PRACTICAL POULTRY HUSBANDRY By T. E. QUISENBERRY a.p:s. THE AMERICAN POULTRY SCHOOL MEMORIAL POULTRY LIBRARY ^^^ CORNELL ^m ■■r^'Z^ VOLUME I HOUSING EQUIPMENT. APPLIANCES, BREEDS AND VARIETIES, MATING AND BREEDING, CULLING, SELECTION AND BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION. COPYRIGHT 1922 AMERICAN POULTRY SCHOOL KANSAS CITY, MO. 304249 Poultry House Construction By T. E. QUISENBERRY COf-YRIGHT, 1922 By the American Poultry School Lesson No. 1 THE QUISENBERRY FOOL-PROOF POULTRY HOUSE The more nearly "fool-proof" a poultry house can be made, just that much more certain will the average person be of succeeding in the produc- tion of poultry and eggs at a profit. By fool-prcofness we simply mean that the house, its ventilators and windows need but little adjustment, being always ready for use. The interior of the house is protected from rain, drafts and storms. As someone has well said: "The shutter ventilator is to the hen house what the 'block system' of signals is to the railroad — It does not depend on the falibility of human memory, adjustment or cor- rect use; it is always in place and in working order, no matter what tha weather may be." The facts which are contained herein, and the houses which are herein illustrated are the results of the experimental work with poultry housing problems which I did at the Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station. I have made certain alterations in this lesson and improved the house where I thought necessary. I originated this idea for ventilating a poultry house. Much of the loss and many of the ills and disappointments met with in _ poultry raising can be traced directly to nonsensically-designed, poorly- ' constructed, badly-ventilated, inconveniently-arranged and improperly-lo- cated poultry houses. A poultry house need not be elaborate or expensive. The Quisenberry '"fool-proof" poultry house can be easily and economically built. It was designed with a view of economy, simplicity, comfortableness, convenience, dryness, cheerfulness, sanitation, and of having the proper- amount of ventilation and sunshine. It was designed with a view of having all these virtues in one house and at the same time avoid having a lot of curtains to raise and lower, and is free from many of the freak notions and ideas embodied in many modern poultry houses which make it necessary for the farmer or poultryman to be continually raising and lowering cur- tains, opening and closing ventilators and doing many other things which the average farmer or poultryman will not take the time to do, and there- fore do not get the best results. The attention to details is all eliminated in the Quisenberry "fool-proof" poultry house. We unhesitatingly recom- mend it to the farmer, the city back4ot pouTtry-raiser, the commercial egg farmer and all others desiring the most up-todate and satisfactory poultry house in existence. Before attempting to build a poultry-house, first consider the purpose- for which the house is intended and the size of the flock it is to accommo- date. Is it to house a pen of breeders, is it to be used as a colony house, or is it intended as a sort of general purpose house or a laying house? Con- sider these facts, then build the style and size of house which comes near- est filling your requirements. This book describes and contains plans in detail for the colony house, the breeding house and the laying house, all similar in most respects — varying only in size and interior arrangements. Judging from appearance, as a rule, any old shack is a perfectly satis- factory home for the hens. Of course there are exceptions, but, taking the states over, the average farm henhouse is 'fearfully and wonderfully made." It Is dark, damp, dirty, full o! cracks and with the cracks full of mites in too many cases. And yet there is no class of live stock on our farms that will more quickly repay their owner for a good home than will the hens. One winter egg is worth from three to five summer eggs, and the greatest single essen- tial to winter egg production is the proper kind of a house. Again, im- proper housing is the contributing cause of many poultry Ills. By seeing to it that our hens are properly housed we will advance ourselves well Along on the road to success in the poultry business. Fig. 1. Good houses for the rest ol the farm live stock but such as this tor hens. Cracks and crevices permit a draft in the house. Good hiding places for mites. Not much chance for winter eggs in a house like this. With this thought in mind, there was carried on for five years at the Missouri State Experiment Station a series of experiments or tests to deter- mine, if possible, whether there was any particular style or type of poultry house which was better adapted to Missouri conditions than any other. In this test all of the various styles of poultry houses in general use were carefully compared with a house which is new in its essential features, and which has since been named "The Quisenberry Fool-Proof Poultry House." In each of these houses a government thermometer was kept from which readings were taken twice daily throughout the entire period of the test. A cai-feful trap-nest record was also kept of the egg production In each house, as well as of the number of hens getting sick, deaths, etc. As a result it was found that the Quisenberry "fool-proof" house was an easy winner in the following respects: (1) Uniformity of temperature. A,2) General healthfulness of the flock. <(3J Egg production. '(4J Economy and simplicity of construction. Before we discuss the plan of this house in detail let us consider, briefly, some of the principles and problems of poultry house construction. A good poultry house need not be expensive — in fact, should not be. Frills won't make winter eggs. Tens of thousands of dollars have been foolishly spent oa elaborate poultry houses, designed to please the fancy of their owners rather than to satisfy the actual needs of the hens that were to occupy them. —2— A practical poultry house should afford perfect protection from storms, plenty of sunshine during the winter months, and an abundance of fresh air, -without drafts. It should be absolutely dry, for dampness is fatal to poultry. The house should not cost much over one dollar and a half per hen for which it is designated to accommodate. The prices of materials vary in different sections. We would recommend trying to cheapen the house without altering the principles involved, if the cost should exceed an average of $2.00 per hen. Build It more cheaply if possible. The houses which are herein illustrated and described fulfill all of these requirements to an admirable degree. THE IMPROVED FOOL-PROOF POULTRY HOUSE This house is suitable to all climates, and the method of ventilation takes the carbon dioxide or the bad air away from the floor in winter months. We do not hesitate to recommend this plan to any and all poultrymen as one of the best designs for a poultry house that has yet been made public. In fact, it is so nearly perfect, that it can scarcely be improved upon. In an extreme southern climate or where it is warm most of the year, the poultryman could have most of the space above the shutter ventilator cov- ered with a curtain, cloth or shutter on hinges. It could be opened outward in summer and closed in winter. We call these 'Pool Proof Houses because the method of ventilation is practically tool proof. That is one of the most essential features of any house. We recommend the 'Fool Proof Houses in preference to any we have ever used or seen used. You can build them in colony houses 8x12, or in units 10, 12, 14, 16 or 20 feet square, or the large house for one large flock can be built 48x60 feet. All will give equal satisfaction. LOCATION The proper location of the poultry house is very important. No matter how good your house may be, it it is located in a low damp place wher» the yard surrounding it is wet and the land sour, your house cannot over- come all of these evils. It should be placed upon high, well drained ground. We prefer sandy, gravelly or light porous soil. Heavy clay soils should be avoided. They are hard to keep sanitary. If the ground does not drain well, naturally, never place a poultry house on it until you have provldea for under-dralnage with tile or by open ditches. Water should never be allowed to stand in the poultry yards. A wet soil is colder than a dry one Muddy feet mean dirty eggs, and dirty eggs mean washed eggs and low prices. Dampness breeds colds, catarrh, roup, rheumatism, pneumonia and tuberculosis. Air drainage is also very important. Never locate the poultry house in a low flat place where the air is always damp. Face the house to the south, and, if possible, it is not a bad idea to protect it on the north and west by trees, which act as a windbreak. The ground on which the house is located should preferably slope to the south or east. The house should be placed conveniently to the other farm buildings and in close proximity to the dwelling house. The feed and water supply should be taken into consideration. If the hen house is placed rather close to the dwelling, they should be separated by a chicken-tight fence. Noth- ing is more trying on a woman than to have the hens make their headquar- ters on the back porch or back door step. The hens also prove to be a nuisance on the farm many times, when the mistake was made in placing the poultry house too close to the barns, oorncribs, tool sheds, etc. Pro- tect your machinery, vehicles and yodr back door step from the fowls by seeing that the poultry house and yards are properly located. There is no reason why poultry should become a nuisance on any farm or on any city lot if it is properly handled. Locate the poultry house so that you may make additions to it or to your poultry farm and yards, and thus avoid future expense of moving and remodeling. SIZE AND SHAPE The size of the house will vary with the purpose for which it is in- tended that is, our "fool-proof" colony house is about eight feet deep and twelve feet long; the "fool-proof breeding house is built in sections four- —3— teen feet square; and the "fool-proof" laying house should be built in sec- tions twenty feet deep and twenty feet long or after the style of the large rectangular house 48x60 feet. This length or number of sections in the breeding or the laying houses will depend upon the number of hens which it is desired to keep. Under average farm conditions, for the larger breeds — such as Plymouth Rocks, Orpingtons and similar varieties — about four square feet of floor space should be allowed for each hen. For Leghorns, three to three and one-half feet of floor space is sufficient. We would prefer to provide too much floor space rather than too little. The crowded and congested condition of many farm poultry houses has sapped the vitality of their flocks and resulted in failure in many such cases. The form of the building influences the cost of construction. Square houses or sections of houses economize lumber. 7x28 feet — 196 square feet floor space. 70 feet around 14x14 196 square feet floor space 56 feet around In the top figure more square feet of wall space is exposed and there is extra cost in building. Experience has proven that the house should be moderately deep, both from the standpoint of the welfare of the hens as well as economy in construction. For instance, you can see in the figure above that a house fourteen feet square contains the same number of square feet of floor space as does a house seven feet deep and twent-eight feet long, yet the cost of construction is considerably less than the latter. A Qulsenberry "Fool-Proof" Poultry House fourteen feet square will accom- modate about fifty Plymouth Rocks or sixty-five Leghorns. THE HEIGHT OP THE HOUSE The poultry house should be high enough to enable the poultryman to work and not interfere with his head. An 8x12 foot colony house should be about seven feet in front and five feet in the rear. A 14xl4-foot laying or breeding house should be eight feet in front and six feet in the rear or at least not lower than seven feet in front and five feet in the rear. The deeper or wider the house, the higher the front should be. The south side of the house should be sufficiently high so the sun can extend well toward the rear of the house. You can change the height to fit your lumber and your needs. The important thing above everything else is the system of ventila- tion. It will tend to increase the egg yield and the good health of your flock, and will aid you in avoiding dampness, colds, roup and kindred diseases. THE FOUNDATION For portable colony houses, we usually build them on 2x8 oak runners, tapered off at both ends, so as to make a satisfactory runner. Some use brick and some stone for foundation material in the stationary laying and breeding houses. Others use posts or allow the sills to rest on the ground. All of these are more or less objectionable. The best foundation is made of concrete. This should be built deep enough to prevent the rats from burrowing under and to keep the frost from heaving. We usually make the foundation wall four inches thick and go twelve to eighteen Inches deep. It should be about a foot above the ground on the outside at the high point. A four-inch concrete wall is heavy enough to support thfe Quisenberry "F'ool-Proof" Poultry House. —4— THE FLOOR There are three general types of poultry house floors now In use: First, earth; second, board; third, concrete. Each of these three floors has certain points of advantage and disadvantage. The earth floor is the cheapest and in most common use. There are many serious objections to an earth floor — objections which should pre- clude its use, except in very rare instances. In the first place, where an earth floor is used there is almost always a tendency to dampness, and dampness is injurious to poultry. In the second place, an earth floor is unsanitary. Wherever poultry is kept there are always more or less dis- ease germs. When once they find lodging in an earth floor, it is a difficult task to get rid of them. In the third place, a dirt floor is dirty, naturally. During the winter months a litter of straw should be kept in the henhouse, in order that the hens may be kept busy scratching during inclement weather. Where the floor is of earth, the straw has to be changed two or three times as often as it would if the floor were of wood or concrete. Il the dirt floor should be dry, the dust which the hens raise in scratching is very unhealthy. Where, for purposes of economy, it is decided that an earth floor must be used, about eight inches of the surface of the grouna should be taken out and a layer of two or three inches of cinders put in. On top of the cinders a layer of five or six inches of yellow clay should be firmly tamped. The cinders will prevent the dampness from coming up from below, while the clay will make a hard surface. With a good rat- proof concrete foundation wall around the outside, a dirt floor does very well. On account of dampness in some sections it cannot be used at all. If a dirt floor is used it should be filled in so it will be at least six inches higher than the earth on the outside. Wooden floors are in rather common use and, if they are properly con structed, are usually satisfactory as a floor for a permanent house. It is difficult to disinfect the cracks thoroughly in case of outbreak of some contagious disease. They furnish a splendid harbor for rats and vermin if they are not properly constructed. They are the only floors that can be used in portable houses, and for this purpose they are quite satisfactory. Portable houses are built on runners, thus raising the floor far enough oft the ground so that there is little trouble with rats. If you are going to use a board floor, we would recommend that you build it at least two feet from the ground unless you use a solid concrete foundation. This gives the hens a very desirable space underneath the floor where they can rest and wallow, and also prevents rats from harboring underneath. I would also make some provision so that this space underneath the house could be closed in winter to prevent the snow and cold rains from beating under- neath the house and making it damp. Whatever you do, see that the floor is perfectly tight. A board floor put in as we have suggested and by raising it two feet off of the ground makes a very satisfactory floor for a poultry house. We would prefer it to an all dirt floor. Also see that this space beneath the house is kept clean and disinfected, and your hens will make good use of this space. A rat-proof board floor with a concrete foundation is one of the best floors that can be used. We recommend its use. If you prefer a board floor to concrete, we would recommend putting in iron ventilators in the sides and ends of the foundation, which will admit ventilation under the floor and, at the same time, make the floor rat proof. You can lay a double floor if you want it extra good and dry, but in most climates a single floor answers every purpose. A dirt floor might be used inside of the concrete foundation In some sections, but we prefer either a board floor constructed as stated above, using a concrete foundation, or else a good concrete floor. Concrete floors must be built in the spring or summer to give them time to become thoroughly sea- soned and dried out before winter. Also, provide for plenty of underdrainage, or put a string of tiling every four or six feet just underneath the floor and let it extend from one side of the foundation to the other. The air in passing through will keep the floor perfectly dry. You can cheapen your poultry house by using a board or a clay floor. A concrete floor is more expensive, and a good board floor with a concrete foundation will give excellent service. Build a good house so you will —5— have dry, comfortable quarters with proper ventilation and you can add a better floor later on if your finances will not permit of the best at the beginning. A floor of concrete has so many advantages and so few disadvantages when properly constructed that a farmer who wishes to buUd a really good henhouse should use a concrete floor or a rat-proof board floor with a con- crete foundation. However, a poorly and improperly constructed concrete floor, which is always damp, is worse than no floor at all. A concrete floor is more sanitary than any other. There are no cracks and crevices in which the disease germs can lurk, and It can be quickly and thoroughly dis- infected by simply seeing to it that the surface is thoroughly wet with the disinfecting solution. The concrete floor will last a lifetime, and it costs but very little more than a good wooden floor. Properly constructed with a concrete foundation, there will never be any trouble with rats and ver- min in connection with it. Two or three objections to concrete floors have been raised. The first of these is that they are too cold. The second is that they are too hard and that heavy chickens dropping down on them get bumblefoot, rheuma- tism, etc. The third is that hens scratching on them wear their toe-nails off. Concrete floors are almost ideal if four to six inches of dry clean straw is kept upon them. If care is taken when the floor is made to trowel the surface perfectly smooth with a batter of pure cement and water, very little trouble will be experienced with the hens wearing their toe-nails off too short. For the average hen you should allow about three and one-half to four square feet of floor space, and chemical analysis shows that in a house with this much space to each hen with a dirt floor the soil becomes contaminated to a depth of twelve or fifteen inches in a year. To be compelled to remove that much soil twice a year makes an earth floor more expensive in the end than a concrete floor. Concrete floors also prevent rats from stealing eggs, fowls and feed. The main thing is to see that you provide for plenty of drain- age under your floor and get the floor a foot higher than the level of the ground. Build it in the spring or summer and give it plenty of time to dry out before using. CONSTRUCTING A CONCRETE FOUNDATION AND FLOOR Any farmer can make a first-class concrete foundation and floor if a few simple rules are followed. A great many people imagine that the services of an expert are required in order to do good cement work, and therein lies the main reason why more of this valuable material is not used on the average farm. The materials required for making a concrete foundation and floor are a good grade of Portland cement; clean, sharp sand and gravel or chatts; and rough lumber for making the forms. About sixteen sacks of cement and five and one-half yards of sand and gravel will be required to make a foundation and floor for a henhouse fourteen feet square. The same lumber can be used in the forms that is later used in building the house. Plenty of coarse rocks, bricks or cinders should be put under the floor for under-drainage. Or, if a layer of four-inch tile is placed immediately under the floor and the tile extends from one side of the foundation to the other, the air will pass through this and keep the floor dried out. The layers of tiling should be placed about every six feet. When tiling Is used,, it is not necessary to use coarse rock or soft bricks in the foundation. In every case, a concrete floor should be made in the spring or early summer so it will have an opportunity to become thoroughly seasoned and dried out before the damp days of fall and winter. Many concrete floors prove damp and unsatisfactory the first season because they are constructed late In the year and are used while they are green and unseasoned. In preparing to make the foundation, the first thing to do is to mark off the size of the house and set up the outside forms. A spirit level should be used, in order that the top of the forms which are to determine the sur- face of the floor may be exactly level. The forms should be well braced on the outside. (See Fig. 2.) See to it that the top of your foundatioa is about 8 to 10 inches above the ground at its highest point. —6— After the outside forms are set and leveled up, the next thing Is to dig^ a trench four inches wide just inside of the forms all the way around. This trench should be dug deep enough so that the ground will not freeze underneath It in winter, thus causing it to heave. Twelve Inches deep will be enough in most places, not over eighteen inches at most. We are now ready to put in the concrete. The mixture for the founda- tion should be seven parts gravel and sand or chatts to one of cement. Mix the dry cement and gravel thoroughly, and then wet it down. Stir the mix- ture with a shovel or turn it over while the water is being added and keep adding water until the mixture is slushy and thoroughly wet. Pill the trench with the mixture, level with the surface of the ground, tamping it down quite firmly. This done, you are ready to set up the inside forms. The top of these forms should be three inches lower than the top of the outside forms, in order that the floor may be laid over the top ot the foundation, making a neater, smoother job. After the inside forms are properly set and braced, fill in the concrete mixture, so that when tamped down the foundation will be level with the top of the inside forms. After the foundation has had one or two days in which to let the cement "set" the inside forms can be removed, and we are ready to put in the floor. Bolts phould be put in the foundation so that the 2x4 sills may be bolted to the floor and foundation. In preparing to put in the concrete floor the first thing to do is to fill in the interior of the foundation wall with earth, cinders and gravel, thor- oughly tamped down, even with the top of the foundation. This done, we are ready for the concrete. (Pig. 4.) The first layer of concrete should be mixed in the proportion of one part cement to seven parts gravel Or chatts. This first layer should be about two inches deep leaving room lor a top coat one inch deep. Por the top coat only clean sharp sand should be used. It should be mixed with the cement in the proportion of one part cement to two parts sand. After the top coat is on, the surface must be made very smooth. This can best be done by mixing up a batter of pure cement and water, and Fig. 2. — The plan of putting in the forms for concrete foundations and floors. A one-foot board braced with stakes and braces maltes a good and simple form for tbe foundation. Have the top of the boards level and let this be the top of the floor.' Dig a trench four inches wide and twelve inches deep on the inside of the form. Fin this with concrete, and this forms the foundation and makes it rat-proof. —7— troweling it down carefully. If the weather is hot and dry, the floor should tje covered with two inches of wet sand after the surface has had two or three hours in which to harden. The moist sand prevents the floor from drying out too rapidly and makes a harder finish. The forms may be taken down after two or three days, but the floor should be let stand a week before the balance of the building is put up. You may go to work on it In two or three days if you are careful and not allow lumber or tools to fall on the concrete and crack It or chip off pieces. A concrete floor con- structed in this manner is easUy cleaned, is dry, durable and economical. It is rat-proof and dry and is one of the best floors which can be used in any poultry house. The main things which must not be forgotten are that the foundation and floor must be about a foot higher than the ground at the exterior of the house; fill in just underneath the floor with a few loads of cinders or small stones and gravel; do not make the floor more than about three inches thick, and be sure that the last finish or top layer of the floor is a batter of pure cement and water. (See Fig. 4.) Spread a thin layer of this over the floor and allow it to become partially dried out or hardened until It trowels nicely; then trowel it until it is perfectly smooth. This will last a lifetime and give you perfect satisfaction. It is one of the cheap- est floors in the end. Be sure to put in gravel, cinders or rock underneath the concrete floor for drainage if no tiling is used. n Fig. 3.— This illustrates the method of building the forms for a concrete foun- dation and floor. Two layers of tile (P) extend through the foundation and under the floor from side to side. That keeps the floor dry. The larger illustration shows a part of the floor and foundation cut away so that each part may be plainly seen. The Illus- tration in the lower right hand corner shows the detail method of construction of the forms for holding the concrete in place. -8— A^^-^ 1 ii^'*'*""* "' , jj^ttj* uU &A IIIjIjI |0^^|y^^M 1 ^^HH^BB^^7'4rt.n< "-^ * V '^!!I{c|HH|^H|^^^^9HBv BH 3 .Fig. 4. — D shows the form which has been built to retain the concrete and filler. C shows the cinders and rocks which are used as Uliers and for drainage beneath the floor. B is the 3 inches of concrete which forms the body of the floor. This concrete may be leveled down with a 16-ft. straight edge or a 16-ft. 2x4 by dragging it along on the edge of your forms. A. This is the thin finish coat of ijure cement and waiter mixed, and is troweled down perfectly smooth. Fig. 5. — A finished concrete floor and foundation ready to receive a fool-proof poultry house 14x14 ft. THE FRAMING The sills should be made of 2x4 or 2x6 material. As a general rule, the remainder of the framing material is made of 2x4 lumber. In some sections 2x3 material is in more common use for framing than 2x4. In most sections the most common material for this purpose, however, is 2x4's for studding, plates, rafters and window sills. THE WALLS We do not like a high poultry house. Such a house is too cold in winter and unnecessarily expensive. For these reasons, we would make the walls of our house as low as the convenience and the requirements of our hens will permit. This has been found to be six feet in the rear and eight feet in front, or a narrow house could be five feet in rear and seven feet in front. The material should be some kind of cheap matched lumber, such as car siding, drop siding or shiplap. We prefer the matched lumber for the reason that we are not so apt to have objectionable cracks in the house. The walls must keep out rain, snow and cold winds. The walls on the north, east and west should be so built that every opening can be closed and made perfectly tight when desired. Ordinarily, boxing with the cracks bat- tened does not make a desirable wall, because the battens sooner or later become loose and leave cracks which are very undesirable. If you use tongue or grooved lumber and avoid cracks and knot holes in the con- struction, it is not necessary to have double-boarded walls nor to cover them with roofing paper. We prefer a single wall. Of course, in very cold climates the walls may have to be shingled or the outside covered with composition roofing. Solid concrete walls will sweat, be damp or covered with frost unless ventilating shafts are built in the wall. A double brick wall with an air space between, or a hollow tile wall is very sat- isfactory. THE SHAPE AND KIND OF ROOF Fig. 6 shows four types of roofs commonly found on poultry houses. All except the single span or shed roof in the lower right hand corner have three serious faults. First, the services of a skilled carpenter are required to frame them. Second, they are unnecessarily expensive. Third, they do not admit sufficient sunlight during the winter months. Fourth, in each a portion of the roof slopes toward the south, catching tne verticle rays of the sun in summer, and making the house several degrees warmer than it would be if it sloped entirely toward the north. Fig. 6A shows a semimonitor roof. This is a more expensive roof and more difficult to build. We also are troubled with dampness in this house in the highest portion of the interior. Fig. 6B is a monitor roof and is still more expensive. It contains too large an air space in the roof to be satisfactory in most climates. Pig. 6C makes a very good roof, but the long slope is to th'e south, and you have two sets of rafters. Fig. 6D is a plain shed roof and is the most satisfactory of all. A 16-foot rafter will reach from front to back in our 14-foot "fool-proof" poultry house. It is easily and economically built. It turns all the water to the north or back of the house, leaving the front dry and warm. In winter months the sun can shine to the rear of the house, as can be seen by the line of the sun's rays, G and E. The shed roof Is the most sensible roof which can be used on the average poultry house. The rafters should be covered with sheeting, boxing or cheap rough boards; shiplap is preferable. Over this we put a layer of good composi- tion roofing paper. This will outlast shingles on such a house and can be more quickly and easily laid. It is also cheaper than shingles. Boards covered with a good grade of composition roofing is all that is needed to make a satisfactory roof. A roof made of galvanized iron may be economical, but the moisture given off in the breath of the fowls and the heat arising from the body of the fowls will cause moisture to condense on the inside of the roof and this will make the house more or less cold and damp. We have seen such —10— roofs BO damp that water would drip from them and frost would accumu- late on the inside in winter months. This condition will bring on more or less trouble with colds and roup. A cheap solid board roof, covered with a good grade of composition roofing, makes the best roof for a poultry house. Fig. 6. — Styles of roofs commonly used in poultry house construction. A, semi- monitor roof; B, monitor roof; C, gable roof; D. single span or shed roof. Of these four styles, the shed roof is the most economical and most practical for a poultry house. Chief among its advantages are that it admits a maximum amount of sun- shine during the winter months. I J represents a window on the south side; B F represents portion of the floor which the sun will shine on in December, and T, the portion of the floor which the sun will shine on in May. WINDOWS AND SUNSHINE Sunshine is Nature's disease exterminator. You must have light and a reasonable amount of sunshine in your poultry house. Germs and vermin breed in dark, damp houses. Dark corners on the floor of the house makie attractive places for the hens to lay. In our 14-foot houses and also in our colony houses, we build two full-sized windows in the front of every sec- tion, one window on each side of the ventilator. The windows should al- ways run up and down and not lengthwise of the house. A long, narrow window, running the full length of the house will not admit the sun- light that two windows do when both run up and down. The bottom sash of each of the front windows is made to Slide up and down and the top sash is hinged at the top and raises out at the bottom, as shown in Fig. 42. Use about one square foot of glass and window space to every ten square feet of floor space. You will find this about right for the average climate. Bach window sash is independent of the other sash. They can be hinged at the top and open outward at the bottom. They can be arranged in that way or the lower sash to slide up and down and the upper one open outward so that the birds may have the advantage of additional ventilation at times when needed, and at the same time the litter, the fowls and the house are protected from blowing rains and storms. A properly lighted house adds good cheer and also increases egg pro- duction, for it enables the hen to feed for a much longer period before going to roost at evening. With this idea in view, and for the purpose of afford- ing a better system of ventilation during the hot summer months, we place a single window sash in every 14-foot section and below the level of the droppings boards in the rear of the house. This admits light onto the floor and vanishes the dark corners where filth and disease germs and vermin ac- cumulate. This sash is hinged at the top and opens outward, as shown in Fig. 43. In the summer months this is opened, and it makes the house —11— very cool and comfortable. The hens suffer as much from heat in the summer as they do from cold in winter. The casing is made air-tight and the window is closed in winter months, and the fowls have the advantage of the light, but are protected from drafta. These back window sashes are not used in the 8x12 colony houses. In cold or windy climates, muslin or canvas should be tacked over these rear windows in winter months and be sure to make them air-tight. VENTILATORS IN FRONT AND REAR The ventilators in the front of these houses very much resemUle the shutters ordinarily seen in the cupolas of barns. They are made of boards six inches in width and one-half to seven-eighths inches in thickness. The length varies according to the size of house you build and according to the size of the opening in the front of the house which is to be filled by this shutter ventilator. For the average climate, we recommend ventilators Fig. 7. — This shutter in the front o-f your house for ventilation and a window, on each side of It for light and sunlight is about as near a perfect system as can be constructed. There is about an inch and a half space between each ventilator, and they are placed at an angle of about 45 degres. of the following size: About nine-tenths of a square foot of shutter venti- lator to every ten square feet of floor space. In warm or mild climates the ventilator space should be increased, the house cheapened and made more open. In extremely cold climates, we recommend tacking muslin or burlap over the interior of the ventilator. This curtain being protected from the weather by the ventilator, will not become wet, and the mesh will not be- come clogged and filled with dirt as it otherwise would. It might also be necessary to have a curtain on a pole which can be dropped down just in front of the roosts. In case this curtain is used, it should never reach to the droppings board. The bottom of this curtain should be from six inches to a foot from the droppings board even in the coldest weather. With this ventilator and the precautions recommended there should be no frozen combs or suffering from cold in even very cold climates. The narrow strips of tin or thin lumber which may be tacked on the upper edge of the interior of each ventilator as recommended in lessons three and four will force the air upward and will be an improvement in windy or cold climates. —12— This shutter ventilator is absolutely fool-proor. It is always in place, it always admits the proper amount of ventilation and at the same time prevents the snow, rain or sleet from blowing in. The dryness of the house is greatly to be desired. It often prevents colds, roup and kindred diseases. Should you have an entirely open front, it is always more or less damp on the floor of your poultry house during the bad weather of the fall, winter and spring months, the very time when the house should be perfectly dry if you expect to avoid diseases. If you have a cloth curtain < g Cross Section, of SKu-i-tair l/entilatoT- Irx-tercor l/ieyv- 5hu.Hei^ Ve-n.t ila.-t'>r Skoyvirt^ Sircps na-ilecL en. Inie-ri j-r .-^ 3Jats. Fig. 8. — Cross section and interior of shutter ventilator. The space between each alat in the ventilator is about an inch and a half. On the interior of each slat of the venti- lator is nailed- a little strip about the thickness of a lath lattice. The edge of this strip extends about a half inch more above the edge of the ventilator. This forces the cur- rent of air upward as the air passes through the ventilator. This prevents a direct draft on the fowls. This leaves a space of about an inch or less between the top of the strip and the next slat in the ventilator. As you go further north and in climates where the wind blows constantly, the ventilators should be placed closer together, and in ex- treme northern climates a cloth or burlap may be tacked over the interior of the venti- lator in winter and removed in summer. By using a little common sense and making slight changes to meet the needs of the climate, this system of ventilation can be used in all locations with equal satisfaction. If our opinion is worth anything, this is one of the best, if not the best, method of ventilation used in any house in any climate. In a warm climate these houses should be built more open and more cheaply constructed. over the opening and this can be raised and lowered, the curtain is often up when it should be down; is often down when it should be up; is usually torn, off the hinges, or the pores in the cloth have become filled with dirt and dust, so that no air passes through. Neither the entirely open front nor the curtain front is satisfactory. The shutter ventilator solves the problem of proper ventilation. These ventilators are left open winter and summer. Even in the cold- est weather and the temperature below zero, we never think of placing any- thing over the openings between the shutters, except to tack burlap sacks or curtains over them on the interior. If you are in a cold climate, you should tack a piece of cloth over the ventilators on the interior of the house during the coldest weather. The ventilator will keep the cloth and the interior of the house from becoming damp. After the coldest season has passed, the cloth must be torn from the ventilator. This is necessary in cold climates where poultry is raised. It is not cold we wish to avoid entirely, but it is storms, dampness and drafts which we ought to avoid in housing poultry. Fowls prefer out-of-door life. Before they were domesticated, chickens roosted in trees and housing is really an artificial condition for them. —13— Little strips of tin or thin lumber are nailed on xne interior and upper edge of the interior of each ventilator to force the air upward as it enters the poultry house. We really think this an improvement over the plain ventilator, especially so in a windy or cold climate. It is a serious mistake to try to heat poultry houBBs for laying and breeding stock. We must not entirely overlook the nature of the hen and compel her to live under too artificial conditions. Wo should make her comfortable and protect her from the storm. The objects we should have in mind are the health of the fowls and increased pr^iuctiveness. The comfortable, happy hen is the profitable hen. mmwfiu^'. 1 Pig. 9. — An opening is left in the front of the house. A ve>»,.ilator is made large enough to just fill this opening and is then nailed in place. If you construct a Quisenherry "Fool-Proof" Poultry House and use these shutters, you do not need worry about dampness nr ventilation, roup or colds, providing other conditions are right. You will Kind that the fowls are stronger and hardier, and the eggs will have stronger germs and he more fertile when the fowls are so housed. You do not need worry about severe dry cold weather being detrimental to your fowls in the interior of this house. The physicians all recommend pure, fresh air as the best treat- ment for many diseases among the human family. The prevention and cure of many diseases among poultry is also pure fresh air. This shutter ventilator is fool-proof and is going to prove a blessing to the poultry fraternity and saves the labor of caring for curtains, etc. In addition to this shutter ventilator in front, we have a six-inch ven- tilator about eight feet long just under the eaves of the house on the rear side. (Fig. No. 69.) This is opened in the hot months and aids in keeping the ceiling of the house cool and adds greatly to the comfort of the hens. These ventilators in front and the window sash and ventilator in the rear are the things which make the Quisenherry "Fool-Proof" Poultry House far superior to any other style of house which you might build. With this system you can have just as much or just as little ventilation as you d'ssire. The house is always dry. It is cool in summer and comfortable in winter, and being free from dampness and properly ventilated the combs of the fowls gradually become hardened to the cold and do not freeze so easily and quickly as in most other styles of houses. If you. build the house as we recommend it, and do not try to incorporate some new ideas of your own, which have not been tried out, you are certain to be more than pleased with the results. —14— TO ilwrRE ABSOLUTE DRYNESS AND PfflBTECT HEALTH It Is vitally essential that the litter, walls and entire house be abso- lutely dry to insure perfect health and high egg production. The Improved Shutter Ventilator and a board ventilator placed within six inches of the eaves in the rear of the house, insures as near perfect ventilation and dry- ness as it 1b possible to get in the average climate. In some sections, cli- matic anc) weather conditions are such that an additional ventilator is needed in order to keep the litter and walls perfectly dry. For that reason we herewith Illustrate a system of ventilation which will dry out and keep dry such houses as are inclined to dampness, colds and roup among thei fowls. We have tried it out and seen it tried in some of the worst climates and under the most unfavorable conditions. It will easily pay the cost in reduced mortality and in increased egg production. ik'^ mC OR,!'! t'STAR'^^ IffNTILATOl %-->;\h INCHES 4^^ THE WAY IT LOOKS OUTSIDE Pig. 10. Fig. 10. A King or Star ventilator cap can be used for the opening on the exterior of the roof. For a house or section of a house 12 feet square, use a ventilator cap 12 inches in diameter. For a house 14 feet square use a 14-inch ventilator. For one 16 feet square use a 16-inch ventilator. For a house 20 feet square use a ventilator 20 inches in diameter. roof ROOSTS AJVD BROODY COOPS The roosts in these houses are always located in the rear of the house. We use 1x2 material for roost poles and round the top edges a trifle. We place the narrow edge of the 1x2 upward. These are nailed to 2x6's, which rest on the droppings platform. The rear roost is about twelve inches from the rear wall, and the roost poles are about fourteen inches apart. They are always built on a level, and never on a slant. Where one roost is higher than another, the hens will try for the top roost. They crowd this roost and cause one another to fall off and often bruise or injure them- selves. The top roost is also several degrees warmer than the lower roost. This is a very common error. Six to ten inches of roosting space should be allowed to each bird, depending upon the breed. The roosts can be raised and fastened to the roof, as shown in Fig. 23, and the droppings easily cleaned from the platform. The roost poles need not be more than six or eight inches above the droppings board. A test of roosts of different sizes was made and this is what was found: Roosts and Sore Footed Hens: In many flocks as high as 50 per cent of the hens have one or more corns on the bottoms of their feet. The average poultryman pays little attention to this till the foot swells to such an extent that it is called Bumble Foot, and the cause usually given is that the hens jump off the roosts onto a hard floor, etc. A closer study of this trouble reveals the fact that it is usually a corn in the same sense that people have corns on their feet and caused in the same manner, viz.: Unnatural friction or pressure. The next question is, where and how does this occur? This question is answered by studying the size and shape of the hen's feet and roosts. —22— Fig. 19. — The roost poles should be made of 1x2 material with the top edges i-ounded. These should always be on the level and be six or eight inches higher than the drop- pings boards. Never place the roosts on a slant, one above the other. Two Pole Roost ror a-O'x/o'-oToolJ'roo/ Pou7trj//~foTzse.. Pig-_ 20. — All roost poles are made of 1x2 -inch material, with the narrow edge rounded so there are no sharp corners, the narrow way of the pole always being turned upward. Supports of 2x6-inch material are used as supports for the roosts. These sup- ports are sawed off at an angle as shown in the illustration so the poles cannot' be shoved back too close to the wall for comfort or welfare of the fowls. —23— The Leghorn's foot averages 3i inches in length from end of back toe to end of middle toe, the back toe and bottom of foot equal about the length of the middle toe, so that the center of gravity is just in front of the bottom of the foot. It is natural for the hen to clasp her toes over the edge of the roost. Now if the roost is more than an inch wide the hen will clasp her toes over the front edge which causes the bottom of her foot to rest on the roost and usually the skin in the bottom of her foot is wrinkled, which produces a corn. Roosts which are only an inch wide permit the toes to reach over, yet let the bottoms of the feet remain free while the center of gravity is in a perpendicular line with the roost. Figure 21. ILLUSTRATION SHOWING CORNS AND CAUSES OF CORNS No. 1. The bottom of a hen's foot, showing corns. No. 2. Shows top of same foot, showing swelled conditions. No. 3. Hen on 1x2 inch roost, showing position of bottoms of feet. No. 4. A hen standing on edge of thin board (one-eighth inch thick) to show the center of gravity. No. 5. Hens standing on lx2-inch roosts, same as in No, 3, showing positions of bottoms of feet. No. 6. Male standing on a 2x4^cftih roost with top edge rounded, showing position of bottoms of feet on wide roosts which produce corns. Roosts made of 2x4-inch turned up on edge with the tops rounded pro duce corns in about 50 per cent of the hens while lx2-inch or blind stop material turned on edge with the edges rounded produces only 3 or 4 per cent corns. On the underneath side of every section of the roost there should be tacked poultry netting. If your roost poles are not so constructed that wire can be tacked on them, you should build a special frame of light ma- terial and cover this with poultry netting. This wire should be about six or eight inches above the droppings board. The purpose of this wire is to keep the fowls out of the droppings when they are off of the roost poles. The droppings fall through the wire onto the boards and they remain there undisturbed and soon dry out. They are not smeared over the boards, which makes them hard to clean. The birds do not get their feet in the droppings and then soil the eggs. In case intestinal worms or other objec- tionable things are passed by the birds which might be a means of spreading disease, the droppings are protected and kept away from the birds. This little device means better sanitation and cleanliness. —24— On the same level of the roosts and at one end of the house you should construct a small wire broody coop with slatted bottom, in which to confine broody hens while breaking them from sitting. (Pig. 22.) This is built from the wall, so that it may be removed and easily cleaned, or not used during seasons when hens are not broody. You can arrange to water and feed hens in the coop, and you will find it a great convenience in your poultry house. If there is a good shade tree in the poultry yard, a broody coop can be built as is described in the lesson on Equipment, etc. This will give the hens more fresh air and give more room in the house. Fig. 22. — The Jail or calaboose. Here broody hens are confined for four days. They are well watered and fed while In this coop, and fhls la a good .device for brealting hem £rom slttlnSi Fig. 23. — The roost raised and fastened with a screw hook and eye to the ceilinff above. This permits the droppings boards to be easily cleaned. DROPPINGS PLATFC'RM AND CEILING Sanitation is a very desirable thing in any poultry house, and it is impossible to feed your poultry under sanitary conditions if they are forced to scratch in litter and eat feed mixed with their own droppings. For this reason we think it is advisable to construct a perfectly tight droppings plat- form under the roosts. (Fig. 25.) If the back wall of the house is six feet high, we place the droppings platform three feet and six inches from the floor. The roosts are six inches above that. This platform preserves the droppings, which are a valuable fretilizer, and it makes frequent cleaning a simple matter. With this system you may place your nests underneath (Fig. 19), and thus use this valuable space for that purpose, and it leaves the wall space free for the use of bins, feed hoppers, drinking pans~and other desirable equipment. We make the droppings platform out of thin or light material, and place the edges so they fit perfectly or else use tongue and grooved lumber, so that they are free from cracks. In a 14-foot house we built the droppings platform in three sections, so it can be easily removed. (Fig. 25.) We nail a cleat to the rear wall and use a 2x4 across the front of the droppings platform for the front and rear to rest on. The 2x4 drops into a groove made for it at each side of the house, so it can be removed. Without a droppings platform our system of ventilation would not be complete. You could not safely have the window sash in the rear of the house below the droppings platform, neither could you have the ventilator under the eaves, for your fowls would be roosting in a draft. These are both absolutely necessary for best results. To avoid drafts where we use the ventilator and the window in the rear of the house, remember that the droppings board protects the fowls from the 'drafts from the window, and the back wall is ceiled and the rafters are also ceiled overhead to a point even with the front edge of the droppings board. (Fig. 25.) Six-inch flooring is used for this purpose. It ceiling boards or flooring are used we recommend nailing them with the groove upward so that it forms a trough to hold liquids used for exterminating mites. Or you may use a cheap plaster board such as is used as a substitute for plastering. The —26— plaster board really makes the roosting quarter warmer. This enables you to have all the ventilators and windows open in summer and the house is filled with fresh air, but no draft ever reaches the fowls. ' Fi&. 24, — All poultry houses of any size, where fowls are kept in thena for any length of time should be provided with roost platforms or droppings boards. These should be built in sections as shown. They can then be easily reni.oved for spraying, cleaning and disinfecting. Also if you wish to brood chickens in such houses, the droppings boards can be removed and later be replaced. Cuioui to c^earstaddin^ Tor e-0'x/0-0~/aol Proof Pozzli-ry ^OLTSS . Fjg 25. — In each 14-foot section of the "lool-proot" house the droppings boards are built in three sections so they can be easily handled by one man. This enables then, to be removed and thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Never nail the roosts, nests, droppings boards or any of the fixtures to the wall. It is important to have these free so they can be removed and the house thoroughly cleaned. ARRANGEMENTS OF NESTS The hens prefer to lay in some secluded spot. Do not put the nest down on the floor or out where it is too light. The hens see the soft shelled eggs and the broken eggs, and they often develop the habit of egg eating. The nests should be simple and constructed so they may be easily removed. In the accompanying illustration, Figs. A and B are considered the best. Figure C is too complicated and expensive. Figure D the nests occupy valuable floor space. Figure B does not provide for nests. Figure F is the most undesirable of all because one roost is higher than another and no droppings board has been provided. Figure G is a wall arrange- ment for trap-nests when they cannot be provided for underneath the drop- —27— < ^ Fig. 26. pings board. Figure H is an open wall nest, but is not desirable because the fowls roost on it and it is not secluded enough. We prefer to place the nests under the droppings platform. This is a convenient place, and the nests do not occupy any of the valuable floor or wall space. The next best place for nests is on the side walls. Bach nest should be not less than twelve inches wide and fourteen inches deep, and twelve to fifteen inches high. A convenient arrangement of nests is shown in Figs. 19 and 23. CONVENIENT HOME-MADE NESTS Ope-n Msst5Btzilt inPatris With JiLLrziAioy lor^^^oi^p of Six /Ves tz Fig. 27. — ^Shows a good open nest, built in pairs. The runway in front of the nests and the hraclcet or frame which supports the nests are huilt separate and apart from the nests. The nests simply slide in on the bracket. Each nest is about 14 inches square. These nests can be made so the runway shown above and the nest shown above will face the back wall. The hens can then enter from the rear. In that case you can leave a six-inch opening in the other side of the nest and tack a cloth over it to protect the hens from the light. The cloth should be tacked at the top only, and raised when gathering eggs. —28— You should have about one open nest to every four hens. The nest should be deep enough to prevent the eggs from rolling out, and should be up off of the floor to prevent the hens from eating the cracked and soft shelled eggs. We build these nests in units of two. When they are built in pairs, they are easily handled by any lady or by the children. We use a wire bottoin in these nests made of what is known as "hardware cloth." By using wire bottoms it makes the nests much lighter and also does not give mites, parasites or bacteria any place to hide. The straw can be re- moved from the nest and the nest held over a flame and every living thing killed without injuring the nest. We also use tops made of one-inch mesh poultry netting. You can use light boards on top if desired, or if your nests are to be placed along the wall you can put a slanting steep top on the nest so the hens will have no place to stand or roost. We build the nests about fourteen inches square, and this gives room for ten nests under the droppings board in a 14-foot house. Keep the nests clean and remove the nesting material quite often. Clotk Curtain t zn Pairs riainsddadc. Fig. Tou can use either wire or wooden tops on the nests. Use solid partitions every 14 inches. The wire bottom gives no place lor mites to hide and makes the nests more sanitary. A TBAP-NEST During the breeding season or during the fall and winter months it is often desirable to trap-nest the breeding stock. This is the only way any breeder can make any real progress in building up a great strain of fowls of any variety. For that reason we herewith give you plans for one of the best trap-nests we have ever used. It can be easily made at home. HOME-MABE TRAP-NEST There are many kinds of home-made trap-nests, but none have proven so satisfactory with us as has this nest. The nests are of good size, 12x18 inches inside measure and twelve to fifteen inches high. A board three inches high is put across the nest twelve inches from the back, which makes a nest twelve inches square, and this board holds the nesting ma- terial in place. The most convenient unit is two nests. The nests should be built in pairs. This makes a nest in which a good large hen can be comfortable either sitting or standing, which is a desirable quality in a trap-nest. This door and trigger can be used on any sort of nest or box you care to attach them to. The body of the nest is built of light material, one-half or five-eighths inch lumber. The trigger and front door should be made of seven-eighths or inch material. Nests which are to be placed under tight droppings plat- form or underneath any object which will prevent the fowls from roosting on them need be covered only with one-inch mesh poultry netting. Other- wise make the top of the nest tight. It is a good idea to leave an inch -29— opening in the back or sides of the nests for ventilation. Also leave an opening of one-fourth of an inch in the back of the nest at the bottom. This prevents the eggs or the nesting material from passing through this open- ing, but at the same time gives you a space through which to scrape the trash and fifth which accumulates in the bottom of any nest. Use a door consisting of frame over which small mesh wire has been tacked. We like the wire door better than a solid wooden door, because of the fact that it affords ample ventilation, the lack of which is one of the glaring faults of the average trap-nest. ^omeMade Trap/Zest Fig. 29. This shows one side of the nest open to receive the hen and the other side closed. Notice the thumb button on the front of the nest for the door to shut against. The inside measurements of each nest are twelve inches high, twelve inches wide and eighteen inches deep. The door is hung on screw eyes. The screw eyes are placed in the upper corners of the door. A gimlet or a small bit is used to make a small hole through each partition at the top of the nest where the door is to be hung. A long wire is passed through these holes and also through the screw hooks at the top of each door and the wire is then bent and fastened at each side of the nest. This one wire allows the screw hooks and the door to swing on it. This acts as a hinge for the doors and allows them to swing freely back and forth. The door must swing absolutely free if the nest is to be a success. This makes a cheap hinge and permits the door to swing freely in all directions. The door is checked by means of screw hooks or thumb buttons. These screw hooks are made by bending down ordinary hooks of the proper size and for purposes of this kind. The buttons are placed on the front of the center partition and act as a stop for both doors. If you should be troubled with the buttons working loose, then use the screw hooks. The trigger can be attached to the side of the nest box by using a long screw, but in every case must work freely. The screw must be set squarely into the side of the box to absolutely prevent the trigger from binding against the side. Free action of the trigger is positively required. The trigger must be set in such a position that when the door is swung inward and rests on the notch it will be invitingly open and at the same time this opening must be small enough to prevent the hen walking into the nest without touching the door with her back. As she steps into the nest and slightly raises the door, the trigger is released and falls backward. The door then swings down and the pointed end of the trigger rises behind it, effectually locking it. —30- See that the nesting material does not interfere with the trigger. Long hay or straw may eventually get piled up in such a manner as to interfere with its action. To remove the hen, simply turn the button or screw hook and swing the door outward, or, it you prefer, turn down the point of the trigger and swing the door in toward the top of the nest, thus permitting the bird to come out that way. Of course the nest can be set in a partition with a back door through which the hen may be removed. ■L^-£Md '^:/'M'^'^^ii Figure 30. Shows both doors closed and the thumb button which prevents the hena from coming out. This thumb button turns and the door opens outward when releasing the hen. •^A!^ jTjg. 31 — This shows the left inside wall of the nest as the nest faces you. It shows the proper location of the trigger and the partition in the nest. From this you may obtain an Idea of the position of the trigger with the door opened and also with it closed. The door is set and rests on the trigger, and the hen touches it with her back as she passes into the nest. The trigger falls, the door closes and the hen is caught. A nail iS driven at A to catch the trigger so that its point locks the door. — 3 — It is necessary to drive a nail into the side of the box in such a manner as to check the falling trigger, when the sharp end rises to a point where it safely locks the door. (See 'letter A, Fig. 31.) The point of the trigger should rest near the bottom of the door when the door is closed. The trig- ger resting on the back of the door prevents any hen on the outside from coming in and the door closing against the button or screw prevents the hen in the nest from relieving herself. —32— THE DRY MASH HOPPER This hopper is built of lumber one-half inch in thickness, so that it will be light and easy to move, but at the same time is substantial. We usually build these hoppers to fit the length of space intended for them. They are placed on a table two feet wide and two feet high. The illustra- tions which are shown herewith give plans for the hopper in detail. Many poultrymen, especially farmers, make the mistake of keeping no ground feed for their hens. For our laying hens these hoppers are kept oi)en at all times. For the breeding stock they are opened each after- _JCE3L Fig. 33. This shows a hopper for dry mash such as we use in our "fool-proof" brooding and laying house. Build them any length desired. The exact dimensions of all parts of the hopper are shown. If you will nail the lower half of the hopper lid solid and hinge the upper half at the bottom and let it drop down, it will hold just that much more feed. noon. Your hens will give much better results if you keep a dry mash in a hopper like this. This hopper will not waste the food if consjtructed as directed. Equal parts by weight of wheat, bran, cornmeal, shorts, ground oats and beef scraps make a good dry mash. Other ingredients may be added, but by all means keep some ground feed in a- hopper similar to this one for the laying hens and the growing young stock. —33— Fig. 34. A dry mash hopper four and one-half feet long, which holds over 150 pounds of dry mash. The opening through which the fowls eat should be four inches in the clear. "Wires are placed across this opening three inches apart to prevent the birds from getting in, and also prevents them from flipping the mash out. This shows the top door open, ready for filling. Fig. 35. Fool-Proof Poultry Houses used in the American Egg-Laying Contest by the Amer- ■ lean Poultry School. FEED BINS Handy devices which save steps and labor are among the most impor- tant essentials to profitable poultry keeping. No poultry house may be said to be really complete which does not provide for storing sufficient scratch grain in the house to last one or two weeks, or even a month. Fig. 36 shows the grain box which is built just beneath each ventilator in all of the "fool- prooif" houses illustrated and described in these lessons. This box holds —34— from one to two hundred pounds of scratch feed. Note that the top is made slanting, so the fowls cannot roost on it. This box is not only a great sav- ing of steps and labor, but renders it more easy to keep an account with the flock, since a hundred pounds of grain or more can be weighed out and charged to them at a time. A cup or measure should be kept in each box, so that there will be no "guess work" about feeding the flock. Fig. 36. — This shows the feed bin on the interior of the house beneath the ventilator These bins can be made any size and should, not be made to hold less than 100 lbs. of grain. Storing your feed in this manner will save the labor of carrying small quan- tities of feed night and morning. The top is slanted and hinged. An opening can be made on the outside of the building so that the box may be filled without going into the house. In that case make the outside opening water tight. You will note that each ventilator has a thin piece of batten or tin tacked along the edge of the interior of each ventilator to keep out rain and snow and force the draft upward. PARTITIONS Where a house is intended for breeding purposes and poultry is to be yarded in front of the building, it is necessary to have partitions in the house to separate the different pens. If the house is to be used for a large flock of laying hens, it will save much labor in caring for the birds and give each fowl a larger space to exercise in if the partitions are just sixteen feet long in a 20-foot house, extending beyond the roosting quarters. This leaves a space of four feet as shown in Pig. 62, for the birds and the attend- ant to use as a passageway, free from any obstruction or doors from one end of the house to the other. These partitions are intended only for the purpose of preventing drafts in the house and to protect the fowls on the roosts. The partitions should be solid, at least a few feet from the rear wall, and the front portion may be poultry netting. Have two feet of solid boards below the wire to prevent male birds from fighting. The doors or open- ings in all partitions should be placed exactly opposite each other. The board partitions should be every fourteen feet in the breeding or farmer's house, and every twenty feet in the long laying house. Plaster board makes a very satisfactory partition. All partitions should strike the center of the shutter ventilator. These ventilators give best results when partitions run to the center of them. Fig. 37. — The partitions in this house may be made of cloth, heavy domestic or canvas. The studs can be put in and, instead of using lumber, you can often cheapen it by using cloth and coating it with "Tector," sold by the Pitts- burgh Plate Glass Com- pany. The back, next to the roost, is boarded up or covered as mentioned above. This prevents drafts near the roosts. The door and the front portion of the partition can be cov- ered with wire as shown. We board all partitions up high enough so that male birds will not be tempted to fight and injure one an- other. Perspective o/ Jbr 8-0'x/0-0%olProo/PouUri/}fouse ZTf peiujcen t?Te.pcs.rts of $o5 (^OUTH) Fig, 45. — Shows openings for ventilator, feed bin, windows and exit. No more simple, inexpensive, convenient or satisfactory poultry house can be built than this one for use as a farmer's breeding house or for use on a city lot. Where the house is intended for a small flock on a city lot, we would recommend that it be built in a single section 8x10 or 12 or 14 feet square. For farm use, build it only in sections 14 feet square, and build one or as many sections as you need to accommodate your flock. Avoid all the fencing you possibly can and give your flock free range if possible. If one section of the house is used on a city lot, then build a small double yard like that described in another portion of this book, and confine ■R.tA'R. ELEVATION (j^OKTH") Fig. 46, —44— your poultry so they will not prove a nuisance to your neighbors or de- stroy your own garden. Bill of NailB for Farmer's Fool-Proof Poultry Iloutee 14x28 6 lbs. 16p. common nails. 4 lbs. 8p. finish nails 25 lbs. 8p. common nails 2 lbs. Gp. finish nails 8 lbs. 6p. common nails 1 lb. 3p. common nails BiU of^ Hardware for Farmer's Fool-Proof Poultry House 14x28 m -u! -- *_ ,__ ^ g gpj.jj^g window bolts for lower sash 1 pr. double swing hinges for partition doors 30 feet of poultry netting, 1-in. mesh, 28 in. wide windows. 1/^ dozen hooks and eyes 2 pr. 5-in. T-hinges for main doors 2 hooks and staples for same 3 prs. wrought butts, 2x2, for back ven- tilator 4 pairs wrought butts, 2x2, for small back door 4 pairs wrought butts, 2V^x2, for top sash Fig. 47. Fool-Proof laying house 100 feet long on the Experiment Station of the American Poultry School. We keep the top ventilator open about 2 inches, even in winter months. The circulation of air will help to keep the house dry. Fig. 48. — Is a cross section of the Quisenberry "Fool-Proof" Poultry House. M is a roost pole. O is droppings platform, Q is the nest underneath, L is the back ventilator, IT is the bin for the grain, S and T are the front ventilators. —45— ■3 tS cS «£■;: ■a u u u (0 1) (D >> > o o o ■o ai <3 . 5 -a o o « O 0) « o 0) ci ^ ■ s 0) 3 rt 5 Oi c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c (5 S E SS E P^ ^ iln ilH ^ PU hn hn Ph (^ tn f^ S E Ph "Ph eocc CD OO CO W-O ^ i-» iH Cq rH "-I coco M I I I 00 l^ ^ t- C<} ^ 00 ^ ^ ^ ^ ?D W t>»l^ "^ cceo I I eo coco eococo coeo I II III I I .^^ O 05 N 00 '^ Lfl ^ ftCM : :« : ; ■ .c ■n ■^ ra • nj S-^ AJ CH-O ri - oj^K^m 3 3 5 3-S 3 U OuO O o a c as bo bo 0) V QJ Q> V a^ QJi)a)aj ajojojojajaji- acccccccc ccccccc EESESSiii EEEEEEiiiEiii EEEEEEE ■^■*-*-*-*sdMrj"-^'*l<-*cDTjHeo-^-# eg CD CD X X X X X X X 0>H egeqcq-*eqoiOoegegirtegirtcgTH-^-*-*cgoocgeDtiHU5cgegcg-*w>*'cg eg^^oOTi-cDCDt-T-tT tH iHtH con ■* W I :;2 ^- ■a , c bo 3 5 bog • CO ".tl o o ^rt il 3 o o fqfe 2 ■- o c " (i> oj i; ri ctf ■ o " t- . ©■? o o o S'O 02 c^ 0) P< O +J p .TO ,a U ui Ul o '■» It -; c ao ? 3.5, ijw ^ '-• mCt, .5 O fe P P. +j +j r -^ "^ o o o o 5 u^r- t, d o OrS o 3 3 -46- MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE FLOORS The following material is required in the construction of a concrete floor and foundation for a "fool-proof" house 14x14 feet: 1. Six loads or yards of cinders or rock or part of each. 2. Five yards of gravel and sand. Prices vary and farmers can often get creek gravel and sand simply for the hauling. 3. Seventeen sacks of cement. TKCb\W%Mh% ^"f PwAt 1 n x'-a»»3;t.t.~':r--T' -c-'^.-. ,7,2"c«Mt'l\'vT»*^\ Pig. 49. Courtesy of the American Poultry Journal. Fig. 1 shows how an air-tight eave can be made at .the rear of the house. Fig. 2 shows how the eaves can be blocked at the sides of the roof to make the ends tight. Pigs. 4 and 5 show the foundations and sills. The foundation should be four inches thick, and a foot above the ground and a foot in the ground. 4. It should require one man not over thirty-six hours to huild a 14x14 floor and foundation, or three men twelve hours each. 5. The four 14-foot boards around the foundation, which make the form to hold the cement and filler in place, can be used as sheeting for the roof. FOOL-PROOF 8x10 COLONY HOUSE This house is designed and used largely for a city lot, or as a small breeding house, or for brooding small flocks. We illustrate it here in detail, for the reason that this same design, the same plan and the same principle of ventilation and arrangement can be used with equal success to the larger types, such as 10x12, 12x12, 14x14 or 20x20-foot sections. Fig. 50. This is No. 50 and 51. They are both for the same purpose. No. 51 is to show the double floor supports at the south and north edges of the floor where it is notched around the 2x4-inch members of the form so that the floor will have no chance to split. The bottom members here are 2x6-inch timbers forming a rectangle with a center member of the same. Six 2x4-inch floor joists, each 8 feet long are then secured across the 8-foot dimensions the two outside ones set in from the edge of the bottom 2x6-inch member so the upright 2x4-inch membei's will come flush with the 2x6-inch. These 2x4's are all laid and secured in place, then the upright members are placed, using measures shown by Nos. 52 and 53, then short pieces are cut to fit in between the upright members and floor joist, as shown in No. 51. A double row for the north and south edges of the floor to support both edges of the first floor board which must be notched around the uprights. Use a spirit level to set not only the uprights but the ground members also. Pig. 51. This illustration is designed to show clealrly the relation of all members at the bottom so that a proper start may be made and preclude tearing down to correct the start. The upright members that form the sides and ends may be placed after the 2x6-inch bottom members have been placed —47— and leveled up, and the roof members may be placed, then the floor joists are placed and the double row of 2x4-lnch pieces are cut and fit between floor joist and uprights as shown, making a rigid arrangement and providing means to prevent the outside edge floor board from splitting where they are cut to go around the uprights. It is necessary to prevent the floor from breaking at these places to provide a rat proof floor. Fig. 52. The spacing of the front, or south side, of the house is here shown by which the proper position of windows, ventilator and exit doors are had. The members should be first cut to size and the ones 22 inches apart should be secured to this cross member before setting up so as to nail the cross members through the uprights to make a good job. Also the two middle members that are here shown, 36 inches apart, should be secured to the uprights before setting in, for the same reason their proper alignment can be kept, because you will not need to hold the cross pieces by hand while neiling them home. The four corner members with their top .stringers and roof rafters can be set up and braed as a first step, then the intermediate members introduced snugly and in pairs with their cross members in place. Fig. 53. This end 'elevation suits both the east and west ends of the house and dimensions are shown for the principal members. Those lengths not given are gotten by fitting the two outside supports by measure given while all uprights are being placed, then after the roof supports are placed, place the end supports at this bottom marking under the end roof support for both length and bevel, to make a good fit. For position of end members, measures for which are not given, they should be equally spaced between members whose positions are shown by measure. -9^6i SFqufd^^i ices. etuiet. rzy/oor 3ses a guide to what is to be in the com- rpfcnr, whll /,f ^^t ^^- ''?'"^^'' °^ " ^^'^ ^^^^ Constantly before him the llf ?^,, « member is placed where it is and any special attention they need, and the final positions of everything within the house. Here the venti- lator ot the rear walls is clearly shown with relation to the four air pas- sages to the one ventilator door at the rear of and well up under the eaves, this ventilator door is again shown in No. 57 with measures shown foe its placement and size. The door in the center partition may be hinged to the rear and swing th'e same as the outside doors. We really prefer it that way Note the position of all ventilators, hoppers, water pans, feed bins, roosts and nests. These can be located elsewhere if necessary to meet your particular requirements. Fig. 55. This illustration is particularly needful to understaind the 'en- tire scheme of this ventilator system construction and is illustrated as a cross section at A A of No. 59. Here measures for placing the nest sup- ports are given as well as measures for the ventilators so that a correct rela- tion may be maintained between the nests and the space they occupy in the space to be ventilated. This section will aid in framing the house so no cut- ting or changing need be made to provide for all features of the ventilator system, especially when kept in mind together with the other illustrations of the various sections of this 8xlO-foot hous'e. Note the location of the nests feed bin, the ventilators and the manner in which the air circulates in the house. 5- 0'x/0'0"lbol Proof ^ Poult j::^/ Jfouse. JSectzonaZ ^Sndl^leuatTon. . Fig. 55. —51— 8- o'kW- OToolT^rvof In terior- ^rr-ari^ement- With Ibriz^jon 7fe?776ve 4) V) B .S .S .S B SEE Ei^i flnpLH^Pn i-qoto woo ooo <=>eD oo (oeoocg N cq ca w iH M eg WMtHCOOXM oo ^■3 ■ ' a- t. 0) a> .r-, c m 2 m w o o-* 3S3°I§ PnOOfRpqW is C bo '-3 C -33 ^ b oo tmbi} a a H tfftM mm J3 '3 o ■ 3 O .• 0] w n ■2 '2 'Si? o o o 5 J=a.3g S.H £■" '3'3'3 o mSStf ss ^ s P^C'^P^P^ C^IIM-^O iH cocoNcg J23S 3 c«o EC'S ,3C Q> t- te h — < CO rt ih'*-' o o o ^p C o o o ■U O irf rf c>q c! rt oa aj-MO ip^ ■(-» ^ 3 o X ■^- -TO'™ '-^ 0,3^ Bt.3a^is u o ■t-J ^+J o "o.Sf, ci - S t- 1- ^ mj2" 6 ,. . . tS 3 3 3 _C 3 a o o Iss coo O O CJ ..S 3 3 C 1 O o ^1 c^ ;h t> rHi-liHCg Fig. 59. This front elevation of the 8xl0-foot house shows the correct arrangement of hinges for windows and exit doors as well as the means of holding windows open when used for ventilators ; also the relative position of slatted ventilator and how to frame around the several openings to make them correctly without waste of material or needless labor. The outside cov- ering of the house is shown to go entirely over the frame work from the ground up and make a rat proof arrangement. 8-0x10-0 Tool Proof PouZtri/^ Mbizse T>ont i:Zevatzon. Fig. 59. THE QUISENBERRY POOL-PROOF LAYING HOUSE, 20x100 FT. One common mistake on many commercial egg farms is that of keep- ing laying hens in too small flocks, thereby greatly increasing the ex- pense of caring for the fowls. Labor is one of the most important items which must be taken into consideration if commercial poultry farms are to be made to pay a profit. Many large poultry farms have failed in the past because the amount of labor required in caring for the birds — feeding, watering, cleaning houses, gathering eggs, opening many doors and gates, carrying water to many small flocks of only a few birds each, and the great expense of keeping up numerous fences, etc., used with such systems robbed those farms of all their profits. With the fool-proof laying house and the system here recommended one man can easily care for 2,000, 3,000 or more laying hens. This house has solved the problem of labor, convenience and good health, and we heartily recommend its adop- tion to all who expect to establish commercial egg farms. This house is in- tended only for use where fowls are kept in large flocks and where they can be given plenty of range. —55— The fool-proof laying house here illustrated and described Is one hundred feet long and twenty feet wide, eight feet high in front and five feet high in the rear. The arrangement of the windows and ventilators Is exactly the same as in the fool-proof breeding house, except that each section is twenty feet long instead of fourteen feet. On the interior of this house a solid board partition extends from the back wall to within four feet of the front. This leaves space of four feet between the partition and the front wall which is always open, there- by giving each hen access to a house 100x20 feet. This gives each hen more room and insures more ex'ercise, more eggs, and a higher per cent of fertility. By having but few doors to' open, by having the feed stored in the house in bins and hoppers in liberal quantities, and by having the water piped into the house the attendant can easily care for a large num- ber of hens. In one such house you can easily keep 500 or 600 Leghorn liens or at least 500 Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Orpingtons, Reds, or larger varieties. Sixteen-foot solid partitions must be used to every 20-foot section of this house, leaving a space of four feet free from doors or any obstruction. The bins for grain can be placed beneath the front ventilators as in the fool-proof breeding house. The dry mash hoppers may be placed against the partitions, also the table for drinking pans, etc. Roosts, nests, droppings boards, rear ventilators and windows can be arranged as in the fool-proof breeding house. The general plan and construction of the house is exactly the same in both cases. If you do not care to keep as many laying hens as this house provides for, you can build two, three or four sections of this house, depending upon the number you ex- pect to keep. We do not recommend that more than 500 or 600 hens Wis. 60. — Tamping in cinders and roclts before the concrete and cinders are used for filler and drainage, in the fool-proof laying house for 500 hens. —56- is laid. The rocks Foundation and floor such as are used be kept in one house. If you desire to keep 2,000 laying hens, then build about four of these houses, allowing not less than two acres of ground to each house. More is to be preferred. If you keep 10,000 laying hens, use twenty of the fool-proof laying houses. The amount of yard space used for each house depends upon the nature of the soil sur- rounding same. We prefer sandy, well drained soil on which to locate houses for large flocks of layers. Avoid all the fencing possible. If the houses are placed a reasonable distance apart, the flocks will not mix, even if you have no fencing. Units of 500 laying hens kept in these fool-proof laying houses is another step which insures the success of more commercial egg farms if the other conditions are right. Hardware Bill 50 lbs. 16d common nails 125 lbs. Sd common nails 20 lbs. 8d casing nails 15 lbs. 6d casing nails 10 lbs. 3d common nails 10 lbs. wire staples 4 pairs l%xli^ in. wrought butts- small doors 2 pairs 4-in. T hinges — for windos. 10 pairs 1^-in. wrought butts — for win- dows 8 pairs 2x2-in, wrought butts — for venti- lators in back 30 spring window bolts — for windows 24 hooks and eyes, 2-in. long — for all open- ings 2 door clasps, 6-in. — for main doors. We do not give prices or costs for the reason that these vary so greatly in different localities. Any estimates which we might make would be of little or no value for this reason. If a board floor or a concrete floor is desired, you can easily deter- mine the cost of such floor in your own community. We advise the use of some kind of a floor. If you use boards get the floor up off of the ground eighteen inches or two feet. If you use concrete, provide plenty of rocks, gravel and cinders under the floor for drainage. Fig. 61. — Completing the floor of a 100-ft. fool-proof laying house. A shows the water pipes. B shows the bolts placed in the concrete foundation to bolt the sill to the foundation. -fO^--' Q'-O- —58- c?? '2*J I I 1 I I TO^ CqrHCQi-trH " (Mm 001^"^ CO ^■^■^ CO CO CO CO ,H ii'^-t'^^ ', -■a ■ CO c m 3 I d. TS C ft d o tn kh :3 (-. ."1:1 e o a) gj3 " o „ £ '^'3 - ti 1- O 3 ' "33 "330«S ^ ■ rH " S 3 m 1' ^ M " O O "D'g 0) C rf HJ OJ w „ 3

■" MlU)„N ID'S OJ 3 3 O HJ 3 2, (1) a) g in o d .2 "j3 » (t ™ T! ■»-> 4-> (U CI 3 3 3 3jS d-u OOOOajHCDCD0OCCi^i-l.H'*-fTf iHrHi-HiHiHiHCQi-l^rHiHi-HiHr-l f^ fl4 ^ pin 0^ (1( Ph Ph PL| WOfMOCDCOCDCDCD ■ca-; 3 -^ o o rrt 13 "o :^ , _* ft p, 33'a'3 5aS"' ID M+j^j 3'2 • 0.3 3 3 •ai; o oo'ai: 30 dt: 3^t-t-oi3dOOQjcd HM|i,|i,CQHtffitfWPH a . a ■ 3L ftim ft 3 fim o'o . oj 3 m -.3 3 o "if »" "?|3 S m d ftf aj rf P i>c3t-aic-0 CO m X n 00 W) c c o o ^.s . S CO B S Q CO cd ■ - cS coco CO cgcg -r-t COCOCO COCOCO CO III III I CDOO-^COOl 00 Tt< 00 CO «0 iH rW -rt" ffJ M CJ 00 rH "* ^ ,-H,-(r-lrH CM (MM !> rH i-( CO 00 '^ COCO CO COCOCO COCOCO CO II I I I I I I I t U t~i T- CO in irt o os eg eg ■* c- -* Dh w ■"> CO- ■ ■ CO o ■ m teTJ S ■a 3 . 3 3 3 "' 3 O -OOO O !1h Oh fl^ 0, Ph fm^ Oh 1^ &H Cm CLh Ph Clh &H 0^ Cm 1:^4 Oh i^ CMCMP^PnCLiCMili C^ CM CM ft CL, Ph Cm CM Ph CM CM CM CM "* -Tf ■<**"* to eg T f" •*■ CD -^ 00 ■* -; to CD CO -^ to -^ ^ j-O«0tD tD-*-*(M"^ cDcoee'tfTt'-^-^Tj-Tt'-^-^-^eDtDeotDCDcoiXiOO C>qC>qi?< « >^ X f-l !-! >i X X ^ X i< X rH i-l (N iH !M iH iH tH t-( iH i-l iH iH t-( M .H (M iH i-( CQ Ot-I O a iHiHWCvIirS-^rHr t^- tH r-( rH ■* M CD "m" ?? " fefq ■005 cj o o Oj tH C^ r; CO m *- ^ " OJ OJ TStw 3 3 Oi ED cij till coc [0 CO o tmlir)' E- aj (u s r;;5n-. OJ C3 oa >!>feUCD ' -a i <0 3 en boa. c ^ a .rt CO " a *j ax to o u o t- c^i o QMrt c« CO o .5 c I m OJ c ci>-' O o I KM ~tH mWiMrHOOT-H r-tr-teOOOCOCCWr '-■^ M'02 O hn*^ a c S O r-<' ■ » *i-^:^^ JBJKmH' ■ w^mL^mi WKBKKSV'-' II __. — . __ — ^Hi -'■":-'] MBOBg^i '. 1 K- ••■■■■■ Pig. 74. — A rear view of* the Quisenberry fool-proof colony house. Shows the ven- tilator open in the rear. This makes the house much cooler in summer. This m,ust be closed and made tight in winter. Fig. 75, The Fool-Proof Colony Houses as used in the National Egg-Laying Contest. — 6S— farmer or farm hand who can use a hammer and saw can hulld one of these simple houses in a short while. You will find them a great con- venience. It is the general concensus of opinion of those who have tried them that there is no better proportioned, better ventilated or more satisfactory colony house in existence than the Quisenberry Fool-Proof Colony House. When we first place the baby chicks under the hovers in this house we confine them to the house for two or three days, or longer if neces- sary, until the chicks learn to eat and drink and know the way to and from the hover. We also cover the floor with a fine straw litter or clover chaff and sprinkle a little sand or grit upon the floor. When we decide to let them see a little of the outside world, we drive down a few stakes and place a few feet of one or two-foot poultry netting, one-inch mesh, around a small space in front of the house. This gives them a little yard to use for a few days only, until they learn the way in and out of the house. Then the little temporary fence is removed, the chicks have free range and come back here to roost at night and for protection from the storms. There is no better place to keep a few of these houses than in a cornfield or in a patch of sweet corn near the orchard or garden. The corn furnishes plenty of shade, and the poultry find lots of bugs and worms, besides having clean fresh ground over which to run. The young stock in a cornfield grows strong, husky and vigorous. You can put a lustre on their plumage and get a growth here that you can get in no other way. One or more fool-proof colony houses will prove a good in- vestment for any poultry raiser or farmer. Fig. 76. Thia shows the partition in the center of the house and movable hovers used on each side for brooding young chicks. Three such hovers could be used in this house. —69— < U V III 0>w U p. c fil o C •a c to > cd ■n ^ a o ^5 ^^ t- ^ O Cv] -^ cs CO -ICOr CO COco IM N(M OO 00 ^ O (D ,-H C^< <^1 OOOOCD t- COCO 00 oo 3 pi :3 3 n 03 . O wo "O ^ C M C 2S d S S .£ .S .£ 5 S SB.S .5 .S .S .5 S S S (oeocQ-* oo ■»*'-<*< -^p «o -^ >* 1H t. V be c PR o o u u 4-1 tHvo r/f A^Mi ef Mrootiy Co dps Ato^r. ^ m±. I'lntfiirn-.s. -*' / 7^9nnotM Hopptf ^ ^ r .^y^ i* ' 1 .? y " ■ " " " Fig. 79 —73- The height of this building from the foundation to the eaves, ceiling or floor is seven feet. The distance from the floor of the second story to the highest point of the gable is nine feet. Fig No. 80 shows the east side of the house with part of roof and part of wall cut away, to illustrate the droppings board arrangement as well as the frame work. It also shows three STAR OR KING ventilators on gable for the removal of all foul air, as it passes up through the slat- ted straw loft shown in cut No. 81, and, also, for the removal of heat from upper story during summer months. These ventilators should be placed as per drawing, about 12 feet from each end of gable, owing to the fact that all ventilation on the lower floor enters from practically all sides of the house and should, therefore, be attracted towards the center of the house for outlet as much as possible, as this encourages the removal of all foul fumes more effectively by compelling the air to pass over entire lower floor. You will please make note of the outside air inlet as shown in the foundation, beneath the droppings boards and roosts. You will note, also, the 8x8-inch .ventilator box or tube as shown in Figure No. 80 which leads from the main ventilator to within 12 or 14 inches of the droppings boards. You will note that the top of this ventilator tube is cut at an angle of about 45 degrees. Over this opening is placed poultry xsS^^ Jfopp » r Op* Hi rt^F \U-rJ- A-, .^0AJ__l 1 /'t€d /r.Miiji £i, /"X 3" St-rips 3' Af^rt for Str^i^- LOft —75- netting to keep anything from passing into the house through this open- ing, and, being cut at this angle, it prevents the fowls from roosting on same. Fig. No. 81 shows the upper floor plan. The slatted straw loft is part- ly cut away on each side. This slatted ceiling reaches from the outside wall to the floor of the feed mixing and storing room on upper floor and is 20 feet in width on each side. About 4 to 6 inches of straw should' be used on ceiling floor. The floor can be covered with poultry netting, or lx4's to support the straw. The openings to the large hopper are shown as being 2 feet by 2 feet. They should be covered with a trap-door, flush with floor, so that the entire floor can be used without obstruction. These openings are cut out after the floor has been laid, so that there remains a perfectly tight floor over the remainder of the hopper. Bins can be arranged to suit the occasion, but I suggest that they be placed close to the walls to insure support from below, and so that it will not take up too much room. They must not be so high that they obstruct the air from passing through to the gable ventilators. Ample room must be allowed above each bin — say 2 feet — for this purpose. Fig. 85. Fig. 85. This plan of the lower floor of the 48x60 Fool Proof Poultry House should be observed in conjunction with the entire frame work illustration to clearly understand the placement by measure of all main sup- ports, as well as the intermediate framing for windows, doors and ventilators. Here is shown the placement of all appurtenances within the building that are located on the first floor, with their relation to the main supports of the building and from it all open areas may be accounted for. This view is es- pecially useful when laying out the foundation and should be observed in connection with the foundation work. Fig. 86. The second floor of the 48x60 Fool-Proof Poultry House, having feed bins, feed bin doors and an opening for a floating staircase, all of which have relation to main supports in a manner to be clear of them, to be built around them or be attached to them must be clearly understood. Hence, this view is prepared which provides clearly for the place of the stairs, clear —76— of all supports, the mammoth feed bin of the first floor ig built around one main support and is attached to another and has two filling doors in the floor of the upper floor, while the scratch 'feed bins are supported by one main member and the shoots drawn from them are attached to the same, all in such manner that a heavy load carried by these bins is oared for by the method illustrated, that uses a small amount of material compared to the duties of the bins. The ventilator flooring is here shown over the entire space outside the center storage floor and the main supports from which to begin laying these floors as well as the center solid floor. SOLID FLOOR poON V ;i2i bii VENTILATOR FLOOR u ^a'ox eo'-o" FOOL proof poultry COpy/^/GHT, IS2Z /f»eff/c^/V POOL Tf?r SCHOOL Fig. 86. Fig. 87. This parallel perspective illustration of the 48x60 Fool- proof Poultry House is expected to more clearly illustrate the manner of con- struction when observed in conjunction with the same kind of illustration of the frame work of the building together with the enlarged detailed drawings of the bins, water tables, etc. The grating for the balance weight, for the float- ing stair case as shown back of the last window at the right of the house is to keep the weight off the main floor by carrying cables over strong shelve pulleys in the upper floor. This illustration, when observed, together with No. 85, will show clearly just where all appurtenances are placed. It will be clearly noticed that the main thought uppermost in all the 48x60 house illustrations are the main supports of the building as considered apart from providing for the down spouts and floating stairs for the upper floor. SPECIFICATIONS FOR WINDOW ARRANGEMENT Fig. No. 82 shows the plan for the arrangement of the windows. You will note a 2x2-inch window bar bolted across the interior of the sash supports in such a manner that in grasping this bar (2"x2"), you not only open this window, but open all windows that are attached to this same bar. One-fourth-inch bolts are used to bolt the 2"x2" bar to the l"x3" piece which extends out to the sash, and is there attached to the sash by a 2%x2-inch hinge. These hinges are placed on the underneath —77- side of the lx3-inch, and not on top. On the upper sash they are placed the same way and have to be cut into the outside sash. A 10-penny nail is driven into the upper edge of the top sash in the center, onto which the holes in the l"x3" piece fit. A bar of some sort (2x2-inch) could easily be nailed onto the inside of the 2"x4" dimension material across the en- tire unit of windows and the nail driven therein to save the window, al- though the sash in itself is strong enough to sustain the weight of thte upper sash. These units of three or four windows shown are located on the east and west sides of the 4 8x6 0-foot poultry house and the dimen- sion material shown is therefore only seven feet high. The windows are shown attached directly onto the plate (double plate) whereon rest the rafters. Doing this brings the windows up higher off the floor and throws the light and suns rays further back into the house. No window frames of any sort are used, the sash being swung directly onto the 2"x4". Fig. No. 83 is an end sectional view of the same scheme, and shows the manner in which the bar and lx3-inch piece swings in and out during operation. These lx3-inch pieces are 1 foot 3 inches long, and the length of the 2x2-inch bars are determined by the number of sash swung from that particular bar. A larger nail than a 10-penny nail can be used on the lever as it is driven directly Into the 2x4-inch sill. Trouble may be experienced with the birds roosting on these bars, and in this case do not use the bar but fasten each window separate. Fig. No. 84 shows a small detail of the lower sash swung half-way open with the nail in the center hole. This nail is driven on a slope, as per cut, so that it will easily enter the holes in the Ix 3-inch props. This shows the bar for raising and lowering the windows; it shows the supports for holding the windows out in place; it illustrates the large nail driven into proper position, so that the holes which are bored in this support can be dropped down over the nail and the window held open at any height de- sired. You should have several holes bored in these lx3-inch supports, so that the windows can be raised and lowered to any degree that you may wish them. SPECIFICATIONS OF DOUBLE TWO-STORY DRY MASH HOPPER Fig. No. 88. In constructing this hopper I would advise that you pro- ceed as follows in order to facilitate construction as much as possible: First, attach 2x4 (b) to the 2x8 joist of the upper floor extending down to the lower floor. These 2x4's are ten in number. Onto these are then nailed the 2x4 (d) and (c). At the ends are then nailed the 1x12 boards (a), four in number, and extending from the upper floor to the 2x4 (c). Onto these boards and simultaneously the 2x4 (6) are then nailed the 2x4 (e) and (f). Onto the 2x4 (e) and (f) are then nailed the boards (flooring), (k) and (n). The boards nailed onto (f) can be attached thereto with hooks and eyes in place of nails, enabling one to more easily clean out the lower trough if so desired. However, just previous to putting (f) into place, the 1x6 board supporting the center of sheet-iron troughs should be nailed into place, and the sheet-iron tacked into place. This also necessitates nailing 1x4 (y) onto the uprights (b), because the outside edge of the troughs are tacked thereto. When this is done, then proceed to nail (f) on; also, the 2-inch strips onto the edge of troughs and walk boards onto (d) and (c) ; (q) represents the sheet- iron troughs. Great caution should be exercised in cutting (n) and (k), to assure getting more or less than a 2 1/2 -inch throat between the lower edge of (n) and bottom of trough (q), and the lower edge of (k) comes to within 3 inches of the 2x4 (d). If this is not done waste of mash will occur or it will clog. (W) represents the throat of hopper from above. (S) represents upper walk-board while (t) represents the lower one. Two rows of fowls can stand on these when-eating from the hopper; therefore you get double the capacity from each hopper. This hopper is illustrated more in detail in Lesson 5. IMPORTANT FACTS I should remind you of the fact that there are 24 laying nests under each set of droppings boards, and an additional 24 nests in each 30x40- —79— foot unit arranged underneath the broody coops, as illustrated in cut No. 79. These nests should not be less than 2 feet off the floor, so that the birds can pass underneath. The droppings boards are 3 feet 3 inches above the floor, permitting the light to pass far to the rear from all sides. I have drawn the sub-vent in solid black, so that it emphasizes this feature more clearly. This sub-air-inlet tuba is 12 inches in diameter, and CHI '// // //// /// y//yy^^// A /T/flflf .-Z. « Or Cinders. Jl. ^kf^-^u:H>^mm,^^^^mmmm^ Fig. B. — Front View of Utah Colony House. For farm use, the portable house is coming into more general use. In this house the young chicks can be placed when they emerge from the shell, started near the house where it is convenient to give them the proper attention, and then later, when the heat can be taken away and when they require feed less often, they can be carried to the edge of the corn field or to some place that will give them range and opportunity to help make their own way. This will give them ample exercise to harden their flesh and make their coats glossy and tight fitting. But, with the man who wishes something else besides show room quali- ties, health is not the only consideration. He must get eggs to pay for the feed, and, therefore, study should be made to gi\e them, as nearly as pos- sible, conditions that approach the range, and the type of housing that will give health and vitality, keep the birds happy, contented and busy. KANSAS COLONY HOUSE Fig. 1 illustrates the portable colony houses used by Prof. Lippincott, of the Kansas Agricultural College. When the curtains are taken down during the summer, the front is almost entirely open. This house is well adapted to southern conditions. There is no necessity of using the cur- tains at all except as a protection from blowing rains when they could be called into use. The windows extend from the roof almost to the floor. This has a shed roof and is the same shape and size as the Fool Proof Col- ony House. The wire mesh covering the windows is fastened to the outside of the studding before either siding or casing is placed. The casings for the door, windows, and- side are placed over the sidings. If the ventilators were so arranged as to give the wind an upward drive, ventilators could be used where the sash are. —12— Fig'. 1. — Kansas Colony Houss OREGON COLONY HOUSE Fig. 3. The house used by Prof. Dryden, Corvallis, Oregon, also, is on runners and can be moved by hitching a team to it. This house can be used in any mild climate. Curtains can be let down inside the wire front to protect the fowls from a storm. There are no windows in this Fig. 3. — Oregon Colony House —13— house. The roosts can be put in the back end and the fowls kept some distance from the front. In any poultry house similar to this style roof it is usually best to have the entrance in the gable end of the house. This is a very simple and cheap house, suitable for mild climates. Prof. Dryden suggests changes in this house, as follows: "I may say that we are new testing a modified style of this house. We are making it still more open, having the side instead of the end open So far it looks as though it is an improvement. The open end house, how- ever, has given good results, and it is in that house that we have secured our high egg records." OWEN FARMS COLONY HOUSE Owon Farms use and recommend an 8x8 ft. colony house for twelve laying hens or a breeding pen. The house is open front and, in a cold climate, if a male were placed in one of these houses he might get his Fig. 53 — Owens Farm Colony House comb frozen, if not given some protection. The house is 7 ft. high from the floor to the peak and is 2i feet high at the corners. The roost is hung from the rafters in the rear. You can see the nests in the farther left hand corner. This house may also be used for growing stock. U. S. GOVERNMENT COLONY HOUSE Fig. 4 represents the colony house in use by Prof. Harry Lamon at the Government Poultry Farm at Beltsville, Md. In illustrating several types, you can see the variety of opinions as to the best opening to be used in front. This house is well adapted to being moved, which is a decided advantage, as they need to be shifted often in the summer work. The ven- tilator, which is raised, protects the house from blowing rains and storms. This can be closed in winter. There is a window and an exit in each half of the house so that a partition may be put in the center, in case you wish to use the house for two pens or ages ofgrowing chicks, or for two pens of breeding stock. Temporary roosts and nests may be placed in all of these colony houses, if desired. —14— Fig. 4. — Government Colony House OHIO COLONY HOUSE Fig. S is the colony house used by Prof. Jacoby, of the Ohio Experi- ment Station. We believe, as a rule, these should have the door in the end Pig. 5. — Ohio Colony Hous —IS— of the house. The birds are not so apt to lie frightened as they can shift to one corner to better advantage as you approach. It has been our ex- perience that the glass in the front are broken much more often when the door is in the front of the house. This shows that the birds are more often frightened when the opening is in front than when it is in the end. And then, too, the doors will blow back and forth and break a window, if in the front of the house, especially if they are in the center of the front. The proper place for a door in a shed roof colony house is in the end. The siding material and method of construction is good, showing every indica- tion of being substantially built. In brooding chicks, if you expect to use the portable hovers, a colony house should be large enough to accommodate two hovers. If you plan to use a brooder stove and carry as many as five hundred to the flock you will be compelled to build a larger house, or pull two of the colony hom'es together and join them end to end, then put in a runway connecting tiiem. This gives one room for the stove and one in which the chicks can eat and scratch and get away from the heat. A house 10x20 or 12x24 in size, with a partition in the center, will accommodate one stove of five hundred capac- ity until they are large enough to begin the work of culling them out. Many of the male birds should be placed on the market and you may, even then, be compelled to divide the flock if you have had good success in rearing the chicks. You must not crowd the growing stock, but allow them plenty of room, both in and out of tlje house. The growing stock can be kept right in these houses until maturity, and during the laying period if they are needed for that purpose. You then get. the use of them the year around. UNIQUE POULTRY PLANT OF J. V. McCONNELL, GARDEN GROVE, CALIF. . . --_ . Fig, 61 — Consists of "knock down" houses and removable fences. The sixteen houses, S and 6, shown in this picture, are held together with hooks and eyes and can be taken down on a moment's notice and moved to any other location. The fences are built in panels and they also, are held to- gether with strong hooks and eyes. In other words, this entire plant, houses, fences and nest-boxes can be folded up in a half day's time by two men and set to one side so that a horse plow can be used in turning over the soil and perhaps planting it to some quick-growing, "purifying" crop Fig. 67. — Courtesy of Reliable Poultry Journal —16— like barley, rye or oats. Kale is shown growing outside the outer fences. Kale or other green food is grown also in the central space. The attendant makes three trips in caring for the fowls kept on this plant. Entering through a lane that comes from the feed house at the right, he covers the small inner circle, placing wet or dry mash in the- troughs shown at the inner, shorter end of each of the sixteen yards. To gather the eggs he starts at the same lane and makes the circuit of gates located in the divi- sion fences, just at the rear of the line of houses. For feeding kale (that grown outside the outer fences) he makes the long circuit, picking off the lower leaves of each plant and throwing them over the fences into the yards. We recommend this arrangement to fancier-breeders, especially on soil that is liable to get "sick" or become foul. The plan is attractive, economical and safe. CORNELL "A" SHAPED COLONY HOUSE Construction details of the improved New York State Gasoline heated colony brooder-house, as described by them in Bulletin 277, is as follows : "The 'A' type of house is eight feet square, inside floor measure, has 24-inch side walls, and is six feet and six inches from top of floor to top of ridge board. The sub-framing is made and one or both floors laid be- fore the upper part of the building is put upon it. The sills are 2xl2-inch stock cut eight feet long. If desired, the ends of each runner can be leveled (Courtesy of the Purdue University.) Cornell "A" Shaped Colony House. so that the sills can be used as runners. An opening of 9J inches by 12i inches is cut in the rear runner to admit the burner box. "The floor joists, four in number, are made of 2x4-inch stock, cut eight feet long, and are fitted into the runners with a half joint. This gives a strong sub-frame that is not likely to get out of square when drawn over uneven ground. After fitting the joints into the runners and securely nail- ing with 20d nails, the work is leveled, squared, and tied by means of a one-inch board nailed diagonally across the joints. The house can be stif- fened by bracing each corner of the frame with a 2x4-inch brace running from the union of one joint with the runner to a point on the opposite joist at an angle to it. This is more desirable when the shed roof is used. "There are three types of floor structure, single boarding, double boarding throughout, and double boarding under the hover only. When using the latter two, the lumber should be planed and matched and of good quality. When building the double floor, cheaper and rougher material can be used for the sub-floor. This should be laid diagonally to help stiffen the building, then over a layer of building paper the finished top floor is laid, which should always be of good grade matched and planed lumber. "The studs are now put up. These, together with the plates and raf- ters, are made of 2x2-inch clear hemlock stock. The studs are placed flush with the outer edge of the floor and are toe-nailed to it. The plates are laid on and nailed to the ends of the studs. The rafters are first nailed to the ridge-board and then put in place and toe-nailed to the plates. These are held in place temporarily by nailing a strip of board diagonally across them. The front and rear studs are fitted in place and then the boarding is put on. The boards are put on horizontally when the house is covered with paper, and are placed to overlap the floor four inches. "The building is enclosed with seven-eighths inch matched siding, planed on one side, with the smooth side turned in. The boards for the sides and roof are cut in eight-foot lengths, and the ends are boarded ver- tically, thus making it possible to use 16-foot stock without waste. After the end boards and paper have been put on, the casings for the windows are nailed in place and the openings cut i-inch smaller on each side than the dimensions of the window sash. By this method of construction no studs are required for the windows. The window casings are made of 1 1-8 inch lumber, so that the sash will fit flush with the side of the building, thereby avoiding the necessity of battens other than the 4-inch of siding left inside the casing. "Best results have been secured by running the strips of roofing paper, vertically instead of horizontally, as is generally recommended. It requires much less time to put on the paper and it presents a more pleasing ap- pearance. "The chick outlet is made through a trap-door cut in the floor, at the edge of the front runner and at the outer edge of a middle 2x4-inch joist. A runway with cleats supported at the upper end of the 2x4-inch joist leads to the ground at the endge of the house. The back of the runway is closed with boards, thereby keeping the chicks on the runway and making it pos- sible to close them out fro munder the house. This is desirable until they have learned to return to the house of their own accord." The galvanized iron heating outfit consists of a burner box to slide under the house, an iron drum, smoke chimney, and gasoline tank. This outfit can be purchased by writing to Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., who will furnish the name of the firm that sells the heating outfit. The heat is supplied by-a gasoline burner. FOOL PROOF COLONY HOUSE We urge our students to adopt the Quisenberry Fool Proof Colony House illustrated and described in Lessons No. 2. You will find it one of the very best. HOUSES FOR 100 HENS The house for a hundred hens should be in more universal use than any other. It is a type suited to the needs of the suburbanite or the Amer- ican farm. If every farm in America had this house as the minimum size for a laying house we would soon see an immediate increase in the wealth of the nation. We are illustrating houses used in different sections so that you can make comparisons of these with the Fool Proof houses which we have illustrated and described, and select the one that you elieve will best suit your needs. We recommend the Fool Proof idea above all others. THE MAINE HOUSE About fifteen years ago, after concluding that the heated house was not practical, that Station began an experiment with the roosting-closets, which was one step forward toward the modern fresh air house. The space from the front edge of the platform up to the roof was covered by —18— frame curtains of drilling, similar to the one used on the front wall, except that it was not oiled. They were hinged at the top edge and kept turned out of the way during the day time, but from the commencement of cold weather until spring, they were closed down every night after the hens went to roost. The hens were shut in this close roosting closet and kept there during the night. They were released as early in the morning as they could see how to scratch for grain, which was sprinkled in the 8-inch deep straw on the floor. ~''jii^t'^^^^ 111 IP ^ .i^iliPll Pig. 55. — The Maine Experiment Station Poultry House The building was used through five winters with SO hens in it. The birds laid as well as the others in the large warmed house, their combs were red and their plumage brigh, and they gave every evidence of perfect health and vigor. This house was given the name of the pioneer house. In trying out this experiment the idea was to retain the animal heat of the birds as well as to keep out cold. The great danger in this principle is that while the body heat is being conserved the birds are breathing the same air with which they started when the curtain is let down during the first of the night, consuming all of the oxygen and constantly emitting carbon dioxide. This lack of fresh air leaves the air very bad, which is plainly susceptible when the curtains are raised in the morning. The conclusion of the Maine people is that "for some time past it has been felt that the roosting closet was at least unnecessary, if not, in fact, a positive evil. Consequently, the time of beginning to close the roost curtain in the fall was each year longer delayed. Finally, in the fall of 1910-11, it was decided not to use these curtains at all, and, during the winter the mortality was exceptionally low and the egg production excep- tionally high. The roost curtain will not again be used at this Station." The closed in roosting closet has been displaced by the curtain front type of house in many sections. Most of the Experiment Stations are using the curtain front but some of them, even in very cold climates, are advocating that there be one open- ing over which no curtain be used at all. These openings are so arranged that the wind cannot sweep through the house. Prof. Graham, of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture, has a house so arranged that he states no drafts can reach the birds and the maximum amount of fresh air is afforded. We have considered the Fool Proof way of ventilation an advanced step in the fresh air principle, and that the shutter ventilation will suit most of the climates of the country. Cornell University recommends a wind baffler, which is much like the shutter ventilator recommended by this school. In extremely warm climates, it is better to have the front entirely open. The best results are obtained where the sun can reach the greater part of the house and the front so arranered that as much air can be obtained as if they were out of doors. The following is a description of the Maine curtain front house: "After several years of experimenting the following plan was adopted as being the most economical in construction: "Each pen 20 by 20 feet will accommodate 100 birds. A house may be made up of as many or as few sections, or pens, as the owner desires. A door in each partition wall makes it easy to do the required work. In long houses, one end section may be left for a feed room. "Three 6 by 6-inch sills run the entire length of the house. The center one supports the floor timbers in the middle of the house, while the outside ones rest on a rough stone wall, high enough from the ground for dogs and cats to go under the building to look for the rats, skunks, etc., that may harbor there. The stone wall rests on the surface of the ground, with large openings in it every 20 feet to allow the circulation of air. .Thiy keeps the ground and timbers dry during the summer. The floor timbers are 2 by 6 inches and on top of the s!lls. The front studs are 8 feet high, and those at the back are 6 feet 6 inches high. The two sides of the roof are unequal in width, the ridge being 8 feet from the top wall. The height of the ridge from the sill to the extreme top of rafters is 12 feet 4 inches. All studding is 2 by 4 inches. The building is boarded with 1-inch rough lumber, then papered and covered with rustic siding. The roof is covered with 1-inch boards and thin building paper and then shingled. The cost of the building may be lessened by using shiplap for the sides and by covering with a high-grade roofing paper. "The front of the building, or of each section, has two storm windows 2 feet 11 inches by 4 feet 6 inches. These glass windows are screwed on uprights 2 feet eight inches from each end of the room. They are 3 feet above the floor. The distance between windows is 8 feet 10 inches, and the top part of it, to a depth of 3 feet 6 inches from the plate, is not boarded up, but is left open to be covered by a cloth curtain when neces- sary. This leaves a light wall 3 feet 10 inches high, extending from the bottom of the opening down to the floor, which prevents the wind from blowing directly on the birds when they are on the floor. A door 2 feet 10 inches wide, for entrance to the yard, is made in the front wall. The lower half is boarded, the upper being covered by the curtain. Another door 15 by IS inches is placed 6 inches from the floor under one of the windows for the birds to pass through to the front yard. A similar door in the center of the back wall admits them to the rear yard. "A light frame made of 1 by 3-inch strips and 1 by 6-inch cross is covered with either 10-ounce white duck or unbleached sheeting and hinged at the top of the front opening, which it covers when closed down. This curtain is easily turned up into the room and held in place by hooks in the ceiling. "The roost platform should be made tight. It extends the full length of the room against the back wall and is 4 feet 10 inches wide and high enough to get under when necessary to handle the birds or clean out the house. There are three roosts, framed togethr in two 10-foot sctions. The top is 1 foot above the platform and hinged to the back wall, so they may be turned up out of the way when the platform is being cleaned. The back roost is 42 inches from the wall, and the space between the next two are 16 inches. They are made of 2 by 3-inch lumber placed on edge, with the upper corners rounded off. The roosting closet is shut off from the rest of the room by curtains similar to the one described for the front of the house. .For convenience in handling there are two of these curtains, each 9 feet eight inches long by 3 feet wide, hinged at the top so as to be turned out and hooked up. This leaves a space 2 feet 6 inches between the curtain —20— and the roof. This space is ceiled and in it are two ooenings, each 3 feet long by 6 inches wide, provided with a slide door for ventilating- the roost- ing closet when necessary. "The nests are placed on framework under the roosting board. This frame should extend at least 3 inches beyond the back of the nests and should be so arranged that they may be easily removed for cleaning. "If several of these houses are joined together to make one long laying house, a door should be placed in every compartment 5 inches out from the edge of the roosting platform. These doors are 3 feet wide and 7 feet high, dividing in the middle lengthwise and each half is hung with double- acting spring hinges, allowing it to swing both ways and to be kept closed without attention." TOLMAN HOUSE Pig. 6. — Tolman House Tolman House, Missouri Experiment Station. Fig. 6 is a Tolman house at the University of Missouri. It is adapted to use on the farm. It is not necessary to use any curtains over the front of the house, even in the northern section of our country. This house is not so vi^ell suited to a cold climate, as it will not admit enough sunshine and it is a warm house during the summer because the long slope of the roof is to the South. For this reason, we doubt the adaptability of the Tolman house to very warm climates. The door is in the East side of the house, just opposite the windows. The windows should be hung on hinges, so that both windows and door could be opened in summer, or else entirely removed. A concrete floor is usually recommended for this house, but many use a dirt floor. Prof. Kempster says of this house: "This type of house is especially adapted to Missouri conditions. The house should be as deep as it is wide. A house 20 feet square would hold 100 to 125 fowls easily. T?he north side is four and one-half feet high; the south or front side is three feet high. The roof is a combination with a 1-6 pitch slope. The west has two win- dows, making an opening about 4x5 feet. The south is left entirely open, both winter and summer. The interior arrangement is simple. The roost- ing equipment is on the back side, as in the other house. This house can be made into an excellent summer house by removing the windows and opening the door on the east end." WARM CLIMATE HOUSES House for Warm Climate. The house shown above was designed to use in very warm- climates. The eaves o'f the house are made extra wide to furnish shade. The nests are built on the exterior of the house and rest upon the ground. The he.ns .• enter the nests from the inside. The upper portion of the roof is raisied "^ 6.jjiches or a foot from the main roof, which has an opening in it at that p6fii't, which prevents the heat from accumulating at the highest point. The frame Work of the house is covered with poultry netting. The roost poles -ruii crosswise of the house. This is designed principally for semi-tropical climates. About the only thing needed in warm climates is protection from rain, sun, and enemies. A Fool Proof House, cheaply constructed and with al- most an entirely open front, will meet every requirement. No detailed descriptions of these houses need be given, as their construction is of the simplest nature. A shed roof house with an open front and a projection on the roof, extending over the front of the house, to keep the sun from beating in, is as satisfactory 'as anything that can be used. Cover the opening with one inch or one-half inch poultry netting to keep out sparrows and poultry enemies. —22— Poulihy HeH-ina We show above the end section of a house for warm climates. The IS inches in the g"able end of the house is covered with poultry netting. You "will note that the roof extends several feet over the front of the house, so as to present the direct rays of the sun from beating in upon the floor. This can be made to extend over even further than is shown. The entire front of the house is covered with poultry netting, and should also be pro- vision made in the rear of the house for ventilation. CORNELL LAYING AND BREEDING HOUSE Fig. 7 represents the Cornell Poultry House with pens twelve feet square. Prof. Rice states that the size of the front curtain should vary in different sections of New York. In extremely cold countries a curtain 4 feet long and two and one-half or three feet high would be more satis- factory. For the warmer sections a curtain three feet four inches by six feet four inches is recommended. In using the Fool Proof house the size of the shutter should also vary with the climate. The foundation of this house is built of concrete. A concrete wall 6 Fig. 7. — Cornell Laying and Breeding House. inchesthick and 12 inches high is built above a trench filled with stones. The trench is 1 foot deep, except in a very cold climate and on a heavy soil, in which case it should be deeper. The concrete floor is two inches thick and consists of rough concrete, only. ,T I'il W/A/D BAFFLER pa.a$es hhrouf^ 6ajy/ef< llL Fig. 71. — Represents the Cornell University Wind Baffler. It is similar to the shutter ventilator in our Fool Proof Houses, cut 27 inches long, nailed together in sets of three. Draw a pencil across the end pieces as indicated. The bafflers nailed through the end pieces into the end of the bafflers with No. 5 finishing nails. In warm climates the space for passage of air seems too limited. ^/r/' ^A/- Fig'. 25. — End view of House, 12 ft. sections as designed by Cornell University. —24— In many cases where the stone and gravel filling is very shallow or where the ground is very heavy and damp, it is well to insure dryness by using tar paper beneath the concrete or by adding air-slacked lime. When using tar paper, level, dampen and pound down the gravel filling. Sweep a light coat of clear sand over the gravel, so as to protect the paper from being cut by coarser parts of the -ravel, and lay over this smooth surface one thickness of one-ply tar paper with edges overlapping one-half width of the paper. Over the tar paper spread the 2-inch layer of rough con- crete, as described above. In addition to preventing the upward passage of water, the tar paper prevents the downward passage of heat, thereby providing a warmer floor. Fig-. 25 A. — Floor plan of the Cornell House, 12 ft. sections. The front elevation of the Cornell Model Poultry House. This shows the arrangement of the windows with the wind bafflers in place between the open sash. You can also see the large ventilating- space made in the boards just beneath the eaves, which can be raised and hinged outward. The house is ventilated in the winter by the cloth curtain; in summer by a small door at the top of the back side. The muslin curtain is hinged on the outside and fastened up to serve as an awning during the summer months. Cornell University is now building practically the same kind of a house and, instead of the curtain for ventilators, uses and recommends wind bafflers much the same as the shutter ventilators in the Fool Proof Houses. There is no question but what that is the best system of ventila- tion for poultry houses in most climates. Co"< .-tf ' e f toe caMcrt-f* urmU We here illustrate the floor plan of the Cornell Model Poultry House. The particular feature that I wish to call to your attention is the dust wal- low, shown in th e front of the house. This dust wallow is covered with a shed roof and there are three windows in front of same to admit the sun- light. The hens may enter the wallow from the interior of the house. This confines the dust more or less to the outside, which we think is a dsirable feature. We do not like to provide for such where it will cause an immense amount of dust to accumulate on the drinking water, feed hoppers, troughs, and other equipment in the house. -26— Fool Proof Coloney Houses used by the American Egg Laying Contest, showing the shutter front. HOUSING QUESTIONS FOR LESSON NO. 3 1 — Will it do to apply the same principles in housing hens as you would in housing carnations or roses? Mention some difference. 2 — Does it ever pay to remodel old poultry houses? 3 — What are the advantages of labor-saving devices in housing poultry? 4 — ^In connection with ventilation, what two important facts must be con- sidered? S — What is the best size of glass to use in a poultry house? 6 — Which is regarded as the best method of hanging windows as shown in Fig. 22? 7 — Name the best method of hanging doors as shown in Fig. 23. 8 — What are the disadvantages of a dirt floor? 9 — What is one of the chief points to keep in mind when building a mov- able colony house? 10 — Why is an alley in a poultry house unnecessary? 11 — Name the requirements of fresh air for poultry, man and cattle. 12 — Discuss, liriefly, the laying out and squaring up the floor of a poultry house. 12 — What is the most economical type of colony house? 14_Where is a good place to locate a colony house on a farm? 1£ Which of the colony houses illustrated do you consider the worst? Why? 16_Which do you consider the best of the colony houses? Why 17 — What is the danger of the old style roosting closet? Ig — Why would you not recommend the use of the Tolman houes in a^hot climate? 19 — What does Cornell recommend as a good method of constructing a concrete floor to insure dryness? 20 — What disadvantages can you see in the Cornell Wind Baffler?. MINNESOTA HOUSE Fig. 8. This is an illustration of the broken span type and can accom- modate a large farm flock. This house is used at the University Farm, St. Paul, Minn. In many mild climates this house can be used by omittmg the curtain in the front. Every farmer or small breeder should have a select pen of the best hens he has, mated to a bird of known pedigree, so that the flock will not remain at a standstill, but grow constantly better each year. A pen can be divided off in this house by the use of a temporary wire parti- tion, and a fence made in the rear for them to run in a separate yard. Please notice that the long span of roof is to the north. Also note the front arrangement for sunlight and ventilation. The rain will run toward the front and beat into a house with a roof like this. 1 ^j/f^ ^p^^t f ■• ^ ^raRHHRHI^v^^ta^l^^^H **P Fig. 8. — Minnesota House. Prof. Smith says of this house: "I believe in much smaller openings for ventilation than the one shown in the illustration, and I also believe in covering these with burlap instead of muslin. My idea is to provide just sufficient circulation to carry out the moisture without letting out too much heat. To put it briefly, I think that a small opening covered with burlap on the outside of the building and so arranged that this opening may be closed tightly when the ther- mometer drops ten or twenty below zero, together with windows, the upper sash of which are hung on weights and pulleys, so that they may be ad- justed to the wind and weather each day, is the best plan upon which to construct a polutry house in this climate, when winter laying is the object in view." MASSACHUSETTS HOUSE Fig. 10 is a house used by Prof. Graham, at the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College Experiment Station. A small pen is partitioned off at the right end of the house to accommodate a pen of choice breeders. The openings being narrow in the center do not permit such a sweep of the cold wind through the house. During the warmer weather the two small curtains can be taken down. They can be fastened up by buttons, or they can be taken down, which does not permit such an accumulation of dust. You will note that there are no windows in this house. Prof. Graham describes this house as follows : "It is 18 feet deep and 24 feet long, which gives floor space sufficient for 100 hens. "The cloth at each end of the opening is nailed to frames made of ma- —28— terial 3 inches wide and 7-8 inches thick. These are kept in place by but- tons on the inside. The rest of the opening 10 feet by S feet, is covered by inch mesh wire. The birds are resting so far from the opening that they will not suffer in cold weather, when the house is sufficiently filled. Fig. 10. — Massachusetts House. "The height of the front is 7 feet 10 inches and back 4 feet 10 inches. A 2x4, 12 feet long, sawed in two, will make the back stud 44 feet and the front one 7i feet. The rafter at the rear is sawed off flush with the back edge of the stud and plate, and the rear roof board is allowed to project over about 3 inches with a small strip nailed up underneath it on the out- side. The boards used on the outside are novelty siding, with no paper. This house is designed for a single pen, or a section of a long house. We made it 30 feet long with a partition 6 feet from the east end, giving us a detention pen 6 feet by 18 feet. This pen is our laboratory for study- ing our flock. Every poultryman should have one. Note that a 4x4 beam supports the center of the roof." THE LeGEAR POULTRY HOUSE Dr. LeGear builds all of his houses up on posts, leaving a space of about two feet under the floor so the chickens may have the use of same. We give his own views of housing in his own words, as follows: "We do not believe in expensive poultry houses, but they should be dry, comfortable, free from drafts in cool or cold weather, and still admit plenty of fresh air at all times. We are using but one style of poultry houses on our poultry plant. They are all the open-front fresh-air houses, all face the south and are built up off the ground on posts, and the space under the houses affords excellent protection for the fowls during the hot summer days. "Our houses are sixteen feet deep and are divided, by a wire partition and screen door, into divisions ten feet wide. We keep deep, clean litter on the floor during the winter and scatter all grain feed in the litter, which gives the hens exercise scratching for it. Each of the divisions will ac- commodate forty, hens very nicely. We use ordinary number three sheet- ing on the rafters and t*o-ply roofing on top. The roofs are all shed roofs and slant one way — to the north. On the walls we use the number two boxing, with bats on the cracks on the outside, and line the inside with twoply roofing paper. There is an opening in each division on the south four by five feet, which admits fresh air and sunshine. We have a separate run twenty by two hundred feet for each division of the houses and have the space under the houses partitioned to correspond to the partitions in —29— the house above. There are double floors in all the houses. The under floor is common sheeting, while the top floor is tongue and grooved floor- ing. All of the houses are eight feet high in front and six feet in the rear. Three roosts are constructed on a level eight inches above a four-foot B 1 9 li • ? Wwl^^k. 1 ^^^^^^r W V # ^F^T^k>^ ''■^P'ifcr,^ w Fig-. 5G. — The LeGear Poultry House droppings board across the north side or end of each division. The drop- pings boards are about twentyfive inches from the floor and the nests are under the droppings in a dark place. By the houses being up off the ground we have never been bothered with rats. The floors are always dry, can be cleaned, mopped and disinfected. We have nevr, as yet, found any dampness or moisture in these houses, and have had some of them in use several years." CHEAP SUMMER HOUSE This is a summer house for growing stock or one which can be used Cheap Summer House. —30— in warm climates. The size is about 10 by 12 feet, 7 feet high in front, and 5 feet in the rear. It is made of 2-inch framing material or even lighter material is better. The roof is made in three or four sections, run- ning lengthwise of the house. The roofing boards are covered with compo- sition roofing material, so tacked that it overlaps the joints in the sections o fthe roof and prevents leaks. The roof is held to the frame by hooks and staples so it may be removed. The house is built in sections, the front, back and ends all being separate and individual parts. They are all bolted together with bolts, but can be easily taken apart and moved in sections. The door is in the corner of the front and opens outward. The entire frame is covered with poultry netting. The space in front of the door is open the width of the door and the attendant can easily pass from the front to the rear of the house. The roosts arc on each side of this passageway and run from the front to the back. THE MISSOURI HOUSE Prof. Kempster, of the Missouri University, has designed and recom- mends this house, as follows : "This house is 20 feet square, the square house being the most econom- ical to construct and affording a maximum amount of floor space. The ridge of the roof runs north and south, the roof being of equal spans. The walls are five feet at the eaves. It is eleven feet high at the peak. The south side contains a door in the center and a window 2x3 feet on each side of the door. These windows are placed high enough to afford a thirty-inch opening beneath, one foot above the floor and extending the entire length each side of the door. This opening is covered with wire screens which keeps the hens in and the sparrows out. "On the east and west sides are two windows, each 2 feet high and 3 feet wide. On the north end next to the floor is a six-light 8xl0-inch glass window. An arrangement which admits light from all directions has de- cided advantages, because the light is so distributed that there are no dark corners, thus discouraging the laying of eggs on the floor. Also, when light comes from one direction the hen always faces in that direction when she scratches. In consequence, there is a gradual movement of the litter toward the back side of the house. When light is evenly distributed this trouble is eliminated. One hen scratches one direction and another in Fig. 69. — The Missouri House. —31— another and the litter never piles up on the dark side of the house, because there is no dark side in such a house. Another decided advantage in having openings on all sides is the ex- cellent summer ventilation which can be afforded by removing- the win- SECTIOM/M- VIEW Fig. 70. — Sectional View of the Missouri House. dows. This is an important point. Summer ventilation is as important as winter ventilation. "The walls are of car siding, running up and down, which forms a tight and attractive wall. The roof is made of shiplay covered with shingles." Joists or cellar beams are placed in the house just high enough to afford head room. In order to prevent the birds from roosting on these, they are covered with inch boards, four inches wide placed, two inches apart. This forms a loft which is filled with straw. The straw acts as a sort of sponge by absorbing both dampness and heat and helping to keep the house drier in winter time and cooler in the summer time. "D;uring the winter the success of ventilation of this type depends upon having the east, west and north sides and the roof entirely air-tight, so that the wind will drive into the house only a short distance and never back to the roosts, which are on the north side. There is a gradual move- ment of the air from the inside out, thus insuring an abundance of ventila- tion without drafts. Open-front ventilation has an average over all other ventilation because it requires no adjusting, never plugs up, and always works. This type of ventilation will adapt itself to temperature changes without the constant attention of the attendant and in this way reduces to a minimum the labor of caring for the house." "The roosts should be at the back or north side and all on the same level. They should be four feet above the floor, 14 inches from the wall, and 12 inches apart, and made of 2x4's with rounded corners. Poles two inches in diameter, if firmly placed, will serve the purpose nearly as well. Eight inches beneath the roosts is placed the droppings platform, which keeps the floor clean and increases the floor space for other purposes. Underneath the droppings platform are placed the nests. There should b eight inches of roosting place for each bird and one nest for every six or seven hens.'' In most sections it will probably cost about $120.00 to build this house, aside from the painting. It will accommodate from 120 to 175 hens, de- pending in part on the breed, making the cost about $1.00 per hen or a little less." —32— Bill of Materials Use Pieces Size Bd. Ft. Rafters 22 2x4-12 176 Plates and sills 8 2x4-20 107 Studding and frames 1 2x4-10 7 Roosts 5 2x4-20 74 Finishing 6 1x4-10 20 Finishing 1 1x4-16 6 Finishing 4 1x4-10 14 Finishing ....8 1x4-12 32 Floor for loft 52 1x4-14 260 Car siding for walls ..."..... — 1x6-10 600 Shiplap for roof and drop, plat — 1x8-12 720 Shingles — SiM. Sashes — 7 6-light, 8xl0-inch glass. Wire netting for windows and front — 3x32. Hinges — 1 pair. Foundation — 3 cu. ft. of concrete. We especially recommend this house to our students in climates that are extremely cold. We would cover the front with burlap or cloth of some sort, tacked to frames which are hinged at the top of the opening foi ventilation. We would cover the walls on the sides and rear of the house with plaster board, using it on the inside, and put straw in the loft, for ad- ditional protection against cold. Then, I would use a galvanized iron or wooden ventilator in the roof, near the center. Make these changes in the plans as shown above, and, when you have done this, you will have a house that is ideal for extremely cold climates. You can alter the size of the house to meet your requirements. SEMI-MONITOR TOP POULTRY HOUSE Fig. 27. A house of this kind, 10-14 feet deep, can be built for about $35.00 to $50.00, and it will accommodate about thirty-five layers. A house built on this plan, 10x20 feet deep, will accommodate about seventy-five or eighty hens. This house can be built as a long or continuous house, and divided into pens or sect'ons. The south side of this house is boarded up eighteen inches from the ground and six inches down from the top and the balance is left open and covered with one-inch mesh galvanized wire, with a curtain hinged on the inside. You should put three small windows in the monitor top and hinge them at the top, so they can be raised in hot weather. These windows let in sun to the back part of the house. If you build this house as a large laying or breeding house, the floor dimensions being fourteen feet wide by twenty feet deep, the highest point of the roof should be ten feet and the rear section should be twelve feet deep. Make the front section eight feet deep the same height as the small house. The actual opening in front is about two and one-half or three feet high and the entire width of the house. The joints, where the roof Fig. 27. — Wood's House. -33— is attached to the side wall, should be made absolutely wind proof, and if the north and west side of this house are covered with rubberoid or as- bestos, or some roofing material, it will make it much warmer and more comfortable in winter. The window in the west side should be placed di- rectly opposite the door in the east, and during the summer months these should be taken out entirely and covered with screen wire. A sliding shutter door can be made to cover the opening where the fowls enter the house, and this shutter run on cleats and raised and lowered by a cord and pully from the rear section of the house. The house, which is built ten by fourteen, should be eight feet high at the peak, six feet at the back, five feet six inches higlh at north end ot the front section and four feet six inches at the front, and should be boarded down to the ground. This house is generally known as the Woods type of house, having been designed by Dr. Woods. Extending across the building and through the center of the doorways, a track of wood or iron may be placed for the ready movement of a sus- pended car. The platform of this car should be 2 by 8 feet and elevated about 1 foot above the floor. Attached to each end of the platform is an iron guard which projects one feet beyond. As the car passes through the building this guard strikes the door and pushes them open easily. All food and water can be carried through the house on this car and it will prove a great labor saver in a long laying house. The droppings from the roosting boards may also be removed on it, being gathered in pails or boxes, loaded on the car, and pushed to the manure shed. The Woods house is so designed as to permit the maximum amount of sunlight, but one trouble about the placing of the windows in the top of the building is that the warm air rises and when night comes on the air rises to the top of the building where it is cooled from the outside by the cool air which causes much condensation and moisture and makes the house more or less damp. However, this defect can be remedied, to some extent, in this type of house by using cloth instead of glass in some of the Fig. 27.— The Dr. P. T. Woods Open Front House. —34— sash of the upper windows. The aid that rises should then not be con^ densed by the outside air. This house is a failure in some climates, with- out this precaution. THE CONNECTICUT HOUSE Fig. 58 represents the house used in the International Egg Laying Contest at Storrs, Conn. Twelve feet square, 6 feet high at the eaves, 8 feet at the back, 24 square feet of open front provided with curtains, 12 square feet of glass consisting of a window at either end. Prof. Kirkpatrick states that "This poultry house, with a slight modi- fication, that is to say, with the removal of the partition, making it only one pen, is certainly an excellent house for a small poultry breeder, that is, the man with 25 or 30 hens. By making the house 16 by 18 feet square you could make it large enough for 50. Pig. .58. — Connecticut House. The thing which we do not like about this house is the fact that the roof slopes to the front. Rain and melting snow, as they drip from the roof, are likely to blow into the openings in the front of the house and cause the floor to be wet and the house damp. Professor Stoneburn was in charge of the work at Connecticut when these houses were built, and the following is his description of them as- contained in the Philadelphia North American: FVnrotngPlan Pig. 59. — Connecticut House. —35— "The original houses were twenty feet square and occupied by a single flock of birds. For the purposes of the laying competition such large structures were not needed, and each house had to accommodate two flocks of layers. Accordingly, the original plan was photographed down and the layng competition houses made twelve feet square. Otherwise, the general plaH was closely followed, save in the matter of a central par- tition, which divided each house into two equal pens. This smaller house will be described in detail and it is illustrated in the accompanying cut. The dimensions are as follows : Roost ^c= DroDPlngs board ■V, KestB below 4 Broody coop vJartitlon > wn 4 oo 11 ■Platform for food and water dishes Plan. Pig'. 60. — Floor Plan of Connecticut House Front, back and sides 12 feet long Height to eaves 6 feet Heights to peak 8 feet Roof, even span, sloping north and south. Materials used — Skids, 3x6 inches. Sills, 2x4 inches. Studding and rafters, 2x3 inches. Siding, 7-8 inch matched lumber. Painted two coats oil paint. Roof covered with prepared roofing. Inside Walls Smooth and Clean "All dimension stuff dressed four sides and siding dressed two sides, so inside walls are tight and smooth. "A square building with a given amount of floor space is more economical than a long, narrow building of the same capacity. For instance, this twelve-foot square house has forty-eight running feet of side walls and 144 square feet of floor space. A building twenty-four feet long and six feet wide has sixty running feet of side walls, twelve feet more than the square house, but the amount of floor space is the same in both cases. "Now consider details of construction. A single sash window is placed ■ in each end wall, arranged to slide toward the front of the building be- tween the end plate and a girt placed at the proper distance from the plate. The rear edge of each window comes directly beneath the peak of the —36— roof. The small doors for the hens are also located in the ends of the building, well forward to avoid draughts across the floor. "In the front of the building are two solid doors, located at the corners and swinging inward. These are 2* feet wde and ex. end from a point slightly above the sill to the plate. The idea is to have the lower edge of the door sufficiently high to swing clear of the litter on the floor. "The space between these doors is boarded up two feet from the bottom and the balance covered with wire natting. This low front wall serves to protect the birds from the wind during unfavorable weather. Two cloth-colored frames of proper size to fill the large opening are hinged to the plate. These are usually swung up against the roof, but may be dropped as occasion requires. By properly spacing the raft :rs it is possible to swing the. frames up between them, which largely prevents the accumulation of dust on the cloth. The accompanying framing plan clear- ly shows how the various members of the frame are placed, excepting two pieces which extend across the building in the center, one between the sills and the other between the plates. "The 'sideboards,' upon which are placed water dishes and dry mash receptables, are slat frames attached to the central partitions, some eighteen inches above the floor. It will be observed that none of this equipment occupies any floor space, so the fowls may use every square foot of the floor for exercising. Floor of Earth or Boards "The floor itself may be either earth or boards, as preferred. In the case of the laying competition plant, earth was used. If the building is to be moved at comparatively frequent intervals, a board floor would be ad- visable. "In inost sections of America it is sufficient to make the walls of a single thickness of matched boards. However, it is a good plan to take any necessary steps to prevent the slightest draught across the roosts which may result from small cracks. The rear wall from droppings board level to eaves may be covered with heavy building paper or prapared roofing, nailed on the outside or used for lining, as may be preferred." CONCRETE AND HOLLOW TILE HOUSES In the upper illustration is shown the exterior of an all concrete laying house, 16x80. This house is used on the Challiss Egg Farm, at Atchison, Kansas. The lower illustration is the interior of the same house. It also has a concrete floor, which is kept covered with litter. While this house as Mr. Challiss has it built, is perfectly dry and elimi- nates all of the expense of paint and repairs, yet a solid concrete or stone poultry house seldom gives satisfaction, for the reason that they are usually hot in summer and damp and cold in winter, unless they are properly ven- tilated. Mr. Challiss has air vents or intakes, which are built in the con- crete pillars and supports at the rear of the house. Then the windows in the front are raised and lowered so that there is a circulation of air, ' which keeps the house dry and more or less uniform in temperature. Uii- .less you have had considerable experience with 'concret work and with ■-the proper methods of ventilating such houses, it ig. a dangerous matU.r to construct same for poultry. However, all of the.^buildings on this par- ticular farm, even the fence posts, are made of conisrete and all are giving satisfaction. Hollow tile houses are safer and more satisfactory in ihe hands of the average man than is concrete. Hollow lile can be easily ventilated, and such a house is cool in summer and warm in winter. We recommend hollow tile where it can be purchased at a reas'.uiable price. We have here a small Colony House for brooding growing chicks. This house does very well in warm climates, for the reason that the front can be opened up and the sides of the house are hinged and may be opened as shown in the illustration. This makes the house very cool, and it af- fords protection from the sun. The framing material on each side is covered with poultry netting, so that the boards on the side may be raised and the chickens still confined to the house when necessary. This house —37— An All Concrete TIouKe. Summer Colony House. —38— can be built of any size that is desirable, but it is not necessary to build it any higher than just enough to furnish head room and for the convenience of the attendant. An Idea for Partitions. Every other partition in a poultry house may be constructed somewhat after the style of the above. The first three feet from the front is boarded up solid to preveent the males from fighting. The same is true above the roosts. The remainder of the space is covered with poultry netting. This is reproduced from U. S. Farmers' Bulletin. CANADIAN POULTRY HOUSES The plans of the house furnished by Prof. Jull, of MacDonald, should be well adapted to any Northern climate of the U. S. His full description of these houses and the accompanying plans should enable you to dupli- cate these houses if they suit your conditions. The curtain fronts afford a fine opportunity for the control of the temperature. No doubt in many sections of our country there would be no necessity of closing the three openings in the center of the building. PROF. JULL'S DESCRIPTION OF THE TOLMAN HOUSE As Used at MacDonald College, Quebec, Canada "This house is 20 feet long by 20 feet wide, 2\ feet high in front, 2i feet high behind and 7 feet to the peak of the roof, the peak coming in the center of the house. A door 3i feet wide by 6 feet high is in the Eeast end and a window S feet 4 inches wide by 4 feet 2 inches high is in the West end. The window is hinged at the top so that it can be raised in warm weather. The front of this house is covered with wire netting and is divided into five sections, each section, being supplied with a separate curtain. Owing to the extreme, cold weather which we have we are com- pelled to use the cotton curtairj for a portion of the winter. The advan- tage of having five separate -eu-rtains in front in preference to one long one is that more satisfactory conditions can be maintained inside the house. The two ends and the back of the house are double boarded. The bottom boarding runs lengthwise, while the double boarding is tongue and grooved running up and down. It has a cement .foundation and cement floor. It will accommodate 100 laying hens. This is one of the most economical houses which can be constructed. Farmers in the Pro- vince of Quebec are able to construct this house for about $115.00.- Ma- terial costs approximately $75.00 and labor costs approximately $40.00." —39-- t -—-—vmmmmmBmr^mrfWffSk ,..-. ..._______ — ''•'*'*'''''~''-~^^^^^^K^^^^^^^^^I^ B^^Ib*'' !■ Mi ," 1 ^vXu,,.- ' * . -"-"■■Pipil 1 ^ l^i^^^H Iplij*^ w^^* " ^^*'' -- *;^^^^^aHi ^^S M ^^ Fig. 11. — Tolman- Style House as used at Macdonald College PROF. JULL'S DESCRIPTION OF THE MACDONALD HOUSE As Used at MacDonald College, Que., Can. "This house is 20 feet long by 20 feet wide, S feet 6 inches high in front and 3 feet 6 inches behind, and 8 feet to the peak of the roof. A door 3i feet wide by 6 feet high is in the East end and a window S feet 4 inches by 4 feet 2 inches high is in the West end. The window is hinged at the top so that it can be raised to give ventilation in warm weather. There are two windows each 4 feet by 3 feet in front with a curtain window 6 feet long by 3 feet high in between. The curtain window is covered with 2-inch wire mesh and in cold weather the cotton curtain is dropped. The house Fig, 12. — Mcdonald House. —40— is set upon cement foundation and has a cement floor. This is one of the most satisfactory houses used on our College plant. It gives practically the same results as the Tolman house, but provides more light. I believe, however, that the curtain window should not be quite so large, consider- ing our severe climatic conditions during the winter season. If it were 4 feet long by about 2 feet high, or if it were provided with a permanent shutter which would keep the rain and snow out and at the same time break the draughts, I believe it would give still better satisfaction. The house will accommodate 100 birds. It may be constructed by farmers at a cost of approximately $150.00. The material costs approximately $100.00 and labor costs about $50.00." Roosts — i msTS GROl/IVD-PLArf- Z>007L- V//nc/oW THE ELLIS HOUSE The beauty and expensiveness of a house does not concern the hens. It is the comfort and healthfulness of the house that affects the hens. A very good type of house that is used considerably in the East is that known as the Ellis house. Prof. Stoneburn of the Matos Company, de- scribed this house in the' Philadelphia North American, as follows; "There exists among practical poultry growers an honest difference of opinion as to the relative merits of the so-called long house which shelters several hundred birds in one flock or divided into several flocks, and the small single pen or colony house. The plan under discussion will not appeal to those who advocate the. use of buildings of large ca- pacity. Its essential points cannot be incorporated in a long building. But those who require but a single building of relatively small capacity — 41_ or prefer to divide tlieir birds into comparatively moderate-sized ilies will find much merit in the Ellis plan. "The standard dimensions are as follows : Length, 14 feet. Width, 14 feet. Height to ridge, 7 feet. Height side walls, 4J feet. fam- Fig. 61. — Plans for the Ellis Type of House JVbte E/eteif/bn Ct'etsti -:3"' "The roof is even span, or A-shaped, sloping to the sides. Building materials : Frame, 2x4 inch. "Sides, roof and floor, tongue-and-groove North Carolina pine boards, 6 inches wide. Roof covered with a two-ply prepared roofing, brought down under eaves to make a tight joint. "Doors and windows: "Two doors are placed in the front — south end — of the building. Each door is three feet wide. These doors are simply substantial frames, covered with wire nettings, divided into two panels by cross strips. "Each of the four panels is fitted with a cloth-covered frame hinged at the side and opening outward. This permits the attendant to regulate ventilation without entering the house, and also prevents the heavy accumu- lation of dust which is always to be noted on curtains which are swung up inside the house in the usual manner. "A window is placed in each side wall, 34 feet back from the front corner. Each sash is 3 feet wide and 4 feet high, hinged at the top to swing outward. Under this arrangement it is possible to provide thorough cross- ventilation without premitting rain to beat in on the floor. "The window openings are protected with wire netting, stapled to the inside of the studs which form the window frames. "The small hen doors may be cut at any place in the wall to give access to yards, when the latter are used. As a rule, these should be well toward —42— the front of the building to prevent draughts, which are objectionable during many months of the year. "Furnishings : "The nests are attached to the front wall on either side of the front doors. By placing these in tiers, one above the other, a sufficient number of nests may be provided in this convenient place to accommodate as many birds as may be quartered in the house. "The dry-feed hopper is hung on one side wall, just adjoining the window, and the shelf or the water receptacle occupies a similar position on the opposite wall. "The droppings board, three feet wide, extends entirely across the house next to the rear wall. This is placed two feet above the floor. "Two roosts, made of 2x4-inch pieces, are placed about this platform. The rear roost should be at least ten inches from the wall and the other about eighteen inches further toward the front. "A single 2x4-inch stud extending from floor to ridge supports the roof. This is placed about midway from front to back of the building. Earth or Board Floors "The floor may be made of earth, filled in several inches above the ground level, or of boards. Mr. Ellis strongly recommends the latter, not only as a protection against enemies, but for sanitary reasons as well. "Adaptability — This house can be put to many uses. Equipped with a coal-burning colony brooder to care for a large flock of chicks, or di- vided by low partitions into six pens with small lamp-heated hovers, it makes a fine brooder house. "At weaning time the brooders may be removed and the chicks per- mitted to remain in their accustomed home until, maturity. "As a laying house it will accommodate upward of fifty mature birds. In short, it can be used to advantage twelve months in the year." A SPLENDID HOUSE FOR COLD CLIMATES Fig. 1. — Exterior View. —43— Figure 1 represents a house designed by Mr. W. C. Clare, of Oswego New York, Mr, Clare is a student of this School and has worked some very valuable ideas into a house that is especially suitable for cold cli- mates. We would suggest placing a gutter on the roof, which slopes to the front of the house, so as to prevent the rain from dropping onto the chickens in front and to prevent same from flowing into the house. These houses, as he recommends them, are built 14 feet square, but they might be built 12, 14, 16 or 20 feet square and work just as well. Number 14 is the ventilating cap at top of the roof. Number 13 sho-ws the venti- lating holes in the ends of the house. These holes are covered over with a tin covering so as to prevent the rain from beating into same. Number 34 shows the ventiktor beneath the eaves and is covered with poultry net- ting. This can be raised or lowered as occasion demands. Fig^. 2. — Cross Section Cold Weather House. Figure 2 shows an end view or cross section of this same house. Num- bers 13 and 14 show the ventilators at the end of the house and at the high- est part of the roof. Number 36 is a wire basket attached to the side wall and vegetables and green feed are placed in this basket. Number 38 shows where the dry mash hopper is placed. Number i7 is the drinking fountain. You will note the nests under the dropping boards facing the rear wall. There is a door in front of the nests that can be lowered when the eggs are being gathered. The roost poles are hinged to the rear wall and can be raised and fastened to the ceiling above when the droppings boards are being cleared. Number 12 shows an opening covered with hardware cloth and this opening passes up between the inner and outer walls and the air circulates on up through the space between the ceiling and the roof and on out the ventilator caps in the roof. The entire ceiling is cov- ered with six inch flooring boards or ceiling boards of some sort in order to make the house warmer in winter months. There is also a small opening between the droppings board and the ceiling back of the roost poles. You will note that the top window sash are hinged at the top and open outward and the lower window sash are fastened so that they open back through the house and fasten at the top. In the winter months, Mr. Clare recommends closing the ventilator in the front and he also recommends closing the upper window sash at night. All of these can be left open in summer months. The air shafts —44— in the rear of the house, back of the nest and roost poles, starts within 12 inches of the floor. The house may be divided with a partition so as to make two pens. The rear of the house is S feet to the eaves and is 8 feet high in front. I believe this house will give excellent satisfaction in any climate which is more or less cold during the winter months. This house is patented by Mr. Clare and detail plans and blue prints of it can be obtained by writing direct to him. LAMBERT'S POULTRY HOUSE A house for 100 hens, which is used a great deal in some sections of the East, is one designed by Prof. Lambert, of Rhode Island. He has this to say concerning his house: Fig. 62. — The Lambert House. "The building is 28 feet front and 14 feet deep ; 8 feet high at the center and 4 feet at the eaves. A partition runs through the center from front to rear, making two rooms, each 14x14 feet. Two feet above the sills along the partitions are the dropping boards, 4 feet wide. Over these, at he height of six inches, are the roosting poles of 2x3 spruce, each 14 feet ong. SJeyj-f/on TR z^- sjicf rvosta. — zi ■ P/sn Pig. 63. — Outline and floor plan ot the Lambert House. "The opening in front, as shown in exterior view, is 74x4 feet tnd is covered with p-inch mesh wire netting. This can be closed at night, when necessary, and on story days, with a muslin covered frame on hinges which swings open against the side of the building. There are small win- dows in front of the roosting rooms, and one each on the east and west sides of the house. The entrance doors are 4 feet from the center and are about Sx2i feet. The nest boxes can be placed under the droppings boards or along the rear or side of the house, back of the windows. "The sills are 4x4, and the studding 2x4 and 2x3. The center partition should be absolutely air tight, so that there can be no draft between the apartments. The roof should be covered with the three-ply tarred felting or Paroid Roofing Paper and the rear and sides with same of a lighter weight. The roof and the sides should be painted with roofing paint once during the year. "The earth should be taken out to a depth of six inches below the sill once each year and filled in again with dry sand. Over this sand is kept a heavy litter of dry leaves. The building is thoroughly cleaned and white-washed once a year. When we keep birds in it during the summer, it is white-washed in the spring and again in the fall. We are intending to build some houses for breeding purposes on this plan, one-half the floor space, these to accommodate ten to twenty breeders on one side while the other side can be used for sitters and spare birds. This has been in use at least sixteen years. My neighbor built several fifteen years ago. His profit per hen has never fallen below $2.30 per bird. The curtains are easily closed over the 7ix4 feet opening — in fact, we have no curtains on our house here and have kept Leghorns in it all winter." NEW JERSEY HOUSE Fig. 24. The following is a descriptron of the New Jersey multiple unit house. The plan is such that units can be added at any time. The following description is by Prof. Lewis, of the New Jersey Experiment Station : "The outside dimensions are 40x20 feet, sills to be 4x6, and are to be bolted to a concrete foundation wall eight inches wide and twenty inches deep, which is laid on tamped cinders or crushed stone, the entire depth of the foundation trench being three feet. "The shed roof type of construction is used with nine foot studding in front and four and one-half foot studding in the back. All studding and rafters are 2x4 hemlock or yellow pine. A 2x6 girder runs the length of the building supporting the rafters, and itself being supported every ten feet by 4x4 posts, resting on concrete piers. The plates should be made of 2x4 material doubled and joints broken. "All outside walls and roofs to be single boarded, preferably of eight or six-inch tongued and grooved yellow pine; white pine can be used, but is more expensive. The roof and back wall should be covered with a good roofing paper, all joints should be carefully lapped and cemented. "The muslin curtains in the front wall are hinged at the top and can be lifted up. The 3x5 glass sash are hinged at the side and open as indicated on the floor plan. One window in each pen should be so constructed that part of the wall will open when desired thus making a combination door and window. This will greatly facilitate cleaning and filling hoppers in an extremely long house. "The droppings boards, perches and nests are best arranged on the back wall, the perches being hinged to the wall so that they may be hooked up when cleaning, the nests being darkened by a hinged door in front which may be let down when it is desired to remove the eggs. "The dividing partition between the units is built of boards and ex- tends from the back wall to within six feet of the front wall; the remain- ing space is left entirely open. This protects the birds from any drafts when on the roosts. When desired, portable, light wire partitions may be used to separate the units. A large dry mash hopper can be built into this middle partition. If four or more units are built, it is only necessary to have a hopper in the center of every other unit, the other dividing ^46— partition being utilized for nesting space. There is an elevated platform under the muslin front which provides room for the water fountain and grit and shell hoppers. FLOOR PLAN FRONT VIEW ^ MUS LIN \ ^ - ■' _ - ' R Ei^ - m Fig:. 24. — New Jersey House. "When the house is completed a concrete floor should be laid, and should consist of three distinct layers. First, a layer of about six to ten inches of cinders or coarse gravel, tamped thoroughly to serve for drain- age purposes to keep the soil moisture away from the bottom of the floor. Next a rough coat of concrete about four inches thick, and over" "this a finished coat of two parts of sand to one of cement, troweled smooth and rounded at the corners. Where there is danger of much moisture coming up from below it is advisable to put a layer of tarred building paper between the rough and finished coats of cement. It should be nailed down with the flat headed nails, and the heads of the latter should be left sticking out about one-quarter of an inch to hold the top coat. "Such a floor is moisture-proof, rat-proof, vermin-proof and easily and quickly cleaned. "Total cost of this house, not including labor, if concrete floor is put in the house and cinders and sand have to be purchased, is $177.89. "This gives a cost per square foot of floor space of $0,222; a cost per running foot of house of $4.44; a cost per bird, allowing 4 square feet per bird, of $0,888. Adding labor to this at one-fourth the cost of material, the total cost of $222.36, or $1.11 per bird." THE "LAYWELL" HOUSE The Modern "Laywell" House is a house designed for large flocks of laying hens. It is designed with a view to economy of both material in building and of labor in carying for the flock. It is patterned largely after the R. C. Lawry Hendwell, used on the Yesterlaid Egg Farms. One man can feed and water the fowls, gather the eggs, clean the houses and still have spare time for other work, and we do not know of any other system of housing by which this is possible, unless it is in a large Fool Proof House built on the two-story plan. These houses can be built 20x40 feet for SCO Leghorns, 24x48 feet for 750 Leghorns, and 30x60 feet for 1,000 Leghorns. They will not accom- modate quite so many of the larger breeds. The house is divided in the middle, and half of the block kept on each side. The house is two stories, the lower rooms being used in which to feed and lay, and the upper room being used as a roosting room. The ceiling of the upper room should be ceiled, and the upper story should be covered with roofing or building paper, as this adds to the warmth of the roosting quarters. The house is built of matched siding or battens. The lower story is seven feet high and the upper story is six feet. The windows in the lower story should be arranged so they can be raised and lowered. The windows admit an abundance of sunlight and can be lowered or raised to admit ventilation. If the wind is from the east or from the southwest, we close all windows on that side of the house and leave the windows on the opposite side open. By this system we always have plenty of fresh air, and also avoid a wind or draft on the fowls. You will notice that the windows are on all sides of the house. The windows in the upper story consist of a single sash and are ar- ranged so as to slide back and forth. Some of the windows should always be open at least part way in even the most severe weather, unless the temperature should drop to one or more below zero. The exit for the fowls should be through the windows. It is advisable to have two large yards or ranges in connection with each house. While the yard on one side is being cultivated the fowls can use the other yard. Mode-rn. 'Lauwe,U" House,. xox^ofL. Fig. 14. — Laywell House. There are only two outside doors to the building. The lower one being used by the attendant and the upper one is used for storing feed in the two large bins. The dry mash hopper and the mixed grain bin each hold sufficient feed to last the flock for at least a month. The feed is mixed in the feed room and then hauled to the "Laywell" and the bins and self-feeding hopper are each filled. The dry mash feeds continually into the hopper below, and all the attendant has to do each time he feeds is to open the chute below and take out sufficient grain to feed the stock. The water is piped to the building, and about all the attendant needs to do is to see that the building is kept clean, gather the eggs, and look after the health and comfort of the fowls. The droppings can be easily —48— cleaned from the roosting room by means of a steel brush or broom, and brushed from the upper door into a chute and run directly into the farm wagon and hauled out to fertilize the fields which are being culti- vated. The roof is covered with sheeting and composition roofing. The foundation is of concrete and the floor should be of the same. The nests are arranged about the wall, and it is best to have a slanting cover over the top to prevent the hens from roosting on them. Make them. Make the entrance from the end or back so the nests will be reason- ably dark. Steps should be built near the back of each room, and preferably to one side, so that the attendant may easily ascend them, and the birds use them in going up to roost. It is well to make the steps of light material and hinge them at the top so they can be pulled up out of the vvay during the day and the attendant can let them down when the last afternoon feed is given. They can be balanced with a weight much the same as a window sash. Nearly the entire upper floor may be covered with roosts. A passage- way should be left entirely around the outside of the roost poles. It may also be necessary to place a six-inch board around the room, just about six inches wider than the roosts, so that the droppings and feathers can be confined. '•^~- Ste-os 1 \ ^\ en ti latino fi 'osts - Dru Mash •^Bin Which. Fteds nopp&r Be, low. Mijccd Grain Bin. ^Entrance to ffoosfincf Room. -' /foosti na Ro Ha// SX5 i^^entLlatin.a r/ue- — >= oosts Plan of Se co/ i cf Hoor so^-^oyt. Fig-. 64. — Modern Laywell House. Many large poultry farms have failed in the past because the amount of labor recjuired to care for the birds in the ol dstyle long houses robbed the farm of all its profits. This house has certainly solved this problem, and we most heartily recommend its adoption by all who expect to establish large commercial egg farms. The details and interior of the house can be arranged to suit you, and perhaps improved upon, but the system and general idea should not be departed from. This house is intended only for use where fowls are kept in large numbers and where they have plenty of range. You must build such a house only on dry sandy soil, or on soil that is well drained, or you might be troubled with soil contamination. Use only one sash and place the windows in the upper story even with the level of the floor and not so high as shown in the drawing. The roost poles should be above the level of the top of the windows. Venti- late near the floor of the roosting room, and arrange the windows so they will slide back and forth. —49— THE HENDWELL Or a House of 1,000 Laying Hens The 1,000 unit house called the Hendwell represents a radical de- parture in poultry house construction, but it combines many ideas that are worthy of consideration by those contemplating handling poultry on a large scale. The Hendwells are 30 feet wide by 60 feet long, and so built and located that one man can very easily care for five of them. They are pro- vided with cement floors and foundations and divided into two rooms. Fig-. 65. — Outside view of the Hendwell as used on the Yesterlaid Egg Farms at Pacific, Mo. each 30 feet square. Each of these Hendwells is a complete poultry plant in itself. The attendant has to go through only two doors to do the work required in the care of a thousand hens. The common objection, says Mr. Lawry, raised to the long continuous house with the light coming from one direction only, is that the hen work- ing with her head toward the light, constantly scratches the litter towards the back of the house where it becomes piled up to such an extent that it must be raked to the front of the house each day in order to keep the floor evenly covered. In the Hendwell, this objction is entirely obviated and it has never been found necessary to stir the litter in any way or to even it up in depth by moving it from one part of the room to another. The light is so uniform that the hens can work equally well in any part of the house or when facing any direction. It is the opinion of Mr. Lawry that the cost of one of these buildings should not exceed $1,150 in any locality and might very easily be kept as low as $850. (It will cost 40 per cent more at present prices of material.) In these houses there are constant currents of air near the floor of the roosting rooms. The perches rest on wooden horses which place the fowls above the window openings. There is a folding stairway which is let down in the early part of the morning to permit the hens to begin scratching in the litter as soon as they leave their roosts. It is difficult to find a house that has more labor saving devices than a Hendwell. If you launch at once into the poultry business with the money to make an immediate purchase of your stock, or if you can arrange to rear —50— enough pullets for one of these houses, we believe that you would find this method of housing satisfactory. An objection that can be urged against the Hendwell is that it does not allow one to grow gradually into the work and add units by unit as as the flock increases. The unit of a thousand is large and it takes a beginner some time to reach this number if the stock must be raised, or a big outlay, if the fowls are to be purchased. Another thing to consider is that you cannot carry, with success, a thousand hens in a flock in. all sections of the country. It takes mighty good drainage to run so many together. Unless there is good drainage, or if the soil is heavy, there is danger of the ground becoming poisoned which will get the flock into trouble. U. S. "FARM COLONY" HOUSE The above illustrates one of the many large poultry houses of the type used on the Farm Colony of the United States Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. These houses are built two stories; the lower portion is filled with brooder stoves in spring and five to six thousand baby chicks are brooded in each one of these houses. The houses are 20 feet and 225 feet long. These young chicks are kept in these houses until they are fully matured. When they are old enough to do without heat, the stoves are removed and temporary roosting poles are put in the lower section There is an opening in the floor near the front in every section in the house and there is a board runway up to this opening which leads from the first floor to the second. The second story contains the nests, roosting quarters, etc. Nests are also placed in the lower section and this isused as additional scratch room. After the cockerels mature, they are culled out and sold for broilers or separated for breeding purposes. The pullets are left in the house and kept there until they are two years old or sold on the market. All the windows are hinged at the top and open outward. The greatest objection which has been found with this house is the im- — SI— mense amount of glass in front. There is also one window sash in each section in the rear of each story to admit light toward the back. By using muslin or burlap instead of glass in about one-half of the window space, tliis house gives very .qood satisfaction for large flocks. THE IMPROVED FOOL PROOF POULTRY HOUSE The accompanying illustrations, Figures Nos. 19 and 20, show the latest additions and improvements in the Fool Proof Poultry Houses. With these changes, the house is suitable to all climates, and the method of ventilation takes the carbon dioxide or the bad air away from the floor in winter months. We do not hesitate to recommend this to any and all poultrymen as one of the best designs for a poultry house that has yet been made public. In fact, it is so nearly perfect, that it can scarcely be improved upon. The same shutter ventilators are used that are used in the Fool Proof Houses. The bottom of these shutters are placed about one foot above the floor, so that the objectionable air may be taken from the house in winter and still preserve the body heat of the fowls, because the roosts are above the top of the shutter ventilator. We also have a twelve-inch venti- lator within one foot of the eaves in front of the house, so that this can be raised in summer and admit air near the roof. This ventilator is hinged at the top and opens out at the botton, which prevents the rain from blow- ing in. The triangular boards are hinged at each end of the top ventilator so that when the ventilator is closed in winter the boards at the end fold back out of the way. They are used only when the top ventilatof is open. They act as a prop and, also, prevent the rain from blowing in at the end of the top ventilator. They are held in place with hooks and eyes. In an extreme southern climate or where it is warm most of the year, the poultryman could have most of the space above the shutter ventilator covered with a curtain or cloth shutter on hinges and it could be opened outward in summer and closed in winter. Each window sash is independent of the other sash. All are hinged at the top and open outward at the bottom. We prefer all our windows arranged in that way so that the birds may have the advantage of additional venilation at times when needed, and at the same time the litter and he fowls and the house are protected from blowing rains and storms. There is a window sill dividing each sash, and the lower window sash is hinged to the underneath side of this sill. The top sash is hinged to the window frame at the top. When each sash is opened at the bottom, it is held in .place by a heavy wire which is twisted at one end to make an eye. Through this a staple is driven and the wire is held to the window frame. The other end of the wire is bent at a right angle so that it forms a hook. An- other staple is driven into the under side, which is the inner side of the window sash. The wire is hooked into that. Then the weight of the window rests on this heavy wire and there is no danger of the window blowing off the hinges or getting broken. All exits and hen doors should be at least eight inches from the floor to keep the litter from being scratched out and wasted. The rear of these houses are the same as the Fool Proof Houses and the rear ventilators and windows are the same. In the long laying house, 20 by 80 feet, figure 20, there are two doors near the center. If you do not use a double yarding system, only one door would be necessary. These are added for convenience in gathering eggs, cleaning and disinfecting the house, and for carrying in feed, and there is also an outside door in each end on the house. The center doors in front are only used in the long laying houses. The floor plan and interior of the house is practically the same as in the Fool Proof Houses. This can be arranged to meet the individual needs of each poultryman. We use and recommend large hoppers for the dry mash and bins for the grain feed. These will save carrying out small lots at a time. You will see that we also recommend swinging partition doors, even in the long laying houses. These permit the attendant to pass from —52— _J_ , ^ n ~n -r ^ h) LU 1 ♦ —S3— pen to pen without having to stop to unhook doors, but at the same time they prevent a draft, and also, enable one man to close the exits and catch any fowl which he sees out of condition, or to catch a bird for any other reason. He could not do this so well if there were no doors. There . is a passageway for the fowls between each door and the front wall. There is a foot space at that point with a small door that slides up and down. These doors are always kept open in the laying houses, except when the attendant wishes to divide the birds into four pens or desires to catch Fig. 6S. — A Fcol r'rocf Toultry House built by one of the SLudents of the American School of Poultr.v Husbandry. The ends and rear of house are covered with plaster board. The house is built in sections and bolted together so that it may l.e moved from place to place. The house was built on rented land and can be easily taken apart and moved. « glN > Cross SectLor\. of Sh.uH:ts.t- l/er\.tita.toT Irx-ia-rioT l/ieiv. Sh.u.iter' \/e r\.-t il a.-i''>r 5h.oYi irx.^ Sircps na.ileci Inte'ri jT c^ 3Jats. on. Fig. 21, — Cross section and interior of shutter ventilator —54— " 1 A f a X UJ J : 1 ' — I — — ' 1 <> ♦■ f:> <> — * =/.? — -»■ r—t- ■2 N .«-. est -Sft- —55— SHUTTER . VENTILATOR Fig-. To — CtusH section showing dimensions and arrange- ment of fi'orit of improved Fool Proof House. —56— a bird for any reason. When tlicse are open every hen in the Iiouse can liave accss to tlie entire house, from one end to the other. The.se small passageways are only closed when desired. The partitions in this house may he made of cloth, heavy domestic or canvas. The studs can he put in and, instead of using lumber,, you can often cheapen a house by using cloth and coating it with "Tector," sold by the Pittsburg Plate Glass Co. We think you should use a concrete foundation, just as is recommended in the Fool Proof Houses. If you prefer a board floor to concrete, we would recommend putting in iron ventilators in the' sides and ends of the foundation, which will admit ventilation under the floor and, at the same time, make the floor rat proof. You can lay a double floor if you want it extra good and dry, but in most climates a single floor answers very well. A dirt floor might be used inside of the concrete foundation in some sections, but we prefer either a board floor constructed as stated above, using a concrete foundation, or else a good concrete floor. Con- crete floors must be built in the spring or summer to give them time to become thoroughly seasoned and dried out before winter. Also, provide for plenty of underdrainage, or put a string of tiling- every four or s!x feet just underneath the floor and let it extend from one side of the foundation to the other. The air in passing through will keep the floor perfectly dry. The space between each slat in the ventilator is about an inch and a half. On the interior of each slat of the ventilator is nailed a little strip about the thickness of a lath. The edge of this strip extends about a half inch or more above the edge of the ventilator. This forces the current of air upward 'as the air passes through the ventilator. This pre- vents a direct draft on the fowls. This leaves a space of about an inch This illustrates one of the long Fool Proof Poultry Houses used on the American Poultry School's farm. This particular house is 14 feet deep and is divided into sections 14 feet square. This house shows the win- dows, ventilators, and all in operation with a portion of the flock in front. This house is fully described in this lesson and in lessons 1 and 2. —57— or less between the top of the binp and the next slat in the ventilator. As ventilators should be placed closer together, and in extreme northern cli- mates a cloth or burlap may be tacked over the interior of the ventila- tor in winter and removed in summer. By using a little common sense and making sli.t>hl changes to meet the needs of the climate, this system you go furher north and in climates where the wind blows consantly, the of ventilation can be used in all locations with equal satisfaction. If our opinion is worth anything, this is one of the best, if not the best, meth- od of ventilation used in any house in any climate. In warm climate these houses should be built more open and more cheaply constructed. If these houses are built in sections 12x12 feet, or 14x14 feet, we recommend building them 8 feet high in front and 5i feet in the rear. If you use them as a large laying house, sections 20x20 feet, they should be built about 9 feet in front and 5i in the rear. In 8x12 feet colony houses, 7 feet is high enough for the front. You can change the height to fit your lumber and your needs. The important thing above everything else is the system of ventilation. It will tend to increase the egg yield and the good health of your flock, and will aid you in avoiding dampness, colds, roup and kindred diseases. We call these Fool Proof Houses because the method of ventilation is practically fool proof. That is one of the most essentia! features of any house. We recommend the Fool Proof Houses in preference to any we have ever used or seen used. You can build them in colony houses 8x12, or in units 10, 12, 14, 16 or 20 feet square, or the large house for one large flock can be built, 48x60 feet. All will give equal satisfaction. TWO-STORY FOOL PROOF HOUSE Pig. 66. — Two story Pool Proof House. The shutter ventilators should be lowered to within a foot of the floor. That is the only improvement we could suggest in the above plan to make it highly satisfactory in every detail. —58— It is possible to double the floor space and add at least SO per cent more to its capacity without adding but very little to the original cost. By making the house a two-story building this can be easily and inex- pensively done. Fig. 66 represents such a house. We would recommend building a four-inch concrete wall for a foundation, just the same as in the other Fool Proof houses. A dirt floor may be used in the lower part. The soil in this should be removed and renewed about once or twice a year. The front of the lower portion should be covered with one-inch mesh poultry netting and a door built in each section to permit the attendant or birds to go in and out. The only extra cost in building the lower part of the house is the studding and siding boards. The upper portion of the house should be built like the "Improved Fool Proof Type." The hens eat, lay and roost in the upper room. This has a board floor. The hens pass up and down on a runway on the in- side of the lower section, and by way of the stairway on the outside. There should be a stairway built on each end of the house and there should be a runway coming up through the floor in the front of each section. The opening in the floor has a trap door that can be let down so as to close the same when necessary. This opening in the floor is made in one corner of the room near the front. It is surrounded by an eight or ten inch board so as to confine the straw or litter to the upper floor. In bad winter weather, the hens can be confined to this house for long periods of time with no very bad results. They have a board floor above, covered with litter in which to exercise, and they have a floor below so they can get onto the soil. We recommend this house for use on city lots where hens must be confined throughout the year. You can buy pullets in the fall and put them in this house and keep them there and they will pay a handsome profit on the feed and the investment. You can put at least 33 1-3 to SO per cent more hens in the two story than you can in the same house built as a one story. This idea can be used in either the 14, 16 or 20 feet, sections and the house built as long as desired. The lower story should be built at least four or five feet high. It can be built high enough for you to walk erect beneath the floor but that is hardly thought necessary. S9- QUESTIONS FOR HOUSING LESSON NO. 4 1 — How can the long house be arranged so as to use a portion of it for a good breeding pen for a few birds? 2 — What method is used to keep the curtains in place in the Massachusetts house? 3 — In a few words, wnat docs Dr. LeGear give as the requisites of a poultry house? -I — What objections, if any, could you offer to the U. S. "Farm Colony'' house? S — What is the principal defect of the Dr. Woods' house and how can it be remedied to some extent? 6 — What addition should be made to the Clare Cold Weather house? Why? 7 — What advantage has the Macdonald type of house over the Tolman type ? 8 — Along what wall are the roosts and droppings boards placed in the Lambert house? 9 — What kind of walls and roof are recommended for the New Jersey house? 10 — Where are the nests, hoppers, drinking pans, grit and shell hoppers placed in the New Jersey house? 11 — How many birds can one man take care of in the Laywell houses? Why? 12 — How are the windows arranged in the Laywell house? 13 — Describe the arrangements for feed and water in the Laywell house. 14 — How can the Missouri House be made good for cold climates? IS — What is the estimated cost of a Hendwell for 1,000 laying hens? 16 — In what way is the Improved Fool Proof House better than the ordi- nary type of Fool Proof House? 17 — Describe the method of putting in partitions in the Improved Fool Proof House. 18 — How are the windows hung in this house? 19 — What can you say of the construction of the shutter ventilator? 20 — \\'hat advantages has the two-story Improved Fool Proof House? -60— INDEX Page "A" Shape Colony House 17 Air Requirements for Poultry, Man and Cattle 4 Alleys 9 -\mount of Space per Bird ■ 5 Breeding Pens in Long Houses 28 Building Costs. • • ■ • 2 Canadian Poultry House 39 Cheap Summer House '. 30 Clare Cold Weather House 44 Colony Houses • ■ • ■ • ■ 10 Concrete Floors 8 Concrete Houses. • • 2>7 Connecticut House. 35 Cornell Laying and Breeding House 23 Construction of Foundation 5 Dirt Floors ■ • • • 8 Doors 7 Dryness of Concrete Floors 23 Dust Boxes 26 Ellis House ■ ■ . 41 Fool Proof Colony House 18 Hendwell • • • ■ • • 51 Housing Carnations and Roses 1 Improved Fool Proof Houses 53 Kansas Colony House ' 12 King Ventilating System ■ ■ 6 Labor Saving Devices 2 Lambert's Poultry House 45 Laying Out and Squaring Up the Floors 9 Laywell House. • • 48 LeGear Poultry House 29 Locating a Colony House ■ ■ 12 Locating the Foundation 9 Macdonald College House 40 Maine House 18 Massachusetts House • ■ 28 Minnesota House. 28 Mi ■•• 31 INDEX— Continued Page Mests 9 New Jersey House • • • ■ 46 Ohio Colony House IS Oregon Colony House • • 13 Owen Farm Colony House 14 Partitions 39 Points on Movable Colony House 8 Questions on Lesson No. 3 27 Questions on Lesson No. 4. . • • 61 Rafters and Eaves 6 Remodeling Houses 1 Roosting Closets • • ■ 18 Scratching Shed Houses 4 Semi-Monitor Top' Poultry House 33 Shutter Ventilator 69 Size Glass to Use in Houses 7 Straw Loft 9 Summer Colony House 38 Sunlight 3 Tile • ■ 8 Tile Houses 37 Two Story Fool Proof House 59 Tolman House 21 and 39 Utah Colony House • 12 U. S. "Farm Colony" House 52 U. S. Government Colony House 14 Ventilation 3 Warm Climate House 22 Wind Baffler 24 Windows 7 Wood's House. 33 Poultry Equipment, Appliances and Accessories By T. E. QUISENBERRY Copyrighted, 1932, American Poultry School The poultryman who pitches feed from the door of the residence or out of the corn crib as he feeds the stoclj has little need of appliances for the saving of labor. The man or woman who wishes to adopt the modern way of caring for the fowls needs to have conveniences to carry on the work. i There are many devices placed on the market by manufacturers for the saving of labor. Some of them are good and some are worthless. If you are handy with the saw and hammer, you can make most of the ap- pliances you need and save this investment. The appliances that we rec- ommend are for the most part little trouble to build and more or less in- expensive. However,* there is a limit to the number of appliances needed, and the man of mechanical turn will often spend much thought and time trying to improve on appliances and gives time to such work that could be so well used in working out the various poultry problems with which he is daily confronted. Do not spend a lot of money in useless appli- ances or things which are not badly needed. A great deal can be wasted in that manner. But at the same time, build or buy such things as will enable you to care for your flock more economically or in a manner that will increase the growth of your fowls or increase your profits. We have not attempted to describe or illustrate a device of any nature that we do not feel is really worth the time and money required to make or purchase same, should it be needed by the poultryman. Some of the devices can be made by the poultryman himself, but in a few cases the ap- pliance that is re(iuired must be bought. FEEDING APPliIAXCES FOR YOUXG CHICKS Figure 1 represents rectangular troughs ranging in depth from two to four inches. These can be made about six inches in width and any length desired. They are used for dry mash. The one to the right is used to teach young chicks the use of the troughs. Ordinary one-inch poultry netting or hardware cloth is cut to fit the inside of the box. This is placed over the feed to prevent the chicks from scratching mash out of the trough. After learning how to get the feed from the trough and the chicks have become more active, a deeper feeder can then be used. Do not fill the feeders more than half full, and place the wire over the feed, which will prevent chicks from scratching mash into the litter and wasting it. These troughs are used until the chicks are able to get their food from a hopper that is more sanitary. The second trough is three inches deep; the third is four inches in depth. If a strip of lumber about an inch square is nailed in the center of the top of this feeding device so that it extends through the center from one end to the other and makes a sort of division in the foed trough, the chicks will be forced to stand and eat from either side, rather than to get in the hopper with their feet. Some will get in, in spite of everything that you may do, but this helps to prevent that to some extent. Fig. 2. Figure 2 is an inexpensive and easily made device for feeding young chicks. The cover is attached to two vertical end pieces which set loosely Fig. into a guide iron or galvanized tin nailed at each end. This allows the cover to be easily and quickly removed, so that the chick feeder can be refilled or easily cleaned. The top helps to prevent chicks from getting into the hopper to some extent. The top is held in place by screws, which set against the guide iron or tin, and keeps the cover at a desired height. At times it is found necessary to place a frame just above the top edge and to fasten wires every three inches across this frame. This will pre- vent any wasting of the feed. The frame is removable to allow easier cleaning of the troughs. The troughs are about three inches wide and three inches deep. Figure 3 shows one of the chick feed boxes or troughs, which is being used for the feeding of moist mash. The mash is first mixed in a bucket or large galvanized pan or container made for that purpose, or it may be moistened in a galvanized half-bushel. No more moist mash should be fed at any one time than the chicks will clean up within 15 to 30 minutes, and the feeding devices should be thoroughly cleaned before the fresh feed is placed in same. These strips that are nailed through the center of the feeding boxes help to prevent the chicks from soiling the feed. The above feeding trough is made about six inches wide and about two and one-half or three inches deep. Dry mash or moist mash may be fed in such troughs or feeders. Fig. 4. Figure 4 shows two devices for watering young chicks that are newly hatched, and also two of the feeding devices. No. 1 shows an ordinary galvanized or granite pan in which may be placed an inserted teacup, granite cup or can, simply for the purpose of preventing the chicks from getting in the pan, so as to avoid getting wet, and to prevent them from littering up the water or milk. No. 2 is an ordinary board that is six inches or a foot wide with a two- inch strip nailed on the side to prevent the feed from easily being scratched off of the feeding board. This can be used for feeding the rolled oats bran and hard boiled eggs as a first feed for the chicks, and it can be used later for feeding moist mashes. You will note that the ends of this feeding makes it easy to clean the trough. If a device of this sort is used for device are open, which permits the chicks to enter from either end, and growing stock or laying hens it is best to use a board that Is 10 inches or a foot wide as the bottom of the feeder. It is also necessary to tack cleats on the bottom of the feeder to keep it up off the ground, and to prevent the sun and rain from cracking or warping it. No. 3 is another one of the feeding devices described in figure one. No. 4 is a home-made fountain with which to feed sour milk, butter- milk or water to the young chicks. A shallow pan may be used for that purpose and a tin can may be used large enough to almost fill the pan. There should simply be room enough between the can and the side of the pan to permit the chicks to drink freely. Holes may be punched in the side of the can or fountain, so that the holes will come down inside of the pan and just high enough to permit the water or milk to run almost to the top of the pan. The fountain can be filled and the pan placed over it and then turned quickly to the position shown in the illustration, and the foun- tain will fill of Its own accord. Fig. 5. Figure 5 illustrates different sizes of chick feeders made and sold by the Norwich Automatic Feeder Co., of New London, Conn. We have found these feeders to be very satisfactory for use during the first two weeks after the chick is hatched. While cleanliness is essential in every stage of poultry culture, there is no department where it manifests itself ab- solutely necessary to a greater degree than in the raising of baby chicks. Thousands upon thousands are sacrificed every year due to the unsani- tary conditions, chiefly due to pollution in the feed, and there is no doubt that the dreaded White Diarrhea and kindred diseases will spread more rapidly from this cause than any other. These feeders are sanitary, and being convex in shape, it is impossible for the chicks to puU out or scatter the feed until the chicks are three weeks old or older. After that age it is necessary to use some other feeder, for you will find that they will begin to waste considerable feed. These are fitted with a removable guard rod which helps to prevent the chicks from getting into the feeder, or from roosting on it. The body of the feeder is made of galvanized iron. As it is water tight, it may be used for mash chick feed or sour milk with equal satis- faction. Fig 6. Figure 6 is a chick feed trough that is made by the Oaks Manufac- turing Co., of Tipton, Ind. These troughs are very convenient for feeding flocks of baby chicks. The trough proper is made on the half circle so that every bit of feed can be easily eaten out of it. Over the top is a gable shaped cover which prevents the chicks from getting into it and wasting the feed. This cover is a separate piece and slides on and off easily. The troughs are made of galvanized iron, and are reasonably strong and durable. The chicks eat through the openings in the sides of the cover. A few of these troughs are very convenient to use in start- ing the baby chicks. — 4 — Fig. 7. Figure 7 shows various styles of hoppers and feeders used from the time the first feed is given the baby chicks until the fowls are fully ma- tured. You will notice the feed troughs and feeders in the foreground that are used in starting the baby chicks. The two larger hoppers in the rear are those used for feeding growing stock and laying hens. These larger hoppers will be illustrated on other pages. The smaller feeders have already been described. PROTECTING THE CHICKS' POOD AND FEEDERS Figure 8 is a feed trough for baby chicks which protects the chicks from the sun, and also from the older birds. This device is especially IZOOF/HO- l>AP^>^ "Zl'MesH valuable as a feeding pen for chicks that run with older fowls. The teed is placed in the trough which is kept in the center on the interior of the appliance, and the chicks reach it by g-oing under the board sill which is about four inches above the ground. The top is covered with ordinary roofing material which makes the coop rain proof. This pre- vents the food from being spoiled and wasted in case of rain. Ordinary poultry netting is used with which to cover the sides and the ends of the pen. This prevents the older fowls from eating the high priced food that Is necessary and intended for the baby chicks alone. It also prevents the young chicks from being trampled on by the larger ones. This coop can be built in any size that is necessary, depending entirely upon the size of the flock. The only dimension necessary to really observe is the height of four inches for the bottom sill above the ground. Fig. 9. Figure 9 is a frame covered with wire netting to protect young chicks from the older fowls while being fed. This is simply a square pen built about 18 inches in height, and the end, sides and top covered with poultry netting. This can be built out of light framing material or most any scraps of lumber about your premises. It is vital that the younger chicks be protected from the older ones, il chicks of different ages are being raised in one flock. The sill is about four inches from the ground, which permits the younger chicks to pass in and out, but prevents the older fowls from entering the feeding pen. These are made as light as possible, so that they can be handled by one or two men and moved to a clean feeding spot occasionally. De- vices of this sort will save enough chicks in one season to pay the cost of same several times over. If the top was partially covered with roofing ma- terial so as to protect the feeder from sun and rain it would make the coop still more valuable. These coops are necessary only when young chicks are being fed and grown where there are older fowls. Figure 10 represents a shelter. It may be used as a shelter to pro- tect the feed trough or the drinking pan from the hot rays of the summer sun. It is also a refuge for chicks in case of hawks. These can be built in any dimensions, depending upon the purpose for which you intend to use them. The shelter here illustrated has a base that is 2 4 inches wide — 6 — and four inches high, and each section of the top is 18 inches in width. Only one side of the top is hinged, so that it may be raised and thus made more convenient when filling the trough or fountain. The opposite side of the roof is made stationary. It can be made high enough to hold any ordinary sized fountain without difficulty. This appliance prevents the sun and rain from beating into the hopper or fountain, and affords the birds some shelter while feeding. Fig. 10. It can also be made so that it will protect the poultry feed from cattle where poultry ranges on the same ground. The eaves extend out over the roof two inches on the sides and ends. It can be made any length to suit the particular requirements of the poultryman. The troughs should not be allowed to extend the entire length of the shelter. The sills are made out of 2x4 material, or if you want them higher from the ground you can make them out of 2x6's. All uprights, including the rafters, are made of lx4's or 2x2's. If a person did not want to go to the trouble and expense of constructing outdoor hoppers, this appliance can be made to serve the purpose to some extent. It can be used for feed- ing either dry or moist mash. FEED HOPPERS AND FEED DEVICES FOB DRY MASH A feed hopper to fulfill its mission must be automatic. The hopper must be simple and inexpensive. A hopper must be so constructed that the feed will pass from the hopper proper into the feed trough without clogging and at the same time be so constructed that it will prevent the birds from wasting feed as they eat. The feed must fall down to take its place. To keep the hopper from choking it is necessary to give ample fall to the sides. In feeding mash it is often desirable to allow the fowls access for only a part of the day. For this reason it is better to have the hopper so constructed that it has a hinged door to close down over the feed place when necessary. There is danger of the hens picking over the mash to get some de- sired food material, and often in doing this they flip out much of the mash on the floor and it is fouled and wasted. To prevent this, the feed part of the hopper should have ample depth and protection to keep them from getting into and drawing out the feed. A hopper so constructed that the fowls waste much mash is an expensive fixture. Dry mash for feeding of chicks calls for the use of hoppers or feed devices of some sort from a few days after the chicks come from the shell until the close of their lives. The hopper feed method is a saiver of labor and the keeper of large flocks must use every effort to save steps. It has become a practice everywhere, and this demand has brought various devices on the market, most of which could he made at home. A feed trough is a simple device for starting chicks so they can get to the feed better than they could in a hopper attached to the wall. DRY MASH HOPPERS DRY MA3H HOPPER Fig. 11. Figure 11 shows the dry mash hopper that can be used In the interior of the poultry house in which to feed growing stock and laying hens. The base of the hopper is 8 Inches in width. This permits the birds to stand in front and reach the food even in the back of the hopper. The front is 4 inches high and the rear is 8 inches in height. The hopper can be built in width as desired. We usually recommend building them just the length required for the space in which they are intended to be used in the poultry house. There is a lid that covers the hopper, which is hinged at the rear, so the hopper may be closed and the feed protected from the birds in case it becomes necessary to do so for any portion of the day. It is also a good idea to have a slatted door, such as is shown in the illustration. The slats being one inch in width and placed two inches apart. This slatted piece should be made so it can be hinged at either the bacli; and front of the hopper, or else constructed so that it may simply be laid over the hopper and remain stationary. This prevents the birds from getting into the food. The slats, which are two inches apart, per- mit the birds to eat freely from same. You will find this is a splendid de- vice for feeding dry mash to any age birds from three weeks to full grown fowls. It is a hopper that can be easily cleaned and refilled. The lid is left open when in use, but is closed when necessary to prevent the birds from consuming too much food. Fig. 12. Figure 12 on the left illustrates a galvanized drinking fountain, such as can be bought from most any poultry supply dealer. The bottom of the fountain can be removed and the fountain inverted when being filled. The bottom is then placed in position and the fountain suddenly turned into position shown in the illustration. The water gently flows to the small opening in the front where the chicks are permitted to Fig. 13. — 9 — crlak. Tl* t.n: fcof >*:r oft 'i.^ i'rft i« 8 inches deep. The lid ot same has a i-.'ch siop« froit the froat to the rear. From the bottom of the hopper -9 tit ©^niz? wttre the fowU feed ia a space of 4 inches. On tr.e ;ros: is caiicd a at^.f a'>3iit one inch in width at the bottom of the sLM* usd tte i'r:p sUjits at an angle of 43 degrees. The feed that Is f.;;;-rd <^t ar '--* bird: then fall* back into the hopper. The slats in '.r-jz^: in nail«d abont ? cr 3 :::•:*: es apart, depending upon the age of the %:ri- for vhick :: is :z:~z that the birds can stand on the front ai thU and eat , .'. of the hopper. The doTice shown in the center '.: :be s^m* as that d-s^ribed in fignrell. You will find this one of tae 5 laplest a^d cheapest hoppers that can be made. On the ex- treme ngf. Is i:;ustrated a waU nest which is described on another page m the lesson. r 2 - 13 - a V-shaped tronzr. It has a slatted protector to keep the fowls ;r n: getting :nto the fe^d The trough can be made out of or- dinary 1x8 =:i-f^nal. and :s adapted to feeding growing stock and laying hens. I; .s especiallT ralnable in feeding moist mash or sprouted oau. It is conrenient. easiir niade and easUy cleaned. The cover is made ol slau which are pta.-rd alu" . inches apart and is made on a irame w-hich Is hns^d for convenience in feeding. This prevents the Dirfls from crowding into the trcu?h and soUing the feed with their leet. ine two main things to guard against in feeding moist mash is to ^eep tne fowls from soUinz tir mash with their feet and not to feed so ireeiy that the birds win cot consume all the food and allow it to remam in the trough to become sojr or n.ouldy. Fig. 14. Figure 14 is a V-shaped feeding trough which is easily and clieaply constructed. A piece of 1x2 material is placed across the trough running through the center. This acts as a protection, to some extent, in ^^^P'°.° the birds from getting into the trough and soiling the food with their feet. It also acts as a handle in moving the trough from one place to another and makes it somewhat more rigid. It helps to prevent the enas from coming apart. Figure 15 shows a non-clogging, non-wasting dry mash hopper. In the upper section of the hopper there as a storage capactiy for a week s supply of dry mash for a flock of 100 laying hens. The hopper is non- clogging because the sides are straight up and down. The objection to the open style hopper is that it permits the birds to stand in the food so that it soon becomes soiled. Some hoppers are so constructed tha^t they clog and when you make the openings wide enough so that the mash will fall down, many hoppers then waste feed. A hopper like that illus- trated can be installed in a partition of a poultry house so that the birds may feed from either side, or it can be placed on a platform indoors or out of doors as may be required. The bottom part of this hopper works satisfactorily if not filled too full, in which case it is liable to waste. With this style one is spared the sight of his hens struggling to reach their mash along the side of a hopper, half the open space of which Is covered by slats. Again one is spared the trouble of poking with sticks or the employment of other methods for freeing most of the so- called, non-clogging hoppers. In this hopper we have storage capacity — 10 for a week, but supply only enough for a day's feeding by drawing out the slide in the bottom of the storage bin until that quantity has run out. This slide will not join or clog if made with a fairly loose fit. -B- ...^.tf'-c-^ y/aa^^^ .i i XL. {« ^^.e- >j \^.-.'l.'.'-r.o- ^ Fig. 15. The bottom of the storage bin may be made of ordinary flooring or ship-lap. The top is made of 1-inch boards with one side hinged for inside use, or it can be held in place by cleats. For the out-of-door hopper, the top should be made with a greater over-hang and covered with roofing paper. Of course, all dimensions given are arbitrary, but we have found this width to be most satisfactory as the hens can reach to the center from either side. The lumber should be surfaced at least on one side and that side should form the inside of hopper to prevent injury to combs. It is well also to round the edges along which the hens feed. With the hopper shown and described here, it is impossible to waste feed if the hopper is not filled too full, neither will it clog. But if the hopper is filled so high as to allow the hens to bank the mash up against the edge, then there is danger of feed being wasted. The same principle in com+ructing the hopper for feeding dry mash to young chicks and Fig. 16. growing stock can be used except that instead of 6-inch sides you should use narrower strips, depending upon the age of the chicks, where again the dimensions are arbitrary. The length should be governed by the number of birds in the flocks. The openings along the sides should vary in width from one-half inch for young chicjcs to three inches for grown fowls. Figure 16 shows two sizes of the Norwich Automatic Feeders and Exercisers made by the Norwich Automatic Feeder Co., of New London, Conn. We do not ordinarily recommend automatic feeders for grains, for in most cases we believe that grain should be hand fed, but this feeder has proven one of the best of the kind that we have ever used. This hopper Is rain proof, rat proof and also dust proof and may be placed on the outside of your building if you find it necessary to do so. These hop- pers are better for the feeding of laying hens than they are with which to feed breeding stock, as breeding stock should really be hand fed. The machine consists of a hopper sufficiently large to carry a given quantity of grain feed, in the bottom of which is fitted an adjusting valve, which is set to allow such quantities of feed to escape from the hopper as may be desired. Directly under the valve Is located the De- flector and the feed, passing from the hopper through the valve, falls at once to the Deflector, and by it is scattered on the ground or floor In a wide, even circle. The Bait Bar which is the cross piece under the De- flector (resembling an ear of corn) is connected by an adjustable rod with a small agitating disc which performs the double duty of acting as a stop to the valve, and stirring up the feed about to be delivered. The machine, as will be observed, is mounted on three adjustable iron legs so it will stand In any yard, whether level or located on a hillside, and may be used alike for baby chicks fresh from the Incubator or the adult fowl, by simply lengthening or shortening the legs as desired. Fig. 17. The Bait Bar is hung on a rod which is attached to the agitating disc by set screw, and under the Deflector the rod is held by a cross piece, so its true position is assured. The Agitator is protected by a shield to carry the weight of the grain In the Hopper and is relieved of all fric- tion, and as the fowl touches the Bait Bar, giving it but the slightest peck, it turns away from the bill, thus absolutely and positively obviating any —12— soreness or damage to the mouth, and, in turning, operates the disc, which sends a regulated shower of feed onto the Deflector, and it Is thus scattered. A tooth or prong on the disc covering the openings in the valve, instantly checks the flow of feed, and whether or not litter Is placed under the machine, the fowl will at once begin a scratching and hunting till grain is found and eaten, when another will peck at the Bait Bar, and down will come another supply of feed. Thui the stock is kept constantly in motion while feeding. Figure 17 shows a cross section of the double dry mash hopper. The dimensions are also given for the construction of same. This is a slatted front, out-door hopper, and one should be kept near each coop where the laying hens or growing stock are permitted to range. This hopper will enable you to feed your chickens once a week and thus save labor. Grain can be kept on one side and dry mash on the other. This shows the bottom and ends of the hopper made of one-inch boards, and, if it is possible to obtain same, the sides and partitions should be made of one-half inch material. The partition may be made of ordi- nary roofing material instead of boards. Inch square strips of box boards may be cut to which you can tack the ends and bottom edges of the middle partition. And then those strips of boards should be securely nailed to the ends and bottom of hoppers securing the partition firmly in place. Two laths or strips of batten should be nailed together along the top edge of these partitions, making a sort of a ridge pole. Fig. 18. Figure 18 is a view of the double dry mash hopper with the cover lifted. The slats in front are made of pieces of lath planed smooth and set two inches apart. Along the front is nailed a lath set so that it slopes inward as shown in the drawing of cross section. This tends to prevent the chicks from throwing out food as they are eating. If any is thrown up onto the sloping top, it slides back into the hopper. A little food is likely to be thrown out in spite of precautions. The cover of this hopper is made sloping like a roof and the eaves project four inches over each side. The ends are cut from light weight box material and strips of the same material, three inches wide, are cut for the support of the eaves. Two or three laths are nailed lengthwise between the eaves and ridge to support the roofing fabric which forms the cover. A hook and screw eye at each end secures it in place so that the wind cannot lift the lid off and expose the food to rain. Make a considerable projection on the eaves to protect the food from rain. —13— Figure 19 shows this hopper complete and chick eating from same. By malting the roof and the partitions of compostion roofing, it makes the hopper very light, so that it can be easily moved. These hoppers are made three feet long, thirteen inches wide and twenty inches high at the top of the cover. A hopper of this size will hold sufficient food for 30 to 40 growing pullets for a week. It will be noticed that the parti- Fig. 19. tion which divides the hopper in half is not in the exact center, but that it is set pver one inch from the center so that the throat of the dry mash side shall be an inch wider than the throat of the side for the grain. The mash flows less freely than does grain, and hence it is desirable to have an inch wider throat on that side for that reason. This hopper will prove very satisfactory, very simple and inexpensive for a city poultry raiser or where poultry is kept in small flocks. Figure 20 is an illustration of a dry mash hopper that can be used either as an indoor or as an outdoor hopper. This shows the base of the hopper to be 20 inches wide. You will note there is an A-shaped parti- tion in the center of the hopper which is made of four-inch boards. The distance between the side of the hopper and the partition is two inches, and the mash flows through this space. The feeding troughs on each side are 6 inches high and the walls of the hopper are 18 inches in height. The lids are hinged so that grain can be put on one side and mash on the other. If the hopper is to be used on the outside of a building, then it is advisable to tack a strip of rubberoid roofing over the lid so that this will extend 4 to 6 inches over the edge of the lid, which helps to pre- vent rain from beating into the hopper proper. There is a handle made on each end of the hopper for convenience in carrying same. The base of the hopper should be built on 2x4's, which prevents the feed from ab- sorbing moisture from the ground, and these 2x4's should extend out about 4 inches on each side of the hopper and on these should be nailed a 1x4 as a running board so the chicks can stand on the board and eat from each side. Figure 21 shows partitions made in these hoppers so that grit and shell can be used in different sections, grain and mash in other sections. However, our experience has been that it is best to divide the hopper the long way and place the mash in one side and the grain in the other. The grit and shell can be fed in smaller and less expesive hoppers and boxes. —14— Figure 22 pictures a bunch of coclcerels out on range that are using one of the above hoppers. You will note that the rubberoid roofing ex- tends down over each side and Is tacked on the underneath side of the lid to prevent rain from beating In. You will also note the run-way on the side of the hopper and the chicks standing on same. The partitions In the hopper run the long way. These hoppers can be built in any lengths from 3 feet up. Do not build them so long, however, that they are difficult to handle. Fig. 20. Figure 2 3 shows practically the same hopper with the same dimen- sions, method of construction, etc., except that only one side of the hop- per is used. It is made in this way so that it can be used along thie wall of a poultry house. The back side is placed against the wall in some convenient place and it is usually best to place these hoppers on a table that Is built about 2 feet high and wide enough so that there will be 6 inches of space in front of the hopper for the birds to stand on. Any- of the home-made double hoppers that are illustrated in this lesson can be — Ifi — diTided in the center as shown in this illustration, and the hopper is thus made suitable as a wall hopper for a poultry house. If the hoppers are to be used on a table that is placed in the center of the room, ttie double hopper can be used so the birds can eat from either side, fou will note the wires on the slats that are placed across the iBouth of the hopper to prevent the birds from flipping the grain and mash from same. Figure 24 shows a cross section of a hopper which has features that are an improvement over any of the double hoppers mentioned above. The construction is very similar with the exception of two changes. You will note that the bottom of the hopper where the mash is shown, is cir- cular. This is made by making this portion of your hopper of galvanized iron. However, if the irons cannot be obtained, wood may be used and the bottom of the hopper is made of boards, with the exception that we Fig. 2 3. would add tho A-Bhaped partitions in the center in the bottom as illug- trated In Figure 20 Another Improvement is the construction ol tie top or lid. You will ruitp that the main portion ot the lid is made sta- tionary, and (he uppermost top is hinged on one side and folds back out of (he way while the hopper Is being filled. This gives you a lot more ca- pactiy for feed for the reason that your hopper can be filled almost to the top. which is Bpvpral Inches above the eaves. You will also note that the hinged portion of the lid overlaps the lower portion of same, which makes ttip hopper rain-proof and makes it especially valuable as on outdoor hopper. Also composition roofing may be used to tack on the under- neath side of the lower portion of the lid. __xz» Fig. 25. Figure 25 represents an inside hopper of new design. It is made 4 feet long, 2 feet 6 inches in height, and 15 inches deep. In construct- ing this hopper, a 12-inch circle should be cut, which could then be ''^ v,'" *^° ^''^ '^^ wood grain, and one of these pieces nailed onto each end of the hopper on the inside, over which the trough bottom is rormed by tacking sheet-iron or galvanized iron onto this. The sheet- iron should be about 20 inches in width and 3 feet 10 inches long. This rnn^Vn^°?i,v^ then nailed onto these semi-circles from below by first tn th^Vr^J,^^- *?f ''T'' "'' "^'^'^ °^ '^"PP^'- ^t point "b" and from there iLi l^fZf "P"^'^' ,r^^^^ '* *^ ^^^'° t^^'^^l i^°^ above. Strip "S" is then nailed on over this to retain the sheet-iron rigidly in place How- — 18 — ever, the iron should not be tacked at the front until you are sure that the distance or opening of the throat is just two inches in the clear to allow the proper amount of mash to pass through, not over filling the trough. On the other hand, if it is made too small, it will not permit a free passage of mash, causing the hopper to clog. This hopper, like the large one, is designed with a view to large capacity and is a perfectly sani- tary hopper in every particular. In the old style of hopper the mash had a tendency to accumulate in the corners and remain there uneaten, due to the fact that as soon as the fowls had eaten out a small portion of the trough's contents, a fresh supply would rush down upon the old mash, continuing to do so as long as there was any mash left in the hopper, never permitting the birds to eat the stagnant mash which would become molded and unpalatable, as well as unhealthy for consumption. This hopper, shown in the drawing, will eliminate these objections, inasmuch as it compels the mash that first goes into the throat to be eaten first by the fowls. Its under-force system of feeding prevents any mash from accumulating in remote corners ■ of the trough. No further bottom is placed in this hopper than the sheet-iron. The first boards in the back of the hopper are six Inches wide, over which the sheet-iron is passed,; there being no objection to running the iron up further. jj"jt«/p ep /loof'"'' "i^eK. Joint Fig. 26. Figure 26 shows a side, exterior view of the single and double hopper. This shows the lid of the trough raised so the birds may eat through the wires which are placed three inches apart. These wires prevent the birds from flipping the feed out of the hopper. You will note that the cover is hinged so that the top portion folds downwara. - Figure 27. This is practically the same hopper made in the same way as that described above, except that it has a double trough so that two rows of birds may feed from the same hopper. One row of fowls may -19 — tUKd on the upper 10-inch running board, and another row of lowla may •land on the lower 4-lnch running board. The running boards are bo pUced and ronatruried that droppings and Utter from the upper row do not fall on the fowls below. Yon will also note the difference in the sections of the lower portion of the hopper, there being no board on the rMr or outalde portion of the sheet metal or galvanized iron. Thw has ^ found not to be necessary. This style of hopper can be consm ed SoOiat not only two rows of fowls can eat from one side, but by building ..r^^ZTL Fig. 27. the hopper double, birds can eat from both sides. Where you ^'^^..^^tjiig for hopper space in a poultry house, you can build a hopper uite double feeding trough which gives double the capactiy ^un Diras can eat irom ooin siuua. »nicio j- .^jg in a poultry house, you can build a hopper ukb v with a double feeding trough which gives double the capactiy '"'"" ^ same amount of space. We have found this hopper to be very sai factory. Figure 28 shows a very large hopper built In the partition of a la.rge laying house. This hopper forms a part of the partition and will hola several hundred pounds of feed. It is so built that it can be filled from above and if you have a two-story poultry house, the hopper should be filled from the second story. The double feeding hopper illustrated in Figure 27 is especially well suited for such use. You will note the fowls eating from the trough. — 20 — Fig. 28. 3m6k Fig. 2 8A Fig. 28A. To construct the End Boards for the Single Peed Hopper proceed as follows: Select a board about three-fourths of an inch in thickness, not less than 10 inches wide and 25 inches long. Use the edge of the board or broken line A B as a working line. Measure along this line 2 % inches from A to C, making a mark at C; then make a mark at D, 12 inches from C; then make a mark at B, 10% inches from D. The board may then be sawed off at point B at right angle to the line A B, and then locate point E, 6 % inches from point B. Then beginning at A measuring across the end of the board 5% inches to point J; then extend this line 4% inches more to the opposite corner of the board 10 inches from point A; then along the edge of the board 2% inches to point H; then locate point G, 9% inches from the end of the board at J and 6 % inches from the edge of the board A. B. Then locate F, 18% inches from the lower end of the board and 9% inches from the edge of the board A B. To mark the board for sawing, draw a line from D to E, E to F, F to — 21— C, O to H. H to J, and J to C. TKcr. .,a.i on me cleats as shown on the iiliovi- llluBlrnlion a dlm^uin' from the edge of the end board equal to the iliii kiii'SH of thp lumber used as walls for the bin so that the cleats will nink»' the wall board come flush with the edges of the end board. When •o constructed It permits of doubling nailing, thus making the bin much stronger. , , ^ . , Care must be used at point In placing these cleats so as to leave a spar., for the front wall board of the bin to pass down below the feed irouKh lid. as shown In figure 2SA Fig. 28B Fig. 28B. — The great difficulty with most mash hoppers is the fact that the ground feed packs, sticks, bridges over and refuses to feed down. If it does feed down freely, it has a tendency to waste. This non-choKe hopper was designed with a view of avoiding this trouble. If the walls of the hopper or bin slope inward as much as one-fourth of an inch, the mash has a tendency to pack and clog. The hopper as shown in Fig. 28B flares at the bottom and there is no way for the feed to clog or bridge over. As long as there is any mash In the hopper it will feed down. Use the dimensions as shown in the illustration when constructing this style of hopper. — 22 — J)oubk /^on- chohe reedSm Pig. 28C Fig. 2 8C. — This shows an end and side view of the non-clog hopper. There is a revolving device on top to prevent the chickens from roosting on same. Fig. 28D Fig. 28D is the same hopper as shown in Fig. 28B except that the hopper is built with two runways and two openings to eat from on each side so that you have double the eating space that you have in the single — 23 — hopper. The ddnensions are shown in tlie Illustration. The length can be made to fit the available space in the poultry house where It is to be used. The best position for such a hopper is in the center of the room or In a partition between two rooms of a poultry house. Fig. 28E Fig. L'8E shows the end and side view of the double non-clog feeder or hopper. The complete dimensions of this hopper are shown in illus- tration Fig. 28D. ^ Azf.". - -*^ jeez: >!NM!EK«A\V -^^S/SSSiiSSea! :SSSS*iSSSS«iSS«8SS«a««ag!Sf -^98^^^ ?mm{ L .'ji'-.j:. Fig. 29. — 24 — t..l Figure 29 represents a table that is very useful in the average poultry house. This is a movable table, such as should be used on which to place hopper, drinking pans, etc. You will note a square trough placed between the front legs of the table. There is a lx4-inch running board on each side of this trough. The trough is used in which to feed moist mash or sprouted oats and other special foods which you wish to give your birds from time to time. The running boards of each side permit two rows of fowls to eat from the same trough. The front running board makes an easy place for the birds to fly on and off when getting up to the mash hopper which is placed on the table. A table like the above protects the troughs below from filth and droppings. OAT SPROUTERS Fig. 30. One of the best ways of supplying succulent green food in winter, or of reducing the feed bill, is through the medium of sprouted oats and very little time is required in their preparation; neither does the sprouter necessarily occupy but very little space. The sprouted oats are also better for the early hatched chick than most other forms of green food that are available. They possess a high feeding value if they are fed while the sprouts are not more than two inches in length. The sprouter can be placed in any ordinary basement, cellar or room where the temperature does not get below 50 degrees. The green food problem proves a dif- ficult one for the average poultryman during the winter months or for the city lot poultry raiser who is compelled to raise a number of fowls on a small piece of ground and where the ground is more or less bare for a considerable portion of the time. For the above reasons, we have found it a very profitable thing for the average poultryman to sprout oats at least during that portion of the year when other succulent, tender green food is not available. Figure 30 shows a tray of oats that has been sprouted. You can see that they are a mass of tender sprouts and roots. You have all of this tender, succulent green food in addition to the oat grain itself, which is practically as valuable for feeding as It ever was, providing the oats are fed within a week after they have been soaked for sprouting. The oats — 25 — are soaked In a burket or vessel of water lor auoui 12 nours. We usually measure out the oats each afternoon and cover them with water. They are allowed to soak in this over night and at feeding time the following morn- ing they are spread out in trays in the oat sprouter until the oats are about an inch in depth. The oats are then sprinkled once each day, which Is usually done In the morning when the trays are refilled. Each morning as the trays are emptied, the same trays can be refilled with oats which havo been soaked. Pig. 31. Figure 31 is an illustration ol: the rack and trays that are used for oat sprouting. The corner posts are made of 2x2 material. The slats which are used to hold the trays are made of 1x2 material. On the side of each slat, as you will note in the tray for "Tuesday" shown In Figure 31, there is a batten nailed on each of the slats to act as a guide in push- ing the trays into the sprouter. That prevents the trays from getting out of alignment and striking the posts when iDelng put in place. The sprouting trays should be made of 1x3 material. The bottom of each of these trays is made of galvanized iron. The bottom of each tray is punc- tured full of holes with a 16 to 20 penny nail or some other tool that will make a hole about that size. You cannot get them too thick, for it is necessary that your trays drain well for best results. You will note that there is a tray for each day of the week. That makes the oldest of the oats being fed on the 6th or 7th day. The bottom tray should be — 26^ about 18 inches from the floor and a piece of tin or galvanized iron tacked permanently to the frame of the sprouter in such a way that it is lower in the center than on either edge or in either corner. Then you can simply take a sprinkling can and sprinkle the top tray of oats once each day. Put sufficient water on the top tray so that the water will drip or run through into the tray beneath it and into the bucket or pan which should be placed on the floor below. The oats in each tray should be stirred up by hand once each day till they have well started to sprout. Each day they should be spread out level over the tray. This causes them to sprout even and helps prevent molding. The trays should be built about 30 inches square, or if you have only a small number of hens you can build a smaller sprouter or regulate the size of your sprouter acording to your individ- ual needs. It makes the trays inconvenient to handle if they are larger than 30 inches square. The slats should be so nailed that the trays, when in position, will be about 6 inches apart. If the sprouters can be used in an incubator room, cellar or some other room with a con- crete floor, it is not necessary to be so particular about spilling water. We have seen but few sprouters when lamps were used and when the sprouters were enclosed in which the oats did not mold more or less. Some of the incubator and supply companies are now manufacturing very good enclosed, heated sprouters. If you should have any trouble with the oats molding in such a sprouter, would advise you to take the question up directly with the manufacturer. If you can purchase fine mesh hardware cloth, it is even better for the bottom of the trays than galvanized iron. If the mesh in the wire is too large, the oats may waste through same. ^ OAT^ ^PROUTmd- IN EARTH ^ Fig. 32. Figure 32 is an outdoor method of sprouting oats. In spring, summer and fall, some city lot poultry raisers prefer this method to the use of the sprouting rack. Make a frame of 1x6 lumber, 3 feet wide and 8 feet long, or longer if required. Cover the frame with poultry netting. Place the frame on the smooth hard ground. Take one bushel of oats and soak them over night, then spread them out evenly inside the frame work. Cover the oats with one inch of loose earth and water them every day. When the sprouts show through, it is ready to feed. Then with a garden hoe, work under the roots, pull them up straight, and you have as fine green food as you ever saw. It is hard to get food that the birds relish any more or that is cheaper or easier to obtain. Each shovelful has a big lump of dirt on it, also some animal food. You will usually find some bugs and worms along with the oats and earth. This gives the fowls exercise in scratching them out. Green food grown in earth has more strength and substance than when it is sprouted in water in a warm room. You can keep a number of these beds going at all times if your flock is large enough to require same. Or, if you do not wish to use these frames in this way you can place one of the frames in the center of each poultry yard. Sow oats or rape rather thick, much thicker than would be done in case the oats were sown by the average farmer. Then cover them with about one inch of dirt and when the sprouts begin to come up through the dirt and through the wire, the birds will begin to eat same, but they cannot destroy the roots and the rape or oats keep growing be- cause the roots and stem are protected by the wire covering. —27— KorXT.AINH AND WATERING DEVICES A good nmnv drlnklnK fountains have been placed on the market, . made of diffprent materials. Some are good and many are of no value. One of the qualifications of a good fountain is that i should be so con- strurtod as to permit its being easily cleaned, where the birds have ea y access to tlip water and at the same time protect the tountam from filth A pLio. onen, simple .»d Inejpen.fv, g.lvamzed or S'"'» »•" »' birds and so the birds cannot get into it with their feet. considerable labor is -Quired in watering a large nock e^^^^^^^^^^ if the water must be carried any distance; In o^d^^ ^"J"^^^ system so on a large poultry farm. y°\'""/„'„^'\"'^"o„7',i^e"fiock raised and kept that a volume of business can be done, ^ good sizeQ iio ^^ ^iH at thp least possible cost for labor °; "'^^.^/^P^^fo^the installati^^ pay you to look well to your watering devices and to ine water system. USE- AN ORDIN- ARY BAKINC POWDER C.ttH REnOVE. THE- TOP Ar^DPRE5^ IN ONE SIDE. WITtt- YOUR. THUMB AND FluL WlTtr -jv at B- rs — Fig. 33. THEN TURN CAN AMD ALU "JP- SIDE. DOWN. Figure 3 3 shows a drinking fountain for baby chicks that can made from an ordinary baking powder can. For the use of "^"^ ^}z^' a fountain must be so made that they cannot get into it and get tnem selves wet. This particular fountain is made by first washing or removino the label from the can, remove the top and then press in on one side witn your thumb as shown in the illustration. This place that is pressed in with your thumb makes an opening from which the chicks can drinK when the can is filled and inverted. The can may now be filled with fresh water, place the top on and then turn it upside down. The water will flow into the opening in front. The water will not waste and spiU out in the coop or brooder, neither can the chicks get into it. The litter and filth will not get into the water as much as if you had an open and unprotected pan. Tliia device is Intended only for very small flocks of baby chicks. —28— i'leiiiB at. inis IS a nome-made drinking fountain that can be made at any hardware store or tin shop. The bottom of the fountain is simply a round tin pan. These should be two or three inches in depth, depending upon the age of the chicks. The can or fountain part is made round and just large enough so there will be one-half to an inch space between the fountain and the pan. About three holes the size of a lead pencil are made in the can or fountain about an inch from the bot- tom. This permits the water to flow out of the can into the open space of the pan just as it is consumed by the birds. In order to fill the foun- tain, the can Is turned bottom side up and then filled with water. The pan is placed over it and then the entire fountain and contents are sud- denly inverted to the position shown in the illustration. A handle may be soldered on the top of the can for convenience in carrying and refilling. You may also have a circular piece of galvanized iron soldered around the fountain as shown in the illustration. This protects the water from filth or from droppings in case a bird should light on top of the fountain. This fountain is especially valuable for young chicks or birds of most any age. It is one of the best ideas for a fountain that you can possibly use. Fig. 34. Fig. 36. Figure 3 5 shows an automatic fountain and chick feeder made and sold by the Oaks Manufacturing Company of Tipton, Indiana. The bot- tom of the fountain is made so that an ordinary Mason jar fits into same. This appliance feeds water, grain, grit and charcoal automatically. It is very easy to fill and operate. Simply lift the trigger which releases the pan and the clip remains on the jar, leaving the pan without any obstruction and affords easy cleaning. This is absolutely sanitary and made to fit any pint, quart or half-gallon jar. Fig. 36 illustrates a feed and watering device for baby chicks which is made by the Simplex Poultry Supply Company of Chicago. It is very similar to the above except instead of the pan below being almost entirely open, the pan is covered and the chicks eat or drink through holes in the cover. These little devices are especially advisable in feeding sour milk, butter-milk, water, charcoal and grit to baby chicks when first taken from the incubator and during the first week or ten days following that time. Every poultryman should have one or more filled with sour milk or butter-milk when starting the baby chicks and should also have one or more filled with powdered charcoal. Either of these devices will prove en- tirely satisfactory. Figure 37. Where several hundred growing chicks are kept on tree range in one flock, It is quite a task to keep them supplied with tresh water, and very often during the hot summer days their supply becomes exhausted and they suffer for want of water. It you have several hun- dred in one flock, it is advisable to get a large keg or small water barrel and put a faucet in the lower part of the barrel and turn the faucet Just enough so that a little water will continue to run or drip continuously. The keg can be filled once a day, and you need not teel any uneasiness about your birds having a sufficient supply of fresh water. Place the keg in the shade of a tree where it will be convenient to the flock. Fig. 37. An open pan can be placed below the faucet to catch the surplus of water as it drips from the keg or barrel. Place a cover over the barrel ana also protect the water in the pan from being fouled by the feet oi tne chickens if possible. Fig. 38. Figure 38 is an automatic baby chick fountain which has proven very satisfactory where large flocks of young chicks are kept in one house. The water must first be piped to the house and this fountain automatic cut- otr can be attached to same so there will be a continuous flow of fresh water just as that in the drinking pan is consumed by the chicks. This automatic cut-off and fountains are made by John Imschweiler of Ingle- wooa, Calif. The valve is made so that it will fit any standard %-incb —30—^ pipe fitting. The valve should come 3 % inches from the floor in order to fit the troughs which are made for same. Before attaching valve, wash out any dirt that may be in the water pipe. After valve is connected, hang the trough in the notch or arm which is supported by a brass spring. To regulate the desired water level, a nut on the screw that controls same may be changed to give more or less tension as required. It is also ar- ranged so the water can be shut off entirely when the trough is removed for cleaning. When the water gets low in the trough the spring will lift the trough and it will refill automatically. Fig. 39. Figure 39 illustrates two drinking fountains on a platform which is placed about 2 feet from the floor of the poultry house. You will also note that the water is piped to the pans so all that is required is to simply 'turn the faucet and the pans may be easily refilled at any time. This avoids the labor and expense of carrying water long distances, which is quite an item in watering a large flock of chickens. A large screw hook is straightened out so as to form a right angle. The screw end of the hook is screwed into the post and then when the pan is to be removed, the hook is simply turned with the point upward, which permits the pan to be taken from the platform. When it is cleaned and put back in place the point of the hook is simply turned down over the edge of the pan. This holds it always in place and prevents it being turned over by the chickens. If you have sufficient room on your platform for the chickens to stand, you will find that they seldom get into the water with their feet. The screw hook is screwed into the post just above the edge of the pan so that the pan fits snugly between the screw hook and the platform. This is a splendid, simple and inexpensive watering device which is suitable for use in the average poultry house. On the right hand side of the platform nearest the hen is shown a water bucket, which fits into a circular opening that has been cut into the —31 — platform. This permits the bucket to pass half way or more down through the opening, which holds it In position and prevents the fowls from turn- ing same over. It also permits the bucket to be removed from the open- ing at will, 80 that same may be easily cleansed. If the bucket is kept practically full of water, the birds can easily reach same until the water passes considerably below the level of the platform. Fig. 40. Figure 40 shows a plain square galvanized watering pan around which fits a protection made of wire and a cover for shade and protec- tion made of light weight lumber and roofing material. This always in- sures clean and cool water and prevents the fowls from getting into the drinking pan at any time. The wires are placed just wide enough apart so that the chickens can drink freely from same. The cover can be easily raised so that the pan can be thoroughly cleaned or easily refilled. This is a splendid device for watering fowls where growing stock or laying hens are kept out on range. The size of your pans depend upon the size of the flock for which they are intended. The frame of the cover should be about an inch larger on either side than the pan that is to be covered. A large, plain gal- vanized pan, such as shown here, is one of the most durable and satis- factory watering devices that can be used for growing stock or large flocks. Keep them in the shade and protect them as much as possible from the feet of the birds. We have used these large pans without a covering with very good success. Figure 41 represents an automatic air lock fountain made by the Norwich Automatic Feeder Company of New London, Conn. We have used this fountain with considerable success in winter months. It has been a problem for years to supply water to the poultry house when the temperature goes below freezing and to know that the fowls have access to drinking water at any time. In some sections, the temperature goes so low in winter that you scarcely fill and get away from the drinking fountain before it Is covered with ice, and, therefore, the hens suffer from lack of water in winter. Various devices have been on the market, and most of them have been failures. This fountain has proven itself to be sanitary, easily cleaned, top filled and non-freezing. In order to clean the slime which accumulates on the inside of most fountains, it is a good idea once a month to put a solution of caustic soda and water in the reservoir and rinse it. Then the inside o£ the vessel will be found perfectly clean and bright. The egg is composed largely of water. If you permit the water to remain frozen very much of the time in winter, you can expect your winter egg yield to be greatly reduced. Fig. 41. Pig. 42. Figure 42. The above fountain consists of a Reservoir A, which is top-filled through the opening B, and is made air-tight by a rubber gasket fitting under an absolutely positive eccentric acting cap. Attached to and extending into the resorvoir is a copper siphon pipe, C, the outer leg if which extends on the outside of the reservoir downward to the de- tachable cast iron drinking cup, F, passing inside the square air pipe, D. It will be observed that there is no connection between the Drinking Cup and the Reservoir, except through the syphon pipe, and as its action is always downward and outward, contamination of the water supply is not probable. If for any reason the water within the drinking cup be- comes polluted, it is a simple matter to close the plug valve of the syphon pipe, remove and rinse out the cup, snap it back in position, open the valve, and a new and fresh supply of water is delivered automatically from the reservoir to the cup. A most important part of this fountain is the heating device. Quite naturally, there are but two methods of preventing freezing in water ves- sels; one is to supply heat by burning fuel, the other by the employment of the so-called thermos or vacuum system. The latter system is so ex- pensive that it is impracticable to apply it to a poultry fountain, so the only course left open is the application of heat produced by fuel. The removable oil chamber, H, holds approximately three pints of kerosene, and is filled through the screw cap, I. The burner is surrounded by the removable Heat Generator, K, so the flame cannot be extinguished either by draughts or the flapping of the birds' wings. This Heat Generator holds the heated air from the burner until it is really super-heated, when it passes through the series of holes of the base as shown in photographic cut, and the heated air, passing up and around the reservoir, will positively keep the apparatus from freezing. The machine has been tested to a temperature of twenty degrees below zero, and the system works per- fectly. — 33— Figure 43 is a sanitary drinliing fountain that can be used on the floor of any poultry house. You will note that a bread pan or a large sized galvanized pan may be made and slipped beneath the hardware cloth on which rests the fountain. Any water which is spilled is caught by the pan below and the floor is kept perfectly dry. The frame is made 24 inches wide and 32 inches long. The hardware cloth is tacked on each side so that it fits snugly over the pan when the pan is shoved into place. The fountain is ithen placed on the hardware cloth and the pan below -latches any overflow. HB.KDVJsne li/iKS C/eth £/e KAti ON ♦of„ I '^ ^ V ^°°^ watering vessel for ducks. Ducks require a foun- thi iff'' ^"""f^ '° ^^^^ *^^y °^^ set their beaks, nostrils and eyes into !,„„ o r °^ f ^® ^"""^ ®^®^' ^^^ *^ ^°™e cases, death result. Ducks also hp?T,^nl^^ ?<• '°°''®. '?'■. '^^^ ^^^^''' ^^"^ tliis method of watering ducks kP^L f T."^"':^^ "'^^^^ ^"^ '""'^ '=^'^^' especially so when they are being kept in a brooder or house and you wish to keep the floor dry. If you T-^f-}° ,T^ ^^^l system as an outdoor proposition, a trench can be dug in !.nt=flJ f^^?"*. ^^ 1°°^^/ "^^^P- ^ ^'S'lt *rame can be made to fit the outside of this trench and the frame covered with hardware cloth. Then the fountain may be placed on this the same as shown above In that htf^J'''^7^^ -^ *^^*^ *' slopped out of the fountain passes into the trench below and drams away. Figure 44 represents an automatic poultry fountain which has proven l„„=! ^^11 PoP'f'fJ ^'le^'e you wish lo ;pipe the water to your poultry ?.rr^t- , ^7^°* ^\^^ Y^ '"^ "'^ °^ ^""^e °f the most successful poultry farms and it has been found to be quite a labor saving device. If the water can be piped to your houses and yards, these fountains can be easily attached with an ordinary pipe wrench. In installing a large poul- —34 — try farm, it is a good Idea to give some attention to labor saving devices and the immense amount of time and labor required in lugging water to large flocks. This fountain insures a constant watering supply and does away with the usual mud puddle. This funnel shaped fountain is 12 inches in diameter at the top and 4 inches from the bottom to top of Pig. funnel. The fountain is made of heavy galvanized sheet metal. About 2 quarts of water is exposed at one time. As the water is consumed, it will refill and stop automatically when the water reaches its proper level. The fountain is sanitary and easily cleaned. Each fountain is sold under guarantee by John Imschweiler, Inglewood, California. Figure 45. This shows two drinking devices very similar in con- struction, except that one has a cover which protects the water from filth and also protects it from the sun in case it is used as an outdoor foun- — 35 — tain. A pan that can be easily cleaned should be used for this purpose. On the interior of this pan sets a wooden float with half inch holes bored in same. The float is about. one inch smaller each way than the pan so that it may be easily lifted and not catch on the side of the drinking ves- sel. The wooden float should be made of cedar. This float is used and recommended because it protects the wattles of the fowl from the water and thus helps to keep them from freezing in cold weather. A wooden trough should not be used for the reason that it is not as sanitary as metal. It would be necessary for the drinking vessel to have sides that were straight up and down so that the float would pass down with the water. The cover for the lower fountain swings out of the way on hinges made by bending No. 10 wire until it forms an eye at one end and a hook at the other. Ten penny nails are then driven through this eye into the cover and staples are put over the shank of the wire to hold it rigid. You will see that this allows the cover to turn over and out of the way. The wire "Eye" end is extended over the sides of the upright which causes the cover to stand up in an upright position of its own accord. The wire hinge extends out over the rear of the trough end about three-fourths of an inch so that it gives the cover an opportunity to swing, Which could not otherwise be done, to the projecting edges of the cover. Ordinary T hinges could be used, perhaps more satisfactorily. BROOD COOPS Chicks hatched by the natural method should be reared in brood coops out of doors. The hen should be confined to the coop until the chicks are about weaned, but the chicks should be allowed free range during good weather, and after they are a few days old. The coops should be made so they can be closed at night in order to keep out cats, rats and other poultry enemies, but the hen and chicks should have plenty of fresh air. Shade and fresh, moist earth should also be carefully considered. In order for chicks to do their best, they must get out on the ground, but hard sun-baked ground is as bad for them as a board floor. The brood coop should be located where the chicks can run on sod or soft earth. If the poultry yard is not provided with natural shade, then see that artificial shade is provided. If your yards are so located that the chicks have to run on bare ground, then it is a good plan to se- cure several strips of sod, lay in the yard where you have spaded the ground well, and moisten with water. Each morning and night turn the sod back and the chicks will have a feast off the many worms found there. The coops should be moved often, as the earth becomes contaminated after a little while. If you will Stiade the earth where the coop was, and then sow some grain it will soon be in good condition again. If it is convenient, it is well to run a two-foot high wire netting across part of the garden which has been plowed and some wheat, oats and barley sowed and covered with cultivator. Place brood coops in this enclosure and turn the little chicks in. Each morning at feeding time turn up part of the ground with a spade exposing the sprouted grain and lots of worms. This provides fresh, sweet ground, lots of exercise and the proper food for the chicks. Figure 46 is a plan of coop for rearing chicks with hens. This coop can be made by sawing a dry goods box so as to give the roof the slope shown in the illustration. The cover is made so that it can be raised and have access to the interior. If you can not secure the boxes you can use lumber which can be bought for the purpose. The figure gives the dimen- sions so that there is no necessity of discussing that part of the plan. A door is made in front that can be let down so that the hen will have access to the run in front. The run should be made of slats, which are better than poultry wire. A run four feet long will answer practically every purpose. Such a coop will easily pay for itself in a season. A floor is put in the coop to keep rats from burrowing underneath and to make it more sanitary for the chicks and protect them from water in case of a heavy rain. The sides of the coop should be made of tongue and grooved lumber. The sheeting and frame can be a very cheap grade of lumber. Cover the roof with composition roofing. — 36 — Figure 47 is one of the above coops in use. You will note an open space in the top of the coop which is covered with wire and admits ventila- tion at all times, yet the roof board in front prevents rain from beating into the coop. You will also note that the runway in front is built almost entirely of laths or light weight strips. You will also notice a door in the ,''" .-'Vv Fig. 46. top of the runway nearest the coop. This is placed at that point so that it can be easily lifted and the front door of the coop opened and closed or the chicks fed without having to take the runway from the. coop. This method of raising chicks with hens has been one of the best coojs, run- ways and systems we have ever used for natural brooding. Fig. 48. Figure 48 is practically the same coop as that illustrated above, except that the ventilating board is hinged instead of being nailed to the roof. You will also note that the front door which is covered with wire is made so that it slides in and out of the coop. This opening really has three dif- Flg. 49. —38— fereut doors. One door is covered with wire, which confines the hen and chickens to the coop. A second and sliding door, which fits the same opening, is covered with lath nailed up and down and placed just wide enough apart to permit the chicks to pass in and out and yet keep the hen confined to the house; the third door is a solid board of the same size, which is used when necessary. Figure 49 shows a coop that is used on the Government poultry farm. There is a wire door back of the boarded front of this coop which can be slid forward. This arrangement furnishes the hen and chicks plenty of ventilation and fresh air at night and prevents any animals from enter- ing the coop. There is additional ventilation in the front near the top of the coop as this board can be hinged and raised upward as shown in the illustration. You will note the small rounding ventilating holes on the sides of the coops. With this amount of ventilation the hen will be reasonably comfortable in the coop even on a hot day. It is best, however, to kre-i these coops in the shade when the weather is extremely hot. Most brood coops should be built about two and one-half feet square, or, per- haps, Iwo feet across the front and two and one-half feet deep. Fig. 50. Figure 50 illustrates a coop that is very similar in design to some of those mentioned above. These coops greatly simplify methods of raising chicks because they are convenient and easily cleaned. All of these coops should be made so that the chicks can be confined at night or other times when necessary and still have sufficient ventilation. They should be made large enough to shelter the chicks when you have a cold, wet season of weather. This coop which is illustrated above is built with a floor which is three feet wide and four feet long. The coop, therefore, can be lifted from the floor and the same easily cleaned. We prefer to have the floor set inside the coop and at the same time be removable, for in that case the rain could not enter between the floor and the sides of the coop. The roof is hinged at the front which is really better than hinging the doors in the rear. The front of the coop is practically one-half wood and one-half wire. The door is covered with small mesh wire or hardware cloth. The door can be held in place with a heavy wire hook made from smooth fencing wire or clothes line wire. The frame is built of 2x2's and the sides are made from matched lumber. This particular coop is three feet long, two feet and six inches wide, two feet and six inches high in front and eighteen inches high in the rear. The roof is made of matched lumber and covered with composition roofing. In order to construct the coop so that it may be easily cleaned from the top it is usually best to nail cleats on the in- terior of the roof so that they will fit snugly inside of the box, then fasten the roof to the coop proper with ordinary hooks and eyes. Figure 51 is a brood coop with a small run in front for the hen. The coop proper is the same thing as illustrated above in figure 49, and you will note the wire door that slides in back of the wooden front and the slats for use at night. You will also note that a lath runway has been —39— built so that the chicks can pass back and forth at will. A burlap sack acts as a covering for the top and protects the hen from the sun and rain. You will see a number of these coops scattered through a field Fig. 51. of grain. By using the coops in this manner they can be moved about the farm from place to place and it gives the hen and chicks access to fresh ground and also gives them an opportunity to consume a lot of bugs and worms. Pig. 52. Figure 52 are small coops and colony houses being used in a field of clover. These coops are built about 6x8 or 8x10 feet and the chickens — 40 — are sorted according to age and put out on the range. In these cbops you will note the large hoppers. In the center, between the rows of coops shown on the right, are the hoppers which contain grain on one side and mash on the other. The coops are usually raised high enough from the ground so that the chickens can get underneath and thus protect them- selves from the sun. Most any sort of coop or colony house, such as we have Illustrated in various portions of our lessons, may be used for growing stock. Fig. 53. Figure 5 3 represents a coop or colony house that is about 4 feet wide, 6 feet long, about 4 feet high in front and 3 feet high in the rear. You will note that these coops are being used in alfalfa fields. The roof can be made separate from the coop and cleats nailed from the interior so as to hold it In place. The roof can be fastened to the body of the coop with ordinary hooks and eyes. This permits the top to be lifted and shoved to one side so the coop can be easily cleaned. The roof also can be removed, which lightens the coop when being moved from place to place. You will note two openings in front for ventilation. These are cov- ered with one-inch poultry netting and also with a burlap curtain. These are hinged at the top so they can be raised and lowered as the weather re- quires. A notch is cut into the side of the burlap covered frames Into which is inverted a small strip fastened to the frame of the window with a screw.' This strip is notched every two inches. A small opening is cut into the edge of the one-inch mesh wire and a nail is driven into the side of the opening. This permits opening the burlap covered frame two inches or more at a time. A small doorway is cut in each end of the coop to make it possible to care for a hover and lamp should one use portable hovers for brooding. The floor is laid on 2x4 runners, each runner being 7 feet long. It is permitted to protrude one inch outside the floor on both the front and back and six inches at each end. The floor is independent from the rest of the house, which sets down over the floor and rests on the 2x4 proper. The house proper can be laid over backwards or lifted off entirely to per- mit thorough cleaning and scrubbing. Holes are bored through the ends — 41 — of the 2x4 to permit placing a chain and devices so that the coop can be moved about from place to place. One horse Is sufficient for moving these coops. A door, the full height of the front, the width of two 12-lnch boards, is placed directly between the two windows or ventilator openings. A screen door hook is placed on the lower edge of this for hooking the door back permanently. Should it be left open during the day time, it is neces- sary to keep one burlap covered frame closed. Fig. 54. Figure 54 illustrates a coop that is 6 feet in length and 2 feet 6 inches in width. It is 2 feet 4 inches high in front and 18 inches high in the rear. You will note that there is a door in the center of the front and that almost the entire front with the exception of a 6-inch board at the top and bottom is covered with 1-inch poultry netting. You can also see Fig. 55. —42— two roost poles that pass through the center ot the coops. While these coops are rather small, yet they are conveniently handled and economic- ally constructed and will accommodate quite a floclc of growing chicks. Board floors may be made just large enough to fit the inside of ithe coop so the edges of the copp will fit down on the floor. If there is no danger of any animals of any sort disturbing the chicks, then the floor may be dispensed with and the coop moved to fresh ground every few days. One of the roost poles may be removed and this coop used on a nice grassy lawn for males or females that are being conditioned and gotten ready for fall fairs and shows, or where you wish to keep them separated from the general flock. Figure 55. This shows a coop very similar in construction to that illustrated in Figure 54. The coop is a trifle larger in size and can be used for a half dozen hens and a male bird that are being kept on a city lot, or it makes a splendid colony house for small flocks of growing chicks. The coop is small enough so that it may be picked up by three or four men and carried to a new spot of ground without the necessity of having a team with which to move same. NESTS Nests in a poultry house are, in many cases, ithe beginning point of very serious trouble and a great loss. If the nests are so built that they cannot be easily kept clean, they are one of the best places on the farm for the breeding of lice and mites. Mites nearly always gain their first start in the nests and from there spread to the roosts, poles, cracks and crevices to prey upon the bodies of the birds. Also, the arrangement of the nests is often responsible for dirty and broken eggs. The location of the nests also determine, as a rule, the number of the hens in the flock that develop the habit of eating eggs. Never leave a broken egg in the nest, nor a rotten egg. Mites develop rapidly amid such surroundings. If you use open nests, you should have one or more nests to every six hens during the heavy laying season. If you use trap-nests, provide one or more traps for every three hens. /^ctf^utaT't dcffh /fests Snal .Jroui- ^f^ottofn V/'euj Fig. 56. —43— Figure 56 represents one section of a very plain, yet very satis- factory nest. You will note that the bottom of the nest is covered with hardware cloth. This should be a fine mesh so as to prevent the straw or nesting material from wasting through same. The /top of the nest is covered with ordinary poultry netting. You will notice that the nests are built in pairs. This makes the nests light so they can be easily re- moved or put in place after being cleaned. The size of each nest should be about 12 or 14 inches square, depend- ing upon the size of birds that compose your flock. Or you can build the nests so that they are about 12 inches wide and 14 inches deep and about 15 inches in height. Pig. 56A Fig. 56A shows the end, back and bottom of the sectional nests. Hardware cloth covers the bottom. The opening in the rear can be cov- ered with muslin, burlap or cloth, or a board may be made to fit this space and hinged so it can be opened and closed when gathering eggs or look- ing after hens on the nests. The top may also be closed with hardware cloth if found necessary. Fig. 57. Fig. 57. — Nests, three sections of 2 nests each, showing end, front and top view. Figure 57 shows three sections of the nest illustrated above, placed on the frame that supports same. This framing material is attached to —44— each side of the house and supported at the ends and in the center so as to hold the frame in place beneath the droppings hoard. The front portion of the nests, showing the lx4-inch runway in front of the nests, is really the portion of the nest that faces the wall when the nests are placed be- neath the droppings board. The hens, therefore, pass underneath the nests and arg then permitted to fly upon the runway where they then pass to any nest that they may choose. In the evening when a poultryman wishes to gather the eggs, there is a hinged door on the opposite side made of 1x6 board, which is hinged upward so the board may be raised and the eggs gathered, after which the board falls back into place and protects the nests from the light. The frame work which supports the nests are made more or less stationary, but the sections or pairs of nests simply rest on the frame and can be removed at will. Figure 58 illustrates a wall nest that can be attached to the wall of any poultry house. We usually think it best to make the frame which supports the nest more or less stationary, but always have the nest proper built separately so it can simply be placed on the frame work and then removed when necessary to clean, disinfect or paint same. You will notice that the lid is built in two parts so that the lower section may be raised when the eggs are to be gathered. There should be a platform at the end of the nests so the hens could fly up on same and co.uld then pass through a passage way which permits them to go from nest to nest. The end of the nests is closed with a sliding door which may be closed or left open, as desired. The partitions are 14 inches apart. The front board works in between cleats nailed at each end so it may be easily lifted and Fig. 58. cleaned when desired. A nest of this sort is more or less dark and, there- fore, has a tendency to prevent the hens from forming the habit of egg- eating. You will also find that it is sometimes necessary to place the nests in convenient spots around the wall and in that case there is no style plain nest that is more satisfactory than that shown. —45— TBAP-NESTS Year by year the trap-nest is coming to be more fully appreciated and more of a necessity to the poultry raisers who are striving for higher egg production in their flocks. The trap-nest enables the poultrymen to know just which of his hens are the drones and which fill the egg basket, and gives him the opportunity of breeding only from the hens that make good records as layers, thus producing offsprings with better laying qualities than the average of his present flock. The trap-nest enables you to tell which hens lay most, which lay small eggs, thin-shelled eggs, eggs which hatch and eggs which do not hatch, hens that produce weak chicks, those that die in the shell and various other things that every poultryman should know about his breeding stock. It is not necessary to trap-nest your en- tire flock, but any man who expects to succeed in breeding poultry should select at least a few of his choicest specimens and trap-nest them during the winter and breeding season. The remainder of the year he can per- mit them to lay in open nests. Poultrymen who practice this method will make far more rapid progress than will the man who breeds pro- miscuously. K- zi"- Fig. 59. -M One trap-nest should be provided for every three or four hens kept in the flock. The hens are banded with bands which are numbered and a -46— TOP VIE ^■ Of J}»or Per/itu. •' Tn/tf J/fi£ C. Fig. 61. -48 — record is Icept of their egg production. The nests should be visited at least three times a day, and in extremely hot weather, they should be visited oftener. Trap-nests may be placed along the wall of a poultry house or beneath the droppings board. Figure 59 represents the most satisfactory and simple nest that we have ever used, and we have trap-nested thousands of hens during the past several years. There are no triggers or complicated parts about this nest to get out of condition. It is a simple, home-made contrivance. It is easy to make and positive in its operation. It consists essentially of a box with the top and one end removed. The box is 24 inches long, 12 or 14 inches wide, and 12 inches high. The top of the box or nest is cov- ered with poultry netting. The open end is closed by a revolving door which is covered with hardware cloth or with ordinary screen wire. Care must be taken in making and fitting this door that it swings freely and so balances that when it is opened and resting against the nail (marked "X" in the lower drawing) that the door will remain open. As the hen enters the rear nest she will push the door over the center balance causing It to fall forward and close. The front half of the nest is partitioned from the rear with a narrow strip. This holds the nesting material in the back of the nest and also forces the hen to close the door as she passes into same. After the hen has laid, she then comes to the front, thus protect- ing the egg which is in the nest proper. The door is really nothing more or less than practically what you might call a third of a circle. The straight portion of the door is 7 % Inches in length and the rounding portion is 13% inches. This door is fastened to each side of the nest box with long slender screws. Small holes should be bored in the door at the points shown in the illustra- tion so that the door will work freely back and forth on these screws. After the hen has laid and comes to the front section and the attendant goes to get the egg, the door is simply raised which closes the door be- hind her and she can be easily removed from the front of the nest. We really consider this the best of all trap-nests that we have used to date. Figure 60 represents a view looking down on the top of two trap- nests, also a front elevation of the nests showing one revolving door closed and the other open. Each of the revolving trap doors are covered with screen wire. The top of the nest is covered with poultry netting; the nests are built of as light material as it is possible to obtain. They are built in sections of two, or pairs, so that they can be easily removed, thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. The frame work, to support the nests. Is made on the side of the wall or underneath the droppings board. These nests simply rest on this frame work so that they can be put in place or removed at will. Each of the nests is about 12 inches wide on the inside and 24 inches in length and 12% inches high. The rear of the nest is boarded up except about % inch of space which is left in the back near the floor so that the dust and filth that accumulates in the nest can be easily brushed out at cleaning time. Figure 61 illustrates the trap-nest with a view of the revolving door in detail. In plan "B" you will see the trap door as it is constructed, the round- ing portion of the door being covered with screen wire. You will also note the screws in place and these are screwed into the side walls of the nest at the point shown in the side elevation "E." Holes should be bored in the door to accommodate the screws, and they should be a trifle larger than the screws, so that the door will work freely back and forth. A de- tail of the trap side of the door is shown in plan "C." You will note the grooves made for the cross pieces which hold the wire and make the door more rigid. In plan "E," showing the side elevation, you will note the po- sition of the screws on which the door revolves, and you will also note the position of the nail or screw which supports the door when It is open. After the hen passes into the front of the nest, as she attempts to pass over the four-inch partition in the center, her back touches the door and as it is just on a balance it easily and quickly falls forward and closes the — 49 — trap behind her. You will see that the rear of the nest is a trifle larger than the front portion. The nest material is placed in the back of the nest and the nest divided from the front with a four-inch partition. Fig. 61-A. You will find this nest one of the simplest and best you can possibly build. The screws which hold the door in place are about four Inches above the floor of the nest and about 5 % inches from the partition. The nail pr screw which supports the door when the trap is open is about four Inches above the center partition. It would be better to place this above Fig. 62. — 50 — the partition and in line with same, rather than in the position shown in the illustration. Figure 61-A shows the revolving door trap nest in operation. One hen has just been removed from the nest and the attendant is reading her band number, preparatory to making a record of same. The trap-nest on ithe left shows a hen just inside of the door which has laid and has come to the front of the nest to be released. Figure 62 illustrates a three-compartment nest that is used by the government and by a number of poultrymen. It is a very simple nest. As a hen enters, her back raises the door and releases the trigger which allows the door to close. The trigger should be set so the edge just holds the door, which is regulated by the screw or nail in the lower inside edge of the catch. A washer should be placed on the screw (d) between the catch and the side of the nest to prevent this catch from striking. The guard (b) around the catch keeps the nesting material away from the catch. The length of the trigger which supports the door and the trian- gular notch in the door may be varied slightly for very small or very large hens. Figure 63. The Government's instructions for building these nests are as follows: Cut four %-inch boards for ends and partitions, 12 inches wide by 19 inches long, enough %-inch boards, 39% inches long, laid lejigthwise, to cover the top, back and bottom, and one strip 39% inches long and 1% inches wide for the front of the nests. Cut three pieces of %-inch boards, 12 inches long and 3 inches high, to insert in the nest to hold the nesting material away from the door. Nail the top, back and bottom to the ends and partitions (see fig. 2), insert the 3-inch strips in the nests and make the guard (b), nailing it to the left side of the nest. Bore a hole in the catch (a) large enough so that the catch will move freely when screwed into position on the side. Place a washer on the screw between the catch and the side of the nest. Place a screw at the lower edge of the catch to stop it when set, so that the catch will just hold the door. Make the doors (c) of %-inch material, 12 inches by 6 inches, and cut — 51 — a triangular notch in the center 4 inches wide. Put two screw eyes in the top of the doors and more holes in the front of the nests 2 inches below the top (inside measurement), through which a ^-inch wire is run to sup- port the doors. Attach a narrow strip to the front of the nests for the hens to jump upon when entering the nests. Place a button or, block of wood on the front of each partition to hold the door when the nest is closed. If the nests are to be placed directly below the droppings board, a wire top should be used on the nest, except for a 5-inch strip of wood on the front edge of the top to stiffen the nest. .^/neAfczdG i Fig. 63A Fig. 63A shows a front, end and top view of a home made trap nest. You can use practically the same idea and dimensions as shown in Fig. 6 3. u F-t.OO/^ /./A)£. ' ^^ Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Figure 67 sliows tlie front and end elevation ot a bank of trap-nests tiiat have been placed along the wall ot a poultry house. The same ar- rangements vs^ill do for wall nests which open to the front. You will note there is a runway in front of each tier of nests; you will also note that the frame at the top is made slanting and covered with poultry netting so that the hen cannot roost on same. The nests are up off 'the floor a con- siderable distance so as to give additional scratching room beneath. fA-j^auAaesa ■ J J Fig. 69. Figure 68 shows the trap-nest beneath the droppings board. You can also see that the space back of the roof Is covered with composition roof- ing or tar paper so as to make the roosting quacters warmer in winter months. An open dry mash hopper will be seen on a platform on the right hand side of the house and you will note that this platform is made of 1x2 or 1x4 slats with an open space between which makes it more sani- tary than a solid board would be. Figure 69 illustrates three tiers of nests or trap-nests placed through the center of a large poultry house, or these nests may be placed against the wall, but in this particular case they are placed in tiers, three high, and in double rows, the same number of nests being on the opposite side and placed back to back. The runway in front of each row of nests is made of 1x4 material and is hinged so that it can be raised when the nests are visited the last time in the evening. When these are raised it makes the 1x4 cover the opening to the nest so that it is impossible for the hens which are inclined to be broody to get on the nest and remain there all night. You will also note that this house has a straw loft, and you can see the moist mash feed troughs that are hinged at the bottom and fastened against the center post. When you wish to feed the moist mash, these troughs are let down into place, then hinged up again out of the way when the birds have finished eating. Fig. 70. Figure 70 shows a portion of a large dry mash hopper. On the ex- treme left of the illustration, in the corner of the room, will be seen a coop for broody hens. To the right side of this you will note the roosts and droppings boards raised and fastened to the ceilings. This pre- vents the birds from sitting on the roosts during the day time and makes all portions of the house lighter and more easy of access. You will note just below the droppings board the support for the boards and roosts. This is hinged against the wall and is pushed back out of the way. This is a very satisfactory arrangement of the fixtures for a poultry house. —54— Figure 64 is one of the best arrangements we have ever used as a roost pole. The poles are made of lx2'a with edges rounded. They rest on a piece of 2x6. A 16 D nail is driven through the pole into the 2x6 sup- port. The nail is driven in so that 'the pole does not rest against the support, but is supported by the nail, and there Is a space of practically one inch between the support and the roost proper. This does not leave any place for the mites to harbor. Twenty penny nails are driven into the underneath side of the 2x6 and instead of the supports resting on the droppings boards, they are supported by these 20 D nails. The nail is Pig. 6 4. driven into the support so that the head of the nail lacks about one inch or more of being driven up to the support and this keeps the support about that distance from the droppings board; ithis also has a tendency to pre- vent mites from harboring about the roosts. These poles can be built in sections such as are showrn in this illustration and can, therefore, be easily removed and thoroughly cleaned, disinfected and painted. The roost poles shbuld be about 14 inches apart. Figure 6 5. This illustrates the roost poles we use in our poultry houses. The supports for the roost are made of 2x6's and cut to a point as is shown in this illustration. The front point of the support is cut so that it comes even with the front edge of the droppings board. The back point of the support is cut so that it touches the back wall at the rear of the roosts and droppings board. When the boards are to be cleaned, the back point of the support acts as a sort of hinge so that the roosts are simply raised and fastened (to the ceiling with a screw hook and eye as is shown in this illustration. You will also please note the large nails driven on the underneath side of the supports and also please remember that the roost poles are supported by 16 D nails, and not driven close into the support. You will find that this sort of a roosting device is one of the most satisfactory you can use. No hinges are necessary; the roosts are always in place and the device can be easily removed from the house when necessary. The roost poles should be made of 1x2 material, with the 1-inch edge rounded and turned up edgeways. —55 — Fig. 6 5. Figure 6 5-A is a device on which the roost poles are placed. These cups can be filled with oil and are a great aid in preventing the mites from crawling to the hens. This is inexpensive and should be found very use- ful in the fight against the mites. If you cannot secure a support with a cup attachment similar to this, a lamp wick or flannel cloth may be tacked about the ends of the roost poles. Keep this saturated with a mixture of equal parts of Crude oil and Carbolic Acid. It will prevent mites from crawling from the cracks in the house to the poles at night. But the best thing to do is to treat your houses as directed in the "Enemy and Parasite Lesson," and prevent mites. Figure 71 is a home-made combination roost and nest box. It has the advantage of not being attached to the wall. It can easily be taken apart and taken outdoors for cleaning. It is really nothing more or less than a small table with the nests built underneath the top from which the eggs can be gathered by opening the door in front. The roost poles are made separate so that they can simply be laid on the table or removed when desired. The frame, legs, etc., are made of 2x2 material. The table top or droppings board is made in one piece. The cleats that fasten the boards together just fit inside the top of the frame, which thus prevents slipping and makes it easy to remove and clean. The roost supports are merely two pieces, four inches high, with notches cut in, on which the roost poles rest. The roost poles are of 1x2 material with the 1-inch edge turned upward. An oil-soaked cloth is first placed in each notch and the roosts are laid on them. This practically surrounds the roosts with oil, — 56 — Fig. 71. which is sure death to vermin that happen to try to reach the roosts to attack the fowls. The nests are underneath in front. Fowls enter from I he rear. This provides a darli, comfortable nest. The whole thing can be carried outdoors and thoroughly cleaned and disinfected when neces- sary. Cloths or wicks wet with oil may be tied about the table legs just below the nest line and this will prevent vermin from getting into the nest from the floor, or nests. Roost poles and droppings boards in poultry houses should be sprayed or painted with good liquid lice killer and dis- infected once a month. ('< MUIXATION H.ATCHING AM) BROOD COOl' J-* Fig. 72. Figure 72. The hatching box greatly simplifies hatching by the natural method. Figure 7 2 represents a side view of a hatching box. The roof of the hatching box is hinged so that it can be raised and lowered and (the nesting material taken out after being used one time. It should be made water-proof. Holes should be bored in the sides so that plenty —57— 6 o o coo o o o 1 e ¥ O O o^^ O o GOO , venTk^T'ON 1" H«.t6 . (g) O O o o o O O o 1_ Li o o o O O O O o O o C O O o o r NEiT- ISViP" ■-»-■■ 6" GFA- Pig. 73. of ventilation will be afforded. A runway is made in front so that the hens can have a place to feed and water. A sliding door is placed in front of the coop and can be raised and lowered to permit the hen to come off for exercise and feed. A trough can be made in front and divided into sections for feed, water and grit. The nests can be made five to a section. Pig. 7 3-A. The nests are made on the ground. The bottom of the nests are covered with hardware cloth. About two inches of earth is thrown into the nests to raise it above the ground, and the nest hollowed out, in which the eggs are placed. If it is not convenient to make a galvanized trough, the feed and water can be placed In the run. One-inch mesh wire can be used for the sides, but it is better to use -5 8- slats in front. The dimensions are indicated on the plan which should enable you to build one of these useful appliances. Figure 7 3 is a front view of the same hatching box that is men- tioned above. It is advisable to keep the sitting hens by themselves or Fig. 74. they will be a continual source of trouble to you. These nests should be made about fifteen inches in width. A wooden or wire partition may be placed between each of the individual nests. A sliding door should be used for the front with ventilating holes as shown. The runways should be made ithe same as shown in Figure 72 or Figure 7 3-A. Fig. 75. — 59 — Figure 7 3-A illustrates the above hatching box when in use. The box shown in the front of the illustration is as it appears when completed. There is a long trough which extends from one end of the runway to the other and slats nailed in front of the runway so the hens may eat through same. The feed and water are placed in the front troughs. The nest shown in the rear of the picture shows the front door openi and the rear door in the top of the nest raised. It also shows the runway removed a few feet from the coop. The runway in front also has a hinged door at the top so the attendant can reach through same to catch a hen or feed her on the interior of the coop if he wishes to do so. Figure 74 is a combination hatching and brood coop._ You will notice the hen in 'the hatching box in one end of the coop and she is per- mitted to pass through an opening into the opposite end where she has access to water and feed. After the hen has hatched the chicks, twenty- five or thirty chicks may be placed with her and she and the chicks will roost in the end wh"ere the nest is shown, and both will be permitted to pass out into the open section of the coop where feed and water are kept. You will note there is no floor in the open portion of the coop so that it may be moved when necessary to fresh ground and where they can have access to fresh, tender, green food. The coop is about two feet six inches high in front and eighteen inches high in the rear; it is about five feet in length and two and one-half or three feet in depth. The dimensions may be varied to meet your requirements. There is a small wire-covered door in the center of the coop and a solid board door in the front of the hatch- ing and roosting section. Figure 7 5, a combination coop for hatching and brooding, which is made 5 feet long, 3 feet wide, with shed roof, 3 feet high at front and 2 feet high at back. It has three movable partitions, made by fastening canvass or burlap to a 4-inch strip at bottom and a cross piece at top, and compartments made for four sitting hens. There is a three-foot run in Fig. 76. front for each hen, which is covered with wire netting. Feed and water are kept in these runs and hens come and go at will. The coop has a door in front which is hinged at the top, and underneath this is wire netting tacked on a frame. This door may be left open in pleasant weather. At 30— the back there is a door at the top of each section, 10x12 inches, hinged at the top so as to get to the nests more easily. The roof may also be hinged as shown in the illustration. After the four hens have hatched their chicks, the two end portions may be removed, which then leaves the coop in two sections with a partition in the center. The chicks can then be divided inito two lots and kept with two hens and the other two hens broken from sitting. Figure 7 6 is a "Da-Lite Egg Candler," made by the Grant Egg Cand- ling Co., Kokomo, Indiana. The term "Da-Lite" as applied means that you have no dark room to build. The dark room is built within the candler so that it has perfect darkness Just where it belongs, that is, around the egg. You can use an ordinary electric bulb with these candling devices or you can use dry cell batteries. These devices are being used by many of the large egg dealers 'and produce buyers, as well as by thousands of retail merchants and grocers. They are built ip several different styles; some so that one or more eggs can be tested at the same time. The "Da- Lite Egg Candler" is one of the most dependable devices where a large number of eggs are to be tested. ^' "i MOVE THE TESTER,NOT ^ ^^, THE EGGS ,..„P'''PERFECT TEST ON iiili'' 3 "■■ DAV WITH EASE AND SPEED SENT ON APPROVAL BY SONOMA CALIFQtlNIA Pig. 77. Figure 77 illustrates a "Search Light Egg-Tester." You can take a tray of eggs from your incubator and touch the mouth of the tester or lay it gently on the egg and you can see plainly the condition of the con- tents. This tester differs from others in the fact that you move the tester over the eggs instead of placing the eggs before the tester. Therefore, you are saved the trouble of handling the eggs for the light penetrates the top of the egg where the germ rests. It is a very effective tester in the early stages of incubation. By simply moving the tester over the rows of eggs, the searchlight effect on the air cells illuminates the entire con- tents and, as the germ always rises to the top, it is instantly and clearly visible. Weak or dead germs, blood spots, cracked shells or clear eggs are easily distinguished. This tester requires electric service and is fitted with a Tungsten lamp suited for 120 volt service. If you have a different voltage it will be necessary to replace the lamp that is furnished with the tester for one of the right voltage. PEDIGREE TRAYS Figure 78, showing the method used by the American Poultry School, Kansas City, Missouri, for handling eggs in incubators at hatching time to "pedigree" the chicks. Ordinary two-quart corn popper wire baskets are used. Marked eggs from any one individual hen or pen are placed in a basket on the morning of the eighteenth day of incubation ^nd the basket is labeled accordingly. When hatch is completed the operator knows the breeding or parent of each chick and it is so marked. — 61 — In most cases, the hen influences the quality of the offspring as much as does the male. In some cases her influence is greater. From the viewpoint of egg production or Standard quality, experience has proved it is equally as important to know the dam as well as the sire of every chicken raised. Trap-nesting the females during the breeding season; numbering each egg with ithe leg band number of the hen that produced it; handling the eggs during incubation in the manner set forth in this article in order to insure accurate knowledge of which eggs produced certain chicks, and following this with a system of pedigree banding, these things give us a sure method of knowing the parensts of every chick raised. Not every male or female of the choicest quality as a layer or exhi- bition bird produces a like quality in all of their offspring. Some produce a small per cent that are extxra choice, the balance poor to medium. Others Pig. 78. produce a few of the very best quality with a small per cent medium, while many chicks are absolutely culls, even from the best matings. A male or female that produces the best of youngsters — chicks much better in quality than their parents and that have very few or- no culls at all among them — are valuable birds to their owner and should be kept in his breeding yards to -the end of their days. A real choice chick, unfortunate in having a large per cent of its full brothers and sisters prove to be of cull or only medium quality, is not as valuable to save for breeding as the choice chick whose full brothers and sisters average very good. Many females seldom, if ever, produce an egg that hatches; others pro- duce some fertile eggs, but the embryo chick dies in the shell before hatch- ing. Still others lay eggs that produce chicks which prove to be of low vitality, are hard to raise and seldom develop into good laying, breeding or exhibition birds. Such birds usually are the first to fall prey to any colds or common chicken ailments. I have known cases where a fine qual- ity female was bred from three years without a chick ever being raised from her. I have in mind a well known breeder who three years ago "trapped" his breeders and pedigree hatched the youngsters for the first time. As the summer wore on he noticed the shape and color of almost all chicks from his best mating of the season were very fine, but he was keenly dis- appointed to discover that about one-fifth of all chicks from that mating had side sprigs on their combs, also considerable white on their ear-lobes. He condemned the male (as most breeders do) that had been at the head of the mating. I suggested he investigate his records to see which females were the mothers of the disqualified chicks-. When this was done the good man was amazed to find tha't one was the mother of all the disquali- fied chicks produced from that mating. That same hen had won second as a pullet and first as a hen at two of the world's largest exhibitions. A further checking disclosed the fact that all of the choicest youngsters were from the most unlikely females contained in his best mating the previous spring. Such important facts and scores of other facts of equal importance to the breeder can be known positively only through trap- nesting and pedigree hatching. On the twenty-acre Poultry Experimental Farm operated by the American Poultry School, every female worth keeping is worth trap-nest- ing, at lea^t during her pullet year. This proves her actual laying ability. Their eggs are marked with the number on the band which was sealed on the leg of the female at the time she was placed in the breeding pen. The eggs from different females if placed in incubators are sorted on the after- noon of the seventeenth or the morning of the eighteenth day, and eggs which are marked as being laid by a certain individual, are plaised in a pint, a quart or two-quart size wire corn popper basket. The lid is fastened down and a record card, showing what the basket contains, is made and fastened underneath the lid hook. All eggs in the tray are treated in a like manner. The baskets are next set in the tray, and it is placed back in the machine. Fig. 79. The above illustration shows chicks from eggs which were first divided according to the pen or female that produced them. As each popcorn popper basket is removed after the hatch is completed the chicks in it are marked. When the hatch is finished, each basket of chicks is taken from the machine and opened and the chicks are banded with small open pigeon leg bands. The breeding leg band number of the hen that laid the egg is re- corded on a permanent record sheet and opposite her number is placed the pedigree band number of each chick hatched from her eggs. When the chicks are about eighteen to twenty-four days old, the small band is re- moved from the leg. A small slit about one-eighth of an inch long is made close 'to the edge of the skin which creates the "fan" portion of a fowl's wing when it is opened. This is the skinny or what you might call the web portion of the wing when outstretched. The pigeon band re- moved from the leg is placed through this slit in the wing skin. The band is then folded shut and the chick is marked for life. They never lose their wing bands. Feathers grow over this portion of the wing and the wing band Is never noticed except when a careful search is made among the feathers expressly to find it. When it is desirable to know the chicks hatched from eggs produced by certain pens instead of females, larger popper baskets can be used. Most hardware stores handle them in sizes from pints to one and two gal- lons. The prices of these baskets range from fifteen to sixty-five ceitts, depending upon the size. —63 — There are other methods commonly practiced in incubation to tell which egg produced the chick among which are small hand-made mosquito netting bags and manufactured pedigree trays. We have found chicks often work their way out of the netting bags or the mosguito netting holds the shell over the half hatched chick and it dries there and sometimes kills the chick. Also it requires more time to pedigree hatch when bags are used. The main objection to most all manufactured pedigree trays is that Ihe divisions are not sufficiently numerous to permit economical use of tray space when the incubator tray contains from one to four eggs each from several different females and as many as ten or twelve fertile eggs are in the machine from a certain female. In such cases we use different size popper baskets, using the one best suited to the number of eggs from any female. This method is sure, easy and a time and money saving r"ethod. It also leads you to certain success in building up an egg pro- ducing and Standard-bred flock that will win prizes for you providing \ our o*her methods are correct. Fig. SO Fig. 80. A pedigree egg tray showing the eggs in separate compart- ments. Eggs are not placed in the pedigree trays until the 18th day. The trays shown here were made by a tinsmith. The trays are 2 % inches deep and the partitions are 2 inches apart. Pieces of hardware cloth can be bent so as to subdivide the compartments as here shown. Pedigree trays for this purpose can be bought from any of the better incubator companies or poultry supply dealers. Your hardware merchant can make them for you out of hardware cloth. They should be just the proper size to fit on the inside of 'the frame of your incubator tray. The wire bottom of your incubator tray can be used for your pedjgree trays. All you are required to have made are the sides, ends, tops and partitions as shown in the accompanying illustration. The trays should ncJt be less than 2 H inches deep and the partitions should be at least two inches apart. Bach hen's eggs can be put in a separate compartment. By bending short pieces of the hardware cloth, the sections can be subdivided for a single egg even. If the eggs are marked on the small end, that portion of the shell vjrill usually remain in the tray with the chick, unbroken, so that the records and pedigree can easily be kept. Small tin grooves can be soldered on the sides of the trays into which the partitions can be slipped or re- —64— moved. After the eggs are put in the tray, the top should be wired on until the hatch is completed. BABY CHICK SHIPPING BOXES ?ui.4 r Fig. 81 Fig. 81. The baby chick business has grown to be quite an extensive branch of the poultry business. The large part of the breeders of pure- bred poultry now sell more or less baby chicks and there are a large num- ber of hatcheries in every state and one or more in practically every com- munity where much poultry is raised. Each of these hatcheries makes a business of selling and shipping baby chicks. In order that the chicks carry well and reach their destination in good condition it is necessary to have a lightweight, yet substantial and cheap shipping box. Most of these boxes are made from corrugated paper. The box in the above illustration is sold by the Ripley Manufacturing Co., Grafton, Illinois. The circular boxes on the interior prevent the chicks from crowding into the corners, but they also prevent a free circulation of air to some extent and unless you punch extra holes in these circular partitions or remove them entirely from the box proper your chicks may smother if they have to travel any distance. It is not safe to ship baby chicks where many changes have to be made en route of where it requires longer than thirty-six hours for them to reach their destination. If they have to be shipped a longer distance than this it is necessary to get them out of the machine and into the boxes before they are thoroughly dry. Do not put them in the boxes until you are ready to deliver them to the parcel post office or express office. It is also a good idea to nail two small strips, one inch square, either on the lid or on the bottom of each box so that the chick boxes piled on each other will have an air space between them. This also strengthens the box and makes it more rigid. The bottom of the box should be covered with burlap, clover leaves, alfalfa leaves, bran or some other material to give the chicks a toe hold and prevent them from slipping about in the box. See that the burlap is fastened to the bottom of the box so that it will be impossible m THIS SIDE UP LIVE BABY CHICKS FR.O/\ -. ^ 1 e INDIRECT VENTILATING NON-CROWDING I CHICK BOX FOR. 'i PATENTED SNAP FASTNER CORNER NO T00t3 .WIRE. HOOKS OR STAK.ES. Fig. 82 -65- for the chicks to get under the edges and others to crowd on the top of the burlap and thus smother and trample the chicks underneath. These baby chick boxes can be purchased from any poultry supply house. Fig. 82. This shows the lid of the baby chick boxes. It is necessary to have the words, "Live Baby Chicks," printed in large type so that the expressman, postman or those in charge of the package will handle them with extra precaution. See that the shipping directions are very plain and distinct and also have your own name and address attached to the lid of the box. Fig. 83 Figure 83 represents a home-made fireless brooder for little chicks. We do not recommend heatless brooders, as a rule, but sometimes there is delay in the delivery of a brooder which usually puts the novice in a quan- dry what to do with young chicks. A brooder for temporary use may be made as follows: Take a box with a hover about 18x24 inches square and 10 inches high or this brooder can be made from a soap box or shoe box. Muslin must be used as indicated to insure life saving ventilation day and night. A hover pad that rests on the back of the chicks must be made of several thicknesses of warm material. We usually take two pieces of cheese cloth or cheap muslin and make a small tacked comfort which just fits snugly over the muslin covered frame. Chicks nestle beneath the hover pad as it rests on their backs. Be sure to use muslin in the partition. After the chicks have been in this brooder for three or four days then can be al- lowed exit from the front half of the brooder. Twenty-five to fifty chicks will thrive in such a brooder. The size of the hovers may vary from 15x15 inches to 24x24 inches. Locate card board or wire mesh in corners of brooding apartments to prevent the chicks from huddling or crowding. This sagging muslin covered frame rests on the backs of the chicks, and comforts or cloth covering of some nature is placed over this sagging mus- lin and the amount of covering used depends upon the season of the year. Pig. 84 "B" is an illustration of a "Pettey Poultry Punch." This is used in punching the toes of baby chicks just as they come from the in- cubator. If you only have a few chicks to mark and do not care to go to the trouble of using the open pigeon bands and malce a record in that way you can mark the chicks from various hens by puching the web between the toes of each foot. That is, you may punch the web between certain toes for chicks hatched from certain hens or certain pens. The web be- tween other toes may be punched for other birds. Then in other cases, you may punch two or more of the webs and get various combinations in this way, as shown in our incubation lesson. You can also get still an- other combination by using a sharp pen knife and making slits in the web instead of the round punch marks. You may use the punch between cer- tain toes and the slit made with a knife between other toes. In this way it is possible to get chicks marked in ninety different manners so that no two will be exactly alike. Fig. 85 Figure 85 shows a method of preventing hawks and crows from preying on the growing stock. One source of great loss to many poultry- men are enemies of this sort. The magnitude of the loss can scarcely be realized for in some cases we have known where more than half a flock has been carried off in this way. The Maine Experiment Station reported a great deal of loss from this source and a good deal of attention was de- voted by them to the problem of how these losses might be cut down, and the result of their experiments may be of some benefit to other poultry keepers. "In the experience of this station, the most destructive natural enemy of poultry in the long run has been found to be the crow. The depreda- tions of the hawks are more spectacular perhaps, but in the long run far less destructive. A hawk will only visit a poultry yard occasionally, and especially if he is shot at once or twice will be very wary about approach- ing it again. On the contrary, the crow is a steady and persistent robber. He will continue his depredations just as long as it is physically possible for him to do so. While there may be some doubt as to whether crows are beneficial or harmful as regards other phases of agriculture, there can be no question that, so far as the poultryman is concerned, the only good crow is a dead one. For a number of years the crows killed and either carried away, or left behind partly eaten, a large number of chicks on the Station poultry plant. The losses were not by any means confined to the — 67 — small chicks, but half grown birds, each nearly equal In weight to the crow itself, were killed, partly eaten, and left behind on the range. "One after another all the devices which had been suggested by others, or could be thought of by those' in charge of the poultry work, were tried in order to stop these ravages. In a single year the crows destroyed something over 500 chicks. One important reason for these heavy losses is the location of our poultry range. It borders upon a pine forest Jn which the crows congregate in great numbers. In the case of a range farther from the woods, the losses, without protection, would not be near- ly so heavy. Various sorts of 'Scare-crows' were tried but with, no effect whatever. Dead crows were hung up on stakes about the yards as solemn warnings to their fellows, but instead of operating as warnings they ap- peared rather to serve as 'invitation' to the dance. Decoying the birds in various ways so that they might be shot was tried, but with very slight individual success and no substantial effect on the steady losses. Poison- ing is reported to have been used with success In other places, but has never been tried on the station plant. It ns doubtful whether it is justi- fiable save under very exceptional circumstances. The point is that it is difficult to manage affairs in such a way as to insure that only the crows will get the poison. There are so many useful and valuable animals about the farm that might easily get the poison before the crow did, with a re- sulting loss greater than that caused by the crow that it would seem wise to resort to poisoning only when it can be done under well controlled con- ditions. "The plan which has finally been adopted at the Station poultry plant for dealing with crows is one which is perfectly safe and sure in its oper- ation. It consists simply in running strands of binder twine about two feet apart over the whole of the poultry range occupied by the young birds, until they reach such size that they aer able to take care of them- selves. These strings are run over the tops of the brooder houses, and on supports made by cross strands of either wire or two or three strings of binder twine twisted together. These cross strands are held up by posts when necessary. The whole network of strings thus formed is put at such height that the attendants in working about the yard, will not hit the string when standing upright. The area covered in with strings in this way on the Station poultry plant is usually three acres per year. The ex- pense of covering this area is from $15 to $20 for twine. The labor of putting it up is comparatively small. It forms a perfect and complete protection against both crows and hawks. "The appearance o£ the range when covered with strings is shown in figure 85:" Figure 8 6 illustrates a temporary shed which is used as shade for growing stock or in any poultry yard where shade is lacking. The sides might be covered with poultry netting and roosting poles put beneath same if one was desirous of using it as a summer house. This shed is two feet high in the rear and five feet high in front. It can be built any size, but as it is shown in the illustration, it is supposed to be eight feet wide and twelve feet deep. It might be better in some cases to make the shed longer and not so deep. If it is made longer than ten feet, however, it would be necessary to have extra supports in the rear and front in order to keep the poles or lumber from sagging. Hay or straw thatching is placed about ten inches thick and then the upper poles tied into place, which would compress the hay until it re- mained about six inches in thickness. This would make a place to keep feed and water and also make a cool place for the poultry. The poles on top are placed so that they will run from the top to the rear of the shed, or in the opposite direction from those underneath. This aids in carrying the water and serves to hold the hay more firmly in place. Poles or lum- ber may be placed close together and the straw dispensed with if you pre- fer to make the protection in that way. Fig. 87 Figure 87 is a sun shelter made of elevated slats or poles. These are placed on a light frame and elevated on four or more posts. The frame is about two or two and one-half feet from the ground. Some use slats and others use poles and some prefer a solid platform. You will find that the birds will get underneath these on hot days and you will find that they take pleasure in sitting on the top of the shelter when the ground is wet and damp. Make them large enough or have a sufficient number of these shelters so that it will not be necessary for the birds to crowd. Fig. Figure 8 8 represents one of the best makes of permanent leg bands. They are what are known as the "Smith Sealed Band" sold by the Keyes- Davis Co., Battle Creek, Michigan. You can have your name or initials — 69— stamped on the band If you want that done. The bands may be obtained in any size you wish and every band numbered with a separate and distinct number. We advise using leg bands with raised numbers instead of numbers cut into the band. If you have the numbers cut into the metal or alum- inum the figures will become filled with dirt and filth and the numbers will not be easily visible. If the figures are raised they can be distin- guished at a glance. This same company also makes a plain pedigree band or open pigeon band with numbers on them which we use in pedigreeing baby chicks. The method of pedigreeing chicks is described in another portion of this lesson and the method of placing the leg bands in the wing of the chick is shown in our lesson on incubation. Pig. 88 "A" Figure 88 "A" shows the "Spiralet" band made of celluloid. These come in various colors — white, red, green, blue ,etc. They also come in many different sizes and they are sometimes quite useful in readily dis- tinguishing chickens of different matings, that is, all chicks of a certain family may be marked with a red band as well as with sealed bands con- taining the numbers. This would enable you to know all of the chicks Fig. 89 with this color band were from a certain family or mating and save the trouble of catching the chick and examining the sealed band number in order to know definitely the breeding of a chick. They are also very useful for other purposes. These can be purchased from most any poultry —70— supply house or you can obtain them from the manufacturer, M. Bayer- dorfter, Hugenot Park, New York. Figure 89 Is a shelter out of ordinary poles. In No. 2 you can see the hens wallowing in the dust and shade beneath the poles on a hot summer day. In No. 3 you can see the hens sitting on top of the same poles when the weather was more or less damp and cool. In No. 1 of this same illustration, you can see the poultryman spading a few shovelfuls of earth in the poultry yard. You will note the hens about his feet eager to get at the bugs and worms. If every poultryman would spade up a few shovelfuls of earth in his poultry yards, every two or three days at least, he would find his hens would get a great deal of pleasure out of working in the soil and also be greatly benefited by same. This is especially recommended where the yards are bare or where your feed is lacking in meat food. Pig. 90 Figure 9 0. This poultry shed is four feet high in front and two feet high in the rear. Ordinary poles with a cross bar are used for both the front and rear to hold the muslin, canvass or cover in position. The cloth is then staked down with heavy strings or light weight rope, the same as you use for staking down a tent. Canvass or drill would perhaps be the most economical in the end for if such canvass were properly taken care of it would last through several seasons. This covering should be given a coat of "Tector" which is mentioned in another portion of this lesson. The poles should be driven into the ground and should be about three inches in diameter or made of 2x4's. The cover is not fastened to the sup- ports, but is held in place by the small ropes which are fastened at each end by either sewing the ropes into the edge or clinching tent eyes into the edges of the canvass and running the ropes through these. Ordinary bur- lap makes a very satisfactory cover. These shade devices should not be built larger than 9x12 feet and it is sometimes best to make them smaller than that and use more of them, depending upon the size flock one must care for. THE DUST WALLOW Fig. 91. We think as a rule that it is not best to have the dust wallow in the poultry house. It is possible to use an outdoor box for this purpose and keep dry, fine dirt In which the hens can get their dust bath. For dust- ing material it is necessary to supply some material that is fine and it should be kept perfectly dry. The idea is to fill the breathing pores of lice to kill them. It is possible to use some very fine coal ashes mixed with dirt and sand so as to supply very fine material that can be admitted to the breathing pores. Some insect powder or finely powdered or ground — 71— tobacco stems can be used in the mixture of sand and coal ashes. By placing the dust box out of doors sunshine can be admitted which will serve to destroy the insects that the hen removes from her body. We give you an illustration of a box which is easily made and with but very F g. 91- -A dust box like this placed out of doors helps to keep dow.i dust in the house. little expense. A dry goods box can be used for the purpose by sawing down the sides to place the roof on. Give ample fall to the roof and you will have a good dusting place for hens. There is usually enough dust in most poultry houses anyway and a dust wallow on the inside causes the dust to settle in the feed hoppers, on the drinking water, windows and other objectionable places. If the air is filled with dust it also has a tendency to irritate the throat of the fowls and leads to various troubles. For that reason we think it best to have it on the outside. It it is built in the poultry house, cover it so that the birds' water and feed will be protected from the dust. Fig. 91-A illustrates a yard where there is plenty of shade to protect the birds from the hot summer sun and also shows clearly the fact that fruit trees and poultry can be grown on the same land, therefore, produc- ing two crops instead of one. The coops, feed hoppers and drinking pans must be kept in the shade and every poultryman should plant trees for this purpose and while he is doing so he may as well plant something that will produce fruit. Certain trees do well in poultry yards and others do not do so well and it would be best to consult your nurseryman as to what he would recommend for your particular locality. If poultrymen would plant some shrubbery, grapes, blackberry, raspberry, gooseberry or some such bushes in their poultry yards, so that the young stock and breeding stock can have access to same in the summer months, you will find they enjoy it very much. Chickens like to congregate beneath shrubbery. Pig. 91A Fig. 92 — 7 3 — Figure 92 represents an ordinary piano box that has been turned on the side with the back of the box down. Underneath this you will see that runners have been made of 4x4's; this permits a horse to be hitched to the box so that it may be moved to any portion of the farm. The back of the piano box is used as a floor and roofing paper is tacked over the top and ends of the box. The front is covered with two doors hinged at each side as shown in the illustration and these doors are made of light framing material and covered with one-inch poultry netting. Roost poles may be used in these boxes for growing stock or for a small pen of breeding stock kept on a city lot. I — -^- — ■ ■ ■;• I'^'^^^^hHE SRHmI^ &^ *'^' ^^^^^^^^HHH ^v^:,,,... 'mv^^^l ; ■■-^.'^mSHHII^^^v .;?*;*■ # ■ Pw " ' ijfc&o ,;d|PI ■■■■"■ " ' V" '"' — ^iia^fl^fg^ II -■.■■j::.:.4: K h^hbr^ ^^ksbSbB^kT j^^^jhhphh H^^B^ Bei-^--- ■ >^^^. '■^-::;S&*'* ■ Fig. 93 Figure 9 3 shows the rear of the same piano box illustrated above. You will note that the rear is made as if it was one large door and hinged at the bottom so that entire back of the box may be opened as shown in the illustration. You will note the roosting poles in position on the in- terior of the box. These are built so that they can be removed at will. This rear door can be let down and the box easily cleaned from either the front or back. This is a very good coop in which to keep growing stock while on range. Figure 94 shows two colony houses made from two piano boxes. The boxes are placed back to back, the back of each box being entirely removed. The boxes are placed about two feet apart and then 2x4's are used at both top and bottom, extending from one box to the other, so that the two are held firmly in place. These 2x4 's act as rafters above to support the 'two feet of roof that must be filled in and the sills below to support the two feet of flooring that must be laid. The roof and the entire outside of the boxes are covered with roofing material. Two windows are made in front for light and ventilation as shown in the illustration. These are hinged at the top so that they can be fastened outward; these openings are then covered with one-inch poultry netting. A two-foot door is made for the center opening which permits the attendant and the fowls to pass in and out of the house at will. The rear of the house is made without openings. — 7 4 — Pig. 94 UPPEK. "Piano-Box • VENT IZ '^IZ -MUSLIN COVa Fig. 9 5 —75- fftONT Figure 95 is a piano box that has been converted into a house for a breeding pen. Such a house as is illsutrated in Fig. 95 can be converted from a piano box vi^ith very little expense involved. At about one-third of the height, the upper floor is laid. Six inches above the floor the roost extends from one end to the other. At one end of the floor there is a lOx 15-lnch opening, the long way being the full length of the box vs^ith the 10-inch slanting board extending to the lower floor. The fowls use this slatted, slanting board in ascending and descending to and from the up- 1 1 M 1 1 ^ 1 ,_>™ ft^ W^^g^ ^^fn mt^ |Vc^b|fl ^^P^HI 1 1 K t ••"■^ ■*^~»* -yf^ ^ L r^^^^«^^4^^^I^H^^^H i HI Hi i2a;Sa».'.'ti-*.-jSEV.jt'^V »Wr '::^ r^- ' jA.^ .7- ''^^ x^^^^i Fig. 96. A handy wagon for a poultry farm. stairs sleeping room. The nest box is at one end of the upper floor. You will note that a 12x12 opening ismade in the end of the box and this is covered with muslin for ventilation. You can also see the two doors that are made in the front of the house so the doors can be lifted and both upper and lower floors easily cleaned. This makes a splendid little house for a small flock on a city lot. A small pen of Standard-bred chickens can be kept in such a house and be as snug as "a bug in a rug." There is a very small outlay required to begin poultry keeping in this way. Fig. 97 —76— Pig. 96. A great labor saving veliicle is a wagon built close to the ground for the carrying of feed and water. If you expect to rear your fowls on the range in large numbers you will find this is a very useful ve- hicle. The barrel has a hose attached to it and the water fountains can be easily filled by one man while the other is filling the feed hoppers. It was found by actual count that this could be done in less than one hour's time per day when about twenty-five hundred chickens were being fed. A wagon bed can be placed on it for hauling the droppings to the fields and for carrying straw to fill the houses. Pig. 9 6 is furnished us through the courtesy of Cornell University. Pig. 97 is a truck used in moving poultry houses, coops or such equip- ment on poultry farms. This shows a large house 8x12 feet that is on the truck and now being moved. In' order to load the house, you simply raise one end with a large jack screw and the truck or moving wagon is backed underneath the house just far enough so that when the jack screw is re- moved the house will come down into position as shown. We have known where 20 or 30 such houses have been moved in one day by two men and a team without injuring a single house in the least. The house can be jacked up again the same way and the truck pulled out from beneath and the house allowed to settle into position. Pig. 98 Figure 98 shows this same moving truck which can be built by any ordinary blacksmith or wagon maker. Pour wheels should be used and the wheels should be just as low or just as small in diameter as you can get them. Twelve or fifteen inches is the best height and the face of the wheel should be rather wide so as to prevent the truck from sinking in the soil or mud. The wheels shown in the above illustration were taken from a long tongued hay rake. The framing material should be made of 4x6 or 4x8's. The axle should be made of metal and heavy enough to support a large or heavy house. The frame proper is built in the shape of a V and it comes to a point about 2 feet back against the frame so a very short turn can be made if necessary. The distance from the front to the rear axle should not be less than 8 feet. The rear axle should be 9 feet in length so as to permit an 8-foot house to rest on the frane and between the two wheels. The top of the frame should really be an inch or two higher than the wheels if possible to so construct it. It is not necessary to have the front axle more than 4 feet in length. Two rods should extend out from the front axles and be welded together with a ring as shown in the illustration so that a clevis and double-tree can be easily fastened to same. A small bed can also be made to place on this wagon so that it may be used in hauling other things as well as poultry houses. An arrange- ment of this sort will be found very useful on a large poultry farm If colony houses are to be moved each season. — 77 — Fig. 99 Figure 99 is a box that is used to preserve the droppings on the farm of the American Poultry School. These boxes are 3 feet In width and 3 feet high. The bottom of the boxes and the rear ends are solid. One Side of the cover is made solid but the opposite side is hinged so that the lid may be lifted and the box filled or the droppings easily removed. The boards in the front side of the box slip into a groove so that these may be removed, one after the other when shoveling the droppings from the box to a farm wagon. If you wish to preserve the droppings for fertilizer, it is best to use a layer of droppings and then a layer of soil. You will note the galvanized iron container in the hand of the attendant. This is used to catch the droppings as they are scraped from the droppings boards. It is our custom to have one of these large boxes at the end of each large poultry house or convenient to several houses. This protects the droppings from the rain and weather and preserves them for future use. The boxes are built on 2x4 runners so they can be moved about the farm. _ay: C: ' ft Top View r-m- Sottom Vteyv Fig. 100 Fig. 100 shows a home-made droppings board scraper. It is con- structed from a sheet of 17 gauge galvanized iron, size 8x15 inches and —78— shaped as shown in the illustration. Cut the sheet of galvanized iron as shown in the drawing. It is also necessary to have there 1 Vi stove bolts and a piece of 3-inch wide pine or the very lightest lumber obtainable. The lumber is used for a handle and should be turned and rounded so as to fit the hand. The shape of the scraper allows it to fit close Into the cor- ners and it is also very light and convenient to carry from pen to pen. If you use large houses and they are of considerable distance apart, it would be a good idea to have one of these scrapers in each house. In cleaning wide droppings boards in large houses, It might be necessary to have the handle nearly 4 fee't long, but in smaller houses it would be more conven- ient if the handle is shorter. A common bushel basket may be used in con- nection with this implement, if you do not wish to go to the expense and trouble of having a galvanized iron container made like that shown in Figure 99. Fig. 100-A Fig. lOOA represents a very important device which should be used by every poultryman about the time that he takes the heat away from his young chicks and wants them to learn to roost. If the chicks are allowed to roo^t on the floor after they reach a certain age, they crowd and the weaker ones are trampled on, and ofteR die by the wholesale. Colds and roup and other diseases sometimes follow. However, if every poultry- man will build temporary roost poles like this and cover the runway up to the roosts and the underneath side of the poles with one-inch poultry net- ting, the chicks will soon find their way to the roots, and will take delight in roosting there, the proper distance apart, instead of crowding and dying in the corners upon the floor. These poles must me made just to fit the end of the house where you want the chicks to roost, so the chicks cannot drop down between the roosts and the house. Make them about a foot or eighteen inches from the floor and with a slanting runway to the first pole. The underneath side of the whole thing must be covered with a wire. This also protects the chicks from the droppings. They simply pass through the wire to the floor then dry up and are more easily cleaned from the floor than where the chicks have trampled in them. Even if the chicks should crowd on the wire and on these temporary roosts and the weaker ones are underneath, they can still breathe and will not smother as they often do, for the reason that the wire below them permits them to breathe from below, even though other chicks may have them covered from above. But you will find that the chicks soon take to these temporary roosts. This insures plenty of roosting room for each bird, they grow rapidly, and —79— their plumage Is kept clean and they keep in good health at a very critical time. No time is so dangerous as when you take the heat away and are trying to teach the chicks to go to roost. This temporary roosting device solves that problem. Fig. 101 Figure 101 is a handy portable wheelbarrow sprayer. It is especially designed for whitewashing, disinfecting and various kinds of spray work. It can be easily moved anywhere like a wheelbarrow, through narrow openings and between narrow crop rows. The spray pump is easy working and powerful. One hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty pounds of pressure can be had with no great amount of effort. The frame ig made of steel. The tank has a capacity of 12% gallons and is made of galvanized iron. A hose one-half inch in diameter and twelve and one-half feet in length goes with each spray pump. There is also an 8-foot extension rod furnished with each machine. This sprayer is made by the Hayes Power and Pump Co., of Galva, 111. Figure 102 illustrates a Portable Spray pump, whitewasher and disin- fecting machine. This sprayer is large enough for spraying, whitewash- ing and disinfecting poultry buildings and can be used as well by truck farmers and fruit growers. The tank is made of heavy galvanized iron and has a capacity of 12% gallons. The frame is made of gas pipe. A lock holds the tank in an upright position and prevents the wasting of spray mixtures. The pump is of substantial make and has a mechanical agitator in the bottom of the tank. This is a labor saving machine and no poultry farm can well afford to do without a sprayer similar to the above in construction. This spray machine is sold by the Ripley Manufacturing Company, of Grafton, 111., and is sold under guarantee of satisfaction or money refunded. Each farmer should also have a small hand sprayer for spraying the birds and for lighter work. Figure 103 illustrates a handy coop for breaking up broody hens. It is nothing more or less than a square box with slatted sides and slatted —80— Fig. 102 bottom. A door should be made at the top so that the hens can be put in or taken out at will. The coop is then swung from the limb of a tree or the ceiling of a poultry house. There should be a trough used on one side of the coop so that the hens may be watered and fed from same. Small chains or rope may be used with which to suspend the coop. We prefer the coops illustrated in Fig. 104 if you have a very large flock of birds. The outdoor coops are really preferable to a coop of this style. Figure 104 is a row of Broody hen coops. Many of these coops are used by the American Poultry School and they usually return a hen to her laying yard in four days, ready for business. By experiments it has been learned that each day's delay in penning a broody hen means a rapidly increasing number of days in effecting a "cure." It rests with the poultry keeper to prevent her being a slacker in production and to keep her from spoiling the product of other hens. Broody hens are the cause of billions of spoiled eggs going to mar- ket every spring and summer. Egg buyers and packers know this and re- alizing that they must be candled out, are, therefore, forced to con- sider this great waste when determining prices to be paid producers. Mil- lions of dollars are lost annually on acocunt of neglect in handling hens properly, immediately after they go broody. —SI — Broody hens and their improper care are the causes* of a loss In annual egg production of millions of eggs, for it has been shown that by breaking up broody hens promptly, you can increase the egg yield of the average hen from 15 to 25 eggs per hen per year. Fig. 103. The enormous loss from spoiled eggs, traceable to broody hens, and the loss in egg production caused by a lack of proper methods in caring for broody hens, in indeed a serious problem — a problem, however, that poultry raisers can easily overcome. Will they do it? WHY WE SHOULD CHECK BROODINESS AT ONCE There is an idea general among poultry raisers that when a hen begins to lay she has a certain number of eggs to produce after which she is very likely to go broody. This supposition has been proved to be wrong. Every hen's ovary contains many times as many eggs as she ever lays, and egg production continues according to the physical make-up of the hen as provided by nature, unless she is interrupted from laying by broodiness or some outside influence, such as becoming frightened, being moved, weather conditions or improper care and feed. Investigations have proved, beyond a doubt, that broodiness is a con- dition of the brain and not of the body. Of course, the condition of the brain naturally acts upon and influences or controls the body. Every hen, when she goes broody, is in a laying condition, having the different parts of the eggs developed, but because of staying on the nest, lack of exercise, loss of appetite and lack of nourishment, she takes these partly formed eggs back into her system and uses them as nourishment for her own body. Hens remaining on the nest all day in a broody condition will very often have other hens lay in the same nest. If the eggs are fertile, em- bryo or germ development takes place in these eggs as a result of having been set on. The eggs, when gathered later in the day, are usually placed where the temperature is too cool for incubation to continue, thus causing the embryo to die, resulting in a small speck of dead matter within the shell. This is so small at first that one almost needs a miscroscope to see it, but within a short time the egg is spoiled. It has become rotten, as the small speck of dead matter quickly contaminates the entire egg. This results in billions of spoiled eggs going to market each year. Some time ago professors carried on a series of experiments to determine what influence broodiness had upon egg production. Among several important things of a practical value to all poultrymen, which they proved, was that the average hen, if allowed to remain broody one day and then placed four days in a coop for breaking up broody hens, would not lay for ten days from date of going broody, the average hen, if allowed to remain broody twenty-one days and then broken up, lost thirty-five days before laying an egg and often they will remain dormant for two or three months. When we consider these facts, together with the reckless, haphazard fashion of caring for broody hens employed by most poultry raisers, it Is then plainly seen that millions of eggs are annually lost which could easily have been profitably produced and preserved, if correct methods were used. Broodiness is a condition of the hen's mind and, if encouraged, it be- comes an inborn part of the nature of her offspring. The disposition of broodiness is a hindrance to a high egg yield. Some of our very best laying hens go broody many times during a year, but they are broken up immediately. It is important that we breed this disposition out of the hen as much as possible. The first step in that direction is always to dis- courage broodiness by breaking the hen of the idea at once. We never permit a broody hen to remain on the nest over night. Hens should never be used as sitters in early spring. These early sitters have been egg producers during the winter, and every good egg from such hens should be incubated, provided, of course, that they are of good quality and Standard-bred. The old time-worn methods of placing a broody hen in a tub of water, or tying a red rag to her tail, etc., are out of date, decidedly inhu- man, and very injurious to the hen's health, and her chances of again be- coming a good egg producer or strong breeder are materially lessened. HOW TO "BREAK UP" BROODY HENS At the American Poultry Experiment Station, we use a coop (shown in photographs published herewith) for breaking broody hens from the idea of broodiness. Such coops can be easily and cheaply made by any- one. The average poultryman or farmer usually has enough lumber scraps —83— or old boards about to make two to four of these coops without going to the expense of new lumber. They can be made in different sizes, but for general use and handiness, we prefer those of the following di- mensions: Corner posts or legs of 2x4 stock, cut four feet long and said coop is made of 1x1% -inch strips, set two inches apart the long way of the coop. The floor of the coop proper is thirty inches from the ground, thus making the coop proper eighteen inches high on the sides. A gable roof is placed over all, the distance from floor of coop to the point of gable being twenty-four inches. The roof extends six inches over both ends and sides, furnishing additional protection from sun and rain. The floor of the coop is made of 1x1% -inch strips, set two inches apart the long way of the coop, first having the edges slightly rounded. One side of the coop where the feed trough goes is made of lath or slats placed two inches apart and nailed to the top and bottom of the coop so the hens can eat through the slats. The other side and ends may be covered with the same kind of slats or with ordinary poultry netting. A slatted door, 12x18 inches, is hinged to one end of the coop. A wooden trough four inches wide and five inches deep is placed level with the floor along one or both sides of the coop. A small partition is placed four inches from each end of this trough into which is placed an ordinary tomato can for water. The roof of the coop is covered with some good roofing material. We follow the plan of using four of these coops. All broody hens found in the nests in the evening are placed in one of these coops. The broody hens the next evening are placed in another coop, and so on for four consecutive days. By the fourth evening we have one or more hens, as a rule, in each of the four coops. The following morning the hens from the first coop are removed and placed in their yards and in the evening that coop is again filled with a new lot of "broodies." The hens in the "broody coop" are fed and watered regularly each day. The feed is supplied in the troughs. The same grains, mashes and green foods which are supplied to the hens in the laying pens are furnished the broody hens. Fig. 105. —84— Being confined to these slatted coops with an abundance of fresh air under and about them, and with nothing to do but watch the other hens enjoying the freedom of nearby yards, soon takes the idea of broodiness from the hens so inclined. In most cases it would be well to annoint each hen with some louse ointment before placing her back in the yard. A small amount should be rubbed well into the skin about an inch below the vent and also on each hip. Thus you will prevent these troublesome pests from gstting a. start in your place. Figure 105 is a close-up view of the coop for broody hens. You will note the solid board door in the left end and wire in the opposite end and in the side next to you. On the opposite side, where the teed troughs are, it is necessary to have slats so the hens may get their heads through same 3' Fig. 106. —85— in order to have access to the feed and water which are on the outside of the coop. Figure 106 is a detail drawing of the end of the broody coop which contains the door. When the weather is not too severe, it is much better to place broody hens in the yard than in a coop in the hen house. During the broody season mites and lice are apt to infest the houses. Figure 106 is the plan for making this coop. Two by fours can be used for the posts, one-by-two strips can be used for the flooring, and it is possible to use small strips to enclose the sides, or poultry wire can be used. The feed trough should be made in front of the coop so that the birds can be kept in condition and not starved, as many think is necessary to do, to hasten them back into laying condition. The height and width are in- dicated in the plan. The length of the rafters is twenty-three inches. Fig. 107. Figure 107 illustrates a home-made catching coop which is a very useful and necessary appliance on any poultry farm where many chickens are kept. This permits you to place the coop up near an exit of a poul- try house and permits the chickens to pass from the house proper into the coop without being frightened, injured or bruised by rough handling. After the coop is filled, the door in the end may be slipped into position behind the birds. Then the coop may be removed and the chicks lifted through the door in the top of the coop. This is a splendid device that is quite useful when you need to catch chickens at sorting time, when you are culling them for market, selecting or mating them for breeding purposes, or when you wish to catch the chicks to treat them for body lice. Or if you wish to move the chicks from one house to another, this is a splen- did device for that purpose. You can make the coop any size you wish, but a coop 4 feet long,- 1 % feet high and 2 % feet wide is a convenient size. A CATCHING HOOK Figure 108. We should be as gentle with our flocks as possible, and frighten them no more than absolutely necessary. Every farmer and poul- —86— tryman should have several catching hooks about the farm. They save time in catching your poultry, and often prevent injury to the bird by fright. Take an ordinary broom handle or light piece of wood and make a handle and attach a 3-foot piece of No. 10 steel wire to it. Bend it to the proper shape, as shown in the accompanying illustration. It makes it much better and more rigid if you reinforce the main wire by winding a second wire of like size around the main wire for a foot or more from where it is attached to the handle. You can bend and thus increase or diminish the size of the hook to correspond with the size of the fowl's leg which you are attempting to catch. Slip the hook quietly down toward the fowl, and quickly reach it around the shank just above the foot, and the fowl can then be gently drawn towards you and its feet released. Be careful not to injure its leg. Pig. 109. Figure 109 is one of the best yarding arrangements for baby chicks that we have ever used. We use 1-inch poultry netting that is 2 feet in height. We have our blacksmith make a few small iron rods with a ring at the top and pointed on the other end, which is forced into the ground. These rods are worked through the poultry netting and then forced into the ground, which holds the fence close to the earth and also makes it rigid, holds it in position and keeps it from sagging. A poultry fence that —87 — is no more than 2 feet in height can be stepped over by the attendant, but the chicles are kept inside until you desire to remove the fence. When that is done the wire is rolled up and the iron rods and all are rolled with it. This is stored away until needed again. It is not always convenient nor the best plan to build permanent, sub- stantial yards to meet temporary spring needs. Where space is limited, especially grass space, it is much better to move the chick coops about and give the grass a chance to grow and the ground to freshen, for the chicks eat down the grass. For a movable fence, there is nothing that we have seen so cenvenient as the simple arrangement shown in Figure 109. In- stead of setting posts in the ground and fastening the wire with staples, as is usually done, the fencing is held in place and upright by wire posts or pins made of one-fourth-inch material, sharpened at one end and looped at the other, thus making them easy to push into the ground and to pull up. By being woven through the mesh of the fencing, they act as posts and braces in a very satisfactory manner. This simple fence can be quickly moved or taken down, rolled up and stored away. The chick yards can be changed in a few minutes to include more grass or can be moved to a different spot. One or several brood coops can be enclosed and the chicks are thus kept under ideal conditions at all times, so far as yarding is concerned. The fencing does not have to be cut to fit any particular pen, but can be left in the roll and all or part of it used, as desired. Brooders or brood coops can be placed under a tree and the fence run around the tree. This makes an ideal yard for chicks and they can get, not only sunshine and shade, but the bugs and worms that are found in such places. MR Im"'"? — ««.«a »>,' "X ..^ : ":i^-r^^^. J« ^«^««>S^I^ , *^-w*^,^4:v. ■ ■ ^ ,_»r.: ■ -W %^08m iilii :ii!-fei: ■:;■,.•/ Fig. 110. Figure 110. Strips of 1x2 material may be used from which to make temporary fences with which to surround outdoor brooders or colony houses. The fences are built in sections, 12x14 feet in length, and two, two and one-half, or three feet high. They should be built uniform so that the fencing may be transferred and moved from one place to an- other, and no matter which section of the fence is to be used It will fit in any yard. The corners of the fence may be held in place by nailing same or bolting together with small bolts, or the corners fastened with ordi- nary screw hooks and eyes. When the small chicks are placed in a brooder, hover or colony house, for the first days they are permitted to run out on the ground, it is neces- sary to confine them to small pens so that they will learn their way in and out of the house or brooder. These fences are very useful for that pur- pose. — SS— Fig. 111. Figure 111. This is an illustration of an attractive method of fencing poultry yards. The bottom portion of the posts are painted a dark color and the top portion painted white. Some poultrymen paint the entire post white. It is really more economical to construct your fencing in a substantial way, using what is known as poultry and rabbit fencing rather than poultry netting. Fencing of this kind makes your place more attractive and pre- vents your fowls from becoming mixed in the yards. Fig. 112. Figure 112 illustrates one of the Beuoy capon bows. This new and simple bow does away with the most objectionable feature in making capons. It completely eliminates the weight and cord used for holding and stretching the fowl. "With the Beuoy bow the operator has complete control of the bird without torturing it in any way. With it a capbnizer — 89 — I^^^k (^p 1 1 i W^^ BEDOY BOW Ml j^ CAPON TABLE Fig. 114. can use anything that is handy for an operating table, such as a box, barrel or stand. These bows can be purchased from the manufacturer, Geo. Beuoy, Cedar Vale, Kansas. Mr. Beuoy also manufactures one of the best sets of caponizlng tools, such as we use at this institution, and also capon tables which are shown in Figure 114. Fig. 115. Figure 115 represents a method of preventing birds from flying, by tying a cord around a wing in the manner illustrated above. It may be necessary to tie another string up closer to the body and attach the ends of the cord to the cord that runs toward the head of the bird in order to hold this in place and prevent it from dropping off the wing. A method of fastening wing feathers together that might prove more satisfactory than this would be put a strip of adhesive plaster around the wing where the string is shown perpendicular. The plaster should go entirely around the wing and be pressed firmly against the feathers. .Also see that the ends of the adhesive plaster are firmly fastened together. This method should be used only on one wing of each bird and! the other wing should be left free. We would recommend the above method only in cases where you wish to prevent the birds from flying and yet avoid clipping the wing which would disqualify it for exhibition purposes. Figure 116 illustrates our method of clipping wings of poultry to prevent them from flying. Only one wing of each bird is clipped and only tlje flight feathers in any case are clipped. The wing is cut as shown iij — 90 — Pig. 116. o Tp open C 7 — P knife blode e d s e and than p o I n t* «— eros* fectlcn 4 -rivet K Fig. 117. — 91 — Blood can for use in killing poultry. the above illustration. The half of the wing feathers furthest from the body are the only ones to be cut. The wing on the opposite side of the bird is not disturbed and in that case, when it attempts to fly, it is un- balanced and falls to one side. By clipping the wing in this way, when it is folded by the bird, the clipped portion is folded underneath the one-half of Ihe wing feathers which are not clipped and, therefore, does not mar the appearance of the fowl. Baby chicks which are inclined to be weak, also droop- their long flight feathers and if one-half of each wing is clipped in the same manner, you will find it will make a wonderful difference in their appearance and they also seem to do better and gain in strength. Figure 117. Here we show a "blood can" for use in killing and pick- ing poultry. The best method of killing fowls for the market is by "stick- ing" them through the mouth. In this way the head is left on so that the buyer may tell the sex as well as gain other points indicated by the head to those who know fowls; and, besides, the birds are well bled. It is necessary to kill in this manner in dry picking the birds, in order to loosen the feathers. The fowls are hung up by the feet with the breast toward the operator. The simple way of suspending the bird is by hanging a stout cord, with a cork or circular block of wood three-fourths of an inch thick by one inch wide, fastened to the free end, from a beam just above the head of the operator. Then the fowl is held head downward with both feet together and the cord twisted around the shanks and caught with the block of wood. The fowl's head is held in the left hand and the "stick" made with the right, after which the "blood can" is hooked into the fleshy part of the lower mandible from the outside. Inside the can is a sharp hook to be hooked in the lower jaw as shown. Fig. 119. Figure 119 is a home-made shipping crate for market poultry. This crate should be built about 2% feet in width and not over a foot or 15 inches In height. The corner posts should be made of 2x2 material and the remainder of the upright material made of 1x2. A light, yet durable net- ting can be tacked around the sides and ends of the coop. There should be a movable slat through the center of the coop about 4 inches in width so that the fowls can be placed in the coop or removed at that point. The remainder of the top should be made of narrow and light weight strips so as to prevent the fowls from escaping. The strips should be close enough together to prevent the fowls from getting their heads through same. It is dangerous for them to stick their heads out of the coop, because in rapid process of loading and reloading a large number of fowls in shipping — 9 2 — coops, one coop will be placed on top ot the other, and It the birds are permitted to have their heads on the outside, there is danger of many of them being killed. Fig. 120. Figure 120 is a crate used for fattening poultry. We make this crate 6 feet long, 20 Inches wide and 20 inches high. There are partitions run every two feet, which makes three pens. The frame is made of one by two- inch material, and the top, back and ends are covered with one-inch mesh poultry netting, while the floor is one-inch mesh netting, which is made of Number 9 wire. The wire floor enables the droppings to pass through to galvanized pans which have been placed underneath, thus keeping the chickens and pens in sanitary condition. The two center laths of each pen are fixed so they can slide up and down and thus serve as doors. About eight inches from the bottom of the coop, in the front, a V-shaped trough is hung, and the birds are fed from this trough. The crate will hold from fifteen to twenty-five birds, depending on size and age, each compartment holding from 5 to 8 chickens. The crate should be placed where it will have plenty of light and fresh air. Figure 121 is a drawing of this crate. The galvanized pans are 1x2 3x24 inches in size, or just large enough so they fit snugly into the space below the bottom of the crate. The most satisfactory method of finishing chicks for market is to con- fine them to small crates where exercise will be restricted, and feed them heavily for ten days or two weeks on a wet, sloppy mash made with milk. The advantages of the crate method of feeding over all other methods are that it is more sanitary, the fowls are more easily controlled, feeding is easier and greater gains are secured. In addition, it is easier to avoid disease since every chicken fed is under individual observation. To market chickens which have not been properly conditioned through some method of fattening is an economic waste. Chickens will not reach their maximum development of flesh without special feeding. The farmer who sells his chickens without fattening them deprives himself of a large part of his possible profit, since the increased weight produced by an efficient method of fattening is produced at a low cost. The unfattened chicken loses a much greater percentage of its weight in dressing than the chicken which has been properly fed. O" a TPlOUftH ' TTTTTT 1 1 I I I I r TTTT M I I I t Jll Fig. 121. Figure 121. This shows the front of the fattening crate as drawn in detail. You will note that this drawing only represents a height of eight- een inches. However, we believe it is much better to have the fattening crate at least twenty inches high so as to use it for the latger fowls. You will note the position of the trough and the arrangement made for sliding doors. 1 6 R 1 m H Fig. 122. Figure 122 is a floor plan of the fattening crate described above. This will give you an idea as to how the framework is put together. The bottom of the coop is covered with one-inch poultry netting and the top is also covered with netting. The same is true of the back, the front being the only portion which is slatted. The laths in front should be about two inches apart. The framework should be made of 1-inch by 2-inch strips. Divide the coop into three pens, each two feet In length. Make a long wooden trough for the front in which to feed the soft mash, which is used for fattening. A fattening crate of this kind is cheaply and easily con- structed and is a necessity on every farm. Figure 123 represents a cooling board for dressed poultry. After the poultry has been killed and picked, it should be thoroughly cooled before the birds are placed in boxes for shipment. It has also been the practice of some packers to use these poles for shaping fowls after being picked. You will note the weights placed on the back of each bird. This has a tendency to broaden the breast and make the bird have a more plump appearance. Figure 124 is a fattening battery which is home-made and is used by some of the large fattening stations. The crates are built about 2 % or 3 feet wide and about 3 feet in length and have a partition through the center. They are built in tiers of three, all being built, however, on the same framework, and large castors are placed under the four corners so —94— Fig. 123. the fattening crates can be easily moved about the building. As the birds are taken from the farm or the shipping crates, they are placed in these batteries and then if it becomes necessary to move the birds about the fattening station or to take them to the killing and packing room when they are ready for market, the battery is simply rolled from one place to another and the birds are not disturbed, which prevents fright, loss of flesh and bruises. You will note the troughs in front of each section. A long row of these batteries may be placed side by side, so the birds may be fed the fattening food. You will find these described further in. our lesson on Market Poultry. Where only a few birds are to be fattened, a fattening crate such as is shown in Figure 120 will, perhaps, be better. These large Fig. 124. —95 — batteries are intended for use in fattening stations where thousands of birds are to be handled in the course of a year. Pig. 125. Figure 125 is a feed mixer, sold by Wilson Bros., of Easton, Pa. A feed mixer of some sort is necessary on any poultry farm. If you cannot afford to use a machine, hand or power, then it Is advisable to make a square box about 12 or 14 feet square. If you use one room for a feed room, you can simply take four boards, 12 feet long, and nail the corners together and see that this fits tight on the floor. Locate this box for mix- ing where you wish to use it, and then the feed is measured into the box and is mixed by turning the feed over with a scoop or shovel the same as is done in mixing sand, gravel and cement for concrete work. By turning the feed over two or three times in this way, it Is rapidly and easily -nixed. It can then be sacked and delivered to the various poultry houses. The mixer illustrated above is a hand machine that is large enough tor the average poultryman. If you have several thousand chickens to feed, it might be best to purchase one of the large power mixers sold by this com- pany, which may be operated by electric motor or a small gas engine. BONE GRINDER Figure 126 Is a bone grinder made for the purpose of grinding green bones as food for poultry. This mill grinds the bones so they may be consumed by the fowls. This cuts down on the amount of beef scraps or meat food that has to be used, but green bone should be fed In very sparing quantities to avoid cases of diarrhea. Grinding bones with any sort of a mill is not a "lazy man's" job, and it is sometimes better to boil the bones and use the soup with which to moisten the mash rather than to grind them as shown in this illustration. This mill Is sold by Wilson Bros., Easton, Pa. There are other makes of bone grinders on the market, but we do not advise purchasing a bone grinder unless you have power of some sort with which to operate same. — 96 — Fig. 126. PEED AND CLOVER CUTTERS Fig. 127. Figure 127 is a clover, alfalfa, feed or root cutter, manufactured and sold by Wilson Bros., Easton, Pa. A machine of this sort is quite! bene- ficial in cutting straw for a litter for young chicks and will often save a great deal of your feed bill, because there are more or less vegetables, roots and green food about the average farm that can be converted Into succulent, tender feed if it is run through one of these mills. A root cutter —97— as well as a clover or alfalfa mill is quite a useful piece of machinery on the average farm. Fig. 128. Figure 128 is a feed or grinding mill used in preparation of poultry feeds. This mill is manufactured and sold by Wjlson Bros., Easton, Pa. John Deere Plow Co., of Moline, 111., and other manufacturers, make good mills of this kind. Such a mill would have to be operated with power and would be useless without same, but quite a good deal can be saved on poultry feed where power is available and where a large quantity of feed is required during the year. Most any kind of grain can be run through this mill and ground fine, or simply cracked or made more or less coarse, depending upon the purpose for which the feed is to be used. Figure 12 9. Whenever practical the doors to poultry buildings should be left open in warm weather to admit as much air as possible. Sudden storms are likely to occur, accompanied by hard winds, which will slam and play havoc with the door if it is not secured in some way. If the door swings violently with the wind it will frighten the birds, and there is also danger of breaking the door itself or the hinges on which it is swung. We are accustomed to see sticks or pieces of lumber, logs, bricks, stones or trash propped against doors to keep them open. These con- trivances are not only unsightly and careless looking, but they are trou- blesome. Instead of being economy they are wasteful both in the pro- portionate damage to the door or stock and in the loss of one's time in adjusting them. A strong fastening may be made by driving a 2x4 oak stick into the ground and attaching the door to it by a gate hook. An Improvement, however, over the idea which necessitates stooping down and hooking the — 9S — door with one's hand is shown in the sketch below. This fastening is operated by a very simple movement of the foot. The stake Is made of a piece of 1x4 or 2x4 hardwood sawed at one end to facilitate driving it into the soil. The offset block should be cut from material somewhat thicker than the door to allow a satisfactory amount of play and the buttons should be cut from a piece of wood of any description as shown. A car- riage bolt and a washer complete the affair, and after it is assembled, the stake may be driven into place and removed as desired. The hole in the buttons should be bored slightly larger than the bolt on which it ** ^m Fig. 129. swings. The buttons should be longer at one end, therefore heavier, which will always insure an upright position. By turning the button with the toe or one's shoe to a horizontal position, the door may be secured or re- leased. In case you should desire to use some other means of fastening the door, rather than use a button as described above, you will find that a large screw hook, the hook portion of which has been straightened out so that it forms an angle of 45 degrees, will make a very satisfactory ar- rangement for holding the door. The hook can be screwed into the stake so that it will fit snugly just beneath the bottom end of the door. When the door is to be released the hook can be turned downward, or when you wish to fasten the door open, the hook can be turned with the point upward. Figure 129-A. We like to have the windows and ventilators in our poultry houses hinged at the top so that they can be opened outward as is shown in the above illustration. In order to prevent the windows from —99— Pig. 129-A. blowing off the hinges and being broken, it is necessary to firmly fasten them. For this purpose we use a heavy clothes line wire or a heavy, smooth fencing wire. The end of the wire next to the house is bent Into a circle or ring, and into this ring is driven a large staple which fastens the wire to the house or window frame. The other end of the wire nearest the window is bent at a right angle so as to form a hook. A staple is then driven into the underneath side of the window frame and this wire or hook is fastened Into the staple which holds the window In place as is shown in this illustration. When you wish to close the window, the wire hooTc can be removed and the window drawn down Into position. You will note that on the interior of the house we use one-inch poul- try netting. This prevents anything from getting Into the house and pre- vents the birds from getting out when you wish to confine them. It also prevents the birds from flying against the window lights and breaking the windows. Figure 130. If you haven't an attendant to hold birds for you while you are preparing them for exhibition, It is sometimes advisable to use the method recommended by the Reliable Poultry Journal, which shows a convenient way to hold a bird while working on its feet, legs, tall or head, and at the same time run no risk of injuring the bird's wings or tail feathers. A large hammock is made as is shown in the drawing No. 1. It is made of heavy muslin, and should vary in size, according to the size —100— of the bird. After the bird has been placed in the hammock, the rings at each end are gathered and placed on the hook which is suspended from the celling of the house. This permits the bird to rest easily while you are dressing and thoroughly cleansing and polishing the legs, toes, beak, comb, face and wattles. Fig. 130. Fig. 131. You should build some exhibition coops birds for the show. n which to train your Figure 131 represents exhibition coops being made by school children. Use white pine slats, 1x2 inches for the framework. Make the coop 2 feet square and 30 inches high. The sides and back can be made of white cloth and the front can be made of poultry wire netting, galvanized iron rods or heavy galvanized iron wire. The double coop can be made 4 feet square. The framework can be painted blue, which will add much to the attractiveness of the coops. Make a door in the front so it will be easy for the judge to remove the birds without breaking their feathers Figure 132. One of the most reasonably priced, neatest and highest class exhibition coops is that made and sold by the Keipper Cooping Co., —101— Milwaukee, Wisconsin. These coops are built singly, in pairs or in sec- tions, several coops composing one section. They have a frame bottom, but an all-wire front, back, ends and top. This makes a coop that is very easy to construct for use in a poultry show room and when birds are placed in them they make a very neat and attractive appearance. The coops are so constructed as to eliminate any possibility of birds fighting. This company also makes the same style of coops for pigeons, bantams. Fig. 132. Fig. 133. — 102 — chickens, waterfowl and turkeys, as well as for pet stock. These coops are very popular with exhibitors and with poultry show managers. They also make splendid coops in which to train birds for exhibition. A few of them kept in a poultry house, on the wall, make a convenient place in which to keep and treat sick fowls. Figure 133 shows crates for shipment of fowls and also baskets used in the shipping of eggs by parcel post or express. You will note the baskets in this case have a cover over them, but if you use an open bas- ket, a cloth covering can be put on such as we have illustrated in our les- son on "Building Up a Trade in Pure Bred Poultry." The eggs should be packed as described in that lesson. There is no better or safer method of packing eggs than in ordinary split market baskets of this sort. In the lower left hand corner of the illustration you will see frames that are being made from shipping coops for exhibition poultry or birds intended for breeders. After this frame is built, then the entire coop is covered with muslin as is being done by the two men shown in the picture. To the right of the illustration and on the far side of the works!hop, you can see the shipping coops after they are completed. After the cloth is tacked on the frame, then three irows or strips of light weight lumber are nailed about the coop. The cloth helps to protect the birds from the dust and helps prevent freezing to some extent, and also makes the bird more quiet than it would otherwise be if shipped in an open coop. If you ship a bird in a coop that is made chiefly of cloth, the cloth might become torn in shipping, which would permit the bird to escape, but by nailing three extra strips of material entirely around the coop this loss is prevented. These coops should be made just as light as it is pos- sible to make them, yet they should be substantial so that they will carry well. Coops of this sort should be built in three sizes, some for single birds, others for trios, and still larger coops for pens. The Standard size for shipping coops for single birds intended for exhibition or breeding is 12 inches wide, 22 inches long and 24 inches high. For a trio, the size is 20 inches wide, 22 inches long and 24 inches high. Coops for pens should be made still larger. Fig. 134. Figure 134 is a Vaporizer, sold by the Zenner Disinfectant Company of Detroit, Mich. The Zenoleum, which is one of the best disinfectants, is placed in the cup shown at the top of the vaporizer. The flame below heats the solu- tion of Zenoleum and the vapor arises and is inhaled by the birds on the roost or in the house. This is recommended by this company as a very good remedy for preventing or treating cases of colds and roup. It is at least worthy of trial and the Zenoleum and Vaporizer may be purchased from the above company. Other disinfectants might be used in a similar way with equally good results. — 103 — .Fig. 135. Figure 135 illustrates a neat fence for poultry, and also coops used In an intensive way in the suburbs of a large city. The coops are small and inexpensive, and are easily moved. Quite a large number of chickens can be raised on a small piece of ground, providing the soil is kept culti- vated, some green food grown in same and the ground kept pure and sweet. Fig. 136. Figure 136 is a dating or marking stamp which is sold by GeO). B. Ferris of Grand Rapids, Mich. This should be so constructed that the stamping portion fits the egg. You can have the name of your farm and also the date stamped at the same time if you wish to do so. The stamp — 104 — can be inked on an ordinary inking pad and will give a clean, legible im- print on the egg. It is furnished with or without dates. The name of a poultry club or such wording as is desired can be made for these stamps. In most cases we recommend marking the eggs with a lead pencil as the hen is released from the trap-nest or as the! eggs are gathered. Then market the eggs at least twice a week. When the eggs are being marked or stamped, the same should be placed on /the egg so that it will not show in the egg case when the eggs are put in place with the small end down. For that reason we recommend marking the small end of the egg only. TEOTOB Tector is an article made by the Patton Paint Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It is an oil or paint suitable for painting canvas or cloth of any sort which you wish to use as partitions in poultry houses or cloth used in connection with poultry appliances of any sort. The only differ- ence between Tector and the ordinary paint or linseed oil is the fact that when painted with Tector, the cloth does not become stiff or easily torn like it does when painted with oils and ordinary paint. It should not be used on cloth that is used for ventilators. Tector practically makes the cloth water and air tight, but still leaves It perfectly appliable and easy to roll without cracking. This article is also sold by the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company at practically all their warehouses. Figure 139. This Is a set of capon tools such as is used in caponizing cockerels. Full directions go with each set. This is quite a common practice and found quite profitable by some poultrymen. If you cannot secure these from your own dealer, we are in a position to furnish them at the lowest retail price, which is usually $4.50 to $5.00 per set. Fig. 138. Fig. 139. Figure 138 is a galvanized iron parcel post egg case. The size shown in this illustration holds 15 dozen eggs. It is made of galvanized iron and filled with the ordinary egg fillers. It has a patent lock on top and a handle for carrying same. The case is built durable and is the most sat- isfactory case we have ever used for shipping eggs by parcel post. It is sold by the Crosby Case Company, St. Louis, Missouri. These cases are built in various sizes and are very convenient for use in marketing eggs to special trade where the cases can be returned. If you dftly have a few eggs to market, this is a convenient and safe container for same. We recommend this case in preference to anything of the kind that we have ever used. This is a case that can be used over and over again. It is intended only for retail trade, and not for shipments where the cases are not returnable. — 105 — Fig. 140. Figure 140 is a light weight egg case built the same size as an ordi- nary 30 dozen case. However, on one side of the partition, instead of filling it with eggs, it is filled with a galvanized box . This is made prac- tically water tight, and when shipping to special customers, they som- times want both eggs and dressed poultry. This case takes care of a I p^pefi Lifiiug l^i/tmn op A ttiChiMjT Sup ViEn MAS/^En op proposition ot that nature. The birds may be dressed and placed in ice and placed on one side of the case and 15 dozen fresh eggs placed in the opposite end. The case for the poultry should be made rust proof and durable. Figure 141 illustrates the end view of an egg cabinet. It shows the manner of turning the cabinet, the manner of attaching hinges to the cover and the arrangement of eggs and corrugated paper lining. This cabinet is designed to hold 860 eggs, which is about the proper size for the average poultry farm. However, it can be easily made larger. It is a labor-saving device when eggs are being held for hatching as it is neces- sary to turn the eggs twice if they are to be kept more than two or three days. When a great many eggs are set each season and they are all turned by hand, considerable labor is required each day to turn them while they are being saved for incubation. With the device illustrated, 860 eggs can be turned at the same time by simply revolving the table on its axle. jVft /OJ' St, I'/At Scik^h/'^tt Y T «-^- y^X^ *•" g^gr Fig. 142. Figure 142. This shows the size of the frame material that is used and shows a side view of the cabinet frame with an end view of the cabinet 'in the center. You will note screw hooks at the top of the up- right frame which fasten the covers and hold them in position while the eggs in the cabinet are being removed or the cabinet refilled. In the lower left hand corner, you will note a seven-inch bolt which has been run through the frame and through the board which holds the cabinet in posi- tion. When you wish to turn the eggs, this bolt is simply removed and the opposite end of the board is turned downward and the bolt again put in position, which holds the eggs on exactly the opposite side from which they were kept the day previous. -107— Figure 143. This shows one side of the egg cabinet proper. The lid has been lifted from one of the compartments which shows six ordinary egg case fillers in position, each holding three dozen eggs. Bach compart- ment is again divided into six smaller ones, they being 1^x2% -inch strips, notched to fit together where the egg fillers touch each other. By having the table divided this way into unit sections of three dozen eggs each, it is very easy to keep the eggs from special matings or special pens of breeders by themselves while being saved. Double face corrugated cardboard is used to line the inside of the table and partition walls between the upper and lower compartments. Or- dinary harness snaps are used to fasten the cover when shut. Before turning the cabinet, the operator ought to be certain that every door is fastened. Four common hfnge hasps are used to lock covers by snapping an ordinary harness snap into each hasp after the cover is closed and se- curely fasten it. -<:2 It of 3 23 oZ. S/ze Fig. 143. y^ X S. 'A Wood Strips' The inside measurement of each of the large egg compartments is about 2 3x34 inches. The inside measurement of the small egg chamber is about ll%xll% inches square. These measurements were taken from wood to wood, previous to placing corrugated paper box in each lining. There are four of the large egg compartments and twenty-four of the smaller ones, as each of the small compartments hold 36 eggs. This makes a total of 860 eggs. We especially call your attention to the manner in which the hinges are attached to the cover with reference to the egg case. You will note this in detail in one of the drawings. — 108— Figure 144 represents a nesting device that is sometimes used for the purpose of preventing hens from eating their eggs after the eggs have been laid. The hottom portion of the nest is about 6 or 8 inches in depth and just enough straw is used in same to prevent the egg from breaking as it drops through the hole from the nest above. The top of the nest is about 4 inches in depth and the top and bottom sections are divided with a piece of burlap or canvas tacked so that it fits loosely, and so that the burlap or canvas acts as a sort of hammock and forms the nest proper, on which the hen sits while on the nest. Fig. 144. In the center of this cloth should be cut a hole just large enough so that the egg can pass through and drop to the straw below. This pro- tects the eggs from the egg-eating hens. The front door is hinged and fastened with a button so that this can be opened and the eggs removed. While only one nest is shown in this illustration, yet several nests can be joined together in one section. Figure 145 represents a shipping coop sold by The Ronda Coop Com- pany of Ronda, North Carolina. The coop is very light, yet substantial and sanitary. The door in the top is easily opened and closed, and we like this style coop better than most any shipping coop we have ever been able to find on the market. We believe you will find it entirely satisfactory. QUESTIONS FOR LESSON NO. 5 1. What are the essential points of a dry mash hopper? 2. What are the best points about the hoppers shown in Fig. 24 and Fig. 25? 3. Describe a home-made drinking fountain, and how can water be provided in a convenient way for flocks on range? 4. What is the purpose of a dust wallow? Should it be indoor or out? 5. Describe the outdoor broody coop and its advantages. 6. How would you build a hatching box? 7. Describe the main features of a revolving door trap-nest. 8. Describe the advantages of the corn popper pedigree system. 9. How should an oat sprouter be made? 10. Describe a good temporary fencing or warding arrangement for baby chicks. -110- INDEX Page Baby Chick Shipping Boxes S2 Bone Grinder 96 Brood Coops 36-43 Brood Hen Coop, The 82 Capon Tools 105 Catching Hook, A 87 Combination Hatching and Brood Coop 57 Dating or Marking Stamp 104 Dry Mash Hoppers 7-24 Dust Wallow, The 71 Exhibition Coops 101 Fattening Crate 93 Feed and Clover Cutters 97 Feed Hoppers and Feed Devices for Dry Mash 7 Feeding Appliances for Young Chicks 2 Feed Mixer , 96 Fountains and Watering Devices 28-36 How to "Break Up" Broody Hens 82 Leg Band Markers 69 Methods of Preserving Droppings 78 Nests 43 Oat Sprouters 25 Parcel Post Egg Cases 105 Pedigree Trays 61 "Petty Poultry Punch" 66 Protecting Chicks' Food and Feeders 5 Protection from Hawks and Crows 67 Shipping Coops 103 Spray Pump, The SO Teaching the Young Chicks to Roost 79 Tector 105 Trap-Nests 4 6-54 Why We Should Check Brosdiness At Once 83 Yarding Baby Chicks S7 Breeds and Varieties of Poultry By T. E. QUISBNBERRY AND V, O. HOBBS Copyrighted, 1922, American Poultry School. Origin and History of Domestic Fowls Much of the early history of some of the breeds and varieties is rather obscure, but some facts regarding the origin of the different varieties have been discovered by taking the original wild birds and by restriction, selec- tion and breeding have produced in some cases the same type of fowl that was in question. The domestic fowls of today have been developed from wild ancestors, the wild fowls which are native of Southern Asia. The two principal ones are the Red Jungle and Aseel fowls. The red jungle fowl is small, active and of a nervous temperament. Prom this fowl was developed the Mediterranean class in the countries around the Mediterranean sea. The Aseel fowl is large and angular in form and of a slow, sluggish nature. From this bird was developed the large heavy meat breeds. The all-purpose breeds were developed by crossing and recrossing the two breeds. The domestic geese and ducks are decendants from the wild migra- tory geese and ducks found in the northern hemisphere, going to the north- ern part of the temperate zone for the summer where the young are raised, then migrating south to spend the winter. The domestic turkeys are ithe descendants of the wild turkeys, na- tives of North America. It is not the purpose of this lesson to go into all the details of the sub- ject, but to give a general idea of the different leading varieties, and if any students wish minute details of all the Standard breeds, we then refer them to the American Standard of Perfection. We do not mean to say anything derogatory to any variety of poultry. There are good and bad strains in all varieties. We give you an idea of the good and bad points as we have found them in experimenting with them, and as their records were made in our egg laying contests. There is no one best variety. Much depends upon the use to which you expect to put them. We would not want a white variety for a congested district in a city. We would not expect to succeed on a commercial egg farm with an orna- mental variety. We would not select the small Mediterranean breeds if we expected to do much caponizing. Select the variety you like best for color, shape, size, color of eggs, etc., and then stay with your chosen variety until you perfect it to meet your own ideas and Standard require- ments as far as possible. THE TEST OF VARIETIES IN EGG LAYING CONTESTS One of the best tests for any variety of poultry is to see how they measure up in Egg Laying Contests when compared with other varieties where all are housed, fed and treated alike. The Missouri Poultry Experi- ment Station has just completed their annual National Contest. Some idea of the ability of the different varieties to produce eggs, consume food, etc., can be obtained from a report which that institution issued just following the close of their contest. The report contains the following facts: "During the five years 401 pens have been entered, composed of 2,600 hens, from 37 states and 8 foreign countries, and representing 47 varieties of poultry. Some special contests have been held and a few pens dropped out during the progress of the contests. The ones here reported were in the regular contests and completed the year. "The 2,600 hens consumed 195,351 pounds of feed, of which about one-third was mash and two-thirds grain, and laid 391,326 eggs( which is about two eggs for each pound of feed consumed. Each hen averaged eat- ing 75 pounds of feed and laid 150 eggs. It Is worthy of note that the average price of one egg and one pound of feed were about the same; i. e., when eggs are l%c each, feed is l%c per pound, and when eggs are 2c each, feed is 2c per pound, etc. Therefore, costs, profits, etc., can be es- timated better in eggs than in dollars. It will be seen that 75 eggs pay the average hen's feed for one year; and fifteen eggs are estimated to pay other costs except labor. Then 90 eggs pay for feed and maintenance, and the hen which lays 100 eggs is 10 eggs profit, the hen which lays 150 eggs is 60 eggs profit, and worth six times as much as the hen which lays 100 eggs. "There were 214 hens which laid less than 7 5 eggs per year, which is one out of every 12 hens which didn't pay for her feed. There were 305 hens which laid over 200 eggs per year, which is one out of every 8.5 hens which laid 200 eggs or over. ■( "In order to determine the influence of certain characteristics on egg production, the following observations were made: All white varieties averaged 156 eggs per year All black varieties averaged 148 eggs per year All buff varieties averaged 141 eggs per year All parti-colored varieties averaged 133 eggs per year All Rose Comb varieties averaged 147 eggs per year All Single Comb varieties averaged 141 eggs per year All varieties laying white shelled eggs. . .averaged 141 eggs per year AH varieties laying brown shelled eggs. . .averaged 137 eggs per year All varieties with smooth shanks averaged 142 eggs per year All varieties with feathered shanks averaged 114 eggs per year "The 2,600 hens weighed 12,958 pounds, or an average of 5 pounds each, but the average of the 47 varieties, one hen of each, was 4% pounds each. From the first to the last of the contests, all hens gained 1,422 pounds, or a gain of- approximately % pound per hen. It was noted how ever, that the hens were as heavy about the middle as at the end of the contest, which is accounted for by the moulting condition of the hens on November first. "During the five years, 2 65 hens died, which is a little over 10 per cent. The hens which died weighed 1,392 pounds and as 1,422 pounds were gained, the gain and loss almost balance, or in other words, if hens are kept and sold on November first, the gain in weight is balanced by loss in birds. If hens are sold in June or July the loss is half and gain in weight just as much as In November. —2— Plymouth Rock Comb — a type of single comb of male. Laced Feather. # Single Comb Minorca — another type of single comb of male. Wyandotte Comb — a type of rose comb of male. Rose Comb Leghorn — another type of rose comb of male. Plymouth Rock Comb — a type of single Leghorn Comb— another type of comb of female. single comb of female. •3 — "There were 5,301 hens that went broody, or an average of two times for each hen in the contests. All varieties where hens averaged going broody four or more times averaged 132 eggs per hen, while the varieties having no broodings averaged 125 eggs. The varieties going broody from one to four times laid the highest average of eggs. "The eggs of all different varieties averaged 24.8 ounces per dozen. It is interesting to note that the eggs of all varieties are nearer the same size than the hens which lay them. The White Plymouth Rocks are twice as large as the White Leghorns, yet they lay eggs about the same size. "The yearly prizes for pens and individuals were as follows: Variety Eggs Laid Average First ) Pen R. C. Reds 1,043 208 Contest ) Individual Wliite Rock 281 Second ) Pen S. C. W. Legliorns 2,073 207.3 Contest ) Individual R. C. Legiiorn 261 Tliird ) Pen S. C. W. Leghorns 2,304 230.4 Contest ) Individual S. C. W. Legliorns 286 Fourth ) Pen Barred Rocks 1,050 210 Contest ) Individual Buff Wyandottes 247 Fifth ) Pen Barred Rocks 1,185 237 Contest ) Individual S. C. W. Leghorn 275 An ideal Leghorn comb showing the de- sired five points with properljr shaped blade and rear point. For description see text of article.— F. L. Sewell. A I Varieties 1. S. C. W. Leghorns Z^k lb. 2. Barred Rock 6 lb. 3. S. C. Reds o^^ lb. 4. R. C. Reds 6 lb. 5. White Wyandottes 5% lb. 6. White Orpingtons 6% lbs. 7. Silver Wyandottes 4i^lb. 8. White Rocks 7 lb. 9. Buff Orpingtons GVi lb. 10. Anconas 3% lb. 11. Black Orpingtons 6% lb. 12. Black Langshans 6% lb. 13. S. C. Buff Leghorns -3% lb. 14. Buff Rocks 6% lb. 15. S. C. Black Minorcas 5% lb. 16. S. C. Brown Leghorns 3>4 lb. 17. R. C. W. Leghorns 3 lb. 18. Buff Wyandottes 5% lb. 19. R. C. Black Minorcas.... 4% lb. 20. Partridge Wyandottes ... SMilb. 21. Partridge Rocks 4% lb. 22. Rhinelanders 3% lb. 23. Missouri White Fluffs.... 5 lb. 34. Silver Campines i"4 lb. 2.5. Columbian Wyandottes... 4% lb. 26. Hamburgs 2% lb. 27. Cornish 5 lb. 28. White Langshans Ri^lb. 29. Golden Campines 2141b. 30. D. Laced Leghorns 3^4 lb. 31. R. C. Brown Leghorns 3 lb. 32. Dominique Leghorns .... 3 lb. 33. S. C. Black Leghorns 3% lb. 34. Columbian Rocks 5 lb. 35. Golden Wyandottes 4 lb. 36. Silver Pencil'd Wyandottes 3>/4 1b. 37. Light Brahmas 6 lb. 38. Buff Brahmas 5^4 lb. 39. S. C. R. I. Whites 5% lb. 40. R. C. R. I. Whites 5% lb. 41. Houdans 4 lb. 42. Spanish 314 1b. 43. Buttercups 244 1b. 44. Oregons 3% lb. 45. Buckeyes 4y2 lb. 46. Cochins 4% lb. 47. Cross Breds 4 lb. "As no test should be considered seriously, till it has been tried a number of times, the records of the last eighteen varieties in the table should not be considered definite, for there was only one pea of each, and for only one year. They are given here simply to give a complete record of the five years' contest work." OWX A STANDARD OP PERFECTION We can give you but a smattering of the facts relative to the various breeds and varieties. But you can get a general idea of some of the import- ant things to be desired, and you can see how important a knowledge of the breeds and varieties is to anyone expecting to engage in the poultry business. You should by all means obtain a copy of the Standard of Per- fection and learn what the requirements really are for the various varie- ties of fowls. - t-l 2 tm r > V < >13 2, < s 3 3. Is m a *<^ a "J 00 : */ n > (D 11! B. s 5J 01! 3 -1 m 71 lb. >4 lb. 25.7 oz. 162 $1,365 88 lb. '/4 lb. 25.4 oz. 146 .87 78 lb. ¥4 lb. 26.4 oz. 157 1.185 811b. Vi lb. 27.4 oz. 153 1.08 75 1b. H lb. 24.9 oz. 163 1.32 82 1b. % lb. 26.6 oz. 135 .795 70 1b. % lb. 24.8 oz. 162 1.38 87 1b. % lb. 26.5 oz. 148 .915 81 lb. 1 lb. 26.3 oz. 149 1.02 68 lb. % lb. 27.5 oz. 151 1.245 75 lb. % lb. 25.2 oz. 140 .976 90 1b. 1V4 lb. 27.2 oz. 158 1.02 60 lb. % lb. 24.7 oz. 138 1.17 86 lb. 'A lb. 25.8 oz. 136 .75 90 1b. % lb. 27.8 oz. 155 .975 60 1b. V4 lb. 23.4 oz. 140 1.20 61 lb. ^4.1b. 23.4 oz. 133 1.08 72 1b. % lb. 23.4 oz. 169 1.455 64 lb. Vi lb. 26.6 oz. 131 1.005 71 lb. %, lb. 23 OZi. 107 . .54 71 lb. % lb. 23.1 oz. 112 .615 60 1b. 3 lb. 24.1 oz. 138 1.175 75 1b. % lb. 24.3 oz. 139 .96 62 lb. 1 lb. 24.8 oz. 123 .915 71 lb. 1^ lb. 24.8 oz. 149 1.17 64 lb. % lb. 21.6 oz. 116 .78 69 lb. %ilb. 23.7 oz. 105 .54 71 lb. 1 lb. 26.7 oz. 103 .48 62 lb. 1 lb. 24.8 oz. 140 1.17 60 lb. Vi lb. 21.3 oz. 123 .945 60 1b. % lb. 22.4 oz. 178 1.17 61 lb. % lb. 23.4 oz. 153 1.38 61 lb. Vi lb. 23.7 oz. 169 1.62 63 lb. % lb. 25 oz. 87 .36 63 1b. Vi lb. 22 oz. 136 1.095 63 lb. % lb. 21.5 oz. 141 1.17 80 lb. % lb. 24 oz. SO .00 81 lb. % lb. 26 oz. 110 .435 78 lb. ' % lb. 26.2 oz. 164 1.29 78 1b. 14 lb. 26.4 oz. 187 1.635 73 lb. Vi lb. 26.7 oz. 86 .195 73 lb. y* lb. 26.2 oz. 97 .36 67 1b. ^ lb. 25.4 oz. 123 .84 71 lb. Vi lb. 26.1 oz. 232 2.415 66 lb. V2 lb. 24 oz. 130 .96 79 lb. % lb. 25 oz. 121 .63 79 1b. y* lb. 24 oz. 148 1.035 CLASS, BREED, VARIETY AND STRAIN It is necessary to know the terms which are used in the classification of fowls. All the fowls originating in any country are placed in one class and are named after the country where they originated. There may be a great difference in size and shape of the different fowls which originate in any one country. All the fowls which are the same size and shape are said to belong to the same breed. A number of fowls may be the same size and shape, but many differ or vary in some respects, such as the color of the feathers or a difference in the shape of the comb, etc. These would be called varieties, such as Barred Plymouth Rocks, White Rocks, Buff Rocks, Partridge Rocks, etc. Each is of the same breed — Plymouth Rock — but the color designates the va- riety. The last division is the family or strain. Some fowls may have origi- nated in the same country, and they, therefore, belong to the same class; they may be the same size and shape and, therefore, would belong to the same breed; they may be the same color and the combs may be the same, so they would be of the same variety; but they may have been grown by dif- ferent men till they have certain family characteristics. The name relating to the family is strain. The following diagram will assist in learning the classification: BREED ■ VARIETY STRAIN AMERICAN CLASSJ ' Barred Thompson Latham White Buff Bradley Bros Plymouth Rocks Silver Penciled Hawkins Henderson Partridge Columbian Blue Martin Silver Keeler Golden Duston Wyaudottes White Ruby Buff Funk Black Yankee Partridge Sullivan Silver Penciled Columbian Kemp Mahood Ricksecker Tompkins Rhode Island Reds_ Single Comb Rose Comb Many of the varieties which we fail to describe are just as worthy as those which we have described. We describe some and pass others simply to give you some idea of the more prominent varieties in each class and not because the others are lacking in true worth. GLOSSARY OF TERMS Barring — Stripes running across the feathers at right angle to the shaft. Blade — The rear part of a single comb, back of the last point. Breed — A sub-division of class which applies to all fowls having the same shape. Cock — A male bird over one year old. Cockerel — A male bird less than a year old- Creamy — The feathers in white varieties showing a yellowish or crep-my appearance. Capon— 'An uni^ejcec! male fowl- — 9 — Cushion — A mass of feathers at the base of the tall of female giving the effect of a cushion (see Cochin female). Disqualification — A defect so serious as to throw the bird out of com- petition. Ear-Lobes — The folds of bare skin just beneath the ears; very promi- nent in white ear-lobed varieties. Face — The bare skin around and beneath the eyes. Feathers — -A web supported by a quill. Flights — The primary feathers of the wing or those on the outer joint of the wing. They fold out of sight when the wing is folded. Flight Coverts — The short feathers covering the quills of the flights. Fluff — The soft downy portion of a feather. Also applied to the feathers around the body and vent. FOimjS Hackle — The neck feathers. Leg — Includes the thigh and shank. Lesser Sickles — Tail coverts, and also all sickle feathers except the two central large ones. Mealy — Looks as though sprinkled with meal. An example is buff stippled with white. (A defect.) Mottled Plumage — Plumage having spots of different shades and color. Parti- colored — Fowls having two or more colors. Pen — For show pur- poses a pen consists of a male and four fe- males. Display Pen — Gener- ally used for show pur- poses, consists of one male and nine females. Poultry . — Domestic fowls reared for meat and eggs. Primaries — See flights. Pullet — Female fowl under a year old. Saddle — The rear part of the back of a male bird just in front of the tail. Includes saddle feathers. Saddle feathers — Feathers growing from the saddle. Saddle Hackle — The long, narrow feathers growing from the saddle of male and extending down the side of the bird. Secondaries — The large, long feathers growing on the second joint of the wing. They show when the wing is folded. The primaries and secon- ' daries form the main wing feathers. Shaft — The quill of a feather. Shafting — When the quill of the feather is different in color than the web. (A defect) . Sickles — The long curved feathers of the tail of a male bird. This applies to the upper pair, the remainder being called the lesser sickles. — 10 — (2iASf~ ~^ Dlaeram Showing the Locations Various Parts of i and Xames of the 1 Fowl. Side Sprig — A point or growth on the side of a single comb (disqual- ification). Spur — A horny mass growing from the inner side of the shank. Squirrel-tail — When the tail is carried ahead of the base. Surface Color — The visible color of a bird when quiet. Tail Coverts — The curved feathers at side and in front of the tail. Tail feathers — The straight stiff feathers of the tail inside the tail coverts. Thumb Marks — Dents at the base and side of a single comb or on top of a rose comb, giving the appearance of having been made by forcing the end of the thumb into the comb ( a defect). Twisted Feathers — The quill of the feather being twisted (a defect). Under-Color — The fluff part of a feather not visible when bird is quiet. Variety — A sub-division of breed, usually determined by color and kind of comb. Single Comb Rhode Island Red, and White Plymouth Rock, etc. Webb (of feathers) — The flat portion of a feather. Wattles — The flat pendulous growth hanging from the base of the jaw. Wing Bar — The midlle portion of the wing formed by the coverts of the primaries and secondaries. Wing Bay — The triangular three-cornered portion of the wing below the wing bar. Wing Bow — The upper or shoulder part of the wing. Wing Coverts — The small feathers covering the base of the primaries and secondaries. Wry Tail — Tail carried to one side (a disqualification). GENEBAIi BISQUALIPIOATIONS General disqualifications are those which apply to all varieties and debar the bird from competition. The following are the most common: Feathers on the legs or toes of clean-shanked varieties; side sprig — a point growing on the side of a single comb; squirrel tail — a tail carried in front of a perpendicular line at the base of the tail; clipped wings, except in wild geese or ducks; entire absence of main tail feathers; wry tail; absence of spike in rose comb; birds so small that the weight cut exceeds four points, except in Turkeys, Ducks and Geese. The right thing to do is to secure a copy of the American Standard of Perfection. This gives all the disqual- ifications, defects and requirements for the different varieties. Other com- mon disqualifications are shanks which have been plucked, beaks that are deformed, backs that are crooked, combs different from that required for the variety, etc. — 11- Soto ■a c^ 0) oj B n U U — 12- CLASSIFICATION OF URFFDS Class and Breed Variety American Plymouth Rocks Wyandottes Javas Dominiques R. I. Reds. Buckeyes . Chantecler Asiatic Brahmas . . Cochins . . . Langshans . . . Mediterranean Leghorns Minorcas Spanish Blue Andalusians Anconas Bne'lish Dorkings Redcaps Orpingtons . . . Cornish Sussex Polish Polish . Barred White Buft Silver Penciled. Partridge Columbian .... Blue Silver Golden White Buff Black Partridge Silver Penciled. Columbian .... Black Mottled Barred Red Color of Skin Red . . White Light Dark .... Buff Partridge White . . . Black . . . Black . . . White . . . Brown Dark and Light White Buff Black . . . . Silver . . . Red Pyle. Black . . . . Black . . . . White . . . Buff . Black Blue . . . Mottled Yellow I Yellow I Yellow I Yellow 1 Yellow 1 Yellow Yellow I Yellow . Yellow I Yellow Yellow I Yellow I Yellow Y^ellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow I .; Yellow .1 Yellow 1 Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow White White Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow White White White White White Gray Yellow White Silver Gray. Colored . . . . Buff Black White Blue Dark White White-laced Speckled . . . Red White Crested Black Bearded Golden. Bearded Silver. Bearded White. Buff Laced Non-Bearded White White White White White White White White Yellow Yello"w Yellow White White White White White White White Weight Cock Cock- erel Hen 9»^ 8 1 9l^ 8 9% 8 9% 8 S'A 8 9^4 8 9% 8 8>/4 7% 8% 7% SVs 1V2 8% TV2 8% TV2 8 ^/2 8 ^2 7 y2 8^ TV2 SVz 8 9% 8 7 6 SV2 7% 9 S 9 8 1 12 10 9 9 9 9 9 9V2 8 9% 8 5% iV2 5% i'A 5^^ 41/2 4% 5^ 4y2 5V2 4% 9 7y2 8 6% 8 61/2 8 6V2 8 61/2 6 5 5>/4 4y2 7% 61/2 8 7 9 8 TV2 6 10 81^ 10 10 8 1^ 10 8y2 10 8 10 8 8 7 9 71/2 9 7y2 * ♦ * ' • * ♦ , » • * * 7y2 71/2 7% 7y2 71^ 7y2 7y2 SV2 6% 61^ 6 1/2 SV- 6% 61/2 6 1/2 TA 7y2 9y2 SV2 'ii/2 8 1/2 71/2 7y2. 4 4 4 4 4 7y2 61/2 6 1/2 6y2 6 1/2 5 41/2 6 61/i 7 7y2 71/2 8 7 7 Pullet Kind of Comb 6 6 6 6 6 6 51/2 5% 51/2 5V2 51/2 5% 5V4 5y2 61/i 6y2 4 5 51/2 6% 7 7 7 7 7 6y2 61/4 3y2 31/2 31/2 3y2 3y2 s% 6y2 51/2 51/0 5y2 5V4 4 3y2 Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Rose Rose Rose Hose Rose Rose Rose Rose Single Single Rose Single and Rose Pea Smooth Pea Pea Single Single Single Single Single Single Single and Rose Single and Rose Single and Rose Single Single Single Single Rose Single and Rose Single Single Single Single and Rose Rose Single Single Rose Single Single Single Single Pea Pea Pea Single Single V-Shaped V-Shaped V-Shaped "V-Shaped V-Shaped • No Standard weig^ht. — 13 — CliASSIFICATION OF BRBEiDS Class and Breed Variety Color of Skin Weight Cock Cock- erel Hen Pullet Kind of Comb HambuTgs Hamburg's Frencli Houdans Crevecoeurs La Fleohe. . . Faverolles . Continental Campines . . Games and Game Bantams Games Game Bantams Orientals Sumatras . . Malays .... Malay Bantams Ornamental Bantams Sebright . . . Rose-Comb . .. Booted . Brahmas . . Cochins .... Japanese . . Polish Mille Fleur. . Miscellaneous Silkies Sultans Frizzles Golden Non-Bearded Silver Non-Bearded . . . White Golden Spangled Silver Spangled. Golden Penciled. Silver Penciled. . White Black Mottled White . , Black . . Black . . Salmon Silver . Golden Black-breasted Red Brown-red . . . Golden Duokwing Silver Duckwing Birchen Red Pyle White Black Black-breasted Red Brown-Red Golden Duckwing Silver Duckwing Birchen Red Pyle White Black Black Black-breasted Red Black-breasted Red Golden Silver White Black White Light Dark Buff Partridge White Black Black-tailed . . White Black Gray Bearded White. iJuf f-Laced . . . . Non-Bearded . . Booted White White White Any Color | Blue White I White White Gray Gray Gray Gray Gray Gray White White White White White White White White Yellow Yellow White White White Yellow Yellow White White Yellow Yellow White White White White White Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow White White White 6% 7 7% 7 5 5 6^. 61/2 7 6 14 4 4 5^! 5% 6 6% 5% 31/4 31^ V-Shaped i V-Shaped I I V-Shaped Rose Rose Rose Rose Rose Rose I V-Shaped I V-Shaped I V-Shaped I V-Shaped I Single I * * « * * * ♦ * * * * * 1 • * * * * * * * * * * * 22oz. 2OOZ. 2OOZ. ISoz. 22 20 20 IS 22 20 20 18 22 20 20 18 22 20 20 18 22 20 20 18 22 20 20 18 22 20 20 18 * * * * 9 7 7 5 26oz. 24oz. 24oz. 22oz. 26oz. 22oz. 22oz. 2O0Z. 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 30 26 26 24 30 26 26 24 30 26 26 24 30 26 26 24 30 26 26 24 30 26 26 24 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 26 22 22 20 ♦ * * * * * * * * « • • Single Single I Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Pea Strawberry Strawberry Rose Rose Rose Rose Single Pea Pea Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single V-Shaped V-Shaped V-Shaped Single Nearly Round V-Shaped Single • No Standard weight. — 14 — CLiASSIFICATION OP BRDBDS Variety Color of Skin Weight Class and Breed Adult Drake Young Drake Adult Duck Young Duck Kind of Comb DUCbH Pekin Aylesbury .... Rouen Cayuga Call White White Colored Black Gray White 9 9 9 8 * * 10 10 8 8 7 4^ 4V4 4^ Adult Gander 26 20 20 12 12 12 10 Adult cock 36 30 28 27 27 30 8 8 8 7 * * * 8 8 6% 7 6 4 4 4 Young Gander 20 18 16 10 10 10 8 1 Y'rling cock 33 25 24 22 22 1 25 8 8 8 7 * * ♦ 7 7 7 7 6 4 4 4 Adult Goose 20 18 18 10 10 10 ' 8 Cock'rel 25 20 20 18 18 20 7 7 7 6 * * ♦ 6 6 5H 5 3>^ 3% 31/2 Young Goose 16 16 14 8 8 8 6 Hen 20 18 18 18 IS . 18 Black White Blue : . . Buff Buff . . . Crested White Runner Fa'wn and Wliite White Geese Toulouse . . . . Penciled Gray .... White African Chinese Gray Brown White Wild or Canadian. . . Gray Turkeys Bronze Narragansett . . . White Holland.. Black Pullet 16 12 14 12 Slate 12 Bourbon Red. . . . 12 * No Standard weight. AMERICAN CLASS NO. 1 BREEDS VARIETIES Barred White Buff Silver Penciled Partridge Columbian Blue Plymouth Rocks Wyandottes Silver Golden White Buff Black Partridge Silver Penciled Columbian Javas [ Black I Mottled — 15 — Missing Page Missing Page "If the man who is just starting out to breed Barred Plymouth Rocks buys a pen of fowls mated for breeding and raises a number of chicks from the pen, he is sure to make the discovery, when they reach maturity, that the males are all much lighter in color than the females. If females raised from the pen are of Standard or exhibition color, then the males will be too light for exhibition; or if, on the other hand, the pen produces cockerels of Standard color and barring, the pullets will be much too dark for exhibi- tion. This has been the case since Barred Plymouth Rocks originated. The Standard for Barred Rocks describes a male and a female of practically the same shade of color, but nature refuses to produce them that way from one pen or mating. After a number of years' experimenting along different lines and trying different methods of mating, the most successful exhib- itors of this variety began to use the double mating plan, or a mating of dark birds to produce cockerels of the right color and character of barring, and a lighter mating to produce females of the clean color and barring so much admired in the show room. "Our own cockerel mating pens are usually headed by our best ex- hibition males, or at least those that have been bred from a long line of ex- hibition males. We sometimes use a male that is darker than Standard if we know that his breeding is right. With this male of Standard color, or perhaps darker, we use females very dark in color and narrow in barr- ing and bred from a long line of cockerel-bred birds. It is not enough that females should be dark in color. In order to be reasonably sure of results, they should be of the same line of blood as the male, and both should have been bred in line for a number of years. In other words, you should be able to trace their ancestry back to a long line of fine exhibition males. The Standard describes a bird with yellow legs and beak. We make no effort to breed our cockerel-bred females to Standard in color of either plumage, legs or beaks. Many of our best cockerel-bred females show no yellow in either legs or beaks, and those that do have black spots on both. In color of plumage, we prefer females so dark and narrow in barring as to show no white between the dark bars below the surface, or after the first three or four bars, and very little on the surface. On the lower part of the feather or for the last inch or so next the skin, we prefer to have the bars run together. From females of this kind, we get cockerels good in surface color, with good color in legs and beaks, and with barring showing distinctly to the skin. Cockerels bred from females that show white in under-color are very liable to be weak in under-color, and are often what we call 'cotton-backs.' "In our mating to produce exhibition pullets, we use our best females of Standard or exhibition color. These females are the result of a number of years of careful breeding for good Plymouth Rock shape, narrow, clean- cut barring, and clean color. The males used in our pullet matings are of the same line of breeding, but much lighter in color than the females. While it is desirable to have the barring in a pullet-bred male as straight and regular as possible, it is not always desirable to have him barred to the skin like an exhibition male. If the females in the pen are good in under- color and barring, we prefer to use a male that is not too heavy in under- color. If a pullet-bred cockerel's mother and sisters are good in under- color and barring and of fine exhibition quality, we do not hesitate to breed from him, even if he shows considerable white in under-color of back and some in other sections. Pullets sired by such a male are more sure to be of a clean surface color than those sired by a male that is barred to the skin. A pullet-bred male, to be valuable as a breeder, should be of typical shape and should have very rich yellow legs and beak. "In addition to the points above mentioned, both cockerel and pul- let-bred birds should have red or bay eyes, and should be free from Stand- ard disqualifications. Prom the best matings, however, one must expect a large number of inferior birds, fit only for market purposes. This is true of all Standard breeds, and especially so of the parti-colored varieties. Comparatively few high-scoring exhibition birds are produced in any breeder's yard in any one season. I make this statement after having had the pleasure of visiting the plants of nearly all of the prominent Eastern breeders. The beginner — 1R — who expects 90 or 95 per cent of his chicks to live to be prize-winners and fine exhibition •specimens will be sorely disappointed. The defect most often found, perhaps, in Barred Plymouth Rocks, is that of black feathers Even the best birds, especially females, usually have a number of black feathers in various parts of their plumage. But these are not alarming to the experienced breeder, as up to the present time it has been impossible to breed them out. In preparing Barred Rocks for the show room, how- ever, it is always advisable to leave all black feathers at home. "Never breed from either males or females showing positive white in ear-lobes or feathers on legs or feet. Occasionally a chick will hatch, from eggs from the most carefully selected pen of breeders, that at maturity will show white in ear-lobes or feathers on legs. It will still require years of careful selection in breeding to entirely breed out these tendencies in- herited from a remote ancenstry. "If you are just beginning to breed Barred Plymouth Rocks, do not buy your pen of females from one breeder and your male from another. Mating birds of two different strains of any parti-colored variety is an experiment that usually results in disappointment. It should be.,attempted only by the experienced breeder. The safer and surer plan is to buy stock or eggs from some one reliable breeder. If stock is purchased for best results, have the pen mated up by the breeder who raised the birds. The man or woman who begins breeding Barred Plymouth Rocks with one pen mated for producing fine cockerels and another pen mated to produce fine pullets, if these birds are line-bred and mated by a reliable and experi- enced breeder, is started on the right road to win the coveted ribbons in the Barred Rock aisle." White in the ear-lobes would disqualify a Barred Rock. The shanks must be yellow. Red feathers in the plumage, two or more solid black feathers in the tail or in primary or secondary feathers of the wing will also disqualify. Barred Plymouth Rocks have always made good records in egg laying contests, and won first prize two years in succession in the National Con- test in competition with twenty of the leading varieties. It is one of the best varieties in the Standard. In breeding Barred Rocks, or any white and black variety, the black should be black and the white, white without any intermixing. In both barred and mottled breeds there is a tendency for the black to spread. In Barred Rocks it runs or streaks into the white and gives the plumage a smutty appearance. It is necessary to have birds that are evenly and dis- tinctly barred. The markings should be clear, and clean cut, and the bars should present a snappy appearance. Single mating of Barred Rocks originally was the exclusive method of mating this variety but breeders in their experiments to produce better birds found that by using very dark females mated with exhibition males resulted in producing much clearer and snappier barred males although the females from such mating would be much too dark for exhibition pur- poses. On the other hand it was found that by using a very light, well barred male with exhibition colored females great improvement was made in producing clean, narrow barred females, but producing males much too light for exhibition purposes. Breeders followed this method of breeding for years and it was called Double Mating. It was the line of least resist- ance in producing color, but the trend was that one line; the cockerel line, kept getting darker every year until the males were of a smoky color and the females nearly black, the pullet-line going the opposite way and becoming too light. The best breeders saw where this indiscriminate mat- ing would soon lead them but many of them through thorough and scien- itific methods of mating are now producing both exhibition males and females from the same mating. In order to get away from the troublesome problem of the double mating of Barred Rocks, some breeders of this variety are trying out the following plan: They take an exhibition colored male bird and mate him, we will say, with five dark colored or cockerel-bred females and the same number of exhibition colored females. From the first five females they secure their exhibition cockerels and from the last mentioned five females — 19 — they secure exhibition pullets. We are quite certain, however, that If these birds are selected and bred in this way, and the birds pedigreed for two or three generations, that both exhibition males and females could be pro- duced from the one pen. When this plan is tried it is necessary to stay strictly within the same blood lines, and all birds must be pedigreed. Another method from which good results have been obtained is to mate a rather dark, narrow barred pullet bred male, a bird that has good heavy under-color, to a number or rather light, narrow barred, cockerel bred females. Both males and females should have clean wing barring and the male should have good yellow beak and legs. From such a mating you may expect to raise both exhibition males and females. WHITE PliYMOUTH BOCKS For market purposes, on account of the color of their plumage, the White Rocks are even superior to the Barred. If they are properly bred, ^^^ AVHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK they are great layers of large brown eggs. The best record ever made by a White Plymouth Rock was made by "Lady Show You," while in my We PLYMOUTH ROCKttEf — 20 — charge. This great hen laid 281 eggs as a yearling hen. No breed of poul- try produces such uniformly good specimens in both male and female as do the White Rocks. This variety has but comparatively few imperfec- tions, and many qualities of great merit. Many strains of this variety have a tendency to become overly fat and, therefore, do not lay as they should. This is caused by neglect in selection and breeding. White Plymouth Rocks originated in Maine, and are said to have been hatched from Barred Rock eggs. They first appeared in 1875. The males were brassy and the females were creamy. Today they are being bred snow-white. Shape should not be sacrificed for whiteness, however. A deviation from the correct shape, or a break in the body lines of a White Plymouth Rock shows more plainly than in most any other variety. Beauty and utility are combined in this variety. to a high degree. The plumage must be white, and any other color of feathers would disqualify. The legs must be yellow, while white in the ear-lobes would throw the bird out of competition, or disqualify it. BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS Buff Plymouth Rocks are good layers and are equal to the Barred and White varieties, as far as utility and market is concerned. If properly bred, they are beautiful birds. It is a difficult matter to retain the color in the plumage of the older birds. A very dark surface or a very light under-color is objectionable. Shafting and mealiness in plumage must be avoided. They are supposed to have originated in Massachusetts, from a Buff Cochin, and Light Brahma cross, or a combination of the White Rocks and the Rhode Island Reds. The correct description of the plum- age is a rich golden buff. In breeding buff birds of any variety, do not breed a male that shows red on wing bows. Do not breed from females showing considerable white in under-color of neck or other plumage. Here, again, white in ear-lobes disqualifies, and the birds are required to have yellow shanks. A cinnamon brown, or a tendency to black, which we find in buff varieties, seems to be found chiefly in the tail and wing feathers of such varieties. This would lead us to believe that the larger feathers have a tendency to draw out an over-plus of this dark pigment. Find a male and female that are as free from this defect as possible and then carefully line-breed. Great contrasts in the color of the sire and dam of the buff varieties will result in the mottled, mealy or patchy surface color. In breeding buff varieties, by all means eliminate light shafting from your male birds that head your breeding pens. If you breed from buffs with decided buff under-color, the surface usually has a tendency to reddish buff. If you breed from birds that have white under-color, the surface has what we call "lemon-shade." A rich golden buff is preferable, BLUE PLYMOUTH ROCKS Blue Plymouth Rocks are the latest addition to the Plymouth Rock varieties. As in the other varieties of Plymouth Rocks they are required to have yellow shanks, while white in ear-lobes would disqualify. The color of the plumage is described as a clear slaty blue, each feather laced with a darker blue. The male should be much darker on the neck, wing bows, back and saddle than the female, and if properly bred they are a creditable addition to the Plymouth Rock breed. SILVER WYANDOTTES The Wyandottes belong to the American class because they were de- veloped in America. They have Rose Combs and smooth shanks. There are eight varieties of the Wyandottes — the Silver, Golden, Silver Penciled, Partridge, White, Buff, Black and Columbian varieties. The Silver color is formed from black and white, the black margin around the white center, while the Silver Penciled color is formed by the alternation of black and white stripes running around the feather the same as the Dark Brahma. The Golden and Partridge varieties correspond — 21 — with the Silver and Silver Penciled except that red or bay takes the place of the white. The Columbian variety is marlted the same as the Light Brahma. The American Standard of Perfection weights for the coclc and hen are 81/2 and 6% pounds respectively, while the cockerel and pullet weigh 7 1/2 and 5 V2 pounds respectively. SILVER WYANDOTTES The Silver and White are perhaps the best known. The Silver Wyan- dotte breeders applied for admission to the Standard in 1877, but they failed because the specimens offered were pronounced unworthy of recog- nition, and it was not until 18 8 3 that they were admitted. Their history or origin is not positively known. They seem to have some of the mark- ings of the Light Brahma and the Silver Spangled Hamburg. The Wyandottes belong to the dual or general purpose breeds, and \ 'SILVER BEAUTY"' > SILVER WYANDOTTE WEN j S 234 EGGS 1YEAR are very quiet and gentle. They are perhaps the best sitters and mothers of any of the varieties. Some strains of Wyandottes lay a great many eggs, which are small and irregular in shape, size and color. This is one of the greatest objections that can be found in this breed. This defect can be bred out o( them, however, and it a Wyaudotle breeder will select egga of uniform color and size for about two years he can notice a wonderful improvement. We have bred families of Wyandottes that laid as many eggs and just as large and as uniform eggs as any vareity of poultry pos- sibly could. Wyandottes are beautiful in shape and color. They usually lay well in fall and winter. They do not mature quite as quickly as some other varie- ties. Their bodies are plump and both thighs and breast are well covered with tender flesh. If a specimen of this variety had shanks that were not yellow, or had a very large per cent of white on the ear-lobes, it would be disqualified. In selecting Silver Wyandottes, or laced males and females of any variety, if you will select birds where the small feathers covering the underside of the wings and the inside and back of the tail are well and clearly laced, you will find that the offspring from such matings nearly always have beautiful plumage, which is exceedingly well laced. In order to insure this, however, you must select birds with the lacing on the sur- face plumage as nearly ideal as possible; this is an infallible guide in mat- ing and selecting breeders of any parti-colored variety. A female which has narrow lacing will seldom have mossiness in any section, and is more valuable for exhibition and for breeding. Pullets with narrow lacing usually hold their color and markings when they moult and are usually free from mossiness. Laced birds that have mossiness in the plum- age is one sign of penciled, or off-colored blood in the ancestors. In selecting laced males, be careful to select birds with bodies and breasts that are as free from black feathers as possible, and the breasts should be completely and well laced to make a good breeder. Mossi- ness in the plumage of the females is inclined to produce black in the bodies of the males, and males with black in the breasts and bodies will produce mossiness throughout the plumage of the female. Bear in mind in mating laced varieties, that black breasts and mossy lac- ing are your most serious stumbling blocks on your road to success. When you find males with black breasts you will also find that they will usuaHy have smut in shoulders and saddles; and, also, that they have defective wing markings, as a rule. WHITE WYANDOTTES The White Wyandottes are the most popular variety of this breed, due chiefly to their color. They originated as a sport from the Silver and were not created by crossing other varieties. It is quite a common thing today to find pure white chicks hatched from Silver Wyandotte eggs. The c pyr CKT WHITE WYANDOTTES — 23- present White Wyandotte is one of the most popular fowls in the world, due to its capabilities as egg and flesh producers and as a show bird. Brassiness in the plumage and white in the ear-lobes are two of the greatest defects found in this variety, although at this time there are numerous flocks which with line breeding and careful selection have very little or no trouble with these defects. The male should have a short, strong, curved beak; broad, round head; well-curved rose comb; decidedly arched neck; U or saddle shaped back; broad though well curved tail; short, sturdy thighs; full and well-rounded breast. The female should have similar lines, except for a slight cushion on the back line. The Stand- ard weight for adult males is eight and a half pounds. Overweight or un- derweight destroys the full curved lines so essential to a true Wyandotte. We have owned several birds of this variety that laid over 270 eggs each. We have had flocks that averaged 180 eggs per hen. The young birds do not develop quite as rapidly as some other breeds, and every breeder of this variety must strive to improve the uniformity of the size and color of the egg by selection and breeding. They have won several years in egg laying contests. Here, again, white ear-lobes, foreign colored feathers, or shanks which are not yellow will disqualify. Black feathers, white feathers splashed with black or small spots of black, called ticking, are often found in white birds of all varieties. These are but the sign of dark colored ancestors from which these white varieties sprang. This is no indication that the bird is not pure-bred. If the white varieties lack sufficient shade in svimmer months, that has a tendency to Figure 4 shows a very poor specimen of Wyandotte. The bird is too high on legs and too slender in body. Fig. 7 shows a knock-kneed bird which shows signs of weakness which should be avoided in any specimen, and such a male should never be used for breeding. produce brassiness, or sunburned effect. If the young stock can be kept in the hot summer months in a valley where the air is a trifle damp and where there is an abundance of shade, it will add lustre, whiteness and beauty to the plumage. In choosing breeders, if you find any birds that have creamy or yellow under-color but with a clear white surface, and you find another male with brassy surface but pure white under-color, it is always best to use the first mentioned male in preference to the latter. — 24 — "AMERICAN BELLE"> WHITE WYANDOTTE HEN 231 EGGS 1YEAR I A brassy surface can never be removed, and has a tendency to show in the offspring, while creamy under-color in birds is usually caused by too much oil in the feathers. This rriay be washed or bleached out. COLUMBIAN WYANDOTTES Nearly twenty years before this variety was admitted to the Standard, there appeared in New Hamphsire a fowl called "Clean-leg Brahmas." They were practically like the Brahma in color but were shaped more like a Wyandotte. This variety is undoubtedly a cross of a Light Brahma and some white fowl. At the time this variety was originated. Light Brahmas were in the height of their glory and the most popular fowl in America. At that time, everyone said that a Light Brahma without leg and toe feath- ers was a hideous thing and the Columbian Wyandotte was thus looked — 25 — upon. This variety has practically all the good points of the Silvers and Whites. This variety resembles the Light Brahma as far as color of plumage is concerned, and the same disqualifications apply as in case of the plumage of Light Brahmas hereinafter mentioned. Columbian Wyandottes must also have yellow shanks and are disqualified if they do not have them. In breeding Columbian Wyandottes, Columbian Plymouth Rocks or Light Brahmas, the under-color seems to play the most important part in the proper distribution of the black and the proper markings in the various sections. The Standard requires a bluish slate under-color, but if you se- lect breeders with clear white under-color, the hackle and primaries of the offspring, as a rule, will be too light. Also, birds of these varieties with white under-color have a tendency to brassiness on the male and creaminess on the female. And if the under-color is slate without much white, the birds will have smutty hackles, too heavy striping in sad- dles, black peppering on wing bars, black on breast feathers, and in many cases a tendency to brassiness. The best under-color is a bluish slate next to the web of the feathers. These last mentioned birds usually have clean cut and well marked feathers that meet Standard requirements, and they are usually free from brassiness. This applies to Columbian Wyandottes, Light Brahmas and Columbian Plymouth Rocks. S. C. RHODE ISLAND REDS S. C. RHODE ISLAIVD REDS The Rhode Island Red is an American breed. It was originated in the United States and bears the name of the state where it originated. There are two varieties, the Single and Rose Comb. The Single Comb IS shown in the illustration and the Rose Comb variety is the same as the Single Comb, with the exception of the Comb. The color of the two varieties should be the same, red with black markings on the wings and tail. The Rhode Island Reds are becoming one of the most popular of the general purpose breeds. They are rivaling Barred Plymouth Rocks for first place in popularity as a farm fowl. They have long bodies and smooth yellow legs. They belong to the dual or all-purpose breeds, as they are good table fowls and also good egg producers. They are one of the best all-purpose varieties. The American Standard of Perfection weight for the cock is 8% pounds; the cockerel weighs 71/2 pounds. The hen weighs 6 V2 and the pul- let 5 pounds. For practically fifty years red fowls were bred iti the Rhode Island and Massachusetts farming sectious betore these birds were taken up by fanciers and really recognized as a breed or variety. At the beginnnig they were more on the order of a reddish buff rather than a deep, brilliant red as they are now bred. Nearly all of the earlier specimens had what we call "pumpkin necks" — yellowish in color. The modern Red is a beautiful, even-colored, brilliant red from head to tail. The wings and tail should have black markings as called for in the Standard. The breed is supposed to have some game blood in its make-up; also something of the Buff Cochin and Leghorn. The red color Is rather difficult to breed, so that a large per cent of any flock will be uniformly high-class specimens. The old birds fade in color after the first season. The Single Comb Reds mature quickly, are very hardy, and are very good layers of large brown eggs. They do not lay quite as well, as a rule, as the Rose Comb Reds, but their eggs are usually more fertile. MISS RED FIRE v&CRHQOE ISLAND RED HEN V- 229 EGGS 1 YEAR One-fourth white in the ear-lobes, a white feather in the outer plu- mage, or off colored shanks will disqualify a Rhode Island Red. The Rhode Island Red Club gives the requirements for the various sections of the Single Comb and Rose Comb Reds as follows: Shape of Male Head — Of medium size and breadth, carried in a horizontal position and slightly forward. Beak — Medium length and regularly curved. Eyes — Sight perfect, and unobstructed by breadth of head or comb. Comb — Single, medium in size, set firmly upon the head, perfectly straight and upright, with five even and well defined serrations, those in front and rear smaller than those in the center, of considerable breadth where it is fixed to the head. Comb — Rose, low, firm on the head, top oval in shape and surface covered with small points terminating in a small spike at the rear. The comb to conform to the general curve of the head. Wattles — Medium and equal in length, moderately rounded. Ear-Lobes — Fairly well developed. Symmetry of proportion in head adjuncts is to be considered. I^eck — Of medium length and carried slightly forward. It is covered with abundant hackle, flowing over the shoulders, but not too loosely feathered. Bapk — Broad, long and in the main nearly horizontal; this horizontal — 27 — effect being modified by slightly rising curves at hackle and lesser tail coverts. Saddle feathers of medium length and abundant. Breast — Broad, deep and carried in a line nearly perpendicular to the base of the beak; at least, it should not be carried anterior. Body — Broad, deep and long, keel-bone long, straight and extending well forward and back, giving the body an oblong look. Fluff — Moderately full, but feathers carried fairly close to the body, not a Cochin fluff. Wings — Of good size, well folded and the flights carried horizontally. Tail — Of medium length, quite well spread, carried fairly well back, increasing the apparent length of the bird. Sickles of medium length, passing a little beyond the main tail feathers. Lesser sickles and tail cov- erts of medium length and fairly abundant. licgs — Thighs large, of medium length and well covered with soft feathers. Shanks of medium length, well rounded and smooth. Toes — Straight, strong, well spread and of medium length. Color of Male Beak — Red horn color, or yellow. Eyes — Red. Face — Bright Red. Comb, Wattles and Ear-Lobes — Bright Red. Neck — Red, harmonizing with back and breast. Wings — Primaries: lower web, black; upper web, red. Secondaries: lower web, red; upper web, black; flight coverts, black; wing bows and wing covers, red. Tail — Main tail feathers and sickle feathers, black or greenish black. Tail coverts mainly black, but may become russet or red as they approach the saddle. Shanks and Toes — Yellow or red horn color. A line of red pigment down the sides of shanks is desirable. Plumage — General surface rich brilliant red, except where black is specified. Free from shafting, mealy appearance or brassy effect. Depth of color (red) is slightly accentuated on wing bows and back, but the least contrast between these parts and hackle or breast the better; a harmo- nious blending is what is desired. The bird should be so brilliant in luster as to have a glossy appearance. The under-color and quill of the feather should be red or salmon. With the saddle parted showing the under-color at the base of the tail, the appearance should be red or salmon, not whitish or smoky. Black or white in the under-color of any section is un- desirable. Other things being equal, the specimen having the richest under-color shall receive the award. Shape of Female Head — Of medium size and breadth, carried in a horizontal position and slightly forward. Beak — Medium length and slightly curved. Eyes — Sight perfect, and unobstructed by breadth of head or comb. Comb — Single, medium in size, set firmly upon the head, perfectly straight and upright, with five even and well-defined serrations. Comb — Rose, low, firm on the head, much smaller than that of the male and in proportion to its length narrower. Covered with small points and terminating in a small short spike to the rear. Wattles — Medium and equal in length, moderately rounded. Ear-Iiobes — Fairly well developed. Symmetry of proportion in head adjuncts is to be considered. Neck — Of medium length and carried slightly forward. Hackle suf- ficient, but not too coarse in feather. Back — Long, in the main nearly horizontal. In the completely ma- tured hen it would be described as broad, whereas in the pullet not yet well matured it will look somewhat narrow in proportion to the length of her body. The curve from the horizontal back to the hackle or tail should be moderate and gradual. — 28 — Breast — Deep, broad and carried In a line nearly perpendicular to the base of the beak; at least, not anterior to that line. Body — Deep, broad and long, keel bone long and straight, giving body an oblong appearance. Fluff — Moderately full, but not too loose (Cochin) in feathering. Wings — Of good size, well folded and the flights carried horizontally. Tall — A little shorter than medium, quite well spread. The tail should form no apparent angle with the back, neither must it be met by a high rising cushion. Legs — Thigh of medium length and well covered with soft feathers. Shanks of medium length, well rounded and smooth. Toes straight, strong, well spread and of medium length. Color of Female Beak — Red horn color, or yellow. Eyes — Red. Face — Bright Red. Comb, Wattles and Ear-Lobes — Bright Red. Neck — Red. The tips of the lower hackle feathers should have a black ticking, not a heavy lacing. Wings — Primaries: lower web, black; upper web, red. Secondaries: lower web, red; upper web, black; flight coverts, black; wing bows and wing coverts, red. Tail — Black or greenish black. Shanks and Toes — Rich yellow or red horn color. Plumage — General surface color lighter and more even than in the male, free from shafting or mealy appearance. Except where black is specified the color is a rich even shade of bright red, not as brilliant in lustre as the male. The under-color and quills of the feathers should be red or salmon. Black or white in the under-color of any section is un-- desirable. Other things being equal, the specimen having the richest under-color shall receive the award. The above description is not worded exactly the same as that in the Standard of Perfection. The Standard gives similar requirements and descriptions of every variety of poultry, and it is necessary to have a Standard to be able to judge or select any variety with any degree of ac- curacy. ROSE COMB RHODE ISLAND REDS The Rose Comb Rhode Island Reds should be the same weight, color and shape as the Single Comb Reds. The disqualifications are the same as for the Single Comb varieties except comb. They are a little better layers than the Single Comb birds, but are harder to breed true to shape. For some unknown reason we have always had more difficulty in getting a good per cent of fertility from Rose Combs than from Single Combs. This is generally true with all Rose Comb varieties, but we are of the opinion that it is due chiefly to the manner in which they have been selected and bred. The prepotency of the breeding stock, in all cases, must be given careful consideration by the breeder. The Rhode Island Reds are one of the best all-purpose fowls. In mating Rhode Island Reds a little smut In the under-color of the breeding stock, either in the male or female, but generally not in both without you know your line and just how to mate, will do no particular harm, if the birds are strong in other points and carry a good rich surface color. You will make a mistake to discard a good breeder simply be- cause it has little smut. In fact. It is sometimes necessary to carry a little smut in order to get the correct amount of black markings in the wing and tail. We would much prefer smut to white in neck, wing, saddle or tail feathers. It is easier to handle smut than it is to breed out white. A good rich, red under-color is to be desired. Type is of greatest importance. Mate your breeding pens so they will be as uniform in size and color as you can get them. Never use a light colored male, or one with a "pumpkin neck." Don't use birds for breeders that are of a dull chocolate color; a dark, deep, brilliant red is — 29 — most desired. A bird that has four or five shades of red in the plumage should not be used. If you find a good breeder, hang to him. It is hard to breed a uniform good flock of Reds if you are continually changing strains. Careful inbreeding or line-breeding can be practiced to good advantage in holding the color of this variety. What applies to one va- riety of Reds, applies to the other. The Secretary of the Rhode Island Red Club, Judge Card, had this to say regarding Reds: "The Rhode Island Red shape, according to the Standard, is an ob- long poised horizontally; the back forming a horizontal line from neck to tail. The stern is no lower than the front breast curve. Strong, promi- nent thighs are set exactly under the center of the body, to preserve the poise. The tail should raise to about the angle the neck would assume if the bird were in the act of reaching out, or at an angle of forty degrees. "The Rhode Island Red is positively man-made, especially in the color scheme. Today the most troublesome defect is what is called "shafting" — that is, a light red or yellow shaft to each feather, which mars the even shade of red; this has been traced to breeding from males with a black stripe in the hackle having also this objectionable yellow shaft. An- other defect present in many females is a black-peppered surface at the shoulders and wing bows; this is the result of using breeders with abund- ant black pigment or slate in the under-color. These defects are yielding to the influences of well-directed color mixing and careful breeding and are now found only on birds of short pedigree." In breeding Rhode Island Reds, or any buff variety, it is a mistake to mate a bird of dark shade to one of light shade, or vice versa. In the offspring of all such matings you will find a motley array of the light and dark colors intermingling throughout the plumage. The best method is to take a male of uniform surface color and match his breast and body color with the surface color of the females. The females must be an even color throughout for best results. If this manner of mating your birds is continued for two or three years, you will find that they will produce most excellent results and you will soon have the colors desired securely blended and fixed in your flock. A light red under-color is not last- ing, and in the second moult you will nearly always find white patches throughout such under-color. Such birds will always have weak and changeable surface color. Black stripes in the hackle of the young male never moult out, but the small black tips, which we sometimes find at the base of the hackle, will practically always moult out. If they do not moult out the first year, the adult' male plumage seldom have it. A cock- erel with such markings in his plumage will usually prove to be a breeder of pullets with hackles which contain like tips. If you use a male with permanent black stripes in the hackle you will find that nearly all of his pullets have entirely too much black in their hackle. Never use a red or buff male bird with shafting in the plumage. Females from such sires will always have body, back and breast plumage disfigured by this light shaft- ing. If you find a Rhode Island Red or Buff bird where lacing shows on the edge of the feathers, this is an indication that the male and female from which your bird was bred were too far apart in color tone. Careless selection and bad breeding often result in "pumpkin necks." White feath- ers in the plumage or white under-color is more dangerous in breeding Rhode Island Reds and Buff varieties than is a surplus of black. BUCKEYES Buckeyes originated in Ohio. They are a cross of Cornish, Buff Cochin, Barred Plymouth Rocks and Game. They have a pea comb. They are somewhat more of a chocolate color than the Rhode Island Reds. They are about midway between the Cornish and Reds in shape. They are not quite such good layers as Reds. The cock weighs 9 pounds, cockerel 8 pounds, hen 6% pounds and pullets 5% pounds. An entirely white feather in the plumage, or an ear-lobe covered by more than one-fourth positive enamel white would disqualify a specimen of this variety. XHE "OHANTEOLEB" This variety of fowls was admitted to the Standard of Perfection in 1921. This breed was originated at LaTrappe, Quebec, Canada, and is the only distinctly Canadian breed in the American Standard of Perfection. In obtaining this breed a number of crosses were used, with the object In view of getting a fowl that would be a good layer, a fowl that could stand the long, cold winters and one that would mature quickly for marketable purposes, in fact a good general purpose fowl. To obtain this fowl, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, Cornish, Leghorn and Plymouth Rock blood was used and the result of careful breeding and painstaking effort has been the production of a splendid variety of fowl somewhat resembling the Cornish in type and a splendid winter layer. In general character the Chantecler should have a large but short skull, on which is set a small smooth comb like a cushion. Comb should be perfectly free from any spike and be square both in front and rear. Wattles and ear-lobes should be small and of smooth texture. The Chan- tecler is a rather tight feathered bird and looseness of feather in any part of the body is a detect. In color the beak should be yellow. Eyes — Reddish bay; Comb, Face, Wattles and Ear-Lobes — Bright Red. Shanks — Yellow. Plumage in both male and female pure white. Disqualifications for this variety are as follows: White in ear-lobes, one or more feathers foreign to the breed; comb (that is not cushion shape; legs other than yellow in color and stubs or down on shanks or toes. Standard weights are: Cock, 9 pounds; cock- erel, 8 pounds; hen, 7 pounds, and pullet. 6 V^ pounds. This variety belongs and is placed in the American Class. ASIATIC CLASS NO. 2 BREEDS VARIETIES Brahmas \ Light I Dark [Buff Cochins J Partridge I White [ Black Langshans I Black I White There are three breeds and eight varieties in this class. LIGHT BRAHMA The Brahma breed was developed in China and placed in the Asiatic class because of having come from Asia. There are two varieties of the Brahma breed. One is the Light and the other the Dark. The Light Brahma is illustrated here. It has a pea comb, feathers on the shanks, and Its color is composed of black and white. The tail and wing feathers are principally black and the neck feathers have a black stripe in them, while on the rest of the body the feathers are white except the under-color, which may be slate. The color has been reproduced in the Columbian Plymouth Rocks and Colum- bian Wyandottes. The Brahma being one of the largest fowls makes It one of the best for meat production when large birds are desired. The American Stand- ard of Perfection weight for the cock is 12 pounds, the cockerel 10, hen 9% and pullet 8 pounds. They lay a rich brown colored egg, and some specimens of this variety are reported to have made records around three hundred eggs. Most — 31 - strains do not lay as well as the general purpose and smaller breeds. On account of their size they make great capons, which are sold in some markets for young turkey hens. They are beautiful birds and a flock of Light Brahmas always attract attention and bring forth favorable com- ment. It is the ambition of nearly every fancier, some time in his life, to breed this variety. ^ 1 ■,f- ■■■ tlMB-'-- ifh^Jik ■■^- ^'-W' ^^r4 #.|: . ^Itlil^JiMMJB^KIM^KBM Light Brahmas have formed the foundation blood of many other va- rieties, and the poultry industry owes much to this wonderful old bird. It is undoubtedly one of the very best of the large breeds. Mr. John Rumbold, Secretary of the American Light Brahma Club, is best qualified to speak as to the proper method of mating Light Brahmas, and we quote as follows: "Never select a short limbed male as a breeder. He should be up to or over Standard in weight. I have not found it advis- able to depend on the females to give size; the male is as much respon- sible for size in the progeny as the female, and no matter how large the hens may be, if the male is an undersized bird, there is no reason to ex- pect the chicks to be large. A male must be bright and active if he is to be a good stock getter; a fowl that is always looking for a pleasant spot to rest himself will be a disappointment to his owner when he rounds up the product of the season. He must also be strong in color. There is a certain waste in color. Some of the chicks may be darker than the par- ents, bU't taken as a whole, they usually run a shade or two lighter. A strong colored bird is more attractive, especially in the show room, where one weak in any section shows to a great disadvantage, and if we are to keep the strong color points we must select birds we use as breeders that are especially strong in this regard. Then to sum up, our male bird must be a large, reasonably tall, long bodied bird, strong in color and with well feathered legs and toes, active, on the alert and vigorous. Such a bird will, with females that are his equal, give a good account of himself. "In females, size should never be disregarded. Like will produce like. Small hens, small chicks. A large male may help to some extent, but cannot do all to make up for this deficiency. You should always select hens somewhat over the average in length of body — they are usually the best layers in the flocks — legs long enough to take them around at a lively gait when necessary, active, alert and always on the go. Color should — 32 — be as described In the Standard save wing primaries; tliere we say blaclc, with narrow edging on lower web. That is a more liandsome wing and a long ways ahead of the wing called for in the Standard. Legs must be heavily feathered; no half way business will do with leg feathering. This seems to be one of the most commonly reproduced faults of the breed. Shall we inbreed, line breed, outcross, or how best mate our birds for best results in the progeny? The line breeding charts that are printed now and then may be of use to the ones who study them up, but not to the general breeder who has from one to five yards each season; conse- quently the small breeder cannot carry out the line breeding system as thus illustrated. I am not a believer in continued close inbreeding; a certain amount of inbreeding is advisable, but selection must be made with care. Any noticeable fault will likely be reproduced in a greatly aggra- vated form, but one thing I cannot advise — turning down related birds that are fine to make room for an inferior specimen of different strain; the related birds would likely produce better results. Some of the best birds I have ever raised have been from brothers and sisters mated together. Breeders are supposed to have the same end in view — all of them — when BtUABltroi/lTliVJWi""'." '"-K-, DARK BHAHIVIAS they are mating up their breeding pens — pens that are producing Standard stock. Consequently all are more or less breeding along the same lines, and there is not the same probabilities and danger of unsatisfactory results at the present time as there were years ago. Again, most breeders are buy- ing birds wherever they find them suited to their wants, until almost every breeder's birds are more or less related. I would, to make it plain and short, breed from the best birds I could secure, whether near related or not, preferring considerable of the same strain of blood in male and fe- male. I question if inbreeding with careful selections has ever caused a flock of birds to deteriorate in size or stamina. "Our selections of females for the breeding yard should be confined — 33 — to hens that have been great layers, or pullets bred from them. Don't get ruffled — but the Brahmas are not the layers they once were; breeding for color of feather and away from the longer, more active type of bird has done the breed a grievous injury. It must be overcome by breeding from the hens that lay best. It can be done. Why not do it? "For color inatings the best is a male a shade or two darker than Standard colored females, and the best females are those which have gone through an adult moult and have retained their color. Many hens lose in color after moulting; these should be discarded from the breeding pen under all circumstances. "A very dark male mated to hens poor in color points, or a light male mated to hens too dark for Standard requirements will often produce good results, but are not to be used when the first stated matings can be made. Extremes in color matings will not as a general rule give satis- factory results. "After your selections are made, get out and double the size of your breeding yards. If you are breeding only Light Brahmas, give each yard a run outside on stated days. It has as much to do with the fertility of the eggs as any one thing. Fowls, no matter how well mated, cannot do their best confined in small yards. It is against nature. And many fail- ures have and will result from contracted yards. It makes hens lazy and incapable of caring for themselves when turned out after the hatching season is over." If a specimen of this variety had shanks any color but yellow it would be disqualified. Neither should it have vulture hocks. A female would be disqualified if it had solid black or brown feathers on the surface of the back; or solid black spots in web of back feathers of either sex. The Dark Brahma also belongs to the Asiatic class because of having originated in Asia. It has the same shape as the Light Brahma, but each bird, according to American Standard of Perfection, should weigh one pound each less than the Light Brahma. In color the Dark Brahma is composed of black and white, the same as the Light variety, but the two colors are differently arranged. The black is about the same in the tail, wings and neck as in the Light variety, but the white is a silvery white instead of a pure white, and the markings on the rest of the bird are different. The female has black lines running around the feathers following the shape of the feather. These lines should alternate with silvery gray lines of the same width. This is called pen- ciling. The male's body, breast and wing bows are black, while the back is silvery white. The color of the Dark Brahma has been duplicated in varieties of Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, which are called Silver Penciled varie- ties. Very little is known as to what crosses were made to produce the Brahma breed. A bird of this variety would be disqualified for vulture hocks or legs any other color than yellow. COCHIN The Cochin breed, like the Brahma, was developed in China; therefore, for the same reason, it belongs to the Asiatic class. There are four principal varieties of the Cochin breed, namely, the Black, White, Buff and Partridge. Each variety has a single comb and feathered shanks. The Black, White and Buff need no comment, for the variety name tells their color. The Partridge color is made of black and red or brown. The arrangement of the colors is very similar to the arrangement of the colors of the Dark Brahma, the red or brown taking the place of the white. The Cochin is the blockiest and heaviest looking built fowl we have, but the Brahmas exceed it In weight. It is generally considered a meat breed. The American Standard of Perfection weight for the cock Is 11 pounds; cockerel, 9; hen, 8%; pullet, 7 pounds. The Buff variety is perhaps the best known at this time, but the Par- tridge has also been quite popular. — :m — PARTRIDGE COCHINS The Cochin is a loose feathered bird. As a rule, they are not extra good layers, yet we have had some pullets of this variety which laid nearly 200 eggs. A three-foot fence will confine them. Their feet and shanks are profusely feathered. If a Cochin'had a middle toe which was not feathered, or hocks which were vulture-like, or which had been plucked, it would be disqualified. They are also required to have yellow shanks. BUFF COCHINS — 35 — BLACK LANGSHAN8 The Langshan also belongs to the Asiatic class because of having orig- inated in the same country as the Brahma and Cochin. There are only two varieties of Langshans, the Black and the White. The Langshans have single combs and feathered shanks, the same as the Cochins, but do not have so many feathers on the shanks as the Cochins. The Cochin was described as being the blockiest of all breeds. The Langshan in contrast is the tallest of all breeds, standing very high and straight. The Langshan is usually classed as a meat breed, but is also noted for winter egg production. The American Standard of Perfection weight for the cock is 91/2 pounds; cockerel, 8; hen, 7%, and pullet, '6% pounds. The Black variety shown in the illustration is the most popular. They lay brown eggs of richer color than any other variety. We have had a number of pullets to lay more than 200 eggs per year. The greatest ob- jection which has been offered to this variety is the color of the plumage, tor some people object to the black pin-feathers. We consider it one of the best of the large breeds. If a specimen of this variety had yellow skin or yellow on the bottom of its feet it would be disqualified. A feather in any part of its plumage that is white for one-half inch or more in length except in foot or toe feathering will also disqualify. In some sections they caponize the Langshan cockerels and they sell readily as young turkey hens at holiday time. They are known as "The Lordly Langshan." The rich green sheen of their plumage presents a striking appearance. Purple in the plumage or a brownish tinge is very objectionable. The tall, stately appearance that is required by the Stand- BLACK LAJVGSHANiS ard should not lead you to breed from a spindling that is lacking in vitality and strength. See that your breeding birds have large bones and some size and depth of body. Purple barring in Black Langshans, Black Orpingtons, Black Minor- cas and other black varieties bear the same relation to black varieties as brassiness does to white birds. It is sometimes the result of lack of care and ill health, but is more often due to the fact that the birds have not been carefully selected and mated so as to eliminate this defect from the flock. — 36 — It also might be due to the influence of new blood. When you find black birds with a brown, dingy cast to the plumage underneath the wings and In the under-cover or surface color of the fluff, such birds should be elimi- nated from the breeding pens. We do not refer to the brownish tinge which is sometimes seen just before the bird's moult, and which should be looked for just before the breeding season, or about mid-winter. White or gray feathers in the wings or tail, or black feathers are usually caused by injury, lack of vitality or an imperfect moult. A red feather found in the plumage of black birds is not an Indication of impurity, although in some breeds it Is a disqualification. When you find black birds with a lot of purple in their plumage, you will usually find a tendency to yellow skin or legs. While this may not be very evident, yet in most cases you will find small spots on the bottoms of the feet or about the body of the bird. The chicks from most black varieties have black and white in about equal proportions at the time they are hatched, and they retain this color until' they are feathered. MEDITERRANEAN CLASS NO. S BREEDS VARIETIES Single Comb Dark Brown Single Comb Light Brown Rose Comb Dark Brown Rose Comb Light Brown Single Comb White Rose Comb White Leghorns ,1 Single Comb Buff Rose Comb Buff Single Comb Black Silver Red Pyle Minorcas Single Comb Black Rose Comb Black Single Comb White Rose Comb White Single Comb Buff Spanish J White Faced Black Andalusians J Blue L Anconas (Single Comb ) Rose Comb It will be seen that there are five breeds and twenty varieties in the Mediterranean Class. SINGLE COMB WHITE LEGHORNS In direct contrast to the large Asiatic breeds we have just studied, we will now study the small, nervous Mediterranean class. The Leghorn which is shown in the illustration belongs to the Medi- terranean class, because it originated in the countries around the Mediter- ranean Sea. There are eleven varieties of Leghorns. They vary in both color and shape of comb, there being both Single and Rose Comb White, Buff and Brown, and Single Comb Silver, Black and Red Pyle. They are small and active and of a nervous temperament. They weigh from 3% to 5% pounds each. They lay large white-shelled eggs in great numbers, and for this reason are classed as being an egg breed. They have large combs and smooth shanks. The Single Comb White, Single Comb Buff and Single Comb Brown are perhaps the best known varieties. — 37 — V,.- .•"*y" fc^^ The American Standard of Perfection weight for the cock is 5 % pounds; cockerel, 4% pounds; hen, 4 pounds; and pullet, 3% pounds. This is America's business fowl. They are used more extensively on paying commercial egg farms than any other variety. The white egg is in growing demand, and Leghorns produce eggs about as economically as any other breed. The white egg brings a premium in some markets. For beauty and utility the Leghorns are hard to excel. One advantage which Leghorns have over the larger breeds is the fact that a larger per cent of their eggs are fertilized, as a rule, and a larger per cent usually hatch. There is not such a loss in incubation. The young mature rapidly and reach broiler age, a pound or a pound and a half, as quickly, or more so, than most other breeds. At that age they are also very tender and finely flavored. They also feather quickly and dress up «L A DY VICTORS ^iS.'iq, WHITE UEOHORH'HEN - ^i,,:3p[4., EGGS'. 1 YEAR, ^ nicely and make a plump carcass at an early age. The poultry buyers and fattening stations despise Leghorns because most breeders hold their cockerels until they are staggy and the females are small in size. White Leghorns are great layers. They usually lead in most egg lay- ing contests. The best_ record has been 326 eggs in one year. These birds — 38 — stand confinement well, but are also great foragers If given their freedom. They are not suited for a city lot unless kept confined. We do not hesitate to recommend White and Buff Leghorns as among the very best for commercial egg farms. They do not lay as well in fall and winter as Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds or Orpingtons. They are ranked as non-sitters; however, many of them go broody. A tendency to a squirrel tail is one of the greatest defects found in Leg- horns. It a cockerel or a pullet has ear-lobes that are more than one-third red, shanks any other color than yellow, any feather that is not white, or positive white in the face of a cockerel or pullet, the specimen will be disqualified. SINGLE COMB BUFF LEGHORNS We consider the Buff Leghorns just as good as White. Of course you will have a little more trouble in maintaining the Buff color. They have a tendency to white tail and wing feathers, light under-color, or a reddish surface in some cases. But they are a beautiful variety and have all the good points of the White Leghorn. They develop very rap- idly. Five Leghorns can be kept in the same house and space that will accommodate four of the larger breeds. It will require about the same feed for five Leghorns as for four larger birds. When they are sold on the market, the five Leghorns will usually weigh as much as the four larger birds. When they are served on the table you have either more meals or else more choice pieces of chicken. Leghorns have a finely grained flesh, which is highly flavored. They have rather plump breasts, considering the size of the bird. They have their share of objectionable points, but they also have many things to commend them to poultry raisers. The same defects disqualify a Buff Leghorn as those mentioned for the White, except that the Buff is required to have a rich golden buff plumage. SINGLE COMB BROWN LEGHORNS The Single Comb Brown Leghorns contain many of the good points of the White. Until the last few years, in order to produce Brown Leghorn males and females of Standard color, breeders resorted to the system of double mating. By mating an exhibition colored male to a very dark stippled, or penciled female the richness of coloring and striping in the male progeny was intensified and beautiful color obtained. On the other — 39 — hand breeders found that by mating the exhibition colored female to a light orange or lemon colored male the beautiful soft shade of brown so desired in the female was obtained. The double mating of this variety was carried to such an extreme, that eventually the male and female line got so far apart that they became practically the same as two separate and distinct varieties. In 1919 the American Brown Leghorn Club asked and obtained permission to have them placed in the Standard of Perfection as two separate varieties and the latest edition of the Standard has the two varieties — S. C. and R. C. Dark Brown Leghorns and S. C, and K. C. Light Brown Leghorns. The Brown Leghorns have not proven to be quite such good layers as the White Leghorns, but this is again a neglect in se- lection and breeding. Breeders of this variety have too often strained a point to get the color and neglected egg production. However, this is be- ing corrected. "As in all varieties of the breed, the beak should be yellow; eyes, red; face, bright red; ear-lobes, white; wattles, red; shanks and toes, yellow. S. C. DARK BROWN LEGHORNS "Color of Dark Brown Leghorn, male: Head, reddish-bay; neck, rich red, with distinct stripe extending down middle of each feather and tapering to point near the extremity of feather, the red to be free from black; back and saddle, rich red, striped with black; breast, black; body and fluff, black; wing bows, bright red; wing fronts, black; edge of lower web a rich brown, wide enough to secure a wing bay of same color; cov- erts, greenish-black forming a bar of this color across wing when folded; tail, black; sickles, greenish-black; under-cover, black or dark slate. Color of Dark Brown Leghorn Female: Head, reddish-bay; neck, reddish-bay, with a distinct black stripe through the middle of each feather and tapering to a point near its lower extremity; wings, bows and coverts black stippled with dark brown; primaries, slaty black, the outer web edged with brown; secondaries, slaty black, the outer web stippled with dark brown; back, black stippled with dark brown and the presence of a greenish sheen is considered very desirable by some breeders; breast, should be heavily stippled with brown; tail, black; body and fluff, slaty black tinged with brown; shanks and toes may be yellow or dusky yellow und the under-color of all sections should be slate. BROWN LEGHORNS This standard for the dark female is supposed to eliminate the nec- essity of double mating to produce the ideal male, but there are numer- ous breeders of Brown Leghorns who are mating the dark males to dark females with penciled or partridge breasts instead of the stippled breasts — 40 — and are producing high class males from such mating. When the change was made to the Dark and Light varieties It was necessary to describe also the male that had been used to produce the ideal colored female and the Brown Leghorn Club agreed to the following description for the Light Brown Leghorn male. Head plumage, orange; Bealc, Byes, Comb, Pace, Wattles and Ear-Lobes, same as Dark male. Neck should be orange at head and should gradually fade to a very light orange as it approaches the shoulders. The stripe in the neck feathers should be dull in color in contrast with the sharply defined stripe in the dark male. The wing bows should be light red, the primaries and secondaries black, edged on lower webs with light brown. Back, reddish-brown, saddle feathers, light orange or lemon color and the Standard says these feathers should show some stippling. Tail should be black, as should the sickles and coverts. Body and Plufl: should be slate slightly tinged or powdered with brown. Shanks and toes, yellow; under-color of all sections, slate. The Light Brown Leghorn female's description has always been in the Standard of Perfection. There is still a diversity of opinion as to whether the dividing of this breed into two varieties has been of a bene- fit that will be lasting, as many breeders use their own methods of mat- ing to try and produce the ideal, but in the show room they must be shown to conform as nearly as possible to the requirements as printed in the American Standard of Perfection, by which all exhibits are judged. The disqualifications for Single Comb Brown Leghorns are the same as in the case of the White variety except as to color of plumage. White secondary feathers in the wing, white main tail or sickle feathers also dis- qualifly a Brown Leghorn. Mr. W. H. Card, of Manchester, Conn., is one of the very best author- ities in this country on the breeding of poultry and what he says below refers to Brown Leghorns, penciled, double laced and stippled breeds. His book on the Laws of Breeding (price $1.00) covers many varieties, and also gives a successful method of line breeding. "In the penciled and stippled varieties of fancy fowls there is a de- cided similarity in the laws which govern them. The similarity leads the investigator to the belief in one original source. They are therefore re- lated, as their many similar characteristics prove, yet with sub-laws con- trolling the difference between penciling and stippling. The main Uiw which proves their relationship is the fact that the males of all penciled and stippled breeds or varieties must have black breasts and bodies. This is an imperative law as regards these breeds and cannot be transgressed if one expects favorable results. To illustrate: a certain well known fancier and friend conceived the idea of a penciled Brown Leghorn, with the male penciled in every section like the female. The results of six years of effort show the impossibility, as every male comes with black breast and body. I am absolutely positive that he can breed till the crack of doom and not produce a penciled breed with males having penciled breasts and bodies. He is working contrary to the laws governing penciled or stippled breeds. Yet in seeming disregard to all this are the two excep- tions, Dark Cornish and Red Caps. Both breeds show males having solid black breasts and bodies, and females of Red Caps not penciled or stippled but with an abortive or crescent shaped spangle. Females of the Dark Cornish have both lacings and pencilings. A lacing goes around the edge of the feather; penciling is on the feather away from the edge. A Dark Cornish female has a lacing and also a penciling, the only known breed so marked. The rule is that black breasted males do not belong to any species of fowls or birds carrying lacings or spangles and only belong to those species carrying pencilings or stipplings. All penciled breeds are alike in distinctive markings. All stippled breeds are alike in distinc- tive markigs. While the male of penciled varieties is similar to the male of stippled varieties in having black breast and body, the similarity ends (there, except where double mating is used. This only proves their re- lationship as well as the sub-laws which govern each kind and breed. In every breed or variety where female is penciled the male carries a black stripe in hackle and saddle. In every breed or variety where the female — 41 - is stippled the male does not carry a black stripe In hackle and saddle, except in Brown and Silver Leghorns. "These two varieties call for black stripe in hackle and saddle, which cannot be produced without double mating. Double mating, in this in- stance, seems to break the sub-laws governing penciling and yet it proves those laws, as It is a well-known fact that females of the male line of these two breeds are more inclined to penciling than to stippling; that males of the female line are without the black stripe in hackle and saddle making them very deficient therein. "Another peculiar fact in connection with these sub-laws which, while not exactly pertinent to the subject, is well worthy of notice, is the phenomenon of color harmony or color aura. Every male of every variety carrying, red plumage with black stripe in hackle and saddle should have yellow legs to perfect the color harmony or aura; which ac- counts for the exceeding beauty of the Standard-bred Brown Leghorn male. Take the same bird and remove the black stripes and a dirty, rusty, red plumage is the result. Take the same bird again and put willow, green, white or blue on him, as he is without black stripes in hackle and saddle, again the color aura is perfect and a beautiful bird appears. Put in the black stripes with the willow legs, etc., and a coarse color greets the eye. Seemingly in support of the above, most stippled breeds have willow legs, etc., most penciled breeds have yellow legs. "In stippled breeds it Is a law that the female shall have salmon breasts, yet some breeds of silver varieties that are stippled claim they should have silver breasts, as they claim it enhances the entire silvery gray plumage. Yet silver breasts are related to pencillngs, not stippllngs, and the absence of salmon will cause panellings on breasts and also tends to produce pencillngs or coarse stippllngs on back and wings. This shows conclusively a transgression of law. Furthermore, such females will have a tendency to produce black stripes in males. In stippled breeds, males inclined to have a dark stripe in the hackle, with the shaft of the feather light colored, will produce females full of that objectionable shafting on back and wings, as well as coarse stippling. This light shaft in the hackle of males of penciled breeds, and even in laced breeds. Is the source of so much light shafting on the back and wings of these breeds. It is a very bad defect in any breed and It is found in nearly every breed, even in white and black birds. It should be avoided in every case In the breeding yard. Note that its source is in the hackle of the male and can be avoided if proper care is taken in selecting breeding males free from defect. "Shafting, brickiness and pencillngs are closely related, because all males of penciled breeds have a black stripe in the hackle from which the shafting springs. Brickiness is allied to the red plumage of many pen- ciled breeds and again proves broken laws when these defects are found in stippled breeds; therefore, the deductions are that a breeding mala rf a stippled variety must have no light shaft to hackle and must have a solid black breast; that the females must be free from inclinations to pencil- lngs, shafting or brick and have clean salmon breasts. The above also applies to males of penciled varieties, especially as regards black breast, as splashed breasts on breeding males mean an Inclination to lacings on female young from such a sire; another Indication of a broken law of Infusion of blood foreign to kind. "In penciled females avoid using those with irregular pencillngs or those with bars across the feathers. This shows poor selection as well as haphazard work In breeding. Such females are Inclined to produce males with smutty hackles, shoulders and saddles. In choosing breeding females of either penciled or stippled varieties, see that the small feathers covering the entire under side of the wings and the small feathers inside of the tall are accurately penciled or finely stipfiled, according to breed. Some breeders choose their males by the same method but choose them when only eight weeks old, because then their chick feathers show pen- cillngs or stippllngs on entire surface and also their relative breeding value. Chicks from penciled, stippled or double laced breeds are hatched with the so-called chipmunk markings or regular stripes of dark and — 42 — light color and substantiate ttie claim of one original source for theae breeds." ROSE COMB BROWN LEGHORNS The Rose Comb Brown Leghorns are exactly the same as the Single Comb except as to the shape of the comb. BLACK LEGHORNS Black Leghorns are becoming popular again and are a very worthy variety, having all the good qualities of the other varieties of Leghorns. S. C. BLACK MINORCAS The Minorca also belongs to the Mediterranean class, having been developed in the countries around the Mediterranean sea. There are five varieties, the Single and Rose Comb Black, Single and Rose Comb White, and the Single Comb Buff. The Minorca is the largest breed in the Mediterranean class. The American Standard of Perfection weight for the cock is 9 pounds; cock- erel, IVz ; hen, 7 % ; and pullet, 6 1/2 pounds. The S. C. White, R. C. Black, R. C. White and S. C. Buff weigh one pound less each than the S. C. Black. They usually have large combs and long bodies. They lay large white eggs in sufficient numbers to be classed with the egg breeds. ^Z S. C. BLACK MINORCA* The Single Comb Black Minorca is perhaps the best known. They were at one time called the Red Face Black Spanish. They lay the largest eggs of any variety of chickens. Their eggs are white in color and are in great demand. They do not lay as well as Leghorns. However, some hens of this variety lay over 200 eggs per year. If a specimen of this variety had white or red in its plumage; white in the face of cockerel or pullet; Or shanks that were not dark slate or black in color it would be disaualified. BLUE ANDALUSIANS There is only one variety of this breed, and this belongs to the Medi- terranean class. They are blue with dark lacing around the edges of each feather. This variety is a direct descendant of the Black Spanish. Many of the offspring come with plumage either too light in color or almost black. A real Blue Andalusian is a very pleasing color. They have five point combs. Their weight is 6 pounds for the cock; 5 pounds for the cockerel; 5 pounds for the hen; and 4 pounds for the pullot Cockerels 43 — BLUB ANDAliUSIANS and pullets of this variety that have positive white in the face, or birds having shanks not blue or slatlsh in color; white or red feathers in plumage, or one-third of the surface of the ear-lobes red, would be dis- qualified. They are not as good layers as the average Leghorn. MOTTIiED ANCONAS The Ancona, like the Leghorn and Minorca, belongs to the Mediter- ranean class, and for the same reason. There are two varieties of Anconas, the Single and the Rose Comb, both being alike except their combs. S. C. A.\CONAS The Ancona is about the same size as the Leghorn, has a large comb, smooth shanks and lays large numbers of large white eggs, so for this reason they are classed as an egg breed. The American Standard of Perfection weight for the cock is 5% pounds; cockerel, 4% pounds; hen, 4% pounds; and pullet, 3% pounds. They have become quite popular in the last few years. They wer« first brought to this country from Italy in about 1890. If one did not care to use Leghorns on a commercial egg farm, we believe that the Ancona would be our next preference. Their eggs are — 44 — quite large tor the size of the bird. Their plumage is black mottled with white. About one feather out of every five should be tipped with white, this proportion making a bird that will show rather dark in color. White in the face of a cockerel or pullet would disqualify the bird. If one-half the ear-lobe is red; or red feathers in the plumage; or shanks not yellow or yellow mottled with black, would disqualify the specimen. This is a good variety and will give entirely satisfactory results if the birds are properly bred. QUESTIONS ON LESSON NO. 6 1. What is the origin of our domestic fowls? 2. Explain class, breed, variety and strain. 3. Which is the larger, and how much, the Light or Dark Brahma? 4. Compare the shape of the Cochin and Langshan. 5. Tell of the origin of the Leghorn. 6. For what is the Minorca noted? 7. Describe the Ancona. 8. Name the varieties of Plymouth Rocks. 9. Explain the color of the Silver Wyandottes. 10. Where did the Rhode Island Reds originate? ENGLISH CLASS NO. 4 BREEDS VARIETIES f White Dorkings { Silver Gray [ Colored Red Caps i Red Caps f Single Comb Buff I Single Comb Black Orpingtons .j Single Comb White Single Comb Blue Dark Cornish | White [ White-Laced Red Sussex \ Speckled ( Red There are five breeds and thirteen varieties in the English class. S. C. BUFF ORPINGTONS The Orpington belongs to the English class with the Dorking, Cor- nish, Red Cap and Sussex. All the different varieties of Orpingtons have solid colors, there being the Black, White, Buff and Blue. The Orpington is very popular as an all-purpose breed, as they pro- duce good meat and are also good egg producers. It has a single comb and a white skin. The American Standard of Perfection weight for the cock is 10 pounds; cockerel. 8 Vz pounds; hen. 8 pounds; and pullet, 7 — 45 — pounds. The Buff variety Is one of the most popular and is the one shown in the illustration. ^^ ^JS^Jffm^. S. C. BUFF ORPIiVGTOlVS The Orpingtons were originated with a set purpose of producing a bird that had good meat qualities combined with egg qualities, and they have proven to be a good all-purpose fowl. They have a mild disposition and are easily confined. The Buff Orpington was created by mating Colored Dorking pullets to Golden Spangled Hamburg males. Pullets of this mating were bred to BufC Cochin males. There is a difference of opinion as to the origin of the Orpington. One of our Canadian students, who has made a study of Orpingtons, re- cently wrote us as follows: "When Mr. William Cook of Kent, England, the originator of all the Orpingtons, was on a tour through England years ago lecturing, he saw some birds that were called Lincolnshire Buffs. He made inquiries and came across some that had been crossed again with Indian Game. They took his fancy, so he bought some from three men and they were the foundation of his stock for what are now called Buff Orpingtons. These Lincolnshire Buffs have clean legs, but have been bred from Buff Cochins. I have heard Prof. Herner' of Manitoba College lecture that the reason some had feathers on the shanks was the result of the Cochin blood in the make-up." They have a large body on short legs and present a blocky appear- ance. This variety lays well in fall and winter. They are persistent sit- ters in Spring and Summer and do not lay so well during these seasons. They fatten well and make a beautiful carcass when dressed, and are a good all-purpose variety. The shanks must be pinkish or white in color and if not the specimen would be disqualified. Yellow skin, shanks or beaks, or any considerable amount of white in the ear-lobes would disqualify. WHITE AND BLACK ORPINGTONS The White Orpington is one of the best of the Orpington family. They are beautiful in appearance and combine some of the best utility qualities. If properly bred, they are good winter layers. As a market fowl they dress up nicer and command a better price than any other va- riety, because of their plump carcass and white skin, which produces a white fat. They are not as good layers as some varieties and the male — 46 -- birds have a tendency to brasslness in the plumage, but not bo much bo as in former years. They were created by mating a White Leghorn cock to Black Hamburg females. The pullets thus secured were mated to a White Dorking male. If a specimen had any color in the plumage other than white, or had a large amount of white on the ear-lobe it would be disqualified. The shanks are required to be pinkish or white in color. Yellow skin or beak would disqualify. BLACK AMD AVHITE ORPINGTONS The Black Orpington is a great fall and winter egg producer. We have had pens of this variety make more net profit than any other variety in our egg contests, because they laid their eggs in winter when eggs were high. Some object to their black plumage. Purple barring or purple in the plumage is a serious defect. This variety was originated by crossing black sports bred from Barred Rocks with Black Minorcas, and these pullets mated to a Black Langshan male. White in plumage, yellow skin, beak or legs, or a large amount of white on the ear-lobes would disqualify a Black Orpington. Brasslness or creaminess in white fowls can be traced, in most in- stances, to breeding stock of short pedigree. Many white varieties were originated as sports from dark blood, or have dark blood In their veins from the original cross from which they did originate. Such birds have to be carefully selected and bred for a sufficient number of years in order to eradicate this tendency to brasslness. Years ago White Plymouth Rocks, White Leghorns and White Wyandottes, in fact, all white varie- ties, were much more brassy than they are at the present time. Today there are many strains of these varieties that are pure white and stay white. White Orpingtons, White Langshans and White Minorcas have not been sufficiently line-bred for a period long enough to eradicate these de- fects entirely. Yet there are strains of these varieties that come as white as any. other varieties, all of which is due to careful selection and breeding. Ail breeders of white varieties of chickens must free their minds of the superstitious belief that yellow corn and such things are responsible for brassiness in white birds. The feed has nothing whatever to do with this trouble, except that corn or any kind of feed which produces over-fatness will always produce such a large quantity of oil that the feathers may have a creamish cast. There is no way to eliminate creaminess and brassiness — 47- f LADY PAULINE"^ WHITE ORPINGTON HEN <^ r^2S2 E6GS iYEAR > in the plumage except by careful selection and breeding. You must breed for white plumage if you expect to get it. CORNISH The Cornish fowl originated in England. Its rough angular appear- ance gives it the appearance of a game fowl. There are three varieties; the Dark. White and White Laced Red. The Dark was created in England and the oCher two in America. CoPyRlGH'T''' f R P J DARK CORNISH — 4S — The close fitting, hard feathers make it very deceiving in its weight. The American Standard of Perfection weight for the coclt is 10 pounds, the cockerel 8, the hen 7%, and the pullet 6, for the Dark and White; while the White Laced Red weigh 8, 7, 6 and 5 pounds, respectively. The greatest popularity has come to the Cornish fowl because of the large quantity of breast meat and of flesh on the thighs. The color of the Dark Cornish is composed of black and red or bay while the color of the White Cornish is solid white, and the White Laced Red Cornish is a bright, rich red and the feathers laced with a narrow regular lacing of white. The most prominent characteristic of the Cornish fowl is the resem- blance to the Aseel fowl. The Dark Cornish is the most popular. Blue, black or white shanks would disqualify this variety; they should be yellow. SPKCKLED SUSSEX The Sussex originated in England in the County of Sussex from which they get their name. They are somewhat similar to the Rhode Island Red in shape. The Speckled variety are splendid layers and beautiful birds. The body feathers are reddish brown in color, tipped with white, and a black bar separates the white from the reddish brown. The required weights are, cock, 9 pounds; cockerel, 7% pounds; hen, 7 pounds; and pullet, 6 pounds. SPECKLED SUSSEX This variety is required to have white skin and shanks or the speci- men is disqualified. If there is much white on the ear-lobe the bird will also be disqualified. This variety has many points to commend it and we believe it will grow in popularity. —49 — BED SUSSEX The Red Sussex resembles the Rhode Island Red except that it is not quite so horizontal in shape and is required to have white skin and shanks. The color, instead of being a rich, brilliant red, should be a mahogany red. The weight, shape, etc., is the same as that required for the Speckled RED SUSSEX variety. We would prefer the Rhode Island Red if we expected to breed a red chicken. The disqualifying points are the same as with the previous variety, with the added fact that white feathers in the outer plumage will also disqualify. "PRINCESS RATI UGHT SUSSEX HEN; ,d .' ?39 EG6S 1 YEAR-i —50— POLISH CLASS NO. 5 BREEDS VARIETIES White Crested Black Bearded Golden Bearded Silver Bearded White Polish J Buff-Laced Non-Bearded Golden Non-Bearded Silver Non-Bearded White There is one breed and eight varieties in the Polish class. WHITE CRESTED BLACK POLISH This variety is supposed to have originated in Poland. It is one of the oldest varieties. The pure white crest on the head of a bird wilth solid black plumage makes a very attractive combination. This variety has a V-shaped comb. The plumage should be a greenish black. The eyes are a reddish bay and the legs and toes a bluish lead color. We would not recomemnd this variety except chiefly for fancy and ornamental purposes. Many of the females, however, are good layers. Some varieties of Polish, in addition to having a crest, are required to have a beard as well. The Standard gives no weight for this variety. HAMBURG CLASS NO. 6 BREEDS VARIETIES Golden Spangled Silver Spangled Golden Penciled Hamburgs ^ Silver Penciled White Black There is one breed and six varieties in the Hamburg class. — 51 — HAMBURG The Hamburg class contains only one breed, the Hamburg, yet there are six varieties, .the Golden Spangled and Penciled, the Silver Spangled and Penciled, the White and Black. Their origin was in the town bearing the same name in Holland. Although being classed by some as ornamentals, yet they are very good egg producers, laying pure white eggs, the only objection being the smallness of the eggs, but for hospitals and sanitariums they are consid- ered the proper size. SILVER SPANGLED HAIIIILTRGS The Hamburg is very small and of an active, nervous temperament. It has a shape distinctly its own, its body being long and round; its comb is rose with a very prominent spike. The ear-lobes are white and the shanks are smooth. The Silver Spangled is the most popular variety. Its body color is white with black spangles at the end of each feather. The Golden Span- gled Hamburg is marked similar to the Silver, except they are of a golden bay color. The coverts on the wing of the Silver Spangled Hamburg should be spangled so evenly and clearly that on looking at the specimen it would appear as if there were two distinct black bars, running parallel across the wing; the ear-lobes must be white; and the shanks a bluish lead color, or the bird will be disqualified. A male bird that is hen feathered will also be disqualified. PREXOH CliASS NO. 7 BREEDS VARIETIES Houdans ( Mottled I White Crevecoeurs / Black I La Fleche j giack i Paverolles .. Salmon I — 52 — There are four breeds and five varieties in the French class. The French class originated in Prance and is composed ot! four breeds, the Houdan, the Crevecoeurs, the La Fleche, and the Paverolle. lIOTTIiED HOI DANS The Houdan has a number of characteristics different from the most common breeds of fowls, such as the V-shaped comb, crest, beard, and five toes. The Houdan is considered by some as belonging to the orna- mental breeds, but they lay a good number of white eggs and are large enough to be of value as meat producers. There are two varieties, white and mottled. The American Standard of Perfection weight for the cock is 7 % pounds, the cockerel and the hen 6 1^ pounds each, and the pullet 5 % pounds. The Crevecoeur, like the Houdan, has a crest and beard, but unlike the Houdan, has only four toes on each foot instead of five. The Crevecoeur is one-half pound heavier than the Houdan. The La Fleche is one-half pound heavier than the Crevecoeur and one pound heavier than the Houdan. The La Fleche should not have a crest and beard as do the other two varieties just described. The Paverolle is about the size of the Crevecoeur and almost square on the back. They have no crest, but have a beard and muffs. A Houdan would be disqualified for the absence of beard or crest. Red feathers, or any color besides white or black, in the plumage would also disqualify. CONTINENTAL CLASS NO. 8 BREEDS VARIETIES Campines 5 Golden ^ Sliver There is one breed and two varieties in the Continental class. CAMPINES In general appearance, the Campine resembles the Leghorn in shape, having a large comb and a small body and having the active, nervous temperament so characteristic of the Leghorn. —53— There are two varieties of Campines, the Silver and Golden. The color scheme is formed by bars running across the feathers. The Silvers have white bars on the black body of the feather, while the Goldenj has bay bars on black feathers. SILVER CAMPINES The Campine is slightly heavier than the Leghorn, according to the American Standard of Perfection, weighing 6, 5, 4 and 3% pounds, re- spectively, for cock, cockerel, hen and pullet. The present day Campines were originated by crossing the original Campines with the Braekel of Belgium. The present Campine is a very beautiful fowl. They are not very good layers, as a rule, and their eggs are rather small, but they are a very attractive fowl and have many things to commend them. We have found many specimens low in vitality. The most serious defects which are considered are: White in the face of cockerels, more than one-half red in the ear-lobes, and legs other than a leadish color. All of these defects disqualify. GAMES The American Standard of Perfection admits eight varieties of Games and a corresponding number of Game Bantams. The Games were formerly grown by men who indulged in cock fighting, but since the general pub- lic admires a much higher class of competition in the form of poultry shows and egg laying contests, the Game has lost much of its former pop- ularity. The varieties are Black, White, Red Pyle, Birchen, Silver Duckwing, Golden Duckwing, Brown Red, Black Breasted Red. They are known as Class No. 9. The Bantams are grown principally for pets and are of very little economical importance. — 54 — ~,JO'vu^^ /) yrnx/uyuiii} They liave a peculiar carriage of their own and stand high up on their legs. They are a very close feathered fowl. ORIENTAL CLASS NO. 10 This class consists of three breeds and three varieties, as follows: Black Sumatras, Black Breasted Malays and Black Breasted Red Malay Bantams. ORNAMENTAL BANTAMS SBBRIGHT BAXTAMS —55— There are eight breeds and nineteen varieties of Ornamental Bantams. They constitute Class No. 11. The Sebright Bantam is perhaps the best known of the Bantam class. The Bantams are used to a great extent to hatch eggs of larger varieties of fowls early In the season, also for hatching the eggs of quail and pheas- ants, and they are excellent mothers. They are usually grown by children and are very easily kept. Some Bantams are good egg producers. The varieties of Ornamental Bantams are Silver and Golden Sebright; Black and White Rose Comb, White Booted, Dark and Light Brahma; Black, White, Partridge and Buff Cochin; Gray, White, Black, and Black Tailed Japanese; Bearded White Non-Bearded, and Buff Laced Polish; and Booted Mille Fleur. The weights of Bantams are given in the American Standard of Per- fection in ounces, most of them weighing between 20 and 30 ounces, and they are usually disqualified for over-weight. MISCELLAXEOUS CLASS NO. J 2 This class consists of Silkies, Sultans and Frizzles. We would not recommend any of these for commercial purposes. NON-STAXDABD VARIETIES Rhode Island Whites This is not a new breed as many suppose. Authentic record of this variety having been traced back for nearly thirty years. The origin of this breed as given by the Rhode Island White Club is as follows: A Partridge Cochin and White Wyandotte cross was made for the foundation, and after that a Rose Comb White Leghorn Male was used, thus making this breed a combination of Cochin, Wyandotte and Leg- horn blood. It is only of recent years that this breed has been brought to the attention of the public, breeders claiming that they cannot be excelled as a laying fowl, that they mature quickly and are a good table fowl. In shape they should be exactly like the Rhode Island Red, and in color pure white. There are two varieties, one having a Single Comb and the other a Rose Comb. Weights of Rhode Island Whites are the same as Rhode Island Reds, namely. Cocks, 8 Va pounds; Cockrels, 7% pounds; Hens, 61^ pounds, and Pullets 5 pounds. Disqualifications which apply to this variety are "Feathers other than white in any part of plumage; ear lobes more than one-half postive white; feathers or down on shanks or toes, and shanks or toes any color except yellow." Rose Comb Barred Plymouth Rocks From the most authentic information we can find this variety or- iginated from "Sports" of the S. C. Barred Plymouth Rocks. These "Sports," no doubt, came from the original blood of the Domiiiuque which was used as a foundation of the present S. C. Barred Plymouth Rocks. However, the Rose Comb Barred Plymouth Rock should not be con- fused with the Dominuque today, as there should be no similarity either in shape or color. The Rose Comb Barred Rock should be the same type and color as the Single Comb variety o£ that breed, the only dif- ference being in shape of comb as the name would infer. There seems to be many who favor this variety on acocunt of their having a Rose Comb. Weights are the same as in all Plymouth Rocks, and the same disqualifications apply except in Comb. Rose Comb disqualifi- cations will apply — absence of spike or comb falling over on one side so as to obstruct the sight. —56 — Jersey Black Giants " This breed is comparatively an old breed, authentic records of their breeding tor nearly fifty years past being in our possession. The original cross is said to be Black Langshans, Black Javas and Dark Brahmas, and from this foundation has been produced a truly wonderful fowl. They originated in the state of New Jersey and for years were bred and raised under the most rigid climatic conditions. No especial caro being given them in regard to housing, etc., these conditions tending to make a strong, vigorous breed. They breed true to type and color, and as the name Giants would indicate, they are of unusual size, in fact, the largest of all breeds of poultry. The Standard weights that have been recommended by the Jersey Black Giant Club are as follows: Cock, 13 pounds; Cockrel, 11 pounds; Hen, 10 pounds, and Pullet, 8 pounds. Jersey Black Giants should have a single Comb, red face, ear lobes and wattles red, color of plumage all over should be black with a greenish sheen, but purple showing on plumage is a serious defect. Color of legs and toes should be black, but the bottoms of the feet must be yellow, they also dress with a yellow skin. They lay a rather large brown shelled egg, and are considered one of the best market fowls in existence, especially so for Capons and Roasters. Disqualifications that apply to this breed are as follows: Bottoms of feet other than yellow, % inch of positive white in plumage, stubs or down on shanks or feet and the general disqualifications that apply in Comb. Buttercups Buttercups are not a Standard variety. They are rather a reddish brown in body color and their feathers are specked with black. They are somewhat larger than Leghorns or Anconas; have rather plump bodies and are fairly good layers. They derive their name from their combs, which turn upward, and hollow in the center and shaped similar to a buttercup. This variety is not bred very extensively, but has many good characteristics. It may be that it will never become popular enough to be admitted to the Stand- ard. Rhinelanders There are some two or three varieties of Rhinelanders but the most popular of these is the Black variety. These have the rose comb, white ear lobes, lay a white egg, and are about the size of Leghorns. This variety was Imported to this country from Germany. These birds carry a rather heavy tail and are beautiful in color. There is, also, a Barred and White variety of Rhinelanders, but none of these have been admitted to the Standard. The Blacks have made very good records in American egg laying contests. -57— DU0K8 The Standard-bred ducks are water fowls which have been domesti- cated from their wild ancestors. Ducks constitute Class No. 13. The varieties of Ducks are as fol- lows: The colored Rouen, White Pekin, White Aylesbury, Black Cayuga, PEKIN DUCKS Gray and White Call, Black East India, Colored and White Muscovy, Blue Swedish, Buff, White Crested, Fawn and White, White and Penciled Runner. ROUEN DUCKS — 58— There are eleven breeds and fifteen varieties of which the Muscovy is the largest, acording to the American Standard of Perfection, weighing 10 pounds for old drakes, young drakes 8 pounds, and old and young ducks 7 and 6 pounds, respectively. The Pekin, Rouen and Aylesbury are perhaps the best known of the feather and meat producers. They require the same weights, according to the American Standard of Perfection, being 9, 8, 8 and 7 pounds, re- spectively, for old and young drakes and old and young ducks. The Pekin Ducks are considered the best for commercial purposes. They are rapid growers, and are reasonably good layers. The White Runner, Fawn and White Runner and the Penciled Run- ner are all very good varieties. FA^V1V AND ^VHITB RTJIVNER DUCKS The Runner Ducks' weights, according to the American Standard of Perfection, are just half those of the Pekin, being 41/2, 4, 4 and 31/2 pounds, respectively. The Runner Duck is noted for Its egg production, but does not produce so many feathers as the Pekin. These varieties are also fairly good for commercial purposes, but we really consider the Pekin best for market. The East India and Call Ducks are considered the Bantams or Orna- mentals of the Duck family. —59- GEESE There are six breeds and seven varieties of Geese vi^hich have been domesticated from their wild ancestors. They constitute Class No. 14. Geese are noted for their flesh and feathers, but do not produce a great number of eggs. TOUIiOUSli; GEESE The Toulouse Geese are perhaps the best known. They weigh, accord- ing to the American Standard of Perfection, 26 pounds, 20 pounds, 20 pounds and 16 pounds, respectively, for old and young gander, old goose and young goose. The varieties of geese are Gray Toulouse, White Embden, Gray African, Brown and White Chinese, Gray Canadian and Colored Egyptian. TURKEYS There are six varieties of turkeys which originated by the domestica- tion of the wild ancestors. They are all included in Class No. 15. The Bronze is the largest and best known of the six varieties. Its weights, according to the American Standard of Perfection, are 36, 33, 25, 20 and 16 pounds, respectively, tor adult and yearling cock, cockerel, hen and pullet. The principal value of the turkey is its flesh. However, it is a good insect destroyer as it gets most of its living by wandering through fields and meadows catching insects which do much injury. The other varieties are Narragansett, White Holland, Black, Slate and Bourbon Red. — 60 — The White Holland variety is considered the most quiet as they do not range so far as the other varieties. Turkeys are noted for their fine meat, but are not large egg producers. MAMMOTH BRONZE TIIRKEVS QUESTIONS ON LESSON NO. 7 1. Name the breeds in the French class. 2. Compare the S. S. Hamburg and Houdan. 3. What characteristics are noticeable in the Polish? 4. Describe the Orpington. 5. Describe the Cornish fowl. 6. Why are the Games losing popularity? 7. Name the varieties of Ornamental Bantams. 8. Name the varieties of ducks and geese. 9. Name the feather and meat ducks, the egg producing ducks and the ornamental ducks. 10. Name the varieties of turkeys. — ei- If You are a Breeder of Plymouth Rocks, You Should Have Amer- ica's One Great Poultry Book — the De Luxe edition of the PliYMOUTH ROCK STANDARD AND BRBED BOOK. Prepared and Issued by the American Poultry Association. It tells about Barred, Buff, White, Columbian, Partridge and Silver Pen- ciled Bocks In completeness, clearness and exactness of text and instructional value and. beauty of Illustrations It has never been approached. Following are a fen of the Important topics covered: Introduction: This includes History of Breed Standards, Nomenclature, Glossary, Official Score Card, Ex- planation of Scala of Points, In- structions to Judges, General Dis- qualifications, Cutting for Defects, Standard Measurements. Symmetry, Color, Terms, etc. ■qa I iCMUf i '" ciiwaa'.S'fe: PUflUSHED BY American PoultryAsscciation Breeding Standard Fowls: This in- cludes Origin of Fowls, Breeding of Standard Fowls, Does "Like Pro- duce Like?" "Why Fowls Differ in Breeding Value, Why the Male is "Half the Flock," Prepotency, Men- delism. Strain Building, In-Breeding and Line-Breeding, Breeding from the Best, Double Mating, Relative Value of Characters, Characters Controlled by Sire and Dam, Mating lo Offset Defects, Influence of In- dividual Disposition, Importance of Constitutional Vigor and How to Preserve it. Breeding for Color in Plumage, Relation of Under Color to Surface Color, Importance of Trap- nesting, Records, Age of Breeders, Number of Females to Male Stud Mating, Period of Fertility, How to Introduce New Blood, Longevity, Early Maturity, Grading and Cross- ing, etc. Practical Poultry Breeding: How and When to Start, Back Yard, Breeding Pen, Housing and Sanita- tion, Feeding the Breeding Pen, Hatching and Brooding, Care of Growing Stock, Feeding for Growth, How to Maintain the Health, of the Breeding Flock in Confinement, etc. Exhibiting and Judging: Regulation development Conditioning, Washing, Cooping, Care at Show, Care after Show, Judging, etc. Utility Section: Plymouth Rocks in Laying Contests, Plymouth Rock Stand- ard shape and weight with reference to Egg Production, Plymouth Rock Egg, Breeding for Egg Production, Methods of Commercial Plymouth Rock Breeders, The Egg Market, Commercial Egg Production, Plymouth Rocks as Table Fowls, Broilers, Roasters, Soft Roasters, Capons, Special Fattening for Table Fowls, Killing, Dressing, Marketing, etc. These and all other subjects are treated in a plain, easy-to-understand manner by the best authorities and illustrated by Franklane L. Sewell. Every breeder of Plymouth Rooks, any variety, must have this book if he would be up-to-date and successful. The pictures alone are worth many times the price of the book. Don't neglect your opportunity to get ahead — send your order today. Price, $3.00 per copy, postpaid i Send Your Order Today Direct to the AMERICAN POULTRY SCHOOL L 115 East 31st Street Kansas City, Mo. —62— Every Breeder of Poultry SHOULD HAVE! THE NEW REVISED EDITION of the STANDARD of PERFECTION Now ready, and will be the only recognized authority on all Standard requirements of American-bred Land and Water Fowl until 1923 — eight years in service. Since 1874 the American Poultry As- sociation has issued under copyright, many editions of the Standard, but this issue is, without doubt, the master- piece. It is the one great book most used by judges, fanciers and breeders, and the only recognized authority in awarding prizes in the poultry shows of the United States and Canada. The iiCTV edition contains 112 full- page Illustrations of Cliickens, Bant- ams, Ducks, Geese and Turkeys l>y America's foremost artists. A new nomenclature indicating each section of all Standard breeds and va- rieties — male and female. A glossary of fifteen pages describ- ing and illustrating many technical terms used by poultry breeders. A complete list of recognized dis- qualifications for each American Stand- ard-bred breed and variety. A chapter on cutting for defects. A full and complete Standard description of each and every recognized Standard breed of Land and Water Fowl, giving the Standard requirements in every section, weight, size, color, markings and shape. No Poultry Breeder Should Be Without a Copy Buy a copy and know the Standard requirements for all American Standard-bred breeds and varieties. We Can Supply You With a Copy Order Today! Price, Cloth Bound, Only $2.50, Postage Prepaid Send Your Order Direct to the American Poultry School 115 East 31st Street Kansas City, Mo. —63- INDEX 63 44 31 16 36 47 44 9 12 30 35 46 21 54 9 Feaale* 29 Rei Iblcs 28 - 25 53 - 48 Me«l Mid D»f«rti«T Conbe. Usht Brakaas UlCkt Sosiwx Ti- r :£ : *■* - ', > - ' K -M« *• '. K r . 1 *'" ^' i«J >:?.n■ L««80n .-^vrr. — «4— 58 45 59 52 54 60 11 53 4 31 50 37 56 McdttcrraacABa. MkMvlluwou Cbss Oriratal CIa» ----■ , Oriste am* History oC Domestic Fowls ^i OrmmmtmtMl Bsiifit 55 1 55 35 58 51 24 45 61 5 iB UterastiOBal t.ont«it 50 RMe^Sad Beds [[\"[[\\.'.'.'.'.^'.'-^--- 58 ' 55 ^^SnSeMwd Red M»»« 21 klT** WT»»*»tte» 43 ^ucW C*™k BUck Xl.r-- rv-is 39 ^Sv CV«* Wfciie U^oms 49 jurats- . — — 2 TVM ot Varw-iiesta E£« eo«t«stB i::,-.---".:;---- ■ ■■ *1 T«rk*rs^ 9 Tarwvr- - 13 The Principles of Mating and Breeding By T. E. QUISENBBERRY. Copyrightecl, 1922, by The American Poultry School. The business world Is demanding efficiency in every line of work. The slacker is despised and unwelcome. The world demands the highest degree of production, and the poultry and egg business is no exception. It is true that the American Standard of Perfection, which is the guide for all breeders of pure bred poultry in selecting and judging their fowls, has many defects, yet a great variety of beautiful, thoroughbred fowls have been created and improved by the use of this Standard. The Standard bred fowl is the foundation upon which the whole poultry industry rests. What would the dairy business be without the great breeds of Holsteins, Jerseys, Guernseys and other breeds, and their Standards for the different breeds? What would the beef cattle industry be without the great Herefords, Short- horns and other breeds, and the breeders' associations, each of which has its Standard o" Perfection? As far as meat is concerned, the Standard for poultry speaks in many places of "rather long and broad back," "rather deep and full breast," "long keel bone and large thighs," "long, deep, full body, which extends well for- ward," "luster to plumage," and other requirements for different varieties, none of which can be obtained only through careful selection and breeding, and through birds of the very highest vitality. Certainly in the face of such Standard descriptions, no one can dispute the fact that there are utility qual- ities in Standard bred poultry. Three thousand poultry buyers and fattening stations, in Missouri and other states, have all testified in writing to the fact that the pure-bred bird is superior to any other for market purposes. The meat on a chicken is bred on, and is not altogether a question of feeding. The thing in which we are lacking most in our Standard fowl Is egg production. This is not due to any fault of the Standard fowl, but is due to the lax methods of the breeders themselves. On one side, we have the utility man, who is too much inclined to disregard feathers on the legs, color of the plumage, and disqualifications of various sorts, just so long as his hens lay a large number of eggs. On the other hand, we have the extreme fancier, who does not care whether his hen lays an egg or not, or what size, color and shape the egg is, so long as the bird is able to win a prize in some show room. Both of these classes are in the wrong. We should not allow the pendulum to swing too far in either direction. Beauty and egg produc- tion can be and should be combined in the same fowl to the largest possible degree. There is a common ground upon which all poultrymen must meet if our industry is to prosper and the poultry business is to command the respect of the commercial and live stock world. It is of no use to say that this is an impossibility and that it cannot be done, for it Is being done. A few years ago, many authorities said that the two-hundred-egg hen was an Impossibility, and they questioned the honesty of any man who made a claim to such a record, but today we have many hens that are laying three hundred eggs, and we know of flocks that average two hundred. Six thousand hens, from one farm in the state of Washington, recently aver- aged over one hundred and ninety-four eggs in one year and their net profit during the month of February of the same year was $6,500.00. A flock of hens at the Oregon Experiment Station averaged two hundred eggs for a period of twelve months, and a state institution in that same state had a flock that averaged more than two hundred eggs per hen for the year. A pen of hens In a recent Australian egg laying contest averaged more than three hundred eggs per hen for the year. Speaking of Australian birds, not very long ago a breeder from that country sent me a pen of White Leghorns that had been bred from a pen of winners In a previous — 1 — contest. These birds were not only great layers, but they had the shape and color of our American Standard bred Leghorns. This man claimed that he had imported their ancestors from one of our best American breeders, and that he had improved their egg laying qualities without injury to their Standard shape and color. The birds which he sent me proved his assertion to be true. Somebody is going to breed a productive fowl. Then why not let the American breeder of Standard bred poultry breed, advertise and get the credit and the full benefit of same. It is simply a question of selecting and breeding. Egg qualities are bred and not fed Into the hen, as is most generally supposed. The highest laying hen which I have ever trap-nested or which we have ever had in our egg-laving contests was the above Single Comb White Leg- horn, which produced 304 eggs from November 1 to October 31, a period of one year. You can see that the hen has a long, broad, stoutly-built body, large comb and wattles, a large crop for holding and consuming lots ot tooa and is very broad between the legs. This hen was a wonderful producer and several months during the year laid each day consecutively. She came trom a family of high producers. The hen in a sense, is nothing more or less than a manufacturing plant. We feed her all she is able to consume, she takes what is needed for her own bodilv maintenance and she either converts the surplus into eggs or stores it up' in her body in the shape of fat and flesh. If she is properly bred, she will convert this surplus into a profitable number of eggs above the cost of her keep. Some hens have a greater capacity than others for the consump- tion of raw material-food, and a greater ability for manufacturing the fin- ished product— eggs. Some flour mills have the capacity and ability to pro- duce 100 barr^^o'f flour per day and other mills which look Just like the^ have the capacity to manufacture 1,000 barrels per day. The difference is dulto the machinery on the inside and to the management. The same prin- ciple appliel in the case of the hen and in feeding her or egg production It she hasn't the digestive organs to consume and digest larger quantities of eed if she hasn't efficiency and vitality coursing through her veins she is not going to prove to be a profitable fowl. If the average hen at present ?avAoO eggs per year, and we can increase the average to 150 eggs by a lit- "" if ou?'present'°Strndard of Perfection does not measure up to the re^ one harmonious type and brought to the highest possible degree of excel- lence, it is our duty to correct it. In the champion dairy cow, we look for a big barrel, large milk veins, a big udder, and thin about the pelvic bones, instead of being fat and heavy like the beef type. Things which correspond to these must be looked for in the productive hen. Today we have utility and exhibition qualities combined in our Standard of Perfection to a far greater degree than any other poultry association or organization in the world. Yet there is room for improvement, and it is your duty and mine to work with that end in view. We should not be content with what has been accomplished. The great thing in which we are lacking, as I see it, is in getting our breeders of high-class Standard fowls to pay sufficient attention and in being as careful as they should be in selecting their birds to see that these two qualities, usefulness and beauty, are combined to a still greater degree. If I could but do something toward turning the machine guns of rapid fire egg production on the drones in the flocks of this country; if I could but turn the cannon of better methods of care and production upon the farms and in the poultry yards of America; if I could but turn the battle- ships of high grade Standard bred fowls upon the poorly bred and poorly kept scrub flocks of this land; if I could but help eliminate the submarines of loss and waste in the handling and marketing of the poultry and eggs of this nation; if I could but contribute some little toward causing poultry profits to rise' as airplanes to do battle with a common enemy, LOSS, I would feel well repaid for my life work in the interest of the poultrymen and the poultry industry of our United States. The suggestions made herein are offered with that end in view. NATURE'S LAWS To understand Nature's laws of reproduction, and in tne following of them to bring into the world new creations of beauty anu symmetry of LADV LAY MORE Laid 286 eggs in the Missouri National Bg-g Laying Contest. On account of putting all her energies into large numbers of eggs and because of lack of prepotency, this hen laid but very few fertile eggs. creatures approaching perfection in utility qualities, is one of man's greatest accomplishments. For centuries, Nature's laws, especially those which have to do with the perpetuation and reproduction of animal life, were considered inscrutable, too deep for mortal mind to grasp. But, as the plane of human intelligence slowly rose, and the range of scientific investigation gradually broadened, certain recurring phenomena in connection with animal reproduction and development were noticed. The study of these phenomena led to the dis- covery of certain basic principles or laws underlying, and to a certain extent governing, the reproduction and development of all animal life, from the lowest cellular forms to the highly developed twenteith century man who considers himself "monarch of all he surveys." In taking up the study of the laws of animal breeding, as applied to poultry, the student should strive to come to a full appreciation of the im- portant part which these laws are destined to play in his or her breeding operations, and of the vital necessity of as thorough an understanding of their action as possible. Just as the engineer must understand the action of steam before he can manufacture an engine, and an electrcian, the peculiari- ties of electricity before he can make a dynamo, so the person who aspires to produce superior market poultry, or a strain of hens that will lay two hundred eggs each per year, or a bird that will score nineiy-six points ac- cording to the American Standard of Perfection, must have a thorough understanding of the principles of animal breeding and of the methods of applying them. Volumes have been written on the Laws of Animal Breeding, and a large volume might be written on the application of these laws to the prob- lems of poultry breeding. Such a volume, however, to the beginner, might prove confusing, and more detrimental than beneficial. In the discussion which follows, scientific terms and technical language have been avoided as much as possible in order that the student may get as clear an understanding as possible of the principles themselves, and their application to the prob- lems which are continually being met with in actual breeding operations. If this lesson shall prove beneficial in enabling the reader to live up to the motto, "We Help A. P. S. Graduates to Succeed," the author will feel well repaid for the time and labor spent in preparing it. BREEJ>I.\(i PROBLEM A OIFPICUIvT ONE The successful breeding of poultry is one of the most difficult problems found in any branch of agriculture. Its greatest depths have never yet been fathomed, and, for that reason, it is a difficult subject to teach or to under- stand. BREEDIXG .\LL-IMPORTAXT We do not believe there is any branch of the poultry business that is so important to the poultry raiser as the question of selection and breeding. Live stock breeders of all kinds have come to realize that this is true, no matter what branch of the live stock business they may be engaged in. A horse that is bred to trot no faster than a mile in four minutes could not exceed that record no matter how much training he might receive. On the other hand, another horse with the same driver, same sulky and same food, might travel a mile in two minutes, because he is bred for that pur- pose and has the blood lines which enables him to make such a record. One cow may look just like another cow as far as size and color are concerned, but one may be bred in such a way that no matter how much feed, how perfect the care and conditions surrounding her may be, she will not exceed a given quantity of milk, perhaps not enough to even make her profitable. While the other cow that has years of selection and breeding back of her, with a line of ancestors all from high producing cows, would per- haps double, treble or quadruple the production of the first mentioned cow In milk and butter fat. Both are cows, but one is a profit-producer, because of selection and breeding, and the other is a money loser because of the want of proper selection and breeding. The same is true with hens. Simply because a hen is a Leghorn, a Ply- mouth Rock, a Wyandotte, or a Red; simply because she is given good feed and care, does not mean she is going to be a prize winner or a profiitable layer. Unless a hen has at least two or three generations of careful breed- ing and selection back of her, the chances are she will be unprofitable and unsatisfactory. Without good foundation stock and without Intelligent se- lection and breeding on the part of the poultryman, his efforts along poultry lin€fs are apt to result in failure — we care not whether he is breeding for egg production or for the show room. REPRODUCTION Ever since the divine command to "Be fruitful and multiply, and replen- ish the earth" was given, Nature's most wonderful phenomenon has been in existence. The brightest minds of all ages have stood puzzled and awed, unable to solve the mystery of the beginnings of life, or reproduction. Much has been learned, however, regarding the principles or laws which govern reproduction with respect to the qualities and characteristics of the off- spring. These, it is the purpose of this lesson to discuss. While scientists and investigators are by no means a unit as to the exact workings of all these principles and laws, nor of their relations to each other, yet their existence is universally recognized, and the methods and lines of action of the more elemental and important of them are fairly well understood. ASEXUA3L, REPRODUCTION There are two kinds of reproduction, asexual and sexual. Asexual (which really means, "not sexual") reproduction is the original and primary form of reproduction. Asexual reproduction is accomplished by self-division, the parts which separate being equally developed. This form of reproduction is found only in the most simple forms of animal life. In plant life it is more common. The horticulturalist, when he has succeeded in producing a tree which bears fruit of unusual quality, perpetuates and multiplies that ^^^^^^^^^^^ BBI^HH^^^^^^^H^IUBI Hen No. 8122 laid fifty-six eggs in sixty consecutive days as shown above. She has an index value of 261 eggs in one year, or 784 eggs during her lifetime. This hen won first prize at the Mountain Grove, Mo., Poultry show, and four of her pullets were in the first prize pen at the Missouri State Fair. This is more evidence that fancy and utility can be combined in the same fowl. tree by making cuttings of it, — an example o£ asexual reproduction. If the poultryman could make use of asexual reproduction, — if he could cut a piece off from a very iine rooster and cause it to grow into another rooster of equal perfection, many of his trials and tribulations would be over. But inasmuch as he cannot do this, he must make a life study of the laws govern- ing selection, mating and breeding. SEXUAL, REPRODUCTION In all sexual reproduction the new life begins with the uniting of a male and a female germ. The physiological aspect of sexual reproduction in poul- try is thoroughly discussed in the Baby Chick lesson, so it need not be repeated here. The Biological aspect is discussed under "Mendal's Law" in this lesson. THREE FORCES AT WORK The traits and characteristics of every individual, both mental and physi- cal, are the combined result of three general groups of forces, or influences, as we may choose to call them. Stating it another way, there are three sets of principles or laws, which, working together, produce individuality, with the result that no two creatures are exactly alike. Were it not for these forces, working both for and against each other, the world would be filled ^*^^ These figures, while very crude, represent an important fact which we wish to convey to you. On the left you will see the outline of a bird which is more or less triangular in shape. The figure represents a bird that has no breast and very little body. The legs are close together, and a bird that is triangular in shape, as shown above, will be one that will be very low in vitality. On the right we sh0"w a bird that is more or less rectangular ■ in shape. It represents a bird which has a longer body, larger digestive and egg organs, and is able to consume and digest a lot of feed. The legs are further apart and the figure represents strength and vitality. with monotonous uniformity. All men would be exact counterparts of one another, all animals of each species exactly alike in every particular, — every chicken an exact duplicate of every other chicken. In this connection, it is important that it be clearly understood that these three groups of influencss do not act separately or independently of one another. They intermingle and combine in such a way that it is often times exceedingly difficult to trace the results of each in the animal organism. The first of these groups of influences have to do with all characteristics which are transmitted from parent to offspring, from generation to genera- tion. Influences and laws of this nature are classifled under the general term. Heredity. The second group of forces determine all characteristics which are due to the external conditions surrounding each individual. Forces of this nature are group under the heading, Environment. The third set of influences or forces are those which have to do with all characteristics which are functional in nature, such as egg production, ability to lay on fat, etc. This set of influences are known as Functional Activities. HEREDITY Webster defines Heredity as, "The name given to the generalization drawn from the observed fact that animals and plants closely resemble their -6 — progenitors." "Like produces like," is the phrase by which the law of Here- dity is most often expressed. In other words, if you set a hen egg, you feel certain that, if the egg hatches at all, the result will be a chick rather than a mud turtle or snake. To be still more definite, if you set an egg from a Plymouth Rock hen you expect that the resulting progeny will be Plymouth Rock rather than a Wyandotte or a Rhode Island Red. In the lower forms of animal life the maxim that "like produces like" holds absolutely true, so far as human observation has been able to pene- trate. But in the higher forms of animal life, where the organisms grow constantly more complex, and the size and difference between the fully developed organism and the part which separates from the parent body in reproduction becomes continually greater an increasing variation is noticed between the parent and the matured progeny. In other words, the law that "like produces like," while holding true in a general way, is not found to be applicable to every detail. For instance, where a single cock is mated with a single hen of the same variety, the chicks from the mating, while re- sembling each other, are not uniform in every detail. The law of Heredity not only holds true with regard to the body form and color markings of poultry, but it also embraces all of the powers, quali- ties and characteristics of poultry. For instance, it affects all the internal bodily functions, such as the development of the digestive system, the tex- ture and structure of the various parts of the body, the capacity for con- suming food, and even the powers of reproduction. This being true, the im- portance of carefully selecting and mating our flocks becomes at once apparent. EFFECT OF DISEASE OX BREEDING STOCK Disease, and the predisposition to disease, have been found to be in- herited in. many instances. Diseases like White Diarrhoea are directly trans- Here are shown two birds of the same variety, but very different in vi- tality, strength and type. One is beautifully proportioned and is everything that you would desire in a fowl, beauty and usefulness combined. On the right is shown a bird which you can plainly see is weak and lacking in size of body and vitality. The body is short, the tail is carried high, the back is very short, and the breast is lacking in depth and shape. A mistake made in the breeding pen in one season may upset and offset all of the care that you have given to selection and breeding for a period of several years. By making a mistake of this kind you can usually do more harm than you can do good in several years' breeding. missable, through the egg, to the progeny. Such diseases as Roup, Tubercu- losis, and Cholera, if they do not kill the birds outright, so weaken and effect them that their progeny, through Heredity, are brought into the world with a weakness, or a predisposition, which causes them to fall an easy prey to these same diseases. If both parents are affected, the young fall prey all the more easily. A hen may be held back and prevented from laying as many eggs as she would have done had she been kept in good condition and given proper care and treatment, but when she does reach a normal state of health and condition, she will make up for much of the time she lost, if she is properly bred. One of the highest laying pens in the National Egg Laying Contest was bred from a male bird which had one eye put out by roup. We do not recommend this practice, however, because it is unsafe. A bird may recover but the offspring too often shows a tendency to the same disease. It must be remembered that a chick with a strong constitution is better equipped for fighting disease than a weak chicken with access to all the medicines and condiments known to the medical science. Therefore, breed for constitutional vigor. Many disease germs are transmitted from parent to offspring, so all diseased birds, or any birds which ever have been diseased, should be re- moved from the flock. We recently had a striking example of high vitality and low vitality. Two pens were housed in the same house, drank from the same pan, ate the same kind of food and slept under the same roof. One pen could not stand the test and every one of them were sent to the hospital. The pen on the opposite side withstood the severe weather, kept in splendid health, and was among the very highest pens in egg production. ATAVISM There are two sets of influences, influences which are both internal and inherited, which continually tend to counteract the law that "like produces like." The flrst of these sets we call "Atavism." "Throwing back," is the way the average person speaks of Atavism. In other words, offspring are often noticed to show certain characteristics which did not appear in either of the parents, perhaps not even in the grand parents, but which are known to have appeared in some more ancient ancestors. For instance, we recently mated three supposedly pure white breeds in making a certain cross. Some of the chicks were solid black, others mixed black and white. Many examples of Atavism are seen in the poultry world. For instance, feathers and down on the shanks and between the toes of Orpingtons and other clean-legged varieties, are due to Atavism. Some of the ancestors of these varieties had feathers on their legs, with the result that this charac- teristic tends to "crop out," even after many generations. Another example of Atavism is the throwing of single combed sports by the various rose combed varieties. Certain of the ancestors of these varieties had single combs, with the result that this tendency still remains from generation to generation. There is only one thing to do in dealing with the undesirable traits which are continually cropping out, due to Atavism. That one thing is to rigidly discard all birds showing these undesirable traits. Such birds should never, under any consideration, be used for breeding purposes. By strictly adhering to this rule, using only birds which do not exhibit atavistic ten- dencies, the undesirable traits and characteristics will appear less and less often, until they disappear entirely, so far as all practical purposes are con- cerned. This acts as a prod to keep breeders from being careless in their niatings. LIKE PRODUCES LIKE TO WHAT EXTENT The degree of likeness of the offspring to its parents will be governed largely by the degree of prepotency possessed by either or both. The parent possessing the greatest prepotency will be more closely resembled by the offspring. The results of any mating and the ideals embodied in that mat- ing will be strong "in proportion to the purity of the breeding in one or both parents ,and in proportion to the time that they have bred pure, in pro- portion to the closeness of the blood relationship in the parents, and In proportion to the nearness of the resemblance of the parents to one another in structure and form and in all leading characteristics." The more closely the parents are related and the more nearly they resemble one another, the more nearly the offspring will resemble the parents. The action of this law does not apply only to feathers and shape, but to productiveness, disposition, and all other characteristics. PREPOTENCY The second group of internal, inherited influences that tend to coun- teract the law that "like produces lilie" is Preiiotency. A fowl is said to be prepotent when It is found to have the power of transmitting, to a marked degree, certain of its qualities to the offspring. It is this prepotency, due to long years of careful breeding, that makes the pure-bred of greater value This shows a head, on the left, where the blade of the comb is split. This is a very serious defect, and you Will also note that there are six spikes (instead of five, and most of these are slender and out of proportion. On the Tight is shown a comb that has two small spikes growing out from the side of the comb. If you breed from a bird of this kind, the defect will show up in a majority of the offspring. This is also a disqualification in a show room. than the mongrel of mixed breeding. The farmer with a flock of nondescript mongrel hens, desiring to improve the quality of his flock, buys pure-bred males on account of their prepotency, — their power to transmit their good qualities to their progeny to a high degree. Individuals, even among the same breed and variety, vary greatly in prepotency. This variation is due in some measure, at least, first, to a difference in the constitutional vigor of the individuals, and second, to the purity of the blood lines. The line bred bird will, in nine cases out of ten, be found to be far more prepotent than a bird of the same variety with apparently the same amount of vigor, but with mixed blood lines. Minor things which affect or influence prepotency are such as males having feminine heads or females that have heads which appear masculine. In either case they usually fail to give satisfaction as breeders. Male Seabright bantams which have a tendency to have sickle feathers in their tails are better breeders than those that have tails which resemble hen tails in shape and markings. The Standard calls for hen-formed tails, however, and we have to breed them that way to win in the show room. The variety of fowls which are devoid of tails, known as Rumples, lay eggs of which a large per cent are infertile. The fact that fowls are line bred and closely related does not guarantee prepotency in every case, nor does it guarantee an equal degree of prepotency. Very often a male bird may be well bred, but he is lacking in many quali- ties of both shape and color, so much so that he would not even be con- sidered as a show bird. Yet this same bird might be able to transmit the good qualities of its ancestors and prove to be an exceptional breeder of prize winning ch'ickens. — 9 — The quality of prepotency is especially desirable in the male. Most all poultry raisers pay good prices for their males, they select them with special care, and they depend upon the male usually for any desired improve- ment in their flocks. But it is important that the females he selected with equal care. If you fiind a cock bird that has proven a good breeder, he Is much more valuable and you are taking less chances than you would be with This represents a slipped wing. The first three or four flight feathers of a wing are not folded up and under the wing proper when the bird has its wing in place by the side of its body. These feathers show from the out- side and are very often twisted. This is a very serious defect and one that should never be bred from. In the majority of cases, birds produced from such stock as this will be poor egg producers. Never use such a bird in your breeding pen, if you can avoid it. any cockerel, and you would make a serious mistake to dispose of such a. bird until he had passed the limit of his usefulness. Walter Hogan and many who have tested his system state that his method of testing the prepotency of any fowl is the most important and valuable chapter in his book, "The Call of the Hen." We have made some experiments along that line and can say that the system is dependable. ENVIRONMENT Having briefly considered the internal and inherited influences which are at work in every individual, either for good or ill, we come now to a second, and extremely important factor, — important because it can be largely con- trolled by the breeder, instead of having to rely on the somewhat obscure workings of Nature's laws. The important factor is summed up in one word. Environment. Environment may be defined as "The aggregate of all the external con- ditions and influences affecting the life of an individual." Environment may be roughly divided into two kinds, — Natural and Artificial. The natural environment of poultry, for instance, varies with regard to the geographical — 10 — location of their home, climate, weather conditions, etc. These all play an important part in determining the quality and characteristics of poultry. Artificial environment consists of the surroundings and conditions which the breeder sees his way clear to provide for his birds. It is, to a great extent, the character of this artificial environment which will determine the success or failure of every person who engages in the poultry business. Con- ditions of environment which, in any way, cause discomfort, always check the development and growth and thus result in impaired vigor and breeding quality. The same is true of surroundings which are in any way unhealthy. The matter of food is another exceedingly important part of artificial environment, although one has to stretch a point to include it under this heading. It is absolutely essential that food be wholesome and of the sort naturally adapted to poultry, as well as providing the proper food consti- tuents. Many amateurs have complained, after buying high grade eggs for hatch- ing, that the progeny did not develop into birds of anywhere near as high quality as the parents. In some cases, at least, these faults will be found On the left is shown a bird with knock knees, and one that has a very narrow slender body. This indicates weakness and a male or female of this type should never be bred. On the right we see a bird of exactly the opposite type. Broad between the legs and stoutly built, and a broad, deep body. Characteristics of this sort should be carefully looked after in the selec- tion of birds for the breeding pen. to be due to something wrong with the environment which has surrounded the birds even before the time that they were hatched. Care and feeding have a great deal to do with the improvement of any breed or variety. No human skill can accomplish some things which are accomplished in the breeding world, without proper attention being paid to the important question of feeding, housing, care and management. The high- est state of perfection comes through selection and breeding, but we would never have been able to produce the improved Poland Chinas and Berkshires from the "Razor Backs," nor could we have produced from the jungle fowl the 304-egg hen. Lady Lay More, without generation after generation being kept in the proper environment, as well as being carefully selected and bred. Yet the performance of every flock may reach its normal average and the limit of its capacity or ability to produce. Better. methods of feeding, housing, care and management have no further effect upon the egg yield. Then it is that greater production must depend upon the skill of the poultry- man in selection and breeding. He must select the best blood in his own — 11 — flock or depend upon blood from an outside flock which is stronger in the desired characteristics than he has in his own. There is no need of any poultryman's going at this problem blindly. There is enough information at hand so that poultry breeding is becoming more and more a science and less and less a matter of chance, but in spite of this fact, many cling to the idea that improvement is to be brought about chiefly through feeding. Because of the prevalence of this view, very many of the breeders of poultry do the work in an aimless way. As a result, the scrub is still in evidence on too many farms. HOW DO BREEDING AND FEEDING AFFECT THE PROFITS The only profit you receive from your fowls comes from the food which is assimilated beyond the amount needed for substance. A certain amount of food is needed and required to keep the machinery of the body in opera- tion. No profit accrues from this. Your profit comes from the food they consume in excess of maintenance. If your hens are properly bred so that they can consume lots of food and make good use of it and not store it in their bodies in the shape of fat, the more food they consume the greater the profit they will make you. FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES The third of the three great groups of influences which combine to make every individual different from every other individual has been termed by students of animal breeding as "Functional Activities." Prof. Brigham, in his "Progressive Poultry Culture," has covered this subject so well that we quote him as follows : "As soon as the chick develops organs for blood circulation, food diges- tion and muscles for moving, there comes into play another set of influences in the life of the creature. It begins to use its powers, and the use of the parts tends to increase their size and capacity. Healthy, natural exercise of the functions of the bird's body tends to the best development and main- tenance of these functions. Excessive use or abuse of any of these powers tends to react disastrously upon the functions and upon the bird's whole organism. "This matter is very largely within the control of the poultry breeder. For example, he may, by early hatching and high feeding, cause his pullets to develop rapidly and begin laying while still quite young. The eggs of these precocious pullets will be found lacking in hatching quality to a con- siderable degree, if the attempt is made to incubate them. If some of the eggs yield chicks, they will usually prove weaklings. Moreover, the pullets, after laying awhile, will very likely begin to moult and delay further egg- production until the following spring, the natural nesting time of the birds. Thus, even in a commercial way, the pullets prove the futility of the poultry- man's plan for forcing egg-production at the expense of the development of the other functions. "Again, the poultryman may, by close confinement of his adult fowls and too generous a diet, especially of Indian corn, induce habits of laziness in his flock. The fowls lay on fat, their eggs become infertile; later, egg- laying stops altogether, the birds stand about in idleness, they get listless, their systems become clogged, they topple over and die of apoplexy. An entirely different result is secured simply by compelling the hens to take bodily exercise. By making them scratch for at last a part of thir living the circulation of the blood is increased, digestion is Improved, there is flesh formation instead of fat disposition, and active operation of all of the bodily functions. The fowls are lively, sprightly and healthy. Their eggs prove to be fertile and yield chicks which are vigorous, thrifty growers." SOME INFLUENCES WHICH AFFECT FERTILITY Confinement and lack of exercise will affect the male and, also, cause barrenness in the females. "We have in captivity a number of wild ducks, wild geese and wild. turkeys. The ducks failed to breed at all the first year after being caught, and the eggs from all are largely infertile. Lack of uniformity in food supply and irregularity with which it is supplied affects fertility in some cases. — 12 — If the food supply is lacking in nutrition, or if it contains too much beef scraps, dry or moist mashes, or if fed too freely, the results are not usually the best.' If the birds are excessively fat, they are indifferent breeders, and if the eggs are fertilized at all, the chicks are lacking in size and stamina. Overly fat fowl often become sterile because of fatty degeneration of the reproduc- tive organs. It is a great mistake, after pullets have matured early and shown that they have the ability to lay, to continue to force those pullets to lay by The above shows a pullet which was hatched from an egg which was fertilized by taking the semen from a Barred Plymouth Roclc male and in- jecting it into the cloaca of a Light Brahma female. The germs then worked their way up the oviduct of the female and the eggs were fertilized. In doing this work, male birds were kept in wire pens where they could see females in the adjoining pens. The males were handled each day and they soon be- came very gentle, so much so that in a few days if we entered their pens with a female in our hand, the male would attempt to tread her while she was still in our possession. Instead of letting him connect with the female, we would slip our hand between the male and female and the semen would be caught in our hand, a glass dish or in a rubber bag. An ordinary medicine dropper with a rubber bulb was used to inject the semen into the cloca of the female. If .you have a vigorous male, several females can be injected with the semen from a single male. This work I did at the Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station. This cross of a Barred Plymouth Rock on a Light Brahma, made a black fowl with a neck marked like a Brown Leghorn pullet. heavy feeding, if you expect to use them for breeding purposes. As soon as your early laying pullets are discovered, put them on a maintenance ration, change their location, move them about and use other means to prevent them from laying many eggs until they are ready for the breeding pen. If the pullets mature early and they are forced to continue laying right — 13 — up to the breeding season, it will result in loss of stamina, infertile eggs, and death in the shell. Lack of vigor from any cause will always decrease the fertility and in- crease dead germs. ARTIFICIAJj FERTILIZATION We have been making some experiments along this line, and we have some living chicks which were hatched from eggs laid by hens that have never been allowed to run or come in contact with, or be treaded by a male bird. From what experiments we have made, I believe we can coU-ect the semen from the champion Barred Plymouth Rock male bird at New York, Madison Square Garden Show, carry it to Missouri and then fertilize eggs from the champion pullet at the Missouri State Show, if that pullet Is in laying condition. The semen would have to be kept at a reasonable tem- perature. Artificial fertilization of eggs may never be practical, but we learn other things as a result of work of this kind. We have been surprised to learn the length of time the male germs will live out of the body of either the male or female. We have allowed the semen to become perfectly dry, and after two hours or more, have moistened it and found hundreds of spermatoza still living and moving over the field under the microscope. Our experience has led us to believe that about 5 per cent of the males used for breeding purposes are perfectly sterile, that is, that their germs are so weak that they do not fertilize or else the semen is lacking in male germs. We have living chicks hatched from eggs artificially fertilized, artificially hatched, and artificiailly brooded. Some interesting facts are being developed with reference to this work and mention will be made on them in later re- ports. The Oklahoma Experiment Station did considerable work along this line and in a circular issued by that institution, they had this to say: "The question was, whether or not eggs could be fertilized by seminal fluid transferred from one female to another. If that could be done success- fully, could a sample be diluted with a physiological salt solution and in- jected into the cloaca of several hens with equal success? From our knowl- edge of the life period of these cells and the number of them passed at one service, this latter method would appear very practical. And, if it did prove successful, there would be nothing to prevent a man who possessed a valu- able male bird to stand his bird, as in stud breeding. The semen might be sent by mall and the receiver could treat a large number of his hens at a small expense. Poultry, unlike other animals, have no period of heat, so they could be treated any time samples may be received, provided the hen was in laying condition. "In order to test out several hens known to be laying infertile eggs were treated in the manner suggested above with undiluted fluid, and a fair per cent of the eggs were fertile. These eggs were incubated and chicks hatched from them." FERTILIZATION OF AN EGG AND THE INFLUENCE OF THE FIRST MATING UPON THE OFFSPRING OF SUBSEQUENT MATINGS This question has been discussed pro and con by all who have made any observation along this line. Country Gentleman is authority for the statement made by Mr. A. W. Frizzell of Maryland, to this effect: He had a pair of prize winning White Plymouth Rocks which were mated with a Light Brahma cock. Three years hence, he claims. Light Brahma markings still manifested themselves. Some poultry breeders claim that a White Plymouth Rock pullet mated to a Langshan cockerel wUl show Langshan characteristics in the offspring of a later mating. In order to test the grounds for such belief I made some exi^eriments as follows: Six pullets, which had never been with a male bird, were placed in a pen with a vigorous Houdan cockerel. The Houdan was very striking in characteristics, having a V-shaped comb, a crest, beard, and five toes, while the pullets had single combs, no crest or beard and four toes instead of five. — 14 — From this mating the eggs were incubated, the chicks examined, and the transmission of the four characteristics recorded. Thirty-seven chickens were examined from this mating and out of a possible 148 characteristics 91 were transmitted by the male and 79 by the females, making 170 char- acteristics recorded, there being 22 which showed both having a single comb In front and a V-shaped instead of blade, five toes on one foot and four on the other, etc. The male showed that he was more than half the pen- in the trans- mission of breed characteristics. The Houdan male was taken out and the eggs incubated until all were infertile and the male left out for three more weeks to be sure there were This illustrates a hen with a wry tail. The tail feathers are twisted to one side, which is usually the result of a deformity. If you breed from either males or females that are inclined to this defect, you will find that it will show in the offspring in a good many cases. A defect of this sort will dis- qualify any bird in a show room. no Houdan male germs left with the hens. At this time a male was placed in the pen which had the same characteristics as the females, to see if the offspring would show any of the Houdan characteristics. Forty- five chickens were hatched and showed no signs of the Houdan. This test should perhaps have been more extensive, but this indicated that mating a bird of one breed with one of a different breed will not influence the offspring of a later mating. This would hold true with birds, but not necessarily true with higher animals, as the embryo of the bird, is developed in the egg outside the body of the mother, while that of higher animals is developed inside the body of the mother. Fertilization of the egg takes place in the infundibulum or funnel of the oviduct just after the yolk has been freed from the follicle in the ovary and before being surrounded by the chalazae layer in the oviduct. The male germ does not develop or grow until it has united with the female cell. At the time the male and female cells unite the entire yolk is surrounded with albumen, shell membrane, and shell, so there is no inter-circulation either by osmosis, transfusion or any other way, between the embryo and the mother, while the embryo is developing. — 15 — With higher animals the embryonic stage of development is passed inside the body of the parent, so there is a possibility through osmosis' of some of the blood of the developing embryo remaining with the mother, and in such case the mother would have part of the blood of the male of the first mating in her body which could transmit characteristics to the off- spring of a later mating. Other , theories have been advanced that the sight of colored birds would influence the color of the offspring, i. e., a black male in a pen by the side of white females would influence the color of the offspring, but it has been my observation that for the black male to fly over the fence and pemaJn for ten minutes will have more influence upon the color of the offspring than for them to look through the fence for ten years. Summing up the tests, I am free to say that they have strengthened my belief in the law that "Like Produces Like," although, of course, freaks or sports may occur at any time in any line of breeding, and that both male and female contribute to the characteristics of the offspring, according to the blood they have in their bodies. Many people are deceived because they do not know the breeding back of the birds with which they have made their observations. PREDETERMINATION OF SEX THROUGH DIET French scientists and biologists are searching for means of experimen- tation with animals to develop a method of predetermining and controlling the sex of offspring, which if as successful as present indications are, will be eventually applied to human beings. The French biologist, Pezard, believes he will shortly be able to an- nounce a scientific diet for hens by which they will breed male or female eggs at will. From a paper by Dr. Pezard which has been submitted to the Academy of Science, arises the enormously interesting question: "Can the alarming depopulation of the white section o£ the world be explained by excessive meat eating?" Dr. Pezard has achieved some highly interesting results with grafting operations on roosters and hens which showed that the rooster's reproducing capacity as well as his fighting qualities dropped and even disappeared when fed a meat diet. Indeed, his interstitial glands became atrophied by this abnormal method of feeding. Now, I would not go as far as to assert roundly that man ought to cease eating meat in the interests of race preservation, but there is no doubt what- ever that gastro-intestinal trouble induced by bad dieting, such as too much meat, militates against healthy, normal reproduction. This is the very reason that I do not recommend feeding much meat or beef scraps to the breeding males or females. Nutrition a Big Factor "This is not surprising when we widen the question and consider that the measure of nutrition imparted to an egg is a factor in determining sex. "Scientists know that in case of certain insects ill-nournished eggs give males, while normal eggs give females. We also know that hermaphrodites (combination of both sexes) with animal races are created through the dis- appearance of the distinctly male sex. "Is it not a fact that we find among most animals the males are smaller and have less resistance than the females? The males' splendid energy and gay plumage merely denote that they are squanders of energy. "There is something in the male's natural makeup that renders his variable and unstable type weakening in resistance to the forces of nature, and there is also a fragility in his reproductive capacity. "Beyond doubt, woman is the stable element in our race. "In accordance with the general embryological law, man is a mere by- product. Female the Stronger "It has been ascertained by observation among the lower types of inverte- brates that while their species is invariably composed of m.ale and female at inception, in many instances the male is unable to survive his natural — 16 — enemies, and disappears, while the females become hermaphrodites and per- sist in spite of the changes In their surroundings Involving increased dif- ficulty of nourishment. "Females are more adaptable and able to assimilate food which does not actually nourish males. As a consequence, female embryos are better nour- ished than males, and therefore more numerous. "In the lower order of life it appears that only a special kind of nourish- ment produces males, while any food assimilable by the mother animal Is sufficient to breed female eggs. "The scientists of France believe this theory can be extended so as to apply to the predetermination of the human sex. "It is an interesting fact that the very adaptability of females of all species, high and low, makes them less active than males. The latter are engaged In a continual deployment of energy in order to seek the environ- ment required for the sustenance and continuance of life, while females are able passively to accept adverse conditions by virtue of their superior vitality. Theory Is False "Centuries of race development have made males, engaged in a stren- uous fight ifor existence, resourceful, active and self defensive, and this has resulted in the false theory of mental and physical superority of men over women. "Let man take up the passive, sedentary existence of women, and he promptly tends to atrophy all his apparent faculties, and becomes effeminate and weak. "It Is evident from recent scientific researches that the female is the backbone of the human species. "It is now certain beyond a shadow of doubt that the sex of the off- spring is not determined at the instant of conception but depends upon subse- quent influences, the most potent of which probably is the Influence of nour- ishment. "Bees are endowed with the secret for which man has been vainly searching for centuries. They produce with exact certitude 'queens,' 'drones' and infertile female workers in the required numerical propor- tions, and they do so by means of special nourishment of the larvae." AVOID BBEEBEBS THAT ARE "BAGGY BEHIND." Birds that are "baggy behind," those that have heavy, fat abdomens that have a tendency to fall below the point, of the breast bone, should not be used in the breeding pen, as a rule. This is an indication of a weak ovarian system. Such birds are poor breeders, they do not fertilize their eggs, and the chickens from such hens often die in the shell or are weakly if they do hatch. Many hens die with ovarian trouble, ruptured yolks, diseased ovaries, ruptured or diseased oviducts, and such deaths are usually attributed to some other cause. By making a post mortem examination, you can usually tell. If you find a hen that dies from such a cause, it is unwise to use either males or females for breeders that were bred from her, because this weak- ness seems to be hereditary. MENDEli'S LAW The most difficult phase of the subject of breeding is what Is known as "Mendel's Law," or "Mendellsm." Yet it is a subject of some importance to every person who wishes to breed poultry intelligently, and to produce specimens approaching perfection in bodily form or color markings. No man In the history of the world, not excepting Charles Darwin, has done so much to reduce Nature's laws of reproduction to an exact science as the Austrian Monk, Charles Mendel. Mendel was born in 1822 and died in 1884, The ejcperlments from which he evolved the now famous "Mendel's Law'' wgre carried on for a nuntber Qf years by crossing the various varie- ties of tJie ordinary garden pea. Let us see what he discovered, and how hid discevgrles have beea applied to poultry breeding. We have never thought that lljpndel's Law iv§@ as applicable to poultry breeding as to plant breeding aq^ |9 ^16 breeding' of some other animals, but It is at least worthy ot study. — 17 — The pea was chosen, first, because the separate flowers are self-fertiliz- ing and are protected from insect interference, and second, because there are numerous varieties of the pea having distinct characters which breed true. Certain varieties have a yellow seed, while in other varieties the seed is green. When ripe, some varieties have smooth round seeds, while in others the seeds are angular, etc. Mendel began his experiments by crossing pairs of varieties in such a way that the members of each pair differed from each other in one par- ticular characteristic. For instance, a round seeded variety and an angu- lar seeded variety were crossed. When the cross-bred plants had matured, it was found that all of the seeds were round. Likewise, in other experiments in crossing the various varieties of peas, it was found that only one character showed in the cross-bred individuals. These characters, which showed to the almost total exclusion of the other, Mendel called Dominant. The characters which failed to show in the cross-bred individuals he called Recessive. Take, for example, the pea experiment cited above: The character of roundness in the seeds was found to be "dominant," while the angular character of the seeds was found to be "recessive." Experiments thus far carried on with poultry indicate that, as a general rule, rose combs are dominant over single combs; crested heads are dom- inant over smooth heads; red ear-lobes are dominant over white ear-lobes; black beaks are dominant over yellow, and yellow over horn; white skin is dominant over yellow; feathered shanks are dominant over clean shanks; white shanks are dominant over yellow, and black over yellow; white plumage is dominant over both black and colored plumage; black plumage is dominant over red; brown color in eggs is dominant over white. The tendency to broodiness is dominant over the non-sitting tendency. However, to return again to Mendel and his peas, his most Interesting experiments and important discoveries were still to follow. When the cross- bred peas were in turn crossed back on each other, it was found that there was a breaking up of the characters which were uniform in the first genera- tion, so that the progeny of the second cross showed an average of three domi- nants to one recessive, i. e., three round seeds to one angular seed. When the seeds thus produced were sown, it was found that the angular (recessive) seeds in turn produced which were all angular. In other words, they bred true to type. They were pure. There was no taint of the cross so far as the contrasted characters, roundness and angularness were concerned. The round (dominant) seeds of the second generation, while appar- ently pure, when planted, proved not to be pure. Only one-third of them were pure, the other two-thirds again producing an average of three round seeds to one angular seed. The round seeds of the second generation, then, were of two kinds, — those which carried only the round character, and those which carried both the round and the angular characters. Successive experiments with subsequent generations proved beyond the shadow of a reasonable doubt that the above results were typical, — that the pure domi- nants and the pure recessive always bred true like their parents, while the impure dominants bred dominants and recessives in the constant propor- tion of three to one. Mendel's Theory of Inheritance. Each individual has its beginning in the union of two miscroscopic cells, — a male or sperm cell, and a female or egg cell. "Ovium" is the correct name for the female cell. This being true, it is self-evident that the physical iasis of inheritance lies in this union of the male and female cell. Biologically speaking, both male and female cells are gametes. A cell formed by the union of a male and female gamete, i. e., the beginning of a new individual, is called a zygote. When a zygote is formed by the unit- ing of a male and female gamete each bearing the same character', as, tor instance, the character of smoothness in the pea seed, such a zygote is known as a homozygot'e. On the other hand, when a zygote is formed by a male and a female gamete bearing characters which are not alike, as, for instance, the character of smoothness and the character of angularness in the pea seed, such a zygote is called a heterozygote. A heterozygote may, or may not, bear the form of a pure dominant, — 18 — This can be determined only by a breeding test. A heterozygote also cal*- ries the recessive character. Tliis, as has already been shown, is proven by the fact that when heterozygotes are crossed on each other, one-fourth of the offspring show recessive characters. It is only by this crossing that we can tell the heterozygote which is a pure dominant from the one 'which also carries a recessive character. A familiar example of this phenomenon, in poultry, is the matter of transmitting rose and single combs. If a pair of rose comb birds produce a A squirrel tail is one where the main tail featehrs or sicltle feathers are carried forward of a perpendicular line, as you will see in the above illustra- tion. Such a tail makes a very sudden break in the back line. It usually spoils the looks of a bird, and is a disqualification in most varieties when on exhibition in a show room. Many high layers have a tendency to carry their tails high, but this is more a question of carelessness in breeding and selec- tion than a necessity for high production. proportion of single comb offspring, one or both of the pair are heterozy- gote. Again, if a rose comb fowl and a single comb fowl are mated, and all the progeny are rose comb, the rose comb parent is pure, or homozygote. If, on the other hand, any of the progeny of this mating are single comb, the rose comb parent is heterozygote, because, as we have seen, .if the rose comb parent was homozygote, all of the progeny would be rose comb. As has already been shown, when first crosses are bred together, the resulting progeny show the original characters in the proportion of one pure dominant and one pure recessive homozygotes, to two heterozygotes bearing both of the unit characters. Now, if the breeder wishes to mate these heterozygote individuals back to either of the pure bred parents, which are homozygotes, he can easily tell beforehand the results of these matings, provided the characters sought for are truly Mendelian, i. e., are known to conform to Mendel's law. If mated to the parent showing thfe dominant character, half the offspring will be pure dominant, monozy- gotes, and half of the offspring will carry both the dominant and reces- sive characters — ^will be heterozygotes. Simillarly, if the heterozygotes above mentioned, are mated back to the parent showing the recessive char- acters, half of the offspring will be pure recessive, monozygotes, and the other half will carry both the recessive „nd dominant characters, — will be heterozygotes. — 19 — Mating Parents differing in fwo Pairs of Characters. In the foregoing paragraphs we have studied the results of mating parents differing only in a single pair of characters. Biologists speak of such a mating as an example of Monohytridism,. The crossing of parents differing in two pairs of characters Is spoken of as an example of Dihyiridism. An example of Dlhybridism would be the mating together of a Black Hamburg (rose comb) and a Single Comb White Leghorn. In such a cross It has been found that the rose comb is dominant over the single comb, and that the white plumage is dominant over the black. The results of this mating would be as follows: Out of every sixteen chicks there would be, on the average, twelve white chicks and four black ones. Nine of the white ones would have rose combs, and three would have single combs. Three of the black ones would have rose combs, and one would have a single comb. It will be noted that In every case the proportion is that of three dominants to one recessive. If the nine rose comb white chickens are in turn bred together, one only will breed pure rose comb whites — will be a homozygote in respect to both the rose comb and the white plumage. Two will throw a proportion of single comb whites. Two others will throw a proportion of rose comb blacks, and the other four will each throw all four combinations, i. e., single comb whites, rose comb whites, single comb blacks and rose comb blacks- The unfortunate feature of the above results, is that the only way to determine which individuals would breed true and which would not, would be by actual breeding tests. The results of the experiment above outlined illustrates what is known as Mendel's Law of Gametic Segregation. In studying the above results it should be distinctly understood that they are averages. It should also be remembered that the scientific study of the principles and laws of animal breeding, as applied to poiiftry, has only just begun. Many discoveries along this line will undoubtedly be made during the next decade. INBREEDING Inbreeding, as generally referred to by poultrymen, means the breeding together of birds that are closely related for a number of successive years or generations. The objects of inbreeding are to secure more desirable qualities in our fowls, to secure more uniformity, and to secure them in the quickest possible manner. The desirability of this practice and the good and evil therefrom have been discussed pro and con for many years. Practically the only objec- tion offered is the belief that the offspring will be weak and sickly, lacking in strength, size and vigor. There is no denying the fact that if the par- ents have a common defect or a common weakness, these things will be more firmly fixed and intensified in the offspring. It is equally true that if both parents are strong and vigorous, and they are inbred, their good characters will also be more firmly fixed and intensified in their off- spring. Inbreeding, it carried too far, will result in loss of vigor, loss of size, and a tendency to delicacy and general deterioration. In the case of bantams, what we want is the lack of size. We want smallness, and by closely in- breeding this is accomplished. Thus we have an example in these little birds of the effect of inbreeding on size. There is no use to argue this question, for every observing poultryman has seen evidences of the evil effects of careless and constant inbreeding in his own flock and in those about him. If it Is successfully practiced, it requires constant selection and ruthless culling. Notwithstanding the above facts, it is true that no one can perfect a strain of his own or firmly fix desired characteristics uniformly throughout his flock, without resorting to more or less inbreeding at first, and then following that with a reasonable amount of line breeding. No matter how wisely it may be conducted, certain evils will surely grow out of continual inbreeding. This practice should be discontinued before these evils appear, and no one should attempt to inbreed their poultry who does not understand it, or who might practice it in a haphazard manner. — 20 — LINE BREEDING A great many experienced poultry breeders do not seem to have a clear understanding of the subject of Line Breeding, its objects, how it is accom- plished, etc. Yet it is a matter of very great importance, especially to breeders of Standard poultry. Line Breeding, as the name indicates, means breeding in line, — restrict- ing the mating of individuals to a certain family, or a limited number of females with a common origin, or of a similar type. There is some confus- ion in the minds of many as to the distinction between Inbreeding (some- times called "Close Breeding"), and Line Breeding. Inbreeding is more in- tensive than Line Breeding. As the terms are generally used, the distinction between them is exceedingly fine. The mating together of own brothers and sisters would be called Inbreeding, while the mating together of sire and daughter, or of dam and son, would be Line Breeding. The mating together of brother and sister does not produce any change in the relative proportion of blood of the grand parents in the offspring. Therefore, there can be no improvement or progress. The mating of sire and daughter, or dam and son, increases the proportion of the blood of one daughter, or of dam and son, increases the proportion of the blood of one ancestor or the other, as the case may be, — -and therein lies the distinction between Inbreeding and Line Breeding. The Purpose of Line Breeding. The main purpose of Line Breeding is to improve the quality of one's stock for either color or shape by keeping in the flock the blood of some ancestor of special merit. The longer Line Breeding is carried on, and the larger the proportion of the blood of the original ancestor in the flock, the stronger will be the tendency to repro- duce his or her good qualities, and the more uniform will be the workings of the law that "like produces like.'' Line Breeding, intelligently carried on for a series of years, results in the establishing of a strain or "family" with a common origin, and of more than ordinary excellence This should be the ulti- mate aim and ambition of every person who goes into the pure bred poultry business. Line Breeding Illtistrated. The illustration shown herewith is known as the "Felch Line Breeding Chart," it having been originated by that veteran poultryman. Judge I. K. Felch. To him is due the honor of first making the subject of Line Breeding so clear that the amateur can under- stand and practice it. The following is Mr. Felch's own explanation of the chart: "Each dotted line represents the female as having been connected, upper group, while the solid line shows the male as having been taken from the indicated upper group. Each circle represents the progeny, to-wlt: Female No. 1 mated with male No. 2 produces group No. 3, which is half the blood of sire and dam. "Females from group No. 3, mated back to their own sire. No. 2, pro- duce group No. 5, which is three-quarters of the blood of the sire. No. 2, and one-fourth the blood of the dam. No. 1. "A male from group No. 3, mated back to his own dam. No. 1, produces group No. 4, which is three-fourths of the blood of the dam. No. 1, and one- fourth the blood of the sire, No. 2. "Again select a cockerel from group No. 5 and a pullet from group No. 4, or vice versa, which will produce group No. 7. This is mathematically half the blood of each of the original pair, No. 1^ and No. 2. This is a sec- ond step toward producing a new line. "Females from No. 5 mated back to the original male. No. 2, produce group No. 8, that are seven-eighths the blood of No. 2. A cockerel from No. 4, mated to the original dd,m, No. 1, produces group No. 6, that is seven- eighths the blood of the original dam, and only one-eighth of the blood of the original sire. "Again we select a male from No. 8 and females from No. 6 and for a third time produce chicks (in group No. 11) that are half the blood of each of the original pair. This is the third step and the seventh mating in securing complete breeding of our new strain. In all this we have not broken the line of sires, for every one has come from a group in which the — 21 — preponderance of the blood was that of the original sire. Nos. 2, 8, 13 and 18 are virtually the blood of No. 2. "We have reached a point where we may wish to establish a male line whose blood is virtually that of the original dam, and we now select from No. 6, a male which we mate with a female from No. 4, and produce group No. 9, which is thirteen-sixteenths the blood of the original dam, No. 1, and three-sixteenths the blood of the original sire, thus preserving the strain of blood of the dam. FELCH'S BREEDING CHART li^ALE „.,„-„^ T„, ,^n U.J, A. MALE o Revised by V.O.Hobbs "A male from No. 13, which is thirteen-sixteenths the blood of the original sire, No. 2, mated to females from No. 10, which are five^sixteenths the blood of the original sire. No. 2, gives us group No. 17, which is nine- sixteenths the blood of said sire, while in No. 16 we have the new strain and in No. 18, the strain of our original sire. No. 2. Thus we have three distinct strains, and by and with this systematic use we can go on breed- ing for all time to come. Remember that each dotted line is a female selec- tion and each solid line the male selection. — 22 — "It you do not use care and make rigid selections in line breeding, it will intensify and magnify the defects in your flock to the same extent it does the desirable qualities. The defects become so incorporated that it is hard to breed them out. Neither should line breeding be carried to excess. In time you will meet the same evils that you do in inbreeding. No matter what system of breeding you may follow, as soon as you discover any signs of lack of vigor or deterioration in any way, you should take this as a danger signal and change your methods. It is advisable to line breed Barred Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, Brown Leghorns, and several other varieties. Stay within the same line and the same strain as much as possible It you expect to breed prize winners. THE MAIN L,AW OF NATURE IS LINE BREEDING "Line Breeding is the main law in the breeding of domestic animals," said W. H. Card in Reliable Poultry Journal. Mr. Card has given great study to breeding problems and it Is advisable to give you his words: "Per- haps we can make this better understood by explaining the different phases of breeding, of which there are four methods generally practiced in the breeding of domestic animals, namely, cross breeding, out-breeding, inbreed- ing and line breeding. "Cross breeding is the union of two breeds of the same species, as a Langshan bred to a Brown Leghorn (this has no relation to hybridism, which is a phase of cross breeding that is very uncommon and is the union of totally different species of fowl or animals, such as mating a guinea fowl to a Barred Plymouth Rock, therefore such 'cross breeding' is not pertinent to this discussion). The results of cross breeding are not beneficial in any way beyond the first cross, and is practiced only for market results. "Out-breeding is the union of domestic animals or fowls of the same variety or breed, the members of the mating being entirely unrelated. In- telligent out-breeding produces the highest results in vigor and stamina, yet it is not a dependable method in reproducing characteristics of form, color, inbreeding and line breeding. "Inbreeding is the union of domestic animals or fowls of the same variety or breed that are more or less closely related. We speak of close inbreeding, which is the breeding back to the sire of his daughter, the son to his dam, or brother and sister. Inbreeding is the beginning of the method in the breeding of domestic animals or fowls which leads to domestic blood purity and is the chief factor in the establishment of the great law of breeding of domestic animals, namely, line breeding. "Inbreeding is a dangerous path to follow, being full of pitfalls for the unwary and the novice, mainly because of that mysterious and unex- plainable deterioration which accompanies its practice; yet careful and intelligent selection of specimens for their vigor and stamina builds a foundation upon which we may practice line breeding which produces the best domestic animals, whether you are working with cattle, horses, swine, sheep or poultry. Only by inbreeding can we establish line breeding; in fact, line breeding properly defined is inbreeding, but it is the kind of inbreeding that safeguards stamina and vigor and that fixes and perpetu- ates desired characteristics and enhances prepotency. Line breeding de- fines itself. It is breeding in line or continuing a long line of ancestry without the introduction of foreign blood. "In judicious line breeding the selecting of the birds for their vigor and stamina in every mating is the safeguard against deterioration because specimens so selected, while entirely related, are the farthest removed in re- lationship by the long time produced by inbreeding. Line breeding through the channel of close inbreeding, fixes family traits of form and color and while perfecting the breed, also establishes strains of the breeds with a rec- ognized individuality or family resemblance that differentiates them from other strains of the same breed that are bred to the same standard. That proves the great value of persistent line breeding according to Standard requirements. "In breeding and line breeding may be called purity breeding, because it drives out all undesirable characteristics or traits, thus blending the de- sired characteristics of color and form in what may be called a pure-bred — 23 — breed with self-made characteristics born of the purity or oneness of blood. This is accomplished by pouring the parent 'blood into the blood of its own progeny and continuing this until the line is established or until enough in- dividuals are created to breed back in safety, being far enough removed In Original Sire and Original Dam of firSip cycle; Note similar 'tybe. 5lR&°f Mdted in 19ZH This ia the beiginnina, of Llne-Breedtng . ^?^^S. V"S,*"'«6'5'ne chart was prepared by W. H. Card and wai publiihed Jn the Reliable Poultry Journal. The chart Is BeU-explanatory of Mr. Card'l VUCcesBful system of line breeding. t*- , w ^ -♦ •»•• ^"f » f relationship to insure vigor without the infusion of new or unrelated blood. Instances are numerous of unbroken lines of breeding extending over ten to thirty years where the vigor and stamina, size and worth have been sus- tained without the Infusion of one drop of new or unrelated blood. SOME EXAMPLES OP LINE BREEDING "My first experience in line breeding or inbreeding covered a period of sixteen years, during which I tried the Plain Golden Polish. During that time no new blood was used, yet the size of the fowl Increased sur- prisingly, with great uniformity of color and markings and no apparent loss of vigor. In originating my own new variety, the White Laced Red Cornish, I was obliged to breed back to one sire five years (until this sire was the great great grandfather of his own daughters) in order to estab- lish a variety that had a color all its own, yet today this variety Is as vig- orous as any variety with a century of pure breeding back of it, which proves conclusively that there are no two ways to go about the estab- lishment of a new breed or variety — there is simply one way and one only, and that Is — line breeding. "One great Barred Rock breeder asserts that he can mate his Barred Rocks as he chooses and get good results because of their many years of line breeding. The reason for this is the purity of the blood of his strain from which all foreign elements have been purged. "The brilliant and even red plumage and oblong type of the Rhode Island Red, so deservedly popular in our shows and on poultry plants, is the result of but two decades of careful selection and judicious line breeding by our Standard of Perfection. "The same law produced the popular Orpingtons and placed them In the van as pure-bred fowls in the short space of time that has elapsed since their origin. Among fowls of older ancestry such as the Dorkings, Houdans, Cornish and the far-famed- Sebright bantam, with its two hun- dred years of history — they owe all to this wonderful factor — line breeding. It is a real reason for their existence today because it works for the survival of the fittest in domestic fowls with a surety nearly equal to the eternal survival of the fittest among the wild species, in which case there Is no problem of breeding. "Prom my experiments and study of breeding problems, I have found that line breeding and inbreeding solve the whole riddle of Nature as ap- plied to domestic fowls. Many of its puzzles were worked out in darkness of perception and travail of spirit and mind until continued proof, offered by experiments, convinced me that the continued practice of line breeding or inbreeding is the only method by which to produce high-class fowls with such near purity of blood that Its prepotency will be sufficient to carry out Nature's desire and aim in regard to animal life, namely, that like shall beget like. "With an earnest desire to help our fellow breeders to enhance the quality, the purity and the worth of our domestic poultry, I submit a chart which more fully explains judicious line breeding than is possible by words. Please remember we must take into account the proper selection for vigor and stamina as well as for type and color. See chart. "This chart is a rule, so to speak, inflexible in its main thought, yet in part subject to change as the common sense of the breeder dictates. Re- member there are no cast iron rules in poultry breeding in any of Its phases. "In beginning line breeding with any breed or variety, start with birds that are the very best of their kind and that are as nearly alike in type as it is possible to procure with Standard color markings according to sex. To fix this rule in mind, I have drawn the sire and dam in the chart of the same type. Naturally one breeds to an Ideal, but your breeding birds must also be ideal or as nearly ideal as a simple first Instruction is to breed to an Ideal from an ideal. "As the breeding advances, the traits of both sires and dams being sim- ilar, family or strain characteristics are enhanced and a gain is made in Standard requirements in both sexes from one mating. (Ponder on this a while!) — 25 — "The male and female of the last mating are presumably unrelated. We prefer to have it thus in order to insure the highest degree of stamina and vigor. Among the progeny of the first mating there should be some males and females that are as good as the sire and dam. The second step, according to the chart,, is to select the most vigorous 1918 female with the highest desired qualifications and mate her back to her sire inl919, select- ing at the same time, with the same care, the best 1918 cockerel and mate him back to his dam. This starts two inbreeding lines on the road toward purity breeding or line breeding. The resultant 1919 progeny contains three-fourths of the blood of the sire in one line and three-fourths of that of the dam in the other line. "The third step shows the union of the best 1919 or three-fourths pullet mated in 1920 to her sire, who is also her grandsire, and in the other line you should mate the best 1919 son to his dam, who is also his granddam. "The result of these two matings is to give us young on the sire's side that contained seven-eighths of his blood and one-eighth of the original dam's blood and in the dam's line we have young containing seven-eighths of her blood and one-eighth of the original sire's blood. This completes the first cycle of inbreeding, which should never go beyond the three-year limit with the original sire and dam in order to protect and preserve vigor in our lines. "In 1921 we start the first year of the very best (nearest ideal) cock- erel of the dam line, which should be mated to the highest quality pullet in the sire line, and they represent the new foundation o£ the second cycle of in- breeding which should be followed in exactly the same way as the first cycle until, the second cycle is completed, which in all will take six years. By that time all traits that are incompatible with the requirements of the Standard will be eradicated and breed or family traits wholly its own will be permanently established. "All this brings our breeding to the point where line breeding starts. Note on the chart that a cook from the 1919 mating in the first cycle is mated to a pullet of the last or 1923 mating in the second cycle. The 1919 cock is chosen because of his vigor and because he is far removed in re- lationship from the pullet of 1923. Such a mating conserves vigor almost as much as intelligent out-breeding, yet relieves us from any danger from the infusion of new or unrelated blood. This is line breeding.'' DON'T BE CONFUSED Many amateur poultry raisers become confused over the discussion of Mendel's Law, Felch's Breeding Chart, Card's Chart of Breeding and other methods recommended for breeding and line breeding. M'endel's Law and Felch's Chart are really only of value to a poultryman who is attempting to create a new breed or variety. Many of our students become confused and feel that they cannot make a success of poultry breeding unless they thoroughly understand Mendel's Law and the breeding charts which we have included in this book. They are included only for the purpose of giving our students general knowledge of these problems. In creating a new variety or breed, it would be absolutely necessary for you to follow some such system, but after a breed or variety is once created, you can make progress only by selection — constant and rigid selection year after year. Select birds that have the shape you desire; birds that are marked and colored according to the Standard of Perfection; birds that have size, health and vigor; birds that perform and produce as well as win in the show room. If you will select your ideal specimens with the above requirements in mind, and will breed from such specimens year after year, that are not too closely related and yet may be line bred, your efforts are much more certain of being rewarded with satisfactory results than they would be if you confused your breeding system by attempting to follow Mendel's Law, Felch's, Card's or any one else's breeding chart. Selection, and continual selection, from the time the egg is put in the incubator until the bird is ma- ture and leaves your farm, is a much better rule for you to follow than to al- low yourself to be confused by attempting to fathom Mendel's Law. — 26 — WHAT IS MEANT BY OUT-OKOSSING By out-crossing we mean the mating of females, that have been inbred or line bred, with a male ot the same variety that is in no way related to the female. This often results in increased vigor, increased size, increased flesh forming qualities, increased egg production, increased fertility and Increase in length of life. Out-crosses should be made with great care. It is best to try the male with only a few of your females and see if the blood and the breeding of the male dovetails or mingles properly with that of the females for best results. When you discover such an out-cross tbat is suc- cessful, it will pay you to retain the sire as long as his usefulness lasts. METHODS OF MATING There are in common usage at the present time two methods or kinds of mating. The first is called Single Mating, and the other is Double Mating. Single Mating. The single system of mating means the mating of a single breeding pen for the production of both pullets and cockerels which will meet the requirements of the American Standard of Perfection. This is the original and natural way of mating. It can, however, be successfully done only when Natui'e's requirements and the requirements of the Standard are identical. Dame Nature seems to have very set ideas of her own with regard to the proper markings of the male and female of the same variety, and mere man cannot easily set them at naught. In single mating both male and female that meet Standard requirements are selected, just as closely as possible, care being taken to have the male strong in sections where the females are weak,, and vice versa. The one mating produces both male and female of Standard quality. This Is called Style Mating. Double Mating. The plan of double mating is of comparatively recent origin. As the name indicates, it consists in mating one pen for the pro- duction of males and another for the production of females, both of which will meet standard requirements. The practice was rendered necessary by the adoption of standards for certain varieties in which the color markings are contrary to Nature. This point was well illustrated by Judge W. H. Card in an address before the American Poultry Association. We quote as follows : "One breed in our Standard will always be a double mating breed, and I, for one, would not like to see them otherwise. I refer to the Brown Leghorns. No handsomer male fowl walks the earth than a Standard Brown Leghorn cock. The same can be said of the female Brown Leghorn. Yet these two cannot be mated together for best results. Mated to their rightful consorts, however, they will reproduce themselves; 1. e., the female, daughters like herself; the male, sons like himself. One fact must ever remain so long as the Standard is as it is for Brown Leghorns. That is, that the male Brown Leghorn belongs to the penciled breeds, and the female Brown Leg- horn belongs to the stippled breeds. Delve into breed history and we find that the males of all stippled breeds have black breasts and bodies the same as the males of all penciled breeds, but there ends the similarity. All penciled breeds have males with black stripe in hackle and saddle. All stippled breeds have males devoid of black stripe in hackle and saddle, or with but a faint suggestion of it. The Brown Leghorn male has a strong black stripe in saddle and hackle. His sisters and dam are not stippled, but have prominent irregular penciling over the entire body. The Standard Brown Leghorn female is finely stippled like unto pepper dust. Her brothers and sire have no black stripe in saddle or hackle, or with just a faint sugges- tion of same. Penciled varieties embrace Partridge Cochins, Rocks and Wyandottes, and Penciled Wyandottes and Rocks. Stippled varieties embrace Black Crested Red, Golden and Silver Duckwing, Exhibition Games and Game Bantams, and Silver Gray Dorkings." Another of the pari-colored varieties in which double mating Is com- monly resorted to is the Barred Plymouth Rock, This is due to the fact that the Standard calls for male and female in this variety to be the same color, while there is a strong natural tendency for the males to run light in color, and the females to run dark. In order to counteract these tendencies, to secure exhibition males, dark females are mated to an exhibition colored, — 27 — distinctly barred male. To produce exhibition females, exhibition colored females are mated to a male so light in color as to be of no value for exhi- bition purposes, but at the same time he must be distinctly and evenly barred. '-||I1^ Double mating is sometimes resorted to with solid colored varieties for the production of certain characteristics aside from color. For instance, the Standard for Single Comb White Leghorns requires the male bird to have an erect comb, while the female of this variety must have a nicely lopped comb. In order to more quickly and surely obtain these charac- teristics, a male bird having as nearly a perfect a comb as possible is mated with females having erect combs, or nearly so, — to obtain cockerels with straight, erect combs. To obtain pullets with the much desired lopped-over combs, a male bird with a lopped comb is mated to females with Standard combs. ' .1 '.^W^ To successfully practice double mating requires much skill born of long study and practice. To the true fancier it is the most fascinating work in the world. We discourage double mating in any variety except where it is abso- lutely necessary to produce Standard exhibition birds. Double mating re- quires just double the houses, double the yarding, double the equipment to produce a given number of exhibition birds, as that which is required in varieties which may be produced by single mating. We have a man-made Standard of Perfection, and so long as they make requirements for certain varieties, which are contrary to Nature's laws, just so long will we have to practice double mating of certain varieties in order to produce exhibi- tion males and females. In all double matings, the females in the cockerel line or cockerel matings are useless as exhibition birds and can only be sold for breeders or for market. For example, a pullet-bred Barred Rock cock- erel mated to a cockerel-bred pullet of the same variety, would produce birds but little better than mongrels. The same would be true with a cockerel bred Barred Rock cockerel mated to a pullet-bred pullet of this variety. We, therefore, discourage any attempt to double mate any variety that is not absolutely necessary in order to breed exhibition specimens. THE SUPREMACY OF THE PURE-BRED FOWL From the jungle fowl of antiquity to the highly-developed Standard-bred fowl of today, marks an era of progress which has required years and gen- erations of careful selection and breeding. Whereas, the jungle fowl hen laid less than three dozen eggs per year, the modern pure-bred hen that lays two hundred and more eggs a year is no longer rare. Two hundred pure-bred hens at the American Poultry School laid from two hundred to three hundred and four each. We are told on good authority that the average farm hen lays in the neighborhood of seventy-five to eighty eggs per year, or a little more than twice the yearly production of the ancient jungle fowl. The average farm hen, sad to relate, is a scrub or mongrel hen, but a step removed from the jungle fowl, and not nearly as handsome. That she lays more eggs than her progenitor is probably due to the fact that she lives under more favorable circumstances, and has at least a trace of pure blood in her veins. From the above, the reader may have already surmised that I have a deep personal grudge, of long standing, against every hen and her brother, who are unable to look the world squarely in the eye and proclaim vocifer- ously that they are pure-bred Plymouth Rocks, or Wyandottes, or Leghorns or some other of the many excellent breeds of poultry. Like the Missouri mule, they are "without pride of ancestry," and, like him, they are "without hope of posterity." If there is a single logical reason why a single scrub hen should be tolerated on a single farm in this broad land of ours, I have been unable to locate it. Take for instance the matter of egg production. One thou- sand, five hundred hens at the American Poultry School averaged one hundred and sixty eggs each or twice the average of the ordinary hen. These hens were all pure-bred, and represented twenty varieties, some of which are neither intended nor adapted for egg production. Yet the average — 28 — of all of them was twice that of the average farm hen. I consider it well within the bounds of reason to say that if all the hens in the United States were pure-bred, that fact alone, if neither the present methods of housing, nor care or management were improved upon, would add hundreds of mil- lions of dollars a year to the income of the poultry raiser of this nation. "What about crossing two pure-bred varieties in order to increase egg production?" I hear someone suggest. The fact that we have made such wonderful progress from the days of the jungle fowl to the present moment with our many varieties of pure-bred poultry, convinces me that proper methods and systems of selection and breeding of pure-bred poultry will equal and outstrip anything that will be possible with scrubs or cross Defects in combs are very common. If a bird was excepti-onally good in other ways, we would not refuse to use him in our breeding: pen, even though he had a very defective comb. You should bear in mind at all times that the size and shape of the body, the vitality of the bird and its ability to produce eggs, and a bird of good shape and color, far outweigh any defect that it might have as far as comb is concerned. However, it is advisable to breed from birds as nearly perfect in comb shape as possible. The head on the left shows a lopped comb. The comb perhaps was not broad enough at the base, and the beefy points lopped over. If a comb haS strength enough at the base, the points will usually stand up, unless the comb is seriously defective. On the right is shown a comb that is far too beefy. The comb is also wrinkled and not properly proportioned on the head. We would, under no circumstances, breed from a bird with such a comb if "we could avoid it. breeds. Crossing two pure-bred varieties is the first step toward creating a mongrel. Take the second step, make the second cross, and continue, and — behold your scrub. Yet that is exactly what takes place in an over- whelming majority of cases, where the first cross is made. It is a practice which we are combating with all our energy, because it is costing our poultry raisers millions of dollars a year in profits. From the standpoint of profitable egg production, pure-bred hens have another great advantage over their cross-bred half-sisters and scrub cousins, namely, that of uniformity of product. In selling eggs on a quality basis, a practice which is coming rapidly, a much higher price is paid for eggs which grade "first," and they must be large, fresh, naturally clean, AND UNI- FORM IN SIZE, SHAPE AND COLOR. Eggs from cross breeds and mon- grels are NOT uniform in size, shape or color, while those from pure-bred hens are more nearly so as a rule; nor, is nearly as large a proportion of them large enough to grade "firsts." In view of these facts, it would seem to be a logical conclusion that for profitable egg production, the pure-bred hen stands supreme. — 29 — Another argument commonly advanced as an excuse for crossing two varieties of pure-bred poultry is that the crossing increases the constitu- tional vigor of the progeny; in other words, that pure-bred poultry is defi- cient in constitutional vigor. The cause usually assigned for this deficiency in constitutional vigor is that breeders, in their efforts to breed their birds to the Standard requirements of shape and color markings, have resorted to the practice of in-and-in breeding to such an extent as to materially impair the constitutional vigor of the offspring. While this may be true, and doubtless is in certain strains of the various varieties, it is widely aside the mark to lay it down as a general rule. Scores of breeders of the various varieties are breeding strains as strong in constitutional vigor as could possibly be desired. If one wishes to increase the constitutional vigor of his flock, he can introduce new blood of the same variety which is no more related to his birds than though it were blood of another variety. Even if cross breeding did increase egg production or did increase vitality, it would still be necessary for some one to breed pure-bred poultry, or else we could do no cross breeding. You have to have your pure breeds before you can get your cross breeds. If you are going to encourage cross breeding and discourage pure breeding, then from whence will the fowls come to do your cross breeding? Let's not drift to the days of the razor-back hog, the only horned Texas cow, and the dunghill hen. Let's stay by and en- courage the Berkshire and the Poland China, the Jersey and the Hereford, and the pure-bred hen. The whole idea of crossing two varieties to increase constitutional vigor, is based on a fallacy. If I mate a bird whose constitutional vigor is forty per cent perfect with one whose constitutional vigor is eighty per cent per- fect, part of the chicks will have the forty per cent constitutional vigor of one parent, part of them will have eighty per cent constitutional vigor of the other parent, but more of them will have sixty per cent, or the average, of the constitutional vigor of the two parents, REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THE TWO PARENTS REPRESENT THE SAME OR DIFFERENT VA- RIETIES. If, as is argued, the pure-bred varieties are deficient in constitu- tional vigor, there is absolutely nothing to be gained in crossing them. I have seen just as many chicks of poor vitality in mongrel flocks as I have in pure-bred flocks. Haven't you? I have seen just as many chicks of low vitality in cross-bred flocks as I have in pure-bred flocks? Haven't you? Occasionally someone advances the argument that crossing the pure- bred varieties produces a better market fowl. In order to ascertain the feeling of those who are in closest touch with the market poultry busin'sss in this regard, we, last spring, mailed out two hundred and fifty letters to as many poultry buyers scattered throughout the state (men who buy mil- lions of dollars' worth of market poultry every year), asking them which they preferred, mongrel chickens, cross breeds, or pure breeds, for market ' purposes. The replies came back unanimously in favor of the pure breeds. In fact there is so great a difference in the quality that many of these buy- ers are going to offer a premium of from two to four cents per pound on pure-bred poultry, in addition to the current quotations, during the com- ing season. "They claim that they can sell the pure-bred poultry on the city market for enough to warrant them in offering the farmers extra induce- ments to produce that kind. They claim pure breeds fatten easier and dress up much nicer. These men know. There is no sentiment with them. It is a matter of cold dollars and cents. Their verdict should be taken as final, and we seem to be justified in drawing the conclusion that for mar- ket purposes the pure-bred fowl is supreme. Read their opinions: "We are perhaps handling more poultry than any other one concern in the state, and we desire to put ourselves on record as being emphatically against what is commonly known as scrub poultry, and as being in favor of pure-bred poultry." — Murry & Schmidt Produce Company, Sedalia. "Pure-bred stock of the heavy weights are worth more and are much more perfect than the cross breeds. Even if it were possible for the scrub to weigh as much as the pure-bred, they do not have the character or qual- ity to command the best prices." — F. M. Stamper Company, Moberly. — 30 — "We Intend to pay 2 cents per pound less for scrubby stock this year than for good grade, pure-bred. We will make a heavy discount for small, scrubby stock." — Selby Produce Company, Kirksville. "Anyone who says there is no difference as to the kind of poultry, pure breeds or scrubs, has certainly had very little experience in the live poultry business, and none whatever in the dressed poultry buusiness." — Carpenter & Shafer Company, Butler. "Anyone who has had any experience in dressing poultry and handling their eggs knows that you get a better pack and larger eggs from well-bred stock than from scrubs. One spring we gave away pure-bred roosters to encourage them along this line." — Savannah Produce Company, Savannah. These same dealers in poultry and eggs state that it is also true that careless and Indiscriminate methods of housing, feeding, and care of poul- try in practically every case leads to or is followed by indiscriminate and careless methods of marketing eggs. They state that it is a noticeable tact that, as a rule, those farmers who have cross breeds and scrub poultry also have scrub houses, and the poultry does not get much care and attention, and On the left is shown the shank of a bird "which has three small stubs growing- out from beneath the scales of the leg. These stubby feathers would disqualify any clean-legged variety, or should there be found a little down or stub between the toes, this would also disqualify the specimen. It Is not wise to breed from a bird that shows defects of this sort. The leg on the right is free from this defect. the eggs are marketed in much poorer condition than the man who has pure-bred poultry. As a rule, the farmer who has pure-bred poultry feels a pride in his fowls, houses them well, feeds them properly, and takes a pride in marketing clean, fresh eggs of high quality. These facts alone should induce us to encourage pure-bred poultry (not especially fancy poul- try), and to discourage the breeding of scrub and cross breeds. The raising of pure-bred poultry, then, is not only justifiable, but it is an economic necessity, regardless of whether one is in the business for the production of market eggs, or market poultry, or both. But there is an- other viewpoint which we have not yet mentioned, a position in which the pure breeds are alone and, therefore, supreme. I refer to the tremendous Industry which has been developed, during recent years, in eggs for hatch- ing, baby chicks, and birds for exhibition and breeding purposes. In this branch of the industry there is a constant and increasing demand for good, strong, healthy, vigorous stock, bred and selected with a special view to improving the utility qualities. The net profits in a trade of this sort are — 31 — greater than in any other branch of the industry. Yet the person who, "because Father did," continues to raise scrub or cross breeds, is shut out from this profitable end of the business. Surely such a one must be short- sighted indeed. By breeding only pure-bred poultry a farmer has eight avenues, or out- lets, for the sale of stock and eggs and for business, where with cross- breeds or scrubs, he only has three outlets. The man who keeps a good breed of poultry can not only sell eggs and stock on market, but he can also sell a feysr settings of eggs for hatching purposes, baby chicks for breeders — young stock for market and for breeders, or some few of the best for show purposes. With cross bred poultry, all you can offer for sale lis eggs for food and old and young stock for market. It costs no more to fe«d a good chicken than it does a dunghill. You can get a great deal more pleasure out of them, a great deal more profit, and after you once get a start it costs no more to produce good poultry than it does a common scrub. Last, but by no means least, there is the aesthetic side, the beauty side, of the supremacy of pure-bred poultry. To the true lover of Nature, the true fancier, this side overbalances all else. To understand Nature's laws and the proper use of them, to bring new creations of beauty and symmetry into the world, is one of the rare joys of living. What can be more beautiful than a flock of pure-bred poultry, uniform in size, shape and color, dotting the green sward on a bright spring day? And when one stops to consider that there is more cold cash in rasing that kind, surely 'tis enough to convert the most hard hearted! "A man paints on canvass the image of a Perfect Thing, and the world calls him an Artist. The sculptor may chisel from cold marble a thing of perfect form, and he is written in history as a Master. But the painter and sculptor, at their best, produce but dead symbols. They are mere heralds of beauty that exists in Nature or in the refined imagination. What title shall fall to the lot of the man who delves into the hidden secrets of Life itself, masters the laws of Reproduction and effects, in Flesh and Bone, a perfect Creature, — a beautiful hen? Is not he who accomplishes a perfect Living Thing as truly a patron of Art as a creator of inanimate images? WHICH VARIETY SHALL I USE The question of egg production is not a question of breeds. Any of the breeds and varieties in general use at this time can be so selected and bred that the result will be entirely satisfactory. The whole problem is the problem of selection and breeding. Then why be jutoping from one variety to another? Make certain at the very beginning that you have the variety that suits you best as to shape and color. Attend some good sized poultry show and look the varieties over and satisfy yourself before you start with a variety. Then stay with it and study to improve it. HOW MANY VARIETIES SHALL I KEEP One variety, properly handled, is enough for any man or any farm. We know of a man who recently failed because he started with twenty differ- ent varieties. He said he thought he would try them all out and then 'de- termine which he liked best, but it took so much housing, so much extra labor, so much extra fencing and extra expense to keep all these varieties separated that it took all the funds he had before he really got fairly started. With one-tenth the labor, houses, fencing and expense, this man could have actually raised more poultry and succeeded, whereas he failed in one short year. By having one variety you can do away with most of your fencing and, thereby, give more free range and thus raise your poultry under more nat- ural conditions. This will insure better health and greater net profits. Confine your efforts to one variety and you will come nearer to succeeding. MATING TllE BREEDING PENS Here is where your success or failure for one year, or many years in some cases, or for perhaps all time to come, may depend. A large per cent of the poor hatches, the mortality among the young stock, the general ten- dency to disease, and defects in shape and color of your stoock are traceable — 32 — to mistakes made in the breeding. The lack of constitutional vigor, imma- ture pullets and cockerels, reckless inbreeding, lack of exercise, forced egg production, overcrowding, and unsanitary surroundings are responsible for much of our troubles and are the most common errors. The stock should be mated for two weeks or a month before you expect to hatch their eggs. The eggs can be safely incubated after five days if no other male has been with the females. If another male has been with the hens and they were laying at the time, it will be from two to four weeks before you can set the eggs and depend upon the chicks being sired by the second male- In pens of Leghorns we usually use one male with ten to fifteen females. In mating Plymouth Rocks, Reds, Wyandottes and Orpingtons we H ■1 ^^^^^^^IBH ^r """^SH ''''" r^^M ^^Bt^t 1 " -.■^H^K^B^^ ^H^^BShI^^:;'^^ -J .y-"'i.^S^^ ^^^^Hlnfflnia . V><1. -: -' .■A'JMa^^Ba^^^ H '^ir^^^Bj^^H^H^I Birds of low and high vitality. — These two pictures have never been re- touched. On the right is a White Plymouth Rock of high vitality and a good specimen to breed from. On the left is one of low vitality. Tou would breed weakness and susceptibility to disease by using such a male at the head of the breeding pen. use one male with ten females. Langshans, Cochins and Brahmas should be mated one male to eight females. If any of these varieties are on free range you can use one male to twice the above number of females. It is often advisable for a poultryman who has much business and a great de- mand for hatching eggs to mate one or two hundred hens In the general flock with a number of males and sell eggs at a reduced price from this general mating. But his choicest matings should be made in separate breed,- ing pens. VIGOR LIES AT THE FOUNDATION Of all things which might be said or written on breeding, the most important and that which furnishes a foundation upon which to build is VIGOR — CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR. Whatever else you may ^o, do not make the mistake of using birds that are immature, or lacking in that all important virtue — 'VIGOR. See that your breeding stock is robust and active. It should be broad between the legs, and show every appearance of good health. Never attempt to raise poultry until you can readily dis- tinguish the difference between a healthy, vigorous bird and one that is not. Nfver allow your anxiety for shape, color or eggs to tempt you to breed fron} §ny bird that is not the very picture of vigor. VIGOROUS SELECTION IMPORTANT The breeiilng of high class poultry permits of rapid variations being ^ade fof bei{.gr or for worse, " ' '"" ' ■" """ '"" " — 33 Unless the breeder carefully selects and vig» orously culls his breeding stock, in order to keep up the quality to the highest degree, the stock is certain to begin to show signs of deteriorating very rapidly. But this same tendency to quick variation permits the poul- tryman to make rapid improvement along the lines of both beauty and egg production, if he applies himself and intelligently directs and controls his matlngs from year to year- This fact permits a breeder to begin with mod- erate priced stock and improve it to meet his requirements. SHOXILD WE CHANGE MALES EACH SEASON Most assuredly not. Each time you introduce new blood you intro- duce new characters. The continual introduction of new characters makes uniformity in a flock impossible. Besides, if you practice changing males each season, you cannot afford to pay the price of good males for only one season's use, and you are forced to buy low priced males and, therefore, get the culls from the breeder's yard. Instead of buying from five to ten males at $1 each to go with a flock of 100 hens, buy one male at $5 or $10 and get a little better bird and mate him with your ten or twelve choicest females. This Insures you the very best resits from your breeders, and also enables you to sell infertile eggs from the general flock. A very good plan of getting the maximum amount of good from one male is by inbreeding to some extent unless bad results follow. Instead of buying a low priced cockerel, pay enough to get a first-class bird — one that has some genuine merit, and that wil stamp his individuality on your flock. Mate him to a few of your best pullets; instead of selling him and breaking up the pen at the end of the seasson, continue to mate him to the same females for at yeast two years more, and longer if a suffi- cient number survive. The cockerels from this pen are to be used for each year's mating in the general flock, being disposed of at the end of the breeding season. In this way, without making any but remote relationship matlngs, the qualities of this high-grade male may be thoroughly fixed in the entire flock. After the third year, purchase another superior-quality male and if the first year's mating proves to "nick" with your flock, use ,the cockerels as above described and continue this plan indefinitely, bring- ing about a permanent improvement in the flock at small expense and with no danger of injurious inbreeding, even when practiced by the most inexperienced." QUESTIONS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF MATING AND BREEDING LESSON NO. 8 1. Why is the science of poultry breeding a complex one to teach, or to put into practice with any degree of certainty? 2. What is meant by heredity? What is meant by atavism? 3. What should be the practice of any breeder in dealing with these undesirable traits which crop out in his variety? 4. What has environment to do with the improvement of any breed or variety? 5. In the breeding of poultry and in the study of Mendel's Law, what is meant by dominant characters? By recessive characters? 6. What is inbreeding, and briefly define line breeding, and what is the purpese of these methods? 7. Why is it necessary to use rigid care in selection when line breeding? 8. What is meant by out-crossing and what are the benefits of same? 9. Why should we try to discourage double mating as much as possible? 10. Is it necessary to cross breed different varieties to maintain con- stitutional vigor or shguld we keep pure-bred fowls? 34' BREEDING FOR EG(J PRODUCTION No Question connected with poultry is of any more importance than this. More than half the profits derived from poultry comes from market eggs and from eggs for breeding purposes. The important questions which have any bearing on this vital question deserve your most serious consid- eration. WHY DOES A HEN LAY, AND THE EXTENT OP HER POSSIBILITIES Hens do not lay for the pleasure of it, neither do they lay for the purpose of increasing our bank account. Anyone who has noticed a hen on the nest in the act of laying, who has seen her as she stood there straining to discharge an egg, or who has seen these eggs blood stained from some internal hemorrhage, must realize that the hen does not lay for the amuse- ment of the thing. Every living thing desires to reproduce its kind. Some of the lower orders sacrifice their lives in order that they may propagate their kind- Man has selected and bred and stimulated this instinct in the hen until she produces from twenty to fifty times what the original of her kind did. The day a chick leaves the shell, it is endowed with all the yolks, or ova, or eggs, that it can ever lay, and several thousand more. Nearly every chick's body possesses several thousand of these tiny yolks and it is possible to count as many as several thousand in practically every pullet. No amount of feeding, no system of housing, no method of care and man- agement, however good it may be, will add one niore yolk to the number already provided by nature. The method of breeding, feeding, housing and care, determines largely the number of tiny yolks which any hen will be able to ripen or develop into full-sized yolks and manufacture into the finished product. Breeding has more influence over this than any other one thing, but don't ever get the idea that you feed a hen to feed yolks and eggs into her body. You feed her for the purpose of enabling her to develop the yolks which nature and breeding have already provided and made possible. Man has taken the jungle fowl, which only laid a few eggs per year but was of longer life than our domestic fowl of today, and he has bred and improved the wild fowl until we now have hens laying 300 eggs in a year and 1,000 eggs in a lifetime of only a few years. Nature never intended that any hen lay 200 or 300 eggs in a year; and, by increasing production to many times what the wild fowl laid annually, man has shortened the life and, in most cases, has decreased the vitality from that of the original fowl. Modern methods have not only increased the production of a lifetime, but we are also forcing the over-worked hen to deliver her 15 or 20 years' sup- ply in two or three years, as a rule. CAN EGGS AND BEAUTY BE COMBINED IN THE SAME HEN Can utility and beauty be combined in the same fowl, or, in other words, is it possible to combine egg production and Standard requirements? if not, we had better change the Standard where necessary. It is said that the life of the average fancier is three years. If this be true it is our duty to, get busy and help him develop ways and means by which he will be enabled to make more dollars and cents and thus stay longer in the busi- ness which he has chosen and in which we are all pleased to have him engage. Some are still arguing the momentous question of "Which was created first, the hen or the egg?" and, also, that perplexing question of "Why a black hen lays a white egg." Could they not better spend their time try- ing to produce the hen and to get the egg? We also see many arguing for and against the question of combining "utility and beauty." Instead of say- ing it cannot be done, had we not better be trying to harmonize and com- bine these two desirable qualities? We all admit that they are desirable, so let's quit trying to discourage those who are making the effort, and find out on what basis or to what extent and to what degree they may be combined. A hen that never laid an egg would naturally be expected to score some higher than a hen of the same variety that laid a great many eggs, but we — 35 — would rather have a hen that scored 90 and laid 200 eggs than to have one scoring 94 that laid only 90 eggs. The man who would attempt to discour- age the breeders from making an attempt to combine these two qualities, in all varieties of poultry, is either prejudiced or narrow minded. The Stand- ard of Perfection calls for 100 points for every variety. No one ever saw a bird or perhaps ever will see one that is perfect or would score 100 points. But that is no reason why we should discourage breeders in their efforts to breed more perfect specimens. It is just as sensible to do that, however, as it is to try to tell them that they cannot combine utility and beauty to a greater degree than they are found in the average flock at the present time. The thing to do is to make the effort and quit arguing about it. We are convinced that it can be done. If it cannot be, then it is high time we begin Barred Plymouth Rock Hen No. 566 laid 254 eggs in twelve months. A hen of good shape and well marked. Beauty, good color, and egg laying ability were combined in this hen. This was taken on December 1 when she was in full moult. to discover the changes it is necessary to make in the Standard requirements so that it may be done. A prominent breeder of Buff Leghorns had first prize winners at the World's Fair at San Francisco, and at the Chicago Poultry Show hatched from birds with records as high as 215 eggs. Prominent Barred Rock breeders, to our knowledge, have had hens lay as many as 250 eggs and still score high enough to win first prizes in strong competition. If this can be done with these two varieties, it can be done with most any other. There is no use to put goggles on our eyes and blind ourselves to the truth; the thing to do is to get busy and turn the trick. The breeders who are making the effort are those who are going to stay in the business when he who hesitates will long be forgotten. The time to score a pullet is just before she has laid her first egg. It has been long admitted by all fanciers that this is the period in the life of the average female when she is considered in "full bloom." This is when you can get the best check on her from a fancy or Standard point of — 36 — view. After she has been trap-nested and gone through a hard year's work and the strain of laying a large number of eggs, it is not to be ex- pected that she will retain quite the same beauty of plumage and shape that she had just previous to laying her first egg. But her value and true worth from a fancy standpoint and for breeding purposes may be there Just the same. A certain lady may be considered the most beautiful woman in your community, but after that lady has spent a hard day's work in a hot kitchen she may come out with flour and smut on her face and clothing and not look quite as attractive as she does in her evening clothes with her drug store complexion, but the natural beauty and good qualities of the real woman will be there just the same, though they may be temporarily hidden by flour and smut from the pots and kettles. Beyond a doubt In my mind, a reasonable amount of beauty and a reasonable number of eggs can be combined in the same fowl. The Barred 'Rock, the White Rock, the Buff Leghorn and a number of the other hens which made the highest records in the American Egg Laying Contests, were hens which would not disgrace any show room. The Barred Rock which laid 254 eggs was exceptionally good in color and shape. Just as have some of the fanciers utterly disregarded egg production in their matings, Eggs and Deauty Cotnbmea Feathers from Hf=n W? SU Laid '254 Eqgs In 12 Monies, m iRe MLsjniiri National tcjcj Laumq Gonies4r f so have some of the egg men utterly disregarded color in their matings. We do not believe it is possible to produce a record-breaking layer and pay too much attention to color, neither can you breed the exceptionally high scoring specimen and pay too much attention to egg production, but we do believe it is possible to breed whole flocks that can average from 150 to 180 eggs, and have individuals laying from 200 to 250 eggs, and still have beautiful color and shape, which is not necessarily Stndard shape. There seems to be a disposition to gradually change the shape of our varieties until they conform more nearly to the egg type, and that is what we should come to. Also the egg men should strive to improve the color in their flocks, and the Standard makers should always bear in mind not to make the color requirements so artificially impossible that a good poultryman could not combine a reasonable amount of beauty in shape and color, and at the same time have a productive flock. We are glad to say that the disposition of the Standard makers seems to be in that direction more than ever before. It does not mean that you have to entirely disrgard shape and color to breed a good laying strain of any variety. We know of cases where some of the highest scoring pullets and some of those which won the highest honors in the show room of certain varieties, were also those which laid the greatest number of eggs- These pens were fine in color and shape as well as to lead when it came to the egg basket. Of course, we all know that after a pullet or hen has laid a large number of eggs, it tells on her ap- — 37 — pearance for the time being, at least, but that does not necessarily mean that these birds will never again be in show condition, or that their progeny will not be birds good enough to go into the show room. We are quite certain of one thing, i. e., it is not necessary to breed a flock of mongrels for them to prove to he satisfactory layers. If you are seeking improvement in any single quality, color, shape, or eggs, the desired result is comparatively easy to obtain. The energies of the system can be made to act quite readily if development is sought only in any one of these directions. Sometimes we obtain phenomenal develop- ment in one line at the sacrifice of the other qualities, and oftentimes at the sacrifice of the future usefulness of the fowl. However, the fact remains that high attainment can be obtained in any one or all three of these quali- ties, color, shape and eggs, without any one of them necessarily being seri- ously antagonistic to the other. "Admitting, therefore, that it is a more difficult task to breed for a combination of Standard quality and utility values, it is erroneous to sup- pose that it can not be done. It is being done by breeders, and each breeder should give careful thought to the opportunity which exists for the man who can succeed along these lines. The breeder who is successful in producing a strain of birds capable of good production has a promising market among the so-called breeders of utility fowls. If he is successful in combining with this production Standard qualities, so that he can produce birds capable of winning in the poultry exhibitions of the country, he has a very profitable outlet in the sale of breeding stock to those who are inter- ested in exhibitions of that kind. The man who braeds only for Standard qualities or the man who breeds only for utility value has a much narrower outlet for his stock and one which will prove to be very much less profitable. "The fact should not be overlooked that the man who breeds for Stand- ard requirements and therefore for beauty in his fowls has something which the casual observer can see and appreciate, and has in his fowls a quality which will sell breeding stock. If he has only egg production to commend his stock he must tell the purchaser about it, for there is little or nothing which the prospective buyer can see In the birds themselves to indicate to him whether the strain is a good producing one. RESULTS AT THE GOVERNMENT FARM "As an example of what can be done in the way of combining Standard and utility qualities in fowls, the work which has been carried on at the Government Poultry Farm at Beltsville, Md., may be cited. While the work done there is experimental in character, in augurating it, it was decided to use for the experimental work only birds of as good quality as could be obtained in this country. As a result of this start and the subsequent maintenance of quality it has happened that many of the birds which have proved to be good producers have also proved to be of most excellent quality. Just as this has occurred at the Government farm, so it will occur in the hands of any capable breeder who is working with good stock. In the matings of the birds at the Government farm this spring, male after male is being used which would be a credit to any breeder, and which would do well at any poultry show held in the country. Not only have these males this good quality so far as the Standard requirements are concerned, but they are from hens of 200-egg production or better, and in many cases 200-egg production appears in their pedigrees to a considerable extent In addition to the records of their mothers." STRAIN MEANS MORE THAN VARIETY A "strain" in poultry simply means a family of any variety. There are good hens and poor hens, good strains, or families, and poor strains in all varieties. Of the most popular varieties, one is about as good as an- other. There are good and bad strains, however, of all varieties. A poultryman may carefully select and breed his birds along certain lines for years, until he gets the desirable qualities so firmly fixed in his flock that no matter whose hands they fall into, on either this side or the other side of the ocean, they give about the same results, providing they have reasonable care. It is a noticeable fact that pens from the same breeding maintain about — 38 — the same average egg production, whether the pen is in Leavenworth, Storrs, Philadelphia, or Mountain Grove, and all their methods ot housing and feeding are entirely different. The hreeding back of the birds makes them maintain about the same rate of production, no matter where they are being tried out- This holds true with both good and bad pens. A few years ago, when I mentioned "strain" and "breeding" and "selection" as the foundation of a flock of high egg producers, some "authorities" made light of such "nonsense." They claimed that you could take most any old fowl and by giving it the right feed and care, you could get equally as good results as the breeders who were leading in the egg laying contests. That is, they said there was nothing to "strain" and that "breeding" was not the secret of egg production. Of course, we know that without the proper feed ,and care, a hen will not lay many eggs no matter what strain she is from or how good her breeding may be. But when a breeder can make a con- sistent record in laying contests year after year and lead all competitors, we will have to admit that he has a superior laying strain. If Mr. A. has (,7 Eq-^S, 2^0 y. £"0-4- s. .""*%« w^ STRAIiV JIEAJJS MORE THA>| \ ARIBTY Here we have two Black Orpington hens, one of an egg- strain and egg type, and tlie otlier of a beef strain and beef type, as you can plainly' see. Both are Black Orpingtons, but came from different breeders, different strains and different families of Black Orpingtons. As far as egg production is con- cerned, there is often more differences in strains or families of the same variety than there is difference in many of the breeds and varieties them- selves. Careful selection and breeding establishes a strain. 'Ho-w careful we should be then to know something about the history, record and breeding behind our birds so that we may establish a good and profitable strain of our chosen variety. a pen of Barred Plymouth Rocks which leads all other Plymouth Rocks year after year, and Mr. B. has a pen of Barred Plymouth Rocks which is at the foot each year for three years, we will have to admit that Mr. A. has a laying strain, and Mr. B. has a strain which are not good egg producers. IS THERE A POSITIVE EGG TYPE All signs sometimes fail, and there are exceptions to all rules, but we are of the opinion that there is a definite type in poultry which indicates productiveness the same as a good dairyman finds that certain character- istics and a certain conformation in cattle indicate the productiveness or non-productiveness of certain individuals. Among other things it is gen^ erally agreed that to be a good milker, a cow must be healthy and vigorous, she must have a big body or plenty of capacity, and she must have a large udder and large milk veins. The more we study the productiveness in poultry the more firmly we are convinced that the same general principles apply to the productive hen, There is an egf type in ppultry and the — 39 — day will come, if it is not now at hand, when we can tell in a general way the good from the bad hy certain and definite characteristics. Of course. In the dairy business the "Babcock test" is the final test of the quantity of butter fat, and just so with poultry, the trap-nest will perhaps always be the final test. Mr. Tom Barron of Catforth, England, recently visited us and while here we had him visit several different yards and 'point out one or two good and bad hens in each yard. He did so and after he had left we looked up the records in each case and found that the hens which he claimed were of poor type and producers were among the poorest layers, as verified by our records. In one case we had a White Orpington which had not laid an egg and she was in a pen with eleven other hens. The hens were driven before him and at first glance he picked out this hen which was a blank as far as production was concerned. The hen was in good health and to the ordinary observer looked about like any of the others. He pointed out the good and bad in other pens without handling a single hen. The trap- nest record verified his statements. We believe that any man, with reasonable intelligence, who studies the question of selection and breeding for egg production year after year, will get a certain and definite type firmly fixed in his mind, just as is true with the dairyman. What is this type? That is the question. There is an egg type and a meat type in poultry, just as true as there is a dairy type and a beef type in cattle. We find both of these types in all varieties of poultry. And there is also the intermediate or dual purpose type. We are not going to attempt to describe these except to say that our best hens are medium sized birds and, as a rule, are a little under Standard weight. They are late moulters, and not too much inclined to broodiness. They have thin pelvic bones; rather high tails; rather narrow skulls, not a A HEN OF TYPICAL EGG TYPE Laid 278 eggs In the Missouri National Egg Laying Contest. She is high in front, large comb, prominent eye, large crop, long body, high tall, broad back, broad behind, thin pelvic bonea, and full of vigor. — 40 — masculine head in appearance; large, bright eyes; large combs; long and broad backs, carried much higher than that portion nearest the tail ; the deep bodies; wide behind with plenty of space between the point of their breast bone and the points of the pelvic bones; soft, loose, pliable skin, and they must be good feeders, always active and alert. The good laying hens are nearly always somewhat closely feathered, not loosely feathered like the Cochins. We believe that if a White Leghorn with a record of 250 eggs and a Barred Rock with the same record, were both in good health and condition, and were both killed and picked at the same time, you would find a great resemblance and uniformity in the shape and measurements of the body and bones of the two fowls. You would have to make due allowance for the extra size of the Plymouth Rock, of course. These are general characteristics as they are now found in high-laying hens, but we do not mean to say that high-laying hens can not be bred so as to to have a lower carriage of tail and other Standard requirements. But it will require careful selection and breeding to do this. You should select and breed from hens and pullets which have been bred for egg production as well as to select males so bred. The males and females should be broad between the legs and stand up like a soldier. The Hogan System, sensibly applied, is the best test for type that we have ever used, and it stands next to the trap-nest itself. BREED FROM WINTER LAYERS A hen may not lay as many eggs as a certain other hen, but the first hen may far excell the second hen in net profit to the owner, because she laid the bulk of her eggs when the price of eggs was highest. We ought to use hens and pullets for breeders which have shown the ability to lay in fall and winter. We should endeavor to fix and try to perpetuate winter egg production as a family trait in our flock. Any old hen can lay in spring and summer when the grass is green, the sun shining, and the flowers blooming. In fact, they lay then only because they can't help it. But a hen that lays in winter, lays because she is bred that way and has the ability to lay in spite of adverse conditions. The males should also come from winter layers if we are to perpetuate this good quality in our flock. We don't mean that you must set the eggs after a pullet has laid heavily all winter, but we usually try our pullets in the fall or winter by the use of trap-nests or by some other method, and then give the pullets a rest just prior to the breeding season. A hen or pullet will never make a great egg record unless they lay a goodly number of eggs in fall and winter. Neither will they ever be very profitable if they lay them all in spring and summer. We advise breeding from stock which shows the ability to pro- duce some eggs in winter months. DO NOT SET THE FIRST HENS TO GO BROODY A common error is made by practically all poultrymen, and especially with farmers who practice hatching eggs with hens instead of incubators. The poultryman is usuaLy anxious to get out a few early chicks, and in his anxiety to do so, he sets the first hen-s which become broody. These are the hens and pullets which have laid all winter, and are those which prove the best layers, as a rule. The result is that the poultryman is then setting eggs from his drones that waited until the warm weather of spring to start laying, and he is incubating their eggs with his best winter layers. The result is that he is hatching eggs from the dead beats and drones, and is losing the use of his choicest breeding stock during the breeding season. Not much progress can be made in breeding for egg production by this method. You had better invest in 120-egg size incubator, or one which is larger and meets your demands, and keep the choicest hens to lay eggs to use for hatching. DISPOSITION TO BROODINESS IS A HINDERANOE' TO A HIGH EGG YIELD If a ben becomes broody from six to ten times a year, as many of them do, there is not much opportunity for such hens laying many eggs, some of them not laying enough for their own keep. It usually takes the aver- age person from two weeks to a month to break a hen from sitting and start her to laying again unless you place her in a brood coop and break her immediately upon discovery of her inclination to broodiness. Some of our best laying hens go broody many times during the year, but are broken up at once. If a hen goes to sitting several times during the year, you can see there is not much chance for much of a record if she is allowed to spend much time sitting. This being true, it is important that we breed this disposition out of the hens as far as possible. Some hens of all varieties never go broody, especially Leghorns. Then why is it not reasonable to suppose that we can breed this disposition out of all varieties to a greater or less extent? Quite a good many hens in even the supposed non-sitting varieties go broody. So we cannot hope to eliminate this entirely, for it is a part of the nature of a hen. But by setting eggs and breeding only from such hens as seldom if ever sit, we can in a few years eliminate much of this disposition from our flock. Also be careful never to use a male from a hen that spent most of her time and energy in sitting. EARLY HATCHED AND EARLY MATURING STOCK IS BEST The pullets and cockerels which mature early make the best breeders, when it comes to breeding for egg production. The early hatched chicks are those which are easiest raised. They are the most profitable because the pullets begin to lay. in the fall and lay during the winter season when eggs are highest. Hatch at least a portion of your chicks early, and select the early maturing pullets and cockerels as your breeders for increased egg production. It is an indication of weakness and lack of proper breeding and often a lack of vitality, if the young stock is very slow to mature. Select for breeders only those which grow well and mature reasonably early, at least. If Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and the larger breeds are hatched in February, March and April and if Leghorns are hatched in April and May in the Central States, the pullets which mature and start laying well during the months of November, December and January will prove to be your highest producers and your best breeders, as a rule. We know of many farms that never use the trap-nest and yet they have a flock which is far above the average, when it comes to egg production. The method which they use in selection and breeding is to use only the cockerels which show earliest development and they use the pullets which lay heaviest during the months of November, December and January. If you will follow this rule, year after year, you can make wonderful progress in breeding for egg production, even though you do not have a trap-nest at your command. You will be obliged to depend upon the early hatched and early matur- ing pullets largely for your winter eggs. The yearling hens have been lay- ing from eight to ten months and they reach autumn with their egg organs temporarily exhausted. They have yet to manufacture their winter coats. A hen has about 8,000 feathers on her body and it requires more food, more energy and a greater strain upon the constitution of a fowl to grow these feathers, and still survive with better health than any of us appreciate. A fowl must have a little rest just at this time, and we should not be disap- pointed because our hens do not lay every month in the year, any more than we should that our trees do not bear fruit every month in the year. We should depend upon the early hatched and early maturing pullets for our profitable egg production in the fall, and be content to give the hens a chance to rest and recuperate at that season. In view of what has been said, we recommend, for the Central, Eastern, and Western States at least, that Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans be hatched as early as January to March; Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds, and Orpingtons from February to April; and Leghorns not later than May. You will have to depend much upon incubators and brooders to some extent if you are to do much early hatching. On the Pacific Coast and in the South you can hatch earlier than months mentioned. After a pullet has reached a reasonable age and is unproductive, the relative profit from that bird grows less every day that laying Is- delayed. Profits In the poultry buBlness will not permit the poultryman to igngrg the Importanop of e9,rly hfitcheg and reasonably early maturing stocH, — 42-. By early hatched pullets we mean this, if they are intended for winter layers, they must be hatched at a time so they will just mature before winter comes on. If they are hatched too early they sometimes molt before win- ter and therefore don't lay much through the witner. On account of the dif- ferent climates, birds having to be hatched earlier in some than others, we can lay down no set rule. No matter where you are located, hatch them just in time to mature by winter if you want winter eggs. If you expect to use them for breeding purposes next season, the earlier they are hatched the better. AN EARLY HATCHED AND AN EARLY MATURING PULLET A Buff Deg-horn hatched in February, had matured and laid 87 eggs by the time she was nine months old. Laid her first egg when four months and four days old. She refused to pose for this picture and you fail to get her correct shape. Early maturing and early laying did not seem to stunt her growth. DO YOXJR BREEDING AT THE PROPER SEASON Prom our observation and records we have concluded that the season of the year in which a chicken is hatched has much to do with its growth and development, and the length of time that it will require for a pullet to mature and begin to lay. That is, pullets hatched in the early spring when the trees are budding, the grass beginning to grow green, the crops growing, and the birds nesting; in other words, when the whole earth seems to be putting on new life, will begin laying in a shorter length of time than full sisters to them hatched in the summer or fall. We believe that pullets hatched in February, March and April will begin laying in a shorter length of time than their full sisters hatched in May, June and July. Climate would cause some variation and exception to this rule. The smaller varieties begin to lay a little earlier or mature a little quicker than the large varieties, as a rule, but by using good judgment, a breeder of any variety can so regulate his hatches as to have them mature — 43 — just in time to make good winter layers. A poultryman can so select and regulate the breeding of his flock and so regulate his hatches that his pullets will bloom or begin to lay at something near a certain season, just as the florist has his chrysanthemums bloom at Thanksgiving and his lilies bloom at Easter. By all means, have them begin to lay before the winter season, for if they do not they will more than likely not start laying before spring. Such pullets are a dead loss for several months. The margin of profit in the poultry business is so small that it will not stand such a loss. EARLY I/AYING PULLETS COME FROM GOOD LAYERS For several years we have made observations and kept records on our early maturing pullets, and in every case, no matter what variety of poul- try it happened to be, the first pullets of that variety to begin to lay came from the highest laying hens of that variety, or hens among the highest layers. We have never had an early maturing and early laying pullet come from a medium or poor laying hen. In every case thus far, no matter what the variety is, the pullets which began to lay when they were from four to five months old were bred from the high laying hens of that variety. PREFER HIGH AVERAGES TO HIGH INDIVIDUALS The mere fact that a hen laid 300 eggs does not necessarily mean that hen would be a good breeder or would produce any pullets that would make a record of 300 eggs. Nor the fact that a hen only laid 120 eggs would not necessarily mean she would not produce some pullets that would lay 300 eggs. It all depends upon the breeding back of the individual. We would much prefer to breed from specimens that came from a flock of high aver- ages, rather than to breed from freak or exceptional individuals from a flock that had only an occasional high layer. But if we only had two birds to select from and did not know the breeding back of them, we would choose the 300-egg hen mentioned above, rather than the 120-egg hen, all other points being nearly equal. In selecting your breeders, it is best to choose only such specimens as you know have come from a line of consistent producers, generation after generation. You know that in individuals from such flocks, the racial char- acteristics to high production have been transmitted and that you would, therefore, run a better chance of having a good producing flock if you chose your breeders from high average producers, rather than from excep- tional to freak individuals. A high average flock record is the best indi- cator in the selection of breeders for exhibition purposes or egg production. MAY EXAMINE EGG ORGANS The pullets which will provB to be the best layers, as a rule, can be determined by a physical examination of the egg organs when the pullets are quite young. An incision may be made between the last two ribs of a pullet when it is about 8 to 10 weeks of age, the same as if you were ex- amining a cockerel for the purpose of caponizing him. Instead of the male organs, you will find the ovary or cluster of eggs in the back of the pullet. You will notice that in some cases when the pul- lets are this age, the clusters will appear well developed, while in others, the clusters of eggs will appear to be very small. Birds at this age which show the greatest development will prove to be the early layers and also the heaviest layers. In a test that was made, it was found that seven pullets showed large clusters of eggs and thirteen had smaller clusters and smaller eggs, one hav- ing a very small and dark looking ovary, almost black except at the ex- treme end. These pullets were all banded separately and in the fall the seven pullets were put in one run and the thirteen that had the smallest ovaries were placed in a separate pen. The seven pullets laid earlier than the thirteen, and when all of the birds had reached the age of eighteen months, the seven pullets had laid more eggs than the entire thirteen pul- lets and the one pullet which had the dark cluster of eggs in her body only laid forty-two eggs in the eighteen months and the chicks that were hatched from her eggs were infected with White Diarrhea- However, this one pullet was the best looking bird in the lot. — 44 — Since then, several experiments and tests liave been made along the same line and it has been shown that every pullet with a well developed cluster of eggs has proven to be among the best producers, in every case. All pullets are opened and examined when they are about eight to ten weeks of age and those showing well developed clusters of eggs are marked to be kept as layers and future breeders, while the pullets which do not show considerable development of the ovary are sold as broilers or friers. This test was made with Barred Plymouth Rocks, but we believe it would prove equally true with any other variety. A RULE FOR GOOD BREEDING The question of good breeding can be summed up in a very few words: Select the best Standard color and type in both the individual and in each and every characteristic. Reject for breeding purposes such individuals as are noticeably inferior of defective in any characteristic. Offset the minor faults and undesirable characteristics or tendencies of one parent by the superiority, excellence and strength of the corresponding characteristics of the other. By following this rule, you are certain to make marked progress within a few generations and will eliminate noticeable faults and marked inferior- ity in your breeding stock. A crooked toe is shown above. "While this may be due to an injury in some cases, yet it is a mistake in most instances to breed from a bird that has a seriously defective or deformed foot. If such a bird was extremely good in other qualities, I would take a chance on breeding- a few good birds from such a specimen. However, I would not sell such a specimen to a customer, neither would I breed from it if I could avoid it. HAVE A DEFINITE OBJECT AND BREED TO IT Why is it that some pens have a single hen in the pen of ten hens that will make a very high record and the remaining birds in the pen will be below the average? We think it is due to the fact that poultrymen like Barron have given much thought and much time to the question of selec- tion and breeding for egg production. Such breeders have done some trap- nesting, some pedigreeing, and they know the kind of males and females that they are breeding. Such poultrymen have selected and bred from 200-egg males, that is, males bred from hens with 200-egg records, so long that they have fixed the egg laying ability in the entire flcok, so nearly so that practically all their hens average well and make good records, barring sickness, accident, or improper methods of feeding and housing. While the other fellows have bred more or less promiscuously and unknowingly. Therefore, they only get an occasional high pen. A good fancier might see — 45 — an exceptionally beautiful bird exhibited by an amateur, but not knowing whether the bird had a line of good breeding back of him, a good fancier would not give much for such a bird to cross on his flock because the bird's good points might not be fixed by years of breeding, and he might not be able to transmit his good qualities. The same is true in breeding for egg production. In some pens, practically every ' bird gives evidence of years of careful selection and breeding, and another pen has only an occasional good bird which shows that these good qualities are not so firmly fixed in the flock. Mr. Poultryman, know the history and the pedigree of at least a few of your best breeding males. It pays. WHAT INFLUENCE HAS SIZE ON EGG PROHUCTION, OR HAS EGG PRODUCTION ON SIZE "We find that 90 per cent of the proven best layers by the trap-nest are the smallest birds," is a statement just made by one of our greatest poultry- men and one of our best students of the problems of egg production. The weight of the birds entered in the American Egg Laying Contest con- ducted at this place for the past five years and the egg records all Indicate that this statement Is absolutely true. No matter what the variety may be, if a hen of that variety makes a good egg record, upon weighing her we find she is usually from one-fourth to three pounds under Standard weight. "Lady Show You," the White Plymouth Rock hen which laid 281 eggs In our first contest, only weighed six pounds, being one and one-half pounds under Standard weight. "Missouri Queen," the R. C. White Leghorn pul- let which led last year and made a record of 260 eggs, only weighed two and three-fourths pounds. This pullet was the smallest of thirty-six of this variety which were in the contest. The Barred Plymouth Rock hen which made the highest record was one and one-eighth pounds under weight. The Black Lang- shan which made the best record was nearly two pounds under; White Orpington, two pounds under; White Wyandotte, one pound under; Silver Wyandotte, three-fourths pounds under; Buff Wyandotte, one-half pound under; Buff Orpington, two pounds under; Black Orpington, two pounds under; Black Minorca, one and three-fourths pounds under, and so on through almost the entire lis.t of varieties. On the other hand, the majority of pure-bred hens which made the poorest egg records are up to Standard weight or considerably over, as a rule. Not more than 10 to 25 per cent of the best laying hens of any variety are ever up to Standard weight. During the past five years we have had birds from several hundred breed- ers, and our experience is tWit this Is usually true, no matter what variety It may be nor from what breeder they may come. With dairy cows, the best producing Jerseys and Holsteins are not of the beef type. One of the leading dairy experts of this country once said to me when showing me his high producers: "These are our very best cows, but it sometimes disgusts me to hear visitors criticize them and make uncomplimentary remarks about these cows, and then compliment our heavier, fatter dairy cows of the beef type which give but very little milk or butter fat." Can It be that we have our Standard weights on some varieties a trlflS too high? We know of one quite prominent breeder of Barred Plymouth Rocks in this state, who has often bragged about having a strain of Rocks that were from a pound to three pounds above Standard weight. That same breeder is now disposing of his entire flock because they do not lay enough eggs to pay the cost of production. We think It best to have the Standard for all things quite high for the per cent of those who reach their ideals is quite small. We don't advocate breeding small birds, but .we do think we can overdo the thing and ruin all chance of profitable production by going to the other extreme. Simply because a hen or a pullet was a pound or two under weight and was a good producer, healthy and vigorous, I would cer- tainly not discard her from my breeding pens- It might be well to give this matter some thought. You should bear in mind, also, the fact that pullets forced to lay too early in life might become stunted, thus egg production might affect size in some cases. — 46 — FREQUENT LAYING AFFECTS COLOR AND CONDITION A pullet or hen may have yellow legs and beak at the beginning of the season, but after they have laid a large number of eggs, they apparently lay much of the color out of the beak, legs and plumage. If you see a hen at the close of the season with bright yellow legs, it is usually a good indica- tion that she was not a good layer. It a hen is kept upon a bare lot without much green food, this will also cause the color of the legs to fade, so due allowance will have to be made for that in some cases. But a heavy layer of any yellow legged variety of chickens will approach the close of the season with faded legs, beak and feathers. Creaminess in the ear-lobes of the white ear-lobe varieties is an indication that the bird is not laying at such time. A White Leghorn or other varieties with white lobes are usually laying well if the ear-lobe is pure white and free from creaminess. The high layer will also have rough plumage that seems worn and "weather beaten." She might have started into the laying period a beautiful specimen, with HIGH LAYING HBIVS MOULT LATE As a rule this is true. You can see above, a hen that made a record of over 200 eggs and she did not begin to moult until December first. Tou may select a pen of ten hens, and usually the late moulters have been the best layers in that pen. beautiful plumage, and good enough in most ways to command respect in a show room, but like a laboring man after a hard day's work in a shop, she naturally closes the season with her plumage worn and soiled, and con- siderably faded and out of condition as far as external appearances go. If she recovers from the molt properly and has her resting period, she will probably get back in as good condition as in the beginning. LATE MOULTERS ARE BEST LAYERS The hens which make the very highest records are usually very late in molting. The high laying hens will continue to lay into October, Novem- ber, or even December before they put on their new coat of feathers. If a flock of hens molt in the summer or early autumn it is a very good indi- cation that they have not laid much. There are exceptions, of course, but this being true, we usually have to depend on early hatched pullets to a great extent at that period. — 47 — THE TRAP-NEST A VAliUABLE ASSET The trap-nest is a pillar on which we must build- It is not necessary to trap-nest every individual in the flock, but at least one or two pens of the choicest breeders should be trap-nested and the offspring marked or pedigreed so that you know the sire and also know the record of the hen which laid the egg. By the use of the trap-nest and by applying the Hogan test to the general flock, it is possible for any poultryman to know just what he is doing and this practice will enable him to discard all the drones. It is possible to make more rapid progress in breeding by this method than by any other. There is no use making the excuse that it takes too much time to trap- nest. That is far from being the truth. It takes time to do anything that is worth while, and many poultrymen have utterly and miserably failed be- cause they continued to stumble along in the dark, year after year, and never know what they were really doing, never actually knowing what they Releasing the hens from the trap-nests, them out — head first. The proper method of taking were breeding from. It matters not whether you are breeding for shape, color or eggs, or a combination of all, the trap-nesting of at least a few of your best birds, at least during the months of November, December, Jan- uary and possibly into the spring months, will mean much to you in the course of a few years and put you far in advance of the man whose stock is unknown to him, except that he knows that he has "chickens." The poor layers, those producing infertile eggs, weak chicks, poor col- ored chicks, slow growers, and chicks with many other defects can be spotted by the use of the trap-nest. You will discover the hens which lay large, even, well shelled and salable eggs, and also those which lay small, misshapen, unsalable eggs. There is no use to say that you cannot take time to do a little trap- nesting. If the dairyman finds it profitable to use the Babcock tester in testing his cows for butter fat, and if it is profitable for the farmer to take time to select his seed corn, the poultryman can well afford to take time to trap-nest at least one pen of hens for two or three months in the year. In tact, the poultryman cannot afford not to do tbjs, It ts not necessary to ^48 — trap-nest the entire year unless you wish to do so, but at least do some of this work in November, December, January and February. Prof. C. T. Pat- terson, formerly of the Missouri Experiment Station, recently said this: "One of the most Important problems connected with the poultry busi- ness is the selection of the profitable and unprofitable hens from the view- point of egg production. "Many methods have been tried in order to accomplish this, but the best method known to date is the trap-nest. "During the spring season pedigreeing can be done if desired. Approxi- mately two eggs are laid during the first six months for each egg during the last six months of the year, making the relative cost less. Then, too, the good hens can be rested during the last six months of the year, carried through the molt and put in good condition for the breeding yards the next • spring. The low producers can be sold instead of feeding them through the period of low egg production. "The averages of five hens in each pen in previous laying contests are: First or highest producer, 187 eggs; second, 161; third, 143; fourth, 122, and fifth, 96 eggs each. A study of these figures emphasizes the importance of selection. "If the hens are selected by one month's record, the ones selected by being the highest for the month averaged 167 eggs each in one year, and the ones selected by being the lowest for the month averaged 115 eggs each in one year, there being a difference of 52 eggs. "If the hens are selected by the six months' record, the ones selected as the highest producers produced 177 eggs in one year, while the ones selected as the lowest producers laid 105 eggs during the year, making a difference of 72, or six dozen eggs. Most people place the bands on their hens Just opposite the way they should. Place the band on the leg so the figures will be upside down when the hen stands on the ground. Then when you pick her up to read the band, as above the figures come just right. The hen having been released from the trap-nest is held in this position when the band number is read and re- corded The band number is placed on the record sheet and also on the small end of the egg. By this method you know which hens are laying best, and which lay eggs that are infertile, and you learn many others thmgs you should know. Trap-nest at least a few of your best birds. — 49 — 2nd 3rd 4 th Bth 26 13 6 3 40 18 10 6 18 38 18 13 10 18 40 26 6 13 26 52 "As this computation Is based on per cent, or 100, it will be seen that to select one out of five means to select twenty out of one hundred, so that a breeder who has one hundred hens can select twenty of the best and after culling for defects, will have a good breeding pen, and in the same way can cull out and sell for meat the poor producers. "Many questions have been asked as to the value of the trap-nest if used for a shorter period of time than a year. In order to answer these questions, the records of the four previous contests have been consulted, the object being to find the per cent of high producing hens which can be selected from a single month's record. "The records used were of the previous contests composed of about 400 pens containing 2,000 hens. The table is given in per cent and was obtained from approximate averages of all hens used, fractions being omitted. "The five hens in each pen were placed in the order of their egg pro- duction at the end of one month, to see what per cent of them held the same position as at the end of the year. To illustrate, the 100 hens which were the highest or first in each of 100 pens for one month, fifty-two were first at the end of the year, twenty-six were second, thirteen were third, six were fourth, and three were fifth. "The following table shows the position occupied by each of the five hens in each 100 pens for one month and the per cent occupying the same position for the year: Per cent at the end of year 1st 100 hens in first place for month 52 100 hens in second place for month 26 100 hens in third place for month 13 100 hens in fourth place for month 6 100 hens in fifth place for month 3 "It will be noticed that of 100 hens which were first for one month, 52 per cent are first, and 20 per cent are second at the end of the year. Therefore, out of 100 hens selected by one month's record as highest pro- ducers, 78 per cent stand first or second place at the end of the year, and out of 100 selected by one month's record as the lowest producers, 78 per cent of them are the lowest or next to the lowest at the end of the year. Only a slight variation is found between different months. The indications are that it is better to select the high producers during the period of low production, and select the low producers during the period of high egg production. "Selections may be made from six months' record in the same way as from a one month's record. The six months' record is better for selection than the one month's record. Per cent at the end of year 1 100 hens in first place for 6 months . 100 hens in second place for 6 months 100 hens in third place for 6 months . 100 hens in fourth place for 6 months 100 hens in fifth place for 6 months . "It will be noticed that 72 per cent of the hens which were first place at the end of six months were first or second at the end of the year. "The calendar year will perhaps always be used by agricultural col- leges, universities, experiment stations, etc., but we believe that for practical purposes, the six months' record will become Standard by breeders who are developing egg producing strains, while breeders who want to improve their flocks by taking out the poor producers and selecting the highest producers for a breeding pen will find the month's record valuable. "This test should be used only with hens the same age and kept under the same conditions. Some of the advantages of the six months' record are: By using the first six months of the year, we get the records during part of the winter, all of the spring, and part of the summer." LONGEVITY OF LIFE AND PRODUCTIVENESS As well as producing pullets which lay a large number of eggs in one year, it is also advisable to breed from those birds which show a tendency to long life and profitable production for more than one year. It is too — 50 — 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th ... 72 20 6 r. ... 20 52 20 6 2 6 20 48 20 6 2 6 20 52 20 6 20 72 costly to incubate, brood, feed and raise young stock to produce the kind which is broken down in health, or unprofitable and unproductive after the first year. Many hens lay well for three years. Although they may not lay as many eggs the second year, yet the net profit may be greater, because the cost of producing that fowl was paid for out of the first year's income. Some hens lay the most eggs the second year and some the most even in the third year. This is especially true with Leghorns. It the hens are properly bred and cared for, many of them will average 200 eggs per hen for three years in succession. AVe trap-nested one hen that averaged nearly 200 eggs per year for five years. We cannot lay too much stress upon this important question, that of breeding, handling and caring ^wmi'^^cTsw*,'* ". '' ^'''^l^'^i^iw^yBj lii ffiHHHHi p^^Wt, i^M 1 BBBM| Hc^^^i •* ^JhH 1 mI^^H f ^ Hhh pWI H^a ^^^HHHHIHhUI ^^^mbBB/^B^ ^V^"^'^ \ ^. ^ ^jM t-^J^ u*#£|.v',r^ is; miS^ ^^' ^^ i ^ ■ . ""■■■;- Barron's pen of English S. C. "White Leghorns. Ten hens averaged 230 eggs each in the Missouri National Egg Laying Contest. The best hen in the pens made a record of 273 eggs and only one hen laid less than 200 eggs in twelve months. very best layers that ever this world produced, the best layers possible. But I have not attempted that kind of breeding again, because I had to waste a season to do it. "I am not going to discount anything Mendel did. All I say is that so far as I know I have no use for it. We hear a lot about Mendelism nowadays, but my Mendelism is the wooden trap-nest. I trap-nest abso- lutely to find out the sons of the best layers. I like a good hen, mind, to breed from, but it is the sons of the best layers that the trap-nest is useful for particularly, in my opinion. I think the cockerel is without doubt more than half the pen, for the cockerel it is every time that transmits the lay- ing qualities to the females without a doubt. I do not think you breed the layers through the females at all, although you are bound to have good females to breed cockerels. You must breed cockerels from good high- pedigreed females. "I am often asked about the vitality of heavy layers. Well now, we — 56 — have critics in England. Your friend Daniel Brown Is the greatest. He has been telling me ever since I began, telling the public, of course, that we are going wrong, that we are mad, that we must be very careful of this pedigree or we shall lose the stamina from the birds, but I do not believe so. A hen could not lay 200 eggs in a year if she did not have the stamina, and we do not breed from a hen that has not laid 200 eggs in a year, although I think it Is fine for these men to tell us to be careful, because older heads are better than younger heads always. I find that year after year my stam- ina, if anything, increases rather than decreases. There may be something that I do not know, do not understand. I am not a college man. I have not a lot of college money to spend on experimental work. I have my experi- mental work to get out of my own pocket. We have nobody in England that helps us in this way at all. All that the English college authorities or officials that we have are good for is to produce table chickens. If you tasted an English table chicken, you would never eat another Leghorn. I think that last hatch that I had this year from 1,300 eggs, without testing the eggs at all, was 1,000, or 1,000 strong chicks from the eggs put in the incubator. I think that speaks sufficiently for the stamina of my birds. "If I were beginning again I should begin with about twelve yearling hens entirely unrelated, if possible, with pedigrees well over 200 eggs each In their first year's laying. Mind you, I have come to this conclusion after testing different ways of breeding. These hens would be numbered 1, 2, 3, in each pen. Cockerel for No. 1 pen would be numbered 1, in No. 2 pen would be numbered 2, and in No. 3 pen would be numbered 3 and in No. 4 pen would be numbered 4. There would be the band numbers of the cock- erels. These hens would be numbered 1 to 12 — 1, 2, 3 in the first pen, 4. 5, 6 in the second pen, and so on in the different pens, the progeny of each to be toe-marked. Now, we tos-mark the biggest part of the pedigreed stock, but if you do not toe-mark them use leg bands, numbered. The progeny ought to be all toe-marked and numbered with metal rings. The first number on the rings ought to be that of the male, so that means that you would have two numbers on each ring. The first number on the rings ought to be that of the male in each pen, the second number that of each female. You would then know that bird No. 11 was bred from No. 1 hen in pen 1, cockerel 1. You see that? Also, bird No. 22 would be from No. 2 hen, say in pen 2, cockerel 2, and so on. In this way you wo(uld have different, ways of mating; four different ways of mating entirely unrelated, and you would keep entirely unrelated for a long time with those twelve birds. You want to use your own judgment as to how to do this, that and the other. You have to use your own good sense, and if a man is par- ticularly interested, it is surprising how he can use these matings backwards and forwards and keep them fairly unrelated for many, many years. Sup- posing you think that you have inbred or that you are inbreeding and you want to produce some new blood at any time. It is far preferable to manu- facture this new blood yourself than to go outside your own yards for it unless you go to the same breeder you started from in the first instance. "Well now, if I wanted new blood I would pick out a pen of females as nearly unrelated as possible and put them in a pen there and mate to that pen two cockerels; these cockerels would be entirely unrelated to those hens and entirely unrelated to each other. I should use one cockerel on a pen of hens five (5) days, then I would take out that cockerel and num- ber him, then put in the other cockerel for five days, and in this way would manufacture blood that is marvelous for mating to almost any hens and marvelous for laying, too, so that you see there is any amount of dif- ferent ways a utility man can mate up his birds. Now, I have no set way of mating my birds, but I keep them unrelated as nearly as possible and always try to mate my pens with cockerels bred from the highest pedi- greed hens possible, provided these pedigree hens have a good constitu- tion, provided they do not lay a small egg, or a rough shell egg, or a bad shaped egg, or anything of that kind. I like a nice egg, a big egg. "Now, using these birds alternately five days, as I say, you can produce a lot of new blood to mate to almost any pen. In fact, in my breeding, I consider it better to use two brothers to each pen, as it is likely one — 57 — might be a better breeder of layers than the other, exactly in the same way that one sister can be a better layer than the other. Well, you seel, as I say, I should prefer to have twelve or thirteen hens in a pen and put two brothers to mate to that pen; take one brother out of the cockerel box, we have these in our pen, and in there we always keep a reserve bird and we change these birds every five days. It gives the cockerl a rest, and some- times, as you know, if he is a very vigorous bird, he will pick around and not eat anything at all himself and probably produce a. lot of in- fertile eggs, but if you have this two-cockerel system of mating you pro- duce a lot of better eggs all around, for fertility and stamina. We mate up, as I say, about fifteen hens to a cockerel or to these two cockerels, and change them every five days. Well now, I do not always breed from two brothers. I might have a pen of sisters — when I say sisters I mean ten pullets or ten hens, all bred from one hen — that have a pedigree of, say 240 or 250 eggs a year, as the case may be. Well now, I mate two unrelated cockerels to these hens sometimes, two cockerels that are not brothers, dis- tinctly unrelated, and I have found that they produce some very fine stock, indeed. Of course, some people say, 'How do -you know where you are go- ing?' but as long as it is unrelated on a utility poultry farm that is all you need to do. Q. You mention the word cockerel. Do you never use cock birds at all? A. Yes, we have birds on our farm, cocks that are five (5) years old, some of them. If we find a bird is a perfectly good breeder we consider that bird invaluable to breed layers and keep up this new blood. And the same with females, too. We have females on our farm that are 5 to 6 years old. If these birds only lay just a sufficient num- ber of eggs in the springtime to produce a few pullets or a few chickens, that is all we require of them. I think they have done their duty. Of course, it is a very expensive way of breeding, but keeping up a stock of birds like I have kept up is a very pretty expensive job. I think it is more probably a specialist's job than an ordinary farmer's. It would probably pay a man better to keep out of this kind. We have several in England that are making a specialty of this kind of thing. "In our pedigree breeding we many times test a pen of pullets, because if you do not know how they breed by two cockerels or one cockerel, as the case may be, it takes a year longer to do that. In the first year we test pullets with certain cockerels, and from the progeny, by toe-marking and the pedigree rings which we use, we find out a year in advance, as it were, which cockerel we bred the best by. Well now, you wouldn't expect that I would be such a big dunce as to breed from pullets to send to a laying com- petition in America! I have tested those pullets the year before to find if they produce good layers by a certain cockerel, then the year after I have their special pullets to send to the laying competitions. Now, I want to put plenty of stress on that point, breeding from good hens, your cockerels from good hens. Now, do not think you need to go and trap-nest all your birds if you have a 5,000 plant. I do not mean anything of that kind, but I think you could do a certain amount of good, you young men, probably the old men have that same interest, and if the old men like to take it up that is all right, it is a long job and will take a few years before you get into it, but I think if you would only trap-nest a pen of 100, perhaps, or fifty, it you like just to produce cockerels, just to find which are the hens to breed cockerels from to mate up with your birds, I think you will gain prob- ably thirty or fifty eggs more in the two years' laying of a hen, or probably more than that, if you will use these hens' cockerels rather than those of any hens at all. "I have tested my best pedigree cockerels sometimes with a pen of hens that have never been trap-nested, just merely ordinary layers. Well, that year I had the best results. Well now, I think if you people that have plants — you do things in a big way here, you know — in England there are not very many of us who have plants of two or three thousand laying hens, while here it is quite a common thing for a man to have two or three or four thousand hens. Well consider, isn't it worth while to trap-nest a pen — 58 — of pullets, say fifty, to find which hens ought to breed your cockerels? 1 think it is. If your flock of two, or three, or five thousand layers would lay you twenty eggs per bird per year more, or perhaps thirty or forty — Mr. CoUingwood expects that we will have hens laying 365 eggs in a year — I think if a hen lays 200 eggs, that is sufficient for any hen to lay — if you have a pen of hens that will lay 200 eggs on an average — that is quite sufficient for anybody. I think you ought to trap-nest a few birds to produce cockerels to breed along your stock for producing eggs, because I am certain that there is a tremendous possibility in this country for egg production. "There is another little point that I want to mention and that Is, there is a right time to hatch chickens, especially for winter egg production, if you want to hatch White Wyandottes and want to hatch them at the proper time. It is too late in May to hatch them for laying on the general farm.. I think White Wyandottes ought to be hatched about March of any year or probably the first or second week in April. Now, to get the best results with the Leghorns, the best time to hatch them is in the second week in April or probably the first. You can do wonderful things for eggs in the winter time. This is the time that pays the best. I might also men- tion that with our pedigree these chickens can be hatched at the right time so that they will lay better in the winter time. In my pedigree breeding I make a specialty of breeding from the hens that lay the biggest quantity of eggs in the dearest months of the year. In England our contests are run on egg value. These contests are not run on the quantity of eggs. I do not know which is the fairest way, I am sure, but if I were running on egg value I could win laying contests faster than on quantity of eggs, because we pick out the hens for breeding the best cockerels from the pullets and hens that have produced the best in the winter time. Now I think there is something in that. "I may also mention that we toe-punch them straight away. A male t - -1 '• - *i iv'^-vrfmssKBeiaiaaamamm'miS^IIBS^Si^Si W'^'-^M |HHH l^pvf^^B [^^^^^H W^^.>V.' -V^mBbB ^^H^H^IHH^H v^^l ^^^H s^Mj^^^H^H^H ^^^^^^^^^^Hj^H rfv^ * TiM-pffy M Bn^ ^^^^^^H^I^^I^H MBk-f. ^k ''''IP Wk ^^HI^^B Wjff^^ KhB ^^BHB^H^^I^B w '^ Ji' JKM I^^^H^^Hk i^B HMi^r Mk^ ^^^ffi[^^^H i^H^I^IBB^ "'^itj'^f^^Bt^HLAi. Hen marked No. 1 was a large round bodied American type Wyandotte. The remaining- hens were Barron's long bodied English Wyandotte hens. The small, long bodied Wyandottes laid 205 eggs each on the average. The exhibi- tion type Wyandotte only laid a little over 100 eggs in the twelve months. — 59 — from a heavy laying hen will be more sure of producing heavy layers than If you use a heavy laying female. Now, I made mistakes in the first place. I used to breed from all my very best hens and I did not take as much notice of the cockerel, but I found out that the cockerel is without doubt the greatest point. "There is another point, too; not always is the largest hen the best layer, but generally the smallest hen. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred it is the medium sized hen that is the best layer and always the hen that is inclined to be squirrel-tailed, whether it is the Wyandotte or Leghorn. "Now there is another thing, and that is, my birds have white legs. Now look here, did you ever see a hen in your life that laid eggs that did not go white? If you get some hens that have yellow legs at the end of the year sell them. That Is a sign that they have laid no eggs that year, practically none. A White Leghorn, if she has a perfectly yellow leg when she begins laying, will have a white leg at the end of the year; this is a fine indication. Q. What do you mean by sciuirrel-tailed? Do you mean a tail that goes back? A. Yes; I will show you later. "The best layer and best shaped hen I ever saw had a wedged shape, the right wedge shape. She had a medium full breast, rather inclined to be squirrel-tailed. I like a hen with a good cushion behind her, a good length from the breast right to the back. This is an indication that she has a long breast bone. I like her a good depth, right through, and a good width across the wing bars, and I like them to have rather a long neck. "Now, I do not think I like a big comb, and there is a point that I have been trying to breed out all my life, these big combs. They are bound to get frosted in winter, and I have tried my best to breed a little comb bird. Well now, I cannot do it so I am not going to try any longer, simply going to give what the trap-nest tells. I like the comb to be of a very fine texture. If it Is big it wants to be fine, and the legs do not want to be thick, they want to be very fine. I like a very fine leg and I do not like a hen to stand too long on the shanks. My Wyandottes probably do stand a bit too long. It is a thing that I have been trying to breed out. I like a short-legged bird. They are the best layers. Well now, is there anything else you would like to ask me? Q. Do you mean, then, that the large comb goes with better egg production? A. It seems to have done so with my birds without a doubt. Q. Is that true of the Wyandottes as well as the Leghorns? A. Exactly the same. Q. What is the weight of your Wyandottes? A. My Wyandottes would weigh about four or five pounds as pullets. I do not like big hens ; you always get the worst layers. Q. You spoke of a cushion on a hen. Will you please explain what you refer to as the cushion? A. Well, I mean that I like to see them a fair width across the back and with plenty of fluff. Q. What do you say in regard to a large comb being a sure sign of superior vigor? A. Well, I do not like a beefy comb. I think the very best layers are apt to produce big combs. I always produce big combs. Q. Do you find those to be stronger birds? A. Yes, I do. If we breed any small comb birds at home they are always weaklings. You would not really breed from them. And naturally, you would not like to see a cockerel in a pen that has a small comb, you can see he is a weakling. You would not think of breeding from him. He would not have enough vigor. Q. What about a thick comb? Do you like it? A. No, I like a fine texture of a comb. A typical White Leghorn utility cockerel bred from a 250-egg hen on my farm at home might have a squirrel-tail, a long flowing tail. That cockerel would have a pretty short leg, pretty wide breast, stand straight — 60 — Up like a soldier, have good feathers and inclined to be rather squirrel- tailed with a prominent, alert eye. Q. Do you think that the feathers make much of a difference in the appearance of a bird, whether loose or rather tight? A. Certainly, a tight-feathered bird is always a better layer than a loose-feathered one. Q. Wouldn't that account for some of the difference in shape? A. No. I don't think so. You can see that the feather has nothing to do with the difference in type, that is in shape. Look at the difference in the length from the head right to the tail, see — quite a different bird alto- gether. Q. Mr. Barron, can you in any way account for such a change in shape, both types being true? A. (Illustrating with live birds, Wyandottes, one of his own egg type and another of the American show type.) Yes, this kind has been produced with an eye to a certain standard. They have tried continually to breed for big size of the bird and they have got them into this snowball shape, where this one has never been tampered with for shape; she has been bred abso- lutely for laying, that is all. See? This man has bred for a certain stand- ard and he has produced this bird here, while we have bred by the trap-nest, and this is what I have produced, here. This only goes to show, for what it is worth, the difference in two birds. Well, which bird would you consider would lay the most eggs if you were choosing from the two birds? Q. How far can you keep going away from the Wyandotte on the left hand side and still call it a Wyandotte? A. I don't know, and it doesn't matter a hang how it goes or where it goes. I have nothing at all to find fault with in the American Leghorns, do not see why they are not as good layers as ours — in fact, I think they will soon be as good. They have not ruined the Leghorns, and that is what our Englishmen have done. The American White Leghorn is a splendid bird without a doubt. I could breed my White Leghorns to the Ameri- can Standard (I think they are prettier than the shape that I have), but I am not going to spoil my shape for either the American or the English. I am going to stick to what I have as long as I can produce a hen that will lay 200 eggs a year. Q. Do you think the Americans have hurt the Wyandottes any more than they have the Leghorns? A. Well, I haven't taken that much notice of the American Wyan- dottes, but I don't think they have hurt the Wyandottes as -much as our men have. You fellows have more business ten times than our English exhibition men have because you go for the eggs, you see. You have the sense to think that a hen must lay so many eggs to keep herself. You do not breed for feather altogether, and I think your Leghorns are fine. Q. What egg production will you get in the average flock? A. About 200. Fifteen birds in a pen would average 200 from decently selected birds, and probably more, might be 230 or more. Q. What would it be from larger flocks? A. From larger flocks you would get less, according to size. The larger the flock the less quantity of egg. That is my experience. Q. How do you account for that? A. Perhaps the birds do not get the same advantages, they do not get the same conditions, probably they fight each other about feeding, and all that kind of thing. There is something; what, I cannot tell you. If a lot of people were in this room I don't suppose they would do as well as a few. Q. Which do you consider the best layers, Wyandottes or Leghorns? A. I think White Wyandottes lay the most egg value, but the White Leghorns will probably lay more eggs; probably there is not very much difference in them. Q. How do you determine that egg value according to your English figuring? A. Well, we reckon up each week, the average market price each week. One week we might get seven shillings, next week we might get eight or — 61 — nine and so on. You do not figure On the weight of the eggs. That is what we do in the contests. Q. Is that what gives the Wyandottes the egg value over the Leghorn? A. Not at all, the Leghorns lay as big eggs, probably larger. Q. What gives the White Wyandottes the extra value over the Leg- horn, do you think? A. In the egg production in the winter time at the right time of the year. I dare say that you could get on pretty well in trap-nesting four or six months in the winter time, but this is not as accurate, I think, as the twelve months' record. Some people in England have adopted the system of trap- nesting for three months and some six months, but I don't believe in it. I think a hen ought to run through twelve months so that we shall see exactly her test for the twelve.months. Q. Do the heavy producers as a rule lay as large an egg as hens that lay around 200? The 250-egg hen, is she apt to lay as large an egg as the hen that lays about 200? A. No, I think she would probably lay a rather smaller egg. Of course, some do and some don't They vary, but I think rather generally the hen that lays the larger number would likely lay the smaller egg. Q. Then if you were breeding for commercial eggs and wanted large eggs, that is, better than 24-ounce eggs, you would use a male bird bred from a female laying large eggs? A. Decidedly, yes. Q. How much influence have you observed that the male has on the size of the eggs,at least half? A. Well I think so. If the male is produced from a large egg female, I find that my eggs are all right from the progeny of that mating. Q. Do you breed any of the larger strains of the Wyandotte? A. Only the White Wyandotte, the Buff Rock and White Leghorns. I keep only three breeds. I think a man ought not to have too many breeds. Q. What do you think of the Buff Rocks? A. They are very good Indeed. Q. In your pens of fifteen, that is all those fifteen hens, their pro- geny is all banded as under one number? A. If I had a hen in pen fifteen that laid 260 eggs in a year, I should band that on a certain band number according to her number; and if another hen laid 240 I should band that with that certain number of hers. Q. You keep the progeny of each hen separate? A. Separate, yes. Q. But only in instances where you have especially good hens? A. Yes, in extra good hens. We do not do all the stock like that. Q. What do you use for a band for little chicks? A. A little small aluminum band with the number on. They go right on the legs of the chicks. Pedigree breeding is an awful nuisance. Q. Then you take that band off as soon as the chick has outgrown it and put on another? A. Yes, until the chicks get big enough to take a numbered ring band. Q. So that you use in all three (3) bands before you finally band that chick with a sealed band? A. Yes, sometimes more than that. Q. I noticed on the bands that came on your stock the numbers were all raised. A. Yes. Q. I never have seen anything of that kind in this country. Is that common with you? A. Yes, because you see ours is such a dirty country. We get so much wet weather; when the birds walked about in the mud they got the mud caked on the bands, so we adopted the raised letters because they are much easier for us to see than the sunken letter on account of the dirt. Q. Evidently you do not know the father of each one of your chicks? A. I do, of practically all the birds I have on the farm. Q. How can you do that with your system of double-mating? — 62 — A. Well, of course, two brothers, but I call it the same father. Q. Well, might there not be a tremendous difference in the egg pro- duction qualities of the two birds? A. I think there is and that is why I do this. Supposing we used a bad male in preference to a good male, which none of us can tell, we might get the wrong one occasionally. We breed from two-year-old birds as well as one-year-old. Q. Mr. Barron, do you sort out your future hens from growing pul- lets while they are growing? A. I pick my pullets; the lot of them probably go into the big house, and I pick from them as to type and shape in the big house before I move them into the little breeding pen where we trap-nest them. I select them for type in exactly the same way as you saw me select birds here today. Q. How old do you consider it advisable to keep layers? A. Two or three years; they will do pretty well the third. Q. What is the matter with the fourth? A. They lay too few eggs. Q. In all your breeding, did you ever come across one sire that was away beyond any others in giving good producers? Now, in breeding cattle we can often get a sire that gives calves that will produce more milk than any others. Now, in your breeding of hens, do you get hold of a male once in a while that is far ahead of anything else? A. Sometimes we find a male that is invaluable as a breeder and I have seen his brother that would breed nothing at all. Not often, but I have seen that." THE SELECTION AND BREEDING OP LAYERS By Prof. James Dryden, Covallis, Oregon. Before taking up the discussion of selection of layers, permit me in a few sentences to point out the immense importance of this subject, not only to practical poultry keepers, but to millions of other citizens who can- not keep house without eggs. Two or three thousand years ago eggs were not eaten — were not used for human food. Since the domestication of the fowl, which occurred about that time, the civilized peoples of the globe have become more and more dependent upon the egg supply as a source of food. Today the egg eaters of the globe are consuming two or three billion dollars' worth of eggs alone per annum. In the United States, the production and consumption of eggs amounts to about half a billion dollars a year, an amount which, added to the value of chickens produced, is sufficient to pay for building two Panama canals. The only reason the consumption is not double what it is in this coun- try is because the price of eggs, or the cost of production curtails consump- tion. The people are yearly demanding more and more eggs. But very few consumers, comparatively, can afford to pay 40 and 50 cents a dozen for them. The problem for the poultry keeper is, can he, by improved methods, produce eggs at cheaper cost so he can get his profit? The problem for the consumer is, can production be so increased that he can secure the eggs he wants at cheaper prices? If by better methods the hens of the United States can be induced to increase production by only sixteen eggs per hen, that would mean, on the present basis, an increase in production of a hundred million dollars a year. The subject for me to discuss is, what system of selection can the poul- tryman follow so as to get a better production from the flock? I will dis- cuss the subject under five headings, as follows: 1. Ancestry or production. 2. Breeds and breed characteristics. 3. Type or conformation. 4. Laying maturity. 5. Hen temperament. As to the first method — selecting the layers by the production records of their ancestors — can we predict from the records of the ancestors what — 63 — the production of the pullets will be? Suppose we have two flocks of 100 pullets each. One flock has ancestors with records of over 200 eggs a year, the other less than 100 eggs a year. Other things being equal, will the one flock prove to be better layers than the other? This system of selection means that we must begin with the mothers and grandmothers. We must select the mothers and grandmothers and the fathers and grandfathers of the pullets. We accept the pullet which has a good mother and grand- mother, no matter what she may appear to be herself. That is the ques- tion of heredity. The second point means that we select the layers by the breed or breed characteristics. The question often asked, What is the best breed for lay- ing? comes in here. Are there any differences in breeds that Indicate laying quality? The third point — type and conformation has to do with the shape or form of the fowl. Can we take the pullets, regardless of their ancestors and regardless of their breed and pick out the good layers by some peculiar- ity of shape or form? The fourth point refers to stage of laying maturity. Is early laying maturity correlated with high production, or the reverse? Can we pick out the best layers by observing the days or ages on which they begin to lay? The fifth method of selection has to do with what I might call hen temperament. Has the high producer a temperament distinct from that of the poor producer? There are other methods of selecting the best layers that might be mentioned, but these five are sufficient for this time. Some people select their laying hens from the showing of ribbons won at poultry shows. Others select them on the "say-so" of some advertiser that his hens are the best layers on earth. Now, I want to warn you a little here. I don't presume to know all about these methods of selection, or all about the problems of poultry breeding or selection of layers. I have no secret of selecting layers to give you. I will give you the results of some study and investigation dur- ing the past ten or twelve years or more, and when I think of it I am ashamed at the length of time it has taken to arrive at certain definite conclusions, and one of those conclusions is that there is no royal road to the production of high laying strains of fowls. Let us first discuss briefly the evidence of the first point. Can we pick out the best layers on the basis of production records of the ancestors, ignoring breed, ignoring type, and ingoring conformation and other things? Can we shut our eyes to the flock and select them from the book? Is it a question of bookkeeping or skill; is it a science or an art? If high egg production comes by inheritance, if good layers are pro- duced by good layers, then the question of selection of good layers is a question of bookkeeping or a question of keeping production records. Is big egg production inherited? Can we Increase production by breed- ing the best to the best? There has not been sufficient evidence that we can. There was evidence that the contrary was true. You remember the widespread discussion created by the publication of a bulletin by the Maine Experiment Station several years ago, in which the results of nine years' experiments were reported. The results showed no increase. The ques- tion was warmly debated as to whether or not egg production had not already reached a point where futher improvement was impossible. Within the last two or three years, however, our ideas of the capactiy of the hen have been greatly enlarged. Ten to twelve years ago when we found a 200-egg hen, somebody would write to the papers and say, "There ain't no sich animal." Later it was acknowledged that there ^ere 200-egg bens, but their tribe would never increase — their eggs would ngt be fertile and if fertile, the chicks, from lack' of vigor, would die an eeirly death. The 200-egg hen would not produce a ZOO-egg hen, it was said. But since th«n our visions have enlarged. We have lost Interest In the 300-egg ben. She is a common every-day creature. It 1gi the SOQjggg hen now. Tbe 800'egg hen has come, but gbe gets about the same reception that the SOO-egg ben -.84 — got a dozen years ago— a cold one. The record is either doubted or the hen as a freak or a monstrosity. But my question now is not whether we have 200-egg hens and 300-egg hens, but whether high producers transmit their laying qualities to their offspring. My experiments at the Oregon Station began about seven years ago. These experiments were designed primarily to solve this question of inherit- ance of fecundity. Individual selection was followed, using the trap-nest records. We tried to avoid any other issues. Production records were the only basis of selection of breeding stock. The question of type was avoided because we wanted to settle one problem at a time. We, however, kept records on certain points of type. The long bodied pullet, as well as the short bodied pullet were kept if the production records of their parents were high., It was not a question of breed or type, but whether hens of any breed or type, or of no breed, inherited heavy laying qualities. In these experiments, breeds Lady Eg-lantine laid 314 eggs in 12 months in the North American Contest. This is a White Leghorn hen owned by Eglantine Farms of Greensboro, Maryland. The record was made and the contest handled under the direction of Prof. Stoneburn and F. V. L. Turner of the North American. and breed points were not essential. The problem would be solved, if solved in less than a century, by limiting the scope of the experiments and ignoring the question of breed or color or shape. This, I believe, is the foundation problem and the whole future of the poultry industry, as an industry, rests on its solution. What is, therefore, the effect of selection on the basis of production or trap-nest records? Does the production of the parents give any indi- cation of what the production of the daughters will be? In our experiments we used two breeds, a light breed, the White Leg- horns, and a heavy or medium breed, the Barred Plymouth Rocks. In the first year, ninety-five Barred Plymouth Rock pullets, which were pur- chased from six different breeders in Oregon, laid an average of 84.7 eggs in the first twelve months of laying. There was one hen, and only one that laid 200 eggs or more, her record being 218. The following year, twenty-eight pullets, hatched from the original stock, averaged 121.2, the highest individual record being 183 eggs. — 65 — The next year a flock of forty-three pullets, which were raised from the original stock of ninety-five after one-third of the poorest layers had been discarded, averaged 164.6 eggs, the highest record being 250 eggs. In the fifth year the pullets, 103 in number, were all from pedigreed high producers. The average of the flock was 179.2, the highest record being 268 eggs. In the sixth year there were 160 pullets which averaged 176.5, with highest record of 271. No new blood was introduced during the six years, but inbreeding was avoided. The conditions of experiments were kept as nearly as possible the same year after year. The same rations were fed and the same kind of housing and yarding was used. It is not possible, of course, to keep the conditions absolutely the same year after year. If nothing else, there will be changes in the weather that might affect the results. As a check on the conditions, however, we selected strains of poor layers and bred them, averaging all the results up to the end of last year. Where they were all comparable, it showed that the pullet progeny of selected high layers produced an average of 207.3 eggs, while the progeny of selected poor layers averaged 138.1 eggs. It should be remembered that individual cases do not prove very much. To settle this question we must deal in averages. I could show you, had I time, high records of individual cases where the parent stock were poor producers. We have, in fact, had phenomenal individual records where the mother and sire's mother were low producers. Is the problem of higher fecundity a question of selection altogether, or is it a question of constitutional vigor alone? Does the work of the breeder begin and end with selection, or -does it begin and end with vigor In the stock? It is well known that crossing two breeds and varieties will restore vigor that has been lost by inbreeding, and this is accomplished in one cross. My experiments have to do wholly with the question of inheritance of high laying. We wanted to know whether high fecundity was inherited or not. We sought to solve the problem in different ways. We used two different pure breeds and we used crosses of the same. We sought to elimi- nate the question of constitutional vigor by using crosses, and crosses that had been graded up with pure-bred males. It was not a question of crosses or no crosses. It was not a question of whether crosses laid better than pure-breds, or the reverse, but whether high egg production was con- cerned with heredity or not. Was constitutional vigor more important than heredity? And one way to settle this point was to take the short cut to constitutional vigor and cross. Otherwise how were we to know whether the increased production secured was not due to increased vigor? It was not a question of the value of blood lines. It was rather a question whether we could maintain blood lines by close breeding and get the full benefit of the hereditary tendencies to lay, whatever they were. The experiments would be worthless without the use of stock of equally high constitutional vigor each succeeding year. Fifty White Leghorn pullets purchased from a number of breed- ers in our state averaged 106.9 eggs, the highest record being 183. In the following year sixty-three first crosses of the White Leghorns and Barred Plymouth Rocks averaged 135.6, the highest record being 211. Four and seventy-six hundredths per cent of them laid 200 eggs or more. This result in the second year might fairly be accepted as what could be expected from high constitutional vigor alone. Here we have an increase over the first year Leghorns of about thirty eggs per hen. It will be understood that so far as constitutional vigor is concerned, other things being, equal, we would get as high production with the first cross as with any subsequent crosses. But the increased production continued year after year, showing, I think, very clearly, that there was something else respon- sible besides constitutional vigor. In the fifth year the flock of pullets which had been produced by grad- ing up with pure-bred Leghorn males from heavy producers averaged 218.2 eggs, with a high record of 303 eggs, and with 69.5 per cent laying over 200 eggs. — 66 — In the sixth year, by grading them bade to the Barred Plymouth Rocks with pure-bred Rock males from high producing stock, so that the pullets had slightly more Plymouth Rock blood than Leghorn blood, the average was 223.7 eggs, with high record of 278, and 70.6 per cent of the flock laying over 200 eggs. In the seventh year, which has just closed, the results corroborate those I have given. We have secured this year, higher pen records than ever be- fore and higher individual records. You will understand ,therefore, that the object in crossing in this experiment was to discover evidence, whether high production depends on constitutional vigor or whether is comes by inherit- ance. Our results clearly show that high egg laying is inherited and that the poultry breeder can make rapid progress in breeding up the productive quali- ties of his flock by keeping books — in other words, by using the trap-nest and breeding the best to the best year after year. I have not time to go into the question here of the mode of inheritance. Does high production come about all at once according to the Mendelian law of dominance and recessiveness, or is it an achievement that comes bit by bit after years of patient, selective breeding? Is high egg production a sex limited affair in its inheritance? Is it inherited from the dam and dam alone, or does it come through the sire and sire alone? These are all impor- tant questions. We have accumulated a great deal of material on these questions, but are not yet ready to announce any final conclusions. So far as our investigations have gone, however, the results do not bear a Men- delian interpretation. They do not show that high egg production is either dominant or recessive to low production. When high producers were mated to sons of high producers, the daughters were neither all high producers or all low producers. Mating high producers together, the daughters did not equal the production of the parents, on the average. When low producers were mated the daughters did not take after either or both of the parents, but showed a higher egg production than the sires or sire's dams. This is according to the law of progression and regression. There is a pull up or down to a general level or average. Those are all problems that require years of careful investigation to determine, but so far as our investigations have gone I think I can say that high egg production is the accumulated result of the selection of high production breeding stock carried on for many generations. The breeder will, however, make rapid progress in identifying the exceptional individuals that possess in a high degree the power of trans- mitting the desired characteristic to the offspring. As to the second point, which has reference to breeds, is there any evi- dence that one breed excels another in egg laying? There is a mass of evi- dence. The advertising pages of poultry papers are filled with evidence. There are over 100 different breeds and varieties and one can find evidence in the advertising pages that each of them is the laying breed. A great amount of evidence. But it is all bewildering — it cannot all be true. These breeders, most of them, do not purposely deceive. They have found a good hen or a good laying pen of their breed and they conclude that all the hens and all the pens of that breed are good layers, and they advertise the fact as they believe it. In our experiments we have not tested all the breeds and varieties. That would be out of the question. I do not think it necessary. A great many of our breeds, especially our American-made breeds are pretty closely re- lated. They are all practically from the same original stock not many years back, and until within the past few years they have not been bred in a way to establish any great difference in productive qualities. I think it is safe to state thus, that there are good and poor layers in all breeds. That is, in the modern utility breeds, in the Mediterranean, in the Asiatic, in the American, the English, etc., and whether one breed excels another in produc- tion or not is a question of their breeding, not of the breed. I think this fact cannot be too strongly of too often reiterated, that there is little, if any, dif- ference in breeds so far as egg laying goes. This changing from one breed to another every year is bad business if it is eggs that are sought. While this is true in general, I believe it should also be said that there — 67 — are some differences in races or classes, thougn mere are none in breeds and varieties worth considering. Between the Barred Plymouth Rock and all other varieties of Rocks and all other American breeds, there should be little or no difference. Between the Mediterraneans of small size and the Asiatics, for example, of a large size, I believe there are differences in production. The small, active fowl, other things being equal, is a better or more economical producer than the large fowl, and where one is seeking only after egg production, he should choose a small breed. It will matter little, however, what breed it is, so long as it is one of the small utility breeds. It seems to be a law of naj- ture in the animal kingdom, that heavy producers are small in size, active and nervous. This is true in the case of the hen that lays, of the cow giving milk, or the race horse showing speed. It is another question whether the best egg producer is on the whole the most profitable fowl. The poultry business cannot be conducted on a basis of eggs alone. The poultryman must produce meat In order to get eggs. He cannot eliminate the cockrels. He must expect half the chicks he hatches will develop into males, that have not yet gotten the laying habit. These must be marketed and the larger breeds, of course, sell for more than the small breeds. Again, the laying hen does not improve with age or experience. Her production decreases year after year. The flock must be sold off at least every two years. The Plymouth Rock or breeds of that size will sell for about twice as much as the Leghorns. However, I am not dis- cussing meat qualities. We should discourage, as much as possible, the Idea of breed differences when it comes to egg production. We will develop strains or breeds that have a claim as high producers, but until this is done there is no use encouraging the idea that layers may be selected on the basis of breeds and varieties. As to the third point, type and conformation. Is there any type in lay- ers? Is there any shape or form that indicates good laying qualities? I have only time to say a few words on this point. I mention a few characteristics that will be found present in the good layer and absent in the poor. It has been found that within the breed or variety, the heavier producers on the average, are those of lighter weight. Sometimes some of the heavy hens are heavy producers, but this is not true of the average. At the Oregon Station a pen of 47 Plymouth Rock hens averaged 160.9 eggs, separating them according to weight into three' groups, we got this result. Those hav- ing an average weight of 7 pounds produced in the first year 141.1 eggs. Those of light weight, averaging 5 pounds, produced 173.7 eggs. In their second year's production the same thing is shown, the medium and lighter weights produced more than the heavy weights. The 11 heaviest layers, those laying over 200 eggs, averaged in weight 5% pounds. There is a point here for breed makers to consider. I believe it to be undeniable that if we breed for large size or if we increase the size of the fowls of any breed, we will decrease the egg yield on the average. It would be a serious mistake, however, to select year after year the smallest individ- uals for breeding purposes without regard to other consideration. Vigor and health must always be uppermost. Continued selection of the smallest would in the Leghorn breed, for example, finally evolve a Bantam type so far as weight Is concerned. On the other hand, It is a mistake to pick out the nice large hens and the heavy males and save them for breeding, where eggs are the object. Better send those to the pot. When it comes to type we can only speak in very general terms. The good layer is usually medium to long in body and rather deep and broad. These are relative terms and subject to breed differences. Emphasis Is placed on these points as indicating good digestive capacity. There are, however, good layers with short bodies and poor layers with long bodies. The truth Is that hens have not been bred systematically for high egg laying long enough to fix or develop any particular type as it relates to shape. The same can be said of the angle of the tail and the shape of the comb, though preference should be given to a rather large comb and a tail carried rather high and there have been very notable exceptions to this In our breeding. The head, I think on the average, will be rather small and leg bones not too — 68 large or coarse. In general make-up, the fowls should not have what might be called beefy build, rather a trim, muscular build. The comb should be of fine texture. The hen at the end of the year that is ragged in plumage and wrinkled in face, in other words, the one that shows the effect of hard work. Is more often the one that has been doing the laying. As to the hen temperament. I believe the temperament of the hen is strongly indicative of her laying capacity. The good layer has an active disposition and nervous temperament. She moves around quickly and is on the go more than the poor layer. She does not pose well either in the exhibition coop or before the camera. She will be found scratching and hustling for food after the poor layer has quit the job or gone to roost, and she will usually be at work early in the morning. As to the last point, the question of laying ipaturity. I think we have here something of very practical importance. If you have 100 pullets all hatched about the same time in March or April, and they have been given good care throughout the brooding and growing periods, you will find, it they are of average stock, that a very few of them will lay at 5 months, a few at 6, and probably half of them at 7 months, and the balance at 8 or 9 months, with probably one or two that never lay. Summarizing the results of our work at the Oregon Station brings us to the following conclusions: The early layer is the best layer. If you will observe them carefully you will be able, I think, very definitely to pick out in the fall from the 100 pullets, a flock that will average 200 eggs in the year. I say this without any question of doubt. Our records show that those pullets that begin to lay in less than 200 days from the date they were hatched laid on the average of 200 eggs in the year. That is something easy to remember. The 200-egg hen lays on the average at an age of less than 200 days. They show also that those pullets that do not lay till they are 300 days of age lay half as many eggs as the others. Those, of course, can be killed off and sent to market. From 200 to 250 days you will get good average producers. From 250 to 300 days they may make a profit, depending on the cost of feeding. Another standard that can be followed is the following; also taken from our records. This will involve trap-nesting the fowls for three months. By trap-nesting them for three months of November, December and January, by that I mean pullets that come to laying maturity about the first of No- vember, we found that those that laid over 30 eggs during those months laid on the average 200 eggs or better during the year. Those that laid about 5 eggs during those months laid about 50 during the year. Those that laid 20 during those months laid about 150. I have been very greatly interested in the way these records have de- veloped along this line. I believe in a few years by following this method the poultryman may increase very greatly the egg yield of his flock. I don't mean to be understood in this that in all cases of indiviual hens the results work out this way. It sometimes happens that an early producer makes a good annual record. We must, however, consider the averages and we can afford to sacrifice a few good producers if we can by following this method select a flock that averages high. While the trap-nest will be the most accurate in selecting the early layer, there are other ways in which she may be discovered. A large red comb is almost a certain indication of laying. A flexible abdomen, good depth from the pelvic bones to the keel bone and also rather wide between the pelvic bones, are pretty good indications of laying maturity. The most accurate method, however, is the trap-nest and if one can use trap-nests for one month, or three months, he may at the end of that time discard them and be assured from the records during that period that he can pick out the good layers for the year, as well as those that won't pay for their keep. DEMONSTBATION IN SELECTING LAYERS A good many years ago, I stated that it was possible to select the good layers and to cull the drones from my flock, judging solely by external appearances. I advocated this method and gave the system which we had found satisfactory after comparing the results of our selection with actual trap-nest records. It did not vary but a trifle once in a hundred cases. I — 69 — was one of the first to advocate such a system and pushed it strongly in spite of opposition and ridicule on the part of many would-be authorities and experts. More or less progress was made and hundreds swore by our sys- tem after giving it a trial, but others condemned it and refused to use or advocate it merely through prejudice. They apparently hated to acknowledge that anyone else knew anything but themselves. But the great world war came on, feed went to almost prohibitive prices,, and the poultry authorities and poultrymen everywhere saw they would have to adopt some method of selection and getting rid of the drones and of all dead weight and unprofit- able birds. These conditions forced them to do something and to try out some method. State Experiment Stations, Agricultural Colleges, the Govern- mental Department, and poultrymen in their desperation tried out various things. They finally, almost universally, adopted and recommended the very Identical things which are found in these two lessons and in lessons 10 and 11 following these, methods which we had tried out and had been recom- mending tor several years previous to this time. Since then State and Gov- ernment agents and representatives have gone from farm to farm giving public demonstrations as to how the work is done. As a result, millions of unprofitable hens have been put on the market. For your information as to how this work is done we will quote the remarks made by Prof. H. C. Knandal at a demonstration which he gave in Pennsylvania during the month of August: "Last year in Pennsylvania I went over about 12,000 individual hens on different farms, holding demonstrations, so that the farmer, and others who were present, could go home and select their own hens. They were able tO' tell the good hens from the poor ones, as you will be able to do when we get through here this afternoon. Out of those 12,000 hens I found there were 51 per cent that would be better off if they were in the pot. Compares Two Hens and Gives Their Egg Records "I now want to show you this poster. This shows the actual photographs of two hens that we have up at the college at the present time. Both hens are now living. These hens were hatched at the same time, in April, 1914. The poorer hen began to lay in January the following year. That is the first thing to condemn that hen. There is no money in the poultry business to- day if we have to wait NINE MONTHS for a hen to reach maturity. "This other individual — she was hatched at the same time, in the same incubator, brooded in the same brooder, given the same food and care and management as the poor individual, but came into laying November 17. That is, when eggs were high in price this individual WAS LAYING EGGS. "Now with regard to their time of molt. The poorer hen began her molt in her first year, July 7; that is, she laid from January to July 7. The good hen did not molt until November, coming into laying as I told you, No- vember 17 and on November 18, the following year, she went into molt THAT IS THE TYPE OF AN INDIVIDUAL THAT WE OUGHT TO HAVE ON OUR FARMS. "The hen that went into molt July 7, many farmers would say would lay winter eggs and lay eggs when eggs were high in price. Such is not the case, however, as has been proven by hundreds of trap-nest records. I have never yet seen a flock of old hens that will give 50 per cent produc- tion through the months of November, December and January, but I have repeatedly seen flocks of healthy pullets that would average 50 per cent in November. THEREFORE, PULLETS ARE ESSENTIAL TO HIGH WIN- TER EGG YIELD. "The poorer hen, which I show you here, took 242 days to go through her molt. Some farmers would say that she would molt early and then get back early into the laying by fall or winter. Instead of that she came back into laying March 22. When eggs got cheap, she decided she wanted to lay; but from July 7 to March 27 that hen DIDN'T DO ANYTHING BUT EAT PEED AND LOAF. "Now this good hen lost only forty-nine days in the molt from the time she laid her last egg until she laid her first egg on the second year. Only 49 days lost in the molt— just exactly seven weeks. The poorer hen — 70 in her first year laid fifty-one eggs. The good hen in the same period laid 199 eggs — not an exceptional number of eggs, but yet a generous amount. Considor the Difference in Cash Returns "The second year this poorer hen laid 48 eggs, and the good one 190. This year the poorer hen has laid 40 eggs until the first of May, and she has not laid an egg since. The good hen, up until the 28th of July — and I haven't received the record since then — had laid 148 eggs this year. THAT IS THE TYPE OP INDIVIDUAL WE OUGHT TO BREED FROM. She has everything in her favor. She came to maturity early, laid a goodly number of eggs, molted late as a yearling and was back into laying the forepart of the month of January. During her second year she produced a large number of eggs and bids fair to repeat this her third year. This white Orpington hen laid 245 eggs in twelve months. She made the highest winter record of any individual hen in a flock of fifteen hundred, all varieties competing. The hen was beautiful in color and shape, and could win first prize in the hottest kind of a class of White Orpingtons. "The poorer hen in her second year lost 284 days in the molt — 242 days her first year and 284 days her second year; and she has not laid an egg since May 1 of this year. She will do well if she comes back into laying next April." Demonstrates With Two Sample Hens Prof. Knandel took two S. C. White Leghorn hens, a good layer and a poor one, to demonstrate the difference and to actually show the method of selection. As you read on, imagine the two hens being held up to your view. "In selecting poultry there is one fundamental we must understand, namely: HOW TO DETECT WHETHER A HEN IS LAYING OR NOT. If we don't know whether or not the hen is laying, our demonstration is not going to go very far. We have to be absolutely sure whether or not the hen is laying. Now, it is true that we have hens here that are the ex- tremes. I think it is well, at first anyway, in conducting a demonstration, to have the extreme individuals. — 71 — "As we hold these birds up here in front of you, 1 believe there Is no doubt which hen the majority of you would pick out as being in laying condition at the present time. Probably you would all pick the hen that I have here as the one in good laying condition at this time. This bird as a pullet during the five poorest laying months in the year — October, Novem- ber, December, January and February — at which time eggs are always highest in price — laid 109 eggs. If she laid 109 eggs during those live months, what must she have laid when eggs were fairly cheap in price, in March, April, May and June, when any old hen lays? IT IS VERY CHAR- ACTERISTIC OF OUR POOR PRODUCERS TO LAY WHEN EGGS ARE CHEAP. "Now, as we hold these hens up to show you, one of the big differences between these two hens is the comb. It may be, also, that the plumage ap- pears to some of you to be different, and to some the color of the beak is different, or the color of the shank, or the color of the ear-lobe will appear to be different. All these factors must be taken into consideration in tell- ing a good hen from a poor one. Of course the only sure way of knowing the egg production of an individual is by the trap-nest. Even by that we sometimes go astray, because some hens don't lay in tbe trap-nest; but to be actually sure, that is probably the only way that we know of at present to tell what a hen has laid. However, we feel confident that we can tell BY EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS the practical distinction between the good hen and the poor one. In many cases, where the trap-nest has been used so that the actual record of the bird is known, we have been able to come within twelve to fifteen, sometimes within three eggs of what the actual trap-nest record of that bird was, by judging from external charac- teristics. "I cannot tell anything about the production of a hen in February, March, April or May. If anyone would like selection work done at that time, don't call on me, because I could not do it. The poor hen might have looked just as productive as the good hen last March and April when she was producing eggs. Last March or April her comb wasn't shriveled up like it is now. Her comb might have been just as large as any hen's comb and it might not have been. At this time of the year, through July and August, and even September and October, we can tell more about the production of a hen than we can at any other time of the year. We prefer to select hens from external characteristics in the months of July, August, September and October, although some work has been done as late as November and even in December. Goes Over Hen, Section by Section "Let us go over these birds in detail. We will begin with the head, because that is always the practical place to begin. The comb of the lay- ing bird presents a waxy appearance. It is large, fat, greasy, and has a very waxy touch, while the comb of the non-laying hen is shriveled, and has more or less of what we call dandruff on it, so that there is a great deal of difference between the combs of the two individuals. Then if you look at the color of the beak in these two birds, you will see that there is a great difference. The difference in the color of the beaks now is due to a factor we will mention in just a few moments — the matter of stored up fat. "Next, in regard to the ear-lobe. You will see that the poor hen has yellow ear-lobes and the good one white ear-lobes. Then as to the shanks, there is a great deal of difference in the color. The poorer hen has the yellow shank, the yellow beak, the yellow ear-lobe. While the good hen has the white shank, the white beak and the white ear-lobe. "Sometimes we find a hen with a red comb and a hen that appears to be in laying condition, but yet is not laying. The only way of telling whether that hen is in laying condition is by the condition and color of the vent. The vent is the first part of the bird which begins to indicate egg- production. It takes in the neighborhood of six to eight or ten eggs for the color of the vent to be bleached out from a yellow to a flesh color. The good hen shows the real white or flesh color around the vent. The poorer hen shows a real yellow color around the vent and is more or less shriveled in appearance. This poorer hen has probably not produced any eggs for the — 72 — last three or four weeks, while this other hen has been in a good, heavy production all this time. "One important factor that we use and lay a great deal of emphasis on, Is in the molt of the individual. This good hen has not lost any of her feathers. They are still tight on her; her wing feathers are still old feathers and she has not lost or shed a single feather. The other individual is beginning to put on her new coat; her new feathers are coming in on her back and new feathers are being put on her neck. A hen always begins to shed first on her neck. This bird probably started to molt sometime within the last four or five weeks. Even her tail feathers are beginning to come out. You can see the difference in the wing. She has just dropped the mid- dle feather in the wing, and started to grow the other one. Select Broad Barks, Also "Capacity" "You have another factor to use — namely, the condition of the back. We like to find a bird with a broad back, a well formed back like the back of the hen I have here — very, very broad, while this other individual has a really small, sunken-in back, and as I say, the only way that you will ever get to know those conditions is by actually feeling the hens — noting these ACTUAL CONDITIONS. "There is one other factor I should mention. Some people term it 'capacity.' Term it whatever you will, but we mean the distance from the end of the breast bones to the pelvic bones. (The two pelvic bones are found one on each side of the vent. They are just above the point of the breast bone and just below the tail. The distance between these bones and their straightness indicates the ease with which a hen lays. These bones are rather wide apart and straight in the best hens. If these bones are thin from side to side It indicates that the bird is of an egg type. If the flesh and bones are fat and thick and rigid it indicates that the hen is of a meat type and will lay but few eggs.) This distance between the end of the breast bone and points of pelvic bones varies a great deal with the hens, and varies a great deal with the condition of the bird. This hen has, at the present time, only a two-finger capacity; that is, only two fingers can be placed between the end of the breast bones and the pelvic bones, showing you that this bird is greatly pinched up in the abdomen. She has not the capacity or the room to make eggs; while with this good individual, we are able to place at least four fingers from the end of the breast bone to the pelvic bones. "The point in these birds Is this: when the good hen ceases to lay her breast bones will crowd up to her pelvic bones, and there won't be this great difference that there is now, and the poorer hen, when she comes into laying, will not have this small distance that she has now because, due to her laying, her breast bone will gradually drop down. In using capacity, we should compare Leghorns with Leghorns and individuals of the same breed. The greater the capacity, the better the bird, provided she has the other characteristics outlined above. "Now then, to sum up the points that we look lor in selecting good hens from the poor ones: The first thing we look for, of course, is to see whether that bird is in good condition. And I might emphasize one other factor. Really the first thing we look for is the physical condition of the bird; we actually want to have birds 'physically fit.' Their condition must be up to A-1 in order to be productive. All of the birds we have here are healthy. If they had a disease such as canker, or any disease we, of course, would discard them. "The next factor is the molt. Any bird that has not molted by the middle of September, we would keep in the flock as a profitable bird, but you had better keep in the flock, if possible, only birds which do not molt until the first of October or after that. These birds are often hard to find. This good individual here won't, or should not, commence to molt for at least six weeks. The hen which has not molted by the middle of September is a pretty good individual, and as a rule you better hold on to her. By next spring you can use her as a breeder. But if you don't mark her this fall, there is absolutely no way that you can tell her next spring that I know — 73 — o£. The best time to mark our breeding stock is in the fall, when you- know whether a hen is "good or poor. "The question often is raised as to how long it is profitable to keep a. hen. I would not care whether this good hen was ten years old, if she was still in good laying condition at this time of the year, I would keep her. That good hen that you see on the poster is laying eggs in her fourth yeair and is still used as a breeder. "After the molt we look for the color in the beak, the color In the ear- lobe and the color in the shank. If that is yellow in August or July, or the- first of September, that hen has taken a vacation for you and you had best see that she is given an unlimited vacation. Get rid of her at once. "Question: Has the white of the eye anything to do with the laying- qualities of the hen? "Prof. Knandel: Nothing that I know of, if you mean the eye itself. That yellow color in the poorer bird Is nothing more than fat which is stored' up in the body of the bird. That fat, as the hen lays her eggs, is gradually taken out from her body and gradually drawn out from her shanks and her beak and her ear-lobes, in fact wherever there is a surplus. This fat is put into the yolk of the eggs. That is the reason that your heavy pro- ducer has the white shank at this time of the year. You have the same proposition with your dairy cow. Your fat dairy cow, your good-propor- tioned cow, takes that fat off and puts it into the milk pail. It is the same thing with the good hen. She takes the fat off of her body and puts it into the yolk of the egg. Best Time to Sell Average Hens "The best time to sell your poor hens is when they cease laying. XJsn- ally the first of September prices are high and all drones should be sold On the left is shown a bird of uniform type, one that is beautiful ini shape and color, and one where there is vitality coursing through every vein, of his body. This bird shows he is symmetrical in all sections. Such a bird. is able to produce offspring that are good for either meat or eggs. On the- right is shown a bird of the opposite type. The body is short and more or- less triangular. The comb is out of proportion. The neck is long and slender.. The bird is lacking in breast. There is a sudden break at the base of tail. The bird is entirely out of proportion. You would say no one would breed' from a specimen of this kind, yet there are thousands of people using speci- mens that are no better in shape at the head of their breeding pen. — 74 — then. You don't want to feed any more hens than you have to, any longer than you have to, with the price of feed where it is today. "Question: Is the time of the molt the same with all breeds? "Prof. Knandel: The better the hen is, the later she molts, regardless of the time she was hatched or the breed one has. The later your hen molts, the better she is. You all know of Lady Eglantine and of course many of you know she went into molt in November, following a record-laying period. Showing the actual photographs of two hens which were trap-nested at the college, the speaker said: "This good hen In her first year molted November 17; her second year, October 25. On a practical basis what would you do with this hen if this year she molts after September 15? We would keep her another year, because she would be profitable. If she molted before September I would expect that she has passed the point where it was profitable to keep her. "Question: When a hen begins to molt, does she Immediately stop laying? "Prof. Knandel: No, some hens lay right through their entire molt. Even the hen has her pecularlties. You cannot tell when a hen is going to molt. Today she may be laying and then tomorrow she will go right into a molt, and in the case of a high producing hen she will shed her feathers very quickly — seeming practically to throw them off. But few hens, if any, lay eggs at the same time they are growing feathers. She does- not have the energy to grow feathers and lay eggs at the same time. "Question: Does it make any difference in the time of molting if you take a flock of birds that have large quarters or small quarters? We have sixty-two chickens in small quarters and they are in a confined space. Sudden Change of Peed Causes Molting "Prof. Knandel: The question has been raised whether chickens con- fined to a small space would begin to molt quicker or later than hens having free range. I return again to the statement made before that the care given to a bird will in a large measure determine when that bird goes into the molt. These birds here, being fed properly a well-balanced ration, it changed and fed nothing but corn for the next week, many of them would go into the molt inside of ten days. Now then, if you change your feed very, very abruptly there is probably nothing that will send any birds into the molt quicker at this time of the year. If you change your feed grad- ually, mixing in the new feed a little at a time, that is a different proposi- tion. This is the way any ration should be changed. "Question: Does it pay to change the feed when the hen is molting? "Prof. Knandel: I would not change the feed any more than I had to. Some farmers do have to. I would not keep changing the feed. If you find a good feed, I would stick to it. Oil meal and sunflower seed when fed in moderate amounts aid in the growing of new feathers. "Question: What per cent of egg production would you have to have at the present time to make a profit? "Prof. Knandel: That will take a little figuring. I would not know except in a general way. Referring to the man, where we had a demonstra- tion in Armstrong County, and where the farmer kept account of his feed alone, not taking into consideration the depreciation, interest on his money, etc., it cost him $10.25 to feed ninety-nine hens for thirty-one days. There remained from his good hens, after his feed bill was paid, $47.25, and certainly that is a pretty good profit above feed costs. The 98 poor hens at the same time returned him a loss of $13.00, and he had to take care care of them for the fun of it." INVAIiUABLE PACTS FROM DB. PEARL ABOUT BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION (Ah address delivered before the American Poultry Association by Dr. Raymond Pearl, Biologist, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine.) No investigator in America has made a more thorough study of the — 75 — underlying principles o£ egg production than Dr. Pearl. Every paragraph of the following address is worthy of the closest study: "It is safe to say that there never has been so keen and wide-spread an interest in the improvement of poultry in respect to egg production as exists at the present time. All over the world poultry keepers are waking to the fact that some hens lay more than others: that it costs no more to hatch, rear, and care for those that lay more; and that they want this sort in their flocks. "There would seem to be little doubt that this awakening is due In considerable degree, at least, to the rapid development during the last ten years of egg laying contests in different parts of the world. We are indebted for the inauguration of such contests on a large scale to the enterprise of the Australians. In recent years we have seen their develop- ment in this country. It seems likely that we shall see a much further growth of the laying contest idea in the United States, as well as in European countries. To be sure, some of our friends of the poultry press, who apparently see nothing of value in laying tests of any sort, have been predicting that the laying competition has about run its course, and that the end is now in sight; that we are in point of fact, witnessing its last decline before utter extinction. Unprejudiced observation, however, would seem to indicate that these contests make a strong appeal to the poultry public. It is difficult to conceive of any single measure better calculated to arouse general interest in poultry keeping, and to call attention to the results which follow care and breeding. In other words, the educational value of 'laying contests would seem to be beyond question. That they can be so conducted as to contribute to existing knowledge of the laws of egg production also is beyond doubt. I have recently had the oppor- tunity of examining the detailed plans for the conduct of a series of such laying competitions, which are to be undertaken, with government subsi- dies, in two European countries. There can be no question that these plans, if carried out, will contribute materially to scientific knowledge of the laws of egg production. "Underlying the immediate stimulus afforded by the laying contests are to be found two fundamental reasons for the present interest and activity in the direction of improving egg production. These are: "(a) The poultryman's belief that egg production is an inherited char- acter. In holding this opinion he is certainly quite correct. One might, indeed, say 'knowledge" instead of 'belief here. "(b) His belief that any character which is inherited is capable of improvement by intelligent breeding. Again, this belief is entirely well founded provided only that an exception be made for characters (if there be any such), in which all possible improvement in innate hereditary con- stitution has already been made. "To say, as we have above, that 'egg production' is an inherited charac- ter is not quite enough. This might be taken to mean only the fact that the mode of reproduction, characteristic of birds — ^which is to say repro- duction by means of eggs with albuminous and calcarous envelopes — is an innate and hereditarily fixed matter in the fowl. But the poultryman is interested, as well as the investigator in the field of genetics, in something more than this. He wants to know whether the differences which he observes in egg-laying capabilities amongst different breeds, or flocks, or finally individuals, are inherited. General observations indicate to the poultryman that at bottom the foundaton of a great many of these differ- ences in laying ability with which he is familiar is hereditary. But how? And under what limitations? For plainly this is not a simple matter. If it were, none of our hens now would ever lay* less than 200 eggs per annum, except in the case of remote back woods regions, where the gospel of the trap-nest had not yet penetrated. Trap-nest selection of high producers has opened the eyes of the poultryman to one thing certainly, even though it may have obscured his vision in other directions. This thing which is clearest is that all high producing hens are not equally capable of transmit- ting this valuable quality to their progeny. So that while it may be per- fectly certain that the difference between a 200-egg producer and a 50-egg producer is in some way or other a hereditary difference, we shall not get — 76 — far towards a practical utilization of this fact until we know something more about its nature. "So, then, the first essential step to be taken towards the improvement of egg prdouction by breeding is to find out the way in which variations or differences in producing ability are inherited. For some six years past I have devoted considerable attention to this problem, with results which have been set forth in detail in a series of papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. The most recent of these papers is Bulletin 205, which has the title, 'The Mode of Inheritance of Fecundity in the Domestic Fowl.' This bulletin is technical in character. It was not written for the poultryman but for the professional student of genetics. On this account it has apparently not been quite clearly under- stood by some poultrymen, and the results and conclusions have in some cases, been misinterpreted. It will be my endeavor here, as briefly as pos- sible, to make clear the essential results of our studies. "First as to the facts: The following are simple statements of the actual results obtained in trap-nesting Barred Plymouth Rocks and Cor- nish Indian Games, and all possible sorts of crosses between these breeds, over a period, collectively, of nearly fifteen years. The total number of birds involved in these trap-nesting operations has been large, aggregating, all told, between five and six thousand individuals. Out of these records, the following facts clearly appear: "1. The record of egg production of a hen, taken by itself alone, gives no definite, reliable indication from which the probable egg production of her daughters may be predicted. Furthermore, mass selection on the basis of egg laying records of females alone, even though long continued and stringent in character, failed completely to produce any steady change in type in the direction of selection. "2. Differences in egg producing ability are, in spite of the above results, certainly inherited. There are two lines of evidence showing that this is the case. The first is that derived from the general observation that there are widely distinct and permanent (under ordinary breeding) dif- ferences in respect to egg laying ability between different breeds of fowls, and between different strains in the same breed. In the second place, a study of pedigree records of poultry at once discovers pedigree lines in each of which a definite, particular degree of egg producting ability constantly reappears generation after generation, the 'line' thus 'breeding true' in this particular. AVith all birds kept under the same general environmental con- ditions such a result can only mean that the character is in some manner inherited. "3. The number of visible oocysts on the ovary bears no definite rela- tion to the actually realized egg production. "4. This can only mean that observed differences (variations) in actual egg production depend upon differences in the complex physiological mechanism concerned with the development of oocysts, and the separation of them from the ovary and the body (laying). "For reasons that cannot be gone into here on account of lack of time, attention has been focused during the latter .phases of my study on winter egg production. From this point on we will, therefore, remember that we are confining the discussion to winter egg production. "5. It is found to be the case that birds fall into three well-defined classes in respect to winter egg production. These include (a) birds with higfi winter records, (b) birds with low winter records, and (c) birds which do not lay at all in the winter period. The division point between a and b for the Barred Plymouth Rock used in these experiments falls at a pro- duction of about thirty eggs. "The next step is to inquire for each of these classes separately how egg producing ability is inherited within the class. We may first deal with high egg production. "6. High productiveness may be inherited by daughters from their sire, independent of the dam. This is proved by a mass of detailed con- crete evidence, presented in the complete paper. This evidence consists of the results of mating after mating, in which the same proportions of daugh- ters of high laying ability are produced by the same sire, whether he is mated with dams which are poor layers or with dams which are high layers. "7. High laying ability is not directly inherited by daughters from their dam- This is proved by a number of distinct and independent lines of evidence, of which the most important are: (a) that continued selec- tion of high producing dams does not alone alter in any way the mean egg production of the daughters. If an alteration does appear in any case following such selection, further analysis shows that some additional ele- ment other than the dam's egg record came into account in making the selections of breeders, (b) The proportion of high producing daughters is the same whether the dam is of high or low fecundity, provided both are mated to the same male; (c) the daughters of a high producing dam may be either high layers or poor layers, depending upon their sire; (d) the proportion of daughters which are medium or poor layers is the same whether the dam is a high or poor producer, provided both are mated to the same male. "8. Mediocre or poor laying ability may be inherited by the daughters from either sire or dam, or both. "Now, all of these eight points are merely statements of fact. They are the results which any intelligent person who examined our extensive trap-nest and pedigree records would be bound to reach. They depend In no way upon any 'theory' of inheritance. I can assure those to whom Men- delism is as the proverbial red bag to the bull that nothing which has been said so far is even to the slightest degree tainted with this dreadful (?) doctrine. "An isolated fact does not alone contribute to the body of organized knowledge known as science. Its relation to other facts must first be understood. Now, the facts regarding egg production which have been set forth above do, as a matter of fact, accord in a remarkably clear manner with a Mendelian interpretation which has been worked out in detail In bul- letin 205. Through this interpretation this isolated group of facts is brought into relation with a much wider range of facts about inheritance in poul- try and other animals. In this way we are better able to understand (in the light of present knowledge) the meaning of our facts, and, on this basis, make plans for investigations which shall take us again a little further into the realm of the unknown, beyond the boundaries of our present knowledge. "But what is the good of all this? How is it going to help John Smith to win first prize in an egg laying competition? It must be said at the outstart that, much to my regret, neither the facts nor their Mendelian interpretation will furnish any neat little rule-of-three whereby all John Smiths can win all first prizes- Successful poultry breeding will continue in the future, as it has in the past, to demand a lot of intelligence, thought, skill and rationally directed effort. I hope and believe, however, that the results discussed above may be of some help in efforts . to improve egg production by breeding. It is farthest from my desire to claim too much for them, but I do think they help us a little in certain general directions. In the first place these results, by showing that the inheritance of egg pro- ducing ability is not a simple, uncomplicated transmission of something from dam to daughter without change, make it somewhat easier to bear the disappointments which attend devotion to the gospel of the trap-nest, in its original inspirational form. In the second place, Ihey help us to make a more just and adequate distribution of emphasis upon the different basic elements of a systematic plan for the Improvement of poultry in egg pro- duction. Finally, by furnishing a generalized mode of interpretation of observed results, or in other words, by giving a clearer and broader under- standing of how egg production is inherited these results help us to inter- pret, and profit in our own breeding operations by the experience of others. "It would be very easily possible to make out a system of matlngs, on the basis of the results of Bulletin 205, showing in a great detail how to proceed toward building up a laying strain. Indeed, such specific plans have been worked out by a number of my friends. I have refrained from doing this, however, because it seems to me to be of doubtful practical utility. Lest I should seem to be repudiating both my results and my friends, let me hasten to give my reason for this doubt. The reasons are general in character and are found in the fact that such schemes of mating are essen- — 78 — tially mechanical, whereas both the things to be bred in accordance with the scheme (the fowls) and those who are to carry out the plans (the poultrymen) are essentially living. Perhaps in final analysis the basis of life may be mechanistic, but certainly living things do not in practical every- -day life behave with that precision and definitenoss which we expect from a machine. Being a little acquainted with thme frailties of both poultry and ,poultrymen, I am not too optimistic as to the outcome of trying to breed chickens by formula. , "It seems to me that possibly it may be more helpful to try to draw out from these results some general principles in breeding for egg pro- duction, which every poultryman can apply. What then are the basic ele- ments in a well directed effort towards the improvement of poultry in egg production by breeding? I should put them in this way: "1. Selection of all breeding birds first on the basis of constitutional vigor and vitality, making the judgment of this as far objective as possible. In particular the scales should be called on to furnish evidence, (a) There ■ought to exist, for all Standard breeds of fowls, normal growth curves, from which could be read off the Standard weight which should be attained by a sound, vigorous bird, not specially fed for fattening, at each particular age, from hatching to the adult condition. These curves we shall sometime have. (b) Let all deaths in shell, and chick mortality, be charged against the dam, and only those females used as breeders a second time which show a high record of performance in respect to the vitality of their chicks, whether in the egg or out of it. This constitutes one of the most valuable measures of constitutional vigor and vitality which we have. If for no other reason than to measure this breeding performance, a portion of the breeding females each year should be pullets. In this way one can in time build up an elite stock with reference to hatching quality of eggs, and livability of chicks, (c) Let no bird be used as a breeder which is known ever to have been ill, to however slight degree. In order to know something about this, "Why not put an extra leg band on every bird, chick, or adult, when it shows the first sign of indisposition? This then becomes a permanent brand, -which marks this individual as one which failed, to greater or less degree, to stand up under its environmental measures of constitutional vigor, (d) Many of the bodily stigmata by which the poultryman, during the past few years, has been taught to recognize constitutional vigor, or its absence, liave, in my experience, little if any real significance. Longevity is a real and valuable objective test of vigor and vitality, but it is of only limited practical usefulness, because of the increasing difficulty, with advancing age, of breeding successfully on any large scale from old birds of the Ameri- can and other heavy types. "2. The use of breeders of such females only as have shown them- selves by trap-nest records to be high producers, since it is only from such -females that there can be any hope of getting males capable of transmitting high laying qualities. "3. The use as breeders of such males only as are known to be the sons of high producing dams, since only from such males can we expect to get high producing daughters. "4 The use of a pedigree system, whereby it will be possible at least to tell what Individual male bird was the sire of any particular female- This amounts, in ordinary parlance, to a pen pedigree system. Such a sys- tem is not difficult to operate. Indeed, many poultrymen, especially fan- ciers, now make use of pen pedigree records. "5. The making at first of as many different matings as possible. This means the use of as many different male birds as possible, which will further imply small matings with only comparatively few females with -each male. "6. Continued, though not too narrow, inhreeding (or line breeding) ■of those lines in which the trap-nest records show a preponderant number of daughters to be high producers. One should not discard all but the -single best line, but should keep a half dozen, at least, of the lines which throw the highest proportions of high layers, breeding each line within itself. — 79 — "Items 4, 5 and 6 imply the carrying over of a considerable number of cockerels until some judgment has been formed of the worth of their lines, through the performance at the trap-nest of their sisters. "Item 6 assumes, as an absolutely necessary prerequisite, that item 1 be faithfully and unfailingly observed. "The whole system of breeding here outlined is an application in the simplest form possible of two principles, one general and the other speciaL to the present case. "The first is the general principle of the progeny test in Weeding for performance. This is the principle which has led the plant breeder to such notable triumphs during the last fifteen years. In my judgment no system of breeding for performance in animals not fundamentally based upon it will ever achieve any permanent success. The second principle is the recognition of the significance of the male in breeding for egg production. It has been the custom in trap-nesting work to reckon pedigrees in the female line only. This we can now see to be an essentially futile procedure, so far as concerns the daughters. To say that 'this pullet is the daughter of Lady Splendissima (with a tremendous record)' is perhaps good adver- tising. It conveys no information, however, of any special value to the breeder, until he knows who was the Lady's consort in this particular repro- ductive venture. "In closing let me express my conviction that the plan of breeding for egg production set forth, which involves nothing in principle or practice which any poultryman cannot put into operation, will not fail, if consist- ently and intelligently followed, for a period of years, to bring about a material increase in the productivity of the flock. The evidence which leada me to this conclusion is the best of all evidence; I have tried it." QUESTIONS OX THE PRINCIPLES OF MATING AND BREEDING LESSON NO. 9 1. What object has a hen in laying and why do they lay more today than when in their wild state? 2. Can a reasonable amount of eggs and beauty be combined in the same fowl? Why do some flocks have all beauty and but few eggs, and others of the same variety have all eggs and but little beauty? 3. What is meant by a good strain or a poor strain of any variety o£ poultry? 4. Why is it more important to be careful in the selection of a strain than it is in the selection of a variety? 5. Mention some of the characteristics by which you would determine whether a hen or pullet was of an egg strain or not, or state in a general way just how a good layer should appear. 6. Why is it that some pens from certain breeders will have a single hon in the pen which makes a high record and the remaining birds will be below the average? 7. What can you say about the influence of egg production on size? What effect has frequent laying on color of legs, beak, feathers and ear- lobes? 8. What are the advantages of breeding for longevity of both life and egg production? 9- Taking as evidence Dr. Pearl's statements and records, is high egg laying ability inherited from the sire or from the dam? 10. What should be the first basis of selection of all breeding birds? — 80 THE CALL OF THE HEN OR THE SCIENCE OF SELECTING AND BREEDING POULTRY FOR EGG-PRODUCTION BY WALTER HOGAN Revised and Improved BY T. E. QUISENBERRY. Copyrighted, 19131 in the United States and Canada, Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, Germany and Denmark. [All Rights Reserved.] Copyrighted, I9i4. Copyrighted, 1916. Copyrighted, 1919. Copyrighted. 1920. Copyrighted, 1921. Copyrighted, 1922 PRICE, $2.00 Published and Sold by the AMERICAN POULTRY SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY, MO. DEDICATED TO THE POULTRYMEN WHO. LIKE THE AUTHOR, DO NOT KNOW IT ALL. Jefferson City The Hugh Stephens Co. Printers THE CALL OF THE HEN. Lady Show You, a White Plymouth Rock hen, that holds the world's egg record for a two-year-old hen; laid 281 eggs in the National Egg-laying Contest at the Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station, Mountain Grove, Mo. She met the Hogan test. c a-C^^ the missouri state poultry experiment Station Mountain Gbov/e. Mo. PEN MISSOURI NATIONAL £86 LAYING CONTEST MOUNTAiN GROVE 1911-19)2 %- Photographed by request of the Chamber of Commerce, Petalumai Cal. These hens weighed less than 4 pounds each and laid 131 pounds and 2 ounces of eggs. They won the prize for laying the greatest weight in eggs in the National Egg- laying Contest. Each hen's eggs would have sold for J54.50 on the Petaluma Market, if reduced to No. 1 eggs. They are the result of five years' breeding by the author from common Petaluma Single Comb White Leghorns. It is possible for the reader to do the same with almost any breed by following instructions in this book. PREFACE This is an age which demands action, appHed thought, and a prac- tical, actual, and workable science. The world is demanding to know, not "What are you?" or "What do you look like?" but "What can you do?" Drones are being culled out in all lines of business activity and rightly so; and the same is true with the poultry business. The hen which delivers the goods is the hen which is in demand. "The hen that lays is the hen that pays." We have two reasons for publishing The Call of the Hen. Some three years ago Mr. Hogan sent us three males, all Single Comb White Leghorns; one was of his 280-egg type, selected according to this system; another was of the 150-egg type, and the third was of a 70- or 80-egg type. He also sent us two pens of hens of his own selection and breeding. We trapnested all the hens, and bred from all three males. The results in every case have borne out Mr. Hogan's claims and the truthfulness of his methods of selection and breeding. We have also tested the hens in the egg-laying contests; taken measurements and made tests and judged their capacity for laying as per this system. The Call of the Hen. The results so nearly tally with the system in practically every case that we feel that this is a valuable method of selection and breeding, which should be in the hands of everyone who attempts to raise poultry. Capacity, condition, type, and vigor must all be taken into con- sideration in determining whether a hen will be a good producer or a poor producer. By making a careful and sensible application of the rules made known in this book, it is possible for any poultry-raiser to avoid great loss. . We are told and have good reason to believe that it is true, that the average farm hen lays less than 80 eggs per year. If that be true, about half the poultry is being kept at a loss to the owner. If this is the condition, are we not justified in doing something to attract the attention of the farmers and poultry-raisers to methods and practices which will lead to the production of more eggs than the average hen, and to the necessity of culling and selection, and to more careful and painstaking methods? The object of The Call of the Hen is to stimulate an interest, in increasing egg-production in all varieties of poultry and to encourage the breeding of strains of high-producers. We have come to the point where our efforts to breed fowls with perfect plumage for show purposes has overshadowed that of the ability of our hens to lay; and it can cer- tainly result in no harm to call the attention of the breeders of the nation to the good which would certainly come from a study of the things which would tend to increase egg-production. We should all be vitally concerned in any attempt to better conditions, to increase the pro- ductiveness of the hen, and to give impetus to an industry which is already one of our greatest agricultural factors. (5) 6 THE CALL OF THE HEN. For a half century the fanciers and poultrymen generally have devoted their attention to the showroom in the developnient of shape and color. No opportunity has been offered or anything specially done to encourage the farmer and poultryman to develop the natural resources of the hen — her ability to lay eggs. A few of our best experi- ment stations have made some investigations along this line and done some very valuable work indeed. Here and there an occasional poultry- breeder has given some thought and attention to breeding for egg-pro- duction; but certainly, as a whole, the attention of breeders generally has not been along this line, and it seems that this important matter has been too much neglected. Haphazard methods of mating and breeding don't pay, and in- discriminate methods cannot prove successful in building up a flock of laying hens. There never was a time in the history of this country when poultry and eggs were in greater demand; the price at which poultry and eggs sell has increased much more in proportion than has the price of feeds necessary to produce these products ; but because the industry is flourishing today more than ever before does not justify us in continuing indiscriminate or foolhardy methods. The opportunity is ours to insure greater profits, if we will but carefully and systematically solve the problem which is facing us: "How can we insure a reasonably high average egg-production?" The interests of the fancier are served through the showroom. If a breeder enters birds in a showroom and is beaten, he tries to improve his flock and perfect it by introducing new blood or by improved methods of breeding and careful selection. If he wins, he tries to keep his flock in that high state of perfection. It is just as important, and even more so that he know just what his flock can do in the matter of production, and he ought to use the same care in trying to perfect his strain of layers. There are exceptions to all rules. You will find some exceptions in selecting, testing, and breeding your poultry according to the method described in The Call of the Hen; but many breeders have tested it for some six or eight years; many of these have doubled their egg yield in this time. We feel certain that Mr. Hogan's method of selec- tion and breeding will prove him to be to the poultry industry what Burbank is to horticulture, Edison is to the electrical world, or Darwin or Mendel to the breeding kingdom. That the mastery of this method nf selection and breeding, and sensibly applying the principles revealed herein, will mean much to the poultry industry, is our honest belief. CHAPTER "A" THE VALUE OF THIS BOOK. The world is full of people who are not willing to give credit where credit is due. The American Poultry School, as publishers of this book, wish to' say that no one man has done as much to aid the poul- trymen of the world in culling out their drones and nonproducing hens as has Walter Hogan, who first discovered this system. Seven years ago, when this School first started to advocate this system, the agricultural colleges and Government authorities made sport of the thought that anything could be told about the productive ability of a hen by her external characteristics. Too many scientists are not willing to give credit unless they themselves are at least parti- ally responsible for the discovery. At that time poultry journal editors and poultry writers and contributors ridiculed any method of selection by examination of external characteristics. These same authorities and Writers looked upon anyone with suspicion who made the state- ment that he or she had a hen with a record of more than 200 eggs. But in these seven years we have noted a wonderful change. All Gov- ernment and State Institutions have been making tests, culling flocks and putting on demonstrations where the methods recommended in this book were always used, in whole or in part, in culling all flocks. Some new ideas are being developed from time to time and there is no system that is perfect. But to this School and this book is due the credit for starting all this agitation which has resulted in a definite system of culling and selection being universally used and adopted. Some breeders hesitate to sell their stock and subject it to this sort of a test, because the per cent of birds that would come up to the high standard which we all want is comparatively small. Some people who apply this test, condemn it because they do not know how to use it. Others say it did not work in their case, but upon examination we find that they used it only in part. In applying this test no one characteristic can be depended upon to indicate the true value of the bird being tested. You must take into consideration the vitality and general health of the fowl. It should have a bright, prominent eye that extends out from its head, apparently, and the eyelid should not be heavy and overhanging. The bird should be a late moulter. It should be broad across the back and the width should extend well back toward the tail. The length of the ribs, or the depth of the bird up and down, should be as great as you can get it in the individual. In the good layer the vent will be moist and large; in the poor layer it will be dry and puckered. The pelvic bones should be reason- ably thin and straight, but I would not select birds for breeders where the pelvic bones are too thin unless the other bones of the body seem to be sufficiently large to insure the bird's strength and vitality. Select birds with as much width between the pelvic bones as possible. (7) 8 THE CALL OF THE HEN. A specimen must have lots of body capacity for large digestive and egg organs, and for the consumption of a lot of food from which to manufacture a large number of eggs. Therefore, select birds with as much distance between the points of the pelvic bones and the point of the breastbone as you can find. This will vary somewhat when specimens are moulting and not in laying condition. They will show less width or distance at that time than when in full laying. The skin over the abdomen must be soft and pliable and lacking in thick, heavy fat or flesh in that particular section of the bird. The skin on a good layer will feel soft, loose and pliable in all parts of the body, more so than in a poor layer. If a hen has been a good layer in a yellow skinned variety, the yellow pigment will be laid out of the legs, toes, beak and eye rings of the bird, because same has been used by her in coloring the yolk of the egg. No single one of these characteristics or points mentioned should be taken into consideration in passing final judgment on any specimen. They all play a more or less important part and each should be given due consideration, and if that is done a poultryman can select the good birds from the poor ones with almost as much accuracy as if he had used a trapnest. The best time to apply this test is to begin about the close of the heavy laying season to the beginning of the next laying season. In other words, in most climates between June 1st and December 1st. It is a good idea to go over the birds twice during this period, making a first selection and later on a final selection, and then again before the birds are finally put into the breeding pens. No definite method has yet been found for the selection of the good layers among pullets before they have ever laid any eggs. It is difficult to use any system outside of the trapnest with any great de- gree of accuracy until the bird has passed through one laying season. Something can be told about pullets, but we do not recommend apply- ing this system until the birds have had an opportunity to produce and reach their full state of growth and development. Next to the trapnest there is no system in the world that is more accurate than that outlined in this book. We would recommend that you read the suggestions that we have given below for the selection of your layers and the culling of your nonproducers, then after you have studied Mr. Hogan's suggestions on the pages which follow and you have concluded all that he has said on the subject, come back to this Chapter "A" and read all of this chapter over a second time. You will then get its full effect and the entire book will be clearer and the system more easily and throughly understood. SELECTION VITALLY IMPORTANT. Right feeding alone is not the key to increased egg production. More depends on careful selection of the hens. Too many farm flocks are nonproducers and drones. Perhaps this is true of the entire flock, or maybe only a part, but the drones are always responsible for the ^mited profits. By selection, I do not mean that the farmer should buy prize chickens at exorbitant prices, though I do believe in good blood. But THE CALL OF THE HEN. 9 selection is just as necessary in a flock of poultry as in a dairy herd. Now, wlien you ask if the farmer can aff'ord to keep chickens when grain is so high, if you refer to the usual fliock of culls, I will say, "No." Grain is too valuable to be thrown promiscuously to nonproducing hens. It may be that you will think when I mention selection that I refer to a lot of scientific and complicated experiments. I simply mean that you should go into your flock, pick out the culls and get rid of them. A hen of low vitality is a menace to the flock, because she is susceptible to disease. She is an expense to her owner because she is a consumer and not a producer. It is a funny thing, but many farmers who would be quick to get rid of a poor cow, will keep two or three dozens hens that never have made a cent for him or never will, no matter how he cares for them. HOW TO MAKE SELECTION. The rules that govern selection are as simple as A, B, C to any observing person. For instance, a hen that is slow to feather is lacking in vitality. Anyone ought to know that. You cannot stuffs her and make her lay eggs. She is by Nature a weakling. Hens do not lay eggs because they want to ; they lay eggs because they are strong and vigorous and egg laying is a natural result which they cannot avoid. That tendency must be bred in them. Why, if the average farmer would give half the attention to his poultry that he does to his live stock he would find the poultry the best investment in many cases. Success comes from being willing to discard. When you have culled out the poor hens and got them clear off the farm, then it is time to begin think- ing about feeding for egg production and, also, let me emphasize, water- ing for egg production, for water is as essential as feed. At this time one of the greatest problems facing American poul- trymen is the ratio of profit between the cost of feed and the selling price of poultry and eggs. No poultryman can object to the high price of feed if the selling price of poultry and eggs is proportionately high. Thousands of the more or less inexperienced poultrymen, who were loaded with poor stock, drones and slackers, or who, because of inexperience, haphazard methods, or poor management, have been forced out of business. Many others in the same class are certain to go, but the future promises much for the man who has the goods and who knows how. In order to lay well, a bird must have a sound body. As a first consideration, the bird must be vigorous and healthy if it is to be able to lay well. Vigor and health are shown by a bright, clear eye, a well set body, a comparatively active disposition and an indication of good blood circulation. Further, the bird must be free from physical de- fects, such as crooked beak; excessively long toenails; eyelids that overhang so that the bird cannot see well; excessively scaly legs, or anything else that would keep the bird from seeing or getting an abun- dance of feed. LOSS OF FAT AND LOSS OF COLOR OF FAT DUE TO LAYING PIGMENTATION CHANGES. A laying fowl uses up the surplus fat in the body. Especially, it removes the fat from the skin. In yellow skinned breeds, this loss of fat can readily be seen by the loss of the yellow color. The different 10 THE CALL OF THE HEN. parts of the body tend to become white, according to the amount, of fat which is being taken from these parts, depending, of course, on the amount of fat which has been stored up in these various parts, and the circulation of blood through them. It should be recognized that all yellow-color changes are dependent on the feed, the coarseness of skin, and the size of the bird. A large bird fed on an abundance of green feed, or other material that will color the fat deep yellow, will not bleach out in color in these various parts as quickly as will a smaller bird, or one which naturally has pale yellow colorings. The changes occur in the following order: Vent. The vent changes very quickly with egg production, so that a white or pink vent on a yellow-skinned bird generally means that the bird is laying, while a yellow vent means that the bird is not laying. Eye Ring and Ear Lobe. The eye ring, that is, the inner edge of the eyelid, bleaches out a trifle more slowly than the vent. The ear lobes of Leghorns and other white-lobed varieties bleach out a little more slowly than the eye ring, so that a bleached ear lobe means a longer or greater production than a bleached vent or eye ring. Beak. The color leaves the beak beginning at the base and gradu- ally disappearing until it leaves the front part of the upper beak. The very tip of the beak is usually white before the bird is making eggs, and should not be confused with the loss of pigment due to produc- tion. A very small ring just on the crest of the curve of the beak is often the last part of the beak to lose its color. The lower beak bleaches faster than the upper, but may be used where the upper is obscured by a horn, or black color as in Rhode Island Reds and Plymouth Rocks. On the average-colored yellow-skinned birds, and on the average-sized bird, a bleached beak means fairly heavy production for at least the past four to six weeks. Shank. The shanks are the slowest to bleach out, and hence in- dicate a much longer period of production than the other parts. The yellow color leaves the outer ring of the scales, then leaves the entire scale, on the front of the shanks first, and finally, after a longer and greater production, leaves the scales on the rear of the shanks. The scales on the heel of the shank — that part of the shank just below the back of the hock-joint — are the last to bleach out, and for this reason may generally be used as an index as to the natural depth of the original yellow color of the various parts of the bird. A bleached-out shank on an average-sized bird with an average yellow color, indicates that the bird has been laying fairly heavy for at least from 15 to 20 weeks. Reappearance of Pigment. When the bird stops laying, the yellow color comes back into the vent, eye ring, ear lobes, beak, and shanks in the same sequence as it left, but the color returns much more quickly than it went out. A vacation or rest period can sometimes be determined by the end of the beak being bleached and the base being yellow, or a longer vacation or rest can be determined by the shanks being pale or some- what bleached and the beak showing a fair amount of yellow pigment. In other words, if the degree of yellow color in a bird gradually increases in density, from the vent to the eye ring, to the lobe, to the base of the beak, to the point of the beak, and to the shanks, it shows THE CALL OF THE HEN. U that the bird has laid continually without rest for a period indicated by the amount of yellow present; whereas, if the bird shows more yellow in any preceding part of the sequence as outlined, it indicates a rest period depending on the difference of the yellow color found in these parts. BODY CHANGES DUE TO LAYING. Vent. A laying hen has a large, moist vent, showing a dilated condition and looseness, as compared with the hard, puckered vent of nonlaying hens. Abdomen. The abdomen is dilated as well as the vent, so that the pelvic arches are wide-spread, and the keel is forced downward away from the pelvic arches, so as to give large capacity. The more eggs the bird is going to lay in the following week, the greater will be the size of the abdomen in proportion to the size of the bird. The actual size of the abdomen is, of course, greatly influenced by the size of the bird and to a certain extent, by the size of the egg laid. Quality of Skin. Heavy production is shown by the quality of the skin. Fat goes out from the skin and body with production, so that the heavy producers have a soft, velvety skin that is not under- laid by heavy layers of hard fat. The abdomen in particular is soft and pliable. Pelvic Arches or Pelvic Bones. Heavy production is shown by the quality and the thickness and stiffness of the pelvic arches or bones. In heavy producers these are apt to show high qualities by being thin and pliable rather than stiff and thick; hence the thicker and blunter the pelvic bones and the greater the amount of fat and meat covering them, the less the production, or the longer the time since production ceased. The pelvic bones are those found on each side of the vent and abdomen. They are. just below the tail bone and just above the rear point of the breastbone. These bones will be thin, straight and pliable in a good layer. They are usually crooked or thick and covered with heavy skin and fat in a poor layer. Determine their thickness by pinching them between the thumb and first finger. These bones should not only be thin, but there should be a good distance between the point of the breastbone and the pelvic bones. There should also be con- siderable distance between the two pelvic bones when the hen is in laying condition, but not so much when she is not laying. The spread or distance between the pelvic bones and point of breastbone can be roughly measured for practical purposes by deter- mining how many fingers can be laid between the bones. If the spread measures two fingers or less the probabilities are that the hen is not laying, while if the spread is greater, she is probably laying. In measur- ing this spread the size of the hens of different breeds, with the cor- responding natural difference in the spread, must be kept in mind. Distance from Pelvic Bones to Keel Bone. A hen laying well is a good eater. Her intestines are, therefore, fuller and more distended, and require more room than when she is not laying and not eating so much. When laying, the ovary and oviduct are of greater size and require more room. To provide this extra room, the distance from the rear end of the keel to the pelvic bones increases with a consequent increase in size of the abdomen. A spread of three or more fingers 12 THE CALL OF THE HEN. in the smaller breeds such as the Leghorn, and four or more fingers in the larger breeds such as the Plymouth Rock, indicates that the hen is in a laying condition. A spread of less than three fingers in the smaller breeds and less than four fingers in the larger breeds in- dicates that she is not in laying condition. Sternal Processes. These, like the pelvic arches, should, in a bird of good production or in a bird which is producing heavily, show good quality by being soft and pliable, prominent, and generally bent outward. Head. One of the finer indications, yet one of the most valuable in picking the high layers, is the fineness of the head. The head of a good layer is fine; that is, the wattles and ear lobes fit close to the beak and are loose and flat, the face is clean cut, and the eyes are full, round, clear, and prominent, especially as seen from the front. Feathering. The high layer is trimmer and always apt to be somewhat more angular; that is, the feathers lie closer to the body than on the poor layers, and after heavy production the oil from the base of the feathers does not keep the plumage relatively so sleek and glossy as on a poorer layer. On the other hand, the plumage of the heavy layer is apt to become worn and threadbare. Comb, Wattles, and Ear Lobes. The comb, wattles, and ear lobes enlarge or contract, depending upon the activity of the ovary. If these parts are large, full, and smooth, or hard and waxy, the bird is in full lay. If the comb is limp, the bird is only laying slightly, but is not laying at all when the comb is dried down, especially at molting time. If the comb is warm, it is an indication tha t the bird is coming back into production. Molting. When a bird stops laying in the summer, she usually starts molting. The later a hen lays in the summer, or the longer the period in which she lays, the greater will be her production; hence the high producer is the late layer and the late molter. The length of time that a hen has been molting, or has stopped laying, can be de- termined by the molting of the ten large feathers at the end of the wing — primary feathers. It takes about six weeks to renew com- pletely the primary feather next to the middle feather of the wing, and an additional two weeks for each subsequent or outer primary to be renewed. Temperment and Activity. A good layer is more active and yet more easily handled than a poor layer; she shows more friendliness, and yet elusiveness, than a poor layer. A poor layer or a bird which is loafing is apt to be shy, staying on the edge of the flock, and will gener- ally squawk when caught. Type. In order to make a good record a hen must not only lay long, but heavily. In order to lay heavily she must have sufficient body capacity to digest large amounts of food rapidly. Large capacity in a laying hen is shown by a body that is deeper at the rear end of the keel than at the front end. The under line should be fairly straight and the back should be comparatively horizontal. A small capacity hen stands erectly. The body is either very shallow or, in the case of beefy individuals, the abdomen shows a pro- nounced sagging at rear of keel. A small-capacity hen generally pos- sesses a hump on the back. The comb generally has sharp, narrow points, with the blades pointing up. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 13 The general body conformation of a heavy producer conforms very closely to a rectangle with pronounced angles rather than smooth curves. A male shows the same general characteristics except that the abdomen is not so deep. The keel bone should be long and the body relatively deep in pro- portion to weight or length. Cull These Hens. Sick, weak, lacking vigor, inactive, poor eaters, molted or started to molt, with small, puckered, hard, dry vents; with small, shriveled, hard, dull-colored combs; with thick or coarse stiff pelvic bones, pelvic bones close together, small spread between pelvic bones and rear end of keel, and full, hard, small abdomen. In breeds with yellow skin and shanks the discarded hen should also show yellow or medium yellow shanks and yellow beaks and vents. Save These Hens. Healthy, strong, vigorous, alert and active; good eaters; not molting or just beginning to molt in September or October; with large, moist vents; with large, bright-red combs; thin, pliable pelvic bones well spread apart, wide spread between pelvic bones and rear end of keel, and large, soft, pliable abdomen. In breeds with yellow skins and shanks, the hens saved should also show pale or white shanks, and pale or white beaks and vents. GET RID OF THE DRONES. Before carrying your birds through another season, take one more look at them, and keep the following rules in mind when making your selection : 1. Market those which have been slow to feather or seem to lack vitality. 2. Keep the pullets which mature quickly and start laying first. Those which start laying when less than 200 days old will be the best layers if they have the right care. 3. Keep the late molters. 4. Keep the birds with rather large, plump combs and wattles. 5. Hens with pale vents, pale beaks and pale legs have been good layers. 6. The skin of the best layers should be rather loose and flabby on the abdomen between the vent and breastbone. , 7. The pelvic bones must be thin, straight, flexible and wide apart. 8. Market the hens which are baggy behind and which have a heavy, fat, thick abdomen which hangs down below the point of the breastbone. 9. Keep the hustlers and heavy eaters that go to bed late and with full crops. 10. Birds that have long toenails and show no signs of being workers are usually unprofitable. 11. If a bird meets the above requirements, it should have a broad back, long body, be stoutly built and in good flesh. 12. If a bird is not molting and still has a small dried-up comb covered with a sort of whitish substance, or if a bird has thick or crooked pelvic bones, which will be found on each side of the vent and above the point of the breastbone, these are always money losers. 14 THE CALL OF THE HEN. The best known methods of selecting the laying hen without the use of the trapnest is contained in this book. It tells plainly how to weed out the slackers and how to breed to increase egg production. No man or woman can afford to feed a flock of drones at the present prices of feed, but the good layers will make more profit than in any previous year. Kansas City, Mo. T. E. QUISENBERRY, Pres. American Poultry School. IT PAYS TO CULL TO. SLIHIirATB UJFEBIOR BlfiBS TO SELECT BEST TOB BBEEBIITQ GOOD HOW TO TELL from the White \ Large > Moist/ White White White White Wide Thin > Large \ Pltunp > BrlghV Bright \ Bulging/ Lean Span Comb Head: THE BAD Vent Eye ring Ear lobe Beak 1 Shanks < Yellow Small Dry Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow /Harrow \Thiok /Small < Shrunk \Duli /Dull \Flat Jlat FIG. 4— CULLING IN A NUTSHELL. This effective chart was prepared by the New Jersey Experiment Station and. puts the principal external characters of good and poor layers in sharp contrast. FOREWORD The writer's introduction into poultry-keeping was in the city ol Boston, Massachusetts, in the autuimn of 1857. By the spring of '68 I had a flock of nearly 400 birds, among them a lot of the best Single Comb White Leghorns that I could find. I went in person to New York City to get them. My friends thought such extensive poultry- keeping the limit of folly, and freely remarked that I was going crazy. In those days eggs were almost worthless during the spring and summer months, but would often sell for fifty cents per dozen in the winter. This set me to thinking that perhaps it might be possible to increase the egg yield in the winter and by so doing make the fad a better paying proposition. Through my experiments I found that all hens were not alike; that some would be very good table fowl and poor layers, others would be very good layers and poor table fowl, while still other hens would be very fair table fowl and very fair layers. At this time we had all the old-fashioned breeds we could get, and discarded them all for the Single Comb White and Brown Leghorns. I had decided that knowl- edge was of commercial value only when applied, and having a working knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the hen, I decided to try to turn the same to a commercial account, and in a couple of years had evolved what is now known as the "Walter Hogan System," which consists in ascertaining the value of a hen for the purpose you desire by the relative thickness of and distance apart of the pelvic bones. Before 1873 I had communicated this discovery to some of my friends under promise of secrecy. One of them, Albert Brown, once a well- known banker of Amesbury, Massachusetts, and O. H. Farrar of the same place, an overseer in the Hamilton Mills, and a Light Brahma specialist. After using the above so-called "system" for a number of years, I developed a new method, which I have taught in part privately for some years, and which I now introduce to the public under the title of "The Call of the Hen; or. The Science of Selecting and Breeding Poultry." My friends early prophesied that my penchant for invention would land me in the poorhouse in my old age. So by some occult inspiration I was induced to abstain from publishing any part of my discoveries until 1904, when, by the advice of Ex-Congressman Haldor E. Boen of Minnesota, to whom I had confided my poultry secrets some years previous, I decided to publish only my first discovery, known as the "Walter Hogan System" (which will be found in the latter part of this work), after the same had been tested at the Minnesota State Experi- mental Station by Professor Hoverstadt, the superintendent of the station. However, before taking any steps to bring this matter before the public, I wrote to some thirty or more poultry judges, who were supposed to be selected as judges to ofificiate at the coming poultry show to be held in Buffalo during the exhibition at that place in 1901, asking them if they knew of any way to tell when a pullet was about (15) Ifi THE CALL OF THE^HEN. to lay. I thought that if they did not know that much of the laying proposition, I would be safe in going ahead with publishing my secrets. The letters I received were left in Minnesota when I came to California shortly before the earthquake in 1900, so I cannot name the judges at present, but they will remember me as the proprietor of the Fergus Falls Woolen Mills; and I must say they replied in a very courteous manner, saying there was no way except the general appearance of the bird, as to its maturity of form, redness of comb and wattles, singing, looking for nest, etc. One only of the number charged me one dollar for this information. Failing health obliged me to dispose of my manufacturing business and retire to the farm, and it was in the spring of 1905 before I published my "Walter Hogan System," when it appeared in a number of poultry papers. (See Reliable Poultry Journal, March, 1905.) I did not copyright the work at that time, although my experience in mechanical inventions had taught me that I should have done so, and the following August imitations began to appear until in 1912 a number of different parties in the United States and foreign countries were claiming author- ship and selling it under the same or different titles. My years of research and expense brought me no financial returns, and in the spring of 1906 I left Minnesota for California, a physical and financial wreck. After having regained my health, I began here at Petaluma to build up the same kind of a flock of layers that I had done in previous years, with the idea of publishing my entire work when I should have bred up a strain of 200-egg hens and better. After I removed to California, Professor M. E. Jaffa, of the Uni- versity of California, became interested in the matter, and at the request of the Petaluma Poultry Association, had the discovery tested at the California Poultry Experimental Station for two years, and continued for two years longer for the purpose of determining the value of four- year-old hens as layers, as it is outlined in this book in the chapter relating to the selection of the best layers in a flock. It was also tested in New Zealand by D. D. Hyde, chief poultry expert for the New Zealand Government, and Prof. Brown, of the New Zealand Poultry Experiment Station. I have repeatedly been requested by my friends in different parts of the world to publish the full matter i)j book form, but poor health and lack of sufficient funds have pre- vented me from doing so until now. As this work will be copyrighted, I do not anticipate the literary pirates will raid it as they have my former work. In justice to the poultry fraternity, I want to say that while I have been and am now a member of the American Poultry Association, and have raised poultry fifty-six years, and now raise them by the thousand, I have never in the past classed myself as a "poultry- man" in the strict sense of the word. Neither do I claim that I am the only one who has discovered the facts set forth in this book. I only know that I have never seen them in print before. I know what the results of following this method have been with me, and I feel safe in assuming that the things I have discovered have not been known. Hundreds have known me as an inventor and woolen manufacturer where one would know me as a "poultry crank;" and the apology I have for offering this book to the public in a field already crowded with poultry literature is the earnest solicitation of my friends. , Walter Hogan. Petaluma, Cal., July 7, 1920. THE CALL OF THE HEN; OR, THE SCIENCE OF SELECTING AND BREEDING POULTRY By WALTER HOGAN. CHAPTER I. The Underlying Principles Which Govern the Selection and Breeding of Poultry are Capacity, Condition, Type, Con- stitutional Vigor and Prepotency. In the winter of 1910 I received a letter from a woman in Oregon which read as follows: "Dear Sir — My husband is a machinist. He is getting old and his health is failing. We have both worked hard all our lives, and have saved enough to buy a small place in the country. We can no longer do hard work, and in looking for some light occupation that would bring weekly returns, we have looked favorably on the poultry business. We have kept a small flock of hens on a town lot for a number of years, and think we have done well with them. We also take four poultry papers, but each one tells a different story, and we cannot decide what to do. We have been years accumulating our little savings, and if we should lose them, we would have no resources left for our old age. I enclose two articles from the September (1910) number of the Pacific Fanciers' Monthly. One article gives me to understand that it is almost hopeless to think of making a living with hens, if we depend on selling eggs and poultry on the market. The other article holds out the promise of a possible income of a thousand dollars per year from 300 hens if handled under right conditions. One means utter failure and bank- ruptcy in market eggs and poultry, and the other means the fullest measure of success. Both of these articles are in the same number and one follows the other on the same page. How can you reconcile these two conflicting opinions?" (The articles follow.) "A Common Question Wisely Answered. "By George Scott. "Can a living be made from poultry? Probably there is no one who has attained distinction in the avicultural arena to whom this ques- tion has not been put hundreds of times ; and it is a question of perennial interest to the poultry-keeping public. There are many people who will tell you that a living, and a good living, can be made from poultry- keeping alone, and as proof of their statement will point out the numer- ous men whose names are household words in the fancy. On the other hand, a vast majority will most emphatically give utterance to state- (17) 18 THE CALL OF THE HEN. merits calculated to deter any poultry-keeping aspirant, and give weight to their contention by citing hundreds of cases where men have tried and failed. Truly the mass of evidence appears to be with the latter belief, for it is an indubitable fact that for every person who succeeds in this business a hundred fail. But, looking at the matter from a logical point of view, the fact that a minority rely on poultry for their daily bread, is ample evidence that it iS quite possible to make a living out of poultry-keeping, and the abnormal number of failures merely proves that the business is a difficult one. "The fact that a man who has failed in some other business takes up poultry-keeping with a like result in no sense proves that poultry- keeping does not pay; it is only what could be expected, and any ex- perienced aviculturist would have prophesied such a result. It is, however, useless to explain such things to the man who is contemplating starting a poultry farm. To suggest that he is unfit for the task would be taken by him as an insult, for the public, in its ignorance, has con- ceived the idea that poultry management is the simplest work that anyone can think of — in fact, I question whether an outsider considers it to be work at all. "Such a hold has this belief obtained on the man in the street that it almost amounts to a superstition, and until the fallacy is exploded the number of the unsuccessful will be constantly increased. The public, apparently, cannot understand the difference between keeping a few fowls as a paying hobby and managing a poultry farm is an enormous one, and that the minor difficulties to be met with in the former case are increased a thousand fold in the latter. "Probably there is no other business which calls for so many qual- ifications as that of the poultry-farmer, and to say that the man who has been successful in any other walk in life is totally unfitted for this business, though somewhat exaggerated, will give the tyro some idea of what is wanted. An intimate detailed knowledge of poultry manage- ment, an unlimited reserve of perseverance, determination, and resource, a genuine love for fowls, the capacity for hard, continuous work for seven days a week, combined with business knowledge and thrifty man- agement, are all essential, and will, with ordinary luck, lead one to the desired goal. "I am very dubious as to whether a living can be made from utility poultry-keeping, pure and simple — that is to say, by selling eggs and birds solely for edible purposes. A profit can undoubtedly be made, but it is so infinitesimal that the income derived from this source alone would, I am afraid, scarcely suffice for the needs of the most parsimonious. If it is decided to specialize in utility points, pure-bred stock must be kept of the popular varieties, and eggs for hatching, day-old chicks, and stock birds must be sold. This will make all the difference, and once a connection has been worked up, there is no reason why the busi- ness should not pay, and pay well. "The breeding of exhibition birds is, without doubt, the most profitable branch, and when once a name has been made, stock and eggs can be disposed of at most remunerative prices. Success, however, cannot be attained at once; it is often the work of years; and many breeders never rise from the ranks of mediocrity. Moreover, much capital is required to start an exhibition poultry farm, and one's expenses THE CALL OF THE HEN. 19 incurred in the management are infinitely heavier than in the case where utility points are the only consideration. "I would not advise anyone unversed in poultry-culture to give up a situation, however poor, in order to go in for poultry-keeping as a means of earning a livelihood. To think of such a thing is foolish in the extreme, but for anyone to burn one's boats behind one in this way would be suicidal. What I would suggest to poultry-keeping aspirants (and I believe the number of these reaches well into four figures) is that they should keep as many fowls as they can attend to properly in their spare hours, and see what profits they can make from the birds. Above all, they must find out if they have a genuine love for the work, for with- out this nothing can be done. When a name has been made as a breeder of good stock, then, and then only, is it time for the amateur to consider the advisability of adopting poultry- keeping as a business; and long before this point is reached the glamour of the idea may have faded for the life of a poultry-keeper is, contrary to popular belief, far from being a bed of roses. Practically all the men who are today making a living from poultry commenced keeping fowls as a hobby, and the knowledge and experience which they gained in this way enabled them to found the establishments which are to-day of world-wide reputation. "To those who are qualified for the work poultry-keeping offers a good living; but to the idle, the thriftless or the pleasure-seekers of this holiday-making age it offers more desolate prospects than any other trade or profession. In this business nothing but dogged determination will enable the beginner to climb the rugged, precipitous path to success, and anyone who is lacking in this essential, or who is afraid of hard, continuous work, will save himself the obloquy of failure by choosing some other field in which to exercise his powers." "The Good Little Hen. "What She Will Do for You if You -Will Treat Her Right. ''By Mrs. A. Basley. "There is money in poultry for the man and especially for the woman thar will dig it out. This I can assure the Fanciers' Monthly readers, if they are in doubt. " 'Dig it out' seems a curious way of putting it. When I spent a summer in a big mining camp in Colorado, I noticed a great many holes in the sides of the mountains. 'Yes,' said a miner, 'and not 5 per cent of those holes have paid.' It was appalling to think of the thousands of dollars lost in those holes. 'Give me a hundred hens,' said I. The money it took to dig one of those unprofitable holes would have started a fine poultry plant and the good little hens would have brought in a livmg for their owners. "There is money in poultry. Every inch of a hen is valuable. I would like to give you one of the values of the hen and what it costs to keep her. "First, there are the eggs she will lay, if properly fed and treated. Twelve dozen eggs per year is the average, although I personally know pf>ultry plants now being operated in Southern California where the output, as shown by carefully kept records, is sixteen dozen per year. The average price at the Arlington Egg Ranch for the past year was 20 THE CALL OF THE HEN. 31 cents a dozen, because the proprietor arranged to have his hens laying when eggs cost most, in the fall and winter months. "Sixteen dozen eggs at 31 cents a dozen means each hen brings in $4.96 in eggs, whilst her food costs 10 cents per month or $1.20 per year, leaving $3.76 as profit for eggs. "There is still another source of profit in the hen, and that is in the droppings. At several of the experiment stations it has been found that a hen voids about 100 pounds of droppings per year in the fresh,, moist state. These droppings have been analyzed and show a value as fertilizer of from 30 to 35 cents per hen ; the value being controlled not only by the market demand, but also by the quality; the droppings being richer as fertilizer where the food was rich in protein and where the hens are. fed the 'full and plenty' method. " 'What do you do with the hen droppings?' I asked a beginner. 'Throw them away; glad to get rid of them,' was the reply. At the rate of $10.00 per ton, that was a waste of 50 cents per hen. Two of our neighbors had lawns which were in so bad a condition from the soil being worn out that they were on the point of having them dug out and new soil put in and the whole re-sowed, when they thought of their hen droppings; these they had spread over the lawns and then raked off again and the lawns well watered. In a month's time those lawns looked beautiful — better far than if they had been re-made, and at far less cost. "When I lived in the Eastern States, my window garden was the envy and admiration of everyone that passed; there were flowers galore all through the dark winter gloom and cold frosty days. I loved my plants, took good care of them in every way, but the secret of the won- derful blossoms was hen manure. "Once a month I half-filled a bucket with hen droppings, poured a kettleful of boiling water on it, filled the bucket with the water, stirred it with a stick, let it settle and cool, and watered the plants with that liquid. I found that hen droppings enrich the ground for almost all plants better than anything; roses are the only exception that I have found, they doing much better when fertilized with well-rotted cow manure. "But to return to our hen. She gives 26 pounds' weight of eggs, or sixteen dozen, valued at $4.96; she also gives 100 pounds of valuable fertilizer, worth here $10 a ton, or 50 cents per hen, which brings the amount of her earnings to $5.40, and at the end of the year we still have the hen to eat or sell at market value, about 75 cents or $1.00. If we eat her, we have the feathers, which are easily saved, and can be sold or made into pillows, the bones pounded up and fed to the other fowls. "Poultry pays, and pays better than any other legitimate business, considering the amount invested. Why then are there any failures? I will tell you why: The failures are not the fault of the good little hen. She will always do her duty; she will always respond to the treat- ment she gets. The failures are the people who care for the hen. The owners are the failures, and not the fowls. "Success is what we all want to attain in whatever we undertake: and, 'lest we forget' some of the things which lead to success, may I repeat that there are three essentials to egg-production. These are: Comfort, Exercise, and Proper Food. I would like to review these." THE CALL OF THE HEN. 21 I wrote the lady that both of these articles were right. Let us see if we can prove the statement. If the reader has ever had any ex- perience with cattle, he knows it would be sure folly to buy a herd of Polled Angus or Herefords for a dairy farm, for they have been bred for years for beef, and practically everything fed to them goes to meat; while it would be just as foolish to buy a herd of Jersey cows and expect to make a living from them raising beef, as they have been bred for years for butter-fat, and practically everything fed to them goes to milk and cream. If the reader's experience has been with horses, he is aware that a man engaged in teaming would not select the trotting type of horse, neither would a turfman put his money on an 1800-pound Clyde horse, if the balance of the field were trotting horses; that would not be horse sense. Now, the same comparison holds good in the poultry field, except with this difference, that the egg type and meat type in poultry have never been segregated into different breeds, and each breed bred for a number of years along the line it was intended for — the egg type bred for eggs alone, and all birds inclined to meat-production dis- carded — both male and female, and the meat type bred for meat, with- out regard to eggs, except enough to perpetuate the species, just as the typical butter cattle and typical beef cattle have been bred. I have seen a great many cases like the first mentioned article, where a person would go into the poultry business and get started with stock that was of the meat type, and, not knowing any better, would think that all poultry was the same as his, and the only way any money could be made in the business was to sell fancy birds and eggs at fancy prices. Now, these people are not to blame for what they do not know. They think their hens are as good layers as any other hens and they have no way of knowing any better. I have also seen a great many cases like Mrs. Basley writes of except the profits were not so large, owing to different environment I suppose. These people had the same breed of hens as the parties before mentioned, but they were fortunate in getting the egg type, and they made money with their hens. Everyone thinks every other person's hens are the same as theirs, if they are of the same breed, and that is the reason there are so many different conflicting statements in the poultry papers, and not because the writers are not intelligent or not truthful, as some suppose. From a scientific point of view, and apart from the fancy, and as far as the knowledge of meat and egg pro- duction is concerned, the poultry business is in its infancy, and the people who write for the poultry papers give their experience for your benefit. That is all. To further impress on your mind the difference between poultry and other stock, I would say that while some individual cattle of the various beef breeds will not be a paying proposition, the only safe plan is to select your leaders from the beef family; and while some Jersey cows will not pay as butter-producers, still, as a breed, they are among the best for that purpose. Though some trotting horses do not make good, as a rule, they will carry you over the road in good time, and though some draft-type teams are not sure pullers, they are a success as a class. The same general laws apply to all animal nature. The hen is no exception, only in this respect: that while cattle and horses have been bred so that as a rule novices can select the type they wish by selecting the breed, hens have not been bred that way. We have what purport 22 THE CALL OF THE HEN. to be egg breeds and dual-purpose breeds. The first are supposed to be a paying proposition as a whole for egg-production. The latter are supposed to be a paying proposition for both eggs and meat combined; some breeders claiming that their breed will give you the very largest number of eggs per year and the greatest weight of flesh all in one bird. Now, these claims are misleading. It is an utter physical impossibility for any hen to be a typical egg type and at the same time be a typical meat type. It is against the laws of Nature. We have the Leghorns, Minorcas, Spanish, and a number of other Mediterranean breeds that are called "egg type." While the truth is, that while they have been bred as best the breedeis knew how along the lines of egg-production, you can find vast numbers that will not lay eggs enough to pay for the feed they eat. Great numbers in some flocks have all the characteristics of the beef type, and will lay about three or four dozen eggs per year and sometimes not over a dozen. The Plymouth Rocks, Orpingtons, Wyandottes, and Langshans are classed as "dual-purpose" breeds, which means hens that will lay a medium number of eggs and give a good large carcass for the table; and while this is true in a majority of cases, I have seen numerous specimens that laid over two hundred and fifty eggs per year, while some would lay little or nothing. In fact, while I have bred Leghorns for more than forty years, and they are my favorite breed, I must say I have found as good layers (within a few eggs) in all the other breeds I have named as I have found in the Leghorns, and I have also found as poor layers among the Leghorns as I have found in any other breed. As far as the number of eggs is concerned, as a rule, I find that the breed of the hen has nothing to do with it whatever. I do not wish to be considered dogmatic in anything I may say in this work. I am merely giving the opinions I have formed by ob- servation and experiment during a period of fifty-six years that I have kept poultry, not to make all the money I could out of them, but to learn all I possibly could about them — in fact, until a few years ago I never kept poultry for the money there was in it. The keeping of hens has been a passion with me. I have spent years of time and thousand? of dollars, but I think I have found something that will be of inestimable value to the world, and I have found it not because I was any better fitted for the work than thousands of other lovers of poultry, but be- cause I stuck everlastingly to it, without any regard as to whether it paid me in dollars or not. As previously stated, it is not a matter of breed as to whether a hen is a good layer or not. It is a matter of type, capacity, and consti- tutional vigor. First, in almost all breeds there is a type of hen where everything she consumes over bodily maintenance goes to the pro- duction of eggs. This we call the "typical egg type." Second, there is a type where about half the food consumed over maintenance goes to the production of eggs, the balance over bodily maintenance going to make flesh. This is called the "dual-purpose type," as this hen performs two functions that are considered necessary in the economy of Nature: the production of eggs and the production of meat on a commercial scale. Third, there is a type where everything consumed over bodily maintenance goes to flesh. This hen we call the "meat type," for the reason that practically all her energy is used in producing meat. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 23 Now, here we have three distinct types of fowl in almost every breed. We have divided these three types into six separate classes for each type: No. 1 of the typical egg type hen may lay about 36 eggs ; No. 2 may lay about 96 eggs; No. 3 may lay about 180 eggs; No. 4 may lay about 220 eggs; No. 5 may lay about 250 eggs; No. 6 may lay about 280 eggs; All this is in their first laying year. No. 1 of the dual-purpose type hen may laj' about 20 eggs; No. 2 may lay about 50 eggs; No. 3 may lay about 96 eggs; No. 4 may lay about 115 eggs; No. 5. may lay about 130 eggs ; No. 6 may lay about 145 eggs; This is in their first laying year. No. 1 of the typical meat type may lay from nothing to a dozen eggs. Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 may lay from nothing to a couple of dozen eggs, and, as a rule, will lay these in the spring when the crows lay. The reason is very plain, if we stop to think that the same natural laws govern all animal (and human) nature. The egg type hen is of a nervous temperament (that is why she is usually free from body lice, if she has a suitable place to dust in), and all she eats over bodily maintenance goes to the production of eggs. The hen of the sanguine temperament is a little more beefy, and lays less eggs; the hen of the bilious temperament is more beefy still, and lays still less eggs, while the hen of the lymphatic temperament will lay little or nothing, almost everything she eats going to flesh and fat. (The reader need borrow no trouble over the meaning of the terms "nervous," "sanguine," "bilious," and "lymphatic" temperament, if he is not familiar with them, as the charts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 will specify matters so that anyone can understand the matter of selecting the dif- ferent grades of hens with very little study and trouble.) We have said that we have divided the three grades, the egg type, dual-purpose type, and meat type, into six separate classes. There is, in fact, a seventh class, but it is so rare that we will not take it into consideration here, but will explain it later. But we have, in fact, made ninety classes of these six for convenience in selection, and the process could be extended indefinitely, but it would serve no needful purpose. Now, when we consider all these different grades in the hens of every breed, and the further fact that there is the same number of different grades in the male bird, is it any wonder that there is so much difference of opinion in regard to the profits derived from poultry- keeping? We have visited hundreds of poultry plants that numbered from about fifty to two thousand or more hens each. We have seen some flocks of five hundred that would not pay for the feed they con- sumed, for the simple reason that they were not the right type of hens. They were fine-looking, healthy meat-producers, but there was no earthly way possible to feed them that would induce them to lay eggs at any time except a few months in the spring when the crows laid, and eggs were cheap. The owners of some of these flocks were bright, brainy, vigorous business men, who tried every method that usage and 24 THE CALL OF THE HEN. science suggested, and fought with sheer desperation to make a success of the business, but went down in failure; while their next neighbor, a little pin-headed, conceited specimen of humanity, strutting around like a peacock, was getting rich with the same breed of hens. "Luck," do you say? Yes, it is mostly a matter of chance. The first man was unfortunate in that he got his eggs or breeding-hens from stock such as that described in the first article of the Fanciers' Monthly, while the last man got his eggs or breeding-pens from stock described by Mrs. Basley in the second article. We once visited a gentleman who had a very extensive poultry plant. He had a large number of different breeds yarded off in finely appointed yards, with help and financial means to satisfy every need of a poultry plant. His pens of Rocks, Orpingtons, and Langshans were remarkable layers, while his Cochins, Houdans and Polish were very good layers. After looking over the last-named birds, he re- marked: "I have 500 Leghorn hens that are eighteen months old which I wish you would look at." After we had looked at them a few minutes, he asked, "What do you think of them as layers?" I replied that if he would tell me which pen laid an average of all the pens, I would tell him in a few minutes. "That pen there," said he, pointing to No. 20, "has laid an average number of all the eggs laid." After examining the hens, I told him I would not take them as a gift, if I had to keep them one year. "Why"? he asked. "Because," I replied, "after keeping them a year and selling them, the price I would receive for the hens and the eggs they would lay would not pay for their feed. I cannot see why you keep them." The next evening he said to me, "Do you see that man moving into the place over yonder? Well, I have sold those Leghorn hens to that newcomer for $500." "Is this an exceptional case?" you ask. I have only this to say: that all the David Harums are not in the horse business, neither can I see why a poultryman should be his brother's keeper, when it is not the rule in other lines of business. It seems to me the better way is to study poultry from a scientific point of view, so that you can judge the value of a hen for the purpose you want her for, and not have to depend on other people's opinions. By studying this book carefully you will be able to tell approximately the number of eggs a hen is capable of laying in a year; you can also select the hens that will be the best for breeding purposes, for eggs, for meat, or as a dual-purpose hen — that is, a hen that will give you the largest number of eggs possible with the largest possible amount of meat when you wish to sell her, or the hen that will produce the best broilers, regardless of any one particular breed. Some hens will be very good layers, some very good meat-producers, some very good dual-purpose type, and some very fine fancy birds, and you can mate them with the same type of male bird and breed from these birds for a few generations, and fibeir progeny will degenerate. The chickens from the hens and cockerels or cock birds of the 200-egg type may lay less each generation, until in eight or ten generations they may not lay enough to pay for their feed. The progeny from some of the best meat and dual-purpose type matings will sometimes degenerate just as the egg type, until they are practically worthless as profitable meat pro- ducers. The chicks from the fancy mating may be a failure from the fancier's point of view. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 25 This is the rock that some old poultry-breeders are sometimes wrecked upon. One case of national interest was the case of the late lamented Professor Gowell, of the State of Maine Experiment Station. He had started some years before to breed up a heavy-laying strain by using the trap-nest, selecting eggs for hatching from hens that were his best layers and conformed as near as possible to the standard, and using cockerels hatched from these eggs to mate with his hens. Now this was all right as far as it went, but there was something that the Professor had not taken into consideration. He had procured the best birds he could find, had trap-nested them to discover the hens that were the most prolific layers, had selected the eggs from what he had considered to be the best hens for the purpose (and few men had better judgment in this respect). He had mated up the best-looking cockerels from these best eggs from the best-laying hens, and according to all apparent precedents was he not justified in expecting an increase each year in egg-production? But what were the results? If reports are true, there was a decrease in egg-production, and what do you suppose was the cause? There must be some cause. There is a cause for every effect. Sometimes we think things just happen; that there is no natural law that governs them; that in this or that case it was all chance; that it may not have happened to another person, and will not be likely to happen to us again, and so we dismiss the matter only to have the same thing repeat itself, until we either solve the problem or meet our doom through it. And thereby hangs a tale. Some time in the summer of 1905 I received a letter from a doctor in one of the suburbs of Boston, asking me what I would charge to visit Orono, Maine, and have a talk with Professor Gowell, and incidentally to drop a few remarks that might be of some help to him in his in- vestigations. I had never met the Professor, but I replied to the Doctor that I would go (I was then living in Minnesota), and would pay my own expenses, as I wished to visit Boston, my birthplace, and where I first started in poultry-keeping in 1857, and it would be a small matter to go from there to Orono, Maine, where Professor Gowell was con- ducting his experiments. While I was waiting for a reply, I decided that as Professor Gowell had put so much time and thought into the trap-nest proposition and had built so much on that one thing, and that as he could get results from it (only it was a waste of time), that in this first visit to him I would offer only one suggestion and that was the secret of selecting the birds, both male and female, that would be sure to breed progeny that would be better than their parents along the lines in which the parents excelled, or, in other words, transmit their predominating characteristics to their offspring; that is, if the cockerel or cock birds and hens were typical meat type birds, the progeny would excel along these lines. Some of them would excel their parents in the production of meat; they would be hardier, better feeders, would digest and assimilate their food better, and consequently arrive at maturity sooner, and be of better flavor and more tender, and by breeding these birds along the lines laid down by I. K. Felch, of Natick, Massachusetts ("line breeding" he calls it), they would improve each season, so that in a number of years there would be a great difference in their favor over their parents. If the pen was a fancy proposition and had been bred some years for fancy points, the progeny would show a decided improve- ment in a few years over their parents. If the pen were the typical 26 THE CALL OF THE HEN. egg type, the progeny would show an increase over their parents in stamina and egg-production. I would also have shown him where the birds he was breeding from were deficient in the faculty that governs fecundity, or, in other words, which controls the function of reproduc- tion. Whittier, in "Maud Muller," says, "For of all sad words of torigue or pen, the saddest are these: it might have been." Yes, "it might have been." Professor Gowell might have lived to give many more years of aid to the poultry world and his tragic death been prevented; but he wrote the Doctor that he did not want me to come. He seemed determined to solve the problem himself, and no doubt would have done so if he had been as care-free from routine duties as a man in his position should have been; and I charge his untimely end to society. The men and women in our public institutions who are giving their lives for the benefit of humanity are not appreciated at their true value. We de- mand the full limit of routine duties, forgetting that it is impossible for a tired body to furnish sufficient nutriment to the brain to solve these intricate problems that are continually confronting them, and while we cause them to suffer mentally and physically individually, we cause ourselves to suffer collectively, by our parsimonious treatment of them. CHAPTER H. Preliminary Remarks, Giving Some Advice to the Reader. The writer is not one of the long-winded kind. I don't like to talk a long time in order to say a few words, or write a dozen pages where one will do as well. I believe in handing out the chunks of gold with as little dross as possible. I think the reader would rather receive the information I have to offer in one page than in a dozen ; that he would rather discover the facts in a few feet than to be obliged to hunt over a hundred acres of literary space for the same information. For that reason I will make this work as brief as possible. I will be aided in my effort to do so by the fact that the theories offered in this work have been more or less demonstrated by the Government Experimental Stations of New Zealand and the States of Minnesota and California; also in the poultry plants of the five State hospitals (which contain thousands of hens) in the State of California, under the auspices of the State Board of Health and the physicians of the different hospitals. It might not be a difficult matter to mislead a few poultry men on a subject that deals wholly with physiology and anatomy, but it would be absurd to think for a moment that one could deceive all the phy- sicians in five State insane hospitals. It seems a man who would still doubt would believe the world is flat, especially when he learns that a member of the State Board of Health told the writer that there was a difference of $1,500 in favor of using this system in one year, in one of the hospitals alone. We commence in this chapter the unfolding of a method or test by which the reader can tell approximately the value of a hen and a male bird as a breeding proposition (and in the chapter on Breeding alone this book will be worth its weight in gold to the fanciers) THE CALL OF THE HEN. 27 egg-producer or a meat-producer. It is my desire to make the facts contained in this book so clear and the tests so easy ,of application that anyone can become proficient in the use of them in a short time. There- fore I have prepared a series of illustrations showing numerous types and conditions of fowls, also various other facts that may better be shown by pictures than by explanations alone. You will remember, no doubt, that you did not arrive at your present proficiency in reading in a day or two; that it took some little time, and there was a certain system or evolution in your study. You will find the same true of this method. There is a certain process that leads from one step to another, until you have covered the system, when by repeated study and practice you will become proficient and accomplish what at first seems impossible. It may seem an impossible task to handle and grade sixteen hundred hens in six hours, but the writer has done it. With sufficient help to hand me the hens, we graded (or, in other words, tested out) sixteen hundred hens in six hours in the State Hospital Poultry yards at Ukiah, Mendocino County, California, in March, 1910. "Not so bad for a semi-invalid of 62,'' we hear you say. Our reply is, "It's practice." You can do the same. Go through the movements with every hen you pick up each day, and in a short time what at first is difficult will appear quite easy. For some years previous to 1912 there was great activity in the poultry industry, there having been no lack of poultry papers, farm papers, and magazines that for a nominal sum would give tuition in poultry culture. The ease of getting a theoretical knowledge of the business induced thousands to take it up who otherwise would not have thought of doing so. The apparent ease of conducting the business, the small amount of capital it was supposed to require, with the large and steady income it offered, were the will-o'-the-wisps that lured many to financial loss. I would warn my readers against rushing into the poultry business on a scale beyond their means without first obtaining a working knowledge of the same. With good stock, with the proper environment, a good market, and a working knowledge of the business, there is little danger of failure, if one is willing to do the work necessary on a poultry plant. It offers the most independent living for the smallest amount of capital of any business I know of. The requisites for success are the knowledge of how to be able to select the hen you need for any particular purpose, whether it is for eggs or for meat or fancy; whether the hen will be a paying proposition or not (this may depend on your market) ; whether she will be able to transmit her predominating characteristics to her offspring or not. Also you must be able to judge accurately the value of the male bird as to what you want him for and as to his ability to stamp his offspring with the desired qualities. All the above you can learn from this book. You should also know how to operate incubators; how to feed and care for little chicks ; how your hen-houses should be built to suit your climate ; how your growing pullets should be fed and housed; and the best way to feed to get the most eggs at the smallest cost, and how to feed and mate to get fertile eggs and vigorous chicks. ' There are numerous books published on all of these latter subjects that you can buy from the publishers of any poultry paper; so we do not take up the matter in this work; we give only what you cannot get elsewhere. 28 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Following is a series of half-tones and explanations representing the method we have used in instructing hundreds of poultrymen and women in California and other States and the managers of poultry plants in a number of State institutions in the State of California. CHAPTER III. The Various Steps in the Application of the Method of the Selection for Egg-Production. There are four characteristics that it is absolutely necessary for a hen to possess for the economical production of eggs or meat. The first is capacity, the second is condition, the third is type, and the fourth is constitutional vigor. The reader must bear the first three in mind in studying the next few chapters, as we will dispose of these before taking other matters into consideration. First. What is Capacity? — Capacity means the abdominal capacity to consume and assimilate the amount of food necessary to produce the number of eggs or amount of meat necessary to make the individual hen under consideration a paying proposition. We measure the ca- pacity of the hen by placing the hand across the abdomen between the end of the breast-bone, or keel, and the pelvic bones. The method will be shown in detail in Chapter IV. Second. Condition. — If the hen under consideration is an egg type, she must be kept in proper bodily condition by supplying her with the right quantity and quality of food that will furnish her with vitality material necessary to produce the number of eggs required of her. If the hen is in good condition, the flesh on the breast will be plump or practically flush with the breast-bone. Any variation in that condition will be shown by a shrinking away of the flesh of the breast, and will be followed by a corresponding shrinking of the abdomen. We show this by illustration and example later. Third. Tsrpe. — She must be of a type that everything she consumes is used in producing the desired effect, whether it is meat, whether it is eggs, or whether it is the maximum amount of eggs and meat that a dual-purpose hen can produce. According to our idea, the type of hen determines how she will dispose of the food she eats. The kind of type is shown by the relative thickness of the pelvic bones. The very thin bone indicates the egg type. As we pass into the dual-purpose and beef types we find the bones becoming thicker. We show these by illustrations and charts later. With the reader bearing the above three propositions in mind — namely, Capacity, Condition and Type — we will proceed to show how to judge the hen with the least amount of time and labor. Fig. 1 shows the interior of an open-front colony house, largely used around Petaluma. The roosts are connected to the house by hinges, so they can be hooked up out of the way while cleaning the house or ex- amining the hens, as in the present case. These houses are usually about 8 feet wide and 10 feet deep inside, with 4 feet posts and pitch roof. These houses are open front, with the exception of 18 inches on each side, as can be seen on one side, where hens are going out of the house into the catching-coop. When hens move too slow to suit, one THE CALL OF THE HEN. 29 or more persons (children will do) can take a grain sack by bottom side in one hand and top side in the other hand and go into the house holding sacks spread apart and moving gently close to the floor or ground and drive the hens into the catching-coop. When the coop is full, shut down the slide door on outside to prevent hens returning to the house. FiQ. 1 — Showing hens in house. Note exit in the corner and catching crate placed just outside. They walk into this unconsciously, and this saves them from excitement and rough handling. As soon as the crate is filled the door is closed behind them. Some readers may have long houses, holding five hundred hens or more. In this case you will need a panel, run diagonally across the house to a point near the opening, where the hens go in and out of the house, as in Fig. IJ^. This panel can be as long as required for the width of the house and made in sections, if desired, and should be 6 feet or more high. Fig. 2 shows hens in the coop. When there are enough in, we shut down the slide door and proceed as in Fig. 3. Fig. 3. Note the slide door on top of the crate. We open this just enough to admit our arm while we grasp the hen firmly by both legs, so she can't twist around and injure herself. A slide door is better than a hinged door, as you can open the former just enough to take out the hen without so much danger of any of the other hens escaping. Be careful not to break wing or tail feathers or to injure the hen. 1 te' ». i •■; * ■ ■ ^V 1 ! ^^^^w''/' ^^^- 1 & ^ 'jPJH « * "^ #■ / V, r , . t iS f ii^ 1 -^'~j ^ '■ -'r' m <^-"""'- ,,' > % f ' . i ■: : i I ■ 5 : ^■.■--; "■ '^ ft. " ** ^ ^, -^.-^--TW- - '— _^^S ^' . .[v.. v^ ^^^^M^> w* ■ ili ' ^^' '; ■ **r*^^^^^^^BP ^. ^ ™" IHii? < "^1 ■ ^sft •* ^ 1 A f V\ 4^ * f ^^Hk. 1 .J ! r'^ ,gi^:; ■ «9 ^ - ,i . ; ^ ii Fig. IJ^ — Showing 2-inch wire panel placed diagonally across house holding 2,000 hens. Panel frame and wire can be seen at left. This forces hens to go out at exit in the corner of house and they walk into the catching-crate on the outside of the exit. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 31 Fig. 3 — Showing how hens are taken out of catching-crate. If they are taken out in this manner be sure to grasp both legs firmly and be careful not to break wing or tail feathers. Fig. 4 — Showing right and wrong way to hold arms. 32 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 4. Note how the right arm is held in Fig. 4. This is not the right way, but it is the way most persons hold the left arm when th6y receive their first lesson. Now, note how the left arm is held; this is the right position, and it is difficult for me to teach students to hold their arms this way. I have to drill them repeatedly before they will do so. The hand which holds the hen by the legs should be at the height of the hip; this enables you to use the other hand in examining the hen for capacity with greater speed and accuracy. Fig. 5 shows how the writer holds a bird to ascertain its capacity by holding it this way. After long practice, he is enabled to inspect one in a few seconds by having three parties to hand him the birds and to take them from him. A small, light hen or pullet is best to prac- tice with. Fig. S — Showing how a hen may be held while testing capacity. Fig. 6 shows where the head of the bird should be. You will note that her eyes are covered up so she can't see, and that has a tendency to keep her quiet while you examine her. Fig. 7 gives an example of testing the capacity of a hen. The hand is placed on the abdomen between the two pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone; the left hand holding the legs is turned under enough to bring the thighs away from the point of the breast-bone, so that the thighs will not interfere with measuring the depth of the abdomen. The depth of the abdomen will vary with different hens; some will be one finger (a finger means the width of a finger the widest way; I have called it three-fourths of an inch) between the two pelvic bones (some- times called "lay" bones or "vent" bones) and the rear of the breast- bone. Some hens will be two fingers between the two pelvic'bones and Fig. 6 — Showing where the hen's head should be so she cannot see anything. ,i im. 9 Fig. 7 — Showing how to test capacity. 34 THE CALL OF THE HEN. the rear of the breast-bone, some will be three fingers, some will be four fingers, some will be five fingers, some will be six fingers, and occasionally one will be seven fingers between the two pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone. The depth of the abdomen indicates the capacity or the ability of the bird to consume and assimilate food, and it applies to all breeds, except that, everything else being equal, the longer-bodied hen, having more room for the digestive machinery, would have some advantage over the shorter-bodied hen. 1. ^^^^1 ^^^^^^^^Ir '^ ^ ^^^^HHiIh '^!iflB^^ Fig. 8 — Showing how to test condition. The legs of the hen are drawn upward, so that you can see the breast. The condition is tested by placing the thumb and forefinger about y^ inch from the front of the breast-bone. Figs. 20, 21 and 22 show the method in detail. Fig. 8. This indicates how to hold a hen when you examine her for condition. This is one of the most difficult and serious problems a poultryman has to deal with. To illustrate, I will cite one case out of hundreds that have come under my observation. A gentleman wrote me to call on him, as he was having trouble with his hens. When I arrived at his place, he told me that when he fed his hens well he got lots of eggs, but some of his hens died ; then when he did not feed them so well they did not lay so many eggs, but none of them died. He said he had repeated this a number of times with the same results. He said the ones that died were as fat as butter. I picked up one of the hens; she was in prime condition for the market. I picked up another one; she was very thin. I examined all his hens. I found he had, like a great many poultrymen, three distinct types of hens: the egg type, the dual-purpose type, and the meat type. As he had fancy birds in all Fig. 9 — Showing one movement that has proved an aid in testing type. The right hand is placed under the breast of the hen to steady her while the legs are drawn downward to bring the hen into position so that she may be examined for type (as in cut 10). Fig. 10 — Showing another movement that has proved an aid in testing type. The legs are drawn well under the hen, thus throwing the pelvic bones forward. The rieht hand is then removed and used to examine the thickness of the pelvic bones (Fig. 11.) 3Q THE CALL OF THE HEN. the different types, he did not want to dispose of any of his flock, so I segregated them into three divisions: the egg type, the dual-purpose type, and the meat type. After that he fed the egg type all the grain they could clean up in the scratching-shed and kept a balance-ration of dry ground feed before them all the time. The dual-purpose hens were fed all the grain they could clean up in the scratching-shed, with a small amount of dry ground feed each day. The meat type hens were fed a smaller amount of grain in the scratching-shed, with a couple of feeds each week of dry ground mash — ^just enough to keep them in condition. After- this he had no more trouble with his hens not laying in the proper season and dying from being too fat. He would occasionally pick up hens in the different pens and note their condition and feed them accordingly. He told me later that before he had taken the lessons he had been working completely in the dark, but now he understood the matter thoroughly and knew what to do. Fig. 9. After examining the hen as in Fig. 8, place the hand as in Fig. 9, and hold right hand firmly enough to prevent her from slipping down. Fig. 10. Then move the left hand down as in Fig. 10, and hold left hand firm enough to keep her in place while removing right hand. Type. Fig. 11. Now brush feathers away from vent with back of hand and part the feathers near pelvic bones with fingers. Then grasp end of pelvic bone so that it comes flush with outside of fingers as in Figs. Fig. 11— Shows method of testing types. The thumb and forefinger are placed one on each side of the pelvic bone so that you may estimate the thickness of the same, including flesh, fat, gristle, etc. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 37 11 and 24. This indicates the Type of the bird. Some will be one- sixteenth (Vie) of an inch thick, including the flank as held between the thumb and forefinger, as seen in Figs. 11 and 24, and will vary all the way up to one and a quarter (IJ^) inches, including bone, gristle, fat, and flank, as seen in Fig. 31. The reader is aware by this time that we are in the chapter per- taining to Type, the last of the three classes that it is necessary to divide poultry into in order to make a scientific classification to enable one to arrive at the approximate value of the "Individual Bird" as an Egg or as a Meat proposition (and without any regard as to its value as a breeder, which will be shown later). I wish to repeat here that Type is controlled wholly by temperament. We must select the tem- perament or combinations of temperaments that suit our purpose, and then, with the desired capacity and by scientific feeding, so as to keep the subject in proper condition, poultry culture will become more of a science with the majority of poultrymen than it is at present. In order to prepare the reader for what is to follow, I will divide poultry into three distinct classes as to temperaments. The hen that will produce the largest amount of eggs with the small- est amount of meat possible for her capacity is of the nervous tem- perament. The hen which uses one-half of her vitality in producing eggs and the other half of her vitality in producing meat — ^in other words, the dual-purpose hen — is a combination of both the sanguine and bilious temperaments and is called "the hen with the sanguine- bilious temperament." The hen that produces the largest amount of flesh and the smallest amount of eggs consistent with her capacity is of the lymphatic temperament. In a fowl all the different temperaments and thSir different degrees of combinations are indicated by the pelvic bones. In the horse they are indicated largely by the breed. The Arabian, the ideal running and trotting horse, is a good type of the nervous temperament, the Coach horse is a good type of the sanguine-bilious temperament, and the Clyde is a good type of the lymphatic temperament. In cattle we have a good example of the nervous temperament in the Jersey, and of the lymphatic in the beef family of Durham, also Hereford and Polled Angus, while the Holstein and Ayrshire cattle are good types of the sanguine-bilious combined. I have made this deviation so I could offer to my poultry friends this thought: that there are certain laws in nature that have no regard for our theories, and the better we understand these laws, the less liable we are to make mistakes. CHAPTER IV. Capacity. In the preceding chapters we have given the reader an idea of the: miethod we use in judging the value of a hen for the purpose we wish her for. In the succeeding chapters we will explain the method in detail. First, we will take up "Capacity." Fig. 12 shows a hen with only one finger capacity (^ of an inch) between the two pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone. OH— 3 38 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 13 shows a hen with two fingers capacity (IJ^ inches) between the two pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone. Fig. 14 shows a hen with three fingers capacity (2J^ inches) be- tween the two pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone. Fig. 12 — One-finger abdomen. (Capacity.) This indicates a hen of very small capacity to consume and assimilate food. She never can be a large eater, hence of not much value. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 39 Fig. 15 shows a hen with four fingers capacity (3 inches) between the two pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone. Fig. 16 shows a hen with five fingers capacity {3% inches) between the two pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone. Fig. 13 — Two-finger abdomen. (Capacity.) Slightly larger capacity than the preceding, but still of relatively small ability to consume food. 40 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 17 shows a hen with six fingers capacity (43/^ inches) between the two pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone. Fig. 14 — Three-finger abdomen. (Capacity.) Indicating very good ability to consume and assimilate food. We find hens that lay as high as 180 eggs in their first laying year in this class, depending on the type. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 41 NOTE: The tests for type and capacity cannot be applied to young pullets with any degree of accuracy. These tests cannot be properly made until the pullet has laid at least one clutch of eggs. A pullet must obtain her natural shape and be fully developed before you really know what she is. These two tests can best be made on yearly Fig. IS— Four-finger abdomen/' (Capacity.) A hen of very large capacity to consume and assimilate food. We find 220-egg hens inthis class, provided they have the right type. 42 THE CALL OF THE HEN. hens. This is where many poultrymen fail in making their tests and it is why many of them condemn this system. It is absolutely accurate in 99% of the cases if properly and sensibly applied. — Publishers. ? Fig. 16 — Five-finger abdomen. (Capacity.) A hen of still larger ability to con- sume, food than^the preceding. We find 250-egg hens in this class if of the right type. THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 17 — Six-finger abdomen. (Capacity.) Indicating extremely large capacity to consume and assimilate food. She may be a 280-egg. type hen or a heavy beef type hen. CHAPTER V. hrpnst Condition. We next come to "Condition." Fig. 18 shows a hen in very poor condition. Fig. 19 shows a hen in perfect condition, as indicated by her full 44 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 18— Showing hen in very poor condition. The feathers being plucked away shows the actual condition of the flesh. We call a hen in this condition "three fingers out of condition," which indicates that her abdomen has shrunken up three fingers. If she now has a capacity of one finger, when in good condition she would be four fingers abdomen; if she has a capacity of two fingers now, she would have five fingers capacity when in good condition. Fig. 20 is somewhat thinner, as indicated by breast-bone. We call her one finger out of condition. The degrees of condition show the amount of shrinkage in ab- dominal depth. One finger out of condition shows she has shrunken Fig. 19 — Showing hen in good condition. You will note that the flesh is even withjthe breast-bone. This hen would show her normal abdominal depth when exam- ined. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 45 one finger in depth of abdomen; two fingers out of condition shows she has shrunken two fingers in depth of abdomen, three fingers out of condition shows she has shrunken three fingers in depth of abdomen. ^p^jtfT'g' ■!*i 'M;^ ^1 ^^yfl 1 1 H ^y * /J^H ^^^ / .'^M d n Fig. 20 — Showing hen one finger out of condition. You will note that the flesh appears slightly shrunken away from the breast-bone. When the thumb and forefinger are placed as in the cut, about }4 inch from the front of the breast-bone, the flesh will be below the breast-bone, as shown by the mark on finger in Fig. 23. This would indicate that the hen was one finger less capacity. If three-fingers now, she would be four fingers capacity when in condition, etc. Fig. 21 is still thinner, as reader can see by the breast-bone. We call her two fingers out of condition. Fig. 21 — Showing hen two fingers out of condition. The flesh is shrunken away from the breast-bone to about the depth indicated by the middle line on the finger in Fig. 23, which is about the middle of the first joint. This shows that she is two fingers less in abdominal depth than when in good condition. Fig. 22 is still thinner. This we call three fingers out of condition, and is about as thin as a hen usually gets, if there is any chance for her ever beine of any use. 46 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 22 — Showing hen three fingers out of condition. This hen would be three fingers less in abdominal djepth than when in good condition. Fig. 22a — This shows you just where to place your finger on the keel or breast- bone in order to measure or determine the condition of the hen. In order to properly determine this fact, place your finger about 1 inch back from the front point of the keel or breast-bone, as you see illustrated above. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 47 Fig. 23 shows about how the first joint of an index finger must be divided up to determine the three degrees of condition. The first joint of the index finger is divided into three parts, each line or division representing what we call "one finger" in measuring or determining condition. If a hen had a three-finger abdomen or capacity and was one finger out of condition, that would mean that she would have a four-finger abdomen or capacity if she was in condition. Fig. 23 — Showing where the imaginary lines should be drawn on the first joint of the forefinger in order to judge the condition of the hen or pullet. CHAPTER VI. Type. We now come to "Type." This is indicated by the thickness of the pelvic bones, together with the flesh, fat, gristle, and cartilage on same. (See page 17.) Fig. 24 shows a hen whose pelvic bones are one-sixteenth (Vie) of an inch thick, that is about as thick as a piece of cardboard that paper boxes are made of, and the reader must bear in mind that the measure- ment of the pelvic bone does not mean the bone alone, with the skin, flesh, gristle, and fat scraped off, as some may suppose, but with all the above included. Fig. 25 shows a hen with pelvic bones one-eighth ('/s) of an inch thick. Fig. 26 shows a hen with pelvic bones one-quarter (J^) of an inch thick. 48 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 27 shows a hen with pelvic bones three-eighths ('/.) of an inch thick. Fig. 24 — '/i6-inch pelvic bone. Indicating a typical egg-type hen, which means that virtually all the food she consumes above that necessary for bodily maintenance goes toward the production of eggs. If of one-finger abdomen, she would lay about 36 eggs in her first laying year; if of three-finger abdomen, she would lay about 180, and if of six-finger abdomen, she might lay 280 eggs in her first laying year. l-ii] Fig. 25 — Vs-mch pelvic bone; indicating egg type, but not so typical as the preced- ing. If of one-finger abdomen, she would lay about 32 eggs in her first laying year; if of three-finger abdomen, about 166 eggs; and if of six-finger abdomen, about i265 eggs in her first laying year. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 49 Fig. 26 — 1/4-inch pelvic bone; indicating a slightly more beefy hen than the preced- ing types, but still of the egg type. If of one-finger abdomen, she would lay about 24 eggs in her first laying year; if of three-finger abdomen, about 138 eggs; and if of six- finger abdomen, about 235 eggs in her first laying year. Fig. 27 — 3/8-inch pelvicl'bone; indicating that the hen uses a larger proportion of the food she consumes in making flesh and less in the production of eggs. A one- finger abdomen hen would lay about 16 eggs; a three-finger abdomen hen, about 110 eggs, and a six-finger'^abdomen hen, about 205 eggs in the first laying year. 50 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 28 — J^-inch pelvic bone; indicating a still|more beefy hen than the preceding — that is, a still larger proportion of the food consumed is used to make flesh and less to produce eggs. If of one-finger abdomen, she would lay about 8 eggs; and if of three- finger abdomen, she would lay about 82 eggs; while if of six-finger abdomen, she would lay about 175 eggs in the first laying year. Fig. 29 — ^-inch pelvic bone. A pretty good specimen of the beef type. We find no two-finger abdomen hens that have pelvic bones so thick, because they cannot consume enough food with such pelvic bones. A two-finger abdomen hen is virtually a non-layer; a three-finger abdomen hen will lay about 24 eggs, and a six-finger abdomen hen will lay about 115 eggs in the first laying year. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 51 Fig. 30 — 1-inch pelvic bone. A very beefy type. Almost all the food consufiied above that required for bodily maintenance is used in the making of flesh. Wesfmd them in the hens that have abdomens from four to six fingers deep. They lay very few eggs. Fig. 31 — 1 J^-inch pelvic bone. This indicates that the hen is of the typical beef type. She is an enormous feeder, hence only found in hens of about six-finger capacity. She will lay practically no eggs. 52 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 28 shows a hen with pelvic bones one-half (J^) of an inch thick. Fig. 29 shows a hen with pelvic bones three-quarters {%) of an inch thick. Fig. 30 show s a hen with pelvic bones one (1) inch thick. Fig. 31 shows a hen with pelvic bones one and one-quarter (IJ^) inches thick. Fig. 32 — Crooked pelvic bone. "A, A," Position No. 1 Now, please bear in mind that everything shown and related here refers to Leghorns and applies to other breeds as well, only in a lesser degree — so small that it amounts to almost nothing, as I will show later. A, A, Fig. 32, shows the pelvic bones with flesh cleaned off. B, B, Fig. 33, shows the pelvic bones with flesh stripped off farther and painted black so they will show up better. You will notice that the pelvic bones in Fig. 32 and Fig. 33 are crooked. The majority of poultry have more or less crooked pelvic bones. Sometimes the bones come close together, which is an obstruction in laying, and should be ■fered away from as much as possible. Fig. 34 shows perfect pelvic bones. In this torm they are very, easy to take between the thumb and finger; also, when the hen wants to lay the vent has a chance to falldown between the pelvic bones, THE CALL OF THE HEN. 53 which allows the egg to be delivered without straining on the part of the hen. Not every poultryman, but every poultrywoman has seen cases where a hen has gone on the nest and after a couple of hours com- menced to cackle her head off. Presently we hear the whole flock take up the chorus, and going to see what the trouble is, we find the hens Fig. 33 — Crooked pelvic bone, "B, B," Position No. 2. Hens with bones curved lilce this will lay about 20 per cent less than hens of the same type and capacity with straight pelvic bones, as in figure 34. holding an "Old Maids' Convention" and declaring they will never lay another egg, it hurts them so much to do so. On examining them, we find the pelvic bones so crooked they come together like the horns of a Jersey cow, and when the hens lay, instead of the vent dropping down between the pelvic bones, allowing the egg to be released in an easy manner in a few minutes after the hen goes on the nest, the egg is forced to be delivered between the pelvic bones and tail bone, thus prolonging the agony of the hen sometimes for hours, when, if she was built right, as in Fig. 34, she would be relieved of the egg without pain in a few minutes. And instead of wasting vitality in getting relieved of the egg, she would be rustling around for material to build another one, and thus add at least 20 per cent to her egg-producing value. This matter of crooked pelvic bones is more frequent in some breeds than in others, and is a serious matter that is very easily remedied by breeding only from birds with the straightest pelvic bones, especially looking after £he male birds, as one male bird with crooked pelvic bones will trans- mit this defect to all of his daughters. 54 THE CALL OF THE HEN. When I came to Petaluma, I found whole flocks of thousands of hens with crooked bones; now they are very rare. The poultry breeders soon caught on to my §traight-and-thin-pelvic-bone idea; and I think the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals should recognize my services in relieving millions of hens of the agony of parturition. The reader will please bear in mind that Fig. 34 represents 100 per cent pelvic bone and holds the same relation to pelvic bones in gen- eral that a bird that scores 100 in the showroom holds to all other high- class birds. A 250-egg type cock bird or cockerel with pelvic bones like Fig. 34 would be of inestimable value. The writer has cock birds like the above that he would not part with for any money, for the reason that it would take several years' breeding to produce their equals. Fig. 34 — Most perfect pelvic bones, "C, C." Hens with pelvic bones like this will lay about 20 per cent more than those having bones like Fig. 33. If the reader has male birds whose pelvic bones are far enough apart that he can grasp the ends with thumb and finger when measuring the thickness, he should be satisfied until he can do better. So long as the pelvic bones are comparatively straight after leaving the frame and do not curve abruptly toward the ends, the birds may be used as breeders, with the assurance that some of the offspring will show a wonderful improvement in this respect. Figs. 32, 33, and 34 are extreme cases. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 55 FIG. 33— MEASURING THE THICKNESS OF THE PELVIC BONES There is little or no actual difference in the thickness of the pelvic bones in differ- ent hens, but there is a great difference in the apparent thickness, which is produced by the fat underlying the skin and surrounding the bones. The good layer on the reader's left has comparatively little fat and the skin is thin and pliable to that there is a limited amount of tissue between the bone and the finger. In the poor layer on the right, the skin is thick, with a heavy layer of fat underneath, thus making the pelvic bones appear more than twice as thick as in a good layer. Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station. FIG. 61— HIGH AND LOW PRODUCING RHODE ISLAND REDS Posed to show difference in spread of pelvic bones. The high-producing hen is shown on the reader's left in the illustration. Photo from Storrs Experiment Station. Note the large moist vent of the good layer on the left. 56 THE CALL OF THE HEN. CHAPTER VII. The First Laying Year. What is meant by "the first laying year?" All old poultrymen know what the above means, and I have no doubt some of my readers may be impatient with me for explaining little things that are so familiar to them, but they will remember that poultry parlance is not all con- tained in the dictionary, and a great deal of the contents of this book may be Greek to the beginners in the poultry business who will read this work. For this reason I cannot be too plain in my language or too careful of details in explaining matters. The first laying year has nothing whatever to do with the age of a hen or pullet. I have had hens that had passed their first laying year when they were sixteen months old. On the other hand, I have seen hens that were over four years old that had not commenced on their first laying year. The hen that had passed her first laying year when she was sixteen months old had commenced to lay when she was four months old, while the hens that were over four years old had never laid an egg. So the reader will see the first laying year commences with the first egg a pullet lays and ends one year from that date, when her second laying year com- mences. Some pullets will commence to lay at four months old, while others of exactly the same type, fed and cared for in the same manner, will not lay before they are eight months old, owing to different en- vironment. Everything else being equal, poultry will develop faster on a warm, dry, sandy soil than they will on a black, damp, heavy soil, and they will mature much sooner in a good corn country, where it is warm in the shade and warm at night, than they will in poor corn country, where it is cool at night and cool in the daytime in the shade. I have raised Leghorn pullets that were fully developed in size and form and laid a full-sized egg when they were four months old. It can be done in Massachusetts, New York, New Hampshire, and Minnesota, and in parts of California, where the nights are so warm that one can sleep comfortable under a sheet only, but not where you have to cuddle under a lot of blankets on a summer night to keep warm. CHAPTER VIII. The Selection of Types. If the reader has practiced handling a hen as in Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, we will proceed with a lesson in judging hens as to the number of eggs they will lay their first laying year. We will look for a small hen to commence with, as she will be easier to handle. Having our hen, we will hold her as nearly as we can as in Fig. 5, and try to have her head as in Fig. 6, so she can see nothing. She will then be easier to handle. Place hand across her abdomen, as in Fig. 7. She may be a one-finger abdomen hen, as in Fig. 12. Then hold her as in Fig. 8. Her breast may be as in Fig. 19; if so, she THE CALL OF THE HEN. 57 will be in good condition. Next go through movements as in Figs. 9 and 10 and hold her and examine her pelvic bone as in Fig. 11. Her pelvic bone may be one-sixteenth (1/16) of an inch thick, as in Fig. 24. Now look on Chart 1. Your hen is one-finger abdomen, in good condi- tion, and her pelvic bone is one-sixteenth (1/16) of an inch thick. You CHART 1. One-finger Abdomen 1/16 pelvic bone. 1/8 pelvic bone. 3/16 pelvic bone. 1/4 pelvic bone. 5/16 pelvic bone. 3/8 pelvic bone . 7/16 pelvic bone. 1/2 pelvic bone. 9/16 pelvic bone. 5/8 pelvic bone . ■ 36 eggs .32 eggs .28 eggs • 24 eggs ■ 20 eggs ■ 16 eggs ■ 12 eggs • 8 eggs ■ 4 eggs ■ eggs will see that she is a 36-egg type hen. That means that if this hen is one of a large number on a commercial poultry plant, she is capable of laying three dozen eggs her first laying year, if she is fed and cared for properly, barring accidents and disease. So we will call her a 36-egg type hen. We will drop this hen and take another from the crate and go through the same movements. Hold her as in Fig. 5 or Fig. 7, with head as in Fig. 6 (she may also be a one-finger abdomen hen, as in Fig. 12), then examine for condition, as in Fig. 8. Her condition may be good, as in Fig. 19; then hold as in Figs. 9 and 10, and measure thickness of pelvic bone, as in Fig, 11. Her pelvic. bone may be three-eighths C/s) of an inch thick, as in Fig. 27; in that case she would read like this: One-finger abdomen; good condition; three-eighths (^/s) pelvic bone. Now, look on Chart 1, and you will find she is a 16-egg type hen. We will drop her and take another from the crate, and go through the same movements as before. This hen may be a one-finger abdomen hen also, in good condition, with pelvic bone J/^ inch thick, as in Fig. 28, and by consulting Chart 1 we find she is an 8-egg type hen. We drop her and take another from the crate. She may be a hen with a one-finger abdomen, as in Fig. 12. When we examine her condition we find she is like Fig. 20, which indicates that she is one finger out of condition (the subject of "Condition" is explained in Chap- ter V.) ; her pelvic bone may be Vis of an inch thick, as in Fig. 24. This hen will read different from the other hen that was Vie pelvic bone. This hen is out of condition. She may have been in condition up to a few weeks previous to our examination of her; the cause of her lack of condition may be improper food or care, or both, or it may be due to moulting, or she may have been broody. In any of these cases it would not be the hen's fault that she was out of condition, and she should not be held responsible for it. Her condition indicates that there is something wrong, and it's up to her owner to right the wrong, and when we do right the wrong, the hen will come back into condition, and her abdomen will then measure two fingers instead of one finger. We 58 THE CALL OF THE HEN. must, therefore, read her as a two-finger abdomen hen, Vie-inch pelvic bone, when, by looking on Chart 2, we find her capacity would be 96 eggs her first laying year, if we kept her in condition. We will drop her, and take another hen out of the crate. This hen may be a one-finger abdomen hen, as in Fig. 12. When we examine her for condition, we find her as in Fig. 21; this indicates that she is two fingers out of condition; her pelvic bone may be Vie of an inch. Under her present condition, she might lay 36 eggs her first laying year, whereas, if she were kept in good condition, she would have a three- finger abdomen. She might lay 180 eggs. We will drop this hen and take up another one. She may be two fingers abdomen and her breast-bone may be as in Fig. 19. Her pelvic bone may be */i6 of an inch. We would read her as a two-finger-ab- domen hen in good condition, pelvic bones ^/le of an inch thick. We will look on Chart 2 at ^/le-inch pelvic bone, and find she is a 96-egg type hen. We will drop her and take another from the crate. She may be two fingers abdomen and two fingers out of condition, as in Fig. 21, with pelvic bones 34 of an inch thick. She would read two fingers abdomen and two fingers out of condition. She would be four fingers CHART 2. Two-finger Abdomen. Vie pelvic bone 96 eggs '/s pelvic bone 87 eggs Vie pelvic bone 78 eggs V4 pelvic bone 69 eggs Vie pelvic bone 60 eggs '/s pelvic bone. 51 eggs '/i6 pelvic bone 42 eggs V2 pelvic bone 33 eggs °/i6 pelvic bone 24 eggs ^/s pelvic bone 16 eggs "/le pelvic bone 6 eggs '/4 pelvic bone eggs abdomen if in condition, and J^-inch pelvic bones. Being a four-fineer- abdomen hen (if in condition), we will look on Chart 4 at J^-inch pelvic bone, and find she is a 175-egg type hen. We will drop her. Take another. She may be a two-finger-abdomen hen, as in Fig. 13, in good condition, as in Fig. 19, with pelvic bones % of an indi thick, as in Fig. 29. She would read two fingers abdomen , good condi- tion, %-inch pelvic bones. We will look on Chart 2 for ^-inch pelvic bone, and find this hen will lay nothing. This does not mean that she is an absolutely barren hen, that she will never lay an egg (I will explain this when we get to the six-finger-abdomen hen); she may lay a few, perhaps half a dozen, in the spring when the crows lay; but as a com- mercial proposition she will have no more value than the hen that never laid an egg. Everything she consumes goes to the making of flesh, except what she uses in bodily maintenance. We will drop her and take another. She may be a three-finger- abdomen hen, as in Fig. 14. Her condition may be as in Fig. 19, with THE CALL OF THE HEN. 59 pelvic bones as in Fig. 24. She would read three fingers abdomen; in good condition Vie-inch pelvic bone. We look on Chart 3 at Via- inch pelvic bone, and find that this hen is a 180-egg type. CHART 3. Three-finger Abdomen. Vie pelvic bone 180 eggs V» pelvic bone 166 eggs '/i6 pelvic bone 152 eggs V4 pelvic bone 138 eggs '/16 pelvic bone 124 eggs '/» pelvic bone 110 eggs '/i6 pelvic bone 96 eggs V» pelvic bone 82 eggs '/le pelvic bone 68 eggs '/« pelvic bone 54 eggs "/16 pelvic bone 40 eggs '/4 pelvic bone 26 eggs ''/le pelvic bone 12 eggs '/s pelvic bone eggs We will drop her and take another. She may be another three- finger-abdomen hen, like Fig. 14; she may be in good condition, like Fig. 19, and her pelvic bone may be 3^-inch thick, like Fig. 28. She would read three fingers abdomen; good condition; 3^-inch pelvic bone. We will look on Chart 3 at 3^-inch pelvic bone, and find this hen is an 82- egg type hen. We will take another hen. She may be a three-finger abdomen, like Fig. 14; she may be in good condition, like Fig. 19, and her pelvic bone may be ^ of an inch thick, as in Fig. 29. We will read her as a three-finger-abdomen hen; in good condition; ^-inch pelvic bone. We will look on Chart 3 at ^-inch pelvic bone, and find she is a 26-egg type hen. We will pick up another hen. She may be a three-finger capacity, as in Fig. 14; she may be three fingers out of condition, as in Fig. 22, and her pelvic bones may be ^/n of an inch thick, as in Fig. 24. We would read this hen as a three-finger abdomen; three fingers out of condition, and ^/i6-inch pelvic bone. When a hen is three fingers out of condition she is in a serious way. She may have been sitting or laying heavily and have been underfed. In either case, good care and plenty of the right kind of feed will bring her back into condition, provided she has not contracted tuberculosis (going light) or some other wasting disease. I will cite two cases out of hundreds that have come under my obser- vation. One was a Barred Rock hen that I intended to set on duck eggs; she was six fingers abdomen, in good condition when I put her on the nest, and V*-inch pelvic bones; that indicated that she was a 235-egg type hen. She was on the nest two weeks before the duck eggs arrived and four weeks on the duck's eggs, making six weeks setting. Owing to stress of other work, and being confined in an out-of-the-way place, she was somewhat neglected, and when the ducklings were hatched she was three fingers abdomen and three fingers out of conditibn, thus 60 THE CALL OF THE HEN. indicating a 138-egg type hen. Six weeks later she was laying, and had developed to six fingers abdomen, which was her normal condition. Another case was where a gentleman was in a class that took in- structions. After the close of the meeting he brought a hen that was three fingers out of condition. He said she was his best hen, and asked me how many eggs she would lay. She was three fingers abdomen, three fingers out of condition, and Vi6-inch pelvic bone. Her head and actions indicated perfect health. I told him she might lay 180 eggs her first laying year, if her condition had been the same as it is at the present time; but if she was my hen I thought I might be able to make her lay 280 eggs. "You don't feed her half enough." He replied "That is the only hen I have that lays a white egg. I got her when a pullet, before she commenced to lay. She has been laying about a year and has laid 176 eggs. I had a small lot of hens at the time that were so fat they were dying, and I cut down their feed and have fed them sparingly ever since, so they would not get too fat and die." I went to his place, and found he had three types of hens: the typical meat type (one with pelvic bones 1V« inch thick), some with pelvic bones J^- inch thick, and this hen that laid the white eggs, whose pelvic bones were '/le of an inch thick. I told him to segregate his hens into three lots, and feed them according to their type. Give the egg-type hens all the grain they could clean up each day in the scratching-shed, with a dry balanced mash before them all the time; the dual-purpose hens should be fed all the grain they wished to scratch for, with an occasional mash, and the beef- type hens should be fed what grain they could clean up in the scratching-shed in about an hour. The litter should be good and deep in all cases. I did not mention charcoal, grit, shells, and green stuff, as that is not my business. Every man who takes a poultry paper knows that part of the business, and every person who keeps poultry should take a poultry paper in order to keep posted on current poultry topics. The gentleman wrote me over a year later that he had succeeded in bringing the hen up to normal condition, as in Fig. 19, but after laying awhile she went back to five fingers abdomen and one finger out of condition, and had laid 238 eggs her next laying year. We will now take another hen. She may be a four-finger abdomen, as in Fig. 15, in good condition, as in Fig. 19, and her pelvic bones may be '/i6 of an inch thick, as in Fig. 24. She would read four fingers abdomen; good condition; Vie-inch pelvic bone. If we consult Chart 4, we will find she is a 220-egg type hen. The next hen may be also four fingers abdomen, as in Fig. 15, in good condition, as in Fig. 19, with pelvic bones J^ inch, as in Fig. 28. She would read four fingers abdomen; in good condition; i^-inch pelvic bones. We will see by Chart 4 that this is a 115-egg type hen. Our next hen may be a four-finger-abdomen hen; condition good; pelvic bones 1 inch thick. We would read her as a four-finger abdomen; condition good; pelvic bones 1 inch. If we look on Chart 4 at 1-inch pelvic bones, we will find this hen will lay approximately nothing. Our next hen may be a four-finger-abdomen hen, one finger out of condition, V'-inch pelvic bone. She would indicate a 205-egg type hen under her present condition, but we would read her four fingers abdomen, one finger out of condition; that would mean a five-finger- THE CALL OF THE HEN. 61 abdomen hen if in condition, V»-inch pelvic bone. We look on Chart 5 at V« pelvic bone, and find she is a 235-egg type hen. Our next hen may be a five-finger-abdomen hen, as in Fig. 16; she may be in good condition, as in Fig. 19, and her pelvic bones may be Vi6 pelv: '/» pelv: Vi6 pelv: 74 pelvi Vi6 pelv '/> pelv Vie pelvi Vj pelv: Vi6 pelvi '/a pelv: "/i6 pelvi V4 pelvi "/16 pelv: V« pelvi 'V16 pelvi CHART 4. Four-finger Abdomen. c bone 220 eggs c bone 205 eggs c bone 190 eggs c bone 175 eggs c bone 160 eggs c bone 145 eggs c bone 130 eggs c bone 115 eggs c bone 100 eggs c bone 85 eggs c bone 70 eggs c bone 55 eggs c bone 40 eggs c bone 25 eggs c bone 40 eggs 1-in. pelvic bone eggs V16 of an inch, as in Fig. 24. She will read five fingers abdomen; con- dition good; pelvic bones '/is-ineh. We look on Chart 5 at '/le-inch pelvic bone, and find she is a 250-egg type hen. CHART 6. Five-finger Abdomen. V16 pelvic bone 250 eggs Vs pelvic bone 235 eggs '/16 pelvic bone 220 eggs ^/4 pelvic bone 205 eggs V16 pelvic bone 190 eggs '/s pelvic bone 175 eggs '/16 pelvic bone 160 eggs V« pelvic bone 145 eggs °/i6 pelvic bone 130 eggs ^/s pelvic bone 115 eggs "/16 pelvic bone 100 eggs '/4 pelvic bone 85 eggs ''/16 pelvic bone 70 eggs '/g pelvic bone 55 eggs "/16 pelvic bone 40 eggs l-in. pelvic bone 25 eggs IV16 pelvic bone 10 eggs V/a pelvic bone eggs 62 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Our next hen may be a five-finger-abdomen hen, as in Fig. 16; she may be in good condition, as in Fig. 19, and her pelvic bones may be '/s-inch thick, as in Fig. 27. We would read her as five fingers abdomen; good condition, and '/s-inch pelvic bones. Chart 5 would show us that she was a 175-egg type hen. The next hen may be a five-finger-abdomen hen; condition good; pelvic bones 1 inch thick. She would read five fingers abdomen; good condition; 1-inch pelvic bones. The chart would indicate that she was a 25-egg type hen. The next hen may be a six-finger-abdomen hen, as in Fig. 17; she may be in good condition, and her pelvic bones may be 1'/* inches thick as in Fig. 31. I hear the reader say, "What breed of a hen has pelvic bones as thick as that? or do you mean that both of her pelvic bones are 1'/* inches thick, counting them both together?" No; I mean that each one of her pelvic bones is 1^ inches thick. Counting the bone, gristle, fat, and flesh (flank), both of the pelvic bones would be 2J^ inches thick. When we speak of pelvic bones being so thick, we always mean one of them. And as to breed, this hen is a Single Comb White Leghorn; she is the typical beef type. You will see by Chart 6 that she will lay practically nothing; and here I will explain this matter. CHART 6. Six-finger Abdomen. Nervous Temperament. Vie pelvic bone 280 eggs Vs pelvic bone 265 eggs '/i6 pelvic bone 250 eggs V4 pelvic bone 235 eggs V16 pelvic bone 220 eggs Sanguine Temperament. '/s pelvic bone 205 eggs '/16 pelvic bone 190 eggs V2 pelvic bone 175 eggs '/16 pelvic bone 160 eggs V« pelvic bone 145 eggs Bilious Temperament. "/16 pelvic bone 130 eggs '/4 pelvic bone 115 eggs ''/16 pelvic bone 100 eggs '/s pelvic bone 85 eggs "/16 pelvic bone 70 eggs Lymphatic Temperament. 1-in. pelvic bone 55 eggs IV16 pelvic bone 40 eggs I'/s pelvic bone 25 eggs IV16 pelvic bone 10 eggs IV4 pelvic bone eggs THE CALL OF THE HEN. 63 A man once brought me a two-and-a-half-year-old hen that he had trap-nested for two years, and asked me to tell him how many eggs she had laid her first laying-year. I told him she had never laid an egg. Her abdomen was six fingers, shfe was in good condition, and her pelvic bones were !'/« inches thick. He cautioned me to be careful, as he had always trap-nested his hens, and his record showed how many eggs they had laid. I replied, "If that is the case, her record shows that she has never laid an egg." He said no more then, but brought me another hen, asking me how many she would lay. I examined her for capacity. I found she was a six-finger-abdomen hen; her condition was good; her pelvic bones were '/u of an inch thick; they were both alike as to thick- ness. I questioned him as to how he had fed her, and if she had been sick her first laying year. As he is one of the best breeders in the United States, I could depend on him knowing what he was talking about. I asked him then to take off his hat. I could see by the shape of his head he was a strictly honest man. I then told him that I had never raised that breed of hens, but if it was a Leghorn, it might lay 280 eggs its first year, and if a Plymouth Rock, it might lay 270. He said her trap- nested record showed she laid 276 eggs from the time she commenced to lay in her pullet year until she had laid one year. "That's all right," I replied; "but what about the first hen we examined?" "We have never found any in the trap-nest from her," he said, "but she might be in the habit of laying in the yard." And as he offered $1,000 for her, he was very anxious to get some chickens from her. I explained to him that while most typical beef hens could be made to lay a very small number of eggs in the spring when the crows laid, by feeding them a little lean meat and shrunken wheat and bran on a grass plot of white clover (if the blossoms of the white clover are clipped off), that his hen could not be made to lay, as she was a barren hen, as indicated by the rigid cord that connected both of the pelvic bones together, thus indicating that nature never intended her to lay. I could name a number of professors and physicians that have told me they have discovered the same condi- tion after they had taken my lessons. The reader will please bear in mind that the two pelvic bones of a hen are not always of the same thickness. Some hens may have one pelvic bone thicker than the other; when this is the case, add the two together and half of the number will be the right thickness to judge by. For instance, if one pelvic bone was '/« of an inch and the other one was V4 of an inch, the added thickness would be '/s of an inch; dividing this would give you '/lo of an inch as the thickness of one pelvic bone. Where one bone is thicker than the other, the thinnest one is on the left side of the hen. Our next hen may be another six-finger-abdomen hen, as in Fig. 17; she may be in good condition, as in Fig. 19, and her pelvic bones may be V« of an inch thick, as in Fig. 25 ; she would be a 265-egg type hen. Our next hen may be a six-finger-abdomen hen in good condition r pelvic bones '/• inch; she would read six fingers abdomen; good con- dition; pelvic bones •/« of an inch. By consulting Chart 6, we will find this is a 205-egg type hen. Our next hen may be a six-finger-abdomen hen, in good condition; J/^-inch pelvic bones; this hen will be a 175-egg type hen. 64 THE CALL OF THE HEN. FIG. 124— ILLUSTRATION OF DIFFERENCE IN ABDOMINAL CAPACITY Note the large, soft, pliable abdomen of the high producer on the left, as compared with the small, hard abdomen of the low producer on the right. This illustration also shows clearly the difference in size of vent in a good layer as compared with a poor layer. Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station. THE CALL OF.,THE^HEN. 65 FIG. 144— OVARY AND OVIDUCT OF GOOD AND POOR-LAYING HENS CONTRASTED This remarkable illustration shows, on the reader's left, the ovary and oviduct of heavy-laying Rhode Island Red hen, and on the right the egg organs from poor-laying hen. Both hens were actively laying, but the poor producer's ovary shows a much lower state of activity — shorter cycles with long periods between — and this is con- firmed by the noticeable smaller size of the oviduct which suggests also that the hen has not been laying for so long a period as the one on the left. Photo from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Station. 66 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Our next hen may be a six-finger-abdomen hen, in good condition; pelvic bones 1 inch. We look on Chart 6, and find that 1-inch pelvic bones indicate the 55-egg type hen. Our next hen may be a four-finger-abdomen hen; she may be two fingers out of condition, as in Fig. 21, and her pelvic bones may be Vi6 of an inch thick. We would read her as four fingers abdomen; two fingers out of condition; this would make her a six-finger-abdomen hen if in condition. We look on Chart 6 at Vie-inch pelvic bone, and find our last hen is a 280-egg type hen, if in condition, and it is up to us to put her in condition and keep her there as nearly as possible. I will admit it is a hard proposition to keep the non-setting typical- egg type hen in condition, but the man that comes the nearest doing so is the best feeder. I will have more to say in regard to the matter of condition in the chapter on Judging Utility Fowls at the Poultry Shows. This work is a matter of line upon line, and I must necessarily repeat the same matter in some respects time after time. But as this is an educational more than an entertaining proposition, I hope that my readers will bear with me. As I said before, there are three types of hens. The hen listed on Chart 1 as '/le-inch pelvic bone is a typical egg-type hen, because all she consumes over bodily maintenance goes to the production of eggs. The hen listed as '/g-inch pelvic bone is a dual-purpose hen; half of her vitality is used in producing eggs and half in producing meat. The hen listed as '/g-inch is a typical meat- type hen; all she consumes goes to the production of meat, except what she uses in bodily maintenance. The hen listed as Vie-inch pelvic bone on Chart 2 is a typical egg-type hen; the hen listed as '/g-inch pelvic bone on same chart is a dual-pur- pose hen; and the one listed as '/g-inch pelvic bone is a typical meat- type-hen; the same rule follows in all the charts. All the hens listed as Vi«-inch pelvic bone are typical egg-type hens and they can't be made to pay as a meat proposition. The hens listed in the center of each chart are the dual-purpose hens ; they can be used as an egg and as a meat proposition. The hens listed on the bottom of each chart are the meat-type hens. Nature has fitted them for the production of flesh, and there is no human energy that can change them to a paying egg proposition. Between the above three distinct types there are combinations of each adjoining type. This allows sufficient latitude for the preference of each individual breeder. A person can breed the typical egg-type hen and cock bird with pelvic bones Vie of an inch thick. If he thinks this type is too delicate, he can breed from the '/le-i.nch pelvic bone stock; this is my favorite type; the hen of this type is better able to withstand the vicissitudes of the poultry yard than, her finer-bred sisters. I will have more to say along this Hne in the chapter on Broilers. I think we have given sufficient examples in Chapters III, IV, V, VI anjd VII, to enable the reader to examine a hen so he may be able to arrive at her approximate value for the purpose he wishes to use her for. In a previous chapter we have said there is occasionally found a hen seven fingers abdomen. If the reader finds one, he can score her by Chart 6 and add 15 eggs to the number indicated. For instance, if the hen is in good condition and measures seven fingers abdomen, and her pelvic bones are Vs inch thick. Chart 6 would indicate she is a 205-egg type bird ; we then add 15 eggs to the 205, which gives the hen 220-egg THE CALL OF THE HEN. 67 capacity. If she is five fingers abdomen and two fingers out of condition, we call her seven fingers abdomen, and proceed as above, which gives us the same results. There are two other matters I wish to call the attention of the reader to in this place. One is, that I have found hens occasionally that laid a great deal better by the trap-nest than they scored by the Hogan test, but it was owing to a mistake made in measuring their abdomens, owing to the rear of the breast-bone turning up, sometimes almost an inch over normal shape, thus indicating a smaller abdomen than really was the case. The other matter is a more serious one — in fact, very serious in some flocks. It is the bagging down of the abdomen over the rear of the breast-bone. Every hen used in the breeding-pen should be examined for this defect, for if one of them is bred from, she is almost sure to transmit her weak ovarian system to her offspring. Some of these hens will make remarkable egg records for a year or so, then will never lay another egg; and again, the eggs are liable to be very infertile and more or less thin-shelled; and if you have great numbers of hens, you can hardly tell when these hens stop laying for good, unless you trap-nest them, as their pelvic bones do not close up as readily as hens in normal condition. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure in this case, as it is very easy to prevent all this trouble. I meet hundreds of the above hens in my visits to poultry plants, but never have a case in my yards. I examine all my pullets when about a year old for possible breeders. If a hen satisfies me as to Capacity, Tsrpe, and Prepotency, I then hold her as if I were testing her for capacity, except that I hold her by the right leg only. I then lay my hand on her breast, so that it (my hand) will conform to her shape, and draw it slowly along her breast-bone (or keel) from front to rear. When my hand reaches the rear, if I feel the slightest indication of her abdomen dropping the least bit below the rear of the breast-bone, I reject the hen as a breeder, and thereby save myself a world of trouble in the future. CHAPTER IX. Prepotency. We will take up in this chapter Prepotency, the science of breeding poultry, so that we can breed with a definite knowledge of what we are doing, and not leave it to intuition or chance. It is an old saying that "like begets like;" this seems to be true ia some cases, but seems not to be true in other cases. Students of human nature can readily see where it has apparently failed. Some children will resemble and act like one parent and some will resemble and act like the other parent; then again, some children will be like neither of the parents. Breeders of horses and cattle are well aware of the variations in offspring from the type and characteristics of sire and dam. It is more through persistency in breeding than the general knowledge of any scientific principle that we have succeeded in producing the grand types of animals we see at our State fairs. The breeding of poultry is no exception to the above rule. 68 THE CALL OF THE HEN. FIG. 184— "X-RAY" SKETCH SHOWING PELVIC ARCHIANDIjKEEL a. Pubic bones, forming rear part of pelvic arch. b. Rear of keel or breastbone, c. Lateral or sternal processes. Hi M ^^^ ^ ppi ^^^H ^^^P HH 1 ■ 1 w ^^ n \ ^^m i P " 1^^ i ^s^ ^ ^^ i A X I '-'^ ..^ M^ ^^^^H H^qIi^^^^H ■iL. JUibUli i^i£&. FIG. 191— GOOD AND POOR PRODUCERS CONTRASTED AS TO FLEXI- BILITY OF SKIN The skin of the high-producing hen on the left is much more pliable and freer from abdominal fat than the low producer on the right. Photo from Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station. The skin of the good producer is soft, loose and oliable. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 69 While some breeders have good success in breeding for the desired type of bird, whether for fancy, for eggs, or for flesh, others will have very poor success. The purpose of this chapter is to explain to the breeder who has had poor success a method that will enable him to breed with the full under- standing as to what he is doing. It is a well-known fact among the clothing trade that if a woolen manufacturer has a sample of cloth presented to him, he can manufacture thousands of yards that will be an exact duplicate of the sample. The same is true in other industries. But suppose the reader gives an order to one of our well-known poultry- breeders for 1,000 pullets, to be delivered at four months old, these pullets to be housed, fed, and cared for as the breeder designates, and to approximately lay a certain number of eggs their first laying year; how many breeders do you suppose could fill the order? Until a ma- jority of them can do so the poultry industry will not be on a business basis, but will be more or less of a gamble. I have said that seemingly like does not beget like in some cases. We will take, for instance, a hen that is five fingers abdomen, in good condition, J^-inch pelvic bones. She will scale up as a 205-egg type hen. We will mate up a pen of these hens with a 205-egg type cockerel or cock bird; we raise 100 pullets from this mating and they may scale 175-egg type. We then say, "Like does not produce like." Here is where we make a mistake. In one sense we are right, in another we are wrong. Nature makes no mistakes. We have mated 205-egg- type male and female, and we get as a result 175-egg type product. That's as plain as the nose on one's face, and we throw up our hands in despair and say, "It's all luck and chance." Another party mates up the same type of birds and gets a lot of pullets that average 210 eggs their first laying year; still another party mates up the same type of birds and does not get a chick. The reader may smile, but this is no dream. A number of such cases have come under my observation. One case was that of a pro- fessor in one of the Southern California public institutions. He had a pen of twelve Black Minorcas, headed by a splendid-looking cock bird ; also a pen of twelve Andalusians. He said there was something peculiar about these hens, and he wanted to know if I could detect it. I tested all the Andalusians, and told him they should average 140 eggs their first laying year, and I would expect twelve eggs out of every thirteen to be fertile. After testing the Minorcas, I told him they would average about 160-egg type, but if they were mine, I would not set any of their eggs while they were mated to the present cock -bird, because I would not expect them to hatch, and if they did hatch, they would be degener- ates. He said, "This is the second season I have bred from the birds; I always get good hatches from the Andalusians; but, although I see the rooster serve the hens, I have never been able to hatch a chicken from the Minorca pen." I replied, "He serves the hens out of sym- pathy." Another case was a Barred Rock hen, the only one a neighbor had in a small flock of Houdans. He called me one day, saying he had a remarkable pullet at his place, and he wanted me to call and tell hint how many eggs she would lay her first laying year. She had been laying two months, and he was keeping her record. I went with him, tested* the hen, and told him she might lay 250 eggs, but I did not think that o H — i 70 THE CALL OF THii nn-n. any of them would hatch. After her first laying year was up, he showed me her record. She had laid 258 eggs, and although he had a good Barred Rock cock bird with her, and had set a number of settings under hens, he failed to hatch a single chick. I could cite a great number of such cases. In the first of these cases the fault was with the male bird; in the last case the fault was with the hen ; in both cases the trouble was caused by a lack of prepotency (amativeness), and not through any defect in the anatomy of the birds. Everything in the universe is governed by certain immutable laws. If we understand these laws and can discover a way to control them, we may be able to use them to our advantage. Does the reader ever stop to consider these matters? What, in your opinion, is the greatest effort of Nature? The writer thinks it is the effort to reproduce the species in all their different forms of animate and inanimate life. If the case were otherwise, this earth would be barren of grass and shrubs, of flowers and fruits, and of every living, moving thing on land and in the sea. What a desolate old world this would be with only bare dirt and rocks and water. And when we consider what a wonderful thing life is, can we doubt that Nature has made some extraordinary provisions for controlling its inception? In the wild state the survival of the fittest prevented degeneracy of tjie species, but under domestication birds cannot follow their instincts; and their owners should be familiar with Nature's laws in order to be able to breed intelligently. When the writer was twelve years of age he took up the study of human nature, and later had help from that great teacher. Professor O. S. Fowler. Years of practice in dissecting and in anatomy and in the study of the skulls of animals and birds gave me the opportunity to study the construction of the different skulls and classify them as to the known habits of the birds or animals under consideration. The knowledge gained in this way was of inestimable value in later research in the selection and breeding of poultry. I am positive that without this early training I never could have accomplished what I have. After raising my first lot of Leghorns in 1869, I decided to dispose of all breeds but the Leghorns and Light Brahmas. I said I would raise Leghorns for eggs and Brahmas for meat. Up to that time I had not paid much attention to the individual laying qualities of the birds. Experience had taught me that the Light Brahma, when fed right and of the right age, made a delicious table-fowl, and I was led to believe the Leghorns were all great layers. That was a good many years ago; and we have made wonderful discoveries and progress in science and the arts since that time. The reader can imagine my surprise when I found by experience that some of my Leghorns laid very few eggs and laid them only in the spring months; others laid large numbers and laid late in the fall and early winter. In those days we had no cold-storage plants, and while eggs were very cheap in the summer, they were very dear in the winter, and I decided to experiment with my Leghorns, with a view to getting more eggs in the winter. After a few years of study and experiment, I mated the best egg-type birds and from some pens got good results, from other pens not so good, and from still others very poor results. My previous studies in anatomy had enabled me to select the matings from birds that were all of the same type, and I expected to, raise a lot of poultry that would be duplicates of their THE CALL OF THE HEN. / 1 parents, as far as their egg-laying qualities were concerned. But after numerous experiments in mating the 180-egg type cock bird with 180- egg type hens, I found I could not depend on getting definite results. Some are born rich, some are born handsome, and some are born lucky. The writer was born with none of these gifts, but with a com- bination of faculties that compelled to invention, to wander and toil and delve in the fields, the by-ways, and the mines of the mysterious. These researches, with the aid received by studying the pioneers in the same lines of investigation, led to the discovery, as the writer thinks, of the fundamental principle that underlies the reproduction of the species. After a number of matings that were more or less discouraging failures, I decided to look to the brain of the bird as the seat of the cause of a great many of the variations between the characteristics of the offspring and those of the parents. I had previously demonstrated by experiment that environment had an influence on the shaping of the skull of the birds. By focusing on this subject the skull-knowledge I had gained in the previous nine years, I was led to think that brain governed most of the functions of the body, and if so, why not the reproductive function? I reasoned that as I had mated up several pens of the same type of hens with the same type of male birds, and that as there was no difference in their temperaments, that the hens all looked alike, all weighed alike, and were all in the same condition — or, in other words, they were all in perfect condition (to be more explicit, the hens were three fingers abdomen, pelvic bone Vis of an inch thick; all hens were in good condition ; the cock birds were two-finger abdomens, in normal condition, and pelvic bones Vie of an inch thick; all hens were alike and all cock birds were alike, and all were about a year old) ; that there must be something apart from the anatomy and physiology of the hen that governed or in some measure controlled the reproductive functions. As I had exhausted all my resources in the above lines, I was very reluctantly obliged to enter a new field of research — the field of Phrenology. I killed the cock birds that had given us the best results, boiled their skulls until free of flesh, and found them as in No. 1, Fig. 35. The skulls of the cock birds that gave the next best results were like No. 2, Fig. 35, and the skulls of the cock birds that gave the poorest results were like No. 4, Fig. 35. The Arrows A, B, C, and D show the base of the brain. If A were continued upward, it would pass through the projection J^ of an inch from the end; if B were continued, it would pass through the projection about Vs of an inch from the end ; while C would be at the extreme end of the projection, and D would pass outside the skull. The part of the skull where the arrows 1, 2, 3, 4 point contains the rear lobe of the brain, an examination will show that the develdjpment of this portion of the brain corresponds to the shape of the skull at this point. And right here is where we were on the point of the second great secret in breeding that would verify the saying that "Like begets like." The first discovery was, that if we wished to raise pullets that would be good layers, we would have to mate good-laying hens with the same type of male bird, and not with the meat type — that is, the male bird$ would have to be of the same temperament, of the same anatomy, and of the same physiology as the hen. I found that if I had a hen that laid 180 eggs by the trap-nest, and if I wanted to raise a lot of pullets that would average 180 eggs, I could not depend on the trap- 72 THE CALL OF THE HEN. nest to aid me any fartherl|than to tell me the number of eggs a hen laid, what particular eggs she laid, and the progeny of each hen, both male and female. I also found great variations in type in mature cockerels from each individual hen, which we considered was due to the difference in type of the male bird and the difference in vitality of one or both birds at different times during the breeding season; sometimes the hen Fig. 35 — Three degrees of amativeness (otherwise called "prepotency"). THE CALL OF THE HEN. 73 at Other times the cock bird, transmitting their characteristics. When I was assured of this through numerous experiments, I reasoned that my failures were because the male birds were of a different t3rpe from the hens, and when I had demonstrated that the male birds were of a different physiology by practice and scientific measures, and mated ac- cordingly, I flattered myself with the assurance that I had discovered all that was necessary in order to breed poultry intelligently. But after more experiments, I was not wholly satisfied with results; and as I had adopted the motto, "Like begets like," I reasoned that although the birds we had mated were alike, as far as we could see, the remaining difference must be some place where I had failed to look for it. My knowledge of the different variations in form of the skulls of animals and birds of the same breed, together with the knowledge I possessed of human skulls, led me to investigate the head as the only remaining factor in the problem. When I reduced this proposition to a method, and when I was able to measure its potentiality, then I assembled the hens and cock birds, mating the 180-egg type hens and the 180-egg type cock birds, each bird with the same degree of prepotency. Then, and not until then, had I ever knowingly mated like to like. For years, like many others, I thought I had mated males to like females, but I was mistaken. And here is where I discovered my second great secret. After this I mated like to like more intelligently, and the results were more satisfactory. I consider the selection of the male birds for mating along anatomical and physiological lines, together with the proper understanding and use of the faculty that governs the reproductive function, as the greatest discoveries ever made in the poultry industry. The reader may think there is very little difference in the skulls in Fig. 35. If you add an inch to the length of a man's legs, it does not seem to make much difference in his height, but if you add an inch to the end of his nose, it would make a great difference in his looks. I found this expansion on the back of the skull corresponded to the faculty of amativeness in the human family. I found that when it was large in both male and female the parents possessed the ability to transmit their predominating characteristics to their offspring. If the parents were fancy birds, their progeny would in some cases excel their parents in feather, vigor, and other good qualities. If the parents were of the egg type, some of the chicks would be as good and some better layers and more vigorous than the parents; if of the meat type, the progeny would be of a stronger constitution, of a quicker growth, and assimilate their food better — in a word, if both parents have this faculty (called "prepotency" by sorne) large, the chicks will be more likely to be equal to, and some will, excel their parents along the lines in which the parents predominate. If the parents have the faculty small, the chicks will not be so good as the parent stock, but will degenerate along the lines that the parents excel in. If a hen is a 200-egg type and she has this faculty small, she will be just as valuable as an egg-producer as if she had the faculty large, but she will be of np value as a breeder; she will be an old maid from choice, and her eggs will not be fertile, if she has the faculty small enough. If the male bird has it small, his eggs will not hatch well, and if totally lacking, they will not hatch at all. I have found a few cases where the cock bird had the faculty of prepotency 74 THE CALL OF THE HEN. (amativeness) large and failed to fertilize the eggs, but the cases were very rare, and I attributed it to weakened or diseased nerves ; as, for in- stance, the nerves of the teeth or sciatic nerve, in the human being. Fig. 36 — Holding hen ready to put in sack. Fig. 36 shows how to hold a hen before putting her in a sack to examine her for prepotency. Fig. 37 — Holding legs with right hand and gathering sack around legs with left hand. Fig. 37 shows how to put her in the sack, holding legs with right hand, with back of hen against bottom of sack, and gathering sack around legs with left hand. THE CALL OF TEE HEN. 75 Fig. 38 shows tying sack around legs so that she cannot move while examining her for prepotency. (Cut a little off the corner of the sack — just enough to get her head through. Hen in Fig. 38 is too far out of the sack.) Fig. 38 — -Tying sack around legs so hen cannot move while examining her for prepotency. This method of holding the bird is only necessary while you are learning. If there is someone to hold the hen for you, it would be quicker. When you become skillful, you can hold the bird as in Fig. 43. The best way for a beginner to learn how to handle a hen for pre- potency is to select a hen you wish for the table. Cut the corner off of a gunny sack; hold her as in Fig. 36; put your hen in sack and tie her, as in Figs. 37 and 38; then make a hook of wire or a hair pin, attach it to a string with small weight or stone; hang hen up against bam or shed, head down, back against building; take long-bladed pocket or other knife with sharp point, insert in hen's mouth, and draw across the roof of the mouth at the back of the brain at the junction of the neck, severing the blood-veins, then immediately force the knife through the roof of the mouth into the brain. The knife should be forced well into the brain, which will sever the nerves, and the bird will feel no pain; then insert hook in the nostril, and the weight will hold the neck straight. The hen should bleed freely. After bleeding has stopped, clean mouth and surrounding parts of blood, and place hen in some convenient place — on a box or coop. The thumb-nail on the left hand and nail on the forefinger of the right hand should be longer than the thumb and finger, so the flesh on end of thumb and finger will not prevent the nail from entering the slight depression between the skull and neck. We will suppose the reader has handled the hen as suggested above. Lay the dead hen as in Fig. 39 ; take hold of comb or head and pull neck up with right hand, and while holding head up the neck will be stretched out. Turn the head down with right hand, so the back of the head will point up and beak will point down as much as possible. This will make the projection of the brain (arrow 1, Fig. 35) appear more promi- nent, so it will be easier to locate it; then draw ball of thumb of left hand 76 THE CALL OF THE HEN. down on head until you feel back of skull; when you feel back of skull with ball of thumb, then turn first joint of thumb down until thumb-nail fits in between end of skull and neck and well up against base of brain; then, while holding left hand and thumb as in Fig. 39, put forefinger of right hand at base of brain behind the ear, as in Fig. 39, between the neck and the skull and against the skull behind the ear, as in Fig. 39. Fig. 39 — Showing thumb '/• of an inch ahead of forefinger; indicating hen is total- ly lacking in prepotency. (See Skull No. 4, Fig. 35.) The ear can readily be discovered by lifting up its hairy covering. The thumb-nail must be held perfectly straight across the neck, as in Fig. 39, and not sideways; and the forefinger must be held perfectly at right angles with the thumb, or the length of projection (arrow 1, Fig. 35) from the base of the brain (arrow 4, Fig. 35) cannot be measured accu- rately. The reader will notice that my thumb-nail is ahead of my forefinger- nail in Fig. 39; this indicates that this hen is wholly lacking in the ability to transmit any redeeming qualities to her offspring, also that she has no desire for offspring. If this were a male bird, the eggs from his matings would be infertile. Fig. 40 shows thumb on line with forefinger. Mat- THE CALL OF THE HEN. 77 ings from this type of head would not produce very fertile eggs, and the Erogeny would deteriorate each year if they were bred from stock with eads like this. If the parents were 200-egg type, their egg-yield and vitality would be reduced each generation of breeding. If they were of the beef type, their vitality and ability to produce flesh economically would diminish with each generation. If they were a fancy type, the breeder would be up against a stone wall of discouraging experiments. Fig. 40 — Thumb even with forefinger; indicating she has prepotency small. (See Skull No. 3, Fig. 35.) I would advise the reader to take special notice of Fig. 43, as this cut shows the. method of determining prepotency plainer than any of the others. Fig. 41 shows a hen with prepotency full — i. e., thumb '/s of an inch behind forefinger. Sometimes a poultryman will be- lucky enough to mate up a lot of pens of the right type for his purpose with heads like Figs. 41, 42, and 43. His business prospers, and his neighbors call him "lucky." While others are going bankrupt raising poultry, he holds his own and is making a good living. Figs. 42 and 43 show a hen with an excellent head for breeding purposes. The thumb in this case is 78 THE CALL OF THE HEN. }4. of an inch behind the forefinger. If this hen is mated to a male bird of the same type and prepotency, her eggs will be veryfertile, and a large number of the progeny will be equal to and some will excel the parent stock in the lines, that predominate in the parents. By selecting these few specimens each season for breeding, it is possible to breed a highly valuable type in the course of time. Fig. 43 shows how to hold a bird between the knees after you become proficient in testing the head while the bird is in a sack. After a little practice you will become so proficient that you can test birds for prepotency without having to put them in a sack. Fig. 41 — Showing thumb '/s of an inch behind forefinger; indicating hen has pre- potency full. (See Skull No. 2, Fig. 35.) CHAPTER X. Testing Hens on a Large Scale, Using Charts 44 and 45. I will describe in this chapter how I cull hens when we have large numbers of them, as we have in poultry plants in California. I shall iflfi CALL OF THE HEN. 79 take it for granted that the reader has no method of selecting the good from the poor layers, except, perhaps, the "Walter Hogan System" or some of its pirated forms that are now used extensively in all parts of the civilized world, and which is based on the theory that the value of a hen as an egg-producer depends on the relative distance apart of her pelvic bones and the thinness of same. We will suppose the reader has 300 hens; one lot are about a year and four months old, another lot are about two years and four months old, and another lot are about three years and four months old. Each lot has been kept in separate yards, so there can be no mistake in regard to their ages, or they have been toe-punched or otherwise marked. We notice more or less feathers lying around the yard, thus indicating the season of the year when moulting is near at hand. Everything else being equal, the poorest hen moults first, and if she is a very poor layer, she will stop laying when she begins to moult and will not lay again until the crows lay in the spring. We consider it is about time to cull out the poor layers and send them to market. Fig. 42 — Showing thumb J^ of an inch behind forefinger; indicating hen has pre- potency large. (See Skull No. 1, Fig. 35.) 80 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 43 — Showing how to hold bird between knees after you become proficient in testing head while bird is in sack. The next thing that comes to mind is the question, "What is a poor layer?" That all depends on the price you get for the eggs, the price of feed, houses, etc. I raised poultry in Todd County, Minnesota, in 1886 and 1887, and sold good lumber at the saw-mill for $5.00 per 1,000 • feet. Wheat was about 1 cent per pound, and wheat screenings for chicken feed could be had for the hauling. It is very evident that a poorer class of layers might have been kept at a greater profit when sup- plies were at that low price than can be profitably kept when supplies are as high-priced as they are at the present time. So the reader can see that the matter of the profitable hen is a local matter. At this writing you can buy nearly two bushels of wheat in some parts of Minne- sota for what you will pay for one in California. I was told a few days ago that you could buy twice as much oats at the present time in Minne- sota as you can in California for the same money. When studying Charts 44 and 45 we see there are certain figures lined off from the rest ; this is for the purpose of aiding the reader at a certain time each year to select the poor layers from the good ones without using the charts, thereby saving the time necessary to look over the chart and classify each hen. Charts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, as the reader will learn by bearing in mind the following instructions, need be used only to determine the laying- score of the individual hfen. The first figures underlined in Chart 44 are in the column indicating three fingers abdomen, from Vie-inch pelvic bone to ^/le-inch pelvic bone. The second are in the column indicating four fingers abdomen, from THE CALL OF THE HEN. 81 '/i6-inch pelvic bone to '/n-inch pelvic bone. The third are five fingers abdomen, from '/le-inch pelvic bone to °/i6-inch pelvic bone. The fourth are six fingers abdomen, from '/le-inch pelvic bone to ^^/u-inch pelvic bone. We will make a copy of Charts 44 and 45 on a piece of white-card- board and hang it up in a convenient place in the yard where the sixteen- months-old hens are penned. We will suppose that the ends are all closed in the house or houses. We put catching-coops in position as in Fig. 2, and drive hens in same as in Fig. 1. When there are enough hens in the coop, shut down slide-door that holds them in. In this case it is necessary to keep only four figures in mind; any four you prefer will do. (0 m VI tn rn rn rn f/i CO m rn tn CO (0 hfl Wl Wl W) Wl ho Ml he hfl hn buo bfl h/l hfl hit) W) hfl h/l M hfl h/l W) bA bo 0) 0) 0) 0) OJ a> (l> OJ 0) OJ a> a> 0) 0) is eg c c c c c c e a c c c C C C o n n o o o o o o o o o o o ^ XI J3 J3 X) ja 43 XI J3 XI ^ XI ^ ja a i) C) u O o (J U u <) u t) u u u > •> •> > •? ■? •> ■? ■? •> > ■> •?■? o a 1 a a a a a a a 0. a (X a a o. s s '-' .^ ,^ ^-* ^~ .H . « ■^ "* *-^^ .^ " — ^ ^ ^- M rH us n ' t-' .4 " 0) kO a CO ' S 1- a ■ totoojcocotnmcocncoinco hababebebebebiibiibiibiibebii babDbnbtJbobtlbobiJblibJibDbD vo^^000vO'-te^^f0'd^»0V0O OvOOt^vOvolOTj T T > > '? *> ;> a}(i)CJ (ncocowncoiDcotoco bAbjObAbobObjObAbobjObA bAbAbAbAbAbAbAbAbAbA (L>iL}(L)0a;(L}(ua) vOCq00T*> rt ■o — c •g vC ^ • -H (^ V+-I £ .2 c m M .2 S: K s 2 V- O B o 8 i_ C3 rt) tn cn to O o .S •- X M be 1 a aj m I M •" >v ; -5 "1 S I (U S g : -^ 3 8 ! fe ^" ^ C o S ya e « 82 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Here in California we use the figures 5, 7, 9, and 11 for the hen sixteen months old, meaning by this that hens having pelvic bones '/le, ^/le, '/i6 and "/i6 inches in thickness (depending on the depth of abdomen) will be the maximum thickness of pelvic bones of really profitable hens; or in other words this means a three-finger abdomen hen, '/i6-inch pelvic bone; four-finger-abdomen hen, '/ij-inch pelvic bone; five-finger- abdomen hen, °/i6-inch pelvic bone; six-finger-abdomen hen, "/is-ii^ch pelvic bone. Anything below this line (that is, any hen having a thicker bone in the different classes) goes to market. For the twenty-eight- months-old hen we assume that they are hatched in March and sold in the summer. We use the figures 3, 5, 7, and '/le for the three-, four-, five-, and six-finger-abdomen hens. For the forty-months-old hens we CO in m tn m (n rn (0 U) tn 10 (0 m hf h(l ho hr bl) M M ho hf ho hO ho ho hn M h(l M M h(l M M ho hf hf ho ho ho ho (U (U OJ o o lO o >o o to o lO o to o r*( 1 o ns 5 00 ■■o lO fO 0) (U c c c a c c c c a e c c c c e c a B c r 0) Ml n n n o o n o o o o o o o o o o o o o .§ XI XI ." XI X! XI XI XI XI XI XI XJ XI XI XI XI XI XI XI K o o o o " u o o o o o o o o u o o o o > > > > > > >• > > > > > > > "> > > > > > A 0) K) 0. 0. o. (X u o. a o. iX a a u. a o. o. a u. o. a ^ M ;> .^ m ,> ai xa i?~ t- la IH 1-1 1-1 1-1 T-t 1) (U 0) 01 0) 01 01 V 01 01 o 1^ o lO o to O »o o m o lO o lO o >o o o lO PO cs o ON 1^ vo if! m tH (-> 00 r^ »o •^ (N 1-1 cs CN cs CM 1-1 1-1 iH 1-1 IH iH 1-1 OJ aj 6 oJ Hi 0> > > > > > > > > > l> > > LI 01 (U 01 01 01 QJ QJ a) 01 (11 0> 41 0. u. a. a a u a a u. u. a a O, p. a a a a „ m « . M > la > < > < 3 i-( 1-1 ^ bA bo bjs bA 01 01 4J 01 c u o o XI Xi o o be bo bo bo V 01 o o XI X2 o o 01 01 e e o o XI XI cococococncocococo bjObjobJObiObiObAbjObjObio bobjobobobobjobobobo 014J414141O1O1O1O1 01O1OI0J4JO1014101 caeccocoo ooooooooo X2X:X>X3X)X3X3X3XI ooocjoyooo 01 01 01 01 aj'3'3'^'3 01 a a bn XI U •a " •5 ba CO .Is 41 >> u cd n! — I- 1-1 s o 4J 'C O O o. s a X! ^ i O 0) ^^ (11 t ccl Xi u •o c: o bVi6 pelvi ^/s pelv: "/le pelvi 1-in pelvi "/16 pelvi iVs pelvi iVis pelvi IV4 pelvi MALE BIRD— CHART G. Four-finger Abdomen, c bone 280-egg type c bone 265-egg type c bone 250-egg type c bone 235-egg type c bone 220-egg type c bone 205-egg type c bone 190-egg type c bone 175-egg type c bone 160-egg type c bone 145-egg type c bone 130-egg type c bone 115-egg type c bone 100-egg type c bone 85-egg type c bone 70-egg type c bone 55-egg type ,c bone 40-egg type c bone 25-egg type c bone 10-egg type c bone 0-egg type 92 THE CALL OF THE HEN. We consider the male bird of so much importance that we have made seven charts for his classification as to egg and meat types. See Charts A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. While Chart A may not be needed and Chart B used very seldom, we thought it best to include them. All old poultrymen and stock-raisers know that so many considerations enter into the breeding and raising of live stock of all kinds that it is impossible to lay down hard-and-fast rules that can be depended upon beforehand to bring definite results in all parallel cases. This is written as a caution to beginners, especially to those whose experience has been at the desk or behind the counter. Fig. 46 shows a cock bird four fingers abdomen and Fig, 47 shows the same bird Vs-inch pelvic bone, making him a 265-egg type bird. The reader will see by Figs. 46 and 47 that we use the same methods to determine the egg-value of a male bird as we use for the hen, except that we do not think it advisable to take the matter of condition into consideration, or rather it is better not to lay down rules in the matter, as it is very hard to keep the egg-type birds in good condition; but I try to keep my cock birds in good flesh and not over one finger out of condition at any time. There are times before the male birds are a year old and while their bones are soft that their abdomens will contract and expand, it depending on whether they are stinted in their feed, or whether they are fed liberally. Egg-type cockerels selected for breeders should have the best care and food (see chapter on Selecting Cockerels for Breeding). In examining the male birds for prepotency, the reader should select them with the greatest care. I cannot impress this on the Fig. 46 — ^Showing four-finger depth of abdomen of 26S-egg cock bird. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 93 f-^^: ^^imii^iiii^iii ■^^^^■■■M^H ^^■^H t -^mH^^^JH^^H ^Hl^ PF ^ jH^^H H|V ^ "f |MHkJ\^^y\ I TWi E "4 < ^'"'Pl ^^■^r^ ^jB . ^^K|^/ ^^Ci Mf,' '^ -^JH^HI ' ■I^^^^P 'Jifji ^v^^'^'*^' JHi^^n^^Br'^ \ W^M ^^H^^^Jt^^^^ K^hH^^^^^I .- Fig. 47 — Showing |-inch pelvic bone of 26S-egg cock bird. Fig. 48 — Showing 1-16-inch pelvic bone of 280-egg type hen. 94 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Fig. 49 — Showing six-finger depth of abdomen of 280-egg type hen. Fig. so — 280-egg type hen and 265 egg type cock^ird. Tail of cock is somewhat crampedfor want of room. THE CALL OF .THE HEN. 95 reader too strongly. They should be as good or better if possible than No. 1, Fig. 35/ and do not forget that the thumb nail on the left hand and the nail on the forefinger of the right hand (reverse the order if left-handed) must be somewhat longer than the flesh, if you expect to take correct measurements. CHAPTER XII. Selecting the Cockerels at Broiler Age. I have tried to impress on the reader the importance of the careful selection of the male birds, and perhaps he is fully alive to the value of doing so. He starts out at the first opportunity and visits all the poultry plants far and near, with the determination to purchase the best male bird he can find. Before starting out, he decides he will have nothing less than 200-egg types. Imagine his disappointment when, after handling perhaps fifty or more, he can find nothing that will come any way near the 200-egg type ; while if he examines the same number of hens, he will very likely find at least one or perhaps more that will come somewhat near what he is looking for. Then he will say that there is no such bird as the chart describes as a 200-egg type cock bird. I wish to say here that I think I have at least fifty male birds at the present writing that will scale from 200 up, according to the charts. I Jiave over a dozen that will scale from 250 to 265, and these have all been developed within six years from hens with three-finger abdomens and 34-inch pelvic bones, mated to cockerels with 13^-inch finger abdomens and */i8-inch pelvic bones. T?he first season in California we raised about 300 cockerels up to three months of age, which is within the broiler age for this section. We arranged our house and catching-coop as in Figs. 1 and 2, and we went through the same movements that we do when testing the hens, except that we do not have to use all the tests on each one of the cockerels that we use on the hens. We hold the cockerel as in Figs. 5 and 6 and lay our hand on his abdomen as in Fig. 7. As soon as we lay our hand on his abdomen we can feel instantly whether his pelvic bones are straight, like Fig. 34, or crooked, like Fig. 33. If his pelvic bones are like Fig. 33, we have no use for him as a breeder and put him in the shipping-crate for market; if his pelvic bones are straight, like Fig. 34, we measure the depth of his abdomen; if it is less than two fingers, we put him in the shipping-crate ; if two fingers or over, we examine him for prepotency ; and if the projection on the back of his head, as in No. 1, Fig. 35, is less than '/g of an inch behind a line drawn at right angles from the back Off the ear (see Figs. 41, 42 and 43) we put him in the shipping-crate, no matter how good he is in other points. We take no chances with him, because if we have made no mistake in measuring his head lines, abdomen, and pelvic bones, it will be a waste of time to breed from him; but if his head measures up good, we keep him as a prospective breeder. We say "as a prospective breeder," as it is very evident it will not pay to raise all the cockerels to maturity. Here in Petaluma, where there are over 600,000 cockerels raised to broiler age in a season, it would be impossible to raise them all and test their breeding, qualities, neither is it necessary. If a person has a 96 THE CALI, OF THE HEN. delicate touch, the comparative value of chicks for prepotency can be judged as well when they are three days old as at any time later. _ Then again, we are obliged to keep our chicks until we can distinguish the males from the females, and as a rule we will lose nothing if we keep them until they are at least ten weeks old, when, if they have had the right care and feed, they will be old enough to test. If their pelvic bones are thick at this age, it indicates they are more or less of the meat type; if their pelvic bones are crooked, it indicates that they never will be straight; and if they lack prepotency, it indicates that they will always lack it, for they come out of the shell with this organ relatively large or small, just as a baby is born with a nose on its face. I want to impress on the reader the importance of using the utmost care in measuring the head for prepotency, as it is very easy for a person to think he has measured the head right when he has not done so; especially if he has large self-esteem, he then thinks everything he does must be right ; it would be impossible for him to do anything otherwise than the right way. In my classes I have found workers in the ma- chinists' trade made the most correct measurements, especially if they had the faculty of human nature large, while I have found that profes- sional men who had human nature small make the poorest measure- ments; this was owing to prejudice, and not to the absence of the com- bination of the necessary mental faculties. I suppose there will always be found those who will discredit the most obvious fact, if it puts them at a disadvantage from a mental, moral, or financial poiiit of view; but m this case it would be cutting off your nose to spite your face to be careless in any of these tests. I have never yet, in my investigations of hundreds of poultry plants, found a degenerate lot of poultry but that they were small in prepotency. But to return to the cockerels: As we said on page 83, we raised 300 cockerels the first year I was in California. After testing them at three months old, as described, I found eighteen that I considered worth keeping to the age of nine months, when I would give them the final test. When they were eight months old I tested them again, and while I found that they all had good depth of abdomen and good prepotency, six of them had crooked pelvic bones. The pelvic bones on twelve of the cockerels had continued to grow straight, while the pelvic bones on six of them had grown crooked and were coming together at the points like the horns on a Jersey cow. I had to discard these six breeders and send them to market. The reader will see that, out of 300 cockerels, I had only 12 that were capable of improving my flock. Last year (1912), out of about 1,200, 1 had only 200 that I considered good enough to keep for breeders; and while all my birds have been more or less squirrel-tailed, one of last year's 200 is a very well-formed, low-tailed bird, but he lacks the pure- white ear-lobes. He scores 250-egg type, and I have refused $50.00 for him. I am going to see if I can breed a low-tailed type of Leghorn in quantities that will conform to the present American Standard, and average about 200 eggs per year in large flocks. The reader will under- stand that the parents of these cockerels were selected with the greatest care as to capacity, type, and prepotency. Tjrpe and prepotency are more or less hereditary traits or features, distinguishable in the sub- jects, if we have the knowledge necessary to discern them. But the individual inherent or innate potentiality of any one or each bird cannot THE CALL OF THE HEN. 97 be increased or diminished by the breeder; that is to say, feed and environment will not materially change the impotent bird into a potent bird, neither will it change the typical meat-type into the egg-type bird. "But," I hear some sarcastic reader say, "we certainly can diminish or increase their prepotency by alternately starving and feeding them well." That is begging the question. You coiild affect their fecundity very readily; but what the writer wishes to impress on the reader is, that while type and prepotency are fixed before birth, and also the ability to govern capacity, and while type and prepotency can be procured only by selection, capacity can be governed more or less by environment — in other words, feed, care, the right kind of houses, ground, etc. We will say, for instance, the reader has a pen of egg-type birds, both male and female, with large prepotency and capacity, and suppose they were all 200-egg birds. There would be no difficulty in raising chickens from them with the skme degree of type and prepotency; but if he should stint them in feed of the proper kind and quantity while growing, they would lose in capacity each generation. I develop the capacity of both pullets and cockerels from the time they are three days old to the fullest extent by the most liberal feeding, care, and surrounding conditions. In concluding this chapter, I would say that the bird with the desired characteristics is more or less of a sport, and the value of the "Hogan Test" lies in the fact that with this knowledge you can discover the sport and perpetuate it through intelligent breeding. Again, I want to say here that my best cockerels measure four fingers abdomen at three months old. All my stock is developed as much as possible at this age, and I try to prevent the cockerels from shrinking. But the pullets will develop until some of them are six fingers abdomen. The following article from the Petaluma Weekly Poultry Journal emphasizes what we have said in regard to the feeding and care of young stock. These cockerels were not crammed or penned up and fed, but were taken off free range and sent directly to market. I wish to remind the reader here that in examining the cockerels for prepotency he may be proficient enough in the matter to examine them by holding them between his knees and not be obliged to put each one in a sack. The article follows: "Walter Hogan Can Raise Chickens. "Walter Hogan backs up his system of selecting the good layers from among the poor ones, but he has never made much fuss about his ability as a poultry-raiser. For that reason some people have absorbed the idea that he is more of a theorist than a practical man. But he now has a flock of his own, and evidently he is making good, for he is getting results that will convince any one from Missouri or anywhere else who must be 'shown' before believing. For instance, last week there was a spell of most discouraging depression in the prices which dealers were willing to pay for young poultry. There were large arrivals of Eastern poultry in San Francisco besides heavy receipts of California, and nobody wanted any more. Just the same, Mr. Hogan received $4.00 a dozen for sixteen dozen cockerels just three months old, when 98 THE CALL OF THE HEN. the same dealer was paying but $1.50 for birds of the same age. Now, what do you think of that? And Mr. Hogan says these cockerels were not descendants of the beef type of hens, but were hatched from eggs laid by hens selecied as the egg type. They were not especially fed or in any way prepared for market. They cost 22 cents each for feed, and thus the profit on the bunch was $21.76. "In speaking of this matter, Mr. Hogan made the point that if all poultrymen would pay especial attention to producing fine broilers for market — that is, in preparing the broilers that they are obliged to produce in order to have a corresponding number of pullets — they would benefit themselves greatly. Not only would they get a better price for the birds, but they would greatly increase the demand, as many people who now care nothing for the common dry-meated birds would become pleased consumers of the improved broilers. The Poultry Journal man knows by personal experience that the broilers turned out by Mr. Hogan are simply delicious when properly cooked, and far ahead of the ordinary article." CHAPTER XHI. Selecting the Setting Hen. "How can I select the best hen for the purpose when I want to hatch chickens with hens?" The writer is asked the above question very often. It is a serious matter with the poultryman when he has a small number of choice eggs he wishes to hatch and gives them to a hen that is apparently setting well only to have her spoil most of them. He very naturally lays the cause to mites or lice, or both. While it is true that the nests and sur- roundings must be kept free from mites and the hens kept clean from hen lice, the trouble is not all here by a good deal. Sometimes a great deal of the fault lies in the hens. Some are born layers, some are born mothers, and some are born too lazy to get off the nest at the call of Nature. The hen born a typical egg type is of no use as a setter, neither is the hen that is born a typical meat type ; she is too lazy to care for her chicks, even if she is fortunate enough to hatch any and not kill them all by standing on them. She is too stupid any way, and the typical egg-type hen is too nervous and has no time to attend to them. She thinks of nothing but manufacturing eggs. So we will have to look for a hen between the above types, which we have in the dual-purpose tj^e, with the following characteristics ; First, she must have prepotency large; that gives her the mother instinct; next, she should be in normal condition, as indicated by her breast-bone; that is self-evident, for a hen out of condition lacks more or less of the animal magnetism, that is an aid to successful incubation. I need not mention good health, as indicated by good red comb and wattles, as everyone knows that. The hen should be four fingers ab- domen, since anything heavier is more or less liable to break the eggs and anything less than that would not be large enough to cover sufficient eggs. If the hen is a three-finger abdomen hen, her pelvic bones should be about '/le or Y2 of an inch thick; if she is a four-finger abdomen hen, her pelvic bones should be about Yi or '/u of an inch thick. If you THE CALL OF THE HEN. 99 can find hens such as described here, you will have hens with the mother instinct. They will not be too lazy to take proper care of themselves and their chicks, nor will they want to lay so soon as to neglect their chickens. The nearer you can get to procuring the above type of hens the better success you will have raising chicks with them. CHAPTER XIV. Selecting the Stock for Raising Broilers. A great many of my friends have requested me to write a chapter on how to raise broilers, but as there are so many excellent books on the market that describe the process of the feeding, caring for, and raising of broilers a great deal better than I could do it, I will confine myself to the selection of the breeding stock only. The writer has raised Light Brahmas and White Plymouth Rocks for years, and has experimented with them to get the greatest amount of meat from the smallest amount of feed; to get the greatest weight of meat at three months old in the White Rocks and the greatest weight of meat in the Light Brahmas at maturity. In the process I have run up against two distinct proposi- tions: One was a success from a commercial point of view, and the other, while not a financial success, was a success from an epicurean point of view. I will describe the financial proposition first: We will select a pen of hens from our favorite breed, or from Wyan- dottes, Orpingtons, Plymouth Rocks, or Rhode Island Reds. The hens must have large prepotency; they must be six or seven fingers abdomen and their pelvic bones should be '/s of an inch thick, in good condition. Now you have hens that should lay twelve dozen eggs their first laying year, and they are a paying proposition. Do not breed from them the first year, but wait until they are over one year old ; then mate them with a mature cockerel or young cock with large prepotency, with abdomen four fingers deep or more and pelvic bones from 1 inch to IM inches s m i^ J ^ I \ wam:mM. W -■'^■■y-: ■M • ■m^ mm A l«5iy K^^ms mkK.-. .L.yy.-UaM^. , .A hz'^iry^m^'-'-^m Fig. 51 — The dry-mash hopper we use, closed. 100 THE CALL OF THE HEN. thick. You should feed the pen for eggs, and keep them as healthy as possible. If they are fed right, you will get lots of eggs and good, healthy chicks, capable of putting on flesh rapidly and fattening very easily. As a paying proposition for market broilers I have never found any combination that would equal it. Fig. 52 — The dry-mash hopper we use, open. But for my private use, without regard to profit, I would take the same combination as the above, except that the pelvic bones of the hens would be 1 inch thick, instead of about Vs; this would give a broiler that would put on flesh much faster, consequently it would be more tender. I have raised broilers the flesh of which would almost melt in your mouth. I have a few secrets in the raising of them which I have never divulged, but may do so in a few years. CHAPTER XV. Using the Hogan Test in Judging Poultry at the Poultry Shows. From the Live Stock Tribune, Los Angeles, California. (Now Pacific PouUrycraft.) "Inglewood Poultry Show. "A poultry show will be held in the Inglewood Poultry Colony on March 13th and 14th. This show will be the first of its kind ever given in the United States. All poultry shows that have been held in this country heretofore have awarded prizes according to the color, markings, and shape of the fowls only. The show at Inglewood will be unusual in that prizes will be awarded irrespective of the color, variety, shape, size or age of the fowls in competition. "Birds in competition will be judged as to their egg-laying capacities and reproductive abilities only. The judging will be done by the system discovered and perfected by Walter Hogan and now used in practical poultry-raising by the members of the Inglewood Poultry Colony. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 101 "First, second, third, fourth and fifth prizes will be awarded to the best males and females entered from Inglewood; first prize being $5.00 cash, second prize being $3.00 cash; all winners receiving ribbons. In addition to the foregoing, there will be the Jaffa Grand Prize of $25.00 in gold, which will be awarded to the hen in the show which shows the greatest capacity as a layer, combined with the ability to reproduce her kind. "Entries for the regular prizes will be limited to fowls from Ingle- wood, but competition for the Jaffa Grand Prize will be open to all comers. Entries from poultry-raisers outside of Inglewood will be limited to two birds each. No entry fee will be charged, but all birds entered will be sent at the owner's risk, as is usual at all shows. "The birds entered will be cared for and reshipped to the owners by the White Wyandotte Farm, under whose auspices the show will be given and to whom all entries should be sent. No entries will be received after 10 o'clock a. m. on March 12th. "This show will be unique in that it will present the commercial side of the poultry industry to the exclusion of fancy breeding. Every step in the poultry business from the hatching of the chick to the prepara- tion of the mature fowl for market, and the packing of the eggs for table use will be illustrated by actual demonstrations on the famous White Wyandotte Farm, where the exhibition will be given. Incubators will hatch not less than 2,000 chicks during the show, and chickens in every stage of development, from one day old to ten weeks old, will be shown as raised in the best brooders with the best care. "There will be demonstrations on both days of the show of killing, picking and preparing fowls for market, as well as of packing fancy eggs. The best and latest in poultry supplies, fittings, and equipment will be shown as actually used by the capable, successful men who are in the business for revenue only. "No admission fee will be charged, the show being given for the purpose of exploiting and demonstrating the poultry business as it is being developed in Southern California. "The Jaffa Grand Prize is given and ri;3,med in honor of Professor Jaffa, of the University of California, who was the first man in public life in this State to test and verify the excellence of the system discovered by Mr. Hogan. "Transportation from Los Angeles to Inglewood will be free, 'and it is understood that the Board of Trade of Inglewood will make arrange-!, ments to take those who visit the show around the city of Ihglewobd inl automobiles. ; : - : ;- / "Those who visit the Inglewood Poultry Show will see an exhibition that will be more interesting by far than any show that has preceded it iiiJ California or in any other State, because one will have an roppbirtunit,y- to see, not the pedigree, but the money in the. chicken and a practical way to get that money out." , i ; ' In judging the poultry show at Inglewood the management made the rule that all birds were to be judged according to the condition they were in at the time they were judged, and while this rule may be all right in judging the fancy bird and the beef-type bird, it will never do 102 THE CALL OF THE HEN. for the egg- type bird, as the reader will see when I relate an incident that occurred during the show in Inglewood, which was held in March. A gentleman had entered a White Leghorn hen that he had trap-nested a year up to the previous November, and had her record with him. The hen scored (as near as I can remember) two fingers abdomen, two fingers out of condition, and '/le-inch pelvic bone, and according to the rules of the show I was obliged to give her credit for 78 eggs her first laying year when, according to his trap-nested record, she had laid 180 eggs. He said she had been sick and had just commenced to improve shortly before he sent her to the show, and he wanted to prove whether or not I could tell how many eggs she had laid her first laying year. I told him I could not tell how many eggs she had laid, but I could tell how many she could have laid if she had been fed and cared for right, barring accidents and sickness; that her capacity was 190 eggs her first laying year. He then showed me her record, which was 180 eggs. In the autumn of 1911 George D. Holden, ex-president of the Arfierican Poultry Association, judged the fancy and the writer judged the utility birds at the Pajaro Valley Poultry Show, held at Watsonville, Santa Cruz County, California. In judging that show full credit was given each bird, both male and female, as to what they were capable of doing, whether in meat or eggs, and for prepotency, without any regard as to how their owners cared for them — or, in other words, without regard to their condition. And the owners of the birds who were inter- ested in knowing were instructed how to rectify any deficiency there may have been in the birds. It seems to me this is the best way to encourage and develop the poultry industry. I am sure the American Poultry Association could formulate a code of rules that would greatly aid in judging utility poultry and thereby add greatly to the interest of our poultry shows; in fact, I am advised that such a proposition is being considered at the time I am writing this (July 25, 1913). CHAPTER XVI. Stamina in Poultry. When I came to California and told the poultry-raisers that I was going to take their birds and in the course of time breed a flock of 200-egg hens from them, they declared it could not be done. They said if it was possible to breed up a large flock of 200-egg hens, their progeny would be so weak I could never raise them, and that their eggs would be so misshapen and thin-shelled they would not be marketable. I replied that perhaps they were right, but I saw no reason why I could not do so here, as I had bred up one lot in the Eastern States and another lot in Minnesota. Both lots were Leghorns, and I thought it would be easier to develop Leghorns in California than in Minnesota; and I have now demonstrated in California that the following can be done : 1. The 200-egg hen is a fact and not a theory. 2. That she can be bred and fed to lay as perfect an egg as any other class of hens. 3. That her eggs are as fertile and will hatch as strong chicks as the hen that does not pay for her feed. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 103 The breeder need not take my word for the above statements. The frontispiece shows five of this type of birds that the writer bred and raised in California. These birds laid the greatest weight of eggs (131 pens of five birds to each pen competing, including three pens of Indian Runner ducks) in the National Egg-laying Contest at the State Poultry Experiment Station, Mountain Grove, Missouri, U. S. A., for the twelve months ending November 1, 1912. These five hens laid 131 pounds of eggs, which, reduced to No. 1 eggs as rated in Petaluma, would be 229'/6 eggs for each hen. The eggs these five hens laid while moulting were put on exhibition in the Chamber of Commerce in Petaluma and were pronounced by good judges to be as fine a lot of eggs as they ever saw, and that is saying a great deal, as there are more eggs produced within a radius of ten .miles from Petaluma than in any other like part of the world. We have hundreds of letters from our customers testifying to the value of this stock, a few extracts from which we will introduce here to prove to the reader that because a flock of hens are great layers it does not follow that they are of low vitality. Extracts from Letters. Portland, Ore., June 23, 1912. Received eggs. None broken. Very nice. Fifteen infertile out of 150. C. F. Perkins. LiHUE, Hawaii, June 11, 1913. Eggs arrived O. K. None damaged. Have fourteen chicks four weeks old doing fine. Am well pleased. E. H. Broadbent. • (These eggs were shipped over 2,200 miles by rail and steamer to reach their destination.) Watsonville, Calif., April 5, 1912. Eggs received. Finest we ever had. Got forty-nine strong chicks from sixty-four eggs. Ora L. Hill. Vancouver, B. C, May 13, 1912. The 100 eggs received. Express and customs ran price to $14.00. Am very well satisfied. Hatched 70 per cent beautiful chicks; doing well. G. W. McLelland. QuiNCY, Wash., April 14, 1912. Chicks received; not a dead one in the bunch, which speaks well for the vitality of your stock. H. L. Johnson, Treasurer and Manager Quincy Lumber Company. Victoria, B. C, Sub. P. O. No. i, April 19, 1912. Received the 100 chicks ; four dead. Think that is very good , coming that journey. James D. West. 104 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Salem, Ore., April 19, 1913. Received baby chicks; they are just lovely; not one dead, which we think is great. They came in fine shape. Mr. and Mrs. Hayre. Seattle, Wash., August 25, 1912. Received the 1040 chicks about ten weeks ago; there were five dead in the boxes. Have lost about 75 of them, all told. S. K. SUTTLE. Tucson, Ariz., February 17, 1913. Received chicks in good condition; 1 dead, 623 alive and kicking. L. E. Smith. Reno, Nev., March 11, 1913. Chicks came through fine; 1 dead in 700, which speaks well for their vitality. They surely are a spry bunch. - A. L. Rice. Reno, Nev., July 22, 1913. Chicks are fine; they are the largest and best-looking ever seen in Nevada. They are just 4 months and 12 days old. One of them laid yesterday. Every poultryman that sees them remarks it's too bad I haven't a thousand. A. L. Rice. The preceding extracts are taken from a few of the many unsolicited letters I have received from my customers during the last two years that I have been selling hatching eggs and day-old chicks. I have repeatedly shipped hatching eggs to the Hawaiian Islands and as far east as Minnesota, and day-old chicks where they would be over seventy- two hours on the road. Last summer I turned down over $6,000 worth of orders that I could not fill at $10.00 per 100 for eggs and $15.00 per 100 for day-old chicks. I am aware I will have a hard time convincing some of my readers that what I claim for the 200-egg hen is true, but it seems to me any progressive poultryman would be satisfied with the proof I offer him. I will admit that the eggs and chicks from the 200-egg type hens as now bred are not all we would desire, but that is owing to lack of proper knowledge of breeding. As I have said before, by using the "Hogan Test" the reader can breed as fine or as coarse as his condi- tions require; and by selecting only those birds with large prepotency he will be assured of success. CHAPTER XVII. "At Sea Over Mating" — What Shall It Be, the Trap-Nest, Mendelism, or the Hogan Test? (From The North American, Philadelphia, Pa.) "At Sea Over Mating. "America has some good layers, unheard of and unknown, 'tis true, but we are evidently all at sea in the matter of mating for egg-production, THE CALL OF THE HEN. 105 "Can it be possible that Mendel's law obtains in egg-production just as it does in feathers and form? Do we eliminate, according to Mendel, the factor governing certain things in egg-production, just as we do in the attempt to conttol coloring in birds, fowls, animals, and flowers? If a son of a heavy -laying female is mated to a non-layer and this son does not carry the excess of laying proclivity, do we get poor layers or good layers? If a 100-per cent producing hen (200 eggs or more) is mated to the son of a 100-per cent producing female, it does not follow, if Mendel's law applies, that the mate to the second 100 per cent female inherited egg-laying proclivities; therefore, why should the offspring of the second mating be prolific egg-producers? And how far back must we go to get the excess of female inclination to repro- duction? "Predominance of inclination exists somewhere in some tangible form, but we do not seem to be able to find it under our present system. That we will is conclusive, but we must do so quickly, in order to offset the growing increase of foodstuffs." The trap-nest identifies and gives you the number of eggs a hen lays and is absolutely necessary if we wish to line breed or raise pedigreed stock. The writer has studied Mendelism since the spring of 1910, as he has numerous other scientific works, in the endeavor to find some- thing that would be of aid in getting out this work. I must confess that the title, "The Call of the Hen" was suggested while on a visit with Comrade Jack London, and that is all I have been able to find that has aided me in this case. Mendelism may be found an aid along the line of feathers but I doubt if there is anything in it that will aid the poultryman in the selection of breeders for type, stamina, and the production of eggs or meat. It may be that, having eyes, I fail to see it. Even if there should be anything of value in Mendelism, it would take two or more years to get it out, while "The Hogan Test" indicates the value of a bird in a few minutes, at most. It looks to me as if the poultrymen will have to look at the trap-nest and "The Hogan Test" to develop and maintain the high-scoring meat- and egg-producing hen. The best pullets can be selected at maturity by "The Hogan Test" and then trap-nested when the poultryman is breeding pedigreed stock; while the culled pullets, lacking in prepotency and other points, can be kept as market-egg producers. In this way it will be necessary to trap- nest only the cream of the flock, and thereby save an immense amount of labor. The cockerels can also be selected at three months of age and the most promising saved from slaughter. By this method poultry- breeding will be reduced to a science and become a pleasure, where now it is a brain-racking proposition. A Trap-Nest or the Hogan System. By Charles H. Parker. March 21st, 1916. To the Editor, The Poultry Item, Sellersville, Pa. Dear Sir: — Some seven months ago I saw an advertisement in the Poultry Item about the Hogan System. I at once wrote for a copy and after reading it carefully was so much impressed with the principles uoon which it was based that I determined to give it a thorough trial. 106 THE CALL OF THE HEN. The enclosed article gives the results of my six months' test of the system ; these results are so striking that I have ventured to send them to you for publication in your paper. I hope you will be able to use it as getting these facts has involved a great deal of close personal attention and effort. I presented a copy of Mr. Hogan's book to a neighbor poultryman and induced another to send for a copy. The book was entirely unknown in this section. Both of my friends are enthusiastic about the system and have already found it of great value. They are both expert poultry- men, one of them having charge of Mr. C. F. Lewis' poultry yards here and the other having been in the business for fourteen years. The latter has found the chapters devoted to prepotency of cocks especially valuable and now understands why his flock went all to pieces some years ago after five years of careful upbuilding. Very truly yours, Charles H. Parker. "Do the physical characteristics of a pullet or hen — the distance between the pelvic bones and the breast bone, the width of the pelvic bones and the condition as indicated by the amount of flesh on the breast bone — enable a poultryman to foretell, with approximate accuracy, the number of eggs that a pullet or hen will lay in a year? This is the question the writer decided to answer for himself after reading Walter Hogan's book 'The Call of the Hen.' "If the system as outlined by Mr. Hogan is to be relied upon the use of the trap-nest would not be necessary except for pedigree work. No poultryman needs to be told how valuable, if reliable, such a system would be in enabling him, with a minimum of labor and expense, to build up a flock with a high egg yield, to regulate feeding by separating the egg from the meat type and in many cases to turn losses into profits. "This book made such an impression upon the writer that he at once determined to measure his hens according to the directions given by Mr. Hogan, to note the egg-laying capacity as thus indicated and to check this forecast with an actual trap-nest record. "Following are the very striking results of this experiment, extending over a period which put the system to a severe test — the months of September, October, November, December, January and February, in the state of Connecticut. The hens were Fishel's White Rocks, fed during the test, according to the Cornell formula and confined in yards allowing 100 square feet per bird. Each hen was carefully measured and leg-banded, great care being taken that no mistakes were made in the measurements. These measurements and the egg-laying capacity they indicated according to the system were as follows: Capacity Condition Pelvic bones, Hen No. in fingers. in fingers. inches. Egg capacity. RIO 5 1 V4 23S G3 S 1 V4 235 G7 5 1 V. 205 R8 4 2 V. 205 Gil 5 1 V. 205 G8 3 2 v« 175 R4 5 'A 145 R6 3 1 V. 115 G9 4 1 'A 85 THE CALL OF THE HEN. 107 "According to the measurements given in the above table RIO and G3 were the best hens and would lay, if properly fed, in six months about 100 eggs. On the other hand R6 and G9 were not worth keeping. Following is the actual number of eggs laid during the six months of the test from August 24 to February 23rd, compared with the forecast made according to the Hogan System. en No. Hogan forecast. Actual trap-nest record. RIO 100 104 G3 100 102 G7 83 83 R8 83 82 Gil 83 77 G8 73 60 R4 60 51 R6 48 21 G9 35 19 "It will be seen from the above table that the relative egg-laying value of the nine hens was not altered in a single instance. In the case of the first five hens it is remarkably accurate. The next three hens went into partial moult during the test while G9 was sick for a while. "These figures speak so eloquently for themselves that no comment is necessary except to emphasize the value of the system from a financial point of view. The profit or loss on the nine hens, figuring the cost of feeding at $1.20 per hen for the six months is as follows: Loss. Profit over en No. cost of feeding. RIO $2.48 G3 J52.47 G7 SI. 72 R8 $1.41 Gil $1.53 G8 $ .57 R4 $ .50 R6 G9 $0.64 $0.70 "The writer wishes to urge the importance of absolute accuracy in taking measurements and in taking them at the right time — when hens are laying well. This is illustrated in the case of R7 which just before going into moult measured 4-finger capacity, 2 fingers out of condition and '/s pelvic bones. This indicated 265-egg type. But her measurements after moulting were 6 fingers capacity, condition perfect, pelvic bones '/is, indicating 190-egg type. The writer has found that the condition of a hen has considerable influence upon the size of the pelvic bones. "In conclusion the writer does not claim that a six months' test of a system either proves or disproves the merits of that system. He merely gives the results of his experiments for the interest or value that may be attached to them. It is his intention to continue this test until the year is finished, when he hopes to be able to offer something more definite and reliable about a system which at least seems worthy nf crrpatpr rprno-nitiori arnnncr Doultrymen." 108 THE CALL OF THE HEN. CHAPTER XVIII. "How Can I Tell A Laying Hen?" I am asked this question very often, and in reply would say that from a scientific point of view it is impossible to tell the laying hen except with the X-ray. When I say this I do not mean that you cannot tell in the vast majority of cases, but there are occasionally hens whose formation is such that no known method will tell you whether she is a laying hen or not. I give in the last chapter my original "System" and the later supplement, which caused a great many questions to be asked, which I trust have been patisfactorily answered in this book. I was at a place in San Francisco lately where this subject was brought up. There was a small party present, all of whom had my "System." One of the party worked in a large meat-market, where they bought and dressed live poultry. He said that occasionally he dressed a hen that showed no indication of being a laying hen, but upon being opened an egg would be found in her. I told him the hens that he had described were those that laid a very few eggs and laid them only in the spring. Their pelvic bones expanded only while the hen was being delivered of the egg. This hen has practically but one egg under process of development at a time, consequently her abdomen does not have to expand to make room for only one egg. Whereas the hen that lays 150 eggs per year has a number of eggs developing at the same time, and her abdomen expands in proportion to her needs. The 200-egg hen has a still larger number of eggs developing and she requires more room for them, hence her abdomen expands in proportion. The 250-egg hen has a still larger number of eggs of all sizes developing and her abdomen expands still wider than the 200-egg hen. When the hen's abdomen expands, her pelvic bones, being literally a part of and con- tinuation of her abdomen, must expand and contract with it. When she is through laying for the season her abdomen contracts, and the pelvic bones must come closer together, which they do, although there are exceptions to this rule. We will take the 145-egg hen, for example of the sanguine temperament. She will be four fingers abdomen and '/g-inch pelvic bone, when in normal condition, with pelvic bones of good shape. We draw our hand along her breast-bone (keel) from front to rear, and find her abdomen does not drop down the least bit below the rear of the breast-bone. This hen we might call a "normal hen." Her pelvic bones will, in all probability, expand and contract in conformance with her condition of laying. If she is in the flush of laying, her pelvic bones may be about 1^ inches apart; later in the season, when she is not laying so frequently, her pelvic bones may close to about 13^ inches; and when she stops laying for the season her pelvic bones may close to about IJ^ inches. This will very likely be repeated each year. Now we will select a hen of the 250-egg type. We draw our hand along her keel, as with the last hen; we find she is all right, closely built and firm. We drop her and take another 250-egg type hen. The per- formance of drawing the hand along the keel is for the purpose of picking out the future breeders that may later bag down, indicating weak ovaries. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 109 In this connection I wish to say that in selecting breeders I found that the best way to eliminate the hens that would begin to bag down behind was to follow directions as given belchv. Of late years I have not had this trouble to contend with. It is always the heavy layer that breaks down, which indicates weak ovaries, and we do not want to breed from such. In drawing our hand along her keel (breast-bone) we find a slight bagging down in the rear. The abdomen seems to drop below the rear of the breast-bone slightly. We will say this is a pullet, perhaps six or eight months old. She is well developed, and you can call her one of your best hens. You are proud of her, and have decided to set every egg she lays. Do not use her as a breeder. This pullet should be put in a yard with others of her formation after she is sixteen months old and trap-nested. She may stop laying any time and never lay another egg, or she may continue to lay another year or so ; in any case, she has been such a continuous layer that her frame has become set to that form, and her pelvic bones, as it were, set and will contract very little; they will indicate that she is laying, when in fact she may not have laid for years. I have kept such hens until they were 6 years old, and some of them have never laid an egg after they were about 16 months, still others after they were 2 years old. This is where a trap-nest will save you money. When you select your hens by Charts 44 and 45 at 16, 28, and 40 months of age, the ones that bag down the least bit should be put in a yard by themselves and trap-nested to discover the ones whose ovaries have broken down and will lay no more. This is not difficult to discover, as the hen that is over the 205-egg type lays more or less at all times during the first two years of her life, if not stimulated to over-production her first year. "A little learning is a dangerous thing," is an old saying applicable to this case. When a man says, "Don't kill that laying hen," he should furnish you with an X-ray outfit that will enable you to comply with his request. The writer has used the pelvic-bone proposition for over forty years in selecting the laying hen, and has found the following to be a very good method in selecting the hen that is not laying: The hen that scores 130 eggs her first laying year would measure about '/g of an inch between her pelvic bones after she stops laying for the season. The hen that scores 150 eggs her first laying year would measure about 1 inch between her pelvic bones after she stops laying for the season. The hen that scores 200 eggs would measure about 134 inches between the pelvic; bones after she stops laying for the season. The hen that scores 250 eggs would measure about 13^ inches between the pelvic bones after she stops laying for the season. The 250-egg hen does stop more or less after her second and sometimes after her first season, if not cared for right; but if feed and environment are right she may continue to lay more or less until 3 years old, when her frame may become set. When she is done laying her pelvic bones may remain 2 inches apart. As hens grow older their pelvic bones become thicker during the winter months when they are not laying. The thickness varies according to their type, the typical egg type changing little or none, while the more pronounced the meat type becomes the more the pelvic bones change, owing to the increase or decrease of flesh on the abdomen (flank) of the fowl as it takes on or loses flesh, as indicated by 1 r J. 1 110 THE CALL OF THE HEN. CHAPTER XIX. Final Remarks on Constitutional Vigor and Vitality. As we have now reached the end of "The Call of the Hen," I wish to impress upon the reader's mind the importance of the five propositions that govern the Selection, Breeding, and Profitable Keeping of Poultry as follows: Capacity, Condition, Type, Prepotency, and Vitality or Constitutional Vigor. No doubt you have a good working knowledge of the first four subjects, and you wonder why I have not written a chapter on Vitality. The reason is, that when I decided to write "The Call of the Hen," I told my wife that I would write nothing that even a blind man could not understand and practice. I have tried to do so, for to her patience, perseverance, and untiring zeal I owe much of the success I have had in getting out this book. The writer can see only three ways of detecting vitality in a fowl; the most ancient is intuition, then observation, and lastly the trap-nest. A hen may be a typical 250-egg type hen, she may have the very best of care and food, and yet, for lack of vitality, may not be able to lay over 150 eggs per year. Let us take the steam engine for example. There are a great many types of engines besides the high and low- pressure ones, as there are a great many types of hens and cock birds. The diameter of cylinder, length of stroke, and revolutions per minute give you the capacity of the engine, as the length and depth of abdomen in the fowl gives its capacity. The fuel fed into the fire-box generates the stearii (vitality) to run the engine, as the food fed into the hen's abdomen generates her vitality. The writer has owned steam engines where there was defective fire-box construction — scale in the boiler and tubes, loose rings in the piston head, cylinder worn out of true, and other defects that reduced the efficiency of the power system a great deal — or, in other words, lowered the vitality of the engine. . In just the same way a weak digestive system in a 250-egg type hen will reduce her egg-yield. But do not think that you can make a 150-egg type hen in perfect condition lay 200 eggs by any of the feeding formulas now in vogue. If you try to force her, she will go to flesh and then break down with liver trouble. If you lack the intuitive faculty and lack the time to carefully observe individual hens, I would advise you to select the hens by the chart you wish to breed from. When they are about a year old you can breed from them. Then, if you wish to breed from only those with the greatest vitality, trap-nest these hens for the next two or three years. The hens with the greatest vitality will be great layers and strong, vigorous birds, and save the time wasted in trap-nesting a lot of birds that you will eventually have to discard. THE CALL OF THE HEN. Ill CHAPTER XX. Walter Hogan's System. This chapter contains "Walter Hogan's System," as written by M. F. Greeley, editor of the Dakota Farmer, to whom I gave the notes. This was published in 1904. At that time Mr. Greeley refused to put in anything about the skull theory. He said that I would make myself the laughing-stock of the world. I am merely putting this old work in this book in order that the reader may know the evolution of the dis- covery. The pelvic bone method of selection was, of course, my first discovery; then later, the relation between depth of abdomen and thick- ness of pelvic bones; after that, the working out of the mathematical relation between egg-laying ability and those points before mentioned. When I came to California I gave out merely the "Walter Hogan's System" which had been printed in Minnesota; later I published a "Supplement," which gave a general idea of the capacity and type proposition ; still later I issued typewritten charts as they are found in this book. I could have done all this many years ago, but my reasons for not doing it are explained elsewhere. I do not desire any of my readers to make the mistake of considering what comes after this as having anything to do with "The Call of the Hen," except in a historical way. Walter Hogan. Petaluma, Cal., July 31, 1913. FIG. 162— SPAN BETWEEN PELVIC BONE AND KEEL ILLUSTRATED IN DRESSED FOWLS The bird on the left in this illustration is a high-producing R. I. Red hen, and the one on the right a low producing hen. Note the greater distance between keel and pelvic bone, also the much rounder breast of the heavy layer, caused not by fat but by the more prominent sternal processes. Photo from Storrs Experiment Station. Note the large moist vent in the good layer, on the left. Also the skin of the good layer is soft and oliable. The poor layer on the right is the reverse. 112 THE CALL OF THE HEN. UTILITY SCORE CARD A great many poultry shows now have their birds judged by the "Hogan System" as well as by the "Standard of Perfection." The score card which is illustrated herewith is used in a great many shows and is recommended by Mr. Hogan. On the front of the card can be recorded the condition, capacity, type and prepotency of both the male and female. On the back of the card the judge can give the owner some idea as to the quality of his bird from a Standard viewpoint. The score cards, are 8 inches long and 4}^ inches wide. utility poultry show Score Card. COOP No VARIETY LEG BAND NO FEMALE OUT OF CONDITION: 1 2 3 Fingers. CAPACITY: 1 2—Z 4 5 6 7 Fingers. THICKNESS OF PELVIC BONE: Vw, Vs. Vie, V^. Vu, Vs. Vie, Va. Vie, Vs, "/le. V4, 'Vm, Vs, "/le, 1 in., IVie, IVs, lVi«. V-/,. PREPOTENCY: 1 2 3 4. TYPE: Egg Dual Purpose Meat. Possible egg capacity in present condition. ..._......._ eggs. Possible egg capacity represented by this specimen if in good condition eggs. Award MALE CAPACITY: 1 2 3 4 5 Fingers. THICKNESS OF PELVIC BONE: V«. Vs, Vie, Vi, Vie, Va, Vie, Vi, Vie, Vs, "/le, V*, 'Vie, Vs, "/le, 1 in., IVie, IVs, IVie, IV*- PREPOTENCY: 1 2 3 4. TYPE: Egg Dual Purpose Meat. NOTE — Draw a circle around or check off figures or words designating score in each section. Egg type represented by this specimen eggs. Award Judge ■ NOTE — The awards in the Utility class are based entirely on facts given above. The facts on the opposite side are for the information of the owner. SHAPE Comb and Wattles Tail Head and Beak Breast Neck Body Back Legs and Toes Disqualification SURFACE COLOR Disqualification. Judge Secretary THE CALL OF THE HEN. 113 EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD. CONDITION refers to the body condition of the bird and indicates whether or not the fowl is being supplied with the right quantity and quality of food and care to furnish the vitality and material necessary to produce the number of eggs or amount of flesh made possible by breeding and Nature. The condition of the male bird is not taken into consideration when judging, as its capacity (depth of abdomen) does not change periodically as does the hen. Each finger represents three-fourths inch. CAPACITY indicates the ability of the bird to consume and assimilate sufficient food to produce the desired amount of flesh or eggs. Each finger represents three- fourths inch. TYPE indicates the purpose for which the fowl is best suited — eggs, meat or dual purpose. The kind of type is shown by the relative thickness of the pelvic bones. To get the Type divide charts 1-2-3-4-5-6 and a-b-_c-d-e-f-g in "Call of the Hen" into three equal parts as nearly as possible, commencing at the top and reading down, the first Part will be Egg Type, the second Part Dual Purpose Type and the third Part Meat Type. PREPOTENCY indicates the faculty of the bird to fertilize eggs and to transmit its predominating characteristics. 1 signifies "prepotency very large;" 2 signifies "prepotency full;" 3 signifies "prepotency small;" 4 signifies "prepotency very small." By "possible egg capacity" is meant the first year's production in the case of a female. All birds judged by this system, with the greatest degree of accuracy, should be mature. SHAPE AND SURFACE COLOR. 1, Good; 2, Medium; 3, Poor; 4, Very Poor. This bird was judged by the American Standard of Perfection for shape and sur- face color and by the charts and methods described in the "Call of the Hen" for con- dition, capacity, type and prepotency. FIG. 182— GOOD EGG TYFP— FRONT FIG. 183— GOOD EGG TYPE— REAR 114 THE CALL OF THE HEN. EGG-PRODUCTION SCORE CARD AMERICAN POULTRY SCHOOL Kansas City, Mo. Variety Individual Band Num r 1 jers. As seen when looking at the bird. Rectangular — deep — well balanced. Body conformation, 35 points — value 105 eggs. . Shape from handling. Long-deep-full-showing capacity. Thickness and straightness of pelvic bones. Broadness of back. Shape of head and surplus flesh. Shape of eye and eye socket. Soft, pliable skin. Freedom from hard fat or coarseness. Condition Moult, Maturity, 15 points — ^value 45 eggs Pullets — fitness for production. Hens — freedom from moult — or recovery — depending on season. Beak, Legs and Toes, 5 points — value 15 eggs. . . Color and surplus flesh. Total Cuts, 100 points — value 300 eggs Total score Egg production — estimate Egg production — ^actual THE CALL OF THE HEN. 115 BODY TYPE 20 Points, 60 eggs. A bird of good body is usually well balanced in that the body itself must be deep, showing a nearly rectangular form, well developed in breast and abdomen. Great depth of body is especially desirable, but apparent depth must not be due to loose feathering, which is generally known by an evidence of loose thigh feathers. Cochin and exhibition game type and feathering, are usually associated with poor production. Large capacity is essential if a hen is to lay long and heavily. Such capacity is desig- nated by a body that is deeper at the rear end of the keel than at the front end. The underline should be fairly straight and the back should be comparatively horizontal. Prominent breast development, with evidence of a long keel are desirable qualities in a high-producing hen. The general body conformation of a heavy producer conforms very closely to a rectangle with pronounced angles rather than smooth curves. A male shows the same general characteristics as a female, except that the abdomen is not so deep. A small-capacity hen generally stands erect. The body is either very shallow and cut away at the breast and abdomen or in the case of beefy individuals, the abdomen shows a pronounced sagging at the rear of the keel, due to large accumulations of fat. Extremely poor producers frequently show a hump on the back. BODY CONFORMATION 3S Points, los eggs. When taken in the hands, a heavy producer will show, by the sense of touch great depth of body, especially at the front and rear of the keel bone Depth and slab- sidedness may be measured by placing the thumbs on the middle of the back, and the little fingers on the front of the keel bone and the middle fingers on the rear end of the keel bone. Press in with the palms of the hands and do not squeeze the bird up with the fingers. The deeper and more slabsided the bird feels, the better. It is relative depth that is desired and not actual depth. A big hen may be actually deep and yet relatively shallow and hence be a poor layer. Relative depth of front to rear of body may be measured by spanning the body with the thumb and middle fingers from back to breast and sliding the fingers and thumb along the keel and back. The keel must be moderately straight, relatively long and carried well back. The space between the pelvic bones and the keel must be free from excessive accumulation of fat. Birds which are laying heavily can be readily detected by the development of the ab- domen. Such birds will show pelvic arches which are widespread and a keel which is forced down away from the pelvic arches so as to give large capacity. The pelvic bones will be thin and free from fat, straight and widely spread in heavily laying hens. The vent becomes large, soft and moist and free from yellow color soon after a bird begins to lay. A non-laying bird has a puckered, hard, dry yellow vent. The condition of the vent gives information as to the present laying condition. The poor producer generally shows a shallow body, especially at the front of the keel, a small shrunken abdomen, together with all evidences of small capacity. 116 THE CALL OF THE HEN. HEAD, BEAK AND ADJUNCTS IS Points, 4S Eggs One of the best indications in picking high layers is the fineness of the head. The head of a heavy producer is fine, showing a lean face, free from wrinkles and overhanging eyebrows. The wattles and ear-lobes fit close to the head and are not loose and floppy. The face is clean cut, the eye is full, round and prominent, especially when seen from the front. An eye which gives a clean-cut, wide-open appearance is desirable The eyeball of the heavy producer is generally set in the rear of a large oval socket showing considerable of the white eye membrane in front of the eyeball. The head of the heavy producer should be well balanced, being moderately deep and broad. The extremely fat, full head of the beefy bird, and the long, thin pointed head of the low-vitality bird are both undesirable and should call for heavy cuts in this sec- tion. The low producing bird generally shows a depressed eye with overhanging eye- brows and wrinkled skin at the back of the eye. The extremely long sharp beak is usually possessed by the low producer, while the medium stout, well curved beak is characteristic of the high producer. HANDLING QUALITIES 10 Points, JO Eggs. The skin of the heavy-producing hen is thin, soft and pliable, especially the skin on the abdomen must be thin and loose. The skin of the poor producer is generally thick, hard and rather coarse to the touch. The thin, velvety skin is almost always associated with heavy ovarian activity. CONDITION IS Points, 45 Eggs A bird to be capable of highest sustained production must be first of all, healthy. She must show vigor and activity and be well fleshed. Late moulting in hens is desirable. Early moulting and slow maturing as shown by the primary feathers, should be cut severely. Late developing and later maturing usually indicate low pro- duction. In applying this section to hens, health and moulting conditions should be given primary consideration. In applying this section to pullets, health and maturity should be given primary consideration. BEAK, LEGS AND TOES 5 Points IS Eggs. The shanks of a heavy producer are flat, pliable and smooth scaled. In hens at the end of their laying year, or pullets which have been laying heavily for some time, the shanks will be bleached out. The toes should be straight and the toe nails show an indication of proper activity. The shanks of the poor producer are usually round, hard and rather coarse scaled. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 117 WALTER HOGAN'S SYSTEM. WALTER HOGAN, Deceased The Originator of the Walter Hogan System. There are two ways of selection, described in this document. When hens are in flush of laying, selection by the pelvic bones alone is the easier way; but when not in flush of laying, the pelvic bones together with the abdomen will be found the most ready way. (See Supplement, next page.) Please laear in mind that the hen with thin pelvic bones and large, soft abdomen is the heavy egg-laying type. The hen with thick pelvic bones and large, fleshy, fatty abdomen is the large beef type. The hen with medium-thick pelvic bones and large, medium-fleshy and medium-fatty abdomen is the dual-purpose type, and can be made to lay fairly well or made to produce flesh, it being a matter of how she is fed. The hen with small abdomen is of small account, either as an egg or as a meat proposition, as she lacks the abdominal capacity to digest and assimilate food enough to sustain the every-day wear of her system and at the same time to produce eggs or flesh in paying quantities. Everything related here applies to the male bird as well, only in a lesser degree. ' The remarks in regard to pullets refer to mature pullets, as Leghorn ftirllf^ta ni-p nt f{vp mnn+Vio nlH in the Ncw Engfland States. 118 THE CALL OF THE HEN. My birds in Massachusetts were bred for eggs only for years, and their type became set and their pelvic bones contracted, when not laying, to average about 25 per cent; but I find that hens bred promiscuously contract about 50 per cent. The points to be borne in mind in using this System are: That selection by the pelvic bones alone is best made in the flush of laying. That thin pelvic bones and soft abdomen indicate the egg type. That thick pelvic bones and hard, fleshy, fatty abdomen indicate the beef type. The size of the abdomen indicates the capacity of the bird, either as an egg or as a meat proposition as the case may be — large abdomen, large capacity; small abdomen, small capacity. The same rules apply to the cockerel, cock, male bird, or rooster, as he may be called. In order to determine the capacity of a hen for egg-production by one selection, she should be in normal condition and not more than a few days broody. The estimates in this document refer to hens about one year old. As a rule, they will lay less- each year as they grow older — how much less depends on th£ vitality of the hen, other things considered. Supplement to Walter Hogan's System. If you will get a little 1-foot rule to check yourself up while getting used to measuring with the tips of your fingers, as in Fig. 4, you will have no trouble in applying its principles right. You can hold the bird feet up and head down between your knees while you are measuring; then hold as in Fig. 4, and learn to estimate the width right. Anything under 1 inch will not pay, all over 13^ inches will pay; from 1 to I'/s inches are doubtful ; 2 inches is about the 200-egg type ; 2»/8 inches about the 250-egg type, and 2^ inches about the 280-egg type. Hens measuring from 1 to I'/s inches should be put in a yard while being fed well and looked over once a week at night in the dark for about eight weeks, if you wish to make a careful test. Any that come up or down in measurement can be put in the good or bad yards, as the case may be. Hens will go up or down about 25 per cent in measurements as they are in flush of laying or not. The best time to examine hens is after dark while on roost, which should be about 18 inches from the floor. Place left hand on back of hen, lift up tail with thumb of right hand, and apply tips of fingers to pelvic bones. With a little practice you will be able to inspect thirty per minute. It is admitted by all physicians, professors, and students of physiology that I have talked with in regard to this matter that the abdominal capacity of a hen, together with a strong vital temperament, has everything to do with her value as a laying proposition. The pelvic bones (being a continuation of the body structure of the fowl and subject to very small changes in the formation of flesh) are, when comparatively straight and thin, an index to the width of the abdomen, and the best if not the only one we have, as they protrude from the body and may be easily measured. The depth of the abdomen can be taken by placing the palm of the hand crosswise below, between the pelvic bones and the rear of the breast-bone. Sometimes it will be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 fingers. (A finger means ^ of an inch.) Also place THE CALL OF THE HEN. 119 fingers between pelvic bones and tail-bone. Sometimes it will take one, sometimes two fingers. In this way you can judge the size of the ab- domen, which, with the pelvic development, will be a rule as to a hen's value as a layer, except in rare cases of misplaced or diseased organs. Sometimes a hen will have a large abdomen, but her pelvic bones will grow crooked and come almost together, like the horns of a Jersey cow, and she will lay better than the distance apart of her pelvic bones will indicate, but never will do as well as she should, and sh,ould not be bred from. She wastes too much nervous force in laying. The farther you get away from the crow formation the better your hens will be. As a rule, fowls are almost twice as long coming to maturity in California as they are in the Eastern and Middle Western States. What the reason is I suspect, but do not know, but will find out in the next two years. No document purporting to be a copy of "Walter Hogan's System" is genuine without my signature as is set hereunder. Wishing you the best of success, I am, sincerely yours. The Walter Hogan System of Increasing Egg-Production by Selection and Breeding. It has been estimated that to add one-half dozen eggs to the annual producing capacity of every hen in the United States would result in additional returns from our poultry sufficient to pay the national debt within less than a year. Allowing this to be true, we are prepared to show that the method of selection and breeding herein outlined is capable of paying off our great debt several times during a single year, without having to increase the number of hens kept a single bird or the cost of keeping them a single dollar. The method — or "discovery," we might call it — has been tested by the writer in every conceivable way, regardless of expense, time, or trouble, and has been found absolutely faultless in every particular. It has been submitted to one Government Experiment Station (as will be shown later) with the same unerring results, and also to a number of the foremost poultrymen of America, who fully and without exception corroborate all that is claimed. This, you will agree with us, means a revolution in economical egg- production; it means, too, that no poultryman, however small his flock, can afford to go on in the old way a single year longer. Every animal on the farm has a well-defined mission all its own, outside of the general one of producing meat. The great mission of the cow is to produce milk; of the sheep, wool; and the mission of the hen is evidently and pre-eminently egg-production. This being the case, her value varies or should vary largely with her ability to produce eggs. And still it is a well-known fact that, while every farm animal has been selected and bred for the best there was in it along its own peculiar line, and all prizes have been awarded accordingly, the hen has been bred largely and prizes awarded her almost wholly for feathers and markings, the judges seldom or never deeming it important to know whether she was capable of laying at all or not. The writer was amazed to find this state of things when, some years ago, he turned his attention from managing woolen-mill interests to trying to manage a poultry-yard. But, in spite of the fact that he 120 THE CALL OF THE HEN. was wholly unable to find a bird or strain that were known to be excep- tional egg-producers, he succeeded, within six years after starting, in building up a flock that averaged annually considerably over 200 eggs per hen. Cut No. 1 — A Leghorn hen showing this development has the egg-laying instinct at its maximum. Before deciding to publish this work, I found, after diligent inquiry among the leading poultrymen of the United States and Canada, and some correspondence reaching to other countries, that there was no known method — other than the slow and costly one of trap-nesting — of selecting birds of great egg-producing capacity. Trap-nesting, in addition to the faults mentioned, which makes it almost impracticable for the farmer, had a still more serious one in the writer's judgment; it could not trap- nest roosters, which I have found to be more than "half the flock." For this seemingly insurmountable difficulty I have found an easy solution, and can as readily identify the male as the female, and as unerringly. The facts of which this document treat are a discovery, aniethod, and a development all in one. The happy inspiration and discovery came within a few hours; but it has reached this workable 4nd abso^ liitely reliable form by a costly analytical and experiinental process extending through years. After the underlying principle had. b^en found, it had to be tested and proved to my own satisfaction. Then the various objections and criticisms, which will occur to many readers,.had tO be answered or met by actual practical experiences. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 121 The method enables one : 1. To easily and without error weed out all the worthless birds from a flock; those that do not lay at all, also those that lay so little that it is a loss to keep them. This alone means millions to this country. 2. To separate just as unerringly all pullets before they begin to lay; indicating the coming great layers, the fair layers, the very poor, and the barren. The latter will be found in nearly all flocks. 3. To tell those not liable to lay when disposing of old or other hens for the table or market or for other reasons. Cut No. 2 — This is a hen of minimum development. She is a fair layer. Beginning my investigation, as I was compelled to, with birds selected wholly without egg- record, I was soon greatly impressed with the dissimilarity of formation of the pelvic bones and surrounding portions of the body, particularly of the former. Some I found nearly closed up, hard, and unyielding; others barely admitting one finger between these points; while a very few would easily admit the end of three fingers between the tips of the pelvic bones, and these were generally thin, tapering, and elastic. With this clue, I was not long in finding that my great layers were the latter and my barreh and nearly barren ones the first mentioned. My attention was next forcibly called to this by seeing a long row of dressed pullets and hens in a butchering estab- lishment. Noticing the great difference in the formation, I secured the privilege of numbering the hens and having the entrails, as they were removed, left by the side of each bird. In every instance I found my 122 THE CALL OF THE HEN Cut No. 3 — Hens of this development are of little or no value as layers. Cut No. 4 — Showing a convenient method of holding fowls when testing them. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 123 suspicion verified; the indications of large numbers of eggs and ample machinery to go with them, with the wide, pliable pelvic bones; and just the opposite condition with the narrow ones, the very least, or no egg indications whatever, with the bones very close together at the points and unyielding to pressure, hard, thick, and rounded in. This experiment was tried again and again, with different breeds, but never with different results. I was satisfied I was on the right trail now, and determined to spare neither time nor money to make sure I was right. For several years following these discoveries I spent much time and money visiting well- known poultrymen and others, frequently paying as high as $10.00 for best known layers, only to kill them to prove or disprove my conclusions — to photograph the live bird, next her dressed body, then her skeleton. In every instance I found my theory correct. I divided my own flock according to my findings into three flocks, and the very first day's lay proved my theory beyond question, so far as one day could. I then divided other and many flocks; but wherever they were and whatever breed, without an exception the same result followed. Skipping a number of years, I might say right here that in 1904 I divided the flock of Leghorns, Wyandottes, and Plymouth Rocks at the Minnesota Experiment Station at Crookston into three pens: first, the best; second, medium to poor; third, very poor or barren. I was about twenty-five minutes doing this in the presence of C. S. Greene, at that time the manager, whom nearly all the leading poultrymen knew, and Mr. T. A. Hoverstad, then superintendent of the station. These gentlemen then had absolutely no faith in the method, not knowing anything about it; but were assured by me that if the barren pen laid an egg or either of the others failed to perform as I indicated, they were at liberty to publish the method and me to the world as a fraud. The first day showed pen No. 1, 45 eggs; pen No. 2, 20 eggs; pen No. 3, no eggs, and this continued, with slight variations, the entire period of the experiment, which lasted for weeks; though not a single egg appeared in the barren pen. The per cent of eggs to the 100 hens for the entire time was: First pen, 60 per cent per day; second pen, 37 per cent: third pen, nothing. But for lack of room I might give many more experi- ments and tests fully as startling as the above. But to go on: Within a few years after selecting my first layers in th's way, I had a flock the larger part of which was laying 200 eggs and above per year' individual layers greatly exceeding this. Then came another discovery, fully as important as the first. I noticed that, though I hatched all my pullets from the best layers' eggs, some of them were exceedingly poor layers; now and then one of them barren. I studied upon this for a long time, spent more money, and killed many more birds. Then with another idea, which as suddenly as the first dawned upon me, I made for the slaughter-house once more. I soon had a row of forty or so dressed male birds this time laid out before me; and then at a glance I saw my long-sought solution. There was the same great difference in the pelvic formation found in the hens. I examined my roosters to find that half of them were absolutely worth- less. Why do I say that the rooster "is MORE than half the flock?" Because later I found, as many know, that the female offspring take largely after the father and the male offspring after the mother. It is so with all animals, and almost always so in the human family. Had 124 THE CALL OF THE HEN. I used males of my own raising, I should have done better, but I had not. By the way, I found two high-priced and "high-scoring" birds used at the Crookston Station in 1904 absolutely without value, and Mr. Greene now agrees with me fully that they were, although he was at the time quite indignant when I pronounced his costly beauties worthless. I may say here that, while I found, one very good exhibition bird in this experiment station flock that was wholly worthless as a layer, I am pleased indeed to be able to state that one bird which had taken several prizes for markings, etc., I found to be a priceless layer. I never saw but one bird that came anywhere near being that hen's equal. I found one, however, with very poor markings that outranked any hen but her. From this time on breeding hastened matters fully as much as selec- tion, and I soon had — or rather, to be accurate, at the end of six years from my first start I had a FLOCK AVERAGING CLOSE AROUND 250 EGGS EACH PER YEAR; A FLOCK PAYING ME MORE THAN DOUBLE THE PROFIT MY FIRST FLOCK COULD. Dur- ing the last few years of this period I again and again, for experimental purposes, mated excellent hens with narrow-pelvic-boned males, and every time a crop of pullets that varied greatly in egg-yield was the result. Again and again I bred wide-pelvic-boned males with narrow-boned females with the same results. But wide-pelvic-boned males with hens of the same formation (with the exception now and then at far-apart intervals, a freak) brought excellent layers. Occasionally a male bird failed to transmit well, but this I afterwards found was only when it was wholly lacking in masculine qualities, as denoted by the width and depth of head and back of neck, with other indications common to mas- culinity in all other animals. From this time I began mating wide- pelvic-boned males with my widest hens and a marked increase in the number of great layers was evident — in fact, the third year it was the great exception to find anything but first-class layers among the pullets. Its Advantages. The advantages of this method for one owning even a small flock of birds are so apparent that space need not be given to discuss it. To one having a large flock it means, must mean, a small fortune, in addi- tional profit, with no more labor or investment; to those engaged in selling eggs for hatching it is bound to mean everything in the near future. It would be simply suicidal for a farmer, or anyone depending upon the eggs of his flock for the profit, to be so unbusinesslike as to buy eggs for hatching from untested flocks. We do not believe it would be possible to find one who would do so, after knowing from experiment stations and otherwise that the method is unfailing. • Some of the advantages over trap-nesting have been stated; per- haps the strongest being that we cannot trap-nest roosters. In ad- dition, I might call attention to the fact that trap-nesting a single bird must extend over the entire year to be at all accurate, and would take many times the amount of time it would require — by this method — to settle the laying possibilities of a thousand pullets. A little more time would settle the laying powers of a large mixed flock at mixed laying seasons, which might require two or at least three examinations a week or ten days apart. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 125 Again, a worthless pullet can be found when she is from five to six months old and fattened and sold without having to keep her a full year in order to do it safely. Besides, handling hens almost always tends to disturb and discourage laying. Trap-nesting will, if persistently followed the entire year, give nearly the exact individual record, which is not material to one egg man in a thousand. It cannot be exact, however, as a shut-in and otherwise disturbed hen never does her best. This method applies to other birds as well — turkeys, for instance. Last fall I bought two turkeys for experiment; one was SMALL, with LARGE egg-development; the other LARGE with SMALL egg-de- velopment. The small bird has laid and hatched out two litters of four- teen each the present season, and has at this date laid twenty- three eggs toward a third litter. The large one laid and hatched fourteen eggs early in the season, and has shown no signs of laying since, but has taken on much more flesh than the laying turkey. This would, in addition to indicating laying turkeys, also show what to breed if large birds only are desired — as would nearly always be the case with turkeys. The absolute surety of never killing a bird for market or home consumption that is laying, about to begin laying, or is liable to lay in the near future, is another decided advantage over the trap-nest, and one of the quickest available advantages of the system. Again, the process requires no investment in patent nests, leg- bands, or other fixings, which amount, in trap-nesting, to many times the first and only cost of this method. For accuracy in all the ad- vantages claimed for this method, we will most gladly submit to a test with the greatest expert trap-nester that can be selected, if it can be so arranged that some high authority in poultry matters or some Govern- ment Experiment Station shall have charge of it. This unconditional offer we make to the world. How TO Select. As a basic principle of this method of identifying capacity for egg- liroduction is the width and relative condition of the pelvic bones and surrounding construction, it is obvious that exact measurements cannot be given, unless a distinct breed be designated. A Cochin lays a large egg, and is built accordingly; a Bantam lays a small egg, and its pelvic development in inches is correspondingly smaller. It would be manifestly misleading to apply the same measurements to the two birds. While the ability to make this allowance will come to the operator quickly — almost intuitively after a very short experience — I have thought best to confine all my descriptions and measurements here to one breed of fowls only, the Leghorns, these being a medium-sized, representative bird, well scattered over the entire country. It will be easy from the measurements to work up or down, as the birds on hand may be larger or smaller. It is all a matter of comparison, and, all things being equal, the bird with the widest and most pliable pelvic bones will be the greatest layer, while the one with very narrow contracted pelvic formation will lay little, if at all. Behind the pelvic bones lies the egg machinery, and it will be found more abundant and roomy the wider the bones. 126 the call of the hen. Selecting Pullets. (Leghorns.) Perhaps the best time to select layers for a flock is when the pullets are from four to six months old. If all are in a uniformly thrifty con- dition at this time, it is next to impossible to make a mistake. The best pullets at that age should show a width of about 2 inches, while the best matured laying hens should show a development of about 2V8 inches. (See cut No. 1.) Pullets of Plymouth Rocks and their class should be selected about a month later and then show slightly larger, about 2V8 inches.' The best Asiatic pullet, about 2J4 inches at seven or eight months old; the Leghorns being earlier maturers. At the end of six years of careful selecting and breeding I found my Leghorn pullets quite as wide and well matured at four months as my first ones were at five months. Second-class Leghorn pullets from five to seven months old will show a development of about P/s inches. (See cut No. 2.) At six months old all Leghorn pullets showing only 1 inch or less pelvic development should be discarded, regardless of feather or comb. They will never make layers. (See cut No. 3.) All things being equal, the earlier a pullet begins to lay the better and longer will she lay. Selecting Mature Layers. The next best time to ascertain a hen's laying qualities is when the whole flock is in the flush of laying — in other words, when about all are at work. Those found then to measure about 2^/3 inches are extremely good layers. Some flocks have very few of these priceless birds in them, while others have good numbers. From this class of layers, and above that measurement, and from these only, should eggs be saved for hatching. Occasionally hens are found measuring as high as 2^ inches; these hens, with the best of care, will lay as high as 280 eggs per year; those measuring about 2'/8 inches may be depended upon to go as high as 250. The fact that this kind of hen can be found is ample proof that with proper selection they can be bred in large numbers. Hens found at this time measuring from I'/s to 2 inches are real good layers, and should not be discarded, if one wishes to build up a large flock, but they should not be bred from hens in the flush of laying measuring only IJ4- to 13^ inches are poor, and those showing from an inch down should be discarded, regardless of shape or color. A large enough flock of the first mentioned hens would make any poor man rich ; the second kind would keep themselves and their owners going; while many of the last-named class would make a rich man poor. Poor layers, kept well and fed a large variety of scraps and other foods, will sometimes make pretty fair egg records for a short time, and birds of the best quality, under exceptionally hard conditions, will make poor records. There are also occasional freaks in both extremes of measurements, but they are so infrequent as not to be at all important. THE CALL OF THE HEN. 127 Approximately 280-egg hens that measure as high as 2'/8 inches in the flush of laying will show about '/» to }/2 inch less when not laying and this shrinkage in measurement will apply to all other grades in about this proportion. Selecting for Fall Marketing. We do not like to kill birds about to begin laying, that are laying, or really good ones that are just through laying, particularly when there are plenty in the flock that do not come under any of these heads. In this alone the cost of this method, when once well understood, can be saved several times in a single season with a good-sized flock of birds. While the exceptionally heavy layers can be told readily and at almost any time, laying or not, and an absolutely worthless bird can be told the same way, there is a time, just when the real good layer is resting and the common to poor layer is doing her best, when they come — for a short time only — close together in pelvic appearance. While it is not safe to kill a bird that measures l^/s inches or over, it is possible for a very fair layer to not be much wider than that at the close of laying out her litter. Some good layers, that in the flush of laying will measure 1% to 2 inches, at the close of their laying period will sometimes close up to about iVg inches. A very poor layer in the flush of her laying time might be 1 J4 to I'/s inches, so care must be taken at this period not to confound the two conditions, which do not exist at any other time. This is referred'to in the Introduction. To wholly pre- vent this — when it is desired to save every at all good layer — it is well to make two or possibly three examinations, a week or so apart. In this way there will be no danger of confounding the one about to begin laying with the one about to quit, and the poor layer can be told from the good one. When killing a whole flock at two or three years old, as many do, no hen measuring I'/s inches and under is worth keeping; particularly is this true if the birds have been well fed and stimulated to about their full capacity. No hen of any value for egg-production will have an egg in her at this time and measure so small unless she is a slow, in- frequent layer at her best. Sometimes this kind of a hen with the very small measurements will be found laying an occasional egg late in the season. Selecting Roosters. We have said how important it is to have males of the right for- mation to mate with the great layers for breeding purposes; we need not emphasize this; it is so evident that we cannot trap-nest a -rooster, and equally so that years of trap-nesting hens can be ruinously upset in a day by crossing with an inferior male, that it would reflect upon our estimation of the reader's intelligence to say more about it. I have found Leghorn roosters that measured 1% inches, but they are rare and priceless. A good matured bird should measure IVs inches and a pretty fair one 1 inch. I would not use one that measured less, if I could possibly help it. Many fine-looking birds measure only }/2 inch, but such ones will ruin the offspring of the best layers and should be discarded, whatever their qualities in feather, tip of comb, or any- thing else. 128 THE CALL OF THE HEN. Now and then the objection reaches us that the high-type roosters referred to cannot be found. I have found them, as others have, and I believe there are nearly or quite as many in proportion as there are of the 250 and above hens; but we do not save all the roosters as we do all the pullets, and they are correspondingly scarce among mature males. By selecting always from large numbers of males before they are killed off this objection will be largely and quickly overcome. The fact that males of this class can be selected is of itself a dis- covery sufficient to revolutionize the whole poultry business without the examination of a single hen — were time enough taken; but the two together bring absolute and immediate results. In the hands of a slightly experienced or an at all competent person the element of chance is entirely removed by this method of selecting layers and males; and one is just as sure of the results sought as that a hen will die if her head is cut off. We ask but one thing: that judgment be withheld till method be tried. If the tests are fairly conducted, there can be no failure. Crude infringements and imitations of this discovery and System — as of everything else of value that has cost years of investigating and experimenting — are liable to spring up, but the safety and economy of going direct to the fountain-head need scarcely be suggested. Dated November 20, 1904. Proper Time to Cull Layers and Breeders. As far as vitality is concerned, a practical poultryman should cull his chickens from the time they are hatched until they are sold or dis- carded. Continually eliminate sick and diseased birds and those show- ing weakness of any nature whenever you see evidences of same. As far as culling for egg production is concerned, the best months in which to do this are from June until December 1st. In the warm climates culling should begin in April and May. Other conditions being equal, culling should continue throughout the summer. This will enable you to eliminate your unprofitable birds and greatly reduce your feed bills. LESSON 10. On Selection and Breeding for Egg- Production. 1. What four things influence egg production or largely deter- mines the number of eggs a hen will lay? 2. What is "capacity," and how is it measured or determined? 3. What outside factors or environments are largely responsible for the "condition" of any hen? 4. How does the breast of the hen appear when she is in good "condition?" 5. The first joint of the forefinger is divided into how many parts for the purpose of determining "condition," or represents how many fingers out of "condition?" 6. If a hen has a one-finger abdomen or "capacity" and is three fingers out of "condition," about how many fingers abdomen of "capac- ity" would she have if the same hen was in "condition?" or, in other THE CALL OF THE HEN. 129 words, each finger out of "condition" means how many more fingers "capacity" or depth of abdomen if the same hen was in normal "con- dition?" 7. What is meant by "egg- type?" by "dual-purpose type?" by "beef- type?" How do you determine each of the three types? 8. Do we find all three "types" in all varieties of poultry or are each of these "types" confined to certain varieties or breeds of poultry? 9. A hen in good condition, with a two-finger abdomen or "ca- pacity" and 3^-inch pelvic bone, should lay about how many eggs during her first year? 10. A hen in good condition, with a five-finger abdomen or "ca- pacity" and a 1-16-inch pelvic bone, should lay about how many eggs _ the first year? LESSON 11. Selection and Breeding for Egg-Production. 1. Should we breed from poultry with straight or crooked pelvic bones? Why? 2. What does it indicate, in judging males or females for "pre- potency," as described in this method, if the thumb is 1-8 of an inch ahead of the forefinger? If the thumb is 34 of an inch behind the fore- finger? 3. Which of the two would make the best breeder in transmitting its good qualities to its offspring? 4. Some poultrymen mate females with a record of 150 eggs each to males of the 150-egg type of males bred from hens with equally good records, and the offspring from such matings often lay only 100 or 125 eggs on the average. In your opinion, what causes this decrease in the number of eggs? 5. Other things being equal, would you prefer to breed from a male bred from a high-laying hen, or from one bred from a medium layer? Why? 6. What is meant by "stamina" and "vigor" in poultry? 7. Which has the most to do with determining the number of eggs a hen will lay — the breeding, the feeding or the housing? Why? 8. What difference would there be in the probable number of eggs laid by a hen with lots of "capacity," a six finger abdomen, with a thick pelvic bone, 1 inch in thickness, and a hen with but little "ca- pacity," a two-finger abdomen, with a rather thin pelvic bone, 5-16 of an inch in thickness, both hens being in good condition. 9. What, if anything, has the width or the distance between the pelvic bones themselves got to do with egg production? 10. Do we feed hens for the purpose of feeding eggs into their bodies, or do we feed them to develop the eggs which selection and breed- ing or nature has placed within the hen? ^^ THE CALL OF THE HEN. THE PASSING OF WALTER HOGAN. A Tribute To An Earnest Man and the Work He Did in Behalf of the Poultry Industry. By T. E. Quisenberry. In the death of Walter Hogan, the poultry world, in my opinion, has lost one of its greatest benefactors. He was the author of the book "The Call of the Hen," which gives a method of distinguishing the good layers from the poor ones by the ex- amination of external characteristics. Mr. Hogan's book has been a great seller and has made him knovii wherever poultry is kept. Unfortunately, Mr. H<^an had been in poor health for a good many years. Dur- ing the year I had charge of the poultry department at the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Francisco, scarcdy a week passed that I did not come in contact with Mr. Hogan, either at his farm or in my office, and I feel that I knew him as well perhaps as any other poultry breeder. He died at his home in Petaluma February 4, 1921, leaving a wife and several grown children. The latter will carry on his work under the title "The Walter Hogan Company."' His family has the sympathy and best wishes of the entire poultrv' world. They are thoroughly conversant with his work for they have had to care for it for several years because of Mr. Hogan's failing health. While I »-as director of the Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station, Mr. Hogan >ent me a txpewritten copy of his first circular revealing his method of selecting hens for egg production. Little attention was paid to his circular because we felt that there was nothing to it and that he probably was a "crank" on the subject, but Mr. Hogan was persistent in writing personal letters and finally asked me if I would trap-nest a pen of hens which he would test by his method and send to me. Finally he sent me a good male and a poor one to breed from and a good pen and a poor pen to trap-nest and asked me to compare their records with other birds which I had under test. This was done and the results proved to be about what he had predicted, which caused me to be- come interested in his method. That year we had about 1,000 hens in the Egg Laying Contest and before each hen was cooped and returned to her owner, she was tested according to the Hogan method and a comparison made with her trap-nest record. We found that they Ullied with Mr. Hogan's system in practically every case. .■\bout that time I established the American Poultry School and Mr. Hogan re- quested that we publish his book on selection and breeding for egg production, sub- mitting a copy of his book the "Call of the Hen," of which a limited number had been printed. It was poorly bound, poorly printed and poorly illustrated, but confident that it contained wwth while facts, I made a contract with Mr. Hogan to revise and improve his book and to adx-ertise and push the sale of it, which I have done from that date. Thous^inds of copies of this book have goqe to all parts of the world. Mr. Hogan authorized us to sell each copy wth a "money back" guarantee. Of the thou- sin.ls which haw been sold, not one copy has ever been returned. The world often hesitates to gi\-e credit where credit is due but^ in my opinion, no one man h.is done as much to aid the poultiymen of the world in culling out their divine* and nonproducing hens as Walter Hogan. At that time many poultry authori- ty-^ and leading poult^^•men made sport of the idea that anything could be told about the pfxvlu.-tive~abilitv of a hen by her external characteristics, and at the same time anvone xxho stated he had a hen xsith a record of more than 200 eggs was regarded with sl:•;pi^k^n. A CTx-at cMangv has taken place during these seven years and the Hogan nKthod in whole or in part is now in general use. Some new facts are being developed THE CALL OF THE HEN. 131 from time to time and no system is perfect, but Mr. Hogan and his book set the poultry world to thinking and to him is due the credit for starting the agitation which has re- sulted in a definite system of culling and selection of layers. The value of Mr. Hogan's method lies not in telling to the very egg the number a hen will lay or has laid, but it enables you to tell your good producers from your poor producers, your money makers from your money losers, your layers from your loafers. Undoubtedly the selection and culling that has been done by poultryraen, by government and state authorities during the past few years has saved millions of dollars for the poultry producers of the nation. A thorough study of the methods used and recom- mended will convince the unbiased person that the methods recommended by Mr. Hogan are the basis for practically all other methods of culling. Walter Hogan was not a money maker and to him came little return for what he gave to the world. If he felt any bitterness over this fact, he always dismissed the sub- ject with a jest and a smile. He was willing to do what he could for humanity and to wait for his reward. Without making any pretensions to superior goodness, he was a Christian in the true meaning of the word. His book and his system were the pride of his life and I know he would appreciate a tribute paid to his work more than one paid to him personally. He was unassuming and lived a simple life. He has passed from us, but his memory, his methods and the lesson he has taught will live forever and the poultrymen of the future will be greatly benefited by them. SUGGESTIONS FOB PRACTICE. 1. Go into your own poultry yards and handle, test and measure some of your good layers and poor layers from time to time until you become accustomed to the measurements and differences. You will soon be able to apply the test rapidly and accurately. 2. Make these tests at different seasons and you will see how the birds vary at different times and will learn to make due allowance for same. 3. After you have culled your flock keep the poor ones in a pen to themselves for a few days. Keep a record of all eggs from the good and bad. If you have done your work properly the eggs laid by the culls will be few in number compared with those laid by the good females. If this is true you are safe in marketing the culls. 4. Test >our males in the same manner, but remember that the difference is not so great. I would select males with pelvic bones reasonably straight, moder- ately thin and fair capacity and distance between the bones. I would consider color and other desirable points which are wanted in a good breeder. WABNING. Don't be deceived by misrepresentations or attacks on this system of selection of your laying hens. Regardless of what anyone may say or write, the facts mentioned in this book are the basic principles to be used in selection of your best breeders for egg production. Learn Poultry Farming (The Quisenberry Way) By Correspondence Through The American Poultry School The Only Exclusive Poultry School in the World Teaches Every Branch of the Poultry Business The Poultry industry in the United States amounts to "A Billion Dol- lars" each year. The American Poullry School wiU teach you how to succeed in raising poultry on a large or small scale and guarantees satisfac- tion or refunds your money. Opportunities were never better than now and you can harvest your crop every day in the year regardless of drouths, floods, wars or panics. EXPERIENCE IS A DEAR TEACHERI Mistakes cost money! Thousands of people have failed to make a financial success of the poultry business solely because of improper methods due to a lack of reliable information. Don't run the risk of failure, when you can insure success! Any one of a hundred single mistakes you might niake in a single season would cost you more than a complete course in the American School of Poultry Husbandry. YOU CAN GET OUR CATALOG FREE AND IT WILL EXPLAIN THE WAY. YOU NEED THIS COURSE Whether you are a beginner or an "old timer," a farmer or a "back letter," it will pay you to investigate this course, and. to do It now while the special rates and terms are in force. Remember, The American School of Poultry Husbandry is the only exclusive poujtry_ school in the world. It is unanimously endorsed by thousands of enthusiastic students in 48 states and 19 foreign countries. Here is the ojjportunity of a lifetime to put both feet on the road to success in this fascinating and profitable business. Send today for a copy of our Free book "Dollars and Sense in the Poultry Business." THE AMERICAN POULTRY SCHOOL T. E. Quisenberry, President KANSAS CITY, MO.