3620 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARIES 
 
 ITHACA, N. Y. 14853 
 
 I5ne Axts Library 
 Sibley Hall 
 
Cornell University Library 
 NK 3620.R36 1906 
 
 Lettering for draftsmen, engineers and s 
 
 3 1924 020 605 394 
 
The original of tiiis book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924020605394 
 
^'^^..^ ' r--^^:^^^ 
 
LETTERING 
 
 FOR 
 
 Draftsmen, Engineers and Students 
 
 A PRACTICAL SYSTEM 
 OF FREEHAND LETTERING FOR WORKING DRAWINGS. 
 
 BY 
 CHAS. W. REINHARDT, 
 
 CKiEr Dbaftsman, Engineering Nbws. 
 
 TENTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 TWENTY-SIXTH THOUSAND. 
 
 New York : 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 
 
 1906. 
 
s^^ 
 
 Property o f 
 College of Architecture,; 
 
 £ofneJI Univer^ 
 
 Copyright, 1895. 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY. 
 
F R E F^ C E . 
 
 In looking over the books on lettering, which have come under the writer's notice, he has found, that while 
 doing full justice to the principle of ornamentation and the theories governing the shaping of each letter, no author 
 has as yet attempted to treat lettering from a purely practical point of view. The need of a practical work on lettering, 
 however, has been and is daily experienced by many draftsmen, and in the following pages the writer has endeavored to 
 set forth the proper methods of forming purely free-hand lettering in a simple, easily acquired way, giving, at the same 
 time, the proper safeguards against the errors most commonly committed. The letters exhibited are actual free-hand 
 work and can readily be copied. In this respect the writer has made a radical departure from works of a similar charac- 
 ter which generally give ornate, carefuUy engraved alphabets, being of little more use to the average draftsman than 
 ordinary printed type, i. e., they can only be copied with a great sacrifice of time and patience. The whole system out- 
 lined is the result of the writer's experience during years of practice on the staff of a leading technical journal and is in- 
 tended to be a thoroughly practical guide for doing the best class of work in the shortest possible time. 
 
 Bbooklyn, September, 1895. 
 
 CHAS. W. EBINHAEDT. 
 
PEEFAOE TO EIGHTH EDITION". 
 
 The encouraging reception given to former editipns of this book has convinced the writer of the practical use- 
 fuhiess of the system of lettering which he advocates, and has induced him to add material which tends to enlarge 
 the scope of the book, making it complete in eVery respect. 
 
 The subject of lettering, as applied to working drawings and the construction of titles, has been taken up 
 more in detail, and the chapter devoted to lettering for purposes of photo-reproduction wiU, be found interesting and 
 useful by many readers. Besides the extension of the text some twelve illustrations and three full page plates 
 have also been added, thus considerably enlarging the work, which, it is hoped, will continue to prove a desirable 
 hand-book to those wishing to acquire the art of freehand lettering in a simple and rational way. 
 
 0. W. E. 
 
INCLINED LETTERING. 
 
 TN the following system of lettering no attempt has 
 been made to imitate any special form of printed 
 alphabet, and for all ornate and elaborate lettering the 
 draftsman is referred to some one of the many published 
 collections of this character. What is here intended is 
 to illustrate and describe a type of lettering that looks 
 well upon working drawings ; is reduced to its simplest 
 form ; one that is rapidly made and is clear and distinct 
 under almost any reduction by photography. It is, in 
 fact, especially designed for photo-reproduction. With 
 the purpose of fairly treating the subject, the lettering 
 here illustrated has been reproduced without any attempt 
 at touching up or cleaning ; it is actual freehand work, 
 such as should be used in general practice. 
 
 The ordinary slanting and, further on, the upright 
 lettering are described in a somewhat detailed manner, 
 as when the draftsman once becomes proficient in form- 
 
 ing these two types properly, it will then be a very easy 
 matter for him, to form also the more ornamental letters 
 satisfactory. The first requisite is to produce sharp, 
 clean corners and bold lines of uniform strength, and 
 this is especially necessary in work for photo-reptoduc- 
 tion, as usually such apparently unimportant things as 
 filled-in corners and uneven lines are greatly exaggerated 
 on the plate. , In Fig. i the correct and incorrect ways 
 of doing this are shown. It will be well at first, for the 
 purpose of obtaining clean corners, to resort to the 
 
 One Stroke Letter/nq ^'^'^"^ °^ '"^'^^'^l '""'^l''^ 
 
 Incorrect "^ the lines outwards at their 
 
 One Stroke Letteri'nq ^nds, as exhibited on the 
 
 '^o''''^'^- third line of Fig. i. For 
 
 One Stroke Lettering very large letters the writer 
 
 Fig. 1 finds a " ball-point " pen 
 
 (Leonardt's 5 1 6 F.) most satisfactory ; for medium sized 
 
letters, not less than 2 millimeters high, he uses Soen- 
 necken's No. 108 or 208, and for. small-sized letters, 
 Gillott's No. 303, or Blanzy, Poure & Co.'s crow quill 
 pen. All of these pens should be "" broken-in " somewhat 
 before being applied to lettering; they should also be 
 frequently cleaned when using waterproof ink, especially 
 the " Soennecken " pens. The nibs of the pen should, 
 while doing this, be worked back and forth gently 
 against a soft rag, which process will cause the 
 dried-up particles of the ink to drop out from between 
 ' them. 
 
 As to the type of lettering to be employed, the 
 slanting letter is well adapted to descriptive matter, 
 dimensions, etc., while the upright letter will contrast 
 well with the former type used as reference letters or 
 sub-captions. A uniform pressure should be brought to 
 bear upon the pen — a trick only acquired by practice. 
 The pen should be held pointed forward, as in ordinary 
 writing, and not sideways, as in " round writing." In 
 lettering on tracing linen a sheet of black cross-section 
 paper divided to millimeters, such as given on detached 
 plate (XII) accompanying this book, will be found useful 
 for indicating the proper spacing, .^lant, etc. On drawing 
 
 paper, pencil guiding-lines will be indispensable to the 
 beginner. 
 
 A slope of I to 2^ is sufficient fof the stems or 
 down-strokes of the letters, and ordinarily an angle of 
 45° with the horizontal will suffice for the up-strokes and 
 the axes of ellipses, excepting that of the letter " o." 
 The latter angle will have to be increased, of course, 
 when the lettering is compressed, as shown in Fig. 2. 
 In lower case letters, like "b" or "p," with parts extend- 
 ing above or below the 
 main body of the letter, 
 the length of these parts 
 should be about 2-5 the 
 total height ; the body of 
 the letter representing 3 
 parts of the total height. 
 The exception is the lower case " t," which is one 
 part less in total height than "b" or " h," for 
 example. In the illustrations following, the incor- 
 rect forms of letters, as being constantly observed 
 by the writer, are shown in brackets, and thd 
 correct method of forming each letter is shown 
 beneath. 
 
 Fig, 2. 
 
Lower Case Letters. 
 
 The letters " n " and " m," Fig. 3, should be made 
 with almost sharp upper 
 corners ; " u " is best 
 formed by three strokes, 
 as in this way parallel 
 positions are secured for Fig. 3. 
 
 the straight lines, which should be made first, and these 
 can be then joined by a lower curve. In forming the 
 letter " v," Fig. 4, make the first stroke nearly vertical, 
 
 and the second at an angle of 
 
 about 45° with the horizontal. 
 The common error in making 
 this letter lies in curving the two 
 lines and giving the letter the 
 The letter " w " is formed on the 
 same principle as the " v." In putting in the short hori- 
 zontal cross-line of the 
 
 " t/' Fig. 5, great care 
 should be taken to use 
 
 Fig. 4, 
 appearance of a 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 very little pressure upon the pen, as otherwise the ink 
 
 will spread at the intersection of the two lines and make 
 clean corners impossible. The second part of the 
 letter "r" should be purely an up-stroke, slightly 
 curved at its end. In making the letter " f," start with 
 a curve extending down about one space ; the "f " shown 
 in brackets would come out with a heavy black knob 
 
 at top in any considerable re- 
 duction. The rule laid down 
 Fig. 6. for forming the " n" may also 
 
 be applied to the letter "h," Fig. 6, and the down-stroke 
 for the " j " is practically the same as for the " f " revers- 
 ed. Make bold, oblong dots over the "i " and "j." 
 
 The third stroke of the letter " k," Fig. 7, should be 
 vertical and begin at about the 
 middle of the second stroke. In 
 constructing the letter " x," care Fig. 7. 
 
 should be taken to have the first stroke either verti- 
 cal or leaning slightly backwards, and the second stroke 
 ought to cross the first a little above its centre ; in order 
 to produce a clean intersection it may be well to make 
 
the latter stroke in two parts. The letter " y," 
 Fig. 8, should be drawn on the lines of the " v," and 
 
 from the point of the angle 
 
 the tail should be drawn 
 
 with 
 
 line 
 
 the 
 
 Fig 8. ^" exact 
 
 upper down-stroke, terminating, if desired, in a slight 
 curve to the left, to avoid the little blot of ink which 
 would otherwise form at the bottom of the stroke. 
 In this letter the second stroke may be modified as 
 shown. The "z" is best drawn in one stroke, stop- 
 ping the pen every time before changing direction. The 
 letter " o," Fig. 9, is produced by two curved strokes, 
 with their ends sufficiently bent, forming a perfect ellipse, 
 the axis of which lies in the direction of the down-stroke. 
 The joining of these two curves, in this and similar let- 
 ters, can be effected very neatly after a little practice. 
 
 The ovals of the following letters should be made 
 somewhat narrower at the top than at the bottom, for 
 obvious reasons ; and especial care must be taken to 
 have the axis of these ovals lie at an angle of 45° with 
 the horizontal. For the purpose of increasing the width 
 of the enclosed space at the bottom of the down-stroke 
 and the oval, the right-hand curve should be somewhat 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 flatter than the opposite one. For the advantages of 
 so doing see Fig. 9. In these letters the down-stroke 
 should be at ex- 
 actly the proper 
 angle, rather in- 
 creasing this 
 angle at the be- 
 ginning, for the learner almost invariably makes the mis- 
 take of drawing this stroke too slanting. To further guard 
 against this error, the beginner may slightly curve the 
 end of the down-stroke towards the left, thus widening 
 the angle at the bottom of the " a " and " d," and the down- 
 stroke of the " g " should be made as long as possible in its 
 straight part by turning very short with the lower left- 
 hand curve. The letters " p " and "b," Fig. 10, should 
 
 be shaped exactly as in- 
 
 d" and 
 
 practice 
 
 these letters can also 
 
 be made to look well by 
 
 verted letters 
 " q." With 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 using the oval of the letter " o." 
 
 The letter "c," Fig. 11, is formed with one stroke, 
 care being taken to have its general direction parallel to 
 
the down-stroke. The '-' e " is commenced in the same 
 way, and the upper loop is formed by a second stroke 
 
 with the axis of the loop 
 again at an angle of 45°. 
 The beginning of the 
 " s " is a very short curve 
 •^'S- IT- from left to right at its 
 
 apex ; the rest is carefully joined on, turned down into 
 a neat ogee curve and finished by a little crook upwards. 
 The middle part of this letter should be nearly horizontal. 
 If a very narrow letter is to be produced, it may be 
 constructed with one stroke and a flatter curve, making 
 the upper curve somewhat shorter than the lower one. 
 In the ordinary letter a first separate stroke at the top is 
 
 made necessary by the fact, that while turning in a hori- 
 zontal direction from right to left and then descending 
 into the ogee curve, the pen will either clog up and not 
 give the required strength of line at one stroke or other- 
 wise will in turning detach minute particles of paper or 
 tracing-cloth saturated with ink and deposit them at the 
 side of the stroke, necessitating erasures. The method 
 outlined (employing two strokes) is therefore by far the 
 simplest and quickest way of producing a clean letter, as 
 experience will show. It will at first be a somewhat 
 difficult matter to the beginner to lay the main axis of 
 this letter parallel with the down-stroke, but this is 
 nevertheless an essential point and should not be lost 
 sight qf. 
 
 Capital Letters. 
 
 As in the rule laid down for the lower case letters, 
 the capital letters will generally be five spaces high. 
 Sharply defined clean corners are again necessary, and 
 to secure this the beginner may find it advantageous to 
 curve the upper and lower ends of the down-strokes a 
 little outwards. 
 
 -The letter "A," Fig. 12, should be made in three 
 strokes, with the second 
 almost vertical. The cross- 
 stroke should be placed low 
 — about the middle of the Fig. 1 2. 
 
 second space from the bottom. The short third 
 
stroke of the " E" should be slightly above the center 
 of the letter, and should not be too short. The two 
 down-strokes of the letter " H," Fig. 13, should be ex- 
 actly parallel, and the horizontal stroke should be made 
 as directed for the third stroke of the " E." If the capi- 
 tal " I " is to be followed by a lower case "1," two short 
 horizontal strokes of even length and projection may be 
 
 added to the top and 
 
 bottom. The second 
 stroke of the letter 
 Fig. 13, "K" should join the 
 
 first at the top of the second space from the bottom, and 
 the third stroke should join the second nearly one space 
 higher up. The letter " L" can easily be made with one 
 stroke, analogous to the forming of the same stroke of 
 the letter " E." 
 
 The "J," Fig. 14, is commenced as a perfectly 
 straight down-stroke to the top of the lower space; then 
 it turns to the left in 
 
 a gentle curve, tangent 
 
 to the base line, and 
 
 finally rises to the top pig_ ,4, 
 
 of the first space. The " M " is made with four separ- 
 
 ate strokes, putting in the two parallel lines first ; the two 
 other strokes should join at the top of the first space. If 
 desired, this letter may be made slightly wider at the 
 bottom than at the top. The letter " _N " is also formed 
 by drawing the two parallel strokes first. The horizon- 
 tal stroke of the " T " should be neatly balanced on top 
 of the down-stroke, and if it is not perfectly straight, as 
 often is the case, a hardly noticeable crook downwards 
 
 , , at both ends will 
 
 improve it. 
 
 The letters 
 shown in Fig, i5 
 are to be con- 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 structed precisely upon the lines laid down for the cor- 
 responding lower case letters, with the exception that 
 they should be a trifle narrower in proportion. The " Y" 
 is formed with two strokes without any lower crook to 
 the left ; the " Z" is made in one stroke, with the axis 
 of the letter in 
 the direction 
 of the down- 
 stroke. 
 
 found easier, this 
 
 Fig. 6 
 Z " can be made with three strokes. 
 
 10 
 
With practice the letters "P," "B" and "D"can each 
 be formed with two strokes, with the curves terminating 
 as shown. In forming the two curves of the letter " B," 
 begin at the top, and after joining the stem, return exactly 
 on the horizontal while the ink is yet moist and complete 
 the lower curve. The space enclosed by the lower curve 
 should be somewhat larger than that in the upper one- 
 The curve of the " D " should be parallel with the down- 
 stroke in its middle third, but it may sometimes be ad- 
 visable to make the lower part of the " D " a shade wider 
 than the upper part. The first and second strokes of the 
 " R " are identical with the letter " P." 
 
 The "C," Fig. 17, is formed with one stroke, nearly 
 completing the ellipse of the letter " O," though this let- 
 
 ter should be proportionately narrower than the lower 
 case " c." In making the " G," a somewhat wider ellipse 
 is required, and this letter is most easily made with two 
 strokes; the second horizontal stroke should be about 
 
 one-half of the 
 total width of 
 the ellipse. 
 Fig. 17. The capital 
 
 " O " should be an almost perfect ellipse, special care being 
 taken in joining the two curves. The third stroke of the 
 " Q " should begin about the middle of the second space, 
 and extend one space below the base. The letter " S "• 
 can be formed, for small-sized lettering, in two strokes, 
 or with an additional stroke, as shown, for larger letters. 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 As a rule, numerals should occupy the same height 
 
 as capital letters, 
 or five spaces, 
 though the use of 
 fractions may 
 slightly modify this rule. When the numeral "i," Fig. 18, 
 
 Fig 18. 
 
 is used in proximity with " I " or " 1," it is well to use a 
 short up-stroke at the top ; otherwise, it may be repre- 
 sented by a simple down-stroke. The "4" is commenced 
 with the stroke inclined at an angle of 45°, terminating 
 at the second space from bottom and then turning sharply 
 into the horizontal. The down-stroke should intersect 
 
 11 
 
the horizontal in such manner as to leave about 3-5 of the 
 horizontal to the left of the down-stroke The " 7 " is best 
 formed with one stroke, the down -stroke being on an 
 angle of 45°. The " 3 " should be drawn in one stroke, 
 beginning as with the " 7 " to a point a little below the top 
 of the third space, and then curving into a portion of an 
 ellipse, with an axial angle of 45°. Another type of the 
 numeral " 3 " is shown, 
 which can be made in one 
 strolce also. 
 
 The "o" Fig. 19, Fig. 19. 
 
 ought to be a perfect ellipse, like the capital " O." The 
 " 5 " is commenced with the down-stroke, ending in the 
 ellipse of the " 3 " and the horizontal upper stroke. The 
 " 2 " can be constructed by one stroke, beginning at the 
 top of the fourth space, nearly completing an oval with 
 an axial angle of 45°, and then turning shortly into a 
 down-stroke running into the base line, where a sharp 
 
 turn is made in a horizontal 
 direction. The " 6," Fig. 20, 
 is commenced Hke the "p," 
 Fig. 20. except that its initial point is 
 
 somewhat beyond the axis of the ellipse. For that rea- 
 
 son the first stroke is very short, curving to the right ; 
 the second stroke descends nearly to the base, where a stop 
 is made, and the pen then returns in the same stroke, 
 and, gradually turning to the right, nearly completes an 
 ellipse with an axial angle of 45°, joining its lower part 
 with the bottom of the incomplete second stroke. The 
 figure " 8 " is commenced with an ogee curve, using a 
 slight crook at its lower end, and is finished by two other 
 curves, as shown. The lower loop should always be 
 somewhat larger than the upper one. The numeral " 9 " 
 is made in two strokes. The ellipse at the top is nearly 
 finished in one stroke when the down-stroke is assumed, 
 which, beginning at the initial point of the ellipse and 
 completing the latter, terminates with a somewhat fuller 
 curve then that employed in lower case ''g." 
 
 Though Roman numerals are seldom employed 
 on working drawings, they may sometimes be re- 
 quired. The chief requisite is to so form them that 
 they are neat in ap- 
 
 distinguished from the pig. 21. 
 
 rest of the text. They should be of the same height 
 
 as the Arabic numerals, and short horizontal strokes 
 
 12 
 
should be used with them, as indicated in Fig. 21. 
 In the modified forms shown in Fig. 22 it will be 
 noticed that all the letters and numerals are based upon 
 the general form of the letter " o," modified to suit de- 
 mands. The second stroke of the ■ 
 
 " r " is really a part of the elemen- 
 tary ellipse, as are also the second 
 stroke of the " n " and the second 
 and third strokes of the "m." The 
 " u " is here made in two strokes — 
 the first, a down-stroke with the curve attached, and the 
 
 second a straight down-stroke, tangent to and touching 
 the curve. 
 
 The numerals follow similar lines of construction. 
 The " 2 " begins at the upper part in an ellipse and ends 
 in a down-stroke, laid at an angle of 45°, turning sharply 
 to the right in a horizontal line. The " 3 " is formed 
 with one stroke, with its lower curve, as also that of the 
 " 5 " and " 6," encircling somewhat more than half of the 
 ellipse. In the " 6 " and " 9 " care must be taken to have 
 the curved down-strokes only tangent to the respective 
 ellipses, and not cutting off a portion of the latter. 
 
 UPRIGHT LETTERING. 
 
 Upright lettering is employed most advantageously 
 for reference letters, designating lines of section, and 
 for captions. In some instances however, it may be 
 deemed advisable to use uprights also for such descrip- 
 tive matter, dimensions, etc., to which some prominence 
 
 is to be given, though, as a rule, the slanting lettering 
 will answer this purpose very well. 
 
 The relative height of the letters ought to remain 
 the same as that of the inclined lettering. The down- 
 strokes should be perfectly vertical, and in order to pro- 
 
 13 
 
duce this effect properly, it will be best for the beginner 
 to form the habit of making the letters at first lean over 
 somewhat to the left at the top, as the natural tendency 
 would be to have them lean the opposite way. It will 
 be noticed that in some of the uprights a comparatively 
 greater number of strokes is required, as many portions of 
 
 these letters are being executed in a horizontal direction 
 or nearly so. The letters are again simplified as much 
 as possible, a fact which will be especially notice- 
 able in the lower case "a" and " g," which, though 
 at variance with the ordinary gothic print, look fully 
 as well. 
 
 Lower Case Letters. 
 
 In the letters shown in Fig. 23, the same number 
 of strokes is employed as in the slanting lettering pre- 
 viously described. The letters are as a rule made wider 
 than those of the slanting type. The second stroke of 
 the " n" and the two last strokes of the letter "m" are 
 started with a very slight curve in an upward direction 
 rounding off the corner at the top,. making it somewhat 
 more full than in the corresponding slanting letters. 
 
 The letter "u" 
 
 is made in three 
 
 strokes as usual, 
 
 Fig. 23. connecting the 
 
 two down-strokes with a well shaped curve. If preferred, 
 
 however, the ordinary form of gothic lower case " u," as 
 
 shown, may also be employed. In constructing the 
 letter " v," the two slanting strokes ought to make the 
 same angle with the vertical. The beginner will in- 
 variably construct the second stroke at a greater incline 
 than the first, and will do well to guard against this 
 habit, until after some practice the' hand will become 
 accustomed to form the point of juncture of the two 
 strokes equidistant from their starting point. The letter 
 " w " is composed practically of two somewhat narrowed 
 
 V s. 
 
 The' letter "1" (Fig. 24) is sometimes constructed 
 with a lower crook to the right, when used at the side of 
 capital letter " I," otherwise it is made as a down-stroke 
 pure and simple. The second stroke of the " r " starts 
 
 14 
 
from the top of the second space upwards as a very 
 sHght curve, similar to the one forming first part of the 
 second stroke of letter " n." Letter "f " is best formed 
 by three strokes ; the first a very short curve to the 
 right, being joined by the second or main stroke. The 
 
 horizontal third 
 stroke should be 
 made sufficient- 
 ly prominent. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 The letter " j " ought to extend two spaces below the 
 base line and should be made in one stroke, being 
 perfectly straight until the point of curve is reached. If 
 found easier, however, a second right hand stroke, form- 
 ing the curved portion, may be employed. The latter 
 should be almost a semicircle and one space high. 
 
 The second stroke 
 of letter "k"'(Fig. 26) 
 should extend down to 
 nearly the first space. 
 The third stroke be- ^'E- ^S- 
 
 gins at about the centre of the second one. The letter 
 "x" is constructed with- two strokes, making the first 
 one apparently more inclined than necessary for reasons 
 
 explained above. When the pen is very full^ the second 
 stroke may be made in two parts, as shown, thereby 
 preventing the forming of a clot of ink at the intersection 
 of those two strokes. The upper part of letter " y " 
 forms a perfect " v." The second stroke may either be 
 executed with a slight angle terminating in a vertical 
 direction, or in a perfectly straight inclined line, according 
 to the draftsman's individual taste. Letter "z" is as 
 usual formed in one stroke ; its starting point should 
 be vertically above the point of turning into the horizontal. 
 The ellipses of the letter shown in Fig. 26, are as 
 usual constructed in two strokes, joining the respective 
 initial and terminal 
 points carefully. The 
 first curve starts in an 
 almost horizontal di- 
 rection towards the '^'S* ^"• 
 left and terminates similarly at the right, thus prevent- 
 ing the forming of a point at the top and bottom 
 junctures. The second (right hand) stroke of the ellipse 
 ought to be made apparently more curved than necessary, 
 as that portion is invariably made too flat by the beginner. 
 The ellipses should be made quite full. The vertical 
 
 15 
 
down-strokes of letters " a," " d " and " g " ought to run 
 tangent to their ellipses so that the thickness of the 
 second curve at the joint of juncture is not increased. 
 The curved portion or the fourth stroke of letter "g" 
 extends to the left almost or nearly the full width of the 
 oval of this letter. 
 
 The mode of construction of letters " q," " p " and " b '' 
 (Fig. 27) offers no novel features. If the pen, while 
 rounding in the lower part 
 of the curve of letters " p " 
 and " b," should contain too 
 much ink, the curve may be 
 completed by a third stroke, 
 running in an opposite direction, as shown, as in turning 
 into the lower' portion of the curve a somewhat greater 
 pressure is involuntarily brought upon the pen, resulting 
 if too full, in a badly proportioned lo^yer end. 
 
 Fig- 27. 
 
 Letters " c " and " s " (Fig. 28) are started with a short 
 curve towards the right ; the upper end of letter " c " 
 should be slightly more curved than the lower one ; still, 
 the form of the perfect oval should be predominant in this 
 letter. The letter "e" is constructed in three strokes. 
 If, as is sometimes the case, the upper part of letters " c " 
 and " e " should not precisely fill the allotted space, or 
 otherwise they should appear too narrow, a slight flat- 
 tening of the lower 
 portions of the curve, 
 making those letters 
 appear leaning back- Fig. 28 
 
 ward^ will help matters and otherwise not at all injure 
 their appearance, as shown. The completed ovals of 
 letter " s " should, as in the inclined one, form a perfect 
 figure " 8." If at all uneven, the lower oval should be 
 made more prominent than the upper one. 
 
 Capital Letters. 
 
 Upright capitals are, as a rule, 5 spaces high, with the 
 exception of the " Q," the appendix of which ought to 
 reach one space below the base line. These letters 
 
 should be made narrower in proportion than the cor- 
 responding lower case letters. 
 
 The second stroke of letter "A" (Fig. 29), should 
 
 16 
 
be made rather more inclined than the first one by 
 the beginner. The first strokes of letters " E " and 
 " F " must be made perfectly vertical or leaning back- 
 wards, as even the slightest inclination forward in these 
 two letters will be painfully noticeable, especially in the 
 " F." The length of the short third stroke in the " F," 
 is generally depending on the shape of the succeeding 
 
 (lower case) letter ; 
 shorter, if the latter 
 begins with a verti- 
 Flg, 29. cal stroke, longer, 
 
 if an oval or inclined stroke is to follow. We will not 
 attempt, however, to lay down any definite rule on this 
 point, as the determining factor in eachi case should be 
 the draftsman's eye and good taste. Letter " Z " is 
 best formed in one stroke, care being taken to make 
 especially the inclined portion perfecdy straight. 
 
 The letters comprising Fig. 30 are constructed upon 
 nearly the same 
 
 principles given in 
 the case of the cor- 
 responding slanting 
 capital letters. The termination of the last stroke of 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 letter " K " should in a well formed letter be vertically 
 below the initial point of the second stroke. The length of 
 the horizontal portion of the " L" is again, as in the case 
 of the " F," determined by the succeeding (lower case) 
 letter. It is obvious, that by unduly lengthening that 
 portion of the letter, an unproportionally wide space will 
 result between its vertical part and the succeeding letter. 
 The curved part of letter "J " (Fig. 31) ought to be a 
 well shaped semicircle, beginning and ending not above 
 the middle of the second space. The second and third 
 strokes of letter "M" converge at the second line, and 
 this point should, of course, be at an even distance from the 
 vertical strokes. 
 To attain this end 
 exactly, some 
 draftsmen will per- Fig. 31. 
 
 haps find it easier to put in the two verticals first and the 
 oblique strokes afterwards,' as in the construction of the 
 letter " N." The angles in those two letters should be 
 sharply defined, the strokes forming them ending in a 
 clearly cut, though somewhat blunt point. The second 
 horizontal stroke of letter " T " ought to be evenly 
 balanced upon the main or down-stroke. 
 
 17 
 
The construction of the letters shown in Fig. 32 is 
 chiefly guided by the principle that the rate of inclina- 
 tion of the slanting strokes should be uniform in each 
 
 letter. In the case of 
 the "V" and " W " 
 care should be taken 
 Fig. 32. that only the center 
 
 lines of the inclined strokes join at the base or top 
 lines of the ruling, thus avoiding two extremes, either 
 the formation of a vertical short end or the reverse, a 
 flattened-out point. This is made apparent in the 
 small illustration. Fig. 32a. The 
 first and fourth strokes of letter 
 
 " W" ought theoretically to be made imom^ 
 parallel to the second and third; pjg 32^ 
 
 but as the latter two strokes are involuntarily made 
 more upright than the first one, the fourth stroke should 
 again be made more slanting to correspond with the first. 
 The reverse mode of procedure would result in a badly 
 shaped letter, as shown in brackets. Letter " X " is 
 usually made in two strokes, or, if preferable, a stop may 
 be made in the second stroke shortly before crossing the 
 first, continuing it on the other side, avoiding thus the 
 
 forming of a lump of ink at the point of intersection. 
 The two inclined parts of letter " Y " should join on the 
 top of the second space ; from there the second stroke 
 is continued in a vertical direction down to the base line. 
 Letter "P" (Fig. 33) is constructed in two strokes, 
 the second one beginning at the top of the first, care- 
 fully round- 
 ing the curve 
 
 and joining ^„ 
 
 the first Fig. 33. 
 
 stroke again at right angles as a perfectly straight 
 line. The third stroke of letter "B" begins at the 
 point of curve of the second, enclosing a slightly 
 larger area than the second one. The second stroke 
 of letter " D " should begin and terminate in a hori- 
 zontal direction. If a slight " sagging " should happen 
 in the curve, it ought to be near its lower portion. 
 The rule given for the forming of the second stroke of 
 letter " B " applies also to letter " R;" its third inclined 
 stroke begins at the point of curve of the second. 
 The two vertical strokes of letter " U " are made first ; 
 a right hand carefully formed semi-circular curve con- 
 nects the two. 
 
 18 
 
Letter " C" (Fig. 34) is made with two strokes, and is 
 simply a repetition of the lower case letter^ relatively 
 narrower. The second stroke of letter " G " follows the 
 outline of the 
 ellipse up- 
 wards near- 
 ly a space ; 
 there a short 
 
 stop is made and the pen point is carefully pushed up- 
 wards in a vertical direction, terminating that stroke as 
 shown. The final horizontal stroke should not be made 
 too short. To those who- might find it difficult to exe- 
 
 Fig-34 
 
 cute the second stroke neatly in the way outlined the 
 suggestion of a separate vertical downward stroke is 
 made. The mode of construction of the ellipses of the 
 "O" and "Q" differ somewhat from that of the lower 
 case letters ; the point of juncture is shifted diagonally in 
 order to lessen the chance of a point forming at the top 
 and bottom of the oval. The third stroke of letter 
 "Q" begins as shown, and extends one space below. 
 The second stroke of letter " S " should for a very short 
 space run perfectly horizontal. The rules given for the 
 forming of the lower case letter otherwise apply to this 
 letter also. 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 Upright numerals ought to be like the inclined ones, 
 five spaces high. Figure " i " may again, if used in 
 proximity with 
 
 capital letter"!" 
 or lower case 
 "1," be 
 
 con- Fig. 35. 
 
 structed with a very short upstroke. Numeral " 4 " is 
 started with a perfectly straight inclined downstroke, as 
 
 shown, whence it assumes a horizontal direction. The rule 
 given above and illustrated by Fig. -^la on the forming of 
 a clear cut angle, applies to the top part of this figure espec- 
 ially. The lower terminal point of numeral "7" should, 
 in a perfectly formed figure, be vertically below the center 
 of the horizontal portion. The upper part of numeral "2" 
 ought to form portion of a flattened oval. The mode of 
 its construction is clearly shown in the illustration. Fig. 35. 
 
 19 
 
Numeral "5" (Fig. 36) begins with a vertical stroke 
 to nearly the middle of the third space; from there 
 the stroke follows the outline of the ellipse,, which is to 
 be three spaces high. The middle portion of the second 
 stroke of numeral "6" ought to follow the vertical 
 direction a short 
 distance, as the 
 general tendency 
 in constructing this Fi^. 36. 
 
 figure is to have that part too much curved. The third 
 stroke ought to enclose a perfect ellipse. Numeral " 8 " 
 is formed in three strokes ; its first a well-shaped ogee 
 curve, with its middle portion running very nearly 
 horizontal. The first stroke of numeral " 9 " ought to 
 
 be part of a perfect ellipse and comprising as it does, 
 nearly two-thirds of its circumference, is somewhat 
 difficult to construct. The middle portion of the second 
 stroke should for a short distance, run almost vertical. 
 The upright ^ 
 
 Roman num- 
 erals, Fig. 37, 
 
 Fig. 37- 
 
 are constructed, analogous to the inclined ones, with 
 upper and lower short horizontal strokes. After explain- 
 ing the mode of forming of capital letters " V " and " X," 
 nothing new can be said concerning these, except that 
 as a general rule it will be well to make them a trifle 
 narrower in proportion. 
 
 Extended Form of Upright Lettering. 
 
 In the following illustration, Fig. 38, the upright letter- 
 ing is shown in extended form. It will be noticed that 
 for the construction of some of those letters a compara- 
 tively greater number of strokes is required. The axes 
 of the ellipses lie in a horizontal direction in every case, 
 and it will be well to shape parts of the curves, composing 
 
 them, decidedly flat, sometimes going to the extreme to 
 have the top and bottom parts of the ellipses running 
 perfectly straight for a certain distance. 
 
 The complete alphabets of the slanting and upright 
 type are shown in Plate I., together with samples of 
 lettering as used on working drawings. The single 
 
 20 
 
letters, composing a word, should, especially in slanting 
 lettering, be placed as close as possible, so close, in fact, 
 
 Sufficient space should be allotted between different 
 words. Of all the theories set forth upon the spacing 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 that they sometimes nearly touch each other. If this 
 principle is followed out at first, the golden middle gov- 
 erning the spacing of letters will soon prevail. The 
 beginner generally spaces his letters too far apart. 
 
 of lettering the writer has found that no one really 
 " works " in practice ; therefore he would advise the 
 draftsman to depend solely upon his eye in determining 
 the proper space. The spacing of a word for instance. 
 
 21 
 
should be so arranged that, when the drawing is held at 
 some distance, or is looked at with half closed eyes, 
 
 :;::;::';":: only standard. 
 
 between letters, as °" 
 
 shown for example ONLY STANDARD, 
 
 in Fig. 39a, which, (Corseted.) 
 
 an actual specimen Fig. 39. ' 
 
 of printed type, demonstrates the fallacy of one of 
 
 the theories upon spacing, and should appear corrected 
 as in Fig. 39<!i, showing, as it were, a more even tone 
 of coloring. 
 
 In expressing fractions, the accepted custom is to place 
 a horizontal dash between numerator and denominator, 
 excepting the instance when numeral " 4 " happen to be 
 the latter, in which case, for obvious reasons, a slanting 
 dash is employed. The several lines of lettering compos- 
 ing a sentence, for instance, should be placed rather close. 
 
 
 ]<-/j|"...x-/?|'-)K-/y-'-x-/i'l->( 
 
 iWW 
 
 variable 
 
 Freehand Lettering applied to Working Drawings. 
 
 Lettering as applied to working drawings, should be side, and a dotted reference line with arrow head point- 
 bold, clear and uniform in size, with 
 
 1' 
 the exception of the sub-captions, which ' 
 
 may be a trifle larger. Diminutive and 
 cramped lettering on a drawing will 
 never look well. If possible, the letter- 
 ing should be kept distinctly by itself and 
 never be allowed to run across lines. 
 If some words can not be put on the ob- 
 ject itself, which they are intended to des- 
 cribe, they should be boldly placed out- 
 
 iaitlmn, T t hick, irionq. 
 
 K ■ Z'b'- 
 
 Sidewalk. 
 
 ENti.NEWS. 
 
 Expansion Joints. 
 
 l,6mf 
 
 ■->k-5-'-'*'?'-)i?|«--6"—:i4)i 
 Roadway. 
 
 Fixed Ends. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 22 
 
Bom Uiorii: 
 
 ing to the subject attached, as shown especially in Figs. 
 40, 41 and 42. The lettering should be placed so as to 
 read from the base 
 and right hand side 
 of the sheet, that 
 is to say, lettering 
 running at an angle 
 of 90° to the base 
 line should be made 
 to read from the 
 right hand side, if 
 at a greater angle, 
 its base should be 
 reversed in such a 
 way that it can be 
 read from the lower 
 left hand corner; if 
 the angle be small- 
 er, one should then 
 be enabled to read 
 it from the lower 
 
 MafmalforReentorangBetiomajofti! 
 
 Rn/rf.Pl. 24'iiS'itb'6"tjii^.al}eyschiird. 
 
 Qij1Si5tWsne/5,IZ0, /:r j> ,|"^ I'loS" 
 •' me/:s,6SiM-j<2'lliS,' ' 
 
 'J Bearing Pl.m Bom ii-xr'S'O" 
 •5! Matsnalpf Long Distn'ijufj'ngOinieren 
 ^ WeHandFlanai;:^ „, , ,' „ 
 EndCom: B3ntPlfk6'i6^Ki"ic4<s!^ 
 
 " " Fi/lerSf 6'6k"xl"/f3'9- 
 
 iV_ 
 
 
 Fig, 41. 
 
 dimension lines, and an appropriate space left open 
 while drawing those. If the space allotted for a dimen- 
 sion is too small 
 to place the same 
 comfortably be- 
 tween arrow heads, 
 the figures should 
 be written outside, 
 parallel to dimen- 
 sion line, and refer- 
 ence line used. 
 Arrow heads 
 should be bold, 
 with even sides, 
 the two strokes 
 composing them 
 tapering in thick- 
 ness from the point; 
 " lop sided " ones 
 should be avoided. 
 The leng^th of 
 
 Cross Section, 
 
 Details of Long Raising Girder 
 and Truss Connection. 
 
 right hand corner, as Fig. 44 demonstrates. 
 
 Dimensions should be placed between, not on top of 
 
 the arrow heads depends upon the size of the dimension 
 numerals, which are to go between them ; at any rate, 
 
 23 
 
the numerals themselves should stand out free and not 
 touch the former. Where the space does not permit 
 this, the reversed arrow heads may be used, so as to 
 leave a clear space between them, as shown, for instance, 
 at left of Fig. 40, in second row of dimensions from be- 
 low. In the same figure the relative size of upright 
 
 an inset sheet in "Engineering News'' and yet shows 
 the lettering of the strain-sheet legible, sharp and clean 
 cut, even under a magnifying glass. The pin points, as 
 shown, are also made prominent by using upright refer- 
 ence letters. Similar prominence may be given, for in- 
 stance, to portions of a building, as shown in Plate XI 
 
 5pl.PI,20i§' 
 
 t22'lo!ioverall(Ba!J< mBack of End Stiff. I?.j 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 lettering, as used for captions and sub-captions is shown. 
 In Fig. 44 and on Plate III, upright lettering is also em- 
 ployed to denote the strains for the respective members, 
 in order to have same appear distincdy different from 
 ordinary dimensions or descriptive matter. This plate 
 has been considerably reduced in size from a drawing for 
 
 on plan of station building. Notes referring to draw- 
 ings should run parallel to base of sheet and be used as 
 " fillers." 
 
 .In Fig. 43 and Plate II, lettering as used on sketch 
 maps is shown. Here four distinctive styles, composed 
 of the two alphabets above described, are employed. 
 
 24 
 
The writer recommends, in such a case, to have the 
 physical features of a map, such as creeks, rivers, lakes, 
 mountains, bays, inlets, denoted by " all cap " slanting 
 letters ; proposed engineering works in " caps and lower 
 case " of the same type ; villages, railway lines, stations 
 in " cap and lower 
 case " upright let- 
 tering ; finally, 
 counties, townships 
 or cities in " all 
 caps," upright. 
 These rules are 
 all, of course, sub- 
 ject to more or less 
 modification, as oc- 
 casionally contour 
 
 lines, soundings, f^'g' 43. 
 
 etc., may also be designated In small upright numerals. 
 Plate II illustrates the above said very well. Letters 
 relating to rivers and railway lines should be placed 
 parallel to those objects. Otherwise, lettering in straight 
 lines is resorted to. If this should, however, be Imprac- 
 ticable, lettering in neat curves is used. 
 
 Profiles of railway lines, etc., may be treated in a sim- 
 ilar manner ; the margin figures denoting vertical and 
 horizontal scales, should, however, be placed in uprights 
 and be written outside, not upon the lines of the scale. 
 The use of the four distinct types of lettering will at 
 
 once allow an easier 
 reading of the pro- 
 file. A good ex- 
 ample of this kind 
 Is given in Fig. 45. 
 The arrange- 
 ment of margin 
 figures here will 
 permit the approx- 
 imate elevation of 
 any desired point 
 easily to be ascer- 
 tained by laying a rule across the vertical scales, its 
 upper edge touching the point in question. In Fig. 
 46, the general style of lettering a diagram Is shown. 
 The margin figures again are uprights, set opposite, not 
 upon the lines, which they are to designate. The letter- 
 ing of the curves, being of a descriptive character, is 
 
 25 
 
done in the slanting type. Since this lettering has to run 
 across the ordinates and abscissae of the diagram, great 
 care has to be exercised to keep same open and clear, 
 especially avoiding filled in corners. 
 
 Examples of simple and also slightly more elaborate 
 meridians and scales are given on Plate XI. All of the 
 former are easy to construct and will look neat on any 
 
 well finished map. The lower two scales are best 
 adapted for map work, although the upper one, in- 
 tended for ordinary working drawings, can also very 
 well be used for that purpose. In constructing the 
 simpler type of scales it is advisable to employ four 
 different heights of graduation lines, a method which 
 will materially increase its clearness. 
 
 VARIOUS FREEHAND ALPHABETS. 
 
 The principles of construction of the shaded inclined 
 (Italic) lettering, shown on Plate IV, which is occasion- 
 ally used on working drawings and maps, are practically 
 the same as given for the ordinary (Gothic) slanting let- 
 tering. The relative height of letters and inclination 
 of down-stroke remain unchanged. A fairly fine point- 
 ed rather flexible pen should be used, such as Gillott's 
 No. 303 or No. 290 (Gillott's lithographic pen). The 
 lower case letters are very much like common English 
 shaded script. The shading is produced by an even 
 pressure exerted upon the pen, wh'.ch in turning into 
 curves, is gradually released at the proper moment. In 
 shading letters " S " and numerals " 2," " 7 " and " 8 " 
 
 the pen has to outline and shade the curves at the same 
 time, necessitating a slight turning motion of the holder, 
 to the beginner a somewhat delicate operation at first 
 It will be noticed, that every second row in the upper 
 portion of this plate is devoted to demonstrating the 
 proper method of forming each letter and. the sequence 
 of strokes. Italic lettering, in order to look well, re- 
 quires a considerably wider spacing than the ordinary 
 slanting lettering, the hair line upstrokes in most of the 
 lower case letters adding to their width. After all that 
 has been said about slanting lettering in general, no 
 trouble will be experienced in constructing these letters 
 satisfactorily. 
 
 26 
 
When reduced considerably, Italic lettering, as a rule, 
 does not show up so well as the same size of the slanting 
 Gothic type described before, the light lines in that case 
 dropping out, thus leaving only the shaded portions vis- 
 ible. 
 
 The type of lettering shown in lower part of Plate IV, 
 is in fact only a modification of the ordinary upright 
 
 shown on Plate V. As is known to every draftsman, a 
 lump of ink is apt to form at the end of a straight stroke, 
 
 Side Elevation . 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 freehand lettering, and used as a part of title looks very when the pen is fairly full. This propensity of the ink 
 
 well when used with the black faced Gothic lettering, is made use of in constructing this type of lettering and 
 
 27 
 
the flow of ink thus diverted. The relative number of 
 strokes remains the same, as with the ordinary upright 
 style. A few modifications are introduced in the shape 
 
 of which have been exhaustively explained in the fore- 
 going, will experience no trouble whatever in sketching 
 these letters in good shape. As shown, the relative 
 height of lower case and capital letters 
 remains unchanged ; the width of the 
 stem of the capital maybe taken as 4-5, 
 in some cases 7-8, that of the lower 
 case letters as 3-6 the width of a square. 
 
 2000' 3000' 4000' 5000' 
 
 Fig. ,45. 
 of lower case " a " and " g." This lettering is best pro- 
 duced with a ball point pen, insuring a stroke of almost 
 uniform strength. As a precaution, it may be said that 
 the pen should never be too full while making this type 
 of lettering. 
 
 Plates V to VII inclusive, contain Freehand Letter- 
 ing suitable for main titles, which may easily be con- 
 structed by dividing the space to be lettered into squares 
 and sketching in the letters in outline afterwards, as 
 shown ; on tracing linen, cross-section paper may of 
 course be used for this purpose. A draftsman able to 
 satisfactorily construct the upright lettering, the principles 
 
 7000' 
 
 On Plate V sug- 
 gestions are 
 made as to sev- 
 eral methods of 
 shading these 
 letters, although, 
 as a rule, they 
 look very well 
 without it. 
 When this kind 
 of lettering is de- 
 
 cs cr> o 
 
 03 E Z 
 
 Dollars. 
 100 50 5 
 
 80 40 4 
 
 60 30 3 
 
 40 EO E 
 
 20 10 1 
 
 " 
 
 — 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h?h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,>7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 s* 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ■5 
 
 {^ 
 
 f>' 
 
 \4\\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 A 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 44.4P 
 
 
 , 
 
 ', 
 
 <1~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ,> 
 
 
 w 
 
 -1 
 
 — 
 
 <: 
 
 {■' 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 '0 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n\<K 
 
 n< 
 
 / 
 
 /,,^i, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 IV 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ok^i 
 
 ;', 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 '- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cucO 
 
 ■OJ c 
 (13 O 
 
 20 
 
 ?B0 
 
 -50. 
 -25.50 
 
 
 
 
 ;#■0^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 ■'* 
 
 
 
 
 
 >< 
 
 ' 
 
 'Z=f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .( 
 
 / 
 
 .- 
 
 
 
 u; 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 "/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u o.d5-==>iij50? 
 
 s:<;s-%-?<inozt 
 
 -^ U_ S; <t 2: -D ^ 
 
 s:<.s:-?.^<io 
 
 1880. 1595. 
 
 Metal Prices 1879, 1880 and 1895. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 sired to be of medium or small size, i't can neatly and 
 
 28 
 
expeditiously be constructed in the way shown by Fig. 
 4712 : Tlirow in the stems of 
 the letters with a broad nibbed 
 pen, insuring a bold stroke 
 analogous to ordinary Gothic 
 upright lettering, with the ex- 
 ception of the horizontal 
 strokes, which, together with 
 the tops and bottoms of the 
 letters, rule in, and fill in the 
 corners freehand, as shown en- 
 larged in Fig. \']b. As, is well known, short freehand 
 strokes are somewhat difficult to draw horizontally, 
 therefore this tnethod is certainly preferable to that of 
 
 {Original) WAYNC 
 
 (Spurred bathic) AA/^^YNF 
 
 (Plain bathh.) \A/AYN P 
 Fig. 47a 
 
 WW 
 
 Fig. 476. 
 
 turning the paper, so as to permit the draftsman to draw 
 these strokes in a direction towards him. If, as the 
 case may be, the draftsman should desire more ornamen- 
 tal letters, he will be able, by the aid of his eye and the 
 exercise of some originality, to devolve the letters de- 
 sired out of the types given. It should, however, be 
 borne in mind, that a title, composed of highly orna- 
 mented letters, does not atone for any poorly drawn and 
 lettered sheet to which it may be attached, but on the 
 other hand, a simple title, constructed of well executed 
 letters of reasonable size, with the several lines compos- 
 ing it, centered, will make an ample heading for any 
 well executed drawing, and conform in style with the 
 subject represented. 
 
 LETTERING OF TITLES. 
 
 > 
 
 On Plates VIII and IX, and the accompanying text routine work in the drafting office of a technical journal, 
 
 figures, reduced specimens of freehand titles are given. These samples, as given here, represent reductions from 
 
 and pains have been taken to present, as much as pos- originals which range in size from one-half to nearly 
 
 sible, different types of easily formed and fairly well bal- one-fifth linear measure, 
 
 anced titles, such as could be selected during the daily The specimens exhibited on those two plates show 
 
 29 
 
more or less clearly, that the prominence which Is to be 
 given t<3 different portions of a title, depends upon the 
 relative Importance of the lines. The draftsman is gener- 
 
 ...3^:. 
 
 Bridge 720 B/^ /?un, Evanst//7/e, J^r/zona. 
 M. K. and TRy. M/ddleD/v. 
 
 3 Spans, S/'n^/e Track, Through /7S-o'c,c.£^ndP/ns. 
 
 Top Chords jfm End Posts. 
 
 AMERICAN BRIDGE CO., 
 
 EDGEMOOR PLANT. 
 
 A.B.COL Comr. Ne...^S2. In Charge of .../J^/-?.?/?.- — 
 
 Miul.by-i_Z^- SlM.^/ZfJ>?.RBv....&/J.O.. 
 
 Checkm by-j^li^L^ DataJ?/2.7/a«.Rev, , 
 
 ■■if Ink Border 
 
 a/ 
 
 Order Ho.K2.3Q,—%wx.t Mo../2. 
 
 ^ Ci/^S/i/aPr/TTfo/rf^/s/me 
 
 ^k— ^^—A^o/^^oe/jw o7rM/s///7» 
 
 Fig, 48, 
 
 ally given considerable latitude In regard to this matter. 
 
 The title given under Fig. 48 Is one of the standard 
 
 arrangements of the concern named and shows good 
 
 points. The lower part, as noticed, Is stamped on the 
 
 drawing, and the blanks are subsequently filled In by 
 hand. 
 
 A style of title seldom used nowadays Is that shown 
 In Fig. 49. The letters are arranged in curved 
 lines and an ornamental, flourished effect Is 
 sought after. Where such is desirable, the gen- 
 eral scheme is a fairly satisfactory one. 
 
 A few words in regard to centering of titles 
 may here be added. A title should in nearly all 
 cases, be arranged systemetlcally about a vertical 
 center line. After the location of this line and. 
 the height and spacing of the different lines of 
 letters have been determined, the spaces equal to 
 the width of the letters can be marked off with 
 pencil on the edge of a strip of paper and the 
 center of the strip placed on the vertical center 
 line of the title, with Its edge just below the line 
 of letters to be sketched. The letters can then be 
 penciled In very readily. 
 A space between words counts as a letter In spac- 
 ing, therefore, a line containing three words of J, 3 
 and 6 letters represents 18 divisions, so that 9 divi- 
 sions, or the first word, one space and one letter of the 
 
 30 
 
second word are to come to the left of the center 
 line, and the remainder of the line to the right. If, 
 after all, the spacing of a line of letters needs re-ad- 
 justment after the letters are sketched in, the drafts- 
 man may easily rectify the matter by going over that 
 line again, working first to the left and then to the right 
 of center. 
 
 shows the draftsman's lack of practice in freehand work, 
 
 Qcn^J^ 
 
 r^'T. outlet Sewer 
 
 U rSsVl ty V<.^t Ca^keCity 
 ^^^^ Alio 1 N DEX TO MAP 
 
 IN — SHEETS ATTACHED 
 
 Fig 49. 
 
 In Fig. 5o, an actual fac-simile of a title once met with 
 is exhibited. It explains in short how not to do it, and 
 
 while relying sole- 
 ly upon his skill 
 with bow pen and 
 ruling pen. The 
 writer would not 
 consider this work 
 <jomplete without 
 giving passing 
 notice to 
 
 ^heetJ^i 
 
 ENDANiD^ECTniOINALi VmEW 
 
 OF 
 
 EUREKA DRIERS 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION 
 
 Fig, 50. 
 
 Round Writing, 
 
 the principles of which are shown on Plate X. For the 
 production of this kind of lettering regular round writ- 
 ing pens are used, although very satisfactory lettering of 
 this type can be produced with goose-quills cut by the 
 draftsman, and the writer even yet prefers the latter. 
 
 31 
 
LETTERING FOR PHOTO-REPRODUCTION. 
 
 The lettering and drawing for reduction purposes may 
 be made on any quality of drawing paper, tracing linen 
 or paper. Yellowish tinted papers however, will as a 
 rule, not give as good results as the pure white or blue- 
 ish ones. In order to insure good, unbroken lines on 
 tracing cloth the writer would recommend the thorough 
 rftbbing of the surface with pumice powder. The other 
 materials mentioned, of course, require no special prepa- 
 ration. Erasures on tracing cloth are also best made 
 with the same agents the powder is sprinkled upon the 
 part to be erased, and a little brisk rubbing with the end 
 of the finger or a hard rubber, while replacing the dis- 
 colored pumice with fresh powder, will thoroughly clean 
 the effected surface, which may be lettered over again 
 without danger of the ink spreading. Where, however, 
 erasures have otherwise been made, Chinese white may 
 be applied with a soft brush over the discolored parts. 
 Letters and lines must be made perfectly black ; if very 
 fine lines are used on a drawing, they will still reproduce 
 
 at considerable reduction, provided each is formed by a 
 solid ridge of ink. 
 
 A good standard to adopt for lettering for reproduc- 
 tion is to have the smaller lower case letters, such as 
 " a," " e," etc., reduce to not less than one millimeter 
 (slightly more than -^^ in.) in height ; therefore, if a 
 drawing is to be reduced three-fourths, (i. e., to one- 
 fourth its original length) make those letters 4 times 
 
 • Freehand Leftering. T,^ 
 
 ters (about 
 A in.) high 
 with the 
 strength of 
 body in pro- 
 portion ; the height of the capitals and numerals must be 
 in accordance. A drawing to be reduced to one -half 
 size (one-half its length) has to cohtain lettering just 
 twice the standard given above. The lettering on drav/- 
 
 e- 
 
 Fig. 51a. 
 
 OKIGINAL FOB THBEE-FOUKTHS REDUCTIONS. 
 
 ■> 
 
 32 
 
ings to be reduced to a size about halfways between 
 three-fourths and two-thirds reduction, should be made 
 
 •Freehand Lettering- ^i miiHmeters (about a in.) 
 
 j high, ^minimum size. All 
 
 3Ud^.J:rM!~ N the foregoing is sufficiently 
 
 made clear, by the illustra- 
 
 Fig. 51 &. 
 
 OBIGINAL FOB REPBODUCTION BETWEEN 
 ONE-HALF AND TWO-THIEDS. 
 
 tions, Fig. iia, b and c. 
 
 The two illustrations shown on Plate XI (details ot 
 rail-joint and section of reservoir) have been reproduced 
 from originals five and 
 
 
 s«u.tt.xoAT,;o.vv,\.«,, 
 
 four times their re- 
 spective sizes. Al- 
 though the draftsman 
 'is supposed to know 
 the exact rate of re- 
 duction, the directions' 
 to the engravers are 
 better given in inches 
 or fractions thereof, 
 placed in pencil un- Fig. 52a. 
 
 derneath ; they are for our puposes reproduced on Fig. 
 5 1(2; and b, but would, of course, not be reproduced by 
 the engraver ordinarily. 
 
 ■ Freehand Lettering- 
 
 Fig. 51c. 
 
 BEPRODUTION FROM 
 
 EITHEB OF THE 
 
 ABOVE ORIGINALS. 
 
 reduction is 
 one-third its 
 condensed 
 on drawings 
 
 A drawing should never be reduced at a lesser rate 
 than to three-fifths of its original length. What may be 
 called a good average 
 the two-thirds (i. e., to 
 length.) When the 
 type of lettering is used 
 for reduction purposes a proper safeguard to adopt is to 
 exaggerate somewhat the width of ovals or small loops, 
 such as for instance of the letter " e," to guard against 
 the " filling in " of 
 those parts. A close 
 study of the three 
 types of lettering 
 given on Fig. i of 
 this work, which tend 
 to illustrate the same 
 principle, will also be 
 useful. The reason 
 for giving a limit of 
 reduction (i. e., one 
 
 i'tliicir-.. 
 
 Note:- The 7o/j cfCap will ^ 
 he sliqirtly oval, and weCeii' 
 frat square, triangle, and 
 circle will Da raised about 
 j^above ttie lettering. 
 
 Section of 
 Cast Iron Cap 
 
 Fig. 526. 
 
 millimeter height for smaller lower case letters) and the 
 employment of gothic letters of uniform strength is 
 made evident by referring to the illustrations, Fig. 52«, 
 
 33 
 
which presents an example of engraving, such as is 
 sometimes indulged in, and Fig. 52<5, redrawn and 
 reduced to some scale. 
 
 The strength of the lines of a drawing to be repro- 
 duced depends of course altogether upon the rate of re- 
 duction. For larger reductions it will be quite essential 
 to show as much of a white space between lines as possi- 
 ble, for instance such as designates the thickness of flange 
 of an I-beam in elevation. The .work should in all cases 
 be clear and open, and this detail, immaterial as it may 
 appear, not be overlooked. 
 
 The processes of photo-reproduction ordinarily em- 
 
 ployed are the photo- lithographic and zinc etching pro- 
 cess. Both require a similar grade of preparation of the 
 drawing. The writer uses on such drawing the water- 
 proof ink, which is perhaps blacker than the ordinary 
 kind and possesses more body, Any kind of black 
 drawing ink^ however, is suitable for the purpose ; well 
 rubbed stick India ink will permit of very fine black 
 lines. The main objection to the use of ordinary inks, 
 however, is their liability of blurring, when handled, 
 or the ink mixing with the Chinese white, render- 
 ing the application of the color sometimes very 
 difificuh. ' 
 
 34 
 
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.', I 2 345 d 7 89 10. I894-. 
 ABCDEF6H/JKLMN0PQR5TUVWXYZ. Ordinary Type. 
 II I W VVim WEX. Details of Cross Framing. CROSS SECTION OF GIRDER. 
 Extended Lettering. EONOITUDINAE SECTION. S^. 
 Compressed Type. INTEHSTATE BRIDbE. 5purWMXDiam.jr(7ce,3pifili,3iTeeth,5.2lfey!5.6lhm^ 
 
 a bcdefghij kl mnopqrstuvwxyz. 12345678910. 15^"-, -H"" %. 
 ABCDEFGHIJ K LM NOPQRSTU VWXYZ. IIMVVIYIIVIIIKX. 
 Ordinary Lettering. I Beam. Eye Bar. 4l5,5x6"x-|i"= 85.ie°" 2Webs,48"x2" 
 Elxi-eriolool. 95 P'-h. Spoin . EZnc^l N/i^na/. ^-hc:^. 
 
 Compressed. Ue't,Hb5.peryd. NEW YORK CENTRAL. 2Y, 5'7|', TBolt, Outer Elevation. & 
 
 Material for Reenfprcinq Bottom Chord- 
 IHeenf.PL24W'xdd"out5. above Chord. 
 I " - ,7Z"xX>^8'0"nextfoWeb. 
 I " ^' ,7Z"><l"^e'9i" inside. „ 
 Outs. 6f/ffe/7ersd2L',4"^5xfx3'i0i 
 
 ^' Fillers J'e^H"^ 2' lli" 
 Diaphragms (Ins.), J /^/f i "thick. 
 
 Material for I Chord Section : 
 (2WebPlf24"xp25'0" 
 2 - ", Id-^''xp25'0" 
 
 1 lat.BracePI,37'H'W 
 
 2 " " PiVlM'^l'IOf 
 4 Batten mi5"xl"x2'r 
 4L', 4"x3fxp2E'0" 
 
 The Samples ofLefterinq on Lower 
 Portion or thl5 Plate showapproxlmaie 
 
 Spaa'ng ol Lines and also Mode of 
 Crowding in Fmction Numerals. 
 Itwillalsobeseen that it becomes 
 necessary to oaasionally shorten a 
 Capital or longer Lower Case Letter. 
 Occasional Brackets or Horizontal 
 Dashes are best made Free Hand ) 
 the latter with a slow, "wobbling" 
 5trol<eafthePen. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
PLATE II. 
 

 Highest Paint gfHgqf^ _ 
 
 l,¥Plfimdii- 
 Z%'Plf outside' 
 
a h c d e f g h ijklmizopqrstu^vwxyz 
 
 ^d Ut^^ icf¥ 'f'^^yl /fe' i j m I fjf% H^Upt/l ¥' s^ft ^ifiij,Ui ^, ii/f ^ 
 A B CBEFGHIJKLMNOPaRSTUVWXYZ 
 
 Freehand i'S^'SB-^ffi'^- ' Printing _ 
 
 Shaded Inclined (Italic) Lettering, Used for Working Drawings. 
 
 a bcdefg hij klmnopqrstuvwxyz 
 ABCDEFG HIJKLMNOPQESTUVWXYZ 
 
 \ 23456789 10. 
 Freehand Lettering for Captions, Produced very Fast. 
 
 Through Passenger Service^ etc. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
) 
 
 PLATE V 
 
PLATE VI. 
 
PLATE VII. 
 
PeVaAs 
 
 SV\'\p Carva\- t)u\u\h.VA\T\u. 
 
 C . /^ . ?. "Vumer — ^no^meeT. 
 
 Appsirat-us for the* 
 Aeration of Water. 
 
 June i4-,i9oo. 
 
 Scale 12= \ - 
 
 William Whcel&r, 
 
 Consulting En|,ineer, 
 
 NORTH GERMAN LLOYD, 
 
 PLANS FOR 
 
 PROPOSED PIERN9 3, 
 
 ( 90 FT WIDE J 
 
 HOBOKEN, N.J. 
 
 OCT. 1900. 
 
 W. f:tV. ., 0'W/EnSln& er, 
 
 Hoboken, New Jersey. 
 
 Commonwealth of Massachusetts. 
 
 Metropolitan Water Works. 
 
 Standard Details 
 
 — '^«- OF -+>+< 
 
 Lifters for Screens 
 
 ^ AND -^ 
 
 Stop- planks. 
 
 \ 
 
 Full Size. 
 
 J1PP/QN6EMENT OF 
 INSIDE 6H0P/A/0 
 
 U.3.S. OPEOON. 
 
 A/fi7\^y y^^o^'^^'uG^r' soi^^^-o. 
 
 c>e:ros£-e, /^ /ffO/, 
 
 —TESTING STATION-— 
 
 OF THE 
 
 — =C0LUMB1AN FIREPROOFING C0.=- 
 
 BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 PLATE VIII 
 
COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 METROPOLITAN WATER WORKS. 
 
 WACHUSETT DAM. 
 
 GENERAL PLAN OF DAM 
 AND APPURTENANCES. 
 
 
 
 New York & Brooklyn Bridqe 
 
 Present. Details of Bottom Connections. 
 
 Suspenders Sc Stays. 
 
 Scale ^in.to 1 -R-. 
 
 Sept. 130I. 
 
 ROUND CORNER DETAILS. 
 
 SC/JLE '/z INCH^IFT. 
 These details forS.E,Corner-5iinilar construction at N.E.corner, 
 
 — Soo/ve Coc//^ry /fy — 
 
 G&nero/ E/eyoHon, Cross •Secfr'ons ^V'5/o//ces 
 Sco/e i'/i'=/0: 
 
 C/j/ef£yfp'neers Ofifce. 
 
 Chicago %'//orf/7-iyesMrn /?y. 
 
 C/7/COOO. Oec.3o'^99. 
 
 Approy^cf (S^ 
 
 Consu/^rry^^T!^'/: Oraty/'/iffJ/^ Z78/ 
 
 PITTSBURGH, PA. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS 
 BUREAU OF FILTRATION 
 
 CONTRACT NO, I 
 
 FILTERS.BASINS AND APPURTENANCES 
 
 INTERIOR DRAINS 
 
 DETAIL PLAN OF ONE FILTER 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
a/ /& /iy i5 cl/ /^/f ^a/ /^ A/ Jv ^^ ^ aa/v/w o AOypf /tx-^ /fc^ 
 
 
 /wux&C' UvA-ce" ^^/M/xe/ of ihe/ 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
Meridians. 
 
 PLATE XI 
 
.1 . . .1 
 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 Cross Section, Millimeters. 
 
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ENGINEERING NEWS 
 
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 exceptional opportunities for buying and selling all kinds of machinery and supplies and for wide 
 competition on all classes of contracts. 
 
 ENGINEERING LITERATURE 
 
 A Supplement to Engineering News, issued about the middle of each month, gives lists of books published during the month 
 and reviews of all the principal books written by recognized authorities on the different subjects, together with 
 
 other information regarding Engineering Literature. 
 
Second Edition 
 
 " Awhile deprecating any need- 
 lessly elaborate finish, the writer 
 advises the use of just sufficient 
 shading and finishing touches 
 to render a drawing thoroughly 
 comprehensible and to preclude 
 any possible ambiguity. ' 
 
 " The illustrations in this work, 
 quite a number of which have 
 appeared in the columns of 
 'Engineering News,' are in- 
 serted to demonstrate the points 
 involved and have been reduced 
 more or less in size so as to save 
 space. They may however be 
 copied by enlarging to about 3 or 
 4 times their linear dimensions.'' 
 
 Post- 
 
 Price, $1.00 pafi 
 
 " It is of course to be under- 
 stood, that this book is not a 
 manual for beginners' exactly ; 
 it serves its. purpose best, where 
 used by the draftsman who is 
 familiar with the mathematical 
 principles of mechanical drafting. 
 It will then, as the writer hopes, 
 prove a valuable aid to the rapid 
 production of neat, correct and 
 legible drawings." 
 
 (PREFACE. ) 
 
 Second. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, Edition 
 90 Text Illustrations, 11 Plates. Price. $1.00 
 
 TESTIMONIALS 
 
 "I have examined the book carefully and am much pleased with it. Mr. Rein- 
 hardt is to be congratulated on having clearly, simply and briefly explained the 
 methods he has used in making his drawings remarkable for their great clearness 
 and legibility It is a book that should be on the desk of every draftsman."— 
 Prof. C. B. Wing. Leland Stanford, Jr., University. 
 
 ••1 find it most excellently adapted to tlie purpose for which it is intended."— 
 Prof. Walter Flint, University of Maine. 
 
 "Am greatly pleased with it; itoccupies a field of its own among books on draft- 
 ing, "—Prof. Robt. L. Lund, Vanderbilt University, 
 
 "It should be in the library of every draftsman. "-Prof. C. W. Marx, Missouri 
 State University. 
 
 "It admirably fills a long-felt want."— Prof. John L. Mnnn, Thayer School of 
 Civil Engineering.- 
 
 "It is certainly the best compendium of instruction and elegant examples that 
 I have slen."-Prot. Robert Fletcher, Ph.D., Director Thayer School of Civil Engi- 
 neering, 
 
 "It will form a useful supplement to Mr. Reinhardt's 'System of Lettering.' " 
 —Prof., E. H. Lockwood, Sheffield Scientific School. 
 
 "Have adopted it as a reference book for our civil engineering students. Your 
 'Lettering' has been the means of bringing about a distinct lift in the standard of 
 freehand lettering, and, 1 predict a like result in the field covered by your new 
 work."— Prof. W, D. Pence, Purdue University. 
 
 "Reinhardt's 'Technic of Mechanical Drafting,' is a book that should he in the 
 drafting department of every engineer's office. It describes those subtle details in 
 execution which constitute the essentials of effective expression in a drawing, both 
 as to truthfulness in its representation as well as its artistic finish. This state- 
 ment is admirably illustrated by the contrasts shown in Figs, 6, 7, 22 and 46. In 
 view of the important part of detail drawings in all kinds of construction, it is an 
 important service/ to show how the element of thorough legibility may be assured 
 without necessarily increasing the cost of the drawing. My early experience of six 
 years in a drafting-room leads me to appreciate the importance of many hints which 
 might otherwise appear to be of little, it any, value.* Each of the chapters on 
 'Outline Shading," and on "Section Lining,' are alone worth the price of the book." 
 —Prof. Henry S. Jacoby, Cornell University, 
 
 The Engineering News Publishing Co., 220 Broadway, New YorR