New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y, Library Date Due ^ '^ r m^%-. l^mn. ¥ T ^^''^SBW H. f Cornell University LlfcNrary SF 201.A73 Manual of cattle-feeding. A treatise on t 3 1 924 002 955 379 MANUAL OF -£\. ± JL JLJ JUJ JJ lu JlJJ IJ ± JjS VJT. A TEEATISB ON THE LA.WS OP ANIMAL NUTRITION AND THE CHEMISTRY OF FEEDING-STUFFS IN THEIR APPLICATION TO THE FEEDING OF FARM-ANIMALS. Wtth Illmtrations and an Appendix of Useful Tables, By henry p. ARMSBY, Ph.D., CHEMIST TO THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAIi EXPERIMENT STATION. NEW YOEK: JOHN WILEY & SONS, 15 AsToii Place. 1880. OOP1?RIGHT, JOHN WILEY & SONS. 1880. Trow*s Printinq anp Bookbinding CompanV* 201-213 East x^th Street, NEW YORK. PEEFAGE. Investigation into the laws wliich form the hmis of the ra- tional feeding of live-stock has been most actively and indiis- trioufely canied on of late years, and very important advances have been made, especially in Germany, where this branch of applied science lias been most attentively and perfoistently studied The period since tlie year 1860, in particular, has been a remarkably fraitful one ; within this period the theory of feeding has been plaoed on $ firm, scientific foundation, and the direction of its future progress has been marked out ; and while very much still remains to be done, the results abeady achieved are of great practical importance. Unfortunately, however, these results are largely inaccessible to tlie majority of American feeders, and those of them which ai)pear from time to time in agricultural papers and other publications are deprived of much, of their good effect by their necessai^ily fragmentary character. It is the object of this work to present these results in a connected and systematic form to American farmers and others interested in stock-feeding, an attempt which, so far as the writer is aware, has not before been made, and a few words as to the scope and aims of such a book will therefore be in place. iv PnEFACE. In the writer's view, the highest iisefuhiess of a work hko tho X^resGut does not consist simply in giving receipts which shall enable the f amier to feed his stock more economically, or to pro- duce more milk or more or better beef, but in so elucidating our knowledge of the unchanging natural laws, che;tnical and physiological, of the nutrition of animals, that the attentive stu- dent shall be able to adapt his i)ractice to the varj^ing conditions in which he may be placed, and, more important still, shall be able to appropriate intelligently the results of new investiga- tions and follow or take part in the advances of the science. Guided by this idea, the author has not been content simj^ly to state results, but has endeavored, so far as was |)ossiblc in an elementary work, to indicate the processes by which these results have been reached and the degree of cert-ainty which attaches to them, as well as to point out the directions in which om^ knowledoe is still deficient. Only in this way can a cor- rect idea of the present state of the science be obtained or the learner be prepared to appreciate and utilize further j)rog3*ess. In this the chiefly practical imx}ortance of the subject has not been forgotten. The ultimate object of this branch of api^liod science is, of course, to enable us to feed better and more economically ; but the only sure and lasting foundation for a rational practice is a knowledge of the natural laws on which it is based, and with which it must be in accordance in order to be successful. This method of treating the subject naturally makes demands for study and thought on the part of the reader ; the results of twenty years of arduous scientific work by scores of investi- gators are not to be grasped and appropriated without labor. At the same time the author has endeavored to reduce this PPwEFACE. V labor as mucli as is possible witliout tlie saeriiiee of act'iiraej and a reasonable degi'ee of fulness. Above all, lie Ixas souglit to make liis work a reliable exponent of tlie i>resent state of knowledge on tlie subject of cattle-feeding, and to draw a sharp line between proved and useful facts, and merely probable bypotlieses or speculations. This book was begun as a translation of Wolff's " Land- wirthschaftUche FuUenrngdehre,'^ a volume of some two hun- dred pages. It was soon found, however, that considerable additions and changes were required to suit it to Ameri- can readers, and the work has finally assumed its j)resent form. Some portions of it are still free translations of Wolflt; but much more of it has been either added or entirely re- written, and a number of illustrations have been introduced, so that the character of the book has been considerably altered. One of the most marked changes is the substitution, in the Ax^pcndix, of Kiihu's tables of the composition and digestil)ility of feeding-stuffs for those of "Wolff. Although the writer does not accept all of Klilm's opinions, he yet believes that tables arranged on the -plan adopted by Kulm are, on the whole, preferable to those containing simiDly aver- ages ; and in view of the changes and additions made else- where in the volume, he has felt justified in making the sub- stitution named, though aware that Kuhn's views, on some points, are warmly opposed by Wolff. In addition to the '' FiUterungslehre" the author is espe- cially indebted to Wolff's larger book, " Die Ernalirung der landwiHhschaftUchen Nidzihkrer while other works and the current literature of the subject have been freely consulted. HErT. 1, 1880. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODITCTIOK 1 FART L THE GENERAL LAWS OF ANIMAL NUTRITION. CHAPTER I— Tub Composition op the Animal Body . . 5 § 1. Proportions of the vaiious tissues » . . . 5 g %. Non-mtrogenouB matters 7 § 3. Nitrogenous matters 14: § 4. Inorganic or non -volatile matters ... .20 CHAPTER IL— Components of Eodders— Nutkients . . 25 § 1. Definitions 25 ^ 2. Nitrogenous nutrients 20 § 3. Non-nitrogenous nutrients , . . . . 38 ^ 4. Inorganic nutrients . 47 g 5, Fodder Analysis ....... ^^ CHAPTER III— Digestion AND Resokption .... 54 §5 1. Digestion ^^ § 2. Resorption ^^ CHAPTER IV —Circulation, Respieation, and Excretion. 74 S 1. Circulation "^ QA § 2. Respiration °" § 3. Excretion ^^ van co]srTEJNrTS5. CIIAPTEE v.— Methods of Invertigatton . . . .104 §1. Determination of digestibility . . . . lOt § 2. Determination of nutritive effect of a ration . . 100 CHAPTER VI. —FOKMATION OF Flesh 119 §1. Introductory 119 % 2. Organized and circulatory protein . . . , 123 g 3. Feeding with protein alone 12S §4. Feeding" with fat or carbhyd rates alone . . , 1J]C § 5. Feeding with protem and fat 137 g 6. Feeding with protein and carbhydrates . . . 143 § 7. Kutritive value of amides 158 I 8. Influence of quantity of food 167 OHAPTEE YIL— The Formation op Fat . , . .109 § 1.* Sources of fat KJO § 2. Feeding with fat alone 187 § 3. Feeding with protein alone 188 § 4. Feeding with protein and fat 180 § 5. Feeding with piotoin and carbhydrates . . . 101 g G. Influence of other conditions on the production of fat 103 CHAPTER VIII. —The Productiok of Work ... 302 § 1. Effects of muscular exertion on excretion . . , 204 § 2. The source of muscular power . , . . 213 § 3. Internal work 220 THE FEEDma-STUFFS. CHAPTER I.— Digestibility 243 § 1. Digestibility of the nutrients of coarse fodder . . 245 § 2. Circumstances affecting the digestibility of coarse fodder 250 §3. Digestibility of* the concentrated fodders and their influence on that of coarse fodder .... 273 CHAPTER II.— Tee Coarse Fodders 288 § 1. Meadow hay, rowen, and pasture grass ... 288 CONTENTS. ix pAGn § 2. The legumes 301 Clover and clover hay ^03 Lucerne . 307 Vetches ....,.., 309 Lupines SIO Other legumes 311 § 3. Hungarian grass 314: § 4. Maize fodder and stover 315 § 5. Tops of root crops . 32 1 § 0. Straw of the cereals 323 § 7. Straw of the legumes 32G g 8. Chaff, pods, and maize cob 327 OIIAPTER III.— Concentrated Fodders .... 330 § 1. The grains 330 ^ 2. Bye-products of the grains 337 i^ 3. The legumes 343 § 4. Oil sec^B and oil cake 345 ^ 5. Animal products . 340 § 6. Tubers and roots 355 FABT III. THE FEEDING OP FAP^M ANIMALS OllAPTEll I.— FisEDiNG Standards 305 CHAPTER 11 — FifiiiiDiNG for Maintknance .... 374 § 1. Oxen 374 fc^ 2. Sheep 383 OIIAPTEIl III.— Fattening 3JJ2 fc^ I. Cattle 392 §2. Sheep 390 §3. Swine 404 CIIAPTERIV.— Feeding Working Animals . . . 407 ^ 1. Introductory 407 ^ 2. Working oxen . 41*8 g 3. Horses 409 X CONTLN'TS. PAGE. CHAPTER V — Pkoduction of Mtlk 414 ^ 1. The milk glands and their ftmotions . . . 414 g 2. The quantity of milk .*.».. 419 § o. The quality of the milk 42(> § 4 The feeding standard 431 OHAPTEE VL— Deeding Gbowing Animals ... 4: 6 § 1. Geneial laws of the nutrition of yonng animals . . 430 §3 Calveb 442 § 3, Lambs 448 §4. Pigs 458 § 5. Inorganic nutrients 4G2 CHAPTEE VII— TiiECALCULAiioKroFEATious . . . 406 Table I — The composition of feeding stuffs .... 478 Table II —The digestibility of feeding stuffs . . , 487 Table III. — Peedmg standards for farm animals . . . 492 Table IV. — Proportions of tlie various parts of cattle, sheep, and hogs 494 lilUAL OF CATTLE-EEEDIN&. mTEODUCTION. The two objects of agriculture are the production of plants and of animals. We must seek for the laws governing the former in the cliernistry and physics of the air, the soil, and manures, and in the phenomena of vegetable growth ; while a scien- tific study of the latter involves a consideration of the laws of animal nutrition and growth, and of the ohamistry of plants, so far as they are used as food. All forms of life with which we are acquainted, vegeta- ble as well as animal, manifest themselves through the breaking up of more complex into simpler compounds, accompanied by a liberation of energy. The broad distinction between vegetable and animal life is, that plants are able to appropriate the force which ex- ists in the sun's rays and use it to build up these complex compounds out of very simple, so-called inorganie mate- rials, while animals lack this power^ and are obliged to avail themselves of the compounds already formed by plants. In the economy of nature, the office of the plant is to store up energy from the sun's rays in certain complex compounds, setting free oxygen in the process ; while the 2 MANUAL OP CATTLE-FE35D1NG. animal takes these compounds and utilizes tlie latent en- ergy wliicli tliej contain for his vital processes, the sub- stances themselves uniting again with the oxygen from which they were separated in the plant. In the plant the spring is wound up — ^in the animal it unwinds and gives out just as much force as was used in winding it up. The two processes supplement each other ; the whole is a com- plete circle. A living animal, then, is constantly decomposing and oxidizing the materials of its own body. These first break up in the cells of the body, independently of oxygen, in accordance with the laws which regulate vital phenomena, and give out part of the latent energy which they con- tained. Then the oxygen of the air, carried by the blood to every part of the body, seizes on the resulting substances and burns them, more or less rapidly, producing a large quantity of heat to replace that which the body is constantly losing by radiation and otherwise, while the products of this burning are finally excreted from the body. The body is thus continually suffering a loss of material. To replace this loss, as well as to supply material for fur- ther growth, is the ofliee of the food, which may, from this point of view, be regarded as a vehicle for the intro- duction of supplies of force into the body. It is the object of such a book as the present one to show how much and what kind of food is needed to sup- ply the losses arising under the various conditions to which farm animals are subject. In order to do this intelligently, we need to consider : firsts the nature and extent of the processes going on in the body ; seoond^ the materials avail- able as food ; and thirds the adaptation of tliese matei'ials to the various purposes of feeding. The subject, then, naturally divides itself into three parts : MANUAL OF CATTLE- FEEDING. 3 I. The General La^w's of Animal Nutrition, or tliat portion of animal pliysiology wliicli treats of tlie so-called " vegetative functions." Tliis includes the composition of the animal body, the processes of digestion, circulation and respiration, and the production of flesh, fat, and work. II. The Composition and Digestibility of Feedings- Stuffs. III. The Feeding of Farm Animals — a consideration of the kind and quantity of food required for the various purposes for w^hich such animals are kept* PAET I. THE GENERAL LAWS OF ANIMAL NUTRITION. PTT A PTT7T? T vyXL-CLx JLJGiXV JL» THE OOMPOSITIOK OF THE ANIMAL BODY. § L PjKOPORTIONS OF THE DiFFEEENT OrGAKS AI^D PaRTS. The yitiids circulating in the hlaod and lymph vessels constitute but a small part, at most not more than 7 to 9 per cent., of the live weight, and in old or very fat animals the proportion sinks as low as from 4 to 6 per cent. The digestive fluids and other secretions and fluid excretionsj although they are produced in considerable quantity in the course of twenty-four hours, can hardly be taken into account as constituents of the body, since they are being produced at every instant, are formed more or less directly from the blood, and are partly re-absorbed into it or pass out of the body ; while the blood, on the other hand, al- though continually giving up rnaterial to the tissues and receiving new from the food, remains very constant in its quantity and chemical properties. The Solid Tissues.— The fresh bones constitute, ac- cording to the kind, age, and condition of the animal, 6 to 12 per cent, of its weight, the muscles and tendons 35 to 48 per 6 MANUAL OP OATTLE-FEEDIN"G. cent., and the fat, so far as it can be meclianically separa- ted, 10 to 40 per cent. It is to be noted, however, that the fresh bones contain 11 to 14 per cent, of water, and the muscles from 00 to over 75 per cent. The average of the results of numerous investigations made on the various farm animals gives them approximately the following composition : Bones 9 per cent. Flesh and tendons 40 ** Mechanically separable fat 24 '' The remaining 27 per cent, comprises the blood, hide and hair, entrails, and the contents of stomach and intestines. Fuller details regarding the proportions of the various parts in lean and fat animals of various kinds are to be found in the Appendix. It should be added that the volume and weight of the contents of the stomach and intestines are very various, according to whether the animal has received a more or less bulky fodder. For example, in some investigations made by E. v. Wolff, in Ilohenheim, with sheep, the fol- lowing averages were obtained : No of Expeiimcnts. Fodder. Average live weight per head. Pounds. Contents of Btomach and intestines Pounds. ContentK m per cent, of live weight. 8* 2* Chiefly straw ^ Hay, with small amount of beans. , Clover hay, potatoes, peas, and com 83 8 100.1 134.2 20 16.0 11.2 22.3 15.9 9.04 * ''Die Versuchs-Station Ilohenheim," 1860-1870, p. 62. f Landw. Jahrbaoher, I., 560. KAKUAL OP GATTLE-FKEDIFa, Gronven"^' found in tlie case of oxen : No of Expei iments. Fodder. Live -vv eight. Poundri. Contents of htomachaiid mtcfetmes Pounds Contents m per tent of li\e weight. 4 Sfcraw 1,199 1,419 199 16 J 7 Fattening fodder. ....... 9.4 Fatted hogs give a less proportion, viz., 4 to 6 per cent Lawes and Gilbert f, in fifty-nine experiments, found tlie proportion of stomacli and intestines, together with their contents, to range from 5.59 per cent, to 10.13 per cent, of the live weight, the average being 7.52 per cent. § 3. The Noh-Kitkogekous Constituents of the Animal Body. Water. — One of the most important constituents of the animal body is water. This substance constitutes, under most circumstances, more than half of the entire weight of the ammal ; it is contained in all parts of the body, and forms as essential an ingredient of the so-called solid tissues as do any of their other components. In the new-born animal, water constitutes 80 to 85 per cent, of the total weight, but during the period of rapid growth the proportion of dry matter increases and that of water diminishes, so that the mature, but not fattened, animal may contain 50 to 60 per cent, of water. In the process of fattening, the percentage of water decreases '^ ^Iweiter Sabsmunde Bericht, 1864, p. 137, and Erst-er Bericht, 1862, p. 260. + Jour. Roy Ag. Soc, Senes T , XXL, 449. 8 MAUTUAL OF CATTLIiJ-FEEDINa. still more, falling, according to the experiments of Lawes and Gilbert, below 50 per cent., and in one case (a very fat sheep) to 35.2 per cent, of the whole anhnal, or 33 per cent, of the dressed carcass- It is sometimes stated that, in. fattening, the body loses water, its place being taken by nitrogenous matters and especially by fat, but the author has not been able to iind any account of experiments which substantiate this view. Fat animals, it is true, contain a smaller percentage of water and a larger percentage of fat than lean ones, but this is not sufficient to prove the point, for an inr^rease in the absoliote amount of fat contained in an animal would cause a decrease in the relative amomit (percentage) of all the other ingredients, water included. The only method by which the truth of the above view can be determined, is to compare the alsolmte weight of water, fat, albuminoids, etc., in lean and fat animals of the same breed and as nearly alike as possible. Such comparisons have been made by Lawes and Gil- bert,* in the following manner. Ten animals of different kinds, and in different stages of fatness, were slaughtered, and the percentages of ash, albuminoids, fat, and water in the whole animal determined, and by this means data were obtained for estimating the absolute amounts of these sub- stances in the body of a living animal whose weight was known. A large number of animals were then fattened, and, their composition before and after being estimated as above, it was easy to determine the amount of each in- gredient which had been produced, and from this the per- centage composition of the increase in weight. ♦Jour Roy. Agr. Soc. Series I., XXL, 45G. MANUAL OF CATTLE-JB^KiSBING. 9 The following table sliows the average results for oxen, sheep, and hogs : A'oerage Composition of the I/icrease of Lwe WdgJit in Fattming, 98 Oxen. . 348 Sheep. 80 Hogs. . Average Ash.. Per cent. 1.47 2.34* 0.06 1 1.10 "^ Protein Per cent 7.69 7.13 6.44 7.36^ Fat Total dry mutter. Water, Per cent Per cent. Per cent. 66.2 70.4 715 ^7.8 75.4 79.9 78.0 "76.2 24.6 m.i 22.0 23^8 It is evident from the method followed that the results are not absolutely accurate, but they suffice to show that in fattening, a gain of water takes place, though it is rela- tively small. The same conclusion is indicated by recent experiments by Ilenneberg, Kern, and Wattenberg,:!^ on the fattening of sheep. They slaughtered animals in two stages of fattening, and also, at the beginning of the experiment, others which had not been fattened. The following numbei-s, taken from their results, show the total gain of weight by the "fat" and the "very fat" animals, and also the excess of fat and flesh contained in their bodies over that found in the unf atted ones : * Probably too high, owing to dirt in the wool. f Probably too low. t Biedermaun's Central-Blatt., Jahrg. 8, p. 262. 10 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING, Oiiginal weight Final weight Gam Gam of fat Gaxn of flesh Total, fat and flesh Lean. Pounds 90.53 90.53 Fat Pounds. 89 54 116.45 26 91 24 51 -0 33 ¥3.18 Very fat Pounds 89.10 123 86 34 76 33.78 51 3^29 The increase of fat and flesh is, in each case, less than the total gain, showing that there was a gain of some- thing else, and making it improbahle that any esbenlial loss of water took place, especially as the flebh viab fonnd to contain almost exactly the same percentage of water in the very fat and in the lean animals, viz. : Lean 79 41 per cent. Very fat , , 79 02 *' Unfortunately, however, no snch complete analyses of the whole animal were made in these trials as in those of Lawes and Gilbert, ^nd hence the data which they afford are insufficient to settle the question. The dry substance of the animal body consists of organic and inorganic matter, and the former, again, of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous materials. By organic matter, in the above sense, is understood matter which is combustible, and which, when subjected to the action of fire, disappears, leaving the morganiGxadit- ter behind as ashes. The terms are not strictly correct, since the ash of a MANUAL OF CATTLE- l^^EEDUSTG. 11 piece of flesli, or of a mass of wood, was as really organ- ized^ and formed as truly a part of it, as the so-called {?/'- ganlc portion, but they are in common use with this meaning. The organic matters of the animal body are classiHed, according to whether they contain the element nitrogen oi* not, as nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous. Fat. — Of the non-nitrogenous substances fat is by far the most abundant. It is present in the blood in minute quantities, generally constituting not more than 0.1 to 0.3 per cent, of it ; it exists in larger quantity in the substance of the nerv^es and in the bones, but is chief- ly found enclosed in special cells or tissues under the skin, on the kid- neys, omentum, and mesentery, and in the flesh between the bundles of muscular fibres. -^q, t— (Sett^ast). iw- The thin membrane which com- *'®"^* poses the cell-wall b of the fat-tissue is a nitrogenous sub- stance, and constitutes only 0.8 per cent, of the whole tissue when the latter is entirely filled with fat, but when this is not the case its amount may rise to 4 per cent., or over. The quantity of water in the fresh fat-tissue stands in a fixed relation to the amount of membrane (about 5 or 6 to 1), so that the quantity of water may vary from 4 to over 24 per cent., according to whether the cells are more or less laden with fat. Most of the fat-cells of the living body contain liquid, perfectly transparent fat, but its consistency varies in the difterent organs ; it solidifies to a solid, butter-like mass more or less easily, according to whether the oily or the solid fats predominate. The appearance, albo, as well as the 12 MANUAL OF CxVTTLE-FKEDING. emell and taste, of fat taken from different kinds of aninialsj or from different parts of the same animal, is very variable, on account of admixtures of small quantities of coloring matters and volatile substances of all sorts ; but this has almost no influence upon the elementary composi- tion of the fat, which is very constant. Schulze andEeineckej^attheWeende Experiment Sta- tion, found t^^enty-eight samples of mutton, beef, and pork fat, taken from different individuals and from different parts of the body, and freed from the fat-membiane and from water, to have the following composition : 9? Cakboh Hydbogen Oxygen Av. Per cent 76 50 76 54 76 61 — 1 — 76.50 Max Per ctnt Min. Per cent 76 27 76 29 76 27 Av Per cent. 1101 1194 13 on Max. Per cent Mm Per cent 1170 1186 1187 Av Per ctnt 1159 1152 1136 1150 Max Jcr cent 1186 11 8S 11.56 Mm. Poi ceut Beef fat Pork fat Mutton fat. 10 6 12 76 74 76 78 76 85 12.11 12.07 1216 1115 1115 1100 Average of all the An al3 ses in round numbers. 12 00 Other results were : Fat fiom Oarbon— per cent Hydrogen— per cent Oxygen — per cent. Boff 76.68 76.56 77.07 76 63 12 05 1190 11.69 11.94 11.82 Oat 11.44 Horse ........ Man. , 11.24 11.44 * Versuchs Stationen, IX , 97* MAlSUxiL OF CATTLE-I^^EPBING. 13 It is evident from tliese figures tliat in all calculations regarding tlie gain or loss of fat by the body, we may treat this fat, in spite of tlie numerous modifications wliich it undergoes in tlie various organs, as chemically identical, without falling into any appreciable error. The quantity of fat which may be laid up in the body is often enormous. For example, in the case of fattened neat-cattle and swine, the fat may make up from 25 to over 40 per cent, of the live weight of these animals, or from two to three times as much as all the nitrogenous substances present. In lean animals, on the other hand, the amount of fat is much less, and that of the nitro- genous substances relatively greater. Other Non-Nitrogenous Organic Substances. — ^All the non-nitrogenous organic substances, other than fat, which occur in the body, and are to be regarded as normal constituents of it, are very inconsiderable in quantity, al- though often of importance for the functions of the organs or fluids in which they are found. The gastric juice (the digestive fluid of the stomach), and also the contents of the large and small intestines, and sometimes the chyle of the thoracic duct (see p, ^S\ con- tain lactio acid^ the well-known acid of sour milk, while the juices of the flesh contain another o.ddi—sar'kolaMiG ad(l-Amm.Qri(S^ with the former. The blood, and in fact almost all the animal fluids, also contain minute quantities of one or the other of these acids- Sugar is likewise found in the blood, but at most in quantities not exceeding 0.015 per cent., except in the * Two substances are said to be isomeric when tbey baye the same percentage composition, but different cbemical propeities. 14 MANUAL OF OxVTrLE-FEEDma. blood of tlie Iiepatic vein (the vein leading from tlie liver toward the heart), where the amount rises to about 0.1 per cent. The liver itself contains a considerable quantity of a sub- stance called glycogen^ somewhat resembling starch, which is continually yielding sugar by its decomposition. The sugar in the hepatic vein has its source in the glycogen of the liver. The muscles likewise contain glycogen, and also small quantities of a non-nitrogenous substance peculiar to themselves, and resembling sugar in composition and properties, called 'modte. Furthermore, various non-nitrogenous organic com- pounds occur in the bile, and innumerable such in the so- called extractive matters of the tissues and juices, that is in the mixture of substances obtained by treating the liebh, etc., with alcohol. The '' extractive matters" give to meat soup its agreeable taste and smell. The weight of all these substances, however, is inconsiderable, and van- ishes almost entirely in compaiison with the great quanti- ties of fat and nitrogenous matter in the whole body. § 3, KiTRoaEjsroTJs Organic Substances. Of the nitrogenous constituents of the body, there are three principal groups to be considered, viz., the Albu- 3S0NOID8, Gej^^genotis Substances, and IIoeny Matters. The albuminoids are by far the most important of the three, since all manifestations of animal life are dependent chiefly on them and the organs wdiich are composed of them, and since they furnish the material out of which the members of both the other groups are formed ; while the latter, once formed, do not appear to be capable of MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBING. 15 being altered back into albuminoids, or of performing the functions of the latter in nourishing the body. Albuminoids. — The albuminoids are found in manifold modifications in all the organs and fluids of tlie healthy body, except the urine, and all these modifications suffer an almost continual mutual alteration under the influence of the vital processes. Notwithstanding their diversity, however, they have many and marked characteristics in common. As their name implies (albuminoid — albumin-like), they resemble albumin or white of egg. Like it, they are des- titute of any crybtalline form (amorphous). Most of them exist in at least two modifications — a soluble and an in- soluble one. In the soluble form they constitute, when dried at a gentle heat, transparent, white or yellowibh solids, destitute of taste or smell, and soluble in water ; in the insoluble modification they form white, flocculent or fibrous masses, insoluble in water, and, like the soluble forms, having neither taste nor smell. The soluble albuminoids are very readily converted into the insoluble form by a variety of means ; in some cases by heat, in others by the action of acids or other bodies, and in still others from some cause not yet known. This change is called coagulation; it is apparently only a change in the condition and not in the nature of the substance. At any rate, it is not accompanied by any change in composition. Almost innumerable varieties of albuminoids have been described, and much confusion exists as to theii\properties, and relations to each other. For our present purpose, however, it will suifice to indicate the three groups into which these bodies may be classified — ^viz. : Albitmhi (represented by white of egg), Fibrin (repre- sented by lean meat), and Casein (the basis of cheese). 16 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. Albumin predominates in all animal fluids, especially in tlie so-called cli} le, in the colorless serum (see below) of the bloodj and in the fluid contents of the Llood-coipus- deSy wheie it is tinted red by the coloring matter of the blood. It also occurs in the juice of the nmscles and in the nerves. It is distinguished by the propeity of coagulating when heated above a certain point. For pxu-e albumin this point is 165° F. ; for solutions of albumin it is higher in proportion as they are more dilute. (A good example of coagulation is furnished in the boil- ing of an egg. As the heat of the boiling water penetrates the egg the albumin changes fiom a ti-anspaient soluble liquid to an opaque solid which no longer dissolves in water.) Fibrin,— The blood of all the higher animals, shortly ^ter it is removed from the body, partially solidifies, and separates into two parts, the "clot" and a yellowish liquid called the serum. The serum contains albumin and the dissolved matters of the blood generally ; the clot contains an albuminoid known as Uood-Jilrin^ colored rod by the blood-corpuscles which it has entans-led within itself while coagulating. Authorities differ as to the natm-e of this so-called spontaneous coagulation, and for our present purpose it is not necessary to enter upon the subject. When purified, as far as possible, from adhering im- purities, blood-fibrin is a white, fibrous-looking, elastic substance, in which the microscope shows no traces of any stiuctnre, fibrous or otherwise. Flesh-jibrifiy the chief constituent of all muscular fibres, differs from blood-fibrin in the fact that it appeai^s in or- ganized stuictures in the form of variously shaped and MAIS-UAL OF CATIXTS-FEEDIKG. 17 grouped cells, riesli-fibriii behaves, also, somewliat differ- ently to chemical reagents from the coagulated blood-fibrin, but, like all insoluble modiiications, it is easily converted by the action of the digestive fluids into a soluble form. Casein is found in considerable quantity only in milk ; it is a product of the milk-glands and therefore not to be looked upon as a constituent of the body in general. It does not coagulate on heating ; the tenacious skin which forms on the surface of milk when it evaporates is a sub- stance altered by the action of the air. On the other hand, the casein separates almost com- pletely in a coagulated state when a small quantity of rennet is added to the milk, as in making cheese, or when the milk is gently warmed with dilute acids or various other substances, as well as in the natural souring of xXXXXxs— Composition. — ^AU the albuminoids contain, m essen- tial constituents, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur ; and these constituents are present in such coti- stant quantities that it is impossible to distinguish the various albuminoids from each other by their percentage composition, samples of the same albuminoid from different Sources often showing as great differences as exist between members of different groups. The following numbers show the extremes of variation : Carbon 53-54 per cent. Hydrogen 7 " '' Nitrogen 15-17 '' '' Oxygen 24-21 '* "' Sulphur 1-1.5 " " Generally the average amount of nitrogen is assumed to be 16 per cent,, and the total quantity of albuminoids in a 18 MAiS-UAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIISra. substance 5s calculated by multiplying tlie percentage of nitrogen found by analysis by 6.25 (6.25 x 16=100). The pliospliorus wliich always accompanies the albu- minoids seems to be lield only loosely as phosplioric acid, and uot to be an essential ingredient of them. Gii^LATiGEi^tous Substances. — The gelatigenous substances constitute scarcely less of the weight of the body than the albuminoids. They form the nitrogenous organic substance of bone and cartilage, and make up the larger part of the mass of the tendons, ligaments, and connective tissue, and of the skin. By protracted boiling with water the gelatigenous substances are completely dissolved, and converted into glue. Their composition is very similar to that of the albuminoids, except that they generally contain somewhat less carbon (50 to 51 per cent.), and in case of cartilage also less nitrogen (about 15 per cent.), w^hlle the gelatigenous substance of the bones, tendons, and skin, on the contrary, is richer in nitrogen (about 18 per cent.). The sulphur is also either entirely lacking, or is present in smaller quan- tity than in the albuminoids. IIoRNY Matters. — The horny matters are found chiefly on the outer surface of the body, either in a thin layer, as the epidermis (scarf-skin), or in well-characterized tissues, as hair, wool, horns, nails, hoofs, claws, feathers, etc. The average composition of all these tissues is very uniform : Carbon 50-51 per cent. Hydrog-en. , about 7 '' Nitrogen 16-17 " Oxygen , 22-20 '* Sulptiur 3-5 'i In the main, therefore, they differ from the albuminoids KAlvrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIISrG. 19 and gelatigenoiis substances only in containing more snl- pliur, wJiile the proportions of the remaining constituents are ahnost the same. Average Composition. — It will be seen that all the important nitrogenous substances which occur in the body are very similar and, on the average, almost identical in composition with the pure albuminoids out of which they were all formed, directly or indii'ectly, in the processes of nutrition and growth. This agreement was also found in the investigations of Lawes and Gilbert on whole bodies of animals, already re- ferred to. In these experiments the total quantity of water, fixed mineral matters, fat, and organic substances otlier than fat was determined, and the nitrogen of the Litter was estimated. The amount of '^ organic substances other than fat " found directly, agreed almost exactly with that obtained by multiplying the quantity of nitrogen found by tlie usual factor, 6.25 ; in other words, all the organic sub- stances other than fat were found to contain, on tlie aver- age, almost exactly 16 per cent, of nitrogen. In the average of all the experiments, the organic matter other than fat was found to be 14.67 per cent, of the dressed weight, and the amount of albuminoids calctilated from the nitrogen, 14.83 per cent. This show^s at once that all the nitrogenous organic matters of the body aside from the three groups already mentioned, e. g,^ certain constituents of the bile, of the juice of the muscles, etc., have, on ac- coimt of their relatively small quantity, no material influ- ence on the elementary composition of the organic sub- stance of the body, and especially none on the percentage of nitrogen. 20 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEBDIKG. § 4 Inorganic, or InTon-tolatilb Matters. Amount. — The total quantity of the inorganic portion, or ash, of the animal body is, in round nmnberSj In neat cattle 4-5 per cent, of tlie live weight. ^'slxeep 2.8-3.5 '' '*swine 18-3.0 '' " '' In lean animals the amount approaches the maximum, in fat animals the minimum. Phosphoric acid and lime are present in about equal proportions and make up togotlier about four-fifths of the total quantity of ash, while the other fifth consists of potash, soda, magnesia, chlorine, sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, and, to a very minute extent, of silica. The sulphur, mentioned above as forming part of all the important nitrogenous substances of the body, is not included in the ash. In the bones, as is well-known, the quantity of mineral matter (bone-ash) is especially gi*eat, and amounts, on the average, in a full-grown animal, to about two-thirds of the dry, fat-free substance of the bones. Immediately after birth, the dried bones contain only about 50 per cent., and in advanced age often as much as 75 per cent, of ash. The outer and more solid layers are always richer in ash than the inner and porous parts, es- pecially in the hollow bones. At least seven-eighths of the total bone-ash is phosphate of lime, tlie remainder is car- bonate of lime with small quantities of magnesia, fluoiino, and soda. Besides phosphoric acid and lime, the most important inorganic constituents of the body are potasli, soda, and chloxdne (the two latter generally combined to form chlo- ride of sodium or common salt). Need of a Continual Supply. — The quantity of these MAlSrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDINCI. 21 substances in tlie various tissues and fluids, while it is very constant, is relatively small, except in the case of the bones, but they are absolutely essential constituents of all those parts of the body in which the vital processes are most actively carried on, and in which, consequently, de- composition and rebuilding are continually taking place. As a consequ<5nce, they are continually excreted from the body in considerable quantities with the final products of the metamorphosis of tissue, and the vital processes would soon suffer important disturbances were not a continual^ almost daily, supply provided. Salt-hninger, — Numerous experiments have shown that when animals are fed on food from which the mineral matters (salts) have been extracted as completely as pos- sible, they become sleepy, weak, especially in the extremis ties, and finally die iicmx lack of miuei^al food, although the quantity of organic food eaten and dig^ted jnay be amply sufficient to sustain life. As an example of these may be i(ientioned some experi- nxents niade at the Physiological Institute of the Univer- sity of Munich, by Forster,* on pigeons and dogs. The pigeons were fed with starch and casein, made as free from ash as possible ; the dogs with meat repeatedly extracted with water (to remove the mineral matters) and with fat, sometimes with addition of starch. The results were the same in every case. All the animals became, after a few days, in consequence of " salt-hunger," dull and inactive ; a rapidly increasing weakness of the muscles ap- peared, particularly in the extremities, and toward the end of the experiment cramps and shivering showed a great irritability of the nervous system. *Zeitsolir. f. Biologie, IX., 397. 22 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. The digestion, however, as well as the utih'zatiun of the digested nutrients, was exactly the same as under normal conditions, and the animals, when killed at the end of the experiments, were found to be apparently well nourished, and with all the organs in a healthy state. We must conclude from these, and numerous other simi- lar researches, that the phenomena of dulness and weak- ness observed in all such experiments are due directly and exclusively to the lack of inorganic ingredients in the food, and that the comparatively speedy death is caused by the separation from the animal organs and juices of those salts necessary for the due performance of their functions, and their removal fi^om the body in the xtrine. Essential and Accidental Salts. — The greater por- tion of the inorganic matters of the body exists, in com- bination with organic substances, as an essential constitu- ent of the various tissues and juices. Strictly speaking, it forms part of the organic (or organized) portion of the body. Its amount is very constant. Another variable and much smaller portion, which we may call accidental, exists simply dissolved in the fluids of the body, without really forming part of it. This portion can never be \ery great, even with an abundant supply of salts in the food, since the latter are rapidly excreted in the urine, and the more rapidly the greater their quantity; while those salts which enter into the composition of the tissues can be ex- creted no faster than they are set at liberty by the nsing up of the tissue, and, in fact, even when thus set at liberty, may recombine, in part, with organic matter to fonn new tissue. This latter fact is particularly noticeable when the food is poor in salts. Thus, it yrm found in the experiments already described (p. 21) that the excretion of salts was MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 23 least wlien tlie food was most abundant but was poorest in salts, sliowing that nature can be very economical and get on with a minimum. There is a Ihnit to this, however. The exci'etion of salts can be diminished but not entirely pre- vented, and if the supply of salts is too small, the animal loses mineral matter continually, and sooner or later dies. Practical Conclusions. — In practice, in the feeding of mature animals intended to be kept in a medium condition, or to be fattened, a lack of the* necessary mineral matters is scarcely ever to be feared. They are, indeed, generally present in large excess. Only common salt is in certain respects an exception, as will be explained more fully below. The opinion is indeed somewhat prevalent that a lack of phosphate of lime in the fodder may be tlie immediate cause of the disease, prevalent among cattle in some neighborhoods, called rickets. This explanation is, however, at most, only valid in case this lack was experienced by the animal from its earliest youth up. In the case of full-grown and healthy animals, the lack of phosphate of lime cannot well be the cause of the disease, since experiment has shown that such animals, when they are insufficiently supplied with this substance, die in a comparatively short time, and before any essential change takes place in the composition of the bones. Young and rapidly-growing animals naturally need, both relatively and absolutely, a greater quantity of phosphate of lime than old and full grown ones. In the feeding of milk cows, too, regard must be had to the quantity of phosphate of lime in the fodder. (See Part III., chapters Y. and VI.) Uses of Common Salt.— As mentioned above, salt occupies, to a certain extent, an exceptional position. 24 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. Besides its strictly physiological functions, it i& of use in facilitating the pabbage of the albinninoids of the food from the digestive canal into the bloody and to a certain extent in facilitating the circulation and thus inci-easing the energy of the vital piocesses. For this purpose a certain excess of salt seems to be necessary, v^hich circulates rapidly through the body, and is excreted in the urine in quantity corresponding to the amount taken. This need of salt is especially manife^ in certain kinds of herbivora, and particularly in such as^ like our domestic animals, are largely stall-fed and, by means of abundant fodder, arq caused to pi-oduce largely either flesli and fat, milk, or work. To this may be added that many fodders in common use, such as potatoes, roots, grains, etc., are comparatively poor in sodium chloride and rich in potash salts, which latter, it has been found, cause an increased excretion of salt through the urine. In view, then, of the absolute demand for a certain amount of salt for the preservation of life and the great advantages of a certain excess of it, it is plain that it is to be regarded not as a luxmy but as a necessity. CHAPTER n. COMPONENTS OF FODDERS.— NUTRIENTS. i 1. Definitions. Nutrient, Fodder, Ration. — In the preceding cliapter we have seen that the animal body, in spite of the great complexity of its structure, may be considered, in a general way, as composed of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous or- ganic substances, and of mineral matters. Since, now, these substances are being constantly de- stroyed in the body in the performance of the vital func- tions, it is necessary that the animal should leceive from without a supply of substances identical with or similar to those destroyed, and which can be assimilated by the tis- sues and fluids of the body to replace those lost and enable the vital actions to continue. Any single chemical compound, such as albumin, fat, starchj sugar, etc., which is capable of aiding to replace this loss is called a nutrient Such substances do not occur in a pure, immixed state in nature, but are found in various forms and proportions in all fodders. By B. fodder, or feeding-stufj we imderstand any natu- ral or artificial product which is used as food for animals ; e, ^., hay, oil cake, roots. Since the animal organism not only contains various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances, but contains them in proportions varying only within narrow limits ; and since the rate at which each is destroyed in the body 2 26 MANTJAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. is also fixed witliiu certain limits ; it is plain that the food which the animal receives must also contain the variuns nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous nntiients in proper pro- portions. A fodder nsnally contains several or all of the gronps of fiutrlents, bnt may not contain them in the proper pro- portions to satisfy tlxe needs of the organism. Thns, in the examples given above, good hay contains all tlie groups of nutrients in proper proportions, and will sus- tain an herbivorous animal indefinitely ; while oil cake and roots contain an excess, the one of aibnminoids, the other of bodies of the starch or pectin gronps, and so, if capable of sustaining life, do it with a great waste of the one or the other material. They are one-sided foods. By combining several one-sided foods, we may prepare a mixture which shall contain all the groups of nntrients in proper propoi'tious and be capable of sustaining an animal economically. Such a niixtnre we may call a ra- tion or a eomj)lete/ood. The proportions of the various nntrients in the common fodders and the proper combining of fodders to form ra- tions suitable for various purposes will be treated of in Parts IL and III., and we shall concern ourselves hero only with the occurrence and properties of the nntrients. These it is necessary to consider in order to a proper un- derstanding of the processes of digestion and assimilation. The nntrients are divided into three groups, corresponding to the three gronps of substances in the animal body, viz. : nitrogenous, non-nitrogenous, and mineral substances. § 2. NlTBOGENOUS NXJTJIIENTS. Pbotehst. — The predominant nitrogenous constituents of plants resemble closely, in all important particulars. MAINTUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIJS^G. 27 tlie albuminoids of the animal body, and liave, like tliem, been called albuminoids or protein bodies. The name 2)rotein was Ubed by Mnlder to debignate a supposed substance which formed the basis of all the albuminoids. The word is no longer used in this sense, but is very commonly met with as a collective term for all the albiuninoids, and we shall thus use it in the present work. The vegetable albuminoids which have as yet been in- vestigated may be divided into three groups, album ui^ case in J saidjlhn7i, havhig more or less resemblance to the corresponding groups of anin^al albuminoids, though it is doubtful if the two are identical. Vegetable Albumin appears to oecm^ chiefly in the young and growing parts of plants, w4iile in the older parts it is converted into other forms of protein. It is contained, dissolved in small quantities, in the sap of fresh plants, and coagulates when the sap is heated. Vegetable albumin is soluble ia cold water, in dilute potasb solu- tion, and in dilute acetic acid ; it is insoluble in alcohol, and is very similar in all ifcs properties to animal albumm. Its composition varies somewhat according to the source from which ib is derived. The fol- lowing table shows the extremes of variation : Carbon . . . Hydrogen Nitrogen . Oxygen . . Sulphur . Animal albimim (av.). Por cent 53.5 7.0 15 5 22 4 16 Vegetable albumin. Per cent. 7.1- 7.7 15.5-17.6 20.6-23.0 0.8- 1 6 The composition of animal albumin is not far from the average for vegetable albumin, but the identity of the two is, at best, doubtful. 28 MANUAL OF CATTLK-FEEDING. VegetalDle Casein. — If wlieat flour be made into dongli, and tlie dough kneaded in a stream ot water, the starch of the flour is washed out, and a sticky mass remains, known as crude wlieat-ghiten. The crude ghiten thus obtained is a mixture of at least four albuminoids, and contains, besides, some starch and fat. When treated with dilute (60 to 80 per cent.) alcohol at ordinary temperatures, three of these albuminoids are dissolved, while the fourth, called ghiten-Gasein^ re- mains behind, together with various impurities. The same or a very similar substance is also contained in rye, barley, and perhaps in buckwheat, and in the " oil seeds ; " while oats contain an albuminoid having some of the prop- erties of gluten-casein but more closely resembling the legumin about to be described. In addition to gluten-casern^ two other bodies belonging to the casein group have been described, viz. : legumin^ the chief albuminoid of the seeds of the legumes (peas, beans, etc.), and conglutm^ contained in almonds and in maize (?) The properties of these albuminoids, and in particular those of legu- min^ resemble very closely those of animal casein. Legumin is in- soluble in water. It is, however, quite soluble in water containing small quantities of basic phosphates, especially of potash, and hence warm water extracts legumin from the seeds of the legumes, since the latter contain soluble phosphates. Such a solution of legumin is not coagulated by heat, but is by acids, and according to one authority by rennet. Legumin is insoluble in either strong or dilute alcohol, but very readily soluble in dilute potash solution, and somewhat soluble in dilute acids. The reactions of gluten- casein, as well as those of con- glutin, are very similar to those of legumin. The composition of these albuminoids, like that of all othei's, varies more or less according to their source and MANUAL OF OATTLE'FEEDIWO. 29 mode of preparation, owing largely to tlie great difficulty of obtaining them in a pure &tate and in part perliaps, to the non-identity of siihstanees bearing the same name but derived from different sources. The following table shows some of Eitthausen's results."^ Q-luten-caBein. Per cent. LFOiraaN ZEOM CONGLUTIN FEOM Oats. Per cent. Peas. Per cent. Beans. Per cent. Maize. Per cent. Sweet almonds. Per cent. Carbon 62.70-53.16 6.95- 7 15 16 70-17.21 31.02-22 18 0.9^ 1.27 51.03 7.19 17 45 22.04 0.79 5148 7 02 17.13 23.97 0.40 51.48 696 14.70 26 35 0.45 5141 7.19 17.72 i- 23.08 50 44 Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Sulphur. 685 18 61 23.07 043 Vegetable Fibrin. — ^When crude wheat gluten is treated with alcohol in the preparation of gluten-casein, as above descri])ed, a solution is obtained from which an albuminoid known as (jlaten-Jibrln may be prepared as a tenacious, translucent substance of a brownish-yellow color. It is insoluble in water or absolute alcoliol ; soluble in dilute aloobol. In dilute acids, and in dilute potash solution. When heated, it is con- verted into an insoluble modification, which is not dissolved by dilute acids or alkalies. The same or a similar substance is contained in barley and maize. The Gonvposition of vegetable fibrin, like that of tlie other albuminoids, varies more or less. Eitthausen ob- tained the following results : * Die Eiweisskorper der Getreidearten, etc., 1873, and Jahresber. Agr. Chem., ]Sr. F., I., 1G8. 30 MANUAL OP OATTLE-FEEDIKa. Carbon. . . Hydrogen Nitrogen, . Oxygen.. , Sulphur,. Prom wheat. Per cent. 64 31 7.18 16.89 20.61 1.01 moo From barley Per cent. 54 55 7.27 15.70 22.48 100.00 From niai/e. JL'ti ( tilt. 54.69 7.51 10.3a 20.78 69 100^00 Mueedia and Gliadin.— Besides gluteiveasein and glu» ten-fibrin, wheat gluten contains two otlier albuminoids, viz. : mucedin, and gliadin or vegetable glue. Mucedm, when freshly prepared and containing water, is a yellowish- white, slimy substance, somewhat translucent and with a silky lustre. It is soluble in dilute alcohol, but insoluble in strong alcohol, which precipitates it from its solutions. Its behavior to water is peculiar. It is scarcely soluble, but when agitated with water, can be suspended in it, forming a turbid, slinay fluid, which, on long standing, deposits the mucedin unaltered The same results are obtained if the water is warmed instead of stirred. Continued boiling with water decomposes mucedin, and alters most of it into an insoluble substance. Gliadin very closely resembles animal glue in its properties. It in soluble in both weak and strong alcohol, in alkalies, and in acids. In cold water it swells up like glae ; prolonged boiling with water decomposes it. The composition of mucedin and gliadin obtained from wlieat was found by liittliauson to be : Carbon... Hydrogen Nitrogen. Oxygen. . . Sulphur . . Muoedm — Per cent. Gliadin-~ror cent 45.11 52.67 6.90 7.10 10.63 18.01 21.48 21.87 0.88 0.85 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIKG. 31 Mncedin is also found in rye and barley, and gliadin in oats. Other Albuminoids. — ^It will not liave escaped notice tliat in the above paragraphs we liave contined ourselves cliiefly to a consideration of the albuminoids of the cereal grains and tlie legumes. Tliis is simply because these are the only vegetable prod- ucts which have been investigated with any degree of completeness. Doubtless other feeding-stuffs would be found to contain still other varieties of protein, were they investigated, but at present w^e know little or nothing re- garding them. Comparative ¥alue in Nutrition. — ^While the vari- ous albuminoids of the vegetable world vary not inconsid- erably in their composition, especially as regards carbon and nitrogen, they still show such strong general resem- blances, both in composition and properties, to each other and to the animal albuminoids, that we must consider them all as closelj^ related bodies. Indeed they seem capable, to a cei'tain extent, of conversion into each other in various ways. Whether the various vegetable albuminoids are equally valuable as nutrients, are assimilated and formed into part of the l>ody with equal ease, we are unable to say, owing to the entire lack of experiments on the subject. It is, perhaps, questionable if they are, but the differences, if they exist, are probably not great, and for the present we must consider them all as equivalent, bo far as they are acttuilly digested. The recent experiments of Wildt '^ and of E. v. Wolff f on swine seem also to show that the animal albuminoids con- * Landw. Jahrbucher, VI., 177. f Ibid., YIIL, 223, 32 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. tained in dried blood and flesh-meal (tlie residue from tlie preparation of '' Extract of meat,") are equivalent in imtri- tive effect to vegetable albuminoids. It is possible tliat we onglit to regard gliadin as forming an exception to the equivalence of the albuminoids on ac- count of its great likeness to animal glue, or gelatin, the latter having been shov^n by Yoit^ to be incapable of per- forming all the functions of protein in the food. Importance. — This close nnitual relation and easy con- vertibility of the albuminoids has the highest signilicance for animal nutrition. As we have seen, the most important solid components of the animal body are the albuminoids and related bodies. It is these which constitute its muscles, tendons, nerves, in fact all its working machinery. Now, so far as we know, the animal organism has no power to originate a particle of these substances. Its sole source of them is, in the herbivora directly^and in the carnivora indirectly, the albuminoids of the plant. Tliese, by virtue of their great similarity to the animal al- bununoids, are readily altered into them and become part of the body. They arc hence indispensable elementb of any food, and likewise the most important, since, while they can, to a certain extent, take the place of the non- nitrogenous nutrients, none of the latter can pobbibly re- place the albuminoids; and they are of all the greater importance because, while the animal body is, to so large m extent, composed of them, they are found in compara- ti%ly small quantity in most parts of plants. Evidently, then, the proportion of albuminoids which a fodder contains is an important element in determining its * Zeitschrif 1 1 Biologie, VIIL , 297. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 33 value ; and those fodders which contain them in the largebt cpantity are, other things being equal, the most vahiahle, since the albuminoids are the most expensive ingredients to prodnee. Occurrence in Plants. — This is not the place for a discussion of the composition of the various fodders, but a few general considerations regarding the distribution of the albuminoids in the plant may not be out of place. In the plant, as in the animal, life manifests itself chiefly through the albundnoids, and consequently all young and growing plants and parts of plants contain them abundantly, while in the older portions, which have for the most part finished their growth, they are present in much smaller proportion, both owing to the increase of other substances, chiefly woody-fibre, and an actual transfer (translocation) of albuminoids to other parts of the plant. This is one reason of the greater nutritive value of young grass and green fodder in general, of hay cut while still young, etc. (See, however, page 291L) In mature plants the albuminoids tend to accumulate in the seeds. TJius the grains, beans, peas, etc., contain large quantities of albuminoids and owe to them, in a large meas- ure, their value as fodder, while the plants on which they grow, if allowed to stand till the seed is ripe, become cor- respondingly impoverished in these compounds. In the case of the cereals, it is the seeds which we desire, and hence we allow the plant to mature. On the other hand, in the case of the grasses, belonging to the same natural family (graminem\ we use the whole plant as fodder, and hence cut it before the seed matures, l)ecause, although the whole amount of albinninoids is not decreased in ripening, it is largely stored up in the seeds, and these are mostly lost in the processeb of curing, while 34 MAKUAL OF CATTLE-KEEJDmG. siieli as are retained, owing to tlieii^ small size, escape mas- tication and are not digested. Tlie proportion of albuminoids in the same species of plants and in the same parts of the plant differs according to the quality of the soil on which it is grown, the manur- ing, the weather, and other circumstances, so that it is only by means of numerous analyses that the average composi- tion of any fodder can be ascertained. A discussion of these points and of the results of analyses of the more im- portant fodders will be found in Part II. Other Niteogenous Constituents of Plants. — ^Vari- ous nitrogenous substances not belonging to the albumi- noid group have been found in plants. For our present purpose, we may divide them into f oxir classes : 1. Witrates^ nitrites^ and ammonia salts; 2. Peptones; 3. Alkaloids; 4 Ami7ies^ amides^ and amido-acids. Nitrates, Nitrites, and Anunonia Salts. — These sub- stances usually occur very sparingly in plants, though beets, and probably other root crops, contain considerable quan- tities of them, and maize also frequently eontahis a liot in- considerable amount of nitrates. These substances, how- ever, need hardly be taken into account here, since they have no imtritive value. Peptones. — Eecently, v. Gorup-Besanez has shown (i?'^ 33 MANUAL OF aATTLE-FEEDlJN"a, ? 3. NON-KlTKOGEN^OUS NuiEIENTS. Carbitydevtes. — The chief substances composing this group of nou-nitrogenons nutrients are celluloHe^ or woody- jiltm / starch / dextrine / cane^ grajye^ viillt^ and fnoit hufjar ; and the gums. " These bodies, especially cellnlose and starch, form by far the larejer share of all the dry matter of vegetation, and most of them are distribnted through all parts of plants." They owe their name to the fact that tliey all contain, besides carbon, the elements hydrogen and o\ygen in the proportions in which the latter exist in water. This similarity of composition and their ready transformation into each other, both artificially and in the plant, show that they are nearly related chemically. Cellulose. — All plants consist of cells or microscopic closed sacks or tubes adhering together. The walls of these cells are composed of cellulose, and hence the latter is a constituent of all vegetable tissue, constituting, as it were, its frame-work. In those parts of the plant where greater strength is needed, the originally thin walls of the cells increase greatly in thickness, and often become im- pregnated with a harder substance or substances known as iignin, makiug them still tougher. This is especially the case with the stems. Foliage, and the husks, etc., of fruits, also contain much cellulose. Properties. — Pure cellulose is an odorlesc and tasteless solid, varying somewhat in appearance, according to its source, but usually white in color, and with a silky or horny lustre. Cotton, flax, and hemp, and cloth and unsized paper made from them are examples of nearly pure cellu- jivse. It is distinguished from the other bodies of this group MANUAL OF CAITLE-FEEDING. 89 by its slight solubility; neither dilute acids nor alkalies, water, or any of the ordinary solvents, dissolve it. Hence, it may be obtained by acting on vegetable matter with various solvents till all other substances are removed. If cellulose be exposed for sonie time to the action of strong oil-of- vitriol, or be boiled for some hours with dilute acids or alkalies, it is converted iirst into dextrine and then into grape-sugar. If treated with iodine and then with strong sulphuric acid, it assumes a deep-blue color. This reaction serves to identify cellulose under the microscope. Comjiodtlon. — Pure cellulose has exactly the same com position as starch, viz. : Carbon 44.44 per cent. Hydrogen 6.17 '^ Oxygen .... 49.39 '' 100.00 As intimated above, however, it is seldom found pm*e, except in the young and tender parts of plants, but is usually more or less impregnated with substances to which the collective name of lignin has been given, and the follow- ing composition assigned : Caibon. 55,3 per cent. Hydrogen........ ^.8 '' Oxygen , 38. 9 " 100.0 This is, however, simply the inferred composition of what is left after cellulose has been removed, and not the result of direct analysis. But it is certain that lignin (using the name in a collective sense) is richer in carbon than cellulose, and as a membrane becomes impregnated with the former, its percentage of that element increabCb. 40 MANUAL OF CATTLE FEEDING. DJgestll'ditij, — Cellulose was long tlioiiglit to be indiges- tible. Ilaubner ^' was tlie first to show that this belief was er- roneous, and that the ruminants were capable of digesting large quantities of this substance. Ilis results have since been verified in innumerable digestion experiments, wdiich have shown that cellulose forms an important ingredient in the fodder, not only of rmiiinants, but of all our herbi- vorous domcbtic animals. The proportion of cellulose which is digested varies very considerably according to the kind and quality of the fodder and the species of animal to which it is fed. Of the cellulose of the ordinaiy coarse fodders, from about 30 to ^0 per cent, is digested by ruminants, while the cellulose of the cereal grains seems nmch less digestible. In general, the j^ounger and more tender a feoding-stuft is, the greater is the amount of cellulose which is digested, while in old and woody plants, in ^\ Inch much lignin is formed, its digestibility is considerably less. The lignin itself appears to be entirely indigestible. Dfftsrmination, — The amount of cellulose in a fodder is usually determined by successively boiling the finely divided material with dilute acid and dihite alkali, and washing with alcohol and ether. These solvents remove the other constituents of the fodder and leave the (impure) cellulose behind. The residue, after deduction of the small quantities of ash and albuminoids which it still con- tains, is designated as orude fibre. It is by no means pure cellulose, but is chiefly a mixture of the latter with lignin. The crude fibre obtained from * Amts- und Anzefgeblatc f. d. landw. Vereine des Kom'greichs Sadisen, 1B54, Ni. 6; also, ZeiUclir 1 D. Landw. 1805, 17 T. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIJTG. 41 diflferent fodders according to tliis method lias a varviiis? appearance and conipobition ; the crude fibre, e. g.^ pre- pared from liay and straw, contains 45 to 46 per cent, of carbon, while that from clover hay and the straw of the legumes contains 48 to 4& per cent, of the same element ; that is, the latter is richer in ligniii than the former. It is evident from these considerations that the enxde fibre is not a definite body, but a variable mixture of several substances. The method just described is, indeed, simply a conventional one, agreed on by chemists for lack of a better, and the term crude fibre simply means the residiie obtained by treating the fodder in the prescribed manner. The resxdts, especially when combined with digestion ex- periments, are of great value, but it is still nnich to be re- gretted that no more accurate method has yet been devised. Stareli. — Next to water and cellulose, starch is the most abxmdant substance in the vegetable world, being found in all plants and in ahnost all parts of them. It appears to be first formed in the green leaves, as tlie product of the reduction of the carbonic acid of the air under the in- fluence of sunlight, and from thence to be distributed, by a process of solution and redeposition, to all the organs of the plant. It is found in large quantity in the seeds of the cereals, wheat, e, ^., containing 61 to 76 per cent, of it in the dry substance, and constitutes a large proportion of the dry matter of potatoes and other tubers.* Properties. — Pure starch is an odorless and tasteless white powder, which, when examined under the micro- scope, is seen to consist of minute organized grains. These starch grains are formed in the plant by a process of * The artichoke and some other tubers contain, instead of starch, a body closely re«?embhng it, called inulin, Inulin exists in plants both as a liquid and m grains It gives no coloration with lodme 42 MAHUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKa. growtli, and vary in size and appearance according to tlie species of plant wliicli produces tliem, so that starcli from different sources can be readily distinguished. They are composed of two substances — a skeleton of a mateiial resembling cellulose and called BtaTch-celUilosey and a more soluble substance called granuloses which constitutes by far the larger part of the grains. A characteristic property of starch is that, when brought in contact with a minute quantity of iodine in solution, it assumes a beauti- ful blue color. This property seems to reside in the granu- lose, since, if this be removed by solvents, the residue gives no longer a blue but a yellow color wdth iodine, like ordinary cellulose. Starch is insoluble in cold water so long as the grains remain whole. If they are crushed and ground very fine with water, a minute quantity is dissolved. "Wlien heated with water nearly to boiling, the grains swell and burst, absorbing water and forming a jelly-like mass, but very little starch is really dissolved by this treatment. Starch, like cellulose, may be converted into dextrine and grape-sugar by boiling with acids or alkalies, but much more readily. The same transformation may be effected by dry heat, and by the action of diastase,"^ the ferment of malt, as in the preparation of beer and spirits. It is also rapidly dissolved and converted into sugar by the action of the saliva of the mouth and by the pancre- atic juice, and is, indeed, one of the most important of the non-nitrogenous nutrients, owing to its abundance and the comparative ease and completeness with which it is digested- * Diastase produces a peculiar kmd of sugar called maltose, instead of grape sugar. MAI!TUAL OF CATTLE-FKEDING, 43 The eomposltkvi o£ dry starcli is tlie same as tliat of cellulose, viz. : Carbon 44.44 Hydrogen 0. 17 Oxygen 49.39 100,00 In tlie aii*-dry state it contains 12 to 20 per cent, of •water. Dextrine seldom lias been found in plants, at least in any considerable quantity, and is eliiefly interesting in tliis connection on accoimt of its relations to stareli and sugar. It is prepared commercially in large quantities, imder tbe name of British gum, by the action of dry heat on starch. It is formed in the same way from starch during the baking of bread, and is an important ingredient of food prepared by cooking materials containing starch. It appears to be entirely digestible. The Sugars. — There are four principal kinds of sugar, viz. : cane~suga)\ obtained from the juice of the sugar-cane, the sugar-beet, sugai -maple, and other plants, and forming the ordinary sugar of commerce; miU'-sugar, occurring in the milk of mammalia ; and grape-sugar and frmt-stigar, usually occurring together in the juices of plants and sweet fruits and in honey. Grape-sugar is also known as glucose and dextrose, and fruit-sugar as levulose. These sugars have the following composition : Carbon. Per cent. Hydroaren. Per cent. Oxygen. Per cent. Cane-sugar ) Milk sugar S Grape-sugar \ Fruifc sugar ) 42.11 40 00 6 43 6.67 51.46 63.38 44 MA^^UAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIN-G, Tliey all resemble, in a general way, cane-sngar in tlieir properties, though they are by no means identical. For our present purpose, it is sufficient to say that they are all readily soluble in water, and hence easily digestible. They are important nutrients, being formed in large quan- tities, in digestion, from other carbhydrates, though in the ordinary fodders they occur in only small quantity. The Gums. — Another group of substances of consider- able importance is the gums, of which gum-arabic may be taken as a representative. They are found in small proportions in various vegeta- ble products, and in considej^able quantity in the ordinary bx^ead grains. They appear to be digestible by domestic animals, but of their value as nutrients we know as yet but little. Probably, however, they are practically about equivalent to starch. Mutual Relations of the Carbhydrates. — The close relationship between the several members of this group of substances which is indicated by their analogous composi- tion is shown still more plainly both by their ready con- version one into another, in nature and in the laboratory, and by their behavior to various reagents. In the plant, starch seems to be the first formed, and from it all the other carbhydrates are produced, while these may be converted back again into starch. In germination, the starch of tlie seed is convei'ted into dextrine and sugar, which are carried in solution to the young plant, there to form cellulose or be reconverted into starch. In older plants, cellulose may be dissolved or con- verted into gum or vegetable mucilage. In the laboratory, all the vainous carbhydrates are finally converted by heat or by boiling with acids or alkalies, first into dextrine and then into some form of sugar. MAITUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIlSp. 45 Tlie close relationsliip between starch and eellnlose is albo bliown by their beha% ioi* toward iodine. As we have seen, starch is colored blue by this reagent, while cellulose re(|iiires the addition of sulphuric acid (or one of several other substances) to produce the blue color. It is only the graiiuhse of starch, however^ which gives a blue with iodine, while the stareh-eelluhse behaves like ordinary cellulose, and, on the other hand, J. Kuhn "^ has shown that the cotyledons of the flax-seed contain a form of cellulose which is colored blue by iodine alone. Indeed, the most recent investigations seem to show that there is a numerous series of carbhydrates, vaiying from the most insoluble and resistent to the most soluble and easily attacked forms, and capable of mutual intereon- version in the plant and, to a certain extent, out of it. The PEGTm Substances. — This ffroup includes a num- ber of bodies of rather uncertain composition, which are the characteristic ingredients of fi'uit- jellies. They are found in ripe fruits, and, together with sugar, constitute the larger part of the non-nitrogenous organic matter of the common root crops. Uncooked fruits and roots are supposed to contain a body called pectose, which, on boil- ing with water or exposure to heat, is converted into pectin, which is soft and soluble in water. It is this change which takes place in the cooking of fruit. By further heating, the pectin is converted into pectic and pectosic acids. These substances ai-e insoluble in cold ■water, and constitute the essential part of fruit-jelly. Pec- tosic acid is soluble in boiling water, and hence most jel- lies become liquid on heating ; on cooling, its solution gela- i inizes again. Pectic acid is insoluble, even in boiling water. * EmahruBg des Bindviehes, 6fcli ed. , p. 49. 46 MAKUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIKG. By long-continued boiling, all these bodies are eonrertcd into nietapectic acid, wliiclx is quite soluble and liafo a bour taste. All tliese bodies are digestible, and are not unimportant as nutrients. Tliey probably play mucli the same part in nutrition as the carbhydrates. The Fats. — Composition. — The fats found in plants have essentially the same composition as that possessed by those occurring in the animal body, and already noted on page 12, viz., on an average : Caibon , 76 5 per cent. Hydrogen. 13.0 *' Oxygen 11.5 " ioo7o It will be noticed that these nutrients differ from j:hose hitherto considered in containing a much larger proportion of carbon and a much smaller one of oxygen. They con- sequently require much more oxygen for their complete combustion and give out about two and one-half times as much heat in binning as the caihhydrates, a fact of great importance in connection with the production of animal heat, and which will be treated of more fully in a subse- quent chapter. Oeourrenee.— Fat is found in small quantities in almost all plants. In roots we find 0.1 to 0.2 per cent. ; in hay and straw, 1.0 to S.O per cent. ; in the cereal grains, 1.5 to 3.0 per I3efit., except in oats, which contain as much as 6 per cent. ; and in maize about 4 to 9 per cent. It is especial- ly, however, in the seeds of certain plants that fat or oil occurs. The seeds of flax, hemp, colza, cotton, and numerous MANUAL OP CATTLE-FEEDING. 47 Other plants, contain from 10 to 40 per cent, of oil, acemw- pm, for the sake of 3iendering our analy^ comparftHe wi& others. We therefore make the following calculation: Digestible fat x 3| = 3.0 Digestible fibre , =15 Digestible extract =^5 8 Digestible protein =5.4 The nutritive ratio, then, is 5.4 : 43.8, or 1 : 8.1 ; tlie quantity of digestible protein beiiig usually taj^a as unity. CHAPTER III. DIGESTION AND RESORPTIOK § 1. DiGESTIOK. Introdtictory. — Tlie nutrients described in tlie preced- ing chapter, as they occur in the ordinary fodders, are not in suitable condition to become at once part of the body. They must be separated from the various useless substan- ces with which they are associated, and be converted into soluble forms, befoie they can be taken up into the circula- tion and so serve to nourish the body ; — that is, they must be digested. ' " The digestive apparatus has been compared to the fit- tings of a pharmaceutist's laboratory in which extracts are prepared from organic substances. As, theie, the mass to be extracted is pulverized by mortars, rasps, knives, and similar tools, so are the feeding-stuffs by the teeth of the animal ; what is effected there by water, alcohol, ether, and other extracting fluids, tlie digestive juices which are se- creted by various glands, and with which the whole mass to be digested is saturated, do in the animal body. " As, in the laboratory, the sufficiently extracted materials are filtered to obtain the finished extract, so the filtration of the extracted nutrients in the animal body takes place through the membranes of the intestines. ^' In the laboratory, the finished extract is received into a suitable vessel, and the worthless residue is thrown away ; in tlie body, the blood and lymph vessels receive the ex- MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIKO. 55 tracted niitrients, ^\IliIe the undissolved residue, wlncli lias no nixtritiye value, is removed from the body in the foim of the solid exeiements, " Tliere exists, however, one great difference between the extracts prepaied in the laboratory and those produced in the animal organism ; the former contain, unaltered, the sohible matters which were present in the cTude materials, \\hile the constituents of the latter are essentially diffeient from those contained in the food. " This difference is due to the fact that the action of the digestive fluids is a more energetic one, and is accompanied by a chemical alteiation of the dissohed substances." — (Set- tegast) Mastication and Insalivation. — The process of diges- tion takes place in the alimentary canal, consisting of the mouth, gullet, stomach, and small and large intestines- The first step in the process takes place in the mouth, and consists, in the first place, of the act of mastication^ by which the food is broken up and thus made to expose njore surface to the action of tlie digestive fluids. At the same time certain glands (salivary glands), opening into the mouth, pour out abundantly a fluid known as the saliva. The secretion of the different salivaiy glands varies considerably in appearance and properties. The mixed ^- liva, as it is found in the mouth, is a watery, alfe^lfe^ somewhat slimy, transparent or slightly turbid fluids ecte- taining from one-half to one per cent of solid m^&tter. This fluid is mixed thoroughly with the food during mas- tication, and serves to moisten and soften it and so to bxmg it into a suitable condition to be swallowed and further acted upon. Besides moistening the food, however, the saliva con- tains a ferment, called jM^alifi, which has the power, at 56 MANUAL OF CATrLE-Bn^EDmO- the temperature of the body, of acting upon starch with yery much the same results as boiling dilute acids or alka- lies, viz., converting it into a form ot sugar, L e,, a soluble substance which can easily pass into the circulation. To how great an extent this action takes place is a somewhat dis- puted point, but there seems to be little doubt that it is at least of some consequence, though it by no means completes the digestion of the starch, especially in animals having a simple stomach. Moreover, the saliva, being a very watery secretion, dissolves the soluble matters of the food, and forms, to a certain extent, an aqueous extract of it. Rumination.^ — From the mouth, the food, after being fonned into morsels by the tongue, passes through the gullet to the stomach- In animals with a simple stomach, the horse or hog, e, g,^ the acts of mastication and in- salivation are performed com- pletely at iirst, but in the ease of animals that chew the cud (ruminants), the food is at first only slightly chewed, and then passes into one of the divisions of their compound stomach. The stomach of the niminants consists of four diviaonSy as shown in outline in fig. 2. The slightly-chewed masses pass first through the gullet, ^, into the largest division of the stomach, the jpauneh or first stomach, 55, and paitly also into the second stom- ach or Tetimhjmhy c. Here they remain for a time, imtil softened by the sa- 2- excreted xuichanged in the nrine and peispiration; sngar, on the other hand, while it is rapidly resorbed, does not reappear as such, but speedily causes an increased excretion of carbonic acid through the hmgs, showing that it has been oxidized in the body. It woixld seem that only soluble substances are resorbed, both fi^oni the fact that solutions are readily taken up and that the whole digestive process is di- rected toward solution of the solid ingredients of the food. The fats, however, form to a certain extent an exception. We have seen that in the digestive process they are simply eniidsified, and only to a very small extent dissolved. After a meal containing nnich fat, the lacteals are found to be full of a fluid ]ia\ hig a milky appearance which the microscope shows to be due to the prcfeenee of inmnnerable globules of fat, which have evidently been resorbed fi-om the contents of the intebtines, having passed through the epithelial cells. Causes of Resorption. — It has been extensively taught that the phenomena of resorption are due chiefly to the action of the laws of the diffusion of liquids through mem- branes, aided by the pressure exerted on the contents of the intestines by the peristaltic motion. It is well known that, if solutions of many substances be enclosed in some membrane, like bladder or parchment- paper, and the whole placed in water, the dissolved sub- stance will diffuse through the membrane into the water until the solution is of equal strength on both sides of the membrane, and that, if the water be continually renewed, 70 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. all the dissolved matter will finally be removed from tlie solution contained in tlie membrane* Substances wLicli are capable of thus passing throngli a membrane are said to be diftusible. In tbe body, according to tliis theory of resorption, the intestines constituted the enclosing membrane, the diges- tive fluids converted the nutrients into soluble and diffusi- ble forms, while the blood and lymph of the capillaries and lacteals was the fluid into which diffusion took place. It w^as found that emulsified fats could, by slight pressure, be made to pass through a membrane previously moistened with bile, and on this fact was l)ased the explanation of the resorption of fat, the pressure being supposed to be exerted by the peristaltic movements of the intestines, and the pro- cess of filtration to be aided by a peculiar structure of the villi which kept the lacteals in their centre under a less pressure than was exerted on the outside. In short, re- sorption was believed to consist m diffusion, combined wath filtration under pressure. This theory has been extensively held, but the best an- tlijorities now consider it entirely inadequate to explain the known facts of resorption. As regards the resorption of fat, the simple fact that the villi are wanting in many of the lower animals, and that these animals nevertheless resorb fat, shows that the sup- posed peculiar structure of the villi is not essential to the process, and a more careful consideration of the anatomy of the intestinal surface shows that the filtration theory is untenable. The whole of this surface is covered with the epithelial cells above described, so closely crowded together that any filtration must take place through the semi-fluid proto- plasm of the cells. This protoplasm must behave under MAJ^UAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIWOt. 71 pressure essentially like a licjuidj that is, it must exert an equal pressure upon all sides of an o]>jeet enclosed in it ; under these circumstances, while diffubion may take place, titration is imposbible. But i£ we admit the impossi- bility of filtration, the whole theory fall-^^, for diiinsion alone would, in many cabos, produce results eutirely dif- ferent from those observed. For example, if water and alcohol be separated by a membrane haviug a greater at- traction for water, the water passes through the mem- brane toward the alcohol faster than the latter passes in the opposite direction, but if alcohol, so diluted as not to injure the epithelium, be introduced into the intestines, it is rapidly resorbed into the blood, while no water passes from the latter into the intestines. Moreover, while under normal conditions water is rapidly resorbed, simple irritation of the epithelial cells is suffi- cient to cause the motion to take place m the opposite direction, viz., from the blood into the intestines. These and many other considerations force us to the belief that the epithelium of the intestines is the active agent in resorption, and that re.HOQ}tion is a function of the Vimng ^rotojplasm of the ej)ithelkd cells. In what manner, or by virtue of what chemical and physical laws, the process takes place, we are ignorant ; and until the relations and properties of protoplasm in general are much better kno\\Ti than at present, it must be regarded as a vain attempt to seek to discover them, nor, indeed, is it important for our present purpose that we should. Course of the Nutrients after Resorption. — The substances taken up by the epithelial cells appear to pass from these into the lacteals. Their course from this point is not, in all cases, easily followed, on account of the rapid altei-ation which they undergo. 73 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. The fat seems to be carried exclusively by the lacteals, and to pass through the mesenteric glands and thoracic duct into the left subclavian vein, as already desciibed. Other substances pass more or less completely into the blood. It will be leznembered that the lacteals in the villi are surrounded by a net of capillary blood-vessels through which blood is continually passnig, and there appears to be no reason why the easily diffusible substances of the lymph should not pass into the blood, especially since the latter, being continually renewed, would act like a large volume of fluid. Probably, then, the products of the digestion of the carbh}drates — viz, sugar, lactic acid, etc. — pass, in large pait, into the blood and through the portal vein, the capil- laries of the liver, and the hepatic vein, to the heart. The same would be true of the amides formed by the action of the pancreatic juice and by decay from the albuminoids, and to a less degree of the peptones, while unaltered pro- tein, if resorbed, would be largely retained in the contents of the lacteals, owing to its slow rate of diffusion. All these statements are, however, to a certain extent, speculative. It is highly probable that the resorbed mat- ters undergo chemical change in the act of resorption by the epithelial cells ; at any rate they undergo such rapid alteration after resorption that only traces of most of them can be observed either in the lymph or in the blood of the portal vein. The Faeces. — By the process of resorption the chyle, as it moves along through the intestines, is exhausted of its soluble parts and takes on a more and more solid con- sistency, and finally is voided from the body as the faeces. Tlie solid excrements consist of the indigestible part of the food, those digestible parts which for any reason may MANUAL OF OArrLE-FEEBING, 73 have escaped resorption, and small portions of the diges- tive fluids and of the worn-out mucous membrane of the in- testines. In the herbi\ora they also generally contain all the phosphoric acid coming from the metamorphosis of the tissues of the body, while in the carnivora this substance is excreted in the urine. The color of the excrements, as ah'eady mentioned, is usually due to the portions of the bile which have escaped resorption; when much green fodder is eaten, its green coloring-matter (ehlorophyl) passes unaltered into the fseces. The composition of tlie solid excrements varies largely according to the feeding of the animal. It is seldom possible to attain a aomplete digestion of all the nutrients of the food ; a certain portion almost always escapes digestion, unless, perhaps, in the concentrated bye- foddei^. The undigested portion is generally larger when a ricli food is given, L e.^ when we strive for a rapid production of organic substance, whether flesh, fat, or milk, than when the fodder is just suflicient to maintain the animal. In the former case, too, the residues of digestive fluid and of worn-out intestinal membrane are greater, owing to the greater activity of these organs and the greater quantity of Juices necessary to digest the richer and more abundant fodder, so that from fattening or milk cattle we get not only a utilization of fodder materials and conver- sion of them into valuable products, but an increase in the manurial value of the solid excrements, wliile in the case of animals on maintenance-fodder the manure is the only return for the fodder, and is of poorer quality than when richer food is given. CIIAPTEK lY. CIEOULATION, RESPIRATION, AND EXCRETION. § 1. ClKCULATION. The Blood. — ^We have seen, in the preceding chapter, that the digested and resorbed nutrients of the food are carried more or less directly into the blood, and it is from this fluid that all parts of the body derive those substances necessary for their growth and the performance of their functions. The blood of the higher animals is a thickish, somewhat viscid fluid, having a faint but peculiar odor, a slightly salt taste, and a color varying from bright to a dark red. It is somewhat heavier than water (sp. gr. 1.045 — 1.075), and contains about 21 per cent, of solid matters. Under the microscope it is seen to consist of a clear fluid, the jplmniaj holding in suspension a vast number of small, round disks, the em-jpuseles. The coTjpumlm are of two kinds. By far the most nu- merous are the red corpuscles. In man these are round like a coin but thicker at the edges than in the centre, andiiave a diameter of .0060— .0085 millimetres. Their number is enormous, being estimated at 4™6i- millions per cubic millimetre. The color and opacity of the blood are due to the corpuscles. The corpuscles of each kind of animal are peculiar, both in shape and size, but their general characteristics are the MAKXJAL OF CA'PTLE-FEEBTK-G. 75 same in all. Those of most mammals are smaller than those of man. The corpuscles contain, as characteristic ingredients, two coloring-matters, known as hmnoglohm and oxyhemioglO' liny of each of which there appear to be several varieties in the blood of different animals. Arterial blood contains only oxyhsemoglobin. This sub- stance is a bright red, crystalline body, having pretty nearly the percentage composition of protein, but contain- ing about 0.45 per cent, of iron. Its most remarkable property, however, is the readiness with which it parts with a portion of its oxygen and is converted into haemoglobin. In the body this process takes place in the capillary blood-vessels, so that the blood as it returns from these to the heart (the venous blood) contains both oxy haemo- globin and haemoglobin. The latter is capable of the reverse change, and in the lun^ takes up oxygen and is converted back into oxyhsemoglobin. Besides these two coloring-matters, the corpuscles con- tain an albuminoid which is precipitated by concentrated salt solution, small quantities of two bodies known as eko- le^terin and lecithin, some other organic matters, and the usual ash ingredients, potash and phosphoric acid being especially abundant. In addition to the red corpuscles the blood contains colorless corpuscles, diffeiing in shape and appearance from the red and generally larger. They appear to ^be formed in the lymph before it joins the blood, but their exact fimction is not well ascertained. Their number is vastly less than that of the red, there being about one or two of the former to a thousand of the latter. The plasma is a nearly transparent fluid, containing in solution a large part of the nutritive matters of the blood. 76 KAKTTAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKa Of the albuminoids, it contains albumin^ and blood-fibrin or at least one constituent of it ; it also contains some fat, nsiiall J traces of sugar thougli nc\ er lai^ge quantities of it, and a considerable proportion of mineral matters, espe- cially of soda salts and clilorides, besides minute traces of various otber substances. Coagulation. — So long as tlie blood remains in the ves- sels of the living body it continues fluid, even if its circu- lation be stopped, but wlien drawn from the body it co- agulates after standing for a time, yielding a yellowisli liquid, tlie serurrbj and blood-fibrin. At ordinary temper- atures the change takes place rapidly, but only slowly at a low temperature; it is entirely liindeied by addition to the blood of a strong solution of sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, nitrate of soda, common salt, and other sub- stances. Opinions differ as to the nature of the coagula- tion, but it is certain that the blood-fibrin does not exist as such in the blood but is f oi-med from a substance called JThrinogen^ contained in the plasma, and concerning which tliree facts may be consideied as established : 1st. Fibrin is only formed in fluids which contain fibrinogen. 2d. A solution of fibrinogen alone yields no fibrin, and hence tlie action of some other body or bodies is requisite. 3d. This other body or bodies is yielded by the colorless corpuscles. A. Schmidt, who has most fully investigated this sub- ject, regards the substances coming from the colorless cor- pi|<@des as partaking of the nature of a ferment, and be- lieves that they are not contained in the living blood but are formed, after the blood is drawn from the body, by the decomposition of the coi*puscles. Whether this be true or not, there is no doubt that these corpuscles yield a sub- stance capable of converting fibrinogen into fibrin. h IQ 4 — i ia,a of L u c ihon MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIISra. 77 The Heart. — The movement of tlie blood tliroiigli tlie body, in order that all organs may receive from it their necessary nourishment, is accomplibhed by the heart. The heart is an irregularly eonical-tehaped organ, com- posed of involuntary nmscles. It is situated in the ante- rior part of the chest, and hangs free in an envelope called the peTwanlium, It is divided by an impervious partition into a right and left half, and each of these is subdivided by a cross-par- tition into two chanibers, communicating with each other by a valve in the dividing wall. The upper and smaller of these divisions are known as the right and left auvide^y and the lower and larger as the right and left m7it7'icles. Into these divisions open several large blood-vessels, whose mouths are closed with valves so arranged that the blood can only flow mto the auricles and out of the ventricles. The blood returning from the extremities of the body to the heart enters first the right auricle, a (Fig. 4), through two large \eins, the vena cava anterior^ 1% coming from the anterior, and the veiia cava jmste/nor^ ?, from the posterior part of the body. The auricle then contracts, and the blood, being prevented from returning into the blood-vessels by the valves at their mouths, is forced through the valve in the partition wall into the right ven- tricle, &. This, in its turn, contracts, and the blood, pre- vented as before by a valve fi-om turning back in its course, is pressed out of the ventricle through the pul- monary artery, ^, which divides into two branches leading to the right and left lungs, d^ d. The opening of this blood-vessel, like that of the others, is provided with a \alve, which prevents the return of the blood. The blood, after having been purified ni the lungs, returns to tlie hft auricle^ ji^, thiougli the jmlmonary veins, represented by e. 78 MANUAL OF OATTLE-i^EEDING. Tlie anriele then contracting, sends the blood into tlio left ventricle, g^ wliieli, in its turn, contracts powerfully and expels the blood into one large vessel, the aoHa^ h. The aorta, soon after leaving the heart, divides into two branches, the cmUrior (lorta^ % leading to the fore pait of the body, and the ^posterior dorta, jj supplying the abdom- inal cavity and the posterior part of the body. These blood-vessels repeatedly subdivide and carry the blood to all parts of the body, to be brought back again to the right side of the heart and undergo the same process anew. The sole cause of the motion of the blood is the power- ful contraction of the muscles of the heart. This alter- nate contraction and relaxation constitutes the beating of tlie he^art, and the sudden impulse thus given to the blood in the arteries causes the beating of the pulse. The Arteries, which conduct the blood from the heart to the various organs of the body, are tubes with strong, elastic, and contractile walls, to withstand the force with which the blood is pressed into them by the heart. They originate in the aorta, A (Fig. 4), which receives the blood from the left ventricle, and as they extend farther and farther from the heart throw off branches to the vari- ous organs, become smaller and smaller, and finally end in the eapiUaries, The Capillaries are exceedingly fine blood-vessels which penetrate all parts of the body and form the con- necting link between the arteries and veins. Their walls are thin and delicate, and through them the nutritive mat- ters of the blood diffuse out into the tissues to repair their waste, while the worn-out matters, at the same time, dif- fuse into the blood. Thus all parts of the body are kept continually bathed in a solution of nutritive matters. In the capillaxies, too, the oxygen which the blood has MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIl^G. 79 taken up in tlie lungs unites witli some of the wom-ont matters and bm^ns them, producing the Mnimal heat This point will be spoken of h more fully in the next section. In Fig. 4, n 1 epresents the capillaries of the posterior part of the body, o those of the stomach and intestines, t those of the kidneys, jj those of the liver, and m those of the an- terior part of the body. The capillaries gradually unite together into larger Fic^.5.~(settegEst) capiuan^. vessels, the veins, v^hieh convey the blood, no longer suited to notuish the body, back to the heart and limgs. The Veins are tubular vessels somewhat similar to the arteries, but with weaker and non-elastic walls, the pres- sure of the blood on them being less, owing to the inter- position of the capillaries between them and the arteries and to the fact that they are larger than the latter. To prevent any possible flowing back of the blood, the veins are provided at intervals with valves which permit the blood to pass toward the heart but not in the opposite direction. The smaller veins unite to larger ones, and finally, as already described, empty their contents through two branches into the right auricle of the heart. From the capillaries of the intestines the blood carrying the re- sorbed nutrients passes through the portal vein, Sj to the ]iver,j9, there passes through another system of capillaries, and then rejoins the blood from the extremities through the hepatic vem^ u. Into the branch, Jc^ coming from the head 80 MANUAL OF CATTLE-PEED ING. and anterior part of the Ibodj, the nutrients which a3*e resort- ed by the lacteals are poured just before it enters the heart. The passage of the blood from the left heart through the body and back to the right heart, is called the greater or systemiG circulation ; that from the right heart through the lungs to the left heart the jmlmonary circulation. The appearance of the blood in the veins and arteries is strikingly different. In the veins it has a dark, cherry- red color, but after it has passed through the lungs and is sent out by the heart into the arteries it has a bright, scarlet color. The former is called venous, the latter arte- rial blood. An exception to this rule, that the arteries carry bright-red blood and the veins dark, is found in the pulmonary circulation, where, of course, the vessels leading from the right heart to the lungs carry venous blood, and those leading from the lungs to the left heart, arterial. Nevertheless, the general nomenclature is adhered to, and the former are called arteries and the latter veins. Arteries conduct the blood from the heart, veins towa/rd it. §2. Respiration. Under respiration we here include not only the act of breathing, but all those chemical changes in the body of which that act is partly the cause and partly the consequence. The Iiungs. — The principal organs of respiration are the lungs, which, with the heart, occupy the cavity of the chest. This cavity is enclosed on the sides by the ribs, and is separated from the abdominal cavity, containing the digestive organs, by a strong, ai-ched, muscular partition, the diaph/ragm. The diaphragm is convex toward the chest, and by its contraction and a simultaneous outward motion of the ribs, caused by muscles situated between thetn, the size of the chest cavity is enlarged, and air MANUAL OB"^ CATTLE-JB^EEDING. 81 ruslies into tlie lungs by virtue of the atmospheric pres- sure. This constitutes the movement of inspiration^ or breathing in. The reverse motion, which immediately follows and expels a portion of the air, constitutes the movement of eo&pircdion^ or breathing out. The air enters the lungs through the trachea, or wind- pipe, from the mouth and nostrils. The tracliea, after reaching the chest, divides into two branches, one leading to the right and the other to the left lung, and each branch subdivides again and again into a midtitude of fine tubes, called bronchial tubes, each of which finally ends in an vZtir mAjbte lobule^ consisting of sev- eral mhiute "Desloles, In Tig. 0, c represents the ultimate bronchial tube, !> i the vesicles, and the whole mass of vesicles constitutes an ultimate lobule, a. The vesicles and tubes have elastic walls and are siu'rounded by an elastic tissue, so that the whole lung constitutes a spongy mass which expands or con- tracts with the motions of the chest, causing the air to flow into and out of all parts of it. The vesicles are also surrounded by a net-work of ex- tremely fine capillary blood-vessels, through which the blood sent to the lungs by the contraction of the right ventricle of the heart must pass, and the walls both of the capillaries and of the vesicles are very thin and are permeable to gases. Exchange of G-ases in the Lungs. — ^The venous blood, as it comes to the limgs, is rich in carbonic acid, Pig. 6.— (Prey ) Lung Tissue. 82 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. derived from the burning of waste products in the capil- laries, and for the same reason is poor in oxygen ; while the air in the vesicles of the hmgs, on the contrary, is rich in oxygen and contains but little carbonic acid. Under these circumstances each gas moves from the place where it is most abundant to the place where there is a deficiency of it. The carbonic acid of the blood diffuses through the membrane of the blood-vessels into the air of the vesicles till the latter is as rich in that gas as the former, while the oxy- gen, at the same time, passes from the vesicles to the blood. The carbonic acid is largely contained in the plasma of the blood, and simply diffuses into the air in the lung vesicles and is expelled in expiration, but for the taking •up of oxygen there is a special provision in the coloring matters of the corjDuscles. The venous blood contains both haemoglobin and oxyhsemoglobin. When the blood passes through the hmgs the hsemoglobin unites with the oxygen which diffuses into it, and when the aeration is properly performed is all converted into oxyhsemoglobin, which gives the arterial blood its bright-red color. The corpuscles thus act as vehicles for conveying oxygen from the lungs to the remotest regions of the body. In the capillaries this oxygen is given up again in part, and hemoglobin formed once more, giving to the venous blood its darh-red color. if by any means respiration is stopped, the air in the lung vesicles speedily becomes so charged with carbonic aeid and exliausted of oxygen that the exchange of gases with the blood can no longer go on ; the carbonic acid is re- tained in the latter, the waste products of the tissues are not burned, and the animal's blood is poisoned — it is suffocated. If its supply of air, however plentiful, contains more tlxan a certain amount of carbonic acid, the removal of this MAKUAL OF CATTLE-EEEDIKa. 83 gas from the blood is made incomplete or suspended en- tirely, and substantially the same resulte ensue, though more slowly. Respiration through the Skim — In addition to the exchange of gases between the air and the blood which goes on in the lungs, a similar process takes place, though to a smaller extent, through the skin. The true skin, underlying the cuticle or scarf-skin, is penetrated by capillary blood-vessels, and in its passage through these capillaries the blood gives off some carbonic acid and takes up some oxygen by diffusion through the skin. The amounts thus given off and taken up .are small compared with the corresponding amounts in the lungs, but they are still not inconsiderable. The skin likewise acts, by means of its sweat-glands, as a chaimel for the re- moval of water from the system. Large amounte of water are continually evaporating from the skin in the form of the " insensible perspiration," while under certain circxmi- stances the excretion of water is so rapid as to give rise to the formation of visible drops- The distribution of oxygen through the body is accomplished by means of the circulation. Each little cor- puscle carries its load of oxygen from the lungs through the heart and arteries into the capillaries. There, as we have seen, the substances formed in the minute cells of the tissue by the decomposition of their contents under the influence of the vital force, diffuse into tlie blood, and hei^e they meet the oxygen con- tained in the corpuscles and unite with it — are burned, producing the animal heat Innumerable intermediate products are formed in this process, but the final result is in all cases the same. All the non-nitrogenous sub- stances yield carbonic acid and water; the nitrogenous 84 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FJEEDIISrG. ones the same substances, and in addition Vjrea^ tlie eliar- acteristic ingredient of tlie nrine. Urea is a crystallizable body of comparatively simple composition^ which, together with small amounts of other substances, contains all the nitrogen and part of the carbon and hydrogen of the albuminoids from which it is derived. In the urine of herbivorous animals it is, in part, replaced by MppibTio acid. All these oxidations take place in the cells and capillaries of the body, and it is there, consequently, and not, as is sometimes stated, in the lungs, that the animal heat is produced. The quantity of oxygen *whieh passes into the blood is by no means determined by the depth and fre- quency of the inspirations, but by the amount needed in the lody / that is, in the first place, by the rapidity of the decomposition of substances in the blood and tissues, as well as, in the second place, by the number and quality of the blood corpuscles. In all parts of the living body a continual decomposi- tion of its materials is going on, and all manifestations of life are intimately related to this metamorphosis of the materials of the living organism. This decomposition, as has been already pointed out^ consists, in the main, in a splitting up of complex com- pounds into simpler ones, accompanied by a liberation of energy, which manifests itself in various ways. The processes tafee place according to fixed laws and at first in- dependently of oxygen, but the products of the decomposi- tion unite with the oxygen of the blood and regulate the amount of this substance taken up in respiration. The splitting up of substances in the body to form simpler compounds must be regarded as the primary process and tlie taking up of oxygen as the secondary, although it was MAliTirAL OF OATTLE-FEEDING. formerly believed tliat, inversely, the foi-mcr was deter- niined by the latter. If, by an increased supply of food or by violent muscular exertion, this splitting up of the niaterials of the body is increased and facilitated, then, secondarily, more oxygen will be taken up, in order that the resulting products may be oxidized. Storing xip of Oxygen. — ^We liave hitherto, for con- venience, spoken as if the oxygen taken up by the blood united at once in the capillaries with the products of tis- sue chan«:e. Numerous experiments by Pcttenkofer and Voit,* at Munich, and by Ilenneberg,t at the Weende Experiment Station, have, however, shown that the animal body has the power of storing up within itself a considemble amount of oxygen, and that some time may elapse after oxygen is taken up into the blood before it is excreted in combina- tion with carbon and hydrogen, Tlie following experi- ment by Pettenkofer and Voit, upon a healthy man on an average diet, will serve to illustrate the point. The ex- periment was divided hito two parts, the time from 6 a.m. to 6 P.M. being designated as day and from 6 p.m. to 6 A.M. as niffht. If from the amount of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, contained in the food eaten, we subtract* tlie amounts excreted in organic combination in the solid and liquid excrements, and also the amounts laid up in the body in the form of fat, etc., the remainders will show how much of each element must have been burned to car- bonic acid and water in the body. This known, we can ^-iy cdcdate fte amo™. of oxygen nece.a^' fa tl.e process, and compare it with the amotint actually taken up * Zeit. f. Biologte, II., 552. f Neue Beifcriige, etc., 1871, p. 315. 86 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKa. from the air, as determined by tlie method described in a bubseqiieut chapter. In this experiment the following results were obtained : BAY. Carbon. . . Hydrogen Oxygen . , Nitrogen . In food. In excreta. In fat formed in body. Remain to be oxidized. 240.15 7.94 86.91 145.30 195.40 1.71 13.53 180.16 1455.79 8.64 13.10 1434.05 10.12 10.12 0.00 0.00 Oxysen reqmred. 387.40 1441.28 1828.74 Already present. ....,, 1434.05 Keeded from without 394 69 ActuaUy taken up from air 2 J4. 70 Dijfference —159. 99 NIGHT. In food. In excreta. In fat lost by body. Bcmain to be oxidized. Oxygen required. Carbon Hydrogen 75.35 75.50 548.11 7.24 19.16 3.19 12.26 7.24 47.11 7.33 7.10 0.00 103.30 79.64 542.95 0.00 275.50 637 12 Oxygen Nitrogen 913.62 Already present , 542.95 Needed from withont 369 67 Actually taken up from air. 474.30 Difference ., ^ +104.63 Difference for 24 hours — 55.36 MAlSrUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIN"G. 87 In tlie Biglit-half of^ tlie experimentj there was taken in- to the system tliroiigli the hmgs 104.63 grms. of oxygen more than was used during that time in oxidizing food substances and body-fat, while in the day-half of the ex- periment more oxygen was tluis used than was supplied from without, the remainder (159.99 grms.) evidentlj be- ing drawn from a supply previously laid up in the body. In the earlier experiments of both Pettenkofer and Yoit and Henneberg, the storing up of oxygen took place chiefly, as in this case, in the night, but further investiga- tions showed that this was by no means always the case. It would seem, from these expeiiments, as if the healthy animal body were constantly eitlier storing up or giving off oxygen, the two processes, as a rule, nearly balancing each other in the course of twenty-four hours, while com- plete equilibrium is seldom reached in tliat time. The signifieance of this fact we shall consider later. Decompositions of the Nutrients in the Body. — T1w> aTbunmiolds of the food and tissues are believed to split up, by numerous intermediate steps, into urea and fatJ^ In the herbivora there are also formed varying quantities of hippurie aouL according to the fodder and the species of animal, but the latter always represents a far smaller part of the decomposed albuminoids than the urea, and often disappears almost completely from the list of the substances formed and excreted as the result of tissue-change. The urea is rapidly taken up by the blood, separated from it again in the kidneys, and excreted in the urine ; it can and ought never to be stored up in the healthy organ- ism. In the normal blood and in the tissues are found only inconsiderable traces of it, although the total quati- * See the chtipter on the " Formation of Fat '* 88 MANtlAL OT CATTLE-S^EEBING. tity wliicli is formed daily in tlie body of a fattening steer may amount to a pound or more. The nitrogen contained in 100 parts of water-free pro- tein can be separated from it in tlie form of 33.6 parts of urea. The remainder of the protein, 66.5 parts, after taking up and uniting with 12.3 parts of water, contains the elements for the formation of 51.4 parts of fat and 27 A parts of carbonic acid. The fat, whether formed from the albuminoids or con- tained as such in the food, is, according to circumstances, either deposited in tlie body of the animal, finds appli- cation in the production of milk, or undergoes a complete oxidation in the respiratory process, yielding caibonic acid and watei'. The fat producible from the albuminoids must always be added to that which is contained, ready foi^med, in the fodder and resorbed from the digestive apparatus, in estimating the results of a paiticular method of feed- ii)g. It is, however, to be observed that, according to the results of late researches, the fat formed in the body out of albuminoids appears to unite more readily with oxygen — that is, to burn easier — than the ready formed fat taken in the food, and this again easier than that which is already deposited in the fat-tissues. The carikydrates are represented in the body chiefly by sugar, all the other bodies of the group being converted into this substance during digestion, so far as they are not further decomposed. The food of' all herbivorous animals contains large quantities of carbhydrates, an ox, for ex- ample, often resorbing into his blood from twelve to eighteen pounds of sugar in twenty-four hours, yet the blood, in its normal state, never contains more than minute traces of this substance, and it is never stored up as such in the body. MAl^tTAL OF OATTLE-FEEDING. 89 Tlie cause of tlie comparatively small quantity of sugar found in tlie body, notwitlistanding the large amounts taken into the blood, lies partly in the fact that the pro- cess of resoi-ption is a gradual one, extending over a con- siderable time, the sugar, after it passes into the cireuk- tion, being oxidized with comparative rapidity, and partly, as it v^ould appear, in the conversion of the resorbed sugar into an insoluble form by the liver. Glyeogen. — The liver, as long as it is in a normal state, contains a substance belonging to the carbhydrate group, and known as glycogen^ in quantities varying according to the diet of the animal- It may be extracted from the liver by hot water, and when purified forms a white, meal-like, amorphous pow- der, tastele^ and odorless. In cold water it swells up, and on warming dissolves to an opalescent fluid. It is insolu- ble in alcohol and ether, and is colored dark-red by iodine. All those agents which convert starch and dextrine into sugar produce the same eifect upon glycogen. It rotates the plane of polarized light strongly to the right, but does not reduce alkaline copper solution. It will thus be seen that it stands intermediate between starch and dextrine. Its composition is the same as that of starch. G-Iyeogenio Ftinetlon of the Liver, — If the dead liver, after removal from the body, be washed out by water injected through the portal vein till all sugar is re- moved, and if then, after standing for a time, the washing be renewed, the first portions of water that pass contain sugar. The same process may be repeated several* times, " If the liver of any animal be kept for a considerable time before cooking, the amount of sugar which accumu- lates in its substance is so large as to be easily detected by the taste. The liver is deoldedly sweetJ^-^-^S, Le Gonte.) 90 MAKITAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. The source of tlie sugar in tliese cases is tlie glycogen of the liver, which, bj some not well miderstood chemical action, is converted into sugar. The same j)wcms takes place m tJte llvlny hody. The blood in the portal vein of flesh-fed animals contains no sugar, but the same blood in the hepatic vein, after having passed through the liver, contains a notable quan- tity of this substance^ doubtless derived from the glycogen of the liver. These facts were discovered by Claude Bernard in 1853, and are undisputed, but the source of the glycogen of the liver, and its physiological significance, are questions upon w^hich there is a diversity of opinion. Li w^hat follows w^e shall endeavor to present in outline that view which seems, on the w^hole, most probable, without, however, treating the matter as one that is finally decided. "We have already called attention to the great quantity of sugar that may be taken into the circulation in the course of a few hours. This sugar is largely taken up by the capillarieja of the stomach and intestines, and passes by the portal vein into the liver, while in the general cir- culation only traces of sugar are found. Putting these facts together, the conclusion seems almost unavoidable that the liver has the power of converting sugar into the insoluble glycogen and storing it up, to be gradually reconverted into sugar as the needs of the organ- ism demand. In other w^ords, the glycogen of the liver is a rese)'V6 of carljhydrates. The functions of the carbhydrates in the body are, as yet, but imperfectly understood, but there can be no doubt that they play an important part in the animal economy. According to some, the oxidation of these substances and of fat furnishes a large shaie of the muscular and other HANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIITG. 01 ft)rce exerted bj the body. Tliis does not appear to be fully establislied, but even if we do not bold tliis view, we sbali see, in a subsequent ebaptei*, that tbere is strong reason to believe tbat non-nitrogenons substances play an important part in tbe preparation of tlie muscles for tlie exertion of force, and that a constant supply of tliem in tlie blood is an important condition of Lealthy activity. On tbe otlier band, it lias been sliown tbat a large quantity of sugar in tbe blood is very burtful. Tbe office of tbe liver seems to be to arrest the sugar on its way from tbe portal capillaries and, by converting it into glycogen, to prevent an injurious accumulation of it in tbe blood, wbile tbe glycogen, by its gradual re-conver- sion into sugar, yields a continual supply of tbis substance. G-lyeogen may "be formed from Protein. — ^If a sup- ply of sugar to tbe blood is important or necessary, we sbould expect to find some provision for it in tbose animals \v^bich take none in their food — ^. ^., the carnmora. This is, in fact, the case. The liver has the power to form glycogen from albuminoids, as is shown by the fact that that su]>stance is formed in animals fed entirely on albuminoids. This l>eing so, there is no evident reason why the same formation of glycogen from protein may not take place in all animals. Indeed some authorities hold that it does, and that all the albuminoids destroyed in the body are first decomposed in the liver into glycogen, and urea and similar products. It win be shown in a subsequent chapter, however, tbat under some circumstances fat may be formed from the protein of the food and stored up in the body, and Yoit and his followers hold that the iirst decomposition of pro- tein in the body yields fat and not glycogen. However this may be, it is certain that a jjart of the protein may 93 MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDUNTG. be used in fat formation, and as certain tliat part of it may also be used by the liver as a source of glycogen. Protein as the Sole Source of Glycogen. — The views of the glycogenic function of the liver just stated, tliougli widely accepted, ai^e not undisputed. Many good autlioii- ties hold that under all circumstances protein is the source whence glycogen is formed. According to this view, the carbhydrates of the food are oxidized in place of the non- nitrogenous products of the decomposition of protein, and protect the latter, so that they are, in part at least, de- posited in the liver in the form of glycogen, to be drawn on when the supply of carbhydrates in the food is insuffi- cient. That is, the liver has the power of preparing carbhy- drate material fiom protein and storing it up in an insol- uble form until such time as it is needed. Which of these two theories is true, or whether tlie truth lies between the two, is as yet undecided, nor is a discussion of the comparative probability of the two views in place here. Oxidations in the Body are Gradual. — In the fore- going paragraphs we have, for the sake of simplicity, spoken as if the processes of decomposition and oividation were very simple and immediate — as if sugar were burned directly to carbonic acid and water, protein split up at once into fat and urea, etc. This is far from being the case. While the final result is as if the oxidations took place in the way spoken of, and while we are therefore justified in 60 speaking when we look at the chemical changes in the body as a whole, it must always be with the understanding that the changes which actually take place are very nu- merous and compHcated, and tha,t both their nature and location are largely hidden from us. The simple fact that MAKTJAL OF CATTLE-FEEJDmO. 93 oxygen, after it is taken into tlie Mood, remains for a time in the system, suffices to sliow that the chemical phenomena in the body diflter essentially from those outbide it, and this is eonlirmed by the little we do know of the processes themselves and by the intermediate pioducts, nmnbered by hmidieds, which have been already disco\ered. Fortunately, however, for the purposes of cattle-feeding we need only to know the final results of all these changes, and these we have indicated above, and shall presently con sider more in detail. §3. Excretion. As the result of the continued decompositions and alter- ations going on in the body, we have a constant accumula- tion of carbonic acid, water, and urea and other nitro- genous products in the blood. The carbonic acid and urea are poisonous if allowed to accumulate in the system, and the water would produce injurious effects by diluting the blood, and means are tlierefore provided for the removal of these substances from the body. The Urine — In its course through the posterior part of the body the blood passes through the kidneys, two bean-shaped organs, in which the urea and other nitro- genous substances coming from the decomposition of the protein of the body are removed from it. The blood also parts here with some of its water, and the excreted liquid, the urine, passes from the kidneys to the bladder and is thence expelled from the body at intervals. Besides urea, the urine of the herbivora contains, as has been already noted, hvpjpv/riG (wid^ in which form a vary- ing but small proportion of nitrogen is excreted by these animals. In the carni\ora its place is taken by uric aady 94 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FHEDING. also a nitrogenous substance. Tlie urine likewise contains traces of various other bodies, nitrogenous and non-niti o- genous, which, on accoimt of their small quantity, are of no special importance here. Excretion of Nitrogen. — In the nitrogenous substan- ces of the urine is contained all the nitrogen of the albu- minoids decomposed in the body. This is a most impor- tant fact, and one upon which a large part of the theory of feeding depends, and consequently it is desirable to examine somewhat in detail the evidence upon which it rests, particularly since its truth is still disputed by some authors. , The question is, whether the " sensible " excretions, that is, urine and dung, contain all the nitrogen which leaves the body, or whether any considerable portion of it is ex- creted in gaseous form from lungs and skin. Since, unfortunately, we have no accurate means of de- termining directly whether free gaseous nitrogen is thus exhaled, we are obliged to approach the subject in an in- direct way, and to determine whether, when no gain of flesh is made by the animal, all the nitrogen of the food reappears in the excreta. The earlier experiments on this subject showed, almost without exception, a deficit of nitrogen in the excrements, seldom an excess. Boussingault found, with a horse, a de- ficit of 24: per cent, of the nitrogen of the food ; with a milk-cow, 13 per cent. ; with hogs, 37 and 56 per cent. ; and with a turtle-dove, 34 and 36 per cent. Other ob- servers also obtained a similar deficit, though quite vari- able in amount. The extensive respiration experiments of Regnault and Keiset sometimes showed a slight excretion of gaseous nitrogen and sometimes a slight absorption of that sub- MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIFG, Oa stance, but tlie differences observed by tliem were far smaller than those oljtained by mocst other obbervers. Bidder and Schmidt * appear to have been the iirst to express the opinion that nitrogen leaver the body only in the visible excretions ; but their experiments were too few in number to prove the point, and shortly af terw ard Bis- choff t pnblished the results of nnmerons experiments on dogs, in which he observed a considerable deficit, a vei ag- ing 30 per cent. Iloppe-Seyler also foinid a deficit t»f 15 per cent, in an experiment in which a dog was fed for seven days exclusively on meat. Voit's Experiments, — Karl Voit, in Munich, was the first to furnish decisive proof that the urine and dung arc the sole channels by which nitrogen leaves the body, aiid that the nitrogen of the urine is an accurate measure of the amount of nitrogenous matters decomposed in the body. He showed, in his " Physlologiseh-Ghemische Uht^muck- ungen^^^ published in 1857, that the large deficit of nitrogen observed previously was due to faulty methods of experi- ment, and found in his own experiments either an equal- ity between the nitrogen of food and excrements or dif- ferences which were explained veiy simply by the gain or loss of flesh by the animal under experiment. Since that time a vast number of similar experiments, chiefly on dogs, have been made in the Physiological Insti- tute at Munich by Voit, in conjunction with BischofE and later with v. Pettenkofer, which have fully confirmed the results of the earlier ones and have been of the greatest service in elucidatina* the laws of the formation of flesh in the animal body. The following are a few of the results : \. * **Die VerdauTingsfeafte u. der Sfcoffwechsel,%1852. f '' Der Harnstoff als Mass des Stoffwechselb," 1853, J Wolff: "Ernalirung Landw. Nutztlxierej" p. 249. 96 MAWTJAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIFG. Nitrogen. Difference. Duration of Food expeniiitnts. Dayia. In food. Grms. In excrements G-rms Gi ms. + 26 6 Per cent. 49 ■V yl* 2499.0 2525.6 1.0 6 306 308.5 +2 5 0.7 9 459.0 460.7 +1.7 0.4 6 12 ■ 1 ■ « 306.0 612.0 307.2 611.9 + 1.2 -0.1 0.4 0.0 14 714.0 718.5 +4 5 0.6 23 1173.0 1176.9 +3.9 0.3 8 J V. 544.0 544.3 +0.3 0.1 20 1 K f 340.0 335.2 --4.8 1.4 58 3 ■ s - o o 986.0 153.0 982.8 152.6 -3.2 -0.4 0.3 0.2 8 J V 408.0 403.3 + 0.3 0.07 That this eqnilibrram between the excreted and ingested nitrogen was not a chance occurrence in a single animal, is shown by the fact that it was confirmed in experiments on five different dogs. Experiments on other animals have not been lacking. Ranke and Pettenkofer & Voit have shown that the same fact is true of men, and an interesting experiment was made by Voit on a pigeon, an animal with which Bonssingault found a deficit of 84 and 36 per cent. Voit fed a full-grown pigeon for 124 days with peas, of which it consumed 3,132.4 grms. (dry weight), while its own weight rose fi^om 371 grms. to 444 grms. The 3,132.4 grms. of plas contained 149.4 grms. of nitrogen, and in the excrements 145.9 grms. were recovered, showing a MAI^UAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIIS^G. 97 loss of 2-3 per cent. In this experiment the ^-eight of the food was more than eight times that of the pigeon, and the amount of nitrogen in the food ten times that in tlie animal Taking into account, aLo, the small weight of the anuaal and the duration of the experin^ent, the hy- pothesis of any appreenihle excretion of gaseous nitrogen becomes untenable. The small deficit observed is largely explained by the fact that the animal gained 73 grms. during the experiment, and was found, wiien killed, to be rich in flesh. Experiments on Domestic Animals. — The impor- tance of Voit's observations for the founding of a ra- tional theory of feeding, speedily led to experiments on^ agricultural animals, which showed that, as was to be ex- pected, the same law holds good for them. A large num- ber of experiments, in which various domestic animals have received a fodder which experience has shoM'^n to be sufficient to keep them in unaltered condition for long periods, have shown that under these circumstances all the nitrogen of the fodder reappears in the excrements. Oxen. — The earliest observations were those of Ilenne- berg, at the Weende Experiment Station, on oxen. His first experiments, in 1858 to 1859 and 1860 to 1861, agreed in the main wdth Yoit's results, but, owing to the com- parative imperfection of the experimental methods then available, considei-able variations were found in particular cases. Further experiments, however, made in 1865,* with improved methods and apparatus, showed that these varia- tions were due to experimental errors, and most abun- dantly confirmed Voit's observations, as the following results show: * " Neue Beitrdge zur Begrandung einer Eatxonellen Fiitterung der WiedeikcLuer," p 880. 98 UANUAL OK CATTLK-FKEDING. Weight of animal. Lbs. Nitrogen pek day. DiFFERENCF. No of Experiment In food. Grms, In excrement Grrm^. Grms. Per cent 1 2 3 6 6 1,403 u n 1,529 u 135 5 131.0 131.0 161.5 160.0 135.0 132.0 127 5 1G7.5 156 5 -0.5 + 10 -3 5 + 6.0 -3.5 0.4 08 2.7 3.7 22 Gronven * also found approximately an equilibrium be- tween the nitrogen of the food and of the excrements of oxen fed on clover hay. A ration of 14.3 lbs. of clover hay per day and head gave the following results : Length of Experimeat, Nitrogen in Difference Food. Grms, Excrements, G-nns. Grms. Pear cent 8 days 10 days 1,087 79 1,506.42 1,153.67 1,463.63 +65 88 -42.79 6.0 28 Milk eow8.—Ex-penment8 on five different cows in three different places — viz., in Munich, by Voit^f at the Ex- periment Station at Mdckern, by G. Kuhn,:{: and at the Hohenheim Experiment Station, by E. v. Wolff § — * ^^feiter Bericht uber die Versucha-Station Salzmunde, 1864, p. 122. f Heitechrift |uf Bjologie, 1860, p. 118 i Landw. Ver^achs-Sfcationen, XII , 450. § Die Versuciisstation Hohenheim, 1870, p, 4^. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIXG. *}*} Ixaye sliown that the visible excrements of tlie^e ani- mals also contain all the nitrogen ^\hieh lea\es the body. The following table gives a resume of aU the results, expressed in grammes per day and head: Length of feeding. l^ITROGEN IN DiFFEBJENCE Place. Food. Gnus. Excre- nitnt-. * Grms. Gims. Per cent. Munich. . . . 6 days. 241.5 2^8.53 -2.97 1.2 Mockem... 20 to 25 days. 120.5 122.0 +1.5 1.2 121.0 117.5 -as 2.9 117.4 llS.l -4.3 as 114 5 120.0 -h5.5 4.8 114.8 108 4 -6 4 50 121.4 113.2 -8.2 6.7 Ilolaenlieim Nearly 6 weeks. 105 2 164.5 -0.7 04 i£ (4 169.1 109. 8 +0 7 0.4 Sheep, — ^In case of sheep, we have to take into aceonnt, besides the excrements, the growth of the wool. The fol- lowing resnlts, selected from those obtained by Marcker and E. Schiike f in a large number of experiments at the "Weende Experiment Station, show that when this is done the same law holds with sheep as with other animals. * Including tbe milk, f Jour, f Landw , 1870, p. 301. 100 MANtTAl OF OATTLE-FEEDING. Live weight Lbs. Nitrogen of fodder per day. Grins. Nitrogen ex- cretcd pel day. Grms. DiFFERBNCE. No of Annual. Grms. Per cent. Ill 94.7 104 100.4 122.1 103 6 135.5 109.5 17.81 17.26 14.40 16.34 14.76 25 37 19.52 16.93 16.12 14.16 17.46 15 15 25 20 19 85 -0.88 -114 -0.24 +1.12 +0.39 -0.17 +0.33 49 I 6.6 III.&IV.(av) I. &II. *' in. &IV,'' II 1.6 6.8 2.6 0.7 Ill 1.7 Goats. — The following experiments, made by Stoli- mann^ at the Ilalle Experiment Station, show that in the goat also the excretion of nitrogen takes place in the visible excreta, and that no considerable excretion of gase- ous nitrogen can occur ; Live weight. Lba. Nitrogen per dax. DrrrERENOs. No. of the Animal. In fodder. Grms, In excrements and milk, Grms. Grms, Per cent. I IT I. TT........ I. 11 I 81.1 63.5 81.4 62.3 853 66.0 83.4 . 23.3, 23.0 21.1 21.1 23 9 23.7 24.6 23.0 22.2 21.5 21.4 23.5 23.6 24.3 -0.3 -0.8 +0.4 +0.3 -0.4 -0.1 -0.3 1.3 3.5 1.9 1.4 1.9 0.5 1.4 Zeitschrift fur Biologie, 1870, p. 204. MANUAL OB^ CATTLK-FEEDIXG, lOl For the sake of brevity, no description of tlie fodder lias been given in any of the abo\ e evperiuients. It is suffi- cient to say tliat it was found by experience to be just sufficient to maintain the animals, and that the latter did not appreciably gain or lose during the trials. The duration of the feeding, vt^hen given, refers in most cases to the total length of time during whieh the fodder was used ; the actual investigation of dung and urine usually ex- tended over 7 to 10 days. Investigations of the Respiratory Products. — The experiments which we have already described have shown conclusively that no appreciable excretion of nitrogen takes place through lungs and skin, and direct investigations of the respiratory products have only confirmed this fact. It is time that we have no means of acciu*ately determining how much free nitrogen is exhaled, but any ammonia that may pass off in this way can be very exactly determined. Such experiments have been executed, and have all shown that only minute quantities of this gas are excreted. Thus Grouven,* in experiments on twenty-nine different individuals, obtained the followinfic amounts of ammonia per 1,000 lbs. live weigl.t per day f Grms. Grms. Man 0.287-0.510 Sheep 0.340-0.585 Boy.,,...,.. 0.457-0.541 Bog 0.663-1.850 Ox 0.206-0,614 Horse 0.259 €ow.. ....... 0.174-0.392 Ass 0.673 Calf.... 774 Goat 0.585 Hc^ 0,921 Otlier observei-s have obtained equally small and unim- portant amounts. Quite recently, Seegen and K"owak,t in Yienna, by a * Zwdter Salzmunder Berielit, 1S64, p. 235. t Biedermaim's Central-Blatt, 1879, p. 593* 103 ]VIAN"UAL OF CATTLE-B^EEDI^NTG. peculiar arrangement of the respiration apparatus, claim to have shown an exhalation of free gaseous nitrogen by various animals; hut the method adopted by them de- mands such extraordinarily accurate analyses that the results obtained can as well be attributed to analytical errors as to an actual excretion of free nitrogen. Determination of Gain or Loss of Flesh. — In the foregoing paragraphs we have presented, somewhat at length, some of the evidence which shows that nitrogen is excreted to any considerable extent only in the vibible ejecta. This evidence could have been greatly aniplilied were it necessary, but enough has been given to prove the point in question. % The value of this knowledge lies in the fact that by virtue of it we can determine easily and exactly whether an animal is gaining or losing nitrogenous constituents, Le,^ flesh. "We need only to compare the amount of nitro- gen in the digested portion of the daily fodder of the ani- mal with that daily excreted in its urine ; or, more simply still, to compare the total amount of nitrogen in the fodder with that of all the sensible excrements, both urine and dung. If the amount in the fodder is the greater, the difference evidently must be still retained in the body as flesh. If, on the contrary, the amount is greater in the excrements, it shows as conclusively that more albuminoids have been decomposed than have been supplied, and that the animal is losing flesh. Furthermore, since the albuminoids contain on an aver- age 16 per cent, of nitrogen, we can, by multiplying the difference found by the factor 6.26, as explauied on page 17, calculate the weight of albuminoids corresponding to the observed difference of nitrogen, and thus tell exactly how much flesh has been gained or lost. If the amount MVNUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBING. 103 of nitrogen found in the excrements is the same as that given in the fodder, it 4io\\s, of conrbe, that neither a gain nor a loss has taken pLice. In a subsequent chapter we shall see that all our knowl- edge of the laws of the formation of liebh has been obtained in tliis way, and that consequently the truth of those la^\s dependb on the truth of the view that the urinary nitiogen id a measure of the amount of protein decomposed in the body. Excretion of Carbon.^ — The carbon of the organic matters destroyed in the body is excreted in two msljs. Fart of it leaves the body in the various urinary prod- ucts, but by far the larger portion is excreted as carbonic acid through lungs and skin, as already described, so that an investigation into the gain or loss of carbon by the ani- mal bgen of the excrement, but, owing to the high digestibility of their ordinary fodder, equals only 3 to 6 percent, of the nitri>gen of the latter. These biliary and other product'^^, then, can seriously im- pair the deterniination of the digestibility of the albumi- noids only when the fodder is extraordinarily poor in nitrogen. For example, it was observed b v GrouA'en, at the Salzmiinde Experiment Station, that full-grown oxen on almost ''btarvation fodder,'" amountiufic to onlv 5 to 9 lbs. of rye straw, together with non nitrogenous materials, per day, sometimes excreted more nitrogen in tlieir dung than they received in their fodder- It is therefore difficult to arrive at even tolerably accu- rate results regarding the digestibility of the protein in substances so poor in nitrogen as the straw of the cereals, when these are fed alone ; but with even an approximately sufficient fodder, the influence of the biliary pi-oduets, etc., is not at all considerable and becomes less the more nitru- genous the fodder, since it has been found, at least in the * Jour. f. Landw., 1871, p. 40» 108 MANUAL OF . CxlTXLE-FEEDIIS^G. Ilolieiilieim experiments on swine, tliat the absolnte quan- tity of these products in the excrement is no greater with a rich than witli a poor fodder. Digestibility of Fat. — The determinations of the di- gestibility of f. 12), Tt>.5 parts of carbon, and therefore every Tt>.5 parts of carbon shown by the evperiment to have been gained ov lost represents li^O parts of fat, or one part of carbon ci»r- responds to 1.3 parts of fat. The method of calculation is exactly similar to that used in calculating the gain or loss of albuminoids from that of nitrogen. The calculation is essentially the same if a gain or loss of albuminoids has taken place, except that the amount of carbon contained in the latter must be deducted from or added to, as the case may be, that found by experiment before multiplying by the factor 1.3. An example will render this clearer. In an experiinent made at the Weende Experiment Sta- tion on sheep, the animals received per day and head Ij^iO 114 M-XNTJAJi OF OATTLE-FEEDHNTG. grammes * of hay, together with the necessary amoiint of water. In fodder and e.\crements were found the follow- ing amounts of carbon and nitrogen : In Fodder — Hay Water , Jn Excrement s- Bung' , Urine Expired air. . . . . Betained in body Carbon. G-rms. Nitrogen, Grins. 460.1 18.1 0.1 .0 460.2 18.1 203 5 8.45 m,2 7.65 213 8 » * * « 439.5 10.10 20.7 2.0O Taking first the gain of nitrogen, we find that 2 grms. X 6.25 = 12.50 grms. of pi'otein. 2 " X 29.4 r= 58.80 " " flesh. and, tlierefore, that the animal had gained 58.8 grms. of flesli in twenty-four hours. Taking next the gain of carbon, we have to consider how much of it is due to the gain of flesh, and how much to a deposition of fat. The albuminoids contain on an average (p. IT) 63 per cent, of carbon, and hence the 12.5 grms. of albuminoids gained in this experiment contained 0.6 grms. of this element. Out of the total gain of 20.Y * One gramme = 15.43 grains; 1,000 grammes = 1 kilogramme = about 2. 2 lbs. ma:\^ual of cattle-feeding. 115 grms. of carbon, tlien, 0.6 grms. were contained in the fle^h laid on, leaving 14.1 grins., wliieli ninst Iiave been gained as fat. But, as we have seen, one part of carbon is equiva- lent to 1.3 parts of fat, and hence we have — U.Ox 1.3 =18.2 grms., the amonnt of fat gained. So, then, the resnlt of the ration of 1,216 grms. of haj per day was, in this particular case, a gain bv the animal of 12.5 grms. of albuminoids and ls.2 gnn>. of fat in twentj-four hours. By a similar process the gain or loss of waf^'f by the body can be determined, an( a u n * Jul .£ it t a 118 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDI^^G. undertakes to mate feeding experiments should be aware of the exceeding ambiguity which attaches to hJuaU changes of weight. Tlxe foregoing explanations make evident how much labor and care are necessary in order to determine, with any certainty, the nutritive value of even a single article of fodder for a single class of animals, and it is no cause for surprise that the theory of feeding can only reach its complete development in all directions slowly. When the question is only of the gain or loss of flesh, the method of experiment, as we have seen, is much simpler and less laborious and demands less expensive apparatus, than when the eftect of the ration as a fat-producer is to be deter- mined ; and it is therefore natural that the laws of " flesh- building" are already very thoroughly explored, while in regard to the circumstances under which tlie greatest and most advantageous production of fat or work is to be ob- tained we are much more in the dark. CHAPTER VL FORMATION OF FLESH. § 1. Intkoductort. In tlie foregoing chapters we liave considered the com- position of the animal hodj and of those substances which serve to nourish it — the nutrients, th^ manner in which these nutrients are digested and resorbed so as to become part of the body, and in outline the changes which they undergo in the body and the forms in which they are finally excreted from it. We saw that we may regard the body as composed es- sentially of protein, fat and mineral matters. The object of feeding is a production of these several ingredients in greater or less quantity. If an animal is simply to be kept in the same bodily condition — to be wintered, e. g. — we aim only to produce enough to supply the unavoidable destruction of tissue that goes on in every living organism, while in feeding for milk, or in fattening, we endeavor to obtain the most rapid production possible, especially of protein and fat; but in any case some production must take place. Plainly, then, it is of the highest importance to know the laws that regulate the formation of flesh (protein) and fat, from what ingredients of the food they are formed, and what quantities and proportions of the latter will pro- duce the desired effect most rapidly and cheaply. In this chapter we shall consider tlie laws regulating the produc- 120 MAIS^UAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIlSrG. tioti of flesli, and in the following one tliose governing tlie production of fat. The Laws of the Formation of Flesh have been most thoroughly studied in the earnivora, but they are essentially the same for all the higher animals. The various races of animals differ, indeed, as regards the fodder which they chiefly consume, as well as in their greater or less digestive power for certain kinds of fodder ; but the real nutrients which are resorbed from the diges- tive apparatus, even with the most varied rations, are always the same, viz. : protein, fat, and sugar, together with water and certain salts. Since, furthermore, in all mammals at least, the corresponding organs are entirely similar in their structure, chemical composition, and func- tions, the decomposition of their constituents must follow the same course, L 6., the substances once resorbed and taken up into the circulation decompose or are laid up in the body according to the same laws. Moreover, the laws derived from experiments on car- nivora have been completely confirmed in their general scope and bearing in all the experiments recently made on herbivora, viz., on oxen, cows, sheep, and goats, though the total afnount of material decomposed or stored up in the body varies according to the proportions of the various classes of nutrients contained in the normal fodder of the animal. The food of the camivora consists chiefly of protein and fat, while tlie herbivora consume relatively less of these but large quantities of carbhydrates. The ability of the camivora and herbivora to resorb the various nutrients is not, however, so different as is gener- ally supposed ; it has been shown, e. g,^ that a dog is able MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBING. 121 to digest and rosorb, daily, as mncli as 15 grms. of starch per kilogramme of live weight, while a well-fed milk-cow, or even a fattening ox, resorbs from its fodder, dailj'', not mom than 12 to 18 grms. of carbhjdrates per kilogi^anime live weight. Similar facts have been observed regarding the resorption of protein, bnt not regarding that of fat, which is digested by the carnivora in relatively far greater quantity than by herbivora. A large part of our knowledge of the laws of the for- mation of flesh is due to the labors at JMnnich of Karl Voit, at first in conjunction with BischoJBF and, later, alone and with v. Pettenkofer. These investigators have made a gi*eat number of experiments, chiefly on dogs, de- termining the gain or loss of flesh and the total amount of protein decomposed in the body by the method de- scribed in Chapter Y., and to them belong the honor, both of having established a reliable method of investiga- tion (see Chapter IV., pp. 91-97) and of having applied it successfully to the solution of the important question of the effect of food on the gain or loss of flesh. The results stated in this chapter are larsjely those of the above-named investigators. Protein Consumption. — In considering the laws of flesh-formation, there are two parallel processes to be dis- tinguished. In the first place, in every living organism a certain quantity of albuminoid matter is daily destroyed in the vital processes, and its nitrogen appears as urea, etc., in the urine. The amount of protein or flesh thus destroyed may vary greatly in different animals, or in the same animal at dif- ferent times, but it can only cease entirely with the cessa- tion of life, and cannot sink below a certain minimum 123 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKO. amonat witlioiit serious derangement of tlie vital func- tions. Tliis eontinual and necessary process we shall call j)7'otthi eomumjjtion.'^ This, of conrsej must not be con- founded with the amount consumed bj the animal in its food. It denotes a very different thing. In tlie second place, from a suflS.eient and suitable fod- der more protein may be resorbed into the circulation than is needed to supply the consumption under the given circumstances, and this surplus produces a deposition of protein and becomes part of tlie body. Evidently, what- ever decreases the protein consumption and increases the amoimt deposited in the tissues is so much gained in feeding. The protein consumption is not to be considered as waste, for it is necessary to the vital processes and, as we shall see, is generally greater the richer the food, but an improperly constituted ration may unnecessarily increase it and result in an unproductive use of fodder. The smaller the protein consumption can be made, consistently with the proper performance of the vital functions, the more of the protein of the food is available for the production of flesh. *We have seen (Chap. V.) tliat from the urinary nitrogen we can calculate the amount of either dry protein or fresh flesh decomposed in the body, by multiplying respectively by 6 25 or 29.4. In most of the experiments which have been made on carnivora the results have been expressed as flesh, while in those executed on herbivora the re- sults have been calculated as dry protein. In the one case we should speak of the *' consumption of flesh," and, in the otber, of the *' protein consumption." The two are equivalent, but not equal, the consumption of flesh being 47 times the protein consump- tion. In the following pages we shall have occasion to use both expres- sions. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. J.<«y£> § 2. ObGAHIZED and CiRCTrLATORY PbOI!E1?T. Protein Consumption during* Hunger.— Tlie follow- iBg table * gives, in graimiies, the quantities of urea daily excreted by a fasting dog weighing about 35 kilogrammes (77 lbs.), the excretion of urea being, as we have seen, an exact measure of the protein consumption in the body. No. of Expenment. 11. 5. 14. 15. 16. Previous food per day. 2,500 gniis meat. 1,800 grms meat and 250 grms. fat. 1,500 grms. lilt at. 1,500 grms. meat. ^ Grms. Grms. Grma. Grms. GrmR. Last day of feeding 180 8 130 110.8 110.8 24 7 1st day of fastiii^ 60.1 37*5 29.7 2$.5 19. () 2d ** " 24.9 23.3 18.2 18.6 15 6 8d " '* 1^.1 10.7 17.5 15.7 14 9 4t^ " " 17.3 14.8 14.9 14 9 13 2 Sth " " 12 3 12.6 14.2 14 8 12.7 Oth " " 13 3 12 8 13.0 12.8 13.0 7fcli " " 12 5 12.0 12.1 12 9 . . • . 8th *' '* 10.1 * • • * 12 9 12 1 « * ■ « Oth ** * a • « • « • • « * • « 11.9 » • ■ * 10th *' " « « • * « • « * * * *. * 11.4 .... It will be observai that in these experiments the protein consumption (as measured by the excretion of urea) was very unequal on the last day of the feeding and the first days of himger ; furthermore, that when food was with- held the protein consumption at once sank, rapidly at first but at last very slowly, till at about the sixth day it became Voit : Zeitschritfc fur Biologie, II , pp. 307-3( 124 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FKEDIKO. practically tlie same in all cases and so continued during the remaining days, its amonnt being represented by tlie excretion of about 12 grammes of urea. A large number of other experiments gave the saixie result. The Two Factors determining Protein Consump- tion. — It is plain from the above figures that there are two factors which determine the amount of protein de- stroyed in the body ; a constant one, which caused in these experiments an excretion of about 12 grammes of urea per day, and a variable one, which caused the excretion of very different quantities of urea at first, and which gradu- ally disappeared as the experiments progressed. No. of Expenment. 11. 5. u. 15. 16. Previous food per day. 2,500 grms. meat. 1,800 grma. meat and 250 gnns. fat. 1,500 grms. meat. 1,500 grms. meat. Grms. G-rms Grms. Grms. Grms. Last day of feeding 168.8 118 98.8 98.8 12.7 1st day of fasting. 48.1 25.d 17.7 14.5 7.6 2d *' " 12.9 11.3 6.3 6.6 3.6 3d " " 7 1 4.7 5.5 3.7 2.9 4tli " ** 5.3 2.8 2.9 2.9 1 2 5th *' " 0.3 0.6 2 2 2.8 0.7 6tli *' *' 1 3 0.8 1.0 0.8 1.0 7fcli *' '' 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.9 « • • • Sth *' *' -1.9 # • ■ • 0.9 0.1 • • ■ • 9fch ** " « « « « * * « « * • « * -0.1 • • • > 10th " " II * * • 244.3 • ♦ • * • * * • -0.6 Total* 163.7 135.3 131.1 29.7 * Omitting the negative quantities. lilAlTUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBING. 125 If we assume 12 grammes of m-ea as the amoimt due to tlie coiibtaut factor, and subtract tliis from the total excre- tion on the several days in these experiments, the remain- ders will exliibit the action of the variable factor. In the table on the opposite page this has been done. This table shows still more clearly the great injfluenee of the variable factor at first and its speedy disappearance when the supply of food is cut off. Organized and Circulatory Protein. — It is evident from these and a great number of similar results that tlie protein of the living body exists in two f orais— a compara- tively stable one, which decomposes slowly and yielded in these experiments about 12 grammes of urea per day, and an easily decomposable one, whose amount depends on the food ajid which is rapidly destroyed when food is with- held- The quantity of the latter is small as compai^ed with that of the f onner. In experiment 11, for example, where its amount was greatest, its total quantity was only about 3,364: grammes of flesh (2M.3 grms. of urea x 13,77), while the animal weighed about 35,000 grammes. '^ Voit designates the stable protein of the body as organ- ised proteifhy and considers that it makes up the mass of the organs; while the variable and easily decomposing quantity he calls eitmdatary jyrotdm.. Under the latter he does not include the protein of the blood and lymph,, but only the dissolved protein which penetrates from these into the tissues and bathes the cells in a nourishing fluid. Some good authorities dispute the correctness of the names circulatory and organized protein, but there is no dispute as to the correctness and importance of the distinc- tion which they imply between the two forms of protein in the body. For our present purpose this is the impor- tant thing, and we shall use Voit's nomenclature, mider- 126 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBING* standing by organized j[}rotehn tlie great mass of slowly decomposing nitrogenous compomids in tlie body, and by circulatory protein tlie relatively small quantity of easily decomposable albuminoids which it contains. The quantity of circulatory protein in a poorly nourished body is only small, not amounting in hmiger to one per cent, of the weight of the organized albuminoids, but its amount is increased by an abundance of protein in the food, and may, at least in the carnivora, rise to five per cent, or more. Eut, be the quantity of circulatoiy protein large or small, the greater part of it, generally seventy to eighty per cent., is consumed in the course of twenty-four hours, and an exactly corresponding quantity of nitrogen excreted in the urine as urea, etc. ; while of the organized pi'otein, at most not more than 0.8 per cent, is consumed — that is, the protein consumption in the body takes place almost wholly at the expense of the circulatory protein. It can be by no means assumed, as was formerly done, that all organs of the body are subject to a rapid metamor- phosis, and that in the course of a comparatively short time the whole organism to the last atom is renewed and rebuilt.' This is only the ease as regards a few tissues. The blood corpuscles, e. ^., and the milk glands in the period of their greatest activity, are rapidly destroyed and as rapidly re-formed; but by far the greater part of the organs have, w^hen once formed, a much greater stability, although the contents of the cells vary much in quantity and quality with the varying food o£ the animal. The circulatory protein, on the contrary, suffers a continual and rapid destruction, and must be contiimally replaced by protein from the food. Other Experiments. — That the organized protein of the animal body is destroyed far less easily than the circu- MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 127 latory protein, is also indicated "by more direct experiments wliicli have lately been made. If by any means it were possible to introduce into the body of an animal which had been deprived of food long enough to destroy its circulatory protein, albuminoids in the form of a living organ from another animal, we should expect that, according to Yoit's theory, these albmninoids would be but slowly destroyed in the body. Forster * at- tempted to accomplish this by the transfusion of blood, and found that the protein of living blood, which may be regarded as organized, was but slowly destroyed in the system, while simple solutions of albumin produced an immediate and considerable increase in the excretion of urea. It is noticeable, however, that his results show that albumen thus injected seems to be more slowly decom- po^ tlian that taken in Urn f ood- Tschieriewf ha^ compared the behavior ^f transfused blood with that introduced into the stomach, with the fol- lowing results ; Nitrogen given. Grms, Nitrogen excreted. Grms. Blood fed •*. 18.19 19.09 14.38 0.00 18.53 14.55 *' transfused. .,., ^.m ** fed, No food. t 1443 4.65 Blood taransftised 10.60 These figures show plainly that the albuminoids of the blood, after they had passed through the digestive appa- * Zeitschrift fur Biologie, XL, 496. f Biedermami's ' Central -Bkitt fur Agr. Chem.,' X, 98. 128 MAITUAL OF CATTLE-FEEI)IE"G. ratus, were mucli more readily oxidized iix tlie body tlian before. § 3. Feeding with Pbotbin alone. In order to obtain a clear idea of tlie various factors wliicli determine the consumption of protein, on tlie one hand, and its deposition on the other, it will be best, in the first place, to consider the phenomena produced when the several nutrients are fed alone, and afterward the effect of two, or of all of them together. Consumption dependent on Supply. — The numerous researches made by Voit ^ have shown most fully that the consumption of jwotein in the hody is largely deter- mined ly the stijtply of protein in the food. That the ex- cretion of urea, and consequently the protein consumption, was influenced by the food to a very considerable extent, had ah'eady been noticed, but this observer has the merit of having fully investigated the subject and given it the prominence it deserved. His experiments were made chiefly on dogs; the following are some of the results obtained in different experiments on the same dog with a diet of various quantities of pure, fat-free meat : Meat oaten por day , tTroa excreted Correspcmdmg to flesn Grms. Grms 800 Grms 500 Grms Grms 1,200 Grms. 1,500 Grms 2,000 Grms 2,500 900 12 32 40 08 88 10*6 144 173 105 442 552 9S8 1,214 1,463 1,987 2,387 Grma. 2,C)b{) 181 2,4% The consumption of flesh varied from 165 grms. per day during hunger to nearly 2,500 grms. with the largest amount of albuminoids in the food, and almost exactly in * Zeitaclinft f. Biologie, III., 1. MANUAL OIT CATTLE-FEEDING. 129 proportion to tlie amount of the latter. In all these ex- perhnents by far the larger part of the piotein of the food was converted into circulatory jnviein, which was rapidly consumed in the vital processes. That this is always the case on a purely albuminoid diet is shown by the scores of similar experiments which might be cited. Similar experunents on our herbivorous domestic ani- mals have given in the main the same result, except that the protein consmnption has generally been found to be less in proportion to the weight of the animal than in the carnivora, a fact which, however, as we shall see, is in great part due to the large amoimt of non-nitrogenous matter in the food' of these animals. Could they be fed on pure protein, as was the dog in the above experiments, it is probable that the protein consumption would be corre- spondingly increased. The CbnsTHnption does not depend on the Supply alone. — ^With ihe same amount of protein in the food the protein consumption in the body may be very unequal in the same animal at different times, as the following results strikingly show. Meat eaten. Grms. Previous food. Consumption of fleah per Grms 6am or loss of flesh Grms 2,000. 2,000 grms. meat 2,229 -271 2,000 '* " 4-250 grms fat 2,069 - 69 1,500 " '* 1,920 + 80 200 ** '* +300 gelatin. 1,753 + 247 1,077 + 323 450 grms. starch. 1,383 + 617 175 '* Hieat + 300 fat. 1,365 + 635 6* 130 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEKDma The same amount of food caused in one case a loss of 2Y1 grms, of flesh, and in another a gain of 635 grms., and a corresponding variation in the protein coiibnniption is observed. This can only be explained by the difference in the previous food. Where, by an abundant supply of al- buminoids, a large amount of circulatory jprotein had been formed in the body, a decrease of the albuminoids of the food caused a decrease in the protein consumption, but not to an amount corresponding to the decrease in the supply ; the animal lost flesh. On the other hand, an increased supply of albuminoids caused an increase in the protein consumption ; but the increase, like the decrease in the other ease, v^as not proportional to the increased supplj^, and a gain of flesh resulted. The figures of the above table refer to the first day of the new feeding, and we gather fiom them that the protein consumption is depen- dent not only on the amount of protein in the food but on the bodily condition resulting from the preceding feeding. Equilibrium soon established -with Food Supply. — The gain or loss of flesh observed on the first day after a change in the supply of protein does not usually con- tinue long. Within a short time — usually two to four days — the consumption of protein in the body becomes equal to the amount supplied in the food, and no further gain or loss of flesh takes place. The two following ex- amples may serve to illustrate this. Food. Previous food. CONStlMPTION OF FLBSH. Day before 1st day. 2d day. 8d day. 2,500 gims. meat. 2,000 '* " 1,800 grms. meat. 2,500 *' " Grm" 1,800 2,500 2,158 2,229 Grms 2,480 1,970 Grni'^ 2,532 MANUAL 01^ CATTLE-FEEDmO, 131 In eacli, the protein consumption was in equilibrium with the food supply at the beginnmg of the experiment. In the first case an iaereabe of 7U0 grms. in the amount of meat eaten caused a rapid increase in the protein consump- tion, till in three dajb the two were again nearly in equi- hbrium. In the second experiment the same thing is observed as to the decrease of the protein consumption. The gain or loss of flesh in either case is very trifling, amounting respectively to 335 grms. and 199 grms. in a dog weighing about 35 kilogrammes. Xearly all of the addi- tional Too grms. per day in the first experiment was con- verted into circulatory protein and rapidly destroyed, while in the second the subtraction of 500 grms. per day de- creased proportionately the reserve of circulatory protein and the amount consumed. The experiments given above are simply examples taken from a large number of similar ones, made both on carnivora and herbivora, all of which have given the same result, viz. : the anhmil hodi/jnits itself ^ after a longer or shorter tbne^ into equilihimih with wJmtever quantity of odbuTmn- ^oids it receives in its fodder ahoi^e thai necessary to main- tain it in average condition. That is, a certain minimum quantity of albuminoids is necessary to prevent the starva- tion of the animal. An increase of the supply above this quantity causes a slight gain of flesh for a short time, but a rapid increase in the amount of circulatory protein and consequently in the protein consumption, and, finally, ex- actly as much nitrogen is excreted in the urine (and milk) as is taken in the food. We might compare the stock of circulatory protein in the body to a mass of water con- tained in a ve'^sel with a small aperture in the bottom, if there is no supply, it quickly runs out. If a small stream of water be let in at the top, a small supply of water may 183 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING, be main tallied in tlie vessel. If a larger stream be ad- mitted, tlie depth of water in the vesbel will at once begin to inciease, but, at the same time, the pressure on the bot- tom, and consequently the rapidity of the outward How through the aperture, hiereaees, and outtiow and inflow soon come into equilibrimn. If the supply be diminished, the level of the water sinks till the hydrostatic pressure causes the outflow to again equal the inflow. The Protein CJonsumptioa during Fasting is not a Measure of the Amount necessary to sustain Life, as was formerly assumed to be the ease. If to a fasting animal we give an amount of protein exactly equal to that daily consumed, this protein is converted into circulatoiy protein, and the consumption is correspondingly increased. In order to mahitain an animal in average condition, we must give it, approximately, from two to two and a half times as much protein in its food as is consumed in the body during hunger, and when the food has been rich in albuminoids a much greater quantity is necessary to main- tain the equilibrium once established. When equilibrium is once reached, either by a gain or loss of flesh, as the case may be, exactly the same kind and quantity of food is necessary to keep the animal un- altered in the bodily condition in which it then is. Every state of the body, then, demands for its maintenance a cer- tain definite fodder, and we cannot well speak of a super- fluous consumption of food by animals as by plants, i, e., of a wholly useless and unnecessary excess of some one nu- trient. A waste of fodder, however, often occurs in prac- tice, in so far as more fodder is given than is necessary for the object in view, e, g., in the production of milk or wool and the feeding of draught animals and young cattle. Even in fattening, as we shall see later, the same or a bet- MAJTUAL OF GATTLE-FEEDIKO. 133 ter result may not infrequently be obtained with a fodder boniewhat poor in albununoidb tlian with one containing a very large quantity of them. The Rapidity \^tli ^?«r]iieh Equilit)rinin is estals- lished varies. — It is greater the richer the food is in al- buminoids and the lebS fat ib contained in the body ; in general, therefore, in the earnivora than in the herbi\ ora. The influence of the fat of the btKly in decreasing the protein consumption is of great importance. It has been proved beyond a doubt that in a fat body, the mabS of flesh, the food, etc., being the same, the protein consump- tion is less than in a lean body. It is not, ho\ie\er, sim- ply the absolute quantity of fat, but rather its amount relatively to that of the flesh which is the important point But not only is the protein consumption less in a fat body, cMm^k parHyuSj but the rapidity with which equih- brium is reached after a change in the food is less. The following are the results of two experiments, A on a lean animal (dog), B on a fat one : B Increase of meat m food. Grins 1,800 1,620 Bc[uilibmim on 3d day. 6tli " Gam of flesh 309 1,365 Gam m per cent, of increatoed food. 17 84 A smaller increase of protein in the food of the fat ani- mal caused both a relatively and absolutely greater gain of flesh, which ako continued twice as long. Numerous other examples of the same eftect might be adduced, were it ne- cessary. As a consequence of this fact, a gain of flesh can be made more readily by herbivora than by earnivora, since 134 MAl^UAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIKO. tlie former are, as is well knowiij mucli inclined to tlie lay- ing on of fat, and even wlien in medimn condition gener- allj contain relatively a niucli larger quantity of that sub- stance than the carnivora. For the same reason we may often increase disproportionately the amount of albumin- oids in the food of the hex'bivora without having to fear that it will all be converted into circulatory protein and rapidly consumed. Good results may often be attained in this way, but we should never, with these animals, leave out of account the bodily condition caused by the previous foddering. In the beginning of fattening, especially, the most appropriate fodder must be essentially different ac- cording to whether we have to do with lean and "run down " animals or with those which are already in good condition. Effect of Salt on Protein Consumption. — A mod- erate addition of salt to the fodder increases the circulation of the juices of the body, and consequently the protein con- sumption ; but the salt secures advantages, especially in the heibivora, which have already been spoken of. The feed- ing of salt is therefore especially in place when a greater energy of all the vital functions is desired, as in horses and well-fed working oxen, in young animals, and in male breeding animals, etc., while in fattening only so much should be given as is necessary to render the fodder sa- vory, and is demanded for the normal nourishment of the animal. Another action of salt is to increase the excretion of urine, often very considerably. This is observed especially when the animal is pre- vented from much drinking, either purposely or in any other way. For the excretion of larger quantities of salt, more water is necessary, and this is withdrawn, in the first MANUAL OF OATTLE-PEEDI^TG. 13S place, from that excreted by evaporation tlirongh the Imigs and Kskin, and, if this ib not sufficient, from the body itself. The live weight can therefore sbik rapidly when large doses of salt and little water are given, while afterward, on the other hand, if more water is drunk, nmch of it may be laid up in the tissues, and the live-weight of the animal be a«:ain increased. Influence of Water on the Protein Consumption. — Giving too large quantities of salt to animals is to be avoided for still another reason, viz. ; that the animals are led to drink large quantities of water, if they have access to it- This causes an increased protein consumption, that is, an increased destruction of valuable fodder materials, especially when the larger quantity of water is not retained in tiie tissues but is rapidly removed by an inci-eased ex- cretion o£ urine. Experiments by Voit on fasting animals showed an in- crease of thfe protein consumption in this way by as nuich as 25 per cent., and, according to observations by Ilenne- berg,* in Weende, on oxen, the increase of the protein consumption, when the amount of water was increased 22,4 per cent., averaged 5.8 per cent. Even the last named increase is by no means insignificant ; it amounts to a third, or perhaps even a half of the protein which otherwise might have been deposited in the body. In any case, in order to get the most advantageous results possible, espe- cially in the feeding of young animals and in fattening, w^e must avoid evervthinsc which involves or leads to an excessive use of water ; e, g,, too watery fodder, too high a temperature of the stall, too much salt, too much move- ment, etc. This is niore especially to be observed in re- gard to sheep, since these animals drink voluntarily much lit (.i Keuc Btitnige," etc., Ib71, i> od7. 13C MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. less water in proportion to the dry matter of their fodder than cattle. In round numbers, the normal amount of water (in food and drink together) may be btated as 4 lbs. per pound of |lry matter of the fodder for cattle, and half that quantity for sixeep. In milk-giving animals an increased consumption of water is less disadvantageous, and may indeed cause an increased milk-production ; but in this case, also, it is un- doubtedly advisable not to exceed a certain limit as to the proportion of water in the fodder. The Efffeet of Stimulants on the protein consumption seems to be inappreciable. The action on the nervous sys- tem seems to be caused by so minute a metamorphosis of albuminoid substance that it has no significance compared with the total protein consumption in the body. It is, however, anotlier and as yet undecided question whether the increased nervous activity may not cause an increased consumption of fat in the body, as does nmscular exer- tion, e. g. % 4. Feeding with Fat ok Cakbhybbates Alone. Fat alone does not decrease the Protein Con- sumption. — This is shown plainly by the following results obtained by Vt)it '^ on a dog : Fat per day Flesh consumption. Grms, - 0rnis. Grms Grms. G-rma Grms, 340 205 170 100 185 200 155 300 187 300 165 Grms. 350 291 9 We see at once that even the largest rations of fat are not able to stop or decrease the loss of flesh from the * Zeitschrift f. Biologie, V., 329. MANUAL OF 0ATTLE-FEEDIJ!^O. 137 body, but seems rather to inof^ease it sliglitly. Tliis latter effect lias been observed iii otlier experiments, and appears to be due to the influence of the fat in drawing into cir- culation the organized protein of the body. It shows it- self still more markedly when, along with the fat, an amount of albuminoids not sufl&cient to balance the con- sumption is given. The effect is in every case small, and this action of fat is far more than comiterbalanced by another wiiich shows itself when it is fed along wdth a sufficient quantity of protein. Carbhydrates alone do not decrease the Protein C6nsumption any more than does fat. The same amount of protein is oxidized and destroyed in the body as in the complete absence of food. They differ from fat, however, in the fact that they do not, like the former, slightly in- crease the protein consumption. They are simply without effect on it when fed exdusimly. § 5. Feeding- with Pkotein aijtd Fat. The Protein Consuinption is deternained chiefly by the Supply of it in the Food, just as it ib in feed- ing exclusively with albuminoids, and any increase in the amount of the latter causes a coiTesponding increase in the former. Thus, Voit {Iog, cit) obtained the following results : Food j Fat. \ Meat , . . . Consumption of flesh per day . . , Grnas. arms Grms. Grms. Grms S50 300 250 20O SOO 150 17(j 250 500 800 233 259 270 502 778 Grms 250 1,500 1,381 138 MANUAL OF OATTLE-PEEDIKG. It is evident that tlie protein consumption in tlie body is greater, the larger the amount of protein in the food. The inciease, however, is not quite as great as it would have been without the fat ; for, other things being equal, Fat decreases the Protein Consumption, and there- fore increases the depositiorf of flesh in the body. This is most plainly shown if, after the body is in equilibrium with a certain quantity of albuminoids, fat be added to the food. The following example from Voit's researches illus- trates this fact : Food, TJrea per day Gims Flesh con'snmp Date Meat. Grins Fat Grms tion m bod^ Gims July 31 Aug 1 '^ 2 " 3 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 100 300 81 7 74 5 69 3 81 2 1,140 1,042 970 1,134 While the animal, when fed with 1,000 grammes of meat, was losing daily about 140 grammes of flesh, the addition of 300 grammes of fat served not only to prevent this loss, but to cause a slight gain. This decrease of the protein consumption is not very considerable in a single daj^, amounting, in the dog used by Yoit, to at most 168 grammes of flesh, or 46 grammes of dry protein, and vaiying from 1 to 16 per cent, of the total consumption. Its amount depends not only on the protein and fat of the food but also on the condition of the ani- mal. The greater the amount of circulatory protein in the body, and the less fat it contains, the more of the pio- MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBOTG-. 139 tein o£ the food is converted into circulatory protein and consumed. The Decrease of the Protein Consumption is no greater -vrith. a large than v^ith a small Ration of Alhuminoids, if tlie quantity of fat remains tlie same. Tins, indeed^ follows fi'om the statements of the first paiagi'aph. An increase of the albuminoids of the food causes more circulatory protein to he formed, and, as a consequence^ increases the consumption; and while the latter is less than it would be without the fat, the difference is not notably, if at all, greater than with the smaller amount of albuminoids. The addition of the fat simply makes the consumption of protein less tlimi it would be without it under ilie same mrtumatmwm / but this comparatively small decrease may sometimes make all flie difference between a continual loss of flesh from the body and a state of equilibrium, or even a gain of flesh, and thus may be a most important factor in feeding, as illustrated in the experiments in the previous paragraph. A dog weighing 33 kilogrammes (77 lbs,), when fed ex- clusively on pure meat, needs about 1,500 grannnes daily in order to remain in good condition and in equilibrium as regards nitrogen* If, instead of this, he receives only 600 grammes, he loses, for a number of days, about 150 grammes daily of his own flesh ; and if, after a considera- ble time, he comes into equilibrium with the smaller ration, he is wasted away and in wretched condition. But if, along with the 500 grammes of meat, about 200 grammes of fat be given, this loss of flesh is speedily checked, and when the protein consumption has come into equilibrium with the supply the animal remains in a sound and well-nouiished condition. The addition of 200 140 MANUAL OF CATTLE-EEEDIKa grammes of fat so decreases tie protein consumption, which was before greater than the supply, cansing the animal to lose flesh constantly, that it is now equal to the latter, or perhaps, in some cases, less, so that a gain of flesh results. That is, we can keep the same amount of flesh on such an animal by feeding 500 grammes of meat and 200 grammes of fat, as by feeding 1,500 grammes of pure meat. In the former case, although the supply of protein is much less, the consumption of it in the body is correspondingly less ; and though the animal may be less lively and ener- getic in its motions on this account, it may still be main- tained in good condition for any length of time on such a ration without the least injury to its health. That the protein consumption, as above stated, is less than when 1,500 grammes of meat are fed is due, in great part, to the decreased supply of albuminoids, the effect of this being the same as when only albuminoids are fed, as was ex- plained and illustrated in the first paragraph of this section. The effect of the addition of the fat is simply to de- crease the consumption a little more ; "but this little carries it past the point of equilibrium, and so prevents the con- tinual loss of flesh which takes place without it. The animal may even gain flesh on such a ration. In this case, therefore, the addition of 200 grammes of fat has saved 1,000 grammes of meat, as compared with a purely flesh diet. We are not, however, to understand that if to the large ration of 1,500 grammes of meat we add 200 grammes of fat, the daily flesh consumption will sink at once to 500 grammes or less, and that 1,000 grammes of flesh will be formed in the body. The protein con- sumption, as already insisted on, is dependent in the first place on the supply of albuminoids in the food, and an in- crease of the latter correspondingly increases the former ; MANUAL OF CATTLE- FEEDING. 141 SO thatj while a large quantity of protein wonld be daily consumed in the body with the large ration of albumin- oids, the gain of flesh would be no greater, and might be even less, than with the smaller ration. Fat may cause a long-continued G-ain of Flesh. — We have seen that any gain of flesh caused by an increase of the albuminoids of the food continues but a short time. The additional albuminoids increase chiefly the amount of circulatory protein in the body and consequently the pro- tein consumption, and equilibrium between the food and the body is speedily established. If, however, the gain of flesh is caused by the addition of fat to the food, the case is different. The fat seems to favor the formation of tissue, i ^., of the more stable organised protein, which is less easily oxi- dized, and consequently, as is found by experiment, the gain of flesh caused in this way may continue for a com- paratively long time, so that although the saving of protein effected by the fat may not be great in a single day, the total result is very considerable. It has been already shown (p. 133) that the fat deposited in the body has the same effect in this respect as that of the food. The Gain of Flesh continues much longer on a me- dium than on a large Ration of Albuminoids. — ^The following experiments (see page 142) illustrate this. The total gain up to the beginning of nitrogen equili- brium is seen to be in general no greater, and often less, with a large than with a medium ration of albuminoids. In details exceptions are to be expected, since the experi- ments were not all made consecutively, and since not only the supply of food but the bodily condition has much to do with the gain of flesh. In order, then, to obtain as great and long-continued a 142 MAITUAL OF CATTLE-FBEDING. Length ol Experi- ment Days, 4 3, 3, 4, 10, 23 7 8. Food. Total gam of llLKh. Grmfa. Gam per day Gnus. Fat Gi ni^. Meat. Gtms, 250 500 1,794 50 200 800 820 80 250 1,000 375 125 250 1,250 294 98 250 1,500 476 119 150 1,500 104 10 30-150 1,500 889 88 250 1,800 854 122 250 2,000 352 117 Whc ther nitrogen oquilibiitun. Not yet. ii. Neaily, li u Quite. Nearly. Quite. Nearly. deposition of flesli in tlie body of a dog, e. g,, as possible, we should not feed large quantities of meat with fat. The absolute quantity of albuminoids in the food does not determine the gain, but only the protein consumption. Neither is it the absolute quantity of fat that determines the gain, but the relation between the two, together with the bodily condition. This being the case, we should first endeavor to ascer- tain what ratio of albuminoids to fat gave the best results, and then, having compounded a ration in accordance with this, should endeavor to induce the animal to eat as much as possible of it. Two extremes ought to be equally avoided ; too much albuminoids woidd cause an xmneccs- sary protein consumption in the body, while if the ration contained an excess of fat, it might be impossible for the animal to eat enough of it to supply himself with the necessary amount of protein. MA-NJIAh OF CATTLE-FEEDIIfG. 143 In the fodder of the herbivora the action of fat in de- creasing the protein conbinuption does not show it&elf so plainly, itb action being masked bj tlie presence of large quantities of carblij drates, wliieli, as we sball see, liave an effect similar to tbat of fat. Moreover, the amount of fat in the fodder of the rmni- nants cannot safelj exceed a certain easily-reached lindt- Small quantities of fat exert in general a favorable influ- ence ; larger quantities, however, are often very injmious, causing disturbance of the digestion and an iacreasing lack of appetite* The different modifications of fat, however, behave very differently in this respect, and the fat of the food certainly deserves attention, especiallj in the feeding of young animals and in fattening, and likewise in case of hoiraes, and in general whenever the fodder is rich in al- buminoids. §6. FEEDma with Pbotbui JlStd Cabbhydkates, The Caxbliydrates act analogously to Fat on the consumption of protein and its deposition in the body. Like it, they do not suspend the protein consumption, wdiich increases or decreases with the amount of protein in the food; like it, they decrease the protein con- sumption somewhat, but not greatly; like it, too, they enable an animal to subsist or even gain flesh on a. much smaller quantity of albuminoids in its food than would suffice were the ration composed of pure protein. The action of the carbhydrates t«i the formation of flesh lias been investigated both in carnivorous and herbivorous animais. In the previous sections we have been occupied exclu- sively with experiments on carnivora, for the reason that 144 MAKXIAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. it is practically impossible to feed herbivorous animals on pure protein or protein and fat ; but the general principles deduced fi'om tlie experiments on carnivora are applicable also to herbivorous animals. In tlie present section v^^e shall give special prominence to experiments on domestic herbivorous animals, and shall take occasion to point out, in passing, some confirmations of the results obtained on carnivora by Voit and others. The ordinary fodder of herbivorous animals, leaving out of consideration, for the present, water and mineral matters, consists essentially of protein and carbhydrates with small quantities of fat. A large number of experiments on these animals have been made. As of especial importance for our present pin'pose may be mentioned those of Grouven,* at Salz- munde, and of Ilenneberg & Stohmann,f at Weende, on oxen ; those of G. Kuhn & M. Fleischer, :]: at Mockern, on milk cows ; and those of E. Schulze & M. Marckei', § in Weende, on sheep. Of these, the Weende experiments on oxen in particular are of the highest value, both for our present purpose and many others, having been executed in the most careful and thoroughly scientific manner. The Protein Consuraption is Determined by the Supply in the Food. — The following experiments on oxen by Henneberg & Stohmann {loo, eit), in which the amount of protein in the food varies while that of the non-nitrogenous nutrients remains essentially the same, * Zweiter Salzmunde Beriolit, 1864. f '■^ Beifcrag-e zur Begrundung einer RationeUen Fdtterung der Wie- derkaner," 1864, and "Neue Beitrage," etc^ 1871. :j: Landw. Versuchs-Stationen, XII , 197 and 450. § Journal fiir Landwirtlisclaaft, 1870 and 1871. MAlSrUAL OF CATTLE-EEEBING. 145 illustrate tliis fact, wkicli is ahown also in all the otlier experiments cited. The non-iiitrogenons matter of tlie food here includes the fat reduced to its equivalent of starch (p. 157) ; the numbers in the last three columns express dry protein (nitrogen x 6.25) and not fresh flesh. No of Bxpcnmenfc. Non nitroge- nous matter di- gested Lbs.* Protem di- gested. Lbs. Frotem consumption. Lbs. Gam of rrottm. Lbs. a860-l«il. jl7 10.23 1.50 1.00 0.50 ]18 10.10 2.06 1.43 Q.m (2B 14.60 2.50 2.12 G.38 (m 14.40 3.37 2.75 0.62 |B1 14.08 3.10 1.13 1.06 (20 13.73 3.00 1.81 1.19 1805. Av. of 5 & 6. 11.60 0.84 0,8S -0.02 Av. of 4,7&a 11.95 2.53 1.99 53 Tliese results show plainly that the addition of more protein to a fodder causes chiefly an increase in the circu- latory protein of the body, and to a far less degree a gain of flesh, and fully confirm the conclusions drawn from sim- ilar experiments on dogs. At the same time it is obvious that in these experiments there was a greater tendency to- ward the laying on of flesh than was the case in those on carnivora ; a larger proportion of the total protein of the * German pounds. 1 lb. Grerman = 1.1 lb. av. 146 MAlSrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. ration and of tlie added protein went to form organized protein. Some experiments on goats by Stolimann,* wlxich strik- ingly illustrate the influence of the supply on the protein consumptiouj may also be mentioned. The following table contains all the essential data : 1. 2, 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Date of Experi- ment. May 23-29.. June 6-12 . . '' 20-26.. July 4-10... Aug. 8-14 . . *' 22-28.. Sept. 5-11 . . '' 19-25.. Oct. 3-9.... FODDEE PEE Day. Protein di- gested per day. Urms. Protein consump- tion t pel day. G'rms. Hay. G-rms, Unseed mexl. G-rms. 1,500 1,450 1,400 1,350 1,250 1,100 950 800 1,600a. 1,600&. 100 150 200 250 350 500 650 800 111.6 125.0 132.2 150.9 170.5 193.8 221.4 257.2 92.9 74.1 C6.6 79.4 90.6 90.1^ 101.6 117.9 143.1 173.7 56 3 41.9 Gain of pro- tein l)er day, G-rms. 1.9 9.0 11.1 23.4 18 3 27.4 80.6 27.4 —4.4 6.4 Nothing could be more evident than the dependence of the protein consumption on the supply in these experi- ments. "We have seen that in a fasting dog the protein con- sumption is at once increased by even the smallest ration of meat. Some experiments by Grouven (loc, cit) seem * *' Biologische Sfcudien,*' Heft 1, p. 121. f Exclusive of the protein contained in the milk, which varied but slightly. MAITOAL 0:F CATTLE-FEEDIKa, 147 to indicate tliat the effect on the herbivora may be differ- ent He observed that in full-grown oxen the protein con- sumption was decidedly less on a ration of rye-straw than during hunger, and that the addition of pure non-nitroge- nous nutrients to the straw decreased it still more. Ox Ko. L Fodder per day. Live weight. Lbs. Nitrogen digcfated. Glrins. Gonsiimp- tiou of flesh. Grmfa. Loss of flesh. GriUb. , 1,019 • • • • 950 625 8.7 lbs. straw 959 5.2 475 326 6.6 " -1-2. 2 lbs. sugar. 990 aB 250 1T6 6.5 ** +3.S *-' ms 4.6 ^0 110 Ox No. II. 6.6 lbs. sfcraw 5.8 ** +2.2 lbs. sugar. 5.3 " +B,B li 791 • . « . 1,109 777 5.5 360 799 2.7 250 781 3.0 395 640 218 191 320 Ox. No. III. 9.2 lbs. straw,. 1,525 757 The accuracy of these results is impaired by the facts that between the experimental periods the animals re- ceived an abundant but not uniform fodder, and that the preliminary feeding was in each case so short (3 to 6 days) 148 MA]SrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIJSTG. as to render it doubtful whether the effect of the new fod- der was fully established. Furthermore, the dung often contained almost as much, and sometimes even more nitrogen than the fodder, show- ing that the former contained considerable quantities of nitrogenous matters coming from the body. The result of this, of course, is that the numbers for digested pro- tein and for the consumption of flesh are too low ; those for the loss of flesh (nitrogen of fodder less that of dung and urhie), however, are unaffected by this source of error. If we are to accept this result of Grouven's as correct, we must ascribe it to the large quantities of non-nitrogen- ous matter which were digested along with the small amount of protein, and which would tend to diminish the protein consumption- This action of the carbhydrates is seen also in most of the experiments in which these sub- stances were added to the straw. Of somewhat the same nature as Grouven's results are those which show that addition of protein to a fodder poor in this substance may cause a considerable gain of flesh. Tlie experiments by G. Kiihn & M. Fleischer {loe. €it\ on cows, serve to illustrate this. Two cows were fed dur- ing a first period with hay, either alone or with the addi- tion of starch, and in a second period a nitrogenous bye- fodder was added. The hay used contained an unusually small quantity of protein (Nutr. ratio, 1 : 12), and a com- paratively small amount of it was consumed, so that the food in the first period was far from rich. Even the addi- tion of the nitrogenous bye-fodder in the second period did not make it particularly so, but it nevertheless caused a considerable gain of flesh, which continued*! or some time. The experiments covered, including the preliminary MAlSrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. 149 feeding, from twenty-two to twenty-four days, and the gain in the last six days was fully eqtial to that at the be- ginning. The table shows the results obtained during the experiment proper (exclusive of the prelinunary feeding), and also the protein consumption and the gain of protein for the last five days of the feedhig with nitrogenous bye- fodder. Cow 'No. I. Fodder, DIGESTED FEE DAY. Nutr. ratio 1 : Protein consump tion per day, Grms, Gain Date. Protem. Grmis. Garbhy- drates. Grms. of proti la per day. Grms. D©c :26-Jan. 6 Jan. 17-Fob. 1 [ .4 2r- ^' If" Hay Hay and rape-cake 393 680 4,£00 4,985 12 2 7.3 187 j.043 1345 --5 9 + 124 7 + 117 8 Cow No. 11. Feb. 16-Mar, 3.... Hay aad t»fcarch . . . BM 5,550 14 1 156 + 40.0 Mar. 12~2fr ^ Hay and beans, . . . 728 5,570 7.6 j5m 1332 +im 2 + lbl 9 The addition of protein to a ration poor in tliis sub- stance caused a considerable gain of flesh by the animals. At the same time, it did not fail to affect the protein con- sumption, approximately doubling it in each case. We conclude, then, that in the case of the herbivora protein added to a ration does not pass so promptly and com- pletely into circulatory protein as it does in the carnivora, but maj cause a considerable gain of flesb. TMs inclina- tion l^owai'd the formation of organized rather than circu- latory pl^otein seems to be a characteristic of the herl)ivora, perhaps due in part to the large amounts of non-nitrogen- ous food which they consume and in piirt to the consider- 150 MAlSrXJAL OF CATTLE-FJSEDING. able quantities of fat usually laid up ia tlieir bodies, and is a circumstance favorable to economy in feeding. Eut though increasing the proportion of protein in a ration may cause a gain of flesh, the experiments by Stoh- mann, already cited, show that when the food is already rich in this substance the gain is much smaller and is accompanied by a greatly increased protein consump- tion. CarT:>hydrates decrease the Protein Consumption. — The following experiments by Yoit * on a dog show that Food. Fle^h Date of Experiment. Meat. Gims. Cai bhydrates G-rms. consumption. Gnnb. June SS-Jidy 3, 1859,. » July 3-5, 1859 500 500 300-100 502 564 July 4-10,1804 *' 10-19, " 800 800 800 100-400 826 763 *' 19-20, ** 895 July 23-26, 1864 1,000 i:0OQ 1,000 100-400 1,028 902 1,11^ *» 26-28, ^* " 28-Aug. 1, 1864 Jime 29^uly 8, 1863 July 8- '' 13, *' 1,500 1,500 200 1,599 1,454 Jan. 6,1859 2,000 2,000 200-300 1,991 " 7-11, 1859... : 1,792 * Z^ifcsclirifl t Biologie, V., 434. MAFITAL OF CAT[TLE-"FEEDI]Sra. 151 tlie carbhydrates exert tlie same influence on the protein eonsnmption as does fat, viz. : render it less than it other- wibe would be. In almost every case the effect of the addition of carb- hydrates was not only to decrease the protein consumption but to render it less than" the supply, and thus to cause a £>:ain of flesh instead of the loss wiiich had been taking: place. The action of the earbhydrates in decreasing the protein consumption is also to be seen in experiments on herbivora, though in these it is seldom so shai-ply expressed as in the results just given, because these animals, in any case, receive large amounts of earbhydrates and the effect of a further addition is therefore comparatively ""gLw. «peH„„^ ^ow pUi.,, ^. ,^^ of the protein consumption caused by the addition of sugar, even to straw fodder, which of itself contains much earb- hydrates and little protein. Some of Ilenneberg & Stohmann's experiments in 1865 also show this action of the earbhydrates. The quantities are per day and head. a. FODDBE EiGH IN PKOTEIN. Ox II. Experiment 7. . li a s. , Protein digested Pounds. earbhy- drates and fat digjested. Pounds Hutntive ratio. Protein consump- tion. Pounds. 2.60 2.51 10.95 12.51 J. :42 1 :5.0 2.14 1.8S Gram of protein. Pounds, 0.68 153 MAl^UAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIlSra. h. FoDDBK Poor m Protein. Protein digested. Pounds. Oarbhy- drates and fat digested. Pounds. Nutritive ratio. Protein conhuiiip- tion. Pounds. Oam of protein. Pounds. Ox I. Experiment 3. . . 0.83 7.23 1: 8.8 0.83 -0.01 U U 1 0.78 9.99 1 : 12.8 0.78 0.00 OxIL- " 5... 0.89 11.08 1 : 12,4 0.97 -0.08 '' " 6. . . 0.78 1213 1 : 15.6 0.74 + 0.04 Here, again, an increase of tlie carbhydrates, thongli accompanied bj a slight decrease of the protein, changed a loss of flesh into a gain, as well as diminished the pro- tein consumption. Further confirmation of this effect of the carbhydrates is found in the frequently observed fact that in the great majority of cases where the supply of albuminoids is suf- ficient to cause any production of flesh, the greatest relative gain is produced by rations having a wide nutritive ratio, that is, a large proportion of carbhydrates to albumin- oids. This fact is well shown by the following selection from the experiments of Schulze and Marcker Q^e* eit) on sheep, which are arranged according to the nutritive ratio. They were not all made on the same animal, nor at the same time, and are only comparable in a general way ; but, being toler- ably numerous, they are sufficient to illustrate our present point. The results are per day and head. The protein in the daily growth of wool, amounting to about five grammes is not included in the gain of protein. MANUAL 03? CATTLE-JFEEDING. 153 No. of Experiment. Protein digested. Grammes. Nutritive ratio. Protein consumpfn. Grammes. Gam of protein. Grammes. Gam in per ct of amt. digested. Experiment 6 30.6 1 : 17.4 1 :9.4 1 :8.9 1 : 8.6 1 :8.6 1 :8.1 1:7.7 24.3 1,4 4.6 Experiment 12. . . . 3.... 11.... '' 3.... " 10.... ** 8 67.9 59.5 68.1 59.7 72.5 85.8 54.8 45.9 56.2 49.1 54 7 63.6 8.0 9.0 6.8 5.5 12.7 17.3 11.8 15.1 10.0 92 17.5 20.1 A.VBTS£tB .... 140 Experiment 7 . . . . "• 9.... "- 17.... 116.8 156.6 248.3 1 : 4.9 1:3 7 1:2.8 96.0 142.5 237.6 15.9 9.0 6.1 13 7 5.8 2.5 AverMpe. ..... 7.3 Tlie very wide nutritive ratio of Experiment 6 caused only a very small gain, because the absolute amount of protein was very small, but that any gain at all was made is doubtless due to the decrease of the protein consump- tion by the large amount of carbhydrates. The other experiments show in general that a larger proportion of the protein of the food is applied to the pro- duction of flesh when the food has a medium nutritive ratio than when it has a very narrow one. In detail, ex- ceptions are to be expected, since, as above stated, the experiments were not all made at the same time and the bodily condition has much to do with the effect of a ration. Stohmann's experiments on goats, already described (p. 146), also illustrate the advantage of a medium nutri- tive ratio, as the following table shows : 154 MAISrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. Prottm d^esttd per day Grins Nutntive ratio Gam of prottm per day Grms Gam m pei cent of digested protein 1 111 6 125 132 2 150 9 170 5 193 8 221 4 257 2 1:5 87 1 :5 42 1:5 08 1:4 78 1 .4 22 1 :3 27 1.2 84 1 :2 55 1.9 9 11 1 23 4 18 3 27 4 80 6 27 4 1 8 2 7 3 8 8 3 4.. 15 9 5 10 5 G 14 3 7 14 8 10 9 The relatwe gain of protein increased up to a nutritive ratio of 1 : 4.78, and then decreased. These and many other experiments which might be ad- duced show that a larger proportion of the digestible pro- tein of a ration is applied to productive purposes when that ration also contains abundance of non-nitrogenous nutrients. "We must beware, however, of hastily concluding that a wide nutritive ratio is the most profitable for the pro- duction of flesh. The amount of fodder which an animal can consume is limited, and, if the nutritive ratio be made very wide, the absolute amount of protein in the quantity of food daily eaten will be insufficient to supply material for production. Moreover, the actual number of pounds of flesh gained per day is often greater on a ration pretty rich in albumi- noids, as, for example, in the experiments on sheep and goats just cited, though, of course, accompanied by a large protein consumption in the body. The best pecuniary results may, MANUAL OF CATTLE-FJSEBIJTG. 155 under some circumstances, be readied by a ration, having a rather narrow imtiitive ratio and producing a tapid gain of flesh, even at the expense of an increased protein eon- sumption; while, under other circumstances, a wider nutritive ratio and a slower and more economical produc- tion mio-ht be more remunerative. Extremes in either direction, however, are likely to be unprofitable. Carbhydrates may cause a long-continued G-ain of Flesh. — ^We saw in the previous section that a fodder of protein and fat could, under proper conditions, cause a long-continued gain of flesh, while the gain caused by an increase of the protein of the food was usually only tem- porary. The same fact is true of feeding with protein and carbhydrates. It is to be remembered, however, that the fodder of our domestic animals always contains considerable quantities of carbhydrates, and that, consequently, ii.e effects of a change from one method of feeding to another are not so sharply manifested as in the carnivora. To this is to be added that the digestive process lasts a considerable time in the herbivora, so tliat remnants of the old fodder may be resorbed along with the first portions of the new, and thus the change of fodder be made in realitj^ a gradual one. In general the gain of flesh produced by a ration con- taining much carbhydrates continues for a considerable length of time, while that caused by a ration poor in these substances but rich in protein, although it may be greater at first, does not continue as long. For example, in the experiments of Euhn & Fleischer on cows (p. 14^) the addition of protein to a ration con- taining much carbhydrates caused a gain of flesh which continued with but httle decrease throughout the experi- ment and would doubtless have lasted some time longer, a 156 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. result evidently due to the abundance of non-niti^ogenons nutrients and tlieir iniiuence in decreasing the protein consumption. The experiments of Schiilze & Marcker (p. 1^3), on the other hand, furnish a good example of the opposite effect. In Experiment 6 tlie fodder consisted of hay and starch ; in Experiment 7, of hay and beans. The quantities of digested nutrients per day and head 'were : Experiment 6, it Protein. Grms. 30.6 11G.8 Carbhy- drates. Grms. 526.7 mo 5 Nutritive ratio. 1 : 17.4 1 : 4.9 Both experiments were on the same two sheep, and the results given are the average of those obtained from both animals. The following table shows the protein consump- tion and the gain of protein by the body for the last day of the hay and starch fodder, and also for several days on the new ration : ' April 2. 3 (new fodder), 4 5 6 7 SI Protein consumption. Grms. 22.Q 48.8 76.8 87.6 88.0 89.8 92 8 102 3 Grain of protein.* Grms, 3.0 63.0 35.0 24.2 23.8 22,0 19.0 9,5 * Exclusive of growtk of wool. MAK-UAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING- 157 Here tlie cliange from a poor ration to one rich in pro- tein cansed at first a very decided gain of liesli. but one tliat rapidly decreased, sinking to about a third of its original amount in less than a week and nearly disappear- ing in nineteen days. The contrast between this result and that obtained by Kiihn & Fleischer is exceedingly instructive, and shows anew the importance of a proper proportion of earbhy- drates and fat in the food for the economical production of flesh. Carbhydrates equivalent to Fat.— *It is an impor- tant fact for the theory of feeding that the decrease in the protein consumption caused by a given quantity of a carbhy- di-ate is at least equal to, and generally a httle greater than that caused by an equal weight of fat. Formerly, when all the non-nitrogenous substances of the food were supposed to be chiefly valuable as fuel to maintain the vital heat of the body, the relative value of fat and the carbhydrates was naturally measured by the amoiuit of heat which equal weights of the two produced when burned ; and it being calculated that one pound of fat produced about 2.5 times as much heat as one pound of sugar or starch, it was assumed that the fat of the food was 2.5 times as valuable as the carbhydrates, and their so-called respiration equivalents were respectively 2.5 and 1. So far as they serve for the production of heat, these numbers may represent their relative value, but, as we have seen, they have other important functions ; they not only favor the formation of flesh, but also, as we shall learn, of fat. For the former purpose they are fully equal, weight for weight, to fat, and for the latter nmeh more nearly so than is shown by their respiration et|uivaleiits. 158 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. Tlie importance of this in the feeding of domestic ani- mals is evident. Fodders containing much fat are com- paratively costly, and not only that, but are diiBcult of digestion by herbivorous animals, and an undue amount of them is liable to produce injurious effects. On the other hand, the carbhydrates are cheap, are contained in large proportions in all the common fodders, and are readily consumed and digested by the herbivora. These substances in the food of the herbivora effect what the fat does in that of the carnivora : they decrease the protein consumption, and enable the animal to subsist on a much smaller quantity of the costly albuminoids than would otherwise be necessary. It is owing chiefly to the large quantities of them consumed by our domestic animals that they need comparatively little protein when fed for maintenance, and that when fed for production a part of the digested protein is readily deposited in the body as organized protein. § 7. Nutritive Yai^tje of Amides. Wo saw in Chapter II. that a part of the nitrogenous matter of many feeding-stuffs is not true protein, but con- sists of various bodies, most of which appear to belong to the so-called amide compounds. It becomes, therefore, im- portant to consider the nutritive value of these substances, and all the more important because, until very recently, they have not been considered, or even recognized, in the analysis of feeding-stuffs, and since in many feeding experiments, f roin whose results important conclusions have been drawn as to the amounts of the various nutrients required in the food of farm aninxals, feeding-stuffs have been used which MANUAL OF CArrLK-FEEmNG. 159 hn>ve since been shown to contain not inconsiderable amounts of tliese bodies. If, as some writers have assumed, tliey have no nutri- tive value, we must conclude that our domestic animals require considerably less true protein in their food than has been hitherto thought, while if they have a value in feeding, it is important to know what it is. We shall con- fine our attention here to the amides, since these are the only non-albuminoid nitrogenous matters which have been experimented on, and the only ones which have yet been found abundantly in the common feeding-stuffs. It may safely be assumed that these comparatively sim- ple bodies cannot perform all the functions of the albumin- oids, but it would seem tliat certain authors have allowed themselves to be carried too far by purely speculative con- siderations when they have pronounced them valuelesa for animal nutrition. Amides are Deeomposed in the Body. — It has been shown by several investigators that amides introduced into the stomach are resorbed, and take part in the chemical changes m the body. Schultzen & Kencld^ ^PP^^^ ^^ have been the first to experiment in this direction. They fed a dog, weighing about 16 lbs., with a fixed amount of bread, milk, and water until equilibrium was established between the supply and excretion of nitrogen, and then added to the food various amides. They experimented on acetamide, glycocol, leucin, and tyrosin, and found that all except the first produced a decided increase in the excretion of urea. Acetamide appeared to pass through the system unaltered. With glycocol the following results were obtained : ♦ »? Zeitschrift fur Biologie, VIII , 134 160 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. Date. Food. Urea pti day Grms September 24 Bread, milk, and water. Same -r 15 grms. glycocol. it i( (( Bread, milk, and water. U t€ ii u a li 3.960 *' 25 " 26 8.768 7.187 '* 27 9.470 " 28 3 810 " 29 3.780 The feeding of glycocol on tlie 25th and 26th caused a marked increase in the excretion of xn*ea on the 26th and 27th5 showing beyond a doubt that glycocol is con- verted into nrea. No glycocol was found in the urine. The average excretion of urea on the days preceding the glycocol feeding was 3.S2S5 grammes per day. Total urea on 26th and 27tli 16. 657 grms. Urea of two average days 7 657 ** Excess caused by 30 grms. glycocol. 9 000 *' Urea equivalent to'' ** " 11.970 ** Difference , 2970 *' =248peroent. It will be seen that nearly 25 per cent, of the glycocol fed is unaccounted for. The authors state that the glyco- col was not absolutely dry and pure, but it is difficult to imagine that so large an error could be thus caused. It seems more reasonable to suppose that under the in- fluence of the glycocol a gain of flesh took place, and this supposition is perhaps supported by the fact that the in- crease in the excretion of urea does not appear till the sec- ond day. It would seem as if a gain of flesh took place at first, and that subsequently the protein consumption in- creased, to fall again when the glycocol was withdrawn. MAHUAL OP CACTLE-FEEDIJS^G. 161 Such experiments as tliis, liowever, are not adapted, ab tliej were not intended, to show the nutritive effect of the substance experimented on. "We have seen that in the dog the addition of protein to the previous food causes but a temporary gain of flesh, while tlie " protein consumption " is permanently increased, and we should expect that, if amides aided in any way the production of flesh, the effect of a sudden addition of them to the food would be much the same. In an experiment continued for so short a time as this was, the nutritive effect must of necessity be transitory and hard to isolate. At the same time, the above results do not negative the belief that amides are of value as food. The experiment with leuein gave essentially the same results m the one on glj^eoeoL The leuein was prepared f mm horn, and was not perfectly pure or dry. Date. Pood. October 4 ' Bread, milk, and water. Ci Same, + 10 grms. leucm. Bread, milk, and water. Urea per day Grms. Li ti it, u 5.045 660 9 098 4 380' 3 9S6 The average excretion of urea for the days preceding the feeding with leuein was 4.585 gi-ammes per day. Total urea on 6tli and Tth 15.758 grammes TJrea of two average days 0. 170 '* Excess caused by 40 grammes leuein 6.588 " Uiea equivalent to " ** " 9.000 ** Difference (=26 8 per cent ) , . . . 2,413 " 1G2 MAKUAL OF CATTLE-EEEBINa An experiment on tyrosin showed that a part of tins sub- stance wab converted into urea, but that a considerable por- tion escaped digestion. Similar experiments by v. Knieriem* on asparaginic acid and asparagin, gave similar results. They showed that these bodies are converted into urea in the animal body, and gave also a deficit of nitrogen, though a smaller one, amounting to 9 to 10 per cent- of the amide nitrogen fed. Further expeiiments by the same author f on hens, with asparagin, asparaginic add, glycocol, and leucin, gave also the same result, though with a still smaller deficit of nitrogen. In no case, however, was the excretion in ex- cess of the supply in the food. Indications of Nutritive Value. — ^AU these results, while highly interesting, leave the question of the nutri- tive value of amides still in doubt. There are many facts, however, which indicate that they may have a certain vahie as food. The very fact that they are decomposed in the body is one. Another is, that they are formed from the albuminoids of the food, to a considerable extent, by the action of the trypsin of the pancreatic juice in digestion. It seems hardly probable that the amides thus formed are to be regarded as waste products. Moreover, we have seen that in the plant these bodies may serve as sources of pro- tein, and while such synthetic processes are particularly characteristic of vegetable life, they are by no means ex- cluded in the animal organism. That, under certain circumstances, an amide may have a high n;tritive value, has been sl^ikingU shown by Her- mann. It had been shown by Voit and others that gela- tin and similar bodies, belonging to the gelatigenous group * Zeitschrif fc fur Biologie, X., 279. t Ibid , XIII , M, MAKUAL OF OATTLE-PEEBIJSrO. 1C3 of compounds (p. 18), are capable of performing the func- tions of circulatory proteiii; but cannot serve as a source of organized protein. It was known also tbat when these bodies were decom- posed by acids they yielded essentially the same products as the albuminoids, except that the amide tyrosin was al- ways lacking. Escher/ under Hermann's direction, tried the experiment of feeding a dog with gelatin and tyrosin, and found that the two together could sustain life and cause a production of flesh. The very probable conjecture has been advanced, that amides in the food may play the same part that gelatin has been shown to do by Voit, viz., take the place of a por- tion of the circulatory protein, thus leaving the latter avail- able for the formation of flesh or for other productive pur- poses, and this view seems to be sustained by the experi- ments about to be described. Asparagin a Nutrient. — The only experiments as yet executed with the direct purpose of determining the food-value of amides are those of Weiske, Schrodt, and v. Dangel,t at the Proskau Experiment Station, on aspara- gin. A series of experiments on rabbits and another on liens having shown only that albxmiinoids could not be entirely replaced by asparagin, but giving in other respects indecisive results, a third series was made on two merino- southdown sheep. The plan of the investigation was as follows : The animals were fed at first with a fodder poor in protein (consisting of hay, starch, and sugar) until the excretion of nitrogen in the urine became constant, and the gain of flesh on this ration was determined. Then, in three following periods, the amount of nitrogen in the daily ration * Vierteljahrssclirift der natnrf Gres. in Zuriclij XXI,, 30. t Zeitsciinft fiir Biologie, XV , 2GX. 104 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. ■\\as doubled by the addition respectively of piotein (in the foim of peas), gelatin, and aspaiagin, while tlie amount of non-nitrogen#us nntiients remained practically the same. Tliese additions to the original fodder weie made in the opposite order in the two cases, in order that the nutritive effect of the asparagin in each sheep might be compared with that of protein in the other, and the inflnence o± in- dividual peculiaiities be thus eliminated. The preliminary feeding was continued in each period until the exeietion of nitrogen became constant, and the excrements then collected for five days and analyzed. In the statement of the results which follows, the aveiage per day and head of these five days is given. PBKior> I Ration Sheep I and II , 500 grms hay, 200 grms starch, 50 grms. sujrar. Protera digested Grms Oarbhydrates digested Grms I'at digested Grms Nitrogen m urine Gims Gam of protein. Grms. Sheep I . ** II 22.21 22 86 412 37 412 71 9 89 9 67 8 275 3 388 1744 09^ Period TL Hation • Sheep 1 , 500 grms hay, 200 grms starch, 50 grms sugar, 4? grms asparagm , Sheep 11 , 500 grros. hay, 80 grms starch, 20 grms. sugar, 250 grms peas. Protein* digefeted Grms Carbbydrates digebted Grms Pat digested Grms Nitrogen m unue Grms Gam of protiem Grms Sheep I.. 70 86 83 54 41125 427 49 9 87 14 08 9 958 11099 8 02^ 15 169 ♦ See Note on oppoate page. MANUAL 0¥ OATTLE-FEEDING. Pemod III. 165 Uation : Sheep I. and 11., 500 grms hay, 200 grms. starch, 50 grms. sugar, 53 grms. gelatin. Protcm * digested. G-rms. Carbhydrates digested. Grms. Fat digested. Grms. Nitrogen in Tirme. Grms. Gain of protein. Grms. Sheep I. . '' II. 00 08 00.38 399.71 401.52 9.23 8.80 8.09 9.95 13.375 4.250 Period IV. Ration: Sheep I., 500 grms. hay, 115 grms starch, 15 grms. sugar, 300 grms. peas ; Sheep II. , 500 grms. hay, 200 grms. starch, 60 grms. sugar, 53 grms. asparagin. Protein * digested. Grms. Carbhydr ites digeated. Grms. Fat digested. G-rms. Nitrogen in urine. Grms. Gain of protem, Grms. Sheep I. . " 11. 71.34 84.03 441.17 424.03 13 34 9.77 9 730 11.497 10.435 12.175 Determinations of snlpliur were made in all tlie experi- ments, and showed that in every case but one (Sheep IL in Period III.) a gain of this element also took place. These results show, beyond all reasonable doubt, that as- paragin, at least, is really a nutrient, and that when added to a fodder poor in albuminoids it may cause a gain of protein by the body, just as we have already seen that the albuminoids may. It probably acts in the way already suggested, viz., by taking the place of a part of the circulatory protein and * To render the results better comparable, the nitrogen of the as- paragin and gelatin has in all cases been multiplied by 6 25 and counted as protein. 166 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIN^a protecting it from destruction. Tliat tliis is so is perliaps indicated by the fact that a gain of sulphur also took place. All the albuminoids contain this element, while asparagin is free from it, and hence we may conclude that the pio- tein deposited in the body was derived fi'om the albu- minoids of the food, and was not formed by a synthetical process from the asparagin. An important point is that the gain produced by as- paragin was nearly as great as that produced by an equiva- lent amount of albuminoids. From this it would appear that while asparagin cannot alone supply material for the formation of protein in the body, it is fully capable of performing the functions of the so-called circulatory pro- tein, so far as the production of flesh is concerned, and for this purpose is practically just as valuable as protein for increasing the richness of a ration already containing a reasonable amount of that substance. This suggests the question whether much of the so-called circulatory protein of the body may not be simply that portion of the protein of the food which is converted into amides by the action of trypsin and other ferments during digestion. The sup position seems quite plausible, and is certainly interesting from a physiological standpoint, though of little practical importance for the purposes of cattle-feeding. Other Amides.— Whether what "Weiske has shown re- garding asparagin is true of other amides as well, can, of course, be finally decided only by direct experiment ; but in the meantime, while we must beware of drawing too general conclusions from a single experiment, it seems highly probable that at least those other amides which have been shown to bo convertible into urea in the body may contribute to nourish it. But, if this be true, it also follows that these bodies as MAKUAL OF CATTLE- FEEDING. 167 tliey occur in fodders, i, e.y associated witli comparatively large quantities of protein, are practically jubt as valuable for the production of ilesli as the latter, since, when feeu- ing-stuits containing them are used, we have essentially the conditions of Weiske's experiments, viz., amides added to a fodder containing considerable true protein, and should expect the same results. The importance of this fact is easily seen. If, for practical purposes, amides aie equivalent to protein, it is unnecessary to consider them separately in the formation of feeding standards, while substitution of a pait of the protein called for by a feed- ing standard by amides will cause no decrease in the nu- tritive value of a ration, so far as the proilmtion of flesh is Goncernedj. ISTone of the experiments yet made touch the question of the elfect of amides on fat production. It may well be the case that they cannot play the important part in this process which the albuminoids appear to, and, on the other hand, it is quite possible that they, like the carbhydrates, may protect the fat of the body from oxidation. Speculation in advance of experiment is fruitless ; but, meanwhile, though the study of the nutritive value of these bodies has but just begun, all the results yet reached warn us against hastily declaring them worthless or the results of chemical analysis of feeding-stuffs false and mis- leading. § 8. Effect of Qtjai^tity of Food. A Large Amount of Fodder Causes a Relatively Larger Gain. — It is self-evident that a large quantity of fodder of the same composition must cause a greater depo- sition of flesh in the body than a small one ; but the gain is not only absolutely, but relatively greater, as is bho\ui 168 MANUAL OF CxVTTLE-PEEDIKG- by nnmerous experiments made on oxen, at Weende, by lienneberg & Stohniann. In one case, e. g.^ the total quantity of the digebtiblc nutrients in the daily fodder \\ as increased from 17.86 to 19.46 pounds, while the ratio be- tween tlio digestible albunnnoids and tlie non-nitrogenous nutrients (the nutritive ratio) remained the same. The result was that, after the increase, 32 per cent, of the total quantity of digested albuminoids was deposited as flesh, while before only 18 per cent, had been. The absolute quantities were 1.19 and 0.62 pounds. In other trials, on a ration consisting exclusively of clover-hay, an increase of fonr or five pounds per day and head in the hay ration caused the amount of protein deposited as flesh to increase from 9 per cent, to 14 per cent., and in another experiment from 11 per cent, to 15 per cent, of the total digested protein of the fodder. That is, out of every hun- dred pounds of digested protein the animals converted into flesh, on the smaller ration, 9 and 11 pounds, on the larger, 14 and 15 pounds. These facts show how exceed- ingly important it is, especially in fattening, to stimulate the animals to the largest possible consumption of fodder consistent with health ; a little more or less may produce an essentially different effect, slxowing itself perceptibly in a more or less rapid increase of the live weight. CHAPTEE YIL THE FORMATIOlSr OF FAT. § 1. Sources of Fat. The Fat of the Food, wlien digested and resorbed, may remain nndestroyed nnder suitable conditions, and be stored np in tlie body ; this is now as certain as that a for- mation of fat from other constituents of the food may also take place. We will, on this point, only refer to the re- sults of some of the later experiments, which, like many on the laws of flesh formation, we owe to the activity of the Physiological Institute at Munich. Carnivorous animals which, by a previous feeding with meat exclusively, have become rich in flesh and compara- tively poor in fat, can be easily made quite fat-free by long fasting ; the time when the mininmm of fat remains is easily recognized from the fact that the excretion of urea, which during hunger is very constant, at last in- creases quite suddenly, because with the entire disappear- ance of the fat more protein is eonsximed in the body. Such an animal, a dog weighing about 20 kilogrammes, after thirty days of fasting, was fed for five days with the greatest possible quantities of pure fat, of which, on an average, 3T0.8 grammes daily were digested. This is such a large quantity that it is impo^sihle to suppose it to liave been completely oxidized in the body, for then 1,040 grammes of carbonic acid should have been excreted 8 170 MAKUAL OF CATTLE-PEEDTNG. daily, while direct determinations of tlie respiratory pro- ducts of dogs twice as large and in the best condition give much smaller numbers. In the body of the animal, winch was killed at tlxe end of the experiment, 1,352.7 grammes of fat wore found on the various organs, instead of the 160 grammes which, ac- cording to other investigations, was the greatest amount that could have been present in the body after thirty days' fasting, so that in this case about 250 grammes daily of the fat of the food remained nndestroyed and were de- posited in the body. In numerous other experiments on dogs, too, with a more normal food of meat and fat, and with help of the respiration apparatus, the fact has been confirmed that often a very considerable part of the fat of the food may be retained in the body. The fat, however, must be analogous to the animal fats or easily altered into them, since entirely foreign fats are either not resorbed from the alimentary canal at all or are rapidly oxidized. This does not, of course, prevent the fat in the fodder of the herbivora from contributing di- rectly to the deposition of fat in the body, since most of the vegetable fats are very similar in their composition and properties to the animal fats. Forraation of Fat in the Body. — For the fact of the formation of fat in the body from other substances no special proofs need be adduced ; it is sufficiently evi- dent from daily experience, especially in fattening and in milk-production. But it is of importance to consider the question what nutrients yield chiefly or exehisively the necessary mate- rial for the formation of fat. Naturally only the albuminoids and carbhydrates are to be considered in this connection, for besides these nutri- MAFUAL OF CATTLE-FHEDIKa. 171 exits and the fat itself, tliere are no otlier oi^ganic substan- ces present in such quantity in the fodder, either of the herbivora or carnivora, as to J)e able to contribute, in any essential degree, to fat-formation. Forniation of Fat from Albuminoids. — That fat can be formed from the albuminoids is now denied by no one acquainted with the subject. The fact that the albuminoids in decay, and on treat- ment with alkalies and with oxidizing agents, form vari- ous fatty substances along with other products of decom- position, favors this view. It has also been observed, that in the milk of the same cow the quantity of albuminoids fiequently decreases when that of the fat increases, and the reverse. The occasionally observed formation of so- called adipocere also favors this view ; almost all the nitro- genous substances of the body disappear, and in place of the muscles, etc., appears a waxy-looking, fatty mass, solu- ble in ether. Somewhat similar is the fatty degeneration of the muscles and other organs of the living body in cer- tain diseases and not seldom in excessive fattening, of swine, e. g. This fatty degeneration of almost all the or- gans of the body is especially marked in phosphorus pois- oning, and, according to observations made in ]\Iunich, it caimot be doubted that fat in this case arises exclusively from the albuminoids, urea being separated from the latter and excreted. Two apparently independent alterations of the tissue metamorphosis appear to occur at the same time ; first, an increased protein consumption, resulting in the pro- duction of urea and fat, and second, a diminished absorption of oxygen by the blood and consequently a decreased oxi- dation of the fat, both processes working together to cause a large deposition of fat in the body. For example, the liver of a man who died of phosphorus poisoning con- 172 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBING. tairied m its dry substance the enormous amount of 76.8 per cent, of fat. If a doubt still remained as to tlie formation of fat from albuminoids, it must disappear on a consideration of the results which have been obtained on healthy animals with an entirely normal food. For example, the eggs of ordi- nary flies have been allowed to develop on pme blood and from seven to eleven times as much fat found in the larva3 as was originally contained in eggs and blood together, although the animals had not consumed nearly all the blood ; the excess of fat could only have come from the albumuioids of the food. Yet more important, however, are the numerous experi- ments made by feeding doge on large quantities of pure (fat-free) meat. The three following experiments by Voit & Pettenko- fer"^ may serve as an example. In these experiments the respiration apparatus was used, and hence the excretion of carbon, as well as of nitrogen, could be determined : Fifth day of feeding with i,m grms. meat. Second day of feed- ing with 2,500 grms. meat. First day of feeding with 2,000 grms. meat. Nlfrogon. Grms. Carbon. Grms. 225.4 85 6 4.3 179.0 218 9 Nitrogen. Grma. 85.00 84.38 1.00 85.'i8 -0.38 Carbon. Qrnis 813.0 50.6 6.7 213.6 270,9 + 42.1 Nitrogon. Grms. Carbon. Grms. Fed Kxcreiecl in Urme , Dnng Befipiration., Total exoi etion ..... 61.20 5910 0.60 59 70 68.0 66.5 0.8 67.3 250.4 40 54 158 3 203 7 Gam ( + )orLoss(— ). + 1,50 +6.5 +0.7 + 46.7 *Zeitsckrift f. Biologie, VII., 433. MANUAL OF CATTLE-i^EEBING-. 173 In the second and third experiments especiallj, while there is no essential gain or loss of nitrogen, there is a gdin of carbon by the body larger than any possible ex- perimental error, and which must be interpreted, accord- ing to the principles of Chapter Y., as showing a produc- tion of fat in the body, and that this fat must have been produced from albuminoids is self-evident. In the first experiment the feeding had continued four days, and there the gain of carbon is small, indicating that a gain of fat produced by albuminoids alone does not continue long, a fact which other results confirm. Many other similar ex- periments showing a formation of fat from albuminoids might be adduced. Fat feom Carbiiydeatbs. — ^TPTiether fat can be formed from carbhydrates is still a disputed question. Accord- ing to Voit & Pettenkofer the protein of the body in de- composing takes up the elements of water and splits up into urea and a fat-like substance ; aTid, as stated on page 88, it has been calculated that 100 parts of protein and 12.3 parts of water, contain the elements of 33.5 parts of urea, 27.4 parts of carbonic acid, and 51.4 parts of fat. They have shown, in experiments shortly to be de- scribed, that the carbhydi'ates of the food are more easily oxidized in the system than the fat of the food or the fat formed from the albuminoids, and that they protect the lat- ter two from oxidation and thus indirectly aid the forma- tion of fat. Having also shown, by expeiiments like those iust adduced, the possibility of the production of fat from Ub, tW nai, rsgL the iLr, .og,tl.,r ,i,h the fat of the food, as the chief soui-ces of fat under all cir- cumstances, and consider the action of the carbhydrates to be simply protective. According to this view the carbhydrates would, at most, 174 MA'NUAh OF CATTLE-B^ERDJNa. serve for tlie production of fat only wlien the protein and fat of the food were exhausted, or, in other words, when the snpply of oxygen in the body was not sufficient to con- sume all the carbhydrates. If we find that, in all experi- ments on fattening, the digestible protein and fat of the food are sufficient to account for the amount of flesh and fat actually produced, we shall have very strong presump- tive evidence that the views of Voit & Pettenkofer and their followers are correct, though, of course, such evi- dence is of a negative character and can never reach abso- lute proof. If, on the other hand, we find that, in ac- curately conducted experiments, the digestible protein and fat of the food do not suffice to account for the flesh and fat produced within the limits of experimental error, we have a proof that the carbhydrates of the food must have contributed to its formation to the extent, at least, of the observed difference. Experiments on RuminaBts.— Unfortunately there have been as yet no extensive investigations in which the fat-production of domestic animals, or of ai^y herbivorous animals, under the influence of a definite and suitable ra- tion, has been determined with scientific accuracy, i e,, by careful determination of all the solid, liquid, and gaseous excretions. In considering this question, we can avail ourselves only of the results of so-called " practical " experiments, in which the nutritive effect of the fodder has been de- termined simply by the increase of the live weight of the animal, or perhaps from the dressed weight, or at best from experiments in which the "sensible" (solid and liq- uid) but not the gaseous excretions have been accurately determined. Milk-fat — In regard to the production of milk-fat by MANUAL OF OATTLE-rEEBIKG. 175 cows we have three investigations, carried ont respec- tively by Voit ^ in Mxmicli, E. v. "Wolff f in. Hohenlieim, and G. Ktilm and M. Fleischer :|: in llockern. In the first a rich fodder was given, in the two others, on the contrary, one less rich in albuminoids* In the following table the sum of the fat of the fodder and the fat which might have been formed from the pro- tein of the latter (61.4 per cent, of the protein consump- tion) is compared with the amotmt actually found in the milk. The numbers are grammes per day and head : Fat of fodder. Grms. Fat from protein. Grms. Total. Gims. Fat of the milk. Grms. Munipli, Experiment a S18.8 401.8 730.6 577.5 *' " b 276.0 308.5 584 5 337.3 Hobenheim, " I. . . ,. . 170 5 160.1 330.6 303.3 *' II 166.5 171.3 337 8 290.5 Mockem, " I 183.5 79,5 263.0 277.5 '* " 11 183 5 69.6 253 292.0 In the Munich and Ilohenheim experiments, the fat available from the two sources named was more than sufficient to account for that produced in tlie milk In Mockem, on the contrary, a small excess of milk-fat was found; but even if this excess had been considerably greater, no definite conclusions in regard to its source could be drawn. Equilibrium between the supply and excretion of nitrogen was, indeed, established in the Mock- * Zeit. f. Biologie, 1869, p. 113. t Emahrmig Landw. Nutzthiere, 34.9. fLandw. V. St., XIL, 451. 176 MxVNUAL OF OATTLE-Jbl^]EDma era experiments, as in all tlie others, but wlietlier the ani- mals were albo in equilibrium as to carl)on or whether the fat of the body took part in the milk-production, as is so often the ease with milk cows, even when well fed, could only have been decided with certainty by the help of a respiration apparatus. EjcperimenU on Fattening, — Something more definite as to the source of animal fat may perhaps be learned from the results of fattening experiments on domestic animals, if we at the same time consider that, according to the experiments of Lawes and Grilbert in England (see p. 9), the increase of the live weight in fattening has the following composition in 100 parts: Swine. Sheep Oxen , Arerage Ash, 06 1.47 1.45 Protein 0.44 7.13 7.69 "^7.53" 71 5 70.4 06 2 m7% Total dry matter. 78 79 9 75 4 75.6 Water, 23.0 20.1 34.6 Of late years a large number of fattening experiments have been executed at the various Ex'periment Stations, especially with sheep. In these experiments the fodder has been analyzed according to the same methods, the ac- tual increase of weighj; determined as accurately as possi- ble, and the duration of the experiments made sufficiently long (from two and one-half to fully three months) to nul- lify, to a large extent, the effects of any temporary varia- tions of the live-weight whicli might occur. If, now, in these experiments, we assume that, according to Lawes & Gilbert's results, Y0.4r per cent, of the gain MAl^UxVL OF OATTLE-FKEDING. 177 made consists of fat, we shall liave a basis for computing whether the available protein and fat of the food consumed were sufficient to account for the amount of fat actually produced. Obviously, such computations are simply ap- proximate, but at the same time their results have a cer- tain value when derived from a large number of experi- ments. This comparison has been made by the wiiter in seventy- seven different experiments, viz., fourteen by llenneberg, in Weende, in 1858-63 ;* six by Stohman, in 1862-63, f and eight in 186:t-65, :}: at Brunswick; nine by E. v. Wolff, in 1870-Yl, § and ten in 1871-73, || at llohenheim; nine by llenneberg & Stohmann ; ^[ eight by liaubnor i& llofmeister, in Dresden; and twelve by P. Krocker, in Proskau. **^ Each one hundred parts of protein oxidized in the body was considered to have yielded 51.4 parts of fat, and to this amount was added the ready-formed fat of the fodder. The result, with one or possibly two exceptions, was that in all cases the protein and fat were sufficient to ac- count for the amount of fat formed, although in some of the experimente little margin was left. E. V. Wolff has separated fifty-nine of these experiments into four groups, according to the amount of digestible protein contained in the fodder, with the following results in pounds per day and head : * Jour. 1 Landw., 1858, p. 303 ; 1800, p. 1 ; 18G0, p. 303 t Ibid , 1865, 2 Supplement. t Ibid , 1807, p. 133. g Landw Jahrb., I., 533. 11 Ibxd , II., 221. IT Jour f LaBdw., 18G5, Supplement. ** Preuss. Ann. d Landw , 1809, Sept. and Dec. b* 173 MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIKG, No. of BxpenmcntB. 7 13 20, 19 Digested pbk Day ANn Hkad. AVKKAOJas Nutiitive ratio. 1 :7 49 1 :5 81 1 :4.70 1 ;4.01 Albnmi- noidfa Lbs. Non nitro- gcmms nutrients. LbB 0.220 0,208 0.329 384 1 648 1.557 1.588 1,538 IiicrcaRo of hvc vtiight per d ly and head Lbs. 0.111 0.158 0.189 0.206 These numbers speak yeiy decidedly for tlie favorable action of the albuminoids on the fat production ; a greater increase of weight of the animal accompanies a greater supply of albuminoids, wliile the quantity of the non-nitro- genous nutrients is nearly the same in all the groups, and therefore can have exerted no essential influence on the increase of weight. If we take into account, however, the fact that, in all probability, some of the so-called protein in these experi- ments was really not protein, but amides or similar bodies, which, though they may aid the flesh production, can hardly serve as a source of fat, the number of cases which indicate a formation of fat from carbhydrates will probably be considerably increased. Still more decided results pointing toward a direct par- ticipation of the carbhydrates in the production of fat were obtained in the experiments of Ilenneberg, Kern, and "Wattenberg,* already referred to for another purpose in Chapter I. In this investigation two sheep were killed at the begin- Joar. £ Landw., Jahrg 20, p. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. X. i %/ ning of the experiment, and tlxe amount of the various components of their bodies (flesh, fat, bones, tendons, etc.) determined as accurately as possible, while two similar sheep were examined in the same way after having been fattened for several months. The experimenters themselves did not consider the ques- tion of the origin of the fat, but E. v. "Wolff ^ has shown from their results that a portion of it must have been formed from carbhydrates. The carcases of the unfattened and fattened animals had the following composition : Unfattened. Fattened. . Difference.. Dry and fat- free flesh. Grms. Dry fat. Grms. Fresh bones. Grms. 2,465 2,485 5,406 15,077 2,530 2,566 +20 4-9,671 4-36 Fresh tendons. (Jrms 2,488 1,818 ■670 The resvilt of tlie fattening was almost wlxolly a gain of fat. The gain of 9,671 grms. of fat does not include the fat of the wool nor the small quantities contained in skin, head, legs, etc., etc., which would probably have amounted to 200 grms, more. This, however, we will leave out of the account. Daring the time of the experiment the animals digested about 9,490 grms. of protein and 2,554 grms. of crude fat (ether extract). Assuming that the digested ether extract produced an equal amount of fat, which is hardly proba- *Xandw. Jahrlb., VIII., I. Supplement, p. 209. 180 ma:^ual of cattle-feeding. blc, and also tliat the digested protein yielded 51.4 per cent, of it« weiglxi of fat, we obtain the following num- bers : Grras. Fat actually" gained 9,671 Fat from ether extract S,554 grms. " '^ protein (9,490 x 514) 4,878 '' Total 7,433 Fat unaccotinted for 2,230 It thus appears that at least 2,239 grms. of fat mnst have been produced from carbhydratoB. In reality the amoxmt was considerably greater, however. Not only have we not taken into account the fat of the oftal, but the amount of protein available for the formation of fat is less than appears above. Jn the lirst place, a considerable growth of wool took place, demanding, of course, a supply of protein, and in the second place, one of the feeding- stuffs used (lucerne hay) has been shown by Kellner * to contain a considerable proportion of amides, which wei-e here reckoned as albuminoids. These results indicate, most decidedly, that in these ex- periments a considerable amount of fat was formed from some other materials of the food than fat or protein. Experiments on S"wine. — Nearly or quite all the ex- periments which have been made on swine have yielded results favorable to the belief in the formation of fat from carbhydrates. The earliest investigations were those of Lawes & Gil- bert, in 1850, which, on the assumption that the increase in the live weight had the composition determined by them * Landw. Jahrb., VIII., I. Supplement, p, 243. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 181 ill other experiments (see pp. 9 and 176), sliowed, in many eabos, a greater gain of fat tlian could be accounted for by tlie protein and fat of the food. Later experiments have given similar and even more decided resxdts. An increase of 100 pounds in the live- weight has frequently been obtained with a fodder contain- ing 10 to 16 lbs. of fat and 50 to 70 lbs. of protein. In one case the above gain was made on a fodder containing only 40.8 lbs. of protein and 6.8 lbs, of fat, while the weight of the animals increased from 70.5 lbs. at the beginning of the experiment to 246.5 lbs. at its close. These results appear almost incomprehensible unless we admit a pro- duction of fat from carbhydrates. Weiske & Wildt,* in Proskau, have attempted to solve the problem by experiments on the same plan as those of Iletmeberg, Kern & Wattenberg on sheep. Of four six- weeks-old pigs, two were killed at the beginning of the experiment, and the total quantity of flesh and fat in their bodies was determined. Of the other two, one received a fodder rather poor in protein for 184 days. The second, which was to have been fed with a fodder rich in protein, became sick, and was therefore excluded from the experi- ment. At the close of the feeding, the sound animal was killed and the flesh and fat present in his body determined, as in the two other animals at the beginning of the experiment. On the assumption, now, that the first two pigs had, at the time they were killed, the same composition as the one which was fattened, we have only to subtract the average of the former from the latter to find the amount of flesh and fat produced during the feeding. * Zieitschriffc fur Biologic, X , 1. 182 MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIKG. Fattened . . Unfattened. Produced Digested from food Fafc formed in body Proteiia available for fat formation, Available protein x 514 = Pi otnn. KiloB. 3 28^5 1.0410 1.2425 14.13244 13.0819 Pat. Kiios. 7.0138 0.8740 6.1398 0.5748 5.5650 6.72a According to tliesc figures, the protein and fat of the food were sufficient to cover the amount of fat produced. Various circumstances, however, unite to lessen the vahie of the result reached. From some cause, the growth of the animal was unusually slow. Furthermore, the fod- der used consisted of potatoes, rye hran, and starch, and at the time when this research was made the presence of amides in potatoes had not been discovered. Smce then from 26.8 to 39.9 per cent of the total nitrogen of pota- toes has been found in various experiments to exist in the form of amides, and if we take this fact into account, the above calculation yields very different results. Out of the total digested protein, 11.1227 kilos, came from the potatoes. Assuming 26.8 per cent, of this to be amides, there remain 8.1419 kilos., making, with 3.2017 kilos, from the bran, a total of 11.3436 kilos, of true pro- tein digested.* The figures then stand as follows : * On the assumption tbat protein and amides were digested to the same extent. It is more than probable thab the amides were wholly digestible, which would give a still greater doduotion. MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEKDIN-G, 183 Produced. . From food. Fat formed in body Protein available for fat production. Available protein x 0. 514 =: Protein. Kiios. 1.2425 11.3486 10.1011 Fat. Kilos. 6.1398 0.5748 5.5050 5.1920 The result is exactly the opposite of that previously ob- tained. The difference is too small to prove a formation of fat from carbhydrates, more especially as a participation of the amides in fat-building is not altogether impossible, but it deprives the experiment of all value as a proof that carbhydrates do not furnish material for fat. Some late feeding experiments on swine by E. v. Wolff,^ at Ilohenheim, have also given results which seem to show quite plainly a formation of fat from carbhydrates. A gain of 100 pounds was made from an amount of fodder contain- ing from 47.1 to 71.4 lbs. of digebtible protein, and from 1.6 to 3.6 lbs. of digestible fat. The larger of these quan- tities could yield, at most, 40.2 lbs. of fat, while, according to Lawes & Gilbert, 100 lbs. increase would contain at least 70 lbs. of fat. Experiments on Dogs.— In regard to the dog, we can assert that in no case is the assumption of a formation of fat from carbliydrates necessary. As has already been mentioned, large (jnantities of fat may be deposited in the body from the fat or the albuminoids of the food ; but in twenty-two respiration experiments made by Petten- * Lciudw. Jalirbaclior, VIII., I. Supplement, 2o8. 184 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. kofer & Voit, tlio fat deposited in tlie l)ody was a]\\ajs lully accounted for by that wliicli could be formed from the amount of albuminoids decomposed in the body, and wafe proportional not to the carbhydrates but to the albu- minoids of the food. "With the same (pantity of albtmd- noids in the food, an increase of the carbhydrates caused no increase in the amount of fat formed, but only an in- creased excretion of carbonic acid, showing that the carb- hydrates were rapidly oxidized in the blood.* On the other hand, an increase in the albuminoids of the food — the quantity of carbhydrates remaining the same — caused a very considerable increase in the amount of fat pro- duced, thus showing an intimate connection between the supply of protein in the food and the formation of fat in the body. Sources of Uncertainty. — Having considered the ex- perimental evidence bearing on the question of the souu-es of animal fat, it now becomes necesbary to consider briefly how much weight attaches to this evidence. It must be admitted at once that the data now at our command are not sufficient to enable us to solve the prob- lem. No thorough and accurate scientific study of the subject has yet been made, if we except Pettenkofer & Voit's experiments on dogs. The conclusions drawn in the preceding paragraphs from experiments on farm ani- *It should be said that, according' to Zuntz {Landuo, Ja?irbucher, VIII. , 94), carbhydrates cause no increase m the excretion of carl^onic acid when introduced directly into the bloody but only when taken into the alimentary canal. According to him, the increased excretion of carbonic acid is caused by the excitation of the nerves of the stomach and intestines In a practical point of view, however, the result is much the same, since the carbhydrates of the food must be taken mto the alimentary canal, and it makes little diffeience whether the car- bonic acid is produced from them oi fiom the tissues ol the body. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 185 mals are to be regarded only as very probable, not as cer- tain. In the first place, we do not know how much fat was actually formed in these experiments. The estimates of its amount, based on the composition of the increase of fattening animals as determined by Lawes & Gilbert, are obviously very uncertain ; and even in such experiments as those of Henneberg, Kern & "Wat- tenberg, and of Weiske & Wildt, it is highly improbable that the animals killed and analyzed at the beginning of the experiments had exactly/ the composition of those re- served to be fattened, and we have no means of judghig of the amount of the difference. Again, in all cases we have assumed that 100 parts of protein decomposed in the body gave rise to 51.4 parts of fat. Now this number is a purely theoretical one, based on a calculation by Henneberg of the greatest amount of fat whieli could possibly be formed from a given weight of protein; and, while there can be no doubt that fat is formed from protein, it is very doubtful whether this maximum amount is formed in every, or even in any, case. It is a commonly observed fact that when a chemical com- pound breaks up into simpler bodies, some of its latent energy is set free, either as heat or in some other form. Zuntz {loo, city p. 96) has, however, shown that such a formation of fat and urea from protein as we have been supposing, is only possible on the condition that the result- ing products contain all the latent energy of the decom- posed protein, and that none is given off in the decompo- sition. This, Zuntz remarks, is a process wholly without analogy in the animal body, where all decompositions are accompanied by the setting free of considerable quantities 188 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIKa of lieat Without laying too imicli stress upon this point, we must still admit its importance. If Zuntz's ground be well taken, then it would appear that in all the calculations on this subject we must reduce tlie amount of fat obtainable from the protein of the food, leaving still more to be formed from other nutrients. Conolusions. — The following conclusions regarding the sources of animal fat appear to be justified by our present knowledge on the subject : 1st. Animal fat may be formed from the fat of the food* 2d. It may be formed from the protein of the food. 3d. Assuming the accuracy of the factor 0.514 for the conversion of protein into fat, the amount of fat produced by the dog is covered by the protein and fat of the food. 4th, Euminants have in some cases produced less, and in some eases more, fat than could be accounted for by the protein and fat of the fodder. 5th. Swine have, in the majority of cases, produced more fat than could have been formed from the protein and fat of the food. When we consider the fact that the proofs of the for- mation of fat exclusively from protein are essentially negative in their nature, while those of its formation from caibhydrates are direct, it would seem that we must admit tliat flie carbhydrates may serve as a source of fat to swine, and also, under some circumstances at least, to herbivora. This, however, is equivalent lo admitting it for all animals, since there are no essential differences known in the nutri- tive processes of the higher animals. With our present imperfect knowledge, we must regard both protein and carbhydrates as sources of fat, while the final settlement of the question, as well as the determina- UA-NXJAJj OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 187 tion of the part played by each, must be left to the deci- feioii of more exact experiments. Having thus considered at some length the important quefotion of tlie sources of animal fat> we are prepared to take up the general laws which regulate its formation. It is evident, however, that until we know with certainty the source from whence the fat of the body is derived, our at- tempts to formulate the laws of its production must be more or less tentative. Most of our knowledge upon this subject is due to the labors of Pettenkofer & Voit at Mu- nich. These investigators hold that fat is not formed from carbhydrates in the body, and their experiments, which were made before many of the facts spoken of in the preceding paragraphs were known, are interpreted in accordance with that belief. If we add to this fact the great labor involved in investigations of this kind, the use of the complicated respiration apparatus being essential, w^e can readily understand why our knowledge of the laws of the formation of fat should be in some respects unsatis- factory. At the same time, what is already know n is very valuable and offers important aid to the formation of a rational theory of feeding. § 2. Fbbdino with Fat Alone, The Fat of the Food protects the Body-fat. — In Pettenkofer & Volt's experiments* a dog was in one case allowed to fast for eight days, and in a second experi- ment was fed daily with 100 grammes of pure fat, about the amount \^^hich was found to have been oxidized daily in the first experiment. On the eighth day the following results were obtained : * Zeitschnft f Biologie, V, , 3G9. 188 ]MxiNUAL OF GATTL-E-FEEDIWG. Fat eaten per day Consumption of flesh in body Gain ( 4- ) or loss (— ) of fat Grms, 138 -99 Wliile, as we liave already learned, fat does not liinder the protein-consumption in the body but rather tends to increase it, when fed alone, the loss of fat is entirely stopped by a quantity equal to that lost in hunger. That is, an increased supply of fat does not, like an increase of albuminoids, augment the consumption, but takes the place of that before consumed, pound for pound. The simplest way of explaining this is by the assump- tion that the fat of the food is more easily oxidi/.ed than that already deposited in the body, and that the former therefore possesses itself of the oxygen of the blood and protects the latter from oxidation. A Gain of Pat may accompany a Loss of Flesh. — In another experiment, in which a large quantity (850 grammes daily) of fat was fed, the loss of flesh on the second day amounted to 227 granmies, and at the same time 186 grammes of fat were retained in the body. The same fact is shown by the second experiment on p. 172. § 3. Fbbdikg- with Protein Alone. Protein can protect the Fat of the Body from Oxi- dation. — The following experiments by Pettenkofer & Voit,f on a dog fed exclusively with meat, were made with the help of the resp ir ation a p paratus : ^^^^ ^^_ * Including that formed from protein. t Zeitsclirift f. Biologie, VII., 4s89. MANUAIi OF CATTLE-FEEDIIsrG. 189 Meat fed. Gims. Flesh consumed m body. Grims. Gam( + } or losb (-) of flesh. Qim&. Gam ( f- ) or loss (-) of fat. Q-rms 500 1,000 1,500 1,800 2,000 2,500 165 599 1079 1,500 1,757 2,044 2,512 -165 -99 -79 +43 -44 -12 -95 -47 -19 +4 +1 +58 + 57 Wliile with a small ration of meat the animal lost both flesli and fat, a medium ration (1,500 grammes) sufficed to stop the loss, not only of flesh but also of fat, and larger amounts, while they could not, for tlie reasons explained in the preceding chapter, cause any considerable gain of flesh, did cause a gain of fat ; i, ^., not only did the albu- minoids protect the body-fat from oxidation, but new fat was formed from them and laid up in the body. These results are most simply explained by the assump- tion that the fat formed in the body from albuminoids, like that contained as such in the food, is more readily oxidized than that already stored up in the body. Incidentally these experiments give proof of the possi* bility of the formation of fat from protein, and also of the statement just made that a gain of fat may accompany a loss of flesh. § 4. Fbedikg with Protein and Fat. Protein protects, the Fat of the Food from Oxi- dation. — Since in the fodder of herbivorous animals fat is usually present in small quantity, and is of comparatively 190 MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBTFO. little importance, it will be sufficient to indicate in outline tlie general results of experiments on caJ'nivoious animak. It has already been bliown tliat fat is produced in llie body in tlie deconipobition of albuminoids, and that with a comparatively large amount of the latter the fat thus formed may equal the amount oxidized in the body. If, now, to such a ration we add a certain quantity of fat, say 100 gi^amxiies, we have just so much more fat available for deposition in the body, smce the consumption of fat does not increase with the supply as does that of the albuminoids. Thus, in a series of experiments made by Pettenkofer ife Yoit,* a dog was fed daily 1,500 grammes of meat, a quantity which had been found sufficient to keep him in equilibrium both as regards flesh and fat, and lecoived also varying quantities of fat- Food. IjOTECi ON Body Meat Grms Fat. Grms. ConRumption of flCBh Grins Gam of flesh Orma 4-43 - 1 +98 + 49 +45 ConBiimption of fat t Grms Gain of fat, Gima 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 m 60 100 100 150 1,457 1,501 1,402 1,451 1,455 158 186 103 151 174 32 89 91 309 186 Tlie addition of fat caused a deposition of it in the body, and the amount thus laid up w^as, in nearly every case, pro- portionalto th at fed. * Zeitsohrift f Biologxe, IX , 30. f Including the fat pioduced from protein. MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDING 191 That is, the amount of fat yielded by the decomposition of the albuminoids was sufficient to supply what was needed for the vital processes, and the extra amount added was stored up in the body. This is generally expressed by saying that the fat produced from the albuminoids is more easily oxidized than that of the food, or, in other words, that the protein protects the fat from oxidation, but there seems to be no absolute proof that such is the case. There is simply an excess of fat present over that required, and this excess is laid up against future needs. The fat pro duced from the albuminoids is always to be added to that given in the food in estimating the effect of a fodder. If much protein is fed, the protein consumption in the body will be great, and while little or no organized protein is produced, large quantities of fat may be laid on. A too great accumulation of circulatory protein, however, is to be avoided, since it increases the rapidity of the circulation of fluids in the tissues, and tends to produce a more rapid oxidation. § 5. Feeding with Peojcbin and Carbhydbates. The only really scientific experiments on this point are by Pettenkofer & Yoit,* who, as we have seen, do not be- lieve in the possibiHty of a formation of fat from carbhy- drates. The experiments and results now to be given form a powerful argument in favor of the correctness of their view in its application to the animal experimented on. At the same time we must not forget that other experi- ments strongly indicate that, in some cases, fat is formed directly from carbhydrates. * ZeitschriXt f Biologie, IX , 435. 192 MANUAL OF CATTLE- FEEOING. Carblxydrates may "be Oxidized instead of Fat.— By the addition of carbliydrates to albuminoid food the protein conbumption i&, indeed, bomewhat deci eased, l)nt never btopped; hut the caibhydrates, when present in feuf- ficient quantity, may protect entiiely from oxidation the fat of the body, and also the fat of the food and that formed from protein. This efteet of the carbliydrates becomes evident when we compare some of the experimentb in w^hieh the animal was fed on meat alone with those in which the same quantity of meat was fed with the addition of starch or sugar. rooD NUTKITIV I EFrBor Mg.p of energy. In the following tables are given the amounts of car- bonic acid excreted and of oxygen taken up in two of Pet- tenkofer & Yoit's experiments which strikingly illustrate this point. The numbers in the column headed " E" are relative, and show how many grammes of oxygen appeared in the excreted carbonic acid for every hundred grammes taken up from the atmosphere. These experiments are included in the averages on p. 207. MANUAL OF OATTLE-:E^EEI>I]SrG. 221 Average Diet— Rest. Carbonic acid excixted. Grms. Oxygen taken up. G rais- E. G A.M. to G P.M , 533 es 175 6 P. JVI. to 6 A.M , 379 474 58 6 A.M. to 6 A.M:, 912 709 94 AYERiGE Diet—Work. 6 A.M. to 6 P.M. 6 P.M. to G A.M. 6 A.M. to G A.M. 218 44 98 It will be observed that wbile in each ease more car- bonic acid was excreted by day than by night, the larger amount of oxygen was taken np during the night- More- over, the numbers in the last column show that at least a very considerable part of the carbonic acid excreted dur- ing the day must have been formed at the cost of oxygen ah-eady present in the body, since that taken up from the air during the same time was far less than the amount contained in the excreted carbonic acid. A comparison of the two experiments also shows that of the increase of the carbonic acid excretion caused by work (872.2 grammes), by far the larger part (351.6 grammes) occurred during the hours when the work was performed, while the oxygen taken up during the same time increased only 58.8 grammes, against 186.1 grammes in the following night. fy»2> MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING-. Furtlier experiments by tlie same investigators, while not always yielding as striking results as did these two, confirmed in the main the conclusions drawn from them. It was found, it is true, that the storing up of oxygen did not always take place by night, as in these experiments ; but the fact that oxygen may be retained in the body in considerable quantities was fully established. One other important point was observed in Ilenneberg's earlier experiments on this subject, viz., that the greatest storing up of oxygen took place in those experiments in which the fodder was richest in albuminoids. These experiments extended over only twelve hours, corresponding to the "day" half of Pettenkofer & Yoit's experiments, and in almost every ease it was found that the carbonic acid excreted contained more oxygen than was taken up by the body din-ing the same time, thus show- ing a formation of carbonic acid at the expense of oxygen previously stored up. The following summary of the re- sults shows that this excess of oxj^gen was, in general, greatest in those cases where most albuminoids were fed : Number of Experi- ment. Protein of fod- der. Lbs. Oxygen te,1<;en up. Lbs. Oxygen in car- bonic acid. Lbs. Eatio of the two. 1. ...... 0.79 4.25 5 42 1 -.1.28 2 0.82 2 63 4 34 1:1.65 % 0.80 3.20 4.65 1 :1.45 5 0.89 3.83 6.01 1 :1.57 C 0.78 5.20 6.67 1 :1.28 7 •2.60 3.00 7.13 1 : 2.38 8 2.51 3.40 7.63 1 : 2 24 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDmG. 223 Tins alternate storing np and giving off of ozygen by tlie body has also been observed in physiological experi- ments of an entirely different character, which can only be alluded to here. That the storing up of energy is connected with tlie storing np of oxygen is indicated by a few experiments by Pettenkofer & Voit on two diseases in which the patient is almost incapable of muscular exertion, viz., diabetes and leukaemia. In these experiments the total excretion and the total amount of food were not much different from those in health ; but there was no such storing up of oxy- gen as in the healthy organism, and there was also, as is usual in these diseases, an almost entire lack of strength. But Pettenkofer & Yoif s and Ilenneberg's results mm especially valuable for our present purpose because they show that muscular power does not have its origin in a simple oxidation but in the "explosive" decomposition, independently of oxygen, of material ali*eady prepared in the muscle, a conclusion to which we are also led by the fact, already noted, that the muscle is able to perform work for a considerable time independently of oxygen, provided the resulting decomposition products are re- moved. Conclusions. — We have learned in the foregoing pages that, presupposing the existence of a healtliy and well- nourished organism, muscular exertion is possible when the chemical products of the action are removed from the nniscles, and when the body has had the ability and op- portunity to lay up a store of latent energy ; that this stor- ing up of energy is effected by the entrance of oxygen from the air into combination with the organic substances of the nmseles ; that when work is performed this oxygen reappears in combmation with carbon and hydrogen as ear- 224 MAKITAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. bonic acid, water, and otlier products ; tliat tins process re- sults in an increased excretion of carbonic acid and water, wliile the excretion of nitrogen remains, in most cases at least, unaltered ; and finally, that the amomit of work per- formed is in many cases greater than can be accounted for by the amount of protein which the urinary nitrogen shows to have been decomposed. All these facts are well ascertained, and they enable us to frame an hypothesis which, though confessedly but a rough and approximate one, is still considered by many high authorities to accord more closely with the facts of the case and with our general conceptions of vital activity than those which place the source of muscular power in protein on the one hand, or non-nitrogenous matters on the other. This hypothesis supposes that during rest some of the substances of the muscle-cells decompose into simpler com- pounds, and in so doing set free their latent energy, and that this energy, instead of appearing as heat, etc., is used to build up out of other constituents of the cell a still more complex compound, containing more potential energy than its components, just as one portion of society may acquire wealth at the expense of another portion without increas- ing the total wealth of the comnnmity. The substances which are thus -"synthesized" are pro- tein, non-nitrogenous matter from the blood, and oxygen. Tlie hypothetical compound thus formed, after accumulat- ing to a certain extent, decomposes during rest as rapidly as it is formed. When the muscle is called on to perform work, however, it splits up rapidly, yielding carbonic acid, water, and other non-nitrogenous matters, and a nitro- genous compound, and giving forth the amount of force which was required to form it. The non-nitrogenous sub- MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBINO. 226 stances wliicli are formed are supposed to be rapidly ex- creted, while tlie nitrogenous product, instead of undergo- ing further deconipositioUj is used over again to re-form the hypothetical substance. This view has much in its favor. Yarious syntheses, more or less like that above outlined, are known to take place in the body ; and, moreover, we have seen that all the facts seem to indicate that muscular force originates in a splitting up of some substance in the muscle, rather tlian in any process of oxidation in the ordinary sense of the word. The hypothesis explains the object of the storing up of oxygen in the body during rest, and its connection with the laying up of a reserve of force : the oxygen enters into the supposed complex compound much as the nitric-acid radicle enters into nitro-glycerine or gun-cotton — it is held in a state of unstable equilibrium, ready to enter into new and simpler relations with its neighboring atoms and to set free the force by which it was placed in its unstable position. The. hypothesis also brings that necessity for albuminoids in the food of tlie laboring animal which practical experience has shown to exist, iato harmony with the fact that there is no greater excretion of nitrogen dur- ing work than during rest. Furthermore, it shows why we need rest after work. In the first place, the circula- tion must have an opportunity to remove those waste products which accumulate in the working muscle faster tlian they can be carried off, and in the second place a fresh supply of force must be stored up in the way des- cribed before it is ready to be used at the command of the will. Finally the assumption of a complex " contractile mate- rial" is in harmony with the results obtained by Fick & 10* 226 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. Wisliceniis and otliers regarding the force value of the nutrients, since it does not place the source of muscular power in the albuminoids alone but in the joint action of these and of non-nitrogenous matters. It is possible that Kellner's results, if confirmed by fmther investigation, may modify this hypothesis some- what. They at least suggest that when, under the influ- ence of protracted work, the reserve of '' contractile mate- rial " runs low, the protein of the muscle may be used to supply the deficiency. In any case, it must be remembered that this hypothe- sis is only a provisional one. Much work remains to be done before we can have a full understanding of this im- portant sixbject, and the chief value of such an hypothcbis as this is to co-ordinate and arrange our knowledge, and serve as the basis for fuither research. § 8. Internal Work. In the two previous sections we have been considering one particular form of work, viz., muscular exertion. As pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, there are other forms of work which, though less obvious, are of equal or even greater importance, and we now turn our attention to these, grouping them under the convenient, if not strictly accurate, name of internal work. The internal work of the body may be of three princi- pal kinds : muscular work of the internal organs, produc- tion of heat, and of chemical chans:es. of many of the most important internal organs involves considerable muscular action, e, g,^ in the heart, the respi- ratory muscles, and the digestive apparatus. Of these, MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBma. 237 the work of the two former is tolerably constant, and makes pretty imifonn demands on the latent energy sup- plied by the food, while the labor performed by the di- gestive apparatus is more variable, being relatively greater with a bulky than with a concentrated fodder, and is like- wise greater at or near the time of feeding than at other ximes. Henneberg's Experiments. — ^We have already learned that muscular exertion increases the excretion of carbonic acid, but not notably that of urea, llenneberg * has shown that the same is true of the work of the digestive organs, so far, at least, as the excretion of carbonic acid is con- cerned. In one series of respiration experiments on sheep the animals were fed chiefly during the day, while in a second series they received most of their fodder in the night. The numbers in the following table give in grammes per day the results obtained on two sheep taken together : Feeding chiefly by Day. Number of Exi-)en FoBDER (Hat). Carbonic Aoro. Of 100 Parts Cahbonio Acid. menb Day. Grms Kight G-rms. Day. Grms. Night, Gnns, Day. Per <«nt. Per cent. 1 and 2 3 and 4 .... . 1,809 1,824 1,736 624 684 733 877 777 864 756 691 715 54 53 55 46 47 5 and 6 45 Average 1,790 677 839 721 54 46 * Neue Beitrige, etc, 1871, p. 157. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDma Feeding chiefly by Night. Htimber of Expen- mcnt Fodder (Hay) Gakbonio Acid. Of 100 PARrs Carbonic Acid. Bay Gnus Night Grms Bay Grms. Night Grms Day Per Gent. Night Per Otnt. 1 andS 500 653 586 1,685 1,588 1,499 719 700 693 806 842 815 47 46 46 53 3 and 4 5 and 6 54 54 Average 610 1,591 706 821 46 54 The increased work caused by the feeding by day in one case, and by night in the other, resulted innnediately in an increased excretion of carbonic acid. It is probable that the difference observed in these ex- periments is chiefly the expression of the amount of work iiiYolved in chewing and rumination, since the alimentary canal always contains more or less fodder; but at the same time it gives us a useful hint of the amount of work required in the digestion of the bulky fodder of herbivorous animals. Saving of Work by Concentrated Fodder.— A cer- tain amount of work by the digestive organs is, of course, necessary and unavoidable, but it is evident that the amount of this work will be reduced by the use of as concentrated fodder as possible. That is, the less the proportion of indigestible matters contained in a fodder, the less of the fodder will have to be eaten and worked over by the animal in order that it may obtain the amounts of the several nutrients wliich it MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBmG. 229 requires. If we conld eliminate tlie indigestible matters entirely from the fodder of an animal, we should effect the greatest posbible economy of work by the digestive organs, and could produce an equal nutritive effect with a correspondingly smaller amount of digestible nutrients, since, as explained on p. 203, the production of work of any kind implies a destruction of the constituents of the body, which loss must finally be supplied by the food. Such an extreme case is purely suppositious, but obviously, the nearer we approach to it by the use of fodders contain- ing a large proportion of digestible matter, the greater will be the saving of work, although we have no accurate data regarding the amount of the saving which could thus be made. In Miller's system of exclusive meal-feeding, it is probable that a portion, at least, of the saving in fodder is due to the less amount of work imposed on the digestive organs. In practice, however, considerations of profit come in to modify the conclusions jubt drawn. As a general rule, a given number of pounds of digestible matter can be had more cheaply in the form of coarse fod- der, such as hay, straw, etc., than in the more concentrated fodders, lilce the granis, which contains less indigestible mat- ter. Moreover, ruminating animals are adapted by nature to extract the nutritive matters from coarse fodder as com- pletely as possible, so that it is obvious that under some circumstances it may be more profitable to feed almost exclusively coarse fodder (in wintering stock, for example), while in other cases, e, ^., fattening, where a rapid produc- tion is desired, the greater cost of concentrated fodders may be more than covered by the economy of digestive labor and the consequent saving of material which they cause. PiiODuortoK OF Heat. — The continual chemical changes 230 MAITUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. going on in tlie body, like similar changes outside tlie body, give rise to a liberation of beat. Indeed, all tbe force conveyed to tbe body by tbe food leaves it either as motion or heat, all the actions of the internal organs, all the molecular labor of the nervous and other tissues, etc., being finally converted into heat. It has been estimated by eminent authorities that, in man, of the total energy represented by the food, from four-fifths to five-sixths takes the form of heat. This production of heat, of course, implies a corresponding consumption of food-material, just as the production of heat in a stove implies the con- sumption of fuel ; so that it is evident that any change in the amount of heat set free has a direct effect on the de- mands of the body for food and on the results of feeding. Vital Heat. — The bodies of Mrarm-blooded animals (birds and mammals) maintain a very constant temperature at all times, in spite of great variations in the tempei^ature of their surroundings. The production of mtal hea% as it is called, by the oxidation of food-elements, and the losses of it to which the body is subject, are so balanced as to result in keeping the temperature of the body at from 95° to 104:^ F., a variation of more than a degree or two from the normal temperature of an animal indicating serious dis- turbance of the organism. This regulation of the vital heat appears to be effected in two ways : first, by variations in the loss, and second, by variations in the production. The chief sources of loss of heat by the body are : 1. Conduction and Radiation from the Skin. % Evaporation of Water from the Skin and Lungs. 3. Warming of the Ingesta (Food and Drink). These we will take up in their order and consider how in each case the balance of the vital heat is kept up. MAK0AL OF CATTLE- JFEEBIHO. 23 1 Conduction and Radiation from tlie Skin. — Tliis is one of the principal sources of loss of heat by the body, and also the one which is most susceptible to regulation. Henne- berg,* in his respiration experiments on sheep, already cited, estimates that the total amount of heat produced by the animals experimented on was applied as follows : To warming the ingesta 4.0 per cent. ** **• '* inspixed air 4.^ *' * * evaporation of water 26.7 " ^' supply loss by radiation, etc 05.1 *' Experiments on man have given very similar results. Plainly, the greater the amount of blood passing through the \ essels of the skin, the more heat will be lost, while, on the other hand, a diminution in the current of blood will check the loss of heat. IsTow when the skin is exposed to cold, as, for example, to cold air or to the water of a cold bath, the capillaries of the skin are contracted and the blood-vessels of the vis- cera expanded, thus diverting a portion of the blood from the former to the latter and sometimes causing a rise of temperature in the interior of the body. Conversely, under the influence of warmth the capillaries of the skin dilate, admitting more blood, and thus eiBfecting a cooling of the latter. To this is to be added the loss of heat by the evaporation of the perspiration, to which atten- tion will be called on subsequent pages. In this manner the loss of heat from the surface of the body is regulated in accordance with the external tem- perature, but there are numerous experiments wdiich show that under such circumstances the produetmi of heat also varies, though we have but little knowledge of the * Heue Beitrj^e, etc., 1871, p S27. ^fJA/ UA-NXJA-L OW CATTLE-FEEDIKO. means by wliicli tliese variations are effected. Ifc Las been sliown by immeroiis observations on rabbits, guinea- pigs, and cats that, in warm-blooded animals, exposure to cold largely increases botli tlie consumption of oxygen and tlie excretion of carbonic acid, tlms sliowing a greater activity of tlie chemical processes in the body and pre- sumably an increased production of heat, wliile warmth, on the other hand, has the converse effect, diminishing the amount of chemical change in the body. The following selection from the results obtained by Theodor ^ in an extensive series of experiments on a cat will serve to illustrate these facts. Each experiment lasted six hours. Temperatiiro. J>eg. OenC -5.5. -3.0. +0.2. +t5.0. Carbonic acid excreted. Gcxms. Oxygen taken up. G-rois. 19.83 17.48 18.43 18.36 18.24 19.95 17,90 14.82 Temperatui-e. Dog. Cent. +12.3. +16.3. +30.1. + 39.6. Carbonic acid cxcretod. Grins. 17.63 15.73 14.34 13.12 Oxygon taken np. G-rms. 17.71 14.74 12.78 10.87 In some of these experiments considerable motion on the part of the animal took place, which may have influ- enced the result, and Yoit f therefore executed a series of similar experiments on a man. The man weighed about 156 lbs., and, after having been exposed for some time to the temperature whose effect was to be observed, passed six hours in the respiration apparatus fasting and in com- plete rest. In this time he excreted the following quanti- ties of carbonic acid and nitrogen : * Zeit t Biologie, XIV., 51. t Ibid., XIV., 57. MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIlfO. Temperature. Deg. Gent. 4.4 6.5 9.0 14.3 16.3 Carbonic acid. Grras. Ureal nitrogen. Grms. 210.7 4.23 206.0 4.05 192.0 4.20 155.1 3.81 158.3 4.00 Temperature. Deg. Gent. 23.7 24.2 26.7 30.0 Ourbonfc aCid. Grms. 164.8 166.5 160.0 170.6 Ureal nitrmwi. Gnus. 3.40 3.34 3.97 The increased excretion of carbonic acid in the cold as compared witli an ordinary temperature of Itt"* to 15^ 0. (about 60° F.) is as marked in tliese experiments as in tlie preceding ones, but above that temperature a slightly in- creased excretion was observed. The excretion of nitrogen is seen to vary in the same way, though to a small extent, indicating an increased protein consmnption as a result of exposure to a low temperature. These results show plainly how great an influence the temperature of its surroundings may have on the amount of fodder required by animals, and confirm the conclusion drawn from many practical experiments, that it is desirable to protect animals from extreme cold. In conclusion, it should be said that the action of a low temperature of the surrounding medium appears to be, in the first place, on the nerves, and that only through tliem does it cause a greater activity of the chemical processes in the body and an increased production of heat. It has been shown by Pfliiger that when this action of the nerves is hindered, the activity of chemical change in the body is increased by heat and decreased by cold, just as many chemical processes outside the body are, and as is the case normally in cold-blooded animals. 234 MAiTUAL OP oattle-fb:eding. Evaporation of Water. — ^An important regulator of tlie temperature of the body is the evaporation of water, especially from the skin. In the conversion of any liquid into vapor, a rery con- siderable amount of heat is absorbed, and becomes latent in the vapor. Tiiis absorption of heat during vaporization may be rendered evident to the senses by wetting the hand with some volatile liquid, such as alcohol or ether, and moving it through the air to hasten evaporation. In the same way, the evaporation of water from the skin, which is constantly going on, cools the latter ; and though the effect is less noticeable than with a more volatile liquid, on account of the greater slowness of the evaporation, the total amount of heat thus abstracted from the body is very considerable, amounting, according to Ilenneberg (p. 231), in the case of sheep, to nearly 27 per cent, of the total loss of heat. The conversion of one gramme of water at the tempera- ture of the body into vapor of the same temperature requires 580 heat units, an amoimt equal to that produced by the combustion of 0.148 grammes of organic matter having the composition of starch, and corresponding to an excretion of 0.241 grammes of carbonic acid. In the ex- periments by Henneberg just mentioned, the average daily excretion of water from lungs and skin was 881.7 grammes, which, according to the above figures, required for its evaporation as much heat as would be produced by the combustion of 130.5 grammes of starch, while the average amount of carbhydrates digested per day was 464.3 grammes. Consequently, if the loss of heat by evapora- tion was supplied by the combustion of these substances, about 28 per cent, of them w^as thus consumed. Such results as this, of which many might be cited, show MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 235 US plainly "botli the importanee of the process of evapora- tion as a regulator of the vital heat, and the great waste of fodder that niav be caused by an undue increase in tlie perspiration. The regulation of tfie temperature of the body by the perspiration, especially the sensible perspiration (sweat), is too familiar to require more than a simple mention ; but the effect of increased perspiration in augmenting the ex- cretion of carbonic acid is of greater importance for our present purpose. This effect is shown in these same ex- periments by llenneberg. In the following table his results are arranged according to the amount of carbonic acid excreted. The numbers refer to the two animals taken together : Tempera- tnre of stalL Deg. Cent. 9 3 12 7 14,1 13.6 13,7 Hay fed. G-rms. 3,508 2,085 2,275 2,241 2,459 2,443 WatfT drunk. Grms. 2,757 (?) 3,103 (?) 8,038 3,876 Carbonic acid excreted. Grms. Water eyaporated, Grms. 1,468 1.238 1,508 1,578 1,525 1,601 1,548 1,680 1,579 1,7^0 1,633 1,650 Tlnnm-j nitro- gen. Grms. 14.81 15 42 16.91 15.59 15.56 16.02 It is evident at once that in every case but the last an increased evaporation of water and an increased excretion of carbonic acid accompany each other ; but whether the latter is a result of the former can be determined only after the possible influence of all the other factors wiiich influence the excretion of carbonic acid has been consid- 236 MAKITAL OF CATTLE-FEEDINO. ered. These are, in. this ease, the amomit of food, the amount of water drunk, and the teuiperatiu-e. That the amount of food has an important influence on tlie amount of carbonic acid excreted is a well-established fact, and is well illustrated by a sev^ith experiment on the same two sheep, in which all food was withheld for a single day. The carbonic acid excretion sank at once to 837 grammes, or scarcely more than half that previously ob- served. In these six experiments, however, although the amount of fodder eaten varied somewhat, no ^ connection can be traced between its amount and that of the carbonic acid. The same is true of the amount of water dnmk, while the lowest temperature {ie.j the one which should cause the greatest activity of the oxidations in the body) coin- cides with the minimum of carbonic acid. "We must therefore conclude that there is a connection between the carbonic acid excretion and the evaporation of water, and that an increased evaporation causes more material to be oxidized in the body, in order to make good the resulting loss of heat. Henneberg's experiments are the only ones which we yet possess on this important subject, but they suffice to show its practical importance and the desirability of fur- ther experiments in the same direction. A direct influence of the amount of water evaporated upon the protein consumption does not seem to be indi- cated by these experiments. Warming Ingesta. — ^A considerable quantity of heat (according to Henneberg, about -i per cent.) is consumed in raising the food and drink of an animal to the temperature of its body. Of this amount, by far the larger part is used in warming the water of the ingesta, both on account MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. 237 of its large amoitnt and because a greater quantity of heat is required to increase the temperature of a pound of water one degree than is sufficient to ejEect the same change in a pound of any other substance. The effect of excessive drinking on the production of flesh and fat has ah-eady been mentioned in the two pre- ceding chapters, and there can be little doubt that a part, at least, of this effect is duQ. to the demand for heat thus made on the system. The last line of the table on p. 235 affords an illustra- tion of the influence of the amount of water drunk on the excretion of carbonic acid. Although the quantity of water evaporated is less than in the two preceding cases, more carbonic acid is excreted, evidently on account of the considerably larger amount of water drunk. It is notice- able that the urinary nitrogen in this experiment is also more than in most of the o'thers. Further examples of the influence of the quantity of water drunk upon the decomposition of matter in the organism might be given, but the few results which have as yet been reached in this direction, while they afford im- portant practical hints, are still so meagre that no very ex- tended conclusions can be based on them. Practical Gonelusions. — In the foregoing pages we have seen that the production of heat makes large demands on the food supply of an animal, and that various circum- stances may influence the amount of heat produced and thus effect an economy or a waste of fodder. There re- mains to be considered the practical application of these facts to the feeding and care of cattle. Temperature of Stable. — ^It is evident that the warmer tlie air of the stable is kept the less heat the animals will lose by radiation, and consequently the greater will be the 338 MAJN-iJAL o:f oattle-feebing. savins of fodder effected. If tins were tlie only clreum- stance to be coiibidered, tlie greatest economy would rebult from keepinar the surroniidinos of the animal at the same teniperatm-e as its bodj^ for then no lieat would be lost by radiation, A high temperature, however, tends to increase the per- spiration, wliich, as we liave learned, demands considerable heat for its evaporation ; so that the saving effected by the diminished radiation consequent on a high temperature may be more than counterbalanced by the loss due to the gimter amount of* perspiration evaporated. To this is to be added the fact that the animals are also led to drink more water, thus still further increasing, or tending to in- crease, the consumption both of protem and fat in the body. It thus becomes evident that the most favorable balance between these two opposing factors, and consequently the most economical production, may take place at a medium temperature, and this conclusion is one which accords with the general experience of farmers. That the least expenditure of material by the body takes place at a medium temperature is very clearly shown by Voit's experiments, cited on p. 233. Finally, the question of profit comes in. Warming the stable in winter involves a certain amount of expense; leaving it cold also involves a certain amount of expense^ viz., the cost of the excess of fodder required by the ani- mals. It is a question to be settled by the circumstances of each particular case which method of procedure is, on the whole, more profitable. Amount of Drinh — As already pointed out, excessive drinking tends to increase the consumption of matter in the animal body, and thus to decrease the profits of tlie MAKXTAL OF CATTLE- FEEDIHO, 230 feeding. It therefore becomes the interest of tlie feeder to restrict tlie amount of water drank bj Ids animals to that required for health. This is ebtimated by "Wolff at four pounds per pound of dry matter of the fodder for cattle, and two poimds for sheep, this amount including that present in the fodder. The more watery tlie fodder the less drink is necessary. J^Taturally, the amount of water drunk will, in most cases, be left to the instinct of the animal, and regulated only by avoidance of those conditions which, like too large rations of salt, too high temperature of the stable, etc., in- crease the desire of the animals to drink. Finally, there is no doubt that it would be advantageous, when practicable, to supply anitnals with water warmed at least somewhat above the freezing temperature, since it would seem that at least one chief object of the increased protein and fat consumption caused by excessive drinking is to produce heat to warm the water to the temperature of the body. Still more is it desirable, in the wintering of stock, not to compel them to satisfy their thirst with snow or ice, since not only must these be warmed, but they must be mdtedj and the conversion of one pound of ice at 82° F. into water of the same temperature requires somewhat less than twice the amount of heat needed to warm one pound of water from 32° to the temperature of the body. All this heat comes directly from the combustion of tissue, and is just so nuich subtracted from the net results of feeding, and consequently from the feeder's pocket. Coohlng Fodder,— K portion of the advantage frequently claimed to result from cooking and steaming fom such a fodder is generally larger, in comparison with the quantity of nitrogen-free extract, than is the case with one cut at a more advanced period of growth. As an example of this may be mentioned some experi- ments on sheep made by Wolff, at Hohenheim, in which the animals were fed with green clover cut at four differ- ent periods of growth, No. 1 being the youngest and No. 4 the oldest. The first line (a.) of the table gives the per- centage obtained by dividing the quantity of non-nitroge- nous matter actually digested by the amount of nitrogen- free extract found by analysis, and hence shows how much the amount actually digested varied from the theoretical amount. The second line (&.) gives the percentage of the crude fibre which was digested. No. 1. No. 2. No 3. No. 4. (a) (b.) 111.9 60.0 105.5 53 101.8 49.6 88 5 38.8 252 HAK0AL OF GATTLE-FEEDIKG. In Xo. 1 and No. 2, whose crude fibre was easily digest- ible, the actual amount of non-nitrogenous nutrients di- gested was greater than that calculated ; in No. 8 the two were nearly equal ; in No. 4, where the crude fibre was less digestible^ it was only 88.5 per cent, of the theoretical amount. It is obvious, from such results as these, that while the compensation between digested crude fibre and undigested nitrogen-free extract may be an aid in f onning an estimate of the digestibility of a fodder, it is not sufficiently close to serve as the basis of exact calculations. Recent experiments on the horse, to which reference will be made in subsequent pages, have shown that crude fibre is less digestible by this animal than by ruminants, and that consequently this compensation only takes place ill very young and tender fodder. Composition of Digestible Portion of Nitrogen-free Extract. — It has been shown, by essentially the same method as that applied to crude fibre, that the digestible portion of the nitrogen-free extract has very nearly the composition of starch. We tnay therefore assume that all the digestible non-ni- trogenous substances of the fodder, with the exception of the fat, are, like starch itself, converted into sugar or sugar- like substances, and as such are resorbed and taken into the circulation. Further exceptions to this rule are the small quantities of organic acids either contained ready formed in the fod- der or pi'oduced during digestion from the carbhydrates. The quantity of these, however, is very small, and we can,"^ in genei*al, regard all the digestible non-nitrogenous * With the reservations made on p. 184. MAKtJAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 253 matter of the fodder, except tlie fat, as composed of carT> liydrates and as liaving tlie same functions in nutrition as sugar and starch have been proved to have in the experi- ments whicli have been detailed in Fart I. Gomposition of Undigested Nitrogen-free Extract. — The part of the nitrogen-free extract which remains nndigested is a -mixture of various su])stance8 richer in carbon than the carbhydrates and having, as a whole, nearly the percentage composition of lignin, as given on p. 39. It is therefore a matter of comparative indifference in fodder analyses, whether the lignin dissolves in the acid and alkaline liquids used to isolate the cellulose or remains with the latter as incrusting substance. In one case it ap- pears in the results of analyses as part of the nitrograi-fiee extract, in the other, as crude fibre ; in both cases it reap- pears in the excrements and leaves the total quantitj and quality of the digested nutrients the same, and the only effect of a variation of this sort w^ould be on the compen- sation between the undigested extract and the digested fibre. The AqneoTis Extract. — From the numerous experi- ments executed in "Weende on oxen and sheep, the law has been deduced that the total quantity of solid matter that can be extracted from a fodder by boiling water, i, e.j the aqueous extract, is a measure of the digestible portion of the nitrogen-fi^ee extract. In single cases, however, con- siderable variations from the rule were observed on both sides of the average, amounting to as much as 14 per cent. This method of judging of the quality of coarse fodder has not found any general application, for the reason that no necessary connection exists between tlie digestible ni- 234 MAKtJAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING, troacen-free extract and tlie amount of substances soluble in water, since the latter includes not only non-nitrogenous matters but also larger or smaller quantities of protein and asli. Tlie rule is to be considered as, at best, a purely empiri- cal one, wliicli, to be sure, has some value for practical purposes, since in general the digestibility of a coarse or green fodder is greater the more solid matter can be ex- tracted from it by boiling water, but to which no scientific value can be attached. Crude Pat.-That the crude fat, or rather the ether extract, of the coarse fodders is a mixture of the most various substances, some of which are digestible and some indigestible, has been already explained. The chlorophyll, or green coloring matter of plants, is soluble in ether, but seems to be entirely indigestible, and the wax-like sub- stances most probably belong to the same category. It is therefore to be expected that the digestibility of the crude fat will be very different according to the kind and quality of thq fodder. It is always greater in young and tender plants than in older ones, and it has also been ob- served that the crude fat of clover hay and of the straw of the legumes is generally more digestible than of that of meadow hav and the straw of the cereals. Crude Protein. — The digestibility of crude protein in the various kinds of coarse fodder is subject to greater variations than that of almost any other constituent. Of the protein in clover hay and meadow hay, e. ^., a quantity varying, according to circumstances, from 35 per cent, to 75 per cent, of the total amount is digested. Generally the protein is more easily and completely digested the greater the percentage of it contained in the fodder, i. ' represents the digestible protein, p the total " crude protein," and s the total non-nitrogenous matters of the ration, including fat. This formula makes the digestibility of the protein de- pend on the relative amounts of nitrogenous and non- nitrogenous nutrients, ignoring the influence of the amount of crude fibre. For this reason, it appears to give better results when applied to rations contahiing much concen- trated fodder than when used for those composed exclu- sively of coarse fodder. Finally, it must never be forgotten that these formulae are entirely different from those of the mathematician. They do not, like tliose, express necessary truths, nor are they deduced from any well recognized natural law. They are indructions, and depend for their value on the number and accuracy of the observations upon w^hich they are based. They may be of much value, but w^e must beware of trusting them too implicitly. In regard to the digestibility of the protein of the coarse fodders, much that is of importance and can find application in practice has already been ascertained. On the more important kinds of coarse fodder large numbers of digestion experiments have been made, and we are able to give, as the results of these, coefficients expressing the r r ' :• ■„ — , , , ., . .,„ , ,.,» . 1 Y in III . , I * Laadw. Versuchs-BtationeHj XI , 401. MAIifUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIFa. 257 average digestibility of the protein and the other ingre- dients of fodders as well as the range of variation ob- served. (See table in Appendix.) Some of these innn- bers are the average of more than fifty experiments, and therefore may be regarded as expressing, with con- siderable accuracy, the average digestibility of these sub- stances. Others are the result of only a few trials, and hence are moi*e liable to correction by the results of new experiments. Furthermore, we are able to judge, to some extent, of the digestibility of the protein in coarse fodder of different qualities and cut in various stages of growth, and of its digestibility by different kinds of animals, and have acquired some knowledge of the influence exerted upon it by the addition of concentrated feeding-stuffs to the ra- tion. These points will be considered in the following sections. Non-Protein. — Besides protein, coarse fodder, especially when cut young, is likely to contain a greater or less quantity of amides and other nitrogenous substances which we may, for convenience, designate as 9wn-j}rotein. These, so far as investigated, are soluble su])stances, and there ib little doubt that they are easily and completely di- gested. In all the statements of the previous paragraph inference was had to " crude protein," thM is, to the total nitro- genous matters of the fodder. If account be taken of the amount of "non-protein" present, the digestibility of the true protein would" of course, be less ; but how much less fature investigations mxist show. Ash. — Phosphoric Add, — When ruminants are fed exclusively on coarse fodder, only traces of phosphoric acid are found in their urine. Only so much of the phos- phoric acid of the fodder seems to be resorbed as is neces- 2:58 MAKUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIJvra. sary for wliaterer formation of new tissue or of milk may take place ; all the rest is excreted in the dung. On the other hand, the urine of the ruminants is, like that of the earnivora, very rich in phosphoric acid (20 to 45 per cent, of the ash) when the animals are fed exclusively on milk, or when full-grown animals are deprived of food for several days, so that they finally subsist upon their own flesh and fat When calves and lambs are fed large quan- tities of grain, a greater or less quantity of pliosphoric acid always appears in the urine. The method of excretion of the phosphoric acid of the fodder therefore varies with the kind of feeding. Accord- ing to Liebig, phosphoric acid is absent from the mine of Ixerbivora because this liquid is usually alkaline and be- cause the fodder usually contains much lime. Phosphate of lime is insoluble in alkaline fluids, and therefore phos- phoric acid only appears in the urine when more is con- tained in the fodder than is sufficient to unite with the lime. Presence of magnesia, on the other hand, as Bert- ram ^ has recently shown, does not hinder the appearance of phosphoric acid in the urine, even though the latter be alkaline. When this takes place the urine is found to bo free from lime. Other Ash IngreMentB^ — Of the alkalies of the fodder 95 to 97 per cent., of the magnesia 20 to 30 per cent., of the lime only 2 to 6 per cent, and sometimes none, and of the sulphuric acid and chlorine, nearly the whole quantity, is excreted in the urine. The remaintier of the above- named ash ingredients, so far as they are not held back and used in the body or hi the production of milk, is foxmd, along with the wliole of the silica, in the dung. * Biedermann's Central Blatfc, Jahrg 8, p. 108. MAKUAli OJ' OATTLE-FEBBINa 259 § 2. OmcuMSTAiqcES affecting the Digestebilitt of Coarse FODBBB. Influence of tHe Quantity of Fodder. — Feeding vary- ing qxiantities per day and head of the same coarse fodder does not alter the percentage digestibility of the various mitrients. E, g.^ if on a certain ration of hay an animal ' digests 76 per cent, of the total quantity of crude protein, and the amount of the ration be increased by one-third or one-fourth, 70 per cent, of the protein will still be digested, and the absolute quantity will aceorduigly be one-third or one-fourth greater. This fact is shown by a number of the "Weende experi- ments in which varying quantities of meadow hay or clover hay were fed to oxen, and also in experiments by Wolff,* at Ilohenheim, on sheep fed on clover-hay. In the latter experiments the following results were ob- tained : rodder per day. Pounds. Tymis&Tws>. Protein Per cent Fafc Per cent. Crude fibre Per cent Nitrogen fi-ee extract Per cent. 3 59 61 00 55 56 54 51 54 51 63 2 2 64 63 Some later experiments by the same investigator f have shown that the same fact is true of the digestibility of lucerne hay by sheep and likewise by the horse. The re- sults on the latter animal wei-e as follows : ^^ * '* Die Versuohs-Station Hohenheim," p. 75. f Landw. Versuchs-Stationen, XXI. , 30, 260 MAISrUxlL OB^ CATrLE-FEEDING. Podder por day. Pounds. Digested. Protein. Per cent. Fat. Per cent. Cnide fibre. Per cent. Nitr igen- tree extract. Per cent. 17 6. 74 73 77 • • • • • • 33 37 43 70 2S 0. 71 26.4 73 A point to be considered is that all tlie observations hitherto made have been only on meadow hay, clover, and lucerne, of good or medium quality; but the same fact is, in all probability, true also for the more indigestible fodders, such as straw, chaff, etc. This constancy is very important, and facilitates greatly the calculation of rations for the various purposes of agri- cultural practice. Eflfect of Drying. — All the nutrients of dry coarse fod- der are digested and resorbed to the same extent as when it is fed green. Of the numerous experiments on this point, the follow- ing, by Weiske,"^ may serve as an example. They were made on two sheep, with lucerne, which was first fed green, and then after having been carefully dried without loss, T he averages of the results on both animals were : DiaESTED. Protem Per cent 79 78 Ontde fibre. Per cent. Fat Per cent. Nitrogen- free extract. Per cent. Green 33 34 38 50 08 Dry 65 "^ V • * • • • * Wo'ff : '* D*e Ernalirung der Landw Katzthiere," p, 97. MAHTUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDINTG 261 With, the exception of the fat, whose digestibility, as we have seen, cannot be determined very accurately, the seve- ral nutrients were equally well digested in the two cases. This result, which has been fully confirmed by many other experiments, stands in apparent contradiction to tlxe general experience of farmers. It must be remembered, however, that it is only true when the green fodder and the hay 'are otherwise of exactly the same quality; when both are cut at the same time and from the same field, and when none of the leaves or other tender and especially nutritious parts are lost during the preparation of the hay. These conditions are never completely reached in prac- tice, especially in the making of clover or lucerne hay, and for this reason, and also because green fodder is commonly used at an eai-lier stage of growth than that which is con- verted into hay, a greater nutritive eff^t is generally ob- served with green fodder. For the present we may pass over the question whether the large quantity of water which milking animals con- sume in green fodder exercises any considerable influence on the amoxmt of milk produced, but the digestihiUtij of the organic constituents of a fodder is in no way altered by simple drying in the air, provided it is executed with- out loss of parts of the plants. On the other hand, the ordinary method of making hay involves a considerable loss of leaves, etc., and the product suffers not only in its quality, as shown by chemical analy- sis, but in its digestibility as well. For example, in some experiments at Ilohenheim, by "Wolff, Funke, and Kellnei',"^ the loss involved in the prep- * Landw. Versuclis Statioaen, XXI. , 425. 262 MAKUAL OF CATTLl^-FEEDIKG. aration of lucerne hay amounted to 7.13 per cent, of tlio dry matter, and the composition and digestibility of the resulting product, as compared with that obtained by dry- ing the same material without los^s, were as follows : Composition. Digestibility. without loss. Hay. Dried without loss. Hay. Protein 17.00 31.81 43.80 7.39 14.94 33.90 44 32 6.94 100.00 71 48 29 67 Crude fibre 45 Nitrogen-free extract ) Fat ) Ash 62 23 100.00 Efifeet of Storing. — ^The storing of fodder for a long time, even when all necessary precautions, such as a dry and airy location, etc., are observed, may decrease both its digestibility and palatability. At least, this conclusion can be drawn from some experi- ments executed in Hohenheim.* Of the crude protein of a sample of rowen, 62 per cent, was found digestible directly after the harvest, while three months later 56 per cent., and in the following spring 54 per cent., of the total quantity was digested by the sam'e animals. The digesti- bility of the crude fibre also decreased somewhat, while that of the other nutrients remained about the same. A similar fact was observed by Ilofmeisterf in regard to clover hay, and essentially the same results were also ob- tained in later experiments in Hohenheim. *Landw. Jabrbuclier, II, 382. f Landw. Tersucbs-Stationen, XVI., 353. MAISFUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDHsTa. 263 In all the Holienlieim experiinents, tlie cliemical compo- sition of tlie fodder remained substantially miclianged, and the deteriomtion showed itself in a diminished digesti- bility. Whether, however, the smaller nutritive value of hay and straw kept over winter, which is often observed in practice, even when the hay has apparently kept excellent- ly, is caused by an essential alteration in the digestibility of the fodder, or is to be sought chiefly in the mechanical loss of the more nutritious parts, which always takes place to some extent, and in decreased palatabilityj must be left to future researches to decide. Period cJf Gro^CTrth. — Early cut forage is not only supe- rior, other things being equal, to late cut, as regards its chemical composition, but it excells it in digestibility as well This fact is established by abundance of experimental evidence. In some experiments by G. Kiihn,* oxen were fed with clover hay cut from the same field at three different times, riz. : L Cut May 20, just before flowering. II. " June 7, in full bloom. III. " " 20, end of flowering. The composition and digestibility of the water-free sub- stance of these hays were the following : COMPOSITIOK. Protein. Per cent. Cnide fibre. Per cent. Fat. Per cent. Nitropjen- free extract. Per cent. Asb. Per cent. I 19.56 16,31 13.19 25 30 28.11 28.80 2.25 2.87 2 86 45 52 44.05 48.37 10.10 7.76 6.78 11..... Ill * Wolff: *' Ernabrang Laudw. Nutzthiere," p. 106. 264 MANUAL OF CATTLE- FEBDIlfG. JJUjriiiB 1 JH51 1 J 1 r X • I .. II.. III. Piotem Per ceut Crude fibre Ptl Otllt Fat. Per cent Nitiogen- frt-t. extract Pci dent. 76 65 59 51 47 40 58 64 60 70 68 m Ash Per cent. In experiments made at Ilolienlieim on clover cut at four stages of gi*owtli and fed to sheep, a similar decrease of tlie digestibility with increasing age was observed, that of the protein falling from 75 to 59, and that of the crude- fibre from 60 to 39. Many other similar experiments might be cited. Another circumstance which increases the feeding value of early cut forage is the fact that it is not only more digestible, but contains a much larger percentage of crude protein than is found in that cut later. The difference in the actual quantity of protein digested is thus larger in a two-fold ratio in early cut fodder. Thus, in the above- mentioned experiments by G. Kulm, the quantity of pro- tein actually digested amounted, in the first case (I.), to 13.9 percent, of the total dry matter of the fodder; in the last case (III.) to only 7.8 per cent. These facts make it evident that the same kind of coarse fodder may diflFer greatly in its nutritive effect, according to the circumstances under which it is grown and har- vested. In considering these results, however, it is to be remem- bered that, as regards protein, the coefficients express the digestibility of the total nitrogenous matters, both albumi- KA]!irUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIKG. 265 noids and non-albiiminoids. As we Iiavo seen, recent in- vestigations liave revealed tlie pre&ence of large amounts of '' non-protein " in coarse fodder, especially in the earlier stages of its growth. This non-protein is, in all proba bility, entirely digestible, and it is easily to be seen that its presence might affect the correctness of the abo\e re- sults. The only experiments tonching this point are a few by "Wolff * on sheep and on a horse, with hay cut from the same field in two different years. These gave the fol- lowing digestion coefficients, a for total nitrogenous matter, i for trae protein : Fodder cut. Shbkp. HOKSK. a. 6, a. d. Aprils, 1874. May 13, *' June 10, *' 79 1 71 1 69.1 73 3 72 1 55.5 73 S 64 3 64.2 59.1 60 7 51.9 4» . « W • « . • • . * « m 8 m I 61 8 May 14, 1877 June 9, *' 53 1 59 6 " 26, " 58.7 '*'") •••• ••• These figures are somewhat conflicting as regards the digestibility of the true protein in fodder cut at different times, and it must be left for future investigations to de- cide how far the results which have been obtained for the total nitrogenous matter of coarse fodders are true of their actual protein. Methods of Preparing.— While the various methods *Land»v Jalirbuoher, VIL, I. Supplement, p. ^03. 266 MAKtJAL OF CATTLTU-FEEDIN'G. of preparing fodder for animals, such as steaming, ensi- lage, etc., may be accompanied by practical advantages, all the experiments hitherto executed show that the diges- tibillty is not sensibly increased thereby. Thus, in the experiments executed in 1862, at the DaJnne Experiment Station, by Hellriegel t% Lucanus,"^ it was found that the digestibility of rye-straw by sheep was not increased either by fermenting or cooking it. Experiments in Proskan, by Funke, gave the same re- sults regarding the digestibility of the total dry matter and tlie cellulose of a mixed ration fed to milk cows. Indeed, recent experiments at Poppelsdorf f showed a decreased digestibility of hay as a result of steaming. A rather coarse hay was fed to oxen, first dry, then steamed, and finally moistened with as much water as it took up when steamed. The following were the results : Digestibility. Total organic matter. Per cent. 58 56 64 Protem Per oeut. Fat. Per ( ent. Oracle fibre. Par cent. Nitrogen- free extract. l^er cf>nt. Bry Sieamed Moistened , 46 80 39 41 38 59 58 54 60 59 57 Steaming and moistening seem to have affected the di- gestibility of the protein especially. It is possible that the large decrease observed may have been cansed by an ex- traction of soltible nitrogenous matters, though care seems * Landw. Versuclis-Stationen, VII., 243, 324, 387, and 467. f Homberger : Landw. Jahrbucher, VIII., 9d3. MAKUAL Ot OATTLE-FKEDr^O- 2G7 to liave been taken to avoid this, but no incr^eme of digest- ibility as a result of cooking is shown. In these experiments the steamed fodder was pnrposely allowed to cool before it was used, in order to observe only the effect of cooking, and no preference for the steamed fodder on the part of the cattle was observed, but rather the revei-se. In practice, however, the palatability of a fodder may often be very considerably increased by suita- ble preparation, and the animals thus induced to eat larger quantities of a fodder not perhaps agreeable to them in its natural state. It would seem that some gain must also accrue from wami fodder (see p. 289), The preparation of fodder may thus produce very favorable results in a prac- tical point of view, although the quantity of nutrients which an animal extracts from a given amount of dry substance is no gi'eater in one case than the other. As in the case of coarse fodder, the digestibility of con- centrated fodders is not increased by tlie metliod of prep- aration. This is sho\\T3, e, g.^ by experiments made in Mdckern on feeding bran to oxen ; not only was the diges- tibility not increased, but, on the contrary, decreased more or less by boiling, addition of leaven and production of in- cipient fermentation, and still more by successive treatment with alkalies and acids. The effect w^as greatest on the protein and least on the non-nitrogenous constituents. Digestibility by Difierent Kinds of Animals. — The different kinds of ruminating animals, as oxen, cows, sheep, and goats, digest the same fodder equally well. As a mean of about forty single determinations, the di- gestibility of all the constituents of meadow hay is found to be about 2 per cent, greater in the case of oxen and cows than in that of sheep, while, in a still greater num- ber of experiments, clover-hay or green clover is found 268 MAKTJAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIKa. to be digested 2 to 8 per cent, better by slieep tlian by oxen and cows. The differences, small in themselves, thus fully compensate each other in the two kinds of hay. In feeding-experiments on goats, likewise, average diges- tion coefficients have been observed in all experiments j^ct made. In the case of a non-niminating animal, like the horse, coarse fodder is less completely digested than by rumi- nants. A large number of experiments on the comparative di- gestibility of various feeding-stuffs by the horse and sheep have lately been executed at the llolienheim Experiment Station, under "Wolff's direction. A comparison of all the results yet obtained ^ leads to the following conclusions : 1. Meadow-hay is less fully digested by the horse than by sheep, the difference amounting to 11 to 12 per cent, of the water-free substance. 2. The crude protein of hay is nearly as digestible by tlie horse as by sheep. In the better qualities of hay ex- perimented upon, the difference amounted to 4 to 6 per cent, of the total amount, while in some of the poorer sorts more was digested by the horse than by sheep. This appears to be the case not only with the total nitrogenous matters but also with the true protein (compare p. 265). 8. Of the non-nitrogenous constituents of hay, the nitro- gen-free extract is slightly, and the crude fibre considera- bly better digested by sheep than by the horse. As a result, the nutritive ratio of the portion of the hay di- gested is narrower in the case of the horse than in that of sheep. As regards fat, all the experiments gave very low results for this nutrient, owing to the presence of a con- ♦Landw. Jahrbacher, Till, I. Supplement, p. 97, MANUAL OW GATTLE-PEEDING. 269 siderable quantity o£ biliarj products, etc., in the excre- ments. 4. Of two kinds of lucerne liay, tlie protein and nitro- gen-free extract were equally well digested by the torse and by sheep, while the crude fibre appeared to be rela- tively somewhat better digested than that of meadow hay. 5. The digestibility of straw (of winter wheat) was found to depend somewhat on the amount of mastication it received, but in general to be small. Under ordinary cir- cumstances it seems to be hardly half as well digested by the horse as by ruminants. 6. Concentrated feeding-stuffs (oats, beans, and maize, the two latter seated with water) are digested to the same extent by the horse and by slieep. Similar observa- tions have been made regarding the digestibility of con- centrated fodders by the hog. All these conclusions apply, in the first place, only to the conditions of these experiments, but, at the same time, there is every reason to expect that they will be confirmed by subsequent investigation, at least in their main features. Influence of Breed. — If the various species of rumi- nants digest their fodder to the same extent, we should still less expect to find important differences in this respect between the breeds of one and the same species. In fact, repeated experiments in Dresden and Ilohenlieim have agreed in showing that, e, g,, Merinos, Southdowns, and the so-called Wurtemberg Bastard-sheep, both when store-fed and on an exclusive ration of meadow or clover- hay, as well as on a more or less rich fattening fodder, digest the same feeding-stuffs about equally well. In these considerations we must not confuse the d Iff est l- bility of a fodder with its nutritive effect The latter may be very unequal in the different breeds, and is determined, 270 MAISrtJAL OF OATTLE-FEEDING. on the one hand, hy the appetite o£ the aiiinial and tlie qnantity o£ fodder which it can eat and digest day by day, and on the other hand, by the whole organization of the animal and its temperament and congenital peculiarities. With this, however, the actual percentage digestibility of a fodder has primarily nothing to do. The latter is essentially the same in all breeds for tljie same fodder, it beings of course, assumed that there are no individual peculiarities of digestion to disturb the result. Age of the Animals.— Even at different |,ges or in different stages of growth the digestive power for any given fodder seems to be nearly the same, provided that the animals are weaned from milk and that the fodder is agreeable in taste and sufficient in nutritive effect. This fact has been shown by experiments made in Ilohenheina "^ on lambs of two races, and continued for nine months con- secutively (from the fifth to the fourteenth month of their age), and which included both exclusive hay fodder and rich feeding with hay and grain. Kecent experiments made by Weiskef on lambs, extending over about ten months, have given the same result. It is of coui^se possible tliat this constancy of digestive power would be less marked in case of a poor and diffi- cultly-digestible fodder, but young animals, so long as they are capable of and inclined to rapid growth, cannot thrive on such a fodder ; they consume a quantity insufficient for their normal nourishment, and must suffer under a long continuance of such treatment. ladividtial Peonliarities have often a greater influence on the digestive process than the breed or even the species of the animal. * Landw Jahrbuolier, II , 2119, flbid., iX.,205. MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIira. 271 Besides temporary disturbances of digestion and tlie weak digestion caused by old age^ animals of tlie mim species and breed and of tiie same age and live-weiglit often sliow constant differences in digestive power, wliidb, liowever, seldom exceed 2 to 4 per cent, of tlie total dry matter of the fodder. Greater differences in digestive power sometimes sIiow tliemselves in single individuals whiclt fall strikingly below otter animals of the same age in development and live- weight. For example, a difference of 7 per cent in the digestibility of the total organic matter, and of 15 per cent, in that of the crade fibre, was observed in such a case in Proskau. At the same time, however, it wm fonnd that those animals of a herd which, attained the gi-eatest live- weight in a certain time on a given kind of fodder did not always possess the greatest digestive power nor produce the most live-weight from the same weight of food. The greater or loss appetite, and the quantity of fodder daily eaten, are much more important conditions of the increa^ in weight of growing or fattening animals tlian an increased digestive power. Actually stunted animals, those which have been insufS- ciently nourished in youth, especially during suckling, have alsogenei-ally a relatively weak digestive power in later sta- ges of development. How far the latter can be strengthened by the manner of rearing still remains to be investigated. JHfeet ef Wmtk. on Digestion. — A question of some importance is the effect of the performance of work on the digestibility of the fodder. In the recent experiments at 11 olienheim on the horse, already alluded to, this question was made the subject of investigation.* * Landw. Jabrbuclierj YIII., I. Supplement, p. 73. 272 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. Two series of experiments were made. In tine first, the daily ration consisted of 13.2 lbs. of oats, 11 lbs. of liay, and 3.3 lbs. of cut straw; in the second, of 16.5 lbs. of hay and 8.8 lbs. of beans. In the following tables are to be found the amount of work performed per day in each experiment, and the percentage digestibility of the several nutrients, reckoned on the total ration. Sebies I. BiGESTIBIMTY. Work performed per day. Kilogramme-meters. Total Orgamc substance. Per cent Protein. Pel cent Pat Per cent. Crude fibre. Per cent. Nitrogen- free extract. Per cent. 475,000 050,000 1,435,000 950,000 475,000 58 73 58 63 58 m m 41 54 83 70 84 67.63 69 95 66 63 68.31 53 05 53 55 45 90 48 73 45 99 31 34 39 03 83 33 35 83 36,95 68 37 69 61 68 37 67 65 64 41 Sebies II. 6ao,ooo 1,800,000 600,000 60 04 77.46 34.00 38 55 58 48 75 00 13 61 34 73 57.69 74 60 10.13 34.50 66 80 67 30 66.05 In each series the digestibility decreases slightly toward the close, but this is obviously independent of the amount of work performed. It was probably caused by a deterioration in the quality of the hay consequent on keep- ing and handling- bi these experiments, then, the digestibility of the fod- der was not affected by the amount of work performed. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEnDIKCr. 273 Presumably, this is true in all cases, but these are the only experiments yet made on this point, if 3. Digestibility of Concbi^tkatbd Fodders akd thbib Inpt.u- BNCB ON THAT OF COARSE FODDElt, Method of Experiment. — The foregoing section shows clearly that the percentage digestibility of coarse fodder, so long as the latter forms the exclusive ration, is de- termined very largely by the chemical composition of its diy matter as afteeted by the time of cutting, weather, soil, manure, etc., while other circumstances, such as quan- tity, state of dryness, and method of preparation, as well as the kind, breed, and age of the animals, have very little influence upon it This is an important result, and one of practical worth in the calculation of tlie daily ration of an animal. It is, however, still n.ore ir^portant to investigate whether and how much the digestibility of the constituents of coai'se fodder is altered by the addition of concentrated fodders, as well as to determine the digestibility of tie latter. In the nature of the case it is practically impossible to make direct experiments with concentrated fodders, since they are not suited for the requirements of herbivorous animals. The best we can do is to feed increasing quan- tities of any concentrated fodder along with a fixed quan- tity of coarse fodder of known digestibility, and ascertain the digestibility of the mixture as a whole. It is, of course, in most cases impossible to determine wdth certainty what portion of the digested nutrients comes from the coarse fodder and what from the concentrated fodder ; but results may be reached which possess sufficient exactitude for the purpose of compounding rations. 12* 274 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. If a concentrated fodder decreases tlie digestibility of the coarse fodder with which it is fed, we should expect that watli a greater relative quantity of the former in the ration the decrease in the digestibility of the ration as a whole would be also greater. We therefore proceed as follows : in a first period we determine the digestibility of the coarse fodder — hay, for example — ^w^hen fed alone. In a second period we add to the hay a certain amount of the concentrated fodder in question — maize meal, for instance — and determine the digestibility of the mixture. In a third period we increase the relative quantity of me^l very considerably, and deter- mine the digestibility of this mixture. Now, assuming the digestibility of the hay to have been the same in the second and third periods as in the first, we calculate, from our experimental results, the digestion co- efficients for the maize meal in the second and third periods. It is obvious that, if neither feeding-stuff has altered the digestibility of the other, these two sets of digestion co- efficients ought to be the same within the limits of experi- mental eiTOi*, and, in that case, we have not only proved' this fact but have also determined the digestibility of the mai^e meal. On the other hand, if the digestibility of either feeding- stuff has been diminished by the presence of the other, it is plain that our method of calculating the results will show an apparent decrease in the digestibility of the maize laeaL In the case supposed it would be impossible to determine directly in which of the two feeding-stuffs the decrease took place, and the method of expressing the results would depend partly on the results of other experi- ments and partly on questions of convenience. MAKITAL OF £3ATTLE-F3EEB]3ra. 275 Some of the examples contaiaed in the following para- graphs will, perhaps, make the method of calcnlation clearer, while they at the same time serve to elucidate some of the practical questions that arise. These questions concern chiefly the influence of eoMc^a- trated fodders on the digestibility of coarse fodder, Mxd to them we shall devote most of our attention, since it is im- possible, within the limits of this work, to noti^ the numerous experiments on the digestibility of the various concentrated fodders. For the results of the latter the reader is referred to the Appendix. Effect of ALBUMrN-oiDs, — E. Schulze & Marcker,* in Weende, have made expeiiments on the effect of a prepara- tion of wheat-gluten containing ^S per cent, of albuminoids on the digestibility of meadow-hay. They experimented on sheep, and obtained the following results for tlie per- centage digestibility of the hay, on the assumption that the gluten was wholly digested : Hay alone Hay and 119.4 grms. gluten.. Difference. , , . Protein. 57 53 ^4 Cmcle Fibre. 57 58 Fat and f ree extract 66 67 + 1 Total matter. 63 + 1 A second experiment, with a larger amount of gluten, gave, on the same assumption, the following results : Hay alone Hay and 202 3 grms. gluten Difference, Protein. 55 49 ^6 Crude Fibre. 55 J31 -+-6 Fat and ni tiagen free extract. 67 Organic matter. 61 60 * Jour, fur Landwirtliscliaft, 1871, p. 68. 276 MATTITAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. The slight decrease in the digestibility of the protein of tlie haj becomes so exceedingly small, when calculated on the whole ration, as to be of no practical signiiicanee, while the gluten exerted practically no influence on that of the remaining nutrients. Thus, these results show not only that even these large additions of albuminoids to the fodder produced no essential alteration of digestibility, but also tlmt the gluten was almost completely digestible. Yery similar results were obtained in a series of experi- ments, executed at Ilohenheim,^' on the digestibility of " flesh meal " by swine. It was fed in varying quanti- ties along with potatoes. Assuming that the digestibility of the potatoes was not altered by the addition 'of the highly nitrogenous flesh meal, the following numbers were obtained for the digestibility of the latter : Humber of aniraal. Fed. Digestibility of Flesh Msal. Penod. Potatoes. Grjns, P]e«*h meal. Q-rms. Protem Per cent. 95 1 97.0 98.5 98 9 102 9 90 4 914 98 6 97.4 Tat. Per cent. Organic substiinoe. Pel cent. I I II IL II II in III... 2 3 1 4 2 3 1 4 4,500 5,000 5,000 4,500 6,500 8,000 7,500 7,500 6,063 190 210 500 450 / 195 240 225 225 279 82. B 87 5 88.7 88.5 75 2 90.7 83.3 89 6 85.7 93.4 90.1 93.5 90 9 94 3 86 9 87.8 90 4 Average 9L7 * iiandw. Jahrbacher, VIII., I. Supplement, p. 300, MATT UAL OF CATTLlS-FEEDINd, 277 Tlioxigli the ratio between potatoes and flesli meal varied between wide limits, tlie digestibility of tlie latter, calcu- lated on tlie basis of unaltered digestibility of tlie former, varied but very little, and rather increased than decreased in the experiments in which relatively most ilesh meal was fed. Since the flesh meal contained no crude fibre or ni- trogen-free extract, the digestibility of these ingredients of the potatoes could be determined directly in each ex- periment. It was found to be sensibly the same in all. Obviously, the results of these experiments are as if the potatoes were equally well digested in all cases, and as if the above coefficients represented the digestibility of the flesh meal ; and though this fact cannot, perliaps, be said to be absolutely proved, tlie practical result is the same as if it were, and we can make it the basis of calculations of digestibility in similar cases. Hitrogenous Bye-Podders. — By means of CKperiments made on the same plan as those just described, it has been found that for the ordinary nitrogenous bye-fodders, such as oil cake, cotton-seed cake, bran, beans, etc., digestion coefficients may be obtained, and that these coefficients remain nearly constant whatever the quantity of the fodder given, while the digestibility of the coarse fodder remains unaltered by the addition of the concentrated fodder. This conclusion is drawn fi^om the results of numerous digestion experiments in which increasmg quantities of the concentrated fodder were fed along with meadow or clover hay. Such experiments have been made in Hohenheim, Mdckern, and Halle, especially with oil cake, but also with crushed beans, rape cake, wheat bran, and cotton-seed meal, on sheep^ goats, and oxen, with the results stated. In all probability, experiment would show that the same 278 MANUAL 01? CATTLIS-B^EEDING. tiling is true of other liiglily nitrogenous bye-fodders, e. g,^ all kinds of oil cake, the legumes, brewers' grains, etc. The results of these determinations of the digestibility of bye-fodders are included in Table II. of the Appendix. As the general result of the experiments, we can say that nitrogenous lye-fodders do not deemme the digestibility of the coarse fodder with which they are med. The G-rains. — The influence of the grains, i. e,^ of con- centrated fodders with a medium nutritive ratio (1 : 5-8), on the digestibility of coarse fodders has received compar- atively little attention, Oats have been the subject of experiments by Ilof- meister &IIaubner* and by Wolff f on sheep. In both investigations it was fomid that an addition of oats to the coarse fodder did not essentially alter its digestibility. Wolff obtained the following results, on the assumption that the digestibility of the coarse fodder (hay) was not altered : Crude protcm of oatb digested Batio of feay to oats. Pot cent. 1 : 1,76 78 1 : 8 09 78 4 1 : 3 30 78 5 The constancy of the digestion coefficient for oats shows, as explained above, that the assumption of unaltered diges- tibility of the coarse fodder is probably correct, and can at least serve as a basis for the calculation of rations. Ilof- meister & Ilaubner's results were, on the same assumption, as follows : Omde protem of oats digested Eatio of hay to oats. Per cent. 1 : 18 740 1:044 74.1 1 : 75 67 3^ *Laiidw. Yersuchs-Stationen, VI., 185 and SOI. t LundWw Jahrbucher, II , 2dB, MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 279 Here we have ako a nearly constant coefficient for the protehi of the oats, e^icept in the last case, where a felight deprebsion is observed, which may indicate an actual de- crease in the digestibility of the hay. The oats used in Wolff's experiments had a considerably narrower nutritive ratio (1 : 5,16) than those used by Hofmeister & Hanbner, (1 : 7.07), and it is quite possible that the slightly smaller digestibility in the latter case, as well as its decrease in the tliiid expermient, is due to this cause. The digestion coefficients of the other constituents of the oats, except those of crude fibre, whose digestibility genei'ally shows considerable variations in all the grains^ were nearly accordant in all, the experunents. The recent comparative experiments on the horse and sheep, made at Ilohenheim, and to which reference has more than once been made, included determinations of the digestibility of oats, maize, and beans, when fed with coarse fodder. In no case was any noticeable influence of these feeding-stuffs on the digestibility of the coarse fod- der observed. Experiments in Weende by E. Schulze & Marcker* seem to indicate that when the nutritive ratio of the grain or of the whole ration is wide (1 : 8-10), the digestibility ot the coarse fodder may be diminished. We shall pres- ently see tliat feeding-stuffs rich in carbhydrates, especially roots, decrease the digestibility of coai'se fodder. Grain with a nutritive ratio of 1 : 10, like that used in "Weende, begins to approach roots in composition, and may produce a similar effect ; but we may safely say that grain of good quality (nutritive ratio 1 : 5-6) produces no decrease in the digestibility of coarse fodder. * Jour. 1 Landwirthscliaft, 1875, 163. 280 MAKUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDINO. Effect of Carbhydrates. — All investigation goes to sliow that increasing the protein of a ration has no ten- dency to diminish the digestibility of the latter, but rather to increase it. The carbhydrates, on the contrary, when added in large quantities to a ration, depress the digestibility of the crude fibre, and especially of the protein, to a considerable ex- tent. This has been observed in numerous experiments on oxen, cows, sheep, and goats, both when pure carbhydrates were fed and when fodders containing large amounts of these substances wei*e used. Starch.— In the earlier Weende experiments this effect of starch on the digestibility of coarse fodder was observed, and the observation has been fully confirmed in later in- vestigations. Experiments of this sort have the advantage over many digestion experiments that it is possible to ascertain whether or not the starch is entirely digested. This sub- stance is free from protein, and hence any decrease in the digBstibility of the latter must fall exclusively on the rest of the fodder. The same is true of the crude fibre and fat, while as regards the nitrogen-free extract, it is easy to determine, by a microscopic examination of the excrements, whether any of the starch has escaped digestion. The re- sults, therefore, possess no ambiguity. The following table contains a summary of the results of experiments by Henneberg & Stohmann, E. Schulze & Marcker, Stohmann, and WolflF, compiled from Wolff.* The first column contains the name of the experimenter ; the second, the amount of starch fed, expressed in per cent, of the dry matter of the remaining fodder ; the third **EmahmngLaiidw. ISTutzfclxiere," pp. ti0»145. MANUAL OF fcATTLE-FEEDIKG. 281 sliows tlie cliaracter of the other fodder ; the fourth and fifth express the decrease in the digestibility of the protein and crude fibre in per cent, of the quantity of each which was digested when the starch was withheld. No. Authority. starch in pc^roent, , of other fodder. Fodder^ exclusive of btarch. GKSXIBIJLlTt O-F Protein. Per cent. Grade fibre. Per cenLi^ 1.... 2.... 3 ... Henneberg & Stohmann. a u «« it U (t 15 18 29 Clover-hay, ■ stiaw, and -{ beans. T 11 21 6 15 4.... 5.,.. H ti it U (I tt 9 9 Same with J r more beans, 1 4 4 2 6.... Sohulze & M&rcker. m Hay. a la 7... 4t It (t §5 Hay and beans. m IS 8.... Stohmann. 15 Hay. 12 12 9 .. u m t« 44 7 10 . u 15 Hay and oil-cake. 10 11.... Wolff (experiments on hogs). 15 Barley. .. 12 ... t( it u 31 tt 11 •* Two things are shown by this table : first, the greater the amount of starch which is added to a ration, the more is the digestibility of the protein and crude fibre decreased, e. g.y in experiments 1, 2 and 3, or 8 an4 9 ; second, the richer the original ration is in protein, the less is the de- pression caused by a given quantity of starch, e, g., Experi- ments 6 and 7. But this amounts to saying that the protein and crude fibre of a ration are better digested the narrower the nutritive ratio of the latter, a fact which, it will be remem- bered, we have already noticed in the case of hay, and §83 MANUAL OF OATTLB-FBEDIKG. which Stoliniann lias made the basis of his formula (p. 250) for calculating the digestibility of the protein of a ratiou from its chemical compositiou. A large mimber of lesults seem to indicate strongly that this is a general law, of which the experinients cited above are only special cases, and that the non-nitrogenous matters of hay, e, g.^ as truly depress the digestibility of its pj'otein and fibre as does the addition of starch. The only difference is that we can- «iot abstract the non-nitrogenous matters from the hay and observe the digestibility of the other constituents, but must determine the digestibility of the hay as a whole. The statement that starch decreases the digestibility of other fodder, then, is simply a practically convenient way of stating the result in this particular case. Sugar. — jJ^ot many experiments on the influence of sugar on the digestibility of rations have been made ; but those which have been executed show, as was to be ex- pected, that widening the nutritive ratio of a ration by means of sugar produces essentially the same result as when effected by starch. The decrease in the digestibility appears to be rather smaller, however. Effect on Digestibility of Nitrogen-free Extract. — ^Thus fai' we have considei^ed chiefly the effect of easily digestible carbhydrates on the digestibility of pro- tein and fibre. In regard to the nitrogen-free extract and the fat of the coarse fodder, it may be said that the diges- tibility of these constituents is not essentially decreased bj rtwA »r smgiir so long as Hae iMfer are completely di- gested. Frequently, however, the starch or sugar not only dimi- nishes the digestibility of the protein and fibre, but escapes digestion itself to a not inconsiderable extent, thus causing a double loss. We have here another indication of the MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIHG. 28? necessity of observing a medium nutritive ratio in tlie fodder of farm animals. Indeed, a too-wide nutritive ratio may cause more waste tlian a too-narrow one. In the former case the protein consumption is, as we learned in Part I., needlessly in- creased, but the nitrogen of this protein is excreted in the urine, and has its value in the manure. In the second case, a too-wide nutritive ratio also causes a waste of pro- tein by decreasing its digestibility, but it also causes some of the starch to pass throng! i the body without being put to any use, wliile as manure tiie latter is absolutely value- less, containing only elements of which the atmosphere offei-s an inexhaustible snpply to plants. Roots. — It will not often be the case in practice that pure starch or sugar is fed, but potatoes and roots, which are especially rich in carbhydrates or pectin substances, must exert a similar influence on the digestibility of coarse fodder. It is to be expected, however, that the resulting depression will be smaller than that caused by pure carbhydrates, since the above-named fodders contain, be- sides starch and sugar (or pectin), other substances, and especially more or less albuminoids. The effect of roots and potatoes on the digestibility of a ration has been investigated chiefly at the Ilohenheim Ex- periment Station, where a large number of experiments on sheep have been executed.* In calculating the results of these experiments the pota- toes and roots have been considered as wholly digestible, and any decrease in the digestibility of the ration is con- sidered as affecting exclusively the remaining fodder. The * Landw. Jahrbucher, VIII. , I. Supplement, p. 123. Compare also Wolff's ''Ernahruiig Landw. Nutztliiere/* pp. 158-175. 284 MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIN-G. grounds wliicli justify tlxis assumption are two: first, it is known that these feediug-stuffs are very completely if not ■wholly digested, and that large amounts of starch or sugar do decrease tlie digestibility of a ration ; second, with our present knowledge this method of expressing the results is the most convenient for practical purposes. It should never be forgotten that investigations of this sort are of a practical and not a physiological nature. In feeding, it is not the digestibility of one feeding-stuff so much as that of the whole ration which is of importance, and hence that method of expressing the results of digestion experiments is best which attains this end by the simplest method con- sistent with accuracy. Probably roots are not wholly digestible, but at present it is not possible to calculate di- gestion coefficients for them as has been done for the other bye-fodders. Calculated on this basis, these experiments yielded, in general, the same results as those on the feeding of starch and sugar, viz. : that tlie depression of the digestibility was greatei', the larger the amount of the bye-fodder and the wider the nutritive ratio. The following table by Wolff, in which the results are grouped according to the propor- Dkpeession — Peb cent. Diy matter of bye- fodder m per cent, of coarse fodder. Protein. Kitro^en-f ree extract. Organic subPtanco. Potatoes. Roott. Potatoes. Boots. %.2 Potatoes. Roots. 12 to 18 7.3 4.0 5.3 4.4 3.0 23 to 35 13.9 7.1 6.5 4.7 7.5 5.9 44 to 51 27.8 11.9 14.7 6.8 17.1 9.3 64 to 95 .... 40.2 22.3 13.9 10.2 17.5 11,7 MAKTJAIi OF OATTLE-FEEDIlSra. 285 tion of bye-fodder, will serve to give an idea of the extent of tlie depression. The numbers denote the decrease in the digestibility of the protein, nitrogen-free extract, and total organic matter, nnder the influence respectively ^f roots and potatoes. The depression is calculated in per- centages of the amounts of the several nutrients digested when the bye-fodder was withheld. The decrease in the digestibility of the non-nitrogenous ingredients caused by any amount of roots or potatoes likely to be fed in practice is so small that we may neglect it, and consider only the effect on the protein. From the above numbers, Wolff concludes tfiat we can assume that, when the dry matter of the bye-fodder of ruminants amounts to ^^ J, -J-, and finally equals that of the coarse fodder, the digestibility of the crude protein of the latter is decreased by about 7, 14, 28, and 40 per cent, if the bye-fodder consists of potatoes, and by about half 5is much if it consists of roots. It is plain, however, that these numbers can be but ap- proximations, since, in general, the decrease of the digesti- bility varies with the nutritive ratio of the whole ration. It seems probable that, in practice, the most satisfactory method would be to use these iigures as a basis for com- pounding a ration, and then to compute the digestibility of the total crude protein by means of Stohmann's for- mula (p. 256). In cases of doubt, it is well to eir in giv- ing slightly too much rather than too little protein, not only for the sake of ensuring the digestion of the non-nitroge- nous nutrients but to ensure also a sufficient supply of the important albuminoids to the animal. For similar reasons it is well, when feeding large quan- tities of roots along with hay or straw, to add to the ra- tion a small amount of some highly nitrogenous bye-fod- 286 MAKtTAL or CATTLE-rErDma. der, like oil cake, in order to narrow tlie nutritive latio and ensure as complete a digestion as possible, botli of tlio nitrogenous and the non-nitrogenous nutrients. As noted, all the above expeiinients were made on sheep, and their results are applicable, in the first place, to rumi- nants. A similar depiession in the digestibility of the crude protein in the food of the hog is produced by starch, and presumably by roots, while the digestibility of the non- nitrogenous nutrients seems little or not at all affected. i mally, it should be added that the digestibility of pota- toes, when fed exclusively to hogs, has been the subject of investigation at the Expeiiment Stations of Proskaii and Ilohenheim. The results of these experiments are inclu- ded in Table II. of the Appendix. Effect of Fap. — Experiments on the effect of the ad- dition of small amoimts of fat or oil to a ration on the digestibility of the constituents of coarse fodder have hitherto given very variable and more or less discordant results. There is little doubt that in high feeding, intended to cause a rapid production, the fat of the ration is of im- portance, and has considerable influence on tlie nutritive effect, but the weiglit of evidence goes to show that the d^gestiUlity of the various nutrients is not essentially al- tered by an addition of fat to the fodder. Care must be taken, however, not to give niminating animals too much fat, since it may easily cause a gradual loss of appetite and even serious disturbances of diges- tion. It is to be noted that such an injurious effect is much less noticeable when the fat forms an actual con- stituent of the fodder, as, e. g,, in oil cake, etc., than when pure fat is mi\ed with the fodder. This is illustrated by some Ilohenheim experiments on MANUAL OF CATTLE- FEEDIN-G. slieep. The fodder was tolerably rich in protein, and by tbe gradual addition of increasing quantities of palm-nut meal and flaxseed the amount of fat per day and liead was increased finally to 75 and 100 grammes, ^^Idle the quantity of the remaining nutrients was scarcely altered- The di- gestibility of the fodder was not affected at all, either favorably or unfavombly, and the health of the animal did not suffer. Effect of Salt. — ^That salt plays an important part in the nourishment of the animal organism, and is tor the herbivora, even more than for the carnivora, an indis- pensable food, has been already explained. Upon the digestibility of the fodder, however, it seems to exert no considerable influence in any way. The result of direct experiments in Salzmunde, Ilohenheim, Dresden, and Pioskau, has been to show sometimes an apparent de- crease, and sometimes an apparent increase, of digestibility as a result of the feeding of salt. Generally, however, nnder wholly normal conditions, salt has shown itself without influence in this respect. The greater palatability of a fodder, and the larger amount consequently eaten as a result of salting, is not to be confounded with its percentage digestibility, which, as we have seen (p. 259), is in general little affected by the quantity eaten, especially of coarse fodder. Besides salt, other inorganic matters are sometimes fed, especially phosphate of lime. This is not the place to con- sider the necessity of such a procedure, nor its effects on the nutrition of the animal. Here it need only be said that, like salt, they appear to exert no effect on the digest- ibility of the organic nutrients. CRAPTEE IL THE COARSE FODDERS. In tlie preceding chapter, we have considered, in a gen- eral way, the digestibility, and incidentally some of the other properties, of the more common classes of feeding- stuffs. We now proceed, in this and the following chap- ters, to take np the chief members of these classes for a more detailed study. In this we shall regard the feeding- stuffs chiefly as sources of the various nutrients — that is, we shall look at them from a chemical standpoint, and make their composition the prominent point. The greater or less adaptability of particular fodders to particular kinds of animals we shall leave entirely out of account, simply because it is as yet entirely a matter of practical observation and experience. The subject of the cultivation of fodder plants, too, is outside the scope of this work, and will only be alluded to incidentally, in so far as the different methods of cultivation and mamiring may influence the composition or digestibil- ity of the resulting crop. § 1. Meadow Hat, Rowbn, and Pasture Gbass* Variable ^Composition. — ^While the seeds of the same plant, and hence their bye-products, are generally quite constant in their chemical composition and nutritive value, it is characteristic of the stems and leaves, which constitute what we call coarse fodder or forage, that they vai-y very 3IANUAL OF CAXTLE-FEEBING. 289 considerably in composition, according to the circumstances under wliicli tliey grow, tlieir state of niatiuity, etc. It is, therefore, of the highest importance to learn how these various factors affect the value of a fodder. In the follow- ing paragraphs we shall consider their influence on the composition of hay, preniibhig that it is essentially the same on all coarse fodders. Supply of Plant Food. — It is a well-established fact that the natural quality and the fertility of a soil have a very considerable influence on the chemical composition of the crop, especially of coarse fodaer^ This influence is particularly noticeable on the nitrogen- ous constituents of the fodder. According to analyses made in Tharand, the hay from a manured meadow contained 12 per cent, of protein, that from an unmanured one only 9 per cent. Still greater differences often show themselves when dark green, " rank " plants are compared with pale yellowish-green ones of the same kind, occurring in the same field, and of the same age. This was observed, e, g,^ in investigations made in liCockern. Eank plants of oats, barley, wheat, and rje contained at the beginning of flowering 16.4 per cent, of protein in the dry matter, while weaker plants contained only 10.4 per cent. It is not improbable that the low percentage of crude protein which seems to be characteristic of American, or at least of New England, hay, as compared with that raised in Germany and Austria (compare "Report Conn. Agl Expt. Station," 1879, pp. 79-83), is owhig to its having been raised on poorer soils. Some analyses made by "Weiske & "Wildt,'^ in Proslvau, * Jahresber Agr. Chem., XIII., Ill , 9. U 290 MAIfTUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. are of interest in tliis connection. The fodder grew on a heavy clay soil, and consisted, for the most part, of timothy {Phlewn ]}rate7%se\ with a slight admixtm-e of red clover. One sample (I.) came from a part of the field which was in an ordinary state of fertility ; the other (II.) was taken from spots where the excrement and urine of the grazing animals had caused an especially luxuriant growth. The two samples had the following composition in the water- free state: II. Protein Per cent. Ciude tibre. Per cent. Pat. Pel cent. Nitrogen- free extract. Per cent ILO 20 3 23 5 26.6 4 2 4 8 56.3 41.8 Ash Per cent. 6.0 7 The differences are very eonsiderahle, especially in the amount of protein and nitrogen-free extract. It is noticeable that the greatly increased percentage of protein in II. is accompanied by a not inconsiderable in- crease in the quantity of crude fibre, in consequence of which the digestibility of the protein i^ most probably diminished. According to practical experience, a very rank fodder, such as grows on heavily-manured land, and especially in wet and shady places or in wet seasons, is l^ot especially nutritious, even though it contains much crude protein. This may be partly because the protein is less digestible and partly because the bulk and coarseness of the fodder render it unpalatable- Moreover, high ma- nuring, especially with nitrogenous fertilizers, tends to in- crease the proportion of "non-protein," which is less valuable, in some respects at least, than true protein. Jt woul4 be very Interesting tq make systematic diges- MANUAL O^ CATTLE-FEEDIJSra. 291 tion experiineuts witli the different qualities of fodder obtainable by different manuring of tlie banie soil, in order to determine tile actual practical value of liigli mamiring for fodder crops. As yet tliis lias not been done. Method of Curing, — Tbe method of curing almost Tiniversally adopted in this country is drying. Evidently, this alone cannot change the composition of the dry mat- ter of the fodder, and we have seen that the digestibility is in no essential degree affected when the drying is care- fully conducted. On the other hand, it has been already stated that in the preparation and handling of hay, as commonly con- ducted, more or less loss of substance is unavoidable, and that this loss consists of the most nutritious parts of the plants. As a result, both the composition and digestibility of the hay suffer (compare p. 306). Obviously, it is desirable to reduce this loss to the mini- mum. Hence all methods and appliance:^ which diminish the amount of handling which the hay must receive, espe- cially when it is nearly dry, tend to improve the quality of the product. So, too, it is desirable to dry the grass as little as is consistent with the object of curing, viz., to ensure the keeping of the fodder, since the dryer and more brittle it becomes, the greater is the loss by handling. In the process of " ensilage," long practiced in Europe and lately introduced into this country, these losses are largely avoided, the fodder being placed in the silo while still green. On the other hand, the process of fermenta- tion which the fodder undergoes causes losses in other ways. In this country ensilage has been chiefly recom- mended for maize, and we shall consider it more fully in that connection. Damage "by Rain, — In our hot and dry smnmers, in MA-NTJAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIJSTa. wliicli liaj can usually be sufBciently cured in a single day, liay is far less exposed to damage from rain tlian is tlie case in the moist climate of Germany and#Engiand. At tlie same time it is impossible to altogether avoid it, and it is therefore of interest to know its effects on the hay. Both analysis and digestion experiments confirm the common observation that hay which has been wet is dim- inished in value. A loss of crude protein and nitrogen-free extract, and a relative increase in the crude fibre, are gen- erally observed, combined with a decreased digestibility. Stage of G-ro^wth. — As has been already pointed out (p. 33), plants while still young and rapidly growing con- tain i*elatively more protein and less fibre than more ma- ture ones. Consequently, early-cut fodder must, other things being equal, be of better quality than late-cut. This is well illustrated by the following analyses, executed at Ilohenheim,^ of hay cut at three different times from the same meadow : WATBK-FREB S0BSTANCB. Out. Trotein, Per cent. Cnide fibre. Per cent. Fat Per cent. Nitrogen- free extract Per cent. 43.91 43.27 43.34 Per cent. May 14, 1877 June 9, '' <* 26, '' 18.97 11.16 8.40 24,70 S4.88 38.15 3 42 2.74 2 71 9.50 7.95 7.34 The table shows a decrease of crude protein and m in- crease of crude fibre, both of which impair the quality of the fodder. Furthermore, we have seen (p. 263) that early-cut fodder, * Landw. JaJirTbucher, VIII. , I. Supplement, 54. MANUAL OB" CATTLE-FEEDING. 293 like that of May l*ith, is much more digestible than that cut later, aud the real value of a fodder is, of course, measured by the amount of digestible nutrients it contains. In the above case 100 pounds of each fodder contained the following amounts of digestible matters : Cut. 1 Digpptible organic substance. Pounds. I)]ge«5tible protein. Pounds. Diarestible crude fibre. Pounds. Digestible fat. Pounds. Digestible nitrojJ:en- freeextiact. Pounds May 14th June 9th *' 2Gth 69.30 59.31 53.45 13.85 8.04 4.74 19.76 23.03 33.37 2.32 1.43 1.17 33 37 26.83 24 27 It will be seen that the total quantity of digestible mat- ters and the amount of digestible protein, the most valu- able of the nutrients, furnished by 100 pounds of the early-cut hay is considerably greater than that jdelded by the same weight of that cut later. Many more examples of the same fact inight be adduced were it needful. Early or Late Cutting. — The question of early or late cutting is one that is frequently raised, and the considera- tions just adduced enable us to indicate, to some extent, its answer. Three elements enter into the problem, viz., the quality of the fodder, its quantity, and the amount of labor expended upon it. As Just illustrated, young plants are relatively richer in protein and poorer in crude fibre than old ones,, and there- fore more nutritious ; so that if the only question were the quality of the fodder, the best results would be obtained by cutting as early as practicable. But we have to consider not only the quality of the fod- der but the quantity of it wduch we can obtain from a given area, and this complicates the question somewhat. 2d4c MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIN-G. In tlie young plant protein is formed rapidly, but as it grows older the vital activities are directed more to tlie translocation of protein alreadv present than to the pro- duction of new. This is especially the case after blossom- ing, when the protein before present in the stems and leaves is transferred to the seeds and there stored away. At the same time a continual formation of woody fibre goes on, so that a large proportion of the increase in weight of plants after a certain point is due to this substance, and al- though the absolute quantity of protein is not decreased, its percentage in the whole mass of the plant is. When crops are raised for fodder, the object generally is to produce the greatest possible amount of digestible imtrients per acre. IE it were a question simply of producing the greatest num- ber of pounds of nutrients, digestible or indigestible, per acre, if we were confined to one crop in a season, we should let that stand as long as possible, since we have no evidence that there is saij loss of organic matter during ripening. But supposing, for the present, that only one crop is raised in a season, we have seen that the older plants become, the less digestible they are. For this reason, though we might get a greater quantity of nutrients per acre by letting a yearns crop, e. ^., stand till fully ripe, we should probably lose more in digestibility than we gained in amount. Furthermore, as we have just seen, while any crop is ripening a large part of the protein and starch passes from the leaves and stem to the seeds, leaving the former rela- tively poor and woody. Now, in the case of grass, the seeds are nearly worthless for fodder, since they are so small as to escape mastication, while whole seeds are seldom digested, being protected by their integuments from the action of the digestive fluids. Moreover, they are easily lost in curing, so that these two circumstances combined HAHUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. 295 cause tlie loss of practically all tlie nutrients contained in the seeds. The grasses belong to the same order of plants as the grains, and hay made from fully ripe grass is essentially straw. ]S^o farmer would expect to obtain nu- tritious fodder from afield of ripe oats, if he neglected the seeds and collected only the leaves and stems of the plants ; yet this is exactly what is done of necessity when grass is allowed to ripen before cutting. The straw is collected, while the seeds, which contain most of the valuable mate- ria], unavoidably escape. If only one crop is to be obtained, probably the best time for cutting is usually when the plants are just begin- ning to blossom. At this time a larger crop is obtained than if cut earlier, while the digestibility is not seriously impaired. It is during the ripening of the seed that the most extensive changes in this respect go on. If a high nutritive value is desired rather than quantity, of course a still earlier harvest w^ould be in place. In the case of grass, it is a further advantage of season- able cutting that a second crop may be obtained, and often by frequent successive cuttings a very considei*able amount of highly nutritious fodder may be obtahxed. For example, the crop of a meadow in Ilohenheim w^as obtained fi^om one-half at a single cut, from the other in two. The fol- lowing were the results ; One cut. , Two cuts. Percentage of protein. Total protein. Pounds. 16.3 314 434 6G8 Total dry matttr. Pounda 2,663 3,274 These numbers speak most decidedly in favor of early cutting. Where the fodder was cut twice, not only was 208 3IA]SrUxVL OF OATTLE-FEKDING. the quality far better, as shown by the percentage of pro- tein, but the absohite quantity both of protein and of dry matter per acre was nearly one-half greater. When we take into account the gi*eater digestibility of the young hay, the gain becomes still larger. Numerous similar ex- periments have been made with clover, and these will be mentioned in the next section. One made by Weiske, in Proskau,^ on a mixture of grass and clover, may be de scribed here. It is of especial interest because the digest- ibility of the fodder was determined by direct experiments on sheep. A iield was sown with a mixture of clover and grass seed, and divided into two equal portions. In the time from April 2J:th to August 24:th, the yoimg vegetation on one half of the field was plucked by hand thirteen times, in imitation of the effects of pasturage, wliile the other half was mown twice. The following table gives in pounds per Prussian Ifo?'- geiiy first, the total yield of the several nutrients, and sec- ond, the amounts of digestible nutrients obtained. Total Yield. Plucked. . . . Mown twice. Dry Bttbbtauce. Lbs. 2,1^2 a,392 Protein. Lbi9. 485 Cmde fibre. Lbs. 355 899 Nitrojfcn-frco extract, and fat, LbH, 1,002 1,707 Digestible. Plucked 1,457 2,01G 450 307 239 444 768 1,204 — „„. It Mown twice * Wolff, '^ Ernahrung Landw. Nutzthiere/' p. 108. Manual of oattle-feedikg. 297 The composition of the water-free substance of the two fodders was : Plucked. Mown twice. Protein , 27.07 16.74 5.09 42.09 0.01 13.43 Crude fibre 27.14 Fat Nitrogen-free extract 3.G9 49.69 Ash 6.06 In this experiment the frequent cutting gave a very rich fodder, and, at the same time, yielded absohitely more di- gestible protein and about iO per cent, less non-nitrogenous digestible matters per acre. All these results nidicate that the richest fodder and the largest yield of digestible matters per acre may be ob- tained by catting two or more crops of comparatively young grass in a season, rather than one crop of over-ripe vegetation. In practice, however, the fertility of the soil, the length of the season, the cost of labor, etc., have to be considered, and in the nature of the case, no general rules can be given. The chief advantage of early cutting lies in the better qxiality of the resulting fodder. Late cutting, if not too late, yields a greater number of pounds of digest- ible non-nitrogenous nutrients per acre than early cutting, but the resulting fodder is deficient in albuminoids and is usually not suitable for exclusive feeding. Obviously, how- ever, circumstances may be such as to render it more eco- nomical to sn])plement the poor hay obtained by late cut- ting by nitrogenous bye-fodders than to be at the expense of cutting two or more crops, while under other conditions 298 MANUAL OF CATTLE-JFEEBING, the opposite course may be advisable. Sucb being the case, eacli farmer must strike the balance for hiuiself between quality, quantity, and cost. Rowen. — It is evident that the vahie of rowen must be very variable, according to the soil, the time at which the first ci'op was taken off, etc. It is generally likely to be cut at a comparatively early period of growth, and then, if properly cured, constitutes an excellent fodder. It is, however, more liable to injury from wet than the coarser hay of the first crop, and may easily suffer considerable damage in this way. Pasture G-rass. — The high nutritive value of the young grass of good pastures is evident from the foregoing para- graphs (compare the analysis on p. 292). The question of the relative advantages of pasturage or stall-feeding, how- ever, is a purely economical one, and as such is entirely outside the scope of this work. Proportion of Non-Protein in Hay. — Recent inves- tigations, especially those of Kellner, already alluded to (p. 37), have shown that a comparatively large proportion of the nitrogenous matters of hay and other coarse fodders is not albuminoids, but belongs to some of the classes of non-albuminoid nitrogenous matters enumerated on page 34, and which we have collectively designated as non-pro- tein. In thirty-one samples of various kinds of coarse fodder, he found {loo, gH.^ p. 2i5) the non-albuminoid ni- trogen to range from 0.102 to 2.133 per cent, of the dry matter of the fodder, and from 7.5 to 38.5 per cent, of the total nitrogen. In meadow hay the range was 0.102 to 0.983 per cent, of the dry substance, and 7.5 to 348 per cent, of the total nitrogen. In nineteen samples of hay examined by the author,'^' the non-albuminoid nitrogen was * Beport Conn. Agl. Expt. Sfcafcxoa, 1879, p. 112. MAITtrAIi OF CATTLE-FEEDIN-G. 299 found to be from 0.09 to 0.46 per cent, of tlie air-drj sub- stance (14.3 per cent, of water), and from 8.93 to 24.36 per cent, of the total nitrogen, the average being, respect- ively, 0.21 and 16.70 per cent. According to Kellner's investigations, most of the non-albuminoid nitrogen exists in the form of amides. Although the amides, as we have seen, are easily di- gested and have some nutritive value, yet they cannot be considered equal to the albuminoids, and it is clear that the largo amount of them which hay sometimes contains must diminish its value. Non-^ppois'ui m early-cut Hay, — The statements made on page 36 respecting the functions of amides in the plant would lead us to expect to find them chiefly in those plants or parts of plants where growth was going on, while in those which had reached their full development we should anticipate finding most or all of the amides reconverted into albuminoids, except in eases where, as in the beet, they act as a reserve of nitrogenous food. Asa matter of fact, those investigations which have hitherto been made confirm, in the main, these anticipations. Thus Kellncr's results show that, in general, the pro- portion of non-protein is greatest in the hay from yoimg plants, and decreases as the latter approach ripeness. An interesting difference was observed in this respect between the common grasses {Graminem) and the legumes; in the former the decrease in the amount of non-protein with approaching ripeness was very marked, while in the latter it was much less noticeable. The former are plants which, after flowering, cease to assimilate to any great extent, while the latter, along with the formation of flower and fruit, continue to grow and assimilate food, and thus ojffer the conditions for the formation of amide compounds. 300 MARITAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. The following table of a few of Kellner's results, givin|]^ the proportions of total and non-albuminoid nitrogen, will serve to illustrate these facts : Total nitrogen. Per cent.* KON ALBUMINOID NITKOGEN. Amide nitrogen. Per cent.* Per cent of total nitrogen. (BachsHG's method ) Per cent.* LUCEKNE. 1. Cu!3 April 7, H in. yxigh. . 6.922 2.133 30.5 2. " "• 12, 3^ in high. 5.760 2.042 35.5 3 3d cut, without flower buds 3.570 1.183 33.1 1.025 4. Before flowering, 18^ m. high 2.474 721 29.1 0.613 5. In flower, 22i in high. . . 3.008 0.729 24.2 087 Eed Clover. 1. Cut March 27, 1^ in. high 5.200 1 958 37 7 2. '' April 27, 2i in. high. 3.974 0.975 24.5 8. In full flower 2344 (16.5^ 0S70 Meadow Hay, 1877. 1. CutMayU 2 824 0.983 34.8 0.89S 2. '' JuneO.: 1.787 1.354 0.385 0.102 16.0 75 339 3* *' " 29 0.033 Kellner also shows {he. oil, p. 248) that hay which ha^ been heavily manured, like that whose analysis is given on page 390, is usually rich in non-albuminoid nitrogen. * Per cent of w^ter-free substance. MxlI^tlAL OT OxVTTLE'FEEDI^NTG* 301 Obviously, tliese results have an imjioi'taiit bearing on the comparative value of early-cut as eonipared with late- cut hay. In all the experiments on this subject which are adduced in the foregoing paragraphs, the protein includes all the nitrogenous matters of the fodders. Could the pro- portion of non-protein have been taken into account, there- suits would, doubtless, have been somewhat modified ; but, at the same time, it does not appear probable, from what we now know, that they would have been essentially dif- ferent. In all Kellner's experiments, the amount of true protein, as well as of non-protein, was greatest in the earliest cut fodders, and we have been (p. 265) that tlie true protein of early-cut hay appears to have a greater digestibility than that of late-cut. Moreover, most of the non-protein was in the form of amides, which we have seen to have a certain nutritive value. While, then, these recent results show that the compara- tive vahie of early-cut hay and green fodder may have been overestimated somewhat, they htill show that its quality is superior to that of lato-cut, other things being equal. § 2. Tbp03 Leghtmbs. t If The legumes^ — inchiding the vMotls kinds of dover, lucerne, vetches, lupines, etc., as well M pbm tod h^km — are characterized by the large proportion of protein con- tained both in the plant as a whole, and in the seeds. Owing to this and to the fact that they are plants which are much more independent of the supply of nitrogen in the soil, or at least in manures, than are the grasses and gr^ltts, tliey ^re of ttin<3h impottatice in aigriailtitr^. As fodders, wlien properly cut and cured, they aire vei-y rich. 302 Mi.lTUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. but have tlie disadvantage of being ratlier bulky, and of being easily subject to deterioration by meebanical losses. CLovi^K AND Oloveb IIay.— What lias been said con- cerning the variable composition of meadow grass and hay applies with equal force to clover and to all coarse fodders. As a general rule, clover is richer in nitrogenous matters than grass, and an admixture of clover with meadow hay usually improves the quality of the latter, while not im- parting to it the bulkiness of pure clover hay. As regards its digestibility, it may be said that, com- pared with meadow hay, its protein is about equally digestible, its crude fibre decidedly less digestible, doubt- less owHig to the lignin which it contains (p. 41), and its nitrogen-free extract and fat rather more digestible. As in meadow hay, however, the digestibility is largely in- fluenced by the qnalitv of the fodder, and this again by the same influences which affect that of all coarse fodders. Period of Growth. — What has been shown to be true of meadow hay in this respect applies also to clover. The earlier it is cut the more concentrated and digestible a fodder does it yield, while, as it grows older, the crude fibre increases, and it becomes coarse and less easily digestible. For example, analyses made in Ilohenheim of clover cut at different times gave the following percentages of pro- tein in the dry matter : Cut May 1st 23.3 per cent " June 13th 16.6 " ^' July 20th 11.4 " In Mdckern the following results were obtained for pro- tein in the dry substance: MAlvrUxiL OF CATTLE-FEEDIJsrO. 303 Cut May 20tli 19.6 per cent. " Jime'Tth 16.3 " " " 20tli 13.2 " That with the decrease of protein and increase of crude fibre the digestibility of the former as well as of the total organic matter decreases has been already shown (compare p. 263). Best Time for Cutting. — In regard to the best time for cutting clover, the considerations advanced in the pre- ceding section concerning grass are applicable, as shown by numerous experiments. That clover, when cut young, is of better quality has been sufficiently shown already. In regard to the advantages of early and frequent cutting, the experiments, while they speak decidedly in favor of it, do not all give such striking results as those on grass. One such experiment on a mixture of grass and clover has al- ready been adduced (p. 296). Another, also made in Proskau, gave the following results in pounds per Prus- sian Morgen : Three cuttings. Two cuttings. . , Protem. Lbs. 750 485 Here, again, we have a decided gain by the more fre- quent cutting, even taking no account of the better quality and greater digestibility of the fodder. Clover and similar plants, to be sure, do not endure too frequent cutting as well as tiie grasses ; if cut often, they frequenfly yield only, a relatively small amount of foddei-, but one of excellent quality. 304 ma:5^ttajl of cattle-feedii^to. In Tliatand, one part of a clover field was cut six tiiucs between May f39tli and August 24:tli, in imitation of the effects of pasturage. The resulting fodder and one ob- tained from another portion of the same field in two cut- tings (July 7th and August 24tli), made when the clover was in full bloom, yielded the following amoimts of dry matter, protein, and crude fibre, in pounds, per Saxon Morgen : Six cuttings, . Two cufctings Dry matter. libs. 2,924 5,811 Protem. 615 lbs =21.0 per cent 762 lbs =13.1 per cent. Crude fibre. 637 lbs. = 21.7 per ot. 1,954 lb*. = 33,0 per ot. Although nearly twice as great an amount of dry matter was obtained from the older clover, the advantage thus gained was nearly equalized by the far better quality of the younger, especially if we judge it by its content of protein. The percentage composition shows that the abso- lute quantity of digestible protein in the young clover was as great, and perhaps greater, than that in the old. Losses in Curing. — "What has already been said of the losses incident to the curing of Ray in the ordinary man- ner applies with still greater force to clovet. The stems of clover are comparatively coarse and thick, while the leaves, on the contrary, are thin and tender. Consequently, to amount of drying sufiScient to properly cure the stalks is likely to render the leaves so dry tliat they will easily crtimble ancl be lost in handling. Still further losses of the same sort are liable to occur in the mow in the eoursfe c^f a winter. These losses are all the more serious bedause the kaves MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING 305 of clover are especially rich in protein, and tliis protein is probably far more digestible tlian tliat of the stems. In one observation the dry matter of the leaves was found to contain 22.3 per cent, of protein and that of the stems only 12 per cent., while of the total quantity of protein more than half was contained in the leaves. In other cases still greater differences between stems and leaves in this respect have been found. All these considerations show tlie importance of avoid- ing these mechanical losses, so far as possible, by rapid curing, carried no further than is necessary, and an avoid- ance of much handUng. EfPeet of Wetting, — Clover is still more liable to suffer loss by rain than meadow hay, since from 25 to 40 per cent, of its dry matter is removable by extraction with cold water. The loss consists largely of soluble portions of the nitro- gen-free extract, and to a loss degree of protein and ash, while the crude fibre is naturally bnt little affected. As a consequence, the residue contains nmch more fibre and much less extract in 100 parts, while the percentage of protein is usually little changed. An extreme example of the deterioration of clover con- sequent on exposure to rain is affoi*ded by the two follow- ing analyses made at Mdckern. The two samples grew in the same field, and were ent at the same time^ — at the beginning of flowering — ^but No. 1 wm cured quickly without any essential loss, while Ko. 2 was exposed for fourteen day^ to almost daily heavy shoVi^ers. The latter, when it was finally dried, ap- peared of tolerable qnality, and conld still be used as fod- der, but a diemioal Examination showed that it had lost by extraction and fermentation 27.4 per cent, of the original 306 MANUAL OF CATTLTS-ITEEDING. dry matter, viz., 3.8 per cent, of protein, 20.6 per cent, of nitrogen-free extract, and 3 per cent, of ash. Tlie percent- age composition of tlie two samples of hay in the air-dry state (containing 16 per cent, of water) was as follows: No. 1. No. 2 Water. 16.0 146 25.3 36.1 8.0 16 Protein , , 15.8 Crude fibre 87.4 Nitrogen-free extract and fat 23.4 Ash , 75 It appears at first sight that No. 3, instead of having deteriorated, was rather improved in quality, since it con- tains 1.3 per cent, more crude protein than No. 1. The increase is, however, only apparent, and is due to the fact that relatively more non-nitrogenous than nitro- genous nutrients are removed from clover by water ; so that there may be a loss of protein and, at the same time, an increase of its percentage quantity in the residual fodder. The protein remaining in the hay, however, must be the less digestible portions, and the amount of digestible pro- tein would doubtless be greater in the good hay. The great relative increase in the crude fibre deserv^es notice. It is, of course, due to the loss of the more soluble ingredients, and must tend to decrease still further the digestibility and value of the hay. These facts explain why, in practice, clover hay is sometimes met wiijh which, although it contains considerable protein, is of the poorest quality, because it contains at the same time much crude fibre and little extract and is very coarse and indigestible. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING, 307 Lttceriste. — This important fodder plant is in general even richer in protein than red clover, but is inclined to a more rapid formation of woody fibre after the flowers ap- pear. Wagner'^' found the water-free substance of two samples cut respectively May 31st and June 30th to have the following composition : Profcein Fat JNitrogen-free extract Crude fibre Ash* Evidently lucerne demands eai-ly cutting, even more than clover, in order to yield a highly liutritious fodder. Digestibility. — Most of the digestion experiments on lucerne hitherto executed have been made on material of exceptionally good quality, and much superior to what would be obtained in practice by the ordinary methods of curing. Consequently, the digestion coefficients given in the Appendix are probably higher than would be ordinarily observed. In some recetlt experiments by Kellner f the digestibility of ordinary lucerne hay as cured in the field (No. 1) was compared "With that of hay from the same piece of ground, dried under cover and without Iobs (No. * Jahresber, A^. Cliem. , XVI. , 25. j-Laadw, Versaolis-Statioi?.en, XXI., 425* 308 MAITUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 2). The composition and digestibility of tlie water-free substance of the two samples were as follows : Composition. Protem. Per cent. Crude fibre. Per cent. Nifcroj?en- free extract and fat. Per cent. Ash. Pel cent. No. 1 2. 14.94 17.00 33.90 31.81 44.22 43.80 6.94 7.39 BlGESTIBXLITy. No. 1 No. 2. One thousand pounds of the green plants yielded the following amounts of digestible matters : No. 1. Lbs. No. 2. LbH. No. 1. LbH. 39.52 70.52 4.08 No. 2. Dry substance . . . Organic matter, . Protein 140.10 135.93 25.64 162.84 156.48 33.68 Crude fibre N. f r. ext. and fat Ash , 42.48 80.76 5.9 These results furnish a fresh illustration of the influence of the composition of a fodder on its digestibility^ while the second table shows, in a striking manner, the very con- siderable losses incident to field curing. As compared with clover of tlie same quality, we may assume, with comparative certainty, that the crude protein of lucerne is at least equally digestible. On the other MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIISra, 309 hand, the crude fibre of lucerne is decidedly less digestible tliaii that of clover, the nitrogen-free extract of the two fodders is about equally digestible, and the fat of lucerne, like that of meadow hay, seems to be difficult of digestion. The large proportion of digestible protein which it con- tains renders lucerne both absolutely and relatively a very nitrogenous feeding-stuff. If fed exclusively, especially as green fodder, it supplies an excess of protein, and hence causes a w^aste of this valuable imtrient. It should there- fore, in most cases, be used in connection with some feed- ing-stuff poor in protein, such as roots or straw, to realize the best effect. Vetches. — The coefficients given in the Appendix for vetches, are the results of six digestion experiments made in Ilohenheim on sheep. The fodder was of excellent quality, cut at the very beginning of flowering, and cured in fa\'orable weather; it is therefore not surprising that the digestion coefficients were nearly the same as those of the best clover hay, and for protein even higher. Like lucerne, the vetch is inclined to a rapid formation of woody fibre after flowering, and deterioi-ates in quality. In Waldau the following percentages of protein and crude fibre were found in the water-free substance : Protein. I'^er cent. Crude fibre, l^er cent. CutMay23d *' Julymh 25.4 13.8 20.8 S9.8 In the state in which vetches are generally used for fod- der, however, they may safely be considered to have a higher percentage of protehi than clover. 310 MANUAL OF CATTLE-l^EEDIKG. LuPiKES. — The yellow lupine yields, wlien exit just at the end of flowering, the most highly nitrogenous of all coarse fodders. Experiments by Heidepriem ^ on lupine hay cut just as the pods were beginning to form, perhaps somewhat ear- lier than is customary in practice, showed that it contained the enormous quantity of 27.8 per cent, of protein in the dry matter. The digestibility of the protein by sheep was found to be 74, that is, almost the same as in vetches and lucerne. This seems to indicate that at about 80 per cent, we have reached the maximum to which the digestibility of the protein of coarse fodder can rise, since with about the same percentage of crude fibre the quantity of protein varies in the three fodders just named from about 19.2 per cent, to 27.8 per cent., without producing any consid- erable increase of its digestibility. A striking fact is the high digestion coefficient foimd for cnide fibre (74), while in vetches and lucerne, both of similar composition, it was much lower, viz., about 54 and 38 respectively. If this observation be trustworthy, lupine hay forms an exception to the general rule that the nitrogen-free extract is a measure of the total digestible non-nitrogenous matter ; the relation in this case was found to be 100 : 124, i. h value on the kidney-vetch {AnthjlUs mdnerarla\ especially for light, sandy soils, where clover does not floimsh. It is somewhat poorer in protein than the foregoing plants, but also contains less crude fibre, and is not inclined to become Avoody so ra])idly. Among its advantages are reckoned the facts tluit it b MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIITG- 313 snxted for a light, dry soil ; yields a comparatively large quantity of nutrients even in dry years, wlien most crops are " bmnied up ; " tliat the fodder made from it is very wliolosome; that it resists frosts well; and that in tlie fall it may be pastured without injury to the next year's crop. It is eaten willingly by sheep and cattle, either green or as hay, and horses soon become accustomed to it. The esparsette or sainfoin {Onobryclds satha) seems, according to our present knowledge, to at least equal red clover in its percentage of protein, and to retain its pala- tability and digestibility to a somewhat later stage of growth. Anotlier plant cultivated on sandy soils — the seradella {Oniithopics sativum) — ^yields an especially fine, palatable, and easily-digestible fodder, which has the advantage over other forage plants that it retains its full value to the end of the flowering period. It gives comparatively small crops, however, and in cur- ing, the leaves, i. , p. 112. 316 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIKa. Tliat wliicli is cut later, and especially that wliicli is commonly cnred for winter fodder, is usually rich in carb- lijdrates but poor in albuminoids, having a nutritive ratio of 1:9 to 12, or even wider. On this account it cannot be used exclusively, but must be supplemented by more nitrogenous feeding-stuffs ; but when its proper function is recognized, viz,, to furnish chiefly non-nitrogenous nutri- ents, and its deficiency of protein is made up by other in- gredients of the ration, it forms a valuable feeding-btuff, which experience has shown to be well adapted to cattle. The necessity for the use of nitrogenous bye-fodders is, of course, still greater in the case of stover, which is esti- mated by Wolff to have about the same nutritive value as ^•ye straw. Digestibility. — On the digestibility of maize fodder we have but a single experiment, by Moser,'^' on a very good quality of maize fodder, which showed a high digestibility of all the nutrients, particularly crude iibre and fat. From the results of one such experiment, however, no general conclusions regarding the digestibility of a fodder can be drawn. Ensilage.— Within a short time the process of " ensi- lage" has been recommended to our farmers as a most advantageous method of preserving maize fodder in par- ticular, and a few practical trials of it have given favorable results. While some extravagant claims have been made for it, it doubtless possesses certain advantages over field curing as well as certain disadvantages peculiar to itself. The process consists essentially in storing the finely cut green fodder in suitable receptacles, in which it is closely packed, and which are so arranged as to exclude the air as * Landw Versuchs Stationen, VIII , 93. MAIM UAL OF CATTLE-FEEDINa. 317 completely as possible. For a more detailed description of the method, the reader is referred to the recently trans- lated work on this snbject by Goffart. "With nnessential modifications it has long been in use in Germany, the pro- duct beins: known as " sour maize " or " sour hay," w^hile if the fodder be partly dried before being stored, it yields ^^ brown hay." Advantages of Ensilage. — The chief advantages of ensilage as a method of preserving fodder are, that it is independent of the weather, a great advantage in some lO" calities ; that the fodder is handled when green, and that therefore no loss of the more tender and nutritions paits need be feared ; that the resulting fodder is soft aud easily masticated, and that the fermentation whicli takes place in it renders it, perhaps, more palatable to the animals. These are not unimportant advantages, and in many cabes may be snffieient to cause the adoption of the method. On the other hand, ensilage, of itself, adds nothing to the value of the fodder submitted to it, but rather diminishes it. Chemieal Changes in Ensilage. — 1\\ the silo a sort of fermentation is carried on at tlie expense of the ex- tractive matters of the fodder, resulting in the formation of various organic acids and volatile bodies, and naturally diminishing the quantity of niti'Ogen-free extract, and thereby increasing the percentage of all the other ingre- dients. This is illustrated by the following analyses^of fresh maize and ensilage by Grandeau.^ The two contained re- spectively 86.20 per cent, and 81.28 per cent, of water. The dry matter had the following composition: * Jour, d'Agrio. prat., 1875, pp. 77 and 136. 318 MAirUAL OF CATTLE-FICEDINO. Fr^'sh. Per cent. , ,, ., EnBilai^e. Per cent. pTotein .... ...» 6.52 1.30 58.71 26.59 6.88 6M Fat . . , 192 Kitrogen Crude fill -free extract. . • . • 53.21 re .••*...• 20.23 Ash . , , . 12.02 100.00 100.00 Some investigations by Weiske ^ on tlie ensilage of es- parsette, in wliich the total amount of loss by fermenta- tion was determined, sliow the nature of the alterations which the fodder undergoes still more clearly. The composition of the dry matter of the fresh espar- sette, as it was applied to the preparation of ^^browix hay " and " sour hay," and that of the dry matter of the two latter, was as follows : Protein. Per cent. 18.56 20.69 20.44 Pat. Per cent. Gmde fibre. Per cent. 83.93 32 38 35.18 Nitrogen- freo extract, X*er o®nfc. A«h. Per cent. Fresh.... Brown hay Sour hay... a.89 4.87 6.02 88.60 35.06 80.88 0.02 7.00 7.48 As before, the fermented fodder is poorer in nitro- gen-free extract and richer in other ingredients than the original materials. The loss of dry matter during fermen- tation was, in the case of the brown hay, 18.5 per cent., Jour, t hmdw,, 1877, p. 17a MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEiSBING. 319 and in tliat of the sour haj, 24.0 per cent. Consequently 100 pounds of tlie dry matter of tlie unfermented fodder yielded the following quantities of nutrients in the three cases : Dry matter. Protein. Fat. Crude fibre. Nitrogen- free extract Ash. Fresh (pounds). Brown hay ' ' Loss (pounds). Loss (per cenfj.) 100.0 81.5 18.5 18.5 100 76 24 24 18.56 16.86 1.70 9.2 ■ ■■"■ 18.56 15.53 3.03 16.3 2.89 3.97 +1.08 +37.4 2.89 4.57 + 1.68 + 58.1 33.93 26.39 7.54 22.2 38.60 28.57 10.13 26.3 6.02 5.72 0.30 5,0 Fresh (pounds). Bourhay ** Loss (pounds) . Loss (per cent.) 33.93 26.74 7.19 21.2 38.60 23.47 15.13 39-2 6.02 5.69 0.33 5.5 These results render it evident that the preparation of brown hay, and still more that of sour hay or ensilage, in- volves a much greater loss of substance than is ordinarily to be feared in drying in the field. It is possible that the losses would be smaller with maize than with a highly ni- trogenous fodder like clover or esparsette ; but they are,, doubtless, considerable. The apparent increase in the fat during fermentation appears to be due to the fornaation of lactic acid aiid other substances soluble in ether. A certain advantage may perhaps be gained by ensilage in so far as the resulting fodder contains a larger propor- tion of protein, and therefore does not require so large an addition of bye-fodder. Corn being a comparatively cheap crop, the losses of material during the fermentation 320 MAI^UAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIJNra, miglit "bo compensated by tlie improved c[nalitj of tlie re&idue. It does not appear from Grandeaii's analyses, liowever, that there is any very marked difference iu this respect between fresh maize and ensilage. If this is generally the case, then fermented corn fodder has all the advantages of the fresh fodder, and no others, except perhaps as regards palatability, and ensilage is to be looked npon simply as a method of preserving corn fodder, and the cpiestion of its adoption is a purely economical one. Effect on Digestibility. — T^o comparative experiments on the digestibility of ensilage have been made, but a few experiments in which small amonnts of fodder were fer- mented (compare page 2(16) showed rather a decrease than an increase of digestibihty. In Weiske^s experiments the digestibility of both the brown and sour hay was found to be quite low. Weiske also fomid that the bi^own hay of lucerne had about the same digestibility as that dried in the field. It is not, therefore, to be anticipated that ensi- lage will be found to materially affect the digestibility of fodder. Quality of tlie Fodder. — The value of fodder pre- served by ensilage must evidently depeiid on the quality of the original material. The loss of non-nitrogenous matters which it suffers narrows the nutritive ratio soirie- what, and renders it more valuable, pound for pound, than the green fodder. With this exception, the remarks al- ready made conceming the quality and value of maize, as well as of other fodders, are applicable here. It is espe- cially important to recollect that the composition of the ensilage, and its nutritive effect, must, of necessity, be just as variable as those of the fodder from which it is pre- pared. MANUAL OF OxVITLE-FEKDING. 821 Tlio fow analyses of ensi]a<>;e which we possess show that, like corn fodder, it is rich in non-nitrogenous nutri- ents and poor in protein, requiring the addition of a bye- fodder rich in protein in order to produce the best re- sults. In conclusion, it may be added that in some cases inju- rious effects have been observed to result from too great acidity of the fermented fodder — a fault easily remedied by the addition of a little pulverized chalk. g 5. Tors OF Boot Obops. Composition. — The leaves of the various root crops are very watery, but their dry matter is usually rich in nitrog- enous matters, and contains but a small percentage of crude fibre. On the other hand, much of their nitrogen appears to be i]i the form of non-protein, and the leaves of mangolds and sugar beets in particular possess strong pur- gative properties, owing to the large proportion of salts and of organic acids which they contain. Consequently they must be fed with caution. German authorities recommend that they be treated by ensilage, and used in small quanti- ties as an addition to winter fodder. Carrot and turnip tops possess the injurious property just named to a less degree. DigestiMlit3r. — Experiments by "Wildt ^ on the digesti- bility of fei*mented beet leaves, when fed with barley straw to sheep, showed that they had a fair degree of digestibility^— 57 per cent, of the total organic uiatter and 65 per cent, of the protein being digested. Potato tops were found to be much less digestible. The latter, however, can hardly be accounted a f eeding-&tuff ; *Landw. Jalirbucker, VII. ^ 133. 322 MANUAL OF CAITLE-FEEDING. they are comparatively poor in imtiitive matters, and are coarse and unpalatable. Leaves. — Tlic leaves of deciduous trees have sometimes been used as fodder, the young shoots behig cut oft while the leaves were still green, and allowed to dry. The leaves contain a medium amount of protehi, a small percentage of crude fibre, and considerable fatty matter and wax. In the experiments by "Wildt just mentioned, poplar leaves were found to be fairly digestible. They are fed only to sheep, and are believed to exert an excellent dietetic effect when given in small quantities. g 6. Stbaw op the Cereals. Stra^w a Valuable Fodder. — Straw is a feeding-stuff frequently regarded as of little value, and yet good stiaw is most decidedly better than poor hay. Indeed, hay and straw are practically almost the same crop, cut at different stages of growth. The grasses and the cereals both belong to the same natural order {Graminem\ but whi^e the for- mer are (or should be) cut while still green, for the sake of their stems and leaves, the latter are grown primarily for their seeds, and are therefor^ harvested later, when nnich of their nutritive matters has passed into the seed. It may easily come to pass, then, that if, on the one hand, grass is cut very late or exposed to rain while curing, and if, on the other hand, grain is harvested early, the straw from the latter may exceed in value the hay of the former. In any ease, good straw is a feeding-stuff not to be de- spised. As the table in the Appendix shows, it is rich in non-nitrogenous matter, especially in crude fibre, and poor in protein, and hence is not suited alone to form a ration. Its value lies in its non-nitrogenous anatters, of which it MAlSrUAI/ OF CATTLE- FEEDING. 333 f iirnislies an abundant and cLeap supply, and in combina- tion with feeding-stuffs wliicb can supply its deficiency in protein, it forms a valuable fodder. The old assnmptions that the crude fibre of straw was indigestible, and that its digestibility, as a whole, was far less than that of other coarse fodders, have been shown to be erroneous ; the ex- periments of Ilenneberg & Stohmann, since fully con- firmed by numerous others, have shown indisputably that about half of the total imtrients of straw, including the crude fibre, are digestible, at least by ruminants, thns placing it on an equality with other coarse fodders as regards dii>;estibility. Straw is in general an entirely suitable fodder both for horses and cattle, similar in its dietetic action to hay- Straw which has suffered from diseases (rust, mildew, etc.), and is thereby rendered unfit to serve as fodder at all, is, of course, excluded in this statement. Variatioas in Composition. — The composition and value of straw may vary considerably, depending, in the first place, on the kind of straw. Oat straw is usually the j*ichest; then follows bai*ley, which is valued for milk cows ; next wheat, and last, rye, which is the poorest and least digestible of all Summer straw is generally some- what richer in protein and poorer in crude fibre than winter straw, and also more tender and digestible. The soil aiid manuring also influence the composition of straw in the same way a$ that of hay ; a rich and well-manured soil yields a better fodder than a poor, nnmanured one. The manner of sowing, too, has an influence on the quality ; when thickly sown broadcast the plants shade each other, and the stalks remain more tender and succulent and less woody than the stalks of plants sown in drills and more exposed to light and air. 334 MAKITAL OF CATTLE- FEEDING. Tlie time of harvest lias a great infliiCBce on the nutri- tive qualities o£ straw, just as it does on those of liay. As in the latter so in the former, the earlier it is cut the richer in protein and the more nutritious it is. In fields which have been seeded down to grain, the straw of the latter, in fruitful years, is often so intergrown with grass, clover, etc., as to essentially increase its value and enable it to entirely take the place of hay. Digestibility. — Comparatively few determinations of the digestibility of straw have been made, oat straw being the one chiefly experimented on. Jffenneberg & Stohmann found in exclusive straw feed- ing of oxen the coefficients M and 39 for protein ; while Wolff, in experiments on sheep, obtained the much lower numbers, 33 and 14, with straw containing an equal per- centage of protein. In the latter experiments, to be sure, the straw was raised in drills and was hard-stennned, but the animals were allowed to select the tenderer parts, and only the st]*aw actually consumed served as the basis of the calculation. The crude fibre of oat straw is quite as easily digestible as that of good hay, but the digestibility of the nitrogen-free extract and the fat is decidedly less. On the digestibility of barley straw few experiments liave yet been made. In experiments by Wildt,'^ the digestion coefficient for protein was found strikingly low, L, 17. The straw, evidently, was over-ripe, and contained only 4.9 per cent, of protein in the dry substance. The digestibility of the nitrogen-free extract and the fibre was found to be 61 per cent, and 56 per cent, respectively. With a higher per- centage of protein the digestibility of these nutrients in Landw. Jahrbucher, VII., 146. MANUxVL OF OATTLE-FEEBINd 32l> barley straw would, doubtless, also be Liglier, and the lat- ter would prove to be a valuable straw for feeding. The relative digestibility of the constituents of winter straw is much the same as that of summer straw. The coefficients of the former, however, are usually somewhat lower, corresponding to the difference in composition. This is the case only in a slight degree with the nitrogen- free extract and the fat, but is more noticeable in the case of protein and the crude fibre, as deduced from the accor- dant results of experiments made at Weende, Dahme, and Salzmiinde on rye straw (in a single case only on wheat straw). It has been already stated that the digestion coefficient for protein in feeding-stuffs having so little of this nutri- ent as the straw of the cereals, may easily be found too low on account of the admixture of biliary and other pro- ducts in the excrements. At the same time, the straw used in most of these experiments was comparatively rich in protein, and at any rate the numbers thus obtained must be used until they can be replaced by more accurate ones. Manner of Using.—Large quantities of straw m a ration are more suitable for n^minants than for the horse, since the former, on account of their large stomach, and the length and complexity of their digestive canal, are better able to utilize large masses of coarse fodder. For swine, straw is not well adapted. ^ mong ruminants, the sheep is better adapted than the • ot^aw. _ By means of its pointed month and .. 4ir)i. it to seek out the most valuable ''--t grains which have es- ~' «nd the ears G26 MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIISrG. It is a very good practice to let all tlie straw wliicli Is to serve for litter be first put before slieep. In the liner and more tender parts wlxicli tliey seek out and consume, a much larger percentage of protein and a muclx nariower nutritive ratio is found than is shown by an analysis of the whole straw. According to Krocker's investigations "^ the nitrogen content of the stalk of barley and rye straw is to that of the leaves, leaf -sheaths, and ear-stalks as 1 to 1.9. That is, the latter contain nearly twice as ixiuch protein as the former, and when sheep have laid before them so much straw that they eat only these tender parts, they actually receive a fodder which differs little from hay in value. Similar results were obtained by Arendt f in his investi- gation on the growth of the oat plant. In 100 granmies of dry matter from the various parts of the ripe plant the following quantities of nitrogen were found : Grms, Three lower joints of the stem ,.,...... 79 '- middle " *' 1.17 *' upper " " 1.56 '* lower leaves. 1.43 Two upper * ' 1 - 74 Ears , 3.04 g 7. Steaw oy THE Legtjjvdss. Composition and Digestibility. — Much of what has been said of the straw of the cereals is true of that of the leguminous plants, but the latter differs very considerably in composition from the former, just as clover hay does from meadow hay. The straw of the cereals is poor in protein and rich in non-nitrogenous matter ; that of the * Annalen der Landwirfchscliaft, 18G1, XII, 415. f Compare *'How Oiops Grow," pp. 204-319. MANUAL OF OATTLE'FEEDI]^G. 327 legumes, on the contrary, is relatively richer in protein and has a narrower nutritive ratio, and hence is more ini- tritions and more digestible. The digestion coetBcients for bean straw given in the Appendix are deduced from only a few experiments made in Weende, in which this feeding-stuff was fed to 0w\en, In this substance, as in clover hay, the crude fibre is less digestible and the nitrogen-free extract more digestible than in the straw of the cereals. The coefficients for pea fitraw are from a few experiments made in Ilohenheim, in which only the more tender parts of the straw were eaten by sheep. The portion actually eaten had the composition of tolm^ably good clover hay (14.0 per cent, of protein, 31.9 per cent, of crude fibre), and the digestibility was correspondingly high. In general, in the hay and straw of the legumes the crude fibre is less digestible and the nitrogen-free extract, on the contrary, more digestible than in the hay and straw of the graminea3. The crude fibre of lupine hay forms a striking exception to this, and that of lupine sti^aw (/. e.^ the stalks and leaves remaining when the plant is culti- vated for the seed) seems to show the same behavior. In both feeding-stuffs the whole quantity of non-nitrogenous matter digested exceeds considerably the amount of nitro- gen-free extrac^f ound by analysis (see p. 310). I 8. Chaff, Pods, akd Maizb Cob. ChafiJ etc. — ^Wheat chaff generally contains more pro- tein than the straw. The chaff of barley and oats, on the contrary, is generally poorer in protein than the straw of t^ie same plants* In the pods of the legumes w^e usually find at least as much protein as in th^ir straw. 328 MAKUAL OF OATTIiE-I^EEBIKG. All kinds of cliaff are, as a rule, poorer in crnde flbro tlian tlie straw, and it is lience to 1)0 assumed tliat the digestibility of the remaining ingredients is correKSpond- ingly higher; but direct experiments on this point are still lacking. The mechanical condition of thebe feeding- stuffs causes theni, when fed in proper quantity, to be more agreeable and palatable to cattle than whole or cut straw. Maize Cob. — The question of the nutritive value of maize cob is one which has long been under discussion by practical farmers, but to which no decisiye answer can yet be given. The evidence of chemical analysis goes to show that, like straw and similar fodders, its chief value* is as a source of carbhydrates. The average of nine analyses of Amei'ican maize cob "^ gives it the following conij)osition : Air-diy, Wator-frec. Water 0.16 • • • • Ash. 1.32 1.45 Protein 2.23 82.04 2.44 Crude fibre , . 85.31 Nitrogen-free extract 5485 00.85 Fat 0.41 0.45 100.00 100.00 'No experiments on the digestibility of maize cob have yet been made, and hence it is impossible to pronounce definitely upon its nutritive value. Presumably, a consid- erable portion of it would prove to be digestible, particu- *E©port Conn. Ag'J Expi. Station, 1870, p. 145. MANUAL OP CATTLE-FEEDIKO. 329 laiiy bj ruminants, and from the results obtained regard- ing the digestibility of straw, etc., as well as from its com- position, it is evident that the digested portion would be chiefly earbhydrates, with but little protein or fat. The connuon method of using cobs as feed is to grind them with the grain, making "cob meal." Some recent practical trials '^ seem to indicate that the same nutritive effect may be produced by a less quantity of the kernel when the latter is fed along with cob as cob-meal, the dif- ference being made up by the digestible matters of the cob. The latter, as has been said, probably consist chieiiy of earbhydrates ; their effect would be to widen the nutri- tive ratio of the ration, and thus to favor a more economi- cal production. Unfortunately, these experiments did not include analyses of the fodder used, and hence their results, though interesting as indications of the digestibility of maize cob, are not suited for elaborate discussion here. * Report of Joint Committee of the Pomfret and Woodstock, Conn., B'armers^ Clubs. — Connecticut Farmer, Nov, 15, 1870. CHAPTER III. CONCENTRATED ^ODBEES. Tins name is given to those feeding-stuffs wliicli, occtir- ring largely in trade, contain in a given weiglit a relatively IsiTge quantity of digestible matters. Tlie nitrogen-free extract consists for the most part of carbhydrates, particu- larly in the grains, and albuminoids and fat are frequently present in large proportions. 1 1. The Grains. Value. — Of all the concentrated fodders the grains are perhaps the most important. They contain large quanti- ties of nutrients and are a specific fodder for working animals. Practice seems to show that grain feeding for certain purposes is indispensable, and attempts to replace grain by other feeding- stuffs, even those in which chemical analysis shows an equal amount of nutritive matter, have either failed or met with but partial success. It is especially suited for animals which have to per- form severe work and for young animals ; while for those which have reached maturity, and of which only a moder- ate amount of work is demanded, other feeding-stuffs may take its place, and for store animals, which perform little work, it is too expensive. Like most highly concentrated fodders, grain is soniewhat difficult to digest, and too MANUAL OF OATTLE-ITEEBIKG. 831 large quantities may easily cause distui'bances of digestion, especially if not properly prepared. Composition. — The grains contain the three groups of organic nutrients, viz., albuminoids, carhhydrates, and fat, in large quantities. The albuminoids of the grains have already been described to some extent (pp. 26-30). The carbhydrates consist largely of starch, the various grains containing in the air-dry state about 50 to 60 per cent, of this substance, accompanied by a small amount of gnin and cellulose. The ether extract of the grains eonsibts largely of true fat. We thus see that the organic matter of the grains consists chiefly of substances of undoubted nutritive value, a^d contains little waste matter ; as a consequence their digestibility is high, and they contain a large amount of nutriment in a small bulk. They are characterized by a medium nutritive ratio, the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous nutrients be- ing about 1 : 6-8 or in maize as wide as 1 : 10. Tliis fact indicates their proper use. They are obviously not ada})ted to increase the proportion of protein in a ration containing too little of this nutrient : for this purpose we need a sub- stance containing much protein and but a bmall amoxuxt of carbhydrates and fat. The grains find their application in cases where it is desirable to give a ration which, while having a medium nutritive ratio, slmll contp-in much xiu- triment in a small bulk, and tims save digej^tive labor as explained on p. 228. For example, the composition of the digestible portions of oats and of good clover hay does not differ greatly, but there is no question which is the more valuable fodder for a horse from which severe work is demanded. Variations in Composition.— Grain, like coarse and green fodder, has a more or less variable composition, 332 MANUAL OF OAnLE-FEEDING. especially as regards protein^ according to tlie conditions under whieli it is grown and harvested (soil, manuring, climate, weather, variety, degree of ripeness, etc.), althongh ripe grain of any particular kind is more constant in its composition than forage crops. Wheat and oats appear to he more variable tlian rye or barley ; in the diy matter of American winter w^heat from 9.33 per cent, to 10.54 per cent, of protein has been found by different observers. In spring wheat the range w^as 8.83 per cent, to 16.89 per cent. In some late experiments in Poppelsdorf, the per- centage of protein in a variety of wheat already rich in this substance was increased from 10.3 in the unmanured wheat to 17.6 by an abundant manuring with superphos- phates, to 21.4 by manuring wdth soluble nitrogen com- pounds (ammonia salts and nitrates), and to 22.4 by manur- ing with phosphates and nitrogen compounds ; the protein of the straw was respectively 3.4 per cent., 3.7 per cent., and 6.2 per cent. Other experimenters, indeed, have not been able to show such a decided effect of manuring on the composition of the cereals, and this effect may be, according to circum- stances, either increased or diminished, or even entirely nullified by other factors, such as the quality of the soil, the weather, etc. Still, as a general rule, we are justified in expecting a more nitrogenous grain on a fruitful, highly manured soil than on its opposite or on one of only average quality. Wheat, — The high value of wheat as food for man for- bids its use as cattle food under ordinary circumstances. The average of all available analyses of American wheat is as follows : * * Report Conn. Agl. Expt, Station, 1879, p, 141, MANUAL OF OATTLE-rEEDING. 333 Air dry. Per cent. Water frte. Per cent. Air dry. Per cent. Water fiee. Pel cent. Water Ash Protein 10.73 1.70 11 82 1 90 13.34 Crude fibre " IS", fr. extract. . - Fat 75 76 84.86 No determinations of tlie digestibility of wlieat have yet been made. Rye. — But one analysis of Ameiican rye is reported.^ "Wolff gives as tlie average of German analyses : Water 14.3 per cent. Ash..... 1.8 '* Protein 11.0 " Crude fibre 3.5 *' Nitrogen-free extract 67 . 4 '* Fat 2.0 '' Like wheat, rye is chiefly nsed as food for man, No determinations of its digestibility are reported. Oats.— -In oatSj as in wheat, the percentage of protein is qnite variable, and is largely determined by the thickness and weight of the hull, compared with that of the ker- nel. The latter is generally qnite rich in nitrogen, and is distinguished by a comparatively high percentage of fat (5 to 7 per cent.). The percentage of protein in the whole grain is somewhat less than in wheat, the average being about 13 per cent of the water-free substance in the latter, and perhaps IX per cent, in the former. The quality of a sample of oats is not always indicated by the weight of a given bulk, and it would doubtless often be advantageous in purchasing large quantities of so impor- * Eeport OoED. Ag'l. Expt. Station, 1879, p. 141, 884 MANUAL OP CATTLE-^FEEDIKa* tant a fodder, and one liable to vary so mucli, to have at least the amount of protein determined by chemical analy- sis. Such an analysis, of course, would not suffice to de- termine acGurately either the nutritive or commercial value of the article ; but, at the same time, it might be of material assistance in forming a practical estimate of the feeding value of a sample of oats or of any other grain. In a concentrated fodder like grain, the protein is the most important and most costly ingredient, as well as the one whose amount is subject to the greatest variations, and, other things being equal, the more protein the fodder con- tains the more valuable it is for the purposes to which it is applied. In conjunction with the weight, appearance, etc., of the grain, a determination of the protein would be an important factor in judging of its quality, and would have the advantage of rapid and comparatively easy execu- tion. DlgesUllUty, — The digestibility of oats has been largely determined in experiments on sheep, though recently sev- eral experiments have been made on their digestibility by the horse. With the exception of three experiments, the results of which were evidently exceptional, these trials have shown a very unifoim digestibility of this feeding-stuff, and therefore the average digestion coefficients may be consid- ered comparatively trustworthy. The experiments on the horse ^ have shown that this animal is able to digest oats, as well as other concentrated fodders, quite as comj^letely as sheep do. Barley. — Barley is in general somewhat poorer in pro- tein than the other common cereals, and the more so the more fully and uniformly the graiiis are developed, the * Landw. Versuclis-Stationen, XX., 125, and XXL, 19, and Landw. Jahrbuoher, VIIL , L Supplement, p. 6* MAISTITAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIKG. 335 percentage of this ingredient ranging, according to J", Kiilm, from 6.2 to 18.3 per cent., and averaging about 11 per cent* But one experiment on the digestibility of barley by rmninants has been made, viz., by Bchulze and Marcker, in Weende, on sheep. The results of this expeiiinent agree very closely with those which have been obtained in several experiments on swine, and may therefore be assumed to be at least tolerably accurate. As is usually the case, the pro- tein and fat were slightly better digested by the ruminants, while as regards the nitrogen-free extract the advantage was on the side of the swine. Rice. — Eice is chajcacterized by a low percentage of protein (about Y.5 per cent.), a very small percentage of fat, and a large proportion of starch. "No experiments on its digestibility have been made. Buckwheat, — Buckwheat, though belonging to an en- tirely different botanical family from the true grains (cere- als), may be conveniently classed with them for our present purpose. The percentage of protein in buckwheat is more than that in rice, but less than that in the other cereals, and about the same as in mai^ie. It contains a considerable propor- tion of crude fibre, averaging 16 per cent., most of which is located in the hull or outer covering, and has rather less nitrogen-free extract than the cereals. Maize or Indiau Com.— The cheapness, healthfulness, digestibility, and great fattening qualities of this feeding- stuff cause it to take a high rank among the grains. As regards chemical composition, the innumerable varieties which are known may be divided into two classes, sw^et and common corn, having the following average compo- sition : SPfi MAlsrXJAL OF OATTLE-FEEDI]vrG. AvEHAGE Composition- of American Maizk.— Water-Fkee. swffiEr. COMMON. Average of eleven analyses. Average of fifty-two analyses. Ash 2.1 13.2 3.3 73.5 8.9 1,7 Protein. 13.0 Fibre - 1.9 Nitrogen Fat -free extract 78.7 5.7 100.0 100.0 " The greater richness of sweet corn in albuminoids and fat is very decided and indicates a higher nutritive vahie than that of common corn. " The sweet corn contained on the average 8.6 per cent. of water, and the common contained 10.8 per cent., but the samples were unequally dried, and the analyses prob- ably do not show the proportions of water that exist in corn in bulk as found in the crib or in market. "The range of variation in the several ingredients is shown by the following statement of the lowest ^nd high- est percentages as found in these analyses :" Rang-e of Composition of Ambricatst Maize. Ash Frotein. Fibre. . . . , Nitrogen-free extract Fat Sweet. 1.6— 2.i 10.2—15.9 8.6— 3.0 69.6-79.5 5.8—10.3 Common. 1.3— 3.0 8.7—14.4 0.3— 3.0 75.2-82.2 4.4- 7.8 MAHtJAL o:F OATTLE~FEEJDIir0, 837 The analyses of American make thus far made do not show any essential differences in composition between flint and dent corn, nor between eastern and western corn. Common maize contains somewliat less protein and more non-nitrogenous matters than the cereals, and has a wider nutritive ratio. It is therefore not as valuable as the latter in cases where much protein is required in the food, as in case of heavily-worked animals, and must be supplemented by more highly nitrogenous materials. In fattening, on the other hand, and particularly in the fattening of swine, where a rather wide nutritive ratio is required, it produces excellent results. It is very probable that the compara- tively large proportion of fat which it contains is one cause of its well-known fattenins^ properties, thous-h the effect of this is most likely not as great as is sometimes thou£!:ht. Kumerous digestion experiments on hogs, sheep, and the horse, have shown that maize is very completely di- gested by all these animals. The results obtained on sheep and on the horse were substantially accordant ; those on hogs, three in number, show a somewhat greater digesti- bility of the crude protein, but it is questionable whether this will be found to be generally the case. § 2. Byb-Pkodtjcts of the (3-BAiisrs. Since it is generally more profitable to the farmer to ^11 the comparatively high-priced gi-ains than to use them for fodder, it comes about that their bye-products find an ex- tensive application as fodder in place of the grains them- selves, e. g,j tlie bran of wteat and ije, bi-ewers' grains and malt sprouts from barley, etc. 15 838 MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIKa Bran,— Bran has a liigli value for fodder, as is sliown botli by chemical analysis and microscopical examination ; the latter, indeed, shows most strikingly how uneconomical is usually an extended use of grain for the food of those animals which do not, like the horse, demand a concen- trated fodder. With cattle, particularly, it is more advan- tageous, as a rule, to feed the bran than the grain or meal ; the raising of calves and the last stages of fattening form a partial exception to this rule. If we investigate microscopically the way in which the several nutrients are distributed in the seeds of the cereals, we find that by far the larger part of the nitrogenous com- pounds is denosited in one or more definite layers of colls lying directl^ under the seed-vessel '^' and filled with fine grains of gluten. Wheat, rye, oats, and maize, have only one layer of protein-bearing cells, except in the neighbor- hood of the germ, while barley has three such layers under the seed-vesseh In the manufacture of flour, the inner and starchy part of the grain is more easily pulverized during the process of grinding than the tough integuments. The latter are torn off, carrying with them portions of the layer of protein-bearing cells lying next to them, and are removed by bolting, constituting bran or middlings. As a conse- quence, the bran is richer in protein and the floxu' poorer, than the whole grain. Thus, the average composition of American wheat, wheat flour, and bran, in the water-free state, is as follows : * "The grains are properly fruits. Wheat and maize consist of tho seed and seed-vessel closely united. Barley-grain, in addition to the seed-vessel, has the petals o£ the flower or inner chaff, and oats have, besides these, the calyx or outer chaff adhering to the seed."-- (" How Crops Grow.") MANUAL OF OAlTLliJ-FEEBING. 839 "Whole wheat, i'er cent. Wheat flour. X-'er cent. Wheat bran. Pci ceiAt. Ash 1.90 18 24 84.86 0G7 12.22 87.11 4.31 Protein Crude fibre. 1 " Nitrogen-free extract.. V Fat 14,23 r 7.G0 ■ 69.90 [ 3.91 These figures show most plainly how uneconomical it must he, under most circumstanceSj to use the costly grains as fodder. Except in cases where a very Concentrated food is reciuired, the chief value of the grains lies in the albuminoids which they contain, since the non-nitrogenous nutrients can be far more chiefly supplied in roots and coarse fodder. The albuminoids, however, are contained in the cheaper bran in considerably larger proportion, and in view of this fact, the value of the latter as fodder be- comes obvious. Digestibility* — The digestibility of bran has been the subject of but few experiments, but it seems in general to be fully equal to that of the grains. The digestibility of wheat bran has been determined with sheep and oxen ; that of rye bran only with swine. Bre'wers' Grains. — In the preparation of malt liquors from grain, the starch which the latter contains is convert- ed into sugar by the action of a peculiar ferment called diastase, contained in the malt, and this sugar is then fer- mented, and yields alcohol In this process it is chiefly the starch and a small quan- tity of extractive and flavoring matters which is withdrawn from the grain, while nearly all the protein is left be- hind. As a consequence, the residue is relatively richer 340 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIN-a. in nitrogen tlian the grain, as is sliown botli by analysis and by microscopical examination, tlie latter sliowing iho gluten cells intact, wliilo the starch is nearly all disbolved ont of the tissue containing it. Brewers' grains are nmch more watcxy than the original grain. They contain about 24: per cent, of dry matter^ and, on account of their richness in digestible albuminoidsj have a narrow nutritive ratio. They seem to be very agreeable to cattle, and are an excellent fodder for fatten- ing or for mill?:, while they are not adapted for anitnals that have to perfoiin severe work. Distillers' Grains. — In the nianfacture of distilled liquors, the first stages of the process are essentially the same as in the preparation of malt liquors, but, after the fermentation, the mash is subjected to distillation to separate the alcohol. The residue remaining in the still constitutes distillers' grains or "slump." This has nmcli the same composition as brewers' grains, except that it is more watery, containing only about 8 or 9 per cent, of dry mat- tei'. Like brewei's' grains it has lost chiefly non-nitrogenous matters. It consequently has a narrow nutritive ratio, and is a valuable addition to fodder poor in protein. More- over, it contains a considerable proportion of mineral mat- ters, which may be of advantage under some circum- stances. j;:^^.,_Distillers' grains are best adapted for cattle, and yield excellent results in fattening or feeding for milk, when rightly used. For sheep, hogs, and horses they are not well suited. In using tins feeding stuff, its watery nature should not be forgotten. Its relatively large proportion of protein renders it a suitable addition to a fodder deficient in this nutrient ; while, on the other hand, the health of the ani- MAl^UAL OF OATTLE-FEEDINa* 841 inals requires tlie addition to tlie " slump " of some dry coarse fodder, like liay or straw. A poor cpality of coarse fodder niay be rendered more palatable to cattle by satu- aatiiig it wiili dibtillers' grains, and tluis tlxe wateriness of the one fodder and the poverty of the other as regards protein can be simultaneously corrected. Used in tins way, dibtillers' grains constitute a perfectly healthful fodder. Much of the common prejudice against the use of "distillery slops" appears to be occasioned by their irrational application, and frequently by the lilthy surroundings of the animal h, rather than by anything inju- rious in the feeding-btuft itsell Malt Sprouts.— Another bye product of the breweries is malt sprouts. In the preparation of malt, barley is sprouted, and allowed to grow till the radicle attains a length equal to about two-thirds that of the grain ; then the process is stopped by drying the malt, and the radicles cither fall off of themselves or are removed by winnow- ing. These constitute malt sprouts; they are essentially very young barley plants. Kow we have seen that, as a general rule, the younger a plant is the larger is the pro- portion of protein which it contains, and malt sprouts are no exception to the rule. As will be seen from the table in the Appendix, they contain about 24 per cent, of crude protein, and have a nutritive ratio of 1 : 2.5. On the other hand, recent invest^ations have shown that they contain a large proportion of amides, as was indeed to be expected from what we already know of the functions of amides in germination. Five samples ex- amined by Kellner * gave, by Saehsse's method, the fallow- ing results on the water-free substance: * Bicdermanu's Oentral-Blatt, Jahrg. 8, p. 417. /sy MANUAL OF OATTLE-FJKEDING. IJTumber. Total nitrogen. Per cent. Albuminoid mtrogcn. Per cent. Ami do nltrogon. Per (ent. Amide nitroguu in per ctmt oJ total iiitrogt a. 1.. 3.55G 4.213 4.479 5 080 5.520 2.734 3.190 3.873 3.C10 , 4.102 0.822 1.023 1.60G 1.414 1.418 23.1 2.... 24.3^ 3 35.0 4 5 28.1 25.7 Malt sprouts serve excellently for bringing up the albu- minoids of a ration composed of poorer materials to the desired standard, and are a favorite fodder for young ani- mals and for milk and fattening. They are most suitable for cattle and swine. On account of their dry, brittle character, they are not well adapted for feeding directly, and need to be softened, either by mixture with wateiy fodder or by soaking in water. § 3. The Legumes, Composition. — The seeds of the Ugumlnosm (beans, peas, vetches, etc.) are especially distinguished by their richness in protein, in which respect they exceed all other seeds. Their protein consists chiefly of the legumin de- scribed on p. 28. The percentage of protein is not so variable in the legumes as in the cereals. The amount of this substance varies from about 22 per cent, to 30 per cent, of the dry substance, beans, and especially vetches, being generally somewhat richer than peas. The composition of each kind is given in detail in the table in the A])pendix. An exception to the range of variation given above m MA]srUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIKG, 343 found in tlie lupine, especially in the seeds of tlie yellow lupine, in whose dry matter 32-48 per cent, of albuminoids lias been found, while the seeds of the blue lupine are not so rich. The very large amount of protein (the most costly nu- Irient) contained in the lupine, together with the fact, already referred to, that it can be cultivated on light soils, would render it a highly-prized feeding-stuff, were it not for its peculiar, bitter, disagreeable taste, and the injurious effects of the alkaloids which it contains. Xaturally, many attempts have been made to utilize this Yaluable and comparatively cheap material by removing the alkaloids, and thus rendering it palatable to other ani- mals than sheep, which are the only animals that eat the raw grains readily* Various methods have been proposed, e, ^., roasting, or treatment with water to dissolve out the bitter mattex\ More effective than the latter is treatment with water to which a small quantity of muriatic acid has been added. In this case, however, the grain must be afterward boiled with pure water to which a little soda has been added to neutralize the excess of acid and pre- vent its purging the animals. The latter process is rather costly, and all these methods cause a not inconsiderable loss of nutritive matter, amounting, in one experiment, to 7.3 per cent, of protein and 6.3 percent, of extract Digestibility.— The digestibility of beans has been made the subject of nunierous experiments on ruminants, most of which have yielded fairly accordant results. The Weende experiments on oxen gave the coefficient 84 for the average digestibility of the protein, the most important ingredient* Later and rather more exact experiments have given somewhat higher numbers. "Wolff's experi- ments on the horse, already several tinges alluded to, 344 MANUAL OF CATTLE'-FEEDIKa. sliow that tliis animal digests beans as coini>letely as blieep do. 1 • 1 • The digestibility of peas has only been deterrauied m experiments on swine. The results agree pretty closely with those obtained with beans in experiments on rmni- nants. In some experiments by Ilellriegel & Lncanus on tlie digestibility of lupines by sheep, the coefficients 97 and 81 for protein and nitrogen-free extract were obtained. In later experiments, by Stohmann, fully 90 per cent, of the protein of lupines was digested by goats ; and it was at the same time observed that this bye-fodder aided the resorp^ tion of the non-nitrogenous constituents of meadow hay. All the observations hitherto made show that the diges- tibility of the legumes is comparatively great, and that, on the average, at least for peas and beans, a coefficient of nearly 90 may be assumed for protein, and of 95 for the nitrogen-free extract. Uses.— Unlike the grains, the legumes are dispropor- tionately rich in protein, and may therefore be appro- priately used to supplement fodder deficient in this sub- stance and to bring the amount of albuminoids in a ration up to the desired standard. They form a very coueen- trated fodder, and, on account of their richness in protein, are well adapted for working animals and for fattening ; but they f^hould, if possible, form only a part of the grain ration. For milking and suckling animals they are less liked. Lupines, when not submitted to some treatment to re- move their bitter principle, are eaten most readily and with least danger of ill-offeetb by sheep and goats, while horbes become accustomed to them less readily, and cattle hardly at all. MANUAL OJb' CATriiE-FEEDIKG. 845 §4 Oil Seeds akd Oil Cake. Oil Seeds.— The seeds of certain plants, of wliich the most common are flax, rape (or coka), and cotton, contain large quantities of oil — flax containing 30-40 per cent., rape 35-45 per cent., and cotton about 30 per cent. — and are commercial sources of oil. These seeds are also rich in albuminoids, but they are not often used as fodder on account of their high price. Flax, however, is sometimes gatheied when still unripe, in order to obtain a better quality of tibre, and in that case the seeds are compara- tively poor in oil, and tlieir price is so much lower that it would doubtless often be advantageous to use them for feeding. A fodder for young animals, for milk, or for fattening, if deflcient in fat, can be essentially improved by such an addition, provided that the quantity of fat is not made too great. Cxenerally, when it is desired to add fat to a ration, it can be effected to better advantage in this way than by the addition of pure oil. It must, however, bo borne in mind that these seeds contain also largo quantities of protein. Digestibility. — No direct experiments have yet been made on the digestibility of oil seeds. It may, however, be assumed, until we have better data, to be the same as that of the corresponding kinds of oil cake. Oil Cake. — The high price of oil seeds prevents their general use as a fodder. They are chiefly applied to the production of oil, and only tlie residue from this manufac- ture is used for feeding purposes. The oil is generally obtained by subjecting the seeds to liydraulic prcBsure, by which a large part of the oil is forced out, while mobt of the albuminoids remain behind. 15* 346 MANUAL OF CATTL-E-FEEOraG. The cliange effected ia tlio composition of the material is analogous to that which takes place in brewers' grains, viz., a removal of the non-nitrogenous nutrients, here fat, while the greater part of the albuminoids remanis. It will be seen at once that the resulting oil cake must have a high nutritive value, since it contains all the protein of the original seed and that portion of the oil which can- not be removed by pressure. Its nutritive ratio is nar- rower than before, and it is better adapted for adding protein to a ration, since larger quantities of it can be used without danger of giving too much oil. At the same time, it is a highly concentrated fodder, and, like all such mate- rials, must be used with caution, and only as a bj'e-fodder to supply the deficiencies of poorer materials. Composition. — The composition of oil cake will, of course, vary according to the completeness with whi(*h the oil is extracted. The greater the pressure to whicli it is subjected, the less oil and the more, relatively, of albmui- noids will it contain. A method of extracting the oil which has lately come into use to some extent consists in treating the ground seeds with benzol or bisulphide of carbon, which dissolve the oil The residue from this process is poorer in oil and correspondingly richer in pro- tein than that from the ordinary process of pressiiig, and it seems probable that it would have advantages as fodder over the latter. It is seldom that fat is deficient in the food of our domestic animals ; but it is often desirable to increase its protein, and by means of the extracted oil cake we could accomplish this without unduly increasing the amount of oil. The average of all analj^ses of American oil cake yet made are as follows, calculated on the water-free sub- stance : MANUAL OF OATTLE-l'EEDIBTG. 347 Linseed cake. Per cent. Cotton- seed cake. Per cent. Linseed cake. Per cent. Cotton- seed cake. Per cent. Ash.... Protein 7.13 32.48 9,70 7.33 46.17 7.98 N*. fr, extract.. . . Fat 37.66 13.03 19.98 18.54 Crude fibre.. ... But one sample (of linseed cake) contained less than 10 per cent, of fat ; but in that one the amount was only 3.15 per cent., while that of the protein was 39.92 per cent., show- ing that the sample had been extracted in some manner. Cotton-seed cake, it will be seen, is considei'ably richer in protein and fat and poorer in nitrogen-free extract than linseed cake, and must have a correspondingly higher feeding value. Palm-nut cake contains less albuminoids and more nitro- gen-free extract than linseed or cotton-seed cake, while the percentage of fat is about the sam6. It forms an excel- lent fodder, being very palatable and producing excellent results. Digestibility. — The numbers given in the Appendix for the digestibility of linseed cake are the avei'age results of numerous experiments on sheep, goats, and oxen, made in Hohenheim, llalle, and Mockern, respectively, and agreeing well with each other. The digestibility of cotton-seed cake has been tested in experiments on sheep in Ilohenheim. The material used came from Egypt, and was of poor quality compared with that sold in our markets. It contained numerous fragments of leathery pods, which brought the amount of crude jfibre up to 27.61 per cent., while it contained only 26.24 per cent, of protein. It seems somewhat doubtful whether S48 HAHUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. results obtained on bucIi material would be fully applicable to our cotton-seecl meal ; but those are tlie only experi- ments yet made, and we must accept their results till better are available. The digestibility of palm-nut meal has been tested in Mockern, in experiments on cows, and in Ilohenheim, on sheep. The results showed that the digestibility of this feeding-stuff is great, ranging above 90 for all the ingre- dients. It is also distinguished for its palatability and its favorable action on milk-production and fattening. Uses. — Unlike most of the feeding-stuffs hitherto con- sidered, the various kinds of oil cake are excessively rich in protein and deiioient in non-nitrogenous nutrients. This is especially the case with those which have been prepared by some process of extraction, the nutritive ratio being sometimes as narrow as 1:1. Tlie nioi-e conunon kinds of oil cake, while containing considerable fat, and hence having a wider nutritive ratio, are still characterized by a large excess of protein. Obviously, then, oil cake is particularly valuable as a source of protein and as a means of increasing the amount of this siabstance in a ration. Many of the cheaper forms of coarse fodder, while furnishing large quantities of non- nitrogenous nutrients, are deficient in protein. This defi- ciency may be readily supplied by the addition to them of a comparatively small amoxmt of oil cake, and thus the de- ficiencies and redundancies of the two fodders be made to supplement each other. For example, it would not be difiicult to compound from straw and oil cake a mixture which should contain the same proportions of digestible matters as the best hay, and in most cases at a cost con- siderably less than that of the latter. Moreover, the ad Pbobucts. Flesh Meal. — ^A feeding-stuff which has lately found extensive use in Europe, and which, both in virtue of its richness in protein and its easy digestibility, ranks as the most concentrated of fodders, is the so-called American flesh meal. It consists of the dried and ground residue from the manufacture of liebig's Extract of Meat, in South America: it contains, in the air-dry state, ton to thirteen per cent, of water, anle will serve to give an idea of all : Ver cfniU of fioHh Kubstance. rer cent, of total nitrogon. Total nitrogen 2390 100.00 n soluble albuminoids. . insoluble *' amides Nitrogen i u u 0.0358 0.0158 0.0857 0.1053 0.0050 14.98 6.61 35.86 u nitrates 44.06 ti ammonia salts 3.09 Error. 0.247G 0.0086 103.60 3.60 In their second paper,* the same authors showed that among the amide-like bodies contained in beets was gluta- min, and a triflnig amount of asparagin. They also in- vestigated the functions of the amides, with the reaults already stated on page 37. A considerable amount of non-albuminoid nitrogen has also been found in the potato by Sehulze & Marcher + and by Kreusler,:}: and more recently Schuke & Barbieri ^ have publislied more extended investigations of five sorts of potatoes, which showed that the nitrogen of the fresh substance was distributed as follows : *Landw. Versucbs-Stationen, XX., 193, f Jour, of Landw., 1873, p. 66, J See the paper by Hchuize & Barbieri § Landw. Vorsucbs Stationen, XXL, 03. MATTUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDUSTG. 859 Nitrogen of iuBohible alburmnoids. X\^r cent. Nitroj?en of fiolublp albuimuoids. I'er cent. Nitroprcn of nmidoB. Per cent. Nitroj^en of un- known com- pounds. Per cent. I. 0.069 0.046 0.058 0.047 0.087 0.143 0.157 0.080 0.115 0,147 0.135 0.118 0.143 0.150 0.100 012 II., 0.019 Ill IV 0,010 0.024 V 0.026 The distribution of tlie nitrogen between protein and non-pi'otein was, therefore : Protein. Per cent. Non protem. Per cent. 1 Protein. Per cent. Non-protein. Per cent. I 60.7 59 7 47.4 39.3 40.3 52.6 iiv 48.2 65.2 51.8 II iV 34.8 Ill Beets and potatoes appear to be the only root-crops whose nitrogenous constituents have been investigated, but it is highly probable that other roots and tubers also con- tain considerable amounts of amides. Naturally, the bye- pi'oducts, such as " potato slump," beet-root molasses, etc., are also liable to contain the same or derived bodies. Tubers. — ^Potatoes. — The composition of potatoes is largely determined by the variety and by various ex- ternal circumstances, such as soil, weather, and manuring. They may contain from 18 to 30 per cent, of dry matter, from 1.3 to 4.5 per cent, of protein, and from 12 to 27 per cent, of starch. The richer a potato is in starch the poorer it generally 360 MANUAL OF OAl-XLE-FEEJDOTG- is in protein ; the more watery it is the less is its per- centage of starcli, and the greater, as a rule, is the amount of protein, and usually also of ash. When normally developed, the potato contains at lea^t 25 per cent, of drj matter, and the nutritive ratio is 1 : 10 -12. (jrown in a very rich soil or in a wet clay, the same variety of potatoes contains far less starch, but is richer in protein than when grown in a sandy soil or a sandy loam. A soil rich in humus sometimes produces much larger potatoes than a sandy soil, but their content of starch is generally less than that of medium-sized tubers grown in the same soil This variation in the percentage of starch according to the size of the tubers, vanishes, the more closely the soil approaches the sandy or loamy character, so that in po- tatoes grown in such soils the content of starch often in- creases with the size, especially if the smaller ones are not fully ripe. It is also well known that the manuring exercises an important influence on the quality and ehernieal compobi- tioii of the potato. According to one observation, e, nitrogenous nutrients per day will form a proper ration and yield a good flow^ of milk. Advantage of Feeding Standards. — The advantage of a feeding standard lies in the fact that it p]-esents the results obtained by careful experiment and observation in a concise form, and one admitting of practical application. Thus the feeding standard for milk cows given above is deduced by Wolff from the results of a large number of experiments made at different times and by different observers In these experiments various feeding-stuffs were used. Now it is plain that a simple statement of the kind and quantity of fodder used in one or all of these experiments would be of use to the feeder only if he had at his disposal the same kind and quality of fodder. If, on the other hand, he must use other feed- ing-stuffs, he can derive no benefit fi*om these experiments unless he has some means of comparing the nutritive value of his feeding-stuffs with that of those there used. This he can do by estimating the amounts of the several nutrients which his feeding-stuffs contain in a digestible form, since it is evident that their nutritive value lies simply in the amount of protein, fat, and carbhydrates wliicli the cows can extract from them. Moreover, when he knows the quantity of digestible nutrients which his MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIN-a feeding-stuffs contain, a feeding standard like that already given will enable him to compound a ration, from the ma- terials at his disposal, which shall supply his cows with the sime amounts of digestible matters as were employed, on the average, in the experiments from which that standard was deduced. "When his cows are thus fed, though they may not consume the same kind or weight of fodder as was used in the experiments which he has taken for a model, they will resorb into their systems the same amounts of protein, fat, and carbhydrates, and will therefore be equally w^ell nourished. The method of calculating rations in accordance with these principles will form the topic of a subsequent chap- ter; we are concerned here only with the nature and utility of feeding standards. Tlie convenience of these standards as a means of ex- pressing the results of experience and as a guide in the compounding of rations is obvious. In the succeeding chapters we shall occupy ourselves with a consideration of the feeding standards for the various purposes for which stock is kept, endeavoring to indicate the degree of eoniidence which is to be placed in them and the principles in accoi'd- ance with which they may be modified to suit individual circumstances. In addition to the amount o£ digestible nutrients re- quired, feeding standards usually prescribe approximately the amount of total dry matter in the ration. This, in connection wnth the amount of digestible matters, informs us in regard to the volume of the ration, and whether it contains larger or smaller quantities of coarse or of concentrated fceding-stutfs. If the amount of total dry matter is much in excess of the sum of the digestible matters, it is obvious that a considerable portion MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 369 of the ration must be made up of bulky fodder, containing nuicli indigestible matter and serving to make up the neces- sary volume, while if this excess is small, a larger portion of the ration must consist of easily digestible feeding-stuffs. In the feeding standard given above as an illustration, a certain quantity of digestible fat is called for. It is at pres- ent impossible to state with any certainty the most suitable quantity of this substance, since so few experiments have been.,made on the subject, and even these are by no means accojd^jil;. We know that the fat of the food appears to be more easily stored up in the body than that coming from the splitting up of the albuminoids (page 191), and that fat is a more concentrated heat-producer than the earbhy- drates, while, in its relations to the g^in and consump- tion of flesh, it can be replaced by the latter. It may, therefore, be assumed that the fat of the fodder plays a direct and important part in the production of milk, in fattening, and in the feeding of working animals, especially horses, and that accordingly where a rapid pi*oduction is desired, the amount of fat in the ration is of some mo- ment. We shall, therefore, include the digestible fat as such in the feeding standards, but rather as an indication of its probable importance than as a statement of the quan- tity of it which must be contained in the ration. Llmitatious of Feeding Standards. — Feeding stand- ards being simply the concise expression of the results of experiment and observation, it is plain that their value nmst depend on the extent and accuracy of the observa- tions on which they are based. Some of those to be con- sidered in the following chapters are the results of many careful experiments, and are worthy of much confidence. Others, again, are based on but few observations, and are confessedly only tentative. 370 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FJ^EBmO. Furtliermore, it is plain that a single feeding standard cannot possibly take account of all the varying condirions that arifoe in practice. For the maintenance of full-grown animals it is pobsible to give tolerably exact feeding fotand- ards, but for ptirposes of production it is obvious that an important factor in determining tlie character of the feed- ing is the amount of production which is desired, this again being determined by jSnancial considerations. As a general rule, a rapid and abundant production is relatively more ex- pensive than a smaller and slower one, and is profitable only when the price of the products is correspondingly high. Moreover, different breeds, and even different animals of the same breed, show differences in their capacity for pro- duction and hi the return which they yield fur a gi^ en expenditure of fodder. Under these circumstances the office of a feeding standard is to show what amount and quality of food ib in gem nil best adapted to the end in view, while the conditions o£ the individual case must determine how far and in what way it is to be modified. An unvitelligent use of feeding standards is quite as likely to result in failure as in suc- cess ; but when combined with practical judgment and observation, and knowledge of the laws of animal nutri- tion, they are capable of rendering important aid to the feeder. In the following chapters we shall take up the chief ob- jects of feeding and consider briefly the application to them of the general laws of animal nutrition which formed the subject-matter of Part I., indicating under oacli head the quantities of the several nutrients (i ^., the feeding standard) which the experience thus far had shows to be, on the whole, adapted to produce the best results at the least expense of fodder. MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIlSra. 371 Amides. — Attention lias already been several times called to the fact o£ tlie e\ihtence of considerable amoxmts of amides in many fodders. Many of tlie experiments from •which our feeding standards are derived have, doubtless, been made with such fodders, and it becomes of interest to inquire how their results are affected by this fact. It is to be remembered that these feeding standards ai^e not deduced from any theoretical considerations, but are simply the combined residts of more or less numerous carefully conducted feeding-trials. In these trials, feeding- stuffs have been used which liave subsequently been shown to contain amides, and their results, when allowance is made for this fact, might be expressed somewhat as fol- lows: So much digestible albuminoids and amidesj along with such and sixch amounts of digestible carbhydrates and fat, proved a suitable ration for the purpose intended. Now in compounding a ration in accordance with a feeding standard like the above, the farmer would natu- rally use, to a considerable extent, feeding-stuffs similar to those used in the original experiments, and in all probabil- ity the proportions of albuminoids and amides in the two rations would not vary very greatly. Moreover, it would appear from our present knowledge that any difference which might exist would only affect the value of a ration as a fat producer, whfle the two rations would be on an equality as regards the formation of flesh. If we add to this the fact that the feeding standards themselves are but approximations, and are not to be blindly followed, but intelligently modified to suit varying circumstances, we shall see that, in spite of some ambigu- ity, a feeding standard may yet be a valuable aid in apply- 373 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEKIHN(;. ing the experience gained by other experimenters to our own particular case. Btill fnrtlier, if we know, as we easily may, the propor- tions of all)uniinoids and of amide-like bodies in the fino Standabd. Digestible protein 7 pounds, " carbliydrabos and fat ^ 8.4 " Nutritive ratio 1 : 12 Total dry matter, about 17. 5 pounds. These quantities of digestible matters are amply suffici- ent in ordinary eases. It is, indeed, probable that the amount of protein might often be decreased slightly with- out occasioning a loss of flesh, while, on the other hand, exposure to great cold might cause a demand for more carbhydrates. The number for total dry matter indicates that the fodder should be quite bulky, and may appropriately and profit- ably consist of straw, with the addition of some hay or of small quantities of nitroi^enous bye-fodder, either with or without ^t. The quantity of digestible fai is of no great importance in the sim;gle maintenance of oxen. The qtiantitie^ of the above feeding standard are per day for it thousand pound animal Lighter animals would require less food of the same quality, and heavier mm aio»* The variation is not quite in proportion to the vr^ight, however* Small animals require more food than large ones in proportion to their weight, since they ex- post i^elttively more surface to radiation and consequently 378 MATTUAL OF CATTLE'FEEBIKa. lose heat; more rapidly, just as several small liot bodies will cool faster than one large one of equal weight. Coavenienoe of the Feeding Standard. — Any ration which contains the amounts of total dry matter and of di- gestible nutrients called for by the standard will serve the desired purpose* The convenience of possessing such a standard is obvi- ous. On page 375 we have given five rations^ any one of which was found to keep the animals in good condition ; but these alone would be of litt]^ benefit to a farmer who did not have at his disposal exactly the fodders there called for. If he chanced to wish to use hay, or wheat straw, or stover, or not to have rape cake, he would be left entirely in the dark as to how nmch of these to use, or how to com- bine them, or what to substitute for them. JBut with the feeding standard he has simply to calculate, by the ai> oit\ though from different data. These calculations, of course, are based on somewhat uncertain assumptions re* garding the amount of water drunk and the proportion of it which is Evaporated, and therefore make no claim to accuracy. The only object of introducing them Imm is to show that it is not at all impossible that exclu- sive meal feeding can maintain an animal The px-aetica- HAKUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBING. 383 bility and desirability of this method o£ feeding are matters to be decided by practical experience, while the quebtiou of the sufficiency of Ksuch a ration can be finally settled only by exact scientific experiments. § 2. Sheep. Sheep need relatively more Food than Cattle. — Tt is to be assmned a priori that the quantity of nutriment in the maintenance fodder of sheep nuist be greater than in that of oxen. A cerfcxin quantity of protein is demanded for the growth of wool, and the inore active temperament and greater amount of movement of these animals, even in the stall, increases the consumption of the non-nitro- genous nutrients. Moreover, on account of their smaller size, it would seem that the loss of heat by radiation mtist be relatively greater. Under these circumstances, it might, perhaps, have been expected that the difference between the two wo\ild be greater than it has been foimd to be. That it is not may be explained, however, by their thick coat of wool, which hinders the radiation of heat, and per- haps also the evaporation from tlie skin, so decreasing the demand for heat-producing materials. It is a well-ascer- tained fact that goats, for example, under the same cir- cumstances and with the same live-weight, require more fodder th^n sheep. Experiments in Weende. — Experiments on the main- tenance feeding of sheep have also been made by Hemxe- berg,* in Weende, and in them not only the *'sw$ibl(|^^ excretions, but also the products of respiration, vs^e^# ^$^ rately determined ; so tiiat the effects of the fee^dSftfi w$ * Neue Baifcr%e, ©tc, 1S71. 384 MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDING. the fat o£ the body, as well as on its flesh, could be ascer- tained. The expeiiments were made on full-grown (four and a half years old) sheep of the coarse-wooled variety of the neighborhood of Gottingen (so-called Leine sheep), weighing per head about 106 lbs. They were fed exclu- sively on average meadow hay, and consumed it at the rate of almost exactly 26 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live-weight (shorn weight), an amount corresponding to 21.4 lbs. of dry matter. From this ration 1.32 lbs. of protein and 10.53 lbs. of non- nitrogenous matter (including 0.^23 lbs. of fat) were di- gested. If for the fat be substituted its equivalent in starch, the amoimt of non-nitrogenous matter becomes jLX.Ou iL)S. This ration caused a small gain, viz., O.lSl lbs- of protein and 0.299 lbs. of fat per day and 1,000 lbs. live weight. It was accordingly abundantly sufHcient to maintain the ani- mals without really fattening them. If the gain of protein and fat be subtracted from the above ration (the fat being reduced to its equivalent amount of starch by multiplying it by 2.5), we shall have tlie following amounts : Rolsein 114 pounds. Carbhydrates, j ^ ^^ ^^ ,« Fat, ) Total dry matter 29 00 *' Nutntive ratio 1 : 9.3 In reality, however, a greater deduction should be made, at least from the protein, mnce changes in the amount of this nutrient affect the consumption of protein far more than its gain or loss. It is therefore probable that the above quantities would have been rather more than suffi- cient to nraintain the sheep. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIISrG. 385 Tills result agrees well witli those obtained by Sclmlze & Marcker iix tiieir experiments on sheep, already referred to on page 152. These experiments were made on the same two sheep which were nsed in the above experiments by Ilenneberg, and also on two others of the same breed. If J following "Wolff, we divide the twenty experiments which were made, into two groups, according to the total amount of digestible nutrients, and then subdivide these groups according to the wider or narrower nutritive ratio, we obtain the following averages, each of five experiments, per day and 1,000 lbs. live- weight : Digested pro- tein. Lbs. Digested carbhy- drates and fat Lbs Total nutrients. Lbs. Nutritive ratio. Gam (4-) or loss (— ) of protein. Lbs. 1.04 ^.49 10 m 1:91 -0 042 1 50 9.54 11.11 1:61 -0.006 1 11 11 70 12.81 1- 10 5 +0 124 2 31 12.35 14 56 1 : 5.8 +0 245 Plainly, the third ration gave, on the whole, the most satisfactory results, and it will be seen that it corresponds quite closely with the results of Henneberg's exp#riment% while the average of the first three does not vary much from it, vi2. : Digestible probein 1 24 poxiiids. '' carbhydrates and fafe 10.24 '' IsTutiitive ratio 1:83 It was also found in these experiments that, as in the case of oxen, a too narrow nutritive ratio is to be avoided in simple feeding for maintenance. 17 386 MANUAL OF CATTLE- FEEDING. Experiments liave also been made by Wolff/^' in Ilolien- lieim, upon the feeding of sheep. Animals of three dif- ferent breeds were nsed, viz., Merinos, Sonthdowns, and the so-called Wurtheniberg bastard breed (grade Merinos), and each received two different rations, viz., per 1,000 lbs., shorn weight : Digestible protein Lbs. Digestible carb- hydrateb and tat. Lbs. Total. Lb8. Kuti itivo ratio. I II 1.37 1.28 8.93 9.03 10.39 11.15 1 :C).l 1 :8.1 These quantities agree well with those used in Weende, except that the qnantity of earbhjdrates, and consequently the total amount of nntritive matters, is somewhat less, a fact which explains the slight decrease of weight which the animals suffered, especially when the daily growth of wool was taken into account. The loss of weight was somewhat greater with the so- called "electoral" sheep (Merinos) than with the South- downs or the natives. Sheep of the fine-wooled breeds are mostly smaller and of a more delicate build than those of the coarse-wooled races, and consequently demand a somewhat greater amuunt of nutriment for the same live- weight than the latter. The general result of the researches hitherto made is that mature sheep which are kept solely for the produc- tion of wool may be kept constantly in good condition by rations corresponding to the following feeding-standards : *Laii(iw. Jalirbucher, I., 5^3, MAl^XJAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIXa. 3S7 Feeding- Stakdakds— per 1,000 Pounds LivE-WsianT, per Day. Coarse-wooled "breeds . . Fme-wooled " Protein. Lbb. 1.2 1.5 Carbhydrates and fat. Lbs. 10.8 12.0 Totol dry matter. Lbto. 20-23 20-23 Nutritive ratio. 1 :9 1 :8 The daily growth of washed wool amounts to from 0.12 to 0.20 lb., according to breed and individual peculiarities. All the above figures are for 1,000 lbs. live-weight, exclu- i>'im of the wool (shorn weight), but it is probable that they can be applied directly to unshcared animals, without any considerable error ; at any rate, the failure would be on the 8afe side, and we should have the assurance that the calculated quantity of food was abundantly supplied. Production of Wool. — Thus far Ave have not specially regarded the growth of the wool in considering the proper ration for sheep. The wool, however, may be the princi- pal object in view, and demands a more detailed consider- ation« The feeding has a decided influence upon the production of wool, but only within certain limits. Full-grown ani- mals do not yield noticeably more wool under the influence of a fattening fodder than of one which suffices to keep them in good condition without causing any essential in- crease of their real weight (exclusive of wool). This is shown by experiments made in "Weende* on Negretti sheep, which, on a maintenance ration, produced in the average of seven experiments, 0.14:1 lb. of wool per 1,000 lbs. live-weight, per day, equal to 0.273 per cent of * Jour. f. Landvsr., 1858, p. 362 ; 1860, p. 1 j 1861, p. 63. HAlSrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. tlie shorn weighty while as the average of fonrteeTi experi- ments with a fattening ration, they produced the same quantity of wool, 0.141 lb. per 1,000 lbs. live-weight, per day, or 0.286 per cent, of their shorn weight. An equally decided result was yielded by experiments in Ilohenheim,* with lambs. A very rich ration, consisting of hay and an abundance of oats, caused the live weight to increase in the course of nine months from 55.9 lbs. to 101.8 lbs. per head, while a ration consisting exclusively of meadow hay, at first of excellent and later of average quality, caused the weight to increase from 55.0 lbs. to only Y9.5 lbs. The richlyifed animals were, at the close of the experiment, well fattened, while those fed with hay were simply in good condition, but the quantity of pure wool produced in the two cases was almost identical. It w-as noticeable in these trials that the wool of the grain- fed animals remained very clean and white in appearance, while that of the hay-fed ones had the usual dirty appear- ance, and even when washed appeared somewhat gray in comparison with the other. Tlie following were the quantities of wool obtained per head in the two cases : Fodder. Ilay , Hay and Grain Uiiwasliid wool Lbb. 5.93 4.79 Wabhitl wool. Lbs, 3 54 3 25 Wool Vf lib fat re- moved Lbs 2 40 2 39 The quantities of pure wool were as good as identical. If, however, the fodder of sheep is insufficient for their * Landw. Jalirbucherj II., 221. MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIE-G. 389 maintenance in good condition, the case becomes dif- ferent. From the numerous experiments in Weende, the conclusion could be drawn that, although the growth of the wool did not always suffer when the weight of the animals decreased somewh(i% such a diminution w^as un- avoidable if the decrease passed a certain limit. In one such case, for example, the daily production of wool amounted to only 0.237 per cent, of the shorn weight against 0.292-0.306 per cent, with better food. It was also found that rations which. did not fully suiBce to maintain the animals unaltered, produced less ill effect on the growth of the \vool when they were comparatively rich in protein, and that, other things being equal, the ration which is the richer in protein is to be preferred. The limits within which this is applicable in maintenance feeding, have been already indicated. On the other hand, there appears to be a limit below which a decrease in the fodder does not decrease the growth of the wool. The most wool seems to be produced when the animals are thoroughly well fed, but not fattened. If the daily ra- tion be increased beyond what is necessary for this, no effect is produced on the growth of wool, but if the ration falls much below this minimum, the amount of wool also falls, to a certain extent. The growth of the wool, how- ever, is not directly dependent on the food, and will con- tinue even in the absence of it or when it is small in amount, and is only affected by it within the limits just mentioned. This is well shown by some Hohenheim observations. The sheep, at the beginning of the experiments, were in a well-fed condition, and w^ere divided into five lots of six head each. Two lots (III. and lY.) received a rather 390 MAHUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. nitrogenous ration, consisting of hay and beans, in sncli quantity as just to maintain tlieir weight and condi- tion. Two other lots (I. and II.) received a less quantity of a ration poorer in protein, so that their average weight per head decreased in 121 days from lOlA lbs. to 97 lbs., while a fifth lot (T.) received still less of a still poorer fod- der, and decreased in average weight per head from 101.1 lbs. to 89.3 lbs. Lots I. and II. were fed with straw and mangolds, and lot V. witli about two-thirds hay and one- third oat-straw. The amount of wool produced by each lot was the fol- lowing : Lot. I.. II. Ill IV v.. "Washod wool in per cent, of hhom weight. 23.5 31.9 27.3 Lots III. and lY., in which the original well-fed condi- tion was preserved, produced the most w^ool, and judging from the experiments already described, it is probable that, had the fodder been increased so as to fatten the animals, no greater growth of wool woxdd have taken place. In lots I. and II. the poorer fodder had as its effect a lessened growth of wool, while in lot V., in which the fod- der was still poorer, the growth of wool continued, but at the expense of the body, which decreased decidedly in weight. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIlSra. 301 To sum up the wlaole matter, tlie growth of wool is> a process which goes on with tolerable uniformity as long as the animal lives, and whose rapidity is determined by breed and individual peculiarities, and only secondarily and with- in rather narrow limits by the food. All that is necessary or profitable in the way of feeding is to keep the sheep in good condition ; if they lose weight seriously, the yield of wool suffers to some extent, though the animals suffer more, while, on the other hand, fattening is simply an unneces- sary use of fodder so long as wool is the sole object, since it does not increase the amount of the latter. The feeding standards already given may be safely taken as a guide, since they appear to be abundantly sufficient to maintain a good, well-fed condition. It has, however, been generally fonnd that when the fodder consists largely of roots and straw^, more digestible protein is required than when it is composed mostly of hay. We have already learned that a large part of the " crude protein " of roots is really not protein at all, and we have here, perhaps, an indication of the less nutritive value of the non-protein. CHAPTER IIL FATTENING. § 1. Cattle. The fattening of animals lias for its object eliiefly tlie formation and deposition of fat in tlie body, and to a far less degree an increase in tlie amount of fiesli. According to the researches of Lawes and Gilbert, in England (p. 9), the amount of fat formed is about ten times that of the protein deposited in the body, and more than twice that of the fresh flesh. The experiments of Ilenneberg, Kern & Wattenberg (p. 178) on the fat- tening of sheep also showed a large formation of fat and a small one of flesh. In very fat animals the fat is not only deposited in the f at-tis- snes proper, but is found between the fibres of the muscles them- selves, as illustrated by Fig. 7, where a represents the muscular fibres, and 5 the fat-cells. The tenderness and juiciness, as well as the nutritive value of the re- sulting meat is thus considerably increased. The general laws of the formation of flesh and fat Iiave already been treated of at considerable length in Part Pig. T.— Fat-Oells in Muscle, (Settogabt ) MAKUAL OF CATTLE-PEEDIJSTa. 893 T., but tlie most important points may be repeated liere in their application to practical purposes. It will be con- venient to take them up in connection with the fattening of cattle, though the same general laws are of course ap- plicable to all domestic animals. Experiments in Weende. — The few experiments on the fattening of cattle which have as yet been executed "were made at the "Weende Experiment Station in the years 1859, 1860, and 1865.*^ In these experiments the digesti- bility of the fodder, as w^ell as the gain of fesh, was de- termined. The experiments in 1859 and ISGO extended over a considerable time, "while those in 1865 were of so short duration as to render the results of less value. The following table contains the more important results of the experiments, calculated per day and 1,000 pomids live- weight : Date. 1859 1860 18G5 Protein digested. Lbs. 1.56 1.50 1.45 1.55 1 76 1.82 1.73 Carb- h>di ites and fat digested, Xibs. 8.50 8.38 11.10 13.70 8.90 7.68 8.63 Nutritive ratio, 1: 5.5 5.6 7.6 8.3 5.1 4.3 5.0 Length of evperi- nieiit. Days. 56i 561 71 45 17 1 10 1 17 1 G-AiN PBB Day. Livo- ■w eiji^ht Lbs. 1.86 1.43 1 83 1.30 0.43 1.45 0.31 Lbs, 0.68 •0.57 0.80 1.56 1 53 3 33 * " Beitrage zur Fiitterung der Wiederkauer," Heft 3, p. 376, and " Nciie Beitrage," p. 314. f Exclusive of the preliminary feeding. 17* 394 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIlim. No extended eoBclusions can be drawn from so few ex- periments. The gain of live-weiglit was comparatively slow in all these trials, and the rations were evidently not suffi- cient to cause a rapid fattening. In several cases it will he observed that the gain of fresh flesli is greater than the increase of live- weight. This may indicate a loss of some other substance (probably water) from the body, or may be due to inaccuracies in the determination of the true live- weight. In a general way we may state, as the result of these trials, that a slow fattening may be effected hy a ration con- taining per day and 1,000 pounds live- weight Digestible protein 1.5-2.0 pounds. Digestible carbhydrates and fat 8.0-13.0 *' It will be noticed that the quantity of non-nitrogenous nutrients does not vary greatly from that needed for main- tenance, while the amount of protein is considerably greater. "We have here another example of a gain of flesh and fat produced by the addition of protein to a ra- tion poor in that substance. (Compare p. 148 et se(i.) Pat from Carbhydrates.— In case a more rapid fat- tening is desired, it is plain that more food nmst be given ; but whether the increase shall consist of protein or of non- nitrogenous nutrients, or both, can be determined at present only by theoretical considerations. Here the question of the formation of fat from carbhy- drates conies in. "We have seen that many facts seem to indicate the possibility of such a formation, and the query naturally arises, whether, since the chief object of fatten- ing is a formation of fat, an increase of the carbhydrates and fat of the fodder will not effect the desired object, MAKUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIKa. 395 more especially since tlie protein consumption is thereby diminished. There is no douht that, with a giv^ea amount of protein in the ration, the addition of non-nitrogenous nutrients will effect a gain of both flesh and fat ; but se^^eral con- siderations forbid the use of too large quantities of carbhy- drates and fat. In the first place, if the fodder contains too large a pro- portion of non-nitrogenous matter, the animal will not receive enough protein to cause any gain of flesh or to supply material for the formation of new fat-cells. In the second place, experiments on sheep have shown that the fattening of these aniznals is much more rapid and certain on a ration containing a liberal proportion of pro- tein, and there is no evident reason why the same thing should not be true of cattle. The formation of fat from carbhydrates cannot be regarded as proved. Still less ]iave we any knowledge of the conditions under which it takes place, and consequently we must for the present re- gard them as only indirect aids in fattening. Feeding Standard. — The considerations just presented render it manifest that the feeding standard for fattening cattle must vary considerably under different circum- stances. For slow fattening we might use such a ration as that given on page 39^, viz. : Total dry matter 18-20 potiiids. Digestible protein ..., 2 " '^ carbliydrates and fat 13 '^ Nutritive ratio 1:6.5 If a more rapid fattening is desired, two ways of attain- ing the object present themselves. By increasing the non-nitrogenous matters of the above 396 MATflTAL OF CATTLE-FEEDmG, ration to perhaps 16 pounds, it is probable that a saving of protein and a somewhat greater gain of fat niiglit be ef- fected. It is to be considered, however^ that l)j making the nutritive ratio so wide (1 : 8) we incur the risk of im- perfect digestion of the protein. (Compare page 280 et seq,) Probably the nutritive ratio 1 : 6.5 is as wide as it is ad- visable to use in most cases, and a more rapid fattening could then be caused by simply increasing the total (pian- tity of nutrients per day, leaving the proportions of pro- tein and non-nitrogenous matters unchanged, but using, if necessary, more concentrated feeding-stuffs in order to avoid too bulky a fodder. The quantities of imtrionts recommended in the following paragraphs and in the table of feedhxg standards in the Appendix are calculated for rapid fattening. As already stated, they are largely de- rived from theoretical considerations, and hence are to be taken only as a general guide. Prelirainary Feeding. — Cattle tliat are mucli reductHl in flesh and fat cannot be at once quickly fattened. For this purpose they must first be brought into a well-nour- ished condition. It is impossible to render the animal body rich in flesh and fat unless it already contains a cer- tain not too small amount of organized and circulatory pro- tein, by means ctf which only it is capable of digesting, resorbing, and storing up protein and fat In order to bring about such a condition, the catile may, for example, be fed for two or three weeks chiefly on clo- ver hay, wath a moderate addition of grain and oil cake, brewers' grains, malt sprouts, beans, or some similar higldy nitrogenous bye-fodder, so that the ration contains, per 1,000 lbs. live-weiglit, shoxit 2.5 lbs. of protein and 12.5 lbs. of non-nitrogenous nutrients, making the nutritive ratio quite narrow (1 : 5). MAH"UAL OF CATTLE-FEEMITG. 897 The effect of sncli a fodder, as will be gathered from the chapter on the formation of iiesh, is to increase the stock of circulatory protein in the body (and, of course, the rate of its decomposition also) without causing any essential gain of flesh. A slight deposition of fat might take place in the tissues, but, with such a narrow nutritive ratio, most of it would probably be oxidized. First Period. — After this condition of affairs has been well established by the preliminary feeding, the real fat- tening begins. In tlie first period the quantity of the non nitrogenous nutrients is increased to about 16.25 lbs., thus considerably widening the nutritive ratio (1 : 6.5), The effect is that the rate of decomposition of the circulatory protein is de- creased and a part of the albuminoids of the food, instead of being rapidly oxidized, is converted into the stable " organized protein." At the same time, much of the fat coming from the decomposition of the protein, as well as that contained in the food, is protected from oxidation and deposited in the body. Second Period. — After considerable fat has been de- posited in the animal (after about a third, perhaps, of the period of fattening has passed) it is advisable to gradually increase the quantity of protein in the food to about 3,0 lbs. per day, thus narrowing the nutritive ratio again to 1 : 5.5. i^y thus increasing the proportion of protein, a more rapid fattening may be attained, while the fat already deposited in the body will prevent any great increase of the protein consumption in the body. (Compare page 133.) Fodder of the composition here indicated is to be re- garded as the real fattening fodder, and to be continued imaltered for a considerable time. Third Period. — In practice it is often customary, to- 898 MANUAL OF OATTLT:-FKEr>l]SrG-. ward the end of the fattening, to again give the animals a fodder somewhat poorer in protein ; for example, repla- cing the oil cake or other nitrogenous bye-fodder bj grain. An essential advantage may be gamed in this way, if the fodder is thus increased in palatability, as may often be the case, or if the total quantity of digestible initricnts is increased. It is likewise possible that a wider nutritive ratio toward the close of the fattening may cause more protein to be converted into the organized form, but it would seem hardly advisable to make the ratio wider than 1: 6. Addition of Oil to Fodder.— Increasing artificially the amount of fat in the fodder by the direct addition of pure fat, e, g.y linseed oil, to the amount of 0.5~-1.0 lb. for oxen, and 30 — 40 grms. for hogs per day and head, has often been found to have a good eftect in increasing the live- weight of the animals, more especially when the nutritive ratio was narrow. By its means, as we have learned, the p-aiu both of flesh* and fat is favored. Such an addition would be in place in the second period of fattening when the fodder is most concentrated. This practice, however, demands great care and judg- ment, and does not seem as yet to have found favor in practice ; the purer fats occurring in trade are too expen- sive, and a favorable result is by no means assured. In- deed, it is not seldom the case that injurious consequences to the appetite and digestion, especially of the ruminants, may result from the use of pure fats or oils, especially if the quantity is at all large or the use of it is continued too long. Notwithstanding this, however, the amount of fat»inthe rations of fattening animals is certainly a point worthy of attention, and it should be om* endeavor to increase it as MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 309 iHUcli as can safely be done, especial! j wlien tlie niitriti\ e ratio is narrow. This can be accuinplislied without special expenfoe by the use of oil cake, cotton-seed cake, palm-nut cake, or soniethiies by the direct use of flaxseed. Preparation of Fodder. — In rapid fattening it is espe- cially nnportant to induce the annuals to eat as large a quantity as possible of nutritious and easily-digestible fod- der by nuxking the latter as palatable as may be. For this pinpose the fodder should be properly prepared, and a suitable addition of salt aids in securini*: the same end. By thus properly preparing the fodder so as to increase its palatability, and consequently the amount eaten, great ad- vantages may often be gained, even though, as we have seen, neither the digestibility nor the real nutritive value of a given quantity are thereby increased. Fattening fodder, on account of its concentrated na- ture, requires the addition of considerable salt, especially when large (piantitics of potatoes or roots are used. Care iruist be taken, however, not to increase the amoimt of salt beyond what is necessary, since both the salt itself and the greater consumption of water which it causes increase the destruction of protein and fat in the body (pp. 135 and 236), and thus occasion a w^aste of the most costly ingre- dient of the fodder and hinder the gain of flesh. For the same reason a too watery fodder must be avoided, if the best results are to be obtained. The pro- portion of water to dry matter of the fodder should not exceed four or five to one for cattle, and two or three to one for sheep. * § 3. Sheep. Proportion of Protein. — All the experiments on sheep hitherto made agree in showing that with these animals the rapidity of fattening is chiefly dependent on the sup- 400 MAKITAL OB^ GATTLE-FEEDINa. ply of protein. As already stated in anotlier connection, nunieious experiments on the fattening of foheep have been carried out at the varions German experiment stations. In the following table, by Wolii; already given on page 178, lifty-nine of these experiments are divided into fonr gronps, according to the amount of digestible protein con- tained in the fodder. The average weight of the animals ^vas about ninety pounds. No. of Experiments. 7 13 20 19. DiGEbTED PKB DAY AND HEAD. AVi-KAtrE. Albuini- 1101(]S. Lbs. 0.220 0.208 0.;]29 0.384 Non nitro- genous iiiitncut'' Lbb 1.648 1.557 1.588 1.538 Total nutrients. Lbs. 1.808 1.825 1.917 1. Nutritive ratio. 1 : 7.49 1 :5.81 1 :4.70 1 :4.01 Incie i^^c of hvo ■weiglit pel duy .intl head. Lbs 0.111 0.158 0.189 0.200 Dressed wi iK^it ni pci tent. of hvo w eiglit. 48.0 51.9 54.9 These results show plainly the importance of a libera] supply of protein in the fodder of fattening sheep. While the total amount of nutrients digested was nearly the same in all* the groups, those in which the propoj-tion of protein was greatest show not only a more rapid gain but also a larger proportion of dressed weight to live weight. Feeding Standard. — ^As in the case of cattle, it is im- posbible to give any single standard suited to all cases. Any one of the rations of the foregoing table might seive as a feeding standard, the fattening 1)eing more rapid, and at the same time more expensive, the greater the propor- tion of protein. MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBmG. 401 Sheep can consume, relatively, somewhat more fodder (total dry matter) than cattle, and can also Lear more concentrated food. We may perhaps put tlie maximum amount of digestible nutrients at Ih pounds per day and 1,000 pounds live-weight for the latter, and at about 20 — 21 pounds for the former. In view of the importance of a due proportion of pro- tein in the fattening of sheep, it seems probable that the smallest amount given in the preceding table, viz., 0.22 lb. per day and head, or about 2.5 lbs. per day and 1,000 Ibi. live-weight, is the least quantity with which a good result can be secured in most cases. This amount, with 17.5 lbs. of non-nitrogenous imtrients, gives 20 lbs. of total digest- ible matters, and a nutritive ratio of 1 : 7. Such a ration may be considered as approximating to the minimum ration for fattening purposes. By increasing the digestible protein to 4.2 lbs. and decreasing the non- nitrogenous nutrients to 16.8 lbs., we get a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 4, and containnig 21 lbs. of total di- gestible matters. This is a very concentrated ration, and its narrow imtritive ratio and large amount of protein must cause a very considerable protein consumption. An increase of the amount of protein beyond this point will hardly ever be advisable, since in that case the non-nitro- genous nutrients must be decreased still more, not leaving enough to protect the protein and fat of the food from un- necessary oxidation. Between the two limits just indicated, the choice of a feeding standard will be determined by the special condi- tions of each case. As in the case of cattle, a preliminary feeding may often be necessary, and a rather wide nutri- tive ratio is to be recommended in the earlier stages of fat- tening, which may subseciuently be gradually narrowed to 402 MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDITSTG. siicli an extent as may prove profitable. If the sheep are in a well-fed condition at first, the preliminary feedin^j; may be omitted and the first period somewhat shortened, the second being correspondingly lengtliened. Quantity of Water. — A good fattening fodder for sheep nmst not be too watery ; hence, large quantities of brewer's or distiller's grains, or even of roots, are of far less benefit to these animals than to cattle. On the other hand, the nse of potatoes allows a more favorable ratio (abont 1 : 2 — 3) between water and total dry matter to bo obtained. The best resnlts arc generally reached, however, when suitable kinds of gram or its bye-products are used, along with good liay. Best Ag-e for Fattening. — ^Sheep can be fattened most rapidly at an age of from one and one-half to three years. It is true that, with rich fodder, the same quantity of nutri- ents will cause as great or even a greater increase of live- weight in yearlings as in somewhat older animals, a fact which is true of all young animals in rapid growth. Such animals, however, are usually not as desirable for the butcher, since the flesh i*emains watery, and the drGfo*-ed weight, and especially the quantity of fat, is generally small. Only when the lambs are taken as young as pos- sible and fed very highly is it possible to attain, at great ex- pense, the same result wliich may be reached in a far shorter time, often less than three months, with older animals. The result of fattening is always most favoraljle, botli in quality and quantity, with tolerably mature animals. On the other hand, if the animals are allowed to become *too old and the fattening is begun after ihey have reached the age of perhaps four years, a large deposition of fat, it is true, takes place, but the flesh has far less palatability than that of younger animals. MAlSrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIFG. 403 Effect of Shearing. — It is a noteworthy fact, and one which has been coniirnied by numerous experiment>s, that fattening sheep after beina: shorn increase in live-weiffht much more rapidly than immediately before shearing. It lias been observed, moreover, in some cases, that while before shearing the more nitrogenous ration produced a decidedly greater effect than one poorer in protein, the dif- ference between the two almost dibappeared after shearing, so far as the increase in live-weight was affected. The more rapid increase in weight after shearing is usu- ally explained very simply by the fact that the appetite of the animals is thereby almost always increased, so that more fodder is eaten. In one expeiiment in Weende, however, the amount of fodder consumed remained the same, and yet the gain in weight was greater after than before shearing. In this experiment it was observed that nmch less water was drunk after shearing, doubtless in consequence of decreased perspiration, a fact which would favor and may explain an increased gain (compare pp. 135, 198, and SSi). A similar decrease in the amomit of water drunk was observed in experiments in Proskau; the gain of flesh, however, was not increased, but on the contrary the protein consumption in the body increased some five per cent., and the gain of flesh decreased correspondingly. This, of course, does not exclude the possibility of an in- creased gain of fat, but it renders it improbable. The digestibility o£ the fodder was exactly the same before and after shearing. On the whole, then, we must conclude that the increased appetite of the animals resulting from shearing is, so far as we can now see, the chief if not the only cause of the more rapid fattening. 404 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEE DING. §3. SWINB. Quantity of Fodder. — Tlie amount of fodder consume 1 by swine, in comparison with other animals, is very large- "When tolerably full-grown swine are fattened, they con- sume at tirst a great quantity of fodder, amounting, poi 1,000 lbs. live-weight, to upward of 40 lbs. of dry matter per day, and they increase in weight with corresponding rapidity. As they grow fatter, however, the consumption dimin- ishes continually, and finally becomes hardly greater than that of fattennig cattle or sheep. This fact is shown still more strikingly when, as is usually the case, the swine receive full fattening fodder as soon as they are weaned, and reach in the first }ear a weight of some 300 lbs. per head. Under these circumstances, when the fodder is a suitable one and the animals belong to a breed capable of easy fattening, an increase of 100 lbs. in the live-weight may be obtained by about 400 lbs. of dry matter in the fodder, on the average, or by 300-— 400 lbs. in the first months and 400—500 lbs. in the later months — a fact which has been exemplified by numerous experiments in Weidlitz, Ivuschen, Pommritz, Ilohenheim, and elsewhere. Older animals, however, seem to need more fodder for an equal production. As much as 500 — 600 lbs. of dry matter appears to be necessary to produce an increase of 100 lbs. in the Hve- weight of mature swine. Feeding Standards.— The fattening of mature swine may be, for convenience, divided into three periods, as is done in the table of feeding standards in the Appendix; but it will be noticed that the nutritive ratio is gradually made wider with the advance of the fattening, while the total qxiantity both of dry matter and of real nutrients ic decreased in accordance with the facts stated in tiie pic- vioiis paragraph. This widening of the nutritive ratio has shown itself advantageous, especially toward the end of the fattening, in giving the fat a firmer consistency and better quality, while the anhnals are not as liable to disease as when they receive more highly nitrogenous fodder. The plan commonly pursued with swine is to feed a ricli fodder from the first and thus carry on growth and fat- tening together, and most experiments on the fattening of swine have been made in this way. A consideration of the rcbults of these experiments will be found in Chapter VI. Mineral Matters. — It contributes essentially to main- taining the health of the animals to add daily a small quantity (J — I oz. per head) of lixiviated chalk, or even of leached wood-ashes, to the fodder. Such an addition to the food of young fattening swine should never be omitted, since their fodder is generally poor in lime, though rich in phosphoric acid. (Compare Chapter YI.) Choice of Fodder. — The quantities of nutrients and the nutritive ratio called for by the feeding standards may, of course, be supplied by combinations of very various feeding-stuffs. It is the part of the practical farmer to make the most suitable and profitable choice among these. But, although this work does not undertake to supply the lack of experience, a few ponits may be mentioned ; as, for example, th^it it has been the experience of German inves- tigators that barley, maize, and peas (the latter mixed with steaded potatoes), have produced excellent results, while oats and bran, when fed in large quantities, have been much less satisfactory. They have also found that feeding-stuffs which of themselves are less suitable for swine, can be made to produce better results by a moderate addition of sour milk, or even of whey« 406 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIlsrG. Tlie bje-products of tlie manufacture of clieese deserve attention for improving the rations of swine, and the easily digestible llesh-nieal (p. 349) appears to exert an equally favorable influence, and is especially to be recommended, when obtainable, as an addition to rations poor in protein. Fish-scrap would probably serve the same purpose equally well, and has, moreover, the advantage over flesh-meal that it contains a greater proportion of ash ingredients and is particularly rich in phosphate of lime. CIIAPTEE lY. FEEDING WORKIK-G ANIMALS. 1 1. Intbobuctoey. In regard to tlie amounts of the Beveral nutrients needed in the fodder of working aniniaL, we have as vet, unfor- tunately, scarcely any exact experiments, and can there- fore, for the present, form an opinion only from the general laws of animal nutrition or on the basis of practi- cal experience. Working Animals must be "well fed. — We know that the animal body needs, lirbt of all, a nmscular system which is developed and inured to work, to render it capa- ble of hard and contimied labor, and also that the body nnibt be tolerably lich in both oi-ganized and circulatory protein, in order to f urnibh materials for the processes ex- plained in the chapter on the production of work. In order to reach and maintain this condition more nutriment and a narrower nutritive ratio are necessary than simply for the maintenance of renting animals. Need of Protein.— -During work, as we have learned, no more protein is destroyed than under the same circum- stances without work. At the same time, the protein is an essential factor in the production of work, and only when its amount is rendered sufficiently large by a correspond- ingly large supply of it in the food is the body capable of continued and severe exertion. 408 MAjNUAI^ of CATfLE-B^EEDING. Importance of Fat.—'Wliile tlie decomposition of pro- tein ib esbcntially regulated by tlio kind and quantity of food and the condition of the body, the oxidation of the fat, on the contrary, is increased as a direct consequence of nmscular exertion. To prevent tlie consumption of the body-fat and an emaciation of the animalb, is the function of the fat and carbhydrates— the non-nitrogenous nutrients— of the food (see pp. 187 and lA). Fat, liowever, is the most concen- tiated of all these nutrients, and it nuist, therefore, be of advantage to include in the fodder of workhig aninuds a certain quantity of fat. That this quantity nuiht not be too great has been already insisted on. In any case it is clear that working animals must recei\e a larger quantity of non-nitrogenous as well as of nitrogenous nutrients than is necessary in rest, and nmst receive more, the greater the amount of work which it is dobired to obtain from them in a given time. J 2. "WoBKiNG Oxen. Feeding- Standard.—Working oxen can perform a small amount of labor with very little more nutriment than suffices for their maintenance at rest, but if they are to be even naoderately w^orked, the amount of nutiitive mat- ter must be largely increased, so as to amount, per l,i)0() lbs, live- weight, to about 1.6 lb. of digestible protein, and at least 12 lbs. of digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients i)er day ; the nutritive ratio is then 1 : 7.5. Such a ration would correspond to feeding with hay of average quality, with the addition of small quantities of a nitrogeiums bye- fodder, or to a miKtm-e of clover-hay and straw, or it might albo be prepared chiefly from straw and roots, with a suit- able nitrogenous bye-fodder. The total organic matter may amount to about 24 lbs. * MAl^UAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIIsra 409 If very heavy work is to be done cuntimionslj, tlie quan- tity of digestible nutrients should be still further increased, the protein to as much as 2.4 lbs., and the non-nitrogenous matter to 14.5 lbs. (nutritive ratio, 1 : 6), Fat not important. — The amount of fat in the rations of working oxen scarcely comes hito consideration, since these animals, although they draw heavy loads, perform their work slowly, and hence have less need of concentrated res- piratory materials. Moreover, they have capacious stomachs in which large quantities of carbhydrates can be contained, while the comparative slowness with which the latter move through the digestive apparatus permits large quantities of them to be digested and resorbed. In the ordinary feed of working oxen the fat scarcely amounts to 0,3 lb. per day; in the ration for heavily worked animals it may sometimes be advisable to increase it somewlxat by the use of a bye-fodder which is at the same time rich in fat and in protein (such as oil cake or cotton-seed cake), so that the total amount of digestible fat may reach, perhaps, 0.5 lb. per day. I 3. HOBSES. Fodder determined by Amount of Work. — The food of the horse is in general very constant as regards its ma- terials, consisting chiefly of oats and hay, with sometimes tnore or less straw, but the relative quantities of these ingredients and the total quantity of fodder vary moie than with almost any other animal, and are almost wholly determined by the amount of work performed. Neither the temperament nor the constitution of the horse fit it to consume an abundant fodder when not per- forming regular work, while, on the other hand, as the amount of work demanded increases, the intensity of the 18 410 3IA]SrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDmG. f eedins^ must also be increased, until the ration may finally come to consist almost wholly of oats. The Hohenheim Experiments. — The only experi- ments on the feeding of working horses are tlioso recently executed at Hohenheim by "Wolff and others. These ex- periments were made primarily to test the digestibility of various feeding-stuffs ; but some information may be gained fi*om them as to the amount of nutriment needed by the horse. The experiments were all made on the same ani- mal, and consequently the results are strictly applicable only to this animal, but, at the same time, it is to be an- ticipated that the general conclusions drawn from them will be confirmed by subsequent investigation. Quantity of Fodder. — In these experiments it was found that a horse weighing 1,100 — 1,300 lbs., when fed exclusively on hay, easily ate 22 lbs. per day, but that 27^ lbs. appeared to be the maximum amount which he could consume. These amounts contained respectively 19.4: lbs. and 24.0 lbs. of dry matter. In later ex])eriments, in which grain was fed, the maximum amount of dry matter consumed per day was 25 lbs. It would thus appear that 20 — 25 lbs. is about the limit for the amount of total dry matter in the ration of a horse weighing 1,200 lbs. It will be seen at once that, as was to be expected, this quantity is much less than is consumed by ruminating animals. This fact was strikingly shown in some experiments in which the same hay was fed to sheep for comparison. The latter animals consumed, per 1,000 lbs. live-weight, 31.25 lbs. of hay, containing 27.2 lbs. of dry matter, and could apparently have eaten more. Digestible Nutrients. — The following table *'^' contains Wolff : Landv7. Jahrbticher, VIII. , I. Supplement, p. 113. KAlSriTAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. a snmmary of tlie more important Ilolienlieim experi- ments, showing the amount of nutrients cligefoted per day and their effect on the live-weight. The amount of work perfoi'med is given in kilogrannne-metres ; an ordinary day's work is estimated at about 1,500,000 kilogramme- metres. Light Work. Length of experi- ment. Days Live- weight. Lba. "Dry fodder per day Lbs. Digested per Day. Nutri- tive ratio 1: Chang© Work per day. Kilogr.- inetres. Pro- tein. Lbs. 1..3 1.8 1.4 20 S.l 4.0 3.3 2.2 Fat. Lbs. Carbhj- dratis. Lbfa. Total nu tnentf. Lbs. m livo- V, eight per daj . Lbs. 475,000 475,000 600,000 600,000 600,000 600,000 600,000 600,0t 62 28 U 14 56 25 30 89 1,078 1,157 l,I9r 1,151 1.093 1,034 1,065 1,146 18 6 24.0 18.5 16.7 21.3 24.7 25 24 9 04 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 C.2 0.4 7 9 10 5 7.2 6.7 8 8 10 9 12 3 18 4 96 12 7 87 8.8 . 12.0 15 15 8 16 69 64 6.6 3.4 3.0 2.8 3.9 6.5 ~1 -2.0 -3 3 +1 1 +10 4-2 1 Obdinaky Wokk. 1,108,000 40 1,120 24 1.8 0.4 10 8 13 67 -1.4 1,800,000 30 1,010 21.4 3.0 0.1 87 11 8 30 -2 8 The experiments in which only light work was per- formed are tolerably numerous, and agree w^ell with each other, although it must he borne in mind that they were executed at different times, and that the bodily condition of the animal varied considerably. As their general result, we may say that a ration containing 12 to 13 lbs. of digest- ible nutrients, and having a nutritive ratio of about 1 : 6.5^ 413 MAlSrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIlSra is sufficient for a Iiorse weigliing about 1,200 pounds and performing only light work. All the experiments in which the total quantity of digested matter falls below this amount show a loss of weight, while those in wdiich it is exceeded show a gain. It would seem, from the lif th experiment, that the nutritive ratio may safely be made considerably narrower than that given above ; but such a change WT)uld only increase the cost of the feeding without producing an essentially better result. The few experiments in which the amount of work was increased to an ordinary day's work, or somewhat beyond, only show the insufficiency of the above mentioned ration, but give us no information as to the amount by which it should be increased. It is noticeable that in these experi- ments the loss of weight was less on a wide nutritive ratio ; at the same time, however, the total amount of digested matters was somewhat greater, though that of the protein was much less. Feeding Standards. — The following table contains the above feeding standard, calculated per 1,000 pomids live- weight, and also the standards reconnnended by Wolft" for ordinary and for heavy work : Feeding Standaeds.— Horses. Per Bay and 1,000 Pounds Live-Weight. Total (Try matter. Lb^. Digestible. Nutritive Protein. Lbs. Carbnvdrates. Lbs. 9.1 11.3 13,4 Fat. Lbs. ratio, 1: For light work " ordinary work. " heavy work. .. 31.0 33.5 35.5 1.5 1.8 2.8 0.3 0.6 0.8 0.5 7.0 5.5 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIISTG. 413 The desirability of tlie more higUj nitrogenous diet here recommended for heavily worked horses is indicated by practical experience. Importance of Fat. — What has been said in regard to the importance of fat in the food of working animals is especially applicable to the horse, and it can hardly be a matter of chance that the oat, which is regarded as the natural food of the horse, is distinguished from other ce- reals by its richness in fat. This fact must be borne in mind in attempting to replace the latter, either partially or wholly, by other feeding-stuffs. The carbhydrates can, it is true, take the place of fat to a certain extent ; but it may be questioned whether they always suffice, and in any case the fat of the food must add to the supply of respiratory materials, and thus be of value, especially in severe work. Kinds of Feeding-stuffs. — The feed of the horse ordi- narily consists, as already said, of hay and oats, though various attempts have been made, with more or less suc- cess, to replace the latter by other feeding-stuffs. Exclusive hay-feeding is still less adapted to horses than to ruminants, since, as we have seen, the amount which the former can eat is comparatively small, amounting to barely 23 pounds per day and 1,000 pounds live-weight, and containing 20 pounds of dry matter. Ilence the ne- cessity of adding some concentrated food like oats to the hay becomes self-evident, 'and is rendered even more so when we consider that the digestive power of the horse for certain ingredients of coarse fodder, notably crude fibre, falls below that of ruminants. CHAPTER V. PEOBXJCTION" OF MILK ^ 1. The MiLK-GiiANDs and TiamiE Functions. Milk is not simply a Secretion, — In order to an nn* derstancling of the influence of tlxe fodder npon tlie quantity and qnalitj of the milk, it is important to gam a clear conception of the mode of formation of the latter. The milk is not simply secreted from the Mood, like the nrine in the kidneys or the digesti^^e juices in the stomach and intestines, but is formed in the milk-glands from the cells of the gland itself; it is the liquefied organ. This is shown ^"ven by the composition of its ash, which, like tliat of all tissues, contains much potash and phosphate of lime, while the fluids of the animal body ai^ poor in these sub- stances and rich in chloiide of sodium ; the ash of milk contains three to five times as much potash as soda, while the ash of blood, on the other hand, contains three to five times as much soda as potash. "Were the milk simply a transudate from the blood, it would have a similar compo- sition, and could not serve as the exclusive food of the young animal, since it would not contain all the elements necessary for growth ; but since it is a liquefied organ, it is exactly adapted to build up other organs. Structure of the Milk-Glands. — The milk-gland is composed of numherlebs small vesicles, like those repre- MANUAL OF CATTLE- FEEDIIS-O. TcXt!) Fig. 8 —Lobule of Milk-gland sented in Fig. 8. Tliey consist of a thin, straetiireless membrane^ a, lined with epithelial cells, h. From three to eight of these vesicles are grouped together and surrounded by connective tisbiie, dj forming a lobule which has a com- mon outlet, €j for all the vesicles. Several^of these lobules, again, are united into a lobe, also surrounded bj connective tissue, and ha\ing a common outlet, which empties into the milk-cistern. The udder of the cow consists of a right and left half, each composed of numerous lobes surrounded by connec- tive tissue. The two halves are separated from each other by a partition of connective tissue, and the whole is cov- ered with more or less abundant fat- tissue, upon which fol- lows the skin. Considerable fat is also found in the interior of the organ, and its amount may sometimes be so great that, in spite of an enor- mously large ud- der, there is only a small quantity of real glandu- lar tissue, and the yield of milk is correspondingly scanty. In Fig. 9, a represents the mass of lobes ; h shows several of the outlets Fig 9 — (WilckenB ) Section of a Cow''s TTddcr 416 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG, of tlie lobes cut obliquely ; d is the teat ; e tbe milk- cistern, into wliicli all the lobes empty; and /the outlet of the teat. The vesicles above described are covered with a net-work of iine blood and lymph vessels, both of which are very fully developed in the udder. Each lialf of the udder has usually two, more seldom three, teats. Formation of the Milk. — The space in the vesicles of the milk-gland contains originally only a small quantity of a yellowish mucus, but when conception takes place the cells begin to enlarge and to fill with fat-globules. At the same tune new cells are formed, and the old ones are pushed forward and fill the vesicle, and, toward the end of pregnancy, even reach the large milk-ducts and the milk- cistern, partly separating from each other in the process. Wlien birth takes place the cell-building in the vesicles becomes more rapid, and is somewhat altered in character. The previous secretions are the first to appear, foi-ming the colostrum, which is followed in three or four days by the true milk. The colostrum is a thick, yellowish fluid, rich in albumin and salts, but containing little casein, and characterized by the presence of round bodies, which are simply whole cells from the interior of the vesicles. The colostrum contains also a large number of the milk-globules shortly to be described. In the production of the true milk, which soon follows the colostrum, a rapid formation of new cells takes place in the vesicles, these cells become completely filled with fat-globules, and then break up entirely, setting free these globules, which float in the fluid which is secreted at the same time, and form milk-globules. This process takes place much more rapidly than in the case of the colostrum. MANUAL OF CxiTTLE-FEEDI]S'G. 417 being wholly completed in tlie glands, so that the resulting milk shows no trace of the process, hut appears like a homogeneous fluid. Composition of Milk. — Under the microscope, milk is seen to consist of a fluid, in which are suspended tlie above mentioned milk-globules, which render the fluid opaque. On standing, these milk-globules rise to the surface and form the cream, while the liquid portion, more or less free from the fat-globules, forms skimmed milk- It is in the composition of the fluid portion that milk shows most plainly that it is not simply a filtrate from the blood. It contains — in the case of the cow, e. g, — fi*om two to five per cent, of protein ; but while the protein of the blood exists as albunnn or fibrin, only a very small part of the protein of milk consists of albumin, most of it existing as casein (see p. 17), a substance not found else- where in the body. A small amount of peptones is also found in milk. Moreover, milk contains, in addition to the casein, from three to five per cent, of a peculiar sugar — milk-sugar, or lactose — which also has never yet been met with elsewhere in the organism. These two substances, together with the composition of its ash, stamp milk with a peculiar charac- ter, and are sufficient of themselves to show that it is not a secretion in the common sense of the word. The milk-globules have given rise to much discussion. They consist essentially of a mixture of several fats, which, when separated from the milk or cream by churning, con- stitute butter. The milk-globules are generally described as surrounded- by a membrane consisting of some variety of protein. This membrane is not visible under the microscope, but several facts have been brought forward as proofs of its 18* 418 ma:^ual of cattle-feeding. existence. Many eminent autliorities, however^ diRsent from this view, and interpret the facts differently. The point is still an undecided one, and it will therefore suffice for our present purpose to have indicated the divergence of views upon it Sources of the Ingredients of Milk. — The alhwnin- oids of milk are obviously derived from the albuminoids of the food or of the body. The albumin of milk seems to be identical with that of the serum of the blood, but the casein, as already noted, is not found in the body, but is a product of the action of the cells of the milk-gland. The feet of the milk appears to be also formed from albuminoids. This is shown both by microscopic examin- ation and by other facts. By means of the microscope, the formation of fat-globules in the epithelial cells of the gland may be seen. Moreover, experiments have shown that carnivorous animals, on a purely meat diet, pro- duce normal milk, thus proving that milk-fat ^f/iai/ he formed from albuminoids, and have also shown that the greatest quantity of fat is generally produced on a ration rich in protein. Experiments on herbivorous animals, to which reference has already been made (pp. 174-170), have shown no necessity for the assumption of a formation of milk-fat from carbhydrates. The ojiilk-sugar may also be formed from protein or fat, as the above-mentioned experiments on carnivorous ani- mals show. In the case of herbivorous animals, however, it is probable that a part of it at least is derived from the carbhydrates of the food. MANUAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIJSTG. 419 1% The Quality OF IVfmi^. Fodder of Secondary Importance.— It is apparent at once, from the preceding section, that the quantity and quality of milk nuist be determined in the lirst place by the development of the milk-glands, and it is, indeed, per- fectly well known that, w^ith exactly the same fodder, one cow will give little and another much milk. A poorly developed nnlk-gland cannot be stimulated to great production even by the richest food, and hence, in milk production, nuich depends on the choice of suitable animals. It is not, however, the size of the gland alone which is to be taken into consideration, but also its quality — its capability for rapid cell-building in the vesicles, which, as we have seen, is the essential part of the production of milk — and its ability to yield the desired quality of milk. Such being the case, the food supply can have but a secondaiy importance ; at the same time, the production of milk, like every other function of the body, demands a certain supply of food for its normal performance* and it is easy to see that the latter nuist exert a very considerable influence, at least on the quantity of the milk. Period of Lactation. — Another factor having an im- portant influence on the quantity of milk produced is the period of lactation. In the same animal, and with uni- form feeding, the greatest yield of milk is generally ob- tained shortly after calving. At that time the milk-gland reaches its greatest development, and consequently pro- duces the most milk, while subsequently it retrogrades, and the flow of milk decreases correspondingly. This gradual diminution in the daily yield of milk is to a degree independent of the fodder, although its rapidity can ])e influenced by the latter. Consequently, it is desir- 420 MAl^TJAL OF CATTLE-FEEDlJSra. able, in investigations on milk production, to introduce at the end of each series of experiments a period in wliidi the fodder is the same as in the first period, in order to be able to take account of the extent of this diminution. The Supply of Protein.— The formation of milk con- sists essentially in a rapid growth of new cells in the milk- glands. These cells consist largely of protein, and we should therefore expect their formation to be more or less dependent on the supply of protein in the food. More- over, not only the protein of the milk, but also its fat, and perhaps part of its sugar, appear to be formed from albu- minoids, and thus a further necessity for an abundant snp^ ply of these substances arises. In fact, all experiments agree in showing that the great- est yield of milk is obtained with a fodder rich in protein. The size and quality of the milk-gland, it is true, deter- mine the maximum amount of milk that can be formed, but this maximum can be reached only by means of a lib- eral supply of protein. Another effect of protein, which shows itself in all ex- periments, is to augment the percentage of sohd matter in the milk — L ^., to make it less watery. Since, now, the amount of real production which takes place, as well as the true value of the milk, is measured by the amount of solid matter in the latter, it is evident that w^e nnist reduce the quantities of milk produced in any experiment to a uniform w^ater-content before we can properly compare them. The basis usually adopted is ^S per Qmi. .-.w^ater and 12 per cent, solid matter, and from the actual quantity of milk produced is calculated the quantity which would have been produced had the amount of solid matter present been contained in milk having 88 per cent of water. MAKUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIKG. 421 Ex;peThnents ly Wolff, — Some experiments by Wolff,* in 1868j thongli imperfect in some particulars, illustrate the influence of the protein of the fodder on the quantity of the milk- In the first and last periods the fodder was the same, and from the difference in the yield of milk it was calcu- lated that the average decrease per day due to the progress of lactation was 0.0284: lb. The amount of non-nitroge- nous matter in the fodder was practically the same in all the periods, only that of the protein being yaried. The fol- lowing table shows the amount of crude protein fed per day, the yield of milk per day, its percentage of dry mat- ter, the yield of milk reduced to a uniform water-content of 88 per cent., and the amount which would liave been yielded had the fodder remanied the same as in the first and last periods : Milk -with S8 peu cent. Period. Grndc pi otem fed. Lbs. Yield of nnlk. Lbs. Dry matter of milk. Per cent. Watkb. Tonnd. Lbs. Calculated. Lbs. 1 3.53 3.18 3.8G 4.17 3.34 19.8 19.9 30.0 19.7 18.5 11.38 11.43 11.46 U 61 11. 7r 18.8 18,9 19.1 18.9 18.0 18.8 3 18.5 3 18.3 4 18.0 5. 17.8 6. 3.73 18.3 • • • • • • • # • » • ♦ 7 4.15 18.3 11.50 17.5 17.4 8 4.50 18.3 11.88 17.9 17.1 9 3.95 17.1 11.84 16.8 16 8 - ■ ' \ * "Einahruug Landw. NuUtbiere," p. 503. 422 MAKUAL OF OATTLE»FEIi]DING. Ill general, the percentage of dry matter in the milk was increased by the large proportion of protein, while the qnantity of milk (reduced to a uniform water-content) is in every case greater than the calculated amount. Kejpeiflments ly G. Kiihn. — Very extensive experiments upon the influence of the food on the production of milk have been made by Gustav Jvulm, at the Mdckern Ex- periment Station,"^ The following selection from his results will serve to illustrate the influence of a ration rich in albuminoids upon the quantity of milk. The experiment was made on two cows, and was divided into four periods. In the first period each cow received a so-called normal fodder, which was poor in protein and consisted, per day, of 16 5 lbs. of hay. 8 3 '' baxley straw. 38.5 " mangolds. In the second period this ration was improved by the addition of 6,6 lbs. of palm-nut meal, which was replaced in the third period by an equal amount of beans. In the fourth period each cow received 27.5 lbs. of hay, and in the case of cow No. I. a fifth period was added, in which the fodder consisted of 27.5 lbs. of hay and 6.0 lbs. of palm-nut meal. The digestibility of the fodder was not determined in these experiments, but it is evi- dent that the higlily nitrogenous bye-fodders used must have largely increased the proportion of protein in the ration. The several periods extended over from three to nearly seven weeks, during which time the fodder was accurately * Jour, t Laudw., 1874 to 1877. MAl^UAL 01^^ OATTLE-FEEJDXNG. 423 weighed out, the yield of milk weiglied, and almost daily analyses of it made. The results were in nearly all respects the same with each animal, and hence only those obtained witli cow IS^o. I. are given here. The following table '^ shows the average amomit of milk given per day in the several periods (in- cluding the preliminary feeding) under the influence of the varying fodder: Period. Lcngtli ot pcnod t Bays. Fodder. Milk per day. Lbh. Dry matter of ID ilk Per cent. Milkwith 8b per cent water. Lbs. 1 35 ''Normal fodder." ,26.36 10.93 24.03 2 47 Same +6. 6 lbs. palm-nut meal 2B 25 11.72 S7.59 S 26 '* -j-O.Q *' hems. 29.39 11.33 27.76 4 21 27.5 lbs. hay. 23.86 10.88 20 72 5 21 Same +6.6 lbs. palm-nut meal 23.54 11.17 31.91 In these experiments the natural decrease in the flow of milk with advancing lactation is not taken into account, it having been found, in previous experiments on the same animal, to be very small. The increased yield of milk, imder the mfluence of the more nitrogenous fodder of periods 2, 3, and 5, is very marked, whether we consider the actual yield of milk or reduce it to a uniform water-content. The increase in the percentage of dry matter in the milk is equally evident. These results show plainly that a liberal supply of pro- tein in the food favors an abundant production of milk ; * Jour. f. Landw., 1876, p. 190, and 1877, p 331 t Including the preliminary feeding. 424 MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. and tills conclusion is confirmed by a large number of other investigations. Effect of Fodder in Maintaining the Plow of Milk. — In tlie second and tliird periods of tlie above series, ex- tending together over nearly two and one-half months, it was observed that the larger yield of milk caused by the richer food showed itself at once, and continued without very much alteration till the beginning of the fourth pe- riod. Indeed, the yield was somewliat greater during the last part of the third period than during the first part of the second period. This illustrates a fact which has been frequently ob- served, viz. : that a rich fodder can render the natxiral de- pression due to the progress of lactation very small, and ensure a nearly constant flow of milk for a considerable thne. Evidently this is no small gain, and one which be- comes more manifest from day to day. In the fourth period, in which the animal was fed on hay exclusively, a rapid diminution in the flow of milk was observed, evidently due to the poorer fodder. In the fifth period the fodder was improved, and rendered about equal in quality to that fed in the second and third peri- ods. As a result, we have an increased secretion of milk, but neither on the average nor on any single day w^as the quantity nearly as great as before on a similar fod- der. "We thus see that, while a good flow of milk may be maintained for a long time by means of a suitable fodder, it falls rapidly when the fodder is made poorer, and that when it has thus fallen it does not increase again to the former amount on a return to the old fodder. In this case three weeks of hay feeding sufficed to diminish tlife aver- age daily yiekl of milk by about five pounds. MANITAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 425 Milk Production with Insufficient Protein.— A fod- der somewhat less rieli in protein than that ii&imllj con- sidered necessary will, it is true, if agreeable to the ani- mals, often produce a large flow of milk. The energy of production is so great in good milk cows that it continues for a time unaltered, even when the fodder does not supply sufficient materials. The deficiency is then supplied from the body of the animal, and the latter loses flesh and fat. This may be admissible to a certain extent in the early part of lactation, since, as the amount of milk gradually decreases, the drafts on the materials of the body cease, and the latter, if the fodder be tolerably rich, ma}- regain what it previously lost. At the same time the detieiency must not be too great, since then, as we have just seen, a rapid decrease in the flow of milk takes place, and the cows are liable to com6 into a condition in which even rich feeding will not produce much milk. 'Effect of Fat. — An increase of the fat of a ration seems to produce but little effect upon the milk production. The only conclusion that can be drawn from the experiments as yet made is that it does not increase at all the percentage of fat in the milk, but may slightly increase the quantity o£ the milk, probably because the fat protects some of the protein of the food from oxidation, and thus, by putting more material at the disposal of the milk-glands, causes an increased production of all the ingredients of the milk, and not simply of fat. For example, in experiments by Wolff,* the addition of a pound of fat (at first rape-seed oil, afterward linseed oil) per head to a very scanty fodder which had caused a rapid decrease in the flow of milk increased the flow only for * Loo. cit , p. 506. 426 MAKUAL OF OATTLE-FEEDIN-Q. the first few days. On the average of the whole period of feeding ahnost no gain was obtained, and the percentage of fat in the milk actually decpecmd a little, as did also that of the total solid matter. In a similar experiment by G. Ktlhn, with a compara- tively rich fodder, it was fonnd that the addition of a pound of rape-seed oil per day and head caused a sxnall increase (about one pound per day) in the daily milk pro- duction, while the percentage of fat remahied nnaltered. I 3. The Quality of the Milk. By the quality of milk and its products is frequently meant those properties, like taste, color, etc., which render them more or less agreeable as food. These properties we shall not consider liere to any extent, because, although of importance, and though they are affected bv the feeding, the chemical changes which produce them are so slight as largely to escape obser^-ation, and because their causes are not yet well ascertained. On the other hand, the changes in the proportions of water, casejin, albumin, etc., wdiich may take place in the milk, are also changes in the quality of the latter, and to the quality of the milk in this sense we shall here devote most of our attention. Individual Peculiarities of Animals. — The quality of milk is stilll less dependent on the fodder than the quantity. By far the most important factors determining the qual- ity are the breed and individual peculiarities of the animal, especially as regards the properties of the milk-glands. The best and most abundant feeding is incapable of alter- ing a "cheese breed " into a "butter breed," or mce versa. This can be accomplished, if at all, only by continued and intelligent breeding with this end in view, and not by a MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKa 427 simple alteration of fodder. At tlie same time tlie fodder can affect tlie quality of the milk to some extent Influence of Fodder on Percentage of Dry Matter. — As already noted, the percentage of total dry matter in milk may be considerably increased by rich feeding. This is shown both in Wolft's and Kuhn's experiments (pp. 421 and 423), and has been fully conlirmed in many other inves- tigations. In Wolft's experiments the addition to the fod- der was solely protein. In Ivulm's experiments both protein and non-niti'ogenous nutrients were added, but since other experiments have shown that the addition of non-nitrogen- ous nutrients to a ration does not affect essentially either the quantity or quality of the milk, we must conclude that in this case also it was the additional jprotem which caused the gain. The increase in the proportion of dry matter in the milk probably explains the common observation that it is possi- ble to increase the yield of butter, e, g,^ from a given amount of milk by means of proper feeding, although, as we shall see, the ladder does not usually alter the propor- tion of fat in the dry matter of the milk. Influence of Fodder on Composition of Dry Matter. — In considering the influence of the fodder on the com- position of the dry matter of milk there are certahi facts that must be taken account of. It is a well-ascertained fact that the quality of milk, par- ticularly its proportion of fat varies considerably from day to day, and even from one milking to another. Moreover, such variations are particularly liable to take place after a change of fodder. As a consequence, any conclusions based on a^^ingle or on a few analyses of milk, especially if executed shortly after a change of fodder, have abso- lutely no value. 428 3fANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING, These changes in the composition of the dry matter of the milk, however, mutually compensate each other, and the average composition for a long period is found in al- most all cases to be unaffected by the fodder. For example, in Kuhn's experiments, already cited, the quality of the milk was determined by mean i of a large number of analvses. In the f ollowino; table ''^* is iirivcn the average composition of the milk obtained in the several periods of the experiments described on page 422, both from cow No. I. and also from Ko, 11. The milk, in every case, has been reduced to a uniform water-content of 88 per cent., thus eliminating the influence of the vary- ing percentage of water in the natural milk. Cow I. Period. Length of ptiiod Days. Dry Matter otfiesh milk Per cent Milk with 88 Per Cent. Watee. Pat. Per cent. Ca'.f-'in. I^ei cent. Albumin. Por cent. 0.25 0.24 0.2G 0.2 J 0.2i Suffir, Per ( cut. 1,. 2 8 4 5 85 47 20 21 21 10.03 11.72 11.33 10.88 11.17 3.33 3.81 3.51 3.46 3.70 2.25 2.2) 2.38 2.3() 2.38 5.08 4.70 5.0^ 5,08 Cow 11. 1 2 3 4 31 10.37 3.44 2.24 0.30 41 10.80 3.44 2.40 0.31 27 10.55 3.15 2.47 0.35 21 10.50 3.30 2 48 0.31 4.98 4.09 5.10 * Loc. at., 1877, pp, 331 and 352. MAKUAL OF CATTLE-FEEBIKG. 429 When calculated to a uniform water- content, the propor- tions of the several ingredients of the milk are practically the same, whatever the fodder. The same result has been obtained in many other experiments, in which the varia- tions of the fodder were very great. The quantity of the milk and the percentage of dry matter varied, but the rela- Udo fjfiiantities of the several solid ingj-edients remained very constant. One exception to this, however, appears in the above experiments. In periods 2 and 5, in which palm-nut meal was fed, the milk of Cow I. showed a noticeably increased percentage of fat, while that of Cow 11. was not affected in this way. That this effect was not caused by the greater supply of protein is shown by the facts that it was pro- duced in only one animal, and thaf it did not show itself in period 3, in which the fodder was even richer in protein than in period 2. That it was not due to the fat of the palm-nut meal follows from the fact that, in other experi- ments, the addition of fat to the fodder has had no such effect. It would thus appear that the palm-nut meal exerted a specific effect on the milk production of this cow. In later experiments, the effect on the same animal was confirmed, and another cow, of a different breed, was found in which the same result was produced. These two results are the only ones of the kind yet reached, all other experiments having failed to show any permanent change in the composition of the dry matter of the milk as a result of change of feeding. They are too few to justify any general conclusion, but it would be highly interesting to follow up the hint thus given, and to test various fodders and different animals in this re- spect. 430 MAKUAT. OF CATTLE-ITEEDIKG. Influence of Fodder on Quality of Butter. — Be- sides the well-known effect of certain fodders in imparting an undesirable flavor to butter, it is a fact of common ex- perience that winter butter is inferior to that made on good pasturage. These differences in quality, however, seem to be due rather to the presence or absence of minute quan- tities of coloring and flavoring matters than to an j recog- nizable change in the chemical composition of the fat. Butter-fat consists essentially of a mixture of stearin, palmitin, and olein, and it is sometimes stated that when an animal is kept on poor fodder, particularly coarse fod- der, the proportion of the solid stearin increases, and that of the softer palmitin and olein decreases. Some recent experiments by Weiske "^" seem to indicate that this is not the case. They, at least, failed to show any alteration in the composition or melting-point of the fat of goat's milk as a consequence of poor or good feeding. Other Conditions Infiuaneing Quality of Milk. — Various circumstances, largely independent of the indi- viduality or the feeding of the animal, affect the quality of the milk, especially its percentage of total dry matter. The milk of a large milker is generally more watery than that from a cow which produces a less , while, as we have seen, mature animals, even when higlily fed, gain chiefly fat. Fattening. — Wolff's Experiments. — In the experi- ments by Wolff, partially described on page 448, two o£ the lambs received, in addition to the hay, oats, and oil cake, and at the close of the experiment were found to be well fattened. The following table shows the total amount of fodder (water-free) eaten, the amount of digesti- ble nutrients, and the gain in weight, per day and head, for the several periods : Period. Age. Months. Average hve- we ght. Total fodder. Lbs. Digested. Protein. Lb. Fat. Lb. Carbhy- drate-?. Lb. Kutr, Batio. 1: Gam perdi;y, Lbfi. 1 5-6 8 8-9 9-13 12~U 59.7 70.7 78.9 84.8 95.8 1.99 3.03 1.91 1.83 1.76 0.31 0.34 0.31 0.19 0.19 0.08 0.08 0.10 06 08 97 1.03 0.93 0.91 0.89 5.6 5 1 5.6 5.6 5.7 2 3 4 5 0.36 0.34 0.07 0.13 0.19 In the last three periods the consumption of fodder fell off considerably, especially if we take into accoimt the in- creased weight of the animals. The average consumption of digestible protein per day and head was 0.21 pound, and the nutritive ratio did not vary greatly from 1 : 5.6. We shall not, therefore, err greatly if we say that a ration containing, per day and head, about 0.20 pound of digestible protein, and having a nutritive ratio of about 1:5.6, and fed constantly from the age of six months on, 456 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKa irrespeetiv^e of tlie increase in weight, will, in eight to nine months, yield animals weighing in the neighboi-hood of lOU lbs., and well fattened. Eioher Feeding. — By richer feeding a still more rapid gain may he obtained. In some experiments by Stohmann,"^' lambs seven to eight months old were fed for live months upon straw, potatoes, clover hay, and oil cake. These feeding-stuffs w^ere combined into four different rations, two (Nos. 2 and 3) containing, per day and head, on the avenvage, 0.28 lb. of digestible protein, and the other two (Nos. 1 and 4) about 0.38 lb. The quantity of non-nitrogenous nutrients was such that the nutritive ratio of one ration of each pair was wider than that of the other, as shown by the table on the opposite page. All the animals gained weight rapidly, but it was ol)- served that the rations containing the larger amount of protein, produced, as was to be expected, the greatest effect (compare p. 399 &t saq,)^ and also that the wider nu- tritive ratios gave better results than the narrower, a thing which was also to be expected. The latter fact was espe- cially noticeable after the animals were shorn at the end of the fourth month. After this, 0.46t lb. of protein per day, with a nutritive ratio of 1 : 3.9, not only gave a poorer result than about the same quantity with a ratio of 1 : 4.3, but hardly a better than 0.33t lb. of protein with a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5.3. *Joiir. 1 Landw., 18(57, p. 138; "Erniihmng dei: Landw. Nufcz- thiere," p. 439. f The quantities of protein first given are the average amounts for the first four months. The actual quantity was gradually inci eased with the growth of the animals, and hence the average for the last month is higLei% MAKtJAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 457 The following table gives tlie average amount of digesti- ble protein and non-nitrogenons nutrients, tlie nutritive ratio, and the gain in weight, per day and head, both be- fore and after shearing. The experiments extended over four montiis before the shearino: and one month after. 15EF0RE ttHEABII :estibilitv as is fur- nished by the use of digestion coefficients, especially if au- MAinjAL OF OATTLE-FEEBIITG. 471 count be taken of tlie fact tliat the total digestible carblij- drates are likelj to exceed tbe nitrogen-free extract in coarse fodder which is rich in protein, and to fall short of it in feeding-stuffs having a low percentage of protein. There remains to be considered only the protein of the coarse fodder, and just this substance shows the greatest variations of digestibility. In general it is most digestible in those feeding-stuffs which contain most protein and least crude fibre, that is, in yomig and tender fodder, wiiile in that which is old and woody or of coarse texture it is generally less digestible. In the case above supposed both the hay and straw are of nearly average composition, and we therefore assume average digestion coefiicients for their protein, viz., 57 for that of the hay and 38 for that of the straw. A simple computation now shows us that 100 pounds of each of our four feeding-stuffs will furnish the following amoimts of digestible nutrients : Lbs. Odt Btraw. Lbs, Mangx>lds. Lbs. Brewers* grains. Lbs. Protein Carbhydrates, Fat.. 5.13 3.51 1 43.00 33.00 10 0.92 0.30 « * 4.25 16.00 0.80 From these data w^e can easily calculate that the quanti- ties of hay, straw, and mangolds which we have assxmied to be available per day and 1,000 lbs. live-weight, together with twenty pounds of brewers' grains, will furnish the cows with the following quantities of digestible protein^ carbhydratcs, and fat : 472 MAIH-UAL OF OATTLE-EEEBING. 12 lbs. liay 6 Ubs. oat straw. , 20 lbs. mang^olds 20 lbs. brewers' grains . , Total Total dry fiubatance. Lbs. BiGBSTIBLE. Albuminoids Lbs. Carbhy- drates. Lbs. 10 32 0.62 5.16 5.16 0.09 I 98 2.40 0.20 2.00 4.60 0.85 8 20 22.48 1.76 12,34 Fat. Lbs, 0.11 0.02 • • • • 0.16 0,29 This ration falls short of the standard by abont three-quar- ters of a pound of digestible protein. This must evidently be supplied by some nitrogenous bye-fodder, such as oil cake, fish, etc. Taking cotton-seed meal as an illustration, we find that the addition of two and one-half pounds of this feeding-stuff to the above ration, supposing the meal to have the average composition of the American article, and to be of average digestibility, will bring it up to the desired standard. Total dry subntance. Lbs. Digestible. Albuminoids / Lbs. Oftrbby- drates. Lbs. Fat. Lb. Total as aboye 22.48 1.96 24.44 24 00 1.76 0.79 2 55 2.50 12 34 0.42 0.29 2 5 lbs cotton-seed meal. O.IS Total ,... 12 70 12 50 0.42 Standard , 0.40 MATSfUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. 473 An exact correspondence with tlie standard need not be sought, and, indeed, it is evident from the foregoing para- graphs that such a correspondence, if attained, would be more apparent than real. The amount of non-nitrogenous nutrients may vary more than that of the protein, and tlie exact quantity of fat, in particular, is a matter of no special impoi:tance, provided too much is not fed. As a general rule, it is advisable to give too much rather than too little protein, both to ensure a sufficient supply of this important nutrient and for the reasons stated on pp. 280-283. In practice, of course, regard must be had to individual peculiarities of the animals, as well as to differences in weight. The most satisfactory plan would probably be to weigh out each day a sufficient supply for all the cattle which receive the ration, and to distribute this amount among the animals according to their requirements. As. a matter of course the animals must be carefully observed, and their supply of food modified according to the indica- tions thus obtained. The feeding standards, as already said, are not inflexible rules, to be blindly followed, birt guides and indications which must be intelligently adapted to local and individual circumstances. The example given above serves to illustrate the manner of calculating rations in accordance with a feeding sfcandai^ The chief points there given may be summed up in, the following * Rules for the Calculation of Rations 1. The composition of the fodders used is either a^er- tained by analysis or estimated from the table of the mm- position of feeding-stuffs. 2. Tubers and roots are considei-ed to be wholly di- gestible. 474 MANUAL OB" CATTLE-FEEBING. 3. For tlie concentrated fodders, the average digestion co-efficients are emplo} ed in most cabes. 4. The digestible carbhydrates of the coarse fodders are considered to be equal to the total nitrogen-free extract. 5. The digestibility of the protein of the coarse fodder is estimated from the composition of the latter, it being the greater the less crude fibre and the more protein the feeding-stuff contains. 6. By multiplying the percentage of each ingredient of the fodders by its digestion coefficient, the percentage of digestible niattlsrs in each f^eding-Stnff is obtained, the digestible nitrogen-free e>ctract and digestible crude fibre being added together as carbhydrates. 7. Fi'om the data thus obtained we calculate, first, the quantities of digestible protein, carbhydrates, and fat in the amounts of fodder available, and second, what addi- tion of bye- fodder must be made to them to bring the ration up to the feeding standard. 8. If the dry matter of the tubers or roots entering into the ration does not exceed one-eighth that of the dry matter of the remaining fodder no deduction is made from the above figiu^es. If, however, the dry matter of the roots or tubers e^tceeds this proportion, a dedciction must be made from the Amount of digestible protein of the ration as calculated, in the proportions indicated on pa.ge 285. These corrections may be considered sufficient when the coarse fodder consists chiefly of hay, and ample when the addition consists chiefly of roots and not of potatoes. On the contrary they are hardly sufficient when the ration contains much straw and potatoes. The depression of the digestibility, however, is decidedly diminished when tlio nutritive ratio of the whole ration^ and especially that of MAKUAL OF CATTLE-I^EEDIISrG. 47.1 tlie bye fodder, is a narrow, or at least medium one (1 : 5 to 6). 9. If it is desired to test tlie correspondence of tlie calculated amount of digestible protein with that really present, the latter may also be calculated by Stohmann's formula, page 256, APPENDIX. Of tlie tables contained in tlie Appendix, I. and IT. are essentially those of Jnlius Kulm {Mentzel <& v. Leiigerle's Lcmdw. Kalender^ 1880), and III. and IV. are from "Wolff. As regards nninerieal accnracy, tliere is little difference between Kahn's tables and Wolff's, the averages of the former being mostly identical with those of the latter. As will be seen, Kuhn's contain, in addition to the average composition and digestibility, the range of variation hither- to observed in these respects, and thus afford a better means of estimating the composition of particular feeding-stuffs* (Compare page 467, and also the remarks in the preface,.) In Table I. Wolff's 'classification of meadow hay and clover hay has been introduced, and averages of all a^vail^ ble analyses of American feeding-stuffs have b^en giv^n. Tor the latter the author is indebted to the valuable oom« pilation of Dr. E. II. Jenkins, published in the '* ifceport of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station ^ for 1879. In Table II. "Wolff's classification of hay has also been introduced, and likewise the results i^eeently obtained by Wolff in experiments on the horse {Landnjo, JahrW^'hr er, VII., Supplement I.). 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OS O lO oo O r- 1 Oi> ; ; t I t I I y^jm * • » •• » « • Y-t „,^____„_,„_ ___. coc?t ; : : : : : : ooi> • ^ I • • • ^ oo i> ooAC go i- CDO O0«D *J> • • •CSS W W • , • •00 * IHSg' e2 ^0^, : ^8 : * * •oo *05 * « m woo ; * « * • ^ « 4 % I m 493 SIAKUAL OF CATTLI^-FEEDIN-G. Table III. -FEEDING STAND AKDS. A.-~Pm Day and Per 1,000 LiJS. Hve-weight. 1. Oxen at rest in stall 2. Wool sheep, coarser breeds. . . '' '* finer breeds 8. Oxen moderately worked ^^ heavily worked 4. Horses moderately woiked. . . * ' hfe-vily woi ked 5. Milk cows 6. Fattening oxen, 1 st period. . , 4i H Or] ^^ "• " Sd " ... 7. Fattening sheep, 1st period.. 8. Fattening swine, tst period.. '' » 3d '' 1! 9. Growing: cattle : Age, Average live-weight, mouths. per head. 2-^^ .... 1501bs.* 8-6 .... SCO *' 6-12 .... 500 '^ .... 12-18 .... 700 " .... 18-24 .... 850 *' .... 10. Growing sleep : 5-4> .... 50 lbs.*.... 6-8 .... 07 ^' .... 8-U .... 75 '' .... 11-15 .... 82 " .... 15-20 .... 85 " .... 11. Growing; fat pigs : 2-3 .... 50 lbs.*.... 3-5 ..., 100 '^ .... 5-6 .... 1^:5 " .,.. C-8 .... 170 " 8-13 .... 250 " .... Lbs. 17 5 20.0 22.5 24.0 20 2"2.5 25.5 24.0 27.0 20.0 25.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 31.0 23.5 22.0 23.4 24.0 24.0 34.0 2S.0 25 23.0 22 5 22.0 42.0 34.0 31.5 27.0 21.0 NUTKITIVK (DJGESTI- blk) Substances. -2 X5 g i 03 ■h "S o i •Si 3 M •s 4i 1 o pi ci cii o H <1 O ft. H Lbs. 0,7 12 15 1.0 24 18 2.8 2.5 2.5 3 2.7 3.0 3.5 5.0 4.0 2.7 4.0 3 3 2.5 2.0 1.0 3.2 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.4 7.5 5.0 4.3 3.4 2.5 Lbs. 8.0 10.3 11.4 11.3 13.2 11.2 13 4 12 5 15.0 14.8 14.8 15.2 14.4 Lbs. 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 50 0:60 80 40 0.50 O.^O 00 0.50 0.00 24.0 17.5 13.8 13 5 13.5 13 12.0 15.0 13 3 11.4 10.0 10.4 2.0 1.0 0.0 04 0.3 08 0.6 5 0.4 0.3 30.0 .0 on 23.7 20 4 10.2 Lbs. 8.85 11 .'?0 18.15 13.20 10.10 13.00 17.00 15.40 18.00 1S.50 18.10 18.70 18.50 .32.50 28 00 20.20 10.8 177 10.0 15.4 13. 4) 10.0 14.0 13.0 12.1 87.5 30.0 28.0 23.8 18.7 o .a 'A 13.0 :ao :8.0 :75 :60 :7.0 : 5.5 :5.4 : 5 : 5,5 : 0.0 : 5.5 ;4.5 1 : 5.5 1 : 0.0 1:0.5 4.7 5.0 (U) 7.0 8.0 5." 5 (LO 7.0 8.0 :4.0 5.0 5.5 0.0 6.5 * See note qui opposite page. MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING. 493 Table III. — Continued, B. — Per Day and Per Head, Growing cattle : Afj:e, Average live-weight, months. 2-0 S-6 G-12 12-18 18-24 Growing Bheep : 5-G u— 8 s-u 11-15 15-20 Growing fat swine ;]-5 5-0 8^12 X)er he k1. 150 lbs.*.. 300 500 700 850 56 lbs.*., 67 '' ., 75 '^ .. 82 " ., 50 lbs.*. 100 ^' , 125 '' . 170 ^' . 250 '^ , NUTBITIVE (DlG'ESTI- ELL) SUBtaTANCi-S. X3 Lbs. Lbs. 3.3 0.6 7.0 1.0 13.0 1.3 16.8 1.4 20.4 1.4 1.0 0.18 L7 0.17 1.7 0.10 1.8 14 1.9 0.12 21 0.38 3.4 0.50 3.9 0.54 4.0 0.58 5.2 0.02 Lbs. 2.1 41 0.8 9.1 10.3 0.87 0.85 85 0.89 0.88 Lb^. 0.30 0.30 30 0.28 0.26 0.045 0.040 0.037 0.032 0.025 1.50 2.06 4.05 o > 1= :S O Lbs. 3 00 5.40 8.40 10 78 11. DG 1 005 1.000 1.047 1.002 1.047 1.88 3-00 3.50 4.05 4.07 ^A -.4.7 :5 :0.0 :7.0 :8.0 1:5.5 1 : 5.5 1:0.0 1 : 7.0 1:8.0 :4.0 :5.0 :5.5 :0.0 :6.5 * The German ponml is equal to 1 Vio H^- avoirdupois. The above weights are theref(vre to be mcrejiBod Vio ^" reprehent our weights. For practical purposen, however, this riHlnotion will be in most cahos unnecessary, as tlie weiffhtK are bnt relative and approxi- mate. I'ho (inantities of nntrients calculated per 1,000 pounds live-weis?ht, of course, need no reduction, being simply relative, and the rame is true to a certain extent of the quantities per head. *X£/TC KAl^UAL OF CATTLE-FJEEBING. 02 'V^K •pOJ*lI9Ai ' W -^-lOA •J}«.S ca •w Ji^ir •psjiP^ •UTjgrj •JltJO t^t?^ •?M O '^n Jt^H •pajiloAV . O iO • -T^ CO C35 J> • 05 it> C'l IC ; o o d th I d d csi 'W* ©id 00 CO O CO C^l r^ O t-; CO Or-^T-ldOOir- id coeo Old no Tii CQ CO W5 OT CO 05 » d rH r~< d d (?i T-i -^ do +3 O Cft CO t- IlO CO CO lO CO CO 01 CO 3 ^ id Tt? t--* th . r-» CO 10 1-* CO 10 01 o ic o 'CQOOOrHOdcOr-'Oi 4J O i> "^ 03 S 00 'di 00 t-4 o ee o o tn ■«^ am O C Ci d M'^ oJ,*. f*Hi i^**^ if: 91 iO •ff r-l 00 CD Th 1-' »o ic CO ij:t! o CO oi d d d th d d Tii cf5 ci J^ "* be . 54 (-1 ,-w s • *! « r*ii c3 o ^ a o o 43 1 {>> fl r-l >*» m 05 I* pi ^ be "^ c ^ !> C3 r-^ r*H f^ nn ^-A X! g M a. O -H O H 5^ ■p O ^CH ^i o . xq iq -i^ CD . 01 csi Cft i> • d »H 0^ ; ri CO* r-i 000 00 (MOO 01 T-H jq CO C d CO d rH 01 ^ rH _-, - — !>• d •tH rH « "" k^l * 43 O 1^3 O o I— I p-l MAlSrUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDIKG. »0 COO * O "-t^ ui . 00 ' CSi" rJH C- , (L- CO tO lO o p o o o CO ID c: oi O t^ CO O O t^ rh tH Ci IC r-l CO rM '+ O 05* od 05 id O lO CO o "^ 30 Ci :D lOb-THO od l-^ Oi I- I"- « CO O O f' -J c O CO Oi g: CO o o o H M ea •H ^ (U *^ o' id 0* CO oi Ttl CO Tt^ O ift Oi i>. CO* 3d o -^ ,-^ O Oi ift '^ o CD Hi 00 O O iCi I"-; CO CO ci id Ti? co' o CJ tH »— I C55 O 'nH GJi cc' id 00 oi Tii CO o CO 1£5 m O CO OS rH CO CO CO rH 'tH CO C5 "'Sin CI tH o o o CO b-* Oi r-i co' CO CO co' O CO iC CI tH CO Cto id G lO iO id ^-* "<* CO -* CO rH 00 CO O CO C5S lO C35 CO t-' t^ oi d CO CO CO O •+( O O CO 50 1^ d csi o1 CO era o 5 PS , 03 S o 2 o ! p o CO 03 s .1 s /■ rij H O r; Ci Cp|ri4 O s8 o c; r, 02 1=1 9 X! QJ rt O _H O eS c<3 fvj 33 frj Eti COit- CO coco CO T-«l 05 idrH "•vj* CO id CO CM o CO 00 rH CO t-QO lO "^Ci CO CO CO-* CI coo CO CO 00 CI 00 HH CO CO c:i JO CO tH CO O 00 32 C5 00 CO oo odcd CJ CO W C w o o S rs 02 -=< o r <" o i5 C5CO w C5 o cco'i CirH o o o o o CI CI CO o CO* O O CO CO o COt-J-^O co" r-i O H? CO r-< iO io loco ca cri-t!o id o o o o o O rH tH CO C5 l--* CI 3> I> O CO o id 00 r-i id tH i- COOi-jO tH £•* rH ^-H Xh tCOOCO c&-tioid « rH iQ CI iO O '* £-^ i>^ C> HH 1— I rH cO COXCiI> idcSirHCO T-H t« CO w o p o W " ^k ^1 ocq o o -5 o o o o o o rH o o o O Eh Cioco Xt^ tH iC OS t^ ci r: 7i ooco CO T-H rH ?■! 5S 00 oj ci 01 r-i COGOC? CC CO CO c^icoco co" -* CO CO id CO rHCOiO co'id -<# cot-; OS cdcc' CO r-^OOOO l>id'«!lH o o DO o o o a -«! E-i o p; 43 O-^ 498 MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING, M •%'^ii 'P3Ji[9j\\. 43 ®.'=R o o •jjojj iCaoA •^M 4i OSO O o o 4^0 o o o H « aoo P^ O o a •W JPJH P^f-Il^Al •ubot; '^ •J[t30 (^t?^ •pi O 'm H«H •pajiPAi +3 I- O o • • 0) lO T-i O o t tj CO lO o o +3 CDO P^ o o 43 f»H O P4 t^ o o o P^ CO o ^> ;?§ CO pj_ . _ (J ■^ w O ^ " P h^ .3 P4 fX s . 0) . 4^ ?5 . d O M 'f^j H . p r/i . S O ..^ fU c . CtJ o , s o o w w CD «w ■< o H rr /^ -P W o 4-1 Pi o o d o o CO Oi05C» C? -i r-H « &:? o 05 o> «+; iri ci if tH CM tH w rH C i OT CO ■>tti rH "^ Cft C5C0 CJS T-3cocod SOtH *c CO O UO C55 T-HttDCO CO lO*!H Old ic a^* CO CO* r-i r-i O 01 'O O lO C 00 '^* ix ft 'A •< W o o H O m r/; W H ^< ^^ S U M QO m W 6^ O o o o' o o o 5 iq C! "^ lO d iC Ti^ d CO r" '^ IC CO Ol O i> CO O Oi l" 01 OS CM CO erf io d tH CO o o o o o o o o d Oju da -^ii S^- cor-coo?r 'O i-- *,*• O r-* O ; r-« d d o o d '»cS O iftiO lO o • no r-t r-> O r-^ r-t • rH T-i T-5 O d d . d 'X) O i- C5 lO ;d^ CO 01 2? JO O T-i th d d d d d oi CO 05 --t* -ti CO ^nc 1-** r-< C5 tH r-« O O! THwdd odd iO r^ :£ iO -i^ i2 ^ Ci C? O r-« T-( O 01 th rH d d o d d C5 jft -ti e JO 23 OS O* CO O r^ r-f O Ci T-4 T-i d d o d d T+t CO "c ci ? r- ir"5 C Ci O O i O O iC rJ th d d d do CC 12 ?«5 to C"^ tH 01 t-» 5^ s »-^ ^ o CO r-i r-5 d d c5 d d OK -ti •r' 00 •* 2.> :* C- rH O r-t W O CO r4 oi d d d d d o O O •l^ fl i :^ OK O CO o CO CO :«,« CO O iO CJ lO S OS Q y^ ^ Q o' d d d CO r/j 1' '-' if ri ! 1 S O fl fee Hr" -d P^ fWH^ fwMif |«Sr^ Ji 1 C7J rH T-*l O O O O w* CO o O 00 . u . o ;^ * ' 0) : rt • • ^ • o • , d :t3 -+i -.1-1 C y^ B . c> * M • INDEX. Abomasum, 57 Accidental salts, essential and, S3 Action of bile on the food, 62 pancreatic juice on carbhydrates, 63 fats, 03 ptjalin on siarcli, 56 saliva on the food, 56 trypsin on albuminoids, 63 Ac'd, carbonic, effect of work on excretion of, 206 excretion of, by young animals, 440 glycocholic, 63 hippuric, 81, 93 formed from albuminoids, 87 hyoglycocholic, 63 lactic, 13 metapectic, 46 muriatic, 59 phosphoric, excretion of, by herbivora, 258 duiing work, 208 sarko' actio, 13 sulphuric, excretion of, during work, 308 taurocholic, 63 uric, 93 Advantages of ensilage, 317 jSBsophogean demi canal, 57 Age of animals, effect of, on digestion, 270 Agriculture, objects of, 1 Albumin, animal, 16 properties of, 16 vegetable, 37 498 INDEX. Albuminoids, action of trypsin on, 63 animal, 15 composition of, 17 decompositions of, in body, 87 determmation of, 48 elTect of gastric juice on, 59 on dig-Gstibility of coarse fodder, 275 errors in dete miuation of, 49 formation of fat fxom, 87, 171 ga n of tat aided by, 178 importance of, 32 of milk, sources of, 418 vegetable, M comparative value in nutrition, 31 occurrence, 33 Alimentary canal, 55 Alkaloids, 35 of lupines, 35, 310, 343 Amides, 35 by action of trypsin, 6'?, 103 decomposed in body, 159 determination of, 49 digestibility of, 257 feeding standards affected by, 371 functions of, in plant, 3() indications of nutritive value of, W2 in malt sprouts, 341 nutritive value of, 158 Amido-acids, 35 Amines, 35 Ammonia, excretion of, in respiration, 101 salts in plants, 34 Amount of drink, 238 protein necessary to sustain life, 132 Analysis, fodder, 48 Animal albuminoids, 15 composition of, 17 occurrence of, 15 properties of, 15 varieties of, 15 body, composition of, 5, 305 Auimal body, composition of dry matter of, 10 inorg-anic matters of, 20 nitrogenous constituents of, 14 non-nitrogenous constituents of, 7 casein, 17 fats, composition of, 12 heat, 83, 229 nutrition, general laws of, 3, 5 products as fodder, 349 Anterior aorta, 78 Aoita, 78 anterior, 78 posterior, 78 Aqueous extract as measure of digestibility, 253 Arteries, 78 Artery, pulmonary, 77 Artichokes, 3G1 Ash, determination of, in fodders, 50 digestibility of, 258 Asparagin, 35 a nutrient, 1 03 functions of, in plants, 36 nearly equivalent to protein, 166 nutritive action of, 165 Auricles of heart, 77 Average composition of nitrogenous constituents of body, 19 Barley, 334 digestibility of, 335 Best time for cutting clover, 303 hay, 293 Bile, 61 action of, on food, 62 Bilirubin, 62 IMliverdin, 62 Bleeding, influence of, in fattening, 200 Blood, 74 amount of hasmoglobin in, 200 coagulation of, 76 corpuscles, 74 fibrin, 10, 76 500 INDEX. Blood plasma, 74, 75 composition of, 75 serum, 76 sugar in, 13, 76 vessels of intestines, C8 Body, components of, 5, 365 materials of, constantly decomposed, 2 Body-fat, influence of, on production of fat, 198 protected by fat of food, 187 protein of food, 188 Bokhara clover, 313 Bones, proportion of, in body, 6 Bran, 338 composition of, 339 digestibility of, 339 Breed, influence of, on digestion, 209 Brewers' grains, 339 Brown hay, 317, 318 Buckwheat, 335 Butter, influence of fodder on quality of, 430 Butter-fat, composition of, 430 Bye-fodders, nitrogenous, effect of , on digestibility of coarse fodlcr, 377 Bye -products of the grains, 337 from milk, 354 C vlcuTjATION of rations, 400 rules for, 473 Calves, feeding, 443 before weaning, 443 nutritive ratio, 443 substitutes for milk, 445 sugar in place of fat, 444 food of, after weaning, 440 weaning of, 440 Capillaries, 78 Carbhydrates, 38 act analogously to fat, 143 action of pancreatic juice on, 03 alone do not decrease piotcin consumption, 137 and fat, difference in action of, 102 INDEX. 501 Carbhydrates and fat, relative effect of, 194 decompositions of, in body, SS decrease protein consumption, 150 effect of, on digestibility ot coaise fodJer, 2S0 nitiogen-iiee extract, 382 protein, S80 equivalent to fat, 157 fat from, 173, 394 conclusions, 186 experiments on dogs, 183 ruminints, 174 swme, 180 sources of uncertainty, 18 i feeding with, alone, 136 protein and, 143, 191 may cause long-continued gain of flesh, 155 may be oxidized instead of fat, 192 mutual relations of, 44 Carbon, excretion of, 103 Carbonic acid, effect of work on excretion of, 206 excretion of, lOS excretion of, by young animals, 440 in venous blood, 81 removal from blood in lungs, 82 Casein, animal, 17, 417 gluten-, 28 vegetable, 28 composition of, 23 Cattle, fattening, 392 addition of oil to f o Mer of, 398 feeding standard for, 395 preliminary feeding of, 390 first period, 397 second period, 397 third period, 397 Causes of resorption, 09 Cellulose, 38 composition of, 39 determination of, 40, 50 digestibility of, 40 how digested, 04 509 INDEX. Cellulose, properties of, 88 star oh.-, 42 Cereals, 330 straw of, 323 Chaff, 337 Changes in nutrients during* digestion, 64 Chemical changes in ensilage, 817 production of, 240 Chyme, 60 Circulation of blood, 74 pulmonary, 80 systemic, 80 Circulatory protein, 133, 125 Circumstances under which a lack of inorganic nutrients may occur, 463 Clover and clover hay, 302 Alsike, 311 Bokhara, 312 hay, best time for cutting, 303 effect of wetting on, 305 losses in curing, 304 period of growth of, 803 incarnate, 313 stone, 313 Swedish, 311 sweet, 313 Tvhite, 811 Coagulation of blood, 70 Coarse fodder, circumstances affecting digestibility of, 2.'»0 digestibility of, by dilferent kindH of animals, 267 digestibility of nutrients of, 245 effect on digestibility of , of albumin oid.s, 275 carbhyb, 3GG advantage of, 307, 378 affected by amides^ 371 INDEX. 509 Feeding standards for fattening cattle, 395 sheep, 400 swine, 404 horses, 412 pigs, 461 working oxen, 408 limitations of, tJG9 Feeding-stuifs, composition and digestibility of, 3, 243 definition, 35 Feeding with carbhydrates alone, VM fat alone, 136, 187 protein alone, 128, 188 and carbhydrates, 143, 191 fat, 137, 189 Fibrin, blood-, 16 flesh-, 16 gluten-, 29 vegetable, 29 composition of, 29 Fibrinogen, 76 Fick & Wislicenus' experiment, 216 Fish guano, or fish scrap, 351 digestibility of, 352 manurial value of, 352 Flesh, composition of, 110 determination of gain or loss of, 102, 109 Flesh-fibrin, 16 Flesh, gain of, caused by protein, 148 fat may accompany loss of, 188 laws of formation of, 110 long-continued gain of, 141 meal, 349 comparative value of protein of, 351 digestibility of, 350 proportion of, in body, 6 Fluid, intestinal, 64 Fluids, quantity of, in body, 5 Fodder analysis, 48 cooking, 239 effect of, on digestibility, 205 digestibility of, by different kinds of animals, 267 510 INDEX. Fodder, effect of, in maintaining flow of milk, 424 influence of, on composition of dry matter of milk, 437 percentage of dry matter in milk, 427 quality of butter, 430 milk, 427 quantity of milk, 419 methods of preparing, effect of, on digestibility, 2G5 preparation of, in fattening, i399 Fodders, coarse, 288 components of, 25 concentrated, 330 dejSnition of, 35 estimation of composition of, 4G8 digestibility of, 470 Food snpply, equilibrium soon establisbed witb, 130 Force, storing up of, in body, 219 value of nutrients, 215 Gain of fat aided by albuminoids, 178 may accompany loss of llesh, 188 flesh, carbbydrates may cause long continued, 155 caused by protein, 148 fat may cause long-continued, 141 Gain or loss of flesh, determination of, 102 Gall, 01 bladder, 62 Gases, exchange of, in lungs, 81 Gastric digestion, 59 juice, 59 action of, on albuminoids, 59 Gelatigenous substances, 18 composition of, 18 Gelatin, nutritive value of, 103 Glands, Lieberkiihn's, 04 mesenteric, 08 salivary, 55 Gliadin, 30 Gluten- casein, 38 Gluten-fibrin, 29 Gluten, wheat, 28 Glycpcholic acxd, 63 INDEX. 511 Glycogen. 14, 81 sources of, 91, 92 Glycogenic function, of liver, 89 Golden millet, 314 composition of, 314 digestibility of, 315 Grains, the, 330 bye-products of, 337 composition of, 331 effect of, on digestibility of coarse fodder, S78 value of, 330 variations in composition of, 331 Growing animals, feeding, 436 Gullet, 56 Gums, the, 44 HAEMOGLOBIN, 75 amount of, in blood, 200 influence of, on production of fat, 199, 200 Hay, clover (see clover hay), 302 meadow, 288 damage to by rain, 291 early or late cutting of, 293 method of curing, 291 non protein in, 298 early cut, 299 stage of growth of, 292 supply of plant food to, 289 variable composition of, 288 Heart, the, 77 auricles of, 77 ventricles of, 77 Heat, animal, 83, 230 applications of, in body, 231 expenditure of, in warming ingesta, 236 influence of evaporation of water on production of, 234 surrounding temperature in production of, 232 of combustion, Frankland's determinations, 216, 317 of protein, 217 production of, 229 vital, 83. 230 512 mBEX. Heat, vital, liow regulated, 230 Hepatic vein, G8, 79 Herbivora, excretion of phosphoric acid by, 2.58 Hippuric acid, 84 formed from albuminoids, 87 Horny matters, 18 compobition of, 18 Horses, digestibility of fodder by, 2G8 feeding of, 409 digestible nutrients, 410 Hohenbeim expeuments on, 410 importance of fat, 413 kinds of feeding-stuffs, 413 quantity of fodder, 409, 410 feeding standards for, 412 Hungarian grass, 314 composition of, 314 digestibility of, 315 Hunger, protein consumption during, 123 Hydrogen, excretion of, 103 Hyoglycocholic acid, 02 Incarnate cloter, 312 Increase of live-weight in fattening, composition of, 0, 170 Indian corn, 335 Individual peculiarities, effect of, on digestion, 270 Ingredients of milk, sources of, 418 Inorganic matters of body, 20 amount of, 20 need of continual supply of, 20,402 nutrients, 47, 462 circumstances under which a lack of, may occur, 463 consumption of, by young animals, 441 how supplied, 464 impoitance of, 462 in fodder of milk cows, 434 supply of, in fodder, 463 Inosite, 14 Inspiration, 81 Insalivation, 55 IKDEX. 513 Internal organs, muscular work of, 326 work, 226 Intestinal fluid, 64 digestion, CI Intestines, 61 blood-vessels of, 68 contents of stomach and, 6 epithelium of, 67 length of, 61 peristaltic motion of, 61 Investigation, methods of, 104 Juice, gastric, 59 action of, on albuminoids, 50 pancreatic, 63 action of, on albuminoids, 63 carbhydrates, 63 fats, 63 ferments of, 63 Kidneys, 93 Kidney-vetch, 312 Lacteals, 68 Lactic acid, 13 Lactose, 417 Lambs, composition of gain of live- weight by, 454 fattening, 455 Stohmann's experiments, 456 Wolff's experiments, 455 feeding, 448 effect of change of fodder, 449 for maintenance, 448 feeding standard, 450 Weiske's experiments, 451 Wolff's experiments, 448 qxxality of fodder, 448 Laws of the formation of flesh, 120 Leaves, 322 Legumes, 301, 342 digestibility of, 343 22* 514 INDEX. Legumes, non-protein in, 318 pods of, 327 straw of, o26 composition and digestibility of, 326 uses of, 344 Legumin, 28 Leucin, 63 Lieberkuhn's glands, 64 Lignin, 39 Linseed cake, 347 digestibility of, 347 Liver, 61 glycogenic function of, 89 LiYe-weight, composition of gain of, by lambs, 455 increase of, in fattening, 9, 176 uncertain indications of, 115 variations of, 117 Lobules, ultimate, of lungs, 81 Lucerne, 307 digestibility of, 307 Lungs, 80 exchange of gases in, 81 ultimate lobules of, 81 Lung vesicles, 81 Lupines, 310, 843 alkaloids of, 35, 810, 843 poisonous effects of, 811 Lymph, 68 Maintenance, feeding for, 374 lambs for, 448 oxen for, 374 sheep for, 383 Maize, 335 average composition of American, 330 range of composition of American, 336 digestibility of, 337 cob, 328 fodder, 315 composition of, 315 digestibility of, 316 IITDEX. 616 Maiise, fodder, ensilage of, 316 meal, exclusive feeding with, 378 sufficiency of exclusive feeding with, 380 Malt sprouts, 341 amides in, 342 Manifolds, 57 Manurial value of fish guano, 352 Mastication, 55 Meadow hay (see hay), 288 Meal feeding, exclusive, 58, 229, 378 Medick, 312 Mesenteric glands, 08 Metapectic acid, 46 Methods of investigation, 104 Milk, bye-products from, 355 composition of, 417 effect of fodder in maintaining flow of, 424 influence of fodder on percentage of dry matter in, 427 composition of dry matter of, 427 formation of, 416 quality of, 436 influenced by fodder, 427 individual peculiarities, 427 other conditions, 480 quantity of, 419 effect of fat on, 425 influence of fodder on, 419 period of lactation on, 419 Kiihn^s experiments, 422 influence of supply of protein on, 420 Wolff's experiments, 421 sources of ingredients ol 418 substitutes for, 445 Milk cistern, 415 Milk-cows, feeding, 414 feeding standard for, 431, 432 inorganic nutrients in fodder of, 434 nutritive ratio in fodder of, 431 variations from feeding standard for, 432 Milk-fat, sources of, 174, 418 Milk-glands, 414 516 INDEX. Milk-globii^es, i16 Milk pioduction^ 414 with insufficient protein, 425 Milk-sugar, 38,417 source of, 418 Miller's system of exclusiYC meal feeding, 58, 229, 378 Millet, golden, 314 composition of. 314 digestibility of, 315 Mttcedim, 30 Muriatic acid, 59 Muscles, proportion of, in body, 5 Muscular exertion, conditions of, 217 effects of, on excretion, 204 fat consumption increased by, 206 influence of, on production of lat, 199 Kellner''s experiments on, 209 Koycs's experiments on, 212 Fetteukofer & Voifs expcrimenth on, SOG products of, 218 protein consumption not increased by, 204, 20G theory of, 224 Voit's experiments on, 2J4 power, increased oxidation of source of, not necessary, 213 source of, 213 work of internal organs, 220 Mutual relations of the carbhydrates, 44 Nitrates in plants, 34 Nitrites m plants, 34 Nitrogen all excreted in urine, 94 earlier experiments on excretion of, 94 excretion of, 94 as gas, 94 during work, 208 experiments on domestic animals, 97 Voit's experiments on, 95 inlluenco of work on excretion of, 204 Nitrogen-free extract, 51 s^ compensation between crude fibre and, 250 composition of digestible portion of, 252 INDEX. 517 Nitrogen-free extract, composition of undigested portion of, 253 determination of, 51 digestibility of, 249 effecfc of carbhydrates on digestibility of, 282 Nitrogenous constituents of body, 14 composition of, 19 plants other than albaminoids, 34 Non-nitrogenous constituents of body, 7 Non -protein, 357 digestibility of, 257 influence of, on feeding standards, 371 in hay, 298 early-cut hay, 299 legumes, 313 tubers and roots, 357 Nutrients, 25, 365 changes in, during digestion, 64 classification of, 2G course of, after resorption, 71 decompositions of, in body, 87 force value of, 215 inorganic, 47, 462 nitrogenous, 26 non -nitrogenous, 88 Nutrition, animal, general laws of, 3, 5 of young animals, 436 Nutritive action of asparagin, 165 ratio, 52 effect of, on digestibility, 281 value of amides, 158 indications of, 162 gelatin, 1G3 Oats, 333 digestibility of, 334 Oil, addition of, to fodder in fattening, 398 Oil cake, 47, 345 composition of, 346 digestibility of, 347 uses of, 348 Oil seeds, 345 518 INDEX. Omasum, 57 Organized protein, 123, 125 Organs and parts, proportions of, in body, 5 Oxen, feeding for maintenance, 374 feeding standard, 37G Oxidations in body gradual, 92 Oxygen, distribution of, through body, 83 influence of protein on storing up of, 222 quantity taken up on production of fat, 199 quantity of, taken up by blood, 84 storing up of, 85, 220 relations to storing up of energy, 220 OxybsBmoglobin, 75 Palm-nut cake, 347 digestibility of, 348 effect of, on quality of milk, 429 Pancreas, 03 Pancreatic juice, 63 action of, on albuminoids, 63 carbhydrates, 63 fats, 63 ferments of, 63 Pasture grass, 288, 298 Paunch, 56 Pectic acid, 45 Pectin, 45 digestibility of, 361 Pectin substances, the, 45 Pectose, 45 Pectosic acid, 45 Pepsin, 59 Peptones, 59 in plants, 34 Pericardium, 77 Peristaltic motion, 61 Phenomena of resorption, 68 Phosphoric acid, digestibility of, 257 excretion of, by herbivora, 258 during work, 208 Pigs, feeding of, 458 Il^BEX. 019 Pigs, feeding of, feeding standards, 461 nutiitive ratio, 450 variations in fodder, 458 Plasma, blood, 74, 75 composition of, 75 Pods of legumes, 327 Portal vein, 68, 79 i*oaterior aorta, 78 Potatoes, 359 composition of, 359 non-protein in, 359 Production of chemical changes, S40 fat by young animals, 440 conditions influencing, 198 determination of. 111 influenced by excessive drinking, 198 fat of body, 198 muscular exertion, 199 oxygen taken up, 199 temperature, 198 flesh, 119 by young animals, 439 determination of, 109 heat, 239 influence of evaporation of water on, 234 temperature on, 232 milk, 414 wool, influence of feeding on, 387 work, 202 Products of muscular action, 218 Protein, amount of, necessary to sustain life, 132 aspaiagin nearly equivalent to, 166 circulatory, 123, 125 comparative value of animal and vegetable, 351, 354 digestibility of, 254 effect of carbhyd rates on digestibility of, 280 starch on digestibility of, 281 feeding with, alone, 128, 188 carbhydrates and, 143, 191 fat and, 137, 189 formulce for dige&tibility of, 255 520 IKDEX Protein, glycogen from, 91, 92 heat of combustion of, 217 importance of, in fattening, 399 influence of supply of, on quantity of milk, 420 on storing up of oxygen, 222 need of, by working animals, 407 organized, 123, 125 protects fat of body, 188 food, 189 yegetable, 26 varieties, 27 Protein consumption, 121 decreased by carbhydrates, 150 fat, 138 dependent on supply, 128, 137, 144 during hunger, 123 effect of salt on, 134 stimulants on, 136 water on, 135 factors determining, 124 in young animals, 439 not incieased by work, 204, 206 Ptyalin, 55 action of, on starch, 50 Pulmonary artery, 77 circulation, 80 veins, 77 Pylorus, 61 Quality of milk, 426 Quantity of fodder, effect of, on digestibility, 459 fattening, 107 milk, 419 Habiation and conduction of heat from skin, 231 Ratio, nutritive, 59 Ration, 26 determination of nutritive effect of, 109 Rations, calculation of, 466 rules for calculation of, 473 Rennet, 57 INDEX. 521 Resorptiion, 06 causes of, 69 course of nutrients after, 71 phenomena of, 68 Respiration, 80 apparatus, 111 equivalents, 157 through skin, 83 Reticulum, Q6 Rice, 3l]5 Rickets, cause of, 23 Roots, 355, 3(51 composition of, 361 effects of, on digestibility of coarse fodder, 283 feeding value of, 363 general properties of, 355 variations in composition of, 362 Root crops, tops of, composition of, 321 digestibility of, 321 Rowen, 288, 298 Ruminants, stomach of, 56 Rumination, 56 may be suspended, 58 Rye, 333 Sainfoin, 313 Saliva, 55 action of, on food, 56 Salivary glands, 55 Salt, common, effects of, on digestibility, 287 protein consumption, 134 uses of, 23 Salt-hunger, 21 effects of, 21 Salts, essential and accidental, 22 Sarkolactio acid, 13 Saving of virork by concentrated fodder. 228 Seradella, 313 Shearing, effect of, on fattening, 403 Sheep, fattening, 399 best age for, 4 2 522 INDEX. Sheep, fattening, effect of sliearing on, 403 feeding standards, 400 proportion of protein for, 399 quantity of water, 413 maintenance feeding of, 383 feeding standards, 387 Weende experiments, 383 need relatively more food than cattle, 383 Skin, conduction and radiation of heat from, 231 respiration through, 83 Soda, salts of, in bile, 02 Solid excrements, composition of, 73 tissues, proportions of, 5 Sourhay, 317, 318 Source of muscular power, 213 Sources of fat, 109 Stable, temperature of, 237 Stage of growth, effect of, on digestibility of hay, 203 quality oi hay, 292, 302 Starch, 41 composition of, 43 effect of, on digestibility, 280 properties, 41 Starch-cellulose, 42 grains, 42 Stimulants, effect of, on chemical processes in body, 130, 243 Stomach of ruminants, 50 Storing, effect of, on digestibility, 2C2 Storing up of energy in body, 219 influence of protein on, 232 oxygen, 85 relation of, to storing np of energy, 220 Stover, 315 composition of, 315 Straw a valuable fodder, 322 digestibility of, 324 of the cereals, 322 legumes, 320 composition and digestibility of, 320 manner of using, 325 variations in composition of, 323 IISTDEX. 523 structure of milk-glands, 414 Sugar, effect of, on digestibility of coarse fodder, 283 in blood, 18 beet pulp, oG3 Sugars, the, 43 composition of, 43 Sulphuric acid, excretion of, during work, 208 Swine, fattening, 404 choice of fodder, 405 feeding standards, 404 mineral matters, 405 quantity of fodder, 404 Systemic circulation, 80 Taxjeociiolio acid, 02 Temperature, influence of, on fat-production, 198 production of heat, 333 of stable, 237 Theory of muscular exertion, 224 Thoracic duct, 68 Time occupied in digestion, 105 Time of cutting, effect of, on digestibility, 263 Tissues, solid, proportions of, 5 Tops of root crops, composition of, 321 digestibility of, 321 Trypsin, 63 action of, on albuminoids, 63 Tubers, 355, 359 general properties of, 355 proportion of non-protein in, 357 Tyrosin from albuminoids, 63 XTddeb, 415 Ultimate lobules of lungs, 81 Urea, 84, 93 from albuminoids, 87 Uric acid, 93 Urine, 93 nitrogen all excreted in the, 94-101 Use of distillers' grains, 340 524 INDEX, Uses of common salt, S3 oil cake, 348 Value of straw, 323 Yariations in composition of stiaw, 323 of live- weight, 117 Varieties of animal albuminoids, 15 Vegetable albumin, 27 casein, 28 composition of, 28 fats, 46 fibrin, 29 protein, 26 Vein, hepatic, 68, 79 left subclavian, 68 portal, 68, 79 Veins, 70 pulmonary, 77 Vena cava, anterior, 77 posterior, 77 Ventricles of the heart, 77 Vesicles of lungs, 81 Vetches, 309 Villi, 07 Vifcal heat, 230 how regulated, 230 Voit's experiments on excretion of nitrogen, 95 muscular exertion, 204 Warming ingesta, expenditure of heat in, 236 Water, effect of work on excretion of, 207 excretion of, 102 influence of, on protein consumption, 135 proportion of in body, 7 Weaning, 446 Wheat, 332 gluten, 28 Whey, 354 Wool production, 387 influence of feeding on, 387 Work, classification of, 202 INDEX. 525 Work, effect of, on digestion, 271 excretion, 204 of carbonic acid, 206 nitrogen, 204 water, 207 fat consumption, 207 excretion of gaseous nitrogen during, 208 internal, 23() Kellner's experiments on, 209 NoycB^s experiments on, 212 Pettenkofer & Volt's experiments on, 206 production of, 202 protein consumption not increased by, 204, 206 saving of, by concentrated fodder, 228 Voit's experiments on, 204 Working animals, feeding, 407 importance of fat to, 408 need of protein for, 407 oxen, feeding of, 408 standard, 408 Young animals, amount of food conramed by, 437 couKumption of inorganic nutrients by, 441 excretion of carbonic acid by, 440 general laws of nutrition of, 43G production of fat by, 440 flesh by, 439 protein consumption in, 439