THE ORIGINAL RELIGION of CHINA- — = JOHN ROSS -^^v Jlt^ara. S?nn f nrk CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION CHINA AND THE CHINESE THE GIFT OF CHARLES WILLIAM WASON CLASS OF 1876 1918 Cornell University Library BL 1801.R82 3 1924 023 204 013 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023204013 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA id a Pi > < a K o H < H < H i,;*.^ THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA JOHN ROSS, D.D. MISSIONARY OF THE UNITED FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND MANCHURIA AUTHOR OF "MISSION METHODS IN MANCHURIA" NEW YORK EATON AND MAINS CINCINNATI JENNINGS AND GRAHAM C f, (^^1: j_ ||||||||| Uls'iVf Rfl Printed in Great Britain NH^^on PREFACE The purity of the monotheism of the most ancient recorded times of China (when there were altars, but neither image nor temple), and the noble ideals set forth in primitive Chinese ethics, are of so remarkable a character that they demand more thorough and special study than they have received. This book has therefore been written with the design of clearly exhibiting that form of Religion in China which pre- ceded Confucius by as many centuries as Confucius is removed from us. The title "The Original Eeligion of China" has been adopted because this is the most ancient form of which we have any trace, and because it should be particularly differentiated from the more mixed forms of Eeligion which were subsequently developed. In the very brief historical references to that re- motest period that exist, details are wanting both as to the material of the sacrifices and of their ritual. These defects can be fairly well supplied from the more recent forms of Eeligion. Hence the develop- ments of Eeligion under the dynasty of Chow, three thousand years ago, are drawn upon, and the ritual 6 PREFACE and sacrifice of two thousand years ago, and even that of the Manchus of the present day. The ethics of ancient China are better known than its Eeligion, so that they are introduced only in- cidentally in this book. Believing that the original Eeligion of China is one of the most valuable contributions from ancient times to the intelligent study of Comparative Eeligion, it is herewith presented to the student in its present form. The names of a few prominent rulers are given below, with their dates and foreign contemporaries. The diagrams of the " Altar of Heaven " in Peking will help to elucidate the text, DATES OP PROMINENT RULERS MENTIONED B.C. B.C. Fu Hi . 2852 Shen Nung 2737 Whangti . 2597 Chuen Hiao 2513 Yao . 2356 Noah . 2349 Shun (sole King) 2255 Yii 2204 Abraham left Hur . 1921 (Hia dynasty) Tang. . . 1766 Joseph in Egypt . 1729 (Shang and Yin dynasty) TanPu . 1325 Exodus from Egypt 1320 (Chow dj'nasty) King Wu . 1122 Samuel born . 1165 King Cheng 1115 King Kang 1078 PREFACE B.C. B.C. King Chao . 1052 David in Hebron . 1056 King Mu . ■ . . 1001 Temple at Jeru- salem dedicated 1015 King Li . . 878 King Huen . 827 King Yow . 781 King Ping . 770 Isaiah . 740 Confucius born . 551 Socrates . 469 Buddha, iifth century CONTENTS Altar to Heaven .... Frontispiece PAGE Pebpaoe ...... 5 Dates of Prominent Etjlers . . 6, 7 CHAPTER I. PRIMAL PERIOD . 11 . I. General Introduction 13 II. Sources ...... 26 III. Historical Introduction 34 Summary op Beliefs 36 IV. King Yao to King Tang 40 Inferences ..... 57 CHAPTER II. MID-ANCIENT . 61 I. Introduction ..... 63 II. History ...... 69 III. Odes ...... 87 IV. Chow Dynasty .... 98 CHAPTER III. CHARACTER OF GOD . 105 I. Decree ...... . 107 II. Calamity from Heaven . 121 III. Divination ..... . 124 IV. Nature of God ..... . 128 CHAPTER IV. INFERIOR DEITIES . 139 I. Introduction ..... . 141 II. Names of Inferior Deities . . 147 III. Summary. ..... . 155 IV. Idols ...... . 156 V. Temple and Altar .... . 169 VI. Quotations ..... . 160 VII. HuEN Wang ..... . 172 VIII. Confucius ..... . 172 CONTENTS CHAPTER V. SACRIFICE I. Inteodttction II. To God . III. To Anobstobs . IV. Objects Worshipped . V. Vakietibs of Saokifice VI. CoNFTICnJS ON Saoeificb VII. The Peiest VIII. The Altae IX. The Temple CHAPTER VI. LI CHI I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. Inteoduotion Authenticity Peopbe Spieit . Saceifiob to God „ to Ancestors Deities Woeshippbd Temple . Vaeibty of Saceifiob Offbeinos Utensils . Musical Insteuments Animals foe Saceifiob Calbndae ,, CHAPTER VII. MANCHU RITUAL I. Inteoduotion . . . ^ . II. Pebpaeation foe Saoeificb . III. Offering ..... IV. DiAGEAM OF Altae Enclosueb (tan), Plan I. V. DiAGEAM OF PlATFOEM, PlAN II. VI. Aeeangbment of Offeeings on Shkine, Plan II. PAGE 183 185 192 199 210 212 214 216 218 220 227 229 238 247 253 256 269 274 277 280 282 282 283 284 293 295 297 300 308 309 311 CHAPTER I PRIMAL PERIOD PAGE 11 I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION II. SOURCES III. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION SUMMARY OF BELIEFS IV. KING YAO TO KING TANG INFERENCES 13 26 34 36 40 57 y I. GENEEAL INTEODUCTION From the earliest dawn of history Eeligion has been closely associated with mankind. It has entwined itself with the roots of man's being. It has mingled with his holiest feelings and noblest aspirations, and has been the motive power of the grandest efforts of his life. It has assumed the form of devotion to a grotesque figure representing the cruel deity of an African tribe, and has been embodied in the most spiritualised conceptions of the Christian and the Jew. It has everywhere exercised a commanding influence over all the families of mankind, of all sorts of mentality, of all kinds of education, and of all degrees of civilisation. The external forms of Eeligion have been many, but the underlying root out of which all forms have grown is virtually one and the same. The heavens above — the sun in the wonderful regularity of his rising and setting, in the heat and light of his daily course ; the moon in her waxing and waning ; the numberless and mysterious stars — were inexplicable to the beholder. The myriad forms of life on earth, and the many varieties of inorganic matter, presented phenomena which transcended the understanding and even the imagination of man. He was driven, there- fore, to the conclusion that there are everywhere in the universe agencies or powers continuously active, 14 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA of whose character he could directly know nothing. He saw event follow event in endless succession which he was compelled to ascribe to some cause or causes with powers adequate to their production. Events occurred before his eyes which were not the result of human agency or of any agent known to him, which were therefore produced, as he believed, by some Power other than man. For, with the exception of a few philosophers of a certain school, mankind has never been able to believe that events occur in any other way than by means of an agency antecedent, and adequate, to produce them. Though the investigations of natural phenomena in modern times have considerably narrowed the limits of the unknown, the problems which Mystery still claims as her own private domain , sacred from the touch of the most daring hand and beyond the reach of the most skilful science, are virtually the same as those which called out the wonder and the awe of the remote ages of the past. The fundamental essence of inorganic matter, the reasons why organic matter assumed its specific forms of life, and the manner in which it converts inorganic matter into its own living substance, can be explained by no theory, wise or foohsh, known to man. Of these deepest problems connected with the visible, man has now no more certain perception than the nations had which perished in ages long gone. The intermingled feelings of wonder and admiration, of hope and of fear, produced in the mind of man by his observations and experience, found expression in what we call EeHgion. For the belief in ultra-human, or supernatural, beings is the root principle out of which grow all the forms of what is known as Eeligion. PRIMAL PERIOD 15 The beliefs on which KeUgion rests sprang from the unknown causes of known facts or events. The calamities which overtake man from flood or fire, drought or famine, pestilence or war, or from the convulsions of nature, are calculated to inspire terror. This terror naturally seeks for methods wherewith to appease the Power which is believed to control the calamities. These methods find expression in some form of Eeligion. Other minds considering the beauty of the earth, the orderliness of the seasons, the infinite modes of adaptation in the world and throughout the universe, have been led to admire and adore the power and the wisdom manifested in the production of organic life in its variety of being, and in the bene- ficent provision of everything appropriate to supply its ceaseless wants. Men are impelled to adopt methods whereby they can express this sense of admiration and adoration. These methods are em- bodied in some form of Eeligion. But these conflicting emotions of dread and of admiration, of fear and of hope, lead thoughtful minds to ask how this diversity exists to such an extent as to be seemingly antagonistic or mutually exclusive ? " Can one fountain produce bitter water and sweet ? " Is it possible that the horrors of life and its happiness proceed from the same source ? If they consider only the conceivable character of the Ultimate Cause, with whom there can be " no variableness or shadow cast by turning," men cannot account for the complexity of the experiences of life. They can find a reasonable cause for the apparent contradiction only when they trace it to the moral character of the actions of men. They infer that when these actions are in - accordance with the will and nature of the unseen Power, the i6 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA actor is rewarded by what is agreeable ; but when the actions are antagonistic to that Power, misfortune and misery ensue, as the pain of sickness follows the neglect of the laws of health. They will thus infer that the apparent conflict does not arise from any inconsistency in the Source of all, but from the intelligent and just judgment of that Source, which treats every man according to his works. From this belief will also be educed corresponding religious sentiments. These various sentiments may or may not express themselves in ceremonial worship; they may or may not embody themselves in formal creeds ; but they never fail to wield a material influence over the conduct of the man in whose heart they find a home. Thus ethics become associated with Eeligion. Fear of ill consequences will prevent many an evil deed; hope of reward will stimulate to right action. A system of ethics is thus naturally evolved which comes to he represented as the duty of man. In every form of Eeligion, therefore, we find a more or less intelligent system of beliefs constituting its creed, and a more or less logical system of ethics connected therewith, constituting what is believed to be the duty of man. Inasmuch as religious beliefs are blended with the Unknown, they are always in a state of flux. Systems of ethics are subject to change with the development of mind and the increase of knowledge, though not to the same extent as are religious beliefs. For the fundamental source of ethics is not transcendental, as is the source of religious beliefs. Thuggism made murder a duty, and Mohammedanism promised a sensual paradise for those who bravely slew the infidel. PRIMAL PERIOD 17 The conscience of the Hindu widow drove her to ascend the funeral pyre to die beside her late husband. In- creased knowledge shows that these and similar freaks of conscience are based on ignorance. The Jews at one time believed that they were serving God when they persecuted the Christians, and Eoman Catholics regarded it as a duty to God to burn the bodies of those who would not burn incense to Mary, in order that they might thus save, as they thought, the souls of others. No creed of any form of Eeligion can we, therefore, in the present state of our knowledge, pronounce infallible, nor can we intelligently affirm any particular system of ethics to be perfect. Yet every creed, even the crudest, contains some element of truth, without which it could scarcely exist ; and every system of ethics provides a rule of conduct which tends generally, and to a certain extent, towards the betterment of mankind. Every system of ethics is therefore worthy of attention, and every formal creed will repay ex- amination. In China, where Astronomy has been studied in the Chaldean fashion from prehistoric times, where literature has for more than a score of centuries held supreme sway over the minds of men, and civilisation of an advanced kind had stereotyped itself long before Csesar landed in Britain, we are entitled to expect a well-developed form of Eeligion and a coherent system of ethics. And it is surely a dereliction of duty to refrain from searching for them. The position of Chinese Eeligion in relation to the science of Comparative Eeligion has scarcely received the attention it merits. It may be questioned whether i8 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA any religious system known to us can be traced back continuously in its completeness to so great an age as that of China. Of the Babylonian and Egyptian religions we have fragmentary portions of a date equally ancient with our documentary knowledge of that of China, but the Chinese Eeligion we can trace in its essential entirety for four thousand years. We discover it to be even then an ancient Eeligion, well developed, systematic, intelhgently set forth, and universally known to and accepted by the people of the land. We find its state of development, indeed, to be at that period virtually similar to what it appears at any subsequent stage. We find also that whatever further developments emerged in the course of the ages, they cannot be said to have raised it to a platform in any way superior to its most ancient known form. There has been no Chinese New Testament evolving out of and rising above the past. If anything, we see rather a gradual deteriora- tion and a materialisation from the spirituality of the ancient character. By neglecting the long past of China, when investigating the nature and probable sources of Eeligion, philosophers and critics have missed an important element of information. Some modern theories would not have been so dogmatically ushered into the world, or so readily accepted when published, were the original Eeligion of China familiar to the theorists. The "ghost theory" of Eeligion would scarcely have been broached, or the statement made that the spiritual form of Eeligion known to us is the result of a long process of evolution from an original image-worship, had the story of the original Eeligion of China been generally known. PRIMAL PERIOD 19 The family likeness between the original Eeligion of China and the ancient Eeligion of the Jews, as far as the writer is aware, has never been intelligently noted. On all sides of the tiny kingdom of Israel were nations large and small, each with its own system of idolatry. Before Abraham sojourned in Canaan, that land was occupied by small nationalities differing in much but alike in possessing temples in which they worshipped images made by their own hands. And ages before Abraham left the land of his nativity, systems of idolatry existed in Chaldea, demanding ornate ceremonial in grand temples to honour images of costly materials. Testimonies to these facts are now constantly declaring themselves. The mighty ruins of Egypt have not yet completed their tale of idolatrous Eeligion, developed at a period at least as early as any relics dug out of the tumuli of Babylonia™. At a later period, Arabia on the east, with Greece and Eome on the west, pursued a course of idolatrous worship uninterruptedly down to com- paratively recent times. Yet the miniature kingdom of Jewry continued monotheistic. The traces of the oldest known civilisation of India plainly indicate a condition of Eeligion virtually similar to that of Chaldea and Egypt, with the possible exception of the most ancient of the Vedas. Israel in the middle of the continents was monotheistic, and so was China on the remote eastern verge of the continents, while Babylon, which stood between, was polytheistic and idolatrous, as were her neighbours. The late mono- theism of Arabia does not affect the argument, for Mahomet was preceded by the Bible and the Jew. Here is a religious condition well worthy of an attention it has never received. How came it to pass 20 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA that little Israel in the far west, and great China on the far eastern fringe of land — they and they alone — were monotheistic ? Canaan at one time was idolatrous ; China is not known to have had in ancient times an idol. Whence, then, came the monotheism of the Jews and of China ? Was the growth of each independent of the other ? Did they borrow the one from the other ? Or came they from one common source ? Were the decisions of modern theorists really infallible, we would be compelled to believe that the monotheism of Israel was bom of the idolatry of Babylon. Because certain beliefs exist in Judaism which were found in Babylon, it does not necessarily follow that the beliefs of Babylon were the spring whence flowed the beliefs of the Jews. The ultimate foundation of every Eeligion being the same, and the feelings, of all nationalities having much in common, it would be surprising if the language of Eeligion would not have a good deal in common in different countries which had no intercommunication. It is scarcely logical to infer that a set of beliefs held in one country must have originated in a similar set of beliefs prevailing in another. Yet even had the monotheism of Judea by some remarkable alchemy emerged out of polytheistic Babylon, what about the monotheism of China, between which and BalDylon we are able to trace no connection — which, indeed, is inconsistent with any such connection ? But while the similarity is remarkable between the monotheism of the Jews and that of the Chinese, there are striking differences. One cannot fail to note the broad distinction that though both systems are religious, the Jewish system is characterised by a much deeper PRIMAL PERIOD 21 spirituality than the Chinese. In the latter we have gratitude expressed for temporal bounties, just as in the Book of Psalms, but the heart sorrow for sin and the great joy of forgiveness of sin so prominent in the Psalms, are both absent from Chinese monotheism. As will be seen later ,1 the Chinese original Eeligion, though monotheistic, was not henotheisfcic. The Chinese believed in and worshipped a plurality of inferior deities of various grades subordinate to the Supreme God. As will be explained hereafter, they worshipped these as the servants of God, without the least sense of incongruity. These inferior deities were regarded much as the Eoman Catholics regard " saints." The Jews, on the other hand, though they were ever and again departing from pure mono- theism to the adoption and worship of deities borrowed from neighbouring nations, were sharply reproved by their prophets from first to last for the worship of these as beiug incompatible with the worship of the one Supreme. The Chinese deities were not represented by images, while those borrowed by the Jews were idols. Idols were specially denounced ; but the antagonism of idol worship to that 01 Jehovah consisted essentially in the worship of any creature. On the other hand, the Jews were not known to have adopted the worship of ancestors, which, in common with India, Greece, and Eome, was punctiliously observed by the Chinese. It has been too readily taken for granted that Chinese mentality has developed from the most ancient times without any vital modification of beliefs or principles, and that the religious ideas of the Chinese ' Inferior Deities, p. 139. 22 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA have been handed down in a line of unbroken continuity. It certainly is true that the Chinese prefer to run in ruts whether with their carts or their minds ; yet that Chinese thought has come down to us from remotest times in a continuous and unchanging groove is the reverse of fact. Chinese scholars have divided their ancient times into three separate periods: 1st, the primal-ancient; 2nd, the mid-ancient; and 3rd, the near-ancient. The first period stretched from the twenty-fifth to the twelfth century before the Christian era, the second from the twelfth to the sixth century B.C., and the third from the sixth century to an undefined date subsequent to the beginning of the Christian era. Each of these periods possesses its own distinctive rehgious characteristics. The first was purely mono- theistic. The second was dualistic, having a tendency to materialism but retaining a decided flavour of the ancient monotheism. The third was materialistic, or, more accurately, agnostic, with echoes of the old monotheism. The influence of this period extends to the present. Adequate attention has not been paid by writers on China to this division of time and the differing religious peculiarities of each period, with the result that the original Eeligion has not been presented in its own clearly defined features. The effect of treat- ing all ancient religions in China as homogeneous is somewhat similar to the effect of throwing into the melting-pot the monotheistic teaching of Genesis along with the religious conditions depicted in the Books of Kings. The endeavour to trace the original Eeligion of PRIMAL PERIOD 23 China to the worship of ancestors or a belief in ghosts, is to rely on a theory which is without a particle of foundation and in direct contrariety to all known facts. For we are ushered at one step into the presence of a Eeligion in which there is One God supreme over all in heaven and earth, all other spirits being subordinate to Him. It is of some importance to note that the name given to God is similar in significance to the various names which we find in the Old Testament. The underlying concept of them all is "power," "rule." The Chinese name is composed of two separate words — Sharuf, meaning " above," " superior to," and ti} " ruler " ; the compound Shangti is Supreme Euler, or " King of kings, and Lord of lords." The idea underlying the name Yahwe — the continually existing One — is implied in the uninterrupted use from un- known antiquity of the name Shangti. From the quotations below it will be abundantly evident what signification was attached by the Chinese to the name Shangti. Another name used synonymously with Shangti was Tien or Heaven, which is " over " man, literally and metaphorically. In the second, and particularly the third period, its literal meaning is common. It was consistently used in the first period as synonymous with Shangti, the same attributes and actions being ascribed to each indiscriminately. It is, however, by analysing the attributes, motives, and actions ascribed to the unseen Powers, rather than by translation of their names, that we are able to understand the religious ideas of ancient China. The opening sentence of the History states that ' Pronounced dee. 24 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Shun on his accession " offered the ' cusfcomary ' sacrifice to God." This statement, made without introduction, preface, or explanation, implies an unknown series of antecedent events running back into the darkness of remote antiquity, of which nothing is affirmed and of which we can now directly learn nothing. The " customary " sacrifice distinctly points to offerings made continuously generation after generation in the unsounded depths of the past. One cannot escape the conclusion that in the time of Shun these religious observances were of old standing. Habitual practice had made them so familiar that even in the details of the variety of their ceremonies they needed no word of explanation, and their authority was so unquestioned that there was no place for introduction or explanation. But this universal intelhgibiUty in time became clouded, for Confucius in his day did not understand the meaning of the ceremonies. His ignorance, coupled with his estimate of their importance, cost him many an anxious hour. Even at the end of his days he deplored his lack of knowledge. The transmission of the ceremonial, in those circumstances, to his day proves its very great antiquity, as does that of Sanskrit now. Like the ancient Hebrews, the Chinese did not philosophise about the Supreme. Their ancient classics bear no trace of any attempt to show meta- physically that He exists, that He must exist ; where He is located, why His moral rule must govern the world. There is no speculation as to the mode of His existence or to the method of His interference in the affairs of man. There were no attempts to define His nature or to enumerate His characteristics. These we must infer, as far as they may be known, PRIMAL PERIOD 25 just as in the Old Testament, from the nature of the actions and motives ascribed to Him. The interesting but unsatisfactory speculations of Lao Tze, the older contemporary of Confucius, are not overlooked, but these are not only indefinitely mystical but are excluded from the charmed circle of the classics. We fail to find a hint anywhere as to the manner how or the time when the idea of God originated in China, or by what process it came into common use. The name bursts suddenly upon us from the first page of history without a note of warning. At this point, the very threshold of what the Chinese critics accept as the beginning of their authentic history, the name of God and other religious matters present themselves with the completeness of a Minerva. We are driven to infer that the name, as in the case of Israel at a later age, and the religious observances associated with it, are coeval with the existence of the people of China. It is therefore evident that the belief in the exist- ence of one Supreme Euler is among the earliest beliefs of the Chinese known to us. Of an earlier date, when no such belief existed or when the belief in polytheism did exist, we find no trace. Nowhere is there a hint to confirm the materialistic theory that the idea of God is a later evolutionary product of a precedent belief in ghosts or departed ancestors, or that the belief had arisen indirectly from any other similar source. It should not, therefore, be without interest to the student of mankind to examine the mental condition of the Chinese in presence of the mysterious and unknown in nature. Such examination will unfold a certain amount of information, and it should be 26 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA useful for the purpose of comparison with other forms of Eeligion and other systems of ethics. The chief purpose of the following pages is to unravel and to explain the teachings of the ancients, to separate them from the corruptions superimposed in subsequent ages, and to bring into relief the exact character of that most ancient Eeligion. It is believed that the long past of Chinese Eeligion will appear in its true form, and show more distinctly its remarkable character, by accurate and full quotations rather than by our unsupported inferences from our reading. Of invaluable aid have been the translations of the classics made by Dr. Legge, who seems to have been virtually the only student of Chinese lore who was alive to the great importance of the oldest form of Chinese Eeligion. In order to make the outline of the original Eeligion the more clearly visible, other Chinese books, ancient in themselves but more recent than the most ancient, have been ransacked and the results incor- porated. These are,' the latter part of the Book of History, the Book of Odes, the Eitual of two thousand years ago, and the Eitual from the Directory of the present Manchu dynasty. These throw a good deal of light on the original Eeligion of the long past. IL SOUECES Of all the ancient lore of China the most authori- tative for our purpose are two books, the Book of History and the Book of Odes. They contain many statements regarding supernatural beings of various orders, with different powers, original or derived, in PRIMAL PERIOD 27 heaven, on earth, and in the air. They reveal the relationship to man of those spiritual heings, and the relation of man to them. These statements are of priceless value in determining the significance of the religious acts, the nature of the reUgious beliefs, and the meaning of the religious terms of the most ancient Chinese peoples. On these matters these two books are the final court of appeal. They were compiled by Confucius, who was a transmitter of the past, from the documents and traditions at his disposal. But those documents and traditions had to pass through the crucible of his criticism. He cast out all that appeared to him mythical, intrinsically improbable, or inappropriate to the purposes of the ethical teaching he had in view. Not a little has indeed been rejected by him which we are entitled to believe had some foundation in fact, as, e.g., the account of the manner in which the Chinese people were initiated into the first principles of civilisation. A few incidents discarded by Confucius will be introduced below as congruous with the History. 1. The Booh of History} — As the histories in the Old Testament are recorded with the object of teach- ing us the ways of God with man, so is this treatise admittedly, and indeed professedly, but scraps of historical narratives put on record for the purpose not of perfectly or philosophically representiug the past, but of utihsing historical facts as examples to be followed in after ages, or as warnings to be avoided. The picture presented to us of long-past ages must 1 The Chinese name Shu means not " History," but " Pen speaks," and represents our word "Book" just as does "Bible." It is a "Book" of instruction by historical examples. 28 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA be understood to be a very partial one, with bits of colour here and there and occasionally with fine bold lines, but leaving great gaps both in detail and in outlme. Thus we are debarred at the very outset from expecting a complete delineation of any subject. If anything approaching such completeness appears, we may be grateful ; but we are not to be surprised if we do not find it. The Book is an essay on the principles of government, showing by examples the secret of national prosperity and the causes of national destruction. Whether the Book is itself fully trustworthy in all its statements regarding the time supposed to be recorded, is open to question. Indeed, Mencius doubted its authenticity to such an extent that he declared it better to believe nothing than to believe all that was contained in the Book of History. It is regrettable that he did not give the world the benefit of the reasons for his critical scepticism. Yet, Mencius notwithstanding, the Book is for our purpose practically as rehable and as valuable an authority as though all its detailed statements had been unquestionable facts. We desire to know the ancient Chinese rehgious beliefs : in this book, which was ancient in the time of Mencius, we have those religious beliefs stated. Long before Buddhism was heard of, or the author of Taoism was born, these beliefs were of universal authority in China. The beliefs held sway in the nation at the time when, and ages before, Mencius was teaching the improbability of the genuineness of some of the historical portions of the Book. Those beliefs were the beliefs of the Chinese at a period which stood as far removed from Confucius as Confucius is from us. With the beliefs PRIMAL PERIOD 29 alone are we concerned, and we are therefore justified in confidently quoting the evidences of a faith in^ supernatural beings which was from the dawn of Chinese history a living one, exercising a potent influence upon the people, but which has long ceased to produce any appreciable effect upon the lives of their descendants. We are, moreover, the more inclined to accept as authentic the statements of the Book upon the subject of Eeligion because they are fuller, clearer, more unhesitating than Confucius would himself have made them, if we may judge by the classics which bear his name and represent his views. He did not seem to possess the same behef in the presence and power of the spirits of departed ancestors as is set forth in the Book. He was not the man to express disapproval directly of anything ancient, but he urged the people, when sacrificing to departed spirits, to devote as little of their time and substance as was compatible with a decent reverence and the due observance of the ceremonial ; and it is only by deduction from some isolated sayings of his that we are able to conclude that he held substantially the same creed regarding the rulership of Heaven over man as is so unequivo- cally laid before us in the History. The statements about Eeligion he accepted as authentic, and, while discarding much else, these he embodied in the History, which he intended to be the teacher for all ages. Yet though he embodied them in this book, it is questionable if he would have pub- lished them as the expression of his own beliefs. This is, then, an additional warrant for us to accept these statements as the religious beliefs of the most ancient of ancient times in China. 30 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA 2. The Booh of Odes. — This book contains little of what is characteristic of the first part of the History preceding the twelfth century B.C. It covers the period of the dynasty of Chow.^ It is largely a glori- fication of this period, and especially of its founder, King Wen. In it we have one of the most interesting relics of antiquity. There are numerous references to the manners and customs of the times of which it treats. Social life is delineated, the relations of husband and wife being more freely and heartily mentioned than is customary in subsequent books. The methods of warfare are related incidentally, Eeligious observances, especially sacrifices, are fre- quently and sometimes minutely recorded. But, as in the History, the art and principles of government as exemplified in the public actions and private lives of tiie founders of the dynasty occupy the foremost place. They are set forth as examples to be followed by the wise ruler, or as condemnation of and warning to the unrighteous or incompetent one. The. laudation of the old is usually a rebuke to the degeneration of the present. The authenticity of the Odes stands on much the same footing as that of the History. But while the History makes upon one the impression that an able editor was actively guiding the recital of the various incidents, so as to speak out, with one uniform voice the same ethical truth throughout, there is more variety of mental states implied and expressed in the Odes. They do not unfold without variation the 'same sentiments. Indeed, some odes contain ideas inconsistent with, or even contrary to, the ideas ex- pressed in others. Idiosyncrasies are not infrequent, ' See History of Chow, p. 98. PRIMAL PERIOD 31 and evidences are numerous of variety in author- ship. Duke Chow, brother of the King Wu who estab- lished the dynasty of Chow, is one of the most notable characters in Chinese story. He. appears to have been a man of great wisdom and of wide culture, well versed in the history pt his native land. He is credited with the authorship of many of the odes. It is not impossible that some of them were his com- position. The dynasty preceding the Chow is the subject of a few pieces, but internal evidence does not compel the beUef that the Odes were composed prior to the Chow period. Some of the odes were doubt- less written in the time of King Wu and his suc- cessor. Judging from the contents of the Odes, some were written contemporaneously with the events narrated. But most of them, and these the most elaborate, appear to have been written subsequently to the events woven into the poem. Kepeatedly they refer to Kings Wen and Wu as having " gone up on high," and the desire is expressed that their successors should continue to resemble those great men in their con- duct, and as a result obtain from Heaven the same blessedness which they had enjoyed. In these in- stances the ancient stories were detailed in order to speU out their moral lesson to the times of the poet. But who were the authors of the Odes, on what occasion and at what time they were written, though interesting from the standpoint of literary criticism, are questions beyond the horizon of our present design. The Odes were ancient in the time of Socrates, many were prior to the age of Isaiah. As far as their 32 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA value to lis is concerned, the same reasons apply as to the History.^ Had the Odes not represented the mind of the educated and thoughtful Chinese of all ages, they would not have been acceptable when they were written, and would have been allowed long ago to drop into the abyss of unconcern and neglect. Hence they stand in their ancient vesture, quite as valuable to us as though we had been able to quote the place where and the time when they were written, or could tell the name of the author who composed each of them. We are concerned now not with questions of authenticity or historicityj but only with the fact that the poems embody the religious beliefs of an ancient China. Our purpose is all the better served by this book, in- asmuch as it sets forth the ceremonial of sacrifice with a graphic detail which we should not expect to find in the more prosaic History. Its utility is increased in that it brings down the history of religious beliefs several centuries later than the final chapter of the Book of History. It is interesting to note that the latest odes, whose contents belong to the sixth century B.C., bring out practically the same rehgious sentiments with which the Chow dynasty is introdu.ced to us in the twelfth century. 3. The Yicliing, or Booh of Changes? — The Book of Changes is held by Chinese scholars in greater esteem than any Europeaii scholar can bestow upon it. Its contents show that it cannot have existed in China before the Chow dynasty. Internal evidence proves that the beginning of the History antedates this dynasty by a period as great as that which divides >Pp. 28, 29. ^See "Kitual." PRIMAL PERIOD 33 the beginning of the Chow from the Christian era. Amid much that appears to be nonsense, the Book contains some good material, but we cannot give it a place beside^ our two authorities. 4. The Li CM, or Booh of Ritual. — Though professing to belong to the early part of the Chow dynasty, the Book of Eitual is mainly post-Confucian. This is abundantly proved by internal evidence. It is a valuable work, however, providing us with much that is illustrative of the meaning of the religious terms and ceremonies barely mentioned in the History. The portions of it bearing upon the elucidation of our subject are given below in full under the title "Eitual."! 5. The Ta Ghing Whi Tien, or Directory of the Manchus. — The Directory is a mine of information in explanation of ancient religious terms.^ We iind it the more valuable when we keep in mind the tenacious conservatism of the Chinese in regard to their ancient ceremonial and customs. The great Dictionary of Kanghi throws a good deal of light on single terms coimected with religious beliefs and observances. The books of the Confucian classics contain not a little which corroborates our interpretation of the more ancient books. All these authorities will be laid under contribution in any way and to any degree by which the meaning of whatever is connected with the original reUgious beliefs in China can be elucidated. And from these sources a considerable amount of invaluable information is obtainable. ' See "Eitual," p. 227. ^ "Manohu Ritual," p. 293. 34 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA in. HISTOEICAL INTEODUCTION The Book of History is sharply divided into' two unequal parts. The first, which is much the shorter, has far the most important bearing on our subject — the original Eeligion of China. It is composed of a selection, in compressed brevity, of outstanding events from the twenty-fourth century before the Christian era, for a period of twelve centuries, to the commence- ment of the Chow dynasty. The religious teaching of this period is absolutely imiform and homogeneous. As the Chow period introduces a distinctly different religious and philo- sophical phraseology, the distinctive teachings of the primal-ancient period will be treated separately from, and independent of, the later periods. These wiU be afterwards appealed to for what light they can throw on the first period. The Book begins by delineating briefly the ex- cellences of King^ Yao, who began his reign B.C. 2356. This panegyric unfolds the character of the Model Euler for all generations. He was con- temporaneous with the Xlllth Dynasty of Egypt, and reigned about the time that Erech was defending itself against the attacking Elamites. In the reference to Yao there is no hint of the performance of any religious service, but from the manner in which religious services are mentioned in connection with the accession of his successor, it is not ' The term Emperor was introduced into China immediately before the Christian era ; the title of the Sovereign prior to that date was "King." PRIMAL PERIOD 35 far-fetched to infer that similar acts may be legiti- mately ascribed to Yao. Bearing on this point, the following statements extracted from other records, discarded by Confucius, are introduced. They are indeed introductory to our subject and period, and are not lacking in intrinsic interest or probability. It is related of Fu Hi (b.c. 2952-2838) that he was specially raised up by Heaven and endowed with exceptional gifts, in order that he might, as Euler of China, secure the greatest attainable benefits for the people. Prior to his reign the people lived promiscu- ously, " like the beasts and the birds." He introduced decency and morality into social life. He instituted marriage and enacted laws to lay the foundation of a well-ordered state. He composed music to charm the savage and to soothe the wild elements among his people. To him succeeded Shun Nung, whose special talents enabled him to imderstand the cereal world and to exercise great influence over it. His success in producing abundance of useful cereals was such that he has ever since been recognised and worshipped as the god of Agriculture. His equally gifted son succeeded, and thus a dynasty was established. But this dynasty, by careless self-seeking and luxury, which brought cruel misery upon the people, became so evil that it ceased to be tolerable in the sight of Heaven, who raised up Whangti (b.c. 2698) to over- throw the degenerate rulers and to restore the golden age introduced two centuries before. In addition to other notable acts, Whangti instructed his people in architecture. He built himself a palace, in which he offered sacrifice habitually to the Supreme Lord of Heaven. 36 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA After Whangti followed a prolonged period during which "every man did that which was right in his own eyes." Each family had one of its own members who offered sacrifice to the Lord of Heaven. At last there arose a Sovereign (b.c. 2513) who made his distinctive mark by promulgating a decree ordaining that no one save the Sovereign possessed the right of sacrificing to God. From that time to this the Sovereign alone, or his nominated deputy, has had the right to offer this primary sacrifice. King Yao (b.c. 2356) is said by these records to have been very religious. Before undertaking any important business, he never failed to sacrifice to the Supreme Euler. In the event of a national calamity, he always acknowledged in public his own criminality, in the neglect of some duty, as the cause of it. The anger of Heaven, because of his shortcoming in failing to fulfil perfectly the demands of Heaven, was but the manifestation of the justice of Heaven. This self-condemnation is the logical corollajry from the special relationship of vicegerent in which the Sove- reign was believed to stand towards God, the Sup- reme Euler of all. He was the representative on earth of God, to carry out His justice and mercy among mankind. Hence he is named "the Son of Heaven." Before entering on the development of the historical illustrations of the original Eeligion of China, it may be both useful and interesting to summarise the principal phases of belief embedded in the history of the primal-ancient period, The foUowiug are the most important conclusions to which the study of this period has led the writer. These conclusions will be all fully exemplified in the succeeding chapters. PRIMAL PERIOD 1. The terms Shangti, " Supreme Euler," and Tien, " Heaven," are used interchangeably throughout to denote the One God and only Supreme Euler over heaven and earth. 2. The terms Kuei, " demon," ^ and 8hen, " spirit," are equally interchangeable, indicating deities of a lower order and of subordinate rank. 3. The relation between the Supreme God and the inferior deities is practically the same as that which existed in Canaan in the time of Abraham. 4. During those twelve centuries the religiosity of the Chinese is most pronounced. They appear to have lived under the unceasing consciousness of the presence and interference of an all-ruling Power, and under the protecting care of an intelligent, just, all- knowing, benevolent, and almighty Providence. 5. The phrase, "Heaven and Earth," and its equivalent duality, " Yang and Yin," ^ are unknown.^ 6. The name Shen or Kuei is never employed with the significance of " Supreme God," nor ever in the singular number without a qualifying prefix, e.g. the Shen of grain. Standing alone it always is the equivalent of the Eoman " dii," and chiefly of the lares and penates — the inferior deities, or the spirits of departed ancestors. They are invariably represented as sub- ordinate to God and engaged in carrying out His will. ' In the Greek sense, implying neither goodness nor badness. * Active and passive, male and female principles. See p. 63. ' These phrases are first introduced into history at the commence- ment of the Chow dynasty. The theory that King Wen, founder of the dynasty, originated the Yiching, in which these phrases occur continually, is therefore plausible. This book cannot well have existed in the more spiritual times preceding King Wen. Its spirit does not conform to those times. The Yiching introduced the materialising influences which culminated in Chn Futzu, the material- istic philosopher (1130-1200 A.D.). 38 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA 7. There was no image of any shape, nor idol- worship of any kind. 8. There was a temple dedicated to the worship of ancestors. It was styled " miao." This was the only temple in existence. Only in this temple could the ancestors he worshipped. 9. There was no temple to God, or to Heaven. But anywhere and any time an altar could be erected on which to offer sacrifice to God. Hence we infer that God was believed to be everywhere present. 10. The name given to the place where this altar WEis erected was " tan." ^ The altar was simply con- structed and never covered over with any kind of roof. The word denoting the altar on which the sacrifice was burnt Was liao — a furnace.* On it all sacrifices were burnt. In the period under review the altar appears to have been temporary. It was frequently erected on any frontier of the royal domain. 11. No man was separated to be a priest of the original Eeligion. 12. There is no word equivalent to our "holiness" or " consecration." The term Shan, " goodness," is the converse of wickedness, and the term Sheng, usually distinguishing men Kke Confucius, is " wise," though sometimes erroneously translated " holy." 13. While wicked acts are always denounced, there is no indication of any consciousness of what corresponds to our idea of " sinfulness," nor is there anything to imply a state of sinfulness or of depravity.. Sin in a spiritual sense of the term is unnoted, 'See "Altar," p. 298. 'The "furnace" on whicli the sacrifice to God- is now burnt is built of brick and in shape resembles a bath. See " Manchu Eitual," Diagrana V. PRIMAL PERIOD 39 14. Hence sacrifice was not offered as a pleading for the remission of sin or as an acknowledgment of guilt. It was offered in gratitude for favours already received, or to avert threatened calamity, or to procure blessings in the, future. It was regarded as a gift to secure the goodwill of the Being to whom the sacrifice was offered. The idea of vicarious sacrifice is as completely absent as is the idea of holiness or of sinfulness. 15. Prayer is never made for the pardon of iniquity, but it is made for guidance in seasons of difficulty, or for favours in the time to come. 16. To obtain forgiveness, or rather restoration to the favour of God, repentance, or a total change of the wicked life, is indispensable, and it is adequate. 17. That goodness is or shall be rewarded, that wickedness is or shall be punished, — whether in the person of king or peasant, of high or low, — is as emphatically taught as by the three friends of Job. 18. The departed great and good are in heaven in the immediate presence of God. There the ancestral spirits are represented as abiding. But they can come and go. 1 9. Subordinate to God and fulfilling the will of God, these spirits are actively interfering in the affairs of their descendants, to whom they are infinitely superior. They will, however, show no partiality in favour of descendants who do evil, but, on the contrary, will join in their chastisement. 20. There is no indication of anything of the nature of hell, or of any kind of punishment in another world. The only penalty known in the world of spirits is one of negation or privation. It does not necessarily depend on moral qualities. It 40 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA consists in the want of things prized when on earth. It is the part of the dutiful son to supply these things, and in the due discharge of this duty the son offers his ancestral sacrifices. These are intended to supply the wants of the spirits. Heaven is represented as lacking in the pleasure derivable from what the son can by sacrifice supply ; and he, by this supply, gains the favour of the gratified ancestors, who repay him by supporting him in his need and conferring upon him all sorts of blessing. As far as China can be said to have a State Eeligion, it is neither Buddhism nor Taoism, but this system derived from the most ancient history. This system has been handed down essentially as it appears in the sources, though with some accretions. With it the worship of any person or thing, or in any other method than those enumerated above, is inconsistent. All image worship is contrary to this original Eeligion. IV. KING YAO TO KING TANG Shun In the year B.c. 2283 Shun was made associate- Sovereign to Yao, thirty years before the death of the latter. On his accession he offered the lei^ sacrifice to the Supreme Euler. The offering was made to " inform " God publicly of his accession to the office of Sovereign and vicegerent of God on earth. He offered sacrifices also to all the supernatural beings^ behoved to exercise influence upon the affairs of the nation. In the text there is no explanation of the ' "Customary."' See p. 24 and "Saoriflce." * See " Inferior Deities," p. 139. PRIMAL PERIOD 41 meaning of the name " Supreme Euler," ^ and no definition of the term " customary ^ sacrifice." Some time after his accession, Shun, with much deliberation, selected twenty-two men to be chief officials of as many departments of State, one of whom was Minister of Eeligion or Education. He urged upon them in council to exercise reverence in the discharge of their duties, inasmuch as the service to which they were consecrated was the service of God and not of man. A sincere heart was therefore indispensable. They must bear in mind that the goodwill and protection of Heaven were uncertain ; they were not fixed absolutely and unconditionally, but were dependent on the conduct of man. If rulers and officials habitually observed the laws of Heaven, their conduct would not fail to be right, and they would therefore never forfeit the approval and support of Heaven. While King Yao was yet ahve, a great flood — caused probably by the overflow of the Yellow Eiver, unceasingly bearing down vast quantities of mud, which by silting has ever been raising its bed above the level of the surrounding country — overspread the greater portion of the cultivated lands, " covering the mountains and raising its proud waves to the very heavens." To cope with this overwhelming calamity and to engineer the waters into the sea, the King appomted Kun, a high official. Though he devoted his energies for nine years to this wort, his efforts were a complete failure. His son Yii, who was nominated to the difficult post, gave himself so assiduously to his task, that though in the discharge of his duty he had thrice to pass the door of his own 1 See Introduction, pp. 23, 24. 42 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA house, he would not enter even to see his young wife and iafant son. For the waters which had " mounted to heaven " he succeeded in making such channels as drew them off, restoring the lands to cultivation and making the mountains available for fuel. On his return to the capital after the completion of his successful toil, King Shun, who had meantime succeeded to the throne, summoned a Council. In course of the dehberations one minister declared that " Supreme Heaven had bestowed His favouring decree ^ on Shun, ordaining him Sovereign of all the kingdom, because of his incomparable merit and the noble uses to which he had put his talents." Shun subsequently nominated Yii to be his successor, because "it was evident that Heaven had set him apart to be Sovereign on accoimt of the excellency of his virtue and the greatness of his achievements." Kao Yao, a celebrated Minister of Crime under Shim, said at a general Council that " the way of Heaven is always in accordance with fixed principles." The Sovereign should also act in due observance of the Five Eelationships,^ so that he would create an example for the imitation of all his people. "The arrangements and the doings of Heaven are all in harmony with propriety and law.^ The man who observes the laws of virtue is granted by Heaven the enjoyment of the Five Felicities ; * but he who iSee "Decree," p. 107. ' Sovereign and minister, husband and wife, father and son, elder and younger brother, and friends. Sometimes number 1 is made number 3. ' Li, p. 75, and "Ritual," p. 227. * Long life, wealth, soundness of body and peace of mind, love of virtue, and the fulfilment of the end of the will of Heaven. "Great plan." PRIMAL PERIOD 43 violates the rules and proprieties of Heaven cannot avoid the punishment due to such violation. Propriety is binding equally on Heaven as on man. " The wisdom of Heaven is made manifest by the man who understands the people. He who fears the people gives proof of his fear of God. For what the people approve is agreeable to Heaven, what they disapprove is displeasing to Him. " The work which man has to do is the work of Heaven. The Social Eelationships ^ existing among men are determined by Heaven. The distinctive duties and ceremonies appertaining to those relation- ships are ordained of Heaven. As the servants of Heaven, it is the work of officials to carry out these duties and ceremonies into practical effect." At another Council meeting, Yii said that it wae difficult to occupy the throne and to continue free from every fault. Therefore sleepless caution was indispensable, for the Sovereign should be satisfied with nothing short of perfection. If he exerted himself continually to attain the complete discharge of his duties, God would grant him the needful assistance in the accomplishment of his work, and would for ever confirm the decree ^ which made him ruler. The preceding quotations are all connected with the reign of Shun. They show that the fundamental principles of government in China were developed at an early stage in its history. They indicate the close relationship believed to exist between God and humanity. They imply ceaseless watchfulness and impartial justice on the part of God, and point out His providential care for the multitudes. ' P. 42, note. ' See "Decree," p. 107. 44 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA It is worthy of note that a mediator is required between God and the people, the Sovereign being mediator. He is vicegerent, through whom God acts, and pontifex maximus, to represent the people before God. The ministers who serve him must obey him, because by so doing they are serving God, whose will it is their duty to execute. It is curious to find at so early a date the idea that vox populi is vox Dei, The principles of government here enunciated con- tinue to this day to be theoretically the principles of government in China. They are virtually what Carlyle desiderated in his ideal King. It is on ac- count of these principles that a^ appeal is made by revolutionaries to the past, and rebellion justified against evil rulers. These principles, however loosely held, prevent such oppression of the people as is to be found in most autocratic States ; for they impose limits to the autocracy of China. The Sovereign is absolute ruler, but absolute only for the well-being of the people. At the time under consideration and for the follow- ing twenty centuries China was a feudal power. The heads of States were virtually independent rulers. They had in various ways to acknowledge their suzerain, as by attendance and service at sacrifices and on special public occasions ; but attendance at Court was largely voluntary. They were in reality under less control than the rulers of the Independent States of India are to-day. The relation subsisting between Sovereign and feudal ruler may to a certain extent be inferred from the following incidents, which are not without some bearing on our subject : — The ruler of the State of Hu^ had made changes ' In the present Sian of Shensi, PRIMAL PERIOD 45 in the Eitual and in the dates of the commencement of the Four Seasons,^ conforming the former to that of the Sovereign, and by the latter manifesting a design to assert his own independence. Both changes indicated a spirit of rebellion. The Sovereign against whose authority those acts were committed was the young successor of King Yii. He declared that the offences were transgressions of the ordinances of Heaven, and sentenced the offender to destruction as a rebel against Heaven. As such he had forfeited the decree of Heaven which had made him head of the State of Hu, and war was declared against him. At a later date (b.c. 2159) we find another example in the case of the Princes Hi and Ho, who had become slaves to strong drink. By this failing they neglected their duties as astronomers, and disregarded the signs sent by Heaven warning them to repent. The King ordered the commander of the army dispatched to punish those men to follow the example of Yii. Their punishment was to be heavy because, occupying the high position of ministers of Heaven, they neglected the duties of their office and had there- fore acted in direct opposition to the ways of virtue. War by the Sovereign against a subordinate State is an act of justice, punishing the offender in the name of Heaven. War against a Sovereign is rebellion, even when carried on in the name of the justice of Heaven against a wicked ruler. In B.C. 2205 King Yii founded the dynasty of Hia, which continued for four centuries. Like all Chinese dynasties, it eventually abandoned the good principles ' Only founders of new dynasties fixed a new date for the beginning of the year. 46 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA on which it had been founded and gradually de- generated, heaping up wrath by ever-increasing vice till its wickedness and weakness produced universal dissatisfaction and roused up everywhere the spirit of rebellion. At the end of that period, in the middle of the sixteenth century B.C., the reigning King, Chie, was shamelessly unscrupulous in the rapacity and the ferocity of his conduct as ruler, killing without com- punction the faithful ministers who dared to expostulate with him in the interests of the public welfare. Among the subordinate States was one named Shang, now Shang Chiu, in Honan. When the rest of the kingdom was in a condition of anarchic disorder, peace and contentment prevailed in Shang. This was due to the just and capable rule of its chief, Tang, ■ whose reputation for wise government had spread all over the kingdom. He devoted himself to all the well-known methods which could ensure the welfare of his subjects. Like all his fellow feudal rulers. Tang had to pay homage and bring tribute to his liege lord. On one occasion he was thrown into prison ; but his friends and admirers were so numerous and powerful that he did not pay the penalty of his popularity, which was not confined to his own subjects. The rulers of other States, who hated the crimes and dreaded the cruelty of the King, combined to urge Tang to raise the flag of rebellion in the name of Heaven, and attack the King, who " by rebellion against the laws of Heaven had forfeited his right to reign." One of the ministers of Tang laid before him a memorial. " Heaven alone," it ran, " can protect and nourish the people. Desiring the happiness of the people. Heaven will without fail raise up a right PRIMAL PERIOD 47 ruler to displace the wicked Chie. You, Prince, are able to correct -the wicked and to search out those who observe the Five Eelationships,'- whose conduct is based on propriety.^ Thus can the decree of Heaven be fulfilled. " Why grieve over the wickedness of the King when it is so easy to make an end of it ? He has defied Heaven, trampling His laws under foot. He issues edicts to deceive the multitude. By his criminality he has forfeited the right to hold the decree which is about to pass over to our Prince. The rule of that man is near its end who disregards propriety and who oppresses his people with recklessness. But our Prince, continuing to rule, honouring Heaven by reverent obedience to His laws, will always retain the decree to rule the nation, and will be in everything assisted by the protecting power of Heaven." The unspeakable crimes of the Sovereign in op- pressing his people, committed for the pleasure of his paramour, to whose resplendent beauty he was passionately attached, had become unbearable. After prolonged delays, the universal misery at length con- strained Tang to raise the flag of rebelHon. He issued a proclamation stating that " Heaven had decreed the extermination of Chie because of his un- utterable crimes. He (Tang) was one who feared God, and therefore dared not to shrink from the task of executing the punishment decreed by God." He summoned his people to follow him in the discharge of his duty in fulfilling the judgment of Heaven on the man who had trampled on the rights of all men, and " had dared to say that as he was made Sovereign ' P. 42. 2 Pp. 74, 75. 48 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA by decree of God, he would perish only when the sun expired." The divine right of kings ! After a decisive victory in the succeeding war, Prince Tang issued a proclamation : " Heaven com- mands the Sovereign so to rule as to secure peace to the people by righteousness. While discharging aright the duties of his office Heaven will prosper him, but calamity wiU overtake him if he faU. Heaven the Supreme dwells on high, but hears what takes place below. He it is who supports the masses of the people. This was the true reason which compelled Chie to flee to the south before our troops. To the ruler who observes His laws Heaven will grant a great name." When Tang was peacefully seated on the throne, he expressed anxious misgivings as to his reputation in future, when men might probably denounce him as a traitor and rebel. To this fear one of his ministers replied, " Heaven has created the people with certain desires, which, without proper regulation by a ruler, would run into riot and disorder. To provide against this danger. Heaven raises up the man of ability and intellect, fitted to the proper discharge of the duties appertaining to this regulation. By the late King these duties have been completely ignored, in conse- quence of which both himself and his followers are overwhelmed in disorder and ruin. But on our Prince Heaven has bestowed the valour and the wisdom which fit him to become a model in his life and a corrector of abuses throughout the myriad States of the kingdom. Thus he is able to rehabilitate the old customs of Yti, the founder of the late dynasty. By the subversion of those customs Chie has brought that dynasty to an end. Our Prince is now carrying PRIMAL PERIOD 49 out the established rules of government, for he has fulfilled the decree of Heaven. "During his criminal course, Chie had falsely- assumed in his proclamations the n^me of Supreme Heaven. But G-od disapproved his conduct, and the decree was taken from him and bestowed on our Shang.^ " There is one and only one way to retain the right to rule by Divine decree, and that is to revere and honour the way of Heaven." When order was completely restored throughout the kingdom, the new King issued a proclamation to the pubUc enunciating his principles. " The Supreme God has given to all men a moral nature, to which the practice of all men should invariably conform. The supreme duty of the Sovereign is to enable men to pursue that course of conformity in safety and in peace. The late Sovereign by his cruel oppression drove the people to cry out in protest against their sufferings, and appeal for deliverance to the deities of heaven above,^ and the deities of earth beneath.* " The way of Heaven is to bless the good and to punish the wicked. Calamities were showered on the late Sovereign to make known to the world the greatness of his wickedness. The will of Heaven being thus clearly manifested, it was not for me to dare to forgive the criminal. On the contrary, I made bold to request permission to punish him by offering a black bull as burnt sacrifice, thus making public pro- ' The dynastic title adopted by Tang, being the name of the principality in Shensi which had been donated by Shun to his Minister of Education, Hie, the fourteenth ancestor of Tang. 2 P. 152. » Pp. 151, 152. 4 so THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA clamation to the ruler of the deities ^ of high heaven. I also requested permission, in connection with the great sage Yi Yin, to execute the decree on behalf of the people. Then Supreme Heaven was pleased to reveal His will to protect the people, and the criminal fell. The decree of Heaven makes no mistake. Now the people will again flourish in their millions like the grass of the field and the trees of the forest. " The States in which order has been newly re- , established must take heed to their conduct and be careful to avoid lawless ways. Every official must observe his duties, then will the protecting decree of Heaven abide with us. The good in the people I will publicly declare, the evil in myself I shall not dare to hide. In accordance with the mind of God will I examine all ; for everything is known in the mind of God." After the death of this great Sovereign his minister Yi Yin offered sacrifice before the coffin, at the same time presenting Taichia, the young grandson and successor. To the young man he expounded the duties of a Sovereign, saying that " to the virtue of man Heaven never fails to respond. The life of the first rulers of the late dynasty was notable for their devotion to virtue in their private life, and in public for attention to what tended to the welfare of the people. At that time, therefore, Heaven sent no great calamities. The deities ^ of the mountains and rivers were contented and at peace with man.* But when the descendants of those men forsook their good example, Heaven cast down upon them great calamities, taking from them the decree. Thus is it 1 P. 23. 2 Kuei Shen. See p. 151. ' No inundations, or danger from wild beasts. PRIMAL PERIOD 51 seen how essential to the well-being of the people is the example of the Sovereign." He concluded his long exhortation declaring that " the ways of God are not unalterable. All kinds of blessing He bestows upon the good, a hundred forms of calamity he hurls down upon the evil-doer. Without virtue in small affairs as in great, the dynasty cannot abide in power," The young ruler, more bent on tasting the pleasures of his position than in prosecuting its duties, paid no heed to the solemn advice of the aged minister, who therefore formally embodied his principles in what is believed to be the first State paper drawn up in China. Among other matters he said that "the deceased Sovereign had given the most earnest atten- tion to the glorious decree of Heaven. This he did by observing all his duties to the Shen^ of heaven and the Chi * of earth, to the gods of agriculture and the ancestral temple.^ In all affairs he exhibited a spirit so devout and reverent that Heaven took special note of his virtue, and bestowed on him the great decree to pacify and set in order the myriad States of the Empire." As the youthful Sovereign still persisted in his life of thoughtless pleasure, the minister caused a room to be erected near the tomb of the late King, in which he had the young ruler confined during part of the period of mourning, there in solitude to consider his ways. This strong measure proved effectual. The exalted prisoner, on reflection, confessed his errors, and was thereupon welcomed back to public life by 1 See p. 152. ^ It will be noticed that God is not mentioned. If he worshipped the inferior deities, much more would he honour the Supreme Ruler of all. 52 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the joyful minister, who recapitulated his favourite principles, saying that " God the Supreme had greatly favoured the family of Shang in granting the young Sovereign a penitent heart. The blessings which will flow from this adherence to virtue will reach down to myriad generations." The repentant Sovereign then acknowledged that by his self-indulgent life he was likely to have brought down speedy ruin upon himself ; for " though calami- ties sent by Heaven may be avoided, there is no escape from calamities brought down by oneself." ^ On another occasion the minister said to his Sovereign that " Heaven never acts from partiality. Heaven is kind only to those who are consistently reverent. Properly to occupy the throne gifted by Heaven is no easy task. It can be retained only by continuous exercise in virtue. Tang cultivated virtue zealously in all reverence, so that he became the associate (pei ^) of God." When, on account of old age, Yi Yin was retir- ing from office, he formally addressed his Sovereign, saying, " It is hard to rely on Heaven. The decree is not immutable. The throne is lost if virtue be not constant. Chie failed to maintain the virtue of his ancestors. He despised the deities, and oppressed the people. Supreme Heaven rejected him. " Then looking among the various States for one worthy to receive the decree to be made ' Lord of the Shen,' ^ Tang was found of such pure virtue that the ^ The meaning here is that by repentance the judgment of God may be averted, but the unrepentant cannot escape. ^ The pei in the spirit world means one who is honoured at the same time as the greater. It implies inferiority. ' So called because the ancestors are dependent for their comfort on the sacrifices offered. PRIMAL PERIOD 53 mind of Heaven was satisfied. On him, therefore, was bestowed the glorious decree of Heaven, and he became lord of the kingdom. " This gift was bestowed not on account of any partiality towards the house of Shang. Heaven aided the particular man because of his own pure virtue. The good and the ill which happen to man are not the product of chance. To the ruler who never ceases to live the life of virtue, the kingdom will not only remain, but will grow and extend, and all his affairs will prosper. The happiness and the misery which come to man are but the outcome of his own conduct," A line of sixteen Sovereigns succeeded Taichia, but the three centuries of their reign are a blank in history. The seventeenth from Tang was one Pan Keng, who began his reign B.C. 1401. He usurped the throne which should have been occupied by his nephew, the legal heir. But such was the ability he displayed in ruling, so devoted was his attention to national busi- ness, and so entirely did he give himself to secure the welfare of the people, that not only was the usurpation condoned, but the influence and the power of the throne were largely augmented. His capital, Keng, was ruined and the country around devastated by the overflowing of the river. The King believed this destruction to be the expres- sion of the will of Heaven that the capital should be moved elsewhere. He feared greater calamities in the future if the warnings were neglected. He there- fore-proposed to remove his capital, and appealed to the officials and people, who were naturally reluctant to abandon their furnished houses and cultivated fields. He fell back on the example of his great 54 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA ancestor Tang, who in every undertaking consulted the will of Heaven, and dared take no step which appeared to be contrary to the decree which had made him King. He himself resolved to follow the example of his ancestors, who had five times changed the position of the- capital in order to secure the well- being of the people. He would not hesitate to obey the will of Heaven, which clearly indicated that the capital should be removed. His own ancestors and those of his people would equally resent the neglect of the warning, and would hurl down misfortunes upon them for their obstinacy. But if they were obedient, Heaven would perpetuate to them in the new capital the decree to rule, and the people would revive again as " from the stock of a tree cut down there spring up new shoots and sprouts." He succeeded at length, by his importunate reasonings and tenacity of purpose, in breaking down the opposition. In a long speech after crossing the river he de- clared that he had transferred his capital for the sake of the people, and to secure the decree of Heaven. " Now that they had changed their capital, God would restore to the nation the virtue of the great founder of the dynasty." The new capital was called Yin, which became henceforth the dynastic title. Here in B.C. 1323 Wu Ting ascended the throne. When, on the conclusion of the period of mourning ^ for his predecessor, he should have assumed active control of the Government, he remained silent on affairs of State, to the great distress of his ministers, who knew not how to act. To their expostulations he ' Komuially three years. PRIMAL PERIOD 55 replied that he was unfitted to undertake the serious responsibilities of government, for his virtue was not equal to the task of securing peace in all quarters of his dominions. He had received no message from God to declare to them. But after prolonged meditation on his own unfit- ness, God showed him in a dream the features of the man who, of all the empire, was best fitted to help him by his counsel. So distinctly had he seen the features that he outHned the face, and gave the picture to the officials, ordering them to search the land for the man. The very counterpart of the picture was discovered in a village in the act of discussing various subjects with his fellow-villagers. He was a mason to trade and named Yiie. When brought before the Sovereign he replied with such wisdpm to the questions put to him on political problems that he was at once nominated chief minister. At the Council meeting which followed, the new minister said to the King that the lessons of Heaven should not be neglected, but should correct whatever was wrong in the heart of the King. Intelligent rulers guided their conduct always in accordance with the ways of Heaven. If the people rejected virtue and would not amend their faults, calamity would come from Heaven to show publicly that virtue should be exalted. He urged the King to make the way of Heaven his model, for Heaven alone is all-intelligent. " If the Sovereign acts in this manner, his ministers will respond and his people be well governed." The way and the intelligence of Heaven are ex- plained by ancient commentators in this way: 56 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA " Heaven above is high over all, without partiality or prepossession, entirely just, most spiritual and intelligent. He needs not to listen, yet hears all ; needs not to look, yet sees all. Nothing escapes Him of all that is done in darkness and privacy, though He has neither ears nor eyes. Such is the intelli- gence and observation of Heaven. The wise Sovereign should make Heaven his model. He should act with- out partiality, and righteousness should dictate his rewards and punishments." For six centuries did the descendants of Tang rule over China under the dynastic title first of Shang, then of Yin. The character of the rulers and the condition of the people passed through many ups and downs during that period. At length one ruler appeared whose character and conduct were of a piece with those of Chie, who had been overthrown by Tang, and with the brutal reign of this monarch the dynasty came to an end. The Book of Odes is eloquent on the causes of the collapse of the dynasty. As a foil to the superior greatness of the Chow dynasty, the glory of Tang and his reign are exalted to the supernatural. A " black " bird sent from heaven laid an egg before the lady Chienti, who ate the egg, and conceived. A son, Hie, was born to her who became the Minister of Education to Shun and the progenitor of Tang. By the decree of Heaven the descendants of Hie reigned for many generations, and their virtue had not declined when Tang was born. Tang's surpassing wisdom made him so illustrious that the people were attracted by his character from all directions, and submitted to him as their ruler. He revered God, who decreed him King over all the territories of China. His rule over the PRIMAL PERIOD 57 States was so excellent that it attracted the great blessing of Heaven, who treated him as a son, and by his instrumentality secured rest and contentment for the land. But his descendants forgot his virtue and lost his prosperity. They were therefore superseded by the house of Chow, whose origin was equally wonderful.^ We have now come to an end of the historical quotations of the primal- ancient period, which em- braces twelve centuries and is itself the product of unknown centuries preceding. Our quotations have been confined to those passages which refer to the Supreme God, In the same period there is not a little of information regarding inferior deities and other matters connected with the religion. But as this information differs little, if anything, from the references to the same subjects in the mid-ancient period, they do not call for separate treatment. Though our attention has been given solely to the passages bearing upon our leading subject — the original Eeligion of China — yet we have incidentally had interesting glimpses into other aspects of the life of that remote period besides the elucidation of the theory of government, which is in itself particularly instructive. Here, therefore, we may pause to notice a few of the most outstanding features of the story of Great Tang and his dynasty. 1. The narrative does not profess to have been written contemporaneously with the events. It is often ushered in with the phrase, " Examining ancient history, we find," etc. We must hence infer that we are not justified in claiming that every word and ^ History of Chow, p. 98. 58 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA phrase were transmitted from the time purporting to be represented. But we may take the general impression to be substantially correct. 2. Probably the most outstanding, feature is the intense religiosity of the whole period, the remarkable purity of its monotheism, and the consciousness of the reality and the nearness 6f the spirit world. There is no trace of the dualistic theory which bursts upon us in the succeeding period. 3. We cannot fail to observe the simplicity of the life represented. The fact that punishments were brutal indicates that civilisation had not arrived at a very exalted stage. Yet the principle is expressed that punishments were intended to make punishment unnecessary. 4. The relationship between Sovereign and minister is very primitive, the ideal being that the minister is the wise mentor who informs his Sovereign what he ought to do and how to do it, and lectures him for neglect of it. This culminates in the forceful fashion in which Yi Yin brought his young King to his senses. 5. Another instructive fact is that our attention is confined throughout the period to the banks of the Yellow Eiver. The places mentioned are, without exception, all in the northern portions of the present provinces of Shensi, Shansi, and Honan, clearly indicating that the Chinese entered China by the Yellow Eiver. The facility with which the Sovereign changed the location of his capital, removing all its inhabitants, proves that the buildings could not have been of a very substantial character or the community one of very large dimensions. The present Peking was in the fifteenth century A.D. made the capital PRIMAL PERIOD 59 instead of Nanking, in order to curb and dominate the restless Mongols. But the older city continued as the capital of the province, the removal being entirely official. Strategical reasons, involving the existence of the nation in face of foreign foes, is one thing ; but the removal of a capital to avoid the overflowings of " China's Sorrow " is an indication of a very limited population. The country was then but a very small nation. 6. Here, a dozen centuries before Confucius, we have the original fountain-head of what is now called Confucianism, with the difference that Eeligion is far more positive and dogmatic than it was in the time of Confucius. The spiritual atmosphere, so distinctly marked here, became attenuated under the next dynasty, and more so towards the epoch of Confucius. Here also we discover the origin of the Bushido of Japan, the notions of government which that country borrowed from the Chinese centuries after the time of Confucius. 7. The difference, amounting to inconsistency, existing between the pure monotheism of the primal- ancient period and the dualism of the succeeding ages is weighty evidence of the authenticity of the testimony to that monotheism. Editorial changes are usually made in order to conform the character of the past to that of the editor's time, and not to put that past into decided antagonism to his present. CHAPTER II MID-ANCIENT PERIOD, TWELFTH TO SIXTH CENTURY B.C.— KING- DOM OF CHOW PAOE I. INTRODUCTION 63 II. HISTORY 69 III. ODES 87 IV. CHOW DYNASTY 98 6i 1. INTEODUCTION We have seen that throughout the course of history for twelve centuries, there is no appreciable change in the conception of God which had come down from unfathomed ages, or of the supposed methods of His interference in the affairs of man. During all that period the names God and Heaven are synonymous, personal, and in the singular number. But with the Chow dynasty we are suddenly introduced to a novel conception of God and of our relationship to Him, a conception which has persisted to the present day. He is removed to a greater distance from us. It is supposed on fairly reliable grounds that the Yiching, or " Classic of Permutations," was the pro- duction of the " accomplished " King Wen. In it occurs the phrase " yin and yang," ^ the two great originating principles by whose action all things have been evolved, all things both the living and the dead. These terms are defined — reversing the order to " yang and yin " — as " aggressive and receptive," " action and rest," " action and reaction." They are represented in animated nature by male and female. But animate or inanimate, everything visible is classifiable under either of these two. Everything is either masculine or feminine ; there is no neuter. Heaven is yanvg, I See "Ritual." 63 64 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA earth yin. Light is yaTig, darkness yin. The sun is yang, the moon yin. The south is yang, the north yin. The north bank of a river, because facing south, is yang, and the south bank yin.^ The Chow dynasty is ushered in by the declaration of Prince Wu, son of King Wen, that " Heaven is the universal Father, and Earth the universal Mother." Prior to that period there is no hint of such a senti- tnent. To this point of time, therefore, we trace the foundation of the materialistic view of the universe, logically perfected after twenty more centuries by the philosopher Chu Futze. Yet though King Wu freely used the materialistic phrase of dualism, he was not consistent ; for he frequently used the name of God and of Heaven interchangeably, as in the primal-ancient period. The new trend of thought found expression in sacrifice. In the primal - ancient period sacrifices were offered to God or Heaven as supreme over all, also to the ancestors, to the gods of the air and of the earth, the gods of grain, of noted mountains and of deep rivers. But King Wu sacrificed to " Supreme Heaven and to Sovereign Earth." By him this latter term was introduced into Chinese philosophy and life. The institution of the double sacrifice was a natural corollary. If sacrifice was offered to the Power-Heaven as universal Father, it followed that sacrifice should be offered to the correlate Power-Earth, the universal Mother. In more recent times a special altar was erected on which to offer sacrifice to Earth, as there had been formerly to Heaven. The altar to Heaven was enclosed in a circular space, and that to Earth in a square, because, ^ See "Ritual." MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 65 according to the Yiching, "Heaven was round and the earth square." As formerly the sacrifices to the inferior deities were considered to be honouring to God, so now the sacrifices offered to Heaven and Earth were regarded as honouring God. The sacrifice to God was com- pleted when both Heaven and Earth were presented with offerings. As it is put by Confucius, " By sacrifice to Heaven and Earth service is rendered to God." God is thus removed to a greater distance from man, and approached through the visible media of Heaven and Earth. Changes in thought and expression were therefore inevitable in the centuries following the primal period. The materialistic idea becomes more pronounced as we proceed, till, in the later odes, which bring us down to the sixth century B.C., it presents itself in its unveiled form. Heaven is appealed to as " azure," " high," " remote," " boundless," plainly indicating the material heavens. Confucius was greatly influenced by the phraseology of King Wu. He rarely made use of the term Shangti, and not very frequently of the term Heaven, though, when he did employ it, a personal sense is always implied. The name Heaven becomes im- personal and absolutely material only in the time of the great annotator on the classics, Chu, who is, however, not always consistent in his materialism. While in the primal-ancient period behef in the One Supreme Euler rings out clearly, continuously, and uniformly, as in the Old Testament, the philo- sopher Chu defined the Heaven of the classics as the '' blue vault above," or alternatively, " abstract Eight." Here, then, we come upon the original spring out 5 66 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA of which has flowed the agnosticism which since that time to the present has dominated the literary mind in China. This agnosticism is expressed in the words, " We do not know God ; further, we cannot know whether there be God or not. What we see and feel we know ; all beyond is without proof. We do know our duty to man in our various relationships ; its due performance is task enough for any man, and it is all that can be rationally expected of him." This is the modern outcome of that materialism the seed of which was sown three thousand years ago. That materialistic atmosphere has ever since enshrouded like a mist, more or less dense, Chinese ideas about the Supreme. But despite this haziness, the Chinese conception of God affords an excellent common standing-ground for friendly intercourse between the Western and the Eastern mind, and is invaluable as a foundation on which to build up the Christian ideas of God. It seems to the writer justifiable to conclude that the geomantic science which has held so firm a grip of Chinese Hfe, and which banefully influences that life throughout its course from birth to and even after death, took its rise, or at least finds its justifica- tion, in the elevation of earth to the position of a deity on an equality with Heaven. Though divination ^ was practised from the begin- ning of the History down to the Shang dynasty, the Earth was never consulted. The tortoise and some grasses were the means of communication with the deities of the unseen world, to learn from them something of the future. In more modern times, subsequent to the intro- duction of sacrifices offered to Earth, the configuration ' See " Divination," p. 124. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 67 of the Earth has been studied for its yin and yang characteristics, and is still consulted by skilled geomantists. As the palmist reads the lines on a man's hand to discover his future, so the geomantist reads the meaning of elevations and depressions of hills and streams, of straight lines and crooked, of angles and direction. By careful comparison of all these, he judges the relative amount of yin and yang elements which exist in the ground or on it, and discovers the good or ill luck connected with it. This is the Fengshici, or " wind and water " science. By it he decides what site will secure a peaceful resting- place for the dead, and thus ensure happiness for the living. If the yin and yang elements do not mingle in the proper proportion in any locality, a grave there means restlessness for the dead, with consequent misery for the living. It is always discovered that the place where a dynasty originated or a great man was born, shows unmistakably, in the configuration and character of the locality, that such an exceptional occurrence was clearly indicated. Unfortunately, the indications became apparent always after the event, giving no hint beforehand, though, needless to say, the con- figuration of the land was always there, but over- looked. It is curious, too, that though the configuration remains exactly the same, no subsequent prodigy arises therefrom. This is the Chinese equivalent to the wonder-working power of environment which enters so largely into the modern philosophy of the West. It does not seem to be illogical to assume that the materialistic form assumed by philosophy made an opening for Buddhism, with its erstwhile spiritual longings and teaching; just as the rule of the mob 68 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA has always paved the way for the reign of the Dictator. For Buddhism, though it has always been atheistic, elevated by its specific moral teaching the spiritual in man to a higher and a nobler plane than that occupied by the materialistic thought of the Chinese literati, and met to a certain extent the cry of the human heart for something positive, however meagre, in connection with the unseen. Probably the lack of logical training may explain the curious fact that the Chinese mind can accept two mutually incompatible ideas, as we find among our- selves some thoughtful men who are materialists on the " scientific " side of their nature and decided Christians on the spiritual side. Even while accepting the statement that Heaven denoted the blue vault above, they did not consider it an incongruity to worship Heaven by sacrifice and prayer in the same way as did Yao and Shun when materialism in the religious sphere was unknown. In this materialism we may perhaps find the reason why the significance which must have been once attached to sacrificial cere- monial came to be entirely lost before the time of Confucius. For several generations Manchus and Chinese have worshipped the fox. They did not worship the fox of the fields, which is a mischief-maker, but an ethereaUsed, ancestral fox, who is all-good, and related to the fox family as the humanity of the positivists is related to common men. The tiger is similarly worshipped as the god of the mountain, while every individual tiger encountered is mercilessly put to death. Other deities of this sort are numerous. But the one worshipped is always the generic representa- tive of the class to which he belongs. There are the MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 69 bean-beetle, the stoat, and other destructive beings. The generic individual worshipped is supposed to be able to control the class for which he stands. He is worshipped to secure his interest in the protection of the worshipper or his belongings from the ravages of the beings represented by the deity. Similarly, the material heavens are appealed to in the Odes. But the blue heavens are appealed to as the abode of an invisible Power who can interfere in human affairs. The quotations below from the Odes will prove that when the ancient Chinese called on the blue heavens to pity them, they could hardly have intended to address their prayers to the blue empyrean and the twinkhng stars. Poetry perhaps demands the per- sonification of the visible heavens. II. HISTOET King Wen ^ behoved that he was called of God to dehver the Chinese people from the unspeakable misery inflicted upon them by the Sovereign. He was, in addition, urged to do this by many chiefis who had ranged themselves on his side. Though he had made all preparations for war, he was so distracted between his sense of responsibility to the suffering people on the one hand, and his duty of allegiance to his Sovereign on the other, that he postponed the open declaration of war again and again, till at length death ended his hesitancy. This great work was left to his son. Prince Wu. The reasons for which the war was originated and the conditions under which it was carried on will appear ' See History of Chow, p. 98. 70 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA from the following speeches of the Prince, which, though important in themselves, are more so for our purpose. The Prince began his campaign in B.C. 1123 by attacking and annexing the State of Li, lying on the eastern frontier of his own State of Chow. The news created a great sensation in the capital of Yin. One of the ministers, moved by fear, went to the King to report the catastrophe. "Son of Heaven," he said, "Heaven is about to withdraw His decree from our dynasty. In all the land there is not a man who can say a good word for us. The omens are all against us. Yet this calamity is impending over us, not because the ancestors object to succour us, but by your dissolute conduct and careless self-indulgence.^ On this account it is that Heaven has cut us off, and distressed us by famines. All the people wish the destruction of our rule and cry out in their misery, ' Why does Heaven not reveal His terror ? Why does the man who is worthy to rule not appear to carry out the decree of Heaven V" To this expostulation the King replied, like some monarchs of more modern times, that he was ruler by Divine decree, and was therefore immune from danger. The minister retorted, " The crimes of the King are all known to Heaven ; how then can he appeal with assurance to the Divine decree ? The country is about to be destroyed on account of the crimes of the King, who has forgotten that the Divine decree conferring empire is conditional on ^ Oliiiiese oflficials have been found in all ages who believed it their duty to censure whatever conduct in their Sovereign they considered wrong. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 71 the manner in which he devotes himself to the well- being of the people." Thus, even at its last gasp, the dynasty founded by Tang is seen to be possessed in theory of the principles which its founder had professed and practised. These principles, though acknowledged in creed, had lately been treated practically with contempt. Yet in the very destruction about to follow this contemptuous treatment, the principles were themselves to show their vitality and their power. ' But with the end of this dynasty we are brought suddenly face to face with a great, if not a radical, change in the mode of reference to the Supreme Power. Up to this point" we have the personal name Shangti for God used synonymously with Tien or Heaven in a personal sense. Whichever name is used it appears always to denote an intelligent, active, personal, moral, and all-powerful Agent. Now for the first time we are startled by the materialistic dualism tienti, or heaven and earth. When Prince Wu had finally decided to undertake the task devolving upon him by the death of his father, he convened the chiefs of the wild tribes of the west and of the neighbouring Chinese States, who had given in their adhesion fo his father. At this great convocation he made a speech in which he set forth his reasons for his proposed attack on the vile and degenerate representabive of the Shang dynasty. He said : " Heaven and Earth ^ are the father and mother of all things. Of all things man is the chief. Among men the man of intelligence and understanding is selected to be Sovereign. He ^ First reference to duality. 72 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA is made Sovereign in order that he become the /ather and mother of his people. But King Showi^ had long proved himself entirely destitute of reverence for Heaven above, while he tortured the people on earth. He did not serve God by sacrifice or reverence the deities of the heavens and the earth.^ He even neglected the ancestral temple, offering there no sacrifice to his forefathers. "Heaven appointed rulers for the purpose of protecting the people, and teachers to instruct them the method by which they might become united to God, that thus they might secure peace in the land. Now, because the Shang dynasty had miser- ably failed in its duty. Heaven has issued its decree that we should destroy it. Neglect on my part to carry out this decree would be criminal I have therefore offered the lei * sacrifice to God and "performed the rehgious services proper to Earth. Having thus completed the necessary religious duties, I am ready to lead you forward to inflict the punishment ordained by Heaven. " Heaven compassionates the people and will^ assuredly grant what they desire. The King continues tireless in his wickedness. The innocent sufferers appeal to Heaven, and their cry has ascended on high. Heaven has compassion on the multitude, and the Sovereign must reverence the mind of Heaven. " Ghie, the last King of the Hia dynasty, neglected to follow the example of Heaven. The poison of his example was disseminated throughout the entire 1 The reigning King of the dynasty. 2 Shen chi. See " Inferior Deities," p. 152. 3 Offered by Shun, p. 40. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 73 kingdom. Then did Heaven confer on Tang His special protection, and gave him the decree to terminate that decree which had been formerly given to the Hia dynasty. " But Show, the descendant of Tang, exceeds Chie in his wickedness. The good men he has degraded, and has treated with brutality the faithful ministers. He declares that the decree of Heaven is in his keeping, that it is useless to be reverent, that sacrifices are a waste and oppression no wrong. Yet the history of Chie was before his eyes, to give him fullest and clearest warning of the inevitable outcome of such conduct. " Heaven has called me to give peace to the people. Heaven sees with the eyes of the people and hears as they hear. The people blame my tardiness, and I must hasten to advance. In His unmistakable way Heaven has set forth His purpose. " Show despises the ' five virtues ' ^ and abandons himself to reckless idleness and wild irreverence. He has cut himself off from Heaven and aroused the wrath of the people. He neglects to offer the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth. He has ceased to present sacrifices in the temple of ancestors. God will not prosper him, but by His curse will overwhelm him in ruin. You will now help me to inflict upon him the punishment determined by Heaven." After the delivery of this political address, the Prince marched eastwards in the spring of 1123 B.C. On the eve of marching, he issued a proclamation declaring, " The King has abandoned the rules which should regulate the private life and the public con- ' Of the Five Relationships, p. 42, note. 74 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA duct of the Sovereign. The time and resources of the nation are wasted in drunkenness and lascivious- ness. No regard is shown for high Heaven. His own acts are bringing down upon him certain destruction. He despises Heaven and oppresses men. Faithful officials he has roasted to death, who by their advice had incurred the wrath of himself or of his paramour. Supreme Heaven is enraged against him and is about to expose to the world the greatness of his crimes by the heaviness of his punishment. The measure of his iniquities is filled up. The decree of Heaven to destroy him is given to me. If I failed in this duty would I not be guilty of condoning his crimes ? I am bound to offer sacrifice to God and to inform my ancestors that the King is now of a certainty to be punished. " Though Heaven be high, He hears the lowly. Though acting in the dark, He pities humanity, whose united desire is noted by Heaven. The people without exception pray for the downfall of Show. Their desire Heaven will assuredly grant." When offering sacrifice to God, the Prince, reciting the crimes of Show, said, " The blameless people are in their helplessness appealing to Heaven, for on earth they have no hope of redress. Is it fit that a man like Show should be ruler ? The norm ^ is the same for Heaven and for men. If we desire to know the will of Heaven we can do so by observing the wishes of the people. It is not that Heaven has eyes wherewith to look upon man, but the good and ill of all are revealed to all. If we know how humanity considers anything, we know the mind of Heaven. ^ See footnote 1, p. 75. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 75 " Show has cut himself off from Heaven in defying, by his licentious extravagance and abuse of authority, all the principles of li." ^ In the act of presenting sacrifices to G-od and all the inferior deities, he said, " The ruler should obey Heaven and live for the interests of his people. The king, on the contrary, abuses all the gifts of Heaven. He knows no love, he shows no pity. Thus does he set Heaven at defiance." When he arrived at the frontier of the royal domain, he waited in order to discover the will of Heaven before proceeding to battle. When the enemy appeared he at once attacked and defeated him. After his successful campaign he worshipped with sacrifice in the temple of his ancestors. Three days afterwards he offered a burnt sacrifice to Heaven and a wang ^ sacrifice to the distant mountains and rivers.^ In this way he " announced " ^ to all the Supernal Powers the successful termination of the war and the completion of his task. This was his Te Beum. When the princes of all the States presented themselves at Court after the peace, he addressed them, saying, " Detesting the crimes of the dynasty of Shang, I announced ^ to Supreme Heaven and Sovereign Earth, to every noted mountain passed and every river crossed, that, impelled by principle, I was going to have a great reckoning with Show, who had flung away principle, was savagely cruel J Li ; difficult to translate. It means abstract right, ultimate reason, moral and intellectual norm, perfect propriety, congruous with right of all kinds, whether of conduct or of customs. To the Chinese it is the ultimate court of appeal. See Ritual, "Ceremonial." 2 Cf. Shun's sacrifice. See pp. 24, 192. 76 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA to every creature under heaven, and was tyrannically injurious to the people. He had become the chief of all the lawless men of the kingdom, who had collected together in his Court as fishes do in a pool. "With the help of all good men I advanced, in all reverence daring to carry out the will of God, to put an end to the disorders of the land. Those who came to my assistance were not confined to the dwellers of the Flowery Land. The wildest tribes of the south and those of the remote north joined me to help in accomplishing the same grand purpose. Eastwards we marched in reverence to fulfil the decree of Heaven and to give peace to the people. The favour of Heaven to us had so moved the people that they came to meet us, offering allegiance to the house of Chow. " Ye deities ! come to my aid, that I may be able to save the millions of the people, and cause to cease the shame which has been cast upon the gods." The preceding quotations are interesting as a picture of the politics of that day, of the theory of govern- ment, of its practical utility, as well as an illustration of the religious beliefs of the ablest men of the twelfth century B.C. Two years after Wu ascended the throne, he became so dangerously unwell that his life was despaired of. Two of the highest officials approached Duke Chow, the King's brother, asking him to appeal in behalf of the King to the unseen Powers. The remarkable manner in which the Duke acted is narrated in the chapter on Sacrifice below.^ The strong hand of King Wu was removed by death in B.C. 1116. The continued unsettlement of 1 " Sacrifice," p. 164. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 77 the country proved that the greatest political change, whether in China or in Europe, does not necessarily introduce the millennium. Taking advantage of the distracted state of the country, the representatives of the late dynasty, with the assistance of two of the young King's brothers, set up the standard of inde- pendence. In name of the inexperienced King, his uncle, Duke Chow, gave public expression to the following sentiments : — " Without cessation does Heaven send down calamities on our house. It is matter of serious concern that at a time of difficulty one so young and so inexperienced should have come to inherit an inheritance so illimitable. To display the wisdom necessary to guide the people in the ways of peace I have failed, and how could I attain to a perfect knowledge of the decree of Heaven ? Though but a child, it has fallen to me to act like one crossing deep water. But it is indispensable that I should discover the means for doing so. My duty is to diffuse the knowledge of the excellent institutions of my predecessor and to extend the scope of the decree. Thus shall I be able to keep the extent of my duties constantly before my face. "That the dread majesty of Heaven is displayed in troubles sent down upon us I dare not attempt to conceal. In order to understand the mind of Heaven, I have studied the great precious tortoise^ left to me by the order-restoring King. Through it we were informed that great trouble would arise in the west,^ and behold ! this unreasonable movement emerges. ' See " Divination," p. 124. " Though the trouble had its source in the east or Yin kingdom, it disturbed the west — the capital. 78 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA " Small though the power be of the chief of Yin, he has with great audacity endeavoured to re-establish his house as supreme ruler of the land. Well did he know the terrors already showered upon his house by Heaven ; yet, on account of the present disorder of the country, he has permitted himself to entertain the hope of regaining the throne and of driving us back to revert into the condition of a border State. " These senseless movements will distress the destitute and the widows. As for me, I am entrusted by Heaven with a great duty. The decree of God I dare not disregard. By the favour of Heaven to our ancestor, the order-restoring King, our small State became prosperous. He had by divination discovered the will of Heaven, and took action, according to the response, to carry out the decree. I too have divined by the tortoise shell ^ and have had always a favour- able response. Heaven is now aiding the people, and the duty devolves upon me also to act according to the message received through divination. " The intelligence of Heaven is to be regarded with awe and with honour. In accordaiice therewith, I have to take steps to secure my great inheritance. That place where we are distressed and harassed by Heaven is just the place where I am bound to accom- phsh my task. But in carrying out this task we must be careful so to act as to prevent suspicion arising ia the minds of the rulers of other States. " By the help of Heaven I have the sincere attach- ment of the people. Heaven distresses the people now, making them to suffer as from a cruel and universal disease. I dare not shrink from the task transmitted to me by my predecessor, but must to ' See "Divination," p. 124. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 79 the utmost of my ability carry it out to its com- pletion. " The enlightenment of the country proceeds from the wise men in it. When under the guidance of the Ten Men, who knew and acknowledged the decree of Heaven and the assistance granted by Heaven, not one of the States dared to interfere with the royal appointments. But now, when heavy calamities descend from Heaven, many disturbances arise, the authors of the distress being like members of one family fighting against each other. The rulers of States have forgotten that the decree of Heaven is unchangeable. In destroying Yin, Heaven was like a husbandman at work. The work was begun, and I dare not refuse to complete it. Thus will Heaven confer blessing on our predecessors. " The omens are all favourable. This expedition to the east I must therefore carry through. In the omens reveahng the decree of Heaven there is no ambiguity. They all point in one direction." In the following expedition Duke Chow was successful. The rebel Prince was seized and executed. A young Prince of the same house was appointed in his stead. Addressing him, the King said, "Eldest son of the King of Yin, your ancestor Tang was reverent and wise. Broad and deep was his virtue. Therefore did he receive the favour and the help of Heaven, and the decree was given him to give rest to the people by destroying their wicked oppressors. His was the example followed by you, young Prince, his descendant, whose reputa- tion has been widely sounded abroad. With reverence and with care you have observed your filial duties. You have been dignified and respectful 8o THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA to gods and to men. God will therefore always accept your offerings, and the people will respect their ruler and assist each other. On this account you are elevated to be great Duke of the Eastern Kingdom." The State over which this young Prince was made ruler to represent the former dynasty was called Sung, and was situated in the jurisdiction of the present Kweite in Honan. The suppression of the revolt did not succeed in bringing the east into a condition of peace. The political world was still restless. Duke Chow declared that the affairs of the east could not be put on a satisfactory footing unless a second capital were established there. This step had been adum- brated in an eastern progress by King Wu, but no practical move had been made till the Duke expressed his conviction, that only by this method could the dissatisfied elements in the powerful State of Yin be reasoned into peace. Commanded by His Majesty to select the most suitable site for the second capital, the Duke went eastwards. After careful personal investigation and many trials by geomancy and diviuation, he fixed the ideal spot where good fortune was sure to rest. This was on the banks of the Lo Eiver, after which the new capital was named Loyang.^ This new capital was south-west of the former capital of Show and east of Hao, the capital of King "Wu. Exhorting the King to rise to the height of his great position, the Duke said, " Supreme Heaven has gifted the land and the people of the Middle Kingdom to the former Kings of Chow. Our ' Present Loyang of Honan. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 8i King must exert his \drtue to effect a peaceful harmony among the deluded people and to act as their guide. Then will he please the former ^ Kings who had received the decree. " God, the Supreme Heaven, took away His decree from Yin and gifted it to us. Connected therewith is unlimited happiness and anxiety unbounded. How may the Sovereign be other than reverent ? Many of the former Sovereigns of Yin were in Heaven^ when the decree was taken from that house. But their successor had offended them by driving out of office the good men, giving their places to the wicked. The poor men going out into the open with their wives and children made their moaning appeal to Heaven, who in pity gave us the decree to protect them. Let the King in his virtue show forth his reverence." He then urged the King to ponder the story of the two preceding dynasties, who were prosperous when fulfilling the decree of Heaven and perished by neglecting it. He concluded, "Let the King have respect to the counsels of the aged and experienced who mature their plans in the sight of Heaven." When he had commenced the erection of buildings in the new capital of Lo, the Duke said that the King appeared as though he did not dare to reach up to the gi-eat height of the decree of Heaven in founding and establishing the dynasty. It was on that account that he — the Duke — ^went eastwards to discover a site for the new capitaL ' See "Ancestors," p. 148. 2 They should have aided their descendants, hut did not, as their example had been spumed and their laws broken. 6 82 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA To this the King replied that the Duke had not dared to abstain from acknowledging reverently the favour of Heaven, and had therefore gone forth to search out a place where the dynasty might respond to that favour. " The provision made by the Duke is such," he continued, " that I may for myriads of years reverence the favour of Heaven by giving peace to the people and stability to the throne in the new capital." In this new capital the Duke was made head of the Government. On assuming his post as Eegent, he addressed the assembled officials of the Yin FamOy : " I address you ministers who have escaped the ruin brought upon your dynasty by the forfeiture of the pity of Heaven. The decree having been . passed on to us, we have inflicted the kingly punishment due. We took away the decree from your dynasty, and accomplished the work of God. This result was not the outcome of our personal ambition. It was because Heaven had refused to help the King in his miserable misrule, and assisted us, who would not of ourselves have presumed to aim at the throne. From the conduct of the common people, by which is made known the will of God, it was manifest that God would not help Yin. There is the saying that God leads men into peace and security. The Sovereign of Yin made no attempt to attain that end. Therefore came the afflictions which indicated the mind of God." Thereafter he repeated his lessons from the story of the two preceding dynasties, which succeeded and prospered when serving God and fell in ruin when opposing His will. Like the wise politician he was, he spoke in terms of warm commendation of the MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 83 many good men belonging to the preceding dynasty, thus making the character of the man who had lost both throne and life all the blacker by contrast with his own predecessors. " Never," he continued, " did State, large or small, fall without adequate reason, which was made plainly visible to all men. We, having received the decree to destroy Yin, were able to announce to God the completion of the work. The great tribu- lation with which Heaven visited Yin was evidence of the surpassing wickedness of the dynasty. It was by the decree of Heaven you were cast out of your inheritance. When the punishment of Heaven was adequately fulfilled, you the survivors were removed to this region to be associated with the ministers of our dynasty, in order to learn obedience like theirs. As long as you faithfully carry out here your duty as ministers, so long will you enjoy your lands and dwellings in perpetuity. Heaven will have compassion on those who are reverently obedient and show them His favour. For those who refuse to obey, it is impossible to avoid the calamities inflicted by Heaven on the disobedient." While building the new capital, the Duke addressed on several occasions and on important public afiairs his younger brother Feng, who was created Prince of Wei, a State in the country now about Taming in Chihli, across the river. As usual, he described the virtue of their father Wen, who had become so notable in the sight of Heaven. This example he urged Feng to imitate, so as to give peace to ^ his people. He mentioned many offences which must be visited: with severe punish- 84 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA ment, especially offences against the family. One section of the country under the rule of Feng was notorious for its drunken habits. To this danger the young ruler must pay particular attention : "When Heaven sent down His decree, strong drink was used only on the occasions of offering great sacrifices to Heaven and earth and the ancestors. The great disorders by which the people lost their virtue, and consequently suffered the terrors of Heaven, were always occasioned by strong drink. Of the States great and small which have fallen to ruin, destruction overtook none except through the crimes arising from strong drink. The people of your State of Mei are therefore exhorted to renounce the common use of strong drink. At sacrifices they may use it, at special feasts, and on the completion of some great work for the State or for their parents. If the ofBcials perform their duty in this manner they will show forth their own virtue to be commendable, and their services will be always retained by the Eoyal house. " King Wen strictly forbade the common use of strong drink. The founder of the Yin dynasty also manifested a reverential awe for the revealed principles of Heaven. Not a few of their successors in power and in virtue paid respect to their ministers, who therefore gave the more sedulous attention to their business. They were guilty neither of falling into idleness nor of seeking pleasure; much less were they addicted to strong drink. Even the rulers and officials of vassal States did not dare to indulge in drunkenness. Nay, further, they were not able to command leisure enough to waste their time over strong drink. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 85 " But the last of the Yin Sovereigns was bent on evil. He gave himself over to lewdness and dissipa- tion, and lost his majesty in the pursuit of pleasure. More and more did he indulge to excess in the use of ardent spirits, till at length his mind became so stupefied that he was incapable even of entertaining any dread of death. From him no sweet savour of sacrifice ascended to Heaven. What did ascend on high was the odour of the wrath of the people and the stench of the drunkenness of the creatures of his Court. Therefore did Heaven withdraw His love and rain down destruction on the dynasty. Heaven is capable of no cruelty. What evils soever befall a man, they are drawn down upon him by his own wickedness." ^ The Duke, addressing the States in name of the King, said, " God has corrected the Hia dynasty by calamities which were sent to call them to repentance. But instead of repenting, the dynasty degenerated into deeper dissipation, idleness, and contempt for the people. Not for even a single day would the King direct his conduct by the decree of God. His officials followed his example, with the result that there ensued a state of universal disorder. " God then sought out a proper man to be ruler over the land, and bestowed upon Tang the decree to destroy Hia. The destruction was the outcome of the action of the officials, who everywhere supported each other in plundering the people, while not one attended to the duties devolving on his office, which demanded that he should exert himself to attain the prosperity of the people. But the late descendant of ' This appears to be the foundation of the sobriety of the Chinese, who are not abstainers, but among whom are virtually no drunkards. 86 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Tang forfeited the goodwill of the States and was not able to retain the decree of God. "Not by arbitrary decree did God cause the destruction of Hia, nor did the Yin dynasty come to an end by a causeless act of Heaven. The late Sovereign believed himself immune from danger because he possessed the decree of Heaven. He therefore gave himself over to work all manner of excesses. His fault was the fault of the ancient Hia, and his fall was the same. It was on this account that Heaven sought out a new . nian. Within the Eoyal States no such man was to be found. But in Chow, where the people were treated with kindness, was a man discovered who had the ability to sustain the burden of good government and to preside over the sacrifices to the Shen and to Heaven. Him did Heaven select to be ruler. Obedience to him will secure the decree of Heaven to the States, but the terrors of Heaven will fall on the heads of the disobedient." To Duke Shao the Duke said, " To retain the decree of Heaven which we have received is no easy task, for the way of Heaven is not a fixed and unalterable one. The prosperity of the country is one essential condition." To Tsai Chung, on receiving high office, the Duke said, " High over all is Imperial Heaven, who treats every one without partiality towards any. The man of virtue alone is entitled to the protection of Heaven. You must therefore dihgently study what makes for the peace of the kingdom and what for its unrest." In a proclamation he stated that the Shang dynasty came to an end, because the discontented people and officials strove each to possess power and to . become MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 87 supreme. But " the decree of Heaven is to be taken when gifted by Heaven. It is not to be coveted, or selfishly sought by forceful methods." In another proclamation he stated that not because Heaven had arbitrarily resolved to withdraw His support and to ruin the dynasty did Hia perish ; nor did Shang come to an end because Heaven was prejudiced against them and dealt with them unjustly. Both Chie and Show perished as the result of their own evil deeds. The possibility of showing partiality by Heaven for any man high or low was inconceivable. To Duke Shao, who resigned on seeing the officials of the Government dress in magnificent robes, he said, when refusing to accept his resignation, " The will of Heaven is hard to know. Even though perfectly certain that the will of Heaven was engaged to support me to the utmost, I dare not entertain the thought that no calamity can hereafter befall me. But though ignorant of what happiness or misery Heaven has in store for me, it is certain that if with reverence and fear we fulfil all the duties imposed upon us by Heaven, the reward to be given by Heaven is assured, accordant with and following upon the conduct of man." III. THE ODES It will have been observed that one clear note dominates the entire teaching throughout the seven- teen centuries embraced in the quotation from the History. One Supreme Power, intelligent and just, rules everywhere, at all times, over all mankind, acting ever without partiality, without favouritism. 88 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA All through this period one central truth persists amid much that is changeable. It was this over- shadowing principle which laid hold of the mind of Confucius, who, appearing at the conclusion of this period, professed to be a transmitter of the ancient belief, not a propounder of novel doctrines. Though covering virtually the same period of time and referring to the same, or similar, historical events, the authors of the Odes seem to have been more deeply impregnated than were the compilers of the History with the materialistic principles in- troduced by the Chow dynasty. But the Odes which appeal to Heaven in a materialistic sense, are those which express serious complaints against unrighteous suffering of the individual or of the nation in the time of contemporary oppressive rulers. The blame which they ascribe to the material heavens may be a euphemistic way of censuring the reigning monarch, whose wrath would be aroused by direct censure. When the author, therefore, reproaches the "azure Heaven " or the " remote Heaven," it is possible that he uses this language when he would not have dared to ascribe unrighteousness to Heaven, the Supreme, the All-knowing, the synonym of Shangti. It will be observed that there is never a hint of reproach against Shangti. The Odes, however, unfold their own testimony. They will not be quoted as fully as were the passages referring to God quoted from the History, as such fulness is not required for our purpose. With the exception of a few, used when offering sacrifice to Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty, the Odes are devoted almost entirely to the dynasty of Chow. The book, carries us down to the sixth MID-ANCIENT PERIOD . 89 century 8.0.-, a generation later than the close of the History and a little before the birth of Confucius. An ode says, '' Heaven had created the lofty mountain Chi under which King Tai^ made his capital. There he devoted himself entirely to the well-being of his people. He cleared the forests, drained the marshes, and made good roads in the pathless wastes. The State was a model after which the government of the whole kingdom might be fashioned. When the wickedness of the Shang dynasty, opposing the will of Heaven, made their destruction inevitable, God looked throughout the land for a man who would rule according to His will. This man was found in Tai. His descendant Wen by his blameless conduct secured the special blessing of God, who told him to avoid the example of the men of variable desires, whose wills were driven in any direction, following every wind that blew." Another ode says, "Without deviation, Wen pursued the path of his predecessors. He therefore gratified their spirits and was pleasing to God. He was informed by God that his steadfast virtue led him always to choose the right without effort and without hesitation. God ordered him to destroy the city of Chung." 2 A life of perfect virtue is the condition demanded by Heaven of those who would become rulers of men. The ruler must not depend on the generosity of ' See History of Chow, p. 98. 2 The historian Szma Chieu says that the Marquis of Chung had slandered Wen to the King, who had imprisoned him. After his liberation, Wen attacked the Marquis and razed his city to the ground. go THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Heaven, or think that he can defy change solely because Heaven has ah-eady placed him on high. The house of Shang was set on the throne by Heaven. For a prolonged period the dynasty held communica- tion with God by sacrifice. But their actions became more and more opposed to the mind of Heaven. On this account, the resistless decree of Heaven handed over the Eoyal power to Wen, who had been always reverent towards Heaven. The acts of Heaven are profound. The destruction of Shang is a warning to all, no less instructive than the success of Wen. After his death, " Wen rests on high, enshrined in light." Because he had fulfilled his duties to perfection, " his spirit moves in the presence ^ of God." Yet his gifts were not self-originated. They were bestowed by God. But he so employed them that God regarded him a model King after His own heart. God told him that his virtue was so perfect that it was practised involuntarily, without effort and without mistake, God told him to attack Chung. With intelligent zeal had he served God, who had therefore secured to him the great blessing. Sentiments similar to the above are reiterated in the Odes, and the inference is constantly made that Heaven dealt with men at all times by an unalterable law, that law by which King Wen was called upon to rule and which hurried King Show to destruction. "The decree of God is not unchangeable. It is not easy to retain it. The action of Heaven is noiseless and trackless ; therefore men should strive to accord with the decree of Heaven. God saw that in the family of Shang there was no man fitted to rule ; nor yet among the rulers of the feudal States, who had 1 Lit. " on the right and left of God." MID-ANCrENT PERIOD 91 followed the King in his degeneracy, was such a man found. Therefore in the remote west, passing hy all the great States, God sought out the man who would bring peace to the people." " God," it is said again, " had already put it into the heart of Tanfu^ to move away from his ancestral home to the territory of Chow. God examined the mountain regions, and saw the roads which had been cut out by the ruler, toiling for the well-being of his people, in the forests of oak and pine. God had established the kingdom here and made him ruler thereof, providing him with a worthy helpmate. Heaven looked down over all the world, and selected Wen to be ruler." An official in the time of King Li, a bad king in the ninth century B.C., upbraided his fellow-officials for their heedlessness in the face of the judgments, and urged them to " stand in awe of the wrath of Heaven, to attend to their duties and not waste their time in pleasure, for Great Heaven is all-intelligent and is with you in every place. Great Heaven sees all and is with you in all your wanderings." An officer commanding a distant expedition and detained too long from home complains to the " most bright, intelligent, and high Heaven which lightens all the world below." An official ninety years of age, writing to counsel himself and his fellow - officials, says, " The Great Heaven is all-intelligent, and when heavy calamities are sent down on the State by Him, He can make no mistake." When King Wu was on the eve of the decisive battle with the King of Shang on the field of Mu, he 1 See History of Ohow, p. 98. 92 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA was told, "God is with you. Harbour 'no doubt or anxiety about the issue." During the time of King Yow, a bad King of the eighth century B.C., all authority was in the hands of women and eunuchs. The State was overwhelmed with calamities from which no one could escape, for " Heaven has let down His net to enclose all." "Heaven is illimitable, so also is the goodness of parents." The son and heir of King Yow was degraded and cast out to give place to the son of the favourite, Pao Szu. He complains of his lot, and wonders why he should thus suffer. He appeals that " though Heaven gave him birth, he is now cast away from father and mother." A writer in the time of King Li praising the excellence of Wen states that, when Heaven created the multitudes of men He bestowed upon them their natures. " Heaven gave the men of the present time their violent dispositions, but it is the fault of the King that they should be employed as officials." In praising a great minister the poet says that when Heaven created the multitudes of mankind He made laws appropriate to every faculty. " This normal nature is possessed by the people." " God made King Wu His Son," i.e. ruler. " God is great who provided all the Kings of Chow." " Heaven decreed ^ the black Bird to come down and give birth to the Shang dynasty." "Anciently God decreed that the martial Tang should pacify the kingdom." " God raised up a Son to become the founder of Shang." 'See "Decree," p. 107. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 93 " Hard is the way of Heaven, and difficult," said the Queen of Yow after she was degraded for a favourite. " God said to King Wen, ' Be not like the unsteady, or hke those who rule for their own pleasure.' " " G-od said to King Wen, ' You possess brilliant virtue without boasting or changefulness, naturally and involuntarily following the example of God.'" " Because Wen served God with his whole under- standing and received much blessing, he succeeded to the throne after the gifted King Chi. He exhibited a virtue so perfect that the blessings received from God would for his sake descend to his successors." " The wisdom, might, and success of Wen were such that he was able to give repose to high Heaven." ^ The guests who were feasted at the completion of the sacrifice to ancestors sang the praises of the King who had feasted them, saying, " On account of your filiality^ in offering sacrifices to the spirits of your ancestors. Heaven will protect and establish you, making you very strong and conferring upon you all happiness." An aged official exhorting his juniors to be faith- ful to their duties said in concluding his advice, " Mysterious Heaven can make anything strong." In a long exhortation to the cultivators of the soil, it is said that " the light-giving God will grant us a good year if we are dihgent in the fields." The man who is a careful husbandman, and from ^ Because the will of Heaven was being fully carried out. " This term is adopted as the only one sufficiently expressive to denote the respect, devotion, and service demanded by Chinese ethics from the son to the father. It connotes the duties of sonship, and is more than affection. The term sonship expresses the physical relation- ship and its advantages, while filiality embodies the Chinese ideas of that relationship and its duties. 94 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA ■the products of the field makes the proper offerings in sacrifice to ancestors, will receive not only the blessing of those ancestors but of Heaven also. "The founder of Shang received the blessing of Heaven, and because of his virtue Heaven bestowed its mercy upon him." " Heaven will send down blessings on the descend- ants of Tang who faithfully offer sacrifice to him." " King Wu walked in the steps of his forefathers. He was filial and steadfast in continuing their policy. He will therefore receive the constant blessing of Heaven, and will pass it on to his descendants." " On the Prince of Lu,^ who is most filial in his devotion to his ancestors. Heaven will confer long life and blessings without end." Evil was everywhere supreme under Yin, the minister of King Yow. An ode complains that " Great Heaven is pitiless and unjust in pouring down all this misery upon the people." The unworthy officials lived in luxury and gluttony while the people had not food to eat. The ode continues, " Heaven overwhelms the people with calamities. The wealthy may escape, but woe to the poor ! " "Heaven is illimitable, how then is His goodness so limited and calamities rain down all over the kingdom? Though Heaven be compassionate, His majesty is displayed in calamities. Heaven is illimit- able, how is it then that King Yow will not listen to exhortation ? " " The dread majesty of Heaven is manifest in calamities all over the world. Omens are consulted, but no good comes. Men should live as if on the brink of a deep gulf, as if treading on thin ice." ' Suooessor of Duke Chow. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 95 Under King Li one complained that " illustrious Heaven is called our Father and our Mother ; how is it that we are causelessly called upon to suffer so great an amount of misery ? The terrors of Heaven are exhausted though I am sinless. The terrors of Heaven are complete though I am guiltless." King Yow, to please his favourite concubine, em- ployed as ministers bad men of her choosing, through whom the people suffered. An official in an ode said that " God is supreme and hates no one " — therefore those troubles were not to be ascribed to Him. When describing the miseries which had overtaken the kingdom of Chow, the same writer says, " The calamities of the people do not come down from Heaven." " The ways of God are reversed, and the people suffer." King Li was warned that "it was not Heaven which had flushed his face with strong drink so that he did wrong." When describing the destruction of the Yin dynasty, it is said that " these evil times are not of God, but of Yin, whose decree is taken away." "Heaven torments us and the spirits (shen) refuse help because of the wickedness of the King." Dealing with the anarchy and the ceaseless march- ing of soldiers under King Li, an ode states : " The people are destroyed. Nothing can arrest the doom of the kingdom. Heaven will not come to our help. From east to west is no place of refuge to be found from the wrath of Heaven. Heaven rains down death and disorder, and has made an end of our King." Under King Yow the country was ruled by clever 96 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA women, and no steps were taken to protect it against the incursions of the barbarians who came to plunder. An ode says, " I look' up to Heaven, which tefuses to have pity on us." "Heaven, which is compassionate, exhibits His majesty in terror. Heaven lets down its net, and who can escape from destruction at the hands of the evil officials ? " " Shall not those be utterly ruined who are not approved by Heaven ? " An official suffering from defamatory scandal said, " The slanderer is not ashamed before men, nor does he stand in awe of Heaven." An elderly official said that "when Heaven is sending down such calamities, we officials should think soberly and live in harmony. Heaven is oppressing us, and no man should make the sad a subject of mockery. Heaven is manifesting His anger, therefore no one should be boastful, for the people are groaning in their misery. We should revere the anger of Heaven and avoid all idleness. Dread the uncertainty of the action of Heaven and seek not after pleasure. Heaven enlightens the people, therefore officials should not be perverse." "^Day and night I revere the majesty of Heaven and follow the example of King Wen, that I may obtain the blessing of Heaven." All sacrifice implies throughout the Odes prayer for future peace and prosperity. Occasionally the language of petition is employed. An official who was suffering from defamation prays to Heaven, because the proud rejoice and the troubled are in sorrow, " azure Heaven ! azure Heaven ! look on those proud men and pity the troubled." MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 97 The lady Kiang Yuen ^ prayed to God because of her childlessness, and " offered sacrifice, with which God was well pleased, and granted her a son by whose birth she was comforted." A widow whose friends were compelling her to re- marry "cried out in protest to her mother and to Heaven." Looking on the destruction of his country, one said, " Remote and azure Heaven, what man hath done this ? " When Duke Mu was buried (b.c. 620), three of his most notable warriors were buried alive with him. The horror of the people found expression in an ode appealing to " azure and remote Heaven." " Because How Chi gave all diligence to provide for the people every kind of grain, he acquired for himself the right to be called the Pei^ of Heaven." " The Eulers of Yin were made the Pei of God." The preceding quotations from different Odes are presented in the briefest possible compass. Their own significance is self-apparent, and explanations of their historical connection while occupying too much space, would add no authority to their witness about the ancient Eeligion of China. ' See "Chow dynasty," p. 98. ' P. 52, and p. 198. 98 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA IV. OHOW DYNASTY If the house of Shang^ was ushered into the world by miracle, that of Chow ^ could trace no less honourable a beginning. The traditions connected with the origin and history of the house and king- dom of Chow are instructive, as they show the Chinese method of tracing the ancestors of prominent men, and reveal the beliefs entertained, as well as the customs and practices which were followed, in former ages. These are contained in the Book of Odes, various quotations from which are given below in the order of the events related. " The origin of our people * was from the lady Kiang Yuen. She presented pure sacrifices in order that her childlessness might be taken away. She put her foot on God, and was instantly moved in the place where she rested.* She became pregnant and lived apart. She gave birth to a son, whom she nursed. This son was How Chi. His birth was painless, producing no injury, giving evidence that his was no common character. God gave her comfort. He had accepted her pure sacrifice and caused her to bring forth her son without pain. " He was exposed in a narrow lane ; but the sheep and the oxen, instead of trampling upon, protected him lovingly. He was left in a great forest, where the wood-cutters tended him. He was placed on the cold ' Shang= " Deliberation." ^ Chow = ' ' Complete, " ' ' universal. " ' Chow, on the extreme western frontier, bordering the savage tribes. * To translate this sentence in an intelligent manner is impossible. The above is as nearly literal as it can be. The meaning is that the birth is miraculous. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 99 ice, but a bird shielded him with its wings. When the bird left him, he wailed with an exceeding great cry, which was heard afar. "His look was majestic and intelligent from the time when he learned to crawl. As soon as he was able to feed himself he began to sow beans, which grew luxuriantly. His paddy was beautiful. His hemp and wheat were flom'ishing and his melons most abundant. " His method of husbandry was to help the growing plants. He first cleared away the thick grass and then sowed the yellow grain. He tended the growing plant till the ear appeared. This he used again as seed, and it too sprang up, growing and coming into ear. It grew strong and good, its head hanging down and every grain full grown. For his merit he was made ruler of Tai.^ He provided his people with beautiful grain, the black millet and the double- seeded, the tall red and the white. Widely the people sowed the black and the double-seeded, which they reaped and heaped on the ground. They planted widely the tall red and the white. The reaped grain they carried home on their shoulders to use at the sacrifices which he had instituted. " What of our sacrifices ? One hulls the grain, another takes it from the mortar. One sifts, and another treads it. It is rattled in the vessels. It is distilled, and its fragrance floats around. We make our arrangements. We perform the purifying rites. We mix the artemisia with the fat. We sacrifice a ram to the god of the roads. We offer roast flesh and boiled. And thus we usher in the new year. We fill 1 This was.the dwelling-place of his mother. It was in the present Chienohao of Shensi. 100 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the dishes and cover the stands. The fragrance of the ascending offering is agreeable to God. Fragrant it is, and in its season. This sacrifice is that which was instituted by How Chi. In connection with it there is neither blame nor cause for regret to this day." From the time of How Chi, who dates from the reign of Yao, a great historical gap brings us to the year B.C. 1796, when Duke Liu is brought forward as head of an agricultural people. It is inferred that an ancestor of Duke Liu had emigrated out of China proper to the north-west, and sojourned among wild tribes, which had been to a certain extent instructed in Chinese civilisation. Duke Liu from this settle- ment conducted a migration of his people eastwards, probably on account of an increased population. The following Ode refers to this new migration and settle- ment. We can infer from it the' smallness of a State and the wide extent at that time of uncultivated land in China : — " Devoted was Duke Liu. In studying the welfare of his people, he knew no rest and took no ease. The country he divided into fields with boundaries. The produce of the fields he stored up in barns. In great sacks he tied up dried meat and grain to provide for his people and to glorify his tribe. Having made ready bows and arrows, shields, spears, and axes, great and small, he began his march. "Devoted was Duke Liu. He had examined the plains, where the people were crowded, and his sym- pathy for them drew from him a proclamation to pre- vent endless sighing in the future. He ascended the^ mountains and came down on the plains. At his girdle he carried jade and other gems, and in an ornamented scabbard was his sword. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD loi " Devoted was Duke Liu. He went to the place of a hundred springs. Around him stretched the great plain. He scaled the southern height, and saw before him a vast plateau, capable of providing room for great multitudes. Space was there for many habita- tions, and he could provide booths for emigrants. Here there were great deliberations. " Devoted was Duke Liu. On the plateau ^ called Pin he found rest. His officers were ranged in order. Mats were spread out and stools were placed, on which they sat and rested. From the herds he brought a pig, and poured out spirits from the calabashes. They ate and they drank, and there with honour they made him Prince. " Devoted was Duke Liu. The new territory was long and broad. He determined the cardinal points, and ascending a height he understood the lie of the land towards the sun. He noted the course of the rivers. His armies were in three troops. He measured the marshes and the plains. The form of taxation which he fixed was the cultivation of so much land for the Government.^ He measured the land sloping westwards. Thus Pin became truly great. "Devoted was Duke Liu. When housed for a time in Pin he crossed the Wei Eiver in boats and secured whetstones and iron. Here the people became numerous and prosperous. They occupied both banks of the Yellow Eiver, and crossed over to the river Kwo, and with an increased population they went on to the Ghii Eiver." 1 Situated west of the present Pinchow of Shensi. " Each section was of 900 mu—ea^h mm being a tithe of the English acre— to eight families, who cultivated 100 for the Government and 100 for each family. They were mutually responsible. I02 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA The country forming the new settlement demanded much labour to bring it into a state of high cultiva- tion. But the people were diligent and peaceable. After four centuries the population had increased to such an extent that the question of emigration became again a pressing one. So at least we are to infer from the following Ode, supposed to be written in the twelfth century to describe the selection of the final site of the State of Chow under Tan Fu in B.C. 1327: — "From small to large grows the melon,^ and so was the growth of our people. " The ancient Duke Tan Fu left the country of the Chu ^ and the Chi ^ rivers, and made for his people huts and caves in which to dwell ere yet they had built houses. "The ancient Duke Tan Fu went riding in the morning by the west rivers till he came to the mountain of Chi.* Thither he came with the Lady Chiang, to select a site for the city. Eich lay the plain of Chow before them with its beautiful violets and sow-thistles. There they began to plan out the future. He singed the tortoise shell, which responded by commanding them to remain there. They began at once to build houses. He encouraged the people to settle in all directions. The land he divided, making boundaries, and cut it up into fields. He dug ditches and defined acres. From west to east he was active in every business. He appointed a Superintendent of Works and a Minister of Education, and into their charge he committed the task of the erection of ' Probably the rapidity of the growth of the melon is more especially indicated, for all plants grow "from small to large." ^ Plowing into the Lo. ' Flowing into the Wei. * The plain of Chi was near the present Ohishan of Shonsi. MID-ANCIENT PERIOD 103 houses. They used the line to make everything straight, and hound tight the frame boards, so that the building should proceed with regularity. The ancestral temple rose in grandeur. " The crowds carried the earth in baskets, throwing it with shouts into the frames. They beat it down with resounding blows. They pared the walls several times, till they rang out when struck. Five thousand feet of building were simultaneously rising ; and the hearty noise of the builders was so loud that £hey could not hear the drum inciting them to work. " They set up the gate of the city, making it stand high. They erected the gate of the court, and it rose in grandeur. They set up altars to the gods of the land, whence all great movements begin. He could not prevent the rage of his wild foes, but his fame was not lost. The oaks were felled in the forests, and the roads were made for travellers. The Kun barbarians disappeared in fear." From another Ode the following is extracted to complete the picture as given in the twelfth century:- — " God is great who beholds this lower world in His majesty. He surveyed the whole empire to discover one fit to give peace to the people. The government of the two preceding dynasties had failed to satisfy Him. He sought throughout all the States for one who was worthy of the decree. Eejecting all the great States, He gave a settlement to ' King ' Tai ^ in the west." This ruler cleared the forests, and " God having brought to this place so intelligent a ruler, the Kun hordes disappeared. To him Heaven gave the decree." ' Tan Fu of the preceding account. I04 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA His son, King Chi, succeeded, and he proved himself of great intelligence and an excellent ruler. He was the father of King "Wen, whose virtue was without a flaw. He received the blessing of God, which was transmitted to his descendants. " God spoke to King Wen " thrice, acknowledging his great qualities and giving him victory over his enemies. Before going to war King Wen was in the habit of offering sacrifice to God. It was in the person of Wen that the will of God regarding the dynastic influence of the Chow family was secured in its completeness. His mother was possessed of every womanly virtue and every queenly grace. From his youth he served God with great reverence and always desired to do the right. When he" attained years of manhood a wife was sought out for him. The selected bride was fair as a being from Heaven. In great state and with much rejoicing she was conducted to her future home. She had been gifted by Heaven with all the endowments of possible excellence. She was no less modest in manner than beautiful in person. The qualities sought for in a bride she pre-eminently possessed. She was modest, virtuous, intelligent, and industrious in household affairs. To the young couple Heaven granted a son — Prince Wu. The future of Prince Wu and the establishment of the dynasty of Chow are related in the more prosaic History. It should be noted that this title of King belonged only to the actual ruler of the whole of China. It is a courtesy title when applied to the ancestors of such a ruler. CHAPTER III CHARACTER OF GOD FAQE I. DECEEE lOV II. CALAMITY 121 III. DIVINATION 124 IV. NATUEE OF GOD. (Summaey) . . .128 '°5 I. THE DECEEE OF HEAVEN Throughout the entire course of the classical period one word occurs the use of which is so prominent, and the meaning of it so important, that it claims special notice. This word is " decree," or " decree of Heaven." There is no trace in the classics of the doctrine of fatalism. They contain no word corresponding to the meaning of " fate." The notions implied in Kharma are, however, involved in the Chinese term. We do not find man represented anywhere as exposed to an unavoidable and uncertain destiny. He is nowhere represented as driven on a sea where over- whelming waves rise without a cause, and by tempestu- ous winds which come without reason. Fatahsm in all its shades of meaning is unknown in Chinese classical philosophy. Yet the outcome of Ufe for every man is fixed. " As a man soweth so shall he also reap," is the key by which the Chinese try to unlock all the mysterious happenings to man. It is all implied in the aphorism of Confucius, " Birth and death are by decree, wealth and honour are at the disposal of Heaven." But, as will appear from the quotations below, this decree is in no way arbitrary. In connection with this subject it is both interesting and instructive to observe the Chinese theory of the "divine right of kings," which will become clearly manifest from the quotations. 107 io8 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA According to the Chinese theory of government, the Sovereign is the highest authority on earth, being, as the best and ablest man, the vicegerent of God, to carry out His will for the well-being of all men, to do justly in rewarding, the good and in punishing the evil, and to show mercy when it is wise to do so. He is considered as a ruler in a theocracy similar in character to that of the Jews. Saul was selected to be the protector of the people. He was rejected when his chief thpught became his own aggrandise- ment. To succeed him the best available man was " decreed " to sovereignty, and because David, with aU his faults, was more faithful, the " decree " continued with him and his family. For the same reasons and to carry out similar purposes, Yao and Shun were "decreed" to power in China. The latter succeeded the former because he was more worthy than the son of Yao. The Chinese Sovereign ruled not by heredity or by the votes of the people — though the will of the people was implied — but by the decree of God. While the Sovereign possessed that decree no power could unseat him. But if he lost the decree no army could preserve his throne. He was King by divine right, but only so long as he carried out the will of the Power who had made him King. The decree of Heaven " bestowed " upon the Sovereign was the authority and the power which are gifted by Heaven in order to further the real interests of the people. This significance of the term, as weU as the ascription of all ultimate power and the in- telligent and just use of it to God, will abundantly appear from the extracts and references following. Both the History and the Odes are laid under contribution. The quotations, however, are given from CHARACTER OF GOD 109 each separately, though the references in both are frequently to the same historical event. King Yao desired to discover the man who in all respects — in character and in ability — was best fitted to be his successor. His own sons and relatives fell below the required standard. He consulted his ministers, who suggested one illustrious name after another ; to all of whom the King had some fatal objection. He finally adjured his ministers to search him out the best man, whether he was to be found among the great or among the mean and the lowly. Then was named to him Shun, an unmarried man of the common people, who, though constantly ill-used by his father, his stepmother, and his brother, displayed a spirit of such remarkable self-control, showed so much patience with and real fiUality to- wards his unworthy parents that they were at length shamed into becoming reformed characters. In this way he acquired a fame for wisdom and goodness which extended far and wide. This reputation had been previously reported to the King, who now accepted his name as that of the man most likely to become a good ruler. He summoned him to Court, and to test his character gave him his two daughters in marriage. So satisfied was the King with his experiment that in due time he made his son-in-law heir apparent and chief minister (b.c. 2283). Of Shun it is said that his "virtue was immense, surpassing that of all men, and his wisdom was beyond that of men and wonderful above measure." It was on this account that Imperial Heaven conferred on him the decree and made him " the Sovereign of all underneath the heavens." no THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA During the reign of Shun the country had been for a prolonged period under water. ThQ floods rose over the hilltops and the waves seemed to threaten the very heavens. Able officials had been commanded to drain off the floods, but they all failed with ignominy and loss. Yii, the son of one of these incapable officials, was ordered to undertake the task. The greatness of his virtue was manifested by his single-hearted devotion to the public weal, and his pre-eminent abilities were proved by the complete success of the measures which he adopted.^ On this account, when Shun followed the example of Yao in searching out the best possible successor, he declared Yti to be without compeer. He was the right man for the high, difficult, and responsible position. What he had already accomplished was evidence sufficient of his " virtue " and ability, while the humility of his conduct and the unselfishness of his life placed him on an eminence to which no other citizen of the nation could pretend. Therefore it was apparent that the changeless decree of Heaven had determined that he should be Sovereign. Kao Yao, a notable man who was Minister of Crime under Shun, said, in the course of a long speech on government, that "the decree of Heaven was to the man of virtue." Discussing the theory of government on one occasion with other officials in the presence of King Shun, Yti stated that though sovereignty and the right to rule were given by the decree of Heaven, the favour of the Supreme, which alone could prolong the reign of the Sovereign, was to be retained only as long as he aimed at the supreme good, and employed only 1 P. 41. CHARACTER OF GOD m meritorious men to carry on public business. The King responded that in order to retain the decree which had been conferred upon him, it was his duty to act with the greatest circumspection at every moment and even in the smallest affairs. Hi and Ho,^ who were feudal lords in charge of astronomical affairs, introduced changes into the date of the seasons, thus arrogating to themselves independ- ent sovereign rights. This was rebellion against Heaven, because it was rebellion against the Sovereign decreed by Heaven to the throne. The King (B.C. 2159) dispatched an army against them to execute upon them the " punishment decreed by Heaven." The last of the dynasty established by the great Yii is represented as a monster of iniquity.^ Tang, the ruler of one of the subordinate States, who was governing according to the principles which should regulate the affairs of the nation, was impelled, in order to save the people, to undertake the overthrow of the King. He declared that it was not for him, who was but a child, to initiate what looked like rebellion ; but on account of his great crimes, the destruction of the King was decreed by Heaven, and as he himself feared God, he dared not hold back from punishing the wicked King. He therefore called upon his people to assist him to execute the decree of Heaven. After Tang (b.c. 1799) had defeated King Chie, driven him southwards, and imprisoned him in Nanchao,^ he expressed his uneasiness lest posterity should judge him harshly as a traitor to his Sovereign. His chief minister reassured him on that score, 1 p. 45. = P. 52, ^ Supposed to be in Luohao, Anhui. 112 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA because " Heaven, who created the people with their natural desires, ordained also that the ablest and best man should rule over them, so that justice might be everywhere dispensed. Heaven had gifted to Tang this character of ability and goodness, thus preparing him to become the true ruler, while the conduct of Chie, on the other hand, was in direct antagonism to the will of Heaven. Him God had treated as a criminal, and employed Tang to inflict the deserved punishment, and to take from the criminal the crown which he was not worthy to possess. By his own crimes the King had forfeited the crown. The only way in which the decree of God to rule over the nation could be retained, was by living under the guidance of a spirit of reverence and for the glory of Heaven." On the death of Tang, this chief minister,^ when publicly recognising as King the young grandson of Tang, said that the founders of the dynasty of Hia sedulously guided their pubKc conduct by the rules of virtue, on which account the country enjoyed peace and no serious calamities from Heaven befell them. The young King being disinclined to devote him- self to duty, disregarded the serious exhortation of the minister, who therefore drew up his advice in a paper, in which he stated that the deceased King had always kept before him the clear decree of Heaven, of which he gave proof by serving diligently the deities of Heaven and Earth, of Agriculture, and of the Ancestral Temple. Heaven took notice of the pre-eminence of his virtue, and granted him the great decree to pacify and to guide all parts of the kingdom. God was no respecter of persons. Not on account of the favourit- ' p. 50, CHARACTER OF GOD 113 ism of Heaven, but because of his own great virtue, had Tang been elevated to the throne. And as the throne was obtained by virtue, so was it retained only by continuance in the same. The late King never forgot the necessity of cultivating his virtue with reverence. It was thus he became fitted to be the " associate " of God. The Deckee is Changeable Exhorting the young King Tai Chia in his thought- less days, Yi Yin said, basing his remarks on history, " God is inconstant ; to the good-doer He will give a hundred forms of blessing, on the evil-doer He will pour out a hundred kinds of woe. If virtue is displayed even in the smallest actions the king- dom wiU have joy ; but if virtue is ignored, how- ever great the actions, ruin will overwhelm the dynasty." When retiring from his high position because of old age, Yi Yin reverted to his favourite theory of government, saying to the King, " The decree of Heaven is changeable. The last monarch of the Hia dynasty lost his throne because he neglected to cultivate the virtue of his ancestors. Heaven with- drew His protecting care and looked over the land for a man of perfect virtue, worthy to receive the decree to rule over the people and to be their high priest. Tang was discovered to be a man of single-minded virtue such as satisfied the mind of Heaven, who therefore granted to him the great decree. This honour was bestowed not because of favouritism to- wards the man. It is obtainable only by a life of virtue." 8 114 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA The preceding references cover a period of almost a thousand years. And the doctrine that God, or Heaven, bestowed upon the man of highest character and fittest talents the right to reign, taking away that right from the unworthy and granting it to the best man, is without change throughout the whole of this period. The dynasty of Chow, beginning in the tweKth century B.C., introduced a new element into Chinese Eeligion and brought about an unmistak- able change. Yet though to the spiritual ideas of the past it superadded distinctly materialistic views, the belief that the decree to rule was granted by God to the man who by character and abilities was best fitted for the throne, is as clearly expressed under this dynasty as in the preceding thousand years. " King " Wen the Accomplished, to whom is traced the greatness as well as the establishment of the Chow dynasty, did not himself take any step to seize the royal throne. But the character of his life, of his rule, and his consequent influence, made it an easy matter for his son, Prince Wu, to strike for the throne. Prince Wu, in the beginning of his campaign against the degenerate descendant of Tang, harangued the large number of princes and chiefs of States who had given their adhesion to his father. He stated that because his deceased father had made perfect his merit, the decree of Heaven giving power to bring peace to the whole land was conferred on him. When Prince Feng, tenth son of King Wen, was appointed Marquis of Kang, some years after the establishment of the dynasty, the Eegent, Duke Chow, advising him on the art of government, said CHARACTER OF GOD 115 that their father, King Wen, had made his virtue evident in the method of administering justice by punishments, and by his care for the helpless widow and orphan. So great was the reputation of his virtue that the fame thereof was heard by God, who approved of his conduct. Therefore Heaven granted him the decree to rule over the land and to bring peace to the people. A representative of the preceding dynasty was permitted to rule in the feudal State of Wei. Ad- dressing him, Duke Chow said that the reverence and wisdom of his ancestor Tang were wide and deep ; for which reason he had received the support of Heaven, who conferred on him the decree to bring peace to the land and terminate the cruel oppression of the people. By following the example of his great ancestor, the Prince would make himself acceptable to God, who would bestow peace upon his people. Prince Shih, who was the most influential minister after Duke Chow, decided to abandon the Court be- cause of the extravagant luxury which threatened to enervate and corrupt the officials. Duke Chow reasoned with him, urging the indispensability of the support and advice of men like him, for without good men the King could not reign properly. He mentioned the able ministers who, at the beginning of the preceding dynasty, by the sincerity and earnestness of their deliberations made it possible for the earlier monarchs of the Shang dynasty to rule in accordance with the will of Heaven, whose protection and guidance were thus secured. Those rulers, even after their decease, were " associates " of Heaven and able to assist their descendants as long as these followed in the footsteps of the early kings of the dynasty. ii6 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA The Decree of Heaven is TJnereing In the speech made after his successful campaign, Tang said that Heaven, who favoured the common people, had chastised the wicked Government of the late Sovereign, and had made use of him (Tang) as His instrument. It was with fear and trembling he had undertaken the great task, feeling as though he were standing on the brink of a great abyss. But the decree of Heaven was infallibly correct. Against the youthful King Cheng, who succeeded his father. King Wu, the surviving members and officials of the dispossessed dynasty meditated rebellion. They were numerous and powerful, and in possession of most of the resources of the former royal domain of Yin. They hoped that there was the possibility of regaining their former power, as the strong hand of King Wu was removed. Duke Chow, acting as Eegent, made the " Great Announcement," ^ in which he traversed the national history which clearly dis- played the " way " of Heaven in deahng with men. The decree, he said, was taken from Yin because of the. intolerable iniquities of the last King of the race, and had been given to those who would have a tender regard for the well-being of the people. The dis- contented should know that the decree of Heaven was unalterable. In making the necessary investigations to discover the best site for a capital in the east, Duke Chow, in a speech to Duke Shao, said that it was impossible to foresee the manner in which Heaven would deal with any ruler or people ; but of this he was certain, that if the King dwelling in the capital continuously ' Detailed in the Book of History. CHARACTER OF GOD 117 cultivated virtue and was completely devoted to the well-being of his people, the decree of Heaven would for ever remain his. "If the King and his ministers desire the decree of Heaven to continue with the dynasty for a period as long as it was in the hands of the former Hia dynasty, they must so act as to secure and retain the goodwill of the common people. Through them the decree may continue ours for ever." The Decree, if Lost, is not Eecoverable King Wu overran the country with little difficulty, because the misery of the people opened up his way in all directions. But when his kingdom was established, the people did not at once enjoy the fulness of the happiness they had expected. Many of them, therefore, became indifferent. Many more, longing after the old fashions and the disestablished dynasty, became positively hostile. The dispossessed princes hoped that by nursing their resources they might regain their lost possessions. The new dynasty had greater need, therefore, of the wisdom and the caution of Duke Chow, than even of the martial prowess of the King his brother. Measures were taken to soothe the troubled minds of the discontented, who were preventing the peaceable settlement of the country. Of these discontented officials many were removed to the neighbourhood of the river Lo, beside which the new capital was subsequently erected. But in the extreme north-east, in the barbarous State of Yen, south of the modern Peking, there broke out an open rebellion, which was ruthlessly quelled. From this campaign the King returned in triumph. ii8 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA He summoned to his capital the chiefs of the States, the officials of the late Yin dynasty and of all the smaller principalities. It was well known that those who favoured the late dynasty were in full sym- pathy with the defeated rebels. These were specially addressed by the King, who emphasised the leniency with which they had been treated ; for not only did they escape with their lives when their dynasty had lost the throne, but they were left in full possession of their former properties. He upbraided them with harbouring rebellious thoughts in the presumption, that because they had once possessed the decree, that decree still belonged to them, though, by want of reverence towards God and neglect of duty to men, they had forfeited it. " The last Sovereign of Hia," he said, " wasted his time in luxury, sloth, and a dissolute life, refusing even for a day to submit himself to God. Under his cruel rule the country became more and more disorderly, till at length Heaven sought out Tang, who was displaying all the qualities of a good and great ruler. The wickedness of the Hia dynasty became full, and its rejection by Heaven was final. The favouring aid of Heaven is not to be repeated. Not from arbitrary wilfulness was Hia destroyed by Heaven, and not from arbitrary wilfulness was power taken away by Heaven out of the hands of your^ late Sovereign. He had relied, in his boundless wickedness, on the fact that he was in possession of the decree of Heaven, as did the last monarch of the Hia. For five years did Heaven patiently endure the wickedness of the late Sovereign. But as no evidence of penitence was forthcoming, he was once for all completely and finally cast away. The decree of Heaven has now been handed over to CHARACTER OF GOD 119 the dynasty of Chow, and in resisting that dynasty you are resisting the decree of Heaven." The Odes In the ode "The Black Bird," in praise of the Shang dynasty, it is said, " God decreed the black bird (swallow) to come down and to give birth to the Shang dynasty. Anciently God decreed that the martial Tang should pacify the kingdom. The first Sovereign of Shang received the decree." In another ode on the same subject it is said, " God raised up a son to become the founder of the Shang. . God's decree did not abandon him." An ode in praise of King Wu states that there had been many favourable harvests, and the decree of Heaven was not cut off, for Wu was illustrious in virtue. Another says that God gifted the heart of King Chi with great virtue and goodness. An ode in praise of an unnamed King speaks of him as " the admirable Sovereign of illustrious virtue, who lived for the advantage of the people and of officials. From Heaven he received his dignity, and Heaven will support him with His decree, which will be constant." A faithful official in the State of Wei, on being ill-treated by his Sovereign, made an ode in which he said that " Heaven alone had done it." In an ode, a high official urged his brothers in all their duties to '' constancy, because the decree of Heaven is not repeated." Another ode declares that " in providing rulers to succeed King Wen, God decreed them to appear in the due season." I20 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA An ode states that " great is the decree of God, who had appointed Wen to be Sovereign." " The decree came from Heaven, the decree to make him King in the capital of Chow. God provided him with a wife, who gave birth to Wu. He too was sup- ported by Heaven, and received the decree to smite Shang." " The decree of Heaven is deep and unending as was the virtue of Wen." " Great Heaven made a perfected decree to set up the two kings (Wen and Wu) rulers before Cheng." " Heaven decreed the rulers. When the decree of Heaven is exatoming into the condition of the kingdom, the common people are to be feared." King Cheng, acknowledging his youthful inexperi- ence, prays for wisdom and the spirit of reverence, adding, " Heaven is clearly manifest. It is difficult to retain the decree. But I dare not say that it is high above me (unattainable). It ascends and descends about our actions, and daily sees us where we are." In referring to the downfall of the Shang dynasty, it is said that the " decree of Heaven is not constant." " It is hard to rely upon Heaven. The descendant of Shang was heir to the throne, but he lost it." " Vast is God, the Euler of men. He is terrible, and His decree has many methods." " The decree of Heaven is not dependable." " The changeableness of Heaven is to be dreaded." " God did not forsake Tang, but kept for him His decree. God is to be held in reverence." CHARACTER OF GOD 121 II. CALAMITY FEOM HEAVEN The fact that China was inhabited before the Chinese appeared there is evident from the earlier portions of the History. Of the names, not Chinese, in that earliest period the first that occurs is Miao. The written character representing this name is a com- pound of the character for " grass " over another for " field." This may imply that the Miao were nomads. Nomadic nations do not root themselves to one locality as readily or as firmly as do agricultural nations. Hence in the struggle for existence the Chinese people had one advantage over their aboriginal neighbours into whose midst they had intruded themselves. When they were called upon to fight, it was to defend a localised home, whereas the nomads could roll up their home and remove it elsewhere. The tent is the home of the nomad ; the painfully cultivated soil is the home of the agri- culturist. Twenty-three centuries before the Christian era, the Chinese were a small people clinging to the banks of the Yellow Eiver, surrounded by other peoples inde- pendent of and sometimes hostile to them. These were " barbarians " of many names. When Shun assumed the kingly authority, the Miao were not only independent of the Chinese, but apparently prepared to challenge the right of China to independ- ence, much as Carthage challenged Eome. The chief of the Miao refused to have any dealings with China, and the talented Yli, after converting the wide marshes into fertile land, was ordered to march an 122 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA army against this chief to bring him into subjection. Like many another great man in Chinese history, he failed to effect his purpose. This expedition is ex- plained as follows : — Towards the end of the Chow dynasty, King Mu, when a hundred years old, devoted his attention to the subject of punishment as means to restore order. He commanded the Prince of Lii to examine into the character and effects of punishment, giving general rules as to the object of it. In his charge he declared that the Prince of the Miao inflicted the five ^ punish- ments — cutting off the nose, the ears, castration, branding, and death — in a barbarous, cruel, and unjust fashion, punishing the innocent equally with the guilty, and refusing to consider extenuating circumstances. The multitude of innocent sufferers cried to Heaven. God, in looking down, saw nothing but unjust and savage cruelty. King Shun, com- passionating the innocent sufferers, attacked the chief of the Miao and extinguished his power. When the expedition was about to march. King Shun said to their commander that the chief of the Miao was rebellious, and must be punished. Yii, addressing his army, accused the chief of " stupidity, error, and insolence, one who oppressed good men and put bad men in place and power. Therefore Heaven is to send down upon him the calamities due to his wickedness. The way of Heaven is to punish pride with loss." The calamities sent by Heaven on a wicked ruler are not confined to himself personally. By fire and flood, by famine or war, the country is reduced ^ These were retained in Chinese jurisprudence down to the Chow dynasty. CHARACTER OF GOD 123 to desolation. Kao Yao, the great minister of Shun, said that "the guilty are punished by Heaven." The Prince Hu ^ oifended the laws of Heaven by some acts which indicated rebellion against his Sovereign. King Hu led an army to inflict upon him the " punishment of Heaven." The princes Hi and Ho were addicted to wild ex- cesses, and sinned against the ordinances of Heaven.^ King Chung Kang, addressing his " six " armies, said that " to him was entrusted the duty of executing the punishment of Heaven against those two princes, who had been exalted as servants of Heaven, but who by their wickedness had become worse than fierce fire." For more than four centuries the descendants of Yii reigned over China with varying fortune tiU Chie ascended the throne. He became infamous as a ruler, and his wicked oppression was so prolonged that his subjects became desperate. Meantime the people of Shang were enjoying the blessings of peace under Tang, who declared that the decree of Heaven was fixed to destroy Chie. Inas- much as he (Tang) feared God, he dared not refuse to make war against Chie; he therefore appealed to his people to assist him in "carryiug out the punish- ment determined by Heaven." The doctrine that the wickedness of man draws down calamity from Heaven is illustrated throughout the History and the Odes. 1 P. 44. 2 P. 45. 124 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA III. DIVINATION We find in the Old Testament references to practices of various kinds for the purpose of forecasting the future. This form of superstition is prominently- evident in the History. Here divination is intro- duced to us, like Eeligion, full grown and of undisputed authority. When Yii, on account of his engineering achieve- ments, was nominated, by Shun as co-ruler and successor, he firmly declined the honour, believing himself unworthy. And when Shun insisted, Yii prayed him to use divination in order to test the ofiicials one by one, and thus discover who was most worthy to become ruler of the nation. Shun replied that after pondering long over the subject his own mind was clearly made up. The official who had charge of divination had already consulted the great tortoise. But before this appeal to divination, the officials, on being consulted according to rule, were of one mind. " Afterwards by divination the Kweishen (spirits) assented, the tortoise and the milfoil agreed. When appeals had been thus made to divination, and the response was of good augury, the process was not to be repeated." When Pan Keng desired to remove his capital to Yin, he appealed to divination, and was answered that the place which had been -selected for capital by his ancestors had ceased to be suitable. King Wen came to the conclusion that Heaven had selected him to overturn the degenerate and wicked dynasty of Yin. This duty he left to his CHARACTER OF GOD 125 son Wu, who believed himself entrusted by Heaven with the great commission. His dreams corroborated his belief. He resorted to divination, and received the same response. His dreams and divination were a double omen which proved that his attack on the tyrant would not fail. Two years after his enthronement, King Wu became so seriously unwell that his life was despaired of. Duke Chow was urged to resort to divination, so that, by reverent consultation through the tortoise, he might discover the future of the King. DecHning this sug- gestion, he said that they must not thus distress their ancestral kings. Hence we infer that this form of divination was carried out in the ancestral temple. When Duke Chow took steps to offer himself as a substitute for his dying brother before the newly erected three altars to the three preceding kings his ancestors, he divined by means of the three ^ tortoises, all of which gave a favourable response. In the " Great Announcement " showing his proposed method of securing the peace of the newly-acquired Empire, the King declared that the " order-restoring " King had left to him the great precious tortoise, to bring him into immediate connection with the intelli- gence of Heaven. In every instance of serioas business before him he had made divinations which were always favourable. The " peace-compelhng " King had thus divined, and always acted according to the responses of his divination, and he prospered greatly. " Much more must I follow the leadings of the divination. We must hold in reverence the clearly intimated mind of Heaven." 1 The tortoise shells used by the kings for divination were larger than those used by their officials. The three were one for each king. 126 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Duke Chow resorted to divination by the tortoise to fix the lucky locality for the new capital, Lo. As the King appeared to be unable to decide upon a situation which would be most suitable for a centre from which to govern the land, Duke Chow and the . Guardian travelled eastwards and examined by divina- tion the various districts along the rivers Lo, Li, and between the Chien on the west, east to and beyond the Chen. All the divinations indicated the land about the Lo Eiver as the most propitious place. These divinations with full explanations he forwarded to the King by special messenger. On the lucky spot he afterwards erected the capital of Lo. The only explanation we have of the method of divination is to be found in the " Great Plan " of Government. Divination was to be resorted to only in doubtful cases. Special officials were appointed whose duty it was to consult the tortoise and the milfoil.^ Of the diagrams or figures made by the lines on the tortoise shell or by the stems of the milfoil there were seven possible combinations, each giv- ing its own specific indication. These seven were : ■^ These two were considered abnormally intelligent on account of thieir great age. A note in the original informs us that the outer shell of the tortoise was removed, revealing the lines on the inside of the shell made by the muscles. Ink was spread over this side. Fire was applied, by which the shrivelled ink formed into various lines which gave the diagram on which the interpretation was based. ' It is well known that the tortoise lives to a great age, and the milfoil was believed, when a hundred years old, to throw out a hundred stems from one^root. Forty -nine of these stalks were manipulated according to prescribed rules eighteen different times, when, by the relative position of the stalks, the diagrams were formed from whose shape the response was inferred. Besides the tortoise and milfoil, always consulted on important political matters, the Odes mention divina- tion by private individuals from diagrams formed by rice or other grain thrown on the ground. CHARACTER OF GOD 127 (1) rain, (2) clearness, (3) cloudiness, (4) disconnec- tion, (5) crossings, (6) solidity, (7) turning. Five of these were indications by the tortoise and two by the milfoil. When operations were completed, three men were to inspect the diagrams and interpret their meaning. When two of these agreed, their interpreta- tion was adopted. In a case of doubt regarding the character of a proposed public measure bearing on the national welfare, the King had first to ponder the subject seriously in his own heart. Then he had to consult with his high of&cials. Afterwards the people were to be consulted ; and lastly, an appeal was made to the tortoise and milfoil. If all these agreed on a common course, there arose " the great concord," implying good luck. If opinions were divided, the agreement of the King, the tortoise, and the milfoil outweighed the opinion of the officials and the common people. The concurrence of the nobles, officials, tortoise, and milfoil outweighed the opinion of the King and the people. The agree- ment of the people, tortoise, and milfoil was superior to that of the King and officials. If the King and tortoise indicated one thing, and the milfoil, officials, and people another, measures for the internal affairs of the nation would be fortunate, but those bearing on external affairs unlucky. When the tortoise and milfoil were opposed to the views of men, action of any kind would produce unfortunate results ; inaction was lucky. 128 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA IV. THE NATUEE OF GOD At this stage we- may briefly sunnnarise such acts, motives, and principles ascribed to God, as we are able to glean them from the statements in the History and Odes, which have been ade- quately quoted in their historical setting. We learn that God was believed to reside in the high heavens far above man, but able from His high abode to see all that was done on earth. It is to be observed, however, that while God was believed to note the condition of the mass of humanity. He was not supposed to take cognisance of every individual man ; though at the same time — some- what inconsistently — He was regarded as seeing, noting, and selecting the specially good man, and of employing him for His purposes. But the Sovereign was placed on his high seat among men as vicegerent of God to act for Him. His duty was to exercise righteousness, to execute justice, to protect and reward the good, to punish and thwart the evil, and thus secure the well-being of the people and the peace of the world. On this account the Sovereign was under closest scrutiny by God. His character was continually noted and his actions were under ceaseless supervision. Hence the Sovereign was called the " Son of Heaven." In this indirect method did God cars for the people universally. This Supreme Euler is one and indivisible. He is incapable of change. He has no equal, and can have no second, who can compare with Him. He rules absolutely and solely over all in heaven above and on CHARACTER OF GOD 129 earth beneath. He does what He wills, no power being able to hinder Him. He selects and employs His own agents and instruments to carry out His will. These agents may be spiritual beings in heaven above, in the air, or on the earth. They may be human beings — good or bad in their own private character — or they may be the elemental forces of nature. The seasons, the weather, the field, and the forest are all His ministers to do His pleasure. And in no place and under no circumstances can any being or any authority check or thwart Him. His will is always right. He never acts with partiality towards any individual or family, dynasty or nation. The source of all His actions is invariably the strictest and most impartial justice. He cannot do wrong. Everything that occurs is the outcome of His decree. This decree is in no degree influenced by favouritism, or by any other consideration than the most perfect righteousness. God loves the right and the good. He hates the unjust and the wicked. The most favoured person is cast off if he forswears the right and falls into a course of error. The wrong-doer is forgiven if he repents and amends his conduct. Yet God not infrequently permits the wicked to flourish, and gives the innocent over to suffering. In the Odes we frequently hear the voice of that complaining spirit which gave occasion to the Book of Job — a spirit which blames Heaven for partiality and injustice in giving power to the wicked to tyrannise over the innocent, or in causing the wicked to prosper while the righteous suffer. God is benevolent. He created the people and gifted to them a moral nature. He is interested in the masses of the people. His pleasure is in the 9 I30 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA well-being and the happiness of His creatures. He makes provision for their wants. He desires their peace. As that which is of chiefest importance, He demands of all men that they be righteous. For the benefit of the masses of humanity, He sets up rulers who are bound so to act as to secure for all men freedom to do the right, and it is imperatively demanded of their ofi&ce that they encourage and stimulate the people in and to all goodness. To this end He calls from the plough, the fish net, or the palace, that man whom He finds best and ablest, the most worthy in character, and whose ability makes him best fitted to carry out His will, by such measures as are calculated to realise the highest welfare of the people. The ruler thus selected is God's vicegerent upon earth, His representative to exercise in His behalf justice and compassion, so blended that the greatest attainable benefits may be secured to the people, the men of good conduct being protected and encouraged and the wicked checked and punished. To attain His desires for the people. He will thrust from His throne the mightiest prince, who neglects his public duty and rebels against God in seeking chiefly his own private aims and selfish interests. God compassionates the people when they are ill- treated by their ruler. He hears with the ears of the people and sees with their eyes. The cry of their misery, rising from the people because of the cruelty of their Sovereign, reaches to His ear, and He will interfere in their behalf, sending deliverance by the hands of the man chosen by Himself to cut down the wicked ruler and to occupy his throne. Yet the new ruler thus chosen to supplant the renegade has nought of which he may boast ; for the talents he possesses CHARACTER OF GOD 131 and the basal principles of his character, by means of which the hearts of the people cleave to him, were bestowed upon him originally by God. They are not of his own creating or his own procuring. His merit consists solely in utilising aright the mental gifts which God has conferred, in hving conformably to the nature which is God-given. Equally necessary is it for the welfare of the people that they should clearly understand the distinction between the right and the wrong. Therefore God raises for them teachers to instruct them in the things pertaining to God, by learning which the people may become united to God. The sole reason for the existence of Sovereign and officials is that the will of God may be more efficiently carried out for the well-being of man. In His mercy God provides fruitful seasons ; and in His anger He will cause famines to arise by drought at one time, at another by flood. He will send misery and destruction by pestilence or by war. For judgment belongs to His character no less than compassion and benevolence. Hence all national calamities of every kind come by the decree of Heaven, whether by means of inclement seasons, by drought or flood, i>y hail or caterpillar, by internal disturbances or by the incursions of barbarians. Causelesp does no one of these calamities ever come, or for reasons that are slight. So great is the long-suffering of God, that national calamities, when inflicted, are the outcome only of evil deeds of so aggravated a character that they are patent as the lightning flash, and no man can fail to see with his own eyes the real source of the distress. 132 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA No calamity overwhelms a nation simply because God delights in human misery or because He is indifferent to human suffering. Every national calamity falls upon a country on account of the wicked unfaithfulness of the Sovereign who, opposing the principles of Heaven in neglecting the duties of his office, torments the people instead of toiling for their good. The calamity is but the penalty of the wrong-doing, and is intended to bring the wrong- doiug to an end. The calamity is sent in the first instance as a merciful call to repentance. Only when the warning is ineffectual to produce amendment do heavier calamities come in succession, of increasing severity, till they at length effect the complete destruction of the impenitent Sovereign and the extinction of his dynasty, thus bringing peace to the land. In brief, Heaven without eyes sees all, without ears hears all, in the greatest darkness knows all. He is just, compassionate, pitiful, welcoming the penitent. What He decrees can by no power be withstood, set aside, or modified. ' His decree is always right. He can decree nothing that is wrong or questionable. In these religious ideas regarding God we find no material difference from the opening words of the History to the end. On account of the excellent deeds and character of Shun he was exalted by God to be ruler of all China. For the same reasons Yii succeeded him in his great office by the favour and the intervention of God. The arrangements made by Heaven, and the acts of God manifested to man, are all in conformity with the highest law and in harmony with the most perfect propriety. The reward of virtue and the punishment of vice are CHARACTER OF GOD 133 the rule of God as absolutely as that light follows the rising sun and darkness his setting. The various relationships and orders among men are equally fixed, and the duties corresponding to them. A breach of these duties is crime against Heaven. All this implies : (1) the ceaseless supervision of God or Heaven ; (2) the intelligent and reasoning personality of Heaven ; (3) the unerring justice of all the acts of God whether in rewarding the good or in punishing the evil ; (4) the universal presence of the intelligent, just, and interested Observer of all the ways and deeds of man, who knows the thoughts of their hearts. The last attribute is specially noted in the Odes. By examination of the various acts, motives, and principles attributed to God in the History and Odes, we are thus able to piece together the ideas regardiug the Supreme God which prevailed in China twenty centuries before Confucius, which exist also to this day in an honoured place in their literature. A wise use of this information by the missionary will greatly facilitate the work of introducing the doctrines and tenets of Christianity. We also learn that sacrifices ^ were offered to God on special or critical occasions, as well as seasonal offerings at fixed periods of the year. It appears as though in the earliest times all men behoved them- selves entitled to draw near to God by sacrifice ; otherwise there would have been no need for the King, in B.C. 2513^ to forbid others to offer sacrifice, thus making this sacrifice henceforth a Eoyal pre- rogative. Yet up to the present the common people when in hopeless distress go out to the open, and look- ' See p. 192, and "Manohu Eitual." 134 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA ing upwards cry for help to the " Lord of Heaven." No sacrifice is offered then, nor are there any formal words. But it is true prayer — the language of dis- tress, the cry of the heart for help in time of trouble. In pondering over the Chinese conceptions of the character of God, as handed down to us from so remote a past, it is startling to find that the spiritu- ality of those conceptions is, in one sphere, superior to much of the ecclesiastical teaching of our own day. The references to supernatural beings other than the Supreme in the History and the Odes during the period of twenty centuries preceding Confucius may be summarised as f oUows : — 1. There are inferior deities of variour grades in heaven, in the air, and on the earth, whose location and duties are allocated to them by the Supreme, whose will they execute.^ 2. The decree which sets the ruler on the throne and which retains him there is never ascribed to the inferior deities. 3. Though the inferior deities can neither set up the Sovereign nor cast him off his throne, they can assist or injure him, according to the manner in which he executes or neglects his duties to his people. 4. There were no idols of any kind ; no image was made to represent God or the inferior deities, or even the ancestors who were worshipped. 5. There was no temple beyond one for the ancestors. 6. There were altars not only erected in this teinple, but wherever sacrifice was to be offered to God or to the inferior deities. 7. There has never at any time been a separate ^ See " Inferior Deities," p. 139. CHARACTER OF GOD 135 priestly class, the head of the State or of the family having always acted as priest. The Deckee The decree mentioned in par. 2 means "the selec- tion and appointment of one to rule over the empire, for the well-being of his people. His duty was to act as the vicegerent of God. The following charac- teristics connected with the decree are noteworthy : — 1. It was never given, or, when given, ever retained, because of partiahty or favour to any special individual or family. 2. It was bestowed upon the man conspicuous for the excellence of his private character and personal goodness, and who had proved his public virtue by the successful discharge of difficult duties. 3. It was given conditionally, and when given it was not necessarily a permanent gift. 4. It is said to be unalterable or unchangeable, inasmuch as it is given by God. 5. It is said to be not unalterable, inasmuch as its permanency depends on the character and the conduct of the ruler. 6. It is not therefore regarded as a personal right to rule. 7. This decree is taken away from the ruler who by self-indulgence proves himself unworthy. It is forfeited by selfish or wicked conduct. 8. The conditions on which the decree is granted, and under which alone it is retained, are: (a) dread of the majesty of God, reverence for 136 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA and obedience to the will of Heaven ; and (6) the exercise of righteousness which will represent the justice and mercy of God. This righteous- ness is manifested in a care unintermitting for the welfare of the people — in punishing the evil-doer and in the protection of him who does well. These conditions being observed, the decree to rule is unchangeable. Many Christians, differing from each other, are at one in professing a creed which makes God not only a respecter of persons but a Being whose goodness and saving power are displayed to or exerted upon those only who have some distinctive external quali- fication, apart altogether from character. Their teaching implies that the outflow of the saving power of God is confined within channels dug by the hand of man. Those in external communion with one Church shall be ultimately saved whatever their character, and those can by no means be saved, however excellent their conduct, however pure their heart, who are outwith the " Church." Some insist that salvation may be had only through a connection with a certain class of men, or by those who pass through a particular mode of entry into their fold. These forms of belief enclose within the circle of salva- tion only those who are true to their special external distinction, which may have little to do with character. But the Chinese conception of God was that He is no respecter of persons ; that He visits with His favour and His blessing the man who is clean in heart, correct, kind and generous in life ; and that He visits with severe penalties the man who, seeking his own pleasure, inflicts injury upon others. The Chinese CHARACTER OF GOD 137 belief may be expressed in the words of the Apostle Peter to the company in the house of Cornelius : " God is no respecter of persons ; but in every nation he that feareth Him and worketh righteousness is acceptable to Him." Morality is made the source of blessedness, as in the Proverbs and Psalms, and the lack of it the root of calamity. It amounts to this, that the man who is to receive honour and blessed- ness from God is he whose character and conduct are godlike. This in the New Testament is called '' Eeconciliation to God," for without such reconcilia- tion it is impossible to resemble Him. In this ethical characteristic he who accepts the teachings of true Christianity will find so much affinity with Chinese classical teaching as will be invaluable in drawing the Chinese to the fulness of Christian teaching about God. We also note that the ancient Chinese regarded their relation to God much as did the Jews. The relation of God to other peoples around them they do not seem to have taken into account. They con- sidered themselves as specially under the protection of God. They believed that God wielded all power in heaven and on earth, but took particular interest in them and made particular provision for them; It is curious to observe that the phrase "all the world " means to the Chinese that portion of the earth which lies east of the Himalayas, and to the European that which lies to the west of it. In the "Western literature the " world " includes all Europe and Western Asia, sometimes embracing India ; in Chinese literature it includes only what is concerned with the " black-haired " race. East and West have mutually ignored each other, and both East and West have suffered in consequence. It is to be hoped that 138 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA in the present century the East and the West may mutually acknowledge the existence of the other, that both may learn to respect each other and aim at embracing in a . common " brotherhood " all who live on the face of the earth. But the experience of thousands of years has proved that only the bonds of love in Christ Jesus can provide the sole factor capable of attaining that ambitious object. It is surely abundantly proved by history that no other cement can be found able to clasp all together in one family Ufe. For centuries war has attempted the unification of man, and has failed. It will fail in the future as in the past. The nation which trusts in brute force must perish. This is the one outstanding and undeviating lesson graven on the bloody pages of the world's history. Love is now in the field. Love is great, and will prevail. The end will be accomplished when " this earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea." " This is life eternal, to know God," who is known fully only " through Jesus Christ, whom He hath sent." CHAPTER IV THE INFERIOR DEITIES I. INTRODUCTION .... ''141 II. NAMES 147 III. SUMMARY .... 155 IV. IDOLS 156 V. TEMPLE AND ALTAR . 159 VL HISTORICAL QUOTATIONS . 160 VII. KING HtJEN .... 172 VIII. CONFUCIUS .... 177 139 I. INTEODUCTION The mind of the thpughtM man is stunned in the contemplation of God. The more intelligently he understands the infinitude of the nature of God and the unspeakable hoUness of His character, the more is he crushed to the ground. God is too awful. He is too mysterious to be understood, too high to be known.^ A shrinking dread akin to terror is the natural feeling in His realised presence. Even Moses " feared exceedingly and quaked," ^ Though the abysmal depths of the heavens above were not under- stood of old as they are now, yet the Psalmist in contemplating the heavens was impressed with the littleness of man. It was natural that the Jews under the dread of the immediate presence of God should have prayed Moses to act as their intermediary so as to relieve them of the terror of this presence, to speak for them to God, and to them for God. This feeling has nothing in common with the desire of the " sinner " — the " fool " — who searches out methods whereby he may rid himself of the thought of God, because this thought makes him uncomfortable on account of his nonconformable mode of life. That feeling of awe referred to" does not arise from a love of evil whose punishment is dreaded, but from the doing of which he cannot drag himself ^ Ps. cxxxix. " Heb. xii. 21. 141 142 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA away. It arises from the realisation of the infinite distance in being and in character between God and himself. Knowing his own littleness, and to a certain extent the greatness of God, he feels unworthy to entertain a hope for the right or the liberty to address directly the Supreme Spirit of the universe. Hence the desire to secure some one who will act as a screen between him an4 God — the desire for an intermediary less removed from humanity and less awsome to it, on whom he can lean, to whom he may have freedom of access, and through whom he will be able to express his sense of reverence for and dependence on God. This spirit of utter lowliness and self-depreciation, combined with the failure to understand the true relation of God to man, has led in the Eoman CathoUc Church to the institution of the Pantheon of Saints, who are men and women believed to be better and higher than ordinary humanity. Their superiority is such that it gives them the right to appear before God without fear ; while, being so much lowlier than God, they may be addressed by ordinary people without presumption. An address to them does not savour of the irreverence which must characterise a similar address to God. The saints are as mediators between God and man. They are much above us, but much beneath God. Because they are beneath God, we may approach them with confidence ; because they are higher than we, they can with confidence approach to God. We can thus receive the gifts of God indirectly, by interesting the saints to intercede with God on our behalf. The Protestant, guided more by reason and less by sentiment, regards the worship of any other being or any other thing as an infringement of the rights of THE INFERIOR DEITIES 143 God, and treason to Him who alone should have the undivided homage of our heart. The devout but ignorant Koman Catholic worships the saints with feelings very different from those which dominate devout and intelligent Protestents. He considers them as secondary deities, greatly superior to him- self but interested in him. He believes they can somehow hear his words and understand his thoughts. He is not troubled with the question whether St. Peter can hear him in London and at the same moment hear his fellow-worshipper in Eome. The saints are in his mind so closely associated with G-od as His ministers or servants, that when he honours them he believes he is honouring God. He dare not worship the dreadfully holy God ; he dares to worship the saints and through them to please God. What we believe to be the spirit of the devout Eoman Catholic is precisely the spirit of the ancient Chinese as we find it in the Book of History and the Book of Odes. There is one Supreme Being over all in heaven and on earth, the Euler alike of gods and men. The inferior deities exist, not as the rivals of God but as faithful ministers of His. God has deputed to each of the inferior deities his own particular sphere of influence and of work. In his own sphere this deity exercises supreme jurisdiction over man, but under God. The duties of his sphere he discharges, and the honours belonging to it he receives, exactly as the Chinese official does who is appointed by the Sovereign. Each deity stands in a special relationship to God and in a special relationship to man. The duties of his sphere he fulfils in accordance with the will of God, and in the fulfilment of these duties he attends to the best 144 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA interests of man. Man has therefore not only the right to look to the deity for assistance in all those matters included within the sphere of the deity, but it is his duty to seek that assistance. The worship of the subordinate deity was therefore not considered inconsistent with the worship of the Supreme. On the contrary, such worship, by honour- ing His subordinate, was regarded as honouring God. In this connection the ode of King Hiien quoted below,^ one of the most pathetic ever penned by man, should be consulted. In this ode we find that services rendered to the inferior deities were believed to entitle the worshipper to the favourable considera- tion of God, the ultimate Disposer of all events. The King expresses his perplexed amazement that no help came from God, notwithstanding the prayers offered so earnestly and so long, with offering^ so costly presented in worshipping God and the inferior deities, not one of whom was neglected. Though the ancient Chinese possessed quite a remarkable knowledge of the Great Supreme, and though, as far as we can judge, they believed themselves free to worship Him in their own way and at their own time, they also worshipped what is called the " host of deities." In this they differed but little from the ancient Babylonians. Indeed, the Old Testament seems to indicate that the Jews found it difficult to be consistent henotheists, though they were always monotheists. Of the Chinese ideas regarding the nature of the inferior deities the classics fail to give us any adequate representation, just as they neglect to define their notions of God. But the references to the "host" 1 P. 172. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 145 of inferior deities clearly indicate not only that these deities were inferior, but that they were entirely subordinate. Yet they were superior to man, whom, in carrying out the will of God, they could protect, reward, or punish, according to his deeds. They were the objects of veneration and worship by the Sovereign and officials, and many of them by the common people. These deities differed in rank and in power no less than in office and jurisdiction. There was a gradation of rank as well as a distinct allocation of sphere. The rank was attached to and dependent upon the sphere. Thus, the gods were related to the Supreme as the officials were to the Sovereign. They were located, some in heaven before God, others in the firmament, and still others on the earth. The lowest ranks were the gods of the roads, of the streets, of the locality, of the village, of the province, of the mountains and the rivers — these classes rising in importance in the order named. Above these were the deities of the air, of clouds and thunder, of wind and rain. Highest of all to the individual man were the spirits of deceased ancestors, who were represented as living in the immediate presence of God. Those who believe that the Chinese emigrated east- wards from Babylonia cannot fail to expect that the more abundant the discoveries by which the ancient history of Babylonia is being revealed, the more closely will appear the affinity of 'the Chinese with Babylon, especially in the sphere of Eeligion. Herein is a marvel difficult of explanation. Babylon has long ceased to be occupied by a nation, while China, though retaining her most ancient beliefs, is 10 146 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA to-day more populous and more potentially powerful than at any preceding part of her history. But there are two very important differences between the deities of ancient China and those of contemporary Egypt and Babylon. There was no female deity in China, and the gods were not repre- sented as married. There is now one female deity in China — the Queen of Heaven and Goddess of Mercy — but she is of modern origin, and is apparently a Buddhist adaptation of the Virgin Mary as worshipped by Nestorians and Eoman Catholics. The second difference is that anciently there was no image of any god. And, inasmuch as the Chinese have been in all ages so conservative, we are bound to infer that there was no image in the ages immediately preceding the period of which we write. Had there been idols at any time, immistakable traces would have survived. The conditions we find in ancient China do not support the theory that image worship preceded the more spiritual mode of modern times. On the contrary, the first image worship we meet in China is subsequent to the introduction of Buddhism. As the doctrines connected with the inferior deities in the mid-ancient period differ but infinitesimally, if at all, from those of the primal-ancient period, the treatment of our subject is not divided as was the treatment of the monotheism and the dualism of the same periods. It is not necessary to take into consideration any distinction in time in our discussion of the " Inferior Deities " of China. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 147 II. NAMES OF INFEEIOE DEITIES The ancient Chinese were niggardly in the nomen- clature of their gods. The only names handed down to us are those of a few rulers who were deified, as was Hercules, because of the transcendent benefits bestowed by them on the human race. The deities were all classified in one of the three following groups. Their generic titles were Kweishen, Shenchi, and Shechi. The first group was associated chiefly with highest heaven, the second with the air and the world, and the. third with agriculture. That this classification and gradation are most ancient is evident from the very first chapter of the History. After Shun was elevated to the throne, he offered sacrifice first to God, then to his ancestors,^ next to the deities of the mountains and the rivers, and finally to the " host of Shen " — gods of the air and of the earth. But to discover the real significance of these names, we have to grope in the dimmest historical light. To all the deities sacrifice was offered at different times, in various places and in diverse fashion. Some were worshipped on fixed days, others on special occasions and at irregular intervals. They were believed, each in his own sphere, to possess power and to exert influence for both good and ill upon the affairs of the nation and the fate of men. ' On every special occasion the Sovereign invariably worshipped his ancestors. On this particular occasion the term for ancestors is not used, the phrase being the "Six Honoured Ones." Though trans- lators generally regard this phrase as inexplicable, it appears to me in the circumstances to refer necessarily to his ancestors. See " Sacrifice to ancestors," p. 199. 148 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Ancestral Deities Kweishen The term Kweishen, which appears at the dawn of history, is occasionally used in connection with the mountains and rivers. But there is always a qualifying word or phrase to indicate that it does refer to the gods of the mountains and the rivers. When employed without a qualifying word, it is used only to denote the spirits of departed ancestors who are in heaven, whence they keep strictest watch over their descendants, assisting the dutiful and good, punishing the evil-doers, and refus- ing aid to their wicked successors, however great their need. The term Kwei is the exact equivalent of the ancient Greek " demon." It is commonly translated " devil," but that is an inaccurate representation of the early use of the name. The word Shen has no exact equivalent in our language, its nearest approxi- mate being " spirit " or " spiritual," implying what is supra-human. The two terms Kwei and Shen were interchangeable at least down to the time of Confucius. The ablest of classical commentators, Chu Futzu, de- fines Shen as " spirit coming," and Kwei as " spirit returning." ^ Of all the inferior deities, these were first in im- portance and in honour after the Supreme. It was ' The reason given by him is that the phonetic of Shen — represented, however, by a different character — means " to stretch out" ; and the phonetic of Kwei — also represented by a different charaoter^means ' ' to return." It is a far-fetched explanation, though perhaps as good as many another philological guess. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 149 natural to suppose that his ancestors, who had been exalted to the position of deities in the very presence of God, would be more closely related to the Sovereign, and have more personal interest in him, than the deities who had oversight of the elements and forces of nature, who were concerned with the supervision of the interests and affairs of mankind generally. The attention of ancestors would be concentrated on the doings and needs of their own descendants, and be directed specially to a personal interest in their characters and their fate. They would have httle interest in the affairs of other men. Confucius, therefore, taught that each man should serve the spirits of his own ancestors, honour done to the ancestors of any other man being but officious supererogation. The origin of the beUef in the existence of deceased ancestors exalted as deities in heaven is, like belief in the existence of the Supreme, lost in the mists of the unrecorded past. It is noteworthy that the same is true of ancient Eome and of other Western ancient nationahties. Not all ancestors were believed to be in the immediate presence of God. Only those were so described who had been specially remarkable for ex- cellence of character, for greatness of achievement, for goodness of conduct and ability in affairs. The founder of a dynasty was always so regarded by his descendants. Ancestors of an indifferent character or of questionable conduct are not indicated as exist- ing anywhere beyond the tomb, and are never said to possess any power. The ancestors in heaven were supposed to rejoice in the well-being of their descendants. They are ISO THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA happy when their descendants act a worthy part, following their own example, and are grieved or offended when their descendants behave unworthily, in disregarding their duty. With the conduct of their descendants they were intimately acquainted, and they had power to help the well-doer and to punish the wicked, who brought their name into disrepute. The ancestral spirits could come and go at their pleasure. They were sometimes present with their descendants and sometimes absent. The living could not know when they were present and when absent ; it was their duty, therefore, to act as if the spirits were always present. The descendants had at stated times to provide for the spirits feasts of such things as the deceased were known to enjoy when living. When the feast was ready and the viands and drink were laid out, the spirits were invited to attend. They came. They partook of the good fare like hungry men.^ They ate and drank to satiety. They went away well satisfied with the fare and well pleased with the host, whose filial conduct they would abundantly reward. The host could not be sure whether the spirits were present or not. But he did his duty in providing an abundance of the good things which were relished by the deceased when living. Confucius, in a somewhat sceptical spirit, while urging all men to sacrifice to the spirits, and to worship as if they knew the spirits to be present, recommended them to worship in moderation. The spirits are represented as being not satisfied with the mere ceremonial of worship. They demand the sincerity of the heart as well as the observance ' Compare the " hungry ghosts " of Eome. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 151 of correct form. " The incense of good conduct was more agreeable to them than the most costly spices burnt in a censer." When they exercised their power in reward or in punishment, it was always as the ministers of God. Though superior to man, who ■ could not counteract their influence, they were • entirely subordinate to God. They will the will of God. They are His ministering spirits, opposition to whom is dishonour to God, while worship of them is service done to God.i Deities of the Mountains and the Efveks Kweishen The noted mountains and great rivers had each its god as in Greece. Usually it is stated simply that sacrifice was offered to the mountain and the river, but the god was always implied. What these deities were supposed to be it is impossible now to say. The bare generic name is given to us, and that name appears at the very beginning of history. They were known as the Kweishen of the mountains Or rivers. In the Great Dictionary of Kanghi certain abnormal gods of the mountains are called Kwei. The god of the river has charge of its rise and fall. He decides whether the river will run beneficently between its banks or inundate the surrounding country, destroying crops and tearing down the habitations of men. Even the late Manchu Empress repeatedly issued a special decree ordering sacrifice to the god of the Yellow Eiver, in grateful acknowledgment of 1 See " Huen Wang," p. 172. IS2 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA his goodness in preventing the river from overflowing the country. The god of the mountain has under supervision its forests, its wild beasts, and all its vegetation. What the god of the mountains was in ancient times we know not. The Manchus, whose ancestors three centuries ago had no other Eeligion than Animism, possibly associated the tiger with this worship as the god of the mountain. Among the mountains of Manchuria, shrines to this god exist in every mountain pass, as shrines to the fox are found aU over the plain. Though the nature of these gods is unknown, their duties are evident enough. They had charge of the wild beasts of the forests and of the waters of the rivers. They kept both within bounds for the pro- tection of the good, and they let them loose to punish the wicked. Their jurisdiction was intimately connected with the human race. Gods of the Sky and of the Eaeth Shenchi The Kweishen are attached to the family, but the Shenchi are related to all mankind, without special relationship to any individual. In the combination Shenchi, the Shen are the gods of the air, and the Chi those of the earth. "Their power is exercised over all mankuid in general, all men being equal before them. As it is the duty of the Sovereign to worship the Supreme, so he is equally bound to worship the gods of the sky and of the earth. But the ceremonial in the latter case is less imposing and the sacrifices inferior in character and fewer in number ; nor is it necessary that the offerings should THE INFERIOR DEITIES 153 be presented by the Sovereign in person. This duty is delegated to officials.^ We are unable to trace any authoritative list of the gods of the air,^ but from the actions ascribed to them we infer that they had control of the clouds, of wind, of rain, and of thunder. The great bear had a Shen who was worshipped by the Sovereign. The Chi are the deities who rule over the earth as a whole. The Shenchi had therefore under their charge all the phenomena which go to make a good harvest or to mar it. They had direct charge of everything bearing on the physical well- or Hi-being of mankind. Gods of Agriculture Shechi Different from the gods of the air and of the earth are the Shechi — the deities who have special juris- diction over the cultivated land. The She had charge of the soil and the Chi ^ of the growing grain. Their sphere was narrower and their duties were more limited than those of the Shenchi. They made the grain to sprout, the stem and leaves to grow, and the ear to swell. They protected the growing grain from mildew, from the locust and the many forms of destructive caterpillars ; or they permitted its destruc- tion by some of its numerous enemies. With these is associated a god of the roads.* "'Manchu Ritual." ' In modern times we have Lung Wang, god of rain and of water generally ; Lei Shen, god of thunder ; Who Shen, god of fire generally. See " Sacrifice," p. 210. ^ Pronounced jee. * P. 99. 154 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA The term Shechi is often interchanged with the name Nung Shen, or god of agriculture, one of the four deities whose origin is traceable, he being that ruler of China who first taught the art of agriculture. Under the Chow dynasty How Chi was created god of agriculture. Since he was also the root from which the Chow^ dynasty sprang, he was elevated above other gods. He was worshipped at the same time as the Supreme God, though with inferior ceremonial. Local Dbities Tuti Shen ^ In addition to the various grades of deity mentioned above, there are innumerable Shen, or deities presiding over well-defined and limited localities. These are called " Ground " or local deities. Every hamlet has its own deity as well as every town and every county town. The entire province has its deity, and the capital has another. All these have their own shrines in China to this day. Indeed, every notable tree has its shrine in modern times at which its Shen is worshipped, but this is a modern innovation. In many cities the ancient mode of worship has been abandoned and a temple has been built with an image of the local deity as in Buddhism. In the classics the local deity is not prominent. There were also domestic ^ gods, who controlled the kitchen, the fire, the roof, the door, and the other departments of the house. ' History of Chow. ^ Tuti ia earth, or soil, and in this connection means " local." 8 See "Sacrifice," p. 211. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 155 III. SUMMAEY We learn from this brief account that in the most ancient known times the Chinese acknowledged and worshipped a complete hierarchy of spiritual and superhuman beings, closely connected with man and possessing complete control over everything affecting mankind. Foremost is the Supreme Being — God — who is Euler alike over gods and over men. Next in im- portance for the individual man are the Kweishen, the spirits of his ancestors, whose special interest in the affairs of mankind is confined to the lives, the doings, and the sufferings of their direct descendants. After these come the Shenchi, possessing authority over the elemental forces in the air and on the earth. Then follow the deities in charge of the mountains and the rivers — though these are sometimes treated as more important than the Shenchi, for their name is similar to that of ancestors, Kweishen. Lower in rank than these are the gods of the soil and grain. Lowest in the scale are the local and domestic deities, who are worshipped by all the people within the bounds of the special locality. We can thus infer that the deities of ancient China bore no small affinity to the dn majores and minores, the lares and penates, and the dii locales of ancient Kome. Indeed, the deities of all pre-Christian peoples in the West bear essentially a family likeness, differing materially only in nomenclature. This similarity is worthy of more attention than it has received. But the Chinese differ from all the West in failing to have given names to their deities, while Babylon, Egypt, iS6 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA India, G-reece, and Eome bestowed names upon theirs. Keeping in mind that the inferior deities were subordinate to the Supreme, and made it their one business to carry out the various duties imposed upon them by Him, we can understand why the Chinese saw no incongruity in worshipping the host of gods in heaven and earth with a sincerity equal to, though with a ceremonial less imposing than, the worship paid to the One Supreme Euler, the Lord over all. IV. IDOLS In connection with the worship of supernatural beings, there is one notable difference, amounting to a contrast, between that worship as conducted in China and among the various nationalities of the West. For information regarding the ancient Eeligion of China we have to trust to her ancient books handed down to us by the copyist ; but there has been unearthed from beneath the mounds representing many ruined, cities, a marvellous wealth of knowledge, revealing the character of the ancient religions of Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt. Covered by these mounds, the history of those nations, carved in stone or engraved on brick, has for thousands of years been buried out of sight, and preserved in safety for the edification of later generations. The discoveries in Egypt, unfolding important events covering thousands of years, revealing changes of dynasties and their diverse customs, are unifonn in their testimony to the character of the Egyptian deities and to the representation of them by images. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 157 appropriate to each. The deities of Chaldea, Babylonia, or Assyria emphasise the same fact. In these lands each deity has, moreover, from the most remote times, had his own particular image expressive of the character of that deity. Those images not only represented the special deity and his special power, they also indicated the genius and prominent charac- teristics of the nationality which made and worshipped those images. India has also from earliest known times had images for its many gods, and on those images is displayed the particular genius of its many peoples. But from the most ancient times there has been no image connected with the indigenous Eeligion of China. In the History and the Odes we can trace no reference to idols. The only event recorded which bears any resemblance to images is the fact that in the worship of ancestors a young scion of the family was seated to personify the ancestor worshipped. To him were paid the honours due to the ancestor represented. At the conclusion of the feast the youth dropped again into his accustomed place in the family. This custom still prevails. But of the Supreme Euler there was no image ; nor is there to this day any idol to represent Him. He has ever been worshipped in the open air, under the dome of heaven. No representation of anything in the heavens above or on the earth beneath has ever been made in China to typify God. Though many of' the inferior deities were supposed to be the spirits of men who once trod the earth, yet there was no attempt made to represent them by any image. Even as late as Mencius we find no trace of images made to represent the object worshipped. iS8 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Images seem to have been introduced into China from India by the Buddhist missionaries ; for though Buddhism is atheistic, it has deified many of its early prominent teachers. From Buddhism the practice of making and worshipping images representing their honoured dead was borrowed by Taoism. The Taoists adopted the name Shangti from the ancient Eeligion of China. When images came into vogue, they made two idols, one to represent Yiiwhang Shangti, the " Precious " Shangti ; the other to represent Hiientien Shangti, the Shangti of the " dark heavens." These two are idols, and are entirely different from the classical Shangti. Confucianism, true to ancient custom, will even now acknowledge no image. The scholar is the most influential man in China. He regards with contempt all images intended for worship. When consistent, he will have nothing to do with idolatry. In the temples devoted to Literature no image is to be found. Pictures may be had supposed to represent Confucius; but they are not seen in temples, nor are they ever worshipped. In the temple to Literature wooden tablets are set up in some prominent place. On these are written, in letters of gold on a black ground, the names of the sages specially commemorated. To these respect is paid, but there is no idea of worship^ in it. It is probably on 'account of the attitude of the scholar that the Chinese who do worship in the temples treat the image with scant courtesy, even when in the act of worshipping before it. In the stately Cathedral of St. Stephen in Vienna we have witnessed a more pro- found adoration of idols than we ever saw in a Chinese ' Lately, for State reasons, Confucius has been deified a Shen, to be worshipped as a god. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 159 temple. The Chinese Buddhist worshipper insists that the image is but so much material supposed to represent a certain deity. He worships before the image, but he worships only the god represented. The oldest forms of Eeligion in China, therefore, militate against the popular assumption that first Animism and then images preceded the more spiritual monotheism of what is believed to be the most recent form assumed by Eeligion. It is impossible to say what the form of worship was in China ten thousand years ago. It may have been of a type as degraded as the religions of contemporary Babylon. What we do know is that four thousand years ago there was no trace of such a type. Considering the exceptional conservatism of the Chinese, we are justified in making the inference that there was not at any time in the experience of this people a type of worship more materialistic and degraded than that indicated in their History. V. TEMPLE AND ALTAK Temple As there was no image of God, neither was there a temple set apart for His worship. An image necessarily imphes a temple, though a temple does not necessarily imply an image. Even in the very oldest classics a temple is mentioned, but it is always a temple to ancestors. In this temple were offered all sacrifices to ancestors, implying that the ancestral spirits had one definite place, where they could be met, where alone they could be worshipped and their assistance sought. But God, being everywhere, could be worshipped anywhere. Sacrifices to the Supreme i6o THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA and to the other deities concerned with human affairs were in the open. Down to the present day the sacrificial bull is burned, and the services and devotions of the Sovereign are paid to the Supreme in the open air. Though the platform ^ on which worship is offered is magnificent in its costly simplicity, it is as much in the open as was the altar on which Shun ofi'ered his sacrifice four thousand years ago, or which AbrahSm erected in his wanderings. As then, so now, this open-air worship is silent testimony to the belief of the Chinese that God is everywhere present, invisible and all-seeing, dwelling not in a house made with hands. He requires no temple for His worship. Altak Though there was no temple, every sacrifice implied an altar. In connection with the earliest sacrifices altars are mentioned. They were not covered over ; they were erected in the simplest fashion, like those in the patriarchal age. They might be erected any- where and at any time, either in the capital or on the frontier. They will be more particularly referred to in the chapter on " Sacrifice." ^ VI. QUOTATIONS The following quotations from the History and the Odes wiU show the position accorded to the spirits of ancestors and the host of secondary deities.^ When * See Frontispiece and Manchu Ritual. ' P. 218. ' By deity is signified anything worshipped by means of sacrifices, whether the object represent a mountain, a river, a force in nature, or a famous dead man. THE INFERIOR DEITIES i6i the term Shen, or Kweishen, appears in the original without a qualifying word or phrase, it is taken to represent the spirits of ancestors. A qualifying word, as "Agriculture," denotes one special deity; the phrases " host of Shen " or " the hundred Shen " represent the gods of sky and earth and agricul- ture — those deities who control the elemental forces and all that affects the production of food for man, or who have any influence upon his physical con- dition. When Shun ascended the throne, he announced the fact by offering sacrifice first to God and then to the ancestors. He also sacrificed to the (gods of) the mountains and rivers and to the host of deities. Ancestors — in the History The spirits (Shen) are said to be glad when humanity is at peace. Therefore Shun cultivated the arts of poetry and music to instruct the people and to spread civilisation, thus producing the reign of harmony among men . and spirits. Shun was desirous at an early period to select one to succeed him on the throne. After mature dehbera- tion, he nominated Yii, who declined the high honour, suggesting that the Sovereign should select the ministers who to him seemed the most meritorious, and put them one by one to the test of practical work, and then decide which of them was best fitted to succeed him. The King replied that he had himself already reflected deeply and long upon the matter, had consulted his ministers and people and afterwards the ancestral spirits, and that all without exception, one after the other, pointed in the one direction. II i62 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Finally, he had resorted to the decisions of the milfoil i and the tortoise, and this divination agreed with the other authorities in segregating Yii as the man best fitted to be his successor. Shun nominated Yu as his successor in the temple to ancestors. The investiture there was to introduce Yti to the ancestral spirits as the man to whom, after the decease of Shun, would be entrusted the care of their worship and sacrifices. Yi Yin, the able and much- trusted minister of Tang, said, " The ancestral spirits accept the sacrifices only of the sincere in heart." Again he said, " King Chie has despised the spirits and oppressed the people. Therefore Supreme Heaven has ceased to protect him, and is looking among the various States to search out a man whose virtue is so pure that he may be made ' lord ^ of the spirits.' It is difficult to serve the spirits by sacrifice. The offering must be made orderly and with reverence. If presented in a disorderly and irregular fashion, it indicates a spirit of ii'reverence. If the ceremonial connected with it is troublesome or irritating, it causes disorder." In the speech of Tang preceding his attack on the last Sovereign of Hia, it is said that on account of the tyranny of the Sovereign the people were proclaiming their causeless sufferings to the Shen of heaven and the Chi^ of earth. He announced his purpose to fight by offering a " sacrifice to the Sovereign of the Shen of high heaven." • See " Divination," p. 126. " Deceased ancestors were dependent on their descendant for the happiness obtainable only through sacrifices. The King, who alone provided the sacrifices, is hence called "lord of the Shen." • P. 162. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 163 Yi Yin, when lecturing the young King Taichia on the proper science of government, mentioned that the founder of the dynasty had constant regard to the decree of Heaven, and fulfilled his duty in the service of the Shen of heaven and the Chi of earth, as well as to the deities of the land ^ and the grain and the ancestral temple. The founders of the Hia dynasty cultivated their virtue, so that Heaven sent down no calamities, and the Kweishen and the mountains and rivers were all at peace. When Pan Keng was taking steps to remove his capital, under the belief that the frequent overflow of the river was the means by which Heaven directed him to do so, he applied arguments from the spirit world to remove the unwillingness of some objecting officials. He stated that his predecessors, who were now " sovereigns of the spirits " in heaven, had laboured for the well-being of the people of their time, so that if by slackness he now injured his people, his Sovereign predecessors now in heaven would punish him for this crime. If the officials disre- garded the welfare of the people, his predecessor, now in heaven, would punish them also. And this punish- ment from heaven no one could escape. Not only so, but their own forefathers, now above, would pray his predecessor to send down heavy punishment upon their undutiful descendants. King Wu, giving his reasons for rebelling against his Sovereign, said, " Show has neglected to serve God and the Shen and Chi, and has neglected the sacrifices to the ancestral temple. In his infidelity, he leaves the cattle and grain set apart for sacrifices to become the prey of ferocious robbers." 1 P. 153. i64 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA When Duke Chow offered his own life as a substitxite for his sick brother, he stated that his mental capacity, his learning and experience, had fitted him better for the service of the Kweishen in the spirit world than his brother, who in these respects was less able to serve them. The full narrative follows, as it is particularly interesting. Two years after the elderly King Wu was seated on the throne, he became so dangerously unwell that he was believed to be at the point of death. Two of the highest officials suggested to Duke Chow, brother of the King, the advisability of resorting to the ancestral temple to consult the spirits of the departed ancestors. The Duke, having already resolved on his own course of action, declined to trouble the ancestors in the temple. To him it was not merely the matter of a sick brother. The dynasty had just commenced its reign. The heir was an inexperienced youth. As appears from the History, the government was any- thing but firmly established. The death of the conqueror might, therefore, lead to the loss of all that had been gained. Dreading the disorder which was certain to succeed such a death, the Duke had privately resolved to offer his own life as a ransom for that of his brother, so that by the restoration of his brother to health the country might be delivered from the horrors of anarchy. To carry out his resolution, he took with him a few trusted friends, who were high officials, and in the most solemn manner demanded of them the strictest secrecy. He then erected three altars of earth, facing south, one dedicated to each of the three ancestors preceding the reigning monarch. He built a fourth altar, facing north and standing over against THE INFERIOR DEITIES 165 those three. At this one he took up his position, and, facing the three altars, prayed in words which he had previously written down on tablets. In praying to the three deceased kings,^ he said, " Your principal descendant is suffering from a grievous, illness. If you three kings in heaven have charge of him, take me as a substitute for his person. The special duties to my father I have observed. The many abilities and the much knowledge I possess enable me to serve the Kweishen in the spirit world. These special abilities and knowledge your principal descendant does not possess to the same extent. He is therefore less able to serve the spirits. He has, moreover, been set apart by decree in the Hall of God to aid and protect the peoples of all the land. He is thus able to establish your descendants as rulers on earth. Of the people of the land there is none who does not stand in awe of him. Let not this precious decree fall to the ground. Then will my ancestors have for ever descendants on whom they can rely. I shall now seek to divine, by the tortoise, what your pleasure is in this case. If you grant my prayer, I shall take these symbols and this mace, and return to await the accomplishment of your will. If it is not your pleasure to hear my prayer, I shall put these away." He afterwards divined with the three tortoises. The responses were favourable in each case. He therefore declared his behef that the King would not die, but had by his instrumentality, through the three kings, been granted the prolongation of the ^ They were exalted to royalty by King Wu after he became King. At that time the overlord of China was called " King" ; the title "Emperor" was introduced only immediately prior to the Christian era. i66 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA decree to rule. The written prayers he put away in a sealed metal-bound box. In the next reign this box was discovered, after the Duke had been banished under the suspicion that he was a traitor seeking to grasp the throne, and was the means of his restoration to favour. The above story is impressively interesting as illustrating the Chinese notions of the duties of relatives, of the location and powers of deceased apcestors, and of the intimate connection between God and man. In after years, when exhorting the young King, the Duke urged him to the diligent exercise of his virtue in order to secure harmony and to act as an example to the disturbed peoples of the land. He would thus " please the former kings." When recommending the young King to go to the new capital, Lo, he mentioned as one of the functions of royalty the offering of sacrifices to the Shen of heaven above and of earth below. Duke Chow, at an assembly of the feudal rulers of the States, said that the rulers of Chow had treated their people well and had proved themselves capable of sustaining the burden of government and worthy to preside over the services to Shen and to Heaven, The Minister of Eeligion under the Chow dynasty had charge of all ceremonial and attended to the services performed to Shen and to men. After the death of Duke Chow, the King, in appointing his successor, exhorted him to follow the example of the Duke, who had said that " the fragrant incense whicTi moved the Shen and the ' bright ones ' ^ arose from perfect govern- ment and not from the sacrifice of millet." On the enthronement of King Chao, he offered three distract ' Spirits of ancestors. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 167 libations of spirits to the spirit of his deceased father. In the Odes The references to the inferior deities, and especially to the ancestral spirits, are far more interesting, more full, more varied, and more instructive in the Odes than in the History. The following abbreviated quotations indicate pretty clearly how near the spirit world seemed to the ancient Chinese. A few odes are quoted in full because of their vivid painting of the beliefs of that period. Sacrifices were offered to Tang accompanied with music to allure his spirit to the feast. Ardent spirits were provided and well-seasoned soups. " He will bless the offerers with longevity, grey hair, and wrinkled face. The ancestor will come and enjoy the offerings and bestow blessings upon the offerer." These sacri- fices were in summer and winter. " In the forests the resounding blows of the wood- cutters respond to each other and the answering songs of the birds. The prayers of the men who strive after friendship will be heard by the Shen, who will bestow upon them peace and harmony." The illustrious company who were invited to the sacrificial feast provided for the ancestors praise their host as sure to become the recipient of the protecting favour of Heaven, who will bestow upon him much blessing because he brings the offerings appropriate and purified, to be offered in spring, summer, autumn, and winter. These are presented to the Shen of the former dukes and kings, who will repay with myriad years, their Shen conferring many blessings on the offerer. i68 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA "The faithful ministers of the King must always bear the ancestors in mind, and exercise their virtue in their endeavour to conform to the decree. They shall then themselves receive abundant blessings." "If officials perform all their duties, the Shen will hear them, and grant them all good and happiness." When the foundation of the State of Chow was laid by Tan Fu, the first great house erected was the ancestral temple, which was a glorious building. Altars were subsequently erected to other deities. King Wen possessed all the excellences acquired by his ancestors, and embodied them in practice. " He conformed to their good example, so that their Shen were never put to grief. With calm dignity he conducted himself in the palace. In the ancestral temple he was reverent. He realised that the Shen, unseen of men, were ever near. He never offended against the laws enacted by his ancestors, and he offered to them the red bull in sacrifice. Their Shen therefore cheered him on in his life-course, so that his conduct was a stimulus to the aged and an example to the young. After death he went to rest on high, enshrined in light." His descendants were gifted by Heaven with the same excellences and followed in the same correct way. Therefore Heaven always provided for them ministers able and good. The government was so well conducted that " the spirit of Wen could rest in peace in heaven." King Wen is praised for his " ease of manner and grace of deportment, which proved him worthy of dignity and blessing. He prepared the clear spirits in their vessels and the red bull for sacrifice to increase his happiness. He was cheered by the Shen." THE INFERIOR DEITIES 169 " To the virtuous King Wen, worthy of glory and honour, who is now in heaven, princes and officials offer the red bull with great devotion." " King Wen is on high enshrined in light in heaven. He ascended and descended at the right and left of God," i.e. moved freely in the presence of God. " Calamity is impending over us, not because the ancestors object to succour us, but because of your dissolute conduct and careless self-iadulgence," was the address by his minister to King Show (1123) when Prince Wu began his eastward march. " The kings of Yin were assessors of God, yet they did not assist their degenerate descendants." At the sacrifice offered to ancestors, a young member of the family personated the ancestor to whom sacrifice was being offered, and was accorded the honour due to the departed. The day after the sacrifice a great feast for all the relatives and the personator ^ was given in the ancestral temple. Millet and rice in large measure are converted into strong drink, to be used in sacrifices to the ancestors, male and female, that they may send down abundant blessings. Musicians of every kind are engaged for the sacrifice to ancestors, who will come down to listen to the music. Fish of all varieties is presented by the King in the ancestral temple at the time of the Winter Sacrifice, to bring down blessings upon the offerer. King Wu offered sacrifice to his meritorious father and accomplished mother. A bull was offered, and the praises of Wen were sung, whose wisdom in peace and might in war gave repose even in high heaven. King Cheng led his brilliant assembly of ministers iSee "Eitual." I70 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA and princes to the shrine of his father, to whom he made his offerings and accomplished his filial duty, in order to obtain long life, honour, and many blessings. He prayed to his deceased father, who had exhibited a filial spirit all his life, and he kept his grandfather always before his mind. He prayed to be enabled to follow the example of his forefathers in procuring peace for the people. He prayed his deceased father to protect his person and to enlighten his mind. The kings Wu, Cheng, and Kang were praised, at the sacrifice in their honour, for the excellence of their rule and for the certainty that they would send down abundant blessings on their descendants, who present sacrifices and eat and drink to satiety in their honour. The sacrifice, being so excellent, is sure to bring down blessings. The plaintive lament ^ of King Hiien is quoted in full below, showing more completely than any other passage the manner, the objects, and the causes of worship. In some odes agricultural operations are minutely described, which produce a superabundance of grain to make spirits for the sacrificial offerings to the ancestors, male and female. It is added that for this sacrifice a black-muzzled tawny bull is provided. Temples were repaired for the ancestors of the Duke of Lu. They were magnificent, pure, and impressive. The Duke of Lu offered perfect sacrifices to God, to How Chi, and to Duke Chow,^ to whom a white bull was offered. Eed bulls were offered to the other ancestors of Lu. The bulls, white and red, were provided in summer for the great sacrifice in 1 P. 172. 2 Who was the first Duke of this State, now Shantung. THE INFERIOR DEITIES 171 autumn. Eoast pig was presented also and mince meat, with the spirits. Therefore the descendant will be gloriously blessed and the throne of Lu occupied undisturbed to endless ages. In an ode on husbandry describing the conduct of the farmer, it is said that he has offered sacrifices of bright millet and rams to the deities of the earth and of the four quarters. The fields are covered with vegetation, to the joy of the husbandmen. " With musical instruments we will pray to the god of agriculture for rain." In another ode prayer is made to the god of agri- culture to destroy the insects which attack the heart of the plant, others which eat the leaves, others which destroy the roots, and still others which cut the joints. At the time of harvesting, handfuls will be left on the ground and ears left uncut for the benefit of the widow. The manager will rejoice in his abundant harvest, and will ofier as thanksgiving to the gods of the four quarters pure sacrifices of victims, red and black, and of millet, several varieties. When about to set off on a journey, a high official sacrificed a ram and provided fiesh roasted and broiled in honour of the god of the roads, who was worshipped jointly with the gods of agriculture ; for roads are in- dispensable to agricultural operations. In an address to King Cheng, the wish is expressed that he may have long life and be the host ^ of the hundred Shen. When King Wu made his circuit after his triumph-, he attracted to him all men with respect and awe, and gave repose to the hundred Shen, even to those of the great mountains and the rivers. ' The host provides food for his guests, who in this instance are the various classes of deities. 172 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA An elderly official, exhorting his fellow-ministers, forbids them to imagine that any place is so private that they cannot be seen. " The approach of the Shen cannot be calculated ; they should therefore never be regarded contemptuously or treated with neglect." " The States Fu and Shen were screens to Chow on the south. Their Prince was born of a Shen who came down from the high mountains whose peaks reached to the heavens." In the time of King Yow, when the nation was torn to pieces under the rule of favourite women, it is complained by one official that " the Shen do not come to help, and Heaven is reproving us." VII. HiJEN WANG A drought of several years' duration had brought the country to the verge of destruction in the time of King Hiien (876 to 781 B.C.). Those conditions of life which produce the greatest happiness to the people were believed to be the result of the excelling goodness and justice of the Sovereign, whose conduct was equally responsible for the calamities which befell the nation. The following ode, descriptive of the futility of the efforts of the King to secure rain and save his people from destruction, is one of the most pathetic in any language. 1. "Everlastingly bright glows the milky way by night, and the revolving heavens shine ever bright by day. ' Alas ! ' cries the King, ' of what crimes have we been guilty which can account for the death and disorder sent down by Heaven in repeated famines ? "Which of the gods have I not exalted? What THE INFERIOR DEITIES 173 sacrificial altars have I neglected? All the gems for offerings I have exhausted — why are my prayers unheard ? 2. " How great is the drought ! How tormenting the heat ! Yet my pure sacrifices have been endless. From the frontier altars to the ancestral temple in the palace, offerings have been made to all the deities above and below ; not one of the gods have I failed to honour. Yet the god of agriculture^ heeds me not, and God keeps far away. Alas, the ruin of my wasted country ! Would that it fell on my person alone ! 3. " How great is the drought ! And I cannot consider myself guiltless. I am in terror as from the fierce lightning and the dreadful thunder. Of the black-haired people remaining not one can survive. God, the Supreme Heaven, cannot permit me to escape. We are all under the same doom. Oiir ancestors will be cut off. 4. " How great is the drought ! nothing can affect it. Most fierce is its glare, most tormenting its fire. From its consequences there is no retreat. The great decree is approaching its termination. From above there is no hope, no help from around us. The host of dukes and of&cials of the past afford me no assistance. My father ! My mother ! My ancestors ! How can you endure to see this ? 5. " How great is the drought ! Burnt bare are the hills, and the streams are scorched up dry. The god of drought is cruel, as though fire and flames raged on every hand. The heat scarifies my heart, 1 By the Chow dynasty the god of agriculture, who was the founder of their house, was associated with God in the sacrifice offered at the frontier. 174 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA which is burning with grief. Yet the hosts of dukes and officials of the past refuse to listen to my prayers. Will God, the Supreme Heaven, not permit me to retire ? 6. " How great is the drought ! Though I exert myself to the utmost, yet am I afraid to retire ; why am I afflicted with this drought ? Any reason for it in myself I cannot discover. In praying for a good year my sacrifices were always early; nor was I dilatory in offering to the god of the soil. Yet God, the Supreme Heaven, does not heed me. With reverent humility I served the glorious gods ; and I should not therefore have suffered from their fierce anger. 7. " How great is the drought ! Scattered are the people and the chain of friendship is broken. The high officials are helpless. The Prime Minister is sick because of his misery. The Master of the Horse, the Commander of the Guards, the Chief Cook, and all the servants of the palace have every one done his utmost to help, no one excusing himself because of inability. Upwards I look to Great Heaven and ask, What is the cause of this distress ? 8. " To Great Heaven I look upwards, but its stars continue to sparkle. Ye officials ! you have with all your energy intelligently besought Heaven. The great decree is nearing its end. Yet desist not from your duty ; let not despair drive you to cease doing as you have done. What would you ask for me ? You are seeking the good of all. Upward do I look to Great Heaven. Oh ! when will His mercy grant us rest ? " Explanation Stanza 2. The god of agriculture, born in a miracu- lous fashion, was believed to be the ancestor of the THE INFERIOR DEITIES 175 house of Chow.^ He was worshipped along with God on the frontier. This frontier sacrifice is of the most ancient standing. Shun worshipped on the frontier, offering a burnt sacrifice to God. The ancestral'temple was the only temple then in existence. It was necessarily in the capital, there- fore in what was the centre of the kingdom. King Hiien offered sacrifice to every deity from the frontier to the centre. Stanza 3. National calamities were believed to arise from bad government, which was the result of evil conduct on the part of the Sovereign. Though Htien could not tax himself with any specially obnoxious crime, he believed that to him was, at least partly, due the overwhelming calamities devastating his country. Like Job when supposed to be suffering on account of evil of which he was unconscious, the King is anxious to know his faults. He recounts all he has done, with the view of discovering whether he has left any duty undone. The black-haired race, or the Chinese, were threatened with extinction on his account, and his ancestors were to be cut off, because no one would be left to offer to them the proper sacrifices. Stanza 4. The decree ^ given to the Chow dynasty to rule over China was about to become extinct by the destruction of the people. Yet for some reason unknown to him, the spirits of his ancestors were taking no action in heaven to save their suffering descendants. — Stanza 5. The god or demon of drought is described in the dictionaries as existing in the south. He is from two to three feet high, with naked body, and eyes in ' See History of Ohow, 98. ^ See "Decree," 107. 176 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the top of his head. He goes fast as the wind, and drought comes wherever he appears. He is also called the mother of drought. He may possibly re- present the hot, dry, scorching wind from the south. In the ode he is simply called Shen. Stanza 6. The Sovereign would fain retire from the responsibility of his high position, and thus bring to an end the sufferings of his people, if his misconduct were the real source of the anger of Heaven, which appeared to be unappeasable. In his anxiety he is, however, still bent on discovering, if possible, where he has been guilty of lack of reverence to the spiritual beings. In the second stanza he mentioned space ; he now examines his conduct in point of time. The spring sacrifices and ceremonial to the various deities con- cerned with agriculture he had faithfully observed, and the army of deities whom he was bound to worship throughout the year had all received the homage due. Here he can discover no cause for resentment on the part of the unseen Powers. Stanza 7. The universal want has produced universal selfishness, each seeking for what was necessary to sustain life, and each regardless of the wants of others. Hence friendship was at an end, and kinship of no consideration. Though some continued unselfishly to seek the good of others, it was all to no purpose. Stanza 8. The decree to rule was about to end ; and with it would be swept away the Imperial Family, and all officials connected with the dynasty would be cut off. But in the face of this extremity the King urges the of&cials still to remain every man at his post and every man to do his duty. One interesting fact connected with this despairing plaint is that every sacrifice, to every one of the THE INFERIOR DEITIES 177 inferior deities is regarded as an act of honour to the Supreme. The inferior deities are all His servants, and honour to them implies honour to their great Sovereign Lord. Hence, seeing they were all treated with the utmost honour due to them, and every act was observed which could acquire merit, bewildered surprise is expressed because God does not visit him and his people in mercy and deliver them from famine. This explains more clearly than any other passage the relationship believed to subsist between the Supreme God and the inferior deities. VIII. CONFUCIUS As the name of Confucius looms so largely over China and over Western thought concerning China, it is advisable to give briefly his ideas on inferior deities as these are contained in the Four Books. Quotations from these will demonstrate his attitude better than general statements and personal opinions of writers, who are perhaps not always absolutely unbiased in their judgment. When it is said that the system of Confucius is an ethical and not a religious one, and that he did not speak about the Shen, it is scarcely accurate, if the statement is understood without qualification. Though he certainly did not speak about " spirits " with the unquestioning dogmatism with which he insisted on man's relative duties, he did speak about them, as will appear from the following quotations. There is no uncertainty about his behef in the personal, continuous, and intelHgent supervision of " Heaven " over him and over all. But he had not apparently formed a definite opinion about the inferior 178 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA deities. He insisted on maintaining the old cere- monies connected with the sacrifices to ancestors. He reproved the minister who would in an agnostic frame of mind have abstained from offering the monthly sheep, saying that he himself attached more value to the custom than to the sheep. As far as we can judge, the mental attitude of Confucius towards the subject of inferior deities was one of doubt, scarcely amounting, however, to agnosticism. On the subject of man's relation to man he was on firm ground ; of man's connection with the spirit world he was not sure. But he could not completely break himself or his disciples away from the old faith and practices connected with spirit worship. He insisted that while we could not be certain of the presence of the spirits of the ancestors, their worship should not be in one whit abated. The worship is always to be as reverent and punctilious as though their presence were assured. While, however, the sacrifices must be strictly and reverently offered, men were not to devote themselves in an undue degree to the performance of those services ; for the wise man was he who was diligent in the affairs of man, and reverent towards the ancestors while " keeping them at a distance." This service of the spirits must not be made so essential a part of life as to interfere with the proper discharge of man's duty, to living humanity. The ceremonies connected with the stated seasons of sacrifice com- prised all the duty a man owed to • the spirits of his departed ancestors. One disciple, wishing to do all that was possible to ingratiate himself with the ancestors, was told some- what sharply that it was needless for him who did not THE INFERIOR DEITIES 179 completely fulfil his obligations to man to ask about further services to the spirits. Confucius did not believe in works of supererogation. The same senti- ment is expressed in the rebuke to the man who would present offerings to the spirits of ancestors not his own. This was a piece of mere " flattery.'' Confucius himself could not publicly have prayed to the inferior deities ; for when, on the occasion of a serious illness, a disciple once asked permission to go to some shrine to pray for him, inasmuch as such praying was allowable by the Classics, he replied that his " prayers had been made of old," they were no new thing. Did he pray to the Heaven in whom he had put his trust and confidence, and pray in secret so that no man knew of it ? The following quotations bear on the subject. In the end of the first chapter of the " Mean " ^ it is stated that " if equilibrium and harmony are complete, there will be order in heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished," This is explained as denoting the condition produced by the effectual and trans- forming influences of the Sage and the Shen. He quotes the History with approval in saying that " the Shen are satisfied when men do well, and their sacrifices are not neglected." " How complete is the virtue of the Kweishen ! To the eye they are invisible, and inaudible to the ear. They are embodied in matter, and cannot be separated therefrom. They make every man in the land to fast and purify himself, and to dress in his best garments, in order to offer sacrifice to them. Like overflowing floods of water they are above and around us." He quotes the Odes as stating that " the coming of ' One of the Four Classics. i8o THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the Shen cannot be calculated. They are therefore not to be treated with indifference. The revelation of the microscopic and the action of sincerity are thus equally irrepressible." " The man whose nature is perfectly sincere can see into the future, whether good fortune is to come or evil." " The way of the superior man is rooted in his own self. He compares it with the three kings/ and sees no difference. He lays it out before Heaven and Earth, and finds nothing contrary. He places it before the Kweishen, and entertains no doubt. For a century he waits, without hesitation, for the appear- ance of a sage. When he places it without a doubt, it shows that he knows Heaven. When he can wait a hundred years without hesitation for the sage, it proves that he knows man." " He who sacrifices to a Kwei not his own is a flatterer. Sacrifice should always be offered to the Shen as though they were present." When asked for a definition of wisdom, he replied that the man could be said to have wisdom who was diligent in the affairs of man, and reverent to the Shen while keeping them at a distance. He refused to discuss the " abnormal, or physical force, or social disorder, or the Shen." A disciple asked him how he could serve the Kwei- shen. The reply was, "If you cannot serve man aright, how can you serve the Kwei?"' " Yao made Shun overseer of sacrifice, and the hundred Shen were pleased with him." " The most important element in a nation is the people, the second is the gods of agriculture,^ and > Yao, Shun, Yu. » Shechi, p. 153. THE INFERIOR DEITIES i8i the Sovereign comes last. If the ruler endanger the Shechi, he is changed for another. If there came a drought or floods, though the victims for sacrifice had been perfect, the millet in the vessels clean, and the sacrifices offered at the proper time, the Shechi were changed and others put in their stead." " He whose truthfulness is complete and gloriously displayed is called great. He who is great and is able to transform men is called a sage. He who is a sage and is beyond our comprehension is called Shen." The two last quotations are from Mencius. CHAPTER V SACRIFICE I. INTKODUCTION .... PAGE 185 II. TO GOD 192 III. TO ANCESTORS .... 199 IV. OBJECTS WORSHIPPED 210 V. VARIETIES OF SACRIFICE . 212 VI. CONFUCIUS ON SACRIFICE . 214 VII. PRIEST 216 VIII. ALTAR 218 IX. TEMPLE ... 220 183 I. INTEODUCTION The offering of sacrifice is as universal as man. In all ages and under all conditions men have offered sacrifice as an oblation to a Supernatural Being or beings, who were believed to possess great influence over the person sacrificing, able to bestow good fortune upon him, or to inflict, permit, or avert injury. Invariably the offering is of something supposed to be acceptable to the being who is honoured. The references to sacrifice in the History are interesting in themselves, and important to us as a test whereby to estimate the mental condition of the people. at the period of its earliest known records. In sacrifice there are various essential elements. First there is the sacrificer, the man whose right, perhaps whose sole right, it is to offer; second, the object to whom sacrifice is offered ; third, the design with which it is offered ; fourth, the material of the sacrifice and the mode of it ; and fifth, the place where the offering is made. Each of these elements has its own special value as an aid in our investigation into the mental attainments and knowledge of the Chinese four thousand years ago. These elements are all taken for granted in the very earliest references to sacrifice. We can find no attempt at the definition of any of them. They present themselves to us in a manner 185 i86 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA which proves that they were in use long ages before the dawn of their recorded history. In the Bible we have the origin of sacrifice stated and its main design briefly indicated. We have no such indication in the History. We are introduced all of a sudden to a set of conditions which has come down, Minerva-like, in complete form from unknown antiquity. Temples are mentioned, but there is no explanation of how they came to be erected or of their particular form and special uses. Even the manner of sacrifice was so stereotyped that no description of it exists.^ In connection with the temples there were altars, but even this is to be understood only by inference from the fact that where there was sacrifice there was necessarily an altar. Sacrifice may be offered in order to obtain one or more of four objects : (1) the offering may be pro- pitiatory, intended to appease the anger or to avert the judgment of Deity, who is believed to be offended by some wrong-doing on the part of the offerer; (2) it may be reverential, expressive of honour ; (3) it may be donative, in acknowledgment of, and gratitude for, favours received ; (4) it may be implorative, to secure favours in the future, either {a) by averting impending calamity, or (6) by obtaining blessings, spiritual, physical, personal, or relative. Sacrifice implies a sense on the part of the offerer both of dependence and of need. These, or some of these, general principles we find connected with sacrifice wherever it is offered and wherever man existed or exists. They are found exhibited on the most ancient documents imearthed in the l^nd of Egypt, and are indicated in the sacrifice 1 But see "Manchu Ritual." SACRIFICE 187 of the most recently discovered savage tribe. The particular form of the sacrifice depends on the character, the knowledge, and the beliefs of the offerer. In one nation one article is esteemed more highly, in another another. In the development of codes of ethics or of systems of religion we find marked differences even between the east and the west of Europe. We naturally look for differences of a more decided character when we compare Europe with Africa or Asia. And it is reasonable to expect that the huge mass of the Himalayas, with its world-dividing offshoots, preventing free intercommunication between Eastern and Western Asia, should cause the existence of varieties in the religious customs of the various regions of Asia. The results of investigation in China justify such expectation. For in all things the Chinese have been a law to themselves— in rehgion as in ethics, in forms of government as in the manners of the people. Moreover, the distinctions between China and the rest of the world should be all the more decided because of the distinctive character of the people and the thorough- ness and self-consistency with which they have always evolved their own history and developed their own institutions. The long isolation of China from the West during her historical period accounts largely for diver- gences in religious functions as well as in her social manners and customs. But the wonder is, not that there is difference in form, but that the Chinese have been in all ages moved by much the same outstanding general principles in their sacrificial offerings as were the nations of the West. Yet there are variations enough to modify some modern theories on Sacrifice. i88 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA This remarkable unity in essentials, notwithstanding diversity in matters of secondary importance, proves the ultimate homogeneousness of the Chinese race with the rest of mankind. If the great principles harmonise while the practices in which they are embodied differ, we are justified in tracing these principles to a common origin, though we are unable to trace the manner of their origin, the place or the time thereof, or the process of their development. If, therefore, we find differences in the votive offerings or in the manner of their presentation, there is less reason for surprise than in the substantial identity of the principles represented by the sacrifice. Of the four reasons mentioned above on account of which offerings are made by sacrifice, the propitiatory has always been prominent in the West. The offerer is purified by them from that ceremonial defilement which put him beyond the pale of the acquaintance of the more reputable or the more careful of his fellows. But they were specially important because of the belief that they could in the presence of God remove the guilt of wrong-doing. By the sacrifice which acknowledged his guilt the offerer hoped to avert the penalty of his transgression. He was thus able to secure a certain amount of peace for his own disturbed conscience. It is curious that in China we find no trace of this kind of sacrifice. Neither ancient history nor modern beliefs indicate that expiation is attainable, or, indeed, that it is necessary. The sense of guilt there has been, and still is, but there never- seems to have been the least trace of hope that guilt could be removed by sacrifice of any kind. The possibility of repentance, and of a new life, is SACRIFICE 189 distinctly hinted at, as will have been seen in the quotations dealing with the Sxipreme Euler and His " decree." But the remission of sin is a thing which was never imagined by the Chinese. The most scholarly Chinese official it has been my privilege to meet declared to me that sacrifice never implied in China a sense of guilt or a con- fession of sin. It had no expiatory meaning, and implied no prayer for pardon. Its sole purpose, according to him, was to express gratitude. But, for the other three purposes mentioned, sacrifices have been continuously offered in China from its earliest known history. It is indeed true of sacrifice, as it is of God, that it is introduced to us in such a fashion as to lead to the inference that it was an institution established long ages before, and observed in unbroken sequence up to the time when the History commences its narra- tion, four thousand years ago. As recorded in the History, the purpose of sacrifice is to "inform." It is the method by which information is given to God, to the ancestors, or to the inferior deities. This information implies that the offerer assumes the attitude of a subordi- nate. The Sovereign informs God of his accession to the throne, of the commencement of a war or of its successful termination. It implies also dependence on God for success in what duty lies before the sacrificer, and further, a prayer for assistance in the discharge of that duty. When offered in gratitude for help received, it is still an acknowledgment of the same dependence. The sacrifice offered before a war is to inform God of the purpose of the war, of its justice, and especially igo THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA to show that tho war is in reality intended to carry- out the will of God by punishing one who has rebelled against His • law. It is offered in the spirit of one who expects the aid of the Almighty in the task undertaken by him as the vicegerent of God. In the Eitual, or Book of Kites, it is stated that sacrifice, being a fixed custom handed down from past ages and to be carried out in definite, forms, should not be accompanied by prayer or offered in the expectation of deriAdng any private benefit therefrom. This sentiment is quoted with approval by Confucius. But we find the spirit of the History and the express statements of the Odes clearly opposed to such a sentiment. It is, on the other hand, expected that by means of the sacrifice the assistance of God will be obtained, and that blessing will follow the proper discharge of the sacrificial duty. In offering sacrifices to the ancestors or the inferior deities, a reward of greater value is anticipated, as the consequence of the spirit of reverence and devotion shown in the sacrifice. By examination of the pathetic ode of King Huen,i it will be seen that the sacrifices mentioned were purposely offered to secure immunity from sufferings endured, or deliverance from calamities which threatened the extinction of the nation. These offerings were made to the Supreme Euler, to the god of agriculture, — the remote ancestor of the dynasty of Chow, — to the gods of the air, the earth, the soil, the elements, each in his own turn and with his own oppropriate offerings. The ancestors 1 "Inferior Deities," 172. SACRIFICE 191 were duly honoured in the ancestral temple. But the King complains, in a manner which shows his disappointment, that though no shrine was unhonoured, no offering withheld, no expense spared, and no cere- mony overlooked, yet there resulted no alleviation of the distress, the favour and peace prayed for and anticipated did not appear. These sacrifices were offered, therefore, as prayers for blessing to come, not merely as empty ceremonies handed down from ancient times, nor yet entirely as grateful offerings for gifts received. In the Odes there are several interesting accounts of elaborate sacrifices to ancestors. These were doubtless instituted to honour the deceased, on whom in some way they were believed to bestow much pleasure if offered at the proper time, in the proper way, and by the proper means and persons. Biit in the act of honouring the ancestors the offerer is promised multiplied blessings because of his filial spirit. The reward is to be manifold in peace, plenty, and long life. Gifts are to be showered upon the filial descendant on all occasions as his needs arise. King Show ^ is again and again declared to have brought down misery upon the people and ruin upon himself because he neglected the sacrifice to the Supreme, forgot to honour his ancestors, and permitted the robbery by irreverent thieves of the beasts and grain provided for offerings. It is implied that if he had discharged his duties by offering the proper sacrifice, in the proper way, he would have both preserved the nation in peace, and retained his own throne in comfort and in honour. If, therefore, sacrifice was not purposely ' History, passim. 192 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA offered in order to secure personal benefit, it was believed to bring that benefit as one of its results. The importance attached to the correct form of the acts connected with sacrifice will appear from quotations which follow. One of the highest ministers appointed by Shun was he who had charge of sacrifice. The head of the Board ^ of Eitual has always been, and still is, one of the most important officials in China. Shun also took care to instruct the people in accurate ritual and proper ceremonial, Eitual is an essential part of the duties of the ruler of China. II. SACEIFICE TO GOD In order to indicate the foundation on which the preceding remarks are based, the following quota- tions are extracted from the History and the Odes. The quotations are grouped under the various objects of worship, in the belief that this method will produce a clearer impression than by giving them in the order of time as recorded in those books. When in B.C. 2283 Shun was associated with the Government, he offered the lei sacrifice to God "in the usual form." This indicated that the lei sacrifice had been offered to God during a period of unknown duration preceding the time of Shun. The forms were so well known, the customs had been so long established, that no word of explanation was deemed necessary to describe the particular character of the "usual form." This sacrifice was offered again by ^ The Six Boards have been abolished, but this office referred to remains. The name is retained to harmonise with " Manchu Eitual " below. SACRIFICE 193 Prince Wu, when proclaiming war against his Sove- reign. It was offered, according to the Eitual, to the Supreme Arbiter of human events, the just Judge of all the earth. In the great dictionary of Kanghi the name lei, or " sort," is said to have been given because it "resembled" the sacrifice habitually offered to Heaven. The lei was a sacrifice offered to God only. There were fixed dates and certain seasons at which it was always offered. It was also offered on rare and special occasions, as the accession of a King, the proclamation of war, as thankoffering after a successful war, at each of the four seasons, and the inspectional visit of the Sovereign to the frontiers of his royal domain. It was offered in great state, all high oflBcials being present and taking part in it. From the context it appears that it was first offered by Shun at the winter solstice, just as the day was about to lengthen. Inasmuch as the offering of this sacrifice was the special prerogative of the Sovereign (and when we keep in mind the intensely conservative character of the Chinese), we are justified in believing that the customs connected with it, handed down from dynasty to dynasty, were virtually what they are now.^ The essential element was the whole burnt-offering of a young bull-calf of one uniform colour — black, white, or red — and without blemish, on an altar under the open sky. There were, as there still are, many accessories. There is ground for the supposition that the materialistic tendencies of the Chow dynasty introduced some changes in the ceremonial, in the offerings, or even in the ideas regarding the object of 1 See "Manchu Eitual," p. 295. 13 194 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the offering. But the ritual of the present we may consider substantially the same as that of Shun, differing in non-essential details. Those who are inclined to do so, may trace, in the season when this sacrifice was offered, some affinity to sun worship, though Chinese history presents us with no hint of such worship. The dualistic principle, which may, not unreasonably, be supposed to have some reference to the sun, presents itself iu history for the first time in the twelfth century B.C. Subse- quently to that period, the Odes may not infrequently be interpreted as deifying the sun under the name of Heaven, when that name is used in a material sense. A war by the Sovereign was undertaken, as vice- gerent of Heaven and in His name, with the expressed purpose of carrying out the will of Heaven in punishmg a wicked feudal prince or chastising an evil people. And when the standard of revolt was raised against a Sovereign who oppressed his people, the rebel appealed to Heaven by a lei sacrifice for aid against the wicked King who had, by oppressing his people, forfeited the right to be treated as the representative of God. On these two occasions the sacrifice was a method of reverently " informing " Heaven that an effort was being made to vindicate justice, and it implied a prayer for the aid of God in punishing the offender. As a similar sacrifice was offered at the termiaation of a war, the essential function of this sacrifice seems to be a declaration to God in public as to what is about to be done, or what has been accomplished, in His name. Parallels to this procedure may probably be seen in times nearer our own and in lands not called heathen. SACRIFICE 195 In the eighteenth century B.C. the descendants of the great Yii fell into the slough of sensuality, and by excessive oppression lost the affection of their people and the right to reign. Prince Tang, who was virtually contemporary with Joseph in Egypt, had made for himself the reputation of a good ruler by the excellence of his laws, the justice of his administration, and the whole-hearted zeal with which he gave himself to affairs of State. He felt called upon, in the name of Heaven, to execute judgment upon his Sovereign, who had by his crimes become a rebel against Heaven and had therefore forfeited the throne. To the King alone belonged the right to sacrifice to God. Tang, believing that the King de facto was no longer King de jure, raised the flag of rebellion in the name of the justice of God. Thus we discover that the principles by which the Stuart family lost the sovereignty of the British Isles are no novelty. By the formal sacrifice to God, Tang published his resolution to punish the " rebellious " King. The colour of the bull-calf was black, that being the colour of the offering made by the Hia dynasty. But the descendants of Tang afterwards adopted white as the colour of their offering. Six centuries after the time of Tang, his own descendants followed the evil example of degeneracy, and laid themselves open to attack by a rebel with a better reputation than their own. Wu, the Prince of Chow ^ at the time when Samuel was judge in Israel, marched an army against Show, the descendant of Tang, on the same grounds as those which Tang had given as his warrant to overturn his King. ' See History of Chow, p. 98. 196 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA King Show had estranged his subjects by his inhuman treatment of his best officials and the merciless oppression of his Government. His claim to rule by Divine right was abolished by his own barbarities and the neglect of his kingly duties. A special aggravation of his guilt was the neglect to sacrifice to^ God. He despised Heaven and maltreated men. Heaven had therefore decreed his destruction, and now Prince Wu, acting as King de jure, offered the lei sacrifice to God and presented the proper sacrifice to earth ,^ thus proclaiming to God and men his resolution to punish the ruler who had lost the protection of Heaven, by which alone he had obtained the right to rule. After the victorious Wu had been established on the throne, it was decided to erect a capital in the east of the kingdom, to overawe the restive repre^ sentatives of the dethroned King. The King died, and his young successor had no desire to go to" the east. But Duke Chow, brother of the deceased King, by much persuasion obtained permission to search out a suitable situation for a new capital. After having carefully examined the land as to its agricultural possibilities and its strategical position, and having tested by divination the comparative luck promised in the various localities, he selected, as fulfilling all the best conditions, the banks of the river Lo. There he erected the new capital, where is now the city of Loyang in Honan. The Chow dynasty seems to have adopted the dual principle while yet in their own small State, in the remote west, before they attained to sovereignty. It ^ This is the first mention of saoriflce to earth as the complement of that to Heaven. Here the dual principle i» introduced to us. SACRIFICE 197 is mentioned as a matter of course that Duke Chow erected an altar to earth on the north or yin side of the capital, when he built another to Heaven on the south or yang side. On each ^ he offered a young bull in sacrifice. He also sacrificed in the city to the local deities, offering a bull, a goat, and a pig. Thus was the new capital consecrated ; and there is nothing new under the sun. Exhorting the princes of the house of the dethroned dynasty, the Duke reminded them that their great ancestors had reigned so long and so happily because they had attended so religiously to the sacrifices, while assiduously cultivating their personal virtues. The dynasty had latterly lost its influence and was irretrievably ruined by its neglect of the sacrifices. Whether mere neglect was itself considered the disease, or whether it was symptomatic of a deeper , disease, history saith not. But the two are inseparable. The late dynasty had proved their disregard of God by neglecting sacrifice, and showed indifference to duty by oppressing the people. An ode states that when Wen by his unselfish conduct was securing for all ages the name of the ideal Sovereign, he was moved by God to attack the State of Tsung, whose chief had slandered him to King Show, by whom he was imprisoned and at whose hands he would have suffered the cruel fate of so many more, had not his numerous friends been too influential to be slighted. They redeemed his life by presents of beautiful women, valuable horses, rich gems, and costly gifts. On his release, " God told him ' Confucius, who lived under the influence of the Chow dynasty, said that "by sacrifice to Heaven and earth the Sovereign served God." igS THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA to attack Tsung." After he had offered the lei sacrifice to God, and another sacrifice to Ma, the god of war, he attacked his enemy and razed his capital to the ground. Another ode mentions that the lady Chiang was one of the noblest of women, but that she was child- less. She offered pure sacrifice to God, and as a result gave birth to a wonderful child, who became known as How Chi.^ He was worshipped both as the original ancestor of the Chow dynasty and as god of agri- culture. In this twofold character his worship was conducted and sacrifice was offered to him at the same time and place as those to Shangti, to whom he was made pei,^ or associate. In an ode extolling Hi, Duke of Lu, a successor of Duke Chow, it is stated that he sacrificed in spring and autumn to God and to How Chi. A white and a red bull-calf were selected in the preceding summer for the autumn sacrifice. Their horns were capped to preserve them from injury. At the time of sacrifice the splendidly carved goblet was used, and roast pig, minced meat, and soup were presented. The various dishes, made of bamboo and of wood, were prepared; and the dancers were selected. " With these sacrifices God and How Chi were well pleased." The ode of King Hiien ^ more clearly demonstrates the importance attached to the sacrifice to God and the expectations founded upon the attention to the proper discharge of all ceremonial connected with them. The term pei is not easy to render into English. It contains the idea of associate, assessor, or com- > See History of Chow, p. 98. " P. 52. 'See "Inferior Deities," p. 172. SACRIFICE 199 panion, but one of an inferior rank. In the temples a subordinate deity is pei to a superior. One cannot be called the pei of an equal. A young official appointed by the Viceroy of Moukden to show me over the Imperial Palace was said to be pei to me. The pei is not a servant, much less is he the equal of him to whom he is pei or associate. III. SACEIFICE TO ANCESTOES After the lei sacrifice was offered to God, the " Yin " sacrifice was presented by Shun to the " Six Honour- ables." Who these were is a question left unsolved by Dr. Legge and others deeply versed in Chinese lore. Yet we can make a pretty shrewd guess as to the probable meaning of the term. Those to whom Shun offered sacrifice on his accession were : (1) God, (2) the Six Honourables, (3) the mountains and rivers, and (4) the host of deities (Shen). The last term includes all the deities of the elements, of sky, earth, land, and grain. The third refers to the deities of mountains and rivers. These with the Supreme Euler are all to whom sacrifice was due by the Sovereign, except the ancestors. Now, from the most remote ages known to us, sacrifice to ancestors and sacrifice to the Supreme God were equally obligatory. It is inconceivable that Shun, when worshipping all the supernatural beings who were believed to be interested in and infiuential over mankind, could have omitted the worship due to the ancestors. The ancestors stand next to God in importance.^ They were worshipped because of their superiority to living man, in recognition of the ' See p. 298, and " Ritual," p. 256. 200 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA benefits received from them when they were living, in acknowledgment of their deep interest in their descendants, in hope of further favours to come, and with the design of averting the miseries which would be the result of anger on their part against the descendants who neglected to pay the proper honour due to them. These considerations seem to justify the conclusion that the " Honourables " are the ancestors. All the four classes of sacrifices mentioned above were offered in the capital. In the tour made by Shun throughout the year, it is noteworthy that though sacrifices were offered to God and to the in- ferior local deities, there was no sacrifice to the ancestors. But at the close of the year and the termination of the tour, on returning to his capital, he offered a young bull on the altar in the temple to ancestors. This appears to imply that while the Supreme God could be worshipped anywhere, the ancestors were locaHsed, confined to the temple dedicated to their use, wher6 alone sacrifice could be offered acceptably. This tour round the royal domain, with accompanying sacrifices, was repeated every fifth year. Yi Yin offered sacrifice before the coffined body of the dead King Tang, at the same time presenting the heir to the throne. Again and again it is said in the History that the new King was proclaimed in the ancestral temple. The heir was then presented to his deceased predecessor, both to be acknowledged and to implore the protection and guidance of that pre- decessor in the future reign. When Pan Keng was removing his capital from west to east of the Yellow Eiver — on account of the series of misfortunes showing this removal to be the SACRIFICE 20I will of Heaven — he offered sacrifices in the most solemn manner to his ancestors. It was believed that the ancestors of his officials were present, and would all assist in the new undertaking. Towards the end of their (Yin) dynasty, the minister Yiie observed to his Sovereign that officious liberties when presenting the sacrifice to ancestors betokened irreverence, and burdensome ritual led to disorder. The spirits could not be properly served in this way. On the return of King Wu to his capital after he had finally defeated the last of the Yin dynasty, he offered sacrifice to his ancestors in the ancestral temple, all the great officials being present, each taking his own part, carrying a vessel or performing some office in the ceremonial. Three days thereafter he presented a burnt-offering to Heaven and made the Wang sacrifice to the gods of the mountains and the rivers. By these various sacrifices he announced the successful termination of the war. "When Lo was erected as a capital,^ the various altars proper to a capital were set up, and also a temple to the ancestors. The young King went east to this capital and offered in sacrifice a red bull to his grandfather, King Wen, and another to his father. King Wu. A prayer was written out and presented at the same time, in which it was stated, among other matters, that Duke Chow would remain in the new capital to conduct the Government. When the young bulls were offered, the King entered the Great Hall ^ and poured out the libation of spirits. At this 1 See p. 80. Name of the place of sacrifice in the Ancestral temple. See "Temple," p. 220. 202 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA sacrifice every official had his place assigned to him, according to his faithfulness as a public functionary. "When the heir to King Cheng (B.C. 1079) was being proclaimed, he thrice offered a libation of spirits, in the usual reverential manner, before the coffin of his predecessor. The Mateeials Offeeed The Odes enter into greater detail when describing the sacrifices to ancestors than does the History. Sacrifice was offered to ancestors at each of the four seasons — spring, summer, autumn, and winter. " The reverent ladies of the palace go out to gather the artemisia and duckweed which grow by the ponds and shallow pools. They bring the weeds home in their baskets, and on their tripods they boil them and make them into dishes for the sacrifice in the ancestral temple." For the autumn and winter sacrifices sheep and young bulls without blemish were selected in the pre- ceding summer and carefully fed. Before the discovery of distillation, water was the liquid used in making hbations, and, being the most ancient, it continued to hold the place of honour. On the discovery of distillation, strong drink became an essential element in every sacrifice. " Morning and evening King Wen never wearied in teaching that strong drink must be used in sacrifice." But it was to be used only when sacrifice was offered, or on extraordinary occasions. He forbade its use in ordinary life because of its evil effects. It was distilled from several varieties of millet, and was of SACRIFICE 203 various kinds. There were coarse and fine varieties, simple and medicated. One variety made from black millet and flavoured with herbs was specially esteemed. Spirits, both ordinary and sweet, were presented in offering to ancestors, male and female. Not only was millet largely used for sacrificial purposes in the form of spirits, but other products of the ground were ofiered. Gourds and melons were sliced and pickled, to be presented as a portion of the offering. The materials composing the offerings might be of anything produced on the ground, in the marsh, or from the sea. The offerings might be cereal, vegetable, animal, ardent spirits, gems and precious stones. The sacrifice always implied the renunciation of something of value. Its costliness depended partly on the object worshipped, partly on the sense of gratitude or of need in the worshipper, and partly on his station and means. King Hiien ^ exhausted all his gems and precious things to avert overwhelming calamity. The Ceremony of Offering At the beginning of the sacrifice presented by his descendants to the celebrated King Tang, music was employed to draw the attention of his spirit and to attract him down to the sacrifice. The music of the flutes and the sonorous gem-stones blended har- moniously with that of the drums and the kettle- drums. Well-flavoured soups were also offered to him at the summer and winter sacrifices. When music was used it was to attract the spirits from above, for they were supposed to reside in the 1 See " Inferior Deities," p. 172. 204 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA heavens. The Chow dynasty, as the first act in their sacrificial ritual, poured out on the ground a libation of spirits, believing that the shen dwelt below. But as their philosophy and consequent ceremonial were founded on the theory of the duality of all things, they also burned the fat of the red bull as soon as slain, to attract by its fragrance the shen from above, and thus invite them to the coming feast. He whose duty it was to slay the victim ^ prepared it on the inside of the gate of the ancestral temple. When about to slay it, he first cut off with a sharp knife, to the handle of which \irere attached small tinkling bells, a clump of hair from behind the ear. The colour of this hair must be absolutely uniform, for " simplicity " is indispensable in everything con- nected with sacrifice. The fat was first extracted and burned in order by its fragrance to induce the spirits to descend in their majesty to the feast provided for them. In all the ceremonial connected with sacrifice to his ancestors the Sovereign was the principal actor. The fires were attended to with reverence. The meat was partly boiled and partly roasted. It was cut up and put on trays and other vessels, previously made ready for this purpose.^ With great reverence the ladies of the family presided over the numerous smaller dishes. These dishes, both large and small, were arranged in order before the ancestors, whose shen came noiselessly to the feast prepared for them, while the living guests ^ According to the Ritual, the animal was led up to a stfine slab erected in the middle of the temple courtyard, and tied to a hole in the slab. Here the hair was cut off to show it to be the proper colour. \ ^ See the exact quotation, p. 206. SACRIFICE 205 — members of the family — were passing round the spirit cup. The deceased ancestor who was being specially honoured was represented by a youthful scion of the family. He was seated in the place of honour, and was treated by his father ^ and the guests as though he were indeed the great ancestor whom he represented. With the numerous offerings of meat and drink and the long-drawn-out ceremonial the shen were grati- fied, and would bless the filial offerer with many gifts and with long life. When the friends assisting in the ceremony were tired out by the prolonged service, the person officiating, speaking in name of the ghostly unseen guests, informed the offering descendant that the fragrance of his filial sacrifice was acceptable to the spirits, who had thoroughly enjoyed both meat and drink, and would repay the filial action with hundreds of blessings as these came to be required in the future. When this person had declared that the shen had drunk to repletion, the youth representing the ancestor rose from his seat and went out of the sacrificial hall, to the accompaniment of the music of bells and drums. The shen returned to their own place, and the ladies and servants with the utmost alacrity removed all the dishes. All the company who took part in the service then retired to the dining-hall, where to the sound of music they ate and drank to the full. When satisfied, they too declared that the shen had enjoyed the meat and drink, and would bestow upon their host long life and prosperity. In connection with the sacrifice to ancestors many odes ' This personator was usually the son of the reigning Sovereign offering the sacrifloe. Sea p. 205. 2o6 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA were sung in praise of the ancestor worshipped, and there was much dancing ^ in his honour. The preceding statements are summarised from the Odes, but the two odes following are quoted in full because they so particularly set forth the manner of sacrifice. The second shows that the nature of strong drink was well known three thousand years ago. " The rank tribulus had covered all the ground. Its thorny bushes were cut down that the fields might be sown to grow grain for food and millet for sacrifices. When the millet grows abundantly and the sacrificial millet luxuriant, our barns overflow and our stacks are countless. Of the grain we prepare food and make strong drink to be used as offering in our sacrifices. We invite the representative ^ of the dead to be seated that we may secure great happiness. " Oxen and sheep without blemish are brought in an orderly and reverent manner for the sacrifices in autumn and winter. Some men are deputed to cut up the flesh, others to boil it; some divide the meat, and others set it out in order. " Inside the gate of the ancestral temple the officiat- ing person presents his sacrifice. In its variety the service is complete and splendid in its general effect. " Our ancestors descend in their majesty. Their shen enjoy the offerings, and their filial descendant obtains their blessing. Him will they reward with great bounties and endless life. " The fires are attended to with reverence. The large trays are made ready for the roasted meat and the boiled. The wives of the family prepare in silence and with reverence the numerous small dishes. 'See "Eitual,"p. 263. 2 See "Personator," pp. 259-267. SACRIFICE 207 " Guests ^ and visitors present the cup to each other and drink all round. The full ceremonial is carefully observed, and every word and smile is as they ought to be. The shen come noiselessly, and repay their host with great happiness and with life for a myriad years. " When the service is finished all the actors are exhausted, having carried out the ceremonial without mistake. The officiating person announces to the pious descendant that his filial sacrifice has been fragrant, that the shen have enjoyed the drink and the food, and will repay their host with hundreds of blessings as his need for them will arise. Strict order has been observed in the ceremonial, and eager diligence has been exercised. He has been correct and careful. For ever will they confer on him the choicest favours in myriads and millions. " The ceremonial being thus finished, the bells and drums strike up and the filial descendant returns to his own seat. The officiating person declares that the shen have drunk to satiety. The majestic repre- sentative of the dead then arises, and is escorted away to the sound of bells and drums. The shen go away noiselessly. " With all speed the waiting officials and the pre- siding wives take everything away. The relatives of the host, old and young, withdraw to the private feast. Here the musicians again perform, assisting at the second blessing. " The edibles are presented to the satisfaction of all the guests. They eat and drink to satiety. Then all of them, great and small, bow the head, saying to the host that the shen have enjoyed the meat and ' Relatives of the deceased who is worshipped. 2o8 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the drink, and will confer long life on him ; that his sacrifices, each in its season, have been offered without a flaw ; and they express the hope that the descendants of his children and grandchildren may always continue to perform these services." The second ode, relating more particularly the drink-r ing customs of the feast, is as follows : — 1. "When the guests first go to sit on their mats, they take their seats orderly on the left and the right. The dishes of bamboo and of wood are set out containing sauces and kernels. The spirits are blended and good. The guests drink with reverence. The bells and drums are in their proper place. The guests gracefully raise the pledge cup. The great target is set up, the bows and arrows are ready for the archers, who are matched in classes. ' Show your skill,' shouts one. ' I shall hit the mark,' responds the other, ' and then you will have to drink the cup."'i 2. " The flute players dance to the organ and the drum, the instruments all playing in harmony. This is done to gratify the meritorious ancestors, while all the ceremonies are correctly observed. After the detailed observance of the ceremonies the personator says, ' We confer on you great blessings ; let your descendants be happy.' The company is happy and full of joy, each exerting himself to the full extent of his ability. A guest draws the spirits, which an attendant takes in a cup. The full cup is handed to the guests — the cup of rest. ' Your ceremonies,' he continues, ' are performed in their proper season.' " 3. " When the guests first take their seats on the mats they are harmonious and reverent. In manner ' To this day in playing games it is the loser who has to drink. SACRIFICE 209 they are dignified before they have drunk too much ; but after they have drunk too much their dignity disappears and their manners become frivolous. They leave their seats and dance and caper around. Before they drank too much they were digniiied and grave. But with too much drink their dignity is changed to indecency and their gravity to rudeness. The fact is that when they becc^me drunken they lose all sense of order." 4. " When the guests have drunk too much they shout and they brawl. They upset the orderly arrangement of dishes. They dance about unsteadily. When they* have drunk too much the result is that they lose all sense of error. Their caps are set awry and threaten to fall off. They dance about and do not know when to stop. Had they gone out before drinking so deeply, both host and guest would be happier. But, having remained after they have become drunk, their conduct is the destruction of virtue. Drinking gives real happiness only when it is in moderation according to propriety." It will be observed that the first and second stanzas mention drink without drunkenness. With this " proper " amount of drink there is dignity and decorum. The third and fourth show a hilarity that is shameful and a disorder that is disgraceful, con- sequent on indulgence after the "proper" quantity has been exceeded. This " propriety " in drinking and not total abstinence, is what has preserved the Chinese from the excesses of the West. Even yet drunkenness is allowable on specially great occasions which demand a spirit of hilarity. But the appear- ance on the street of that most degraded specimen of humanity — the drunkard — is to be met in Chinese 14 2IO THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA streets only in the case of natives of Christian countries. IV. THE OBJECTS WOESHIPPED When Tang undertook to execute the punishment of Heaven upon the rebellious King, his Sovereign, he offered in sacrifice a dark-coloured bull, and made a public declaration of his design to the Euler of the spirits of Heaven. For a prolonged period the virtue of the hia dynasty was so great that no calamities came from Heaven, and the gods of the mountains and the rivers were satisfied and at peace. Of this virtue, sacrifice was an essential constituent. When Duke Chow had determined the site of the capital Lo,^ he offered on the third day of the survey two bulls in the suburbs — one to Shangti, the other to How Chi. Next day at the altar of the gods of agriculture he sacrificed in the new city a bull, a goat, and a pig to the local deities. On the com- pletion of the city he offered a red buH in sacrifice to his father, King Wen, and another to King Wu, his deceased brother. King Cheng offered at Lo the annual winter sacrifice, a black bull to Wen and another to his father, Wu. He declared it to be his duty to attend to the sacrifice early and late. All the princes were in attendance when the victims were slain and the offerings presented. The King entered the Great Hall, where he poured out a libation. In this capital, where he acted as the vicegerent of Heaven, he sacrificed to the deities of heaven and earth. ' See p. 80. SACRIFICE 211 Before sacrificing to God and to How Chi, the Chow sovereigns passed through a process of purifi- cation. They mixed a species of artemisia with the fat, to emphasise the fragrance. " The stands were loaded with offerings, and God was pleased with the fragrance." This particular sacrifice is supposed to have been instituted by How Chi himself (2230 B.C.); but he could scarcely have offered it to himself. The statement must signify that in the special sacrifice instituted by him he was afterwards by his filial descendants associated with God. To the gods of the four cardinal points, or four quarters, rams were offered in sacrifice, and millet in the early spring, together with young bulls, red and black. The god of agriculture was invoked with music accompanying the sacrifice, which was offered with prayer for a good harvest and for his intervention to destroy the many varieties of caterpillar which attacked the grain — some the root, some the joints, some the pith of the stem, some the leaves, and others the ears. The petitioner prayed the god of agriculture to burn these pests and thus prevent the mischief caused by them. When about to set out on a journey, ^a ram was offered to the god of the Eoads, with prayer for protection on the way. The Horse god, supposed to have his abode in the constellation Scorpio, was conciliated by sacrifice on the eve of a royal hunt. 212 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA V. THE VAEIETIES OE SACEIFICE The names of sacrifices which are to be found in the classics, and especially in the ancient dic- tionaries, are numerous. There is a generic name chi,^ or chiszu. This is the term used from Shun down to the present day, to denote the act of sacrific- ing to the inferior deities. The specific terms lei, " sort," and chai, " burnt-offering," are applied only to the sacrifice offered to God. The sacrifice termed yin — which the Dictionary of Kanghi tells us was composed of meat, fruit, and spirits — was limited to the Honoured Ones.^ There were four specific terms for the sacrifices to ancestors — one for the spring, another for the summer, a third for the autumn, and a fourth for the winter sacrifice. A curious sacrifice was that to the gods of the Mountains and the Eivers. At each of the cardinal points, and just on the outskirts of the small kingdom of Shun, was a conspicuous mountain, each mountain having its own Shen or deity. There were also large rivers, which affected the well-being of his kingdom. They had each its special deity, and these have always been worshipped by Shun and his successors on the throne of China. This sacrifice is named wang^ or " looking towards." It was the third great sacrifice offered by Shun in his capital. In the following spring he made a tour to the eastern extremity of his kingdom, where he summoned the neighbouring officials and offered a "chai" or burnt-offering to Heaven and a "wang" offering ' Pronounced jee and jees. " P, 199. SACRIFICE 213 to mount Tai in the west of Shantung. In the summer he made a similar tour to the south, in the autumn to the west, and in the winter to the north, repeating in each case the sacrifices offered in the east. On the completion of these tours in the end of the year, he offered a young bull in sacrifice to his ancestors in the ancestral temple. Every fifth year he repeated this process. Hence we can see that God was beheved to be everywhere and could be worshipped anywhere. The subordinate deities had each his own particular locus, and the ancestors were always connected with the temple dedicated to their service. This displays an intelligent appreciation of the immanence of God which is not always approached in modern times and in Christian lands, where God is sometimes believed to be in this " Jerusalem " or that " Samaria," where His face can be more readily manifested and His favour more easily secured. When Yii was employed in converting the chaos of marsh and flood into orderly land, he worshipped the mountains in the regions which he had to pass, and King Wu on his march for empire worshipped every notable mountain and every great river on the way. These sacrifices, wang, were offered apparently at a distance from but " towards " the objects there- . of, as Mohammedans worship towards Mecca. The design of the sacrifice was to secure the goodwill of the local deity in each case, so that no damage should be done by the wild beasts of the forests or the floods of the river. 214 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA VI. CONFUCIUS ON SACEIFICE Though the specific teaching of the History and the Odes on the subject of sacrifice is exhausted in the preceding pages, it may not be without interest to append here the few sentiments on sacrifice contained in the books on the doctrines of Confucius, who followed, at no great distance in time, the conclud- ing period of the two classics. The statements in the Eitual ascribed to him are excluded. " When Confucius visited the Great Temple (of royal ancestors) he inquired the meaning of every- thing he saw, and replied to those who questioned his conduct that it was proper so to do." He acknow- ledged that he was ignorant of the meaning of the Ti ^ sacrifice, which was offered every fifth year to the remote ancestor of the Sovereign. " He who could explain all that was signified by that sacrifice could rule the kingdom as easily as he could turn his hand." "He who could understand the ceremonial con- nected with the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth would find it as easy to rule the nation as to look on the palm of his own hand. By the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth the King served God." " Sacrifices to the shen should be offered as though they were known to be present. That sacrifice was no worship at which the person on whose behalf it was being offered was not present." " The man who sacrificed to a spirit (Kwei) not his own ancestor was guilty of presumptuous flattery." " The Eitual says that the Prince ploughs to grow millet for sacrifice. His wife feeds silkworms ' Pronounced dee. SACRIFICE 215 to provide silk robes for the sacrifice. If the victims are not without flaw, if the millet is not pure, if the robes are not in every way complete, he will not dare to sacrifice.^ When ofiiciating at the sacrificial feast, the Sovereign who sacrifices, tastes everything himself first." A disciple informed Confucius of his desire to obtain a subordinate post of service at the sacrifices in the ancestral temple of the Sovereign. Confucius replied, " Who but princes have any part in the services at the sacrifices in the royal ancestral temple ? " Another disciple, believing that the sacrifice of a sheep on the first day of every month was mere waste, suggested that the expense might be spared. Confucius replied, " You love the sheep, but I love the customary ritual." " Though a man be evil, if he compose his mind, fast, and bathe, he may sacrifice to God." " When Tang ruled in Po, the neighbouring State of Ko was under a dissolute prince who offered no sacrifice. Tang inquired as to the cause of the neglect, and was informed that there was no animal for sacrifice. He therefore sent both oxen and sheep ; but Ko, instead of sacrificing, ate them. Tang re- peated his question, and was told there was no millet. He sent some of his own people to cultivate the ground and to produce millet. They were laden with all sorts of provisions given by Tang to support them in the meantime. Ko seized their provisions, slaying those who refused to give them up. Thereupon Tang attacked and defeated Ko, annexing his territory. The ' This note implies that parts of the Ritual were in existence in the time of Confucius. 2i6 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA States on every hand prayed him for similar deliver- ance from tyranny. Thus began his march towards sovereignty." These extracts show that Confucius had imbibed the spirit of the ancient sages, demanding sincerity as essential in worshipping the unseen ; but we see that he attached considerably more importance than the ancients to the punctilious observance of every detail of ceremonial. He was an ardent ritualist in all that pertained to the worship of the unseen ; and he was evidently a dualist in philosophy. VII. THE PEIEST In all the sacrificial acts associated with the name of Shun, his own was the only name mentioned as actor. The sacrifice to God was indeed the pre- rogative of the Sovereign and the public evidence of his office as vicegerent of God. The same is equally true of all the rulers of China down to the estab- lishment of the Chow dynasty, when the principle of duality was introduced into EeUgion. And in the great sacrifices to Heaven and Earth then insti- tuted, in the sacrifices to the royal ancestors, to the gods of land and grain, of mountains and rivers, and of the elements, the Sovereign was stiU Pontifex Maximus. Certain parts of his priestly offices in secondary sacrifices he could delegate to high civil officials ; but the offerings were ordinarily provided and presented by the Sovereign personally, though the sacrifice by deputy was equally his act. Sacrifice bulks largely in the duties of the perfect Sovereign, as defined by Yii. " It must be orderly and reverently presented by him. If presented with SACRIFICE 217 irregularities, it indicates a spirit of irreverence ; if ceremonial is troublesome or annoying, it creates dis- order. It is difficult to serve the shen by sacrifice." But though the Sovereign was the officiating priest, all officials, high and low, were present in their official capacity. Many of the highest directly assisted in the sacrifice, each holding one of the numerous vessels required in the many ceremonies and the various offer- ings connected with every sacrifice. In an ode, King Wu after victory is said to have " gone through the land offering sacrifices, by which he attracted to him all the inferior, deities, even those of the rivers and the mountains." When the new capital of Lo was built in the east to consohdate the Government against the rebellious tendencies of the survivors of the preceding dynasty, Duke Chow prayed his Sovereign to inaugurate the capital by sacrifice. He also advised that the cere- monial of the dispossessed dynasty should be carried out, inasmuch as the capital was ia the country of the Yin. In connection with the sacrifices he recom- mended that everything be done in an orderly manner, but without ostentatious display. The King should give orders that public notice be taken of the meri- torious officials, and that of these the most worthy should have precedence in serving at the sacrifice. The order of merit should be published, and the King should command the officials engaged in performing their several parts to do so with sincere earnestness. The King acknowledged the advice and promised that he, though young, should act in reverence towards Heaven, bring harmony among all the people, give honour to the most distinguished officials, and regulate the appointments to the first places in the ceremonial 2i8 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA of the sacrifice, and that all should be done in proper order and without ostentation. This was following the example of King Wen, who carefully scrutinised all the officials in the Government, penetrated their minds, and selected for highest office those who could reverently serve God and conduct themselves as wise governors over the people. When the Sovereign sacrificed to Heaven or in the temple of ancestors, the high officials were always present. In all sacrifice the mind of the offerer must be sincere. Perfect sincerity will move the mind of the gods. The shen will not necessarily accept all offer- ings. They will accept only those sacrifices which are presented with sincere heart. China was then a theocracy. The ruler, selected by the all-scrutinising God, acted absolutely as vice- gerent of God, and always by the aid of God. He was Pontifex Maximus, acting before God in the name of the nation, as he ruled the nation in the name of God. He was the ruler of men only because he was the servant of God. It is an interesting fact that throughout the entire history of China there is no evi- dence in the classics of the existence at any time of a priestly class to intercede or interfere between God and man. As in Genesis and Job, the head of the State or of the family officiated as priest. VIII. THE ALTAE Sacrifice implies an altar on which it is offered. Of the nature of the ancient altar we can predicate no more than that it stood above the ground. The kind of materials employed for its construction, and SACRIFICE 219 its shape and dimensions, are matters which are left indeterminate. Of the shape and constituents of the altar used by Shun we are ignorant. But we may- take for granted that the altar was then characterised by simplicity, as it is now. This is indeed implied in the Chinese character for altar. It is composed of two separate characters, one meaning " earth " and the other meaning " truth." The name of the com- posite character is Tan. The Great Dictionary of Kanghi defines it as an " erection of earth." After Shun had completed the survey of his kingdom, he erected an altar in each of the twelve districts, or provinces, into which his little kingdom was divided. When Duke Chow offered his own life to redeem that of his brother,^ he did not enter the ancestral temple and consult his ancestors. He had the right, in name of his apparently dying brother, to enter the temple in order to sacrifice there. But this right he disclaimed, and, " taking the business entirely upon himself," made it a private matter. He therefore selected an open piece of ground, of which he levelled and cleared a space large enough for his purpose. On this space he erected three altars of earth on the level ground, each dedicated 'to one of his three preced- ing paternal ancestors. These three faced south — the most honourable position. Over-against these he erected another altar facing north, before which he stood, making his orisons and his vow towards the three. These altars were all of the utmost simplicity. This principle of simplicity has been handed down through all the ages. The altar to Heaven now in use in the great enclosure south of Peking ^ stands » See pp. 126, 164. ^ gee " Manchu Ritual." 220 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA out alone and isolated amid the most imposing ac- cessories of costly materials. In construction it is ovate, somewhat bath-like in shape, just large enough to contain the carcass of the young slain bull and the charcoal by which it is burned. It is built of glazed brick, and its design is simple in the extreme, repre- senting in unbroken succession the simplicity of the earthen altar of Duke Chow. The same priaciple of simplicity we find exempli- fied in the tombs of royalty. However magnificent the buildings and imposing the wall enclosing the mausoleum, the grave itself is a circular mound, as simple for an Emperor as for a peasant. From the Odes we learn that altars were erected to the gods of the land, to local deities, and on the borders of the royal domain, on which to sacrifice to God, to Heaven and Earth, to the gods of mountains and rivers. Those erected on the borders of the royal domain seem to have been temporary. IX. TEMPLE Though altars were erected on which to offer sacri- fice to every supernatural being, they were all, with one exception, erected under the open sky. The exception was the temple to ancestors. This temple (miao) was the first building erected at the establish- ment of a capital by the OhoW dynasty. It is said in the Eitual, when discussing the origin of sacrifice, that " in early times the Sovereign had no palace and the people no house. They lived in dug-out holes in winter, and in summer their dwelling-places were made of straw and grass. They were ignorant of the use of fire for cooking. They SACRIFICE 221 ate the seeds of grain and the fruit of trees. The flesh of fowl and of beast they ate with the blood and the hair.^ They wore no clothing, their covering being of feathers or skins. " But there arose among the ancients, sages who introduced changes. The use of fire was discovered. By it metal and earth were united. Then towers were erected, palaces built, and houses with doors. Food of all kinds began to be cooked. Then it was that spirits were distilled and vinegar made. Hemp and silk were twisted, and woven into cloth for garments. All this was done to support life, to make provision for the dead, to serve the Kweishen and God by sacrifice. This was the origin of sacrificial services." The ancestral temple has been from prehistoric times an essential adjunct to the possessor of sovereign power. The family of a dethroned monarch is said to come to an end ; for the public sacrifices in his ancestral temple can be no longer offered. The reigning monarch proves his right to rule by erecting a temple where his own ancestors, on account of whose merit he has obtained sovereignty, may be worshipped. Every family has its own shrine whereat to worship its own ancestors ; but there is only one national ancestral temple, and. that is in the immediate charge of the reigning Sovereign. The number of references in the History to the temple of ancestors proves the great importance ^ A Manohu official informed me years ago that the case containing a knife and chopsticks slung at the side is a relic of the time when, three centuries ago, in their home east of Moukden, they cut off slices of the wild boar just killed in the chase, and ate it warm. " It was delicious," he added. 222 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA attached by the Chinese to this phase of worship, and the following quotations will show their living faith in the constant supervision by the ancestors of their living representatives. It was in the temple to the Cultured Ancestor that Yao demitted the throne to Shun, as if calling his ancestors to witness the transfer of authority, so that the aid which they had hitherto given to him might be transmitted to the new King, who would continue the services to them which had been performed in the past by him. On the death of Yao, Shun became sole ruler. After the three years' period of mourning was com- pleted, he entered the temple of the Cultured Ancestors to offer a bull in sacrifice. He thus announced his accession to the throne. Of his officials, Shun ap- pointed Baron Yi to take charge of the ancestral temple and the three rehgious ceremonies, enjoining him to be respectful, upright, and pure in the dis- charge of his duties. The three ceremonials were those to serve the Shen of heaven, the Chi of earth, and the Kwei of men — three grades of inferior deities.^ Thus the official in charge of the ancestral temple had under his care the ceremonies connected with the worship of all the inferior deities, implying that these were subordinate to his main charge, the worship of ancestors coming next in importance to the worship of God. Yti was made assessor-King by Shun in the temple of the Wonderful Ancestor, being invested with the oversight of all officials. Tai Kang, a successor of Yii, neglected the precepts, and acted contrary to the example of his great ancestor, so that on one of his frequent hunting 1 See " Inferior Deities," p. 143. SACRIFICE 223 expeditions he was prevented by a rebellion from returning to his capital. One of his brothers, in an ode lamenting the loss of the throne, said that, by " casting off the rules of their intelligent ancestor, the fainily was overturned and the sacrifices were abolished." Yi Tin, when sacrificing to the deceased King Tang in the temple, presented his successor, to whom, in presence of all the officials and nobles, he delivered a charge founded on the excellency of his predecessor, urging him to a life of virtue, the neglect of which would tumble down in ruins his ancestral temple. Wu Ting was in the act of sacrificing to his ancestor Tang when a crowing pheasant appeared at the altar. This was an omen, and he was exhorted by his minister to pay attention in sacrifice to all his ancestors, and not to confine himself to his father alone ; for only thus could he fully perform his duty reverently to Heaven. Among the many crimes of King Show, last of the Shang dynasty, which demanded his destruction was that of neglecting the temple of his ancestors, and permitting the victims which Were intended for sacri- fice to be stolen by robbers. King Wu, before advancing against this wicked King, offered sacrifice in the ancestral temple to his deceased father. Wen, and received a " charge " from his father to punish the evil-doer. He then offered sacrifice to God to " inform " Him, After the success- ful termination of the war he sacrificed again in the ancestral temple, to inform his ancestors of his success. On this occasion the princes of the newly acquired provinces carried the sacrificial vessels. At the obsequies following the death of King 224 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Cheng the ceremonial observed was most ornate, all the officials being present. The ritual is described in minute detail, but for us the most important part of it is the description of the sacrifice to the departed. The Minister of Keligion and the highest officials wore hempen caps and red skirts, and the Minister of Eeligion bore the cup for sacrifice and the mace. The testament of the deceased Sovereign was delivered to the young monarch by the Historiographer. Bow- ing low twice, the King rose and said that he, " being but a child, was not fit to rule the kingdom in the fear of Heaven." He received the cup and the mace cover. Thrice he advanced with the cup, thrice he made libation, and thrice he put down the cup. The Minister of Eeligion declared that the sacrifice was accepted ; and the heir became the reigning Sovereign. A note in the History explains that when the testament was handed to the King he was standing at the top of the western steps with his face to the north. The Historiographer stood close to the coffin on the south-west of it, facing east. There he read the charge to the King, who bowed twice. Then the Minister of Eeligion on the south-west of the King, facing north, presented the cup and the mace cover. These the King took, and handing the cover to an attendant, advanced with the cup to the place between the pillars where stood the vessel containing the sacrificial spirits. Having filled the cup, he went to the east of the coffin, facing west ; and, going to the spot where his father's spirit was supposed to be, he made his libation, pouring the spirits on the ground. He then set down the cup on a table prepared for the purpose. This ceremonial he performed three times. SACRIFICE 225 The cup was taken away by the Grand Guardian, who descended the steps, washed his hands, and took another cup with which to make the responsive sacrifice. Handing the cup to an attendant, he made obeisance to the King, who returned his salute. The Guardian then took the cup and sacrificed with it. He barely tasted the sacrificial spirits, retired to his place, gave the cup to the attendant, and did obeisance, which the King acknowledged. The Guardian then descended from the hall, the various utensils were taken away, and aU the princes went out by the temple gate and waited. This, in the ancestral temple,' was the manner in which the Chinese at that ancient time said, " The King is dead," " Long live the King ! " 15 CHAPTER VI THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL PAOE I. INTRODUCTION, OR OEREMONTAT, . 229 II. AUTHENTICITY AND CHARACTER OF BOOK .... . 238 III. PROPER SPIRIT IN SACRIFICE . 247 IV. SACRIFICE TO GOD . . 253 V. SACRIFICE TO ANCESTORS . 256 VI. DEITIES WORSHIPPED . 269 VII. TEMPLE . . 274 VIII. VARIETY OF SACRIFICE . 277 IX. OFFERINGS ' . 280 X. UTENSILS . 282 XI. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS '. 282 XII. ANIMALS USED IN SACRIFICE . 283 XIII. CALENDAR OF SACRIFICE . . 284 I. CEEEMONIAL Among no people has ceremonial in life and ritual in worship demanded more attention than in China. Ceremonial has here commanded the thought, the talent, and the labour of the greatest thinkers. Con- fucius, by whose influence the national character was stereotyped, attached such importance to ceremonial, that he is often charged with elevatiag it as the chief factor in civilised life and the best guide thereof. For this he has been held up to ridicule by men who should consider that the population of China, who are by no means unreasoning imbeciles, would not, for a couple of thousand years, have been dominated by shadows without substantial basis. He disclaimed for himself the merit of discovery or invention. All he claimed was a studious research into a long-gone antiquity, when there lived men of greater minds than his. The practices and theories of those mighty men with which he had become acquainted he made known to his contemporaries and transmitted to his successors. Ceremonial was carefully attended to in the ages as far back from Confucius as he is from us. Twenty- six centuries before the Christian era there was a Minister of Ceremonial or Eitual. The probability is that such a minister had been in existence ages before. It has been said, with some show of reason, that ceremonial is the embodiment of the Chinese character 22g 230 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA — of the social obligations, the religious duties, of the whole man in his public capacity and his private life. The extent to which this is apparent induced Gallery to write that if one understood the Book of Eitual and the practical ceremonial belonging to Chinese life, he would know the Chinese people. Even were this true absolutely, the Chinese philosopher could present a fairly satisfactory apology. If we take the History to be substantially accurate — and there is no overwhelming reason for scepticism on the point — we find that the foundation of the existing conditions of Chinese life and society was laid at or before the remotest point of time implied in the Book. Babylon and Egypt were then at the height of their ancient power and civilisa- tion, while Europe and the rest of Africa were enshrouded in the thick mists of savagery. Since that period how many nations have risen above the horizon and sunk out of sight, some from nothing to power, and from power to weakness or even to nothing again, while the people of China have been like the rising tide, always growing in population, in extent; in influence, and in inherent power, ever acquiring increasing potentialities, though, it may be, with many a backward step. History teaches us that nations have risen, pro- gressed, and decayed because of influences arising from their own internal conditions, not because of circum- stances external to them. It was not the weakness of others that made them powerful, nor did the power of others drag them down. Their inherent or acquired character was the dynamic which raised them up ; the deterioration of that character, mental or bodily, laid them low. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 231 If China, of all ancient nations, has continued with unequal step to go steadily onwards, it is not without cause. Only in very recent times have the Chinese come into contact with any people who could be regarded as their equals. In olden times they had seen no people superior to themselves in bodily vigour ; their equals in mental endowments they never en- countered. Amid changing environment, her internal circum- stances and general character persisted. In our endeavours to trace a cause for this persistency we are driven to the conclusion that her ideals had much, if not most, to do with producing so unique a result. These ideals have altered but little, and that little only in details, so that we must ascribe the result largely to the high place given to ceremonial in the education which she has consistently insisted on providing for all classes of her people. By this ceremonial every man knew the duties connected with his particular relationships in society, and he accepted those duties as his ideal, which he must at least attempt to reach. These relationships are five.^ Of the duties involved in these relation- ships ceremonial forms an essential part, and indeed is implied in them all. It clearly defines the duties of each relationship, every man recognising his own. These duties have always been strongly emphasised and morally enforced. For if each man faithfully carries out his respective duties, all will infalhbly receive their full rights.^ National disturbances were attributed to the neglect of these duties.. As Chinese philosophers have believed, with Plato, that crime and wrong-doing 1 See note 1, p. 42. ^ gee " Ten Lessons," p. 263. 232 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA . are the products of ignorance, they insisted that men's various duties should be fully and clearly taught as the chief means of enabling them to attain the pre- servation, or restoration, of peace and harmony. It was axiomatic that there could be no rebellion in the kingdom when children observed their duties in the family. It was imperatively demanded by ceremonial that the Sovereign should never fail to show reverence to all-ruling Heaven by the most scrupulous attention to all the customary sacrifices, to offering these at their due season and in their proper fashion. All his subjects would follow his example, and universal peace would be the result. The remark is therefore justifiable that if one knew their ceremonial one would understand the Chinese people. Thus to this ceremonial, binding on the lowest as on the highest, and involving secular affairs as well as sacred, we must assign a very prominent place among the causes of the conservation of the Chinese people throughout the centuries, which have seen the rise and fall of so many other nations, whose chief ■ reliance was on the might of their arm, the sharpness of their sword, or the keenness of their wit. The might of brute force has never given, in China, the right to rule. The reason why the Sovereign was entitled to the faithful service of his ministers, to the perfect obedience of his people, was that he devoted himself to the well-being of his people down to the meanest, so that no individual, however lowly, should be treated otherwise than justly and as a free man. To protect the weak, to right the injured, to prevent wickedness, or to punish the wicked — all this was THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 233 demanded by ceremonial. And it was the duty of the noble-minded man, be he prince, minister, or peasant, who possessed the requisite qualifications of combined goodness and ability, to raise the flag of justice against, and drive from the throne which he had disgraced, the unworthy monarch who neglected the duties commanded by ceremonial and who forgot the interests of his people. The slaughter, distress, and all forms of calamity which ensued, were but the result of the neglect of ceremonial, and were the only method whereby its lost authority could be restored. Civil war was demanded by ceremonial to regain right for the nation. As soon as the wicked ruler Tvas over- thrown, ceremonial demanded the speedy restoration of peace and of the normal conditions of life. In a certain rough fashion this rule holds good in China to this day. The officials who are least scrupulous know that there are limits beyond which they dare not venture. If they strain their authority to serve their private ends, the patient populace will unite in their indignation, and, appeahng to ceremonial, will make it impossible for them to continue their mischievous conduct.^ It need therefore excite no surprise that the Chinese attach so much importance to ceremonial, which raises a barrier against national extinction by excess of misrule ; nor should the fact that the foundation of ceremonial has in modern times been overgrown by what is merely ornamental be allowed to blind our eyes to the real significance of ceremonial in the estimation of the ancient worthies, or to its value in the education of the moderns. If 1 In all this we seem to hear the echo of our own appeals to " Law " in its absolute sense. If the principle is comprehended, it will explain the recent action of the people of China, Boxerism and after. 234 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the Chinese fail to do the right, it is not because they are ignorant of it. But the remark, that if one knew their ceremonial one would know the Chinese people, though justifiable, nevertheless falls short of the truth. The Chinese have been accused of being merely ceremonial. Mere ceremonial has certainly been of considerable value to the race ; but that their formal etiquette has been the chief feature underlying the national character contains about as much truth as that Britain is one of the most perfidious of nations. To know the Chinese, therefore, one must know more than their external ceremonial. One must come to understand that the ceremonial is but the shell enclosing the living kernel of an active and conserving truth ; that ceremonial is more than etiquette. In the preceding pages, the word " ceremonial " has been used throughout as the translation of the Chinese word LI. It will be observed, from the extent of ground covered by the word, that it is an inadequate representation of the Chinese term. Indeed, no one word in English can convey adequately all that is implied in the term. With all the most exacting etiquette determining every movement of man's body in every relationship and position in life, with all its three thousand ceremonies, the most vital part of the term is still lacking. The character for li is a compound formed of three simple characters. Two ^ go to form a character, also pronounced li (lee), which signifies a sacrificial 1 ChM, abundance of grain. Teii, sacrificial vessel. THE LI, CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 235 vessel. The third/ placed at the left of the entire word, means to " inform," and is always used in the composite words connected with sacrifice to any deity or ancestor. The compound character is therefore equivalent to the offering of sacrifice to God, or the gods. Sacrifice is indeed defined as "informing" God, or whatever other being is worshipped. The " information " may be the expression of gratitude for favours received, or may imply a petition for future favours, either in the receiving of good or in the avoidance of evil. Hence we may reasonably infer that the word li was originally indicative of such ceremonial as was connected with the worship of God in sacrifice, or that of ancestors or of the subordinate deities. In sacrificing, every movement of the body, every word spoken and the manner of it, the size, form, quality, quantity, number, and colour of every article used, were carefully defined, and strictly placed beyond all possibility of change or modification. No addition was permitted to the rites handed down by antiquity, and no subtraction or omission tolerated. Not less imperative than in ritualistic quarters in the West was this punctilious devotion to minutiae and strict sequence of order reckoned to be essential to the service. This will enable us to understand how the term has come to embrace the ceremonial of social life as well as the ritual of sacrifice. But it ^ Shi, to inform. Li, oeremoiiial, pronounoed lee. Form of li in the time of Oonfucms signifying "gi'ain over a vessel held up by two hands " = elevation in sacrifice. 236 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA fails to explain adequately why li has* exercised so potent an influence on the past of the Chinese people. Were it synonymous with ritualism, etiquette, or ceremonial, its influence would have disappeared centuries ago. Our word " propriety," embracing both manner and conduct, comes nearer the Chinese significancy. The Book of Eitual begins by stating that there are three things necessary to produce national content- ment. The first is that a man should be reverent in all things ; the second, that his manner should correspond to his thought ; the third, that his speech should be accurate and select. The saying is quoted that the three hundred varieties of li and the three thousand apophthegms on li are all implied in the one word " reverence," which is again said to mean the strictest attention to one's manners, so as to be removed alike from violence on the one hand and from remissness on the other. Hence we learn that reverence, sincerity, and correct speech embrace all that is implied in the ritual of China, and that ceremonial is but the outward expression of these fundamental principles. As the Eitual puts it : " Li has a root and a flower. Its root is faithfulness and sincerity; its flower is integrity and principle." Ceremonial is the clothing of the body, of which the bones and sinews are faithfulness and sincerity, the flesh and blood are integrity and principle. Integrity in one's life, and actions grounded on principle, are the outward expression of .faithfulness and sincerity of heart. Without these, mere ritual in worship and etiquette of ceremonial fail to reach up to the standard of li. They are of themselves without value and have no virtue. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 237 Yet li does demand form. The three thousand ceremonies touched life at every point. It guided, restrained, hemmed in the conduct of man as com- pletely as ever their ceremonial did that of the Pharisees. There was a proper way of sitting down and of rising up, of lying on one's bed and sitting at one's meals, of entering one's door, of saluting men, of receiving one's guests and of seeing them off. But the substance must precede the form. The block of marble is taken for granted. It is a sine qud non. The cutting and chiselHng, the rubbing and the polishing of ceremonial, are secondary, but yet they are essential. to the production of the true man. The subjects of these processes are " cooked," the others are '' raw " ; those are civilised, these barbarians, who live the life of " bird and beast." To li, therefore, ethics are as essential as etiquette. It includes what is proper in morals no less than what is correct in manners, the two being regarded as inseparable in the true man. .Esthetics are imphed, as is true nobility. Li controls the thoughts of the heart no less surely than the acts of the body. It outweighs the influence of laws and governments. It has, up to the present, been the police force of China. It is more important than force in the relations of mankind. In guiding the nation it is more potential than an army. It is the standard of every act, the touchstone of every principle, the measure of every word. In the classics it involves respect for the aged, deference to authority, devotion to friends, love to parents, and reverence for the unseen beings who oversee mankind ; all of which is implied in strict attention to what is right.^ ^ P. 247. 238 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA When principles are clearly defined in the mind, regulating the thoughts and desires of the heart, the mode of speech, the relations of man, his actions in his own life, and his manners in society, then there is real li. The elucidation of li in the minutest detail has therefore been the greatest ambition, and has commanded the most undivided earnestness, of the master minds of China. II. AUTHENTICITY The Preface to the Kitual states that " of all the methods established by Heaven and handed down by the succession .of ancient sages for the correct conduct and the well-being of man, none approaches li in importance. Of all the books of instruction published in this world not one is superior to the Book of Ritual The ceremonies classically defined were three hundred, those expressed in apophthegms numbered three thousand. These inhere by nature in every healthy and intelligent human heart, making man one with the fundamental elements of heaven and earth. " On account of the ups and downs of the Four ^ Dynasties, their prosperities and calamities, and the natural changes produced by the progress of time, this classification has lost much of its original shape, and it cannot now be understood to perfection." Thus briefly is the fact announced that changes have occurred during the lapse of the ages in the form of the ceremonial and in the number of the ceremonies for which so great an antiquity is asserted. ' Yao, Hia, Shang, and Chow ; sometimes called five, namely — Yao, Shun, Hia, Shang, and Chow. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 239 In accordance with the supposed great antiquity of the book, Chinese scholars claim it to be the work of Duke Chow (twelfth century B.C.); Internal evi- dence, however, proves that the Four Dynasties saw little of the Eitual as it now stands, and that Duke Chow could have had little more to do with the compilation than the fact that his was a great name, which would lend authority and influence to any book. Tradition has but a feeble basis on which to found this claim. The text contains many state- ments ascribed to Confucius, and even to some of his disciples. These statements are not always quite consistent with the acknowledged teaching of the sage. The book being manifestly compiled by dis- ciples of Confucius, its origin as a book must have been at a period a good deal subsequent to the time of their master. Had it existed in the time of Mencius, he could not have failed, though of a temperament different from Confucius, to make serious allusions to so important a collection of rehgious materials. But though not compiled by the most notable of China's scholars, the book contains many allusions to ritual more ancient than itself, and relies for its authority on traditional customs. When such customs are indissolubly associated with the most sacred actions in the life of so conservative a people as the Chinese, we need have little hesitation in adopting the references to ancient history as fairly reliable. These references were transmitted continuously from one set of official scholars to another. But the ritual accompanying the customs came by lapse of time to be meaninglfess. Confucius said that to him who could understand the meaning of the ritual connected with the sacrifices to God and to the ancestors, the 240 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA regulation of the kingdom would be as easy as it was to look on the palm of his hand. For this very reason we are, it se6ms to the writer, the more justified in accepting as authentically belonging to the original Eeligion of China the ritualistic forms which had ceased to have any special significance so long ago as the time of Confucius. Had Confucius been able to attach some definite sort of teaching to those forms, we might suspect that they were possibly originated by him, with a purpose similar in design to that which has introduced so much ceremonial in the "West. Though we cannot accept the completed Eitual as the work of Duke Chow or of Confucius, we are able to accept much of the ceremonial as belonging to an age older than both. For just as the Manchu dynasty adopted in full the laws and customs of its predecessor, so the dynasty of Chow (twelfth century B.C.) adopted the laws and customs of its predecessor, the chief blame attachable to which was the neglect of those same laws and customs. Chinese writers in the Christian era divided the times preceding their own int(| three : (1) the primal ancient, (2) the mid-ancient, and (3) the near ancient. The first preceded the twelfth century B.C. ; to it belongs the first section of the History. The second fell between the first and the time of Con- fucius. To it belonged the second and larger section of the History and the Odes, both detailing the story of the Chow dynasty. The third was the period between the second and the time of the writers. To this period must fall to be assigned the Book of Eitual. In the Eitual there is implied a form of philosophy or cosmogony which is not explained, but which is the foundation of another book — the Yi Ching, or Classic THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 241 of Changes. This book did not exist in the primal ancient period, with whose philosophy it is incon- sistent. It did exist in the time of Confucius, who would fain have given years to the study of its mysterious sayings. Its characteristic is the dual principle as the source of all things animate and inanimate. This duality enters largely into the teaching of Confucius, who does not, however, attempt any explanation of it. To the Eitual it is of vital importance. It is inseparable from all ritual and regulates all ceremonial. It is the key, far as key is attainable, with which can be unlocked the reasons for almost all ritualistic acts. According to the Yi Ching, " the Illimitable pro- duced the Great Beginning, the G-reat Beginning produced the Two Principles, and the Two Principles produced all things." ^ The two principles are called the Yang and the Yin. The Yang is motion, the Yin is rest. By alternate motion and rest, activity and quiescence, all things are produced. Thus originated the permutations of life and death, with changes of all kinds in the universe, the material of which is for ever being transformed and transposed, the dead into living of all kinds, and the Hving into dead again, or into different forms of life. Here we have an interesting theory implying the imperishabihty of matter and the conservation of energy. But this theory is subsequent to the introduction of the dual principle. ' We have here surely an interesting echo of the first chapter of John's Gospel and of the Logos of Greek philosophy and Jewish theocracy. Some writers think that this duality is traceable to Zoro- astrianism ; but the dissimilarities are too numerous and too radical to claim any other connection than the acknowledgment in common of two different principles ; while it antedates Zoroaster by centuries. 16 242 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA In the Illimitable we can trace the unknown and remote cause of all, itself uncaused. In the Great Beginning we can see the Demiurge, and in the Yang and the Yin the active energy of the Demiurge manifested in the endless changes undergone by matter, living or dead. From the doctrine of the Illimitable we must infer that there was a time when heaven and earth were beheved to begin to be, and therefore a time when they did not exist. It is not distinctly stated that matter was created, but it may surely be inferred from the fact that heaven and earth had a beginning.^ The Yang and Yin are not independent entities. They are qualities inhering in substance of all kinds, living or dead. But there must be substance in which they do inhere. Indeed, everything contains them both, but in different proportions. " There is no Yang without Yin, and no Yin without Yang." In- telligence cannot be ascribed to them.^ The form and qualities of everything are deter- mined by Nature, or "of necessity." Everything possessing form exists, or transmits itself by an inherent law which it cannot change and which is " of Heaven." This law is called its Tao, or " way," or " method." This word was adopted by Laotzu to name the fundamental principle of his philosophy which has been called " Taoism." It has been adopted by Chris- tians as the equivalent of logos. The motions of the ' A Chinese literary man, who had all his life given himself to the study of astronomy, told me that his theory of the beginning of all things was that a white mist and a hlack one (Yang and Yin?) mingled in the expanse and thus formed the first nucleus of solid matter ! The theory is as good as many more pretentious ones. ' The Yin Yang theory may be, with interest, compared with the teachings of theosophy. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 243 heavenly bodies are fixed and unalterable. This is the " way " of Heaven. The nature of man, physical and mental, his intellectual qualities and his ethical doctrine, compose the " way " of man. Every beast and bird and creeping thing, everything with shape, has its own 'special " way," and to that " way" it has of necessity to conform. This " way " being originally of Heaven cannot be changed. Here we have the Chinese belief in the fixity of species, which is the result of their close examination for long ages of the phenomena of Nature^ — of the living and the dead. All the transformations, trans- mutations, and transitions in life are thus effected by unvarying law and by means of the interaction of the Yang and the Yin. These two principles, working through the five " moving " or metamorphic principles of metal, wood, water, fire, and earth, produce all changes from death to life, from one form of life to another, and from life to death, in endless transmutation. Yang is motion, Yin is rest. The heavens are Yang, the earth Yin. Light is Yang, darkness Yin. The sun is Yang, the moon Yin. The hard is Yang, the soft Yin. Bone is Yang and flesh Yin. Male is Yang and female Yin. The soul of man at birth is Yang, at death it is Yin. The Shen are Yang and are on high, the Kwei are Yin and are beneath.^ Offerings to the Shen of the deceased are therefore burnt sacrifices, that their fragrance may ascend to heaven. Offerings to the Kwei of the deceased are poured out on the earth or buried in it.^ The sacrifices to the Yang are offered on an elevated altar, those to the Yin are buried or poured out in a hollow.^ The sacrifice to Heaven 1 This distinction did not exist in the primal-ancient period. 2 Compare with sacrifices of ancient Rome. 244 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA is on an elevated altar, that to the earth in a hollow. In spring the essence of heaven, which is Yang, descends, and the essence of earth (Yin) ascends, They meet and commingle, as in marriage, and all new life begins. Spring and summer are therefore Yang ; all life is young and growing. Hence there must be no capital punishment and no war, but rewards are then bestowed. In autumn, the essence of heaven reascends and that of the earth descends, growth ceases and death supervenes. The autumn and winter are Yin, when the punishment of death is enacted and war is carried on. In reading the Ritual one cannot fail to be im- pressed with the great prominence of the spirit world in Chinese thought and life. But for this, the book would indeed have no claim to exist. It is essentially devoted to the sacrifices offered to the Kweishen of departed ancestors. When a new Sovereign was en- throned, the spirit of his predecessor was said to have ascended on high.^ The spirit of King "Wen was en- shrouded in light, and always moving in the presence of God. The Shen of the departed are conscious, intelligent ; they rejoice at the goodness, are grieved and angry at the wickedness, of their descendants. They are always coming and going. We cannot know when they come and when they go, when they are present or when absent. We should therefore act always as though they were present. They are in the heavens above; hence the need of burnt-offerings to gratify their sense of smell. They are beneath ; hence ^ In state proclamations this was affirmed of both the Emperor and the Empress Dowager lately deceased ; the terms used for these two differ the one from the other. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 245 the need for libations of spirits on the ground to console them below. The Chinese had no definite conceptions of heaven and hell, in our sense of perfect happiaess and special misery. The only conception of theirs that is clear to us is one of light and darkness ; involving, however, no punishment in the latter, though possibly implying reward in the former. Yet they cannot have con- fceived the condition of the Shen as being an enviable one ; for they beUeved that they, like the hungry ghosts of the Eomans, came down with alacrity to the feasts provided for them by their filial descendants. The sacrifices, with great variety of edibles and potables, were offered to satisfy the cravings of hunger and thirst. The offerings were composed chiefly of the articles of food for which the deceased when Hving had shown predilection. Of these offerings the Shen were supposed to partake freely. They "ate and drank to satiety," and were credited with delight be- cause of the excellence of the feast. They left the feast for the regions above, after declaring through their representative their resolution to confer favours without end on their dutiful descendant. From this belief arose, as in ancient India, the desire to have a son who should offer these sacrifices in their due season and prevent the suffering con- sequent on endless fasting. Occasionally it was permitted to certaia individuals to offer sacrifices to the spirits of the dead who had left no male descendant. But Confucius declares it a work of useless superero- gation, bordering on presumption, to offer sacrifices to spirits not those of his own ancestors. Thus the ideas entertained in the "West regarding Purgatory are the nearest to the Chinese beliefs 246 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA regarding the spirit world. But there are two differences. The suffering of the Chinese spirits was caused by deprivation, not by positive pain. Again, though the living could conduce largely to the comfort of the deceased, there was no conception of change of state in or from the spirit world. Buddhism introduced into China the notion of change from one form to another of conscious existence, till perfection of character put an end to all change and all suffering by the cessation of being. There was no theorising as to what was the actual condition of the departed spirits in the other world, or as to the duration of their existence. The Sovereign had seven temples ^ to as many ancestors, each with his own deified name, to whom sacrifice was offered monthly. To other four earlier ancestors quarterly sacrifices were offered. The spirits of the ancestors preceding these eleven generations were classified together as Kwei, or nameless "demons." To the Kwei no special sacrifices were offered, though they were regarded as consciously existing, active and influential. Euling princes were allowed indifidual names for five ancestors to whom sacrifices were offered. The predecessors of these five were nameless Kwei. The ancestors of the common people were all Kwei, which is the generic name for all disembodied spirits. They had no notion of that class of beings to whom we give the name of " devil." Worship by sacrifice is now made to five generations, but the dead preceding these five are dropped out of acquaintance and service. We are not told what was thought of the condition of those spirits to whom no offerings were made ; > P. 276. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 247 but it can be inferred that the state of the Kwei too remote to be served by sacrifice must have been regarded as an uncomfortable one. From all this it is abundantly clear that the Chinese did not believe in annihilation at death, but did firmly believe, on the contrary, in the continued existence of the spirits of the departed^ in their intelligent interest in the well-being or ill-being of their descendants, and in their gratification when their descendants did well, and anger when they were guilty of evil conduct. The departed had perfect freedom of access to the world, — at least, to their living representatives, — could come and go at their pleasure, and exert upon their relatives a great and undefinable influence for good or ill. And this belief moulded to a large extent the whole life of the Chinese people, to aU which the Eitual is a conclusive witness. All this bears a remarkable family resemblance to much of the modern speculation about the Borderland. III. PEOPEE SPIEIT IN SACEIFICE The rationale of the worship to ancestors is thus set forth by the philosopher Chu : " All things have their origin in Heaven. Every man has his own personal origin in his ancestor. Hence the ancestor is made the associate of Heaven when the great sacrifice is offered at the winter solstice. No honour to one's father can equal that of making him the pei of heaven." He adds, " Heaven is just Shangti, and Shangti is Heaven." The Eitual states that "of all methods for the regulation of mankind the most important is LT.^ It 1 P. 234. 248 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA has five codes — for prosperity, for adversity; for war, for hospitality, and for honour. But of all the forms of li the most important is that connected with sacrifice. It is li to sacrifice to Heaven and Earth and to serve the ancestral temple. It is li to observe the relationship between father and son, to maintain in- tegrity between Sovereign and minister. It is li to serve the gods of earth and grain, of the mountains and rivers, to sacrifice to the Kweishen, and to honour each according to their proper rank and influence. " Of all sacrifices the most important is that offered to God. It is the perfection of reverence. Sacrifice in the ancestral temple is the perfection of benevolence. Mourning is the perfection of faithful- ness. The perfection of integrity is when ministers make rich presents to the Sovereign. Li is therefore the foundation on which to build in order to attain the perfection of benevolence and integrity. " Sacrifice does not, however, consist merely of the material articles used, which are only external. Essentially it consists in what comes from the inner- most, living heart. Only when the heart presents offerings in reverential fear is it li. Hence only the good man is able to offer sacrifice properly." A note to the original states that " the root of sacrifice is in the heart. The articles offered are the least part of it. The sacrifice offered by a good man will certainly secure a blessing, but not that which the world generally calls a ' blessing.' His blessing consists in that he is made ' ready ' or ' prepared.' This readiness means that all his affairs are in accordance with the decree. This alone can secure man's real well-being. To be ' ready ' is to be complete, with nothing awanting in the way of THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 249 fulfilling one's duty, in carrying out in its fulness the ' decreed ' life. It means that the man entertains in his heart no desire which is out of harmony with his true self, and that his external life is in complete accord with the ' way.' " As minister he is faithful in serving his Sovereign. As son he is filial in attending to all his duties to his relatives. The root of both faithfulness and filiality is one. In heart he is in accord with the Kweishen above. In his outer life he is in accord with his Sovereign and his superiors. ■ At home he is filial to his relatives. He who conducts his life in this spirit and method is a ' ready ' man. In this sense only the ' good ' man can be ready. And only when a man is thus ' ready ' is he fitted properly to offer sacrifice. This is what is signified by the saying that ' only the good man can offer sacrifice.' His offerings are in sincerity and truthfulness, in faithfulness and reverence. His method is according to h. In the act of sacrificing his heart reposes with delight. He is careful to have all ready beforehand. Sacrifice is to him but an illustrious offering. He seeks from it no personal gain, no private advantage. This is the spirit of filiality. The intention of his sacrifice is to connect with the past, and to nourish continually. To nourish is to cherish, and it is implied in filiality. And finally, it must be all in accordance with the ' way,' and never discordant with filial relationship." " What the Kweishen regard as the most fragrant ingredient of sacrifice is the virtue of the offerer ; for to them the most valuable is the heart. When the filial son is about to sacrifice, he will fast in heart and concentrate upon the service his undivided attention." " Three things are characteristic of the filial son. 250 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA While Ms parents live he nourishes them, when dead he mourns for them, after burial he sacrifices to them. In nourishing them he consults their tastes ; in mourning his grief is real ; in sacrificing he is reverent and attends to the proper seasons. These character- istics embrace aU the proper conduct of the filial son." " When King Wen served the dead in sacrifice, he acted as though he were serving them living. When mentioning the name of the dead, he looked as though he saw him. In offering sacrifice he was earnest, as though face to face with the deceased in his actual living form. When in the act of offering sacrifice he had music played, as though glad to be able to serve. He was grieved when the service was over." " When one exerts oneself to the utmost, and, when necessary, seeks other aid, it is called ' commingled ' or 'married' ritual. On this account the superior man takes a wife, who is then called ' the superior man's precious woman.' Besides her he will invite to his assistance friends from his own town. This is the foundation principle of serving the ancestral temple and the Shechi."^ " In sacrificing there should be no superabundance. Of all things and forms the proper number and kind must be strictly adhered to. Simplicity is indis- pensable, and absence of all ornament is necessary in order to attain the profoundest form of reverence. " Before the discovery of the distillation of spirits, water was the liquid offered in libation. It is there- fore the most honourable of all liquid offeriags. It is called the ' Dark Wine.' It was the origin and foundation of the five flavours. The most honourable of all garments, embroidered or plain, is that made of ' See " Inferior Deities," p. 139. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 251 coarse cotton cloth,^ for it was the first product of woman's weaving. The best soup is tha^ which has no seasoning, for it is in its simple, natural condition. The great sceptre used in sacrificing is most honourable when it is unpolished. "All offerings to the Shen should be in their natural, unmixed, and simple state. The large goblet called the ' Yellow Eye ' containing the Yii ^ wine is the most honourable in sacrificing, for ' Yellow ' is the medium colour and the ' Eye ' is that by which every- thing is clearly seen. " The lowliest position is imperative when worship- ping Heaven. The worshipper must not stand on an elevated position. The ground on which the altar stands must first be swept clean. This is indispensable. " Vinegar and sauce are good, but roasted salt is the nobler ; it is the most precious gift of Heaven. " The curved knife with bells attached to its handle is the most ancient, and therefore the most honourable for cutting the meat. The meat may be cut up when the tinkling of the bells is heard. The white skin cap of the King, worn when sacrificing, is of deer-skin." From other portions of the Eitual we learn that the victim must be of one unmixed colour, without blemish, and a bull-calf before the knowledge of sex is avrakened. Thus everything connected with sacri- fice is essentially " simple." " Sacrifice should not be frequent, for it would become troublesome and be calculated to produce irreverence. The service should not be laxly or negligently performed, for this would lead to indolence and slovenliness, and indolence would result in forget- fulness and neglect. The Sovereign should therefore 1 Sackcloth. ^ See " Libation," p. 281. 252 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA imitate the 'way' of Heaven, which is regular and constant." " It was believed that if sacrifice were offered in a sincere spirit before going to war, a blessing would be secured. Confucius objected to the principle of selfishness underlying this belief, declaring that with sacrifice . there should be no prayer, which would imply a desire for personal advantage." A note explains that " while prayer is for private advantage, sacrifice has its fixed form and its definite requisites — definite as to quantity, number, size, and variety." In the Great Prayer in the Book of Chow there were six^ forms of prayer, and in the small book special- forms of prayer for particular blessings. These forms could be used when appropriate to the needs of the petitioner. Not one of them was ap- propriate to the ordinary sacrifices, which have their own fixed times and forms. " No gain is acquired from offering the sacrifice at a date earlier than its due season. The vessels and offerings are all of a predetermined quantity and quality, and they must correspond exactly to the prescribed regulations. A larger size or a greater number will procure no additional merit to the worshipper." ^ First, the spirit cry wlien calling upon God ; secondly, the kuei cry when calling on one's ancestor ; thirdly, the earth cry when calling upon the spirit of earth ; fourthly, the victim cry when calling upon ' ' substance " ; fifthly, the wine cry when calling on grain ; and sixthly, the silk cry when calling upon the spirit of silks. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 253 IV. SAOEIFIOE TO GOD " The sacrifice to Heaven on the shortest day of the year was one of great thanksgiving. It was offered by the Sovereign himself, who alone worshipped Heaven and Earth, the high officials worshipping the Shechi as their duty. The sacrifice was offered at the south frontier, because the south was the seat of the Yang principle. Hence this sacrifice was called ' Chiao ' or ' Frontier.' " The ground must be swept clean, and the sacrifice offered on an open altar with the greatest simplicity. Earthen ^ vessels were used to denote the constitution of Heaven and Earth, the origin of all things. " The Hia dynasty offered this sacrifice while it was yet dark, the Shang at midday, and the Chow from morning till evening. The Duke of Lu,^ being a direct descendant of Duke Chow, had the privilege of offering sacrifice to Heaven, but before doing so he ' informed ' his great ancestor How Chi." ^ The particular day suitable for the sacrifice to Heaven at the Winter Solstice was divined in the ancestral temple. The divination took place in the templ.e specially dedicated to the deceased father of the Sovereign, by consulting the tortoise,* through which the father would reveal his mind. In reference to this, a note pertinently asks. Why consult the ancestral temple if the shortest day was the day for the sacrifice ? ^ In the rare book called Pokutu, containing rubbings of ancient utensils, we learn that no metallic vessels were used in the earlier ages. The Chow dynasty began to cast bronzes and iron vessels for sacrifice. 2 Now Shantung. ' See History of Chow, p. 98, * Divination, p. 124. 254 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA " The Sovereign waited beside the Palace Pool to learn the decision of his ancestor, and to listen to the instructions. All the high of&cials received the commands from the ancestral temple inside the gate called Ku ; the commands were afterwards trans- mitted to the people. "An official was appointed to be prompter to declare their several duties to all parties — including the Sovereign — who were to be engaged in the cele- bration of the sacrifice. m " On the day of sacrifice, the Sovereign, clad in a skin cap, issued a proclamation ordering the people to be reverent. The mourner must not lament or clothe himself in mourning garb. Water was to be poured out on the ground, which was to be swept clean. Candles were to be lit everywhere. But as the people without exception knew all the forms to be observed, special orders were unnecessary. " On the day of sacrifice, the Sovereign clothed himself with the ceremonial dragon-embroidered robe emblazoned with the emblems representing the sun, moon, and stars. Prom his hat were pendent twelve strings of precious stones, jade and other varieties. The number represented the months of the year, and the whole was emblematic of the heavens. A note explains that twelve gems were strung on each stripg, the gems being one inch apart and the string two feet long. " The carriage of the Sovereign was plain, with no ornamentation, to indicate simplicity. " To the royal baimer were attached twelve strings ornamented with dragons.^ It was embroidered, besides, with the emblems of the sun and the moon ' The dragon, the god of rain, resided in the clouds. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF I^ITUAL 255 to represent heaven. Heaven is thus visible, and the sage understands it. Thus the Chiao sacrifice explains the ' way ' of heaven." " On the day of the sacrifice, the Sovereign led the victim with his own hand. His son assisted him, and the high officials followed. When within the temple gate, it was tied up to a hole in a standing stone slab. The official whose duty it was to kill the victim stripped off his outer garments, and, baring his arms, cut off, with the crooked knife to whose handle bells were attached, a clump of hair from behind the ear. (A note explains that the hair and the ear are two of the most important articles in the sacrifice.) The hair shows the proper colour, and the ear indicates hearing. Thus are the Shen requested to listen. The slain beast was then cut up, and the fat taken away to be offered. This is the perfection of rever- ence." In the description of the Chow sacrifice given above it will be noted how closely it seems to be allied to the material heavens. Confucius lends some countenance to a materialistic interpretation of this ceremonial, for he says that " God was served by the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth," as if both were re- quired to make a complete offering. Here we have a decided departure from the worship of the original Eeligion of the primal - ancient period. We should, however, attach no very great importance to the possible inferences from the brief statements in the ritual concerning, and the imperfect presentation of, the sacrifice to God, for the book is mainly devoted to the ritual connected with the worship to the spirits of ancestors. 256 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA V. ANCESTEAL SACEIFICE A. The Soul According to Chinese ancient belief, man was composed of three Hwun and seven ^ Po. At death these several parts are separated by the dissolution of the tie which had bound them together. The state- ments regarding these elements are not very clear, nor are they uniform. In one place it is said that the people sacrificing " looked up to heaven, whither the spirit of the dead had gone." The intelligent spirit ascends on high, while the body and the animal soul go downwards to earth. When the nature of " fasting " is described, it is said that " the Po, the body or external form, descends to earth and belongs to Yin. The Hwun ascends to heaven and is Yang." Again, " The Hwun ascends to heaven and the Po descends to earth." This belief determined the nature of the sacrifices, which are of the " Yang kind for the Yang, and of the Yin kind for the Yin. Each or both may be worshipped. The Yin dynasty invited the Yang spirit, and the Chow the Yin spirit.'' " The Kweishen, or ancestral spirits, are located between heaven and earth, and unite the two." ^ No one knows the exact location of the spirits at any given time. They may be here, or they may be there ; they may be near or far." " In ancient times both the Sovereign and the feudal princes provided houses in which they reared silkworms to produce silk for sacrifice. The Sovereign ' Has this anything to do with theosophy ? ^ The Chinese have long been familiar with the phenomena of "Spiritualism," or the "Borderland." THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 257 himself ploughed the field on the south frontier to provide grain abundantly for sacrifice. The Queen fed the silkworms on the north frontier to prepare black clothing. The feudal princes ploughed in the east, and their princesses fed the silkworms in the north. Instead of employing servants, they themselves ploughed the fields and fed the worms, to show their sincerity and faithfulness. Sincerity and faithfulness constitute thoroughness, and thoroughness is evidence of reverence. Perfect reverence entitles one to offer sacrifice to the Shen. This is the ' way ' of sacrifice." B. Peepaeation foe Saceifice The filial son prepares everything beforehand for the sacrifices. The various officials who are to have any duty connected with the sacrifice are nominated. He leaves nothing unattended to and nothing un- provided. His heart is entirely occupied with this duty. He cleans up the house, examines the rooms and the walls, and acts as though overcome by the greatness of the responsibilities of his duties. He must be guided by perfect guilelessness and sincerity and manifest perfect reverence, fulfilling all ritual without overstepping any part thereof. His very manner shows his filiality. When stand-- ing, he bends shghtly forward. When going to sacrifice, he goes as if with joy to serve. When presenting his offerings, he looks as if charmed with the duty. In all, he looks as though carry- ing out the wishes of his parents. Even when the service is completed he continues to show the manner of respect and fasting, as in the very act of sacrificing. 17 258 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA 0. Fasting Before engaging in the act of sacrifice, husband and wife must fast and bathe, without which process there can be no proper preparation for sacrifice ; for only thus can the Sovereign secure complete control over his thoughts and desires. The removal of all impurity fulfils the design of the fast. During the period of fasting, vegetables alone may be eaten, no meat of any kind being allowed. The hat and clothing are black, because the Yin is darkness. The clothing is common but clean. The Sovereign has to fast only on the most serious occasions, when the utmost reverence is demanded, and when he must sacrifice in person. While fasting, he must guardmost carefully against everything wrong, and control his desires completely. His ears must listen to no music. His words must correspond exactly to his thoughts. His heart must be free from anxiety about affairs. He must trust to the " way " and act in accordance therewith. Neither his hands nor his feet may move at random, or irregularly. His thoughts and his acts must all conform to li. This is the character of the fasting of the Sovereign, and thus he will display the brilliance of his virtue. The fast extends to seven days of lax fasting, to fix the mind ; for this " fixing " of the mind is the real fast. Then follow three days of strict fasting, in order to become purified. During this time he thinks continually of the dwelling-place of his parents, of their pleasant words, of their principles, of what they reUshed eating, of what was agreeable to them. Fasting thus for three days, he may see the person to whom he is to sacrifice. His mind becomes clear THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 259 and bright, so that he may have communion with the glorious spirits. By this purification he is able to sacrifice in a worthy manner. On the day preceding the ten days' fast of the Sovereign, the ladies of the palace begin their fast, which also consists of seven days' lax and three days' strict fasting. The Sovereign observes his fast outside but the Queen inside the palace.^ When the time for offering the sacrifice is come, the Sovereign enters the room and goes to reverence his parents just as though they were visibly before him. The soxxnd of their voice will be in his ear, as he moves to and fro, the desire of their hearts will be in his mind. He listens when going outside as though to hear their voice, and sighs audibly. He recalls their complexion. His love is changeless, his steadfastness unbending. This is the manner of the filial son. D. The Offering The most important appointment made preceding the sacrifice is the nomination of one to personate the deceased ancestor who is to be worshipped. This " personator " must be a descendant of the person to be worshipped and a son of the Sovereign who is to worship. Throughout the entire ceremony this personator represents the deceased, and is treated as though he were the deceased.^ Under the Hia dynasty the personator stood throughout the ceremony. Under the Yin and Chow dynasties he stood before the sacrifice, but was seated ' In another part it is said that he fasts in the interior and the guests outside the palace. 2 See "Lessons," p. 265. 26o THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA during the service. He acted as intermediary between the worshipped and the worshippers, presenting the petitions of the latter and returning the response of the former. " When all is ready the King and Queen go to the Great Temple, he wearing a black hat, she a pheasant- embroidered robe. He presents to the personator the large libation cup with the sceptre handle, she pre- senting the small sceptre-handled cup in the same manner. A libation is poured out of the fragrant medicated spirit Yii ^ to invite the Yin ^ kuei. After the libation he goes to meet the victim. It is essential that the Sovereign go in person to lead the victim with his own hands. He is followed by- the high officials, one of whom carries some straw, on which to place the body when killed. A lady from the palace carries a bowl, and the Queen clean water. " When the animal is led into the courtyard, the ancestors are publicly informed of the arrival of the victim. The official who is to kill it must be clad in garments newly washed. He strips off his robe, bares his arm, and with the crooked knife first cuts off some hair from behind the ear, which is presented to the spirits to show that it is of the proper colour. This hair and the blood are brought into the room and presented with uplifted hands to inform the ancestors. The li ^ spirit is presented at the same time. With the crooked knife the Sovereign cuts out the fat and the kidneys. The fat and the hair are burnt, along with a mixture of artemisia with two varieties iSee " Libations," p. 281. ^ The Yin or Shang dynasty, honouring the Yang principle, em- ployed music to attract the Yang Shen from above. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 261 of millet,^ to produce the Yaag fragrance in the room. While this mixture is burning the personator enters and is seated. " The first prayer, the words of which are prepared beforehand, is offered in this room to the particular spirit to whom the sacrifice is being made, and to no other. It is offered at a particular place called Fang. The Fang is inside the temple when prayer is made to the spirit at the time of offering, and it is outside the temple, beside the gate, on the day following the sacrifice, when the spirit gives his response. At the Fang, communion is held with the Bright Spirit. Where the spirit is, no one knows — whether here or there, whether near or far. The name ' Fang ' means ' far,' and prayer is intended to show respect. " The Sovereign manifests the greatest reverence when he cuts up the meat with his own hands, the Queen pouring out the spirits. The raw meat is placed on the dish, and set before the personator. The carcass is laid outside the west gate of the hall, the head brought within the hall, and mats are laid for feasting. The raw meat, the blood and hair, and the ' dark spirits,' ^ are the three essentials in the offering. " In the most ancient times no meat was cooked for the offering, nor was the carcass of the victim set out. These were two innovations in the mid-ancient period. Eoast meat and fried liver are presented. Cooked meats are offered with the Chen spirits. The cooked meats consist of the right-side half of the dog, the pig, the ox, and the sheep ; the left sides being reserved for the guests. The fu, kwei, pien, and teu ^ are all filled up, and the Hing tripod is filled with ^ Which are yang. ^ Water. ' See "Utensils." 262 THE ORIGINAL REUGION OF CHINA soup. When the soup is brought into the hall, public information is given to the spirits. This is the third time on which public information has been made, each on a different occasion and in a different manner. "The King with pole and axe joins the dancers, and leads those who sing the praises of the deceased ancestors. Sacrifice with blood implies breath as the most prominent element, whether the sacrifice be the liver, the heart, or the lungs. The Hia dynasty offered the heart, the Yin the liver, and the Chow the lungs. Yin substances were offered to the Yin, and Yang substances to the Yang. Bloody flesh, fat of kidneys, roast meat, and the head elevated in sacrifice, are a thank-offering to the Yang. The lungs, the five metals, and water are Yin. Hence water and lungs are offered in sacrifice to the Yin. When the Chi spirits are offered, clear water ^ is added to give thanks to the Yin. " The King and Qiieen present the offerings alter- nately — he first, she second. Thus they cause the spirits, Hwun and Po, to rejoice, and they ' harmonise ' ^ the spirit world. "Which the Shen appreciate most — the meat un- cooked, cut up, made into soup, or otherwise served up — nobody can know. The offerer can do no more than in this way express his reverence." This is the rather sceptical conclusion of the writer in the Eitual. Prayers were composed before the time for sacrifice. One was offered when preparing the " dark spirit " ' A note explains that water was used symbolically in sacrifloe because it cleanses and renovates. ' This surely indicates the equality of husband and wife, as in the First "Lesson," p. 264. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 263 for sacrifice. They were offered at the particular place called " Fang " by the personator to the ancestor, and the response was made by him for the ancestor. This is called the Great Blessing. The ritual for it is named the " Great Complete Eitual." E. The Lessons " In sacrifice there are three points of special importance. These are the libation, the song, and the dance. This was the ' way ' ^ of the Chow dynasty. " In the services connected with these three, every- thing is borrowed from what is external — the libation from aromatic wine, the song from the voice of the singer, and the dancing from the pole and the axe. But the real value of the sacrifice consists in the reverence of the heart. If the thought be light, the service is insignificant. If the thought be serious, the service is important. Even the sage will fail to make the service important if that importance is made to depend on mere externals. The true man in offering a sacrifice does all in accordance with li and exerts himself to the utmost. This is the ' way ' of the Sage. " At every sacrifice there is a surplus, and the fragments are carefully collected. This gave rise to the ancient saying that ' a good ending was like a good beginning.' Confucius said that the residue of the personator was the surplusage of the Kweishen. Here is exhibited mercy ,^ and it manifests the art of government. This sentiment is explained by the ' Method, here equivalent to custom. ^ This is a eurious use of the term "mercy."' It approaches the use of the same term in Ps. Ixii. 2. 264 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA statement that the raw meat and the blood of the sacrifice were first placed before the personator. What he did not eat was the surplus left over by the spirits. The King and four chief officials ate in turn, and after them every rank down to the lowest order of servitors partook, each in turn. The grain in the middle of the temple was similarly distributed. Thus is the art of government set forth. " By the perfect preparation of everything for the sacrifice, and the service of all ranks in the temple, complete instruction is given to all men how they should act, in public honouring their Sovereign and superiors, and at home revering their parents. Thus the man who offers sacrifice worthily goes to the very foundation of instruction. " From the sacrifice to ancestors ten great lessons are to be learned. These are: (1) the 'way' of the Kweishen ; (2) integrity between Sovereign and minis- ters ; (3) the relation of father and son ; (4) the distinction of honourable and mean ; (5) the degrees of consanguinity ; (6) the nature of rewards ; (7) the distinction between husband and wife, or male and female; (8) the method of government ; (9) the order of rank and of seniority; (10) the opportunities of the higher and lower ranks. These form the ten Eelationships. 1. "At the feast only one table was laid out, and this gave repose to the Shen." A note explains that " while living, there is of necessity, because of the distinction of sex, the separation belonging to the relationship of husband and wife. There being no distinction of sex -in death, there is no need for separation. One table is used for both father and mother." THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 265 " Again, by offering prayer to the Shen in the temple, and receiving their response next day at the Fang, a mode was obtained of opening communication with the Bright Shen." A note explains that " the Fang was a place located outside the temple ^ate, at the side of it." 1 2. " The Sovereign went out to meet the bull-calf for the sacrifice ; he did not go to meet the personator. This distinguished between the various ranks. Out- side the temple gate the personator was like any ordinary official ; inside he occupied the place of the Sovereign. Outside the temple gate the Sovereign was still Sovereign ; inside he was just like another official. Before his own son — the personator — he was as a son in presence of his father. In abstaining from going to meet the personator, he preserved the dis- tinction between the ranks of Sovereign and minister." 3. " In sacrificing, the son of the Sovereign per- sonated the deceased father of the Sovereign. The father of the personator, though Sovereign, faced the north, and served and honoured his own son, who represented the deceased. This shows the manner in which the son should serve the father." 4. "After the personator had drunk the fifth cup, the Sovereign took the jade flagon and presented it to the highest officials." A note here explains that there were nine distinct offerings of spirits at the sacrifice. The aromatic spirit was offered to the personator, who poured it out as a libation. There were afterwards two offerings of drink, and then two other offerings along with meat. When the fifth offering had been drunk, others besides the personator partook of the cup. When the personator had drunk 1 P. 261. 266 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the seventh time, the flagon was offered to the second highest officials. When he had drunk the ninth time, flagons of various patterns were offered to the officials of medium and lower ranks. Thus did all partake of the same cup.^ This illustrated the grades of higher and lower. 5. " The guests were all seated to left or right, according to their seniority or office, as father and son, remote or near by consanguinity, older and younger in relationship by marriage. All were seated in their proper order, so that there was no confusion of rank. This showed the order of relationship." 6. '' Eank was in ancient times conferred by the in- telligent Sovereign because of virtue, and emoluments were granted because of merit. Both rank and emolu- ments were gifted in the ancestral temple, implying that the Sovereign did not dare to bestow gifts on his own responsibility alone. Therefore after the first offering of wine on the day of sacrifice, the Sovereign descended from his place and stood on the south of the left- hand (east) threshold, looking south. Those entitled to receive rewards stood looking north. The recording official stood at the right of the Sovereign, holding in his hands a written list of those to be rewarded. He kowtowed,^ doing reverence, and then handed over the list and retired. Immediately afterwards a libation ^ Lit. they are "teeth."' ^ The kowtow is the equivalent of the prostration of Western Asia. The worshipper goes on his knees, then bends forward and leans on the palms of his hands. Thus leaning, he touches the ground gently thrice with his forehead. This is one kneeling and three kowtows. He lifts the palms of his hands and erects his body, still kneeling. He bends forward and again leans on the palms of his hands, " knock- ing " his forehead three times. This process is thrice performed. The three kneelings and the nine kowtows make a ceremonial which is the most reverential performable by man. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 267 was poured out in the temple. This was the method in which rewards were bestowed." A note adds that this was all done in the presence of the personator. 7. " The Sovereign, covered with a double-dragon embroidered hat, stood on the left or east threshold. The Queen, in herpheasant-embroidered robe, stood at the east house. She presented the teu,^ holding it by the handle in the middle on the upper side, or half. One of the guests, purified by fasting,- took the teu from her, grasping it by the handle on its lower half. The personator drank from it. Then the Queen took the ping, the bird-tail shaped flagon, and pre- sented it to the personator, who took it by the foot. Thus was made evident the rule that husband and wife should not both touch the same spot of an article in giving or receiving it. When drinking they used different flagons, thus marking the distinc- tion between husband and wife, or between the sexes. 8. " Of all that is offered on a tsu-dish the bones are the most honourable. Of these some are less important than others. The Yin dynasty esteemed most highly the thigh bone, because it was the strongest. The Chow dynasty regarded the shoulder as the best and most noble, because what is in front is more honour- able than what comes behind. The honourable man received the honourable bone, and the mean man the mean bone. Yet was not the honourable man thereby flattered, or the mean man disgraced. Equity, equal justice, was meted out to all. By this form of ' Grace ' ^ is government correctly administered. When the government is correctly administered, all affairs are properly managed, and merit is acquired. Those who acquire merit should be made universally ' See " Utensils," p, 282. = Mercy, p. 263, note. 268 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA known." A note adds that the tsu was complementary to the teu. On the tsu the most important article was bone, and flesh on the teu. The bone was yang, the flesh yin. The numbers of the tsu were odd (1, 3, 5, etc.) and of the teu even (2, 4, 6, etc.). 9. " Of the ranks, those seated on the left were of one class,^ as were also those seated on the right. Those on the left were all linked together, as well as those on the right. The host of ofiicials of the middle and lower grades were also all Hnked together. This is called the Order of Seniority." 10. The underlings, as the men in mail, cooks, musicians, doorkeepers, were all partakers of the residue. These four classes were the lowest ranks. From the personator, the most honoured, to the lowest assistant at the sacrifice, every individual had his own share. " Though it was made evident that the Sovereign was supreme, yet no one suffered from cold for lack of clothing, or from hunger for lack of food. This was the meaning of the opportunities of the higher and the lower ranks." The sacrifices to ancestors were ofiered at each of the four seasons. When the Sovereign gave reverent attention and personal devotion to all the duties con- nected with them, he showed an example which would lead all within the kingdom to be respectful and dutiful. But if his virtue was " thin," his inclinations were frivolous. If he failed in integrity, it was im- possible for him to be reverential in sacrifice. And how could he who offered sacrifice without reverence be father and mother to his people ? ' "AH teetli," the left were brothers, sons, grandsons; relatives on the right sat in order of seniority. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 269 F. Conclusion The preceding outline of the method of sacrificing to ancestors by the royalty of China, three thousand years ago and later, is collected from writings of various dates scattered up and down in the Eitual. It is incomplete, though adequate for our purpose. It adds to and illustrates the information given from the History and the Odes ; but it is especially important as evidence of the great departure in worship and beliefs resulting from the dualism introduced by the Chow dynasty in the twelfth century B.C. For a complete sketch of the entire service we have to refer to the " Manchu Eitual " below. VI. THE DEITIES WORSHIPPED A. The Supreme Eulek The first place is always given to the Supreme Euler, sometimes caUed " Heaven " in a personal sense ; according to the philosopher Chu, " Heaven is just God, and God is Heaven." Even after the introduction of dualism the Supreme Euler contiaued to be regarded as "Alone," and the single term " Heaven " continued to retain the same meaning. The combined term " Heaven and Earth " is sometimes used as synonymous with Heaven, as, " It is li to sacrifice to Heaven and Earth. Sacrifice to God is the supremest reverence. In ancient times ^ Heaven and Earth were not associated together,^ nor were '■i.e. primal-ancient. . ' Compare "Inferior Deities,'' p. 139. See Introduction to History. 270 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA sacrifices offered to the sun, the moon, and the stars at one and the same time." B. The Shechi " The She is a mode of deifying the earth which supports all things. Earth holds things up, and Heaven bends down from above. Profit comes from earth and law from Heaven. Therefore Heaven is honoured and the earth loved. The people are instructed to repay the two powers appropriately to the benefits received. The master of the family has his Chung liw ^ at which he worships the earth, as the Sovereign does at the She. " Sacrifice to the earth being offered to the Yin principle, the Sovereign goes from the north, facing south ^ when worshipping. He worships in the early part of the day. " The national She altar, though surrounded by a wall, must be roofless, exposed to frost and dew, to wind and rain, open to all the influences of the weather from heaven or earth. When a dynasty had lost the throne its She was roofed over, so that it could receive no direct Hght from the sun. But a window was opened in the north wall, to admit the light from the north, which was deadly to organic life. This rendered impossible the restoration of the dethroned dynasty. "There was a public national She inside the palace walls, and a royal one in the fields. At these the high officials offered sacrifice. The Feudal Prince also erected a public and a private She. Every 1 See "Household Deities," p. 271. " 111 worshipping Heaven the Sovereign goes from south to north. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 271 district of a hundred families had one, and so had the walled village of twenty-five famiUes occupying one-third of a square mile." C. Household Deities " The Sovereign commanded the people to worship seven deities by sacrifice. The first was the Kitchen god, the second the Hall god — Chung liw ; ^ the third was the national Door ; the fourth the national Eoad ; the fifth was the Great Calamity, offered when the dead had no male posterity ; sixth, the Doorway, and seventh, the Furnace god. "The Sovereign and his subjects worshipped aJl seven, the Feudal Prince and his subjects five, the high official three, — the third, fourth, and fifth, — and the common people one — either the Doorway or the Kitchen furnace. The Calendar of Eitual states " that the Door- way is emblematic of the ' Small Heat,' sacrifice being offered to it in spring on the west side, inside the ancestral temple gate. The Eoad is. typical of winter light, to which sacrifice is offered in winter outside the same gate. The Door is typical of the smaller light of autumn. At this sacrifice all the family is brought indoors, the gate closed, and sacrifice then offered. The Kitchen furnace is symbolic of great heat. Sacrifice is offered in summer, and pre- sented to the god of Fire.^ The Sovereign can offer ' This is virtually the same as the Impluvium of the Romans. It means the "middle drip," and was located in the inner compound, outside the dwelling-house, or under a window or skylight in the haU. ' According to Kanghi's Dictionary, the Fire god is the god of the sun and of lightning, on earth of fire, and in man of the heart. 272 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA sacrifices for five generations later than himself, who died unrepresented, the high official for three, and the common people for one." D. Harvest Gods " The Sovereign offers sacrifice annually in the twelfth moon to the Eight Cha.^ In this moon all things, grass, and all that grows on earth, revert to their original source. The Shen are petitioned to accept the sacrifice ; hence the name Cha, or ' prayer.' " The original commentary explains that this sacrifice was offered to eight Shen, collectively called Cha. These eight are : (1) Sienshe, or Original Harvest ; (2) Szshe, or official of Harvest : (3) Nung Shen, or god of agricultui-e ; (4) Yti Piaotzu,^ or the Boundaries ; (5) the Cat ; (6) the Tiger ; (7) the Ditch Banks and Water Barriers ; and (8) the Locusts or Caterpillars. "By this sacrifice, accompanied by prayer, the Prince desires to express gratitude for the meritorious work of the Shen throughout the year. In this sacrifice Sienshe,^ or the Nung Shen of 2737 B.C., comes first, and Sz She, who was an official under How Chi, is second. " Every kind of sacrifice is an expression of grati- tude for services rendered to man. The cat catches rats, the tiger kills the wild boars which ravage the fields, the ditch banks and water barriers prevent devastation by water ; all the eight are associated ' Pronounced ya, "prayer" or "petition." ^ He lived in ancient times in a small cottage, looking after the growing grain, distinguishing between the fields of the farmers. Note to original. ' He is also called Yinohi, or Yao wang, god of medicine. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 273 with agriculture and are serviceable to man, and are therefore honoured in common by sacrifice. If the harvest happened to be a good one, all the eight thank- offerings were presented, but not otherwise. At this sacrifice the people drank ^ freely, and there was no demand for corvee. " When offering this sacrifice the Sovereign was clad in hat and clothing of a yellowish white, this being the colour of the straw in which the rustic clothes himself. His hat is of deer-skin, and his clothing is that of mourning, as if he were grieving over the death of all things. His girdle is of the creeping bean,^ and his staff of hazel wood, all indica- tive of mourning. " In this offering prayer is made that the earth return to her original usefulness, that the waters remain within bounds, that locusts and caterpillars abstain fropi activity, that grass and trees return to, or remain in, their own growing places and do not encroach on the arable land. It is offered with the purpose of procuring a good spring. In this sacri- fice there is exhibited the perfection of benevolence and the completeness of righteousness. It is intended to give rest to the fields." In another place it is stated that " five sacrifices are offered to the god of agriculture to refresh him after the toil of the year. E. Eakly Wokthies From ancient times sacrifices were offered to deceased rulers or other benefactors of the people ^ This, looks like a harvest feast. The History does not mention these "eight" gods. 2 Which can be woven. 18 274 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA who had made themselves specially notable. So highly were these persons honoured that they were often made Pei to Shangti. There were in all five classes of persons who were thus canonised. First came those who had in their wisdom enacted laws or customs beneficial to the whole body of the people ; second, such as gave their life in serving the public, or who, till they were removed by death, manifested a special devotion for the well-being of the people ; third, those who by strenuous effort established a dynasty ; fourth, such as prevented great national calamities ; and fifth, those who warded off destruc- tion or the horrors of war. These classes were all honoured by sacrifice. One who propagated and nourished the hundred varieties of grain was made god of agriculture. Another established peace in the distracted country, and was made " She," or god of the land. They had all established for themselves an exceptional reputation by their meritorious actions in conferring distinguished benefits upon the people. " The sun, the moon, and the stars are all so many foundations on which the people can establish their hopes and base their confidence. Mountains, rivers, valleys, and hills are, each in its own way, a source of benefit to the people. These are all by right entitled to the worship of the people, and except to beings of this character no sacrifice is offered." VII. THE TEMPLE The Chinese have never erected a temple to the Supreme. The altar on which sacrifice was offered stood in the open, in a circular space. Neither did THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 275 the Chow dynasty, when introducing worship to the spirit of the earth, provide a temple. The altar for this sacrifice was located in a hollow square ; the belief being that the heavens were round and the earth square. But there has always been a temple set apart for the worship of the ancestors. From the description of the ceremony of sacrifice in the Great Temple we are obliged to infer that there were several buildings in the one temple. The essential principle of the temple was that it should be an erection covered in, protected from the weather, and dedicated to the ancestors of the reigning dynasty. Whatever the accessary build- ings connected with this temple, there was one great hall called the Great, Bright, or Illuminated Hall, where all sacrificial services were performed. The following are the more important references in the Eitual bearing upon the characteristics of the temple : — " The royal ancestral temple was known as the ' Great Temple.' It is to be regarded with reverence and treated with respect. It must not be made a sleeping place. The vessels belonging to it may be used, but not for ordinary purposes. What is dedicated to the Shen should not be objects of private pleasure. " When a new dynasty was established, the seat of the She — gods of land and grain — was set up on the right (looking south), and the ancestral temple on the left." A note adds that the right is Yin, the " way " of the earth ; and the left is Yang, the " way " of all men. This is to indicate that the dead, though gone, are still alive. The Sovereign, being ruler of all under heaven. 276 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA has seven ^ temples (Miao) in the " Great Temple." These are : — The Position 7. The Great Ancestor.^ 5. King Wen. 6. King Wu. 3. Great-grandfather. 4. Great-great-grand- father. 1. Father. 2. Grandfather. These were honoured by sacrifice every month. "Beyond the Miao, on each side there was a Ghao dedicated to the ancestors of the founder of the dynasty. To them sacrifice was offered quarterly. Beyond these was the Tan, dedicated to ancestors farther removed, and beyond these the Shan, dedicated to still more remote ancestors. Offerings were made to these two only when prayers were made for deliver- ance in times of great national calamity. Beyond the Shan were the Kwei, nameless ancestors, to whom sacrifice was never offered even in tiines of trouble. "The rulers of feudal States had five Miao and two Tan which were honoured by sacrifice. Beyond were the Kwei, who were not worshipped. The high officials had three Miao and two Tan, with the Kwei beyond. The lower officials had two Miao and one Tan. These officials were of the Eoyal Government ; those of the 'The Chinese have, as far as is known to tho writer, always used the decimal system. Ten is the perfect number. It is curious to find the number seven connected with the dead, and apparently signifying "perfection." Mourning is for seven sevens. Is this a relic of a prehistoric Sabbatical period 1 ' The Great Ancestor, with kings Wen and Wu, were permanent. The great-great-grandfather was changed with every new Sovereign, for the number was always seven. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 277 feudal States had one Miao, beyond which were the Kwei. The common people had no temple. Their ancestors were all Kwei."^ VIII. THE SACEIFICES— THEIE VAEIETY " There are four great sacrifices — the Chiao,^ the Great Hiang, the three-Hien spirit offering, and the one-Hien spirit offering. The Great Hiang is that offered triennially in the ancestral temple. Offerings of spirits are all called Hien. " In offering to the gods of land and grain, and the five deities of the house, cups of spirits and dishes of soup are offered three ^ separate times, whence the name of the three-Hien. These offerings are accompanied by a blood-offering. Sacrifices to the ' host ' of inferior deities are of one cup of spirits, once offered, because they are of an inferior order. Hence the name one-Hien. When this offering is made, flesh is offered without blood." " The tai lao, or ^reat lao, is offered to ancestors by the Sovereign only, and is named ' great ' because a buU is offer'ed. When a sheep is offered it is called ' small.' " A note adds that the act of feeding and the place for feeding the animals to be sacrificed are also called lao, as is the sacrifice to the five ancestors. To the lesser divinities one cup is offered, which is called " common." The three-cup offering is styled 1 This is the origin of the term which in modei-n times has been applied to foreigners, who erroneously translate it "devil." The Chinese have no conception of our Western devil. 2 See "Sacrifices to God," p. 253. 3 See " Manohu Ritual," p. 304. 278 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA " ornamentjal," because offered in ornamental cups. Five cups are offered to the mountains and the rivers. This offering is called Cha — to examine — because the objects worshipped are visible. To the ancestors seven cups are offered and the offering called Shen."i The comparative value attached to these sacrifices by Confucius may be inferred from one of his sayings : " There are three hundred odes, but the knowledge of them all does not equal the one-Hien offering. The offerer of the one-Hien offering may be not competent to offer the Great Hiang. The Great Hiang is inferior to the Great Lii — offered to the Five Emperors. To understand the Great Lii completely does not enable one to sacrifice to the Supreme." " The Fanchai, or burnt-offering, was a sacrifice presented to Heaven on an altar at a raised platform." A note adds that dry wood was laid on this altar, the body of a red bull-calf was laid upon it, and burnt so that the fragrance should ascend to heaven. This sacrifice was offered to Heaven by the Sovereign before his quinquennial tour of inspection over the Empire. " The Yi, or burial-offering, was presented to earth. It was offered at the ' Great Illuminated ' altar in the ' Great Hollow,' a square space. This sacrifice was buried. It consisted of an animal and of silks. Because the earth is yin, the colour of the animal was black. The seasons for this offering were at the ' welcoming ' and the ' escorting ' of Heat and Cold." A note explains that these offerings were ' Here we have an indioation of the relative honour of the gods. See "Inferior Deities" under "History." THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 279 made at the four seasons. In the midsummer month the Heat-welcoming sacrifice was offered during the day. In the mid-autumn month, the Cold-welcoming sacrifice was offered in the night. In ' escorting ' both Heat and Cold, the same ceremonial was observed. The sacrifices to Cold were offered in the hollow, those to Heat on the elevation. " Sacrifice was offered to the sun on an elevated platform called the Eoyal Palace. It was offered in the east because the sun rises in the east. Sacrifice was offered to the moon in a hollow at the altar called 'Night-Brightness.' The offering was made in the west because the moon rises in the west. At an altar called ' Father-of-Darkness ' sacrifice was offered to the stars, and at the ' Water-altar ' to Eain and Drought. To the Four Cardinal Points sacrifice was offered at the altar of the ' Four Hollows.' " A note explains that the Four Cardinal Points are the Shen of all material substances. The Cardinal Points with their wei make the eight directions. The north and east, the north-west and north-east, are all yang.^ The south and west, the south-west and south-east, are all yin. Therefore in sacrificing there is both a hollow and a platform, each to four of the eight points." " Four sacrifices were offered in the ancestral temple, one in each season. Those in spring and summer were yang, and were accompanied by music, for their light was growing in strength, and life in ' As the sun is yang, one would suppose that the south — the habitat of the sun — should also be yang. Shunyang, the name for Moukden, is the "yang side of the deep" ; but it stands north of the river. The bank on which the sun r shines is explained to be the yang side ; the south bank is in shade, and therefore yin. 28o THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA vigour. The other two were yin, and with them was no music, for they were offered at a time of decay and death. Under the yang period rewards were gifted and promotion was given ; but capital punishment and war were carried out under the yin." IX. OFFERINGS A. Meat, etc. Salted green herbs were prepared from water-plants, and various sorts of distilled spirits were made from the products of the earth. The flesh of three kinds of animals — the ox, the sheep, and the pig — was set out on dishes (tsu), and the various sorts of grain on eight kwei,^ or baskets. " Of various kinds of insects, of grain and fruits of trees, were the yin and the yang things made ready. Whatever is produced by the heavens, whatever is the growth of the earth, may be utihsed in sacrifice ; nothing need be discarded. " In the triennial sacrifice to ancestors (hiang), three kinds of animal life — ox, sheep, and pig — • were offered, with fish and wild animals, as the fragrant products of the Four Seas and the ' Nine Provinces' (of China). " The products of the Four Seasons were placed in the Pien ^ and the Teu,^ whose inside was gold, to indicate harmony. Silks, gems, and goblets were provided to denote virtue or merit. Other articles had their definite position, but silks were placed where required, their position depending on the nature of the ground and the distance. igee "Utensils," p. 282. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 281 "The tortoise was put in front, because it could foretell the future.^ Gold came next as the thing desired by all men. Then followed brown varnish, floss silk, and bamboo arrows, articles valued by all. The bell is set down as the symbol of harmony. The skins of the tiger and the leopard indicated the fierceness needed to carry out the duty of protection. Other strange articles were presented as coming from afar or presented by foreign nations." " When both parents of a high official — Taifu — were dead, he presented to them an offering of fifteen dishes of fish." B. Libations Of all kinds of libation the " dark " liquid is most honourable, having been in use for sacrificial purposes before the discovery of distillation. It is the founda- tion of the five flavours. At great sacrifices it is always used but never drunk. It is water. It was placed in the north facing south. Of the Chi distilled spirits there are five varieties : (1) the Fan, or "floating"; (2) the Li, a new sweet spirit ; (3) the Chan or Ang, an old spirit ; (4) Ti, a reddish but clear liquor ; (5) Chen or Teng, the " heavy," dark in colour and heavy with lees. The Li and Ang were placed in the south, near the doorway. The Ti, being less honourable, was put down inside the hall. The- Chen was placed outside the hall. The Yii was a spirit made aromatic by the infusion of an herb of the artemisia tribe. ' See " Divination," 11. 124. 282 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA X. UTENSILS The Fu ^ was a measure circular within and square outside. It was used to contain rice and large millet. The Kwei ^ was circular outside and square within, and used to hold two varieties of small millet. The Pien and Teu were of similar shape, the former made of bamboo, the latter of wood. These were to contain the products of the four seasons, the produce of land and water. Inside they were of gold, to indicate harmony. The Hing was a tripod to contain soup. The Tsun was a large vessel to hold spirits. The Tsu was a dish to hold meat. It was used singly. The Ting, a tripod, was also used singly. The number used may be from one to nine, but always singly. If the number used at a sacrifice exceed nine, it is because three or more are used at one of the secondary shrines, and seven at the principal shrine. On the Ting the filial son should engrave an inscription extolling the many excellences and great reputation of his father. XL THE MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS These were harp, lute,^ the flageolet, stone chimes, bell, drum, and kettle-drum. ^ For use of utensils see " Manchu Ritual," pp. 311, 312. ^ Contained 1 J peck of grain. ^ Of from 15 to 50 strings, strung over a bridge and pulled by the fingers. The harp was struck with a bone plectrum. THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 283 XII. THE ANIMALS USED IN SAOEIFICE " The Chow dynasty used six kinds of animals for sacrifice — the ox, horse, sheep, pig, dogs, and hens. More anciently the offerings were confined to the ox, the sheep, and the pig. In the late autumn the Sovereign went on a hunting expedition to secure game for the sacrifice to Heaven at the winter solstice. The King and the feudal princes had each an official specially appointed to oversee the animals intended for sacrifice. In the third moon of summer the Sovereign commanded the Four Directors and the hundred city officials to select animals for sacrifice, and to begin feeding them, preparing them for sacrifice to God, to the notable mountains and rivers, to the gods of the cardinal points, the spirits of ancestors, and the shechi — thus making provision to plead for the welfare and happiness of the people. "When the time approached for selecting the animals for sacrifice, the official in charge bathed and fasted, and led away those animals which were of one uniform colour, complete in all their parts, and with no bodily blemish. These he drove re- verently before the Sovereign for his inspection. Again a choice was made of the most suitable. From this second choice a selection was made, by divination, of the individual animal which it would be most lucky to offer. One was thus selected to be offered to God and another to How Chi. These two were segregated, kept in a clean place, and specially fed for three months. During this period the Sovereign went, clad in a white skin cap of deer-skin, at new and full moon to inspect the animals. 284 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA If any accident befell the animal set apart for sacrifice to God, that dedicated to How Chi was substituted and another found for How Chi; The animal must be a bull-calf, which, being ignorant of sex, was simple in its nature. It must be of one uniform unmixed colour. The Hia dynasty- offered a black animal, the Yin a white one, and the Chow a red one for the yang, and a black one for the yin, sacrifices. It is the prerogative of the Sovereign alone to worship Heaven and Earth. High officials sacrifice to the shechi, to whom they can offer only sheep and pigs. The size of the animal and its condition are of no special significance. But the size of the horns is of great consequence. The horn of the young bull- calf to be sacrificed to Heaven must be of the size of a silk cocoon and the shape of a plum. The horn of the animal to be sacrificed to the ancestors must be so long that it can be grasped by hand, and that of the animal to be sacrificed to the shechi must be a foot long. As the spring is yang, no female animal can be offered in sacrifice. An animal which has brought forth young can be offered in no sacrifice, nor may its flesh be eaten by the Sovereign. When the Sovereign visits a feudal Prince a bull-calf must be provided for him. XIII. THE CALENDAR An interesting calendar of ceremonial based upon the dual principle is included in the Eitual. To show the nature of the ceremonial and the punctilious routine imposed upon the Sovereign, the calendar for the first moon is translated in full. The other THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 285 months are similar in detail, but the names and colours differ in the various seasons. " The ruler of the first moon is named Tai Hao, or Great Brightness. He is also named Fu Hi.^ Its Shen is Keu Wang, son of Shao Hao, who anciently established a great reputation as Minister of Forestry. Its sacrifice is to the Doorway, and its offering is to the Spleen." A note explains that the Shen of the Doorway is the yang ^ air inside the Doorway, which goes out in spring, when sacrifice is offered to it. The Spleen represents the element ' earth,' which is subdued ^ in spring by the element ' wood.' " The Sovereign removes his abode to the north of the east palace. He rides in a blue carriage, covered over with bells and drawn by a horse over eight feet high, called a ' dragon.' His banner is blue, so are his cap and his robes. His ornaments are all of blue jade. His food is of wheat and mutton, and his crockery is of the common sort. "In this moon is the beginning of spring, the complete virtue of which is in ' wood.' Three days before the establishment of spring, the astronomer goes to the Sovereign to announce that such a day is the beginning of spring. The Sovereign then fasts, purifying himself. On the first day of spring he leads out the three Dukes and the nine Ching — the highest officials — and all the princes and other officials to offer sacrifice to Tai Hao and Keu Wang. ■ After returning he makes presents to the Dukes, the ^ Who laid the foundation of the civilisation of China. ^ Air expired is called yang air. ' This is the language of geomancy, which is founded on the dual principle. All changes occur by the interaction of the five elements, metal, wood, water, fire, and earth. 286 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA Ching, and the high officials, exhorting them in full court to exert themselves in making their virtue complete by carrying out his commands, so that the people will rejoice in the exhibition of their mercy to all classes down to the lowest. To bestow happiness on all classes by combined justice and mercy is the strict duty of the official. He then commands the astronomer to observe the laws and regulations concerning the movements of sun, moon, and stars, and to be careful against mistakes in calculation. " On the first day beginning with the sign sin he prays before Shangti for a good year. A propitious day is selected on which he ploughs the land. He goes in a carriage seated at the left of the driver, on whose right is a guard. He is followed by the three Dukes, the nine Ching, all the princes and officials. They all share in the ploughing. The Sovereign ploughs three turns, the Dukes five, the Ching and the princes nine turns. Eeturning to the palace, he takes a flagon in the room where he sleeps in the spring, and to the Dukes and the other high officials he gives a drink of the spirits called Kao, or the drink after toil. " In this month the essence of heaven descends and that of earth ascends. Heaven and earth unite, and grass and wood begin to move with a new life. The Sovereign orders all to be diligent in agricultural pursuits. The Minister of Agriculture goes to the fields and superintends the farmers in clearing out the marshes, fixing the boundaries, and searching out the land, high or low, best suited for the richest produce of the five grains. This prevents trouble later in the season. He commands the musicians to practise dancing, in preparation of all which, accord- THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 287 ing to rule, is necessary for the sacrifices of the month. " He orders sacrifices to be offered to the mountains, the rivers, the forest, and the marshes. In the sacrifices for this month there must be no female. No wood must be cut down. The nests of birds must not be disturbed, or the young of insects destroyed. Animals with young and birds beginning to fly must not be killed. Newly born animals and newly laid eggs must not be destroyed. Men must not assemble in crowds, or live inside city walls. Bones and putrid flesh must be buried. " In this month there must be no war. War at this season will bring down the wrath of Heaven. The weapons of war must sleep. I ^ must not originate war. The ' way ' of Heaven ^ should not be obstructed, or the li of earth ^ destroyed ; nor should any man neglect his own particular duty." " In the second moon, when the swallows come, the Sovereign, accompanied by the Queen, the concubines, and nine lady attendants, goes to the south frontier to offer the Chiao sacrifice to God, and the sheath of a bow and arrow to the god Mei, who is then the associate of Shangti." " When Chien Ti was childless, she presented an offering to God at the south frontier, making Mei the associate at the sacrifice. A swallow came and dropped an egg, which she ate, with the result that she became pregnant and gave birth to Sie, who was the ancestor of King Tang. "No animal is to be killed for sacrifice, the ' This appears to imply that aggressive war is wrong, but that defence is permissible. ' Which is new life. 288 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA offerings for this month being a jade sceptre, with skins and furs." " In the third moon, on the establishment of summer, the Sovereign goes to the south frontier, accompanied by all the high officials mentioned above, to offer sacrifice to the god of fire as associate to Shangti." " In midsummer the Sovereign orders the people to worship the mountains, the rivers, the hundred fountains, and at the altar to the rain. Much music is to be played. The officials of every city are to pray for rain to secure the fruits of the harvest." " In the third month of summer the Four Directors and the hundred city officials are to begin the feeding of animals for the sacrifices, so that provision may be made for offerings to God, to the notable mountains, the great rivers, the gods of the cardinal points, the spirits of the ancestral temple and the shechi, that thus they may plead for the welfare and happiness of the people. The special sacrifice this month is to the Hall god — Chung liu. " In midsummer a great sacrifice, yli, had been offered for rain, with prayer for seasonable weather. A great thanksgiving offering to Shangti was made in the third month of summer. " In the first month of autumn, harvest is established. Metal is the ascendant element. No civil officials are appointed and no rewards are given. But the army is marshalled against the rebellious, to punish the wicked and to make manifest the real distinction between the evil and the 'good. In this month there is destruction of vegetation by insects, and of men by war." THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 289 " In mid-autumn the Sovereign orders the selection of animals for sacrifice and of prayers. The colour of the animal must be uniform and the- body without a flaw. Eed is the colour for yang, aad black for yin. The size of the animal is to be noted, but its horns especially must be carefully measured. In all this there must be exercised the greatest care to provide a feasting sacrifice for Shangti." A sceptical note to this passage asks whether Shangti, or any of the " host " indeed, eats of these offerings. In this mid-autumn month the Sovereign goes himself to the hunt to secure, with bow and arrow, wild animals for the sacrifice Chiao at the frontier, to express gratitude to the Shen of the four quarters." "At the establishment of winter a sacrifice was offered at the north frontier to welcome the winter. After returning, gifts were bestowed on the relatives of those who perished in the war. The Sovereign was clad in black, and everything used by him was black. By his order, divination was made by the tortoise to ascertain the good or ill about to befall the country in the future. He also ordered the artisans to prepare all kinds of utensils to be used in sacrifice, all of the proper measure, size, and pattern, " In this month the Cheng — autumnal — sacrifice is offered to ancestors. At it there is heavy drinking. The Sovereign prays the ancestors of the heavens — the sun, moon, and stars — for a good year in the coming season. An animal is killed in sacrifice to the Shechi of the nation, and at the same time sacrifice is made to the god of the Door. A sacrifice of the animals killed in the chase is offered to the ancestors and to the Five Szu — the Door, the Eoad, the Doorway, the Furnace, and the Hall." 19 290 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA "In mid- winter, when, on the shortest day, the yang and the yin are striving for mastery, the Sovereign purifies himself by fasting for the sacrifice. He does not show himself. His body must be at peace. He is not to listen to any music, or to look at anything which could divert his thoughts. He is to banish all inordinate and selfish desires. His Heaven-given natural disposition must not be discomposed. All distracting business is dismissed, and he must be calm and self-possessed. He thus prepares himself to meet whatever is determined by the yin and the yang. He commands the proper officials to sacrifice with prayer to the Four Seas, the great rivers, the notable fountains, the great marshes and wells. The prayers in this ' watery ' period are for protection against abnormal courses on the part of the waters, so that they may do no injury to the people." " In the last month of winter he commands the proper officials to ' escort ' the cold with oxen. The sacrifices to mountains and rivers are now concluded for the year, as well as those to the great officials of ancient dynasties and those to the gods of the air. The Sovereign orders the High Recorder to arrange the regulations for all the rulers of feudal and tributary States, that they may know what animals to provide for sacrifices to offer to Shangti and the Shechi ; and the people of each State to provide for sacrifices at the ancestral temple. They are also to be informed what animals are to be provided by them for sacrifices to the mountains, the forests, and the notable rivers. For all people on earth should sacrifice, according to their ability, to God, to the Shechi, to the ancestral temple, to the mountains, the forests, and the great rivers." THE LI CHI, OR CLASSIC OF RITUAL 291 From the preceding, much information can he gleaned as to Chinese rehgious beliefs and practices in mid-ancient times, and not a little can be instructively compared with the ritualism of modern times. It will be observed that in the objects of worship there is a considerable descent from the high plane of the primal - ancient, where there is no indication of animal worship. CHAPTER VII MANCHU RITUAL I. CHAEACTEE OF SACEIFICE . II. PEEPAEATION FOE SACEIFICE III. OFFEEING OF SACEIFICE . IV. DIAGEAM OF TAN V. DIAGEAM OF PLATFOEMS VI. DIAGEAM OF SHEINE FADE 295 297 300 308 309 311 I. CHAEACTEE OF SACEIFICE One of the most honourable prerogatives of the Chinese Emperor is the annual sacrifice offered at the winter solstice to the Supreme Euler of the universe. Even four thousand years ago this sacrifice was a long- estabhshed practice, and the duty of performing it belonged of right to the reigning Sovereign. From a dethroned Sovereign the right passed on to his conqueror, whose success was evidence of the call of Heaven making him representative of God on earth. The public offering of this sacrifice was the chief evidence of the right to rule. On this account the practice has been strictly observed and jealously guarded by the ruling Sovereign all down the ages. The central act of this sacrifice consists of burning on an altar in the open-air the entire body of a young bulP as a burnt-offering to God. The significance of the sacrifice has been completely lost. Search in ancient books and inquiry of the foremost literary men have alike failed to ascertain the rationale of this most ancient and most interesting ceremony. The only response elicited by inquiry is that it is an " old custom." This ignorance is as characteristic of Confucius and his time as it is of our own. All his long life he was an ardent student of antiquity, and ceremonial commanded his keenest research. But 1 See " Ritual " and "Sacrifice." 296 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA his efforts to discover the meaning of this sacrifice were wholly unsuccessful. He attached so much importance to it as to declare that the man who could explain the sacrifice to God would be able to rule the Empire as easily as he could look on the palm of his own hand. Though the origin and the design of this sacrifice are alike unknown, the fact of its existence for more than four thousand years, combined with the fact that it is the only case of survival from ancient times of a sacrifice to the Supreme God, lends to it a special interest. It is not within the scope of this work to theorise on the principles involved in this sacrifice. But it is interesting to know, and may be instructive to enumerate, the practices connected with it as far as these can be ascertained. From the conservative character of the Chinese we are warranted in assuming that the essential portions of the ritual connected with this service have been transmitted from reign to reign and from century to century. We do not think it rash on our part to believe that accretions were made to the ancient ritual by new dynasties in order that the ceremonial might be made more solemn and more imposing. Indeed, the classical Eitual distinctly states that there were innovations and changes since the earliest times. We know that the Chow dynasty introduced into their cosmical philosophy serious changes which compelled changes in their religious ceremonial. There certainly has been increase in the expenditure connected with the costly offerings. We cannot conceive the rulers Yao and Shun, in their ancient simplicity and comparative poverty, able to make such costly offerings as have been made in more MANCHU RITUAL 297 recent times. But though now surrounded by the greater pomp on which wealth always insists, the central sacrifice is stiU offered in its pristine simplicity. We can therefore form some conception of the ancient rite from an examination of the Eitual of the present Manchu dynasty. Accordingly, the ceremonial set forth in the Book of Eitual of the present dynasty is translated below in full. Let it be remembered that the ancient ritual, retained fragmentarily in the ancient Book of Eitual, demands simplicity in sacrifice as the fundamental requisite. By simplicity in sacrifice is attained the greatest reverence for and the most sincere honour to God. Utensils may be of the most expensive material, some of the offerings may be of the most costly kind, but the essential element must be simple. To render the sacrifice acceptable, two vital con- ditions must be fulfilled. The first is that one, and only one, calf-bull, of one unmixed colour and without flaw, be offered. The second is that the offering be burned on an altar erected on the ground in the open air. These conditions are the same now as they were in the days of Shun. The more perfect the simplicity the greater is the honour. IL PEEPAEATION FOE SACEIFICE In the Ta Ching Whi Tien, or Directory of the Manchu dynasty, is a section on the duties of the Board of Eites. In this section is a subsection on " the Department of Sacrifice." It contains a chapter on "The first great Sacrifice"; of this chapter a complete translation follows. In every sacrifice to Heaven the proper aspect 298 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA for the shrine is towards the south.^ The Tan^ is circular, to represent the roundness of the heavens. Within the Tan are three circular, concentric terraces or platforms. The sacrifice is offered annually, at the winter solstice, to the God of imperial heaven. Associated with God are the first five emperors^ of the present dynasty. A secondary sacrifice is offered to the sun, the moon, the stars, and the elements (cloud, rain, wind, and thunder). The shrine to represent Shangti is on the highest of the three platforms facing south. The shrines representing the five emperors face east and west* on the same platform. The four secondary shrines are on the second platform — that to the sun facing west, that to the stars standing behind it ; that to the moon facing east, and that to the four elements standing behind it. A blue screen is provided for all the shrines.^ There are prepared as offerings before the shrine of Shangti one sceptre of blue jade, twelve pieces of silk, one calf, one plate (teng),® two kwei, two fu, twelve bien, and twelve teu ; one tsun to contain spirits, three chiao, one censer, six lamps, one calf-bull for burnt-offering. Before each of the shrines to ^ The south is yang. The Emperor sits facing south, which is the most honourable position. 2 This is the name given to the whole enclosure set apart for this sacrifice, including the altar, the platforms, and the other buildings enumerated below. See Diagrams, p. 308. ^ Taitsu, Taitsung, Shunchih, Kanghi, Yungching. * To the south of and at rigTit angles to the shrine to Shangti. See Diagram, p. 309. ^ A learned ofSeial informed me that the screen — colour of heaven — i covers the top and the front of the shrine, protecting it from the weather. «See "Utensils," p. 282. MANCHU RITUAL 299 the emperors were placed one piece silk, one calf, one plate, two kwei, two fu, twelve pien, twelve teu, ' one tsun, three chiao, one censer, and four lamps. Before the shrines to the gods (Shen) of the sun and the moon were placed one piece silk, one young bull, one plate, two fu, two kwei, ten pien and ten teu, two tsun and three chiao, twenty cups, one censer and two lamps. Before the shrine of the Shen of the stars were placed eleven pieces of silk. To the clouds, rain, wind, and thunder are offered four pieces of silk, one bull, one sheep, one pig, one plate, two gold plates, two fu, two kwei, ten pien, ten teu, one tsun, three chiao, thirty cups, one censer, and two lamps.^ One basket is filled with jade and silks. The meat is laid on the tsu, or trenchers, and the various tsun are filled with spirits. On the day preceding the' ofi'ering of sacrifice the piece of music called " Central Harmony " is played below the Tan or platforms. (At the palace) the various imperial ensigns and standards are arranged to right and left. The order of the retinue and escort for the Emperor is fixed outside the " midday " or south gate of the capital. The jade chariot (nien) stands at the threshold of the gate called " Great Harmony." ' It is wortliy of note that the number of lamps seems to denote difference in honour, the number of these marking the chief difference between the offerings to the Supreme Euler and those to the imperial ancestors. 300 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA III. OFFERING OF SAGEIFIOE Two hours before midday the Tai ehang ching^ goes to the Chienching gate of the palace to invite the Emperor to go to the " Fasting " Palace.^ The Emperor, clad in the double-dragon robe, comes out and mounts the ritual chariot, on which he goes out of the palace (grounds). He is preceded by ten of the highest officials and followed by two others. He is guarded by twenty men of the " Leopard-tail " guards with rifle and sword, and twenty with bows and arrows. When he arrives at the " Great Harmony " gate he alights (from the ritual chariot) at the threshold and ascends the jade chariot. As soon as the cortege begins to move away, the bell of the midday gate rings out. The escort marches in its order ; while the princes, dukes, civil and military officials who are not to take part in the sacrifice, kneel, clad in their official robes, to see the cortege off. The drums and wind instruments go in front, but play no music. The bell of the Fasting Palace is. kept ringing continuously. The Emperor enters the Tan by the west gate and goes to the outside of the Chaoheng ^ gate, where he alights from the jade chariot. The Tsan Yin * and the Sacrificial President reverently lead the Emperor by the left-hand door to the " Imperial blue chamber," where he offers, incense before Shangti and the Emperors. He then ' President of the Sacrificial Court, afterwards called Sacrificial President. Connected with this Court are 572 men. ^ At the place of sacrifice ; the Tan is located south of the city. '" Bright and successful." See Plan I. * "Official Assisting." As his actions are those of "prompter," this name will be given him below. MANCHU RITUAL 301 performs the ceremony of the three " kneelings " and the nine kowtows.^ The subordinate sacrificing officials^ are sent to the secondary shrines on the second platform, to offer incense and to perform the ceremony of the three kneelings and the nine kowtows. The Emperor goes to the Tan and inspects the shrines on the platform. He then goes to the Treasury of the Shen, where he inspects the sacrificial vessels, the pien and the teu, and also the meat. This duty of inspection completed, he goes out by the south left-hand door of the inner wall * and proceeds outwards by the south left-hand door of the outer wall, and thus reaches the sacred way, on the right of which he mounts the jade chariot and goes to the Fasting Palace. All the princes, dukes, and officials who assist at the sacrifice stand reverently outside the gate of the Fasting Palace, in their proper order and in their official robes, waiting for the Emperor. When he enters they retire. In the early morning of the next day they watch the time. When it is one hour and three-quarters before sunrise the Sacrificial President goes to the Fasting Palace to tell the hour. The Emperor clothes himself in his sacrificial robes, ascends the ritual chariot, and goes out. He alights from this chariot and mounts the jade chariot. The bell of the Fasting Palace is kept ringing without cessation. Arriving at the outer wall, the Emperor alights from the jade chariot ' P. 266. ^ Fen sien. Their duties being of secondary importance, they will be called "assistants." = Wei. See Plan I. p. 308. 302 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA outside the south gate and on the right of the " sacred way." The prompter and the Sacrificial President reverently lead the way into the Great Tent or Pavilion.^ The President of the Board of Eitual, leading the sacrificial officials, goes to the " imperial blue Pavilion " and reverently takes out the shrines,^ placing them under the blue screen.^ Then the Sacrificial President invites the Emperor to go to perform the ceremonial — the " three nines." The Emperor proceeds out of the Great Tent, and washes his face and hands. He is reverently guided by the prompter and the Sacri- ficial President through the south left-hand gate of the outer wall and the left-hand gate of the inner wall, and ascends by the " midday " ^south) steps to the second platform, where he stands before the praying-place of the " Yellow Tent." * The Sacrificial President and the assistant officials^ of the Board of Eitual, with four of the subordinate " assistants," enter by the right-hand south gate, and advance to the steps standing at the division of the Way. The ushers conduct all the princes and Beilas who assist at the sacrifice above the steps of the third or lowest platform, the Beitzu and dukes below these steps, and the other officials outside * the lowest platform. They stand right and left, according to their official rank, outside the gate of the wall ; all look towards the north. The Director^ of Ceremonies, the assisting musicians and dancers ascend to their proper place.* ' This seems to be set up between the outer wall and the Chaoheng gate, for he does not at this point enter the gate of the outer wall. 2 Sheu Wei. * P. 298. * See Diagram, p. 309. « Tsan li lang. ' From the first act in the burning of the sacrifice to the final burning at the liao (furnaces), everything done is under the guidance of the tien yi Kwan, Director of Ceremony. MANCHU RITUAL 303 The Emperor stands at the praying-place, whence he can look on while the burnt sacrifice is being offered to Shangti. The officials in charge of the incense approach the Emperor with their incense vessels. The musicians strike up the music " First Peace," in honour of God, and the singers ^ sing. The prompter invites the Emperor to ascend the highest platform, and reverently guides him to the Tan, setting him in front of the shrine ^ to Shangti. The incense official kneeling presents incense. The prompter invites the Emperor to kneel. The Emperor kneels. Then he invites the Emperor to offer incense. The Emperor presents the large round incense sticks, and afterwards the common flat incense sticks, three times, and after doing this he rises off his knees and performs the same ceremonial before the shrines to the Emperors. The prompter next invites him to return to his place. He returns. The prompter now invites him to kneel, to perform the kowtow, and to stand up. He performs the three kneelings and the nine kowtows. His example is followed by the princes, dukes, and all the officials. The officials in charge of the jade and silks now bring in each his basket,* The musicians play the music " Prospect Smooth " (peace). The Emperor ascends the platform, and goes before the shrine to Shangti. The jade and silk officials kneel and present their baskets, which the Emperor receives kneeling. After presenting the jade and silks, he rises and performs exactly the same ceremony before the shrines of the Emperors. He then returns to his place, and the large plate " tsu " is brought in. ^ Singers accompany the music throughout the service. 2 See Diagram, p. 309. ^ Pp. 209, 311. 304 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA He now turns to the west, standing at the side of the Place for Prayer. The proper official pours the soup into its vessel. Holding this reverently in his hands, he ascends to the platform from the south and approaches the shrine of Shangti and the shrines of the Emperors, before each of which he kneels and reverently presents the soup, on elevating it. Three ^ times he washes the dishes, and then retires, descending by the west ^ steps. The Emperor returns to his place while the musicians play the music " Complete," smoothness or peace. He ascends the platform, and goes in front of the shrine to Shangti and the shrines to the Emperors. He kneels at each and presents the trencher with the meat. He then rises and returns to his place. The official with the spirit-flagon kneels, presents it to the Emperor, who, kneeling, presents the vessel, placing it exactly in the middle of the table. He rises and retires, going to the table and standing while the written prayer is being recited.* The official in charge of the written prayer (who may be called reciter) approaches the prayer-table. Kneeling before it, he makes three kowtows. He remains in a kneeling position before the table, and the music ceases. The Emperor kneels, and all the officials kneel while the reciter is reading, and remain ' This seems to indicate three presentations, one to Shangti and one to each group of Emperors. ^ See Diagram. ^ The prayer is a lengthy written acknowledgment of the goodness of God throughout the past year in bestowing favourable weather, fruitful seasons, protecting the people, etc. It is a thanksgiving, and the whole service is one of thankfulness to God. A prayer for a gpod year is offered in the same way in the spring. — Informaticm from MANCHU RITUAL 305 in this position till he concludes. When the reading is concluded, the reciter goes in front of the shrine to Shangti, and lays the prayer on its table. Making three kowtows, he retires, and the music resumes. The Emperor, leading all the officials, performs the threefold ceremony, rises and goes to the shrines of the Emperors, where he presents the flagons with the same ceremonial. The Tsan li lang (assistant official) leads the subordinate assistants by the east and west steps on to the platform to go to the secondary shrines (sun, moon, etc.). At each of these incense is burnt, silks are offered, and, in its order, the flagon is presented. These acts of offering being finished, they descend by the same steps and return to their original position. The music then stops and the military dancers depart. The eight civilian dancers enter, and perform the ceremony of the second offering. The musicians play the music " Excellent Peace." The dancers dance the " Feather and Bamboo " dance. The Emperor ascends the platform and presents a flagon the second time, setting it down on the left of the table. The ceremonial is in all respects similar to that of the first offering. He then returns to his place, whence he goes to perform the ceremony of the third and final offering, while the musicians play the music "Everlasting Peace." The dance is the same as at the second offering. The Emperor ascends the platform and presents the flagon in order, setting it down on the right hand of the table. The ceremonial is the same as that of the second offering. He then returns to his place. The subordinate assistants offer the flagon to the secondary shrines, 20 3o6 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA exactly as at the first offering. The music stops and the civil dancers depart. The Sacrificial President presents the spirits and the meat. The two Kwanglu ^ Presidents go to the east table and bring the spirits and meat before the shrine to Shangti, raising them reverently. The Emperor arrives. He drinks the spirits and eats the meat, standing at the praying- place. Two of&cer-guards approach and stand at the Emperor's left. Those bearing the spirits and meat descend and stand at his right. The Emperor kneels. The officials at his left and right also kneel. They on the right present the spirits. The Emperor takes the flagon, raising it reverently. The official with the meat brings it forward, and the Emperor ijakes it in a similar manner. He then makes the three kneelings, rises and goes to his place. There he leads all the officials in making the three kneel- ings and the nine kowtows. The vessels are then removed, and the musicians play the music " Splendid Peace." The proper officials approach the shrine to Shangti and remove the blue jade to the Store,^ and the musicians play the music " Cloudless Peace." The Emperor leads all the officials in making the ceremony of the three kneelings and the nine kowtows. The proper officials then take up the written prayer, the silks, the offerings, and the incense, and bring them to the liao — furnaces — or altars. The Emperor stands round at the side of the praying- place looking west, waiting till the prayer, the silks, and other offerings are burned. He then goes to his place. The incense and silks are all taken from the secondary shrines, by the east and west steps, and ' Purveyors of food. "Tishen, "God" and "spirits." MANCHU RITUAL 307 brought to the proper altar, where they are burnt. The musicians play the music " Great Peace," When the offerings are half burnt, the Emperor is invited to go to the view-place, to see the burning on the altar. He is reverently guided by the left gate of the inner wall to go to the view-place. The secondary assistants go outside, by the right and left gates to see the burning. The music " Eitual Completed " is played. The Emperor is then respectfully guided out southwards by the left gate of the outer wall. On going out he enters the Great Pavilion,^ where he changes his robes. The President of the Board of Eites, with the help of the officials connected with the Sacrificial Court, reverently removes the shrines of the deities back to the imperial blue Palace (Treasury). The Emperor goes outside the Chaoheng gate and ascends into the ritual chariot, escorted by his guards in order, the musicians leading the way playing the music "Protecting Peace." He returns to his palace, followed by the princes, dukes, and all the accompanying officials in their order. Outside the Midday (Wu) gate of the city, whose bell has been kept ringing, the princes, dukes, and officials who had not gone to the sacrifice are waiting, clad in their official robes. Kneeling, they welcome back the Emperor on his return. The waiting officials all enter the gate after the cortege, escorting it to the Bridge of the " Gold Water," and wait there respect- fully till the Emperor enters the palace, when they retire. When the Emperor is unable to go in person to the Tan to perform the entire ceremonial connected with ' Between the Chaoheng Gate and the "outer" wall. 3o8 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA the sacrifice, he appoints ofiRcials to represent him, and, they go with the Sacrificial officials to the Chaoheng Gate at first cock-crow, and perform the entire ceremony as described above. But in this case no calf is offered on a " trencher," nor is music played. The officials enter by the right ^-hand doors and gates instead of the left, and go up to the various platforms by the west^ steps. All the ceremonial is carried through under the direction of the prompter just in the same way as when the Emperor offers the sacrifice in person. The act is his because performed by his deputies. IV. DIAGRAM OF TAN Plan No. I. This plan shows the location of all the buildings of importance within the great enclosure commonly, though erroneously, called the "Temple of Heaven." The square in the centre is the part devoted to the sacrifice to Shangti. It is given in more detail in Plan II. In this general plan, A represents the highest platform, B the second, C the lowest, D the inner wall, and E the outer. The three doors in each wall should be noted ; they ex- plain the movements of the Emperor to and from the platforms. The numerals indicate places as follow : — 1. The house -where the victim is slaughtered for the sacrifice. 2. The store or treasury for sacrificial vessels of all kinds. 3. The treasury for the shrines of the deities to be worshipped. 4. The sacrificial kitchen for cooking of all kinds. 5. The gate Chaoheng, before which the Emperor alights on his first entry to the Tan. After alighting from his carriage he enters by the left-hand door in this gate. ' The left hand and the east side are the most honourable positions, after that which looks south. y^iiimmwm^ Altar to Heaven, TLJN I. The inner square (for enlargement, see Plan II.) of this General Plan of the "Altar to Heaven," Peking, is the space on which is enacted all the ceremonial connected with the great sacrifice to Heaven. The gate marked D is on the level ground. The buildings represented beyond the square are all utilised for storage or preparations for the sacrifice. "The Original Religion of China," By John Ross, D.D. MANCHU RITUAL 309 He leaves the place by the opposite side, which is then his left. The " Sacred " "Way, or the way of the gods (Shen), on which he walks up to, and away from, the " outer " wall of the altar. The store for musical instruments. V. DIAGEAM OF PLATFOKMS AND OFFICIALS Plan No. II. This. plan, copied from the Manchu Directory of Worship, refers to that portion of the enclosure on or in which the sacrifice is offered and its attendent ceremonies performed. A. The third or highest platform on which is set the shrine to Shangti and the shrines to the Five Emperors, and on which are laid out the offerings to Shangti detailed in the preceding diagram."^ These offerings are posited between the numerals 1 and 3 of this plan. B. The second platform. C. The lowest platform. 1. Where the ■ shrine to Shangti is placed above the steps leading up to the platform from the north and facing south. 2. The shrines to the Five Emperors facing east and west. 3. The praying-place, with the table for the written prayer. 4. The tsun or wine vessel. 5. The place for the reciter of the written prayer. 6. Large censers for incense — lu. 7. Imperial Guards. 8. Officials in charge of incense. 9. Those in charge of silks. 10. Those in charge of the flagons. 11. For the reciter of the prayer. 12. The officials in charge of mats and rugs on which to kneel. ' P. 308. 310 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA 13. The censors, or officials of the censorate. 14. The Kwanglu, or officials who present meat and drink to the Emperor. 15. The officials in charge of positing shrines, etc. 16. The officials of the Board of Eites. 17. The place of the Emperor. 18. The official assistants of the Emperor — the Sacrificial Court and the prompter. 19. Official with mats and rugs, same as 12. 20. Same as 15. 21. Shrine to the sun on the second platform. 22. Shrine to the nortli star. 23. Shrine to the five planets. 24. Shrine to the twenty-eight constellations. 25. Shrine to the host of stars. 26. Shrine to the moon. 27. Shrine to the clouds. 28. Shrine to rain. 29. Shrine to the wind. 30. Shrine to thunder. 31. Place for the princes. 32. For the censors. 33. For the Board of Rites. 34. For the ushers. 35. For the Director of Ceremonies. 36. For the subordinate attendants who sacrifice to the secondary deities. 37. For the Beitzu and dukes. 38. For the musicians and dancers. 39. For the under-officials assisting. 40. For the singers. 41. The furnaces (liao) for burning the silks, etc. 42. The place for the officials in charge of this burning. 43. The great altar for the burnt sacrifice of the buU. 44. The view-station whence this burning of the sacrifice is witnessed. 45. The guides. 46. The place for officials witnessing the burning. Altar to Heaven. TLJN II. This is an enlarged and detailed sketch of the inner square of Plan I., giving the position of all the actors in the great ceremonial. It is copied from the "Manchu Directory of Ritual." l^See accurate representation of plat- forms in Frontispiece.] 'The Original Religion of China,' By John Ross, D.D. MANCHU RITUAL 311 VI. AEEANGEMENT OF OFFEEINGS Before the shrine to Shangti, whose position is shown on Plan II. on the place numbered 1 : — 1 1 1 2 6 3 4 6 3 4 12i 12e 12a 5a 5e Bi 12; 12/ 125 7 5i 5/ 5j 12Jc 12g 12c 5c 5g 5h 121 12h 12d 8 5d bh, 51 6 6 11 11 10 9 10 11 11 11 Explanation — 1. Chiao 1 or wine flagons. 2. SoTip vessel. 3. Kwei : (1) containing rice, (2) containing large millet (kaoliang). 4. Fu : (1) "small millet," (2) another variety small millet. 5. Pien : (a) with salt, (6) with fish, (c) with dates, (d) with plums, («) with hazel nuts, (/) with ling (?) nuts, {g) with chien^ nuts, (A) venison, (i) with white bread, (j) black bread, (k) roast grain, Q) ground rice. 6. Lamps. 7. Basket with jade and silks. 8. Tsu, plate with calf -meat. 9. Incense. 10. Candles. 11. Tsun or wine vessels. ' See p. 309. See " Utensils," p. 282. ^ This nut is " triangular and larger than hazel "=Brazil nut (?). 312 THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA 12. Teu, small dishes : {a) with salted shalots, (J) picMed meat, (c) salted chives, (d) pickled venison, (e) salted celery, (/) pickled hare, (g) salted bamboo, (h) pickled fish, (i) sliced spleen, (j) roast sucking-pig, (k) soup, (1) thick soup (rice). All the offerings stand in the order of the numerals. The plan is taken from the " Directory of Ceremonial of the Manchu Dynasty." The offerings before the shrines of the Five Emperors are pre- sented in two parts, as there are two shrines — one facing east, the other west. Before each (of the five shrines) is one chiao and two kinds of soup. Next before each of the two sets of shrines come two fu and two kwei, as before the shrine to Shangti. Then come twelve pien and twelve teu, also like those to Shangti. Then come plates with one sheep, one ox, one pig, as at the shrine to the stars. Then stand two candles, incense, and two tsun, placed as before the shrine of Shangti. Lastly stands the basket with silks. The offerings before the gods of agriculture, Shechi, are like those to the Emperors, except that there are only three chiao. There are four tsun. The twelve pien and twelve teu are in four rows of three each. In this sacrifice a few outstanding features may be noted here. Eemarkable is the reverence everywhere demanded. There is the strictest ritualistic attention to every detail. In position, in attitude, in attitudinising, enrobing, incensing, and the rest, the Chinese have nothing to learn from the West. Note that the Emperor worships God and his own ancestors ; inferior officials are told off to offer sacrifice to the secondary deities, which are the Shen or deities of the Air. Lastly, the secondary shrines are devoted to the Shen or god of individual objects, as the sun, etc., but not to the material objects themselves. INDEX Abnormal deities, 70. Abraham, 74. Action-sphere, 35. Admiration, 14. Esthetics, 237. Agnostic period, 22, 65. Agnosticism, source of, 66. Agriculture, deities of, 35, 51, 112, 153, 154, 272. husbandry, 93, 99, 100, 102. Minister of (see Minister), 286. Air, gods of the (see Shen), 152. Altar, 38, 134, 160, 164, 186, 193, 197, 200, 218, 243, 295, 297, 310. to Earth, square, 64, 275. on frontier (see Frontier), 173. to Heaven round, 64, 275. private, 270. rain, 288. roofed, 270. roofless, 270. royal, 270. Anarchy, 36. Ancestors, 23, 37, 93, 145, 148, 161-177, 205, 208, 212, 256- 269, 298. advise, 125, 165, 219. come and go {see Spirits), 150, 244, 247. come and go noiselessly, 207. dead, 39. deities (see Shen and Spirits), 148. demand sincerity, 150, 151. eat and drink, 150, 205-208, |«:245. gratified, 81. Ancestors in presence of God (see Wen), 39, 90, 149, 150. influence of, 39, 54, 93, 94, 115, 149, 150. local, 200. location of, 165, 201. ministers of God, 39, 149, 151. near, 168. personator of (see Personator). pray to, 165, 170, 201. sacrifices to (see Sacrifice), 64, 93, 94, 170, 190, 191, 199, 201, 256-269, 304. satiated, ISO. subordinate to God (see Ministers), 39, 151. temple to (see Temple), 51, 75, 103, 112, 162, 170, 191, 200, 213, 214, 215, 218, 222, 246, 248, 254, 274, 288, 290. worship to, 51, 72, etc. Ancient periods, three, 22. religion, in relief, 26. Animals for sacrifice (see Victims), 283. Animism, 152, 159. Annihilation, 247; 275. Announce by sacrifice {see Inform), 161, 225. Antiquity of Chinese beliefs, 28. Appeal to God, 72, 74, 81, 122. Arabia, 19. Archer (see Bow), 208. Architecture begun, 35. Army, time to march, 288. Arrows, 100, 208, 289. Artemisia, 99, 202, 211, 260. Artisans for sacrificial vessels, 289. 314 INDEX Assistant officials, 300. Associate {see Pei), 113, 115, 169, 198. Assyria, 156. Astronomer, 45, 285. Astronomy, 17. Authenticity, 29, 30, 238. Authority, 237. Autocracy, 44. Autumnal {see Sacriiice). Axes {see Dancers), 100, 262. Azure, 88, 97. Babylon, 18, 19, 144, 146, 156. Bamboo dishes, 198, 208, 282. Barbarians {see Wild tribes), 96, 103, 121, 237. Basket, 202, 311. Bathing, 215, 258, 283. Beans, 99. Bear, great, deity, 153. Beetle god, 69. Beginning, great, 241, 242. Beings, supernatural, 14. Beliefs, antiquity of, 30. primal, 36-40. root of religion, 15. self-evolved, 187. Bells, 205, 208, 251, 281, 300, 307. Benefactors, 272, 274. Benevolence, 248, 273. Birth, miraculous, 56, 98. Black bird, 56, 92, 119. bull, 49, 278. clothing and hat, 260, 289. Blemish {see Victim). Blessing what ? 248, 252. Blood, 260, 261, etc. Blue carriage, 285. screen, 298. Boar, wild, 272. Board of Eites, 297, 302 {see Eitual). Body and soul, 256. Bone, 267. Borderland, 247. Boundary god, 272. Bow, 100, 208, 289. Breath, 262. Brute force, 232. Buddhism, 40, 67, 146, 158. Bull (young), 169, 193, 197, 200, 210, 213, 220, 251, 284, 295. black, 49, 193, 195, 210, 211. red, 168, 170, 193, 198, 201, 204, 211. tawny, 170. white, 170, 193, 195, 198. Buried offering, 278. Burning offerings, 307. Burnt offering, 201, 212, 278, 303, 307. Bushido, 59. Calamities from Heaven, 49, 50, 55, 121-123. own doing, 52, 53, 70, 82, 85, 87. Calendar, 284-290. Calf-bull, 195, 251, 265, 284. Gallery, 230. Candles, 254, 312. Cap, 209, 254, 283. Capital, 53, 80. Capital punishment, 244. Carcass, 261. Cardinal points, 279, 283, 288. Cat deity, 272. Caterpillar deity, 272. Cause remote, 241. Caves, 102. Censer, 309. Cereals, god of (see Agriculture), 35. origin of, 35, 203. Ceremonial {see Ritual and Sacri- fice), 165, 203. antiquity of, 25, 162, 208, 229. conserving influence, 229-238. defective, 162. embodiment of Chinese character, 231-234. exact, 162, 216. meaning lost, 68, 214. number of, 238. what ? 229-238. Cha gods, 272. Chance, no, 53. Change, political, 77. Book of (Yiohing), 32. in existence, 247. in spirit world, 247. Chao (King), 7. Chariot, jade, 300, 301. ritual, 300, 307. INDEX 315 Cheng (King), 6, 116, 120, 171. Chi (King), 93, 104, 119. Chi (deities), 51, 152, 162, 222. Chi (mountain), 89, 102. Chi (Eiver), 102. Chi szii, sacrifice generic, 212. Chiang yuen (see Chow Dynasty), 97, 98. Chiao sacrifice, 253, 255, etc. Chie (King), 46, 52, 72, 112. Chienti, 56. China, ancient, extent of, 58. conservative, 22, 295-297. feudal, 44. homogeneous with other nations, 188. how conserved, 231. unchanged, 21, 22. understood? 232. Chinese beliefs, antiquity, 36-40. self-evolved, 187. Chinese religion, authentic, 29. and idolatry, 20. and Jews, 19, 20, 137. and State, 40. and West, 155. comparison, 26, 134, 136. confusedly represented, 22. differences in, 59, 65. evolution in, 17, 18, 63. mistake of neglecting, 18, 25. origin of, 17. self-evolved, 187. Chow, Duke, 76-87. Chow State, 91," 98. Christian and Chinese, 136. Chu Futzu, 63, 65, 148. Chu Eiver, 102. Chu River, 101. Chuen Hiao, 6. Chung (Tsung), 89, 196. Chung Kang (King), 123. City building, 81, 103. Civilisation, 17, 237. . beginning of, 35. Classics, Confucian, 33. Cleanliness (bathing), 251, 253, 257, 258. Cloth, cotton, 251. Codes of li (Ritual), 19. Coffin, sacrifice before, 50, 224. Cold, deity of, 279, 290. Colour of victim {see Victim). Communion with spirits, 261. Comparative Religion, 17, 25. Conclusion from Ritual, 269. Concubine, influence of, 47, etc. Conduct decides fate (see Calamity), 53, etc. Confucius, 5, 7, 65, 149, 177-181, 190, 229, 241, 245, 252, 255, 263. classics, 33. ignorant, 24, 214. transmitter, 27, 88. Confucianism, origin of, 59, 159. Conservatism of China, 21, 159, 296. Contradiction in Religion, 16. Cortege, 300, 307. Cosmogony, 241. Council of State, 41, 42, 55. Created {see Heaven), 48. Creed, 16, 17. Crime, Minister of, 42. Crown forfeited {see Sovereign), 47. Cup libation {see Libation), 225, 260. pledge, 208, 224. (seven, three, and one) offerings, 277, 278. Dancing, 208, 262, 263, 305. Dates, important, 6, 7. Day, shortest (winter solstice), 253. Death, 244, 256. Decree, 47, 49, 50, 70, 107-120, 135, 173, etc. Deified men, 35, 154, 273. Deities {see Inferior deities). harvest, 153, 272. household, 154. names, 147. ranks, 145, 155. sacrifice to, by officials, 153, 284. subordinate to God, 39, 143. worshipped, 269-274. Deity, female, 146. Delegated official, 216. Demiurge, 242. Demon, 37, 148, 246. Deputy, imperial, 308. Destruction, month of, 288. Devil, 37, 148. 3i6 INDEX Diagrams, 126, 308-312. Dictator, 68. Differences between East and West, 187. Dignity, 208. Dii (Eoman), 37, 155. Directory, Manoliu, 293. Discovery, antiquities, 155. Dishes {see Utensils), 198, 202. Disposition, Heaven -given (see Heaven). Distillation, 99, 202, 221. Ditch Bank deity, 272. Divination, 66, 77, 80, 124-127, 162, 165, 253. method of, 126. Divine Right, 48, 70, 86, 108. Domestic deities, 154, 289. Dragon banner, 254, hat, 267. horse, 285. robe, 254. Dream from God, 55, 125. Drink, strong, propriety in, 208, 273, 278. use of, 84, 168, 170, 202, 209, 261, 263. Drinking, 45, 74, 208, 209, 286, 289. Drought, 172-174. Drum, 203, 205, 208. kettle-drum, 203. Drunkenness, 74, 84, 85, etc. Dual principle [see Yang and Yin), 37, 63-65, 196, 216, 269. Dualism introduced, 63, 71. Dualistic period, 22. Duty, 66. Dynasty, degenerate (Sovereign), 47, 49, 57, 70, 76, 84, 118. Earth (material), 221. altar to, 196. deities of, 51, 152, 171, 190, 210. essence of, 244. mother, 64. sacrifice to, 64, 65, 72, 214. Earthen vessels, 253. East and West, 137, 155, 187. Education, Minister of, 41, 56, 102. Egypt, 18, 19, 156. Elements, five, 243. gods of, 190. Emblems, 254. Emigration, 100-104. Emperor, Manchu, 295-307. Environment, 67. Escort, 300. Ethics, 5, 16, 17, 237. Eunuchs, 92. Euphemism, 88. Example (see Sovereign), 83, 96, 115, 232. Extent of ancient China, 58. External forms, value of, 248. Faithfulness, perfection of, 248, 249. Family, offences against, 84. Famines, 70. Fang, 261, 265. Farming (see Agriculture). Fasting, 215, 258, 285, 290. design of, 258. lax, 258. palace, 300. strict, 258. Fat, 99, 204, 255, 260, etc. Fatalism, 107. Fate, 107. Feast, 205, 206, 261, 289. Feeding victims, 288. Feng (Prince), 83, 114. Fengshui (geomancy), 67. Feudal States, 44, 71, 78, 111. . Filiality, 39, 89, 93, 94, 249, 250, 257-259. Fire discovered, 221. god of, 154, 271, 288. First moon, 285. Fishes, 76, 169, 281. Five Beatitudes, 42. codes of ritual, 248. emperors, 298, 309. felicities, 42. flavours, 250, 281. generations, 246. house deities, 271, 289. metamorphio principles, 243. punishments, 122. Kelationships, 42. sacrifices, 273, 289. virtues, 73. Fixity of species, 243. Flagon, 267. Flavoured millet, 203. INDEX 317 Flavours, five, 250. Flesh (see Meat). Flood, 41, 53, 110. Flower of U, 236. Flute, 203, 208. Food, uncooked, 221. Forests cleared, 103. worshipped, 290. Forfeit crown (see Dynasty), 48, 72, 112, 116. Forms, 237, 248. Foundation of perfection, 248. Four Directors, 283, 288. Dynasties, 238. Hollows, 279. quarters, 211. sacrifices, 277. Seas, 290. seasons, 276. secondary shrines, 298. Fox god, 68, 152. Fragments, 263. Fragrance, 211, 261, 278. Frontier sacrifice, 173, 175, 253, 287-289. Fu Hi, 6, 35. Furnace god, 271. for sacrifice, 38, 310. Garments most honourable, 251. Gems, 100, 203. Geomancy, 66, 67, 80, 288. Ghost theory, 23, 25, 245. Girdle, 100, 273. Goat, 197, 210. Goblet, 198, 251, 267. God, 23, 24. all-knowing, 50. approached through media, 65. changeable, 51, 90, .113, 135. conception. Christian, 136. conception, Jewish, 137. conception, new of, 63, 71. comparison, 66. contemplation of, 141. created man, 48, 92, 97. feared, 87. gifts to man, 49, 90. gives grain, 93. grants repentance, 52. honoured by honour to inferior deities, 65. God, justice of, 42, 122, 133, etc. looks down, 103, 122. mediator for, 142. moves heart, 52, 91 . name Chinese, 23, 63. nature of summarised, 71, 128- 138. near, 43, 90, 91. neglect of, 163. no evil, 95. • no hatred, 95. no image, 157. no partiality, 52, 86, 112, 113. no philosophy of, 24, 25. origin of unknown, 25. protection by, 42, 82. providence of, 43, 48. pi-ovides rulers (see Sovereign), 48, 119. removed farther, 65. sacrificed to (see Sacrifice), 72, 75, 160, 192, 214, 295. sacrifice duplicated, 65, 255. sacrifice forbidden to people, 36. searched for right man, 52, 91, 103, 119, 218. served by inferior deities, 65, 143, 144. set up rulers, 103. son of, 92, 119. Sovereign only can worship, 36. Supreme, 23, 25, 49, 52, 57, 65, 81, 110, 120. unknowable, 66. watchful, 43. worshipped anywhere, 159, 215. Gods of cardinal points, 288. Good man, 248. Gourds, 203. Government, art of, 28, 30. principles of, 44. theory of (see Sovereign), 57, 58, 74, 108, 110, 175. Grace, 263, 267. Grain, gods of, 153, 170. Grants to relatives of killed soldiers, 289. Grasses for divination, 66, 126. Gratitude basis of sacrifice (see Sacrifice), 39, 289, 304. Grave, selection of, 67. Great Hall, 201, 210. 3i8 INDEX Greece,. 19. Ground, deities of, 154. Ground swept, 219, 251, 253. Guardian, Grand, 225. Guests, 205-207, 266. Guilt, 189. Hall, Great {see Great). Hamlets, deities of, 154. Hao (capital), 80. Harvest {see Prayer), 211. gods of, 153, 211, 272. thanksgiving for, 272, 273. Hat, 254, 258, 260, 267, 273. Heart, cry, 68. in service, 41. in worship, 150, 162, 218, 248, 258, 263. Heaven and Earth (Duality), 37, 64, 71-73, 270. Heaven {see God). abode of good, 31, 39. aU-intelligent, 55, 56, 78, 91, 133. altar to {see Altar), 35. blue, 65. compassionate, 72, 96. creating, 92, 112. enlightens, 96. essence of, 224, 286. father and mother, 64, 95. fixed principles, 42, 49, 90, 116. gives birth, 92. gives disposition, 92. hears cry, 74. illimitable,, 92, 94. imperial, 86, 109. impersonal, 65. manifest, 120. nets men, 92, 96. no error, 91, 116. no partiality, 86, 87. noiseless, 90. not constant, 52, 86, 113, 120. not repeat decree {see Decree), 117. omnipresent, 91, 133. patient, 118. pitiless, 94, 96. prayer to, 74. protects, 41, 42, 46, 48, 115, 168, 179. punishes {see Calamity and Sove- reign), 45, 47, 78, 133. Heaven, sacrifice to {see Sacrifice), 35, 64, 214. sees all, 56, 74, 91, 120, 133. selects Sovereign, 51, 53, 91, etc. son of, 57, 70, 128 strong, makes, 93. supervision of, 133. Supreme, 23, 37, 48, 56, 81, 174, 179. terror, 94-96. trackless, 90. universal Father, 64. vicegerent of, 36. way of, 42, 49, 55, 56, 116, 287. way of, not fixed, 86, 90. wisdom, 43. wrath of, 91, 94, 95. Hell, 39. Henotheistic, 20, 144. Hi (Prince), 45, 111. Hia dynasty, 45, 86, 112, 163, 195, 210, 253, 259, 262. Hie, 56. Hierarchy of deities, 155. History, Book of, 26-29, 34. book of scraps, 28. purpose of, 27. subsequent to events, 57. Ho (Prince), 45, 111. Holiness, 38. Hollow, for sacrifice, 278, 279. Horn in sacrifice {see Victim), 198, 284. Horse god, 211. Host of deities {see Inferior), 144, 161, 172. House first, 221. Household deities, seven, 271. How Chi, 97, 98, 100, 170, 198, 210, 284. Hu (State), 44. Hiien (King), 144, 170, 172-174, 203. Humility, 77, 141, 142, 251. Hundred officials, 288. Hundred Shen {see Inferior), 156, 160, 161, 171, 172. Hunt for sacrifice, 289. Husband and wife, 260, 264, 267. Husbandry {see Agriculture), 99. Hut, 102. Hwun, three, 256, 262. INDEX 319 Ice, thin, 94. Ideals, 231. Idol, 21, 134, 156. Idolatry, 21, 38, 143, 156, 158. Illimitable, 242. Image, 38, 134, 146, 158. Impluvium, 271. Incense, 165, 171, 300, 303. India, 157. IndiflFerenoe, 251. Indolence, 251. Infallible, 17. Inferences from primal period, 57-59. Inferior deities {see Deities), 37, 49, 75, 134, 139-181, 211, 269. abnormal, 151. agricultural, 51, 112, 272. East and West, 155. host of, 144) 160. idols, 156. introduction, 141. limited sphere, 143, 145. local, 154. ministers of God, 143. mountains and rivers, 50, 151, 290. names of, 147-151. ranks of, 145, 147, 155. sacrifice to {see Sacrifice), 147. sky and earth, 51, 112, 147, 152. summary, 155. worship of, consistent with worship to God, 65, 143, 144, 156. Informing by sacrifice, 49, 74, 75, 189, 194, 223, 235. Inscription on tripod, 282. Inspection of vessels, 301. Inspection of victims, 283. Instruction by sacrifice, 263-268. Instruments, musical, 282. Integrity, 236, 249. Intermediary, 142, 260. Introduction to deities, 141. general, 13. historical, 34. Manchu ritual, 295. mid-ancient, 63. religion, 13. ritual, 229. sacrifice, 185. Iron, 101. Isaiah, 31. Jade, 100. chariot, 300. Jerusalem, 213. Jews differ from Chinese, 20, 141. Jews resemble Chinese, 19, 63, 141. Justice, 107, 137. Kang (State), 114. Kanghi Dictionary, 33. Kao Yao, 42, 110. Keng (King), 6, 53. Keng (city), 53. Kharma, 53, 107. Kiang (or Chiang) Yuen, 6, 53. Kidney, 260. King {see Divine Right and Sovereign), 107, 225, 260, 262. Killing, no, 287. Kitchen god, 154. Kneeling, 306. Knife, 204, 251, 255, 260. Know v/hat of God, 66. Ko (kingdom), 215. Kowtow, 266. Kun (barbarians), 103. Kun (official), 41. Kwei, 37, 148, 180, 214, 222, 243, 246, 276. Kweishen, 37, 124, 147-152, 161, 164, 165, 179, 221, 244, 249, 256, 263. between heaven and earth, 256. Ladies in worship, 205, 260. Land and grain gods {see Inferior), 161. Laotzu on God, 25. Lares and penates, 155. Laws instituted, 35, 240. origin of, 274. Lax fasting, 258. Legge, Dr., 26. Lei (sacrifice), 40, 72, 75, 192, 212. Li (King), 7, 91, 92. Li (kingdom), 70. Li {see Propriety), 47, 74, 75, 229- 238, 269. authority of, 236. importance of, 238, 247, 249, 258. 320 INDEX Liao {see Furnace), 38. Libation, 167, 201, 202, 204, 225, 245, 278. yarieties of, 281. Life, 243. new, 243, 286. preservation of, 287. simple, 58. Light, north, deadly, 270. Literati, 158. Literature, 158. Liu (Duke), 100. Liver, 262. Lo (River), 80, 117. Local deities, 154, 211. Location of Kweishen {see An- cestors), 148, 256. Locust god, 272. Logos, 242. Lord of heaven, 134. Love, 138. Loyang (city), 80, 165, 196. Lu (Prince of), 94, 170. Ma (god of war), 198. Mace, 224. Man created {see God and Heaven), 48. Manchu Directory, 33, 297. Ritual, 26, 295-312. worship, 161. Manners, 237. Marriage of Heaven and Earth, 244. instituted, 35. Married deities, 146. Married ritual, 250. Marsh drained, 89. Mason and minister, 55. Mat, 101, 208, 261. Materialism, 65, 66, 67, 88. Matter, changes of, 243. Meat, cooked, 262. cut, 251, 262. minced, 198. putrid, 287. raw, 261, 262. roast, 262. Mecca, 213. Mediator, 44, 65, 142, 260. Mei (kingdom), 84. Melon, 99, 102, 203. Men deified, 157, 274, 290. Mencius, 28, 239. Message from God, 55. Metal, 221. Metal month, 288. Metamorphic changes and prin- ciples, 243. Method, 242. of agriculture, 99. Miao, 121, 122. Mid-ancient, 22, 59, 61. Milfoil, 126, 162. Millet, 99, 165, 169, 171, 203, 206, 211. black, 99. red, 99. white, 99. Mind of God, 50. Minister of Agriculture, 286. faithful, 41, 70, 73, 79, 84. of Education, 41, 102. of Religion, 41, 165, 222, 224. of Ritual, 229. of Works, 102. provided by Heaven, 168. selection of, 41. Miraculous birth {see Birth), 98. Mistake, none by Heaven, 50. Model for Ruler, 55. Ruler, 34. Monotheistic, 5, 21, 144. . Chinese, whence ? 20, 146. period, 22, 68. Month of destruction, 288. of life, 287. Moon god, 274. Moral nature created, 49, 237. Morality ordered, 35, 137. Moses, 141. Mother universal, 64. Mountains, deities of {see Inferior), 50, 161, 152, 210. sacrifice to, 76, 217. Mounds, 156. Mourning, 51, 254. Mu (Duke), 97. Mu (King), 7, 122. Mu (battlefield), 91. Music, 35, 161, 169, 171, 203, 286, 298-307. Musical instruments, 171, 282. stones, 203. Mystery, 14, 25. INDEX 321 Names of God, 23, 63, 64. of deities, 147. Natural disposition, 290. Nature [see Heaven), 242. of God, 128. Necessity, 242. Nestorians, 146. New year, 99. Nine offerings of drink, 265. Nobility, 237. Nomads, 121. Norm, 74. North frontier, 289, etc. Nung Slien, 35, 153. Obedience, 54. Objects worshipped [see Deities), 210. Odes, Book of, 29-32, 56, 87, 167. aim of, 30. authenticity, 31. authorship, 31. government in, 30. religious observances, 30. religious sentiments, 31. social life in, 30. use to us, 32. value of, 278. warfare, 30. Offerings {see Sacrifice and Victims), 202, 212, 259, 280, 297, 300, 311. all products of earth or heaven, 280. anciently three animals, 280. buried, 278. burnt, 193, 201, 212, 278, 307. distilled spirits, 281. fish, 280, 281. gems and goblets, 280. of four seasons, 280. plan of, 311. position of, 281. silks, 280. water plants, 280. Vpild animals, 280. yang for yang, yin for yiu, 280. Officials, and sacrifice, 216-218,224. and secondary deities, 284. duty of, 41, 50, 79, 84, 96, 253, 255, 264. meritorious, 217, 266. Officials, selection of, 41. servants of Heaven, 43, 123. Omens, 70, 78, 79, 94, 125, 225. Order in service, 216, 217. Organ, 208. Original Religion of China, 5. Ornament, 250, 254. Oxen, 206, 215. Paddy (rice), 99. Palace, 35, 259. Palace Pool, 254. Pan Keng (King), 53, 124, 163. Pantheon, 142. Paper, State, 51. Pardon of sin, 39. Partiality (of God), 52, 53. Peace universal, 138. Pei (see Associate), 52, 97, 198. People appeal to Heaven, 49, 72, etc. flourish, 50. interests consulted, 42-44, 48, 72. peace for, 48, 71, 79, 81, 108, 115, 116, 128, 132, 165, 174, 268, 274, 287. protected by God, 46, 47, 72. Peking, 219. Penates, 155. Perfection, 89, 93, 114., Periods, three, 22. Permutation, 63. Personator, 157, 169, 205, 206, 208, 259-267. Peter in Eondon and Rome, 143. Pheasant robe, 260, 267. Pig, 101, 171, 197, 210. Pin (State),. 101. Ping (King), 7. Platform, 160, 298, 309. Pleasure, 85, 92, 93., Pledge cup, 208. Ploughing, 214, 257,, 286. Po (seven), 256-262. Poetry, 161. Points, cardinal, 171, 211, 279, 288. Police force, 237.. Pontifex maximus, 44, 216, 218. Poor (alas !), 94. Positivist, 68. Prayer, ancestors, 161-171, 173, 265, 322 INDEX Prayer, deities, 171. foi-ms of, 262, 304. good year, 174, 273, 286, 289. object of, 39, 96, 134, 141-143, 171, 174, 189, 190, 201, 211, 213,. 252, 276, 289, 304. recital of, 304. written, 165, 261, 304. Praying place, 261-265, 302-307. Precedence, 217, 264-268. Preparation [see Sacrifice), 257, 289, 297, 300, 301. Prepared man, 248. President of Kitual, 302, 307. President, sacrificial court, 300- 308. Priests, 36, 38, 134, 216, 218. Primal period, 13, 22, 34. Princes plough, 256. sacrifice, 224. Principle, dnal (see Yang and Yin), 241, 243. Principles of government (see Sovereign), 27. <■ Proclamation by sacrifice {see In- form), 49. Promotion declared, 266, 268. Prompter, 254, 300-303. Proper spirit in sacrifice, 247. Propitiatory, 188. Propriety (see Li), 42, 43, 47, 74. Protestant and prayer, 142. Provincial deity, 164. Punishment (see Five), 39, 72, 115. by God (see Calamity), 47. legal, 122. Purgatory, 245. Purification, 99, 211, 269, 290. Purveyors, 306. Queen, 104, 257, 259, 260. Quinquennial sacrifice, 214. tour, 213, 278. Rain, prayer for, 173. Earn, 99, 171, 211. Banks of assistants, 263-268. of deities, 147, 156. Ransom, 164. Eats, 272. .£eady man, 243. Eebelliou justified, , 44, 46, 72-76, 116. Eebellion sin against Heaven, 45, 77, 119. Eeciter of prayer, 304. Eelationship (five), 42, 43, 264-268. Relative duties, 42, 43, 66, 231. Eeligion and character, 136. Chinese and West, 66, 136, 188. comparative, 6, 17. generally, 13. Minister of, 41, 165, 222. original, 5, 6, 20. sources of, 13-16. Eeligiosity, Chinese, 37, 58. Eeligious contradiction, 15. observances, 13, 30. sentiments, 13-16. Remission of sin, 39. Eemote, heaven 88, 97. Eemoval of capital, 63, 59, 82, 126. Repentance, 5, 39, 188. Representative of ancestors (see Personator). of Emperor, 308. of God, 295. Research, 229. Residue of sacrifice, 263. Response of ancestors, 260, 263. Responsibility of Sovereign (see Sovereign), 42, 176. Reverence, 41, 49, 51, 52, 72, 76, 81, 83, 87, 96, 112, 120, 185, 162, 168, 174, 216, 236, 248, 251, 253, 255, 257, 261, 263, 275. perfect, 255. Revolutionaries appeal, 44. Reward, 39, 49, 87, 190, 266. Eice, 127, 169. Right, abstract, 65. to rule (see Divine Right and Decree). Rights (see People). Ritual (see Ceremonial). accretions to, 235, 297. antiquity of, 239. authority, 239. Board of, 297, 307. Book of, 26, 33, 190, 229. Book, date of, 33. "completed," 307. INDEX 323 Ritual, conclusiou from, 269. exact, 216, 235, 257, 309. five codes, 245. forms, 190, 235. "Great Complete," 263. Manchu, 26, 295. married, 250. origin of, 236. under Sovereign, 45. understood not, 24, 214, 239. River deities (see Inferior), 50, 151, 171. worshipped, 75, 213, 217. Yellow River, 53, 59, 121, 151. Eoad, god of, 99, 153, 211. made, 89, 91. Robes, pheasant, 260, 267. ritual, 254, 301, 307. Rome, 19, 149, 155, 245. Roof god, 154. Root, 236. Ruler {see Sovereign). Ruler, Supreme {see God, Heaven), 23, 37, 65. Sacrifice, ancestors (see Ancestors), 199-209. annual, 290. assistants, 250. autumnal, 289. banner, 254. benefactors only, 272. black bull {see Bull), 49. burnt, 75. by whom, 204. calendar, 284-290. carcass, 261. cardinal points, 283. carriage, 254. ceremonial {see Ritual), 32, 33, 207. change in, 64, 256. chiszu (generic name), 212. Confucius on, 214. customary, 24. defined, 186. degrees in, 253. design of (see Reasons), 49. essentials, 185, 261, 263. expression of gratitude, 39, 249, 252, 304.^ feast at, 205. Sacrifice, fire for, 206. five, for harvest gods, 273. for household gods, 289. forms, exact {see Ritual), 235, 252. fundamental requisite, 297. grades of, 277. hat for, 254. importance of, 216, 248. inferior deities, 147. infrequent, 251. instituted, 211. lessons, ten, 263-269. male and female alternating, 262. manner of, 206-208. materials for, 202, 214, 215. materials secondary, 248. meaning not imderstood, 214. method of, 250, 278, 279. mid-autumn, 289. mid-summer, 288. mid-winter, 253, 298. monthly, 276. most important, 248. negligent, 251. origin, date unknown, 24. origin of, 100, 186, 220. preparation for, 99, 257. proper spirit at, 247. propitiatory, 188. quality, 208. quarterly, 276, 279. quinquennial, 278. reasons for, 39, 98, 186, 190, 213, 248, 249, 252, 261, 262, 289. robes for, 250, 254. secondary, 216, 253, 298, 302. self-control, 257, 258. significance, 295. simplicity, 250, 251. slayer of victim {see Victim), 260. Sovereign to God only, 253. spring, 212, 287. strong drink (see Drink), 84, 169. surplus, lessons from, 263-269. times for, 167, 193, 202, 253. to earth 72. to God, 36, 75, 192-199, 200, 220, 253-255, 284. 524 INDEX Sacrifice, to Heaven {see Heaven), 35, 40, 255, 283. to mountains, 287, etc. to whom, 64, 190, 199, 214, 243. triennial, 277. universal, 185. value of, 263, 278. varieties, 212. various grades, 277. vicarious, 39. vital conditions, 297. waste, 73. water, 250, 290, way of, 257. what ? 186, 188, 295. where, 200. why (see Reasons), 190. Yang and Yin, 243, 256. Sage, 181, 216. Saints (E.C.), 21, 142. ministers of God, 143. Salt, 251. Salted herbs, 312. Sauce, 251. Saul, 108. Scabbard, 100. Sceptre, 251. Scholar, 158. Seas, Four, 290. Seasons, four, 202. Secondary shrines, 305, 306, 309, 310. Selection of victims {see Victims), 283, 289, 290. Seniority, 266, 268. Servant of God {see Official), 218. Settlement, new, 101, 102. Seven temples, 246. Sex, 63, 251, 264, 284. Shan (goodness), 38. Shang (State), 46, 49-56, 87, 89- 92, 115, 253. Shangti {see God), 23, 37, 210, 248. two Taoistj 158. Shao (Duke), 86, 87. Shechi, 147, 153, 250, 253, 270. Sheep, 202, 206, 215. Shen (spirit), 95, 148, 161, 162, 163, 188, 212, 214, 222, 243, 251, 255, 256, 261, 262, 265, 272, 309. Shen, approach {see Ancestors), 172. dedicated to, 275. defined, 181. everywhere, 179. hundred and host {see Hundred), 171, 180. refuse help, 172-174. Shenchi, 147, 152. Shen Nung, 6, 35. Shield, 100. Shih (Duke), 115. Show (King), 72, 73, 75, 169, 191, 195, 223. Shrines posited, 298, 309. Shun, 6, 24, 40, 109, 161, 212, 222 296 Silk, 215, 221, 256, 306, 310. Sin, 38, 88, 189. Sincerity {see Heart), 150, 151, 162, 165, 217, 218, 236, 249, 257. Sinfulness, 38. Sinless man, 95. Site, lucky, 66, 80, 116, 126. Skirt, 224. Sky, gods of, 152. Slanderer, 96. Slayer of victim, 204. Social life, 30, 35. Socrates, 31. Soil, gods of, 153, 174, 190. Son desired, 245. Soul and body, 256. Soup, 167, 198, 203, 251, 262, 304. Sources of this book, 26. Sovereign, 253-268. alone sacrifices to God, 36, 284. and minister, 44, 55, 58, 81, 84, 115. character of, 71, 73, 108, 109. clothing {see Robes), 289. continuous virtue, 51, 52, 53, 89, 112, 113, 116. duties of, 42-44, 48, 49, 55, 72, 75, 77, 128, 130, 232, 257-267. example, 42, 72, 85, 268. imitate Heaven, 55, 56. in heaven, 81. repi-esents Heaven, 44, 108, 123, 128. selected by Heaven, 42, 48, 53, 72, 73, 82, 85, 86, 91,- 108, 135, etc. INDEX 325 Spear, 100. Species, fixity, 243. Spirit, hierarchy, 155. proper in sacrifice, 247. Spirits (see Shen), come and go, 39, 204-207, 244. communion with, 259, 261. condition of, 245-247. distilled (see Strong drink), 265, etc. filial to {see Filiality), in heaven, 244, 256. near us, 244. respond, 260. see, 260. smell, 244. subordinate to God, 39. want, 245. , Yang and Yin, 260. Spleen, 285. Spring, 212, 213. St. Stephen's Cathedral, 158. Star gods, 274, 298, 310. State document, 51. religion, 40. ruined by drink, 83, 84, 86. Stoat, god of, 68. Stool, 101. Subordinate officials, 306. Substitution, 125, 164-166, 219. Successor, 108-110. Summary of deities, 155. of nature of God, 128-138. of primary religious beliefs, 37- 40. Summer, 288. Sun god, 194, 270, 274, 298, 310. Sung (kingdom), 80. Superabundance, 250. Supererogation, 245. Supernatural beings, 14, 40, 26, 29, 185, 220. Supreme Euler (see God), 36, 37, 42, 87, 190, 269. Swallows, 287. Sword, 100. Tablets, honorific, 158. Tai (mount), 99, 213. Tai (King), 89, 103. Taichia (King), 50-52. Tan (altar), 38, 275, 298. plan of, 308. Tanfu (chief), 6, 91, 102, 168. Tang (King), 6, 46, 54, 56, 79, 85, 111, 114-123, 167, 195, 215. Taoism, 40, 158. Target, 208. Taxation, 101. Teachers from God, 72. Te Deum, 75. Temple, 38, 159, 186, 214, 220,. 223, 274. Great Hall, 260, 275. Illuminated Hall, 275. king's, seven, 246, 276. prince's, five, 246, 276. princes only serve, 215. to ancestors only {see Ancestors), 38, 51, 72, 103, 134, 159, 162, 200, 214, 220, 222, 223, 275. to God, none, 38, 159, 160, 274. various, 276. Ten lessons, 263-268. Testament, 225. Thanksgiving by sacrifice, 272- 274, 304. Theocracy, 108. Three ceremonials, 222. essentials, 261. offerings, 304. special points, 263. things for national peace, 236. washings, 304. Ti {see God, name). sacrifice, 214. Tien (Heaven), 23, 38, 71. Tienti (dualism), 71. Tiger deity, 68, 152, 272. Times of sacrifice {see Sacrifice), 147, 206, etc. Tomb, royal, 220. Tortoise (divination), 77, 78, 126, 162, 165, 253. Tour, royal, 200, 212. Tradition, 239. Traitor, 48, 49. Ti-ansmigration, 246. Transmutation, 241. Trays, 206. Trend, new thought, 71. 326 INDEX Tribes, wild, 71, 76. Tripod, 202. Truthfulness, 249. Tsai Chung (official), 86. Tuti, local gods, 154. Two principles (duality), 241, 243. Underlings, 268. Usurpation, 53. Utensils {see Vessels), 282. Vegetables for sacrifice, 203. Vessels, 253, 267, 268, 298, 301, 311. Vicarious sacrifice, 39. Vicegerent, 108, 128, 135. Victim, 202, 204, 255, 260, 261, 283, 311. calf-bull, 251, 295. colour, 204, 251, 260, 278, 283, 289. fed, 283, 288. female, 284. flawless, 251, 283. horns, 284, 289. hunt for, 283, 289. inspection of, 283. official for, 283. segregated, 283. selected, 283, 289, 290. selected by divination, 283. selecting official, 283. slayer, 204, 255, 260. varieties, six, 283. varieties, three, 283. Vinegar, 221, 251. Virgin Mary, 146. Virtue, 51, 52, 110, 117, 249. Vox populi, 43, 44, 73. Wang (sacrifice), 75, 201, 212. "War, 45, 138, 194, 288. god of, 198. none, 280, 287. Water, 202, 263, 281. worshipped, 290. Watery period, 290. Way (or method), 242, 249, 257, 263. of Heaven, 55, 56, 86, 242, 255. of man, etc., 243. Weaving, 251. Wei (kingdom), 83, 115. Wei (River), 101. Wen (King), 30, 31, 69, 89, 90, 91, 93, 96, 104, 114, 120, 124, 168, 169, 197, 202, 210, 218 Wen with God, 90. Whangti (King), 6, 35. Wheat, 99. Wickedness, 38. Widow and orphan, 115, 171. Wife from God, 91, 104, 120. Wild beasts, 152. tribes, 71, 76, 103. Winter solstice, 253, 290, 295, 298, 300. positing actors and officials, 302, 310. Wise, 38, 79. Womanly, 104. Women, 74, 92, 95. Wonder, 14.' Wooden dishes, 198. Works, Minister of, 102. "World, all," 137. Worship, ceremonial at, 150. dread of God, 141, 142. heart in, 150. objects of {sie God, etc.), 210, 269-277. Protestant, 142. Roman Catholic, 141. why {see Sacrifice, reasons), 68, 69. worthy men deceased, 273, 290. Wu (King), 6, 64, 69-76, 80, 91, 92, 114, 164, 195, 201, 217. Wu Ting (King), 54. dream by, 55, 223. no message from God, 55. Yang and Yin, 37, 63, 64, 67. 241, 244, 263, 256, 268, 278. definition of, 63, 64, 243. in everything, 242. non-intelligent, 242. not independent entities, 242. vital to Chinese Ritual, 241. Yao, 6, 34, 36, 41, 108, 109, 222, 296. Year, good, prayer for, 289. new, 99. INDEX 327 Yellow River {see River), 41, 58, 101, 121, 151. Yen (State), 117. Yiehing (see Changes, Book of), 32, 63, 240. Yi Yin (minister), 50-53, 112, 162, 200, 223. Yin (sacrifice), 212. Yin (minister), 94. Yin (kingdom), 54, 78, 79, 217, 260, 262, 284. Yow (King), 7, 92, 95. Yti (official), 41. Yii (King), 6, 45, 48, 110, 161, 222. Yii (drink— see Libation) 251, 260. Yiie, mason and Prime Minister, 55. Printed by MonaiaoN & Gibb Limited, Edinburgh