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Cornell University 
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 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924089418390 
 
EXTRACTS 
 
 THE CORRESPONDENCE 
 
 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
 
 Retell of the Navajo Tribe of Indians, Territory of New Mexico, hy 
 Jona. Letherman, Assistant Surgeon U. 8. Army. 
 
 The Navajo Indians are a tribe inhabiting a district in the Territory 
 of New Mexico, lying between the San Juan river on the north and 
 northeast, the Pueblo of Zuiii on the south, the Moqui villages on the 
 west, and the ridge of land dividing the waters which flow into the 
 Atlantic ocean from those which flow into the Pacific on the east — 
 giving an area of about twelve thousand (12,000) square miles. The 
 Navajoes can muster from twfenty-five hundred (2,500) to three thou- 
 sand (3,000) mounted warriors. 
 
 The great and distinguishing feature of the country occupied by 
 these people is the mountains. The entire country is composed of 
 them and the intervening valleys — their general direction being north 
 and south, with slight eastwardly and westwardly variation. They 
 are broken in many places into deep ravines and canons, which, for 
 the most part, run perpendicularly to the general direction of the 
 mountain. These caiions afford, in many places, the only means of 
 traversing the country, unless with great difficulty and labor. On 
 their eastern aspect, these mountains present a slope which can be 
 ascended without much trouble, having an angle of elevation of 
 twenty, twenty-five, or thirty degrees ; but on the western side the 
 descent is generally abrupt and often impassable, presenting a perpen- 
 dicular wall of rock from three hundred (300) to four hundred (400) 
 or more, feet in height. The top of the mountain is frequently leva 
 to a great extent, forming the table-land, or mesas, in the parlance of 
 the Mexicans. The appearance, looking west from the top of a high 
 mountain, is that of a succession of comparatively gentle slopes, rising 
 one after another. Looking east from the same mountain a seriesof 
 high escarpments is seen as far as vision extends. These mountains 
 are chiefly composed of sandstone — rocks, in all probability^ belong- 
 ing to the period of the "new-red sandstone" and carboniferous form- 
 ation. It is generally soft and friable ; some, however, being found 
 suitable for building purposes in this altitude and climate, but not 
 
284 TENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF 
 
 for the lower and more humid portions of the United States, east of 
 the Territory of New Mexico. Some limestone, of a very impure qual- 
 ity, is found in various localities, but it is exceedingly difficult to re- 
 duce, requiring from ten to fifteen days for its calcination. Sulphate 
 of lime, conglomerate, and in some places bituminous coal, exist. 
 Pyropes, of a fine quality, are seen in different portions of the country^ 
 but they are generally small — the largest ever seen at Fort Defiance 
 weighing one hundred and twenty (120) grains. Masses of lava, 
 thrown up to the height of from two hundred to four hundred feet, 
 are visible in many sections of the country. An immense stream of 
 this substance exists on the road from Albuquerque to the Pueblo of 
 Zuni and to Fort Defiance, about sixty miles from Albuquerque, 
 ranging from a few hundred yards to a mile or more in width, and 
 about forty miles in length. The centre of action is supposed, by a 
 competent judge, to have been in the mountain of San Mateo, a high 
 mountain, visible from Santa Fe and Albuquerque, and west of the 
 latter city. This current seems to have flowed at a comparatively re- 
 cent period — the undulations and curled waves being distinctly visi- 
 ble ; and no mention is made of it by the Spaniards who first visited 
 New Mexico, although they traversed the portion of country through 
 which it has fiowed. The Indians have no tradition of the eruption. 
 The stream is not in the district inhabited by the Navajoes, but upon 
 its borders. A few miles to the north and south of Fort Defiance 
 large trap-dykes have been thrown up, running across the valley in 
 which the garrison is situated. This, and the adjoining portions of 
 this continent, everywhere give evidence of violent and relatively 
 recent volcanic action. In addition to the eruptions found in so many 
 sections of this particular portion of the continent, we have direct tes- 
 timony in the account of the expeditions of the first Spanish adven- 
 turers to New Mexico and California, as in the following extract : 
 
 " They followed their route, [in the vicinity of the head of the Gulf 
 of California,] and reached a place covered with ashes so hot that it 
 was impossible to march over it, for they might as well have drowned 
 themselves in the sea. The earth trembled like a drum, which caused 
 the supposition of subterraneous lakes, and the ashes boiled in a man- 
 ner truly infernal." 
 
 The soil is chiefly sand, mixed in some places with clay, and is 
 very porous. _ It is little susceptible of cultivation — doubtless, in some 
 measure, owing to the want of water for irrigation. The ground in 
 many places, especially after having been wet, is covered with an 
 efflorescence of impure carbonate of soda ; and when such is the case, 
 cultivation is out of the question. A qualitative analysis of the water 
 used at Fort Defiance shows the presence of carbonates and sulphates 
 of lime and magnesia and carbonate of soda, as the preponderating 
 constituents ; sulphate of soda, and traces of potash and chloride of 
 sodium. The water is very " hard," and acts as a purgative upon 
 those not accustomed to use it. 
 
 In wet weather, at the close of winter, and in July, August, and 
 September, thecountry, from the porosity of the soil, is almost im- 
 passable, both in the valleys and upon the mesas, except by the beaten 
 trails. The valleys and hills almost everywhere are covered with ar- 
 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 2£5 
 
 temisia, and where it grows nothing else will flourish, not even grass, 
 to any extent ; aijd the appearance of the country, covered with this 
 shruh, is one of exceeding desolation. 
 
 The district possessed by these people, has had for many years the 
 reputation of being the finest grazing country in the Territory of 
 New Mexico, and the fame thereof has reached the eastern portion of 
 the United States. The grass called in the country "sheep gama" 
 is most abundant, and is found upon the sides of the mountains, upon 
 the mesas, and in the valleys, when not too moist. What is denom- 
 inated _" horse gama" is a different species, and is not found except 
 in limited quantities ; almost none may, with propriety, be said to 
 grow in the Navajo country. This variety of gama is excellent for 
 grazing and for hay, being very nutritious and green in the win- 
 ter, when deprived of its cuticle. Horses are exceedingly fond of this 
 species, but of the "sheep gama" they are not. Taking the country 
 at large, it will be found that, in regard to the abundance of natural 
 pasturage, it has been vastly overrated, and we have no hesitation in 
 saying that were the flocks and herds belonging to these Indians 
 doubled, the country could not sustain ^hem. There is required for 
 grazing and procuring hay for the consumption of the animals at Fort 
 Defiance, garrisoned by two companies, one partly mounted, fifty (50) 
 square miles, and this is barely, if at all, sufficient. The hay pro- 
 cured is a very inferior article, and such as could not be sold at a price 
 at all remunerative in the cultivated portions of the United States. 
 The great reputation which this portion of New Mexico has obtained 
 for grazing has, in part, no doubt, arisen from the fact of the country 
 having been but little frequented by the Mexicans, and, consequently, 
 but little known, and from the number of sheep driven from the set- 
 tlements on the Eio Grande by these people, although this, without 
 doubt, has been greatly exaggerated. It is far from uncommon that 
 a country which is little known, has attributed to it many qualities 
 whichj on being more inquired into, have scarcely anything to rest 
 upon other than the fertile imaginations of those who have passed 
 through it, or live at some distance from it. The barrenness and des- 
 olation so inseparable from immense masses of rock, and hills and 
 valleys covered with artemisia, are here seen and felt in their widest 
 and fullest extent. 
 
 Pine^ scrub-cedar, scrub-oak, and the pifion, are the more common 
 trees. The mountains, except where composed of the bare rock, are 
 sparsely covered with scrub-cedar, piiion, and stunted pines. The 
 large pine, suitable for building purposes, is found in the recesses of 
 the mountains, but is not abundant. The scrub-oak is scarce, and is 
 suitable only as a last resort for economical purposes. A few small 
 cotton-wood trees are occasionally seen in the damp ravines. A spe- 
 cies of locust, bearing a very beautiful pink flower, has been found, 
 but the trees are small and scarce. The wild hop grows in many 
 places in great luxuriance, and is in every respect suitable for culi- 
 nary purposes. A species of wild currant and wild gooseberry, and 
 various kinds of willow, are met with. The variety of willow from 
 which the "Northwestern Indians" procure the material so much 
 used for smoking, is indigenous, and the bark, when prepared, is 
 
286 
 
 TENTH ANNUAL EEPOET OF 
 
 identical when smoked, in taste and smell, as we can say from our 
 own experience, with that used by those Indians. It is said to he 
 used by these Indians, but we have never seen them using it._ They, 
 however, do not use the pipe, but confine themselves to the cigarrito, 
 made of the corn-husk. 
 
 The animals found in this country are the brown bear, black-tailed 
 deer, antelope, wild-cat, porcupine, long and short-eared rabbit, 
 prairie-dog, "coyote" and "lobo," two varieties of the wolf, and 
 the common fox ; two species of rattlesnake, and the tarantula are 
 also found. The eagle, raven, turkey-buzzard, various kinds of ducks 
 and teal, the "paisano," a species of jay, and what is called the 
 magpie, the wild-turkey, white and sand-hill crane, woodpeckers and 
 wrens, are the principal birds. We do not suppose this list to be 
 complete. 
 
 The annexed table is an abstract from the meteorological register 
 at Fort Defiance, in latitude 35° 40', longitude 109° 14' 30", and at 
 an altitude of about 8,000 feet above the sea, credit being due for the 
 observations taken previous to October, 1854, to the medical officers 
 stationed there before that time. 
 
 Mean temperature of four daily observations^ and ritaximum and minimum tem- 
 perature, and quaniity of rain, in inches, for each month,at Fort Defiance, N.M. 
 
 1853. 
 
 October 
 
 November. , 
 December... 
 
 1854. 
 January 
 
 February . . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August .... 
 September. 
 October. .. 
 November. 
 December.. 
 
 1855. 
 
 .January.... 
 February . . 
 March . . . . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 3 p. ji. 
 
 39.61 46.64 
 24.56 33.13 
 19.59 27.45 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. . 
 
 October . . 
 November 
 December. 
 
 1856. 
 
 January... 
 February.. 
 
 15.45 
 
 19.67 
 
 24,83 
 
 30.20 
 
 35.83 
 
 45 
 
 59.38 
 
 54.83 
 
 46.13 
 
 38.48 
 
 26.90 
 
 21.51 
 
 12.67 
 22.22 
 28.51 
 32.93 
 35.60 
 50.76 
 
 S6.96 
 52.64 
 49.10 
 
 22.38 
 
 30.14 
 
 37.87 
 
 50.. 33 
 
 54.93 
 
 68.33 
 
 72.48 
 
 67 
 
 59.33 
 
 45.54 
 
 34.43 
 
 28.10 
 
 20.70 
 30.06 
 37.74 
 43.03 
 47.55 
 62.03 
 
 65.96 
 59.09 
 60.43 
 
 2 p.m. 
 
 36.87 
 26.06 
 16.80 
 
 11.67 
 13.31 
 
 59.83 
 55.03 
 42.35 
 
 36.80 
 
 46.67 
 50.25 
 60.10 
 64.83 
 77.23 
 85.74 
 75.51 
 70.40 
 68.44 
 56.73 
 49.12 
 
 43.93 
 51.14 
 61.49 
 69.26 
 73.38 
 86.45 
 
 92.06 
 79.24 
 73.10 
 
 70.06 41.58 
 49.00 33.76 
 44.16 28.80 
 
 40.06 
 42.03 
 
 19.35 
 19.68 
 
 40.77 
 33.00 
 26.51 
 
 34.25 
 
 29.67 
 
 35.22 
 
 44.46 
 
 48.64 
 
 58.60 
 
 66.19 
 
 61.74 
 
 52.60 
 
 43.12 
 
 34 
 
 38.39 
 
 21.60 
 31.07 
 33.41 
 36.03 
 40.10 
 56.04 
 
 53.90 
 48.19 
 54.40 
 
 44.70 
 39.79 
 30.97 
 
 26.12 
 
 33.17 
 
 37.54 
 
 45.05 
 
 50,38 
 
 61.34 
 
 72 
 
 65.17 
 
 58.26 
 
 53.46 
 
 41.81 
 
 35.31 
 
 28.74 
 36.68 
 45.00 
 51.06 
 54.44 
 68.61 
 
 74.06 
 65.90 
 61.09 
 
 Mean 
 
 49.53 
 35.94 
 29.84 
 
 23.67 
 25.00 
 
 .25 
 
 1.11 
 
 .09 
 
 .45 
 
 .90 
 
 .51 
 
 1.24 
 
 3.94 
 
 5.24 
 
 3 47 
 
 .62 
 
 .49 
 
 1.20 
 
 .83 
 1.72 
 3.30 
 .50 
 .06 
 .43 
 
 1.54 
 3.92 
 2.86 
 
 Rain. 
 
 Max., 73° on 13th; mln., 17° on 27th; range, 56° 
 69° on 4th; 13° on 3(1; 56° 
 
 57° on 2cl ; 6° on 19th ; 51° 
 
 Max., 49° on 14th ; min.— ]8° on 21st ; range, 
 
 thermometer stood at — 20° at 5^ a. m. 
 Max., 54° on 5th; min., 2° on 15th; range. 
 
 1.47 
 1.59 
 
 1.54 
 
 59° on 30th ; 
 75° on 28th ; 
 77° on 24th ; 
 92° on 22(1 ; 
 95° on 21st; 
 84° on 7th ; 
 79° on 6th ; 
 76° on 3d ; 
 72° on Sth J 
 65° on 2d ; 
 
 on 13th ; 
 14° on 9th ; 
 19° on Sth; 
 30° on 2d ; 
 61° on 21st ; 
 46° on 25th ; 
 35° on 15th; 
 25° on 30th : 
 17° on I2th; 
 10° on 31st; 
 
 Max., 59° on 18th ; min. 
 61° on 28th; 
 74° on 25th ; 
 80: on 22d ; 
 8f° on 31st; 
 94° on 3d, 16th, 
 24th, and 27th; 
 99° on 7th ; 
 91° on 2d ; 
 81° on 15th ; 
 
 -17° on 6th ; 
 13° on 1st; 
 19° on 18th ; 
 22° on 6th ; 
 21° on 27th ; 
 
 34° on 9th ; 
 36° on 1st; 
 43° on 22d ; 
 39° on 30th ; 
 
 range, 76° 
 
 48° 
 
 60° 
 63° 
 
 48° 
 42° 
 
 Hours of observations changed by the surgeon gen- 
 eral of the army. 
 
 Max., 79° on 14th ; min., 31° on 28th ; range, 48° 
 64° on 1 1th ; 8° on 18th ; 56° 
 
 66° on 10th ; 2.'j° on 26th ; 81° 
 
 54° on 6th ; 
 61° on 9th ; 
 
 —8° on 28th ; 
 —3° on 8th ; 
 
 62° 
 54° 
 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 287 
 
 On the 25tli of December, 1855, the thermometer at the hospital 
 of Fort Defiance gave a reading of thirty-two (32°) degrees below- 
 zero at 6J a. m. The hospital is not by any means in the coldest 
 portion of the garrison. Two hundred yards distant the mercury, in 
 January, 1856, ranged from four to eight degrees below that at the 
 hospital, and there is not the slightest doubt of the freezing of the 
 mercury had the instrument been placed in the more exposed sit- 
 uation on the morning of December 25, 1855. A number of men on 
 detached service had their hands and feet frozen, and some badly. 
 The mercury was below zero four mornings in December, 1855, six 
 mornings in January, 1856, three mornings in February, and on the 
 mornings of the 1st and 2d of March it was also below zero. 
 
 The table above will give a fair idea of the climate of the country. 
 The winter of 1855 and 1856 was more severe than any one known 
 for many years. The wintry weather commenced on the Ist of No- 
 vember, 1855, and has continued up to the present time, (March 14, 
 1856.) The Kio Grande at Albuquerque was frozen over, and with 
 ice suflQciently strong to bear a horse and carreta. Those Indians 
 who live habitually to the north of Fort Defiance were obliged to 
 abandon that portion of the country and move south with their flocks 
 and herds in quest of grazing, on account of the depth of snow, 
 which on the mouatain, at whose base the fort is situated, was over 
 two feet in depth in March, 1856. It is said by the Indians that once 
 in many years a winter such as that of 1855 and 1856 is experienced, 
 and the assertion is corroborated by the early Spaniards, but none of 
 such severity has been felt since the occupation of the Territory by 
 the United States troops. The winters in the portion of the country 
 inhabited by the Navajoes are, however, generally of short duration 
 and comparatively mild, there being occasionally experienced in De- 
 cember, weather in many respects similar to the "Indian summer " 
 of the Eastern States. As the days become longer and the sun has 
 more power, the roads become well nigh impassable, but it is almost 
 fatal to leave them for the drier-looking but more treacherous ground, 
 miring with horse or wagon being inevitable. In the spring, high 
 winds, generally from the south and southwest, prevail, and clouds of 
 dust fill the air, rendering travelling at that season disagreeable in 
 the highest degree. Eain and snow also come for the most part from 
 the south and west. In the summer the heat is not oppressive when 
 one is not exposed to the direct rays of the sun ; but, however warm 
 the days may be, the nights are cool and pleasant^ and blankets are 
 comfortable throughout the summer. The greatest quantity of rain 
 falls in July, August, and September. In April, May, and June, 
 vegetation becomes much parched, suffering greatly oftentimes for 
 water. The country is at such an altitude that evaporation goes on 
 with great rapidity, and when showers are not frequent, vegetation 
 suffers. 
 
 The amount of land fit for cultivation is very limited when com- 
 pared with the extent of country. Out of New Mexico we doubt if 
 any similar extent of country can be found in the domain of the 
 United States, in which the proportion of cultivable land is so small 
 as in the country inhabited by these Indians. It is generally neces- 
 
288 TENTH ANNUAL REPORT OP 
 
 sary to irrigate for the production of crops, and it will be seen at 
 once that the crops must be small when the great elevation of the 
 country, from seven thousand (7,000) to nine thousand (9,000) feet 
 above the level of the sea, and the limited supply of water, are_ taken 
 into consideration. In some localities the Indians do without irriga- 
 tion, by planting to the depth often and twelve inches, which can be 
 done in some places without depriving the seed of air, on account of 
 the porosity of the soil. Maize, pumpkins, beans, and wheat are the 
 only productions. Wheat is not sown broadcast, but tenor fifteen 
 seeds are planted in a " hill," after the manner of planting corn in 
 the United States. Maize is planted in the same manner, the ground, 
 in all casesj being prepared for planting by means of the hoe. The 
 only fruit cultivated is the peach, and this is only found in the canon 
 of Chelly and a few small canons adjoining. We have seen some fine 
 specimens of this fruit brought from that caiion, but it can seldom 
 be obtained ripe, as the only mode of transporting in vogue among 
 these people is by means of buckskin bags on horses. During August 
 and September hundreds of Indians are collected in the caiion just 
 referred to, living on corn and peaches until the crops are exhausted. 
 
 Nothing can be learned of the origin of these people from themselves. 
 At one time they say they came out of the ground ; and at another, 
 that they know nothing whatever of their origin; the latter, no doubt, 
 being the truth. We have been informed by a Navajo, who is the 
 most reliable man in the nation, that his tribe is very far from being 
 pure blood ; that his people are mixed blood with Utahs, Apaches, 
 Moquis, and Mexicans, and to such an extent that it is a matter of no 
 small difiiculty to find a pure-blooded Navajo. On this account it is 
 difiicult to give a description that would apply to the whole tribe. 
 Those of purest blood are of good size, nearly six feet in height, and 
 well proportioned ; cheek-bones high and prominent, nose straight 
 and well shaped ; hair long and black ; eyes black ; superciliary ridge 
 small ; teeth large, white, and regular, and frequently very hand- 
 some ; maxillary bones not larger than usual in men of such stature ; 
 feet small ; lips of moderate size ; head of medium size and well 
 shaped ; forehead not small but retreating. Others, those generally 
 of mixed blood, have low and very retreating foreheads ; occiput 
 largely developed ; cheek-bones high and very prominent ; maxillary 
 bones large and projecting in front ; nose and lips very much resem- 
 bling those of the negro ; about five feet two inches to five feet six 
 inches in height ; the tout ensemlle giving the idea of a man far in- 
 ferior to the Caucasian in the scale of existence, and approaching, in 
 appearance, the brute creation, with which they have much in comm'on. 
 
 So little government do these people possess, that it would be 
 difficult to give it a name. Anarchy is the only form, if form it can 
 be called. They have no hereditary chief— none by election ; he who 
 now holds the nominal title of chief was appointed by the superinten- 
 dent of Indian affairs for the Territory, and the Indians had nothing 
 to do with it; a silver medal and a cane is the insignia of ofiice 
 The authority of the chief is merely nominal, and against the wishes 
 of a number of his tribe he is powerless, and his authority melts 
 away. Every one who has a few horses and sheep is a "head man " 
 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITTTTION. 2S9 
 
 and must have his word ia the councils. Even those who by supe- 
 rior cunning have obtained some influence, are extremely careful lest 
 their conduct should not prove acceptable to their criticising inferiors. 
 The "Juntas," or councils, are generally composed of the richest 
 men, each one a self-constituted member, but their decisions are of but 
 little moment unless they meet the approbation of the massof the people; 
 and for this reason these councils are exceedingly careful not to run 
 counter to the wishes of the poorer but more numerous class, being 
 well aware of the difficulty, if not impossibility, of enforcing any 
 act that would not command their approval. This want of a chief who 
 would be looked up to by his people, and with power to carry out 
 whatever measures are necessary for the welfare of his tribe, is a 
 great drawback, and lenders the management of these people a matter 
 often of serious concern, and requiring always a great deal of tact, 
 judgment, and discretion. The nation, as a nation, is fully imbued 
 with the idea that it is all-powerful, which, no doubt, has arisen froni 
 the fact of its having been for years a terror and a dread to the inhab- 
 itants of New Mexico. The rich men, however, are fast becoming con- 
 vinced that the government troops are not frightened at the mention 
 of their names ; yet this opinion is far from prevalent among those (and 
 they are the great majority) who own no flocks or herds. Persons of 
 this class frequently commit depredations to a small extent, and so 
 powerless is the chief to prevent acts of this kind, or punish the 
 depredator, that he frequently pays from his own herds the value 
 of the article stolen. In short, their government is no government 
 at all ; the chief has no authority, and every one does that which 
 seeraeth good in his ov/n sight. It is only the fear of the military 
 power which keeps them in any kind of order. 
 
 Their houses are temporary huts of the most miserable construction. 
 They are conical in shape, made of sticks, and covered with branches 
 and dirt, from six to sixteen feet in diameter, and in many of them a 
 man cannot stand erect. A hole covered with an old blanket or 
 sheepskin serves the purpose of a door. The hovel is doubtless warm 
 enough in winter, but must be sadly deficient in fresh air, at least to 
 sensitive nostrils. Some live in caves 'in the rocks, and this can be 
 the only foundation for the assertion that they "build stone houses." 
 These people build no houses but the huts to which we have just 
 alluded, and they show the high degree 6f civilization so much 
 praised as being superior to that found among any other wild Indians 
 in any portion of the territory of the United States. In the con- 
 struction of their dwellings we have no hesitation in saying, that 
 these people are greatly inferior to the "Northwestern Indians," as 
 we have seen the habitations of both. When an Indian dies in one 
 of these huts it is immediately abandoned, and upon no considera- 
 tion can any one be induced to inhabit it again, or to use it for any 
 purpose whatever. A small hut, about three feet in height, is erected 
 for taking hot-air baths after any fatiguing exertion. A number of 
 heated stones are placed inside, the person enters, and covering the 
 hole with a blanket, is soon in a copious perspiration. 
 
 The men clothe themselves somewhat differently. Some wear short 
 breeches of brownish-colored buck&kin, or red baize, buttoned at the 
 
290 TENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF 
 
 knee, and leggins of the same material. A small blanket, or a piece 
 of red baize, with a hole in it, through which the head is thrust, 
 extends a short distance below the small of the back, and coTers the 
 abdomen in front, the sides being partially sewed together ; and a 
 strip of red cloth attached to the blanket or baize, where it covers the 
 shoulder, forms the sleeve, the whole serving the purpose of a coat. 
 Over all is thrown a blanket, under and sometimes over which is worn 
 a belt, to which are attached oval pieces of silver, plain or variously 
 wrought. Many of the rich men wear, when " dressed," a coat and 
 pantaloons brought from the United States. A shirt made of un- 
 bleached cotton cloth, also from the Eastern States, and breeches of 
 the same material, made to come a little below the knee, are much worn 
 by the " middle class." The men, as a rule, make their own clothes. 
 These articles constitute the only covering, together with the breech- 
 cloth and moccasins, that are used. Many are seen who wear nothing 
 but a blanket, and some in summer, nothing but the breech-cloth, and 
 we have seen some with no covering but moccasins and a cotton shirt., 
 when the mercury was below zero. The moccasin is made of buck- 
 skin, with a sole of raw-hide, and comes well up on the leg. It is 
 fashioned alike for men and women. The latter wear a blanket 
 fastened about the waist, and sewed up the sides for a skirt. The front 
 and back parts being attached over either shoulder, a covering is 
 obtained for the front and back portions of the body. The skirt comes 
 down below the knee, about half way to the ankle, the leg being well 
 wrapped in uncolored buckskin. They sit upon their horses in the 
 same manner as the men. As a general rule, neither sex wear any 
 head-dress ; an old cap or hat, or dirty rag, is sometimes worn, but 
 they have no regular covering for the head, even in the coldest days 
 in winter or warmest in summer. The hair is worn long, and tied 
 up behind, by both men and women. That of sick persons is gener- 
 ally cut short, and that of children also, to enable the latter the more 
 easily to get rid of the parasitic insects which are by no means un- 
 common to the whole tribe. With very few exceptions, the want of 
 cleanliness is universal^a shirt being worn until it will no longer 
 hang together, and it would be diiScult to tell the original color. 
 These people suffer much from rheumatism, and gonorrhoea and syph- 
 ilis are not at all rare. Many have a cough, and look consumptive. 
 Various herbs, sweating, scarifications, and incantations are tlie chief 
 remedial measures. Women, when in parturition, stand upon their 
 feet, holding to a rope suspended overhead, or upon the knees, the 
 body being erect. Accouchment is generally easy, and of short dura- 
 tion ; when difficult and prolonged, recourse is had to superstitious 
 observances to bring about a successful issue. 
 
 The chief grain used for food is maize. When not fully matured it 
 is pounded, mixed with pumpkins when these can be procured, 
 wrapped in the husk, and baked in the ashes. They doubtless have 
 other ways of preparing it, but we are not aware of them. It would 
 be hard to say what they would not eat. The majority seem to live 
 on what they can get — deer, antelope, sheep, horses, mules, rabbits, 
 prairie-dogs ; and we have seen some eat meat in such a state of pu- 
 tridity that the sight was disgusting in the extreme. All are very 
 
TfiE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 291 
 
 fotid of bread and sugar, and seem to have a natural taste for all kinds 
 of liquors. They never kill bears or rattlesnakes unless attacked, 
 some superstition being connected with these animals. 
 
 The chief occupation of these people consists in rearing sheep and 
 horsesJL^The number of sheep has been very variously estimated, by 
 those who have been much among them, the highest estimate being 
 two hundred thousand, and this number is probably as near the 
 truth as can be obtained. The wool is coarss and is never shorn. 
 The sheep are in all respects similar to those raised by the Mexicans, 
 occasionally one being seen having four horns. The males are per- 
 mitted to run with the herds at all seasons, and the young, conse- 
 quently, are born in the winter as well as in the spring and autumn, 
 and many die. For this reason, their flocks do not increase with the 
 rapidity generally believed by those not much acquainted with these 
 people. It is a great mistake to suppose there is anything peculiar 
 about Navajo sheep, for such is not the case. Goats are also reared, 
 and are allowed to run with the sheep. The mutton is excellent in 
 the autumn, when the sheep have had the benefit of the summer's 
 grazing, but we think not at all superior to that obtained in the east- 
 ern and mountainous portions of the United States. 
 
 The spinning and weaving is done by the women, and by hand. 
 The thread is made entirely by hand, and is coarse and uneven. 
 The blanket is woven by a tedious and rude process, after the man- 
 ner of the Pueblo Indians, and is very coarse, tliick, and heavy, with 
 little nap, and cannot bear comparison with an American blanket for 
 warmth and comfort. Many of them are woven so closely as to hold 
 water ; but this is of little advantage, for when worn during a rain 
 they become saturated with water, and are then uncomfortably heavy. 
 The colors are red, blue, black, and yellow ; black and red being the 
 most common. The red strands are obtained by unravelling red 
 cloth, black by using the wool of black sheep, blue by dissolving 
 indigo in fermented urine, and yellow is said to be by coloring with 
 a particular flower. The colors are woven in bands and diamonds. 
 We have never observed blankets with figures of a complicated pattern. 
 Occasionally a blanket is seen which is quite handsome, and costs at 
 the same time the extravagant price of forty or fifty dollars ; these, 
 however, are very scarce, and are generally made for a special pur- 
 pose. The Indians prefer an American blanket, as it is lighter and 
 much warmer. The article manufactured by them is superior, because 
 of its thickness, to that made in the United States, for placing between 
 the bed and the ground when bivouacing, and this is the only use it 
 can be put to in which its superiority is shown. The manner of weaving 
 is peculiar, and is, no doubt, original with these people and the neigh- 
 boring tribes; and, taken in connexion with the fact of some dilapi- 
 dated buildings (not of Spanish structure) being found in different 
 portions of the country, it has suggested the idea that they may once 
 have been what are usually called "Pueblo Indians." 
 
 They possess from fifty thousand to sixty thousand horses, which 
 are doubtless descended from those brought to this continent by the 
 Spaniards. In rearing them attention is only given to the character 
 of the sire ; none being paid to that of the dam, as they suppose the 
 
292 TENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF 
 
 Superiority of the offspring to depend entirely upon the excellence of 
 the former. The horses are small, a few handsome, and a very few- 
 fleet. They are frequently ridden fast and a long distance in a day ; 
 but they are usually often changed, and after having been ridden 
 hard, are turned into the herd and not used again for many days. 
 The saddle is not peculiar, but generally resembles that used by the 
 Mexicans. They ride with a very "short stirrup," which is placed 
 farther to the front than on a Mexican saddle. The bit of the bridle 
 has a ring attached to it, through which the lower jaw is partly 
 thrust, and a powerful pressure is exerted by this means when the 
 reins are tightened. Hanging down beneath the lips are small pieces 
 of steel attached to the bit, which jingle as they ride. The side and 
 front parts generally consist of strings ; sometimes made of leather, 
 and not unfrequently ornamented with plates of pure silver, of the 
 purity of which, by the way, these people are excellent judges. The 
 chief merit of these horses consists in their being very sure-footed. 
 It is not a little astonishing that the published accounts of them 
 should be so far wide of the mark; such as "that they are equal to 
 the finest horses of the United States, in a23pearance and value." We 
 have seen great numbers of these horses, and instead of being "equal 
 to the finest horses of the United States," we can say, without the 
 slightest hesitation, that they have been vastly over-estimated, and 
 are far inferior in appearance, usefulness, and value to the American 
 horse. A few are comparatively fleet and handsome, but there are 
 numbers of army horses in the Territory fleeter, better looking, and 
 much more valuable. Two or three comparatively fine horses can 
 occasionally be found in a herd of a hundred, but to give as a general 
 character of these animals such as has been given in the above quota- 
 tion is a great mistake. The usual price is thirty dollars. 
 
 It cannot, with truth, be said of these Indians that " they encourage 
 industry by general consent," for the word "industry" cannot with 
 propriety be applied to them. They plant wheat and maize, and 
 rear horses and sheep, but are not, in any proper sense of the term, 
 an industrious people. Like all Indians, they will not work more than 
 is necessary for subsistence; and, were the word "laziness" substi- 
 tuted for "industry" in the quotation just given, the statement would 
 be much more nearly correct. They are, however, industrious beggars. 
 
 They do not "make butter and cheese." These are rare articles 
 in a Mexican household ; and when we are aware that nearly all their 
 knowledge of the arts of civilized life is derived from their inter- 
 course with Mexicans, and that they have very few cattle,, the error of 
 attributing the manufacture of these articles to these people is ap- 
 parent. Some who own cattle make from the curd of soured milk 
 small masses, which some have called cheese ; but to give this name 
 and no description of the article, would certainly leave an erroneous 
 impression. It bears little resemblance to the substance denomi- 
 nated cheese in the United States. 
 
 For ages these Indians have been a terror to the inhabitant? of New 
 Mexico. "Wherever they have gone among the inhabitants of the 
 valley of the Eio Grande, they have spread consternation and dismay ; 
 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 293 
 
 doors have been closed and fastened, and invocations to the saints 
 offered up for protection. They are even said to have insulted the 
 governor in his palace, at Santa Fe, and filled the city with terror. 
 Shepherds have abandoned their flocks at the appearance of one of 
 these men of the mountains ; and children have been, and are yet, 
 frightened into good behavior by the mention of their name. But 
 since the occupation of the country by the United States forces, this 
 prestige is fast melting away even with the Mexicans. Their great 
 lame for bravery has arisen not so much from any courageous disposi- 
 tion superior to that of other Indians in the Territory, as from their 
 numbers and from the character of the people with whom they have 
 had to deal. 
 
 Some years since, a small party of Delawares appeared among 
 them to revenge an outrage perpetrated upon one of their number who 
 had wandered west of the Eio Grande, and to this day these people 
 hold a Delaware in the highest respect. Prior to the abolition of 
 Spanish authority upon this continent, the Spaniards spread desolation 
 throughout their entire country and compelled them to beg fervently 
 for peace. But this wholesome state of things changed for the worse 
 when the Spanish rule ceased, and until the authority of the United 
 States was established in the Territory, the Navajoes ran riot, masters 
 wherever they went ; and, from the fact of their having been allowed 
 so to do, they yet hold themselves in high esteem; but instead of being 
 feared by government troops, the order of things is fast becoming re- 
 versed, as may be perceived from the fact of two companies of United 
 States troops having held in check over two thousand warriors mounted 
 and armed. 
 
 They use the bow and arrow, and spear, and use them well. The 
 bow is about four feet in length, and made of some kind of wood 
 which is said not to grow in the Navajo country, and is covered on the 
 back with a kind of fibrous tissue. The arrow is about two feet long 
 and pointed with iron. The spear is eight or ten feet in length, in- 
 cluding the point, which is about eighteen inches long, and also made 
 of iron. In case of war, they would give no inconsiderable trouble ; 
 not so much from active fightings as from frequenting high and al- 
 most inaccessible clifi's, in which the country abounds, and the many 
 hiding-places in the canons and recesses of the mountains, which, 
 for a time, from their superior knowledge of the country, they would, 
 in a measure, be able to do. It would not be correct, however, to 
 suppose that they would not fight, for so great an idea do they have 
 of their prowess, that they no doubt would trust in their skill and 
 bravery until it was apparent that these would not avail ; but, like 
 all Indians, they would not risk a fight, if it were possible to avoid 
 it, unless they possessed greatly the advantage in position and num- 
 bers. Some of them have fire-arms in addition to their usual wea- 
 pons. We have seen some excellent looking rifles in the possession 
 of some of them, bearing the name of "Albright," (of St. Louis, 
 doubtless,) which the owners state were procured in the Territory of 
 Utah. They have not been sufficiently accustomed to the use of these 
 weapons to use them skilfully, and at present are much more formid- 
 
294 TENTH ANNUAL EEPOET OP 
 
 able with the bow and arrow. They value fire-arms highly, and 
 obtain them whenever an occasion oiFers. 
 
 Of their religion little or nothing is known, as, indeed, all inquiries 
 tend to show that they have none ; and even have not, we are informed, 
 any word to express the idea of a Supreme Being. We have not been 
 able to learn that any observances of a religious character exist 
 among them ; and the general impression of those who have had 
 means of knowing them is, that, in this respect, they are steeped in 
 the deepest degradation. Their system of morality is exceedingly 
 defective. No confidence can be placed in any assertion they may 
 make, unless it be manifestly for their welfare to tell the truth ; they 
 give utterance to whatever they suppose is calculated to promote 
 their interests. Theft and mendacity are common vices. The habit 
 of stealing is so common, that they will appropriate to themselves 
 whatever they can lay their hands on, whether of any use or not, such 
 as door-knobs and keys. Not only do they steal from those who do 
 not belong to their tribe, but continually from one another. Those 
 who possess anything which they consider valuable, invariably hide 
 it from their own family ; for husbands cannot trust their own wives. 
 So little confidence do they place in each other, that those who own 
 herds fear to leave them, lest some depredation be committed by their 
 own people. Application has been made to the present commanding 
 officer of Fort Defiance, (Major Kendrick, U. S. Army,) by one of the 
 richest men in the nation, to have his cattle placed under the pro- 
 tection of the guard which has charge of those belonging to the post, 
 on the ground that he could not prevent people of his own tribe from 
 killing them. And we may add, in this connexion, that the same 
 person requested the commandant to put b<alls and chains on some of 
 his peons (a system of peonage existing among these people) who 
 had been caught stealing, not daring to take the responsibility of 
 punishing the culprits upon himself. 
 
 Such facts as these show how ill-founded is the statement made of 
 these people, that " dishonesty is held in check by suitable regula- 
 tions." If any such regulations exist, (which we do not hesitate to 
 doubt,) they are most emphatically a dead letter. Their morals are 
 extremely loose — the husband keeping a constant watch upon his 
 wife, lest she stray from the paths of rectitude ; and venereal dis- 
 eases are by no means uncommon. The women, however, exert a 
 great deal of influence — more than in the majority of Indian tribes. 
 They have entire charge of the children, and do not allow the father 
 to correct his own offspring. In fact, an Indian has said that he was 
 afraid to correct his own boy, lest the child should wait for a conve- 
 nient opportunity, and shoot him with an arrow. The husband has 
 no control over the property of his wife, their herds being kept sepa- 
 rate and distinct ; from which, doubtless, arises the influence of the 
 women not only in their own peculiar sphere, but also in national 
 matters, which it is well known they oltentimes exert. The wife is 
 usually bought with horses, of her father — no ceremony that we are 
 aware of being performed ; and if upon trial she does not like her 
 husband, she leaves him, and there the matter ends. Polygamy is 
 
 practised by all who can afford to »" stain mfire t.ban onp wiffi ! but. t.bft 
 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 295 
 
 women do not necessarily inhabit the same hut, or even live in the 
 same neighborhood. Property does not descend from father to son, 
 but goes to the nephew of the decedent, or, in default of a ne|)hew, to 
 the niece ; so that the father may be rich, and upon his death his 
 children become beggars; but if, while living, he distributes his prop- 
 erty to his children, that disposition is recognised. 
 
 Captives taken in their forays are usually treated kindly. Those 
 who have been some years among them, for the most part prefer re- 
 maining rather than join their own kindred. Those who do leave 
 them are generally such as doubtless have been punished for their 
 own misdeeds, and are such, judging from what we have seen, as 
 would be a nuisance to any community, however savage — surpassingly 
 idle, lazy, and vicious. 
 
 Hospitality exists among these Indians to a great extent, all being 
 said to share whatever food they may have with any one who visits 
 them. Nor are these people cruel, in the usual acceptation of the word 
 as applied to barbarous nations. They are treacherous ; they will 
 steal, and will not hesitate to kill, when by so doing their pur- 
 poses are more easily accomplished ; but they are not prone to murder 
 for the mere love of taking life. 
 
 They have frequent gatherings for dancing, and are fond of games 
 «f skill, and of chance — the latter being more in vogue than the former, 
 as they are greatly addicted to gambling, often risking everything 
 upon the issue of a single game. One game is played somewhat on 
 the principle of gambling with dice. Their singing is but a succes- 
 sion of grunts, and is anything but agreeable. 
 
 In speaking of these people we have been compelled to differ in 
 many respects from what has been written concerning their man- 
 ners and customs, and mode of life. A character has been given 
 them (Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. 2) 
 that would do honor to a civilized and christianized community lor 
 industry, morals, and intelligence. We hazard nothing in the asser- 
 tion that they are neither an industrious, moral, ndr a civilized peo- 
 ple. In the whole nation one or two may be found who are reliable 
 men, considering they are Navajo Indians, who would not falsify 
 merely for the sake of falsifying, or steal for the love of stealing ; but 
 we would not advise any one to place confidence in even the best of 
 these people, lest he should find himself leaning on a reed easily 
 broken. 
 
 The lack of traditions is a source of surprise. They have no knowl- 
 edge of their origin, or of the history of the tribe. If they are a branch 
 of the race of people who attained such a high degree of civilization in 
 Mexico, they have greatly degenerated, and would scarcely be recog- 
 nised by their more polished brethren. Upon this head all is in- 
 volved in obscurity and doubt, though there is no want of fanciful 
 speculation. Kesemblances have been found, where, upon more care- 
 ful inquiry, it is impossible to find the faintest trace ; old dilapidated 
 buildings, evidently of Spanish origin, have been searched throughout 
 their length, breadth, and height, for vestiges of a by-gone race. 
 Pieces of broken pottery have been closely scrutinized, wisely pondered 
 
296 TENTH ANNUAL EEFORT Of 
 
 over, and carefully figured in toolss as relics of a past age and 
 a civilized people ; samples of which, in no way different, may at 
 any time be obtained by breaking a " tinaja," which can be procured 
 from any pueblo for half a dollar. The ardent and laudable de- 
 sire shown to trace the origin, divisions, and resting-places of this 
 people, have, we think, taken a wrong direction, and that their 
 language alone can be of service in tracing them, if they can be traced 
 at all. It is impossible to learn anything from the people themselves, 
 as they have no traditions. A volume of no mean size might be writ- 
 ten, were all the stories of interpreters taken for truth ; but it would 
 be found one mass of contradictions, and of no value v/hatever. If ever 
 these people possessed the art of making pottery they have lost it, for 
 they certainly make none now^'f^They cultivate no cotton, neither do 
 they produce any fabrics of that material, nor do they make any feather- 
 work. Though we have had an abundant opportunity, we have never 
 seen anything approaching, in the slightest degree, the description of 
 the featber-work of the ancient inhabitants of Mexico. Almost all 
 the arts they possess, and which are very few, may be accounted for 
 by the occupation of New Mexico by the Spaniards. With minds filled 
 with one a'teorbing idea — that of discovering the stopping-places of the 
 renowned race found by the conquerors in the valley of Tenochtitlan — 
 this country has been hurriedly traversed, and old buildings have been 
 restored in drawings by enthusiastic imaginations, and filled with the 
 ancestors of these people. A unity of origin of different races has been 
 deduced from manners and customs that are common to humanity. 
 
 We have ventured to suggest, that the language must be studied to 
 discover a common origin, if such ever existed. To trace it in their 
 habits, or in their arts and customs, or by catechising Indians, is, we 
 think, entirely out of the question. It is a matter of no great diffi- 
 culty to learn from intelligent Pueblo Indians that one day they ex- 
 pect to see Montezuma ; that they worship him, and keep fires con- 
 stantly burning to await his coming. Indians are proverbially shrewd 
 in these things, and unless questions are put with extraordinary tact, 
 they are keen enough to see what answers would be well received, and 
 answer accordingly. As well might -the origin of the tribes in New 
 Mexico, because some of them keep a constant fire, (upon which so 
 much stress is placed,) be ascribed to the inhabitants of ancient Persia 
 or of Eome, as to any other. It has been no uncommon custom among 
 nations in different periods of the world's history to kindle sacred fires ; 
 BO that we think little reliance can be placed upon this coincidence ; 
 and we believe just as little can be placed in the stateme^nts of the 
 comings and goings and miraculous interpositions of Montezuma. 
 The so-called hieroglyphics are equally unsatisfactory. Many of the 
 pictures (which are very rude) were evidently drawn for mere pastime, 
 and with reference to past, present, or future events, have no signifi- 
 cance whatever. The figures drawn upon pottery are oaly the result 
 of a rude taste common to uncultivated people. Those sketched upon 
 rocks are of a similar character; some, however, seem to have been 
 engraven for the purpose of giving a visible embodiment to the lech- 
 erous imaginings of an unciviiiz.ed people^ whose incliaations. in many 
 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 297 
 
 respects would be disgraceful to tlie brute creation. These remarks, 
 however, apply more especially to the Pueblo Indians in the vicinity 
 of the Navajo country, the Navajoes themselves having, as we have 
 remarked, no traditions, make no pottery, nor do they keep any sacred 
 fires burning. 
 
 A new country and a new people are apt to excite the imagination 
 of those who see them for the first time. Especially is this the case 
 in the present instance. This country, which was long a terra incog- 
 nita, has been pointed out as the probable temporary abode of the 
 celebrated people found by the Spaniards in the valley of Mexico, 
 while everything relating to them is interesting on account of the 
 obscurity which envelopes their origin. 
 
 Note. — It affords me much pleasure to acknowledge my obligations to Major Kendrick, 
 of tlie army, for information in reference to this country and these people ; and espe- 
 dally as the value of his information is equalled only by his willingness and his kindness 
 in imparting it. 
 
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