concealed drawers, 
 hidden receptacles. There 
 were no safe deposit vaults 
 in those days and one had 
 to depend upon the cabinet- 
 maker for devising hiding 
 places. Shearer was not so 
 well educated nor had he 
 the artistic feeling of Hep- 
 plewhite ; his furniture 
 was heavy and he repeat- 
 edly utihzed the Prince of 
 Wales' feathers. His in- 
 
 Hepplewhite chair backs were oval or 
 shield shape and had a curved top. The 
 base was unsupported. Sheraton utilized 
 straight-line effects and where he used the 
 shield shape he broke the curve at the top. 
 
The illustration on the left-hand at the bottom of this 
 
 page is an Adam piece; the second illustration is a Sheraton; the 
 
 third and fourth Chippendale. The illustrations above are by Shearer 
 
The. first and second illustrations represent the hardware used from about 1660 to 1720. The second and third illustrations 
 
 were used in the first half of the Eighteenth Century. The solid drop handles, as shown by illustration S, were commonly used until 
 
 about 1790, at which time the pressed brass became popular, shown in illustration 7. From this date through the Empire and late 
 
 Colonial up to 1820 rosettes with inserted rings were used and in America glass knobs were common. 
 
 genuity in the invention of furniture was quite as great 
 
 as Hepplewhite's. 
 
 It was about this time that the wardrobe came 
 
 in. Hepplewhite produced wardrobes that supplanted 
 
 in practical usefulness the highboy. 
 
 Hepplewhite's chairs were mainly for the room 
 
 known then as the "parlour," a term that has clung. 
 
 We first heard of parlors in the Medieval times 
 when it was part of the common hall but screened off 
 for the privacy of the family. It gradually became a 
 separate room often used as a bedroom. Later it was 
 synonymous with the modern dining-room. Accord- 
 ing to Johnson, 1755, it was "A room for receivings 
 company." Sheraton and Hepplewhite used the words 
 parlor and dining-room as interchangeable terms. The 
 chairs were frequently covered with horsehair in col- 
 ored stripes and check designs, the edges finished with 
 a close line of brass-headed nails ; sometimes they were 
 cane-seated. 
 
 The Duchess chair of Hepplewhite was an ar- 
 rangement of two armchairs facing with a third 
 chair or ottoman placed between them continu- 
 ing the seats along one level and making one piece of 
 furniture. 
 
 High clocks were very popular. The history of 
 clocks would take us back to the Medieval ages — in- 
 
 deed, if specifically dealing with tiinepieces, to the 
 jirehistoric years. Our interest in the subject starts 
 with the first making of household clocks. In the be- 
 ginning of the Seventeenth Century clocks were made 
 at a moderate price and were known as bird-cage, 
 bedpost and lantern clocks. They were the kind that 
 were wound by puUing down opposite ends of ropes 
 on which weights were hung. None of them would 
 run more than thirty hours. The pendulum was not 
 introduced until 1670, and it is at this time that we fix 
 the origin of the grandfather's clock. The bracket 
 clock having a handle on top enabling one to carry it 
 around, came in about 1675. Mantel clocks were 
 another type, introduced at about the time of banjo 
 clocks, so called on account of their shape, .produced 
 ' just after the American Revolution, about 1805, and 
 very popular in America where they originated. 
 
 The Hepplewhite and Sheraton styles followed 
 the Adam tendencies strongly and yet there was in- 
 dividuality in each man's work which gave character 
 eagerly followed by their contemporaries. 
 
 In the mind of the modern decorator the differ- 
 ences are not clear. Broadly considered, while Hepple- 
 white and Sheraton were both influenced by their con- 
 temporary Adam, Sheraton leaned to Louis XVI. 
 
 To simplify the subject we have arranged the 
 characteristics of the two schools in parallel columns. 
 
 On the left, an Adam sideboard; center, Hepplewhite, showing concave corner; on 
 the right, Sheraton showing back rail and characteristic convex corner. 
 
 189 
 
Shearer furniture, with Hepplewhite mirror and chair of the period. 
 
 Hepplewhite. 
 
 I. The Hepplewhite chair backs are as a rule 
 heart or shield shaped, and the bottom is unsupported 
 by any rail. The top of the back of a Hepplewhite 
 chair shows a sweeping curve. 
 
 II. The arms move out with a swing and join 
 the leg as a part thereof. All Hepplewhite work is 
 in sweeps and unbroken lines. 
 
 III. The chair legs are in most cases square. In 
 the inexpensive chairs they are plain or with a simple 
 reed or inlaid at the corners. In some chairs of the 
 better type we find fltited legs. 
 
 A characteristic of rriost Hepplewhite chairs was 
 
 Sheraton. 
 
 I. The SHERATOisrchairback is usually in straight 
 lines and supported by a bottom rail. While occa- 
 sionally Sheraton used a shield back, he broke the 
 sweep at the top by some sharp straight line. 
 
 II. Sheraton arms moved out with a swing and 
 joined the legs as independent parts, pedestal-like. 
 
 III. The chair legs run strongly to the Louis 
 XVI style. Sheraton strengthened the back and ig- 
 nored the under framing of his chairs. He used 
 reeded and fluted legs, twisted pillars, festoons, husks, 
 cornucopias. He carved swags of drapery and flow- 
 
 190 
 
■">^^ 
 
 
 "'-». 
 
 
 yf-;ii>jri^f^-^. 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 \4\i 
 
 <* ' « 
 
 Th 
 
 DRAWING ROOM AT NOSTELL PRIORY. 
 
 e painted panels on either side of the mantelpiece emanated from the hand of the brothers Adam, who reconstructed and decorated the 
 
 room. 
 
HEPPLEWHITE— SHERATON 
 
 the under-framing: Hepplewhite left the back weak 
 and the legs strong. Mahogany and inlays were much 
 used. The seats are upholstered frequently in horse 
 hair, leather, cane, or in any kind of fabric. 
 
 IV. Sideboards were usually made with concave 
 corners because of the decorative effect. 
 
 V. He became famous for his Pembroke tables. 
 He indulged not only in inlays and carving, but in 
 painting, japanning and brought into his services 
 Angelica Kauffmann, Cipriani, and Pergolesi. The pole 
 fire screen was just becoming popular. It was in- 
 tended simply to screen the firelight from a lady's 
 face and the screen itself was frequently no wider 
 than eight or ten inches; a bit of embroidery, a mat, 
 or bit of needle-work. The feet of the pole were 
 loaded with lead to prevent its upsetting. Tea caddies 
 were very popular. The Dutch did not introduce tea 
 drinking until about 1660, and it was fully 1690 when 
 the custom became prevalent. 
 
 VI. Hepplewhite's bookcases were furnished 
 with glass doors, the glass being cut into patterns. 
 They were called traceried doors, the lines or traceries 
 being of mahogany or satinwood, brass or lacquered 
 wood. These traceried forms in Hepplewhite doors 
 were usually angular. 
 
 VII. His pediments over doors or windows were 
 usually fragile and finnicky. 
 
 While Chippendale was one of the first to in- 
 troduce the highboy, Hepplewhite improved it. He 
 made also secretaries, secretary bookcases, bureau 
 bookcases, toilet tables, washstands, chests, shaving 
 stands, side tables, girandoles, wall mirrors, brackets, 
 and innumerable other pieces, all treated from a deco- 
 rative standpoint. 
 
 While bedsteads were draped in anything, Hep- 
 plewhite in his book commends particularly Manches- 
 ter prints to be lined with white cotton. He also 
 recommends specifically green silk as appropriate for 
 mahogany. 
 
 ers; he used the vase and rendered all these motifs 
 beautiful in carving. Occasionally he painted. He 
 introduced the conversation chair, the sort of thing 
 which one straddled facing the back upon which one 
 leans. 
 
 IV. Sheraton sideboards had the added super- 
 structure of a brass railing against which dishes 
 rested. Sometimes the railing was balanced with 
 candelabra, a plan seldom, if ever, adopted by Hep- 
 plewhite, who did not consider comfort and conveni- 
 ence so much as decoration. The interior of the 
 sideboard was full of conveniences. 
 
 Sheraton's sideboards were made with convex 
 corners, thus giving a little more room. In other re- 
 spects many of the Hepplewhite and Sheraton side- 
 boards are almost identical. 
 
 V. His Pembroke tables were furnished with 
 scrap bags. As an instance of his ingenuity one of 
 his tables was called a Harlequin table, so termed 
 because in Harlequin exhibitions there is generally 
 a great deal of machinery introduced. Some of his 
 desks had disappearing drawers and pigeon-holes, 
 leaving a space free for the breakfast table. 
 
 VI. In Sheraton traceried-doors curves were 
 generally utilized, the oval and the vase being fre- 
 quently used as centerpieces. 
 
 VII. Pediments were of a substantial character. 
 
 Sheraton introduced a form of horse screen, a 
 larger lower set piece than the pole screen. Some- 
 times these screens were furnished with swinging 
 toilet boxes on the side, or receptacles for odds and 
 ends of the dressing table, also candle holders. 
 
 While he showed a preference for the round or 
 turned leg for chairs he followed the square shape of 
 the Louis XVI style very largely with his tables, side- 
 boards and other cabinet work. 
 
 His grandfather's clocks were generally inlaid. 
 
 Sheraton's work will frequently be recognized 
 because of its extraordinary ingenuity. He was an 
 inventor and produced many pieces of convertible 
 furniture, tables with concealed stepladders, bureaus 
 with convertible desks. He made many little pieces 
 of utility furniture. He considered not only grace 
 of style but comfort. He anticipated the American 
 roll-top desk by producing something almost iden- 
 tical. 
 
 191 1 
 

 A HEPPLEWHITE INTERIOR 
 
Sheraton's pediments, though showing somewhat the same characteristics as Hepplewhite's, were more substantially constructed. 
 
 SHERATON 
 
 A 
 
 QUICK undcrslanding of the 
 character of Sheraton furnish- 
 ings may be liad in the knowl- 
 edge that Sheraton cabinet \v()ri< was 
 a little more ornamental, a little more 
 profuse, than Ilepplewhite ; the fab- 
 rics used were in harmony ; little fig- 
 ure details of the Louis X\I order 
 I were particularly favored. Both Hep- 
 plewhite and Sheraton upholsterings and draperies 
 were of a light and filmy type and rich in every pos- 
 sible variety of fine weaves. Sheraton leaned toward 
 the French, although the decoration of houses into 
 which the Sheraton furniture entered was frequently 
 in the pure Adam. The styles of Sheraton and Hepple- 
 white were closely associated and the distinction is not 
 always clear. Our previous chapter points to many 
 of the differences. 
 
 Sheraton employed often the lyre form in his 
 chair backs and used a form of needlework in burning 
 or engraving panels of satinwood with rosewood in- 
 laid; all of his work was at first of an original type, 
 but little by little he copied slavishly anything French. 
 He originated intricate ornaments for legs and 
 backs of chairs and turned work as well as inlay was 
 much affected. 
 
 He picked out designs with gildings and employed 
 cameo-hke panels. He suggested in his book that orna- 
 ment may be white and gold, japanned or painted, and 
 
 advised that the cove and ceiling be richly ornamented 
 in paintings and gold. His use of satinwood or white 
 mahogany was extended even to the production of 
 mantelpieces. 1 Lis drawing-room schemes provided for 
 wall panels, mirrors and draperies a little more stiff 
 than those of Hepplewhite, as a foil to the complexity 
 of his furniture details. 
 
 When we consider that Sheraton designed many 
 rooms and furniture for the Prince of Wales, after- 
 wards George IV, and for most of the nobility, we can 
 understand that he was not worried by any considera- 
 tions of economy. 
 
 He confessed to an admiration for Shearer, and 
 there are many examples of simple Sheraton inlay that 
 strongly resemble Shearer. 
 
 Both men made the same little corner washstands 
 and toilet accessories. Sheraton was an extraordinary 
 inventor and not only introduced beautiful pieces, but 
 pieces of great originality and far in advance of the 
 times, full of quaint combinations, hidden drawers, 
 parts that were convertible, turning from one use into 
 another, cleverly hidden accommodations for boxes or 
 writing materials or toilet articles — desks that became 
 dressers and 'fancy tables that became washstands. 
 
 If he had never made a reputation as a cabinet- 
 maker and designer, he would have become famous as 
 a mechanician. 
 
 It was a period when bedrooms were frequently 
 used as sitting-rooms and very many ingenious pieces 
 
 193 
 
Chair and desk, Sheraton; balance probably Hepplewhite. 
 
 of bedroom furniture were concealed in bookcase 
 forms or desks or writing stands. 
 
 E\en waslistands folded up and became cabinets. 
 It is well to remember that in 175<J thousands of silk 
 wea\-ing looms were established in England at Spital- 
 fields, Cheshire, Yorkshire, Essex, Derbyshire, Lan- 
 cashire and Xorfolk-. .Moreo\'er, at this period up 
 to the beginning (jf llie Xineteenth Century an enor- 
 mous lot of Indian silks and cottons were used; in 
 
 1759 the manufactm-e of printeil linens was author- 
 ized and encouraged by the French. ( See page 167. ) 
 Sheraton died in what might almost be called 
 poverty. He ■\vas not a good business man and his 
 style was at its best in the beginning of his career. If 
 he failed to gain material compensation for his art it 
 was because he was unable to progress beyond the 
 limitations which hedged him in and the work of in- 
 numerable competitors who had no hesitation in copy- 
 ing his style. 
 
 194 
 
THE ADAM SPIRIT WHICH INFLUENCED CONTEMPORARY FURNITURE MAKERS: 
 
 HEPPLEWHITE, SHERATON, SHEARER. 
 
Adam furniture in which the classic spirit is emphasized. 
 
 R. AND J. ADAM — 1765-1790 
 
 ROBJ' RT A D A M , the 
 elder of the two 
 brothers, R. and J., 
 was born in Scotland 172S. 
 He was educated in the Uni- 
 \ersity of Edinburgh, studied 
 in Italy under a French archi- 
 tect, became F. R. S. and 
 F. S. A. and before he was 
 forty he was architect to the 
 King of England. He died in 
 1792 and was buried with high 
 honors in Westminster Abbey. 
 His brother was closely identi- 
 fied with him in all his work. 
 
 Hcrculaneum in a purer type than was expressed in 
 the late Louis XVI adaptations, left its deepest im- 
 pressions on ceilings, side-walls and mantelpieces pro- 
 duced under the architects' direction. They were tinted 
 usually in jasper or palest gray colors. Circles and 
 ovals were used as frames for pictures. 
 
 They utilized mythological ornament, the hexa- 
 gon, circle, octagon and lozenge-shaped panel, wreath, 
 fan, medallion, draped or with figures, the sphinx, 
 griffin, sea horse, goat, faun, ram's head, the caryatid 
 and innumerable other classic motifs found in Roman, 
 Pompeiian and Etruscan work. They designed walls, 
 ceilings, mantelpieces, even door knobs, escutcheons, 
 locks — everything that went into a room, including 
 table tops and furniture panels. While they were by 
 
 The Adam broth- 
 ers were not furni- 
 ture makers but 
 architects, decorators 
 and designers, em- 
 ploying Angelica 
 Kauffmann and her 
 husband, Antonio 
 Zucchi, Cipriani, Per- 
 goiesi and a host of 
 others. They built 
 palaces for the nobil- 
 ity, houses for the 
 middle classes, t e r - 
 races, bridges, even 
 streets and squares, 
 and in almost every 
 instance their work 
 was classic. The 
 Chinese craze cropped 
 out now and then, but 
 its popularity waned 
 from the inception of 
 this epoch. Their 
 style, reflecting the 
 spirit of Pompeii and 
 
 Mjft^fc^fcrffcpaMWaiJ* wMi .a« .ijfc^ 
 
 197 
 
AND J. ADAM 
 
 no means furniture makers, 
 the brothers Adam always de- 
 signed furniture to fit their 
 rooms; many sideboards with 
 urn - shaped knife - boxes 
 and classic brackets, ped- 
 estals, clock cases and 
 mirrors were designed by 
 them. They even designed 
 the carriages, the plate and 
 the sedan chair for Queen 
 Charlotte. ' Their style 
 was a complete departure 
 from the massive and p o n - 
 derous compartment ceilings 
 of the Jacobean. Instead 
 they adopted light moldings, 
 delicate stucco frames and 
 painted ornaments. They advanced the theory that the 
 dining-rooms being so often utilized for extended con- 
 versation should be fin- 
 ished with stucco and 
 adorned with statues and 
 painting and never hung 
 with tapestry or d a m - 
 ask, "which retains the 
 smell of the victuals." 
 As a result many of 
 their rooms so largely 
 depending on the work 
 of the painter and sculp- 
 tor" lacked c o z i n e s s . 
 
 They were often circular or semi - circular or 
 with circular recesses. 
 
 By Cipriani. 
 
 Adam 
 
 The g e s s c 
 Italy was adapted and the 
 ceiUngs were part in relief 
 and part painted, the plas- 
 ter being put on cameo- 
 like, with great delicacy. 
 Italian artisans were re- 
 quired for this work, which 
 
 preceded the use of plaques 
 
 and friezes furnished 
 
 for late Adam work by 
 Wedgwood, who caught 
 the Adam craze and 
 commercialized it. The 
 brothers were so earn- 
 est in imparting their 
 spirit to the entire room 
 that they insisted upon 
 even the carpets being 
 in unison with the sur- 
 roundings. The palest 
 tints of color and neutral tints of carpets to match 
 were utilized. Even the table cloths corresponded in 
 
 Paneled side-wall and furniture by Pergolesi. 
 

 
 o 
 
 bo 
 
 a 
 
 
 
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 o ^^" 
 
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 < = '^ 
 
 H .= 
 
 < ^ 
 
 2 = 
 
 o = 
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 Q -5 
 
^ wm^^ i^^^,^ 
 
 n„. V' ..TO-'-^'-^, 
 
 
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 ■^i 
 
 <S3P 'i 
 
 
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 WBMMy^lM^PB0J:0M'fM;uW 
 
 ' UUi-- I f JjJ-HMI ■ »■■ >■»»- 
 
 
 
 pattern and the unity sclicnic wa-- carricil out in the 
 silver plate, the table-tops, even llie -^nulT-l Mixes. 
 
 Their iirst jmljlished voIuuk: oii Italian art is 
 dated 1764; next volume almost purely Pompeiian, 
 
 77.x The iieriuil uf their greatest suecess was con- 
 temporary with Chippendale, I lej .plewhite and Shera- 
 ton. Being primarily arelnteets, their mantels and side- 
 walls are conspicuous ex.ani]iles. Their moldings are 
 usually of simple classic order: the \asc and urn are 
 favorite details, generally accompanied ]<y swags or 
 festoons of drapery, leaves or husks. Wdiile acanthus 
 scrolls and chimerical creatures characterize their 
 
 199 
 
)la ffyyWVg gg^l| ^ IA^^ftfWwW>/yV . r» . V>nfWV\V^A d VW»A/J j| [ jU^ 
 
 I 
 
 Q 
 
 l-l 
 
 in 
 
 < 
 < 
 
 < 
 o 
 
 H 
 
R. & J. ADAM 
 
 work, they were not treated in the heavy Roman 
 school, but with delicacy. Wedgwood ware was fre- 
 quently utilized, in panels and plaques. 
 
 Michael Angelo Pergolesi is responsible for much 
 of the fame which attaches to the name of the brothers 
 Adam. In 1777 Pergolesi published a perfect store- 
 house of Italian designs covering plaster friezes, bor- 
 ders for painting on furniture, doors, sides of rooms, 
 pier tables, settees and silver plate. Often he left a 
 center of his panel work blank to be painted by Cipriani 
 or Angelica Kauffmaiui in scenes of child life or 
 nymphs. The same idea was often repeated in mar- 
 quetry and painted furniture. 
 
 W. Thomas, a contemporary, followed the ,\dam 
 style, together with N. W'allis, Columbani and George 
 Richardson. 
 
 Richardson in 1792 published a work on wall 
 treatment that was exceedingly interesting. He fol- 
 lowed very closely the scenes from Greek mythology or 
 Roman history, and bacchanalian figures and nymphs 
 usually decorated the corners. 
 
 The same thing was frequently done by Zucchi, 
 the Venetian painter, whose fame was gained in Eng- 
 land. His walls were often tints of the lightest char- 
 acter, paneled. 
 
 To fix the relative influences of the conspicuous 
 styles of this period we would explain that the first 
 illustrated book bearing directly on furniture was that 
 
 An Adam lounge or daybed. 
 
 uf W. Jones, who published the "Gentleman or Build- 
 er's Companion" 1739. 
 
 Chippendale's first book was published 1754. 
 
 Adam's influence was approximately 1765-1790. 
 George Richardson's book was published in 1776; 
 Columbani's 1775; John Crunden's 1765, 1768, 1770; 
 Wallis' 1771. 
 
 Hepplewhite's epoch-making book appeared 1789. 
 
 Sheraton published the book which made his 
 name in 1791. 
 
 There were in all four Adam brothers. John in- 
 herited the father's business as architect. R. and J. 
 were the second and third sons, while William Adam, 
 who died in 1822, was the youngest brother. 
 
 Sheraton chair backs and 
 screen which show the 
 influence of the Adam 
 brothers' classic decora- 
 tion. 
 
Oak chair with cresting rail of Oak chair with elaboration and turned Oak chair with sunk seat for cushion. 
 
 Charles II period retained and legs and uprights of William and Turned uprights and legs and curious 
 
 perforated, arched center peculiar Mary period retained and having back showing transition from lath 
 to walnut designs. Qneen Anne splat of 1710. back to splat back. 
 
 Windsor chairs. 
 
 Cricket table of about 1750. 
 
 Lancashire spindle-back chairs. 
 
 Cricket table of about 1700. 
 
Windsor Chairs. 
 
 COLONIAL 
 
 COLONIAL furniture is simply the furniture 
 used in the colonies. We can differentiate in 
 the phases of Colonial furniture by localizing, 
 and then we have New England Colonial, Dutch 
 Colonial, Southern Colonial and the periods Seven- 
 teenth, Eighteenth or Nineteenth Century. 
 
 It is a mistake to assume that Colonial furnishings 
 were necessarily primitive. Historians give ample 
 record of wealth in the Southern States long before the 
 beginning of the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 Pory, writing of Virginia as early as 1617, spoke 
 of the growing wealth of the Southern colonies. 
 
 In 1607 Jamestown was settled by the English ; in 
 1613 New York was settled by the Dutch ; in 1620 the 
 Puritans settled in New England. From 1650 to 1660, 
 during the period of the Commonwealth in England, 
 the Southern States profited by considerable immigra- 
 tion drawn from the Cavalier and Royalist classes 
 then out of power. In 1674 the Dutch settlements of 
 America went into English possession. 
 
 From this record we can form a fair idea of the 
 character of Colonial furniture. The South was in- 
 fluenced by French styles, especially at the period of 
 Charles II when the French styles prevailed in England. 
 
 New York and the Middle States were largely in- 
 fluenced by the Dutch. 
 
 New England took inspiration from all the periods, 
 and from the beginning, skilled craftsmen, joiners, 
 cabinetmakers and carvers settled in New England and 
 during the Eighteenth Century a very small proportion 
 of the furniture used in New England' was imported. 
 New England cabinetmakers were numerous and ex- 
 pert, and New England furniture from 1700 to 1776 
 found a ready sale all through the colonies. The 
 principal woods used were oak, ash, elm, walnut, maple, 
 pine and red cedar. Goods were brought to the colonies 
 so quickly from abroad that the new fashions appeared 
 
 in American homes quite as quickly as in the country 
 houses of England. 
 
 Readers of history need not be told of the great 
 wealth in the country even in the earlier half of the 
 Eighteenth Century. Esther Singleton has gone into 
 this subject very thoroughly and John Fiske, the emi- 
 nent historian, says : 
 
 "The Puritan exodus to New England, which came 
 to an end about 1640, was purely English. Like the 
 best part of the emigration to Virginia, it consisted 
 
 largely of country squires, thrifty and prosperous 
 
 The best part of the New England immigration con- 
 sisted of people prosperous in their old homes, from 
 which their devotion to an idea (religious) made them 
 voluntary exiles." 
 
 Again quoting from this authority : "Up to 1688 
 there were 26,000 New Englanders, and from this num- 
 ber, in the following one hundred and fifty years, there 
 have descended at least one-quarter of the present 
 population of the United States. 
 
 "The laws of the early colonies were discouraging 
 to the poor people, who went to the Barbadoes, Hon- 
 duras or elsewhere. Even as late as 1714 the immigra- 
 tion laws of the New England colonies were strictly 
 enforced, forbidding one to enter who was unable to 
 furnish proof of financial responsibility. During the 
 fifty years preceding the American Revolution there 
 ■ was much wealth in the colonies, measured by the 
 standard of wealth in those days. A fashionable social 
 life centered about the representatives of the Crown, 
 and the pride of the wealthy found expression in hand- 
 somely decorated homes. In Maryland and Virginia, 
 where the High Church adherents and the Catholics 
 settled, there was an aristocratic tendency, the happy 
 combination of climate and agricultural facilities en- 
 abling the people to support a generous style of living 
 as landed gentry." 
 
 203 
 
COLONIAL 
 
 There are no authentic records of mahogany fur- 
 niture in American inventories prior to 1708, but the 
 fact that mahogany was part of the inventories of 
 that date indicates that the wood was used at an 
 earlier period. 
 
 The Colonial styles followed 
 closely the English. We used 
 wall-paper at a time contempo- 
 raneously with that of England. 
 
 Mahogany trims for banis- 
 ters, mantels, cornices and furni- 
 ture were not generally intro- 
 duced until 1750. At that period 
 Isaac Ware wrote : "The decor- 
 ation of an American room is of 
 three kinds ; first, where it is 
 coated with a plastic material 
 shaped into ornamental details ; 
 second, covered by wainscot ; 
 and third, where hung with silks, 
 tapestries or paper." As early 
 as 1745, Charles Hargraves 
 was advertising wall-paper in 
 Philadelphia, and a very few 
 years later Peter Fleeson was 
 making paper-hangings, al- 
 though paper made in the roll 
 did not appear till 1790, the 
 same year it appeared in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 At the Metropolitan 
 Museum there are many examples of excellent Ameri- 
 can-made furniture covering the Jacobean types and at 
 least forty pieces showing Elizabethan influence, the 
 principal characteristics being wainscoting, flat carving, 
 turning, straight legs and heavy underbracing, rails 
 and stiles mortised, and the tenons pinned with wooden 
 
 ing twelve pieces grouped under the first decade of the 
 Nineteenth Century and attributed to Duncan Phyfe, 
 an American cabinetmaker of great skill. 
 
 It is very interesting in this connection to note the 
 fact that small tables were not thought of in England 
 until the abandonment of great 
 halls and the construction of 
 smaller rooms also the introduc- 
 tion of the new drinks, tea, 
 coffee, and chocolate, from 1645 
 to 1658, and at that period they 
 appeared also in this country. 
 
 Chests came over with the 
 colonists, and when the use of 
 chairs became common and the 
 chest was no longer needed as a 
 seat, it was raised upon a trestle 
 •and soon after drawers were in- 
 troduced and we have then "a 
 chest of drawers." 
 
 By way of Holland came the 
 Chinese fashion of lacquering 
 furniture. 
 
 As early as 1650 we find 
 Connecticut quite famous for its 
 chests. One in Hadley, Mass., 
 was provided with a drawer and 
 became a type. So many were 
 made that they became known as 
 the Pladley chest. See illustra- 
 tion. 
 Towards the close of Colonial history we have 
 a type of furniture and furnishings called Late 
 Colonial, which was a development of the Late Em- 
 pire, in France developed by David and in England 
 adopted by Thomas Hope. 
 
 In this country, especially during the Jefferson 
 
 Bedstead, 
 Eighteenth Century, 
 
 pegs. Other periods are also well represented, includ- regime, Latrobe, the decorator and architect appointed 
 
 On the left, chest, Connecticut type, front in three panels, end ones having floral pattern in flat carving, 
 center one divided into four sections with applied moldings and bosses. 
 
 In the center, "Hadley" .chest with one drawer. Front covered with all-over design in flat carving; three 
 sunken panels with conventionalized leaf and flower design. 
 
 On the right, chest with two drawers. Chest part divided into three panels with flat carving. Called the 
 Connecticut pattern. American oak, with top, bottom and back of pine. 
 
 204 
 
COLONIAL 
 
 as surveyor of public buildings in Washington, exer- 
 cised a great deal of influence. He eliminated the very 
 extreme character of the Empire school, the personal 
 elements interpolated by David, and the Egyptian and 
 Roman symbolisms of victory and 
 conquest, and retained the clas- 
 sic simplicity, notably the classic 
 column, and in many cases the 
 eagle's head appeared in the chair 
 backs and as central pediments. 
 If there is any one distinctive 
 form of Colonial furniture it is 
 this form. 
 
 Bureaus, sideboards, tables 
 and sofas became famous and are 
 still popular types of strictly 
 Colonial character. 
 
 Colonial chronology be- 
 gins with James I, but the 
 American homes by no 
 means adhered to the early 
 Jacobean examples in archi- 
 tecture. The side-walls in 
 the Elizabethan and Jaco- 
 bean homes were largely 
 wainscoted and often hung 
 with tapestry. The ceilings 
 were in stuccoes frequently 
 colored, paneled and orna- 
 mented and in heavy relief. 
 These features were not adopted in the colonies. The 
 country was too young. Jacobean furnishings were in 
 other respects in common use, and cotton, linen, 
 chintzes and other fabrics were much utilized. 
 
 Field bed and tester 
 
 Architectural features of the English home began 
 to be copied with Queen Anne, and from that period 
 ddwn to the Georj^nan, we find many homes of dis- 
 tinction in America. 
 
 None more beautiful can be 
 imagined than the Chase House, 
 the Harwood House, the Ham- 
 mond, the Lockorman, the Bryce- 
 Jennings House, Byrd's, Carroll's 
 or hundreds of other homes in 
 Salem, Providence, Bristol, An- 
 napolis and other thriving towns 
 and cities. 
 
 As early as 1774 there was 
 great wealth in the colonies, a 
 condition obvious when we con- 
 sider that it was from private 
 sources that most of the money 
 was obtained that sustained the 
 eight years' war with England. 
 The variety of fabrics 
 produced was unlimited. In 
 silks Spitalfields was a vigor- 
 ous rival to Lyons. From 
 1727 to 1750 innumerable 
 silken fabrics were made, as : 
 brocade lutestring, brocade 
 tabby, brocade tissue, brocade 
 damask, tobine, flowered 
 tabby, figured tobine, .four- 
 comber damask, double tissue, gold stuff, double tabby, 
 brocade satin, Venetian brocade, India figured brocade, 
 tobine tabby, tobine lutestring, and so forth. The style 
 of their patterns closely corresponds with that of con- 
 temporary Lyons silks. 
 
 In East Indian stuffs alone we have a list of forty 
 terms. 
 
 Field bed and tester; on the right, an adaptation of the Wind- 
 sor chair. Early Nineteenth Centiirv. 
 
HSS^ 
 
 1750 
 
 1740-50 
 
 1770-80 : 
 
 In 1759 "flowered damask for furniture" was im- 
 ported. In 1760 "crimson,' blue, gr^en and yellow 
 harrateens with tassels" were imported. 
 
 1762, Indian gimp and biiiding. 
 
 1768, fine'striped lutestring (plain silk) Marseilles 
 quilts. ' ' 
 
 Scarlet and crimson cassimere, calico and dimity. 
 Durance, a stout worsted cloth. 
 Calamanco, a glazed linen stufif. 
 Turkey work, a coarse, plain ground with pattern 
 tufted like a rug pile. Paduasoy, a strong silk. 
 
 Green cloth, crimson 
 
 1770, moreens, stout 
 woolen curtain stuffs. 
 
 Harrateen cloth was 
 made of combing wools. 
 
 Printed cotton, 
 hand-printed, frequently 
 of very large bird and 
 animal designs. 
 
 The earliest example of a Windsofi chair is found in' an old 
 Jacobean interior of Windsor Castle.' ■ It is estimated that the 
 chair dates 16S0. It was a comrrion American article in cottage 
 use in 1700. The illustration in the left-hand upper corner is' 
 the first example found. Immediately below it is the well- 
 known Hogarth chair of about 1720, and to tlie right is a de- 
 velopment of the Hogarth with turned rail 'back and Hogarth 
 splat, about 1720. From tliis directly comes the type in the 
 upper right-hand corner. The large chair is one used by 
 Thomas Jefferson. Until 1830 various kinds of "Windsor chairs 
 were common in America. 
 
 worsted.; red cloth, red 
 darn.ask'.:._ ' , ' ■■' ■'■ ' ' 
 
 S ha llo;on,''soy , 
 watchet, linsey woolsey, 
 fustian. 
 
 Silk muslin; chintz, 
 Indian calico, tabby, sar- 
 canet, taffeta, horsehair. 
 
COLONIAL 
 
 Camak, or Comacoa, was silk and camel's hair 
 mixed. 
 
 Bancours, a kind of tapestry. 
 
 Shalloon was a coarse woolen cloth. 
 
 Darnix or darneck, coarse, taking its name from 
 Dorneck, the Dutch for Tournay. 
 
 Perpetuana (1650), a very durable woolen. 
 
 Damask, first made in Damascus in such a way 
 
 that "what is not satin on one side shows satin on 
 the other side." 
 
 Green and red paly is the heraldic term for alter- 
 nate stripes of these colors. 
 
 Camblet was a woolen, hair or silk twill, some- 
 times waved or watered. 
 
 Tabby, a kind of coarse watered taffeta. 
 
 Seersucker, a thin ridged and puckered material. 
 
 THE FOREIGN INFLUENCE OF COLONIAL STYLES 
 
 Elizabeth. 1558-1603. 
 Jacobean. 1603-1625. 
 
 James I. 1603-1625. (Commencement Stuart Period.) 
 Italian influence. Inigo Jones, dictator of style, 
 1573-1652. 
 1607. Jamestown settled by the English. 
 1613. New York settled by the Dutch, and for many 
 years after India goods were brought over in 
 large quantities. 
 1620. Puritan settlement in New England. 
 
 Charles I. 1625-1649. 
 Louis XIV. 1643-1715. 
 
 Cromwellian. Commonwealth. 1653-1659. 
 
 During the period of the commonwealth, England, 
 Virginia and Maryland profited by the immi- 
 grants drawn from the cavalier and royalist 
 classes, then out of power. 
 
 Charles II. 1660-1685. 
 
 James II. 
 
 1685-1689. 
 1674. 
 
 1680. 
 
 Dutch settlements in America went into Eng- 
 lish possession. 
 
 English laws restricted American imports to 
 England and English possessions. 
 Edict of Nantes caused French immigration to 
 New York, Massachusetts and South Carolina, 
 but influence on decorative arts was trivial. 
 
 William and Mary. 1689-1702. 
 
 Anne. 1702-1714. 
 
 Mahogany discovered (1597) by RaleJgh. 
 into use 1700. 
 
 Came 
 
 Dutch furniture largely imported. 
 
 1702-1714. Dutch furnishings prevailed owing to pop- 
 ularity in England and close political and com- 
 mercial relations between England and Holland. 
 First mention of mahogany in America 1708. 
 
 Gkorge I. 1714-1727. 
 
 Sir Christopher Wren and Grinling Gibbons, 
 famous architects. Sir Christopher Wren and 
 Grinling Gibbons took up the Renaissance move- 
 ment where Inigo Jones left off. 
 
 George II. 1727-1760. 
 
 By 1714 the Colonies had reached that state of. afflu- 
 ence that English styles appeared in American 
 homes as promptly as in the suburbs of Lon- 
 don. 
 
 Louis XV. 1715-1774. 
 
 Louis XVL 1774-1793. 
 
 George III. 1760-1820. 
 
 Noted cabinetmakers and architects: Chippendale, 
 Sheraton, Edwards & Darley, Thomas Johnson, 
 Ince & Mayhew, Manwaring, R. & J. Adam, 
 P. Columbiana, M. A. Pergolesi, George Richard- 
 son, G. B. Cipriani, Hepplewhite & Co. 
 
 George III, developed the work of Chip- 
 pendale, covering the Dutch adaptation of the 
 French and Chinese, the work of Thonias Shera- 
 ton. Hepplewhite, and the classic work of R. 
 & J. Adam. 
 
 Empire, France 1795-1814. 
 
 1807. Works of Thomas Hope published, following 
 the French Empire. 
 
 1800. Late Colonial. A form applied to the Ameri- 
 can acceptance of the "English and French Em- 
 pire," which followed the French Empire and 
 was successfully introduced in England by 
 Thomas Hope and others. 
 
 Modern painted furniture in reproduction of Nineteenth Century chairs. 
 
A Colonial interior of about 1630. 
 
 T 
 
 tJufftt 
 
 O DEFINE the term Colonial 
 we must fix the period not 
 only chronologically, but geo- 
 graphically. We must discriminate 
 between New England and the South, 
 between early and late. We must 
 understand the conditions, whether of 
 town or country, because the types 
 varied. 
 
 One is prone to regard in this 
 countrv the characteristic Colonial 
 fnrni as that fnnii winch presented 
 
 ( 'rieiilal fiirni--liiiiL;-s, Ijrasses, Chinese ixjrcehiins, ci)t- 
 
 ton prints, cun- 
 
 spicudus m liir'K 
 
 and tldwer detail^. 
 
 rich lac(|uer-, c^-p- 
 
 pcrs ami pewter. 
 
 But this f ci r ni 
 
 lasted onl\- fmin 
 
 1690 to 1740: in 
 
 I- n t( 1 a n d it wa^ 
 
 broadh' character- 
 ized a s (J 11 e e n 
 
 .\nne. 
 
 T h e e a r 1 )" 
 
 colonists eiijo}'ed 
 
 the same comforts 
 
 a s their luiglish 
 
 brothers, and siir- 
 
 Kitclicn al Van C'Mt 
 laiidt Manor. 
 
 prising as it may seem, the earliest settlements were 
 furnished with window glass, at a period in England 
 called Jacobean, when window glass was a luxury. 
 
 In 1629 one of the Salem settlers, Higgins, wrote 
 to a friend in England, "Be sure and bring with 
 you a supply of window glass." 
 
 The use of glass in dwelling houses began about the Four- 
 teenth Century, although we have records of window glass 
 used in Pompeii 79 a. d., and frequent references to window 
 glass in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries; in the latter periods, 
 however, the glass was an inch and a-half and two inches 
 thick, sometimes discs or fragments joined. In the Fifteenth 
 Century oiled linen was generally used. The Dukes of 
 Burgundy used oiled paper, and as evidence of the general use 
 
 of glass it will suffice 
 to say that at the close 
 of the Eighteenth 
 Ceiitur}', 1790, there 
 cxi.^lcd in Paris itself 
 a curpuratiuii for 
 ino.kin;-; \vinil"\v sashes 
 iilled with oiled paper. 
 ( "Cdass ^lakin'^-," by 
 S,ui/a_\ . Seriliner, ) I'p 
 [•' this (late all .i^lass 
 irsed fur mirrnrs or 
 \\ indiiw s was limited 
 ill si/e In ihe lung 
 jinuer I if Ihe glass 
 l)hi\\er, \\ liieli e.Kplains 
 the little glasses in 
 iiurmrs and eiipln lards. 
 It w.is lint until 
 
 209 
 
 Candle-mould 
 
 KkiifeDoK 
 
COLONIAL 
 
 the beginning of the Nineteenth Century that a method was 
 produced for making larger sheets and for a long while the 
 cost was very heavy. In 1702 a yard of looking glass cost 
 $32,10. In 1802 a yard cost $39.90. In 1862 a yard cost 
 $8.75.— Ed. 
 
 American patriotic societies have preserved not 
 only many old landmarks and old buildings of Colonial 
 reputation, but old furnish- 
 ings. One must always 
 bear in mind, however, the 
 nature of a collection, 
 whether a collection from 
 the farmhouse, or the city 
 house, the cottage or the 
 mansion. 
 
 In the Northern States, 
 where Winter comfort was 
 considered, the rooms were 
 smaller in size, the ceil- 
 ings were lower, the Win- 
 dows were smaller than we 
 find in the South, where 
 weather conditions were 
 diametrically opposite. 
 
 We hear a great deal 
 of the rush-strewn floors 
 of the Elizabethan homes ; 
 but they were only the 
 floors that were open to the 
 tenantry and the serv- 
 ants — rooms of a public 
 character. We hear of the 
 sanded floors through 
 Pennsylvania, but they 
 were the kitchen floors 
 and inn floors. The same 
 tastes prevailed here as pre- 
 vailed abroad. All social 
 grades were represented, 
 and to those who are in- 
 terested in the study of 
 Colonial sociology we 
 recommend the works of 
 John Fiske, the eminent 
 American historian, "The 
 Beginnings of New Eng- 
 land," "Child Life in the 
 Colonial Days," "John Han- 
 cock, His Book," and "Ex- 
 amples of Colonial Archi- 
 tecture," a volume of in- 
 teriors and exteriors of South Carolina and Georgian 
 homes by E. A. Crane and E. E. Soderholz, published 
 in Germany. The decorations of the ceilings, the side- 
 walls, the floors, even the wood finish followed the 
 European styles, white woodwork coming in with 
 William and Mary, about 1690. In 1749 Isaac Ware 
 wrote: "The decoration of an American room is of 
 
 three kinds — first, where it is coated with the .plaster 
 material wrought into ornamental details ; second, 
 where covered by wainscot, and third, where hung 
 with silks, tapestries or paper," for in that year dealers 
 in America were advertising "to hang rooms with paper 
 or fabrics in the very newest fashion." Indeed, Charles 
 
 Hargraves advertised wall- 
 papers in Philadelphia in 
 1745, and only a few years 
 later Peter Fleeson was 
 making paper-hangings in 
 squares, corner of Fourth 
 and Chestnut Streets, 
 Philadelphia. Nantucket, 
 Portsmouth and St. Johns- 
 bury, Vt., have yielded to 
 the collectors some exquisite 
 examples of wall decora- 
 tions. Thomas Hancock, in 
 1757, wrote to an English 
 friend to send him some 
 paper-hangings showing a 
 great variety of birds, ani- 
 mals, fruits and flowers 
 and he adds to his letter: 
 "I think these papers are 
 handsome, better than 
 painted walls." Colo- 
 nial characteristics 
 were simply the char- 
 acteristics of modifica- 
 tion or adaptation. 
 Duncan Phyfe, in his 
 time more famed in 
 America than Chip- 
 pendale in England, 
 followed his English 
 models with modifica- 
 tions. Latrobe fol- 
 lowed the Empire 
 styles, but with modi- 
 fications. The larger 
 cities and towns of 
 this country were well 
 equipped with cabinet- 
 makers, who, at the 
 time, were more 
 famous than Chippen- 
 dale, Sheraton or 
 Hepplewhite, but they 
 followed the English prototypes. 
 
 We have before us an extract from a New York 
 paper of 1771, which dwells upon the exquisite work 
 made by a New Jersey cabinetmaker who "served his 
 time and was for eleven years foreman to the great 
 cabinetmaker Hallet." If this advertisement is a mere 
 catch-penny scheme it is evident the name of Hallet 
 
 210 
 
 Eighteenth Century mahogany desk 
 and bookcase combined. 
 
COLONIAL 
 
 was considered at that time a great bait in New York. 
 
 And so also American architecture was an archi- 
 tecture of modification modelled 
 upon the work of Inigo Jones, who 
 in turn modelled his style upon that 
 of Palladio. But where the work 
 of Jones was superb and elaborate, 
 in America we followed his lines 
 simply in much the same way that 
 our late Colonial furniture followed 
 the lines of the Empire, eliminating 
 the specific ornamentation which in 
 France made the style Napoleonic. 
 
 Not only in the South, but 
 throughout the East also the Palla- 
 dian spirit was well expressed. As 
 early as 1738 the discoveries made 
 in Pompeii and Herculaneum still 
 further promoted interest and was 
 received with great enthusiasm in 
 America. Classic pillars were 
 reared in front of every porch and 
 by 1800 pillars appeared upon the 
 ends and fronts of sideboards and 
 bureaus. 
 
 The full development of this 
 movement was felt in the latter 
 part of the Eighteenth Century, 
 and if there is any one form of 
 architecture that may be said to be particularly Colo- 
 nial and any one type of furniture that may be similarly 
 characterized, it is the architecture and furniture of 
 1800 to 1820 when simplified classicism was universally 
 
 Above, mirror frame, about 1790; be- 
 low, interior in Cowles house, Deer- 
 field, Mass., 1752. 
 
 affected. Some of the old buffets and sideboards and 
 bureaus of what we now call the Jeffersonian Period 
 were purely American devoid of the 
 Empire ornamentation which ap- 
 peared in contemporary French and 
 English work. 
 
 Up to 1810 the characteristics 
 of our Colonial styles were built 
 upon European prototypes, altered 
 frequently, as Duncan P h y f e 
 altered the Chippendale models, or 
 as Latrobe altered the David 
 models. Our cultured classes fol- 
 lowed closely the prevailing fash- 
 ions, and our American cabinet- 
 makers and decorators learned in 
 almost all instances their arts 
 abroad. 
 
 Phyfe had a shop at 35 Parti- 
 tion Street, now Fulton Street, New 
 York. His work from 1802 to 1810 
 was well known, following the Em- 
 pire school. 
 
 The Dutch "kas" was a linen 
 cupboard used largely . in New 
 York ; seldom found elsewhere in 
 this country ; sometimes carved wal- 
 nut, frequently of pine, cherry or 
 maple, paneled or painted. 
 The heavily-carved mahogany beds with designs 
 of acanthus leaves or pineapple, with high or low posts, 
 came into use about 1790, following the Sheraton and 
 Empire styles. 
 
 0mdleV/5tand 
 
Window and door traceries. 
 
 The butterfly table, which 
 appeared about 1700, was so 
 called because the leaves were 
 supported by wings which swung 
 either way. 
 
 Turned woodwork came into 
 America with the first settlers ; 
 from 1575 to 1620 we find a 
 great number of examples of 
 turned work in England, a de- 
 velopment of the spiral work of 
 the earlier Sixteenth Century. 
 
 The cradle that came over 
 in the Mayflower, used for Pere- 
 grine White, was wicker, un- 
 questionably made in Holland. 
 
 The first mention we have of tea- 
 tables in America was 1660. We hear 
 often of the French furniture of the 
 South; the only part of the South 
 where French furniture was used to 
 any extent was Louisiana. That sec- 
 tion had been settled by the French, 
 who brought with them French fash- 
 ions of the Louis XV and Louis XVI 
 periods, and the French styles were 
 adopted here in their purity. See 
 page 203. 
 
 Chests, while utilized merely for 
 travel, serving the purpose of trunk 
 and bureau, for years also served as seats and tables. 
 They developed in decoration and usefulness in 
 
 Cradle chair. 
 
 Roundabout chair, 1740. 
 
 America as they did in England, becoming finally chests 
 with drawers and ultimately bureaus. 
 
 The use of the word form 
 or bench applying to the primi- 
 tive seats still used in some 
 schools, has survived the style of 
 seat that succeeded the chest. 
 Frequently a room contained two 
 or three forms and perhaps one 
 chair. 
 
 At the dining table these 
 forms were commonly used, ex- 
 cepting at the head of the table, 
 where the master's chair was 
 placed. Chairs of turned-wood 
 and wainscoted chairs followed ; 
 then rush and cane chairs, then up- 
 holstered chairs, in the same order 
 they appeared in Europe. 
 
 Rush seats continued popular until 
 1830. 
 
 The cradle chair shown in the 
 center of this page is a curious piece 
 of furniture, evidently having been 
 planned with a removable rail at one 
 end of the seat so that it could be 
 used as a rocking settee. This remov- 
 able rail would prevent a child from 
 rolling off the seat while the free 
 space at the end where the back is 
 high provides a comfortable rocking chair for the at- 
 tendant. 
 
 212 
 
CUnA L,..upu.^-i.v.ry.b,ng except the bed and the right-hand chair of early Queen Anne or late WiUiam and Mary, 
 
 Lalu Coluiiial Ruuni — Using WiUiaiu-and-Alary highbuy. 
 
OLD AMERICAN WINDSOR CHAIRS. 
 
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At the head of this page is shown 
 a number of examples of Colonial 
 transom window traceries. 
 
 Above in this cokimn, Colonia 
 doorway, about 1790, followed by 
 two Colonial chairs. 
 
 On the right, a buffet showing 
 the characteristic column construc- 
 tion of late Colonial times, made in 
 New York, 1807. 
 
 215 
 
Colonial, 1790, in the English spirit. 
 
 A J-licilcnucicr uittnur fruui iht kcj>al i'alacc at Ludwigsburg. 
 See definition of Biedernieier. 
 
^■■<-i^;i^^:vt'i^'^ 
 
 Alodilied L'Art Nouveau. 
 
 MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L'ART NOUVEAU 
 
 T 
 
 Extreme L'Art Nouveau. 
 
 HE develop- 
 ment of the 
 Empire Period 
 in France inspired, co- 
 incidentally, a certain 
 decorative feeling in 
 England, America and 
 Germany. In Eng- 
 land the style had 
 little vogue, but in 
 America it developed 
 structurally into what 
 is popularly called 
 "Late C o 1 o n i a 1." 
 From a recent issue 
 of the Bulletin of the 
 Metropolitan Museum 
 of Art, over the signature of Luke Vincent Lockwood, 
 we quote the following : 
 
 The evolution of style and decoration in furniture is 
 one of the most fascinating and instructive of studies, and 
 America is especially rich in specimens showing the various 
 transition stages. In no other country has a style been so 
 completely worked out as it has here. Having once 
 acquired the style the Colonial workman, adapting it to the 
 needs of the people, developed it until it has reached a per- 
 fection not attained in Europe. The truth of the statement 
 is particularly well illustrated in the development of the high 
 chest of drawers. In England this article of furniture was 
 abandoned, while yet in a rather crude state, for the French 
 commode on the order of the modern bureau, but in America 
 it was developed and the commode form remained compara- 
 tively scarce. 
 
 On the right, restrained L'Art Nouveau. 
 
 This statement was confirmed by the late Sir 
 Purdon Clarke, who informed us that some of his best 
 examples of furniture he found in America. The de- 
 velopment of the Empire in this country resulted in 
 great good, while in Europe all efforts at an absorption 
 
 217 
 
MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L'ART NOUVEAU 
 
 of this style became a 
 failure. In Germany 
 the Empire school was 
 so distorted by the ef- 
 fort to popularize it 
 that it soon became 
 known as the Bieder- 
 meier, a term of re- 
 proach. 
 
 Biedermeier was 
 a fictitious character 
 invented for the 
 pages of Fliegende 
 Blatter, a g o o d - 
 natured bourgeois 
 with no aesthetic per- 
 ception. Germany, 
 after the Napoleonic 
 wars, was either too 
 poor or too pre- 
 judiced to follow the 
 prevailing fashions in 
 French furniture ; 
 hence the Bieder- 
 meier style which 
 eliminated the ormolu 
 mounts and ex- 
 pensive carvings 
 naturally symbolic of 
 Empire decoration, 
 and substituted mere- 
 ly pretty forms, pret- 
 ty details, unmeaning 
 and weak. Not only 
 was the studious 
 work of Fontaine, 
 Percier, David and 
 
 Above, L'Art Nouveau chair; below, modern German-Empire 
 or Biedermeier chairs. 
 
 the brothers Adam 
 pruned by the Bied- 
 ermeier gardner, but 
 a lot of petty florals 
 were grafted in a 
 sort of Dutch garden 
 style. The acanthus, 
 the vitruvian scroll, 
 the lotus and the pal- 
 mette were all dis- 
 placed by a sort of 
 barnyard flora. Sym- 
 bolic animals were 
 driven out and tame 
 creatures adopted. 
 The Biedermeier 
 period began with 
 1800 and ended about 
 1830. 
 
 "With the glory 
 of the Napoleonic 
 era," writes Herr 
 Lux, "vanished also 
 the aristocratic Em- 
 pire style. From cos- 
 mopolitanism and its 
 political katzen jam- 
 mer people fled back 
 to the old land of 
 romance. Uhland, 
 Eichendorif and 
 Schubert aroused en- 
 thusiastic love for 
 nature. And the in- 
 t r o d u c t i o n of the 
 moral element, as well 
 as the influence of 
 
MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L'ART NOUVEAU 
 
 Two chairs which show modified L'Art Nouveau forms. 
 
 England in matters of style, led to the solid, square and 
 cylindrical forms of Biedermeier furniture, to which 
 reminiscences of the Baroque and Empire styles re- 
 main attached as decorative details." 
 
 In England Thomas Hope made an ephemeral 
 reputation with a rather clumsy adaptation of the 
 Empire, but its vogue was brief. 
 
 In America, contemporaneously, the Empire grew 
 and thrived ; its influence was felt even in the farm 
 districts, and classic pillared houses were erected with 
 chaste doorways, columned and pilastered furniture 
 was built and a taste was generally observed for lines 
 that were simple, substantial and refined. 
 
 With the close of the Georgian period the great 
 redivivus of art was ended, and while the Victorian 
 period (Queen Victoria, 1837) has indulged in fitful 
 spurts, nothing substantial has resulted and no phase 
 developed that may be clearly defined. 
 
 We have had Eastlake and the Eastlake craze, 
 William Morris and the Morris vogue, Sir Edward 
 Burne- Jones, Walter Crane, Ruskin and the Arts-and- 
 Crafts movements, but neither in England, France 
 nor' Austria, where Art Nouveau for a brief period 
 became hysterically popular, and in Germany, where 
 
 2,19 
 
 the top-heavy form of the Art Moderne prevailed, has 
 there been any healthy or well-founded style. 
 
 In America a simple type known as the Mission 
 school has been adopted quite generously, but it has 
 represented not so much a school of ornament as a 
 school for the elimination of ornament. 
 
 About 1870 a band of artists in Vienna, led by 
 Wagner, produced a style of design arising out of the 
 use of curved as opposed to straight lines. The un- 
 derlying principle was based upon nature forms and 
 Gothic and Japanese were drawn upon, and sinuous 
 tree trunks and exaggerated vines produced occa- 
 sionally such pleasing results that in the minor arts 
 a great deal of encouragement was given to the 
 movement. When applied to toilet articles and table, 
 desk and dress accessories or even silverware there 
 was little to offend, but when the same character of 
 design was applied in broad and emphatic forms upon 
 the walls and floors, it failed. Little by little Art 
 Nouveau has been chastened, refined and simplified 
 under various "movements," Secession, New Art and 
 Art Moderne; some of the curves have been straight- 
 ened out and the weird nature forms are no longer 
 part of the structural character of furniture but are 
 utilized only as decorations. In Germany this new 
 development has made great strides ; but not elsewhere. 
 
 It is surprising when we look back over the 
 
MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L'ART NOUVEAU 
 
 
 lhwl& ^/^2y^ ^^v^ 
 
 ^ ^%§mf m'^^^T p'^j^T p 
 
 
 An early Morris design, "Daisy and Columbine.'' 
 
 serious utterances of Eastlake, whose book T ^ 
 
 was written in 1870, that any success what- g^ 
 ever attended his efforts. We are aware of '^"s^l! 
 
 the fact that much was produced by the 
 
 manufacturers of Eastlake furniture which ^^^i/,* 
 
 would have shocked the sensibilities of the ^fr^ 
 
 author. The Eastlake school represented a ^ ^ ^ 
 
 simplification of Elizabethan and Jacobean. , -, L^ 
 
 It was the application of factory labor and i '*'^ ^ 
 
 was full of jig-saw corners and cheap orna- ^ -ff 
 mentation, with metal and tile panels and 
 
 squares inserted, and conspicuous hinges i 
 
 and handles obviously introduced for deco- ^ 
 
 rative effect. Sometimes the convex carv- 4 > t- • 
 
 vulgar and the operations of the jig-saw be- 
 came so conspicuous that the Eastlake style 
 died out. 
 
 While Eastlake was a man of education his work 
 suggested nothing higher than the vaulting ambitions 
 of a boss carpenter. 
 
 The work of William Morris and his confreres 
 was important and far-reaching, establishing as it did 
 the craftsman spirit in England. The Morris move- 
 ment, so called because Morris was the managing head 
 of affairs, employed the services of men who will live 
 forever in the history of art. 
 
 William Morris was born in England, March 24. 
 1834. He died October 3, 1896. He went to Oxford 
 in the fifties and beside him at the examinations sat 
 Burne-Jones, who became his life-long friend. 
 
 H^e intended to study for the church. He knew 
 nothing of art but became interested while traveling 
 
 
 
 i^i \ 
 
 
 ■,v) 
 
 ^^-i/¥:^^^ 
 
 \/-^ 
 
 
 ■::Kf~~y 
 
 iii MM- 
 
 through Belgium and Northern France studying the 
 churches of Amiens, Beauvais and Chartres. He had 
 become acquainted with the work of the pre-Raphael- 
 ites, a brotherhood cultivating the Gothic arts and 
 preaching the theory of individualism. Dante Gabriel 
 Rossetti was the head, Ford Madox Brown, Holman 
 Hunt and John Mullais were active members assisted 
 by Ruskin's writings. Subsequently the coterie ad- 
 mitted William M. Rossetti, James Collinson, F. J. 
 Stephens and Thomas Wolner. 
 
 As a child, Morris was possessed of a vivid 
 imagination and a romantic, poetic temperament. At 
 an early age he became a poet. Buildings had inter- 
 ested Morris from his childhood. The Gothic period 
 appealed to his nature, the beauties of the Gothic art 
 stimulated it and before he was through Oxford he 
 had decided to study architecture and Burne-Jones 
 was to become an artist. Morris studied under George 
 IMmond Street, an architect whose enthusiasm for 
 the Thirteenth Century made the foundation for all 
 of Morris's work. Street was engaged at the time 
 Morris went to him in restoring ancient churches and 
 designing Gothic buildings. While never an artist in 
 the broad sense — in the ability to depict the human 
 form — and while never an architect, Morris developed 
 along lines of adornment or ornamentation. In 1855 
 I !urne- Jones and Morris took lessons in painting under 
 Rossetti, and in 1856 Rossetti wrote enthusiastically 
 I if Burne-Jones predicting his fame as an artist, and 
 of Morris he said that "in all illumination work of 
 that kind he considered him quite unrivalled." When 
 he was twenty-five Morris married Jane Burden, and 
 tlie house into which they moved, known afterwards as 
 "The Red House," possessed many furnishings con- 
 tributed by their artistic friends. 
 
 A Voysey design showing the pre-Raphaelite influence of 
 Morris and his colleagues. 
 
 220 
 
MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L'ART NOUVEAU 
 
 
 
 -W'M f-; 
 
 »fc'n>*-''^ 
 
 1 
 
 Ml 
 
 
 Chrysanthemum design, by William Morris. 
 
 The firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., 
 as it was first called, appears to have followed their 
 success of this early effort at decoration. Rossetti ex- 
 plains that the suggestion to organize a firm was a 
 whim. "One evening a lot of us were together, and 
 we got to talking about the way in which artists did 
 all kinds of things in olden times — designed every kind 
 of decoration and most kinds of furniture, and some- 
 one suggested that each put down five pounds and 
 form a company. This was done. Morris was elected 
 manager simply because he was the only man among us 
 who had time and money to spare." 
 
 The associates were Morris, Rossetti, Burne- Jones, 
 Madox Brown, an artist of reputation, Webb, the 
 architect of the Red House, 
 also a designer of furniture, 
 Peter Paul Marshall and 
 Charles Faulkner. 
 
 Naturally their work 
 was of the highest char- 
 acter, covering mural deco- 
 ration, carving as applied 
 to architecture, stained 
 glass, metal work, furni- 
 ture, fabrics, stamped 
 leathers and decorations 
 generally, including drap- 
 eries and wall-paper. 
 
 They affected full, 
 luscious colorings, tabooed 
 fadey effects and dingy 
 colors were abhorred by 
 them. 
 
 In 1858 some of the 
 
 furniture made by Ford Madox Brown was 
 described by him: 
 
 "Adapted to need of solidity and of a 
 kind of homely beauty; above all, free of 
 false display in carving, veneering and the 
 like." 
 
 He tried to exhibit his furniture at the 
 Hogarth Club, but the work was rejected 
 as not fine art. But he persevered, and to- 
 day his masterpieces, the frescoes in the 
 Manchester Town Hall, are recognized as 
 unequalled. 
 
 Rossetti describes a room which he was 
 furnishing for his bride : 
 
 "Our drawing-room is papered from a 
 design printed on common brown packing 
 paper. The trees stand the whole height of 
 the room ; the stems and fruits are of Vene- 
 tian red ; the leaves are black ; the fruit will 
 have a fine line of yellow to indicate roundness." 
 
 The Morris factory took up finally printing on 
 wall-papers or fabrics, which, together with the furni- 
 ture, was based upon Gothic lines influenced in the 
 modern spirit. Occasionally his floral treatment was 
 classic, utilizing the acanthus or flora of England. His 
 wood tones predominated as a background for vivid 
 colors. His designs were never in straight lines and 
 were always Medieval, and even where his motifs were 
 modern flora the colorings and technique were 
 Medieval. 
 
 In 1875 the original firm of Morris, Marshall, 
 Faulkner & Co. was dissolved and Morris carried 
 on the business alone, though Burne-Jones and 
 
 A typical Morris treatment; 
 
 designed by William Morris for 
 
 St. James's Palace. 
 
MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L'ART NOUVEAU 
 
 Webb continued to help him with designs for 
 stained glass and furniture. His enthusiasm was 
 aroused in 1877 (in spite of his great interest at this 
 time in public affairs), by the establishing of calico 
 and chintz printing, the manufacture of brocades in 
 silk and silk and wool, a Frenchman being got over 
 to teach brocade work. He also began to think of 
 tapestry, though this could not be attended to till 
 later in the year, and it was when he took Kelm- 
 scott house, on the upper mall. Hammersmith, that he 
 had a tapestry loom put up in his bedroom, rising early 
 to practice the art of tapestry weaving. Carpet looms 
 were built in the stables and here the first Hammer- 
 smith carpets were made. 
 
 The most important development perhaps was the 
 production of printed cotton goods, i. e., "Morris' 
 chintzes," which are more used than any of his other 
 fabrics. 
 
 Between seventy and eighty wall-paper designs 
 and nearly forty chintzes were invented and carried 
 out by Morris, though if the various colorings were 
 counted separately his designs would amount to 400. 
 The sum total of his designs for paper-hangings, 
 chintzes, woven stuffs, silk damasks, stamped velvets, 
 carpets, and tapestries (excluding the hand-made car- 
 pets and the arras tapestries, which were each specially 
 designed and as a rule not duplicated) which were 
 
 Chair designed by Charles L. Eastlake. 
 
 actually carried out, amounts to little short of 600, be- 
 sides countless designs for embroidery. 
 
 Modern Arts-and-Crafts. 
 
MISSION 
 
 Oil the left, chair in relic-room, Santa 
 Barbara; on tlie right, chair in relic- 
 room, Santa Clara. 
 
 T 
 
 ' HE Mission style 
 is a commercial style. 
 Originally it made 
 pretense to reflect the char- 
 acter of the furniture 
 found in the missions of 
 old Mexico and the coun- 
 tries now New Mexico, 
 Arizona, Texas and California; but there was never 
 any serious effort to conscientiously follow the style 
 which, after all, was simply primitive Gothic — the 
 simplest style of carpenter work made for or by the 
 missionaries under conditions which neither invited 
 nor permitted the exercise of an artistic touch. It 
 was simple, crude furniture bearing naturally the 
 
 influences of the Spanish architecture which con- 
 stituted the environment. The woods used were 
 those most easily manipulated and obtained. 
 
 Ponce de Leon discovered Florida in 1512; in 
 1513 Balboa discovered the Pacific; in 1519 Cortez 
 set forth to conquer the countries of Mexico. 
 
 In the early part of the Sixteenth Century 
 Mexico proper and all the newly-established Central 
 American provinces were being flooded with mission- 
 aries from Spain; churches by the hundred were 
 built and missions established on every hand, in what 
 are now the Mexican provinces. 
 
 The colonization of Mexico by Spain naturally 
 meant the introduction of Catholic missions. In the 
 early times the furnishings of these mission chapels 
 
 Modern Mission. 
 
An Arts and Crafts Interior, from the German School. 
 
 were crude in the extreme, but in the Eighteenth 
 Century the missions gathered strength and prosperity. 
 
 It has been often claimed that the Mission style 
 was a purely American style. Unfortunately, the 
 Mission style could have been historically accurate 
 were it not that it was at an early age subjugated 
 to the exigencies of commercialism. 
 
 Lumholtz, in his extraordinary work on Mexico, 
 gives a vast store of illustration and data regarding 
 the work of the Aztecs, that dominating people who 
 possessed a civilization in Mexico before the Spanish 
 invasion under Gortez, 1519. 
 
 One finds a very good example of this work at 
 the American Museum of Natural History. While 
 the furniture 'is probably not authentic in style, it ap- 
 proximates the character of furniture which even at 
 this early date was found by the missionaries, and 
 with slight alteration, was adapted to their ideas of 
 Gothic structure. 
 
 Mission ornament was necessarily ecclesiastical 
 and to present the old Mexican or Aztec decoration 
 as a background to the Mission furnishings is wrong, 
 for whatever the charm of Aztec decoration, we doubt 
 if the representative of the Christian Church adopted 
 it in any particular. 
 
 The United States Department of Agriculture is 
 authority for the statement that the woods of Cali- 
 fornia covered a wide variety, and it is illogical to as- 
 sume that Mission furniture was made of any one par- 
 ticular wood. 
 
 In Southern California what is known as the 
 Pacific Coast forest yields Douglas fir, spruce, larch, 
 western red cedar (arbor vitae), hemlock, redwood 
 and big-tree, yellow and white pine, incense, port Ox- 
 ford and yellow cedar, fir (balsam), juniper, yew, 
 Cottonwood, maple, alder, birch, madorna and laurel. 
 
 In Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and 
 Northern Mexico, what is known as the Rocky 
 Mountain forest yields yellow pine, Douglas fir, fir 
 (balsam), spruce, juniper, pinon pine, aspen, cotton- 
 wood and oak. 
 
 In other parts of Lower Mexico we find all of 
 the sub-tropical and tropical woods, mahogany, pine, 
 prima-vera, santa maria, logwood, Mexican rosewood, 
 zebrawood, mesquite, aliso (alder), ash, elm, mul- 
 berry, Cottonwood, silk cotton tree or ceiba, linden, 
 china, pimienta, John Crow wood, buttonwood, black 
 maba and salm-wood. 
 
 In Central America and West Indies, mahog- 
 
 224 
 
MISSION 
 
 any, lignum vitae, logwood, sabicu, rosewood, fustic, 
 quiebra hacha, zebrawood, calabash, cocobola, cork- 
 wood, pananm, jaqua, amarillo, laurel, sarsaparilla and 
 cocoa-wood. 
 
 It is doubtful if any Spanish furniture was 
 brought over by the early missionaries for the furnish- 
 ing of their pioneer structures. Their work was at- 
 tended with great hardships, long marches and strug- 
 gles for a living and a foothold in the interior of a new 
 country. And it is unreasonable to suppose that they 
 added to the hardships of their progress any unneces- 
 sary burdens. The famous missions of to-day are the 
 missions of California, and in their construction the 
 builders utilized black oak, laurel, juniper, live oak, red 
 wood, scrub oak, sycamore and walnut. 
 
 The Arts and Crafts style has gradually become 
 a general term for any furnishings of an unperiodic 
 and unconventional character. Originally, it stood 
 simply for individuality. It represented a movement 
 that advocated the association of art and labor and had 
 its first practical inception some forty years ago, when 
 Morris built his famous Red House, ignoring the pre- 
 vailing styles and factory products and producing 
 through individuals an independence that was effective. 
 But the work of Morris and his confreres was sat- 
 urated with the spirit of Medievalism, hence the move- 
 
 ment at the very beginning presented a consistency of 
 decorative thought. 
 
 Morris developed along the ideas instilled by 
 Carlyle and Ruskin, who preached what was prac- 
 tically the socialism of art, expressing contempt for 
 the purely artificial, the carving that is plaster, the 
 luster that is varnish, the bronze that is sheet brass, 
 the painted woods — all the dictates of commercialism 
 or tradition, and in no way representing an individual 
 ambition. In the beginning the movement was under- 
 taken by men who had something worth saying. 
 
 But to-day the movement simply expresses a con- 
 tempt for all rules of order. 
 
 While Carlyle and Ruskin advocated the applica- 
 tion of individual thought, the movement would never 
 have developed were it not that the individual thought 
 was born of culture, and followed with respect the pre- 
 Raphaelite traditions. 
 
 The doctrine that no man can accomplish any- 
 thing worth accomplishing if he is not free to express 
 all that is in him, is good theory if the man is an ar- 
 tist, but it is dangerous to extend this encouragement 
 to the inexperienced and uneducated. 
 
 As a result the Arts and Crafts movement has be- 
 come simply a cloak behind which one hides his in- 
 ability to produce a period style. 
 
 ^f^^i 
 
7H»Mlm»"»»w1»''"''''''''^'%<.^;^^ 
 
 
 
 
 Chair-back stencil pattern of eighty years, a photographic reproduction of the original stencil plate. 
 
 PAINTED FURNITURE 
 
 IN OUR "Chronology of Inlays and Marquetry" we 
 covered the subject from 1100, when marble and 
 vitreous paste were much used in Southern Italy, 
 to 1779, when David Roentgen, appointed by Marie 
 Antoinette as "marqueteur to the Queen," produced 
 extraordinary work. The Dutch marqueteurs were 
 famous in the middle of the Seventeenth Century and 
 in England as well as France they practiced the art of 
 intarsia — the inlaying of woods. 
 
 We have already gone into the distinction between 
 intarsia, marquetry and parquetry. 
 
 In the Queen Anne epoch the 
 designs were rich in colors, ob- 
 tained through the use of tropical 
 woods, and lustrous with the use 
 of ivory and mother-of-pearl. But 
 from the latter part of the Eigh- 
 teenth Century down to date, little 
 has been done until the School of 
 Nancy (France), stimulated by the 
 vogue of Art Nouveau, introduced 
 intarsia of quaint and unusual 
 form. 
 
 Contemporaneously the Aus- 
 trians, Germans, French and Eng- 
 lish went in for this style dur- 
 ing the latter part of the Nine- 
 teenth Century. 
 
 After the Revolution many 
 types of painted furniture were 
 brought to America, not only from 
 England, but from the South of 
 France. They were frequently 
 called japanned work, but the 
 term is a misnomer, for the decora- 
 tion is usually an ordinary paint 
 and not lacquer work or japanned 
 work, so called because at an early 
 period it came from Japan and 
 China. 
 
 The Dutch about 1750 took up 
 
 On the right, typical painted chairs of 
 the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 the fashion for painting furniture, much after the style 
 of Vernis-Martin, painted under lacquer, not unlike the 
 work of carriage panels. 
 
 All-sorts of subjects were followed, from flowers 
 to ship scenes, a type familiar even to those of the 
 present generation is the work of the New York stage 
 coaches, sleighs of the old seventies, and snow chairs, 
 which of late have been much sought. The work was 
 frequently of a highly-artistic character. 
 
 In Holland of late years dealers have bought up 
 old sleighs by the thousands, utiliz- 
 ing the painted work for cabinet- 
 work. Similar work was done in 
 Norway and Sweden. 
 
 Lacquered furniture was 
 brought into England and France 
 in large quantities throughout the 
 Seventeenth Century, particularly 
 by the East India Company. It 
 gave inspiration to much of the 
 work of Adam, Hepplewhite and 
 Sheraton, who, however, made no 
 pretense to do lacquer work; they 
 simply applied good painted motifs 
 to certain parts of their furniture. 
 
 Angelica Kauffmann and Per- 
 golesi were particularly successful, 
 and in sorhe cases their work was 
 highly lacquered or japanned; but 
 the hosts of unknown artists who 
 followed this style and painted 
 humbler types of furniture, bed- 
 steads, washstands, chairs and 
 toilet articles, used common paint, 
 and some exceedingly simple ef- 
 f e c t s , which finally deteriorated 
 into stencil work, became popular 
 and continued in vogue well into 
 1830. Indeed, the work became so 
 common that the broad splats were 
 introduced in chairs especially to 
 give space for decoration. 
 
 226 
 
AMERICA'S MOST DISTINCTIVE NATIVE FURNITURE TYPE. 
 
AMERICA'S MOST DISTINCTIVE 
 FURNITURE TYPE 
 
 FE W authorities have, covered the subject of 
 furniture and furnishings in America 1790 to 
 1830. English authors stopped with the early 
 Georgian. They felt that with the end of Sheraton 
 and beginning with the abortive efforts of Thomas 
 Hope, who in some degree followed the Empire, there 
 was an end to the 
 periods, and the Vic- 
 torian age was ap- 
 proached apologetically. 
 Nevertheless there 
 was a distinctly 
 American type pro- 
 duced early in the 
 Nineteenth Century, 
 the outgrowth of the 
 Empire form, simpli- 
 fied and beautified. 
 
 The Chippendale, 
 Sheraton and Hepple- 
 white schools were 
 dainty and delightful 
 examples of carving, 
 painting and inlaying. 
 Empire shapes were 
 more massive and em- 
 ployed brass applique. 
 From the beginning 
 the Americans elimi- 
 nated the brass or 
 
 ormolu ornamentation, and while there was consider- 
 able carving on the backs of lounges and on the table 
 legs, little by little this disappeared and only the simple, 
 shapes remained with broad flat surfaces made beauti- 
 ful by veneers highly finished and polished. Prior 
 to the Nineteenth Century veneering was an expensive 
 
 art; the wood was cut 
 by hand and it was im- 
 possible to cover large 
 surfaces excepting at 
 heavy expense. 
 
 In the pieces of 
 William and Mary and 
 Queen Anne veneer- 
 ing was used fre- 
 quently as an economy. 
 It was applied very 
 often as a surface to 
 cheap woods, but the 
 veneerings of the late 
 Colonial period were 
 not applied because 
 cheap, but because of 
 the possibilities of a 
 high, lustrous finish, 
 and the veneers were 
 often attached to a 
 solid mahogany base. 
 It is a mistake to 
 A type of 1770. assume, as so many do, 
 
 22g 
 
Above, American chairs of the period 1790-1830; below, tables of the same epoch. 
 
 that veneer is shoddy and undertaken as a pretence 
 and deception. Veneering is one of the oldest arts 
 and in some form or other, as marquetry or as in- 
 laying, has been practiced throughout all periods. 
 Moreover, it gives strength to the frame, as best il- 
 lustrated in Queen Anne work when frequently wal- 
 nut was veneered on oak or yellow deal. 
 
 Veneers are cut in two grades — saw-cut and 
 knife-cut. The first vary in thickness from 1-32 to 
 1-16 of an inch and are cut from a log with a large 
 circular saw producing twelve or fourteen sheets to 
 the inch. Knife-cut veneers are thinner. Before the 
 introduction of machinery veneers were almost in- 
 
 variably an eighth of an inch thick and the decorative 
 beauty of some of the veneers used is due to cutting 
 through the burrs or excrescences of the tree. The 
 "curls" and "feathers" are produced by the separation 
 of the heart at the junction of a branch with the main 
 trunk. 
 
 Mottles and figures, which are noted particularly 
 in maple and mahogany, come from certain condi- 
 tions of the wood when cut across the grain. Machine- 
 made veneers opened up a wide field of usefulness 
 and constituted a type coincident with the beginning 
 of the Nineteenth Century. 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF WALL AND CEILING TREATMENTS 
 
 WOODS USED AND RUGS. 
 [4500 B. C— 1603 A. D.] 
 
 Egyptian, 4500 B.C.— 324 B.C. 
 
 WALL treaitments confined to frieze decora- 
 tion on plain walls ; full of gold and brilliant 
 colors; ornaments frequently hieroglyphics 
 and Egyptian symbols; beautifully hand-painted stucco 
 and fresco work much in vogue ; illustrations represent- 
 ing industries. 
 
 Chinese, 3500 B.C.— 238 B.C. 
 
 Modern art described by Chambers 1757. Side- 
 walls, matting four feet high, the rest colored or gilt 
 paper, overhung with pictures and proverbs. 
 
 Assyrian, 2286 B.C.— 608 B.C. 
 
 Stone work overwrought in bronze and gold ; hu- 
 man faces showing profile; Assyrian symbols used, 
 following largely the Egyptian. Walls of King Solo- 
 mon's temple were covered with carved cedar and 
 olive wood. 
 
 Greek, 1900 B.C.— 168 B.C. 
 
 Fresco on plaster in strong colors, usually in deep 
 friezes and dadoes ; also stucco, fresco and tempera 
 or distemper painting practiced; borders frescoed and 
 painted in religious and legendary subjects, full of 
 color; painting of still life, city and country shown; 
 ceilings elaborate, divided into geometric sections; 
 mosaics brought to perfection. 
 
 Roman, 753 B.C.— 455 B.C. 
 Similar to Greek. 
 
 Pompeiian, 100 B.C. — 455 A.D. 
 
 Following the Greek and Roman style, but walls 
 were also completely covered with paintings, some- 
 times divided into panels with small pictures and fine 
 mosaics; sometimes wall space divided into dado, mid- 
 dle and upper section and ornamented with delicate 
 garlands, fruit, masks. In England the Adam style 
 almost reproduced the Pompeiian. 
 
 Byzantine, 328 — 1451. 
 
 Closely related to Roman. Magnificent in tiles, 
 largely Oriental. 
 
 Romanesque — Affected materially by the Byzan- 
 tine and Saracenic. Tiles and tile treatment; stained 
 glass windows recorded 525 A.D. Tapestries made by 
 Flemish weavers, 1170 A.D. In the Eleventh Century 
 Cordova leathers, superbly gilded and painted were 
 made in Flanders. The term was also applied to 
 similar leathers produced in Portugal, France and 
 Italy. 
 
 Gothic, 1100—1550. 
 
 Beginning with 1200 walls of houses were wain- 
 
 scoted and painted, often decorated with romantic, 
 biblical or legendary subjects. In the Thirteenth Cen- 
 tury walls were treated with tiling forms called Cos- 
 matic mosaic, and frequently hung with tapestries. 
 Wall-paper used prior to 1500 was simply pictures on 
 paper and was hung like banners and not stuck to the 
 wall. 
 
 About 1500 large hall of house was generally sit- 
 ting-room, reception-room and dining-room combined. 
 Raftered ceilings were common. 
 
 Italian Renaissance, 1400 — 1643. 
 Discoveries of the stuccoes of ancient Rome 
 aroused Italian architects to the spirit of emulation 
 and Roman and Greek mural work was generally 
 adopted. Ground colors were laid on while the stucco 
 was wet. Raphael and his followers applied themselves 
 to wall decoration. Superb friezes and panels, the 
 best the world has ever seen, was the result. Both 
 wainscoting and rich tapestries, leathers, gold and silk 
 fabrics were liberally used in all the phases of the 
 Renaissance. Marbleized paper called "domino" was 
 made in Italy during the Fifteenth Century in small 
 squares and used on walls. 
 
 French Renaissance, 1500 — 1643. 
 Covering pfactically the same characteristics as 
 the Italian Renaissance, years of great magnificence 
 embracing the reigns of : 
 
 Francis I, 1515-1549. 
 Henry II, 1549-1559. 
 Francis II, 1559-1560. 
 Charles IX, 1560-1574. 
 Henry III, 1574-1589. 
 Henry IV, 1589-1610. 
 Louis XIII, 1610-1643. 
 
 The domino papers of Italy were improved and 
 instead of being marble or plain papers were printed 
 in figures, and by 1700 there was hardly a house in 
 Paris that did not utilize "domino papers." 
 
 Continuation of the use of fabric side-walls, rich 
 paneling, stuccoed ceilings, carvings, rich paintings. 
 Louis XIV, 1643-1715, side-walls frequently paneled 
 in fabric. Ceilings painted or in rich plaster. 
 
 Elizabethan, 1558—1603. 
 Reflected the Italian spirit. Moldings were much 
 used and strap-work carvings, wood side-walls clear to 
 the ceiling, stucco ceiHngs. Oak prevailed. Period 
 lasted from 1500 to 1660. Painted linens and hang- 
 ings, tapestries, embroideries. 
 
 231 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF WALL AND CEILING TREATMENTS 
 
 [1603- 
 
 Jacobean, 1603 — 1649. 
 Continued the Elizabethan style. Still the age of 
 oak. Side-walls of oak but in some of the finest resi- 
 dences the ceilings were beamed. Side-walls hung with 
 tapestries. Magnificent stuccoes. Ceilings frequently 
 of the most elaborate type, often colored. Heavy re- 
 lief work, massive reproductions of panels full of 
 heraldic devices and in small rooms chintzes from In- 
 dia were used. Cotton and linen embroideries were 
 hung on the wall. Embossed and gilded linens, cloths 
 of gold, painted cloths. 
 
 Louis XIV, 1643—1715. 
 GobeHn Tapestry Works became royal property. 
 Beauvais Tapestry Works established. Richest silks 
 used on the walls, damask, brocade and embroidery. 
 Magnificent ceilings, paneled, painted and stuccoed. 
 Magnificent Chinese papers popular for walls. 
 
 Louis XV, 1715—1774. 
 Chinese characteristics introduced. Wealth of his 
 predecessor continued. Paneling rich in gold and 
 bronze. 1746 — first factory established in France for 
 the manufacturing of wall-paper squares. French 
 Ministry, 1759, authorized the manufacture of printed 
 linens, and by 1789 one hundred factories were in 
 operation, some of them working from copper plates. 
 Wood side-walls disappeared. Everything rich in 
 fabrics. 
 
 Louis XVI, 1774—1792. 
 Continuation of fabric effects following the dain- 
 tier classic feehng; ceilings beautifully hand painted, 
 cleverest artists of the day contributing to the work. 
 Walls paneled in fabrics, surrounding the same 
 with elaborate compositions of plaster and molding 
 work. White and gold conspicuous. Continuous rolls 
 of wall-paper were undertaken in 1790. 
 
 In 1787 we find a decree of the king declaring that 
 the art of painting and printing paper used in furnish- 
 ings were a dependence of the governing board of the 
 Merchants-Papetiers-Dominotiere-Feuilletinere, which 
 shows that the term "domino" still clung. 
 
 Empire, 1804—1814. 
 
 Walls stronger in gold effects. Continuation of 
 fabric treatment with the added use of bronze and gold 
 in profusion. Walls hand painted on plaster or canvas. 
 
 -1800.] 
 
 Charles II, 1660—1685. 
 
 James II, 1685—1689. 
 
 William and Mary, 1689—1702. 
 
 Wainscoted side-walls began to come lower in 
 height and by Charles II's time began to disappear; 
 the French method of treating walls in fabric came 
 in. The ceilings, however, continued to be of magnifi- 
 cent proportions, elaborate in stucco and relief work 
 divided into panels, circles, hexagons and rhomboids, 
 borders enriched with flowers and fruits similar to 
 the extraordinary carvings of Grinling Gibbons. 
 Borders were often flat ornaments of Greek or Roman 
 design. Ceilings were magnificent reproductions fol- 
 lowing the Renaissance, also prolific with goddesses, 
 saints, muses and Cupids. 
 
 Queen Anne, 1702 — 1714. 
 
 Frequently side-walls followed the French style. 
 The custom of paneling the side-walls was partially 
 kept up. Chimneypieces, however, only went half- 
 way up the wall. White woodwork was affected. 
 Walls were often without any paneling or wainscot- 
 ing and covered with squares of Chinese wall-paper 
 or painted directly on or hung with fabrics, particu- 
 larly prints. 
 
 Colonial, 1700—1800. 
 
 The American colonies adopted the European 
 styles. White woodwork was popular, little wainscot- 
 ing was attempted about 1690. In 1749 Isaac Ware 
 wrote: "The decoration of an American room is of 
 three kinds — first, where it is coated with the plaster 
 material wrought into ornamental details; second, 
 where covered by wainscot, and third, where hung with 
 silks, tapestries or paper," for in that year dealers in 
 America were advertising "to hang rooms with paper 
 or fabrics in the very newest fashions." Indeed, 
 Charles Hargraves advertised wall-papers in Philadel- 
 phia in 1745, and only a few years later Peter Fleeson 
 was making paper-hangings in squares, corner of 
 Fourth and Chestnut Streets, Philadelphia. Nantucket, 
 Portsmouth and St. Johnsbury, Vt., have yielded to 
 the collectors some exquisite examples of wall decora- 
 tions. Thomas Hancock in 1757 wrote to an English 
 friend to send him some paper-hangings showing a 
 great variety of birds, animals, fruits and flowers and 
 he adds to his letter : "I think these papers are hand- 
 some; better than painted walls." Fabrics were used 
 on the walls contemporaneously with the European 
 use of them. 
 
 232 
 
CHRONOLOGY 0/ RUGS ACCORDING u> PERIODS 
 
 T 
 
 H E chronological or 
 the period uses of 
 rugs is in no way 
 confusing if one knows the 
 history of rugs. For cen- 
 turies the only rugs in use 
 were Oriental rugs, and 
 w hen the making of Orien- 
 tal rugs was introduced 
 into Europe by the Sara- 
 cens, Ninth and Tenth Cen- 
 turies, the patterns c o n - 
 tinned to be Oriental. The 
 history of Oriental rugs 
 goes back to Assyria, 
 Egypt, Old Persia, ancient 
 Greece and Rome. 
 
 In 711 when the Sara- 
 cens began swarming into Spain and later when they 
 settled along the southern countries of Europe, par- 
 ticularly Sicily, they took their looms with them. We 
 find as early as 900 A.D. traces of Oriental art as 
 far north as Scandinavia and in later days, the Thir- 
 teenth and Fourteenth Centuries, we have a distinct 
 type of Oriental rug known as Hispano-Moresque, 
 and a little later Portuguese-Persian was evolved. 
 
 We have record also of looms set up by the 
 Saracens in Palermo, Twelfth Century; Poland, 
 Twelfth Century; Venice, Fourteenth Century. 
 
 During the reign of Henry IV of France, 1600, 
 rug weaving was undertaken. The first European in- 
 fluence developed in design character, and right here 
 it is well to emphasize the fact that we must differen- 
 tiate between a tapestry and a specific floor covering. 
 
 The term carpet was one which in the early days 
 applied to hangings, and the references to ancient car- 
 pets which we frequently find in literature have doubt- 
 less reference to tapestry. The French term tapissier 
 means to carpet, to hang or cover with tapestry ; tapis, 
 a carpet ; tapete, carpet or tapestry. Hence when we 
 read of the Flemish, French, English or Italian "car- 
 pets" of an early 
 period, we must 
 remember that 
 the term was sy- 
 nonymous with 
 tapestry. An 
 
 Englishman to- 
 day who carries 
 a traveling 
 shawl speaks of 
 it as his "rug." 
 
 THE PERIOD USES OF RUGS 
 
 The making of rugs in Asia goes back to the Prehistoric Ages. 
 
 English Romanesque . ,. 1066 Oriental rugs from Asia or of Spanish origin the results 
 
 French Romanesque 700-1100 of colonization. 
 
 Gothic Early Period 1100-lSOO 
 
 Late Gothic and Italian Renaissance 1400 
 
 French Renaissance 1 500 
 
 Francis I, Henry II, Louis XIII. From 1100 to 1400 the Mediterranean merchants estab- 
 
 Enghsh Renaissance 1500 lished rug industries in Spain, Sicily and Venice and supplied 
 
 Henry XIII. Europe with Oriental carpets of European manufacture, be- 
 
 Flemish Renaissance 1507 sides the vast quantities of native examples imported from 
 
 Spanish Renaissance 1500 Anatolia, India and Persia ; all of Oriental design. 
 
 Portuguese Renaissance 1500 
 
 German Renaissance 1550 
 
 Elizabethan 1558 
 
 lacobean, English 1603-1650 
 
 lames I 1603-1625 Early in the Seventeenth Century Shah Abbas introduced 
 
 Charles I 1625-1649 Renaissance characteristics in the Persian rugs of his court, in 
 
 Cromwellian 1653-1659 order to demonstrate his antagonism to the influences of Mon- 
 
 Charles II 1660-1689 • gol character. Contemporaneously the manufacture of Turkish 
 
 William and Mary 1689-1702 carpets, but of European design was introduced at Arras, 
 
 Queen Anne 1702-1714 Fontainebleau, Tours and La Savonnerie. Results of prac-' 
 
 Georgian Period 1714-1820 tical productions began 1620, and by 1660 this manufacture 
 
 Chippendale-Sheraton-Hepplewhite and Adam. was well developed. Frequently heavy wall tapestries were 
 
 American Colonial Period 1727-1820 utilized for the floor. Prior to 1745 English-made carpets 
 
 Henry IV, French 1589-1610 were crude products similar to ingrain. In 1745 a cut pile 
 
 Louis XIV : 1643 carpet called Wilton was first produced. In 1749 the Brus- 
 
 Louis XV 1715 sels loom was erected in England. During Louis XV and 
 
 Louis XVI 1774 the period of Chippendale Chinese rugs were much used. 
 
 Directoire 1795 
 
 Empire 1804 
 
 233 
 
H R O N 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Applewood. 
 Ash. 
 Beech. 
 Birch. 
 
 Bog or Black Oak. 
 Brown Oak. 
 Cedar. 
 Cherry. 
 Chestnut. 
 Elm. 
 Holly. 
 
 Lime or Linden. 
 Maple. 
 
 Oak (English). 
 Oak (Pollard). 
 Pearwood. 
 
 Planewood (Buttonwood or Lace- 
 wood). 
 Sycamore. 
 Walnut. 
 Willow. 
 Yew. 
 
 EUROPEAN. 
 
 Austrian Oak. 
 
 Baltic Oak. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Black Sea or Circassian Walnut. 
 
 Boxwood. 
 
 Cedar. 
 
 Cherry. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Elm. 
 
 French Walnut. 
 
 French Oak. 
 
 German Oak. 
 
 Holly. 
 
 Italian Oak. 
 
 Lime or Linden. 
 
 Maple. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 o L o G Y or 
 
 Inlay or Marquetry woods are in italics. 
 
 Pearwood. 
 
 Pine. 
 
 Polish Oak. 
 
 Planewood. 
 
 Riga Oak (Russian). 
 
 Spanish Oak. 
 
 Sycamore (Colored varieties called 
 Hairwood, Mousewood, Grey- 
 wood). 
 
 Walnut (Italian). 
 
 Willow. 
 
 ASIATIC. 
 
 Andaman Redivood. 
 Cedar. 
 
 Calamander (Blackstripe, India). 
 Cherry. 
 
 Coromandel (Yellow Ebony, In- 
 dia). 
 Ebony (India). 
 Green Ebony. (India). 
 Indian Mahogany. 
 Ironwood (India). 
 
 Pearwood. _ * 
 
 Porcupine, Pheasant or Partridge. 
 Rosewood. 
 Satinwood. 
 
 Teak (Pheasant or Graniteware). 
 Zeen Oak (India). 
 
 WEST INDIAN AND SOUTH 
 
 AMERICAN. 
 
 Angelique (Mahogany). 
 
 Cedar. 
 
 Cocobola. 
 
 Greenheart. 
 
 Green Ebony. 
 
 Kingwood or Violet. 
 
 Lancewood. 
 
 Lignum-Vitae. 
 
 Mahogany. 
 
 Mora (Mahogany). 
 
 Purplewood. 
 
 Rosewood. 
 
 WOODS 
 
 Sabicu (Mahogany). 
 
 Santa Maria (Mahogany). 
 
 Santine (Mahogany). 
 
 Satin Walnut. 
 
 Satinwood. 
 
 Snakeivood or Leopard. 
 
 Tulip. 
 
 Yellow Oak. 
 
 Zebra. 
 
 AMERICAN. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Basswood (Lime) . 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Bird's Eye Maple (Sugar Maple). 
 
 Black Walnut. 
 
 Butternut. 
 
 Cedar. 
 
 Cherry. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Elm. 
 
 Hickory. 
 
 Holly. 
 
 Live Oak. 
 
 Maple. 
 
 Pine. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 Planewood (Buttonwood or Lace- 
 wood). 
 
 Red Oak. 
 
 Redwood. 
 
 Sycamore. 
 
 Walnut (many varieties). 
 
 White Oak. 
 
 Whitewood (Known as Tulip, Yel- 
 low Poplar and Canarywood). 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 African Oak. 
 
 African Teak. 
 
 African or Golden Walnut. 
 
 Citron (Africa). 
 
 Mahogany (Africa). 
 
 I 
 
 INTARSIA OR MARQUETRY. 
 
 NTA.RSIA — Tarsia from the Latin, interserrere, to insert, applied to the inlaying of woods. When in metal, as practiced at Damascus, called 
 damascening. Marquetry — Synonymous term adogted by the French from marqucrtcr, to spot, to mark. Parquetry applies to coarse work 
 for floorings or wainscotings. The process of inlaying goes back to the early .\ssyrian and Egyptian methods on metal, ivory, marble and wood. 
 
 FINISH. 
 
 1 200 — Gothic and early Renaissance furniture 
 was left untouched. As the forms of fur- 
 niture became more ornamental a deep 
 colored varnish was applied or the wood 
 was much oiled and waxed. 
 
 1500 — Amber was known from time immerno- 
 rial. It was a recognized commercial 
 article hi the Sixteenth Century, and it is 
 probable that it was used for the manu- 
 facture of varnish for violins. 
 
 1600 — The gums used in the manufacture of 
 varnishes coming from Asia, South Amer- 
 ica and the West Indies, there was prob- 
 ably no commercial supply for the gen- 
 eral manufacture of varnishes until late 
 in the Seventeenth Century. Unquestion- 
 ably varnishes have been made at almost 
 all periods, but they were rare. In small 
 quantities they were used for jewel boxes, 
 violins, musical instruments. Japan and 
 China have long been skilled in the art. 
 
 1700— Towards the close of 1600 the craze for 
 Oriental ware induced Louis XIV to enact 
 laws to protect native industries. 
 
 1710— In 1710 the French japanners claiming 
 that the lacc]uers and lapans were equal 
 to the Asiatic ware, asked for protection, 
 and throughout this period there is con- 
 stant reference to lacquered tables, 
 screens, chairs, lacquered trunks, panels 
 fans and furniture. 
 
 1733 — Imitations of lacquer found fame in 
 the Netherlands through Huygens, and 
 contemporaneously in France through 
 Martin (Vernis-Martin) Royal factory, 
 1748. 
 
 1100 — Intarsia of marble and vitreous pastes 
 produced in Southern Italy. 
 
 1259 — Beautiful examples of inlaying produced 
 in Siena. 
 
 1300 — Germans worked in inlays, and beauti- 
 ful examples were brought from India, 
 Arabia, Egypt, Venice and Spain. 
 
 1331 — Famous stalls inlaid with ebony, box- 
 wood, walnut and white poplar were pro- 
 duced by the Siennese and reached a high 
 degree of artistic merit. 
 
 1416 — The Due du Berri's furniture was il- 
 luminated with pictures in intarsia, doubt- 
 less of Italian workmanship. 
 
 1490 — Exquisite work done in France. 
 
 1500 — Germans understood intarsia work in 
 colored woods. 
 
 1550 — Italians revived the ancient styles of 
 marquetry and the furniture of this Latin 
 Renaissance or Baroque Period was often 
 of marquetry arranged in the form of ac- 
 tual pictures. Sometimes furniture was 
 also painted, gilded or decorated with oil 
 paintmgs. 
 
 1550 — Ebony and ivory work successfully un- 
 dertaken in Germany. Fine examples in 
 Mosque of Cordova, Spain. 
 
 1550-1650-'— Dutch marquetry, highly artistic, 
 employing Asiatic woods in great number. 
 Rich chairs were commonly decorated 
 with marquetry, usually huge tulips and 
 birds. 
 
 1600 — Marquetry made itself felt in the 
 Netherlands and Flemish artists copied 
 the work in precious woods. 
 
 1603 — Some excellent work was done by Eng- 
 lishmen during the . Jacobean Period. 
 Jean Mace of Blois is thought to be the 
 
 first to practice intarsia in France under 
 the name of marqueirie. He learned the 
 art in the Netherlands. French designs 
 usually ran to landscapes, ruins and 
 classic scenes. 
 
 1650 — Under Louis XIV Dutch inarqueteiirs 
 were employed to teach the art to French- 
 men. The name Boulle has become indis- 
 solubly connected with the application of 
 copper and tortoise shell mosaics upon 
 wood. The Portuguese carried on the 
 work in the Seventeenth Century, em- 
 ploying metal plates cut and pierced in 
 elaborate and fanciful patterns fastened 
 -upon black wood, the beginning of Boulle 
 work, which was characterized by the 
 sinking of the metal into the wood. 
 
 1672 — Andre Charles Boulle, born in 1642, was 
 granted apartments in the Louvre as 
 "joiner, marqueter, gilder and chiseler." 
 BouUe's work covered Louis XIV and XV 
 Periods. J. F. Oeben was famous during 
 the Louis XV Period, also J. Henry 
 Riesener and Chas. Cressent. 
 
 1700 — Marquetry fashionable in England in 
 the Queen Anne Period. The designs 
 were rich in foliage with bands of ivory 
 and mother-of-pearl. 
 
 1760 — Satinwood used for inlaid lines of Sher- 
 aton furniture; also holly, tulip wood, de- 
 cidedly reddish, and later lancewood. 
 
 1770 — All of the tropical woods utilized by the 
 inlayers. Wonderful efl'ects obtained by 
 David Roentgen, German, who secured 
 shadings by subjecting woods to various 
 degrees of hot sand baths. 
 
 1779 — David Roentgen appointed by Marie 
 Antoinette as marqueteur to the Queen. 
 
 234 
 
INDEX 
 
 Note:— The innumerable racial names, divisions and nationalities, not 
 comprehensively grouped under the charts, "Developments of 
 
 Acanthus, 60, 73 
 
 Adam, 7:2, l.")4, 101*, 17(), 1S4, 184b*, 187*. 
 
 188*, 189*, 190a* 196*, 197, 19Sa*, 
 
 199*, 300*, 201, ■M2''- 
 Age of Bronze, 15 
 Age of Copper, 15 
 Age of Iron, 15 
 Age of Oak, S, 118 
 Age of Stone, 15 
 Age of Walnut, 8, 80, 118 
 Ainos,,50 
 Alberti, 77 
 Alhambraic, s. 39 
 Amaranth, 157 
 
 Animal Forms, 15, 17, 134, ;::7, :iS, 4ri 
 Anthemion, 60, 73 
 Arabesque, 130 
 Arabian, 7, 39, 40*, 41 
 Arabic, 130 
 Arras Tapestries, 222 
 Artists and Architects, l:)S 
 Art Moderne, 219 
 
 Art Nouveau, 8, 73, 217* 218*, 219* 
 Arts and Craft, 219, 222*, 223, 234*, 22:i* 
 Asiatic, 38, 39 
 Assyrian, 3, 7, 16*, 17 
 Aztec, 10, 224* 
 
 Babel, 144, 147 
 
 Babylonian, 3, 7, 16*, 17 
 
 Barbaric Design, 9 
 
 Baroque, 123. 124* 
 
 Bartolomeo, 77 
 
 Bartolozzi, 170 
 
 Beauvais, 132, 150 
 
 Beetle, 15 
 
 Beidermeier, 216, 217, 218, 219 
 
 Berain, 132, 133, 137* 
 
 Bird Forms, 27, 28, 49, 137 
 
 Bonchon, 125 
 
 Borgognone, 77 
 
 Botticelli, 77 
 
 Bouchardon, 139, 147 
 
 Boucher, 139, 144, 147, 150 
 
 Boudichon, 168 
 
 Boulle, 133, 150, 154 
 
 Boullognes, 132 
 
 Brass Mountings, 163 
 
 Brocatelles, 140 
 
 Bronze, 28, 133, 145, 150 
 
 Brown, Ford Madox, 220 
 
 Bruges Satins, 125 
 
 Brunelleschi, 77, 78 
 
 Bulb Foot, 111 
 
 Buonarroti, 77 
 
 Bureau, 138, 217 
 Burne-Jones, 219, 320 
 Butterfly Table, 212 
 Byzantine, 4, 7, 27, 2i|, 3(1, :!;■> 
 
 C Curve, 103, 105 
 
 Cabriole Leg, 111, 10'.), 180 
 
 Calico Printing, 232 
 
 Campbell, 176 
 
 Candle Stand, 211* 
 
 Cane, 119, 134, 169 
 
 Cane Seats, 105, 189, 212 
 
 Card Tables, 157, 170 
 
 Carpets, 332 
 
 Carter, Edward, 123, 176 
 
 Carter, J„ 176 
 
 Cedar, 117, 119 
 
 Ceilings, 133, 136a*, 128* 
 
 Celtic, 3, 7, 34*, 35 
 
 Chaise Cacquetoire, 105 
 
 Chaise Lounge, 137* 
 
 Chaise Perroquet, 105 
 
 Chaldean, 7 
 
 Chambers, Sir William, 176, 177, 183, 
 185 
 
 Charles L 105 
 
 Charles H, 8, 104, 117, 131, 203 
 
 Charles IX, 83, 134 
 
 Cheshire, 194 
 
 Chests, 57, 312 
 
 Chinese, 7, 38, 45, 47*, 133, 147, 183, 183 
 
 Chinese Ornament, 141, 144 
 
 Chintzes, 110 
 
 C hippenda le^ 161, 176, 177*, ' 178* 179, 
 
 '^180*, 181*7"182*, 185, 188*, 201 
 
 Christian, Early, 31 
 
 Chronology of Decoration by Centuries, 
 7, 8 
 
 Chronology of Rugs, 233 
 
 Chronology of Wall and Ceiling Treat- 
 ment, 337, 331 
 
 Chronology of Woods, 334 
 
 Cipriani, 176, 185, 191, 197, 198*, 201 
 
 Circle, 27, 31, 34 
 
 Clarke, Sir Purdon, 217 
 
 Claw-and-Ball Foot, 111, 112. 169, 180 
 
 Clocks, 110, 119, 189 
 
 Colbert, 125, 133, 137, 107 
 
 Colonial, 8, 169, 175, 303, 306*, 308, 209* 
 211*, 213*, 214a* 317, 238 
 
 Colored Glass Windows, 57 
 
 Color Printing, 166 
 
 Columbani, 176, 301 
 
 Commonwealth, 105 
 
 Composite, 7 
 
 Connecticut Chests, 304 
 
 indexed hereunder, will be found 
 Nations," pages 3 to 6. 
 
 Console, 157 
 Constantinople, 31 
 Copeland, 176, 180 
 Clipper, 57, 78 
 Cordova Leathers, 89, 97 
 Corinthian, 7 
 Couches, 15, 19 
 Coy pel, 133 
 Cradle Chair, 313 
 Crane, Walter, 319 
 Cromwellian, 8, 99, 104, 176 
 Crown, 49, 60 
 Crunden, 176, 180, 301 
 Crusades, 7, 34 
 Cupboard, 223* 
 Cylinder Printing, 168 
 
 Dagobert, 37 
 Damasks, 38, 75, 130, 133 
 Dangon, 135 
 Darley, 176, 179 
 David, 161 
 Da Vinci, 77 
 Day Bed, 201* 
 De Cuvillesj 144 
 De La Londe, 154 
 De La Salle, 135, 140, 141 
 Del Sarto, 77 
 De Maintenon, 137 
 De Medici, Catherine, 83, 134 
 Derbyshire Chair, 105* 
 Design Characteristics, 13 
 Development of Floral Types, 73*, 73 
 Development of Mechanical Textile De- 
 sign, 64 
 Development of Nations, 3, 6 
 Development of Textile Weaving, 35 
 Diamond-paned Windows, 113 
 Dimity, 113, 135, 130 
 Directoire, 8, 161, 163 
 Directorate, 161 
 Domino, 168 
 Donato, 77 
 Doric, 7 
 Dossier, 57 
 
 Double-seated Chairs, 117 
 Dove, 27 
 
 Dragon, 35, 37, 50 
 Draught Chair, 169 
 Drop Handles, 117 
 
 Du Barry, 150 ; 
 
 Duchess Chair, 189 
 Duplessis, 144 
 Diirer, 77, 133 
 Dutch, 6, 8 
 
 235 
 
INDEX 
 
 Dutch Embroideries, 95 
 Dutch Gothic, 53 
 
 Eagle Head, 18 
 
 Eagle-headed Lions, 18 
 
 Eagles, 17, 28 
 
 Early Christian, 37, 31, 35, 37* 
 
 East India Goods, 175 
 
 East India Trading Co., 89, 110 
 
 Eastlake, 219, 220, 232* 
 
 Ebenists and Inlayers, 138 
 
 Ebony, 118, 134, 163 
 
 Edict of Nantes, 104 
 
 Edwards, 176, 177, 179 
 
 Egyptian, 3, 7, 14, 15 
 
 Egyptian Damasks, 125 
 
 Eight-legged Chair, 113 
 
 Elizabethan, 8, 99, 100*, 102*, 104*, 
 
 106* 107*, 108* 118 
 Elizabethan Embroideries, 99* 
 Embroideries, 33, 33, 28, 31 
 Empire. 73, 158b*, 161, 163* 163*, 165* 
 Enamels, 38 
 
 English Gothic, 6, 7, 8, 53, 58*, 59*, 61 
 English Renaissance, 6, 8, 77, 99, 109*, 
 
 123* 
 English Romanesque, 27 
 Escutcheons, 117 
 Essex, 194 
 Etamines, 125 
 Etruscan, 3, 7 
 
 Fabrics, 28, 56, 61, 65, 71, 112, 136*, 
 137*, 140*, 141*, 206 
 
 Fabrics of the Sixteenth and Seven- 
 teenth Centuries, 140 
 
 Fabrics of Northern Italy, 75 
 
 Falcon, 135, 128 
 
 Fan-shaped Chairs, 105 
 
 Fan-shaped Ornaments, 15 
 
 Farthingdale Chair, 119* 
 
 Feathers, 15, 137 
 
 Feradines, 135 
 
 Field Bed, 305, 313* 
 
 Fig Tree, 17 
 
 Filatrices, 125 
 
 Fir Cones, 18 
 
 Flambeau, 163 
 
 Flanders, 8 
 
 Fleeson, 210 
 
 Flemings, 83 
 
 Flemish, 5, 6, 7 
 
 Flemish Dutch, 6, 117 
 
 Flemish Renaissance, 77, 89, 91* 
 
 Flemish Strapwork, 88 
 
 Fleur-de-lis, 53, 60 
 
 Floral Motifs, 28, 73 
 
 Florentine Renaissance, 8, 77 
 
 Floriated Forms, 24, 43 
 
 Flower Tables, 157 
 
 Fluted Foot, 111 
 
 Fontainebleau, 70a*, 83, 129*, 233a* 
 
 Four-post Bed, 312* 
 
 Era Angelico, 77 
 
 Fra Giaconda, 77 
 
 Fragonard, 147 
 
 Francis I, 86, 86a* 
 
 Francis II, 83 
 
 French, 3, 4, 6 
 
 French Carpets, 145 
 
 French-Flemish, 117 
 
 French Gothic, 7, 53, 54*, 61, 62* 
 
 French Renaissance, 6, 8, 77, 83, 84*, 
 
 85 
 French Romanesque, 27, 31 
 Frieze Decoration, 15 
 Friezes, 188 
 Fustians, 125 
 
 George I, II, III, 176 
 
 Georgia, 31 
 
 Georgian, 8, 175, 176 
 
 Germain, 144 
 
 German Empire, 7, 218 
 
 German Gothic, 52, 53, 61, 63*, 68* 
 
 German Renaissance, 8, 77, 90 
 
 German Romanesque, 31, 33* 
 
 Gesso Work, 198 
 
 Giacomo, 77 
 
 Gibb, 122, 123, 130*, 176 
 
 Gibbons, Grinling, 104, 122, 123, 128*, 
 
 176 
 Gillow, 176 
 Glass, 31, 209 
 Glass Knobs, 185 
 Gobelin, 8, 133 
 Gothic, 6, 7, 51*, 53*, 53, 54a*, 55, 60*, 
 
 61, 70a* 
 Gothic Fabric Design, 64*, 65 
 Goths, 37 
 
 Graeco-Pelasgic, 7, 33 
 Grandfather's Clocks, 110 
 Grecian, 3, 7, 18, 19, 23 
 Greek Ornament, 19* 
 Group System of Classifying Textiles, 
 
 34, 64 
 Guadameciles, 97 
 Guilloche, 22 
 
 Hadley Chests, 304* 
 
 Halfpenny, William, 176 
 
 Hals, Franz, 133* 
 
 Hardware, 189 
 
 Hargraves, 304, 210 
 
 Hawksmoor, 133, 176 
 
 Hebraic, 3, 18 
 
 Henri II, 7, 78*, 83*, 118, 124, 126, 137* 
 
 Henri III, 83, 124 
 
 Henri IV, 8, 83, 124, 126* 140 
 
 Henry VIII, 118 
 
 Hepplewhite, 159*, 176, 181, 184, 185, 
 
 186*, 189*, 190*, 191, 193*, 193*, 301 
 Heraldic Forms, 34 
 Herculaneum, 151 
 
 Highboy, 213* 
 
 Hispano-Saracenic, 31 
 
 Hogarth, 176 
 
 Hogarth Chair, 169, 306* 
 
 Holbein, 103, 123* 
 
 Hope, Thomas, 176, 304, 219 
 
 Horsehair Coverings, 189 
 
 Huet, 150 
 
 Hunt, Holman, 320 
 
 Hyvart, 132 
 
 Ince, 176, 179 
 
 India Prints, 110 
 
 Indian, 7, 18, 39, 45, 46*, 50* 113, 166*, 
 
 167* 
 Inlaid Floors, 112 
 Inlays, 83 
 
 Inscriptional Work, 40 
 Intarsia and Marquetry, 23, 80*, 83 
 Interlacements, 27, 34 
 Interlacing Circles, 38 
 Interlacing Crosses, 38 
 Intersection Design, 27 
 Ionic, 7 
 Islam, 39 
 
 Italian, 4, 6, 70, 75, 78* 
 Italian Chairs, 83 
 Italian Gothic, 53, Ql, 67*, 74*, 76 
 Italian Renaissance, 8, 77*, 78, 79*, 
 
 81*, 83*, 83 
 
 Jacobean, 8, 99, 100*, 101*, 109*, 113, 
 
 117, 139* 
 Jacobean Chests, 99* 
 Jacquard, 125 
 James I, 105, 129* 
 James II, 117 
 Jamnitzer, 133 
 Japanese, 7, 45, 48*, 50, 183 
 Japanned, 118, 236 
 Jefifersonian Period, 175, 211 
 John of Padua, 77, 99, 133 
 Johnson, Thomas, 176, 180 
 Jones, Inigo, 103, 132*, 123, 130*, 133 
 Jones, W., 176, 201 
 Jouy, Prints, 141*, 164*, 166*, 167* 
 
 Kas, 210* 211 
 
 Kaufifmann, Angelica, 176, 191, 197, 
 
 301, 223 
 Kent, William, 130*, 176, 180 
 
 Lacquer, 118, 144, 145 
 
 Lacquered Furniture, 117, 336 
 
 La Fontaine, 133, 150 
 
 Lancashire Chair, 105*, 194, 202 
 
 Lancet Gothic, 55 ■ '] 
 
 Lancret, 139 __^ 
 
 Latrobe, 204, 210, 211 
 
 Leathers, 89, 94a*, 110, 112, 124 
 
 Le Brun, 132, 141 
 
 Le Pautre, Jean and Antoine, 133 
 
 236 
 
INDEX 
 
 Le Roux, 14-1 
 
 Linenfold Panels, 57, 61 
 
 Lions, 17, 38, 45, 180 
 
 Lock, Mathias, ITG, 179 
 
 Lockwood, Luke Vincent, 317 
 
 Lombards, 27 
 
 Looking-glasses, 110, 307* 
 
 Lotus, 15, 17 
 
 Louis XI, 49 
 
 Louis, XIH, 8, 134, i;,\V", 136*, 127*, 
 
 139*, 131* 
 Louis XIV, S, 313, 12,-)*, 137*, 133*, 
 ■ 134*, 135*, 13G*, K!7*, 143*, 143*, 
 
 144*, 148* 
 Louis XV, 134a*, 142*, 144, 145*, 148*, 
 
 154* 
 Louis XVL 8, 151, 15:i, 155*, 150*, 
 
 157*, 158*, 159* 
 Love Seats, 169 
 Lucca della Robbia, 77 
 Luccan Damascenes, 135 
 Lyre-form Chairbacks, 193 
 
 Mahogany, 8, 105, 145, lli:!. ISO, 304 
 
 Mansart, 132 
 
 Mantels, 158a*, 1S5 
 
 Manwaring, 176, 177, 179 
 
 Marble Couches, 33 
 
 Marbled Papers, 168 
 
 Marie Antoinette, 150, 151, 153, 233a*. 
 
 226 
 Marot, Daniel, 118, 133, 137* 169 
 Marot, Jean, 132 
 Marquetry, 119, 124 
 Marquetried Furniture, 117 
 Marshall, 221 
 Martin, Robert, 118, 147 
 Martin, Simon Etienne Jr., 147 
 Mayhew, 176, 177, 179 
 Mazarin, 132, 183 
 Medieval Art, 37 
 Medieval Furniture, 33* 
 Messonnier, 150 
 Mexican Decoration, 234 
 Michael Angelo, 123 
 Mignard, 133 
 
 Milanese Renaissance, 8, 77 
 Milton, 176 
 
 Mirror Glass, 110, 310 
 Mirrors, 33, 80, 110, 138, 150, 207* 
 Mission, 319, 333*, 324 
 Mohammedan, 7, 39 
 Moliere, 133 
 Monnoyer, 132 
 Moorish, 5, 7, 38, 39, 41* 
 Moquette Carpets, 157 
 Moresque, 130 
 
 Morris, William, 219, 220, 231 
 Mortlake Tapestry Works, 38, 112 
 Mosaics, 23 
 Mullais, John, 220 
 Mythological Subjects, 28 197 
 
 Napoleonic Bee, 163 
 Napoleonic Crown, 158b* 163 
 Natoire, 147 
 Netherlands, 68 
 Netherlands Gothic, 61, 68* 
 Nettings, 15 
 Norfolk, 194 
 Norman, 7 
 Norman England, 27 
 Norman Romanesque, 37, 32* 
 Northern, 7, 35 
 Norwegian Renaissance, 95 
 
 Oak, 8, 118 
 
 Oak Leaf, 76 
 
 Oberkampf, 167 
 
 Octagons, 38 
 
 Oeben, 144 
 
 Ogival Forms, 37*, 34, 35, 70 
 
 Oiled Linen, 309 
 
 Oiled Paper, 209 
 
 Oriental Motif, 111* 
 
 Oriental Rugs, 110, 133, 145 
 
 Ormolu, 150, 329 
 
 Otter, 25 
 
 Ottoman, 8, 39, 43* 
 
 Ottomans, 157 
 
 Oudry, 144 
 
 Oval Chair-backs, 187* 
 
 Ovals, 34 
 
 Overton, 176 
 
 Faine, 176 
 
 Painted Furniture, 134. 308, 225*, 327 
 
 Painted Linens, 167 
 
 Palladio, 77, 103 
 
 Palm, 17, 33, 39 
 
 Panels, 33 
 
 Paper, 168 
 
 Papyrus Buds. 15 
 
 Partheon, 7 
 
 Peacock, 27, 28, 50 
 
 Pea Form, 39, 43, 61 
 
 Pediments, 130*, 193* 
 
 Pelasgic, 7, 32 
 
 Pembroke Tables, 191 
 
 Perforated Doors, 57 
 
 Pergolesi, 176, 191, 197, 198*, 201, 326 
 
 Perpendicular Gothic, 55 
 
 Persian, 3, 7, 17, 18, 39, 43*, 74 
 
 Perso Byzantine, 31 
 
 Phoenician, 3," 18 
 
 Phyfe, 204, 210, 311 
 
 Pierced Rails, 180 
 
 Pier Table, 157 
 
 Pineapple, 33, 39 
 
 Pines, 39 
 
 Plumes, 137 
 
 Pomegranate, 39 
 
 Pompadour, Madam, 144 
 
 Pompeii, 7, 151 
 
 Pompeiian, 7, 19, 30*, 33, 161, 197, 199 
 
 Porcelain, 137 
 
 Portieres, 28 
 
 Portuguese, 3, 6 
 
 Portuguese Persian, 73 
 
 Portuguese Renaissance, 95 
 
 Pre-Raphaelites, 330 
 
 Printed Fabrics and Paper, 166, 333 
 
 Printed Linens, 167, 194 
 
 Queen Anne, 8, 105, 117, 169, 170*. 
 
 171*, 173*, 174*, 175*, 179, 213* 
 Queen Anne Highboy, 169* 
 Queen Anne Love-seat, 169* 
 
 Racine, 133 
 Rag Paper, 168 
 Raphael, 77 
 Rayed Stars, 49 
 Rectangular Patterns, 34 
 Reeds, 15 
 Regency, 139, 148* 
 Rembrandt, 183* 
 Renaissance, 77, 88, 103*, 137* 
 Renaissance Development, 77, 111 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 10 1 
 Ribbon-back Chair, 180 
 Richardson, 176, 201 
 Riesener, -144, 154 
 Rock and Shell, 133 
 Rocking Chairs, 337 
 " Rococo, 8, 139, 150, 168* 
 Roentgen, 154, 236 
 Roman, 3, 4, 7, 19, 31*, 22, 23 
 Romanesque, 7, 31, 34, 35, 36 - 
 Romanesque Gothic, 53 
 Roman Renaissance, 8, 77, 123 
 Ronezzano, 99 
 Rope Seats, 15 
 Rosewood, 163 
 
 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 220, 231 
 Rossetti, William, 220 
 Roundabout Chair, 213*, 315* 
 Rounded Wood, 179 
 Round Head Gothic, 53 
 Rubens, 103, 133* 
 Rush Floors, 57, 110, 119* 310 
 Rush Seats, 15, 313 
 Ruskin, 219, 235 
 Russian, 5, 37, 69* 
 Russian Renaissance, 92*, 95, 97* 
 
 S Curve, 103, 105 
 
 g-Shaped Chair Leg, 118 
 
 Sacred Tree, 15, 18 
 
 Salembier, 154 
 
 Sanded Floors, 310 
 
 Saracenic, 28*, 31, 38, 48 
 
 Sarcenets, 38 
 
 Sassanian, 7 
 
 Satin, 125 
 
 Scandinavian, 5, 7, 25, 26* 
 
 Scissor Chair (see X Chair), 118 
 
 237 
 
INDEX 
 
 Schinkel, 168 
 
 Schubert, 219 
 
 Sconces, 128 
 
 Scroll Feet, 111 
 
 Secession, 219 
 
 Seralio, 77 
 
 Serpentine Stretcher, 117 
 
 Settees, 117 
 
 Seventeenth Century English Furni- 
 ture, 120*, 121* 
 
 Shah Abbas, 39 
 
 Shearer, 176, 187, 188*, 190*, 193 
 
 Shellacking, 118 
 
 Shell Shapes, 105, 137 
 
 Sheraton, 154, 159*, 176, 181*, 185, 188*, 
 189*, 190, 191, 193, 195*, 301*, 202 
 
 Shield-shape Chairbacks, 187* 
 
 Sicilian, 49 
 
 Siculo-Saracenic, 49 
 
 Sideboards, 189*, 191, 215 
 
 Silk, 19, 28, 35, 49, 75, 113, 125, 131*, 
 194 
 
 Silver Ornamentation, 18 
 
 Sixteenth Century Fabric Designs, 71* 
 
 Smith, George, 176 
 
 Smooth Splat, 169 
 
 Spade Foot, 111 
 
 Spanish, 3, 5, 6, 7 
 
 Spanish Gothic, 66* 
 
 Spanish Portuguese, 6 
 
 Spanish Renaissance, 6, 8, 93*, 94*, 95, 
 96* 
 
 Spinning Machine, 75 
 
 Splat Back, 180 
 
 Squares, 38, 34 
 
 Stalactite Forms, 133 
 
 Stencil Work, 227 
 
 Stephens, 220 
 
 Street, George Edmund, 220 
 
 Stretchers, 112, 169 
 
 Stripes, 28, ,34 
 
 Stone, Nicholas, 123, 176 
 
 Stools, 15 
 
 Stuart, 8, 99 
 Stuccos, 80*, 103, 133 . 
 Swan, Abraham, 176 
 Swastika, 11, 12 
 Swiss Renaissance, 98 
 Switzerland, 96*, 98 
 Sycamore, 118 
 Syria, 3 
 
 Taffetas, 28 
 
 Tapestries, 33, 38, 31, 35 
 
 Tapestry Weaving, 332 
 
 Tarsia (see Intarsia) 
 
 Taylor, Sir Robert, 176 
 
 Tea Tables, 312 
 
 Teutonic, 3, 4 
 
 Textile Design, 57, 64 
 
 Textile Weaving, 35 
 
 Thomas, W., 176, 201 
 
 Tiles, 31, 34 
 
 Toile de Jouy, 141, 164, 166*, 167* 
 
 Torch, 163 
 
 Torrigiano, 99 
 
 Tortoise Shell, 150 
 
 Transition, 73, 139, 151, 154, 160*, 101, 
 
 163*, 163 
 Tudor Gothic, 8, 55, 61, 109* 
 Turkish, 8, 39, 44* 
 Turned-Rail Furniture, 95* 
 Turned Wood, 38, 312 
 Tuscan, 7 
 Tyrol, 98 
 Tyrol Gothic, 53, 61, 68* 
 
 Upholstered Chairs, 117, 118, 134, 313 
 Urns, 60 
 
 Van Brugh, 133, 176 
 
 Van Dyke, 103, 133* 
 
 Vandermeulen, 132 
 
 Varnish, 118 
 
 Velvet, 33, 38, 75, 86*, 87*, 113, 125, 133 
 
 Veneering, 33, 119, 135, 329 
 
 Venetian, 70, 76 
 
 Venetian Damasks, 125 
 Venetian Renaissance, 8, 77, 123 
 Vernis-Martin, 118, 144, 147, 236 
 Verrio, 123 
 Vezier, '125 
 Victoria, Queen, 219 
 Victorian, 8 
 Vitruvian Scrolls, 22 
 Voysey Design, 220* 
 
 Wagner, £19 
 
 Wainscoted Chairs, 212 
 
 Wainscoting, 57 
 
 Wallis, 176, 201 
 
 Wall-paper, 168, 204, 210, 322 
 
 Walnut, 8, 113, 119 
 
 Walpole, 176, 180 
 
 Ware, Isaac, 176, 204, 310 
 
 Watteau, Antoine, 139, 146* 
 
 Webb, 133, 176, 321 
 
 Wedgwood, Josiah, 176, 198 
 
 White Woodwork, 179, 185, 310 
 
 Wicker, 105, 313 
 
 William and Mary, 8, 113, 116*, 121, 
 
 313* 
 Willow, 118 
 
 Window Traceries, 312, 215 
 Windsor Chairs, 202, 206*, 214 
 Winged Bulls, 18 
 Winged Dolphins, 13, 33 
 Winged Human Figures, 15, 18 
 Wood Carving, 83 
 Woods, Chronology of, 160, 334 
 Wood Finish, 118 
 Wood-paneled Chairs, 104 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, 103, 133*, 123, 
 
 128*, 176 
 
 X Chair, 118 
 
 Yorkshire Chair, 105*, 194 
 
 Zigzags, 15 
 
 Zucchi, 176, 197, 201 
 
 238