Vis ^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THE CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION ON CHINA AND THE CHINESE JAPAN IN THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY COMPILED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE Cornell University Library DS 882.U58 Japan in the beginnina of the twentieth 3 1924 023 438 587 LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1904 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023438587 IF'refsic©. The development which Japan has made in all spheres of public activity during the period of only a few decades that have elapsed since she gave up the policy of exclusion is a matter which has secured the acknowledgment of the world. However the knowledge which the same world possesses about things Japanese is at best superficial, partly because Japan is a new member, comparatively speaking, in the family of nations, but chiefly because reliable pub- lications specially compiled for foreign readers and giving a succinct account of the economic and other affairs of Japan have not existed. It was in consideration of this fact that our authorities decided when they made an arrangement to participate in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition to compile some publication calculated to satisfy, at least relatively, this long-felt desideratum. In May of last year the work of compilation was at once started at all the offices of the Department and at the same time the other Departments of State were asked to furnish material relating to their respective provinces. The result of these compilations is embodied in the present publica- tion. It is very much to be regretted that lack of sufficient time has to a considerable extent prevented the compilation from being made in a more satisfactory manner, has caused redundancies in some chapters and omissions in others, has prevented the work, in short, from being as well proportioned and as carefully written as it might otherwise have been. The difficulties experienced by the translators and the printers were for the same reason, — lack of time, — very great. Under these circumstances it was impossible to bring the compilation up to the level of excellence to which I had intend- ed to bring it at first ; but I hope that I shall have an opportunity at some time in the near future, to revise a work in which I flatter jnyself that I have at any rate succeeded in making a beginning, after which subsequent work of emendation and augmentation will be comparatively easy. May, 1904. HARUKI YAMAWAKI, Secretary of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, and Japanese Commissioner for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition- UC). s^-'^^Kj. .-/"- Con.terLts. PAUT 1. INTRODUCTORY. Chapter I.— Geography. page. Position I Area and Administrative Divisions 7 Geographical Formation 13 Geological Formation 39 Climate 40 Chapter n.— Population. History 47 Number 49 Density 51 Urban and Rural Population — S3 Increase 54 Household $6 Social Divisions 57 The Sexes , ... 5^ Classification as to Age 60 Marriage 61 Birth-rate _ ... 63 Death-rate 63 Normal Increase ■■- 65 Emigration 67 Chapter m.— AdministratiTe System. Rights of Sovereignty 71 Legislature land Legislative Organs 73 Executive and E-xecDtive Organs 76 Justice and' Judicial 'Organs (with paragraphs on Codes) 81 Chapter IV.— Land as an Institution. History... ., 84 Classification 84 Burdens 85 Ownersliip. ,,., ... 86 CONTENTS. PART II. PRIMARY INDUSTRIES. Section T.— Agriculture- Chapter I.— Introductory. ^^°*- Position of Agriculture in Natural Polity .-. 88 Features of Japanese Agriculture 88 Free-Holders and Tenant-Farmers 89 Chapter n.— Factors of Tillage. Climate 9* Land • • ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 94 Capital • *°S Labor •«• ••" ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• "3 Chapter III.— Agricultui al Products. Introductory "7 Food-Stuflfe 121 Products of Special Use 12S Horticultural Products IS** Chapter IV.— Sericulture. History 133 Present Condition 137 Egg-Cards 142 Filature 14S Chapter V. Tea Manufacturing. History ... 151 Present Condition of the Industry 155 Kind of Tea 156 Market 157 Chapter VI.- Institutions for Encouraging Agricul ure. Agricultural Experiment Stations 159 Agricultural Institutions 169 Ambulant Lecturers on Agriculture 170 Sericulture Institutes 170 Silk Conditioning House 173 Imperial Establishment of Tea Industry 174 Animal Epidemic Laboratory 175 State Cattle Breeding-Farms 176 State Horse Studs and Depots 179 CONTENTS. iii Chapter Vn.— Stock-Breeding. page. History of Existing Condition 184 Kind of Breed and Number of Live-Stock 190 Register I9S Slaughter 196 Disease of Domestic Beasts 19^ Veterinary Surgeons 19S Use of Live-stock 199 Dairy-Farming and Meat-Preserving 199 Chapter VIII.— Poultry. History and Existing Condition 20t Breeds and Number 201 Eggs 202 Chapter IX.— Bee Keeping 203 Chapter X.— Farmer's Subsidiary Works 204 Chapter XI.— Agricultural Products in Commerce. Exports ; zoj Imports 207 Chapter XII.— Agricultural Legislation. Provisions Relating to Protection and Encouragement 211 Provisions Relating to Calamity 3lS Section II.— Fore try- Introductory 224 Area and Ownership of the Forests 225 Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions 233 Adjustment of the Forests 250 Exploitation and Treatment of Forests 257 Forest-planting and Transport 267 Wood-produce 267 Official Supervision of the Forests 282 Education , 284 Legislative Measures 287 Sec'ioa m.-Uining and M tallurgy. Introductory 2S9 Geological Formation and Mineral Deposits 290 Mining and Metallurgy 302 Condition of Mine- Workers 307 Mining Legislation 3H Statistics relating to the Mining Industry 320 CONTENTS. Section IV. -Fishery. page. introductorj' 3^9 Fishing-Grounds 33° Fishery and Fishery Industry 332 Distribution of the principal Fish, etc 337 Financial Standing of the Fishermen 344 Aquiculture 349 Salt-ReHning 35' Markets 353 Fishery Legislature 375 PART irr. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. Chapter I.— General Manufactuting Industry. History 381 Administration 384 Legislative Measures 385 Principal Exports of Manufacturing Goods 386 Principal Imports of Industrial Goods 391 Output of principal Manufacturing Goods 396 Chapter! I^. III.— Organisation of Uannfactnring Industry. Manufacturing Establishments 399 Factories and Workpeople 403 Chapter IV.— Manufacturing Establishments by the Cential and Local Governments. Encouragement and Protection by Central Government 414 Encouragement and Protection by Local Offices 417 Chapter V.— Industrial Education. History 4ig Existing Condition ^i^ Apprentice System 420 Chapter VI.— Manufacturing Corporations. ~. 422 Chapter VII.— Technical Associations 423 Appendix 424 Chap er VIII.— Protection of Industrial Property. Introductory 43^ History relating to Protection of Patents, Designs, and Trade-Marks 435 Protection of Foreign Patents, Designs, and Trade-Marks 436 ■ Resume of Existing Regulations ^^» Provisions that specially concern Foreigners ^o Statistics of Japanese and Foreign Patents, Designs, and Trade-Marks ... 442 CONTENTS. PART ir. FOREIGN TRADE. PAGE. tJhapter I.— Tariff. 44S ■Chapter 11.— Development of Foreign Trade 448 Chapter III.— Distribution of Trade 45' Chapter IV.— Principal Exports 458 •Chapter V.— Principal Imports 464 Chapter VI.— Provisions for Encouraging Foreign Trade 473 FART F. FINANCES. <3hapter I.— Finances. Central Finances. 481 Local Finances ••• 508 Chaptar II.— Loans. National Loans » 517 Local Loans -■■ ... 535 Chapter III.— Currency System. Existing System and its History 538 Effect of Coinage System on the Finance and Economy of the Country... 543 Chapter IV.— The Condition of the Money Market. Introductory 554 History and Existing Condition 554 I Prices of Commodities 5^4 Wages 567 Quotation of Stocks and Shares -■■ 569 Chapter V.— Banks. History 57? Banks 580 Chapter VI.— Clearing Houses. Introductory 60S Various Clearing Houses 607 Tables for Reference 609 CONTENTS. PART rr. ARMY AND THE NAVY. caiapter I.— Army. page. Introductory "• 6l^ Distributions of the Standing Army 620 The Personnel on Peace Standing 621 Factories 621 Appointments of Officers 622 The Complement of Non-Commissioned Officers 624. Recruiting of Privates 625 Education 627 Punishment and Gaols 629- Medical Affairs 630 Chapter II.-The Navy. Introductory 632 Personnel on Peace Standing — 634 Naval Works 634 Complement of the Personnel 635. The List of the Imperial Fleet 637 Education ••• 642 Punishment 642 Health and Hygiene ^ 642 Hydrography and Chart 643 The Red Cross Society of Japan 64^ PART VII. COMMUNICATIONS. Post and Telegraph. €hap'er I.— Post. Introductory 64^ Official Organization (,^^ Transmission and Delivery 655 Kinds and Fees of Mail Matter gjy Foreign Mail and Parcel Post 661 Receipts and Disbursements 665 Chapter II.— Postal Monej Orders. Domestic Service 668: Foreign Service 669. Receipts and Disbursements 671 CONTENTS. Chapter III— Postal Saving Banks Chapter IV.— Telegraph. Domestic Telegraph Organization of the Service Foreign Telegraph Telegraphic Construction Telegraphic Apparatus and Materials Chapter V.— Telephone Service. Introductory Technical Matters Chapter VI.— Tne Personnel. How the Staff is Recruited TJSANSPOR TA TION. Chapter I.— Railroads. Official Organization Legislative Measures Railroad Lines Rolling Stock Capital Volume of Traffic Receipts and Disbursements Chapter II.— Ships and Shipping Business. Ships Shipbuilding Sailors Life-Boat Business »• — ... Protection to Navigation Nautical Signals Open Forts PAGE. .. 672 ,.. 678 ... 68i ... 684 ... 687 ... 694 ... 697 ... 702 704 70s 707 710 711 714 718 723 729 733 736 737 740 741 PART VIII. Introductory General Education ... Higher Education ... Technical Education... Libraries EDUCATION. ... 742 ... 746 ••• 7SS ... 762 ... 771 CONTENTS. aVPFLEMEXT. FORMOSA. Introductory Agriculture , Fishery Forestry Mining ... Trade ... Finance Communications . Education, Hygiene and Religion FAGV. ... 772- ... 789 .. 797 ... 799 .. 802 .. 803 ... 809 .. 819 .. 82i JAPAN IN THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY. PART I INTRODUCTORY. CHAPTER L— Geography. Position — Area and Administrative Divisions— Geographical Formation — Geological Formation— -jClimate. I. POSITION. THE TERRITORIES OF JAPAN.— In the north-western cor- ner of the Pacific Ocean and close to the eastern coast of the continent of Asia a chain of islands stretches in an oblique line from north- east to south-west, from the vicinity of the Philippines to the south- ern extremity of the peninsula of Kamchatka, in Russian Siberia. These countless islands large and small constitute the Empire of Japan. To be more precise, the territories of the Empire consist of five large islands and about six hundred smaller ones. Our most southerly degree of latitude is 21° 48' N. at the northern ex- tremity of the island of Formosa, and our most northerly degree of latitude is 50° 56' at the northern extremity of Araito island, Shim- shu district, Chishima province (the Kuriles) ; while, as regards longi- tude, the position of " Flower Island," the most westerly of the Pesca- dores, corresponding to 119° 20' E. Greenwich, is the limit of our Empire on the west ; and the position of Shumshu island, Shumshu district, Chishima province corresponding to 156° 32' E. Green- wich, is the eastern limit of Japanese territories. In latitude, there- 2 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. fore, Japan extends 29 degrees 8 minutes, and in longitude 37 degreea 12 minutes. As the greatest length of each island is, however, gene- rally from south-west to north-east, and as the breadth from east to west is comparatively less, and furthermore, as the whole series of islands from Formosa in the south to Chishima in the north runs from south-west to north-east almost in one continuous line, Japan contains a smaller extent of land than one would expect from the enormous distance separating its northern from its southern extremity. The five large islands mentioned above are Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Hokkaido and Formosa; then follow as to size the five islands of Sado, Oki, Iki, Tsushima, Awaji and the Pescadores (which m-e, however, a group of islands), and finally of the three archi- pelagoes of Chishima, Ogasawara (the Bonin Islands) and Okinawa (the Luchu). Of the above islands Honshu is the broadest. In shape it somewhat resembles the figure of a fabulous dragon with its head erect. Honshu. — Honshu is bounded on the north by the Pacific Ocean, while on the north-west it looks across the Sea of Japan towards the Korean peninsula and the eastern coast of Siberia. But for the in- tervening Inland Sea it would embrace within the curve of its south- ern extremity the island of Shikoku. As for the lesser islands of Honshu, there are in the Sea of Japan the two islands of Sado and Oki, and in the Pacific Ocean the Ogasawara archipelago which form, in a sense, the southernmost extremity of Hon- shu. In the famous Inland Sea, off" the western coast of the pro- -vinces of Kii and Izumi lies the island of Awaji, covering an area of 36 square n, and forming as it were a connecting link .between Honshu and Shikoku. Shikoku.— Shikoku is the smallest of the five great islands. Its north-eastern coast faces, across the Inland Sea, the provinces of Kii Izumi, and the southern coast of the Sanyo-do route. The island is washed on the south by the Pacific Ocean and is separated at its northern extremity by the Strait of Bungo from the provinces of Buzen and Bungo on the eastern coast of Kyushu. Kyushu.— Kyushu lies to the west of Honshu and Shikoku and is a large island measuring more from north to south than it does from east to west. The two islands of Iki and Tsushima lie to the Position. 3 north of Kyushu and belong to it geographically as well as for administrative purposes. The latter lies opposite the port of Fusan in Korea, from which it is separated by the narrow passage known as the Strait of Korea.. '~ It may be noted that the western part of Kyushu faces the eastern coast of China, though at a greater distance than Tsushima is from the coast of Korea, the intervening seas being the Yellow Sea and the China Sea. Okinawa lies off the southern extremity of the island of Kyushu and runs in a south-westerly direc- tion. The most southerly island in the Okinawa group is Hateruma- jima, whose coast-line runs parallel to the eastern coast of northern Formosa and is situated at 24° 6' N. L. Finally, the western side of the whole archipelago faces the provinces of Chiangsu, Chekiang and Fukien of China, while the eastern side is washed by the waters of the Pacific. Formosa. — Formosa forms the southernmost limit of our terri- tories. It lies due south of the most southern island of the Okinawa archipelago and at no great distance from the northern shore of the island of Luzon, one of the Philippine group, from which it is separated by the Strait of Bashi. The western coast of Formosa faces the province of Fukien, China, and midway between the two lies the Pescadores. The coast is fairly well indented; its prin- cipal harbors are Tansui (Tamsui). Anpei (Anping) and Takao, all of which ports supply shipping facilities between the island and the interior of China. The eastern coast of Formosa is, on the other hand, a magnificent line of precipitous cliSs and affords, therefore, very few, if any, good anchorages. The harbor of Kelung is, it is true, a tolerable port, but it is situated on the northern and not on the eastern coast. The Pescadores group consists of no less than 47 islands, mostly small ; and owing to the naturally advantageous position of the group lying half-way between Formosa and the eastern coast of southern China, it serves as a place of refuge for ships sailing along the coast of Formosa and between that coast and the opposite shores of China. Hokkaido. — Hokkaido, formerly known by the name of Yezo, is a large island situated to the north of Honshu from which it is separated by the Strait of Matsumaye (or Tsugaru, as it is called in some maps). This island is (if we leave out the Kuriles) the north- 4 Japan in the Beginning of the 2()th Century. em limit of our Empire, and its western coast lies opposite the nortli- ern coast of Korea and the eastern coast of Eussian Siberia, while its most northerly point comes close to the southern extremity of the island of Saghalien from which it is only separated by a narrow passage, the Strait of Soya. The coast of Kitami which extend* eastward from Cape Soya to tlie Bay of Nemuro faces the Chishima group and the promontory of Kamchatka and forms, as it were, the southern boundary of the Sea of Okhotsk. The whole south-eastern coast of Hokkaido proper is washed by the Pacific. Chishima is a volcanic group stretching north-easterly in an oblique line from the Bay of Nemuro in which Etrup, the most southerly of the group lies, and terminating near the southern ex- tremity of Kamchatka. The whole chain separates the Sea of Okhotsk from the northern Pacific. GEOGRAPHICAL EELATIOXS OF JAPAN TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES. — To describe briefly the geographical relations of our Empire to foreign countries, we find to the east and on the opposite side of the Pacific Ocean the western shores of the British Dominion of Canada as well as those of the United States of America. The harbor of Yokohama lies almost in a straight line with San Fran- cisco, 4,722 nautical miles distant. Then, to the north-west of Japan and on the other side of the Sea of Japan, lies the vast plain of Eussian Siberia. Vladivostock lies opposite the southern part of Hokkaido, while the northern coast of Korea is saparated by the Sea of Japan from the two main di-^-isions of Honshu, viz., San-in and Hokuriku. The harbor of Fusan which is situated at the southern ex- tremity of the peninsula of Korea lies close to the northern portion of Kyushu; while, opposite the main bulk of Kyushu, lie the pro- vinces of China that are bordering on the Yellow Sea, the Eastern Sea, and the China Sea. Formosa being the most southerly possession of the Empire, forms an important station for the carrying on of our intercourse with the islands in the South Pacific and with Australia. Its econo- mic development has, since its annexation to Japan in 1895, been Posit ton. 6 very striking ; and there are great hopes of an increased advance in the same direction. In regard to geographical position, which naturally bears an important relation to national prosperity, Japan may be said to be advantageously situated, her territoiies extending in the temperate zone from 21° to 50° N. L., and enjoying in consequence a climate excellently suited for industrial pursuits. It was quite in accordance, therefore, with the nature of things that our forefathers should have called the land " Toyo Ashiwara no Mizuho no Kuni " (Land of Plenteous Ears of Eice in the Plain of Luxuriant Reeds). More- over the country is, we heed hardly remark, one of great natural beauty and is inhabited by a people who are universally acknowl- edged to possess a singularly refined taste in all artistic matters and whose great attainments in the arts, pure and applied, have always been admitted on all sides. Japan's Unique Nationality. — Owing to its peculiar geo- graphical position our country constitutes a community distinct in several repects, socially and politically, from the adjacent countries of Asia. The most marked of these distinguishing traits is that Japan has, for more than 2,550 years, been ruled by the same Imperial Family, without a solitary break in the succession, thus offering a strong contrast to China and Korea, where frequent dynastic changes have taken place. Then the great natural valor of the people has guarded like an impregnable wall the coasts of their islands, with the result that never once during these two thousand years and a half has the country been desecrated by foreign aggression. AU these facts have enabled our people to maintain intact their peculiar customs and unique nationality ; but it cannot of course be denied that in culture, in the arts, in political institutions and in other civilizing factors, Japan has, as a natural and invariable result of geographical proximity, learned much from China, Korea, and even Aom India, exactly as in mediaeval Europe England learned much from Prance, England and France much from Italy, and Italy much from Greece and Constantinople. The remark just made of Japan's maintaining intact its peculiar customs and its unique nationality, can hardly be made with strict accuracy to-day, for, owing to the opening up of the country to 6 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. foreign intercourse and commerce a little over 50 years ago, a very extraordinary change has come over this Empire, a change which has affected not only the internal state of the country but its ex- ternal relations as a member of the family of nations as well. It need not be stated here, for the fact in sufficiently well known, how quite recently the intrinsic strength of Japan began to be suddenly recngnized all over the world, and how Japan pushed her way to the front rank in the comity of nations. American Continents. — In fact our country has become a focu* of navigation routes in the Pacific and a great market in the Far East. This is what it should be, for to our east we have Canada, the United States of America, Mexico, and the Pacific coast of South America, with all of which we are engaged, or are about to engage, in active commerce. We build our greatest expectations on the United States of America, which is at present our best customer. The leading harbors on its Pacific sea-board, that is San Francisco and Seattle, together with Vancouver and Victoria of British Colum- bia, are connected with this country by regular steamship lines ; and it is easy to see that Japan's commercial relations with Europe will be altered for the better on the completion of the Panama canal. Asiatic Countries. — Then to our north-west we have, as has been already pointed out, the vast extent of Eussian Siberia, whose great trans-continental railroad, just completed, brings Europe and Japan nearer to each other than ever they were before. Further^ there is Korea which, owing to its proximity, is inviting us to ex- ploit its resources and to stimulate it by the introduction of our industrial and commercial activity. Of course, our commercial rela- tions with China are far more important. We need not point out that this vast empire covers an area of 760,000 square ri and eon- tains about 400 million souls. A near relation of ours, this great empire naturally looks to ut, for help in her endeavors to advance along the path that we have already trodden and to have its vast resources exploited by the money and enterprise of foreign countries. There can be no manner of doubt, therefore, that China's commercial relations with us will become in the future one of far greater im- portance than they are to-day, especially when the comparative proximity of the two lands is taken into consideration, none of the Area and Administrative Divisions. Chinese iarbors being separated from our harbor of Nagasaki hj more than 700 nautical miles. Hongkong, too, though politically forming part of the British dominions, is a place of importance to us in connection with Chinese commerce, serving as it does as an important market for the goods going from Japan to China or vice versa. Indeed it occupies the second place on our list in regard to the volume of commercial transactions. It is separated from Naga- saki by 1,070 miles, while between it and the port of Anplivg, For- mosa, the distance is only 300 mUes. South Pacific. — Lastly, turning our eyes southward, we find Australia with its fertile fields and rich resources, the Philippines, Java, Dutch India, British India and so on promising to estab- lish in the fiiture far more active commercial relations with us than are existing at present. II. AREA AND ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS. AREA. — The whole area of our Empire covers 27,063 square ri, corresponding roughly to the 325th part of the entire land sur- face of the globe and to 107th part of the entire land extent of the continent of Asia. The whole area is distributed as follows among our principal islands. Principal islands. No. of minor islands. Area (sq. ri). Honshu 166X 14,571.12 Hokkaid5 .. 12 5,061.90 Kyushu „ ., 150 2,617.54 Formosa .. 29 2,253.24 ShikoUu .. 74X 1,180.67 dishima (32 islands) •• — 1,033.46 Okinawa (55 islands) .. — 156.91 Sado .. — 56.33 Tsushima .. 5 44.72 Awaji .. I 36.69 Oki ., I 21.89 The Pescadores 47 14-33 Iki .. I 8.63 Ogasawara (20 islands) .. — 4.50 It will thus be seen that, if 100 represents the whole area of the Empire, Honshu occupies 63.84 parts, Hokkaido 18.70, Kyushu 9.67, Formosa 8.33, Shikoku 4.36, Chishima 3.82 and the rest 1.28. ^ Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Comparing our area with that of some other countries, it is found to be 1/30 of the area of Eussian Siberia, 1/26 of that of China, double that of Korea, 1/22 of that ot the United States of America, U of that of the British Isles, about 26/100 less than that of France, and about 29/100 less that of Germany. ADMINISTKATIVE DIVISIONS.— For administrative purposes our country is divided into forty-six prefectures together with Hok- kaido and Formosa, these prefectures being as follows : — Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka (these three being called Fu), Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Ibaragi, Tochigi, Gumma, Nagano, Yamanashi, Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, Shiga, Fukui, Ishikawa, Toyama, Niigata, Fukushima, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita, Iwate, Aomori, Nara, Wakayama, Hyogo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Shimane, Tottori, Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi, Nagasaki, Saga, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, Okinawa (all of which are called Ken). Each Fu or Ken is in turn subdivided into Shi (city or urban district) and Chm (rural district), the latter of which is further subdivided into Cho (town) or Son (village). As the adminis- trative system exists at present, the Shi, Cho and Son constitute the smallest division for administrative purposes forming a self-governing entity, while the Gun and prefectures attend as direct administrative subdivisions of the country to the afi'airs of state, being at the same time allowed some degree of autonomy. In Hokkaido the local ad- ministrative system was inaugurated in 1897 while in Okinawa the administrative and self-governing system of its own was inaugurated in the preceding year. At present there are tliroughout the country (exclusive of Formosa) 638 Gun, 58 Shi (the administrative dis- tricts in Hokkaido and Okinawa included), 1,054 Cho, 13,468 Son (exclusive of those of the seven islands of Izu and Ogasawara). The administrative and other matters pertaining to Formosa will be de- scribed later on under a separate heading. HONSHU. 1 Name of Prefecture. Area. No. of No. of No. of No. of Gun, Shi. CAo. Son. Tokyo-fu 125.80 8 I 20 158 Kanagawa-ken 155.67 II I 22 206 Saitama-ken 265.99 9 42 3SO Chiba-ken 326.15 12 — 66 289 Area and Administrative Divisions. Name of Prefecture. Ibaragi-ken Tochigi-ken Gumma-ken Nagano-ken Yamanashi-ken Shizuoka-ken Aichi-ken Miye-ken Gifu-ken Shiga-ken Fukui-ken Ishikawa-ken Toyama-ken Niigata-ken Fukushima-ken Miyagi-ken Yamagata-ken Akita-ken I-wate-ken Aomori-ken Ky5to-fu Osaka-fu Nara-ken Wakayama-ken Hyogo-ken Okayama-ken Hiroshima-ken Yamaguchi-ken Shimane-ken Tottori-ken Area. No. of No of No. of No. of Gun. S/i i. Cho. Son. 385-18 14 I 44 336 411.77 8 I 29 146 407-25 II 2 36 171 853-76 16 I 21 372 289.85 9 I 6 241 503-82 13 I 35 307 312-78 19 I 68 602 368.55 IS 2 19 325 671-45 18 I 39 305 258-44 12 I 7 195 272.40 II I 9 171 270.72 8 I 15 260 266.41 8 2 31 239 824.59 16 I 54 762 846.07 17 I 31 389 540.79 16 I 27 176 600.15 II 2 24 205 75400 9 I 31 208 899.19 13 I 22 218 607.03 8 2 7 161 296-55 18 I 18 263 115.72 9 2 II 293 201.42 10 I 18 142 310.62 7 I 14 217 556-68 25 2 29 402 420.98 19 I 20 427 520.78 16 2 27 422 389-99 11 I 5 226 435-82 16 I 12 321 224.16 6 I 7 228 Total 14,690.53 429 40 866 9,733 SHIKOKU. Tokushima-ken 271.28 10 I n 137 Kagawa-ken 113.50 7 2 II 169 Ehime-ken 341.17 12 I 16 285 Kochi-ken 454.72 7 I II 186 Total 1,180.67 36 40 777 10 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. KYUSHU. ^- - „ /■ . , No. of No. of No. of No. of Name of Prefecture. Area. ^^^ ^^; C/i5. Son. Nagasaki-ken 335-15 9 I '5 ^88 Saga-ken 160.08 8 i 7 '27 Fukuoka-ken 3I7-8I 19 4 37 344 Kumamoto-ken 465-47 12 I 29 338 Oita-ken 402-73 12 — 25 256 Miyazaki-ken 487-34 8 — 7 93 KagoshintJ-ken 602.31 12 I — 380 Total 2,670.89 80 8 120 1,826 Okinawa-ken 156.91 52 — 563 Hokkaido 6,095.36 88 3 28 569 Formosa 2,267.57 — — — — Grand Total 27,061.93 638 58 1,054 13,468 OLD ADMESrtSTRi^lTIVE DIVLSIONS.— The present divisions are traceable to the first administrative divisions marked out by the Imperial Government in July, 1871. After the surrender of the Regency by the Tokugawa Shogunate in the year 1867 and the reinstatement of the Imperial Government, the local administrative system was established by subdividing the country into the three main divisions of Fu, Han, and Ken, with Fu-Chiji (Governor of Fu) Ken-CIdji (Governor of Ken), or Han-shu (Governor of Han) placed over these divisions respectively. At that time, therefore, the local administration was conducted in conformity with the former Han (or feudal) administrative system. It was in 1872 that the system was completely reorganized, though even then the country was subdivided into as many as 1 Do (colonial organization), 8 Fu and 302 Ken. Similar amalgamations and separations have frequent- ly been carried out subsequently, till at last the existing local system has been evolved Apart from the present administrative subdivisions there survives from former times another system of local subdivisions of historical importance. These divisions are the Do (or routes) and 85 Kuni (or provinces). In tracing up the development of this particular system, it is found to have originated in the subjugation of the country by the first Emperor Jimmu, who established a feudal Area and Administrative Divisions. II system and placed in important districts followers of his own who had distinguished themselves, conferring upon them the official title of Kuni-no-Miyalsuho or Agata-nushi. It will thus be seen that the local subdivisions of provinces were at first of political origin. The subsequent Emperors followed the example set by their ancestor, and marked out the subdivisions of Kuni and Agata with a Kuni-tsuko appointed over each of them. All these subdivisions were deter- mined by geographical considerations. It was however after the great change carried out by the Emperor Temmu (673-685 A.D.) that the names of Kinai and 7 Do were first fixed upon, while, again, between 717 A.D. of the reign of tlie Empress Gensei (715-723) and the Tencho era (824-833) of the Emperor Junna (824-833) the small subdivisions of Kuni and Gun were first deter- mined upon. According to the system then elaborated, the whole country was subdivided into Kinai and 8 Do and 68 provinces, with the island of Yezo as a sort of outlying territory. The Do com- prised Nankaido, Tokaido, Hokuriku-do, Tosan-do, Sanyo-do, San-in- do, and Saikai-do (or Kyushu). Kinai was, properly speaking, also one of these Do, but this special designation was given to it in view of the fact that the five provinces of Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi, and Settsu which constituted Kinai were situated j'ound the then capital of the country. Nankai-do comprised Kii, Awaji, Awa, Sanuki, lyo and Tosa (the latter four of which constitute Shikoku). A stretch of land lying on the east of Kinai and extending along the eastern coast of Honshu was called Tokai-do. It comprised Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari, Mikawa, Totomi, Suruga, Kai, Izu, Sagami, Musashi, Awa, Kazusa, , Shimosa, and Hitachi, 15 provinces in all. Hokuriku-do was a stretch of land lying along the Sea of Japan and situated to the north of the central portion of Honshu. It con- sisted of the seven provinces of Wakasa, Echizen, Kaga, Noto, Etchu, Echigo, and Sado. Tosan-do lay between Tokai-do and Hoku- riku-ko and extend northward along the centre of Honshu till it reached its northern extremity, the eight provinces of Orai, Mino, Hida, Shinano, Kozuke, Shimozuke and Mutsu composing it. Sanyo- do was the southern strip of land of Honshu to the west of Kinai and lying along the Inland Sea. It comprised the eight provinces of Harima, Mimasaku, Bizeu, Bitchu, Bingo, Aki, Suwo and Nagato. 12 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, San-in-dS was situated at the back of Sanyo-do, facing the Sea of Japan and contained Tamba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Hoki, Izumo, Iwami and Oki. Lastly Saikaido contained Chikuzen, Chikugo, Buzen, Bungo, Hizen, Higo, Hyuga, Osuini, Satsuma, and the two outlying islands of Iki and Tsushima. The island of Yezo now Hok- kaido before it was subdivided into provinces subsequent to the Kestoration, was known by the collective name of Yezo. ^ Although, as described above, our original local subdivisions owe their existence to considerations of administrative convenience, they lost much of this original significance subsequent to the period of the ascendency of the Genji and Heikfi clans, when the real power of the country passed into the hands of the military classes and feudalism gradually came into existence. The powerful clans began to set themselves up in various parts of the country and while some absorbed several provinces, each of the minor clans had to content itself with holding only a part of one province. Important changes ensued in the local arrangements on the advent of the rehabilitated Imperial Government. In the year 1868 the province of Mutsu was split up into Iwaki, Iwashiro, RLkuzen and Rikuchu, and the province of Dewa into Uzen and Ugo. Fur- ther, in 1869, the name Yezo was superseded by that of Hokkaido and the island thus designated was subdivided into the 11 provinces of Oshima, Shiribeshi, Iburi, Ishikari, Teshiwo, Hidaka, Tokaehi, Kushiro, Nemuro, Kitami and Chishima. Hokkaido was further subdivided into 86 Gun, and an "Imperial Colonization Commis- sion " (Kaitakushi) was despatched to take charge of the administra^ tion of the island. In the year 1872 the Okinawa group was given a collective designation, being called the Province of Luchu, and joined to Nan- kai-do. In 1875 Saghalien was, as the result of a treaty with Russia, exchanged for the Etrup group which was annexed to Chishima. It will thus be seen that according to this special system of local subdivisions the country at present comprises 1 Kinai and 8 Do, with 35 provinces. However this classification no longer pos- sesses any of the political importance which once attached to it, but it is still in vogue, side by side with the existing administrative Geographical Formation. 13 Bystem. Being the oldest system of this description, it is of some archaeological interest as it also serves more or less as indicating a natural and geographical boundary for the manners and customs of the different places. III. GEOGRAPHICAL FORMATION. MOUNTAIN RANGES.— Japan is on the whole mountainous, extensive plains being comparatively rare. Owing to the mildness of the climate and the abundance of the rainfall, forests are found everywhere throughout the land, feeding the headwaters of rivers, which in turn intersect the country in almost every direction and serve as means of irrigation as well as highways for transportation. Our country also lies along one of the world's most noted volcanic routes, and the volcanic cones that stand in almost every part tend very much to add to the diversity of the natural scenery and to heighten by contrast the natural beauty of the country, however destructive they may be at times. FoEMATioN OP THE RANGES. — The mountain ranges of Japan may be classified into two main divisions, namely Paleozoic and volcanic. These two kinds of ranges intersect each other in many places and generally extend along the central portion of the land, dividing it therefore into two sections and also forming its watershed. The mountain ranges may by their general formation be divided into two great systems, the northern and the southern. The former extending from north to south, is known by the name Two Great of the Saghalien system, as it starts from the Russian Systems. island of Saghalien. It passes into our territory at Hokkaido, where it branches out into several subsidiary ranges. It then takes a south-westerly course, and enters Honshu by the northern coast. In the central portion of Saghalien Honshu it spreads out into several high ranges. It is System. here thiat the Saghalien system encounters the Kunglung system coming from the south. The Kuliglung system, otherwise called the Chinese system. 14 Japan in the Beginning of the 20r is caused by the coming to the south-east of a current of air caused by the high pressure in northern Asia and the lower pressure exisiting in the Pacific. On the other hand the prevalence of the southerly wind in summer is the effect of the monsoon which originates in the China Sea and the Indian Ocean to neutralize the low pressure caused in summer on the con- tinent. This wind, which bears moisture from the sea, causes rain as it reaches the land, and the heavy rain in the month of June is the effect of this wind. The coming of a cold wind from the north-west in winter from Korea and Siberia has already been referred to, and the effect of this wind is most severely felt along the shores of Uzea and Ugo and -the Hokuriku route which all lie in the direct path of the wind. About the month of August or September, when the monsoon is about to die away to be superseded by a colder wind, storms very frequently occur, taking the form of what are generally called typhoons. The storms that occur in Japan may be divided into four kinds, according to their places of origin. One originates to the east of the Philippines or in the China Sea and reaches Storms. Honshu via the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea and Korea. The second, also originating to the east of the Philippines, reaches Kyushu via the Eastern Sea, but without entering the China Sea. Then at times the storms come direct from. the vicinity of the Philippines to the southern districts of .Japan, Avhile another kind of storm comes from soutliern Siberia, to sweep across Hokkaido. The second and third kinds are the most comnioa and also the severest. Climate, 45 These storms often attain a velocity of 17 miles an hour and, as they reach 32° N. L. and rage not unfrequently for over 48- hours at a time, they inflict severe damage on crops and property. As the storms occur generally in the flowering season of the earlier or later varieties of rice, the " 2l0th day " or the " 220th day " from the beginning of spring according to the lunar calender, it not infrequently happens that the crop is seriously aifected. In general the -winds in Japan are stronger in spring and. winter and weaker in the other seasons. HUMIDITY. — Surrounded as it is by the sea, the degree oj humidity is higher in Japan than in continental countries. The average record is 60/100 on an average. The atmosphere along the coast of Hokkaido contains a larger quantity of moisture than that in any other part of the country. In the vicinity of Cape Erimo the yearly average is 87, while it reaches as high as 95 in July. On the other hand the interior of the island is un- usually dry. In Honshu the districts facing the Sea of Japan,, that is Uzen and Ugo and Hokuriku, have the highest record, the year's average being over 80. Formosa too has a similarly high record, not falling below 80° all the year round. In the Pescadores even 89 is reached in June. On the other hand the districts bordering on the Inland Sea, both in Honshu and Shikoku, have the lowest record, which often falls below 60. EAINFALLS. — Owing to the prevalence of moist winds coming from the sea and the existence of mountain ranges to condense that moisture, the rain-gauge records in Japan a height far above the average in other places. In Honshu the districts bordering on the Sea of Japan have the highest record which generally exceeds 2,000 mm. in a year, while Kanazawa has as much as 2,500. The north-eastern shore of Kii, Kochi in Shikoku, Miyazaki and Kagoshima in Kyushu, also have a high record. But Oshima in Kagoshima has the highest record, reaching as much as 3,300 mm. in a year. On the other hand Soya in Hokkaido has a rainfall of only 700 to 800 in a year, both on account of its latitude and of the- comparative scarcity of evaporation from the sea. The diatricts- 46 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. bordering on the Inland Sea have also the lowest record, owing to the fact that the moisture coming both from the Pacific and the Sea of Japan is intercepted by the ranges of Shikoku on the one hand and by those running across the boundary between Sanyo and San-in on the other. In general the rainiest season in Japan is, as already mention- ed, the month of June. However this heavy rainfall at this particular season is very important for the cultivation of rice, this being this period of planting. The fall of snow is heaviest in the Hokuriku districts, where even along the shores it is 3 to 4 shaku deep, while in the recesses of the hills the accumulations exceed even 10 or 20 sliaku in depth. In Shikoku and Kyushu snowfalls occur very rarely, and in the Pacific coast districts of Honshu they are also very rare. In Tokyo snow does not fall more than four or five times in a year, and does not exceed 5 or 6 sun in depth. History Relating to Census Returm. 47 CHAPTER n— Population. History— Number— Density— Urban and Rural Population- Increase of Urban and Rural Population- Households- Social Divisions — The Sexes — Classification as to Age- Marriages — Birth-rate — Death-rate — Normal Increase- Emigration, I. HISTORY RELATING TO CENSUS RETURNS. BEFORE THE RESTORATION.— Census returns were made in Japan from ancient times, as it is recorded in authentic records that in the 12th year of the reign of the Emperor Sujin (86 B.C.) an Imperial Rescript was issued ordering the compilation of census returns with the object of levying taxes in kind and imposing labor for public service. Similar returns were alsvJ made during the reigns of the Emperors Yilryaku, Seinei, Kenso, and Kinmei (457-571 A. D.). It was, h )wever, in the time of the Emperor Kotoku (645-654 A. D.) that the census business was first ar- First ranged in a systematic manner. This Emperor ordered in Census, the year 645 A. D. that regular census registers should be compiled, and that the compilation should be renewed in future every six years. This six year method was also provided in the Taiho code of laws, so called because the first systematic codification of laws was undertaken in the era of Taiho (701-703 A. D.). At any rate it was evidently during the reign of the Emperor Kotoku that the census returns were for the first time regularly compiled. It is to be regretted that, owing to the remote- nsss of the period in question, no further particulars can be obtained about the returns of that time. The returns compiled during the reign of the Empress Shotoku (724-748 A. D.) by the priest Gyoki in the course of his extended tour throughout the country and also thcie made b.y the prieit Shuzen during the Eikaa era (983-984 A. D.) of the Emperor Enyu, are also ioat, for whatever record 48 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. remains of those compilations give only meagre information on tlie entire population of the country at these two periods. Even when the returns were entire they could at best give barely the ap- proximate number of the inhabitants, inasmuch as that number was roughly calculated, evidently, from the number of village.^, families, and adults whose services were available for public work- With the advent of the Tokugawa Regency and especially after peace and order had been perfectly restored and social institutions became properly arranged, the Eegency, actuated by Censns during various considerations financial and otherwise, began the Tokugawa . ■ ii, -t e • Regency perceive the necessity oi inaugurating a proper system of census returns. The consequence was the issue of an order at various times ordering the compilation of census returns for the whole country. The returns took several difierent shapes, such as returns on arable land, returns on religion, and re- turns on personal identification. The returns made in the year 1744 A. D. put the entire population at 26,152,450. The figures fell to 25,917,830 in the returns compiled seven years later. The figures made out in 1751 were 26,061,830, while those in 1828 were over 27,200,000. AFTER THE RESTORATION.— With the rehabilitation of the Imperial regime the work of compiling census returns was placed under the control of the ci-devant Department of Civil Affairs which attended to it with greater precision and energy, as may be seen in the following preamble of Notification No. 170 Census Noti- issued in April of 1871 by the then Dajokan, now flcation. corresponding to the Cabinet, by which notification thirty three rules were provided for making census returns. The preamble stated : — " It is of the utmost importance in the administration aflTairs of a country to keep accurate account of the number of its families and individuals, for, unless this number is accurately known, the state can hardly attend to its primary duty of extending protection to its subjects. The subjects will also, on their part, enjoy peace and prosperity and can pursue their busi- ness unmolested only when they are under the protection of their government, so that should it ever happen that their domicile is absent from the official record, owing either to their own negligence Number of Population. 4^ or evasion or &oin an oversight on the part of the government officials, those people will be practically non-existent in the eyes of the government and will therefore be excluded from the enjoy- ment of the protection universally extended by the government to its people. "* ,,> " Lack of uniformity in the local administration from about the time of the Middle Ages has, among other irregularities for which it is accountable, reduced the business of keeping personal register to a state of disorder ; people were allowed to remove their abodes without giving notice to the authorities, and even to evade with impunity the duty of registering themselves in the census re- cord. Accustomed for ages to these irregular practices, people are prone to regard the duty of registration with perfect indifference. It was in view of this circumstance that the rules of keeping census records throughout the country have now been provided, and that the local authorities and the people are hereby enjoined to duly re- gard the points herein set forth and to carefully attend to them." The Government of the time drew, in that way, the attention both of the local authorities and of the people to the great import ance of the census, and warned them against faults of omission and commission in the entries of the census registers. With the abolition in that year of the Department of Civil Affairs, the census business was transferred to the Census Record Bureau of the Department of Finance, to be, again Control of Cen- transferred in January of 1874 to the control of the BUS Business. Home Office which subsequently took charge of personal registration as well as of census-taking, till in 1898, when the Law of Personal Registration was put in force, all matters relating to registration were entrusted to the Department of Justice and those connected with census-taking to the Statistical Bureau of the Cabinet. U. NUMBER OF POPULATION. PROGRESS DURING THE 28 YEARS (1872-1899).— In surveying the movement of the population in Japan during the 28 years beginning with the year 1872 and ending 1899, it is found that 50 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. the population that stood at 33 million souls approximately from 1872 to 1875 inclusive, grew in 1876 to 34 millions approximately ; then to 35 millions in 1879, to 36 millions in 1881,' and to over 37 millions in 1883, all in round numbers. The figures for 1889 were over 40 millions, while the corresponding figures in 1897, that is eight years later, were 43 millions approximately. In the year 1899 the number stood at 44,260,604 precisely, an increase of 11,149,779 on that of 1872, the yearly rate of increase correspond- ing to 412,955 on an average. Keserving all particulars about the rate of increase and so forth to be dealt with in special paragraphs, the yearly gross figures are given as folio vv: — REGISTERED POPULATION OF JAPAN. Year. Males. Females. Total. 1S72 16,796,158 16,314,667 33,110,825 1873 ... 16,891,729 16,408,946 33.300,67s 1874 ... 17,050,521 16,575,157 33,625,678 187s ••• 17,250,420 16,747,029 33,997,449 1876 ... 17,419,785 16,918,619 34,338,404 1877 ... No' returns. No returns. No returns. 1878 ... No returns. No returns. No returns. 1879 ... 18,140,822 17,627,762 35,768,584 18S0 ... 18,208,890 17,720,170 35,929,060 18S1 18,423,274 17,935,720 36,358,994 1882 ... 18,598,998 l8,I0t,I20 36,700,118 1883 ... 18,755,242 18,262,060 37,017,302 1884 18,954,770 18,496,994 37,451,764 188s ... 19,157.877 18,711,110 37,868,987 i8S5 ... 19,451,491 19.055,686 38,508,177 1SS7 ... , 19,731,732 19.337.959 39 069,691 1SS8 20,008,445 19,568,789 39,607,234 1889 ... , 20,246,336 19,825,684 40,072,020 1S90 ... . ■ 20,431,097 20,022,364 40.453,461 1891 ... , 20,563,416 20,155,261 40,718,677 1S92 ... . 20,752,366 20,337.574 41,089,940 1893 ... . 20,906,464 20481,848 41,388,313 1S94 ... . 21,122,899 21,690,316 41,813,215 1895 ••• . 21,345,750 20,924,870 42,270,620 1896 ... . 21,561,023 21,147,241 42.708,264 1897 ... . 21,823,651 21,405,212 43,228,863 1898 ... . 22,073,896 21,689,257 43,763,153 J899 ... . 22,329,925 21,930,681 44,260,604 Density of Population. 51 Note : — The returns for the year 1872 were made on January aglh, those for the 1873 to 1885 years on January 1st, and those from the 1886 to the 1889 years on December 31st. There is a difference of two between the total aggregate of the male and female population for the 1889 year, because there were two cases of death in which the sex of the party who died was unknown. The pojpulation of the island of Formosa and of the group of Pescadores -will be described in the special chapter devoted to Formosa. III. DENSITY OF POPULATION. EELA.TIVE DENSITY.— The total area of the Empire (For- mosa excluded) being 24,794.36 sq. ri, and the actual population, at the end of 1898, 45,402,359, the density of the population per sq. ri amounts to 1,831. Taking the relative rate of density in the six main divisions of the country, it is found that the Western section of Honshu with 2,945 comes at the head of the list, followed by 2,880 in the Middle section of Honshu, 2,542 \v. Shikoku, 2,464 in Kyushu, 1,309 in the Northern section of Honshu. Hokkaido with only 141 comes at the bottom of the list. In Hoksiiu. — ^The greater density in the Western section of Honshu is attributable to the fact that it contains the districts of Kinai where in one place or another the successive Emperors that ascended the Throne fixed their capital during a period of no less than 2,527 years, and where therefore are found many flourishing cities and towns. The presence of such large cities as Tokyo, Yokohama, and Nagoya accounts for the density of the Middle section. In short the presence of 1,399 to 2,945 people per sq. ri, in the five sections above enumerated is primarily due to the facilities of communications and to the prosperity of trade and industry in those regions. In Hokkaido. — The scarcity of population in Hokkaido is due to its remoteness and severe climate, and especially to the fact that comparatively a short space of time has elapsed since the work of colonization was started there. The soil being, however, ■well adapted for agriculture and stock-breeding while the rivers and shores are rich in aquarin wealth, Hokkaido will become, at ao distant date, far more densely populated, receiving as it does. 52 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. at the present moment from the rest of the country from 40,000 to 60,000 per annum. The following table shows the relative density of population io each section. Section. Area (sq. ri.) Actual Pop. Pop. per sq. ri. Middle Honshu Northern Honshu Western Honshu Shikoku Kyushu Hokkaido 6,145.99 17,708,223 2,880 5,071.82 6,639.372 1,309 3,472.72 10,226,539 2,945 1,180.67 3,000,794 2,542 2,827.80 6,967,897 2,464 6,095.36 859,534 141 Total 24,794.36 45,402,359 1,831 Note: — The Middle section comprises the 17 prefectures of Tokyo, Kanagawa, Sai- tama, Chiba, Ibaragi, Tochigi, Gumma, Nagano, Yamanashi, Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, Shiga, Fukui, Ishikawa, Toyama ; the Northern section comprises the 7 prefectures of Niigata, Fukushima, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita, Iwate Aomori ; the Western section consists of Kyoto, Osaka, Nara, Wakayama, Hyogo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Shimane, Tottori ; Shikoku comprises Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime and Kochi ; Kyushu comprises Nagasaki, Saga, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and Okinawa; Hokkaido covers all the districts under its jurisdiction. This classification holds good for all the tables to be given hereafter. Densely Inhabited Peepectuees.— To enumerate those pre- fectures that contain over 3,000 inhabitants per sq. ri, we have : — Prefecture. Area. Actual Population sq. ri. population. per. sq. ri. Tokyo ... 125.80 2,101,102 16,702 Osaka ... 115.72 1,600,923 13.834 Kagawa ... 113.50 694,280 6,117 Kanagawa ... 115.67 926,884 5,954 Aichi ... 312.78 1,639,611 5,242 Fukuoka ... 317.81 l>42S.62S 4,486 Saitama ... 265.99 1,175.697 4,420 Chiba ... 326.15 1,275.376 3,910 Saga ... 160.08 618,679 3,865 Nagasaki ... 235-15 902,455 3.838 Kyoto ... 296.55 997.488 3,364 Hyogo ... 556.68 1.717,634 3,085 Urban and Rural Population. 53 The prefectures mentioned above are the most densely populated prefectures in the country, the density in the rest ranging from 1,000 to 3,000, with the exception of Miyazaki which contains 953 and Iwate which has 799. Hokkaido, as described above, contains only 141, being the most thinly populated of any. lY. URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION. Relative Density. — Regarding a place where over 3,000 in- habitants from one community as an urban section, the urban popula- tion at the end of 1898 aggregated 10,702,232, the remaining 34,700,127 residing in rural sections. According to the foregoing, out of every 100 the urban population amounted to 24 and the rural population to 76. The particulars are given below. Percentage. Section. Urban. Rural. Urban. Rural Middle ... 5.007.323 12,700,900 28 72 Northern ... ... 1,381,301 5,258,071 21 79 Western ... 2,709,596 7.516,943 26 ' 74 Shikoku 418,720 2,582,074 14 86 Kyushu ... 944.910 6,022,987 14 86 Hokkaido ... 240,382 619,152 28 24 72 Total ... ... 10,720,232 34,700,127 76 Note : The urban population consists of the inhabitants of the Ski (cities) established after the institution of the Local Civic Corporation System and those of the C/io (towns) containing not less than 3,000 inhabitants. The two urban dis- tricts of Nalia and Shuri in Okinawa and the districts of Hakodate, Sapporo, Otaru, Esashi and Fukuyavna, all of which contained more than 3,000, have also been included in the total. The population other than urban was all included in the rural population. Movement of the two Populations. — -The population of cities and towns containing not less than 10,000 aggregated 5,500,000 in 1890. In 1894 it grew to over 6,080,000 and in the year 1898 to over 7,130,000. Then that of rural districts which stood at 35,000,000 approximately in 1890, grew to over 36,000,000 in 1893, and to over 38,000,000 in 1898. The movement of the two 54 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. sections of the population during the 9 years ended 1898 is shown below : — Year. 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 189S Relative Increase. — To review the movement of the two classes of population, the rate of increase of the urban population is far more marked than that of the others, for while the rate in 1891 compared with that of the preceding year was 27.88 per 1,000 in the urban districts, it was only 4.13 in the rural. In 1895 the rate in urban districts was 20.45 and in rural districts 13.56, and lastly in 1898 the rate was 53.85 and 28.47 in the respective districts. On the whole the rate during the 9 years under review was about 33 in the urban districts against 10 in the rural, and this marked increase in the urban population is evidently attributable to the rise of trade and industry in cities and the consequent emigration of the rural population to the urban districts. Urban districts of over Rural districts of less than 10,000 Pop. IO,OOC Pop Increase over Increase over Actual Pop. per. year per. Actutl Pop. per. year per. io,coo Pop. 10,000 Pop. 5.504.059 — 35,464,776 — 5.657.493 27.S8 35,611,239 4-13 5,768,228 19-57 35,928,619 8.91 5,927,699 27.65 36,133,277 5.70 6,086,310 26,76 36,344,675 5-8S 6,210,801 20.45 36,837.425 13-56 6,409,736 32-03 37,090,097 6.86 6,772,042 56.52 37,206,453 3-14 7,136,691 53-85 38,265,668 28.47 Y. INCREASE OP URBAN POPULRI ION. The number of cities and towns containing not less than 10,000 inhabitants was 122 in 1887. That niiml er increased to 152 in 1892 and to 162 in 189t^'. The marked increase 111 the number in 1898 was due to the amalgamation of vill; ges ' ith towns or cities on the occasion of the institution of the Local Civic Corpora- Increase of Urban Population. 55 tioD System, as also to the settlement of the people from the villages in the urban districts. The movement of the urban districts as to population from 1886 to 1898 is as follow: — Oyer Over OTcr Over Over Over Over Over Year. 10,000 20,000 5 ',0J0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 Total. lS86 ... ... 69 36 8 I I I I 117 1887 ... ... 69 40 7 3 I I I 122 1892 ... ... 89 45 12 3 I I I 153 1897 ... ... 88 52 14 3 I I 2 i5i 1898 ... ... 84 57 13 3 -^ 1 2 162 The foregoing urban districts being distributed among the main local divisious, the figures at the end of 1898 stood thus : — • Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Section. 10,000 20,000 B0,000 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 EDO 000 Total. Middle .. 45 26 2 I I I 76 Northern . ■■ 15 II 2 28 Western . II 9 3 I I I 27 Shikoku . • S 4 I I 10 Kyushu .. 8 6 3 I 18 Hokkaido . I 2 I 3 Total 57 13 162 Next the population of those urban districts containing not less than 50,000 inhabitants at the end of 1898 was as follow : — ACTUAL POPULATION. Tokyo ... 1,440,121 Osaka . 821,235 Kyoto - 353.139 Nagoya ... . . 244,145 Kobe ... 215,780 Yokohama ... . • 193,762 Hiroshima ... ... 122,306 Nagasaki ... . . 107,422 Kanazawa ... 83,662 Sendai . 83,325 Hakodate ... 78,040 Fukuoka ... . 66,190 Wakayama ... ... 63,667 Tokushima... . 91,501 Kumanioto ... 61,463 Toyama ... . • 59,558 Okayama ... ... 58,025 Otara ■ 56,961 Kagoshima ... ... 53,481 Niigata ... . . 53,366 Sakai ... 50,203 ,56 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. At tLe end of 1898 the number of rural communities was 13,230, distributed as follow:— Middle Section 4.812 Northern 2,163 Western 2,982 Shikoku 781 ICyushu 1,920 Hokkaido 603 Total 13,270 Note : — The rural communities represented above comprise those Son (villages) in the Local Civic Corporation System, and also those Cho (towns) that contained less than 3,000 inhabitants, besides the rural communities of Okinawa known by the special name of Makiri. YI. RELATIVE NUMBER OP PEOPLE IN HOUSEHOLD. AVERAGE PER FAMILY.— The number of households at the end of 1898 was 8,182,017 against the population of 45,402,359, the number of people per household therefore amounting to 5.55. The relative rate in the local divisions was as follow : — Actual No. Actual Number per Section. of households. Population. household. Middle ... 3,160,800 17,708,223 5.60 Northern ... I,OIi,I3I 6,639,372 6.53 Western ... 1,994,348 10,226,539 513 Shikoku 57o,2.tf' 3,000,794 S.26 Kyiishu ... 1,266,697 6,967,897 551 Hokkaido ... ... 173,795 SS9.534 4-95 Total ... ... 8,182,017 45,402,359 5-55 Note:— In the above and in the following two tables, the number of households does not coincide with the number of heads of families because there are sometimes more than one household under single head. Average in Ueban Districts.— The number of people per household in the urban districts -was 4.99, the actual number of Social Classes. 57 loTJseholcis and of the population being 2,145,316 and 10,702,232 respectively : — Actual No. of Actual No. of People per Section. household. Population. household. Middle 1,021,723 5,007,323 4.90 Northern ... „ 237,729 1,381,301 S.81 Western ... . 581,863 2,709,596 4.66 Shikoku ... . 89,021 418,720 4.70 KyB.shu ... ., 168,811 944,910 S.21 Hokkaido ... ., 46,169 240,382 4-99 Total . 2,145,316 10,702,232 4-99 AvkeaGK in Rukal Districts. — The number of people in each household in the rural districts is 5.75, the actual number o^ households and of population being 6,036,701 and 34,700,127 respec- tively : — Actual No. of Actual Population Section. household. Population. per household. Middle ... . 2,139,077 12,700,900 5-94 Northern 778,402 5,258,071 6.75 Western ... ., 1,412,485 7,516,943 532 Shikoku ... ., 481,225 2,582,074 5-37 Kyushu ... ., 1,097,886 6,022,987 5-49 Hokkaido ... . 127,626 619,152 4.85 Total . 6,037,701 34,700,127 5-75 It 'will be seen from the foregoing tables that the average number of people per household in the urban districts is 4.99 as fg inst 6.75 in the rural, and that while the number per household is larger in the rural districts than the urban, in the Middle, Northern and Western Sections of Honshu and in Shikoku, the exact reverse is the case in Kyushu and Hokkaido. VII. SOCIAL CLASSES. FouE Divisions. — Our people are divided into four social classes, namely the members of the Imperial family. Peers, 68 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. "Shizoku" and " Heimin." Of the four classes the Imperial first being the descendants of one or other of the family. Emperors and therefore of Princess or Princesses of the Blood, stand at the liead of all the classes. The Peers consists of those courtiers who have inherited one important post or another at the court, of the former feudal lords, and Peers- lastly of those whose distinguished services have obtained for them a patent of nobility. The Peers are of five grades, namely Prince, Marquis, Count, Viscount and Baron, and they enjoy special privileges both politically and socially. The Shizoku. Shizoku are the samurai of olden days, but at present this title merely serves to indicate the former profession of the holder's family with no privilege, such as existed formerly, attached to it. The rest are Heimin or commoners, Heimin. whose standing does not difier at all from that of the Shizoku. The numerical strength of the three classes excepting the highest from 1879 to 1898 is as follow:— Peers. Shizoku. Heimie. Head of House- Head of House- Head of House- Famiiies. holds. Families. holds. Families. holds. 1879... . . 464 2,661 404,389 1,428,968 7,032,893 26,409,592 IS82... . . 487 2,717 425,881 1,505,943 7,258,608 37,501,915 I8S7... . . 588 2,228 425,960 1,528,709 7,629,966 29,475,125 1892-.. . . 600 3,253 430,135 1,584,171 7,841,550 31,224,647 1897... . . 69s 3,828 437,556 1,651,57s 8,043,187 33,087,554 1898... . 706 3,84s 439,387 1,666,311 8,i8o,ii2 33,468,054 VIII. THE SEXES. Average Ratio.— In comparing the number of males and females, the former are found to exceed the latter, the ratio of males to females ranging between 101.77 and 102.96 to 100 durino- the 28 years ended 1899. 59 Year. 1872 1876 1883 1888 1891 1892 1897 1899 This excess of males over females holds good in the stages of childhood (below 15 yeais) and adult life (16 to 65 years), but in the last stage of old age (66 years and over) the relation is reversed. These relations are demonstrated in the following table. No. of Males to every 100 Females. The Sexes. No. of Males per Males. Females. 100 Females. 16,769,158 16,314,667 102.95 17,419,785 16,918,619 102.96 18,598,998 18,101,120 102.75 19,731,732 19,337,959 102.04 20,752,366 20,337,574 102.04 21,823,651 21,405,212 101.95 22,073,896 21,689,257 101.77 22,329,925 21,930,681 101.82 Year. Childhood. Adult. Old age. 1884 102.19 104.49 S4.00 1887 102.27 103.89 82.33 1892 102.18 103.88 S2.89 1897 102.41 103.57 83-53 1898 102.29 103.43 82.35 Age Demaekation of the Sexes. — In examining the de- markation line as to the age when the number of females begins to exceed that of males, it Is found that, according to the returns from 1886 to 1898, this demarkation occurs at the age of 5S to 61, as follows : — Females are in excess Males are in excess at the age of at the age of 1886 58 and over 57 and over 1887.. .. 59 „ „ 59 „ „ 1888.. <>o „ „ 59 „ „ 1889.. .. 61 „ „ 60 „ „ 1890.. .. 58 „ „ 57 „ „ 1891.. .. 59 „ >, 53 ., „ 1892.. .. 58 , „ 57 „ „ 1893.. .. 59 „ „ 5S „ „ 1894.. .• <5o „ „ 59 „ „ I895-- 60 „ „ ■ 59 „ „ 1896.. .. Co „ „ 59 „ „ 1S97.. .. 61 „ „ 60 „ „ 1898.. .. 6i „ „ 60 ., „ 68 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. IX. POPULATION AS CLASSIFIED BY AGE. In classifying the population by age there are many points to be considered, such as ages of efficient labor, non-efficient labor, conscription service, voting, school attendance, marriage, procreation, longevity, etc., but here only the three subjects of ages of efficient labor and of non-efficient labor, of procreation and of conscription service shall be dealt with. Ages of Efficient Labor and Non-efficient Labok. — In general our people cannot engage in self-supporting work until they reach the age of about 15, so that the years below 15 must be regarded as age of non-efficient labor, the years between 16 and 65 as ages of efficient labor, and the years above 66 as ages of non-efficient labor. The population of the efficient and non-efficient labor as based on the foregoing standard is shown below : — Year. Below 15. 16 to 65. above 66. 1884 ... 11,842,565 23,458,278 2,142,236 1S87 ... 13,087,582 23,826,408 2,152,303 1892 ... 13,702,107 25,120,236 2,265,046 X897 ... 14,195,521 26,602,214 2,429,097 1898 ... 14,366,923 26,989,196 2,404,700 In the foregoing three classes of population shown in per centag^ those of non-efficient labor on account of childhood constitute in general 33 out of every 100, those of similar non-efficiency on account of declining age 6, and those of efficient labor the remaining 61. In other words, of every 100 people 61 give support to others and 39 receive support from olhers. These relations are demonstrat- €d as follows: — Year. 18S4 18S7 1892 1S97 1898 Below 15 16 to 65 Above 65 years. ye.i~3. yeais. Total •• 3! 63 6 100 •• 33 fi 6 100 .. 33 61 6 100 •• 33 61 6 100 .. 33 62 £ 100 Marriage. 61 Age of Procreation. — Women are not allowed in our Civil Code to marry until they reach full 15 years of age, and hence the age of procreation may be considered as beginning at that age. The years at which sterility commences are not uniform according to persons, the period arriving before 40 in some and after 50 in others. However, the average may be taken as 45 years, so that the period between 15 and 45 years may be regarded as the period of procreation. According to that standard, the child-bearing portion and the non-procreative portion amount to 44 and 56 respectively, as shown below : — '\Tanr Women between Women below 15 Pro- Non- year. 15 and 45. or above 46. creative. Procreative. 18S7 .. . ... 8,498,070 10,838,583 44 56 1892 .. . ... 8,986,358 11,350,172 44 56 1897 •• . ... 9,517.051 11,887,385 44 56 1898 .. . ... 9.661,749 12,026,561 45 SS Ages of Conscription Service. — ^The male subjects of the Empire are eligible for military service from full 17 to full 40 years. At the end of 1898 year there were 8,034,098 males of those ages, corresponding to 36 out of every 100 males, as below : — Year. 1887 1892 1897 189S Population available for service. Per 100 males. 7,220,932 36.60 7.477,507 36.03 7,914,181 36.26 8,034,098 36.40 X. MARRIAGE. " Marriage Eules. — Before giving any data about mar- riage a brief description of the legislation enacted in connection with marriage may be given here. The marriage age as provided by the Civil Code, begins at full 17 years with males and full 15 with fiemales, and in making the marriage contract the consent of parents or of those who legally represent them is necessary. 62 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. However, this consent is despensed with in the case of those males who have reached the full age of 30 or in that of females who have reached 25. The same Code prohibits polygamy under pain of crimiaal punishment, the system of monogamy having been legally fstablished more than 10 centuries ago. Women are similarly forbidden to make any polyandrous contracts. Number of jMaeeiage Contracts. — The number of marriage contracts during the ten years ending 1900, was 372,102 whieli corresponds to 8.82 per every 10,000 people, this rate being shown in the following table : — Year. 1883 . 1887 . 1892 . 1893 • 1894 . 189s . 1896 . 1897 . 1898 . 1899 . Nc. of marriage Per 100 contracts. people. 337.456 9.10 344,149 8.55 349,489 8.51 358,389 8.66 361,319 8.64 365,633 8.6s 501,777 11.75 365,207 8.4s 471,298 10.77 297,117 6.71 Note :— The number of contracts for 1899 covers only those that were reported during that year, those that were reported after that year being excluded. This remark applies also to the tables of birth and death to be mentioned sub- sequently. Number op Married Couples.— The number of married couples subsequent to 1886 are as follows : — No. of married Per. lo.coD couples. people. At the end oi 1886 7,289,001 189.29 tt ft 1887 7,346,670 188.04 it » 1892 7,561,900 184.03 M n 1897 7.892,073 182.55 )> n 1898 7.979,383 182.34 As shown in the table, 182.34 to 189.29 out of every 1,000 people are married couples so that in every 1,000 of the population Birth-Sate. 63 there are 364.68 to 378.58 married people, the rest being single. This rate is a fairly good record compared with the data in other countries, demonstrating to some extent the easy condition of living in Japan and the domestic stability that obtains there. XI. BIRTH-RATE. AvEEAGE Rate. — During the ten years ended 1899 inclusive, the average births numbered 1,243,014 or 2.95 per 100 people. The birth-rate was larger for males, their birth daring the ten years referred to being 104.67 per 100 females. Below is shown a table showing the number of births and the ratio of male and female births from 1872 to 1899. Eirth-rate Males per Year. Males. Females. Total, per loo Pop. loo Females. IS72... .. 290,836 278,198 596,034 1.71 104.54 1877... .. 455,689 434,829 890,518 2.5s 1 04. So 1882... •■ 474,189 448,526 922,715 2.49 105.72 1887... ■• 542,043 516,094 1,058,137 2.71 105.03 1892... .. 617,234 589,800 1,207,034 2.94 104.65 1893... .. 602,322 579,106 1,178,428 2.85 104.55 IS94- .. 620,844 588,139 1,208,983 2.S9 105.56 1895,.. .. 638,895 607,532 1,246,427 2.95 105.16 1896... .. 651,468 630,710 1,282,178 3.00 103.29 IS97... - 683,941 650,184 1,334,125 S-09 105.19 1898... ■- 696,131 673,491 1,396,623 313 10336 1899... .. 705,017 666,123 >,37i,i9i 3.10 105.85 XII. DEATH-BATE. Average RATE.-^During the ten years ended 1899 the average rate of mortality was 880,589 which corresponds to 2.09 per 100 people. Thi' rate of mortality is greater in males than in females. 64 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. that of the former being 106.05 per 100 of the latter, as showa below :— Mortality Mortality of Year. Males. Females. Total. per 100 Population. mjles per 100 females. 1872... ... 208,092 179.312 405404 1.22 105.^.6 1877... ... 324,732 295.574 620,306 1.78 109-86 1882... ... 346,112 322,230 668,342 1.81 107.41 1887... ... 386,132 367.324 753,456 1-93 105.12 1892... ... 452,13s 434.852 886,988 2.16 104.82 1893... ... 479.052 458,589 *937,644 2.27 104.46 1894- ... 432,820 407.947 *840,768 2.01 106.10 1895.-. ... 448.873 403,549 852,422 2.02 111.23 1896... ... 469,485 443,336 *9i 2,822 2.14 105.90 1897... ... 452.383 424,454 876,837 2.03 106.58 1898... ... 459.298 435,204 *894,5o2 2.04 105.54 1899- ... 474.043 453,002 *927,046 2.09 104.64 Note : — The figures marked with an asterisk (*) represent persons whose sex was unknown. Though on the whole the rate of mortality is greater in males than in females, this is not uniformly the case for males of all ages, as the mortality of females is found to be greater than that of males according to age. For instance the data obtain- Average cd for 1899 show that, though the rate of mortal- according ity is greater for males at the age of not less than ten to A<^e. years, the relative proportion is reversed between 11 and 40 years, to be again restored to the former proportion between 41 and 70. Finally, over 70 the rate of mortality shows a marked decrease for males. Mortality ot Mortality of .^es' males per 100 of females. Ages. males per 100 of females. I to S .. > ■*• ... 1 1303 51 to 60 ... 132.22 X to 10 .. . ... ... 104.05 61 to 70 ... "9-58 II to 15 .. ... ... 86.34 71 to 80 ... 95-77 16 to 20 .. ... ... 84.50 81 to 90 ... 71-49 21 to 30 .. . ... ... 87.11 91 to 100 ... 51-76 31 to 40 „ ... ... 88.68 above loi ... 25.00 41 to SO .. . ... ... 119.99 Normal Increase of Population. 65 XIII. NORMAL INCREASE OF POPULATION. Geseral Data. — Though an approximate idea of the normal increase of population may be obtained by comparing the birth-rates with the death-rates, this can by no means be accurate, inasmuch as there happen omissions in the report of births or deaths, or omissions to register and subsequent corrections. In fact the rate of increase of the population as statistically recorded is much greater than the difference between the birth-rates and the rate of mortality. The rate of yearly increase from 1872 to 1899 and the rate of increase per 100 population are recorded in the following table. Year. Jan. 29, 1872 to Jan. I, 1S73 Jan. I, 1873 to Jan. i, 1874 Jan. I, 1874 to Jan. I, 1875 Jan. I, 1875 to Jan. I, 1876 Jan. I, 1876 to Jan. I, 1879 Jan. I, 1879 to Jan. i, 1880 Jan. I, 1S80 to Jan. I, 1881 Jan. 1, 1881 to Jan. i, 1882 Jan. I, 1882 to Jan. i, 1883 " Jan. I, 1883 to Jan. I, 1884 Jan. I, 1884 to Jan. I, 1885 Jan. I, 1885 to Jan. I, 1886 Jan. I, 1886 to end of 1886 End of 1886 to end of 1887 End of 1887 to end of 1 888 End of 1888 to end of 1889 End of 1889 to end of 1890 End -of 1 8go to end of 1891 End of 1891 to end of 1892 End of 1892 to end of 1893 End of 1893 to find of 1894 End of 1894 to end of 1895 End of 1895 to end of 1896 End of 1896 to end of 1897 End of 1897 to end of 189S End of 189S to end of 1893 Increase Increase. per 100 Population, 189,850 0.57 325.003 0.98 371,771 I. II 340,955 1. 00 1,430,180 4.16 160,476 0.45 429.934 1.20 341,124 0.94 317,184 0.86 434,462 1. 17 417,222 1. 11 282,230 0.75 355.960 0.93 562,514 1.46 537,543 1.38 464,786 1. 17 381,441 0.95 265,216 0.66 371,263 0.91 298,373 0.73 424,902 1.03 457.405 1.09 437.644 1.04 520,599 1.22 534,290 1.24 497.451 1. 14 As may be seen from the foregoing table, the rate of increase is 66 Japan in the Beginning of the 20/A Century. extremely irregular, being in some years less than }, in others 1 and in still others 1 and a fraction. However in 1879, 1885, 1886, Average. 1891 and 1894 when the rate stood very low, various causes, such as the spread of epidemic diseases, the rise in the market price of commodities, etc. prevented the progress of the population. The average rate of increase during the preceding 28 years amounted to over 1.04 per 100 of the population. In the relative rate of increase between urban and rural popula- tion, that of the former is, as already explained, considerably higher than that of the latter. This increase is however due to an abnormal cause which is operative in all civilized countries, that is to say, the emigration of villagers to towns and cities. As to the normal increase, the rate is higher in rural districts, because there the birth-rate is higher and the rate of mortality lower than the same rates in the urban districts. During the ten years ending 1897 inclusive, the birth-rate in cities possessing an actual population of not less than 25,000 was 2.30 and the rate of mortality 2.18, per 100 of the popu- Rate in lation, the increase of population corresponding therefore Cities, to 0.12. For the whole country the birth-rate was 2.92 and the rate of mortality 2.07, the balance in favor of increase being 0.85. Thus the rate of increase in cities is less by 0.73 than that for the whole country, as shown below : — For cities of over 25,000 For the whole country. Population. Balance bet- Balance bet- Births per Deaths per ween births Births per Deaths per ween births Year. 100 Pop. 100 Pop. and deaths. 100 Pop. 100 Pop. and deaths. 1888 ... 2.96 1.90 1.06 2.40 1.70 0.33 1889 ... 3.02 2.02 i.oo 2.38 2.15 0.23 1890 ... 2.83 2.04 0.79 2-^9 2.37 0.12 1891 ... 2.67 2.10 0.57 2.13 2.28 0.15 1892 ... 2.94 2.16 0.78 2.32 2.37 0.0s 1893 ... 2.85 2.27 0.58 2.23 2.19 0.04 1894 ... 2.89 2.0I 0.8S 2.29 2.00 0.29 1895 ■•■ 2-95 202 0-93 2.23 2.19 0.04 1895 ... 3.00 2.14 0.86 2.86 2.02 0.14 1S97 ... 3.09 2.03 1.06 2.41 2.14 0.27 AveraKe 2.92 2.07 0.85 2.30 ...i« r>.ii Emigration and Immigration. XIY. EMIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION. 67 Males. Females. Tolal. — — »3,6S5 — — 2,539 2,903 2,636 5,539 4,278 3,509 7,787 24,289 18,419 42,708 36,457 27,893 64,350 37,271 26,358 63,629 25,182 20,212 45,334 26,475 21,643 48,118 Emiqeation at Home. — Apart from the emigration of «>untry people to towns and cities, the emigration to Hokkaido from the rest of Japan proper deserves special notice, Hokkaido, tens of thousand of settlers proceeding thither every year since the work of colonizing that northern island was started soon after the advent of the rehabilitated Imperial regime. This migratory movement is shown in the following table : — Year. 1872 1877 1882 18S7 1892 1897 1898 1899 1900 According to the returns of the settlers for 1900, 25,927 TV'ere engaged in farming, 4,620 in fishery, 1,743 in manufacture, 3,385 in- trade and the rest in miscellaneous occupations. Emigeation Abroad. — The emigration to foreign coun- tries is comparatively insignificant, for those that go abroad gen- -erally stay there for a limited period, on official duty, for the purpose of jjroceeding their studu s, with the object of carrying on some business, or as laborers. This remark may also be applied to foreigners in Japan, so that in the present paragragh a few words may be said of the Japanese staying abroad and of the foreigners staying in our country. Japanese staying Abeoad. — With increase of intercourse with foreign countries, the number of Japanese going abroad is steadily advancing, so that while in 1889 the number was only 18,688 it grew to 58,785 in the year 1897, to be still further in- ■creased to 123,971 in 1900. A review of the preceding 12 years «hows the following figures : — «^ Japan in the Ber/inning of the ^Oth Century. Males. Females. Total. Year. 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 According to the returns for tlie last year in the above table,, the majority of those temporary emigrants went to the United State- of America and its colonies especially Hawaii, also to Korea, Engs- land and its colonies, Russia and its colonies, China, France, Peru and Germany. During the same year those temporary emigrauta were employed thus : — 13.815 4.873 18,688 17.519 6,031 23,950 23,681 8.465 32,146 29,615 9.388 39,003 31.147 10,05s 41,202 31.632 9.958 41,590 34.332 ".945 46,277 40.348 13,994 54.342 43.707 15,078 58.785 53."4 17,687 70,801 76.633 22,406 99.039 98,98s 24,986 123,971 Coimtry. For pro- On official secuting Engaged duty. studies, in trade. Other: Total United States and colonies ... 52 554 2,851 86,689 90,146 England and colonies 133 40 S12 7,530' 8,215 Russia and colonies ... ... IS 65 286 3,587 3,953- Holland 4 2 — — 6 France and colonies 44 36 18 799 , 897 Portugal and colonies — I — 9 lo- Germany 33 162 S 14 an Belgium 10 5 5 I 21 Italy 7 — — 6 ij Spain 2 — — 2 Austria 8 13 10 S 3& Peru I — — , 693 694 Brazil 7 — 2 9 Mexico 6 3 4 32 45 Siam 7 3 29 39 7S Korea 538 16 9.669 5,606 15,829 China 202 40 1,931 1,630 3.803- Total 1,063 940 15,320 106,642 123,971- Emigration and Ivimigration. 69 FoEEiGNEES IN Japan. — The number of foreigners coming to Japan has been on the increase since the treaty was concluded with the United States of America in 1854 A. D. In 1873 the number stood at' 4,190, increased to 4,'236 in 1877, to 6,335 in 1882, 7,560 in 1887, and so on, as detailed below. Year. 1889 ... 9,062 1890 ... 9,707 1891 ... 9,55° 1892 ... 9,803 1893 - 9,633 1894 ... 5,87s Year. 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 8,2<5 9,238 10,531 11,589 11,684 12,664 In the number of foreigners in 1900 as classified according to natiouality, the Chinese came at the top of the list, followed by the English, Americans, Germans and French, and so on, as shown in the following table : — Subjects of Males. Females. Total. United States of America ... - 833 629 1,462 Hawaii (U. S. A.) 2 — 2 England ... 1,260 784 2,044 British Dominion in Canada 15 29 44 Russia 88 89 177 Holland 42 23 65 France - 313 145 458 Portugal 112 61 173 Germany - 395 145 540 Belgium 15 7 22 Italy 31 12 43 Spain 30 7 37 Austria-Hungary 51 27 78 Denmark 42 18 60 Switzerland ... 56 32 88 Sweden and Norway ... 36 14 SO Greece 10 2 12 Turkey ; 14 6 20 Peru I — I Chili 2 — 2 Romania 5 3 8 Argentine Confederation — 2 2 Philippines (U. S. A.) I — I 70 Japan in the Beginning of the 2(ith Century. Subjects of Males. Females. TotaL India (England) Korea China Unknown Total 8,983 3,553 12,536 The total of this table does not coincide with the other one^ beeause 128 persons forming the diplomatic and consular staff were excluded from the table. 7 — 7 184 9 193 5,394 1,496 6,896 44 13 S7 Riglds of SovereigMy, 71 CHAPTER in— Administrative System. Bights of Sovereignty— Legislatnre and Legislative Organs- Execntive and Execative Organs— Justice and Judicial Organs (with paragraphs on the Codes.) I. RIGHTS OF SOVEREIGNTY. Administrative System in Olden Days. — Our Empire of Japan is ruled over by an Imperial House of unbroken lineage from the remotest antiquity, for though during the period of more than 2,000 years that has elapsed since the founding of the Empire, the nation has undergone various clianges, this glorious dynasty has always remained unchanged. The Military Ascendency. — ^The administrative system was very simple in ancient times. There was no distinct line of demar- cation drawn between military arid civil affairs, and the whole nation was considered as one big army with the Emperor over it. It was during the " Middle Ages " and after the adoption of the Chinese system of administration, or more especially that of the then dynasty of Tung, that for the first time military and civil affairs were distinctly separated. Soon, however, the warrior classes began little by little to acquire the supreme authority, and to thrust the Court into the background. For more than seven cen- turies the real sovereignty of the country was vested in one or other of the Regencies that appeared in succession, till, in 1867, the Regency of Tokugawa was made to surrender the power to its rightful and original possessor, and thus the Imperial regime was firmly re-established. One thing that must be strictly kept in mind in this connexion is the fact that, in theory at least, the Emperors remained even during those periods of military ascendency, the supreme beads of tee country stnd were always i-egarded as sacred aud inviolable. 72 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Gemdury. The Imperial Peeeogative. — The restoration of the Im- perial Government was at once followed by many striking changes in the administrative system of the country, as may be inferred from the fact that Japan promulgated her constitution 22 years after and soon began to blossom forth as a constitutional monarchy. This great change naturally led to the sovereign rights of the Em- peror in the three domains of legislative, juridical and executive affairs, being strictly defined in the manner given below. The Emperor's prerogative now consists in the 1. Right of convoking, opening, closing or proroguing the Imperial Diet, and of dissolving the House of Eepresenta- tives. 2. Eight of issuing, in case some urgent necessity demands, the exercise of thr.t right when the Imperial Diet is not sitting. Imperial Ordinances which take the place of regu- larly enacted laws. 3. Eight of issuing or of causing to be issued the Ordinances necessary for the carrying out of the laws or for the maintenance of public peace and order, and for the pro- motion of the welfare of the subjects. 4. Eight of determinning, excepting those cases especially provided for in the Constitution or in other laws, the organization of the different branches of the administration, the salaries of all civil and military officers, and of ap- pointing and dismissing the same. 5. Eight of taking the supreme command of, and determining the organization and peace standing ofj the Army and the Navy. 6. Eight of declaring war, making peace and concluding treaties. 7. Eight of proclaiming a state of siege. 8. Eight of conferring titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor. 9. Eight of declaring an amnesty, as well as the right of pardon, commutation of punishments, and rehabilitation. Legislature and Legislative Organs. 73 II. LEGISLATURE AND LEGISLATIVE ORGANS. Codification in Eaely Days. — ^As provided in Art. VII. of the Imperial Constitution, the right of legislation belongs to the Emperor who exercises that right with the approbation of the Imperial Diet. To briefly review the history of our legislature, the first thing that demands attention is the compilation of a code of , laws by Prince Shotoku during the reign of the. Empress Shomu (724r-'48 A. D.) and tlie compilation of the celebrated Taiho code during the reign of the Emperor Mommu (697-718). Though considered very important in those days, these legislative measures were necessarily very simple, at least when they are viewed from the standpoint of to-day, so that their value is mainly historical. During the periods of military ascendency and the prevalence of feudalism, the legislature was in an almost chaotic condition and it was not until after the Restoration that this fundamental organ of the administration was brought to a state of some perfection. The First Legislative Woek After the Eestora- TiON. — The first noteworthy legislative work accomplished by the reinstated Imperial Government was the issue, soon after its installation, of an Imperial Rescript by which the first corner-stone of the present Constitutional regime may be said to have been laid. That Rescript proclaimed, among other things, that " conferences shall be convolied all over the country and the afikirs of State shall be determined by public discussion." The first legislative organ established in pursuance of that policy was the dual Eio-ht House body consisting of the " Right House " and the and Left House. "Left House" created in 1871. The "Eight House " was composed of the Heads of Executive Offices of State and the other officials specially nominated by the Government. The " Left House " had to take charge principally of legislative work at the instance of either the Prime Minister or on its own initiative, while the " Right House " had to advise the Prime Minister as to the fitness or otherwise of the resolution* passed by the other Hous'e. 74 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The two Houses were abolished in 1874, to be superseded by the Senate (Genro-in) and the Local Governor's Council. The former, was composed of Peers and of men who had The Senate, rendered distinguished service to the country or who were eminent on account of their erudition, and was to take charge of legislative matters either emanating from the Cabinet or introduced at the instance of the Senate itself. The Senate was also entitled to i-eceive petitions about legislation, so that it may be regarded as a precursor of the present House of Peers. The Local Governor's Council was something like a national assembly, composed as it was of officially nominated members ; for as announced in the Emperor's Rescript addressed Th.3 Local Goyer- to the Council on the occasion of its first sitting nor's Council. its object was " to attend to the afiairs of Statg as the representative of the people's interests. " In the same Rescript the Emperor declared that he had called together the said Council " in pursuance of the solemn promise, given by Us on the occasion of Our accession to the Throne, to summon delegates of Our subjects, to assist Us in the conduct of affairs of State, to make with those delegates arrangements cal- culated to cement the amicable understanding that prevails between rulers and ruled, and to enable both to co-operate for the com. mon good of the country." The Governors who attended the. Council " were under no danger of incurring the displeasure of the Government for any opinion enunciated by them at the meeting." Organs of Popular Eepeesentation. — The Council thus organized was abolished in 1880, but as meanwhile the system of local and municipal assemblies had been established, the organs for voicing popular opinion were now more satisfac- torily arranged. A change in a similar direction was made in the following year when the institution of a national represent- ative assembly in the year 1890 was proclaimed. On the 11th February of 1889 the Imperial Constitution, the Imperial House Law, the Law of the House, the Law of Election of the House of Representatives etc., were promulgated, and in October of the fol- lowing year the first memorable session of the Imperial Diet was Legislature and Legislative Organs. 75 «ftlivoked- In this manner did Japan obtain from her Emperor the great boon of a Constitution. Legislative Procedure. — Projects of laws originate either in the Cabinet or ia the Diet, and become law when ther obtain the approval of the Emperor and the consent of the Diet. A project coming from the Government is introduced to the Diet after it has been submitted to and discussed by the Cabinet and the Legislative Bureau, and finally receives the sanction of the Emperor. Any project relating to a law connected with the Im- perial Constitution must first pass through the hands of the Privy Council. Legislative Organs. — Strictly speaking, the legislature may be said to be composed by the two Houses of the Diet, though in a larger sense the Cabinet, the Legislative Bureau, and some- times the Privy Council may be regarded as forming part of the legislative machinery. House of Peers. — This House consists of Princes of the Blood, Peers, men of distinguished services or of remarkable erudition, and representatives of the highest-tax paying section of the people. It enjoys practically identical rights in the legislature with the •other House. House op Representatives. — This House consists of members elected by the people ; and all male subject of over thirty years old are now eligible for election, there being at present no property or other qualification in consequence of the amendment of the Law of Election. Owing to the same amendment the electorates are no longer divided into small sections as they were before, and at pre- sent each prefecture is divided into urban electorates which are independent and rural electorates which return between them a fixed number or members determined according to the number of inhabi- tants contained in the rural districts. Eights and Privileges of the Diet. — It must not be sup- posed that the Diet enjoys part of the rights of sovereignty, for, as we have already pointed oiit, these belong exclusively to the Em- peror. The rights and privileges enjoyed by the Diet consists of the right of deliberating on legislative measures and of approving of such measures if they are considered to merit such approbation. 76 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. Those rights and privileges may be briefly summed up as foUoi^s :— (1) the right of receiving petitions from the people, (2) the rights of submitting memorials to the Throne and of representations to the ■Government, (3) the right of demanding explanations from the Government about administrative affairs, (4) the right of supervising the finance. Legislative Forms. — There are six legislative forms, name- ly. Laws, Imperial Ordinances, Ordinances of the Cabinet and of the departments of State, and Rules and Instructions. All these measures are published in the Official Gazette, and the date of the coming in force of a law is, unless otherwise specially determined, after the lapse of full twenty days from its promulgation, while all others are to come in force seven days after the issue of the number of the Official Gazette containing them. A law may supersede an Ordinance, but under no case can an Ordinance supersede a law. III. EXECUTIVE AND EXECUTIVE ORGANS. Genekal Remarks. — As already mentioned above, the organizatioH of the executive was extremely simple in ancient times, and that the encroachment of the military classes reduced the Court during a long period of over seven centuries to a mere figure-head. The feudal system attained its greatest perfection under the Tokugawa Regency which extended over about three centuries of prosperity. The Administrative Policy of the Tokugawa Regency. — The Regency adopted a policy of decentralization and, unless required by special occasion, it left the feudal princes to rule their own dominions with perfect freedom. The administrative system of the Regency, a system copied by the feudal princes, was extremely simple. The principal officials who conducted it were the Tairo (Premier), Roju (Ministers) and Bugyo (Magistrates). The system followed by the Regency was not of much value theoretically but, in tTie amount of the practical benefit it accomplished, it v\;ts a good system, resembling in this the British constitution. It was after the disappearance of the Regency and the ushering Executive and Executive Organs. '77 in of the present Meiji Government that Japan began for the first time to possess a regular and efficient system of administration organs. THE EXISTING ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM.— In the ex- isting administrative system there is the Privy Council as the sup- reme advisory organ to the Emperer, while on the other hand there is the Cabinet as the central administrative headquarters, having' under it nine Departments of State, that is to say, the Departments of Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs, Finance, War, the Navy, Justice, Education, Agriculture and Commerce, and CommunicationSi A Minister of State presides over each Department, and the Govern- ment establishes Special Offices to deal with affairs relating to the auditing of the State finances, administrative matters, litigation and police. Each Department has under it a greater or less number of subordinate offices, and in this connection the Home Office, stands out most conspicuously as it controls all the local offices and the various civic corporations. The main points in the three administrative organs, central, local and civic corporations will be described below. Central Executive Organs. — The central administrative organ is divided into executive bodies and advisory bodies. The formeiT consist of the Cabinet, the Departments of State, and special offices, while the Privy Council, Codes Investigation Commission and similar commissions make up the latter. First about the higher executive bodies with the Cabinet at their head. The Cabinet is composed of the Ministers of State presided over by the Premier who, in obedience to the Emperor, deals with all matters relating to administration. The principal matters to be determined by the Cabinet are as follows : — a. Drawing up of projects of laws and compilation of Budgets and Settled Accounts. b. Matters /-elating to treaties with foreign countries and to international questions. c. Imperial Ordinances relating to official organization or the operation of laws. 78 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. d. Disputes betweeen the Departments of State as to jurisdiction. «. Petitions of people sent in either by the Emperor or bj the Diet. /. Disbursement not covered by the Budget. g. Appointments and other movements of officials of chohunin rank and of local Governors. Matters of importance coming under the direct supervisiop of the Ministers of State may also be laid before a Cabinet Council. Attached to the Cabinet is the Legislative Bureau which deals •with matters relating to the drafting of projects of law or of Ordin- ances or their amendment or revocation, whether such drafting or amendment is done at the instance of the Cabinet, or of a Depart- ment of State or at its own initiation. It is also entitled to express its own opinion about those matters. The Minister who has charge of a Department of State is empowered to issue Departmental Ordinances and to issue orders to Departmenti tte chiefs of the Metropolition Police, the Hokkaido of State. Administration Office apd provincial Offices in connec- tion with matters coming under his direct control. There are two kinds of special Offices, one independent of the ' Departments of State while the other is subordinate to them. The BoarJ of Audit and the Administrative Litiga- fipecial Administra- tion Court belong to the first class. On the tive Offices. other hand there are quite a number of Special Offices subordinate to one or another of the Departments, these being as follows, to mention only those that are important : — Thos« that are subordinate to the Home Office:— Metro- politan Police Office, Ise Great Shrine and Great fihrine C->n- struction Offices, Hokkaido Administration Office, Provincial Offices, Formosan Governor General's Office, Sanitary Laboratory, Blood-serum Laboratory, Vaccine Laboratory, Public Works Inspection Offices, Epidemic Diseases Laboratory. Those that are subordinate to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce are as follows : — Forest Inspection Offices, Mining Inspection Offices, Agricul- tural Experimental Farms, Industrial Laboratory, Geological Executive and Executive Organs. 79 Surveying Office, Steel Foundry, Yokohama Silk-Conditioning House, Mineral Fertilizer Surveying Office, Horse Breeding Pastures and Studs, Cattle Breeding Pastures, Sericultural Training Schools, Fishery Training Schools. Those that are subordinate to the Department of Finance are: — Inland Kevenue Offices, State Monopoly Offices, Customs House. There are, besides. Post and Telegraph Offices and Telephone Offices under the Department of Cmmunications ; Prisons and Penitentiaries under the Department of Justice ; legations and consulates under the Foreign Office, various kinds of educational institutions under the Department of Education, military or naval schools under War Office or the Admiralty. Advisory Organs of the Higher Executive Bodies. — The Privy Council is the supreme advisory body to the Emperor and attends to (a) matters relating to the Imperial House Law ; (b) matters relating to projects Privy Council, of laws and Ordinances with reference to clauses in and laws and Ordinances per- taining to the Constitution ; (c) matters relating to the declaration of a state of siege, to the issue of urgency Ordinances to take the place of laws when the Diet is not sitting, and to punitive provisions of the Constitution; (d) matters relating to treaties and international agree- ments, matters relating to the organization and rules of the Privy Council ; (e) other matters on which it is ordered by the Emperor to deliberate. Subject to the control of the Prime Minister, the The Codes Investiga- Commission draws up drafts relating tion Commission. to the Codes and Laws and Ordin- ances appertaining thereto, and also investigates matters relating to the putting in force of treaties. Subject to the control of the Home Minister, this Central Sanitary Association submits its opinions on points Association. referred to it by the Minister in regard to public hygiene and epidemics among domestic animals. Subject to the c.ontrcl of the Home Minister, the go Japan- in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Public Works Commission submits its opinions on pointa Commission. referred to it by him in regard to various public works. Subject to the control of the Educational Minister, the Hiffher Educational Commission submits its opinions on Commission. points referred to it by him in regard to higher education. Subject to the Jlinister of Communications, the Council submits its opinions on points referred Eailroad. Council. , •, ■ , ■ • j ^ i j to it by nim m regard to railroads* Local Administrative Organs. — The local administration system adopted by the Tokugawa Regency was based on the de- centralization principal, and the local daimyos were left to do what they liked in the governing of their own dominions. With the abolition of the feudal system and the re-establishment of the Imperial Government, the administration policy was one of centra- lization, with the object of bringing affairs in the provinces to a state of uniformity. This policy was attended by some evil, as it did away with some beneficial local customs, but of course this evil was outweighed by the immense improvement effected in the local administration. Meanwhile the Grovernment saw that the time had arrived for starting the contrary programme of decentralization of authority, and of allowing people to take part in administrative affairs. Thus in 1880 the Provincial Assembly Regulations were enacted, followed in 1884 by the Civic Corporation Regulations. In 1888 the self-govern- ment system was in thorough working order, as it exists to-day. The local administration system is divided into prefectural ad- ministration and sub-prefectural (Gun) administration. It combines two functions, that of being, on one hand, a part Prefectural of the great administrative organ of State, and, on Administration, the otlier, of acting as a self-governing mechanism. As of the former all matters are in the charge of the Governor who has to carry out, under the supervision of the various Ministers of State, Laws and Ordinances, also to attend to all the administrative affairs in his prefecture, and to keep peace and order therein. He is therefore authorized to summon Justice and its Organs, with Paragraphs on the Code. 81 military help from the nearest headquarters whenever an emergency requires it. In regard to the self-government arrangement, it may be stated that every prefecture has a prefectural assembly composed of mem- bers who represent the people in the urban and rural districts. It discusses and deliberates on financial and other important matters of the locality. The assembly is convoked by the Governor at fixed periods, and the Local Council, which is a permanent institution, takes part on behalf of the asssmbly in administrative affairs, and attends to all affairs which the assembly cannot see to when it is not in session. It was in 1878 that the sub-prefectural administrative arrange- ments were first elaborated in definite form. At presnt this administration does not differ in its procedure and Sub-prefeetural principles from the prefectural administration of Administration, which it forms a part, and, just like the other, its system is twofold, that is it combines ordinary administrative business and self-government business. The Self-Government System as developed in 1888 is divided into three grades, Prefectural, Sub-Prefectural and Civic Corporations (cities, towns and villages). Of these three divisions SeLf-Government the last one relating to municipal and rural System. communities represent the self-government mecha- nism in its most striking form, for in the other two higher divisions, owing to the greater part they have to play in administrative affairs their self-government function does not lie so distinctively on the surface as in the other. Both legislatively and also practically the municipal and rural communities are bona fide self-governing bodies for they are entitled by law to enjoy the rights of juridical persons, also to incur obligations as such, and to arrange all public matters relating to their own communities. lY. JUSTICE AND ITS ORGANS, WITH PARAGRAPHS ON THE CODES. General Eemaeks. — The only authentic record worth noting in the history of justice in this country is the existence in the " Middle 82 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Ages" of a special office for dealing with criminal afikirs, while during the period of military ascendency those matters were taken charge of by Censors. Coming down to the Tokugawa Regency, magistrates were made to deal with civil and criminal aflkirs. They had not, however, any laws to follow, but were obliged to judge each case according to the lights of their own understanding and in con- formity with the broad principle of chastising wrong and of uphold- ing right. The first regular court of justice established by the Meiji Government was the Tokyo Court of Justice established in Tokyo in 1871. Within the following four years one Supreme Court and four Courts of Appeal, besides a number of lower tribunals were estab- lished. Several improvements were subsequently carried out, till at last by the Law of Organization of Courts, the present system was developed. Abolition of the Extea-jerritorial System. — The most noteworthy chapter in the history of our judicial system is the doing away in 1899 with the extra-territorial rights which the Western Treaty Powers retained in virtue of the treaties concluded before the Kestoration, and the bringing of foreign residents in Japan under the Japanese laws. Organization. — Our judicial system is divided into four grades, that is Supreme Court, Appeal Courts, Local Courts, and District Courts. The last is the lowest tribunal and is conducted by a single Judge, while in the Local Courts three collegiate Judges sit on a case, in the Appeal Courts five collegiate Judges, and in the Supreme Court seven collegiate Judges. Public Procurators are attached to each Court, on commission from the Minister of Justice. It is needless to state that ordinary Judges represent the right of sovereignty of the Emperor and that their function is held sacred and inviolable. Hence their tenure of office is securely guaranteed by the Constitution. Judges are also amenable to special disciplinary laws. Number of Courts.— Both the Judges and Public Procurators secure their appointments by passing the regular examination of Judges and Public Procurators. The following table shows the number of courts and the staffs as ethy stood at the end of 1901. Justice and its Organs, tvith Paragraplis on the Codes. 83 No. No. of Judges. No. of pro- curators. Population per one Court. Are per a of distri one Cour Supreme Court... I 25 7 45.193,583 24,998.80 Appeal Court ... 7 121 29 6,456,227 3,571-26 Local Court ... 49 399 140 922,319 510.18 District Court ... ... 3IO 557 159 I45.7?6 80.64 Barristers. — It may be added that the barristers are regulated by the Barrister's Law, and that various strict measures are iu force ■with regard to their qualifications, rights and privileges, obligations, etc. They are amenable to the same disciplinary law as that en- forced in the case of Judges. Work of Codification. — Japan had no written code of laws properly speaking till about 30 years ago. The first attempt made in this direction was the compilation of a criminal code in the year 1870 to be amended three years after. The code was far from being perfect, having been mainly based on our ancient customs modified more or less by Chinese laws. In 1882 year the Criminal Code and the Code of Criminal Pro- cedure were enforced. The latter was subjected to a thorough a tiendmeut in 1889, and similarly the former is about to be ameiiiel with the consent of the Diet. The principal statute laws thus far enforced are as follows : — Imperial Constitution (issued in 1889) Law for the Application of Laws (in 1898) Law of Nationality (in 1899) Criminal Code (in 1898) Criminal Procedure (in 1890) Civil Code (in 1896-1898) Civil Procedure (in 1890) Commercial Code (in 1890-1898) Insurance Law (in 1900) Law relating to the Registration of Real Estate (in 1899) Law relating to the Organization of Courts of Law (in 1890) Law regarding Ships (in 1899) Law regarding Crews of Ships ( do. ) 84 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER IV.— Land as an Institution. History— Classification— Burdens— Ownership. History. — The history of the land in this country especially as regards the ownership of it, may be briefly divided into three parts. (1) The period of the ancient Imperial regime, (2) the period of military ascendency and feudalism, and (3) the modern period of the reinstated Imperial regime. During the first stage all the land belonged theoretically to the Court, but, coming to the period of feudalism and military ascendency, we find that this power was practically held by the feudal barons. It was by a very precarious tenure that people were allowed to own their own land, but after the Restoration that right of the owner- ship of land by private individuals was firmly established bylaw. In 1867 the Imperial Government issued a proclamation to the effect that the land in the villages should belong to the villagei-s j in 1874 the land was subdivided into State land and the land belonging to private individuals ; and, finally, in the following year it was proclaimed that the title deeds should bear the names of the owners. Classification oi? Lands.— State land and private land are classified, the former into four and the latter into two categories. The four categories of State land are as follows : — 1. Land belonging to the Imperial Court, and land belonging to Shinto shrines. 2. Land belonging to Princes of the Blood and land belong- ing to the central and local Government offices. 3. Mountains, hills, woods and forests, plains, rivers, seas, lakes, pouds, swamps, drainage ways, ditches, embankments, roads, cultivated fields, etc. not belonging to private in- dividuals ; albO land occupied by railroad tracks, telegraph and telephone posts, premises of lighthouses, places con- History. 85 taining historic remains, public parks, graveyards, and all other such land not belonging to private individuals. 4. Land occupied by temples, schools, hospitals, etc. not be- longing to private individuals. The two kinds of private lands are as follows : — 1. Arable land, places of residence, woods and forests' covered by title deeds ; lands occupied by schools, hospitals, store- houses, pastures, shrines, temples, etc. owned by private individuals or by several persons or by one or several village communities. 2. Land occupied by shrines, graveyards, sewer-ways, reser- voirs, embankments, wells, ditches, highways, etc. not be- longing to the State. There are live kinds of land registers, namely national registers, prefectural registers, provincial registers, district registers and town and village registers. Special rules exist for regulating the deter- mination of the various kind of la!:d. Burdens on Land. — State land is of course exempted from taxation, and title-deeds are only issued to land comiug under the 2nd category. For private lands the title-deeds are given for lands of both kinds, but those under the 1st category alone are subjected to taxation. Taxable lands are divided into two classes as follows : — 1. Arable lands, dwelling lands, salt-fields, mines and mineral springs. 2. Lakes, ponds, woods, pastures, plains and miscellaneous lands. Lands newly reclaimed are exempted from taxation during a certain period of years. The Land Tax which stood at 2.5 per cent, of the assessed value until a few years ago was raised for a period of five years beginning from 1895 to 3.3 per cent, in order to meet the increased Government expenditure occasioned by the so-called post-bellum measures. The limits of five years having expired it was rescinded in 1902. The assessed value of course differs according to local circumstances, relative fertility, and other accidental causes. It is the principle of the Land Tax not to make any alteration according to the relative success of crops. 86 Japan in the beginning of the 20th Century. The Land Tax carries with it two kinds of rate, Local Rate and Municipal or Town or Village Bate. Unless with the approval of the Minister of Home Affairs the former cannot ex- ceed 1/3 and the latter 1/7 of the main tax. The two rates are collected from the owners of the lands, except in some special cases. Right of Ownership of Land. — The owner of a piece of land is of course entitled to do whatever he likes with his land, provided his act is not illegal and does not infringe on the rights of others. The owner of a piece of land has special privileges and obligations with regard to neighboring pieces of land, these being the right of way and the right of using other's land when one has to build or repair his house or fence, etc. On the other hand a space of IJ sJiaku from the common boundary line must be left in building a house on one's land, while a window or veranda placed within the distance of less than 3 shaku from the common boundary and from which the neighbor's premises can be seen, must be provided with a shutter. Then there are provisions for getting rid of superfluous water on one's land, but of course when such water happens to injure property of any kind in adjacent land situated on a lower level, the owner of the land from which the water came must pay for the damage done. Besides the right of owership, there are also the right of superficies, of perpetual lease and of emphyteusis attached to land, but these being dealt with minutely in the Civil Code need not be explained here. It may, however, be stated that land is liable to be requisi- tioned when the interests of the public render such a step necessary. For particulars on this head, the Law for the Requisition of Land should, however, be referred to. A special arrangement exists for the convenience of the trial extraction of minerals, an arrangement which is far more con- venient than the relating to the ordinary process of requisition, for in this case of trial extraction the whole business is left under the case of the Chief of the Local Mining Inspection OfSce in the juris- diction of which the case has occured. History. 87 Land may constitute the hereditary estate of a Peer, anc] no land of this kind can be sold, transferred, mortgaged or hypothecated. 88 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. PART II. PRIMARY INDUSTRIES. SECTION I. AGRICU LTURE CHAPTER I— Introductory. Position of Agriculture in National Polity — Features of Japanese Agriculture— Free-holders and Tenant-farmer?. Position of Ageiculture in National Polity. — The history of agriculture in Japan is coeval with the history of the country itself, for the sovereigns that have successively ascended the Throne since the accession of the first Emperor devoted all their attention to the prosperity and progress of this most important industry of the realm, so that agriculture, though subjected more or less to viscLssitudes duriiij,' that long period, still remains the bulwark of our national prosperity and power. In short, Japan is still essen- tially an agricultural country. The development of agriculture has been markedly accelerated since the introduction of the Western sciences and arts after the throwing open of the country to foreign commerce and intercourse fifty years ago. It need not be pointed out that Japan's traditional policy of fostaring agriculture will be continued in the future. Feature op Japanese Agriculture. — In describing the condition of agriculture in this country there are two points that stand out prominent. They are (1) agriculture, as it is carried on here, is essentially tillage, and has little to do with stock-farming; Position of Agriculture in National Polity. 89 (2) and, as compared with agriculture in Europe and America, the Eoope of our farming operations is extremely small. The fact is that our forefathers who mainly subsisted on cereals were further led by religious prejudices to eschew animal food. Then the absence of wide plnins, comparatively speaking, naturally obliged our farmers, then as now, to conduct their business on a small scale. Foreigners not well acquainted with the state of affairs in Japan may be yuzzled on being told that the average extent of land tilled by one farming family does not exceed one hectare^ They may even wonder how our farmers can subsist on such a small patch of cultivated land; but this surprise, though quite natural for foreigners, will practically disappear when they remember that the system of tillage carried on by our farmers is extremely thorough and careful, and that, as two even three crops are raised on the same field in one year, even a farm measuring only one hectare is really equivalent in productive capacity to a farm of two or three hectares in most other countries. Besides, our farmers are not re- quired to attend to field work all the year round and when the field work makes no great demand upon their time, they can undertake other job work, while the women and children in their families also make themselves useful by raising silkworms, reeling silk or doing other such suitable work. As the natural result of the peculiar geographical formation of Japan, that is, of its extending so far north and south and includ- ing therefore so many degrees of latitude, our system of agriculture presents diverse and distinct features. Moreover, this tendency to diversity was further enhanced during the pre-Restoration days by the division of the country into a large number of practically independent communities. The consequence is that, while in some districts sericulture is predominant, in others tea demands the most attention, while still others have sugar or other products as the staple farm produce. However, owing to the reasons mentioned above, stock-farming is as yet comparatively backward, though the rearing of live stock for tillage or draught work is carried on to no small extend in some districts. Fhee-holders and Tenant-Farjiees. — Accurate data about the land tilled by independent farmers and tenant farmers are 90 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. not procurable, and the latest returns available are those for 1888. The ratio between the two kinds of farmers stood as follows in 35 prefectures. Land tilled by Land tilled by- Independent farmers. Tenat farmers. Puddy fields 6o per cent. 68 per cent. Upland fields 40 „ 32 „ According to the same returns there were in 38 prefectures about 1,470,000 independent farmers and about 2,000,000 farmers ■who were partly independent and partly lessess of land belonging to ■others, while the bona fide tenant farmers numbered about 960,000. In other words, the farmers who were partly or wholly tenant farmers aggregated about 3 millions, and therefore about double the number of free-holders. As matters have become less favorable since that time for small free-holders, the ratio of tenant farmers and tenant farms must have grown more. Indeed the condition of tenant farming is far from being satisfactory, for, according to the investigations made in 1887, out of ten parts of the products of puddy fields throughout the country the landowners obtaines about six and the tenant-farmers only four, while in regard to the upland fields the relative ratio was four and a half parts and five and a lialf respectively. The steady increase of population at a rate far beyond that of tillage land constitutes an important factor in keep- ing the rents high, for tenant farmers are obliged from sheer neces- sity to compete for leases, and in raising of course the rents as the natural result of their competition. In extreme cases the share of harvest that falls to the lot of tenant farmers is barely sufficient to pay the cost of the manure applied to the fields. Such being in general the condition of our tenant-farmers, in most cases they are obliged to depend in tillage on the labor of their own families, while the limited funds they have at their disposal for getting fertilizers or farm implements further bumpers them in their work. Under these circumstances, they find it hard to keep up with the progress of the times, and this hard lot is also shared by small free-holders. But the evil does not end here, for our farming classes which constitute 60 per cent, of the whole population, are steadily increasing in number, so that those who can afford to do so are Position of Agriculture in National Polity., 91 migrating to cities and towns. In view of this circumstance both tlie Government and the general public are doing their best to improve the mode of tillage, to encourage the use of labo^'-saving machines and devices, and also to provide various conveniences to encourage their settlement in unexploited places. It may safely be expected that the condition of our farmers will become much better in the near future than it is now. 92 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2f)th Century. CHAPTER II —Factors of Tiflage. Climate — Land — Capital — Labor. I. CLIMATE. Geneeal Remarks. — Owing, as has been already described, to the peculiar geographical formation of the land, the climate of Japan is naturally very much diversified. A somewhat detailed account about the climate being given in the preceding part, it is enough to explain here the special influence which the climate exerts on the agriculture of the country. Average Yearly Temperature. — The average yearly tempera- ture in Okinawa and Formosa is above 20° C, while in Hokkaido where the other extreme is to be found, the average is not more than 5°, according to places. The difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures is greater in the north than iu the south, for while in summer the temperature stands comparatively high in the north, in winter, owing to the influence of the severe climate on the continent, the thermometer falls in many places below zero. The prevailing wind in summer is a moist southerly wind; but in winter the cold northerly wind coming from the continent reigns supreme. The season during which one of these two kinds of wind is exchanged for the other presents a peculiar meteorological aspect. Early in summer the moist southerly wind that begins to prevail brings about the rainy season, while in autumn when the northerly wind begins to take the place of the southerly, the low atmospheric pressures that frequently make their appearance in the south are liable to invade the country and to cause storms. The northt?rly wind coming from the continent in winter deposits its moisture borne from the Sea of Japan on the districts bordering that sea. Humidity. — As a rule the moisture is greater in the southern provinces and less in the northern, the rate in the latter being about one half that in the former. It is natural, therefore, that ram Climate. 93 stould be copious in summer in the southern districts and that snow- should fall to a considerable extent in winter in the northern pro- vinces. The average amount of rain and snow during 1901 or i;i succeeding year is shown below : — m.m. m.m. Taihoku 2,228 Niigata 1,765 Kagoshima ... Oita Nagasaki Numazii 2,061 rukushima 1,233 1,614 Aomori 1,282 1,951 Sapporo 979 1,836 Ckops as Influexoed by Clijiate. — The crops raised in Japan are naturally influenced by its climate, and it is principally on account of the copious rain-fall and the high temperature in summer that rice is so universally grown throughout the country. The only drawback is the coming of storms between summer and autumn. Other tropical and sub-tropical plants besides rice are well suited to oUr country owing to the great heat in summer ; but, on the other hand, owing to the rather sudden fall of temperature in winter, even plants growing in the temperate zone can not easily ttand the rigor of climate in that season. In winter, frost comes on almo.st everywhere throughout the country, while snowfalls are heavy and frequent in the north-eastern districts. It is in these districts, that barely and wheat and rape can be grown with success. However, the weather is apt to become humid at the ripening season of barely and wheat, thereby impair- ing to no small extent the quality of those grains. The buds of the mulberry and tea plants, too, are frequently damaged by the frost that comes in early spring. The cultivators of those important plants are therefore devising various measures to prevent this injury. In warmer places the better decomposition of manures and the vigorous growth of plants make it possible to raise in a year two or even three crops on the same field, but the farmers in cooler districts must be contended with only one. The two most convenient crops for puddy fields are rice in summer and barley or genge (Astragalus siniens. L.) in winter. When only one crop can be raised, the choise falls on rice. The choice of crops bears of course an important relation to the economy of farmers, for while their time is occupied rll the year 94 Japan in tJie Beginning of the '20th Century. round when the tillage can be carried on throughout the year, they can have more or less time at their disposal when farming operations are suspended in winter. As a general rule our farmers are least busy in winter, and this leisure they employ in repairing their tools and implements or making other arrangement against the coming season. Stock-farming also bears an important relation to climate, but, as mentioned above, this branch of farming is decidedly secondary, both from traditional custom and from the lack of space available for it. It is, however, gradually coming to the front in the northern districts. II. LAND. General Kemaeks. — Classified according to the nature of mother-rocks from which it is derived, the soil of Japan is divisible into several kinds ; but according to geological formations only two kinds of soil exist in Japan, generally speaking ; these soils being igneous and sedimentary. Soils derived from igneous works occupy about one-third of the whole area of the country, and as these generally exist on hilly places only a small portion of them can be brought under cultivation. The soil of these cultivable areas is generally loamy and fertile. Alluvial Soil.— Soils of sedimentary formation are more widely distributed than the others, generally occupying plains and therefore easily accessible for purpose of cultivation. Of the various kinds of soils of sedimentary formations, those belonging to the Tertiary, Diluvium or Alluvium system occupy a very wide area and generally form the most valuable arable land in the country, while the remainder belongs to Paleozoic or Mesozoic formations and is limited in extent. The soils of Tertiary or Diluviutt, formationa,- existing in the northeastern parts of the Main Island in larger proportion than in others, are generally clayey, containing, as we proceed towards the north, a larger quantity of organic matter. They are moderately fertile. The soils of Hokkaido, also belonging to these two for- mations, are richer in organic matter which has accumulated for Land. 95 many centuries. They are therefore far more fertile than same kind of soils fonnd in the Main Island. The soils belonging to Alluvium formation are widely distribut- ed throughout the country, and as they occupy level places easily admitting irrigation, they are well adopted for the cultivation of rice. The presence of great number of streams, short in length and rapid in current, explains the wide distribution of alluvium soils in Japan, and why it has a tendency to be sandy. However, owing to the comparative abundance of rain fall, the soil is fairly productive. Natural Classification of Land. — The land in Japan pro- per (exclusive of Formosa) occupies an area of 24,794.36 sq. ri which corresponds to 38,555,229 cJw. This land can be classified £j follows as to ownership and kind : — iST KIND. (Private Land). Land owned by private individuals Area c/id. 14,272,339 (a.) TAXABLE LAND. Puddy or upland fields 5,045,278 Dwelling land 384,635 Salt fields 7,090 Forests 6,997,571 Plains and pastures 1,075,246 Mineral springs, ponds, swamps and miscellaneous land. 20,967 Total 13,530,788 (b.) LAND EXEMPTED FROM TAXATION FOR SOME YEARS. Newly opened land 10.556 Waste land 232,730 Puddy fields 71,721 Upland fields 133,164 Dwelling land 3,23® Salt fields 8,900 Plains and pastures »',86S Mineral springs, ponds, etc 3,236 Total 343,286 96 Japan in tlw Beginning of the 20th Century. (c.) LAND EXEMPTED FROM TAXATION AND UNTAXABLE LAND. School land \fi6o Premises of shrines I1I64 Cemeteries and graveyards 22,773 Sewer- ways, drainage ponds, etc 49.658 Embankments 4>027 Railroad track 7,6ll Protection forests 401,045 Roads and water- works routes 828 Farm l^oundaries 9,277 Others 236 Total 498,265 2ND KIND. Land belonging to the State and Court 21,394,805 A. Land belonging to the Court, Imperial Mau- solea. Shrine premises 3,670,803 B. Land belonging to Princes of the Blood, Government land 80,171 C. Government land, forests, plains ; public parks, former foreign concessions, foreign ceme- teries, etc 17,643,063 D. Premises of Government and local institutions, hospitals, etc 766 Grand Total 35,667,144 If tlie grand total is deducted from the gross area of 38,555,229 clio, there remain 2,888,085 oho, which account for highways, places under water, etc. Classifioation of Arable Land. — The gross area of our arable land is 6,120,519 c/to, which can be devided as follows according to uses : — cho. Puddy fields 2,748,575 Upland fields (containing 2,296,698 Mulberry fields 222,731 Tea plantations) 31,889 Plains aud pastures 1,075.246 Land. 97 Percentage of Arable Land. — The whole area of the arable land in Japan is only 15.7 per cent of the whole area of the Empire (exclusive of Formosa) : in other words, the whole area of arable land extends over an area of 38,555,229 cJw as before mentioned. On the other hand the area of puddy and upland fields, amounting to 5,045,273 chS, corresponds to only 12.9 per cent, of the whole surface of the country. The comparatively small area of arable land is solely attributable to the hilly nature of our country. Distribution of Arable Laxd. — ^The foregoing extent of arable land is distributed among the local prefectures in the following table : — Upland Plains and Prefecture. Puddy fields. fields. pastures. Total. Tokyo ... 17,892 42,275 7,664 67,821 Kanagawa 23,868 49,855 25,949 99,672 Saitama ... 66,876 97,576 9,110 173,562 Chiba ... I02,I0I 73^499 19,339 194,939 Ibaiagi ... 88,152 101,698 20,172 210,022 Tochigi ... 50,199 54,232 25,448 129,879 Oumma ... 2I,9H 69,498 23,272 114,681 N^ano ... 68,886 90,547 183,776 343,209 Yamanashi 18,443 41,898 13,250 73,591 Shizuoka ... 60,993 65,566 75,067 201,626 Aichi 87,595 60,921 6,899 155,415 Miye 73,611 24,629 4,602 102,842 Gifu 61,644 47,428 8,490 117,562 Shiga 63,215 11,222 10,106 84,543 Fukui 45,261 14,391 2,562 62,214 Ishikawa ... 50,879 30,665 3,317 84,861 Toyama ... 76,148 18,220 3,998 98,366 Niigata . . . 162,163 77,092 14,726 253,981 Fukushima 91,451 72,408 24,112 187,971 Miyagi 80,706 38,320 13,310 132.236 Yamagata 84,378 42,201 14,991 141,570 Akita 98,404 35,025 75,699 209,128 Iwate 50,514 86,776 97,041 234.3?» Aomori ... 5,813 51,773 69,678 179,465 Kyoto 46,578 18,957 1,317 66,852 Osaka 53,568 16,759 673 71,000 Nara... :.. 33.118 10,841 910 44,869 98 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Upland Plains and Prefecture. Puddy fields. fields. pastures. Total. Wakayama 31,622 12,832 1,380 45,834 Hyogo 106,240 33,806 12,541 152,587 Okayama... 81,530 38,630 4,375 124,535 Hiroshima 74,557 36,991 2,824 "4,372 Yamagata 79,077 34,668 2,599 "6,344 Shimane ... 54,729 41,518 1,404 97,651 Tottori ... 31,521 13,240 60,160 104,921 Tokushima 22,488 38,480 1,406 62,374 Kagawa ... 39,369 10,305 300 49,974 Ehime .... 47,067 69,614 653 "7,334 Kochi ... 34,633 80,867 1,856 "7,358 Nagrsaki ... 33,137 56,316 22,686 112,139 Saga 50,404 20,358 27,761 98,523 Fukuoka ... 109,618 52,177 45,939 207,734 Kumamoto 65,361 107,938 13,878 187,177 Oita 591,519 49,194 59,388 159,101 Miyazaki ... 39,461 67,936 22,174 129,571 Kagoshima 55,387 161,473 35,546 252,406 Holckaido... 1,478 15,814 2,523 19,815 Oltinawa ... 3,723 8,355 unknown unknown Izu group ... 65 1,903 450 2,418 Total 2,748,575 2,296,698 1,075,246 6,120,519 Conditions oy Arable Land. —The cultivation of lice being the principal item in the ecoaomy of our farmers, the greater part of the arable land consists of rice fields which often occupy places situated in low and wet places and not quite suited for other crops. Of these rice fields 30 per cent admit of receiving a second crop after the harvesting of rice. Upland fields are to be found on the other hand in elevated places where the drainage is good. In districts which are very densely populated or where special agriculture products are to be raised, even the slopes of the hills are utilized for upland farming. Average Area of Cultivated Lots.— The lots of cultivated fields are extremely small. According to the latest returns 53 per cent of the puddy fields consist of lots measuring less than 5 .. Crops raised Okinawa and some parts of Shikoku where the in a year. temperature is higher than in the other parts of" the country that rice can be raised more tlian two times in a year. In most other places, the low temperature- of the soil, owing to the presence in it of too much moisture, obliges the farmers to content themselves with the cultivation of rice alone. Still owing to the improvements efiected, the area of two crop land is gradually increasing, as shown, below : — Ratio to whole ekd. area of paddy-fields.- One crop fields 1.985,513 71 Two ciup litlls 755,983 29 Land. 103 The second crop raised after the cultivation of rice ia generally barley, rape or genge (Astragalus Siuiens. L.). Upland Farms. — ^The most important point in the utilization of dry upland farms consists in the choice of crops to be raised after the preceding crop has been harvested. The Number of crops raised in upland farms are generally grains. Crops raised garden vegetables or crops of industrial value. in a ytar. Sometimes other crops are raised in the spaces left unoccupied by the crop that is growing. For instance, garden vegetables or sweet potatoes may be planted in fields where barley or wheat is growing. In general two crop are raised in one field, though in rare cases and in warmer districts as many as four are found ; as, for instance (1) barley, (2) indigo, (3) beans, (4) rape. Mulberry trees and tea shrubs are generally planted in fields set apart for this purpose, and they generally occupy land not well suited for the planting of more important crops, such as the slope* of hills, sandy dunes and such like places. They are also largely planted along the borders and edges of ordinary fields. As mentioned above, upland fields devoted to the cultivation of grasses for feeding cattle are extremely scarce, and it is only in Hokkaido and the 0-U districts (i.e. the northeastern parts of the Main Island) where stock farming is comparatively thriving that grassts are cultivated to some extent. RECLAMATIOX OF LAND.— The reclamation of forests or virgin land belonging either to private individuals or to the State, is going on more or less in Japan proper, exclusive of Formosa and Hokkaido. Special provisions exist for .seUing State wild or forest land to people desirous of converting it into ordinary tillage land. To enumerate the kinds of land thus reclaimed recently, the area reclaimed in 1898 was 6,083 cho ^ in 1899, 9,890 cho ; in 1900, 7,790 cho. Reclamation in Hokkaido. — The reclamation is of course far more striking in Hokkaido, where large tracts yet remain to be brought under cultivation and where the Government has adopted various measures for inviting settlers from other parts of the country, by offering them a fixed rate of land free of price under 104 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. certain conditions. The land thus opened up during the last seven years with the aggregate extent of reclamation existing at the end of each year is shown in the following table : — Year. 1893- 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898 . 1899. igoo. 1901 . 1902 . Total reclaimed Area newly area existing at the reclaimed. end of the year. . 8,691 65,677 ■ 15,899 82,111 • 15.677 97,806 • i9>597 115,538 . 24,697 142,707 . 28,178 170,293 . 37,002 215,595 ■ 29,586 241,309 ■ 35,924 265,785 — 288,92s It is of course out of the question to expect in Japan proper any such striking reclamation. However there exist, even in Japan proper, lands which though still left Laud available unutilized for agricultural purposes may with profit for Reclamation be reclaimed by proper care and by the application in Japan of improved methods of agriculture. Supposing Proper. hilly land which is inclined at an angle of less than 15° is capable of being thus utilized this kind of land is found in Japan proper and Hokkaido to the following extent : — Whole area. Level land in- clined at an angle of less than 15°. Area under cultivation. Level land inclined at an angle of less than 15° not yet reclined. cAS. cAo. cAS, cXtd. Honshu ... ... 22,636,578 5,602,786 3,777,312 1,825,474 Shikoku ... ... 1,790,346 439,671 305,959 133,712 Kyushu ... ... 3,676,347 1,102,666 883,008 219,656 Hokkaido... ... 7,848,783 2,383,889 215,595 2,068,294 Total... - 35,952,055 9,429,012 5,181,874 4,247,136 Note : — In the foregoing figures the data for Okinawa and the Izu archipelago Are net included. Capital. 105 III. CAPITAL. Land. — ^The arable land that forms the basis of our farming covers over 5 million cho yielding about 1,000 million yen worth of crops every year. Of that sum rice constitutes about 400 million yen in value. The value of a rable land is estimated at above 7,000 million yen. Buildings. — Farm buildings and outhouses generally form part, in consequence of our farming system, of the farmers' dwelling- Louses, and as the farming carried on is on a comparatively small scale, the capital invested on this account is not large. If, how- ever, the dwelling houses of 6 million farming families are included, this particular capital may be estimated at about 290 million yen. "WORKING- CAPITAL.— Apart from the capital invested in land and buildings for farming purposes, farmers require working capital existing in the following shapes : — Consolidated { I^vt ^01™''^"^°'" ■c-i 1. ( Manure. ^°^^^^ \ Fodder. I. Tools and Implements. — From the limited scope of farm- ing and also from the abundant supply of labor, farming in Japan is chiefly carried on by manual labor, partly supplemented by the use of cattle. Implements of any elaborate nature are not, therefore, employed to any great extent, and the tools used are not always made of metal. The tools and implements used in Japan may be divided into these kinds, namely, (1) those for tillage, (2) those for carriage, and (3) those for horses and other domestic animals- used for field-work. While the tools and implements employed are so limited both in kind and in labor-saving capacity, even the number of tliose tools and implements possessed by our farmers is comparatively small. The farming implements generally possessed by a family -cultivating 1 ch!o of wet and dry fields may be something as follows in value : — 106 Japan in the Beginning of the 20iA Century. yen. For field work 2.75 For use in-doors Iio For use in storehouse 12.65 Total 16.50 Estimated at the foregoing rate, the value of the farming toola for the whole cultivated area of 5 million e/io amounts to 82,500,000 yen. However, this estimate applies to districts where tillage is ex- clusively done by manual labor, so that it is to be raised to some extent when live stock are counted in. II. Live Stock. — ^The beasts used in farming are cattle and horses, and their use is greater in the southern districts where horses are generally used, and less in the northern districts in which oxen predominate. On the whole, the number of horses is larger than that of oxen. These beasts are used principally for tillage and as beasts of burden, though to some extent they are also usefiil, as in other countries, for supplying manure. Though at present farming chiefly depends on human labor, it is inevitable that this state of things must change with the progress of the times and that our farmers must be prepared to make use to a greater extent of the cheaper labor supplied by machinery and beasts. The utilization of beasts in the field of the labor is all the more necessary in a hilly country like ours, where the employment of any large labor-saving machines is not easily possible. Horses and oxen are in part employed largely in agricultural operations in districts where agriculture has had a greater development than in other 'districts. In such go-ahead localities, every farmer keeps one or two or even three farm beasts. At present the number of live stock in our country is out of all proportion to that in Western countries, but this state of things will be radically changed for the better at no distant time, for the public and especially the farmers have become convinced of the necessity of utilizing the labor of beasts. IH. Manube. — Night soil and stable manure play a most im- portant part as fertilizers, though recently farmers have begun to supplement them with other kinds of fertilizers. These fertilizers Capital 107' are generally of four kinds, namely, artificial feritlizers, vegetable manures, animal manuies, and miscellaneous fertilizers. Of the vegetable manures, rape-seed cakes and bean-cakes are especially predominant. Next to tliem come animal manures, among which fish guano is most conspicuous. Artificial manures are also emjDloyed to no small extent. These fertilizers are either made at home or me imported, and of the imported fertilizers rape-seed and bean-cakes from China are the most important item both in quantity and value. (a) Output of Fertilizers. — The following figures show the output of the principal fertilizers made at home in 1902 : — Quantity. Kind. kwammi. Sulphate of lime and other artificial manures 2,379,612 Oil cakes and fish 4,429,851 Rape seed 2,555,901 Cottonseed 426,093 Others 316,218 Dried sardine 362,867 Miscellaneous fish manure 1,730,644 The demand for chemical fertilizers having grown very marked of late, the manufacture of superphosphate of lime and other phosphate manures, and nitrogenous manures has become active. (6) IsipoRT OF Fertilizers. — The import of fertilizers from abroad stood as follows in 1901 : — Kind. Ammonium sulphate Bones Bone dust Dried sardine Oil cakes (beans) Fish Others Super-phosphates Nitrates of Soda Others Total Note : - Fractions of iLyen are omitted. Though the import of foreign fertilizers of all kinds- has been steadily on the increase of late, in no particular kind of Quantity. Value. Jiin. yeji^ 4,250,607 334,812 17,871,008 355,970 242,57s 6,157 4,946,243 153,563 3,653,621 (Picul) 8,002,314 745,489 „ 1,451,361 416,622 „ 667,035 35,304,435 603.645 3,468,938 2i6,5.->9 — 329,690 12,122,076 108 Japan in Hie beginning of the 20th Century. fertilizer has this tendency been more striking than in oil-cakes. In 1892, the import of oil-cakes reached 616,427 piculs valued at 824,652 yen. In quantity the import increased five- Oil-Cakes, fold during the next ten years and in value about ten- fold. The bulk of the imported oil-cakes consists of bean-cakes coming from northern China, and the marvellous increase in the demand for oil-cakes proves how much our farmers have begun to appreciate the value of nitrogenous manure. While the consumption of imported and home-made fertilizers is so extensive, at the same time the farmers living in remote districts depend even at present chiefly on manures made at their own homes, such as stable manure, composts, and night soil. (c) SuPEEVisiON OF Feetilizek-busi^'ess. — "With the greater use of artificial fertilizers the Government perceived the necessity of providing against the dishonest practices of merchants and manu- facturers and of enabling farmers to secure really valuable fertilizers. This resulted in the enforcement in December, 1899, of the Law relating to the Control of Fertilizers. It is not yet possible to ascertain how far this piece of legislation has been successful in its object, but, according to the report made by the inspecting officials whose duty is to supervise the operation of this law, the arrange- ment has been working satisfactorily at least during 1901 and 1902 which the said report covered. IV. FoDDEE. — The comparative insignificance of stock-farming is naturally reflected in the imperfect manner of feeding live-stock, and though oats and such food are excellent for them, the food generally given by our farmer to cattle and horses consists of bran of various kinds, hay or fresh grass. Here ends this brief description of the working funds of our farmers. Next the banking facilities existing for their benefit will be briefly described. V. Banking Facilities foe Faemees.— In Japan as else- where there is a tendency for the wealthier classes to expand in •all spheres of activity at the expense of the poorer classes, and it naturally follows that our farmers whose means are generally very limited are in danger of having even these limited means encroached upon by manufacturers or merchants of larger resources. Herein Capiial. 109 comes the necessity to provide some banking facilities specially for the benefit of the farmers. Banks. — The Japan Hypothec Bank (Kangyo Ginko), the Local Hypothec Banks (Noko Ginko), the Colonial Bank (Taku- shoku Ginko) and the system of Credit Guilds, have all been created with the express object of satisfying this requirement. Those establishments will be briefly described in the following paragraphs, other details about them being reserved for the chapter of Finances. The preamble of the law relating to this bank succinctly explains the nature of the l)usiness to be transacted by the bank. " It admits of no doubt," it states, " that the The Japan comparative lack of developement of our agricul- Hypothec Bank, ture is mainly attributable to absence of pro- per facilities for supplying funds on the security of real estate. Now, in order to carry to greater prosperity the agriculture of our country and to promote its productive capacity, there are many things to be undertaken, these being the reclamation of new land, the control of rivers, planting of woods, providing of better facilities of irrigation or drainage, improvement of the mode of tillage, supply of cheap fertilizers, and sundry other things. But those improvements cannot from their very nature yield returns until after the la23se of ten or a score of years, so that funds which in trade can yield returns in a very short space of time are entirely out of place in undertaking connected with farm- ing. The funds advanced to farmers must be of longer term and at cheaper rates." The bank was established to supply this want, as indicated by the phrase " improvement and develbpment of agriculture and in- dustry," and transacts loans and payments as follows : — LOANS. Loans on Real Estate > Loans on credit. PAYMENTS. Payments by instalments In less than 50 years. f Within 5 years, the aggregate sum of loans Payments within fixed period -j of this kind not to exceed i/io of that of ( loans payable by instalments. 110 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Centicry. Loans on credit are made only to public bodies such as muni- cipal corporations, towns or villages, or other bodies organized under law. The bank principally deals, however, with loans of large amounts, leaving those for smaller amounts to be undertaken by the Loer.I Hypothec Banks which in organization and nature may be regarded as miniature copies of the central Hypothec Bank. The result is that although loans for such costly undertakings as the reclamation of large tracts of land or any similar work can be procured on easy terms from the Japan Hypothtf Bank, the farmers of small means who constitute by far the greater majority of the farming population are practically precluded from the benefits sup- posed to be conferred on the farming community at large by the bank, so that the loans made by the bank generally go to manu- facturers and comparatively little to agriculturist. It ought to be added that the maximum limit of interest is tc> be determined with tlie approval of the ^linister of Finance. Started in the same year as their bigj^er brother and at the rate of one to each administrative locality, the Local Hypothec Banks are joint-stock companies with a capital of not less than 200,000 yen. As set forth in the explanation of Local Hypothec the Law i-elating to Local Hypothec Banks, the Banks. latter aim at supplying funds to farmers of the middle and lower clati.ses, and even to make loans on credit when applications come from organized bodies. Thesa banks number 46 in all and are also siiljjoet to the supervision of the Minister of Finance, and enjoy in return no small assistance from the Treasury. The loans to be made are restristed to the following objects — 1. Keclamation of land, irrigation, drainage, and improvement of the fertility of the soil. 2. Construction and impi-ovement of farm-roads. 3. Settlement in newly reclaimed places. 4. Purdiase of seed, young plants, manure and other materials j'equired in agriculture and industry. 5. Purchase of implements, and machines, boats, waggo;:^ ami beasts for use in farming and manufacture. Capital. Ill 6. CJonstruction or repair of building for use in farming nnd manufacture. 7. Improvements in farming and manufacture not included in the foregoing clauses. 8. Adjustment of farm-lands. 9. Undertakings by Credit Guild?, Purchases Guilds, ami Produce Guilds of unlimited liiibility and organized undci- the Industrial Guilds Law. The loans to be made for the foregoing objects are under these couditions : — LOANS. Loans on Real Estate. I. Payments by yearly instalments ... Within 30 years. {Within 5 years, the aggregate sum of the loans not to exceed J of that of loans pay- able by instalments. Loans on Credit. I. Payments by yearly instalments ... Within 30 years. ■n i. •.!,■ c J -J f Loans payable within 5 years: and loans ^. Payments withm fixed period | with no such restriction. Loans on credit and payable by instalments can be made only to municipal corporations, towns or villages, and public bodies or- ganized under law, while loans on credit with payment within iixed period may be made only under these conditions : — Kepaid within 5 years. 1. To municipal and other civic corporations or public bodies organized under law. 2. To joint application from not less than 20 persons who are judged thoroughly trustworthy, and who are engaged in agriculture or manufacture. 3. To Credit Guilds, Purchase Guilds, and Produce Guilds of unlimited li ibility. The farming classes, however, are as yet unable to enjoy to any satisfactory extent the benefit accruing from those facilities, chiefly because most of our farmers possess only limited means at their disposal, and because loans are necessarily accompanied by elaborate processes. Herein comes the necessity of some method which will allow 112 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. even small farmers to obtain loans, and it was to supply this want that the Credit Guilds were organized, the object of their establish- ment being as the provisions in the Law relating to Credit Guilds. Industrial Guilds proclaim, to supply to members of the Guilds, the funds required for developing the business of the members, and also of furnishing them with means of saving. The Credit Guilds, therefore, may be compared with the People's Banks existing in Germany. The Credit Guilds are distinct in nature from the Central and Local Hypothec Banks and indeed from all banks, in that those guilds, like the trade unions existing in England and elsewhere, are intended to promote the common interests of the members, who while obtaining for their own use funds at low rate of interest, are also entitled to participate in the proceeds arising from the investment of the capital of the organization. The members are therefore obliged to contribute to the capital. The guilds of unlimited liability may also procure loans from the local Hypothec Banks or from other quarters. Though only a few years have elapsed since the coming into operation of the law under which the Credit Guilds are organized, thejr number has already reached 300 throughout the country, and there is prospect of their growing far more numerous. It is not possible to describe here at any length the result of the working of these petty democratic banks, and it is enough to say that even in places where bankers generally exact interest at the rate of 20 per cent, or so from ordinary clients and as high as 30 to 40 per cent, from small farmers, the guild furnishes loans to its member at. about 10 per cent. The condition of affairs in Hokkaido being distinct from that in the other parts of Japan proper, and especially owing to the abundance of waste land to be reclaimed and the The Hokkaido comparative scantiness of the population, special Colonization banking facilities are required for expediting the Bank. exploitation of the resources of the island. To supply this want the present bank was estab- lished in the year 1899 as a joint stock company with a capital of 3 million yen and for the term of 50 years. This term Labor. 113 may be prolonged, subject to the approval of the following descrip- tion : — 1. Loans on real estate payable by yearly instalments -within the period of 30 years. 2. Loans on real estate payable within 5 years according to fixed period payment system. 3. Loans on shares and debentures of joint stock companies engaged in the opening up of virgin land in HokkaidS, also to subscribe to debentures issued by such companies. 4. Loans on Hokkaido products and advances on goods. 5. To accept deposits and custody of objects of value. 6. Loans on credit payable by yearly instalments or within fixed periods to municipal and other civic corporations established under the Hokkaido civic corporation system and also to legally organized public bodies in Hokkaido. The aggregate amount to be invested in business coming under No. 3 may not exceed 1/5 of the total loans coming under Nos. 1 and 2. ' The Government has subscribed about 1,000,000 yen to the capital of the bank, and in return for this help it regulates during the space of not more than 30 years from the establishment, the rate of inter- est on loans advanced on real estate and payable by yearly instalments. IV. LABOR. Faemin.g Population and Householbs. — Though the actual numbers of- our farming population are not exactly known, the returns. in 1901 put the total population at 23,000,000 with 4,800,000 households approximately. In other words, the farming population, constitute a little over 60 per cent, of the whole population while the number of farmers' households is a little less than 60 per cent of the total number of households. The farmers' households contain on an average 5.8 person, of whom 2.5 persons may be regarded as of an age capable of doing effective, work. According to this estimate, the number of the farm- ing community of an age to work may be reckoned at 22,000,000. As this number includes landowners who generally lease their land 114 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. to tenant-farmers, the actual • number of people working on the farms must be somewhat less than the foregoing figures. Tillage Land and Farmers. — At the end of 1899 the land under tillage covered altogether about 5,000,000 cho, of which 2,745,000 cho were paddy farms and 2,286,000 eho were upland farms. The total area being compared with the total number of farming families, the average area of tillage land corresponds to about 1 eho per family, while the rate per working man is only 4 tan approximately. It may easily be inferred therefore that tillage is mainly carried on by manual labor. The number of working people required in preparing the land for the various crops and in gathering in those crops — working, of course, according to the methods ordinary in vogue in this country, may be roughly estimated as follows: — WORKIG PEOPLE PER " TAN." Rice ... Barley Wheat Rye ... Buckwheat Men. 17 II II 12 Women. 9 6 6 6 3 Rape ... Beans ... Indigo Tobacco Cotton Men. ID 7 i8 25 15 Women. 9 5 12 23 19 Demand a>id Supply of Labor. — According to inquires carried out in 1888 in 38 prefectures, of the agricultural families in Japan 56 per cent, cultivated less than 8 tan each, 30 per cent, between 8 tan to 1 cho 5 tan, and only 15 per cent, culti- vated over 1 cho 6 tan each. From these data it is easy to see that farming on a large scale and by the employment of a large number of people is exceptional. It is only in special cases, such as in the season of sericulture or of the cniing of tea, that a large number of hands is engaged. Our farmers are generally therefore their own laborers, and farm laborers who make it their regular business to work on land owned by others form an insignificant portion of the farming community. There are, it is true, a very small number of petty farmers who may be open to engagement when the work on their own field is slack. In the height of the farming season, too, such as the season of the planting or gathering Labor. 115 in of rice, neighbors assist each other, and thus supplement the mutual deficiency of hands. As things stand, therefore, except in the limited number of places where manufacturing is being actively- carried on or where emigration either abrord or to other parts uf Japan is temporarily draining the country of a large proportion of its able-bodied men, there is no likelihood, at least for the time being, of any lack of farm hands being experienced. Condition op Engagement. — Farm laborers may, like other kinds of laborers, be divided into those who are engaged by the year and those who are engaged by the day. The farm laborers generally live in the residences of their employers who, besides supplying them W'ith board, also give them clothes twice a year. In some cases laborers are engaged under the special condition of working one day in their employers' service, to attend the next day to their own work, thus attending to the employers' and their own trork on alternate days. Lads are also engaged for the term of ,5 ■or 7 years, and these therefore stand to their masters somewhat in the relation of apprentices to employers. During the term of contract they get their board, clothing and whatever else is a necessity of life from their employers, but very rarely do they get regular wages. Day laborers are of course engaged by the day, and their wages vary according as they bring their own food or are fed by their employers. Very rarely are day laborers contract laborers. Then some are engaged by the month or during some special period, such as the season of sericulture and other work. There are also some work-people who do job work and get paid according to the amount of the work done. Wage. — According to the official returns, the average wages ■of farm laborers were as follows, in 1901. Day laborer on farm Day laborer in sericulture Operative for reeling silk , Farm laborer engaged by the year In the foregoing table, only laborers engaged by the year get board. The wages, it may be added, vary somewhat according to Males. Females. sen. sen. 32.0 20.0 33-0 19-5 — 20.0 2ii.Z2ym. 17.00 w». 116 Japan in the Beginning of the 2<)th Century districts and seasons, and while some men engaged by the year get as much as 85 yen in one place, in others the pay is only. 7 yen. The day laborer employed in sericulture sometimes gets 1 yen a day during the height of the season. Wages in general show a tendency to advance, as the following iigures based on the wages ruling in 1887 will show, these being adopted as the standard of unit (100). Day farm laborer (men) „ „ (women) Day sericultural laborer (men) „ (women) ., Silk-reeling operative Farm laborer by the year (men) .. (women) 1901. 232 250 223 201 182 165 169 1897. 204 199 181 176 1 66 ISO 156 1892. 112 iig "7 123 122 Wages in 1 1894 taken as standard.! Wages are in most cases paid in cash, though to some extent payment is also made in food or clothing. Migration of Fakmers. — As shown in the chapter on Population the exodus ■ of the rural population to the cities and towns has grown somewhat striking, and though this migration does not yet shown itself in an absolute decrease of the rural population, there can be no doubt that if this tendency becomes aggravated, the evil of a lack of farm hands, such as that complained of in many Western countries, may take place. In Hokkaido alone, during the 5 years 'ending 1901, 144,902 farmers settled there, coming from other parts of the country. Introductory. 117 CHAPTER III —Agricultural Products. Introductory— Food-Stuffs— Products of special Use — Horticultural Products. I. INTRODUCTORY. The general tendency of our agricultural industry is to change gradually for the better, as the following data on the staples will prove. I. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF YEARLY ACREAGE OF STAPLE FOOD-STUFFS (fractions below decii 1S77. Ordinary rice ... Glutinous rice ... Upland rice ... Barley Wheat Rye ■Soja beans ... Red beans Millet Sorghum Italian millet ... Buckwheat Sweet potatoes... Potatoes cko (in thousand). .. 3;443 214 .. 503 176 282 188 140 imal represent tan in this and other tables). 1882. 1887. 1892. 1897. 1902. cAo {in c/w {in cAo {in cAo (in cAo (in thousand), thousand), thousand), thousand), thousand). 2.357 233 602 373 488 2,391 215 29 62s 390 575 466 324 27 87 158 221 16 2,440 26S 46 635 434 649 443 239 27 90 i6i 243 2,457 267 62 653 458 651 435 109 250 27 74 174 259 28 2-499 263 84' 645 476 682 466 129 226 34 70 165 276 42 11. STAPLE PRODUCTS OF SPECIAL USE. 1887. 1S92. 1897. 1902. Cotton 98,478-9 71,4310 44,444.0 20,700.1 Hemp ... ... 14,840.4 18,972.5 2-^,349-7 16,891.1 Indigo-leaves ... 50.257-4 44,049.5 5^.712.3 37.193-3 Tobacco-leaves .. 21,803.5 29,059.0 31,477-5 23,946-3 Rape 167,295.1 171,795.0 154.1670 I57.045-I 118 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. It will be seen from the following table that the area of culti- vation of the staples is showing on the whole a satisfactory increase. Especially is this the case with soja beans, sweet potatoes, and potatoes, among the staple food-stuffs, and hemp and tobacco among the staples for special use. The striking exception is the decrease in the area of the cotton plantations in consequence of the recent large import of foreign cotton. Our sugar industry has also suffered somewhat from foreign competition though it has lately began to recover its former prosperity, especially since our annexation of Formosa. Here are the figures showing the output of sugar. 1878 1882 1887 1892 1897 kiuarnnis, 7,424,819 9,696,522 9,904,901 10,120,871 9.550.489 Again, except for some staples of less importance, the yield from the same area has become increased, thanks to the better methods that have of late obtained in farming, as : — (I). COMPARATIVE YIELD OF STAPLE FOOD-STUFFS PER TAN. 1887. 1S92. 1897. 1902. koku. koku. koku. koku. Ordinary rice — 1.526 1.209 1.328 Glutinous rice — I.410 1.076 1. 190 Upland rice ... — O.7S1 0.706 0.721 Barley — 1.042 1-255 1.262 Wheat — 0.708 0.832 0.819 Rye — 0.932 0.946 0-933 Soja beans ... 0.698 0.701 0.712 0.673 Red beans ... — — 0.566 0.548 Millet ••• ... 1.058 1.260 0-957 0.88s Italian millet 1.265 1.250 i.o8i 0.830 SoTgluim 1.005 1.022 0.941 0.805 Buckwheat ... 0.705 0.714 0.569 0-573 Sweet potatoes (,4a/oOT.). 0-Z53 0.234 0.256 0-257 Potatoes ( „ ) 0.172 0.184 0.202 0.12S Note : — The crop of rice in 1897 was a failure. Introductory. 11& (2). COMPARATIVE YIELD OF STAPLES OF SPECIAL USE PER TAN. 1887. 1892. 1897. 1902. kwamme. kwamme. kwamme. kwamme Cotton ••• 23 18 16 16 Hemp . ■•• 16 14 16 16 Indigo-leaves ... 31 35 38 34 Tobacco-leaves .. . ••■ 27 26 28 35 Rape (Jiokii) . ... 0.682 •598 0.656 0.777 (3). COMPARATIVE TABLE OF AGGREGATE OUTPUT OF FOOD-STUFFS. 1877. 1882. 1887. 1892. 1897. 1902. koku. koku. koku. koku. koku. koku. Ordinary 24,438 27,875 36,675 37,276 29,722 33,201 Glutinous 2,149 2,525 3,100 3,789 2,878 3.138 Rice. Upland Total — — 223 363 437 606 26,587 30,401 39,999 41,429 33,039 36,947 Barley S,°3i 5,817 7,101 6,811 8,028 8,146 Wheat 1,765 2,425 3,041 3,078 3,8n 3,907 Mugi. Rye Total 2,823 4,379 5,678 6,16s 6,165 6,372 9,620 12,622 15,822 15,951 1,800 18,425 Soja beans 1,882 2,351 3,253 3,"o Z^io 3,136 Red beans — — — — 618 70S Millet 1,318 1,633 2,574 3,016 2,395 2,003 Soighum 170 .78 247 278 260 286 Italian millet 997 1,012 1,012 1,131 806 567 Buckwheat 527 690 1,117 1,156 990 948 Sweet potatoes (/lw«OT.) ... 597,447 308,442 561,407 568,371 662,391 712,126 Potato* ;s (kwam.) 6,000 12,561 28,382 40,491 58,528 53,832 (4). COMPARATIVE TABLE OF AGGREGATE OUTPUT OF SPECIAL STAPLE CROPS. Cotton {kwamme) . Hemp ( „ ) ... . Indigo-leaves ( „ ) ■ Tobacco-leaves ( „ ) . Rape (koku) 1887. 22,388,560 2,396,856 15,424,412 5,987,359 1,143,035 12,584,822 2,745,802 15,447,822 7,643,203 1,026,572 1897. 7,304,353 3,569,159 19,415,593 8,871,370 1,011,004 1902. 3,321,047 2,687,586 12,495,151 8,349,678 1,110446 In inquiring into the acreage of mulberry and tea fields which are vitally rdated to our two export staples, eilk and tea, that of 120 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i7i Century. the latter, in contrast to that of the other, shows a striking falling off. One consoling fact is that the output of tea shows an increase, due, principally, to the improved mode of curing. TABLE SHOWING THE YEARLY AVERAGE OF MULBERRY AND TEA FIELDS. Year. 1892 «•■ ••• •• 1897 1902 Mulberry. Tea. cho. tan. cho. tan. 231,437 7 '60,699 7 298,203 9 58,892 I 317,14s 8 49,046 I .Y OUTPUT OF COCOONS AND 1 Cocoons. Tea. ioku. kwamme. 942,198 2,761^522 ... 1,328,035 6,514,678 ... 1,219,060 7,01 1,221 ... 1,480,705 7,211,865 ... 2,121,944 8,471,956 ... 2,549,224 6,783,128 Year. 1878 1882 1887 1892 1897 1902 Fruit culture and gardening have made a striking advance recently. Live stock do not yet show any marked development in numbers though there has been a great improvement in their quality. However as measures for improving both the quality of the live stock and increasing their number are now being carried out, the industry will be surely bettered in the near future. Dairy business is an industry of only recent growth, but its result is entirely satisfactorily. Below will be shown the numbers of cattle and horses during the last 24 years : — Year. 1878 1882 1887 1892 1897 1902 Cattle. Horses. 1,080,886 1,545.283 1,160,147 1,644,165 1,020,509 1,537,606 1,094,797 1,554,667 1,214,159 1,592,871 1,275,382 1,515,373 Food-Stuffs. 121 The gross value of the staple agricultural products as calculated flih the recent market price is as follows : — ytn. Rice 445,439,087 " Mugi " (barley, wheat, rye) 124,064,274 Beans 35,952,282 Others 153,872,649 Straw 86,982,360 Cocoons 93,618,991 Silkworm eggs 3,844,121^ Mulberry twigs and Silkworm litters 7,953>I03 Cured tea 9.°37,S45 Live Stock (cattle, horse, sheep, swine) 4>953)S33 Slaughtered beast 12,540,394 Cattle and horses killed by disease 256,831 Dairy products 4,128,017 Staple manure 23,672,628 Poultry and eggs 17,281,416 Total 1,023,587,239 Such is the general states of our agricultural industry, and in Inquiring into the relation between supply and demand of our principal agricultural products, it is observed that though in food- stuffs the supply at home can generally satisfy the demand, this is not always the case with regard to the raw materials used for in- dustrial purposes, as cotton, hemp, etc. These come, therefore, to no small extent from foreign countries. II. FOOD-STUPFS. 1. EiCE. —There are two varieties of rice, ordinary rice (Onza utilissima, Keke) and glutinous rice (0. glutinose, Lour). Both are cultivated in wet and upland fields. The ordinary rice may be con- sidered as the rice, for it constitutes the bulk of the output of this staple cereal. It is used as ordinary diet and also for brewing the national beverage of salce, while the other rice is used for making rice dumplings (mochi) and is therefore very limited in use. Eice being cultivated in every place where its cultivation is Acreage. Output. cho. koku. 2,760,662.1 41,429,676 2,775.233-9 37,267,418 2,736.494-6 41,859,047 2,784,682.5 39,960,798 2,792.499-4 36,240,351 2,787,181.3 33,039,293 2,817,624.0 47,387,666 2,839,550-2 39,698,258 2,828,479-3 41,466,734 2,847,395-0 36,947,091 122 Ja'pan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. possible, from Hokkaido in the north to Formosa in the south, the axea under cultivation is immense as may be seen from the follow- ing table : — AREA (FRACTIONS BELOW DECI.MAL ARE (izir) OF CULTIVATION AND OUTPUT OF RICE. Year. 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1902 The principal centres of rice cultivation are Niigata, Hyogo^ Fukuoka, Aichi, Ohiba, Toyama, and Fukushima. Both the acreage and output may confidently be expected to become larger with the improvement of farming and the completion of various improvement measures. 2. "MuGi." — The Mugi is the staple product for upland fields as rice is for wet fields. Barely and wheat are also cultivated in Avet fields as the second crop after rice. Their cultivation is uni- versal, but that of rye is generally confined in the districts of Kinai and in the more southern places. Barely and rye are used as food-stufis by farmers, who use them mixed with rice. They are also used to soma extent as food for cattle and horses. Wheat is used in manufacturing soy and for making confectionary and various sorts of maccaroni, except buckwheat maccaroni for which buckwheat flour i? useJ. The flour made of Japanese wheat is however not quite so good for bread and superior kind of confectionary, and for those purposes the American flour is extensively imported. In a simi- lar way our barley 19 not so well adopted for making malt for beer, and the bulk of this fermenting ingredient comes from therefore abroad. An attempt has been made with some success to cultivate in Food-Stuffs, 12a Japan certain varieties of foreign barley. The acreage and output during the last ten years are shown below : — " Mugi " Acreage. Output (ioiu). Barely. Rye. Wheat. Total. Barley. Rye. Wheat. Total. Year. (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- fin thou- (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- sand). sand;. sand). sand). sand). sand). sand). sand). 1892 ... .. 653 650 435 1,739 6,811 6,811 1 6,060 15-951 1893 ... 654 654 437 1,746 7,193 6,148 3,294 16,636 1894 ■•• 648 661 442 1,753 8,533 7,316 3,972 19,822 1895 ... 654 672 447 1,774 8,541 7,107 3,987 19.537 1895 ... .. 651 672 443 1,767 7,853 5,927 3,559 17,340 1S97 .... 639 651 458 1,749 8,028 6,16s 3,811 18,005 1S98 ... 659 681 465 1,806 8,913 7,366 4,i8i 20,462 1899 ... .. 657 687 465 1,809 8,512 6,682 4,141 19,335 1900 .... 644 692 468 1,80s 8,659 7,495 4,236 20,391 I90Z ... 645 476 682 1,804 8,146 3,907 6,372 18,425 The principal nrngi districts are Hokkaido, Saitama, Ibaragi, Aichi, Fukuoka, etc. Especially in HokkaidS the growth of these crops is excellent, the comparative scarcity of rainfall during the ripening season being favorable for it. 3. Beans. — The use of beans is extensive in Japan. They are used as subsidiary article of diet, also as food for cattle, and as manure. A large import of beans and pancakes from China and Korea explains their extensive use in Japan. Beans of su- perior quality are largely grown in Hokkaido, and they are also extensively cultivated in Saitama, Ibaragi, Nagano, Miyagi, etc. There are two principal varieties, namely soja beans and red beans, and both are cultivated during the seasons intervening between the different crops of cereals. The latter is used for making confec- tionary, etc. ACREAGE AND OUTPUT. Soja Beans. Red Beans. Year. Acreage (cAo). Output (^ioAu). Acreage (c/io). Output {ioiu). 1894.. . ... 435,852.3 2,943,478 101,428.9 560,277 1895.. ... 431,240.4 3,163,683 105,630.7 615,675 1896.. ... 440,780.2 2,999A9o 103,957-7 576,724 1897.. ... 435,604.8 3,100,973 109,280.7 618,804 1898.. ... 482,044.1 3,108,708 112,313.6 654,885 1899.. ... 455,601.2 3,410,693 120,675.0 822,775 1900.. ... 457,673-7 3,562,176 122,786.1 866,448 1902.. ... 466,149-1 3,136,909 129,290.9 708,712 124 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 4. Millets, Soeghum, Buckwheat.— Millets are cultivated in the hilly districts and are used as food, being eaten mixed with rice. Sorghum is used for making dumplings and buckwheat for making maccaroni. Year. 1S94 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1902 Year, 1S94 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1902 ACREAGE. Millet. Italian Millet. Sorghum. Buckwheat. 235,164.2 84,144.4 26,286.9 172,334-0 247,276.7 77,228.9 26,295.3 175,991.8 248,131.7 75,12+4 28,156.8 171,215-5 250,387.7 74,567.6 27,674.9 l74>i38-2 245,641.3 77,366.3 31,683-5 180,039.6 . 238,742.0 76,618.8 35,741-8 176,144.4 245,738-6 72,538-3 34,414-1 168,996.0 226,239.8 70,510.7 OUTPUT. 34,536-6 165,750.2 Millet. Italian Millet. Sorghum. Buckwheat. 2,144,839 999,209 250,474 1,202,372 2,331,506 923,862 243,066 1,192,377 2,548,458 912,154 245,734 1,090,254 2,395,158 806,274 260,414 990,195 2,626,588 901,472 291,852 1,192,807 2,217,154 861,318 377,768 999,410 2,487,187 864,601 384,452 1,285,394 2,003,317 567,299 286,734 948,886 The ordinary millet is grown in larger quantities in Kyushu than in colder districts and Italian millet is found more in the colder districts than in Kyushu. Sorghum is chiefly grown in Hokkaido, Aichi, Gifu, etc. and buckwheat in Kagoshima, Kana- gawa, Ibaragi, Nagano, Iwate, Aomori, etc. 5. Sweet Potatoes. — This root-crop is raised as food-stuff both for men and beasts, also for brewing liquor and making starch. It is extensively grown in Kyushu and Okinawa. Acreage, {cho.) Output, (izvamme.) ■ 238,942-9 495,948.701 • 340,797-0 711,813,132 • 255,655.2 725,942,023 . 259,166.7 662,391,590 . 267,252.3 716,956,146 . 268,070.5 661,444,862 . 271,440-4 756,935,532 . 276,970.6 712,126,037 Fai'iii Prodvds of Special Use. 125 Year. 1894 1895 1896 1897 1S98 1899 1900 1902 6. Potatoes.— Potatoes are used in Japan for food both for the men and beasts and for making liquor and starch. It is grown extensively in Hokkaido and other districts. Year. . 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 , 1899 1900 1902 The acreage was only 8,850 clio in 1882, and it reached about 42,000 in 1902. The root grown in Hokkaido largely goes to Siberia and Australia, being of superior quality. The appearance of the potato blight in 1900 in the districts lying about Tokyo inflicted serious damage on the crop. The disease has been stamped out. Acreage, (cho.) Output, {kwamme^ ■ 23,116.3 49,752,903 • 23,314.4 44,273,903 . 25,276.9 44,220,605 . 28,996,0 58,528,287 . 36,898.6 34,088,550 . 37,650.6 64,594,705 ^ . 38,261.8 71,775,433 ' ■ 42,139-7 53,832,873 III. FARM PRODUCTS OF SPECIAL USE. 1. Rape. — Rape is grown everywhere in Japan as the second crop after rice or other crops. The rape-seed oil was universally used foi-merly for purposes of illumination, and even now this is still the case in remote corners of the land. The oil is now largely exported abroad, where it is used as a lubricant. The value of rape-seed cake as manure is univer- sally appreciated and is largely used for that purpose. 126 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. This crop is cultivated in all those districts where the Becond 358.8 . 184,772.6 69,117.2 253,889.8 ,. 189,909.2 76,255.1 266,164.3 ,. 208,047.8 80,889.2 288,937.0 . 220,008.5 78,195.4 298,203.9 .. 221,603.6 82,709.1 304,3 '2-7 .. 221,862.9 77>733-o 299,595-9 .. 222,713.1 78,058.0 300,789.1 ,. 228,202.3 75,257-1 303,459-4 .. 237,215.7 79,930-1 317,145-8 140 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. other method — and a greater quantity of raw silk may be secured thereby, but the disadvantage of this method is that the worms are often weak in constitution and liable to produce cocoons of unexpected character. For these reasons, the method most exten- cively followed throughout the country at present is the " conven- tional." Sericultueal Economy. — While the economy of silk raising cannot help being affected by the fluctuations in the prices of com- modities in general, as also by the condition of the cocoon crop of the year, the proQt shows a gradual diminution ow;ing to the general tendency, of late years, of the prices to rise. The following may be given as a fair estimate of the profit and loss of the industry at present: — EXPENDITURE. " Seed " Eggs (I card) T,jr T, 1 f 200 kwnmme 1 Mulberry leaves < , , >■ ■' i^ lo sen per kwa??tme j •.TTT 1 -cTT r SO men, ^o sg/i each "> Workers Wages <^ :; ' -^ , (• *> 1^ 30 women, 20 j«« each / Workers Board (12 «K per capita) Miscellaneous expenses (charcoal, tallow, oil, bobbins, etc.) ... Rpnt / Reai^'ig room 47 ;'■?« 1 ^^"tUtensils Sosenf Interest (7 p. c. per annum or the working capital for 2 monOis) Total yen. 1.500 7-Sa' 4.200 5.000 4.800 0.446 43.446 RECEIPTS. First class cocoons (8 to at i,yen 50 sen per to) ... Middle class cocoons (i to 5 sAo at 2yen per to)... Third class cocoons (5 s/io, 1 yen per to) „ ., punctured [l to $ sho, I yen 50 sen per to) Carcass chrysalis (1 koku 8 to, \ yen per koku) ... Mulberry shoots (20 bundles, 5 sen per bundle) ... Totd Net Profit 30.OCO 3.000 0.500 2.250 1.800 1. 000 44-55° I.J104 Margin of Profit.— Thus calculated, the net profit dwindles down to very insignificant figure; but sericulture being, as a rule. Present Condition of Sericulture. 141 carried on by the farmer as a by-industry and one of tlie rooms of his own dwelling being employed as the rearing room, while the members of his own family attend the worms, what are given above as items of disbursement constitute in effect his own earnings of his family, with the exception of the prices paid for the " seed " egga and mulbery leaves. The Output. — The quantity of cocoons obtainable differs, of course, according to the crop condition of the year ; still on the whole the quantity is on the increase, owing to the progress made in the art of sericulture, the increase being especially notable in the case of autumn cocoons, as may be gathered from the following statistics for the ten years mentioned : — COCOON CROP FOR THE WHOLE OF JAPAN. Year. Total. Spring crop. Slimmer crop. Autumn crop koku. kokii. kohl. koku. 1893 .. 1,686,894 1,225,018 328,591 133,38s 1894 •■ 1,797,842 1,257,836* 373,996 166,010 1895 .. 2,258,173 1,697,803 324,028 236,342 1896 .. 1,831,378 1,384,4" 255,438 197,529 1897 .. 2,121,944 1,654,722 278,257 193,965 1898 .. 2,027,339 1,504,351 301,393 221,565 1899 ., 2,512,562 1,817,935 373,142 3-0,484 1900 .. 2,753,903 2,029,806 377,466 346,631 1901 .. 2,526,181 1,798,672 3-15.617 3.S 1,892 1902 .. 2,549,224 1,774,936 359,772 414,5 '6 CROP RATIO OF EACH SEASON. 1893 1894 J895 1896 1S07 1S9S 1899 1900 1901 1902 Spring crop. Sum .ncr crop. Autumn cop percentage. percent; ■je- P rccntage. 72 19 9 70 21 9 75 14 II 75 14 II ... 78 13 9 74 '5 11 72 15 13 74 14 12 7t 14 IS 7^ 14 16 142 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Import op Chinese Cocoons. — No cocoon is at present sent abroad from Japan and the entire output is consumed at home as material for weaving silk fabrics and also for the purpose of manu- facturing raw silk for exportation. At the same time from five to six hundred thousand yen worth of cocoons is yearly imported from China. The greater part of the importation consists of douppion^ which are turned into floss silk and silk thread. The Chinese cocoons were imported as follows : — Year. iin. Year. Hn. 1897 ... . 713,929 1900 598,999 1898 ,. ... 458,617 1901 . ... 441,371 1899 ... • 807,762 1902 ... ., 649,013 III. EGG-CARDS MAKING. General Remarks. — In the earlier days there were apparently no egg-cards manufacturers separate from the sericulturist, the latter doing his own work of selecting the good cocoons out of his own crop for " seeding " purposes. Nor can any exact data be given as to when the egg-card-making came to form a speciality, though from about the latter part of the 17th century the district of Uyeda in Shinshu and the various provinces in " Kwanto " and Tohoku, were already in the habit of sending out to and supplying the other parts of the country with the " egg-card." What, in modem times, brought about the sudden prosperity of this special industry, was the prevalence, as already mentioned, of the silk ivorm epi- demic in Europe, which created a demand for Japanese " cards." It was at the time when the samurai class, deprived of their permanent pensions, took up this business of the egg-card making, as if with one accord. The subsequent decline in the exportation of the " cards," ^s already told, almost ruined the entire egg-card industry of the country. Since then, however, with the progress and prosperity that have attended the sericultural industry in gene- ral, the special industry in question also revived to such an extent that there is not a locality throughout th.e Empire which dots Egg- Cards Making. 143 For Spring For Sumi^er and hatching. Autumn hatching 16,785 7,577 16,409 7,759 16,324 7,587 13,745 8,939 12,923 4,336 not possess its own egg-card manufactures, as the following table shows : — NUMBER OF EGG-CARD MANUFACTURERS THROUGHOUT JAPAN. Year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 The Nursery Process. — The progress attained, especially on the scientific side, of sericulture has now come to make it an ■ established principle among those interested in the industry that, in the cultivation of the worms for egg purposes, the temperature should not be artificially raised. As for fighting the silk worm epidemic, Pasteur's grainage cel- lulaire method was improved upon and remodelled as the result of investigations carried at the Sericultural Laboratory and this improv- ed method has since proved itself a very efficient means for the purpose for which it was devised. Then the enforcement of the Silk Worm Egg Examination Regulations proved another means of preventing the epidemic from spreading, while on the other hand the examination carried out under the Eegulations had also the satisfactory result of raisirg the standard quality of the eggs. The following table will be interesting in this respect, 1898 being the first year in which the Regulations just mentioned were put in force. Spring breed. Summer and Autumn breed. Passed. Rejected. Passed. Rejected. percentage. percentage. 1898 79 21 75 25 1899 82 18 75 25 1900 82 iS 80 20 igoi 88 12 87 13 1902 89 II — — EroNOMY OF Egg-Caed Making. — The making of egg-cards requires the utmost skill and experience, in addition to the most painstaking care, while the manufacturer must nectssarily be guided in this work by a strong sense of responsibility. A manufacturer 144 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. thus qualified would consider the following a fair estimate of the ins and outs of his business : — DISBURSEMENTS. The " seed " (loo encased moths at 3 «» per head) Mulberay leaves (lo Jif« per ^z£/a») Workers hire (lo men at 30 sen each, 30 women at 20 sm each) Workers board (12 jf« a day on an average) Rents (room 4yen, utensils S6}4 "«> appratus 4yeK) Interest (on the working capital for 2 months at 7 p.c. annum) Card-paper (60 sheets 3 «» each) Miscellaneous expenses Total.. RECEIPTS. Proceeds (6 (0 of cocoons and 60 egg cards at i yen 20 sen) Thread Cocoons (2 ^tf at 3 _)/?«) Douppions (I /i> 5 .f-^o at iy^« 50 S(?») Third class Cocoons (5 i,4o at 12 .ffn) Punctured Cocoons (6 i'tf at I j'e» 20 j^«) Carcass chrysalis (about 2 ,4o^M at I ;iv») Waste mulberry shoots (about 22 bundles) Total Net Profit yen. 3.000 22.000 9.000 4.800 8.865 0.522 1.800 6.800 56.787 72.000 6.000 2.250 0.600 7.200 2.000 1. 100 91.150 34-363 Output of "Seed-Cards." — The yearly production of "seed- cards " is also on the increase in quantity along with the progress of the sericultural industry in general, as may be seen from the following table which gives figures for the years subsequent to the enforcement of the Seed-Cards Examination Regulations : — For Spring For Summer and hatch ng. Autumn hatching. Year. For manufactur- For reproduc- For manufactur- For reproduc- ing purposes. Cards. tive purposes. Moths. ing purposes. Cards. tive purposes. Moths. 1898 .. . ... 2,559,424 20,572,497 165,394 3,949,821 1899 .. ... 2,877,532 21,242,568 227,836 4,579,913 1900 .. . ... 3,124,894 27,530,491 277,300 5,922,683 1901 .. • ". 3,378,718 31,239,854 2,002,622 8,141,607 1902 .. . ... 3,025,280 32,072,367 2,081,800 9,228,052 In the above table the figures are only for those cards officially examined and consequently those made for private use are not included. Filature. 145 lY. FILATURE. FiEST Model Filature.— The reeling of raw silk having been carried on exclusively by hand-reeling formerly, the product obtained ■was of the coarse kind unfit for the fereign market. It was to obviate this defect that the Government established, as already mentioned, a model filature at Tomioka-machi in Gumma prefecture in order to encouraj,e the improved method of machine- reeling. The example thus set before them led those interested in the industry to starting similar establishments on the factory system throughout the country. Even those who were previously contented with hand-reeling, now took up the frame-reeling and adopted the practice of selling their product jointly by unifying its quality. This was decidedly a step forward in the progress of the industry which soon came to be recognized by the farming class as an important by-business. According to the official returns for 1900, the silk turned out by machine-reeling totalled 6,193,869 hin against 4,779,- 575 hin by frame-reeling. It is misleading, however, to say that filaturing constitutes a by-industry whenever it is carried on by frame-reeling, because there are establishments managed after the fully developed factory system and yet employing the frame-reeling method. While it is not yet exactly known, how many establish- ments of this latter kind there are in the country, the statistical returns for the year above mentioned show that in that year the country had 2,072 machine-reeling factories, employing 122,116 pans against 597 frame-reeling establishments employing 55,022 pans, the figures being in each case for factories that employ 10 workers or more. Peeservation oe the CtocooNS. — Owing to the fact that the climatic conditions of Japan are not like those of continent- al countries where a comparatively high temperature prevails the preservation of cocoons often proves to be a very difficult aflfair, cases of the deterioration of entire stock not being infrequent. The proper preservation of cocoons forms, therefore, a very important problem. In former days sun-drying was the only method adopted in this re- spect. The Tomioka Filature was the first to test the baking process 146 Japan in the Beginning of the 2(iih Century. "but this method, too, did not give satisfactory results, owing to the climatic peculiarities of the country. Of late, however, many and valuable inventions have been made well answering the purposes of stifling and the subsequent long preservation of cocoons so treated. The Reeling. — There is no question that the Tomioka Fil.i- ture proved to be a model establishment and that it fully satisfied the expectations that had been formed of it. It was after a European model and many of this scheme tried in this establisliment and imi- tated at others only proved their unfitness for general .adoption in this country. So there came consequently a period of continual chang- ing from one system to another, a conspicuous instance of this kind being the adoptation to a very large extent of the " Kennel " method in place of the " Champon " system and also of " double " instead of " direct " reeling. Very significant progress has also- been made in the art of reeling itself, since the opening of the model institu- tion, the following figures furnishing eloquent proof of this statement. AVERAGE PRODUCE PER PAN. Year. Machine reel. Frame reel. 1900 4>5 kin 27 1896 1893 Increase in 1900 as against 1S96 FiLATUEiNG Economy.— lu this as in all other industries, the skill of the workers and the cost of the raw stock count for every thing. It is undeniable, however, that the recent general rise in the prices of commodities has also tended to increase the cost of production in filaturing. Below is a table showing the average cost of production per 100 kin of raw silk. Year. Machine. Frame. Average. yen. yen. yen. 1900 156 129 143 1896 126 108 117 1893 no 82 96 Increase in 1900 as against 1896 ... 30 21 26 It may be interesting to give in this connection a detailed list of the item of expenditure and receipt in filaturiuj:. The following is such a list, the calculations being made on tlse basis of 100 kin:— 39 „ 19 39 ,. 22 9 8 Filature. 147 MACHINE-REELING. EXI'KNDITURE. yen. Cost of cocoons — 16 knlcu 640.000 Girls' wages — 267 reelers each 6 tho of cocoons and 10 others doing the rest of the work 4J-550 Girls board 27.700 Employees salaries 14-750 Packing expense i.ooo Fuel — T ,^00 kin, oi coal 17.250 Miscellaneous expenses 5.000 Freightage — From Joshii to Yokohama i.ooo Insurance i/io p.c .820 Commission — i p.c 8.500 Jinrikisha fare .200 Weighing fee I.ooo Draft discount — 5/'° P-c 4.000 Interest on invested capital 40.000 of say 12,000 yen at 10 p.c, the total yearly pro- duction being 3,000 kin. "Working capital of say "jdo yen 50 sen for 6 months at 10 p.c. a )'ear 39.000 Total 842.548 Receipt. Proceeds from sale of raw silk 850.000 „ „ Noshi and other by-products 20,000 Other incidental yield i.ooo Total 871,000 Net profit 28.452 FRAME-REELING. Disbursements. yen. Cost of cocoons — itkaha 640.000 Girls wages 57.000 Salaries 12.OCO Packing expenses i.ooo Fuels 12.000 Miscellaneous expenses 3.000 Insurance — From Joshu to Yokohama i.ooo Commission— I per cent 785° Jinrikisha fare .200 Weighing fee i.ooo Draft discount 5/10 p. c 3.925 Interest on invested capital of say 2,050 yea 20.500 -Interest on invested capital of say 739 yen 70 sen 36.984 Total ... : 797-744 148 Japan in the Beginning of the 10th Century. Receipts. Pre ceed from sale of raw silk 785.000 „ „ „ Noshi and other by-products 17.000 Other miscellaneous income I.ooo Total 803.C00 Net profit 5'356 Annual Output and Export.— While it is uuavoidabW that there should be differences in the amount of annual production of raw silk owing to differences in " crop " condition and also in those of proceed thereform according to market condition, there is no question that on the whole the amounts are on the increase, being encouraged no doubt by the growth of the export trade, as the following table will show : — Year. 1859 i860 . 1861 , 1862 . 1863 , 1864 . 1865 . 1866 . 1867 . 1868 . 1869 . 1870 . 1871 . 1872 . 1873 ■ 1874 . 1875 ■ 1876 . 1877 . 1878 . 1879 . 1880 . 1881 . 1882 . Amount produced. Amount exported. in lein. in kin. in yen. — 487,625 — 812,780 — — 922,424 — — 2.414,914 — — 1,294,719 — — 1,348,164 — — 941,602 — — 1,101,546 — ■ ■• — ^ 1,000,117 — — «,>23.95l — — 726,046 5,720,182 — 683,362 4,278,752 — 1,323,435 8,004, 144 — 895,500 5,205,237 — 1,202,134 7,208,421 — 979,193 5,302,039 — 1,181,387 5,424,916 — 1,864,249 13,197,921 — 1,723,004 9,626,956 2,266,294 1,451,235 7,889,446 ... 2,782,375 1,638,198 9,734,534 — 3,331.044 1,461,619 8,606,867 ... 2,881,850 1,801,181 10,641,310 2,850,806 2,884,068 16,232,150 Filature. 149 Year. Amount produced, in kin. Amount exported. in kin. in yen. 1S83 2,885,900 3,121,975 16,183,549 1884 4.492,356 2,098,398 11,007,172 1885 3,174,925 2,457,925 13,033,872 1886 4.592,525 2,635,294 17,321,361 1887 5,124,788 3,103,584 19,280,002 1888 4>i48.89i 4,677,708 25,916,860 1889 5,511,041 4,126,741 26,616,541 1890 5,425,425 2,110,315 13.859,339 1891 6,799,850 5,325,148 29,356,339 1892 6,850,550 5,406 856 36,299,744 1893 7,709,713 3,712,213 28,167,411 1894 8,104,894 5,484.059 39,353.156 1895 10,020,694 5,810,046 47,866,257 1896 9,017,000 3,918,994 28,830,600 1897 9,609,756 6,919,861 55,630,460 1898 9,248,416 4,837,329 42,047,411 1899 10,964,013 5,946,911 62,627,721 1900 10,973,444 4,630,903 44,657,029 1901 10,972,981 8,697,706 74,667,331 1902 11,158,819 8,078,166 76,859,478 Demand and Supply. — ^The United States of America is decidedly the best customer of Japanese raw silk, that country- taking 50 per cent, or more of the whole amount exported. Next comes France, and then Italy. Other countries buy comparative- ly little of Japan. The destinations of Japanese raw silk after its exportation may be tabulated as below : — Destinations. 1898. 1899 1900. 1901. 1902. Un. kin. ^n. km. kin. U. S. A. ... ... 2,911,240 3,820,477 2,642,918 5-H2,376 4,878 494 France ... 1,630,654 1,803,464 1,200,838 2,035,818 1,575,^51 Italy 218,652 260,298 669,484 1,341,913 1,290,480 England 36.491 28,663 45,658 17,105 46,413 Switzerland ... 62s 3,677 1,029 7,579 61,569 Hongkong ... ;P- — 2,218 — — ■Canada • •• -^ -^ 18,912 62,113 115,170 Russia 39.663 30,337 49,846 82,234 87,758 Other countries 4 2 I 8,568 186 Total 4,837,329 5,946,611 4,630,903 8,697,706 8,078,166 150 Japan in the Beginninr/ of the 2Qth Century. Besides the above, waste raw silk is annually exported to the extent of about four million yen in value. It may be noted here, that, the amount of Chinese raw silk and wild silk cocoons has considerably increased of late the- iiuportation now aggregating to the value of about one million yen. a year. The Chinese raw silk is, as compared with the Jap- anese article, inferior in quality, but its iDriee is lower and it is used for weaving fabrics of home consumption. For a similar reason Tussah silk yarns are imported. The following gives the amounts of the importation from China : — Year. 1898 1899 I goo 1901 1902 Cliinese raw silk. 7,606 ... 168,839 3.288 631 So Tussah silk yams. liin. •5.760 151,850 •48,237 213,018 418,463 The statistics above given conclusively pi'ove that the future of sericulture in Japan in ail its branches is brighter than ever. While now and again one huars of the complaints that the increase in wages is eating up all the profit formerly obtained from the industry, it seems nevertheless almost certain that better economy and more business-like methods in carrying on the industry will soon remove all these causes for complaint. History. 151 CHAPTER V— Tea-Manufacturing. History— Present Condition of the Industry— Kinds of Tea — Market. I. HISTORY. Introduction of Tea-Sheubs from China. — The plantation of the tc:i-shrubs in Japan first took place in the year 805 when Denkyo Daishi who had crossed over to China for the purpose of completing his study of buddhism, came home with some tea-shrubs and planted them in a i^lace called Daino-fumoto in the province of Omi. In the following year the famous Kobo Daishi returned from China also with a supply of tea-plants. In addition to this he also brought with him the art, which he had learned on the continent, of preparing tea-leaves for the purposes for which they are now used. Subsequently in 815 the Imperial Court ordered the plantation of tea-shrubs in the provinces round about Kyoto, Tanba and Harima and also ordered these provinces to send an annual tribute of manufactured leaves to the Court. This was the beginning uf tea planting and manufac- turing in Japan. The use of tea as a beverage, dates further back, however, by at least 76 years, for the Court calendar of those days already makes mention of the celebrated tea-ceremony. The latter fact would show that tea was already used at that time among the royalty and nobles. On the other hand, the Buddhist priests have always made use brewed tea as a necessary article of their ritual and it is more than probable that the subsequent popular use of this particular kind of beverage originated in this religious practice. The inetliod of tea making as taught of Kobo Daishi on his return frora China, was to pick the tea twigs and leaves, steam them and then pound them with a pestle and mortar, 152 Japan in the Beginning of the 20iA Century. afterward making the crushed matter thus obtained into balls. The balls were dried over a fire and then ground into a powder, which was thrown into hot water and stirred up, before it was drunk. That the grinding stones were in use in those days is evident from the fact that there is still to be seen among the old relics, preserved in the Hoshoji Temple of Yamato, a set of these stones which Kobo Daishi is said to have brought with him from China. In subsequent years the Imperial Court encouraged the industry of tea plantation laid out within its " forbidden " precincts. The above facts relate only, it will be seen, to the earliest period of tea-making in Japan. For 400 years or so after its introduction, the use of tea as a beverage was confined to nobles and to the religious orders. Another Buddhist priest named Eisei-Jenshi who returned home from China in 1191 brought with him a quantity of seeds of tea-plant and planted them on Mt. Sefari, Chikuzen. He also introduced a new mode of curing, that is to say, pan-curing. His disciple Meikei took a quantity of the seeds from the Sefuri plot and planted them at Togano and Uji, thus laying the foundation of the now flourishing tea industry of Uji. Tea in Social Etiquette. — The planting of tea and the custom of using this beverage spread apace. The custom was still, however, as it was for a long time after its introduction to Europe, aristocratic, and was practically confined to the wealthier classes and to the priests. In course of time the custom of tea- drinking began to wear an aspect of something like a ceremony, with nice and strict canons of etiquette to surround it. It was during the time of the Shogun Yoshimitsu of the Ashikaga Eegency that these canons were nicely elaborated by a man named Shuko, and thus the so-called tea-ceremony were first drawn up in a regular form. A special class of persons whose business it was to teach the details of this ceremony next began to make their appearance, and these persons, called " masters of tea-ceremony," occupied an import- ant place in the estimation of the public. In fact all matters relating to social etiquette were practically in charge of these " tea-masters," History. 153 and every feudal baron kept in his service one or more such " masters " upon whom he bes^twed a regular salary. Thus the tea- ceremony finally came to play an important part in society as a re- gulator of social etiquette and as a means of promoting friendship. A big tea-ceremony meeting was a favorite occasion for bringing about meetings and reunions among warriors, courtiers, and iS2.5 37.483-3 37.917-5 31.889-5 31,899.2 3^,iii-5 eho. 20,669.0 20,739.6 21,164.7 19,965.6 17,376-6 16,949.0 16,934.6 Total. dio. 59,479-1 58,892.1 58,648.0 57,883.1 49,266.1 48,848.2 49,046. 1 Shizuoka heads the list of tea-producing districts in the extent of acreage, and contains in fact a little over one-fifth of the whole acreage under tea in this country. Then follow Miye, Ibaragi, Kyoto, Kumamoto, and Fukuoka. Kinds of Tea. — Of the different kinds of tea manufactured in Japan, the Sen-cha (ordinary green tea) and the Ban-cha surpass all the others in output and value, and they are followed in this respect by the Cfyokuro-tea, and black tea. The output of powdered tea, Olong tea and brick tea is far below that of those mentioned above. The output of powdered tea is particularly conspicuous in gradual falling-off. Details as to the output of the different teas are as follows: — OUTPUT OF TEAS DURING THE LAST 10 YEARS. V*>'»-r Powdered. Oyokwo. Sm-cha. Black. Olong. Ban-cha. Total. I ear. kwam. kwam. kwam. kwam. kwam. kwaiA. kwam. 1893 ... .. 6,397 71,355 5,129,446 36,151 8,540 2,388,479 7,640,368 1894 ... .. 4,435 105,402 5,144,733 48,661 17,244 2,562,757 7,883,232 1895 - •• 5.523 91,206 6,077,186 53,401 13,556 2,358,008 8,598,880 1S96 ... .. 4,550 70,340 5,974,209 37,894 16,848 2,396,552 8,500,393 1897 ... •• 4,304 64,837 5,999,393 30,283 15,880 2,357,259 8,471,956 1898 ... .. 4,219 70,586 5,919,738 36,069 18,911 2,392,195 8,441,718 1899 ... " 4,239 91,570 4,789,164 33,040 11,290 2,589,581 7,518,884 1900 ... •• 4,325 81,438 4,895,684 35,862 9,365 2,585,514 7,612,881 1901 ... •• 4,237 75,494 4.637,790 38,310 21,384 2,073,282 6,850,497 1902 ... .. 4.210 61,171 4.596,265 30,981 24,512 2,066,289 6.783,428 Present Conditioii of the Industry. 157 The Gyokuro-tea is mostly produced in Kyoto and Niigata, black tea in Kumamoto, and other places in Kyushu, Ban-cha in Shizuoka. Market. — The home consumption of tea comprises the wholu of the powdered tea and Gyokuro tea, and some of the Sen-cha,. Ban-cha, etc. The Sen-cha, Ban-cha and black tea constitute the bulk of the teas which go abroad. The United States and Canada take most of the teas shipped abroad, while Eussian Siberia takes a small quantity of black tea and brick tea. The distribution of our teas as to consumption is as follows : — EXPORT AND AMOUNT OF CONSUMPTION AT HOME. Total output Import Total Export Home consump- kin. kin. kin. kin. tion km. 1S93 .. • ••• 47,7S2>3oo 57,904 47,810,204 36,443,555 11,366,649 1894 .. . ... 49)270,200 52,186 49,322,386 37.453,587 11,868,799 189s .. . ... S3.74J,ooo 66,686 53,809,686 38,826,661 14,983 025 1896 .. . ... 53.127,456 97.643 53,222,099 33,241,472 19,980,627- 1897 .. . ... 52,949.725 119,617 53,069,342 32,632,683 20,436,659. I89S .. . ... 52,760,738 145.953 52,906,691 30,826,632 22,080,059 1899 .. . ... 46,993.025 51,933 47,044.958 34,731,644 12,313.314 1900 .. . ... 47,576,175 1 13985 47,690,110 32,240,147 15,449,963 I90I .. . ... 42,879,444 1:7,518 42,996,962 32,248,471 10,748,491 1902 .. . — 42,394,550 125,396 42,519,946 32,759,580 9,760,366 It may be noted that the teas imported come almost exclusively from China. The ratio of distribution per 1000 as to value of the teas. exported was as follows in 1900: — Green tea. Black tea. {Sen-cha and Ban-cha.) United States 781 960 Canada 203 4 Siberia — 13 Others 16 23 Total .. 1,000 1,000 Prospect op the Industry. — As may be seen from the tables .showing the output and the amount of export, the progress 158 Japan in the Beginning of the 20j Bulls .- ... 3 2 5 Simmenthal Cows 7 8 IS >» Bulls 3 2 s Native Cattle Cows 16 S 21 „ j» Bulls ••• ■ ■ • — — Total rCows 'l Bulls 32 6 2+ 4 56 10 178 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Work.— The work undertaken by the State Pasture includes the investigation of all questions 1. Eelating to the imijrovement of the breed and to the breeding and rearing of cattle. 2. Matters relating to the distribution and wider diffusion of breeding cattle. 3. Matters relating to the control of breeding cattle distributed. 4. Matters relating to the calves from cows paired with breed- ing bulls. Number of Breeding Cattle. — The number of cattle used for breeding was as follows at the end of March, 1902 : — Breed. Sex. Ayrshire Cows ... J, Bulls ... Simmenthal Cows ... » Bulls ,.. IJative Cows ... J, Bulls ... .Half-breed Cows ... >» Bulls ... Total / Cows ... 1 Bulls ... lorted. Native Breed. Born on the Pasture. Tota 20 — lO 3° S — 7 12 J4 — 6 20 5 — 6 II — 21 I 22 4 4 — 4 — 4 4 34 lO 21 21 17 76 27 Pairing and Breeding. — The pairing is mostly done in the -spring, and the birth-rate is 7} to 10 in the case of Ayrshires, 6 in the case of Simmenthals, and 5.55 in that of native cattle. In October of 1901, rules were drawn up to regulate the leasing out for breeding purpose of the bulls kept in the Pasture, the bulls to be paired of course with the proper kind of cows. Milk and Butter. — The milk supplied by the cows kept in the Pasture is used for feeding the calves born on the Pasture, the remainder being used for making butter, which, however, does not exeeed 100 pounds a month at present. Whatever milk remains is sold direct to dairy-men. Swine. — The improvement in the breed of swine is also attend- ed to at the Pasture, swines for breeding purposes huing imported. Imjic'rial Horss Studs and Depots. lid At the end of May, 1902, the number of swine at the Pasture was as follows : — Imported. Native. '^^^Zt'' '^°''^ .... 4 — 3 7 , ... 2 — 4 6 .... I I 2 • ... 2 — 3 S .... I — 2 3 . ... 6 — 14 20 .... 3 — 12 IS . ... 14 — 22 36 . ... 7 — 19 26 Sale op Breedixg Swine. — For the purpose of encouraging the improvement of the breed of swine the Pasture sold during the 1901 fiscal year 36 swine, 18 sows and 18 boars. Breed. Sex. Large Yorkshire Sows .., i) )> Boars .. Middle „ Sows .. J» 3J Boars ... Small Sows .. „ Boars .. Berkshire Sows .. J) Boars .. Total. Sows .. . Boars .. IX. IMPERIAL HORSE STUDS AND DEPOTS. History. — The breeding of horses being rightly regarded as of vital importance to the prosperity and strength of the country, the Government commenced early in the Meiji era to improve the breed of horses by importing stallions for that purpose. The result was not wholly satisfactory owing to mistakes in the selection of breeds, and also in the pairing. But the interest of the country did not allow this business to be left neglected and the Government, warn- ed by its past failures, decided to carry out thorough preliminary investigations as to the best way of dealing with this important matter, and to appoint a Special Commission for that purpose. At last in July of 1895 a Commission was appointed, and this Commission, as a result of investigations extending till 1897, submitted a report representing among other things the necessity of establishing horse studs and depots. This representation was approved of by the Government. It also obtained the consent of the Imperial Diet. Based on the inquiries carried out by experts dispatched to all the important horse breeding districts in the country, the 180 Japan in ike Beginning of the 20th Cenhiry. programme proposed the establishment of two studs and 10 depots and their completion in about seven years. In June of 1896 the official arrangements for the establishment of state horse studs and depots were completed, and two studs and three depots were established. At the same time inspectors and other officials to take charge of the breeding business were appointed, and a few years after the Horse Section was created in the Bureau of Agriculture. The improvement programme aims at completing the arrange- ments at the two studs and of increasing the number of depots to the prescribed limits, so that 10 per cent, of the breeding stallions required throughout the country may be supplied at those stations. The authorities are also contemplating the enforcement of castration in order to complete the improvement of the breeding programme. Work.: — The work to be undertaken at the Studs and Depots is regulated as follows : — A. The Studs are to deal with all 1. Matters relating to the improvement of the breed of horses and all experiments in connection with their breeding and rearing. 2. Matters relating to the supplementing and distribution of" breeding stallions. B. The Depots are to deal with all 1. Matters relating to the breeding of breeding stallions. 2. Matters relating to the breeding stallions. 3. Matters relating to the control of private breeding stallions. 4. Matters relating to the colts born of mares paired with breeding stallions. Number of Studs and Depots.— At present two studs and nine depots exist. Of the two studs one is located in Aomori-ken and the other in Kagoshima-ken. A depot is located in the prefec- tures of Iwate, Kumamoto, Miyagi, Akita, Fukushima, Miyazaki, Shimane, Aichi, and Ishikawa. Purchase of Breeding Horses. — Not less than two ex- perts are dispatched abroad every year to effect the purchase of breeding horses. These numbered as follows up to the 1901 fiscal Tear. Imperial Horse Stxids and Depots. NUMBER OF BREEDING HORSES PURCHASED ABROAD. 181 Breed. Pure Arabs Arabs Pure Anglo-Arabs Trotters Thoroughbreds Anglo-Arabs Hackneys Sex. Total. 'Mares ... . \ Stallions .. .. ... 5 ... 7 f Mares ... . \ Stallions . .. ... 6 ... 3 f Mares . . \ Stallions • •■ ... 9 ... II J Mares ... . \ Stallions • •• ... 5 ... lO 'Mares ... . \ Stallions - 3 -■ 3 "Mares ... Stallions . .. 2 ... 4 'Mares ... . \ Stallions . .. ... 4 ... S 77 Besides the above, a large number of breeding horses were purchased at home, as follows : — Mares ^ 191 Stallions 283 474 Pairing. — The depots undertake the pairing of the stallions kept therein -^vith mares belonging to private individuals. This "was done previously free of charge, but a small fee has been charged since the 1902 fiscal year for pairing with superior stallions, mostly of imported breeds, owing to the fact that too many appli- cations for pairing had been sent in. The necessary permission being of course only given to mares properly qualified, the colts born of the mares by the stallions kept at the Depots are much better than those generally produced. The object of the Studs is to keep mares and stallions and to supply superior stallions for the Depots, but as these Depots have not yet come up to the prescribed number, the stallions kept at the Studs are allowed to pair to some extent with mares of private people. This pairing was therefore started in the same fiscal year, a fee being charged, as in the case of the Depots. 182 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The number of pairings carried out at the Studs and Depots during the five years ended 1901 is as follows : — Stallions used for pairing 454 Numbers of mares paired 9,806 It may be noted that at the Studs the pairing with marcs kept by private people was started from 1899. Colts. — The colts born of mare.^ paired with the stallions kept at the Pastures and Studs are as follows : — Foreign Breed. Half Breed. Kative Breed. Total. Stallions. Mares. Stallions. Mares. Stallions. Mares Stallions. Mares. 1897... . . — — — 6* 3* 6* 4* 12* 7* 1898 „, . f 3* I 3 2* 2 ID* 4' 13* 45 27 2* 29 13* 71 17* 76 1899... . ...] '^* 1* 23* 72 25* 80 7* 71 6* 58 34* 143 32* 138 1900 ... . . ■■■{-' 6* I 29* 138 21* 140 5* 209 6* 200 32* 347 31* 341 1901 ... . ( 8* • -t 2 8* I 47* 238 44* 245 320 3^6 55* 560 52* 582 Notes : — The figures marked with an asterisk denote the colts born of mares kept at the Studs, the rest being born of mares kept by private people. Ndmber of Hoeses. — The number of horses at the Studs and DepotB at the end of the 1901 fiscal year were : — Foreign Breed. Half Breed and Native Breed. Farm Horses. Total. Stallions. Mares. Stallions. Mares. Stallions, Mares. Stallions. Mares. On Stud . 24 45 37 134 17 7S ■79 Kyushu Stud .. II 14 33 98 16 — 60 112 Iwate Depot . 4 — 62 — 4 — 70 __ Kumamoto Depot 2 — 27 _ 7 — 36 Miyagi Depot ■ 4 — 29 — 4 37 ^_ Akita Depot • 3 — 23 — 2 28 _ Fiikushima Depot 2 — 25 — 2 29 _ Miyazaki Depot .. ■ 3 — 24 — — 27 __ Shimane Depot .. . — — 16 — 16 Aichi Depot — — 16 — — — 16 — Total S3 59 291 232 52 _ 397 291 Note: — ^Besides the above O-n and Kyushu Studs had each 11 farm cattle and the Kumamoto Depot 2 farm cattle. Imperial Horse Studs and Depots. 18S Other Agricultueal Organizations. — The organizations described thus far belong either to the Government or to civic corporations. There are other organizations established under law by bodies of farmers, such as agricultural societies, industrial guilds, guilds relating to farming, tea guilds, cattle and horse guilds, and others. These will be described under the chapter of agricul- tural legislation to be given later on. X84 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER VIL— Stock-Breedmg. History and Existing Condition — Kind of Breed and Number of Lire-Stock. I. HISTORY. Horned Cattle. — Scientific men agree tliat the horned cattle in Japan must have been introduced from foreign countries. Presuming this theory to be correct, the introduction must have taken place in some remote pre-historic period, for even in the very earliest authentic record, we find many references about the rearing and utilization of cattle. What is specially worth mentioning is the fact that the slaughter of cattle both for food and for sacrifice was an ordinary occurrence in ancient times, so that it was not until after the introduction of Buddhism that the slaughter was forbidiien under a severe penalty. The use of milk and even of butter was also known, and remained in vogue down to the period of the Restoration. These two articles, were, it should be noted, used as a sort of drug. Official pastures were established as early as the reign of the Emperor Ankan (534-'35 A.D.), while in the time of the Emppror .Juniia (824-'32) cattle could be used instead of currency in the payment of taxes. On the whole, however, cattle were almost solely used till the Restoration as beasts of burden and employed very little for other purposes. The most noted cattle-rearing centres during the Tokugawa Regency were Tamba, Tango, Tajiraa, Inaba, Hoki, Oki, Izumo, Mimasaku, Bitchu, Bizen, Bingo, lyo, Hizen, Higo, Iki, Hyuga, Osumi, etc. The inspection of horned cattle and horses was officially conducted there every spring. Official Encouragement of Cattle-breeding. — Coming to the new regime we find that 15 foreign cattle were purchased at Yokohama from a certain English merchant in 1869. This purchase History. 185 may be regarded as the first step in the work of improviug cattle- breeding in Japan, as it was certainly the first time that such a purchase was made. The Government did spare neither money nor pains in encouraging the development of the industry, and till 1882 the total sum of the loans advanced to cattle-breeders by way of encouraging the industry amounted to over 125,000 yen. At the same time, in order to show the public a model method of breed- ing, the Home Office established a pasture at Shimosa. For use at this Shimosa Stud a large number of horses and sheep were imported, and were either hired out or sold for breeding purpose. Till 1885 when the Stud was transferred to the Imperial Household Department the number of cattle purchased for it totaled 175 bulls and 126 cows mostly of mixed breed. Then 126 bulls or cows were hired out and 44 others were sold. The abolition of this Stud as a Government undertaking ten ed very much to arrest the progress of stock breeding, but the Ul effects of this step were counteracted when coming to 1900, the Government established a stud in Hiroshima-ken, as was described at greater length under the heading of State Breeding-Farms. The Hoese. — The horse appears to have been indigenous to Japan ; at least its use for military purposes was known as far back as our authentic history goes. The present to the Japanese Court of several horses by a king of Kudara (part of Korea) in the 47th year of the Kegency of the Empress Jingo (247 A.D.) was perhaps the first nstance borne out by authentic record, of the introduction of horsesi of foreign breed into Japan. A similar present was repeated sub- sequently by one or other of the rulers ef the three independent Kingdoms of Korea, as the peninsula was then divided. Meanwhile the Court paid much attention to the rearing of liurses, and in the reign of the Emperor Daigo (898-'93) we find that an Imperial mew was established to take charge of this business. Of a large number of pastures existing throughout the country 39 were brought under official protection, and of that number 32 existing in Musashi, Kai, Shinano and Kozuke were set apart for the use of the Court. No olden records about pastures in the north-eastern districts of Hon- shu are to be found, owing to the fact that these districts had not then been completely brought under the rule of the central Govern- 186 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. ment. The breeding, however, must have been equally prosperous there as in Kai and Shinano. With what special importance horses were formei'ly regarded, may be easily seen when it is remembered that they were often given as presents when the donors wished to manifest unusual respect. For instance history records the present of horses by Yoritomo to the ex-Empress Goshirakawa, and the same chief of the Genji clan also offered 1,000 horses to the Todaiji Temple on a certain occasion. These facts also serve to prove that the business of horses rearing must have been extensively carried on in the Kwanto districts, that is, the provinces lying round about the present Tokyo, for Yoritomo had his vice-regal residence at Kamakura. The transfer of the vice-regal seat to Kyoto in the time of the Ashikaga Eegency very much affected the prosperity of the horses breeding industry in these eastern provinces. Importatiost of Foreign Horses in Early Days. — Mean- while as the result of establishment, on a limited scale it is true, of commercial relation between Japan and some of the European countries, foreign horses were frequently brought into our country either as presents by the foreign merchants or at the order of one or order of the various departments of Government in Japan. Perhaps the present of a number of Arabian horses by. some Italian and Portuguese during the Tembun era (1534-1554) was the first occasion on which horses were brought from such a great distance into the country. Such importation of foreign horses was especially frequent during the Tokugawa Regency. For instance, during the time of the eighth Shogun the Regency purchased 28 stallions and mares of Persian breed, and distributed them for purpose of breeding among Koganegahara of Shimosa, Mineoka of Awa, Sannohe of Mutsu and others, at each of which places an important pasture existed. The present of 11 stallions and 15 mares of Arabian breed by Napoleon III in 1867 in return for the present of silkworm eggs made to the French Court by the Shogunate may also be mentioned here. Nothing in particular is known about what has become of those horses. The Regency possessed 20 pastures of its own, among which those at Kogane, Sakura, Mineoka, and Ashitaka were most import- ant. Among the feudal princes, those of Nambu, Sendai, Miharu, History. 187 and Kagosliima paid special attention to the business of horse-rearing, and some of them imported Persian or Java horses for improving the breed in their own dominions. Encouragement by the Imperial Government. — The Restor- ation was a turning point in the activity of this industry as it was ill all the other branches of public activity. In 187.1 an American expert was engaged and given charge of the stock and general farm- ing, and at the same time two Japanese officials were dispatched to America to study the condition of horse-breeding and the various agricultural industries there. A stud was soon established at Komaba and a depot at Shinjuku, both in the suburbs of Tokyo ; and then another depot was established at Katori, Shimosa, where two foreigners were employed. This was soon combined with the sheep pasture that had existed in another part of the same province. Finally, as already mentioned, the Shimosa stud was transferred to the Imperial House- hold. A portion of the pasture was leased by the Department of Agriculture and Commerce and the breeding work was attend- ed on a lim.ited scale. Even this lasted for only a few years, and with the repeal of all the rules relating to the hiring out of breeding bulls and horses, the Government stock-breeding enterprise was entirely suspended. Tiie breeding horses imported by the Government from 1877 U 1903 are as follows : — Sta'lion. Mares. Total. Trotter 30 23 53 Perchelon 3 2 5 Clydesdale .. ... I I 2 Australian 1 — I Hungarian 7 2 9 Arabs 9 12 21 Anglo-Arabs '5 11 26 'i'horoughbred 5 -■: 10 Hackney 12 "7 29 In Hokkaido especially while the old Board of Colonization existed, special attention was devoted to encouraging stock-breeding besides encouraging general agricultural wo.-k. Mr. Horace Capron 188 Japan in the Beginning of the 20tTi Century. and two other American experts were engaged to take charge of the business. About 19 horses of Trotter breed and 8 of Perchelon breed were imported. The present activity of horse-breeding in the ■celebrated Niikappu Horse Stud, now belonging to the Court, was a result of the assiduous care which the Hokkaido Board at first ex- tended to stock-breeding. The Army, again, undertook a similar enterprise on its own account, and by importing a large number of Arabs, Trotters, etc. hired them to the breeders with the object of improving the native breed. Nor did general breeders care less about their business, on the contrary they also imported foreign breeding horses to a greater or less extent, the breeds selected for the purpose being Hungarian, Australians, Algerian, Anglo-Norman, Anglo- Arabian ; but the returns as to the number thus imported are unknown. For particulars about the revived interest taken by the Govern- ment and general public in horse-breeding, our readers are referred to the chapter on State Breeding- Farms given in the preceding section of this work. Sheep. — Sheep did not originally exist in Japan, and indeed it was as late as 1817, that the sheep-rearing was first undertaken in this country, a number of sheep having been imported in that year from China to Yedo. They were kept at the botanical garden in SugaiQo, a suburb of Yedo. The wool obtained from those sheep was woven into carpets, and the Government of Yedo was able for the first time to supply itself with home-made carpets, the goods having always come previously from China and Korea. Alwut forty years after, at the request of the magistrate of Hakodate, forty sheep were sent to be reared there. The history of sheep-rearing after the Eestoration is prictically identical with that of cattle-rearing or horse-rearing. It is enough, to state here that from the beginning of sheep-rearing in 1874 and the transfer of the Shimosa Stud to the Imperial Household Department, 5,250 sheep were imported, the number of lambs they gave birth being 10,335. The Stud hired out 2,228 and sold 2,334. So far the business of sheep-rearing by Government has general- Hidory. 189 ly been a failure, and it is only at tlie Imperial IlouseliolJ Stud at Shimosa, the pasture belonging to the Sapporo Agricultural College, the Hokkaido Stud, and private pastures in Nagasaki and Aomori that the rearing is continued to some extent. However there is no valid reason why this particular branch of stock-breeding should not succeed in Japan. Indeed the result obtained at the Shimosa Stud and in the provinces of Nagasaki and Aomori tends to prove the possibility of sheep-rearing being carried to success. It was evidently from this considei'ation that the proprietors of the Koiwai Pasture, Iwate-ken, oj)ened in 1901 this business of slioep- rearing by specially importimg for that purpose some dozens of Shropshires from Englnnd. Swine. — Judging from the ancient records that the surname Ikai (swine-herd) was giyeu to certain individuals in the reign of the Emperor Anko (454-'56 A. D.), the rearing of swine must have been carried on in Japan from remote antiquity, the beast having probably been imported from either China or Korea. The prohibi- tion of the slaughter of swine for food on account of religious pre- judices was a death-blow to the breeding of this beast for slaughter, for we find that business soon disappeared froni Japan. However, towards the beginning of the Tokugnwa Regency, some people of Nagasaki got a pair of swine on one occasion from Chinese traders, and this led to the rearing of the beast being revived to some limited extent in Kyushu. But it was in Okinawa that the business attained its greatest prosperit)', owing partly, perhaps, to the fact that the people there very much resembled the Chinese in manners and customs. Even to-day Okinawa, except Formosa, shows the best record in swine-breeding of all Japan. After the Restoration the rearing of swine was conducted as a subsidiary industry to that of cattle, horses and other domestic animals, and when in 1900 a Government cattle depot was estab- lished, the business of swine-breeding was made subordinate to it. Ten pigs of Berkshire breed and 12 Yorkshires were imported from England. At the same time the growing demand for pork, both in fresh or cured form, has very much encouraged the breeding of this beast for slaiighter among the people. 190 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. II. KIND OF BREED AND NUMBER OF LIYE-STOCE. HORNED CATTLE-— Strictly speaking there was only one original breed of cattle in Japan, chiefly because no care was taken in artificial selection. Indeed there was no need of any artificial selection inasmuch as cattle were practically intended for the single purpose of serving as beast of burden. In this respect our cattle excel- lently served the purpose, being hardy and strong. But the neglect of «are in breeding left its mark in the somewhat deformed appearance of our cattle, for though sufficiently well-shaped in the forward half they are rather ill-formed in the hind quarters. The hilly nature of the country had also no doubt something to do with this peculi- arity in the shape of our cattle. Native Varieties. — Though our original cattle are practi- cally uniform in breed, they still admit of being broadly sub- divided into t^vo or three varieties, principally by color. One of thein is black with small white spots on the belly, the second is brown, while the third is brindled with black and white spots. The black breed, which, by the way, is most valued by our people, predominates in the north-eastern districts and the middle section of Honshu, as also in Shikoku and Kyushu ; the brindled variety is found in Oki and Hirado and other islands, while the brown breed is generally found in the other parts of Kyushu. Of the three the brindled cattle very much resembles in appearances to the Dutch cattle, and probably this variety may be the descendants of foreign cattle imported at some unknown time into Japan. They also possess comparatively well formed heads. The brown variety apparently came, originally, from Korea. FoEEiGN Breeds. — The breeding cattle imported since the Restoration from Europe and America must number over 10,000. In breed they were mostly Short-horns, Devons, Ayrshires, and Dutch. The number of breeding cattle during the last few years is shown below : — Year. 1898... 1899... 1900... I90I... 1902... Native Foreisca Mixed Total. Breed. Breed. Breed. ... 1,669 525 431 2,625 ... 1,684 575 533 2,792 ... 1,680 514 692 2,886 .... .. ... 1,805 489 811 3.105 ... ■.. ... 1,804 815 S61 3,810 Kind of Breed and Number of Live-Stock. 191 BiiiTH-EATES. — In 1900 Shimane -with 313 headed the list, fol- loAved next by Tottori, Okayama, and Hiroshima over 200 each,^ after which came Hyogo, Kagoshima, Yamaguchi, Fukuoka, and Nagasaki. The birth-rates in a year are as follows, according to the latest available returns : — Cows. Bulls. Total. Native Breed ... 63,917 55,829 119,746 Foreign Breed ... 2,507 1,859 4,366 Mixed Breed - 15,525 12,183 27,708 Total 81,949 69,871 151,820 In Hiroshima, Shimane and Okayama the births reach every year over 10,000 each, while in Hyogo, Tottori, Kagoshima, Oita, Kumanioto, and Ehime the number exceed 5,000 each. NujfBEE OF Cattle. — Lastly the existing number of cattle as follows : — IS Year. Native Breed. Mixed Foreign Breed. Breed. Total. 1S93 1,050,969 44,980 9,252 1,105,201 '894 1,033,384 47,701 10,284 1,091,369 1895 I,ob8,oi6 55,769 12,493 1,136,278 1896 1,066,126 69,898 13,737 1,149,761 1897 1,127,730 70,639 15,794 1,214,163 1898 1,135,968 79,157 15,351 1,230,476 1899 1,139,466 95,924 14,47s 1,252,865 1900 1,127,016 115,021 19,177 1,261,214 1901 1,148,202 "4,333 19,806 1,282,341 At the end of 1900 Okayar na and Hiroshima with over 90,( each came at the head of the list, followed by Nagasaki, Hyogo, Kagoshima, Shimane, Yanmguchi, Oita and Kumamoto with 80,000 to 50,000 eacli. On the other hand Ibaragi, Saitama, Tochigi and Toyama had each less than 1,000, Ibaragi with less than 500 com- ing at the bottom of the list. THE HORSE. — It is not possible to determine the origi- nal breed of horses in Japan. However, a breed of small pony found in Oki, Shikoku, Iki, Okinawa, Awaji, and a part of 192 Japan in the Becfinning of the 20th Century. Kyushu and Hokkaido is regarded as original variety by some experts. Certainly this breed seems to be the oldest variety in Japan. It is characterized by hardihood, by comparatively great strength and by enduring power. Original Beeed. — However, the original breed or what is generally understood to be such in Honshu is larger in sluipe, mea- suring 4^ to 4.8 shaku in stature, and with a constitution and cast of head distinct from the smaller breed mentioned above. If there- fore the latter should be regarded as the real original variety the other may be a mixed breed between it and an imported variety. Import of Foreign Breeds in Early Days. — As to the kinds of foreign horses that were imported into Japan in olden days, the horses that were brought from Korea in ancient time belonged to the Mongolian breed while those that came in Japan during the Tokugawa Shogunate were horses of Persian breed. The former mostly produced horses of heavy type and the latter horses of light type. These two different types can be distinctly seen to- day among our horses, the horses produced at Nambu and Akita belonging to the heavier type and those at Sendai, Miharu and Kagoshima belonging to the lighter variety. Native Varieties. — A brief description of those different varieties is given below. a. Nambu Horses. — Horses produced at Aomori and Iwate are the largest of all in Japan (larger horses measuring over 5 shaJcv), have broad chests, strong bones and joints, and are mild in disposition, and possessed of great power of endurances. Horses of lighter type are used as mounts and those of heavier build as draught horses. b. Akita Horses.— Produced at Akita-ken, they are some^ what inferior in build to the former with more or less defect in the proportion of the different parts of the body ; have heavy head and long trunk, and are rather dull. c. Sendai Horses. — The type of horse, bred at Mi3^agi-ken, is more slight in form than the Nambu horse. It has also a deep chest, a sloping hip, a small head, big sharp eyes, a long weak neck, and slender bones. The blood of the Persian horses imported by a feudal prince of Sendai about Kind of Breed and Nuinber of lAve-Stodk. :■ 193 3 centuries ago evidently runs in the veins of these; horses, but, owing to the greater intermixtures of the foreign breeds that has recently taken place, the original characteristics are gradually being obliterated. d. MiHAEU HORSES. — Produced at Fukushima-ken they are mettlesome and hence better fitted for mounts than the three preceding breeds. They have thin skin, small heads, large eyes, and somewhat long neck. The chest and fore- legs are strong, and the horses can raise their forelegs with great dexterity. They are not fitted for heavy work. These horses have also got some foreign blood in them. e. Kagoshima hoeses. — ^Produced at Kagoshima, they are quick and mettlesome and even prove intractable, have small heads, large eyes, and short bodies with level tail. They are mostly used are mounts. Besides the above varieties, horses more or less different in type are also produced at Kumamoto, Miyazaki, Kochi, Yamagata, Nagano, Ishikawa, Aichi, Gifti, Ibaraki, Tochigi and Hokkaid5, but it may be broadly stated that the build is generally heavier as we go toward the north and lighter in districts situated in the opposite direction* Import op Foreign Hoeses eecentlt. — The import of a large number of foreign stud horses by the Court, Government and people since the Eestoration has very much improved the type of our horaes, which have gradually began to assume a noble cast of face and to acquire nimbleness, making them well suited for mounts. The foreign horses imported mostly belong to American, Hungarian and Algerian breeds, next to which come Arabian, Anglo- Arabian, and Hackney breeds. There are also Thoroughbreds, and, Australians while a few are of Anglo-Norman, Clydesdale and Turkish breeds. Number of Horses. — The existing number of horses in Japaa is shown below : — Year. Native Breed. Mixed Breed. Foreign Breed. Total 1898 ... ... 1,555.405 31,488 804 1,587.697 1899 ... ... 1,504,243 41,767 749 1,546,739 1900 ... ... 1,484,824 56,048 1,107 1,541,979 1901 ... ... 1,461,416 70,198 1,559 l,533,"73 1902 ... ... 1,434,83" 78,805 1,737 ''V5?373 194 Japttn in the Beginning of the 2(ith Century. In 1900 Kagoshima with about 115,000 headed the lisfc followed by Kumamoto TPith 106,000, and Iwate with 95,000. Fukushima, Hokkaido, Miyazaki, Aomori, Akita, Miyagi, Nagano, Ibaraki, Tochigi, and Oita with 50,000 to 87,000 came next. Number or Stud-stallions. — The number of stud-stallions is as follows : — Year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 At the end of 1901 Fukushima, Iwate, Aomori, and Kagoshima possessed over 600 stallions each, while Hokkaido, Miyagi, Akita, Kumamoto, Miyazaki, Nagano and Okinawa possessed over 100. Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka, Nara, Miye, Shiga, Yaniaguchi, Wakayama, Tokushima and Kagawa occupied the other extreme. BiETH-EATES OF HoKSES. — According to the latest returns avaU- ahle, the births during the last three years were as follows : — Native Breed. Mixed Breed. Foreign Breed. Total .. 4,397 1,317 80 5,794 .. 4,200 i,6to 104 5,914 .. 3,616 1,769 141 5,;26 •• 3,183 2,251 171 5,60s .. 2,790 2,649 198 5,637 Native Mixed Foreign Breed. Breed. Breed. Total. 1900 91,641 12,834 107 104,582 >90i 85,879 15,307 129 101,315 1902 83,558 17,172 166 100,896 Fukushima and Kagoshima had over 10,000 births each, followed by Iwate, Aomori, Akita, Kumamoto, Miyazaki, and Hokkaido. Sheep and GtOATs. — The sheep numbering over 1,200 that were imported from China in 1876 comprised about 800 of Mongolian breed and about 400 of Shangh li breed (originally produced at the north-eastern districts of China), but they never throve, and geneially died of some disease or other. The breed of sheep sent for America by the ShimOsa Pasture mostly consisted of Costswold, Merino, and South-Jijwns. At present there are found only about 2,500 sheep of foreign breed in Japan, they being Merinos, Southdo\>Tis (also South- downs interbred with other varieties), and Shropshires. Register, ISS The goats found in Japan are very rarely of pure blood ; mott -of them, especially those for milk, have more or less of the blood of the Bear or Thibetan breed. Only in Okinawa do we find breed •whose flesh is used for food. This breed originally came from China. Okinawa possesses the largest number of sleep of all the places in Japan, the number reaching over 50,000. Then follows Kago- shima with 67,000 approximately, followed by Nagasaki with about 3,000. The number is extremely small in other districts. The total is as follows : — Ewes, 42,126. Bam, ' 17,788. Total 59,914. SwiSE. — Two native breeds may be regarded as existing, name- ly the Yato breed and Okinawa breed. The foreign breed very rare- ly remains pure, except a number of Berkshires and Yorksliires imported by the Government a few years ago. The Berkshires, Porland-China, Chester AVhite and others imported from America more than ten years ago have generally degenerated. Such being the case it is not easy to draw any distinct line of demarkation between native and foreign breeds, so that the two terms as applied to swire are at best very arbitrary. Here is a statement as to the number : — Native Breed '49,995 Mixed „ 28,079 Foreign „ ., 3,I02 ToUd 181,176 Okinawa contains about 57 per cent, of the whole number, its returns standing at 103,000. Kagoshima with about 37,000 follows it, and then come Chiba and Nagasaki. In many other places the number falls below 1,000. III. REGISTER. The only thing worth mentioning about the register of pedigrees of cattle and horses in foimer time was the fact that in the " Middle 196 Japan in the Beginning of the 20tfi Century. die Ages " a strict regulation was enforced about making burnt- mark on horses, ■with the object of providing against the tricks of' dishonest dealers. At present no regulation exists about the pedigiee of horses or cattle, and the matters are left to the discretion of the people. lY. SLAUGHTER. The custom of eating the flesh of animals having been forbid- den in former times from religious motives, it was only among the- class of social outcasts called eta (corresponding to pariah) that the custom of eating flesh existed to some extent. The discontinuation of this custom sabsequent to the Restoration brought about a revolu- tion in the butcher business. At tlie end of 1900 the number of slaughter-houses existed was 1,396 throughout the country. Subjoined. ia a statement of the slaughter returns : — Year. Cattle. Horses. Sheep. Swine. 1893 ... 104,772 30,990 — ^ 1894 ... 149,677 31,459 1,404 30,404 1895 ... . 160,456 36,026 4,664 41,419 1896 ... 151,959 44,82s 4,058 38,637 1897 ... 158,504 41,049 6,8oS 107,034 1898 ... 167,985 41,478 8,388 108,217 1899 .. 208,877 47,150 7,755 89,219 1900 ... 233,385 53,53« 8,329 93.904 1901 ... 199,655 45,442 7,873 106,808 1902 .., 206,030 47,875 7,125 ; BEASTS. 124,263 Y. DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ORiom OF THE Diseases. — No data being available about the diseases of live-stock in former times, the present paragraph gives only a brief outline of those diseases as they have appeared since the Restoration. Most of those diseases originally came from the Asiatic conti- nent and therefore first made their appearance in districts regularly connected by trade with one place or other on the continent. At present the diseases more or less present a local character. For Diseases of Domestio Beasts. • 107 instance farcy arid glanders generally prevail in the north-eastern parts of Honshu, anthrax in Kyushu and the districts round uJjiuit Osaka and Tokyo, rauschbrand in Hyogo, Tottori, Okayama, Yaina- guehi, etc., rabies in Tokyo, Kanagawa, Yamaguchi and Kyushu. '■ The first case of the appearance of rinderpest was in 1872, the second twenty years after, while it was in 1900 that foot-!in863 796 3,552 1,061 90s I 31 2,164 63 53 1893-. ... ... 5.031 666 4,7" 581 498 5 27 1,604 51 6 1 1894... ... ... 251 57 243 442 418 7 6 1,458 39 46 189s- ... ... 1,483 258 1,308 377 322 7 24 1,332 54 26 1896... ... ... 969 139 1,298 545 504 — 22 1,537 76 51 1897... ... 6,190 508 6,722 573 481 I 42 1,899 47 So ^898... — — — 534 496 — 30 2,227 96 Oi 1899- ... — — — 609 545 — 64 1,770 100 91 1900... ... 191 9 669 S56 829 — 18 782 74 47 I90I... ... J03 8 3H 542 5>2 I 22 442 18 2? 1902... ... 88 13 153 599 528 — 24 530 27 17 TABLE NO. : J. KaiiBclibranc 1. P.seudo-Farcy. Foot & Mouth Di.5ease. Rabies. «5 1 > 8 i 1 K 1 P > f4 in 1 QJ 1897... 18 17 — ■ — — — — — — — — — — ^ 1898 ... 63 52 — I — • — _ — • — — 64 22 33 1899 ... 60 63 2 I 237 2 3 6 I — ■ — — 120 — — 1900 ... 97 95 — — 689 11 33 568 2,322 30 1,95° 247 146 96 igoi ... 76 74 I 1 899 19 38 67c ) 627 52 564 189 61 128 1902 ... 95 95 — — 1,170 34 106 1,03/ ' 522 13 S09 107 31 76 Note : — Rauschbrand was separated from anthrax from 1897, they having been mixed together formerly; pseudo-farcy was included in glanders and farcy till 1899,. while rabies was first included in 1897 m the list of diseases prevalent among domestic beasts. 198 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. YI. YETERINARY SURGEONS AND FARRIERS. Surgery. — Before the Restoration the so-called veterinary- surgeons were horse and cattle dealers who, besides dealing in these beau^ti, used to periodically apply needle treatment and other siin2)le methods to the beasts. They were of course up to the trick of cheat- ing in transaction of beasts just as practised by horse-dealers o' other countries. The engagement early in the era of a French military veterinary surgeon by the Army was the first steji taken by the Government for the introduction into this country of the science and practices of the Western veterinary surgery. By the subsequent establishment of schools of agriculture by the Government and also by local offices this branch of medicine has been reduced to a reg- ular system. Till 1885, there were about 6,000 men who were al- lowed to practise the art in virtue of their previous experience, but the grant of licenses to men of this class was discontinued in 1890 and from that time onward licunses have been granted only on those who have passed the regular examination or have graduated from the veterinary course at Government or public schools, or at private schools of officially approved standing, either Japanese or foreign At the end of 1900, 2,545 people had regular licenses and 1,713 provisional licenses. Farriery. — The practice of shoeing horses was formerly unknown in Japan ; it was introduced from the West together with the science of veterinary. The regular examination exi-sts, as in the case of veterinary surgeons, for giving licenses to farriers, and this license is granted to those who have passed the examination or have graduated from the course of veterinary surgery or farriery at- Government or public schools or at private schools of officially approved standing whether at home or abroad, and also to tliose- who possess the regular license of a veterinary surgeon. At the end of 1900, 2,948 men possessed regular licenses and 730 men provi- sional licenses. It ought to be added that in places where the number of A^eteri- nary surgeons or farriers is insufficient the Minister of Agriculture and Comuiei-ce may grant, on recommendation of the local Governors, ths provisional license vnlid for a limited number of years to those Use of Live-Stoek. Idd who are judged to possess sufficient experience either as veteriiiaiy surgeons or as farriers. ¥11. USE OF LIVE STOCK. Cattle is still principally reared for purposes of tillage and for getting manure, and it was only recently that the rearing of them for their milk and their meat was commenced. The number of sheep reared being still small, wool for weaving is imported in ii large quantity from foreign countries, while sheep as mutton princi- pally come from Shanghai, the yearly importation being about 1,000. Swine is also insufficient in number to supply bristles for maiuifact- aring purposes, and these are imported from abroad. YIII. DAIRY-FARMING AND MEAT-PRESERVING. The industry is still in a comparatively primitive condition and can hardly supply the growing demand at home. At the end of 1900 there were 23,931 milch cows in Japan, but the milk they produce is almost entirely used while fresh. The bulk of the i>r-e- served meat consumed in the country may be said to be imported. Subjoined are two tables giving a statement of the volume of output of dairy products and preserved meat at the end of 1901. DAIRY PRODUCTS. Hokkaiko ... Tokyo Kyoto Osaka Kanagawa ... Niigata Gumma Chiba Tochigi Iwate Shimane Yamaguchi... ICumamoto ... Hyogo Total Butter. Che ese. Condensed Milk. Dutput. ^■alue. Output. Value. Output. Value. kiu. yen. kin. ven kin. ) n. 3,562 2,449 — — — 15 16 — — 70.649 54.017 200 90 — — 3.690 8;o — — — — 146,437 28,160 1.357 1,168 1,500 750 4,220 95S 3.607 454 — 3.439 4,573 — — — ■ — 2CO 160 — — 185,021 29,360 5^.5 5^5 — — — i,oSo 1,026 — — — — 171 13,782 125 320 — 39 2.342 52 14,315 10,793 ».5oo 750 424.104 "5.761 200 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. JIEAT-PRESERVING. Ham. Bacon. Salt Meat. Tinned Meat. Output. Value. Output. Value. Output. Value. Output. Value HokltadS ... 62 i8 4 I 30 6 _ — Tokyo ....„ — — — — — — 61,000 11,800 Kyoto _ _ _ _ 22,961 S.281 — — Osaka ______ 42,000 7,560 Kanagawa ... 7,458 1,192 2,500 320 — — — — Hyogo 1,500 660 50 '5 — — 10,486 2,306 Nagasaki ... 70,300 3,101 81,000 19,400 5,500 1,240 1,325 495 Kiigata — — — — — — 4,000 400 Miye ___ — — — 112 175 Chiba _ _ _ _ 12,500 2,000 — — Aichi ____ — — 1,484 • 489 Shizuoka ... — — — — — — 1,937 34° Gifu ______ 3.820 1,194 Yamagata ... — — — — — — 1,112 444 .Akita ______ 4,800 768 Shimane ... — — — — — — 7,853 2,989 Okayama ... — — — — — — »4797o 27,434 Hiroshima ... — — — — — — 1,218,453 216,131 Yamaguchi ... — — X,32S 636 375 75 12,881 2,146 Ehime ______ 65,000 12,155 Oita ... ... — — — — — — 14,625 18,281 Kumamoto ... — — — — _ _ 22,331 2,836 Kagoshima ... — — — — — 2,512 1,875 480 Total ... 79,320 22,972 8,,879 20,412 65,366 11,115 1,623,064 328,323 History and Existing Condition, 201 CHAPTER Vin. -Poultry. Hietopy and Existing Condition — Breeds and Nambef^— Eggs. I. HISTORY AND EXISTING CONDITION. Poultry in Japan principally comprises heiis and cocks, with ducks, geese, and turkies coming next, but at a great distance. The only fact known about poultry in former times was that besides being used for the flesh, cocks were reared for cock-fighting. Coining to recent times we may mention the engagement of a Chinese expert about 1876 by the Bureau of Agriculture in order to teach a number of persons concerned in the art of artificial incubation of fowls and ducks. Pamphlets were distributed all over the country by the authorities with regard to this method of incubation and also with regard to keeping fowls generally. Meanwhile the public began to take a great interest in the business, and at one time the importation of foreign breeds became highly fashionable. However as the business was conducted in a somewhat speculative manner it soon sufiered a collapse. At present the business is not so popular as it was once, but at least it rests on a sounder basis. The reproductive powers of fowls too are considerably better than they were before, and a considerable improvement in the breeds has been efiected. An increasing demand on eggs has recently arisen and the import of a large quantity of cheaper Chinese eggs is seriously affecting the prosperity of the Japanese poultry business. As a subsidiary enterprise of the farmers the business does not yet occupy a position of any great importance. II. BREEDS AND NUMBER. Before the importation of foreign breeds commenced, the original iarm-fowls consisted of four or five varieties among which may 202 Japan in the Beginning of the 29th Century. be mentioned a dwarfish kind called Chabo, a longtailed fowl, a fighting cock also reared for its flesh. There were also two kinds of foreign breeds that had been imported during the Tokugawa epoch. Subsequently specimens of almost all the noted foreign breeds have been brought in but their descendants are now rarely of pure- breed. There are only two breeds of ducks, one being the " white-necked V and the other " green-necked." Goose and turkey are not yet reared to any large quantity, they being mostly intended for use of foreign residents. At the end of 1901 the poultry returns stood thus : — Barn-fowls Ducks ... Turkeys ... Geese Number. Value. 10,847,853 3,438.561 257,796 ^28y^38 2,021 3,189 9,169 7,109 m. EGGS. The eggs produced at home are far from supplying home demandi. in consequence of which the quantity of Cliinese eggs coming in is steadily on the increase. Subjoined are figures showing the quantity produced at home and of the import from China. OUT-PUT AT HOME. Number. Barn-fowls ... 533,406,628 Ducks 7,823,734 Turkeys 65.996 Geese 327,716 IMPORT FROM CHINA Year. Number. 1898 46,522,000 1899 67,280,000 1900 95,830,000 1901 99,294,000 1902 92,133,000 Value. yen. 6,631,481 131,496 4,056 8,495 Value. yen. 490,462 823,088 1,238,661 1,293.565 I,i93.oS Bee-Keeping. 293 CHAPTER IX.— Bee-Keeping. The earlist record about bee-keeping in our history is one regard- ing the present of honey bees by a Korean Prince to the Empress Kotoku (642-645 A.D.). At present the honey is produced at lyo, Tosa, Chikuzeu, Hii;o, Tamba, Tsushima, Shiraane, Kai, CJhikugo, et6. The output cannot be accurately known, but it is roughly estimated at about 200,000 kin. Breeds. — Generally speaking, there are three varieties of honey bees now in Japan, they being the Japanese breed that originally came from Korea, the Italian variety, and the Cyprian variety. The first is hardy but is far inferior to the foreign breeds in the amount of the honey secreted. The Italian breed, though an excellent collector of honey, cannot stand the cold so well as the Japanese bee, So that it can be kept in the southern districts only. The last variety is best adapted for Japan, both in the large quantity of honey it secretes and on account of its hardy character. As yet the business of bee-keeping remains in a primitive condition, and both in the keeping and the refining of honey very little care is exercised by our farmers. A little more care employed would be sure to make this business very profitable. 204 Japan in the Beginning oj the, 20iA Century. CHAATER X.— Fanners' Subsidiary Work. The! question of how best to utilize what we may call hours of enforced idleness is one of special importance for the farmers in such a country as Japan where farming is carried on an extremely limited scale and with such attention to minutiae as to leave very little room for further expansion, f,nd where farming work is generally suspended on account of climatic condition during winter. The kinds of subsidiary occupations pursuod by our farmers are therefore many. They may be given as follows : — 1. The manufacture of starch, konnyaku, somen (kind of macca- roni) frozen buckwheat raaccaroni, frozen mochi, frozen iofu, frozen konnyaku, jam, dried persimmon fruits, dried peels of gourd, dried radish peel, etc. 2. The manufacture of mat-facing, straw-plaids, mats used for rearing silkworms, matches, cords, nets, willow-paskets' rush head-gear, straw raincoats, head-gear made of basks of bamboo-sprouts, coir-ropes, straw-ropes, charcoal-bags, straw-hats, etc. 3. "Weaving of fabrics, spinning of yarns, manufacture of silk, paper, and various kinds of basket-work. 4. Extraction of oil, aquiculture, salt-making, charcoal- burning, lime-making, camphor-refining, etc. In some cases firiiiers divide tlicir time and labor almost equally between those " odd jobs " and their regular farming work, being therefore partly farmers and partly manufactuiere of goods Exports and Imports. 20& CHAPTER.— Agricultural Products in GMnmerce. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. As is quite natural, the tlirowing open of the country to foreiga commerce has had different effects on the prosperity of different agri- cultural products, for while some, such as silk, tea, etc. have been raised to a state of extraordinary development by the foreign demand for them, others such as cotton, indigo, etc. have suffered seriously from tlie competition of foreign products. A. EXPORTS. The chief items of agricultural products for export and the amount thereof are given below in unit of thousand : — Rice Raw Silk Noshi and Wasle Silk . Green Tea ... Other Tea Matting ... .„ I.ily Bulbs ... Ground Nutl ... Ginseng... ,^ . Mint... .M — Straw Plaids .„ Wood Wax ... CottOD ... M, 1898 (in thou- sand.) 1899 (in thou- sand.) 1900 (in thou- sand.) 1901 (in thou- sand.) 190Z (in thou- sand.) ■ picul. — \yen 1,050 5,920 2,178 10,282 933 3,576 1,301 6,908 1,269 6,679 (kin '"\yen 4,837 42,047 5,946 62,627 4,630 44,657 8,697 74,667 8,078 76,859' ■■■\ » 4,091 2,655 4,388 4,074 3,900 4,161 4,789 4,468 5,193 5,713 A: 25,845 7,862 27,998 7,699 2,261 7,998 26,651 7,819 27,730 9,825 4,981 353 6,733 799 5,978 931 6,596 1,034 5,029 658 ... yen 3.938 3,7«7 3,310 5,431 6,772 fNo. — \ym 5, 100 128 6,083 258 7048 257 8;979 266 8,331 2j8 J kin ••• \yen 3,012 "5 3,298 144 5.30s 240 8,817 404 8,089 3SS (Mn 356 423 402 476 402 407 419 452 363 369 •"l ,. 45 158 76 268 SI 32S 120 545 "3 628 (■bundles 5,961 ••• \yen 2,404 7,134 2,770 8,802 4,025 6,974 2,986 8,611 2,938 (kin -\yen 3,798 609 4,569 642 3.702 561 4.049 610 4,216 789 •••{ :: 824 218 743 209 1,009 323 950 308 754 282 206 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The export of minor items worth mentioning in 1902 was as follows : — iin. yen. Chillis 804,699 84,889 Oranges 3,255.743 114.863 Potatoes 7,882,380 158,716 Vegetables and Fruits — ' 182,106 Hants, Trees, Shrubs, etc — 122.459 Seeds — 79,i2i Snake-gourd 3.957,602 118,987 Ginger 2,303,512 317.643 Feathers 365,030 81,171 Rice. — The quantity of rice going abroad being naturally determined by the condition of the crop at home and the condition of the foreign markets, it varies considerably according to the year. The places of destination, though not firmly fixed, are generally Hongkong, Germany, Australia, England, the United States of America, etc. The rice grown in Kyushu and the districts bordering the Inland Sea is most acceptible to foreign consumers. Raw Silk. — ^Raw and waste silk constitute about 30 per cent. -of the bulk of the export trade. The United States is the best customer of our silk, taking about 60 per cent, of the entire export, followed by France, Italy, etc. This important export product chiefly come from the central part of Honshu. Tea. — Tea comes next to raw silk as the most important agri- cultural product for export trade, though its prosperity has somewhat declined lately owing to the encroachment of Indian and Ceylon teas in the market of the United States, which together with Canada is the best customer for this goods. Green tea is in demand in the above two places while brick tea goes to Russia. Matting. — Though it is an industry of comparatively recent origin, matting now occupies an important place in our list of exports. The United States is here again our best customer. Okayama and Hiroshima are the principal centers of produce. LiLY-];uLBS. — These bulbs mostly go to the United States and England where Ihey are used for producing the flower. Ground-nuts.— The export has increased lately, the principal 207 markets being Hongkong, Australia, United States, etc. The fruit i« either used for food or for the extraction of oil. Ginseng. — ^The export is practically confined to China, and theiefore its market is limited. Mint. — The export of mint shows more or less of an increase, though that increase is necessarily confined within narrow limit. It goes to Hongkong, Germany and the United States. Straw-Plaits. — This product constitutes one of the most important items of our export trade, having recently developed a marked activity, with the tendency of greater improvement of quality in future. The goods are principally exported to England; the United States, Hongkong, Australia, etc., being our next best ■customers. Vegetable- Wax.— The market shows every sign of shortly becoming enlarged, the principal consumers at present being Hong- kong, Germany, the Uuited States, etc. Eaw-Cotton. — Korea and Siberia are the principal customers of the cotton, B. IMPORTS. Subjoined is the list of the pr ■ducts coming into Japan Kice... Flour Sugar Beans Malt... Raw Cotton Cocoons ... f picul ■■ \yen {kin yen ( picul ■■ \yen J picul *■ \yen j kin " \yen J picul ■• \yen < kin "Xyeu. Tussa Silk Yam Cocoons. r the pr incipal i tems of agricultural pro- 1898 (in thou- sand.) 1899 (in thou- sand.) 1900 (in thou- sand.) 1901 (in thou- sand.) 1902 (in thou- sand.) 11,696 48,219 1,650 5,960 2,286 9,021 3" 2,878 4,509 17,750 38.855 2,022 29,001 1.370 84,229 3,882 62,972 2,873 72,104. 3,278 4,369 28,439 2,731 17,516 4,045 36,606 4,92s 33,493 2,638 14,467 2,406 7,101 308 8,822 1,707 4,817 1,93s 5,32» 1,801 4,95 ^ 3.042 293 4,264 468 5,642 6.9 6,586 76s 2,986 330 2,453 45,744 3^472 62,210 2,608 59,471 1,579 60,650 3,486 179,784 458 212 807 642 598 618 441 342 649 546 15 37 15' 375 148 351 213 433 418 55, 208 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Centuiy. Hemp ■{ Wool I " 1898 1899 1900 1901 190?' (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- sand) sand.) sand.) sand.) sand.) 7,232 12,610 I4,5'4 12,965 13,265 590 1,245 1,700 1,370 1,602 fpicul 2,101 2,795 2,280 3,477 3,070 Oil-cake <^^y^„ 4 6,4 c)jgi 5^696 8,109 8,670 Eggs fm 492 826 ' 1,243 1,298 1,196 ( hn 1,806 1,768 1,851 1,243 1,417 Indigo \yeti 2,270 2,903 3,902 2,665 3,097 2,838 7,746 4,514 4,952 4,066 1,642 4,324 3,919 3,129 3,397 r. 1 jM-11, /dozen 174 173 300 279 377 Condensed Milk |^,^^ ^^^ ^g^ g^^ g^g gg^ ziA ^iT«tT,.r= f^'" ^'9^^ 3,104 2,696 3,344 3,323 Hides and Leathers -{yen 587 719 656 786 ■ 813 Minor items worth mentioning in 1902 were as follows : — Ain. yen. Butter 198,457 140,327 Margarine 143,988 51,56$ Cheese 72,044 3o,3>2 Cofiee 139,377 4',857 Tea 125,396 30,469 Cottonseeds 56,316,511 787,667 Se.same Seeds 7,945,636 426,753 Grains and Seeds — 1,231,170 Leaf-tobacco — 950,816 Land, Tallow and Grease 825,045 105,886 Hairs, Bristles, etc 220,828 294,410 Wheat 8,653,443 240,050 Rice. — Rice comes in from Korea, Tonquin, British India and Siani> especially when the rice crop fails in our country. The imported rice is generally inferior in quality and is patronized almost exclusively by the poorer classes. Floue. — The import of flour has gone up to large figures recently, owing to the fact that the native product is not well suited for making cakes and other articles of food made of flour. The goods come principally from the United States, Canada, and Australia. Sugar. — The import of sugar is also advancing in rapid strides, the consumption of this important article of diet having Imports. 209^ remarkably increased of late. Brown sugar comes chiefly from the Philippines, Java, Hongkong and China, while Hongkong is the largest importer of the refined variety, followed by Germany and Hungary. iiEANS. — As raw material for making soy, tofu, miso, also aa manure the import of the goods amounts to a large quantity. How- ever the figures are gradually falling off owing to the activity recently of bean cultivation in Hokkaido. Malt. — The great development recently of the business of brewing beer and the insufficient supply of malt of the required excellence has led to the introduction of a large quantity of foreign malt. However, as the quality of the home-made article is gradual- ly improving, the import may not attain any particular increase in future. Germany, Hungary, and the United States, particularly the first country, supply the bulk of this malt. Raw Cotton. — A recent extraordinary development of the spinning business and the unsuitedness of native cotton for the pur- pose, has resulted in a large purchase of this raw material from foreign countries, especially from Bombay, the United States, China, and Egypt. Cocoons and Tussee Yarn. — Both come from China, they being used by our weavers. The latter is regarded with special favor by them, owing to its low price. The import of the former has lately gone down to some extent. Hempen Goods. — -These are coming in a gradually increasing quantities from China, the Phillippines and India. Oil-Cakes. — Of all the cakes imported into this country, bean-cakes form the bulk. The import shows an * extraordinary advance, the demand of our farmers for the cakes as fertilizers having become enormous. The bean-cakes are shipped from Newchwang, and the rape-seed cake, which also comes in a greater or less extent, from Shanghai. Feesh Eggs. — Owing to the growing consumption of eggs at home, the import of eggs from China is very large, the market being very low there. The recent imposition of a heavier tariff on the goods and the steady progress made by the poultry business at home may check any further expansion of the import. 210 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Wool. — "Wool comes from China, Australia, Germany, England, «tc., the home supply of this raw material being out of proportion to the demand. Condensed Milk. — This comes from England and the United States. No large increase of the import in future is probable, ia view of the fact that the diary industry is developing steadily at home. Hides and Leathers. — These come, especially the former, from Xorea most, and then from China, India, etc. Cotton and Sesame Seeds. — ^These are imported for the ex- pressing of oil from them but their import is falling off. The former is chiefly intended to produce fertilizer from and the latter is used for obtaining cooking oil. Both come from China. In short, of the principal items of agricultural products exported from Japan, raw silk, tea, mats, straw plaids, and rice figure most on the list, while on the other hand rice, flour, raw cotton, sugar, indigo, oil-cakes, etc. are the principal items on the import list of agricultural products. Provisions lielaiinrj to Protection and Encouragement, 211 CHAPTER XI.— Agricultural Legislation. Provisions Relating to Protection and Encouragement- Provisions Relating to Calamity. I. PROVISIONS RELATING TO PROTECTION AND ENCOURAGEMENT. Agricultural Societies. — For the better protection of agricultural interests and the encouragement of the industry, our farmers established early in the era agricultural associations in many parts of the country. However it soon became evident that those organizations could not render effective service unless the Govern- ment extended to them some help. Consequently coming to June, 1889, the Law of Agricultural Societies was promulgated with the consent of the Diet, and the Rules of Operation of the same in the following year, the legislature providing among other things a grant of not more than 150,000 yen every year to the societies established in conformity with the law. The creation of a society was of course left to the discretion of the farmers themselves, the only interference •exercised by the local authorities being the forcing of all those who had not already joined a society established in their own districts to join it. There were in the 1903 fiscal year 46 agricultural societies throughout the country, their expenses amounting altogether to ■511,021 yen with State aid aggregating 148,496 yen. Besides those societies which were prefectural organizations, there were 561 subordinate societies in rural districts or cities, and over 10,000 in towns and villages. Industrial Guilds. — The extension of a similar protection to small farmers and small manufacturers was also considered necessary. After repeated failures to devise some legislative measure Laving for its object the giving of such protection, the Law relating 212 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. to Industrial Guilds was at last promulgated in March of 1900 with the consent of the Diet. As only a short time has intervened since the enforcement of the Law, no specific statement may be given here, except that the provision is likely to prove extremely useful. The number of guilds established under the Law was as follows according to the returns on Oct. 15, 1902:— „. J Limited Guarantee Unlimited _ ^ , Kmd. T- 1 -v, , T- i,-rt„ t ■ i,-i i Total- Credit Sales Purchase Produce Combining more than two Services Liability. Liability. Liability. 87 6 218 311 3« 3 4 38 30 3 38 71 S — S 10 24 I 26 51 Total 177 13 291 481 Note : — In the table the small number of guilds, organized by people who are not themselves eng^ed in farming are included. Even prior to the enforcement of the Law a large number of similar guilds existed. In 1898 these numbered 346 with 64,388 members and possessing property valued at 968,141 yen. Of these the silk sales guilds were most important, and some of them undertook the sale of silk to the value of about 3 million yen a year. Some of them, too, were established as far back as 230 years ago. Then there are several hundred guilds, organized on the rules laid down by the celebrated economist and moralist Ninomiya. The industrial guilds being considered as corporations of public utility are exempted from the payment of the Income aud the Business Taxes, while those established on the limited liability system are entitled to get a loan from the Local Hypothec Banks without security. As the state of things in Hokkaido is different from that pre- vailing in the rest of Japan proper, special legislation of this kind was enacted for it in 1900. Staple Peoducts Guilds. — The existence of guilds organized by business people engaged in the same or in kindred pursuits was recognized several centuries ago, as for instance, in the Provisions Relating to Protection and Encouragement. 213 case of the stock-brokers in Yedo (now Tokyo) and Osaka. In consequence of these guilds tending to become monopolies, they were once suppressed but this ban was removed after the Eestoratipn. During the space of about thirty years extending to 1900 when the existing Law for Staple Products Guilds was enacted, the history of the organization of guilds by various business interests is exceedingly complicated, owing to the fact that ^vhile the necessity of such organizations was universally admitted their imperfect supervision by the local authorities soon destoryed their utility in regard to their original aim of preventing the production of inferior goods and also of giving general protection to the interests. The promulgation in April of 1897 of the Law relating to Staple Export Commodities Guilds marked a new and important departure in the efficiency cf legislation of this sort. Indeed this enactment was regarded &s imperatively necessary owing to the production and export of an inferior class of goods, and to the consequent injury done to the prosperity of the various branches of trade. Three years after, the scope of this law was expanded, till it took the shape of the existing legislation. A history of the guilds established by the silk interests is similar, for as they constitute one of the most, if not the most, important interest in the national economy, the people engaged in the business were impelled to combine for their common interest and prosperity. At last with the promulgation of the existing law, the special provisions previously established to regulate the silk guilds were abolished, so that these interests now exist under exactly same law as the others. The existing agricultural guilds number 112 of which 103 are ■devoted to sericulture and sericultural industries. Adjustment of faem-land.— As the work in connection with the object of adjusting farm-lands has already been described, it is sufficient to state here that the law for regulating this work was promulgated in March of 1899. State aid to Local Ageicultueal Expeeiment Stations. — The result of maintaining the local experiment stations on local with the -work in the State Studs and Depots already described is now conducing in a marked manner to the interest of the industry. The number of guilds existing f.t present is as follows : — Cattle Guilds Horse Guilds Cattle and Horse Guilds Total 25 137 SO Rules Eelating to the Control of Breeding Bulls and Stallions. — In accordance with the Notification issued in 1885, rules for controlling breeding bulls and stallions were left to be drawn up by different local offices. Thanks to the beneficient result of this control the breed of our live stock is gradually im- proving, half breeds and foreign breeds superseding the inferior native breeds. The number of old cattle are diminishing while the stature of cattle and horses in improving. The following data will serve to make this point clear : — Year. Native Breed. foreign Breed. Half Breed. Total. I897... 1,579 477 342 2,398 1898... 1,666 S02 421 2,589 1899... 1,684 575 533 2,792 1900... 1,980 514 692 2,886 1901... 1,805 489 811 3,105 (2) STATURE OF BREEDING BULLS. (The standard measure, 4.4 skaku). Native Breed. Foreign Breed. Half Breed. Total. Year. Above, Below. Above. Below. Above. Below. Above. Below. 1897 ... no 1,469 240 237 99 243 449 1,949 1898 ... 128 2,538 306 196 134 287 568 2,021 1899 ... 167 1,517 326 249 187 346 680 2,121 1900 ... 197 1,483 298 216 272 420 740 2,119 1901 ... 266 1,539 329 160 427 384 1,022 2,083 Rules Relating to Breeding Stallions.— Over and above the Notification mentioned in the preceeding section the control 216 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century, of breeding stallions is further regulated by a special law issued in 1897. These legislative provisions require all the breeding stallions to be inspected by competent experts and the inspection has resulted in a marked improvement of the breed, as may be seen from the following data. (i) NUMBER OF BREEDING STALLIONS. Year. Native Breed Half Breed. Foreign Breed. Total. 1897 S.SOS 1,14s 94 6,744 1898 4.397 1,317 80 5,794 1899 4,200 1,610 104 5,914 1900 3,616 1,769 141 5,526 1901 3,185 2,251 171 5,607 (2) STATURE OF BREEDING STAT.TTONS. Year. Below 4.6 shaku. Above 4.6 shaku. Above 4.7 shaku. Total, 1897 1,505 1,788 3,271 6,744 -1898 i,«49 1,447 3,198 5,794 1899 1,051 1,572 3,291 5,9x4 1900 741 1,137 3,648 5,526 1901 626 1,014 3,967 5,607 Rules Relating to the Castration of Horses. — The earliest authentic record about the custom of castrating horses occurs in the Kyoh5 ear (1715 — 1737 A.D.) when a large number of Persian horses were presented by some Hollanders to the then Sogun Yoshimune. The Dutchman who brought these horses was the first to introduce into our country the practice of castration aS well as the foreign method of breeding horses. Coming to the present regime we find that both the Department of Agriculture and Com- merce and the War Office began to perceive the necessity of this practice, and that while in 1880 and 1882 the former issued instruc- tions for the encouragement of it, the latter started as early as 1877 a regular course of instruction to veterinary students. In 1883 the practice was universally applied to war horses. But the public were very slow in availing themselves of those instructions or in following the example set by the Government. The experience gained in the China war by Japan made it more imperative for Japan, however, to adopt this means for the elimination of inferior stallions, and the Pivui^ions Relating to Protection and Encouragement. 217 pronmlgation of the existing Law in 1901 was the result. It is provided in this Law that with the exception of approved stallions all other stallions must be castrated at the age of three years, all the expences incidental to the operation to be paid out of the Treasury. The Rules of Operation were issued in 1902, officials were appointed in the Agricultural Bureau to take charge of the business, and finally 94 students were collected in order that they might be initiated into the art at the Military Horse Section. Game Law and Investigations in Connection with Wild Birds. — No regular rules existed formerly for the protection of useful birds and the destruction of injurious insects, except in the single case of the crane which was the only protected bird in this country before the Restoration. It was in 1873 that regular rules about shooting and hunting were promulgated. These rules underwent repeated amendments till they finally took shape in the present Game Law that was promulgated in 1901. The data about the licenses granted during the recent seven years are given in the following table : — Year. i89S 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 Note : — Licenses of class A. are issued to those who use fire-arms while licenses of class B. are issued to those who adopt other methods of killing or capturing games. The provisions regarding game preserves were first enacted in the present Law. These preserves number 58 in all, with a ten- dency to increase. The total number of common game preserves is 20, of which 13 existed under the old rules and the rest in conformity with the new. The new Law has proved efl'ective in checking the reckless destruction of birds due to the enormous number of sportsmen in the country, as is shown by the foregoing table which records the License class A. License class B. ... 16,376 125,189 ... 16,991 141,556 ... 16,609 174,334 ... 17,198 178,130 ... 16,966 199,808 ... 16,918 202,862 ... 11,102 102,265 218 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. sudWeu fall of the number of shooters by about 50 per cent, during the last two years. However no conclusive result can be arrived at on this point until after the lapse of several years more. Several other new provisions were enacted by the new Law, such as the absolute prohibition both of shooting and hunting in the breed- in" season, the establishment of game preserves and other such restrictive measures. In future, therefore, the breeding of birds will be more satisfactory than it was during recent years. Wild birds have, it need hardly be said, an important relation to farmino- and also to forest planting, not to speak of the fact that Iheir feathers and flesh are useful for various purposes. In view of this, investigations into the varieties of birds found in Japan were started in 1894, these investigation covering the following points : — 1. Kind of food. 2. Geographical distribution. 3. Season of pairing, of laying, etc. 4. Power of multiplication. 5. Natural enemies and friends. 6. Season and extent of migration. 7. Mode of destroying injurious birds. 8. Mode of multiplying useful birds. 9. Kelative merit and demerit of the various methods of shoot- ing and hunting. II. PROVISIONS RELATING TO CALAMITY. Supervision of Manure Business. — It is a natural cona sequence that with the progress of farming there should arise - demand for manures which are more efficacious than those naturally procurable. But farmers do not generally possess sufficient knowledge to distinguish genuine fertilizers from those that are spurious. In procuring artificial fertilizers they are therefore liable to be duped by dishonest manufacturers and dealers. Convinced of this fact the Local Office of Nara enforced in its jurisdiction rules requiring the dealers to organize themselves into a guild. The result obtained in Nara- ken was so satisfactory that the Government, at the instance of the Diet, enacted in December of 1901 a law for controlling fertilizers. Provisions Relating to Calamity. 219 This Law compels all those who manufacture or deal in fertilizers to first get a license, to submit samples of their go ids to the proper officials for inspection, and also to guarantee the alleged composition of their fertilizers. At the same time the Government has dis- tributed, for the better enforcement of the regulations, 116 fertilizers inspectors among different districts and has also appointed 20 chemists in the State Experimental Farms to take charge of the analysis of fertilizers. The former necessitated the disbursement by the Government of 109,729 yen and the latter of 38,597 yen. Destruction and Peevention of Injurious Insects. — The appearance of injurious insects has often proved disastrous to our farmers. One such case was the devastation wrought by locast in Tokachi, Hokkaido, from 1880 to 1882. The prevention of damages done to ihe crops by injurious insects requiring first of all the united efforts of all the farmers living in any given vicinity, the Government first issued a Notification on this point in 1885 and this was made more perfect in its working in 1896. The appearance of the rice-plant hopper in the very next year throughout the country and the decrease, in consequence, of the year's harvest of rice by 13.8 per cent, of the normal yield, with an extraordinary advance of the market price of rice, at once roused the Government and people to the necessity of devising some preventive measures. Their efforts were crowned with success for no such calamity has since visited the country. Subsequently the infliction of injuries on tlie crops by parasitic fungi caused the Government to further amend the regulations and to make them cover, besides injuries from insects, injuries from such lower organisms. Inspection of Silk- worm Eggs. — The regulations relating to inspection of silk-worm eggs were first issued in 1886. They left the inspection to be done at the discretion of each locality. This arrangement proved comparatively unsatisfactory and an amend- ment was subsequently effected as to make the regulations uniform for all the provinces and to make the inspection compulsory not only in the case of the spring breed of silk-worms but also in that of the summer and autumn breeds. The cost of inspection and tlie incidental expenses come from the different localities, the Govern- 220 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. ment confining itself to giving more or less pecuniary assistance, as ^hown below : — Fiscal year. Inspection Expenses. Aid by Government. j'en, yen. 1898 259,817-331 75,234-719 1899 240,277.826 69,600.831 1900 238,837.836 74,124.380 1901 321,403-364 99.496-172 Note : — The whole of the inspection expenses for Oldnawa and Hokkaid5 (until the 1900 fiscal year) came from the Treasury. Epidemics of Domestic Beasts. — Owing to the presence of various deterrent causes preventing any widespread develop- ment of stock- farming, and owing also to the mountainous character of the country, the appearance of any serious epidemic among domestic animals was a thing unknown in the olden days. It was when the rinderpest spread with terrible virulence in Siberia €arly in the era, that the Government first issued a Notification about the prevention of epidemics beasts. Coming to 1872 we find that rinderpest appeared in various places, and that it re-appeared in 1874 and 1875, while another disease, anthrax, making its appear- ance in Saitama-ken, in 1881. On each of these and on all similar occasions, measures were adopted for preventing the spread of the epidemic and for compensating the owners of afiected animals that were slaughtered. The frequent introduction of aiflicted beasts from the' continent, especially from Korea, in spite of the various preventive measures taken, led the Government to^ establish on one occasion special inspection offices for its own use at Fusan and Jinsen, in Korea, in order that it might inspect the cattle shipped there for this country. Such offices were also established at Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama, to inspect the cattle as also the bones and hides coming from Korea, Siberia and Shanghai. Finally by the Notification issued in April of 1900 the stations at Kobe and Nagasaki were made permanent (they had been only temporary at first) and the stations at the other three places were abolished. The following table shows the returns at the two permanent Provisions Relating to Cahmity. 22J offices and the expenses disbursed by tlie Government on account of the epidemics among domestic animals : — Fiscal year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 Fiscal year, 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 KOBE INSPECTION OFFICE. •KT r /^ 111 XT r ci. No- of Bundle No. of Paclcaee No. of Cattle. No. of Sheep. ^^^.^^^^ of Bones ' 100 44 96 433 5S0 1,143 1,112 977 2,655 11,007 7,661 11,109 171 3" 327 5,937 NAGASAKI INSPECTION OFFICE. No. of Cattle. No. of Sheep. ^^^ °^,^-f ^\%Lt^' — 42 — 10,998 582 711 1,632 29,822 419 2,225 7,354 34,501 594 J,779 6,799 67,079 1,569 967 22,231 130,998 DISBURSEMENTS FROM THE TREASURY ON ACCOUNT OF CATTLE PLAGUE, ETC. Fiscal year. yen. Fiscal year. yen. 1896 ... 64,565.021 1899 ... 26,o6i.,i.7S 1897 ... 23,369.522 1900 ... 71,465.922 1898 ... 21,084.019 1901 - 43,793-753 Since the establishment of the inspection offices, it was only once at Nagasaki, and that time through the negligence of a foreign steamer, that the country suiTered from the introduction of afflicted beasts, the entry of such having been stopped in all other cases. Pkevention of Tuberculosis in Domestic Animals. — The prevalence of tuberculosis among the imported cattle and half- breeds has grown formidable, as shown in the following slaugh- ter-house returns of Tokyo : — 222 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Year. Half-Breed. Foreign Breed. Cow. Bull. Total. Cow. Bull. TotaL .^ f No. of cattle slaughtered 734 284 1,018 6 10 16 ^ \ No. of tuberculous cattle 322 105 423 24 6 - (Percent, of tuberculous cattle... 43-86?^ 36-97?^ 4i-97?^ 33 3°?^ AO% 37- S% „ r No. of cattle slaughtered 783 222 1,004 ' S f> ^ J No. of tuberculous cattle 35^ 91 449 '34 - (Percent, of tuberculous cattle... 45-77?^ 40-99?^ 44-72?^ looj^ 60°^ 66.6 j^ yj r No. of cattle slaughtered 897 215 1,112 i i 2 jg- J No. of tuberculous cattle 347 36 383 i — i - (Percent, of tuberculous cattle... 38.46% i6.74?^ 34-44?^ 100?^ — S°% ^ C No. of cattle slaughtered 1,265 346 i,fiii — i I ^ J No. of tuberculous cattle 344 47 391 — i I - (per cent, of tuberculous cattle... 27.19?^ 13-58% 24.27% — 100% 100^ „ (• No. of cattle slaughtered 1,888 743 2,631 — I I ^ J No. of tuberculous cattle .... 585 85 670 — i i " ( Per cent, of tuberculous cattle... 30.98% 11.44% 25.46% — 100% 100^ As shown in the ahove table, of the 6,791 cattle of either foreign or half breed that were slaughtered during the five years under review, no less than 2,332 were affected by tuberculosis, that is to say, 42.7^ of the -whole. A similar state of things raay probably exist in other places, but reports of this sort are not yet accurately known. This disease appears, however, to be rare, if it exists at all, among the indigenous cattle. The control of cattle suffering from this disease being impera- tively necessaiy both for the improvement of the cattle and for the sake of the public hygiene, a law for preventing tuberculous cattle was promulgated in 1900. Accordingly inspection is enforced at Yokohama, Kobe and Nagasaki over imported cattle, the object of the inspection being to ascertain the presence or absence of any tuberculous disease in such cattle. Here are the returns for 1901. No. of Cattle Inspected. ^°- ""Tuberculosis. Cattle. Yokohama 37 — Kobe 207 4 Kagri.raki 988 6 As the Law for the Prevention of Tuberculosis in Cattle came into full force in July, 1903, the disease may be stamped ont in the near future. Provisions Relating to Calamity. 223 To provide a staff of qualified inspectors at all places of impor- tance, the Government decided to train about 200 such men during the 1902 and 1903 fiscal vears. The first batch of 35 students p all of them qualified to secure a license as veterinary surgeon, were admitted in September of 1902. The course extends over two months during which the pupils attend lectures on bacteorology, climical examination, post-mortem examinations and dissection practices, examination of milk, flesh and urine, and the rules relat, ing to epidemic diseases inflicting domestic beasts. 224 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. PRIMARY INDUSTRIES. SECTION II. FORESTRY. Introductory Area and Oernership of the Forests — Forest Zones and SylYicultural Conditions— Adjustment of the Forests — Exploitation and Treatment of the Forests— Forest-Planting and Transport — Wood-Produce — OfBcial Superyision of the Forests — Education — Legi ^lativ e Measures. I. INTRODUCTORY. The forests of Japan, her natural ornament, which occupy more than one half the area of the Island Empire, would appear to have exerted an inspiring influence upon the mind of her in- habitants, for their love of forests and the luxuriant sylvan growth is observed to be almost intuitive. We are also inclined to think that the Japanese may owe their patriotism and aesthetic sense to the profoundly sympathetic influence the forests seem to have exercised upon them. They are instinctively aware of their duties, — so to speak — towards the forests as is indicated by the endeavors they never spare to meet the ever increasing demand for the produce of the forest, to change them in accord- ance with the new requirements and to maintain their supplies permanently. The forests of Japan, had, while the country was secluded, maintained their primitive character, but with the Restoration the Ibrests underwent a revolution in the extent and modes of their utilization. Besides a considerable increase at home in the demand for timber and fuel not only in connection with industrial and mic- Area and Ownership of the Forests. 225- ing enterprises and for ordinary building purposes, but also for use as railroad sleepers and telegraph poles as well ag for the manufacture of the various »ood articles and paper, the recent development in the carrying trade has caused the traders in forest produce to seek customers abroad, especially in China and Korea. All this has in iccent years exercised an unequal influence on Japanese forests so that, while, on the one hand, there are districts where reckless felling and all the evils resulting from it have obliged the Government to exercise control as to cutting, on the other hand there are in some parts of the country vast areas of wooded-land maintaining all its primitive feature* unaltered. Tliis anomaly has brought to light the fact that the plans hitherto followed in the management of forests are no longer adequate to meet the future increase of the population and the requirements of the new civilization, but points to the necessity for striving to develop to the full the natural capabilities of the forests by increasing their productive powers by the appli- cation of regular technical methods. II. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS. The Area. — According to the latest statistics the area occupied by forests is 23,087,365 cho, i.e. over 59 per cent, of the whole area of the country which measures 24,794.36 square ri or 38,559,078 cho. (The area of Formosa and the Pescadores is not- included in the above computation, not having yet been asc-er- tained.) Of the two divisions in the Japanese forests, " Utilization Forests" and " Protection Forests," the latter are further divided into two kinds, " Absolute " and " Ordinary." The area of the Protection Protection forests in 1890 was 689,469 cho of which Forests- 4,803 cho belonged to the '• Absolute '' cliiss and 684,662 cho to the "Ordinary" category. All the other forests belong to the Utilization cl.'iss, measuring 22,397,896 226 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20i/i Century. cho. Those forests exclusively maintained for the utilization of their produce are left to be managed by the owners Utilization as they like. Those forests of this class which belong Forests- to the State and Imperial Household are generally managed and tended in accordance with modern technical rules and bid fair to become greatly improved with regard to their productiveness. But those owned by the people, with the exception of a very small number, are entirely left to nature, nothing being done to increase their utility. Ownership of the Forests. — The areas of the forests of these different ownerships are as follows : — cho. States Forests 13,125,320 Imperial Forests 2,091,785 People's Forests 7,870,260 The people's forests comprise those owned by Shinto and Buddhist temples, communes and private individuals, their re- spective areas being as follows : — cho. Shinto and Buddhist Temple Forests 167,629 Commmial Forests ... 1,715,754 Private Forests 5,957,877 State Forests. — The State forests are managed by the Govern- ment and by the Imperial Household Department, while over the people's forests the Government merely exercise administra- tive supervision in accordance with the' provisions of the Forest Law. Of the State forests measuring 13,125,320 clio, 7,632,831 cho are under the jurisdiction and management of the Agricultural and Commercial Department of the Imperial Government, but 5,492,489 c/w in Hokkaido are placed under the control of tlie Home Department. The forests in Formosa are maintained accord- ing to special la\vs and regulations by the Governor-Geueral under the supervision of the Minister for Home Afiairs. Area and Owncr.iJtijJ of the Forests. 227 These figures are not, it must be owned, the result of ac- curate scientific surveying, the statistics relating to the State and Imperial forests being taken from the Government Forest Eegister compiled according to the Provisional Regulations for Government Forests of 1875 and those relative to the people's forests from the Land Eegister pi'epai-ed by the Treasury Depart- ment for the purpose of taxation in accordance with the Regu- lations for the Revision of the Land Tax established in 1873. These registers being based on very rough surveys the figures above mentioned will have to be more or less modified, when the work of forest adjustments and investigation now going on shall have been completed. Inaccuracies are especially likely to be found in the case of the people's forests for, as the years went by, there must have been lands converted from other classes of land into forests and from forests into farm or build^ ing lots. In this period of renovations the areas of forests are sub- ject to changes both absolutely and in respect of proprietorship, as transfers and conversion into other classes of estates are taking place and such changes will not cease until the completion in 1904 of the work of the special State forest adjustment undertaken by the Government. Impeeiai-, Forests. — In 1899 States forests in Kanagawa, Yama- nashi, Shizuoka, Nagano, Gifu, Aichi, Miye, Aomori, Iwate and Tochigi prefectures and Hokkaido, to the extent of 3,649'848 cho in all, were transferred to the Imperial Household to constitute the Imperial forests. These forests being similar to State forests in their nature and features, it goes without saying that some of them are paying concerns, while others are not. In 1892 the House- hold Department commenced the work of investigating the Imperial forests, as the result of which some of them have been disposed -of from time to time since 1898. In 1889 over 1,370,000 cho in Hokkaido were returned to the State control, while some forests were resold to such temples, Shinto or Buddhist, as had formerly- been their possession, in compliance with the regulations establish- ed for the special disposal of such forests. Besides, some of those that had been classed as Government property, through error, on 228 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20th Century. the occasion of the land tax revision in the early year of Meiji ■were restored to their rightful owners. Such transfer not having yet been completed, it will be years before the area of the Imperial forests becomes fixed. From 1889 to 1900 this kind of his Maj" esty's property increased by 59,533 oho while decreasing by 1,453,- 342 cho, so that the clear loss was 1,383,809 cho. The increase was principally due to the correction of the former computation, of areas and to the declaration of lands presenting a sylvan ap- pearance as forests, while the chief causes of the decrease were the expropriation of some forests in Hokkaido and the reclamatioa and sale of some forests for conversion into arable land. The Imperial forests are divided into two classes : " Hereditary " and " Ordinary." The former comprises such forests as are so thick- ly wooded and extensive as to furnish enough material for a reg- ular working plan framed on the basis of economical considera- tions. Such forests are made extremely difficult of conversion by the Imperial House Law. Hence changes of areas rarely occur except in the forests belonging to the other class. In 1901 there were 997,250 cho of the Hereditary class and 1,100,536 cho of the Ordinary class. Private Forests. — The forests owned by civic corporations, religious establishments and private persons are now subject to greater and more frequent changes than the State and Imperial forests because of the recent slackening of Government control over them and the vicissitudes in the economic conditions of the country And the decrease of the forest area since the Restoration is mainly due to the reckless felling of woods owned by private persons- We have no statistics showing the extent of such reduction, but see them indirectly shown in the increase of land under cultivation and pasturage. Private forests, however, have increased to a certain extent by the purchase of some State or Imperial property. Plains and Moors. — Besides the forests above mentioned there are in this country vast areas of land the uses of which are yet undecided. They are known by the name of " Genya " (plains and moors) as distinguished from forests, being a class of land established on the occasion of the land tax revision. In the early ^ears of Meiji the classification of lands was made merely with. Area and O'wnei-.ihip oj the Forests. 229 regard to tbeii features, without paying any attention to their position or nature or to the relations they bear toward each other. Thus the division of laud into Forests and " Genya" seems to have been bused on no other consideration than the presence or absence of trees. At present there are over 2,645,322 cho of "Genya" which, we may observe, will in the near future, except such portions of them as may from their nature be made into pastures or cultivat- ed land, be mostly converted into forests. This class of land is especiall}' abundant in the northern provinces of the main island and in Hokkaido. Some of the " Genya " already present quite a Avoody appearance and bid fair to become perfect forests in no distant futures. Of the above-mentioned area of the "Genya" 1,434,666 cho belong to the State ; 157,174 cho to His Majesty the Emperor, the remaining 1,053,482 cho being either private or communal pro- perty. Distribution op Forests. — Forests are found everywhere in the Enipire from Formosa on thfe south to Hokkaido on the north. But their distribution is varied according to the general shape of the country, the height of the mountains and hills and the density of the population. With the exception of a small number of forests on level ground found here and there, Japanese forests form a long string on the mountains running lengthwise through the middle of the country. In Hokkaido the mountain ranges which traverse the whole island, lengthwise and crosswise, constitute a splendid forest-area. In the main island a Gen: ral features chain of forests begins with Mount Hakodda of DistributioD, in Mutsu. It runs through Rikuchu, then appears as Mount Azuma in Uzen, reaches the boundary line between Shinano and Echigo, whence it goes on to form the Kiso forests, where bending southward it runs in an unbroken line from Mount Asama in Shinano to the Imperial forests of Fuji and Amagi lying between the provinces of Kai and Suruga. In the province of Kii the range starts from Mount Kumano whence it runs to meet the woods in the Yoshino districts, Yamato. In Shikoku the line crosses the boundary between Sanuki and Awa and proceeds over the summit of Mount Ishizuchi to the forests 200 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. ia Tosa. In Kyushu the line ia continued through "Mount Aso and stretches to Mount Kirishiraa toward the south. Thus the forests of Japan mostly lie in the mountainous^ Distribution as districts along the backbone of the country a,nd to Climate. are scarce on the plains along the seaside. Again they are most numerous in the cold regions in the north and considerably less in the warmer regions in the- south, as shown in the following table : — State Forests , Imperial Forests Private Forests Total Area . Population Area of Forests per sq. m. , Area of Forests per head .. Forest Area as Compared"! with the Area of the [■ whole Country j State Forests Imperial Forests., Private Forests .. Total Area Population Area of Forests per sq. m.... Area of Forests per Head ... Forest Area as Compared") ' the I with the Area of wlaolc Country. Hokkaido. Northern Prov., Main Island. Southern Prov.,_ Main Island. cho. cho. cho. 5,492,890.0 5.773,689.7 698,480.8 651,649.5 1,135,074.2 305,061.7 14,827.7 3.184.358-1 3,283,306.1 6,158,966.2 10,093, 122.0 4,286,648.6 sq. m. sq. m. sq. m. 5,987-03 9,765-77 5.149-73 982,426 19,439,079 14,110,730 cho. L :ho. cho. 1,029.6 I, 034.5 832.4 cho. cho. cho. 6.27 0.52 0.30 1 % 66 1 % 66 % 53 Shikoku. Kyushu. Okinawa. Total. cho. cho. cho. cho. 336,312-2 777,718.6 46,629.5 13.125,319-6 — — — 2,091,785.4 689,761.0 687,588.8 10,418.8 7,870,260.5 1,026,073.0 1,465,307.4 57,048.3 23,087,365-5 sq. ra. sq. m. sq. m. sq. m. 1,227.21 2,734.08 143-98 24,998.80 2.933.657 6,420,793 465,470 44,352,155 cho. cho. cho. cJw. 836.2 535-9 396.2 923-6 cho. cho. cho. cho. 0.3s 0.23 0.12 0.52 % 53 % 34 26 % 59 Area and Ownership of ilie Forests. 231 Note :— I. The above table does not include the forests in Formosa and the Kuriles, which are under investigation at present, 2. The " Northern Provinces, Main Island " in the above table comprise the districts under the jurisdiction of the Aomori, Iwate, Akita, Miyagi, Fukushima, Tokyo, Nagano, and Ishikawa Major Forestry Offices, while the " Southern Provinces " comprise the districts under the Osaka, Okayama and Hiroshima Offices. The above table shows that in Hokkaido and in the north- ern provinces of the man island, forests occupy QQ% of the whole area, while in the Okinawa archipelago only 26^ is wooded land. Kyu-hu has 34^ and the southern provinces of the main island and Shikoku have 53^ each. Leaving Hokkaido, which wns opened up to colonization only 30 years ago out of consideration for the present, Japan has high and steep mountains in the north which are densely covered with forests. In the middle of the island, near Mount Fuji, the laud reaches the utmost elevation and thence to- ward the south-west the country becomes more and more open, with a range of hills which possesses only a few high mountains. These geographical features have had much to do with the unequal distribution of forests in the country. The difference of economical development in the various districts was also a powerful agent in this connection. In Shikoku, Kyushu and the western portion of Honshu or the main island, where civilization made its first appear- ance in Japan, the people have had better means of transportation than in the other parts of the Empire, and the demand for the timber increasing in proportion to the growth of the population, forests have been rather recklessly felled. This together with the greater need than in other regions for agricultural land must have led to the present scarcity of forest land in these parts. From the stand- point of population, Okinawa with 1 tan 2 se of forest land per soul rank the lowest ; Kyushu has 2 tan 3 se ; the southern provinces of Honshu, 3 tan; Shikoku, 3 tar„ 5 se; the northern provinces of Hon- shu, 5 toft 2 so; Hokkaido where the population is smaller than in any other division of the Empire, enjoys by far the greatest share of forests per soul, to wit ; 6 eho 2 tan 7 a:. In districts having a dense population there are more private and communal forests, especially the former, as compared with State forests, than in districts thinly pojv.ilated. In the southern provinces of Honshu we have 698,480 232 Japan in the Begimdng of the 2Qth Century. cho of State forests against 2,314,296 cho of private and coramunal forests, the ratio being Zi to 1 in favor of the latter. In Shikoku this ratio is 2 to 1, while in Kyushu the two classes of forests are of nearly equal extent. On the contrary, in the northern provinces of Honshu private forests occupy only one-half the area of the State forests. In localities abounding in private or communal forests, the State forests are all situated in remote mountain districts, the forests near market towns having facilities for the transportation of timber being owned either by private individuals or by juridical persons. All these forests except a very few have hitherto been managed without any regard to sound principles and are therefore in a very impoverished condition. Some of them have lately been classed as protection forests in accordance with the provisions of the Forest Law. It is indeed in these districts that the greatest number of protection forests is found. Ill-managed forests are only too numerous everywhere in the Empire, but their producing capacity being made very small in Districts of consequence of injudicious cutting, in some dis- Insuffici;nt Supply, tricts the local forests are inadequate to meet even the ordinary demand for tiuiber. Such is already the case in the southern provinces of Honshu and Kyushu, where the recent development of mining and industry has produced a con- siderably increased demand for timber. In those parts the local forests supply little besides wood for the purpose of fuel, and timber is purchased from other districts in yearly increasini' quantities. The northern provinces of Honshu and Hokkaido are yet rich in forests both in regard to area and producing capa- city, a great number of forests being still placed outside the utilization domain. There we find forests in the neighborhood of towns and villages, the produce of which being more than sufficient to meet the local needs for building, industrial and mining purpose, is exported to other districts and countries in large quantities. Thus Hokkaido exports timber to Honshu and to China and Korea for use in house and railroad building. Hiha (Thujopsis dolabrata) and Eugi (Cryptoineria japonica) timber produced in Aomori and Akita prefectures is exported not only to Tokyo and Osaka but to Shikoku and Kyushu. Forest Zones and Syhicultural Condifions. 233 III. FOREST ZONES AND SYLYICULTURAL CONDITIONS. The geographical position and features of the land, the climate and the geological nature of the soil exercise manifold influences on the species of trees growing in such land and on their rate of growth. Forest Zones. — ^Owing to her geographical formation and more particularly to her climatic condition, no place of Japan except a portion of the Kuriles group and a few high mountains, is unfit for the growth of forest trees. We have all species of such trees growing in Japan from those belonging to the Torrid zone to those of the Frigid. Thus Japan is as rich as any country in the world in her arboreal flora. Extremes of temperature are unknown owing to the peculiar distribution of land and water and to the geographical posi- tion, the annual average in Formosa being 23° C. and that of Kamikawa in Hokkaido 5°.l. Taking the averages of the four mouths from April to July, (months, having, so to speak, the great- est influences on the growth of forest trees) we find that Kyu- shu indicates 21°.2 ; Shikoku 20°. 9 ; the southern provinces of Honshu 20°.4: the northern provinces 18°.4 ; and in Hakkaido 12.°7. The annual average is seldom found even in the high mountain districts to fall below 10°C. In comparing these with Dove's recognised standard temperatures, it is found that they are higher by ]° for the summer months and 7° lower for the winter months. Sylyicultueal Geology. The land occupied by the sylvan flora of Japan has rocks belonging to almost all geological groups from the Achaean to the Cainozoic. They are difl'erent in difitrjnt places and very complex in structure. The forests in Hokkaido mostly stand on new volcanic rocks and sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, tuffs, and conglomerate belonging to the Tertiary system and in a limited space upon Palaeozoic rocks. The forests in the Akita and Aomori prefectures in North Japan are found upon igneous rocks of the Tertiary system. In Central Japan the mountain ranges facing the Pacific Ocean geologically belong to the Archaean and Palaeozoic groups, while the forests in the Kiso districts are flourishing upon granite and other igneous rocks and also upon rocks of the Palaeozoic group. 234 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The forest land in the Muro districts in the province of Kii is geologically porphyry ejected in the Mesozoic era and the Yoshino forests in Yamato belong to the Achaean and Palaeozoic groups. The forests in western portion of Honshu, especially Chugoku, stand upon granite, while those in the provinces of Tamba and Tajima are found upon rocks of the Palaeozoic group. The mountains of iShikoku like Yoshino in Yamato are composed of Palaeozoic and Archaean rocks. In Kyiishu only the southern section belongs to the Palaeozoic group, the greater part being mostly composed of igneous rocks. This country while fundamentally composed of Achaean rocks has other strata upon tliein, whicli are ejectamenta from volcanoes in the different periods of geological changes. These occasional' additions of igneous rocks have been so large that at present nearly one-third of the forest land in the whole country is composed of such rocks, of which the principal rock belonging to the Archaean period is granite and those that were ejacted in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic periods are granite, porphyry, diorite, por- phyrite and others. Of the ejected rocks belonging to the Tertiary and Quaternary periods there is a large number, but those covering larger aers are andesite and basalt. These rock formations together with other requisites for the growth of forest trees are found to have exercised special influences in accordance with their density and structure upon the generation of the sylvan flora and to possess no small bearing on the formation of forests. It is a notable fact that among the extensive forests of conifer- ous trees that have continued to maintain a fine appearance from ancient times, those depending on natural regeneration are mostly found upon igneous rocks, while the majority of those depending on artificial regeneration stand on sedimentary formations. The fact that geographical and climatic conditions of the country vary in diflPerent places as stated above is favorable to the growth of various kinds of forest trees and the fact that the topographical and geological features of the country are also quite different in different places has caused a variety of forest growths to spring up. As it is, no less than eight hundred species and varieties of forest trees are found to be well suited for culture here. But sc the Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions. 235' present stage of the development of forest work in this country the economy of forest management does not allow to attach any special importance to not more than ten or twelve species of forest trees. Geographical Distribution of the Forests. — The forests of Japan are divided into four groups, viz : Tropical forests,Sub- Tropical forests, Temperate forests and Arctic forests. , Tropical Forests. — Tropical forests grow in the whole of Formosa, the southern half of Okinawa, the Yayeyama Group and and the Ogasawara Islands. From the standpoint of altitude these forests are found on Niitakayama in Formosa at places below 500- metres where the annual temperature docs not fall below 21°C. Of the tropical flora the banyan heads the list followed by several species of palms and the bamboo. The banyan tree is represented by more than 18 species, all of which are found to be capable of luxuriant growth. But this and other tropical plants do not furnish useful timber except the bamboo, several species of which are found in groves everywhere in these regions, growing with wonderful rapidity and producing huge canes, hard and strong, useful for manufacturing various kiuds of utensils as well as for building- purposes. Sub-Tropical Forests. — The Sub-Tropical forest regions com- prise a portion of Okinawa, the whole of Shikoku and Kyushu and the part of Honshu lying south of 36° N.L. With reference to altitude, places lying 1,900 metres above sea level in Formosa, below 850 metres in Kyushu ami below 500 metres on Mt. Tsukuba in the province of Hitachi, Honshu, belong to this section, all these enjoying an average annual temperature of 13° 23' C. The Sub-Tropical trees are of numerous species and are highly valued in sylvicultural economy. As the better known parts of Japan, the " beaten tracts " as the tourist would call them, " Japan proper" as the geographer would say, have a dense population and early developed industries, they do not now possess forests enough to meet the local demand for timber. As the result of continued reckless felling that has been going on in these regions for many years, there remain only a few forests preserving their primitive features, and in Honshu it might be said that there are no such forests except within the precincts of the Shinto or Buddhist temples. 23G Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The sylvicultural characteristic of Sub-Tropical regions is that tbey are in possession of broad-leafed evergreens, but as the result of carelesg cutting and conflagrations deciduous broad-leafed species and the red pine have made intrusions changing the sylvan aspect to a remarkable deirree. In accordance with the present features the forests in these regions have to be divided into three classes, broad-leafed evergreen, broadleafed deciduous and pine forests. Timber 'J'kees in Sdb-Tropical Forests. — The species of chief importance to the sylviculturist among the broad-leafed •evergreen trees growing in this zone are no more than the undermentioned : — Camphor Tree (Cinnamoinum Camphore, Nees): — Being a native of this zone, the camphor tree grows in Shikoku, Kyushu, Formosa and the province of Kii in Honshu. This species is sometimes found forming a big forest. It grows every- where in this zone, if the soil is clayey and fertile, especially in places facing the south and free from cold winds. In Formosa it is found as high forest, either pure or mixed, up to the height of 1000 metres above the sea level. In Kyushu, Shikoku and the southern provinces of Honshu, old and big trees of this species are found here and there, thanks to the time-honored custom of using them as ornamental groves of both Buddhist and Shinto temples. The timber is somewhat hard and lustrous and has a peculiar odor. It is prized for use in making valuable articles of furjiiture as well as for orna- mental purposes. It lasts well in water and has been valued from ancient times in shipbuilding. In recent years the demand for it as material for the production of camphor valuable in the various branches of industry has very largely increased and forests have been planted both by the Government and by private persons. Tsuge (Bosus Sempervirens, var. Japonica, Mak.): — This tree even in the largest specimen measures not more than 50 •centimetres in diameter and 15 metres in height. The timber is exceedingly hard and close and fine grained, so that the year- rings can hardly be distinguished. The inner wood is lustrous -and pretty and is used not only in fine sculpture but in the Forest Zones and SylvicuUural Conditions. 237 making of valuable articles and nice rules and instruments because of its freedom from shrinkage or expansion, -whether wet or dry. The tree grows in Kyushu, Izu and other provinces, especially in the Kawara and Koshoyama State forests in Kyushu and in the private forests in Mikura and Miyake islands in Izu. Is a shade-loving tree and grows well in calcareous soil. The young trees are liable to frost damage, hence they must be made to grow under protecting trees. Reproduction by means of planting young shoots or the inser- tion of sprigs. Vbame-gashi (Quercus ilex. var. phillyrevides, F. r.): — The several varieties of KasM (oak) are the most widely distributed of the broad-leafed evergreens. The TJbame is found in the southern provinces of Honshu, in Awa, Kazusa and Shimosa, in Kii and in the southern part of Shikoku. On the shores of Tosa and Kii, they are found growing in pure woods, but in other places mixed with other varieties of Kashi. The timber is white with a shade of yellow, is the hardest and heaviest of all timbers produced in Japan. Is used in house building where hardness and strength are required, but the chief use is in charcoal making. Considered as the best fuel wood in Japan. Ichii-gashi (Quercus silva, Bl.) : Shira-gasM (Quercus vibra- yeana. F.r.): Aka-gashi (Quercus acuta. Thumb.) : — ■ These three species are the most extensively utilized of ah broad-leafed trees. The timber closely resembles that of the Ubame-gashi ; but its growth is quicker than the growth of trees of that species. Is valued in the making of the handles of agricultural and other tools and implements ; also in making wheels and rudders. The Ichii is sometimes found growing so- big as 55 centimetres in diametre and 30 metres in height, the bole measuring 15 metres. Under the old regime the wood of this tree was highly prized for handles of spears and in the several clans there were strict regulations forbidding the felling of trees of this species. Grows in Kyushu, Shikoku and the southern provinces of Honshu. Pure woods are rare; found mixed with other species of Kashi. Very widely distriduteb j 238 Japan in the Beginning of the 10th Century. fond of shade and grows well under standard trees. THIs tree is reproduced either naturally or by planting. The deciduous broad-leafed trees belonging to this zone are mostly found in planted woods, principal species being Kimugi, Konara and Shite. Kunugi (Quereus serrata, Bl.) : — This species ranks high among Japanese trees in affording excellent firewood ; ranks next only to the oak for use in making charcoal, the far-famed Sakura and Ikeda charcoal being made from this wood. Not found in mountain regions. The home districts of these trees were limited to the neighborhood of the province of Settsu and a part of the Musashi plain. But the trees being easily made to form a coppice under a short-term rotation founded on very economical calculations, they are now found everywhere in the country planted as private property, except in the northern half of Honshu and the whole of Hokkaido. The bark contains tannin and is therefore used for dyeing purposes and in the curing of skins. The wood is also extensively used as logs for growing thereon Shiitake, an edible mushroom. Konara (Quereus glandulifera, BL): — Also valued as a firewood and charcoal yielder and commands a large sale. Found as a principal tree in natural mixed forests in the hilly and imountainous districts of Honshu, covering immense tracts ; also found in Hokkaido. Like Kimugi it is somewhat fond of light and may grow in any land holding a suitable quantity of moisture within the temperate regions. It is coming into vogue for the making of artificial coppices of this species of oak mixed with Kv/nugi, Shite and other trees. The Pine family is represented by two species : Akamitsu or "Red pine" and Kuromatsu or "Black pine:" Akamatxii, or " Red Pine " \ Pinus deusiflora, S. et. Z.) : — The most widely distributed of all the coniferous trees in Japan being found from the southern extremity of Kyushu to the southern portion of Hokkaido; thrives in all soils except in places where more or less water always stagnates. Is fond of dry, well-drained land yellowish or reddish in color. It takes possession of defoi-ested areas before other Idnds of Forest Zones and Sylvioultural Conditions. 239 forest-trees begin to grow. In, the southern portion of Honshu it is found in excellent condition at the height of 2,000 metres above the sea. It demands light and hates shade. Forms splendid forests either by natural or artificial regeneration. Mostly found in pure woods ; sometimes as mixed woods planted with the bamboo, Kona-a and other trees. Because of its hardy nature and speedy growth, communes, religious establishments and private persons are very fond of planting groves composed of these trees. In the southern and central portions of Honshu, where, in consequence of wanton felling, the soil has been greatly impoverished, the red pine will come to occupy vast areas in the near future. The wood, which is yellowish white with a shade of red, is hard, strong and elastic and contains a large percentage of resinous substances, which makes it proof against moisture ; hence prized for use in engineering works and as mining props. Used for building purposes though not nearly equ.al to Sugi and Hinoki in this respect. As firewood ranks among the most indispensable kinds of wood used for that purpose. The " pine mushroom " (Matsutake), king of table mushrooms, grows in the " red pine " forests in the southern part of Honshu. Kuromatsu, or "Black Pine"(Pinus thenbergii, Pari.): — Like "red pine " it serves various purposes. The wood, of reddish cjlor, is strong and hard and contains a very large percentage of resinous substances. Being very durable is suited for bridge foundations and for use in general earthwork engineering. As firewood, it is valued as a great heat-producer ! the root-wood being especially rich in resin is used as torches. Thrives well in sandy soils along the seashore. Found all along the coast of Shikoku, Kyusliu and Honshu ; the area covered very extensive. Besides those we have groves of bamboos in the sub- tropical regions. Bamboos take rank among useful timbers of Japan. The chief species of bamboos cultivated are Madake, Hachiku and Mdso. Madake (Phyllostachys bambusoides, Sieb. et Z.) and Hachllni, (Phyllostachys puberula, (Miq.) Munro). — Have been used from ancient times for making various tools and utensils and for 240 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. building and ornamental purposes. Recently bamboo work began to be largely exported to Europe and the United States. Ex- tensively cultivated by private persons in the southern part of Hon- shu, Shikoku and Kyushu. The neighborhood of Kyoto and Kara abound in splendid bamboo groves. At Yamashina, Kyoto, there are groves producing Madalce canes measuring 22 centime- tres in diameter and 22 metres in length. Bamboo groves are mostly found planted either between plots under culture or on hill-sides. They are rarely of any considerable size. Bamboo planting is fitted for sylviculturists with small capital. Mogo (Phyllostachys nutis, Rivier) : — The largest of the bamboo family ; sometimes found of such dimensions as 30 centimetres in diameter and 25 metres in height. Planted in groves mostly in Kyushu, Kii and the provinces adjacent to it. Valued for the manufacture of tools and utensils. Tebipeeate Forests. — The . Temperate sylvan flora extend from the northern half of Honshu to the southern half of the Hokkaido, between 36° and 43.° JST. L., where the average annual temperatures range from 6° to 13° C. The Temperate forests rise in Formosa to the height of 3,500 metres : in Shikoku 1,800 metres ; in Central Honshu a little lower, to wit, 1,500 metres; and in South Hokkaido 500 metres. These forests cover a large area and not a few of them maintain their primitive features. Being mostly natural woods of splendid trees they form the most important item of Japanese sylvan wealth. But as in these regions the climate gets rather cold and the snow lies on the ground during half the year, the trees are liable to be damaged by snow and rec[uire no small amount of tending and protection. TiMBEE Tkees in Temperate Foeests. — The number of the species of trees belonging to these regions is over 60 but the more importaiifc of them are Hinoki, Sugi, Hiba, Koya-maM, Sawara, Nezuho, Monii, Tsuga, Ira-momi, Bara-momi, Himeko-matm, Cliwcn- matsu, Gayo-matsu and Kara-matsu in the Coniferous class; and Keyaki. Yaehidamo, Katsura, Onara, Sawa-giimmi, Tochi, Kurami, Nire, Kuri, Kiivada, Harikiri, Enju, Hokoyanagi, Doro, Honoki, Kashiwa, Sakura, Buna and Kaede in the Broad-Leafed class. Forest Zones and SylvicuUural Conditions. 241 miioJd, Fir (Chamaecyparis obtusa, S. et Z.) :— The timber is soft, close-grained, strong and tough and has a peculiar scent. Ranks first among Japanese timber trees, being used for building purposes, and as an ornamental wood and in engineering work and naval architecture ; also in bridgework. Grows in the southern half of Honshu, Kyushu an.l Shikoku. In the provinces of Kii, Yamato, Musashi, Totomi, and Tajima, wc find extensive forests of this tree. The natural Hinoki forest in Kiso is one of the three best forests in Japan. The natural forests in the Koya mountains in Kii are noted for producing big Hinohi tree. The home of this tree is in the central portion of Honshu, in regions from 550 to 1,400 metres above the sea level, but where the atmosphere contains a suitable proportion of moisture, it is found in well-formed woods, either pure or mixed, in both higher or lower districts. Hiha (Thujopsis dolabrata, S. et. Z.) : — This tree together with Hinoki, Saioava, Nezuko and Koyamaki formed the so-called Goboku or "Five Trees" under the old regime and enjoyed careful protection at the hands of the feudal authorities. Mostly regenerated naturally ; rarely planted. The Aomori districts in the north are noted for having pure woods of Hiha. The State forests in the Tsugaru and the Nambu penin.sula are nearly pure woods of Hiba with a slight intermixture of Buna. There are extensive forests of Hiha mixed with other coniferous trees, such as Hinieko-matsu and Sawara, in the mountains on the northern frontier of Eikuchu, in Goyosan in Rikuzen and in the mountains in the Tone districts, Kozuke. The wood grows slowly and the year-rings are extremely narrow. The timber is compact and strong ; therefore used for building and engine- ering purpose. It has lately come to be in great demand for use as railway sleepers, its durability being peerless. Siigi (Cryptomeria japonica, Don.) ; — ^Very widely distribut- ed, being second only to " Red pines " among the conifers in this i-espect. This tree wants light, grows well in soils having a suitable amount of moi.sture, is capable of speedy and considerable growth, some specimens being found of such huge dimensions as 2 metres in diameter and 40 nietves high. In suitable soils 242 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. and atmosphere this tree forms woods throughout Shikoku, Kyushu and Honshu and even in the southern provinces of Hokkaido. Splendid specimens of natural pure woods of Sugi are found in the Nagakizawa State forests in Akita, while specimens of artificial forests are seen in the private forests in the Yoshino districts in the province of Yamato. The natural forests in Yakujima in Kyushu are celebrated for producing timbers having very fine and pretty grains known as Uzura-moku, partridge grains. The wood is light yellow with a shade of red ; used very much like Hinoki for building and ornamental purposes and in the manufacture of tools and utensils. Saiuara (Chamecyparis pisifera, S. et Z.) : Nezuha (Thuya japonica, Maxim.) : Koya-Maki (Sciadopytis verticillata, S. et Z.) : — Naturally these trees are always found in mixed woods, and never as pure woods. In Kiso and in the Koya mountains there are natural woods of these trees mixed with Hinoki and other coniferous species. They are also found in large groups in the provinces of Yamato, Bungo, Satsuma, Omi, Iwashiro, iShimotsuke and Uzen, 900 metres to 1,800 metres above the sea-level. The timber oi 8awara and Nezuko is of pretty ap- pearance, but being soft, light and easy to split is mostly used as boards and planks by joiners and carpenters. The Koya-maki ^rows extremely slowly, its timber is close-grained and contain- ing some resinous substances is very durable in water. It is therefore valued for making water-pails and for use in earth- work engineering. Moni (Abias firma, S. et Z.) : — Quite widely distributed, being always found in the primitive mountain forests in the southern provinces of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. Is a shade-bearing species. After its middle age it grows very fast and in well-adopted soil forms perfect trunk. The timber is light and coarse and undergoes much expansion and contraction, therefore inferior to the timber of other conifers. Owing to the length of its fibres and the possibility of cleaning them by bleaching, it is used almost exclusively as paper pulps. There being a great demand for the pulps the tree may gradually hecome extinct unless steps are taken f(jr its artificial regenera- Forest Zones and S'jlvicultaral Conditions. 243 lion. The boxes and cases exported to foreign counti:ies from Japan are mostly made of this wood. Tsuga (Tsuga sieboldii, Carr.) : — In distribution similar to Momi and mostly found in woods mixed with Momi. Growth very slow; the timber being of compact structure is highly appreciated for ornamental purpose. Used like Momi as material for paper and box making. Himeko-matsu (Pinus parvifiora, S. et Z.): — Is found in woods in regions between places elevated 1,600 metres above the sea on the Kotsuke-Echigo boundary-line and the moun- tain ranges of Iwasliiro. Nearly pure woods are seen in the provinces of Toshima and Shiribeshi, Hokkaido. Goyo-matsu (Pinus pentaphylla, Mayr.) and Chosen-matsu .(Pinus Koreinsis, S. et Z.) are found overlapping the Tem- perate regions and the Arctic. Barely met with in ihe mountains in the central and northern sections of Honshu. The Goyo-matsu is found in the form of a quasi-pure forest in the province of Tokachi, Hokkaido. Bara-momi (Picea polita, Carr.) and Ira-momi (Picea bicolos, Mayr.) are very limited in distribution being only found to any ^reat extent on the sides of Mount Fuji, at the height of over .2,000 metres above the sea-level. Generally they are found in solitary clusters on the high mountains. As they possess the u.^eful characteristic of making reasonable growth even in poor and shaded laud, they have drawn the attention of the Govern- ment authorities as being probably suited for making protection forests intended to preserve the soil. The growth is very slow and the timber being very soft, is inferior to that of other coniferous species for ordinary purposes but is suited for making <;eilings and also water-free articles of furniture. Kara-wMtsu (Larix leptolepis, Gord.). — Found in natural woods at Mts. Fuji and Asama and the Azumi districts in the province of Shinano. Grows wild in the mountains of Nikko ; nowhere elso found in naturajl woods. It is a decidedly light-demanding species and thrives' in dry soils of volcanic •origin. The timber is tolerably hard and durable and valued for Louse and ship-building purposes, as telegraph poles, in civil engine- 244 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Century. ering work and for other uses. The tree grows fast and is free- from ordinary dangers incidental to sylviculture. Thrives well in any soil however poor, hence it is growing in popularity in Honshu and Hokkaido. The broad-leafed trees of the Temperate regions are very numerous and occupy more than one half the area under fort;.=t. They are found everywhere in great luxuriance, but single species are rarely seen in the form of a strictly pure forest, although Konara, Kashiwa, Onara, Kaba, Koro-no-ki, jffan-no-ki,. Katsura and Buna are widely distributed throughout Honshu and in the southern half of Hokkaido in almost unmixed woods. All the other species grow in irregular intermixture with other broad-leafed or needle-leafed trees, sheltering and protecting each other so as to preserve the original sylvan features. Below are given chief species of sylvicultural importance : Keya/ci (Zelkowa Keaki, Sieb.). — No other broad-leafed species is adopted to so many ways of utilization and so highlj' valued as Keyaki. This species is found everywhere in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, but rarely in pure woods. It grows to enormous dimensions in woods intermixed with shade-bearing species of the broad-leafed family. Loves calcaieous soils and the south-eastern sides of mountains, where, when the soil is suitable, it attains perfect growth. Found wild below 1,600 metres in Shikoku and Kyushu and under 750 metres in the northern section of Honshu. Kiso, Izu, Totomi, Kii, Hyuga, Yamato, Ise and Ou (the north-eastern districts of the Main Island) are especiall noted for producing big Keyald trees. Eequiring a great many years for its full growth, it is unsuited for planting by private sylviculturists with small capital. The Government is, however, making their best endeavors to preserve and increase the areas under this species. The timber is very strong, hard, and lustrous ; highly valued for building and ornamental purpose ; also in naval architecture. Keyaki timber which has Jorin (ring-like), Uzura, (partridge feather), Tama (gem) or Botan (peony) grain is used for making valuable articles of furniture. Keyaki wood is a favorite material for sculptors, being hard and easy to work. Forest Zones and Sylvicultiiral Conditions. 245 Buna (Fagus sylvatica, var. Sieb., JIaxim.) — Occupies the largest space next to Akamatsu. Found in the hills and moun- tains in the northern section of Honshu, in the elevated districts in the southern section of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu ; also in many provinces of Hokkaido. Mostly found mixed with Onara, Katsura, Shioji, Itaya-Kayede and other trees, but in Aomori, Iwate, Echigo and Yumagata pure woods of vast dimensions are seen in the mountains over 300 metres above the sea. As a firewood and charcoal producer, this is one of the most important speces. The timber is little used for building purposes. The Kosaka, Ani and other mines have large Buna forests for getting supplies of fuel. This tree grows well in the shade and having the characteristic of growing even when extremely old, it sometimes attains an enormous size. The Ainos in Old Japan are said to have made log-boats of this tree. Yaehidamo (Fraxinus mandshurica, Rupr.) and Katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum, S. et Z.,). — The only broad-leafed species affording building timbers. Also used for ornamental purposes. Very widely distributed, found in all parts of Hokkaido and in the mountain valleys in the northern section of Honshu. Thrives best in level ground ; excellent pure wocds of Katsura are seen in the province of Iburi. The timber is soft and compact and possesses elastic powers of a durable character. Hence extensively used of late as railway sleepers ; it is chiefly such sleepers that are exported to North China. Inu-Enju (Cladorostis amurensis, var. floribunda, Maxim.): — Pound in the northern section of Honshu and in South Hokkaido mixed with other broad-leafed species. The timber is very pretty and is used for making valuable articles of furniture. Exported to China and Korea as railway sleepers. Kurumi (Juglans sieboldiana, Maxim.): — Grows in rich mountain valleys and on low lands in the central and northern sections of Honshu. On the plains of Ishikari and Tokachi in Hokkaido, it is found in woods mixed with Yaehidamo, Katsura, Nire and other trees. The timber is in demand for making railway carriages and for highly ornamental purposes, *nd also for rifle-stocks. 246 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Harikiri (Acanthopanox ricinifolium, S. et Z.): — Grows in wet soils in Shimozuke, Iwashiro und Iwate ; and everywhere in Hokkaido. In rich soil attains considerable dimensions. The timber is somewhat hard and lustrous with well defined grain and whitish in color. Prized for ornamental purposes- and for making articles of household furniture. In great demand as railways sleepers like Yachidamo and Katsura. Kashiwa (Quercus dentata, Thumb.) and Onara (Quer- cus crispula, Bl.) : — Found in wet places between the mountains in the Nasu and Ou districts in Honshu and everywhere on the plains of Hokkaido. In Honshu rarely found in , pure woods, always growing mixed with other broad-leaf species, but in some parts of Hokkaido, there are extensive pure woods of these trees. The timber of Onara is widely used as sleepers and is one of best producers of firewood and charcoal. Kashiwa contains tannin in its bark and is used in curing skins. Other- wise it is not used, except as firewood. Hoko-yanagi (Populus tremulus, var. villosa, Mesm.) and " Doronoki " (Populus balsamifera, var. suareobenus. Send) : — The two species are most valuable wood in Japan for making match-sticks. The former grows all over Shikoku, Kyushu, Honshu, and as far north as Hokkaido, while the latter thrive* well in the north-eastern districts of Honshu and Hokkaido. They grow easily in sandy wet soil, are foi»,nd forming uniform forests of perfect sylvicultural aspect in many parts of Hokkaido. The trees are fond of light and under favorable couditiou their growth is very rapid, and after 25 years from germination they easily attain the height of 6 metres. Reproduced by seeds- or layer or by dividing the roots. They are being planted extensi\'ely in private forests. Kuri (Castenea vulgaris, var. Japonica, D.C.) : — The extent of the growth of this species is exceedingly wide. In Kyushu and Shikoku and the western parts of Honshu the tree imparts a special aspect to the forests growing on the sides of high hills or on hillocks. In places north to the middle section of Honshu, it grows well on the plains and produces valuable- timber. However the specie rarely forms any extensive pure Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions. 247 forest of its own, and generally mixed Buna, Hiba, KiwadA, Katsura, Kayede Sawakurumi, etc. In the Koblnata Stato forest found in Ton3 district, Kozuke, and in Hiraga district, Ugo, it is found forming pure forests of no small extent. The timber is extremely hard, can stand wet, and on the whole lasts long, is therefore preferred for railway sleepers to any other tree growing in Japan. The sleepers used in the Government Tokaido railroad and in the Hankaku railroad are made from the timber of this tree. Sakura (Prunus Pseudo cerasus, var. spontanea, Maxim), Kaede (Acer palmatus. Thumb), Honoki (Magnolia hypolene?, S. et Z.) : — These are not trees of any great sylvicultural importance, and very rarely do they form pure forests of their own, growing mostly, as they do, amidst conifers or broad-leaf trees. However they are of importance for certain special purpose, and as the supply is hardly sufficient to meet demand, their price is comparatively high. In view of this fact, both in State forests and private forests, they are being planted side by side with trees of other sorts. Toehi (-32sculus trebunata, Bl.), Nire (Uluno campestiis, var. Learis, Planch), Hannoki (Alnus Japonica, S. et Z.), Toneriko (Fraxinus Bungeana, D.C), Saikachi-enoki (Gleditechia Japonica, Miq.), Yanagi (Salix acutiporia, L.) are deciduous broad-leafed trees not particularly possessing any great sylvicultural value. They are grown in this zone for the purpose of giving protection to primary trees or for maintaining the fertility of forest- land. Feigid Forests. — Forests in the Frigid zone occupy in the northern half of Hokkaido and the Kuriles those places where the average yearly temperature does not exceed 6°. In regard to altitude distribution, the zone comprises in Formosa those places that are not less than 3,500 metres from the sea-level, and in the middle section of Honshu all places 1,800 metres above sea level. TiMBEK-TKEEs IN Feigid Foeests. — Timber-trees growing in this region are naturally not so numerous as in those in warmer regions. Indeed as the forests of this zone, except those in Hokkaido, are located in high altitudes, with poor soil, and subjected to strong 248 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. •win Is, the trees are generally too stunted in growth to be of any value. In Hokkaido, however, conifers grow luxuriantly and many primitive forests not yet explored are found. The principal trees in these forests are Todo-matsu (Abies Sachaliensis, Mast.) and Yezo-matsu (Picea ajanensis, S. et Z.). Starting from altitudes measuring 450 metres in the southern parts of the island, these trees are found growing luxuriantly in the mountains of Ishikari, Teshio, Tokachi, Nemuro, and Kitami, and lastly in the island of Kunajiri. The Imperial forests at Tarunai, TJryn, Kushiro, and the State forests at Otoneton, Shari and Kunajiri practically consist of extensive pure forests of these trees, presenting a highly regular aspect. The timber of Todo-matsu is in large demand for architectural and ear1:h-works, and is indeed most valuable of all the timbers produced in Hokkaido. The wood is, however, coarse-grained, and light and is liable to bend when exposed alternately to dryness and humidity. Rather close-grained and resinous, the wood is in great demand for architectural work. Ahaezo-matsu (Picea Glehui, Mast.). — Though valuable as timber next to the two foregoing species, this tree rarely forms a pure forest, is in greater demand than the other two, and commands a higher price. The wood is close-grained and suited for architectural work. In Etrup and Shikotan of the Kuriles, a species of larch, scientically termed L:irix dabui-icn, v".r. Japouica, Max. is found growing, and exposed to inclement climate forms a pure forest of good aspect. The wood is reddish, hard, and well stands wet, and is therefore used in shipbuilding, earthwork and furniture- making. Shira-kaba (Betula alba, var. vulgaris, D.C.), Yama-han- noM (Alnus incana, var. ghinea. Ait.), Nagakamado (Pirus ancuparia, var. Japonica, Max.) are some of the deciduous broad-leafed trees that are found in this zone either as pure forests or scattered among other trees. They are, however, of small sylvicultural value, and are generally used as firewood by miners or fishermen residing in the vicinity. Forest Zones and SyloicaUural Conditions. 249 There are many other trees growing in the respective zones, but the principal species are generally confined to those above described. As found in natural growth, they either form pure forests or are mixed with other trees. In general conifers occupy in the southern districts elevated places, while forests on the level mostly consist of broad-leafed trees. In the northern districts conifers cover mountain slopes, while on their top and foot broad-leafed trees predominate. Eatio of different kinds of Wooded-areas. — On the whole the different classes of forests exist in the following proportions in the wooded areas of Japan : — Conifer Forests 2\% Broad-Leafed Forests 255'^ Conifer and Broad-Leafed Forests 45?^ Thinly-Stocked or Blank Areas, etc 9''o Total 100 Bamboo areas, though forming a feature in our forest system and sufficiently profitable in exploitation, are still extremely limited in extent ; nor do they show any sign of enlargement in a near future. A description of them has, therefore, been omitted here. The growing extension of Aka-matsu, forests recently in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu tended to raise the relative ratio of conifer forests to broad-leafed forests, and this tendency is further accele- rated by the greater demand, in consequence of the development of industry and business, for such conifers as Sugi, Hinolci, and Karamatsu which are being planted extensively. In the State forests the relative proportion of the different kinds of forests stands as follows :— ^ Conifer Forests ii?o Broad-Leafed Forests 28% Conifer and Broad-Leafed Forests 49?^ Thinly-Stocked or Blank Areas, etc I2f \ wood not less than 10 years. Timber Forests Not less than 30 years. Teeatjient of State Forests. — The total area of the forests under regular treatment is being ascertained at present by the Government. At present the data for State forests alone are available, these roughly standing as follows : — Method of treatment. per cent. Clear Cutting Timber-Forests 32 Shelter-Wood Timber-Forests 6 Selection Cutting Timber-Forests 24 Coppice 17 Coppice-with-Standard and Bamboo lo Thinly Stocked Areas, Bare Areas, etc II Total 100 It ■will be seen from the above that the timber-forests treatment occupies about 62 per cent, of the whole areas of State forests. The principal growing stock consists of Buna (beech) 30 per cent., Akamatsu 20 per cent., Sugi 12 per cent., Hinoki 7 per cent., Kashi (oaks) 6 per cent., KuromaUu and Hiba, both 4 per cent., the remaining 17 per cent., cansisting of conifers and broad-leafed trees. In coppice woods Kumigl, Knnara, and oaks occupy about 85 per cent, while in coppice-in-standard woods Momi, Tsuga, oak and Nara predominate over any other species. Conversion of Wood.— The method of conversion of wood have become more and more uniform tlian ever. There are usually three methods, these being the outcome of customs at different forest districts and in different markets. Styles op Conversion. — The Fukagawa timber yard in Tokyo is the most important depot for the wood produced at the northern parts of Middle Honshu. Three different styles of designation are in vogue in this depot corresponding to so many modes of convertion. These are "Motoki," " Nami-motoki " and " Kawabe-mono." The first comes from the wood districts of Mino, Hida, Owari, T5tomi, E-qiloitatioii and Treatment of the Forests. . 261 Tosa, Mikawa, etc., with a standard length of not less than 14 shakii, the second is applied to woods coming from Kii and measures not less than 14 shaku, and the last one is applied to woods produced at Hitachi, Shimozuke, and Musashi with the length of 14 shaku. Woods coming from Hokkaido and the north-eastern parts of Honshu are treated as " jMotoki " and therefore possess measure of correspond- ing length. All these kinds of timber are prepared either as round logs or balks or sawn timbers. The converted timbers of "Motoki" are retiuired to possess the legal standard, but for those of the other two kinds she allowance of 2 to 3 per cent, to the standard measure is conceded. In general Swe/i, Hinoki, Matsu, Keyaki, Momi, Tsuga, Hiba, Yachidamo, Konoki, Katmira, etc., are converted as sided logs, while Siigi, Hinoki, Sawara, Tochi, etc., appear on the market as round logs. Season of Felling. — The season of felling depends of course upon the local ■ conditions, the convenience of transport, etc. but in general the five months beginning with the autumnal equinox and ending with the succeeding February are regarded as the felling season. In such snowy regions as Hokkaido and the north- eastern districts of Honshu where the means of transport are imperfect, felling must be -'tarted in the beginning of the snowy season, so that the timber may be easily carried over the snow. In places where the supply of timber for industrial purposes or firewood is to be kept up all the year round there are arrangements for the uninterrupted felling of the trees. I'HAXSPOBT OF CoNVEETED WooD.— The transport of convert- ed timber inay be divided into two stages, the first being the transport of woods from felling places to depots and the second the transport of the timber from the depots to the markets. In the first stage, chiefly owing to the hilly condition of the forest area in Japan and also to the presence in its proximity of rivers and streams, water ways have been utilized from early times for the conveyance of timber. Indeed economic considerations do not yet allow in most cases the construction of special forest roads. Transport of timber along the middle and lower courses of rivers is generally, as in Bangkok and Eangoon, in the shape of rafts, till the timber reaches depots usually 2G2 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. situated at the mouths of the rivers and therefore easily accessible from the sea. The facilities supplied by rivers are attended in Japan by a drawback usually unknown in other countries, and that is by the necessity of suspending the river transport during the season of the- planting and growth of the rice-plant, when the water of rivers is- extensively utilized for the purpose of irrigating the rice-fields. Then there is another drawuback in this system, for the distance between the source and mouth of our rivers being comparatively short they are liable to become suddenly overflown in time of heavy rain. Therefore the river transport of timbers is generally done- during the seven months elapsing between the season of the autumnal equinox and that of the spring equinox. However in consequence of the recent increasing demand for timber and also owing to the extraoi'dinary improvement in the- means of communications, coupled with the consideration that river- transport, besides being attended by the drawnbacks before mentioned, is liable to injure the quality of the timber, the tendency has gradually set in of making arrangements for land-transport and of constructing forest roads leading either to railroads or high roads. These arrangements are being made in State forests, and the result has proved economically profitable. MiNOE FoEEST Peoduce. — The tendency to a luxuriant undergrowth in Japanese forests, principally due to abundance of moisture, gives the minor produce business a peculiar aspect, for the removal of the undergrowth is of course necessary for the sake of the forest as for that of the undergrowth if the latter is to be utilized as a minor produce. Litters. — In forests belonging to the State or in those kept in its custody the people living in the vicinity are generally allowed, under certain conditions, to collect gratis dead branches and leaves to be used as fuel. Geasses and Herbage. — Though not so extensive as formerly, the custom still prevails among our people of regarding forests and woodlands as places for getting fuel and fertilizers in the shape of grasses and herbage, so that even at present there is no small j,umber of woodlands containing no growing stock and principally Exploitation and Treatment of the Forests. 263 used hj the people for procuring manure grasses and herbage from. It is in those grass-lands that the injurious practice of burning is still carried on, especially in southern districts where farming is more extensively carried on than in the northern and less inhabited districts. .«!>> The practice alluded to prevails to a larger degree than elsewhere in woods growing on a soil of a granite or Tertiary formations. However as it has been strictly forbidden by law, this injurious custom may entirely disappear in the near future. Mushrooms. — Mushrooms are the most valuable minor forest produce in Japan, there being over ten principal edible fuugii growing to a greater or less extent throughout the country. Of these the Shiitake is the most important, and constitutes one of the staple export items, its export to China, Hawaii, Hongkong, India, etc., having reached to 860,671 yen in value in 1901. The mush- room is produced in larger quantities than elsewhere in Hyuga, Bungo, Kii. Ise, etc., where such species of wood as Kimugi, Koiiara, Soro, Shide, etc., which the mushroom prefers to grow on in pre- ference to other trees abounding in the foiests. Sometimes forests are prepared in those districts with the main object of producing the mushroom, and indeed this practice is often found more profitable than the ordinary wood-growing industry. In a forest intended for the growth of mushrooms a system of rotation of from 18 to 25 years is carried on and the forest is therefore managed according to the coppice system. The mushroom, moreover, possesses this special advantage, of growing both in spring and autumn, and naturally there are two varieties, one being more fragrant than the other. Matsutake (Armilaria edoides, Berk) grows in forests oi Akamatsu, especially those growing on soil of the Tertiary and granite forma- tions found in the southern districts. What is interesting about this edible fungus is that it grows most when a pine forest has be come worn out by excessive utilization of its produce. Consequently with the improved forest management that was recently introduced, the output of the fungus has shown a tendency to diminish. This fungus is perhaps more popular than the preceding variety as a eulinarj' dainty. The only defect about it is its delicate texture, and the consequent difiioulty of keeping it dry, as can be done satisfactorily with the "Shii" mushroom. Consequently the season of , 264 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. the " Pine-mushroom " last only about a month in the autumn. The business of tinning the fungus has lately been started, and as the tinned samples are reported to have been favorably received in foreign markets, this mushroom may by pi'oper treatment become a valuable export item like the other variety. It may be added that in the State forests in charge of the Osaka and Okay am a Major Forest Offices the greater portion of the forest revenues is at present derived from the sale of " Pine-mushrooms " growing in them. Seeds, Acoens, etc. — Seeds constitute another important minor forest produce. They are collected for various purpf>ses. The seeds of trees of the Rhus species are principally used for making wood- ■wax, which is very much in demand both at home and abroad. In 1901 the export reached 610,000 yen worth approximately. It ■was formerly used for making candles, but at present it is also used for giving lustre to woven goods, lubricating metallic ware to prevent rust, while in Europe it serves the purpose of sealingwax. The trees are grown in the premises of shrines and temples, in public forests owned by private individuals. They grow best in sunny slopes. The business of collecting seeds to produce seedlings is also a profitable piece of minor work, especially since the work of tree- planting both by the Government and private people has become active. There are at present not a small number of nierchnuts dealing in this special line of seeds. The seeds that are in larger demand than others are those of Sugi, followed by those of Akamatsu, Hinoki, Kunugi and Karamalsu. The seeds of the Sugi and Hinohi are produced most at Yoshino, in Yiimatu, and Muro, in Kii, where a machine of improved style is used for drying the seeds. The seeds of Kunugi come from Ikeda, in Settsu, and Nasu, in Shimotsuke, those of Karaviatsu from Saku district, Shinano, and the seeds of Aha-maUu from many places in Kyushu, Shikoku, and other warm districts. Further, somie acorns and nuts are useful for procuring oils, the seeds collected for the purpose being those of the beech, camelia, Shikimi, Abura-giri, Inu-gaya, walnut, etc. The demand for those oils having been extensive lately owing to great deve- lopment in the ase of machinery, these seed- collectors can often Explo'dcdion and Treatment of the Forests. 265 «arn as much as threefold of the daily wages derived from other kinds of work. Barks.— The barks of oak trees are valuable for dyeing and tanning, and the oak forests in northern Honshu and Hokkaido produce an abundance of these barks. All those forests are the result of natural growth and have not been artificially stocked with the object of pioducing the barks. The barks of alders, chestnuts, Tsuga, Nara, etc. are also used for tanning and dyeing. Stokes. — Except in forests where the removal of stones is inadmissible for important reasons, the utilization of forest-stones is extensively carried on, the demand for stones for various public works having become unusually great recently. Of these stones, granites and audesites are most valuable iimong igneous rocks. The former come most from the districts bordering on the Inland Sea and the islands situated in it, as also from Mino, Owari, and Mount Tsukuba. Tufa-rocks found in Hakone and Izu, slate-stones in Rikuzen and Koluke, calcareous stones in Mino are also valuable for building and other purposes. Marble-stones are produced at Kuji district of Hitachi. Then granites supply materials to the potters of Seto and Owari, while the earths used by the potters of Karatsil and Hizen are liparite. It may be stated that the extraordinary demand for stones that has spring up of late has raised the market price to about double what it was formerly. On the whole the revenue from minor produce is comparatively small in State forests, as may be seen from these figures : 1892, 119,912 yen; 1895, 73,575 yen; 1898, 117,268 yen; 1901, 158,666 j/en. The revenue from mushrooms, barks, seeds and acorns, and stones promises to grow lai'ger, but that from other produce is dwindling chiefly owing ■to the liuger extent of free utilization allowed to the people. I.NDUSTEIAL UsES OF WooD. — Though the industrial uses of wood are quite active in our country, the industry as a business is limited in many cases in scope. Cakbonisation. — ^This is most important among the industrial uses of wood, work being carried on wherever a broad-leafed forest available for the purpose exists. The Bicho charcoal industry in Kuraano, Kii, is most famous in this line throughout the country. The carbonisation industry has perceptibly been affected by the 266 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. greater use of coal than before as a substitute of charcoal, but as our customs prevent us from dispensing with a large consump- tion of charcoal, the industry will remain an important one. Eecently the work of procuring vinegar as by-product of carbonisation was started in several places, especially in the southern districts. Eight such workshops were ou operation accord- ing to the latest inquires. Other chemical substances besides vinegar are produced at the shops. The establishment of saw-mills of an improved style is another sign of the development of forest industries, as a recent large de- mand for sawn-timbers necessitates a certain unity of dimensions- and a mode of conversion most convenient for transport. Accord- ing to the latest available returns there were 14 saw-mills worked by steam, with an aggregate horse-powers of 317, and six saw-mills worked by water power with an aggregate horse power of 52. Match-sticks. — Though the industry is one of recent origin it forms one of the most important itmes of export of our wood industries, there being, according to the latest available returns, 85 workshops employing 3,552 hands. The export reached about 7,400,000 yen in 1901. The industry is most active in Hokkaid5, where the timbers from which the sticks are made abound, these being species of aspen and poplars. The Pulp. — This business is of more recent origin than the preceeding industry, but it now occupies almost an equally important place. The pulp consumed in Japan formerly came from abroad, but the steady development of the paper industry having given a powerful incentive to the pulp-making business, Japan now possesses, according to the latest available returns, five mills worked by steam power. Shirobe, Momi, Toga, Todo-matsu, Yezo-matsu, etc. are generally requisitioned to supply the raw material. These species are at present found abundantly in Japan. Other branches of the wood industry are camphor-making, bamboo-ware making, wheelwright, joiner's, turner's, cooper's work, etc. may be mentioned. Generally speaking the forest industry is destined to show a far greater activity and development in Japan. Forest Plantiiu/ and Trmisport. 26T Y. FOREST PLANTING AND TRANSPORT. Planting. — The effect of reckless felling sooa after the Restora- tion is glaringly shown to-day in the granite hills of Omi, Mine and in the districts bordering on the Inland Sea. In order to check this wasteful system of felling, in 1875 the- Governnient issued regulations for investigating the condition of State forests, with the special object of asceitaining the extent of the forests that had been felled, while in the following year an experimental forest-planting ground was established at Nishigahara, Oji. Again, in the next year, arrangements were made for en- couraging the planting of State forests by private individuals by offering them a certain percentage of the profit arising from the- produce of the forests planted in this way. The system has not proved quite as satisfactorily as was expected at first, though tht^ areas planted under these conditions have reached about 80,000 cho. Encouraoing Planting. — Prior to the carrying into effect of the Civic Corporation System sylvicultural works other than those car- ried on by the Grovernment were few and far between, and it was only in forests belonging to private individuals in Yoshino and Muro that planting was carried on in anything like a systematic manner. Subsequent to the promulgation of that self government organiza- tion in which provision about communal funds were made, the idea began gradually to prevail that forest-planting was the best plan for augumenting these funds. The idea gained special force owing to the encouragement and the grant-in-aids extended by the local authorities in accordance with the provisions of the Forest Law subsequently enforced. The result was that during the two years of 1898 and 1899 no less than 426,595 clw of communal areas were planted, the number of seedlings and young trees planted totalling 801,022,357. The work generally received more or less assistance from the local authorities, that assistance generally taking the form of technical advise. Planting in State and lMPERi,\L Forests. — Meanwhile the work of planting went on steadily in the State forests. At fiist it mainly consisted of regenerating the cleared areas, and therefore not 268 Japan in the Beginiiing of the '20th Century. much attention could be devoted to the deforested areas. In 1895 the investigation relating to open spaces was completed, and a ■working plan according to the high forest system was drawn up. From 1899 when the second State forest adjustment programme had been completed, the arrangement of open spaces could be made more satisfactorily than before. Between 1888 and 1898, 43,149.9 cho of State forest areas received planting, while during the three years •ending 1901 the areas similarly treated reached 34,897 cho. In the fjrraer total 80 per cent, consisted of the work of regenerating cleared areas, and only 30 of planting waste spaces, while in the latter the open space work comprised 55 per cent., the remaining 45 consisting of regeneration work. The extent of bare land being comparatively small in forests belonging to the Imperial Household, planting is carried out mostly for i-egenerating cleared areas, the planted areas of this description amounting to 12,510.4 cho during the ten years ending 1901. Methods of Planting. — The system followed in planting opera- tions must of course be different according to the locality and other cause:*, always keeping in view the main object of producing a perfect forest formation capable of returning a regular i-evenue. The plans pursued in pursuance (>/ that maid object are these : — 1. Natural regeneration. 2. Sowing. 3. Planting of young plants. 4. Planting in dunes and patches of shifting sand. The iirst metliod was almost universally adopted in former times, but this is no longer popular in these days when the knowledge of forest management possessed by foresters has come highly developed, for if that method is the easiest and the least troublesome, nontheless it is not advisable in view of the necessity of effecting a thorough improvement in our sylvicultural conditions. However on steep slopes and in protection forests demanding special treatment this raethod is still used to extent. Generally sowing is made to supplement the necessarily fickle operation of the method oi naturui regeneration. In cases when sowing is carried on by itse'i. it is done by ridge-sowing, bread-cast- Forest Planting and TranspoH. 2G9' sowing, line-sowing, etc. Oaks, beeches, Aka-matsu, etc can be grown satisfactorily by sowing. However, the planting of young trees is the commonest method in artificial regeneration, this method being adopted in the greater number of cases in State forests and in forests belonging to the Imperial Household. Generally seedlings are transi)Ianted to the woods after they have grown two or three years in the nursery, the tree of planting per clio ranging between 4,500 to 6,000 young, trees. As it is hardly possible to expect all oi them to grow- vigorously in the new soil, about 20 or 30 per cent, of the planted young trees must be supplemented in year or two after the transplanting. The method of planting by means of cuttings is practically identical in opei-ation and result with the method described above, only that this method cannot be adopted for all species of trees. In Higo and Hyuga the regeneration of Benko Sugi has been ex- clusively carried out by this method, while it is similarly applied, to Doro, Hakoyanagi, etc. growing in Hokkaido, Hiba in Aomori: and Noto. In dunes and in plains of shifting sand, works to pre- vent earth from slipping away should first be constructed, these works generally consisting in straw-work or bramble-work or some- times in sods. The trees selected for this particular method: of planting are generally Kuromatm and Hageshibari, mix- ed at the rate of 3 of the former to 2 of the latter.. Planting should be done at the rate of 14,000 to 18,000 per cho. Travellers travelling from Shiuionoseki to Kobe by the Sanyo Railroad must notice in Bizen and Harima many liills of reddish soil covered with young pine trees planted in ter- races. Similar pine-clad terraces are seen along the Tokaido route. AH those plantations have been made by this particular mode of planting. Extent of Planted Aeeas. — The extent and nature of the planting operations carried on in the State forests and in the forests belonging to the Imperial Household during the ten years ending 1901 may be, demonstrated by the following fiirures : — ■ 270 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2(ith Century. STATE FORESTS. Conifers, Broad-leafed trees. Totsl. Area.(cho). l^^- ^^^^- ''^°'- Q-X ^-- (""«-'■ q'SLJuy. ■Kntural Regeneration ... 15,235.2 — 2,032.3 — 17,267.5 — , ..^ . , _ ,. .,»„,« 306.516,463 r^r^^ 2,34f>nOO AS'.m •'^29,938.^3 Artificial Regeneration.. 41,707.2 ^g^, ^^j.^ 6,865.5 ^S.SUJ koku ^^^'™ 80,271 koku r>. . , caaint 306,516,463 ojio7« 2,340 930 r^omiO •32<).938,r;S i Tot.ll 56,942.4 e^g^iiiiu 8,897.8 23,:-0J koku *'*'*°^ 30,271 koku IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD FORESTS. " Natural Kegeneration ... — — — — — — .,.,.,„ ,. ,, c. c 61,491,518 „„, „ 2,921,853 io-o=:a 54,413,317 ■ Artificial Kegeneration.. 11,844.6 i_^65 koku ^^^-^ 112^0 koku ^%'^=-» 3,085 Hdiic 61,491,518 ,q, „ 2,921,853 107,, r 54,413,371 11,844.6 J 855 891.2 j ,20 koku l-'35-8 jngj ^ J T„*-i co-c-jo 358,007,981 o7i,on 26,343,753 ,a,;,cn 384,351,7:'4 Grand Total ... 68,(87.0 gggj 9,789.0 ' 24)520 78,576.0 33,856 Kind of Planted trees. — As may be seen from the foregoing "table, the areas planted with conifers are about nine-fold those planted with broad-leafed trees, and this predominance of conifers over trees of the other description will form a characteristic feature of our future sylvicultural system. The reason why conifers .Tte so much preferred to the other kind of trees is because that with the present activity in the work of house building and in the carrying on of public works the timbers of the conifers are more in demand 'than that of broad-leafed trees, so that at present except in retired districts most of the sylvicultural undertakings are carried out with "the object of producing timbers of conifers. As to the relative ratio of the different species planted, Sugi occupied about 48.3 per cent, of the entire area, pines 25.C per cent., Hinoki 8.8 per cent., Keyahi 3.3 per cent., the remaining 1.7 per cent, being planted by two or three different species. Again, in the relative ratio of conifers, Bugi, Aka-matsu, and Hinoki predo- minated over the others, while in broad-leafed trees Keyaki, camphor- trees, Kunugi, etc. surpassed the others. This overwheling predominance of conifers is a point which Forest Planting and Transport. 271 ought to demand the serious consideration of all those interested in our forest policy. There is another fact that similarly demands their attention and that is the growing tendency to prepare pure forests instead of mixed forests. In fact, of the forests thus far stocked no less than 98 per cent, are of pure forests, only 2 per •cent, being mixed forests. This remark applies both to conifers and broad-leafed trees. But it should be lemenibered that a pure forest is liable to give rise to various evils, besides being attended by difficulties in management. Indeed this point has lately begun to be perceived by foresters and others concerned, who acknowledge the advantage of mixing more or less light-demanding species with conifers. At least this is the policy now pursued in State forests, where the plan- ing of broad-leafed trees is attended to so long as circumstances permit. Nursery-Beds. — The efficacy of the work of forest-planting depending essentially on the soundness of the seeds and seedlings and also on the skill of the employed labor the utmost care is exercised in those respects. In the State forests and Imperial Household forests the seeds or seedlings to be used are only those that are collected or grown on the spot. The nursery-beds attached to those forests numbered 407 at the end of 1900, with an aggregate area of 622.1 cho for State forests and 111 with an area of 101.9 cho for other forests. Then in order to procure as cheaply as possible the labor required in tending the nurseries, and also to facilitate the work of transplanting, these beds are located in places combining as much as possible these two conveniences. They are laid out in as many places as possible. The seedlings grown in nursery-beds are generally transplanted after full three years' growth in the beds, and when they have attained the height of 1} to 2 shaku. Some species, Su793 7,773,15s 7.5«6,20i 058 0.58 0.59 0.77 Note : — In the foregoing figures the harvest of root, stump-wood, and faggots is ex- cluded, while fractions of a shakujime are also omitted. A shakujime measures 12 cubic shakii and corresponds to about a third of I cubic metre. This remark applies to all the subsequent tables of a similar description. The increase of the harvest has been brought about by a longer thining made possible by the improved method of management and by the extension of the utilization area which was in turn due ta Wood Produce. 277 development of means of transportation. Indeed the utilization area of State forests increased from about 18 per cent, in 1892 of the whole area to about 21 per cent, in 1901. In other words, the rate of utilization area increased during the period in question by 17 per cent, as against 35 per cent, of the volume of the timber- Tiarvest. The harvest, according to the foregoing table, increased during the specified period from 0.58 shaku-jime per cJio to 0.78 ; and these compared with the respective utilization areas correspond to 3.2 to 3.7 The volume of the harvest as compared with the volume of the growing-stock in the State forests is extremely small, and indeed xioes not reach even one half of what it should be. The reason of this abnormal yield must be sought in the fact that in most of the forests situated in hilly districts the presence of miscellaneous trees is seriously affecting the growth of timber-trees, while in most of the forests the growing-stock has not yet attained the normal "age- classes." Further, the Government is disposed to minimize, till the management programme is completed, the volume of the yearly fellings, while the imperfect means of transport, absolutely considered, very much affect the extent of the utilization area. Financial yield. — The State-forests, hampered as they are from various inconvenient conditions, are placed in a highly dis- advantageous situation, so far as the financial side of yeild is con- cerned. This point is significantly shown in the following figures showing the yield during the 10 years ending 1901 : — 1892. 1895- 1898. 1901 Timbers yen. 342.556 yen. 555,906 ven. 767,842 yen. 1,369,171 Firewood 213,709 299,449 372,515 486,141 Root, Stump - wood. Fagots, etc 66,324 19,348 28,708 37,880 Minor Produce 120,229 73,755 142,904 158,65s Rent 23,618 25,361 46,323 73,689 Sundries 44,623 24,801 998,620 9.- ..374 1,451,666 50,986 Total 811,059 2,176,522 Total Area (^/zo) 7,541,633 7.7 "5,793 7,773.15s 7,581,201 Yield per cAo 0.108 0.129 0.187 0.2S8 Note : — In tlie above table, fractions oi a yen are omitted, except in the figures re- presenting the yield per cho- 278 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Though absolutely considered, the yield of only 0.288 yen per eho is exceedingly small, still it must be regarded with satisfaction on account of the relative j)rogress that it indicates. The record for 1892 as compared with that of 1892 shows an increase of 19 per cent., advanced to 73 per cent, in the next three years, and to 260 per cent, in the subsequent three years. Again, when compared with the utilization area only, instead of the whole area, the yield per ' cha increased during the ten years from 0.647 yen to 1.386 yen. This creditable progress, relatively speaking, has been brought about not merely by an increase in the volume of the harvest, but principally by the recent growing demand for timber with the con- sequent rise of the market price, and by the diminution of transport expenses owing to the greater facilities offered by the improved means of communication. Above all the receipt from timbers has- been strikingly increased, these timbers being mostly the timber of conifers such as Siigi, Hinohi, Hiba, Momi, Ahamatsu, etc. Poles produced by thining were till ten years ago practically destitute of value but these now command a good price on the market. The rapidity with which the yield from timbers has advanced during the ten years under review is indeed remarkable, for while it has been quadrupled during that period the yield from firewood has only been doubled. Expenditure. — With the increase in the gross yield, the ex- penditures have necessarily been expanded. In 1892 the expenditure stood at 522,762 yen, but during the subsequent ten years the amount has been almost doubled and has risen to 1,029,966 yen- This increase, though partly due to the rise of wages and of the price of commodities, a phenomeno i inseparable from the progress of the time, was more attributable to the expanded scope of improve- ment measures : — Year. 1892 ... 1895 ... 1898 ... 1901 hs Area. Management Expense. Working Expense. Total. Expense per c/w. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. 7.541.633 7.715,793 7,773.>55 7,581,201 423,146 402,789 5S3.0I6 669,149 99,616 180,085 364.674 330,817 522,762 582,874 917,690 1,029,966 0.070 0.075 0.118 0-137 Wood Produce. 279 Note : — ^The management expense includes salaries of officials, office expenses, tra- velling expense, repair of offices, etc. ; while the working expense comprise the cost of felling, transport, planting and all the other items incidental to the working of forests. As stated in the foregoing table the average managing expense per cho increased during the ten years under review from 0.056 yen to 0.082 yen, while the average of the working expense increased from 0.013 yen to 0.044 yen. In other words, while the rate of increase of management expenses is about 60 per cent., that of working expenses is as much as 340 per cent. The ratio of manage- ment expense is rather high as compared with working expense, the former constituting, on an average, 68 and the latter 22, if we take the total expense as 100. This comparatively high rate of manage- ment expense is explained by the enormous extent of the State forests, and especially the fact that most of them require a thorough re-organization, and all these involve extraodinary trouble and expense. However, the ratio between management expense and working expense is gradually recovering normal proportion, for while in 1892 the management expense bore to the working expense the ratio of 21 to 5, in 1901 the proportion became 21 to 10. The proportion is svire to become more satisfactory when the second forestry adjustment programme now being carried out shall have been completed. Profit. — Forestry yield is obtained by deducting from the gross receipts the working expense, while the net profit consist of what remains after the management expense has been deducted from the remainder. Calculated in that way, the net profit of State-forests stands thus ; — Year. Total Area. Gross Receipts. Gross Dis- bursements. Net Profit. Profit per cho. 1892 - - 7.S4I.633 811,059 522,762 288,292 0.038 189s . ... 7,715.793 998,620 582,874 415.746 0.054 1898 . ... 7,773.15s 1,451,666 917,690 533.976 0.069 igoi . ... 7,586,201 2,176,52-: 1,029966 1,146,556 0.151 The net profit per cho, as stated in the foregoing table, has increased from 0.038 to 0.151 compared with the utilization area. 280 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. The rate per cho was 0.212 yen in 1892 and it advanced to 0.72 yen ten years after. Data About the Imperial Foefsts. — As forests that were comparatively regular in aspect were selected as Imperial forests oa the occasion of setting apart a part of State forests as property of Imperial estate, the forests belonging to this special class, besides being easy to manage, are rich in conifers and valuable timber-trees, so that the harvest is more satisfactory than that in State forests. The harvest during the ten years commencing in 1892 is stated below : — 1892. 1895. 1898. 1901. Shaku-jime. Shaku-jime, SJiaku-jime. Shaku-jime. Timbers 803,026 588,692 685,193 1,110,324 Firewood - 723.321 500,820 555,468 848,316 Total ... 1,526,347 1,089,512 1,240,661 1,958,140 Total Area ... 3,478,007 2,108,720 2,091,066 2,093,404 Harvest per cho ... 0.44 0.51 0.59 0.94 The average harvest per alw that was 0.44 in 1892 increased io 0.94 ten years after, an increase of more than two-fold. The statistics on financial side are as follows : — Timbers Firewood Fagofi, Stump - Wood, 1 root, etc / Minor Produce Rent Sundries Total Total Area Yield per cho Just as in the case of the State forests, with the progress of the work of management along the economic line, the volume of the harvest and the amount of the gross receipts are gradully increasing, to make a still greater development as that work proceeds. Then the 1892. 1895. 1898. 1901. yen. yen. yen. yen. 226,709 327,644 752,585 845,139 50,131 50,604 62,867 83,291 163 3,141 3,196 4,636 13.655 18,619 22,894 29,402 19,724 29,433 54.770 77,667 28,647 30,150 34,346 74,089 340,027 459,591 930,658 1,114,224 3,478,007 2,108,720 2,091,066 2,093,404 0.099 0.218 0.445 0.532 1892. 1895. 1898. 1901. 3,478.007 2,108,720 2,091,066 2,093,404 io6,i54 110,138 115,291 147,734 208,157 195,594 369,954 496,686 3i4,3'i 305,732 485,245 644,420 0.090 0.145 0.232 0.30S Wood Produce. 281 financial results of the administration of the Imperial forests are somewhat better, owing to the reasons mentioned above, thiin in the ease of the State forests, for the gross receipts that stood at 0.095 yen per cho in 1892 advanced to 0.533 in 1901. As might naturally be expected, expense has also advanced. Total Area (cRo) Management Expense (yen) ... Working Expense (^/ifw)... ... Total (>•«») Expense per c/io (yen) In respect to the increase of expense, the Imperial forests are very much like the State forests, for during the periuJ under review the rate per cho increased from 0.09 yen to 0.308 yen. However, in contrast to the corresponding state of affairs in State forests, the ratio between the management expense and the working expense is entirely reversed, the former constituting only 27 and the latter 73, out of the total expenses of 100, This com^ parative smallness of the management expense in the Imperia- forests is explained by the fact that the forests, owing to their convenient location, and on account of their being comparatively well-organized do not require any large amount of money to be spent on them. Thus while State forests required in 1901 manage- ment expense amounting to 0.092 yen per cho the corresponding figure in Imperial forests was only 0.071. On the other hand, the average working expense of State forests in the year mentioned was 0.045 yen per cho against 0.337 in case of the other forests. This remarkable difference between the two is ascribable to the fac* that while in State forests the forests-produce to be sold is generally done so in the shape of standing-trees, in the Imperial forests whatever produce becomes disposable is directly utilized by the Household itself which of course undertakes the work of conversion. The net profit from the Imperial forests as calculated by , In those days the work was confined to surface seams, and it was not till 1881 when a steam boiler was set at the Meo mine (now forming part of the Katsuno mine), that the extraction in modern style was introduced in this coal region. After thit similar appliances were adopted at other mines as Namazuda, Shin-nyu, Meiji, Akaike, etc. About 1889 the reserved beds for use of the Navy at Togawa, Kurate and other places were opened for public exploitation, while about that time the Department of Agriculture and Commerce adopted legislative measures aimed at discouraging the separate existence of small concessions, hence at encouraging their combination. Meanwhile the work of laying rail- roads through the important districts of Kyushu advanced apace, by which the facilities of transportation between the coal mines and the harbors of Moji and Wakamatsu were considerably promoted. But what specially stimulated the development of the colliery work in Kyushu was an extraordinary demand for coal occasioned by the Japan-China War. All those circumstances have combined to carry the work of the Chiku-ho coal-fields to the present state of prosperity. The Chiku-ho coal-fields extend for the five administrative dis- tricts of Tagawa, Kurate, Kaho, Onga, Kasuya, all in Fukuoka- ken, and measuring over 30 miles north and south and 8 to 16 miles east to west. The coal-bearing strata in the Chiku-ho coal-fields may be divided into upper and lower strata as to quality of coal contained. The coal obtained from the upper seams is Seams and Quality, inferior in quality but possesses advantages of being easily workable. The principal seams are five in number with the thickness generally varying from 2 to 6 feet. In proportion, the area occupied by the upper strata does not exceed one-fifth of that of the lower strata. (0.) THE MIIKE COAL-FIELDS. The discovery of the fields date more than four centuries ago. From 1873 to 1889 the colliery belonged to the Government, but it was subsequent to the latter year, when the Mitsui Firm got the conces- sion, that the work of the colliery began to present a marked activity. Geology and Mineral Deposits. 297 The fields cover 3 J miles east and west and 10 miles north and south, occupying a seaward proportion of Miike district in Fukuoka prefecture and Tamana district in Locality, Area, etc. Kumamoto prefecture. The area occupied mea- sures 13,969 acres, while the output in 1902 amounted to 962,091 tons, the aggregate during the thirty years beginning 1873 being 11,737,981 tons. Several seams occur, but at present the first seam alone is almost exclusively worked. It measures 5 to 25 feet with an average thickness of 8 feet. The seam dips in general with an angle of 5-J degrees. The second seam lying at the depth of 6 Seams and to 10 feet under the first possesses the thickness of 5 Coal. feet, but this seam is only partially distributed through the fields. The other seams are very irregular in formation and are hardly workable. The coal, as already stated above, is excellent, being especially suited for making gas and coke and for use in boilers. The work is carried on at six different places in the colliery, each separated from the other by a natural partition or brick-wall, the largest pit is that called Manda. Its mouth measures 12 feet by 41 feet and the pit reaches the depth of 826 feet. • The Existing When all the arrangements now going on for con- Condition, ducting work more efficiently than at present have been completed, this pit alone is expected to yield more than 2,000 tons per day. The pumping appliance at the colliery in on a large scale, the water issuing at the pits averaging 1,200 cubic feet per minute on ordinary days and 2,000 in the time of the rainy season. Seventy- seven pumps are at work, requiring a motor of 15,254 horse-power. The pumping plant installed on the pit bank at the Manda mine, for instance, has a high-pressure steam cylinder 45 inches in diameter, low-pressure steam cylinder 90 inches in diameter, a water cylinder 22 inches in diameter, and all of 12 feet stroke ; and is able to deliver water against a head of 900 feet lifted in three stages of 300 feet each. It is described in the Encyclopedia Britannica as " pro- -bably the heaviest existing colliery pumping plant " in existence. At present 2,008 mine-workers and 3,660 workpeople of other 298 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. descriptions are employed, the daily output being 3,050 tons. Arrangements for transportation exist in good order, 16 inches of railroad for express purpose of conveying the coal from the colliery to the nearest shore being in operation, while at the shore a ship, a wharf and a big crane are provided. A ship can admit 80 colliers of from 50 to 300 tons. At present 4,000 tons can be coaled in 24 hours. All these facilities of transportation will become far more satisfactory when, with the completion of the im- proved working arrangements at Manda, a more capacious ship and an additional railroad have been constructed, this work of construc- tion going on at present. (D.) THE TAKASHIMA COAL-FIELDS. The date of the discovery of this coal-field is not exactly known^ though some evidences exist that the extraction must have been made about two hundred years ago. In 1817 the mine came into the possession of the then chief of the Saga clans and it was during the ownership of this clan, or more precisely in 1867, that a shaft after a European fashion was first sunk. Six years later the owner- ship passed to the Imperial Government, next year to the late Count Goto, and in 1881 to the Mitsubishi Firm, in whose hands it still remains. Considerable improvement both in the method and scope of working has been effected by that establishment. At one time the daily output exceeded 1,200 tons, and though for a while after- ward the output gradually declined, it somewhat revived its former activity when in 1898 new seams were discovered. At Hajima, one of the three collieries collectively called the Takashima coal-field, a regular shaft was first sunk in 1887, and when in 1890 it came to the possession of the Mitsubishi Firm the second and third shafts were sunk, and these only are now worked, as the work in the first shaft had to be abandoned as a result of a fire that occurred in it in 1897. The seams at the Takashima mines generally run north-nortli- east to south-south-west, the dip being from 20 to 20 degrees at the Seams and north-eastern part and from 30 to 50 at the south- ftuality. western part. There are sixteen seams, of which five are workable. Geology and ilineral Depositk 299 The directions of tlie seams at Hajiraa are on the whole similar to those at Takashima, only the dip is somewhat sharper, making as much as 60 or 70 degrees at the south-western part. There are thirteen seams, of which six are workable. The seams in the two mines exist in identical strata and their workable seams alone measure on an aggregate over forty feet deep, holding, roughly estimated, 160 million tons. The quality of the cool ranks best of 'all the produce in Japan, being especially suited for making coke. The working galleries of the mines are in most cases situated under the sea-bed, some of them lying 1,630 feet The Condition below the surface of the sea. This requires constant of Work. ventilation and the ventilator set at Takashima venti-^ lates on an average 58,000 cubic feet of air every second and that at Hajima 120,000 feet. At present about 3,000 men are at work producing 16,100 tons a month on an average. The coal-field is situated in the Nishi Hikine district in Naga- saki prefecture and comprises the three small islands named Taka- shima, Hajima and Nakanoshima lying seven nauti- Locality, Area, cal miles from the harbor of Nagasaki. It etc. covers 2,430 acres. In 1902 the output amounted to 189,135 tons. During the 22nd years beginning 1881, when the concession came into the posgession of the present leasee, the colliery produced 4,889,567 tons. Petroleum. — Petroleum exist almost exclusively in the Tertiary formations found in the Inner Arc region. It is generally con- tained in the coarse sandstones interlaid between the Distribution of layers of impervious shale. The oil-bearing area is the Veins. very extensive, stretching over Hokkaido, 0-U dis- tricts, and the provinces of Echigo, Shinano, and Totomi. The oil-field of Totomi existing in the Tertiary system of the Outer Arc region, is comparatively insignificant. The principal centre of production is Echigo which contains the five principal oil-fields of Higashiyama, Nishiyama, Amaze, Niitsu, and Kubiki, of which the first two are the most im- Echigo Oil-Fields, portant. The Higashiyama oil-field consists of white sandstone and the strata are generally found from CO to 960 feet below ground. The Amaze oil-field is in alternate ■300 Japan ire the Beginning of the 20th Century. layers of shale and sandstone, and some of the strata lie about 2,562 feet deep. Though the output has somewhat declined, the, quality of the oil from this field is the best of all. The Nishiyama oil-field, though on the whole similar in geological formation to the strata of Amaze, produces oil of inferior quality, and generally lies about 600 feet deep in the ground. Principal Petroleum Veins in Echigo. — Strictly speaking, it was in the 7th year of the reign of the Emperor Tenchi (668 A.D.) that the first authentic record about the petroleum-fields of Echigo occurs. That record states that in that year General " burning earth " and " burning water " were presented Remarks, from Echigo to the Imperial Court. Though the boring became somewhat active toward the end of the 15th ■century to the middle of the 16th, still it was not till about 1875 that the business began to acquire some commercial importance. The work was mostly carried on at that time in the districts of Kubiki and Niitsu. With the tapping of the veins at Amaze about ten years afterward, and especially after the work undertaken by the Japan Petroleum Company with regular boring machinery in 1890 had been crowned with success, that something like a boom overtook the petroleum industry of Echigo. The veins at Hire and Urase began to yield oil, while in 1898 the machine boring at Nagamine and the following year at Kamada struck rich beds of oil. Prom that time till 1902, boring was successfully tried in several other places of Echigo. At present the principal oil-fields in Echigo are Nagamine, Kamada, and Niitsu. The first is worked by two companies and in 1902 produced 340,000 barrels, more than one-third of the total output in Japan. The crude oil is transported by iron- Ifagamine. pipes to a refinery at Amaze separated by over 9 miles from Nagamine, and also to a refinery at Kashiwazaki separated by 11 miles. The later belongs to the Japan Petroleum Company and is perfect in arrangement. It may indeed be regarded as a model oil-refinery in Japan. The oil-fields at Kumada are exploited by the International Oil Company and an individual concessionaire, and -Kamada. gave 120,000 barrels in 1902. The company possesses Geology and Mineral Deposits. 301' at Naoyetsu, a place separated by 29 miles, a refinery worked on a large scale. The oil-fields at Niitsu were originally divided into a large number of concessions worked on a small scale, but they Niitsu. have subsequently been amalgamated for the most part, with excellent results as to yield. In 1902 this reached 186,000 barrels. Hire, Urase, Katsuhosawa, and Tsubakisawa are collectively called the Higashiyama Oil-fields which in 1902 Higashiyama produced 265,000 barrels. A number of refineries Oil-Fields. for refining the Higashiyama oil are at work at Nagaoka, a place lying 6 miles from the fields. The Kushiike oil-fields are the newest beds, having struck oil in 1901. The next year the output reached over 28,000 barrels. Graphite. — Graphite ores occur in Japan either in schistose - rocks in which case they exist in laminae or in masses in stratified rocks. Though very widely distributed, this mineral is still left comparatively neglected. SuLPHUE. — Being a volcanic country, Japan is very rich in sulphur, which occurs very frequently in extensive deposits. The principal sulphur mines are Tsurugizan in Eikuchu and Iwaonobori and Eausu in Hokkaido. Alluvial Deposits. — Alluvial deposits in Japan are represent- ed by alluvial gold in the district of Esashi in Hokkaido and iron sand in Chugoku. The former is detached from auriferous quartz rocks belonging to the Mesozoic period and deposited in the river- beds, while the later originates from the decomposition of granite magnetic iron. Alluvial gold deposits are also found along the eastern districts of Formosa. Peculiar Development of Japanese Mineral Ores. — As described in the foregoing paragraphs, mineral ores in Japan, ex- cepting metallic ores, are generally well developed in those districts lying along the Inner Arc. It is very much to be regretted that, owing to the peculiar geological formation of the country, the Carboniferous system of Japan is conspicious by the absence of~ coal. However, the comparative abundance of the Tertiary and younger eruptive rocks affords some consolation, as this gives hope 302 Japan in ike Beginning 0/ the 2Qth Century. of discovery in future of various mineral deposits. In short, the close relation existing between mineral deposits and an exceedingly complicated geological formation of the Inner Arc region must not be overlooked iu investigating the mineral recources of Japan. III. MINING AND METALLURGY. General Remarks. — As the methods of mining and metal- lurgy were in a rudimentary stage before the Restoration and as experience or what would be called, in more familiar language " the rule of thumb " was the sole guidance, it is no exaggeration to say that the mining as it is carried on to-day is a complete transformation -to what was forty years ago. Moreover, as all the processes of mining, milling and metallurgy were practically conducted by hands, the scope of business was necessarily limited and the output was therefore small, not to speak of the waste of metal. In justice of our old miners, it ought to be added that with no accurate scientific knowledge and labor-saving appliances to assist their work, they developed, especially in the metallurgy of copper, lead and gold and silver ores, a method highly creditable to their ingenuitj^. The Restoration inaugurated an important epoch in the annals of the mining industry in this country. In the year 1867, an Englishman named Erasmus Gower introduced for the Introduction first time in this country the use of explosives which of he employed in the silver-gold mine in Sado, while an Explosives. American expert named Pumpelly also used an ex- plosive at the Yurap lead mine in Hokkaido. These are the first instances of the employment of explosives in the mining business in this country. In 1868, Kanso Xabeshima, then the feudal lord of Saga, in conjunction with jMr. Glover, an English- man, sunk a European shaft at Takashima. This was the first shaft ever sunk in Japan. On the advent of the Meji era, the Government undertook the mining business itself and placed the Sado, Ikuno, In-nai, Ani, Kosaka, Kamaishi, and Okuzu metal mines as well as the M.ning work Takashima and Miike collieries under its direct by Government, control, between 1868 and 1884. It engaged as Mining and Metallurgy. 303 many as 80 foreign experts for those mines, and improvements were zealously eifected in various directions. In mining, smelting, and transportation, an example was set to private mining com- panies of adopting foreign systems. At the same time, that is in 1871, an engineering school was established for diffusing a knowldge of mining and metallurgy. The resvilt was a remarkable advance in these departments of scientific learning. A large number of private operators profited themselves with the example thus set by the Government, and started mining enter- prises on an improve style, and thougli their undertakings were not al- ways successful, the result was on the ^vhole a remarkable development ■of the industry. The mining industry now fairly launched and there was little or no necessity for retaining the model mines ; at least the Government seems to have taken this view of the matter, for it soon opened the mines under their control to private enterprise. Especially was the rise of the work of coal-mining noteworthy about this time. And in this Hokkaido first set an example to the •other parts of the country, the coal industry in that northern island dating from 1885. Then followed the exploitation of Progress of the coal-fields in the Chiku-ho districts, but it was not Coal-Mining, till the Japanese coal first began to go abroad, in 1889, that the colliery-work made any striking development. To give some idea of this remark, it may be stated that, whereas 28 years ago Japan had only one colliery employing steam-engines and that her output of this fuel was only about 200,000 tons in a year, to-day engines aggregating over 36,700 horse-powers are at work with the output reaching over 10,000,000 tons. As to demands abroad of Japanese coal, the markets along the coast of China east of Singapore are practically held by it. The petroleum industry is another mining business that has la,tely sprung into great importance. An object of curiosity known from olden time under the name of "burning-water," it was fiist turned in 1890 to real commercial use by Progress oi tajsping the subterranean reservoirs with drill- Petroleum-MiDsng. machines of American style. The success of this innovation has given a powerful impetus to the development of the petroleum industry, and something like a 304 Japan in the Beginning 0/ the 20th Century. petroleum boom came over Echigo. To show briefly this state of things by figures, the output of crude oil that did not exceed 80,000 barrels eleven years ago with the conducting iron-pipes ex- tending less than 3 miles altogether, to-day the figures stand at 1,100,000 barrels and 186 miles respectively. Iron foundry work was carried on from olden days in the pro- vinces of Hoki, Izumo, and some others, the river iron coming from decomposed granite having been used for this Iron Foundry Work, purpose. The output of iron was necessarily limited. Eleven years ago the Government was impressed with the necessity of starting the foundry business modelled on a Western style, and an Imperial commission was appointed to institute thorough inquiries into all matters pertaining to this new enterprise. The result of these inquiries was the estab- lishment in 1896 of the Imperial Iron Works at Yawata, Kyushu. The ^'orking programme has not being complete yet in all its details, the quantity of iron produced at the works is still com- paratively small though sure to become considerably increased at no distant time. A private iron work at the Kama-ishi iron-mine is also producing more or less iron. In the mining of precious metals, the output of silver reached a large amount at one time owing to a highly creditable progress which our miners attained in a process of smelting. Precious Metal It necessarily declined six or seven years since, Minin^^. owing to the universal fall in the silver market. On the other hand, as a result of the discovery of alluvial gold deposits in Hokkaido and the adoption of an improved method of smelting in the gold mines of Kagoshima, Osumi and other provinces, the advance of the output has been carried to an almost unprecedented extent. As to the mining of copper, which occupies auch an important place in our mining industry, the output is advancing at a rapid rate, the ores being found almost everywhere Copper Mining, throughout the country, while the processes of milling aad smelting are being markedly improved and on a larger scale. Output of peincipai. mines.— In 1902 the principal mines Mining and Metallurgy. SOS existing in Japan, with their output, are as follows. Those only are given which, in the case of gold-mines, produce not less than 2,000 ounces; 50,000 ounces in the case of silver-mines, 500 tons in copper-mines, 500 tons in lead-mines, 10,000 tons in iron-mines, 100 tons in antimony-mines, 1,000 tons - in manganese-mines and sulphur-mines, 100,000 tons in coal-mines, and 10,000 barrels in petroleum concessions. The output of any single product at Omori, Omotani, Dogamaru, Hosokura and Kune mines does not reach that the respective standard, but they are mentioned here because the output of all the minerals produced by them eombinedly reach that standard.) PRINCIPAL MINES AND OUTPUT (1902). Table I. Name of Name ot Gold Silver Copper Lead Locality. Mine. (oz.) (oz.) (ton). (ton) Niigata .. Sado ... 12,574 123,660 — — Kagoshima . .. Ushio ... 11,925 — — — Hyogo ... ., .. Ikmio ... 6,814 167,167 447 — Niigata ... ., .. Hashidate ... 6,696 — — — Hokkaido .. Shin-Totsugawa 6,616 (alluvial gold) — — Kagoshima . .. Oguchi ... 4,628 — — — Hokkaido .. Usotannai 4,074 (alluvial gold) — — Kagoshima . .. Yamagano ... ... 9,407 — — — Ishikawa... . .. Kuratani ... 2,196 35,756 114 Hokkaido . .. Peichan ... 2,196 — — — Akita ... . ., Innai ... 2,199 261,737 — — Gifu .. Kamioka — 132,194 — 804 Akita ... . .. Tsubakt — 111,612 — — Hokkaido ,. Ponshikaribetsu 909 101,039 — — Eukushima . .. Handa 675 58,880 — — Shimane ... . .. *Omori 684 30,830 62 — Tochiki .;. . .. Ashio — — 6,762 — Ehime . .. . .. Besshi — '— 4,739 — Akita .;. . .. Kosaka ... ... — 96,087 3,050 ^- Miyazaki... . .. Hibira — — 876 — Akita ... . ,.. Osaruzawa ... — — 816 — ,.. Ani... — — 8»S — „ ••• • ... Arakawtt — — 918 — Mifazsiki.:. . .. Makimine ••• '~~ — 75 « 306 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. , Name of Locality. Okayama... jj ... Niigata ... Akita .1. Gifu Ishikawa... Kumamoto Fukui Shimane ... Shizuoka... Miyagi ... Name of Mine. Obiye ... . Yoshioka Kusakura Himiichi Hirakane Okaya Gioki Omotani *Dogamaru ., *Kune ■*Hosokura . . Gold Silver Copper Lead (oz.) (oz.) (ton). (ton) — — 567 - — 51,175 529 — — — S'S - — 20,009 .498 — — 4«,590 472 — — — 451 _ — — 374 — — — 267 — — 253 — — — lo,S99(copperore) — 28,394 - 318 Table II. Name of Mine. Kamaishi ... Ichinokawa Kano Minika Iwasaki Name of Locality. Iwate Ehime Yamaguchi... Hokkaido ... Aomori Iron (ton). 20,060 Antimony. Manganese (ton). (ton). Name of Colliery. Miike ... Onoura... Yubari ., Meiji ... Shin-nyu Komatsu Katsuno Otsuji ... Futase... Tagawa Sorachi Namazuda Poronai Takashima . Akaike.., Akasakakuchi Table III. (Coal.) Name of Locality. . Fukuoka Hokkaido Fukuoka Hokkaido Fukuoka Hokkaido Nagasaki Fukuoka Saga ... 513 (refined) — 51 (sulphate) — 208 _ — I.9S3 — 1.S03 Output (ton). 962,091 458,360 425.945 420,695 353,821 301,952 301,050 240,721 220,971 218,157 206,969. 204,902 I94,8S6 189 I3S. •55,931^ H(>,799 Condition of Mine- Workers. 807 Name of Name of Colliery. Locality. Mitaku (for admiralty) „ Iriyama Fukushima Ito ... Fukuoka Naigo ... Fukushima Yamano .. ... ... Fukuoka Kanada Yosbinotan Saga Hokoku Fukuoka Onoda... Fukushima Kinejima Saga Iwasaki Fukuoka Tadakiima " Table IV. (Petroleum.) Name < >f Name of Oil-Dist rict. Locality. Nagamine Niigata Niitsu ... „ Kamada „ Hire< ... ^^ ,,, , Urase ... „ Katsivliozaw a „ Kushiji „ Tsubakizaw £ „ Table V. (Sulphur.) Name < jf Name of Mine. Locality. Iwaonobori Hokkaido Kioruni... „ TsuTugisan , Iwate Kiritomehii a Akita .., Shirikisliinj li Hokkaido RsKsu ... " Output (ton). 146,187 144,636 143. '38 133.283 1 30^806 130,687 129,109 128,983 120,192 "7.938 105,648 102,452 Output (barrel). 340,401 186,439 120,782 94,568 84,862 68,123 28,281 16,969 Output (ton). 2,696 2,018 1,815 1,658 1,613 1,012 lY. CONDITION OP MINE- WORKERS. Laboe and Life of Mine-Woekers. — The total numfeer of 308 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. persons employed in Japanese mines was 150,169 in June, 1902. These include miners, carriers, pickers, smelting men, machine tenders, iron workers, and pumpmen. Most of these laborers work underground and under uncomfortable circumstances, but in, spite of these disadvantages they are generally satisfied with their lot and go to work with light hearts. Some of those workers are natives of the district in which the mine is stiuate but the greater numbers, of them are from other jirovinces, no small number of whom settle down, form families, and live till their death. These mine-workers generally live in dwellings provided by their employers ; those with families in separate rooms and those without families in large common rooms. The dwellings are either thatched or tile- roofed, and the inside of the rooms is comparatively clean, which reflects much credit on them. When mines are re- mote, provisions are supplied by the mine operators, some- times at a very low price. Evidently this institution of a cheap supply of food is adopted with a view to checking any movement for the rise of wages on the pretext of a rise in the- price of commodities, for it is very difficult to lower wages when once they are raised. As their calling is attended with some peril, their wages are on a higher scale than those of their confreres in the other walks of life, as shown in the table given below. In consideration of great risk to which they are exposed, their employers are bound to take care of them, when they meet with accidents while on duty. The employers bear part Protection or the whole of expenses of medical attendance, and G.ven by when the patients are treated in hosjjitals other than Exp'oyers- those owned by the employers, they are daily paid a sum of money to meet the expenses of such hospitals. In case of their being disabled, they are given a fair amount of money, and ill ease of death, generally a sum of five yen or upwards is granted to the bereaved families toward the funeral expenses, besides giving some allowance to the families. The following table shows the sums paid, during the three years specified, by some of the miu^-owners, under the circumstanoes. already given: — ' * Condition of Mine-WorJcerB. 309 FUNERAL EXPENSES. Miike. Besshi. Ikuno. Innai. y No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount No.ofRe- Amount cipients. inyen. cipients. in yen. cipients. in yen. cipients. injrH. 1899 15 73.000 2 24.000 45 251.000 2 9.000 1900 9 45.000 10 80.000 39 197.500 3 15.000 1901 25 125,000 5 41.942 42 166.500 2 10.000 MONEY GIVEN IN AID OF THE BEREAVED FAMILIES. 1899 14 560.000 — 138 796.100 i: 29.000 1900 9 360.000 — — 164 957.800 3 67.200 ^901 21 820.000 2 40.000 185 1,096.800 2 54.830 MONEY GIVEN IN RELIEF OF THE DISABLED. 1899 8 100.000 — — 42 871.500 — — 1900 13 135.000 — — 49 1,043.000 — — ■1901 2 60.000 — — 50 1,143.000 I 14.440 FUNERAL EXPENSES. Yubari, Poronai, Kamaishi. Ashio. Sado. Ikushumbetsu, Sorachi, etc. - ■ • ' Yp„- No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount cipients. in yen. cipients. in^v^;z. cipients. in iw;. cipients. in yen. 1899 — — 7 58.000 5 24.000 33 330.00a 1900 14 70.000 16 119.000 1 5000 21 2IO.OO« 1901 6 39.950 15 127.000 1 5.000 40 400.00a MONEY GIVEN IN AID OF THE BEREAVED FAMILIES. .1899 — — 6 100.000 4 150.000 29 890.06a 1900 13 148.000 15 355.000 I 30.000 21 840,00a 1901 7 140.000 16 330.000 — — 32 1,480.009 MONEY GIVEN IN RELIEF OF THE DISABLED. 1899 — — 3 60.000 — — 21 7e8ooa 1900 — — z 50.000 — — 13 387.000 1901 2 108.970 3 53.000 — — 16 398.000 310 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. In respectable mines, mine-workers' mutual aid associations are in existence. The aim of these associations is to extend help to the members in ease of emergency. To this end, reserve Mine-workers' fands are created by contribution from the members Matnal Aid. and also from the mine operators or other patrons and disburscmgnts are made from these funds in case 0^ the injury, illness, or death of any of the members. The sums to be contributed by the mine-workers vary according to different associations. In some eases, a certain fixed sum is contributed uniformly by all, while in other cases, sums are contributed in proportion to the positions of the workmen. Such contributions are made every month out of their income. In granting the relief, the amount to be given is fixed, other things being equal, according to the length of time the party to be relieved has been a member of the association, or according to the position of the recipient, or according to both. Education of mine- workers. — Although in petty mines where only a small number of workmen are employed no provision is made for the education of the miners' children, in larger mines they are educated either in schools established by the mine-owners or in public schools subsidized by the mine-owners. Under such circum- stance, the rate of tuition fee is comparatively low. As to the workers themselves, working as they do underground they apparently look to be of fierce and vicious characters. How- ever they are on the whole meek and obedient. But among those who are termed itinerant miners, who are constantly moving from mine to mine, there are occasionally found blood-thirsty rogues and ruffians. Peculiar usage exists among miners. The oaths of chiefs and protSgls and of bretheren are observed with religious strictness. The instructions of the "boss" are expected to be Miners' "Boss." obeyed whether they are right or wrong. These chiefs are in intimate communication with each other, so that in case a miner goes from one mine to another, seeking employment, etc., he is sure, if he gives the name of his chief, to be kindly treated. His new friends will go to no little trouble to find employment for him and will often give him money Legislation. Sll to cover his travelling expenses. This peculiar spirit of fraternity is utilized for the control of miners ; and it is difficult for the outsider to realize how implicitly the commands of these chiefs are obeyed and how well order is preserved. But this sympathy be- tween the chief and the followers sometimes aggravates a fight between chiefs themselves and often brings about tragic incident. Sometimes these retainers of a " boss " cause trouble to the latter's employers. Under such circumstances, one would suppose that strikes must be of frequent occurrence. This is not the case, however. Indeed strikes of miners are almost unheard of, although quarrels among them are very common. This absence of strikes may gene- rally be ascribed to the kind treatment of miners. Y. LEGISLATION. In describing the legislative measures and administration a-, enforced in Japan about mining, the first thing that demands attens tion is the right of ownership. Eight of Ownership. — There are, generally speaking, three kinds of right of ownership as to mines, these being the system of accession, that is to say, the system of ownership by private individuals ; (2) the domanical system, that is to say, the system of State o-wnership ; (3) the system of concession, that is to say the system of giving concession on application. Japan has never adopted the first system ; it adhered to the State ownership system from former times and till quite recently, so that when the privilege of working a mine was Origiiia' System granted to any private people, this concession was in Japan. regared as favor of the Government, and for a certain limited period in return for payment of royalty. That period as mentioned in the Mining Regulations issued in 1873 was 15 years. The progress of the times did not allow the continuation of such arbitrary system, which was moreover calculated to seriously impair the advance of the mining industry. In 1890 the Present Systen. said Regulations were amended, and with the opera- 312 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. tion of the new Regulations two years later the concession system distinctly establishing the right of permanent working was in- augurated, and thus safeguarded the sound development of the mining industry in Japan. Scope of Mining Woek and Kinds of Mines. — In the 1st article of the Regulations it is provided that mining work means trial borino- and all works pertaining to it. The inclusion of the work of smelting and so forth to mining work proper is a distinct feature of mining administration of Japan. It is a result of long-establi- shed usage and is also due to some extent to the convenience it affords to Government over-seers, for boring and smelting have in most cases been combined in Japan and the division of the two was therefore judged troublesome. Moreover the bringing of trial boring and smelting under the same treatment as mining were judged to tend to encouraging the mining industry. Mineral ores as recognized in law are as follows: — Gold (alluvial-gold excluded), silver, copper, lead, tin (tin-sand excluded), antimony, quicksilver, zinc, iron, (iron-sand excluded) hematite, manganese, arsenic, plumbago, coals, petrolemn, sulphur, bismuth, doral-iron, phosphorus, peat, and asphalt. The last five were added to the list in 1900. Qualification of Mining Concessionaiees. — At first a foreigner was disqualified from working a mine and was further prevented from becoming a member of a mining establishment, so that the right of working mines was exclusively reserved for Japanese subjects. In consequence of the amendment of the Mining Regulations in 1900 a business establishment organized Privilege of by Japanese or foreigners or by both combined is Foreigners. allowed to work mines, provided such establishment is placed under Japanese laws. This amendment besides oonfering a great benefit on foreigners and encouraging the creation of mining establishments organized by foreigners, lias proved a means of stimulating the development of the industry. Trial Boeing and Working. — Differing from the examples seen in many Western countries, Japanese law does not recognize in the matter of trial extraction the right of priority of discoveries ; the right of trial boring !■< granted to the one who has first Legislation. 313 Bight of Priority, applied for it. The reason why this system has been adopted in Japan is because the fact oi an alleged discovery is exceedingly difficult to verify, while, an accidental discovery has no right to claim any special privilege. The concession of trial boring carries with it a great privilege in Japan for no other person is allowed to apply for the trial boring in the concession conceded to the first applicant of the same metal as that for which the concession was made to that applicant 95. 1896. Black Lead (ton) — — — — 77 215 "^tirsL^":} - - - - 4.765,373 S.018,.87 Aiithi-acile ... *S7i,759 *889,iii *i,305,027 *2,629,i5o 45,462 94,403 Petrcl.'um (barrel) 5,476 30,583 35,069 61,677 169,499 236,281 .Sulphur (ton) ... 586 1,192 4,949 20,700 15,531 12,518 Non-Metallic Minerals. (IV) 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. Black Lead (ton) 390 347 53 94 88 95 ^"(f^^)"""'} 5,188 678 6,650,817 6,652,082 7,359,321 8,892,217 9,567,363 Anthracite ... 75,517 98,784 l23,49o 129,572 135,108 149,785 Petroleum (barrel) 262,154 318,302 537,875 869,719 1,115,419 993,804 Sulphur (ton) ... 13,582 10,321 10,237 14,439 16,548 17,651 N.B : — The star (*) represents the total output, the figures for each class being lacking. TABLE v.— OUTPUTS OF PRINCIPAL MINERAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR VALUE IN 1902. Kind. Gold(oz) Silver („) Copper (ton) Lead („) Tin(,.) f Refined (ton)... ^^■^'™°"n Sulphate („)... Quicksilver (lbs) {Big Iron (ton) Wrought Iron ( „) ... Steel(„) Sulphate of Iron ( „ ) Manganese Arsenic (lbs) Black Lead (ton) f Bituminous ( „ ) \ Anthracite ( „ ) Petrol ;um (barrel) Sulphur (ton) ^Lignite N.B : — The star (*) represents returns for 1901. Output. Value (ven). 95,952 1,989,565 2,109,221 1,224,572 29,098 8,920,962 1,645 83,816 16 9,225 520 74,968 96 7,816 3,125 1,536 44,393 734,14s 847 40,775 33,653 1,320,880 44715 76,955 10840 35,414 26,859 846 95 9,283 9,567.361 15,912,262 149,785 179. 8-9 9-3 8.9 9.8 Average . 8.0 8.5 8.8 9.1 9.2 ^ piill Hands .. . 4-6 4-7 4.8 4-5 4.1 «.a Carriers ... . . 7-0 7.8 8.0 7-3 6.9 >,(3 1 Miscellaneous .. . 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.4 7-3 M ^Average . S.6 6.2 6.4 6.1 6.1 Coal-Mines. Others. 1898. 1899. 1900. I90I. 1902. IS98. 1899. 1900. I90I. 1902^ Miners 31.6 29.7 33-2 33-7 32-4 19.6 19.0 21.9 26.3 27.4 Timbermen ... 30-8 30-7 311 3>-3 33-S 18.7 20.9 18.7 20.2 22.0 u Mill Hands ... 16.9 16.6 17.4 17.9 17.7 iS-S 17.2 17.8 17.8 17.6. 1 Smelterers — — — — — 20.2 34.7 23.0 23.1 24.7 Carriers 22.0 21. 1 22.2 22.8 24.4 18.7 19.0 23-S 25.7 28.1 Miscellaneous... 18.0 18.6 i8-3 17.6 19.0 16.4 17.4 20.4 20.5 23.2 Average 23-9 233 24.4 24.7 25.2 l8.2 18.9 20.9 22.3 23.8 Mill Hands ... 10. 1 10.6 9-9 10.7 10.4 10.3 "•3 12.8 10.7 10.6 Carriers 14-3 13-4 13-9 131 139 12.S 14-3 12.2 12.7 12.5 1 Miscellaneous... 11.4 "•3 12.7 n.6 13.2 9.2 10.7 9.1 9.8 9-9 Average 11.9 1 1.8 12.0 n.8 12.S I0.7 12.1 1 1.4 I I.I 1 1.0 ■s ■Mill Hands ... 6.7 6.2 6.7 6.9 7-1 — — §^- Carriers — — — — _ U Miscellaneous... 8.9 9.0 9.3 lO.I 10.6 ._ n Average 7.8 7.6 8.0 8.5 8.9 — — — — — Statistics Relating to the Mining Industry. S25 TABLE IX.— NUMBER OF MOTORS USED AND KIND, METAL-MINES. Water \Vheels. Boilers. Oil Engines. Total. Year. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. H. P. 1898 548 4,471 141 6,458 4 17 693 10,946 1899 600 5,433 143 6,631 4 30 747 12,094 1900 607 6,291 175 6,654 2 20 784 12,965 1901 678 7,526 i8i 7,118 4 61 863 14,705 *I092 775 8,669 1S4 7,267 8 84 967 16,020 COAL-MINES. Water Wheels. Boilers. Oil Engines. Total. Year. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. H. P. 1898 I 18 620 36,714 — — 621 36,732 1899 I i8 704 43,164 — — 705 43,182 1900 1 18 848 48,761 — — 849 48,779 '901 — — 999 52,823 — — 999 52.S23 *i9o2 — — 1,157 58,921 20 1,004 '>I77 59,9-5 OTHER.'). Water A^naeels. Boilers. Oil Engines. Total. Year. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. II. P. No. IT. P. 1898 3 132 103 2,141 — — 621 36,732 '899 3 >32 148 3,150 — — 705 43.'82 1900 3 132 223 4,526 — — 849 48,779 1901 5 182 343 7,042 — — 999 52,823 1902 5 182 420 8,658 — — 1,177 59,925 BOILERS. Water Wheels. Boilers. Oil Engines. Total. ■ ' ' ' Year. No. Ind. H. P. No. Ind. H. P. No. Ind. H. P. No. Ind. H. P 1898 162 3,636 440 13,434 33 315 635 17,294 1899 163 3,736 499 14,921 46 357 7o8 19,014 1900 171 3,981 566 16,793 82 864 819 21,638 igoi 174 4,100 638 19,115 174 2,399 986 25,614 1902 180 1,19s 712 20,358 213 3,979 1,105 28,532 J,I.B — The star (,*) represents returns at the end of June, others being for December. 326 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th' Century. TABLE X.— MILEAGE OF IRON CHAINS. Year. Melal-Mines. Coal-Mines. Others. Total Mileage. 1898 . ... 26 3 14 4'3 1899 . ... 31 3 14 48 igoo ■ ••• 35 4 16 55 1901 . ... 41 4 30 75 ^1902 . ... 52 5 32 89 MILEAGE OF PETROLEUM PIPES. Year. Between Oil Wells and Tanks. Between Tanks and Refineries. Refinery Premises. Total Mileage* 1898 7 20 II 38 1899 9 41 13 63 1900 •• 13 92 IS 120 1901 18 118 17 153 ^1902 46 149 23 218 RAILROAD MILEAGE. Metal-Minea eoal-JIines. Others Total. In the Oulside Pit. the Pit. Toial. In the Outside Pit. the Pit, a ot.li. 111 the Outside Pic. the Pit, Total, In the Outside Pit. the Pit. Total 1898. ..129 127 256 132 99 231 — S 5 261 231 492 1899. ..150 137 287 151 117 268 — 5 5 301 269 560 1900. ..170 152 322 184 140 324 — I I 354 293 647 I90I. .189 161 350 212 137 349 — 18 18 401 316 717 *I902 ..213 174 387 342 226 568 I 19 20 556 419 975 N.B. — The star (*) represents returns at the end of June, others being at the end of December. TABLE XL— NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS IN THE MIXES, Met.il-Mines, In the Pits. Accidents By in Pits Collapse. and Shafts. Caused by Ex- plosives. Other Causes. Total. Outside, l^-^^^f Total. Year ° 3^ °l ° Si orS o Si o£ ^ ^- -Sa ^ Si ^5 ^ S ^a ^ g o£ year. -^oSo-tjdSocjoSdtj dS 6 A dS 6Q dS 6 A dS 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 %^ go 2^ gQ g^ — — 12 gQ :?' 3 5 36 29 3 3 13 16 6 18 15 . 9 12 9 I 23 7 7 I 4 21 69 58 2 4 26 24 28 — I 7 223 22 19 26 4 II 227 43 45 95 28 30 IS2 88 150 Death rate per 1,000 Mine- work- ers. .04 4-44 .82 .48. 2.48 Year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Statistiu.'i Relating to the MiniiKj Industry. Coal-Mines. 327 By Collapse. Accidents in Pits and Shafts. Caused by Explosives. Caused by Explosion of Gas or Coal Dust. Other Causes. 6 A d S Total. '0 ■S d S No. of ] Case. No. of Death. 3 3 2 I — — 7 4 1 9 13 17 12 8 7 10 I — 16 217 5 " 41 246 • 45 20 18 4 3 — 40 4 9 4 115 32 • 123 33 36 6 4 — 46 24 23 99 232 162 219 41 71 II 8 — 43 23 21 32 362 107 Outside Grand Total. Death rate , — ^ . per 1,000 N 0. of No. of No. of No. of Mine- Case. Death. Case. Death. Workers. IS98 I — 14 17 .22 1899 4 — 45 246 4.04 1900 10 2 1 25 34 .48 I90I 14 I 246 163 2.12 1902 13 — 375 107 1.36 Others. .^ , ^ '^ ^ Death By Accidents Caused Outside. )f^^'^ rate „ ,, ■' in Pits by Ex- „ Total. -utai. pg,. Collapse. ^„ds,,^ft,, pf„3i^g3. Causes. ^^^ 0(u o-a Oij Org Ojj o,g 0,3 o.^ o^; o.^ o^; s-g o,; o.g work- '^^"- d ,« d S d ,S, d S d ,« d S d ,S, d S ofl d S d .« d S d ^^ d S ers. 1898 _____ — — — — — — — — — — 1899 __ — — — — 2 5 2 s — — 2 5.66 1900 __ — — — — I— 1— 4 38 538 6.67 1901 __ — — — — 2 I 2 I I— 3 1. 15 1902 I— I !____ 2 I 7 12 9 13 I-70 328 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. TABLE XII.— EXPORT AND IMPORT OF PRINCIPAL MINE PRODUCTS. (I). EXPORT. Quantity. Year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Copper. Uon). Antimony. Manganese, (ton). (ton). Coal, (ton). Sulphur, (ton . 16,454 1,338 9,98s 1,819,807 12,627 21,304 1,046 9,395 2,029,80s 16,684 20,478 377 12,903 2,422,007 17,966 21,991 279 8,953 2,945,593 17,928 20,654 1,160 Value 2,694 (yen"). 2,962,251 21,273 .Copper. Antimony. 3,633.538 108,299 5,691,679 103,258 Manganese. Coal. 78,167 6,120,311 76,344 5,892,357 Sulphur. 23|,5o7 28^21.34 Total. 10,178,822 12,05 1,072 6362,968 53,854 112,449 6,851,828 349,142 13,730,241 6,952,305 39. ,246 93,589 8,771,137 330,940 16,187,217 5,130,992 135. .806 26,270 8,635,209 379,542 14,307,819 (2). Quantity. Year. Lead. Tin. Quicksilver. Zinc. Iron. Petroleum- (ton). (ton). (ton). (ton). (ton). (barrel). 189S 3,489 360 196,689 2,996 288,273 1,608,464 1899 3,805 366 203,888 3,88s 146,276 1,244,928 1900 7,017 399 222,429 6,09s 249,839 1,610,204 1901 6,976 471 189,765 3,526 184,87s 1,642,771 1902 4,740 437 206,943 4,666 Value (yen). 180,715 1,797,147 Year. Lead. 1898 208,192 1899 261,950 1900 550755 1901 497,40- 1902 286,234 Tin. Quiclcsilver. Zinc. 113,629 180,644 236,552 265,122 250,504 88,152 109,507 129,349 109,306 122,099 362,408 655,574 831,892 465,380 666,895 Iron. 7,027,85s 6,053,064 11,972,603 7,139,864 6,803,649 Petroleum. 3,749,329 3,947,666 6,796,670 7.471,701 7,468,585 Total. 11,549,565 11,208,405 20,517,821 15,948,775 15,597,966 Introdnctorif. 329 PRIMARY INDUSTRIES. SECTION IV. FISHERY Introductory— Fishing-Grounds— Fishery and Fishery Industry — Distribution of the Principal Fish etc.— Finance Standing of the Fishermen — Aquiculture — Salt-Refining — Markets -« Fishery Legislature. I. INTRODUCTORY. Numbers of fisheemen and boats. — Owing to its geographical position, to the direction of the marine currents in its vicinity and also to the abundance of suitable indentations along the well-wooded <;oast, Japan is an ideal country for the fishermen. It is not surprising therefore that there are 900,000 families of fishermen or of persons engaged in the marine industry, or over three million individuals, and that the number of fishing boats total over 400,000. Fish and other marine products have constituted from olden times important items of food-stuffs of our people, and this partiality of ours for Lenten fare is also shared by our nearest neighbors the Chinese who have been, for centuries back, principal purchasers of our marine products. Expansion of fishery enterprise. — With the steady increase of our population and the greater perfection of the means of trans- portation in the interior, the demand on fishing products has began to show striking advance, an advance further accelerated by an increasing demand from abroad. Under these circumstances, our fishermen can no longer remain satisfied with coasting work alone, but are obliged to a greater extent than ever to venture out into the open sea and even to the distant coasts of Korea and of the ♦South Pacific. 330 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. II. FISHING-GROUNDS. Influknce of Sea Currents on Fishing-Grounds. — As des- cribed in the chapter on climate, the two sets of sea-currents flow along each coast of our country, the Pacific coast and the coast of the Sea of Japan. Each coast is influenced to a greater or less extent by a warmer current coming from the south and a colder current from the north. The predominance of the one or the other makes a great difference in the temperature of the sea. For instance, along the coast northward from Kinkazan, Honshu, the average temperature is below 15° C, while along the eastern coast of Hokkaido and the Kuriles it is below 10°, owing, in both cases, to the predominance of the colder streams. On the other hand, owing to the presence of warmer currents along the coast southward from the group of islands ofl^ Izu as far as the southern extremity of Kyushu, the average record there is above 20°, while along the coast of the Bonin islands and Oshima off" Satsuma, and the eastern coast of Formosa the temperature is as high as 23°. This presenc& of two different sets of sea-currents on our coasts, while affecting the geographical distribution of the finny tribe, also contributes to the diversity and richness of our marine fauna and flora. A rough description of the seas which surround our islands, of our rivers and lakes will be given below. 1. The Pacific Ocean. — One side of the whole length of Japan beginning with the Kuriles on the side north extending to Formosa on the south, faces the Pacific Ocean. The Kuriles and Formosa are separated by as many as 29 degrees in latitude, and not only in the climate therefore are these two extremities of Japan widely distinct, but also in the temperature as well as in the depth of the sea a great diversity exists in our country, according to places. To the north of Kinkazan, in the north-eastern part of Honshu, is situated the famous submarine depression, that is Tuscarora. A warm current passes to the south of this part so that the vicinity is very rich both in fauna and flora, sardine, bonito, Kinkazan. pagrus, yellow-tail, tunny, cattle-fish, haliotis, etc. abounding. A cold current runs to the north of this Fishing-Grounds. 331 depression, and in consequence the fauna and flora living to the north and south of Kinkazan are distinct from each other. In the sea between the southmost archipelago of Japan proper and Formosa there exists a strong warm current. The result is that in this vicinity many kinds of migratory fish are found, especially bonito. The eastern, that is the Pacific shore of In the Southern Formosa, is precipitous with no good anchorages for Japan and ships, and the sea is moreover very deep. The Formosa. inhabitants too are aborigines, and the fishery as carried on along this coast hardly deserves, therefore, any notice. On the other hand, the sea on the western shore is of moderate depth and the fisheries of sardine, horse- mackerel, " tai " . (pagrus), shark, grey mullet, etc., are actively- carried on. However, during rainy seasons, winter and spring in the northern districts and summer and autumn in the southern districts, fishing is practically suspended. 2. The Sea op Japan. — A branch of the Black Stream flows through this sea. This branch current runs all the year round along the western coast of Hokkaido and through the straits of Tsugaru and Soya. However, at the eastern coast of Korea especially along the coast northward of Vladivostock, it is found * only in summer. The difference between the high and low tides on the opposite coasts does not exceed 1 to 3 shaku. At high-tide the current runs northward through the Straits of Korea but on the coast of Japan the tides are very weak and their movement very irregular. Tunny, bonito and other migratory fish enter this sea along the course of the southern warm current, but in the northern part of the sea, where the influence of a colder current predominates, the piincipal fish are herring, cod, and the like. 3. The Sea of Okhotsk. — The province of Kitami in Hokkai- do faces this sea, and the fisheries as carried on near the towns of Soya, Esashi and along the coast in general chiefly consist of herring and salmon. The open sea fishery is not yet developed, but there is every possibility of fisheries such as cod and others attaining a great importance in the near future. 4. Inland Seas. — The largest and most important inland sea 532 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20ih Century. in Japan is the Inland Sea already described. The movements of the tides in this enclosed basin of sea are regulated by the three channels of Shimonoseki, Bungo and Kii. The sea is generally shallow, and as the temperature varies considerably according to the seasons, many fish that come in the beginning of the warm season, go away in autumn as the colder season approaches. Sardine, pagrus, grey mullet, etc. abound. The shores of sea are also noted for their flourishing salt refineries. The inland seas that come next in importance to the Inland Sea are the Sea of Ise, Tokyo Bay, and the Sea of Ariyake. The fauna living in these sea are more or less distinct according to the size of each basin, the depth of water in it and the nature of the sea-bed. 5. KiTEHS AND PosTDS. — Rivers as fishing ground, do not of •course depend on their length and depth alone. In general, salmon find their way up most of the rivers in the northern districts of Honshu and in Hokkaido, while on the other hand the Pleooghssiis ■altivelies is found in most of the rivers in the central and southern part of Honshu. On Lake Biwa, Shinji, Kasumigaura, and Hachirogata fisheries are actively carried on. The principal fresh-water fish that are found in the rivers and pounds of Japan are carp, Crussiau carp, €els, etc. III. FISHERY AND THE FISHERY INDUSTRY. 1. Fishermen. — Our fisheries first attained their greatest deve- lopment in the Inland Sea, being extended afterwards to the west and to the east, and finally to the north. This being the case the iishing population is densest along the shores of the Inland Sea, and *s comparatively less along the shores of the Sea of Japan and the sliores of Hokkaido. The density of the fishing population in the main fishery regions and the rate of population per 1 ri of coast line are shown in the following table : — Fishery and the Fisherij Industry. 333: Hohsliu. Shikoku. Kyushu. HokkaidS. Total. Coast-Line («') 2,705 676 2,406 1,242 7,029 No. of Households 545,937 80,471 228,804 Sl>920 907,132 Population 1,832,829 324,471 930.878 250,422 3,338,603 *^t; u /No- of Households ... 201.82 H9.03 95.09 41.80 129.05 jS o ;S ^Population 677-57 479-98 386.89 201.62 474.97 Note: — The figures for households and population in the above table include both fishermen and those who are engaged in manufacturing marine products. They- are based on the returns carried out in 1891. 2. Fishing-Boats. — Fishing-boats for use either on the sea or in inland-water number about 420,000. Here are the returns com- piled in 1900:— Boats over Boats less than Total. 5 ken in Length. 5 ken in Length. Honshu ... 4.398 238,238 242,636 Shikoku ... 334 30,684 31,018 Kyushu ... 275 76,397 76,672 Hokkaido 12,675 59,522 72,197 Total 17,682 404,841 422,523 For all their serviceableness, Japanese fishing-boats are not with- out defects. For instance they are comparatively frail, and as they are principally made for rowing, they are hardly Defects of Japane:e fit to sail against the wind. The authorities FUMng-Boats. recently begun to take all these points into consideration, with the result that our fisher- men are gradually building their boats after the foreign style, and providing them with decks or special apartments protected from the free entrance of water. These improvements are now to be found in our fishing-boats that are pursuing their business on the shores of Korea. The Government has also encouraged the construction of fishing- boats of the "Western style, by enforcing from 1898 the Law for the Encouragement of Pelagic Fishery. The result Poreign-Style of that law has been that boats of this new style Boats. have gradually began to come into use, as shown in the following table : — 334. Japan in the Beginning of the 20i/i Century. Boats and Crew receiving Boats Licenced to Pursue Sealing, Bounties by Law. though without Receiving Bounty. Year. No. Gross Tonnage. Crew. No. Gross Tonnage. 1898 8 694 214 I 99 1899. ... . 14 1,419 379 — — 1901 ... . 15 1,621 392 ■ T 93 igo2 ... . 14 1,028 296 3 16S Total 51 4,762 1,281 5 357 3. Fisiiing-Geaes. — The difierent kinds of fishing-gear used in Japan are too niimerous to be enumerated here in detail. The principal kinds of gears both for net-fishing and for angling, are as follows : — The pound-net is e:i:teusively used throughout the country. la Hokkaido it is used for herring and salmon, and in Honshu and Kyushu for capturing tunny, yellow-tail, bonito, Net-Fishing Gears, etc. A net of this kind sometime measures as long as several thousand yards long. The seine- net is used for capturing sardine, anchovy and other shoal fish. It is, in this country, one of the latest innovations in the line of nets, having been made after an American model. Sometimes a seine-net is of enormous size, extending as long as three miles in length. Then there are drift-nets, grill-nets, trawl-nets, dredge- nets, etc. There is also another kind of net called shiki-avii (spread-net) which is spread on the bottom, and lifted up to catch the fish that happen to enter it. Angling-gears are of two kinds, viz., long-line and hand-line, the former being a line with a number of short Angling-Gean. gugpe^dgj-s. It is left stretched in the water. There are, besides the above, other fishing devices, as weir and trap generally used in ponds or streams. The number of difierent kinds of nets used in the different Number and parts of the Empire is as follows according to the Kind of Nets, returns made in 1891 : — FisJiery and the Fishery Industry. 3o5 Kind. Honshu. Shikoku. Kyushu. Hekkaido. Total. Pound-Nets 20,329 876 632 5,551 27,38!i Shiki-ami, etc 19,093 1,160 3,188 6 23,447 Purse Seine, etc 7,640 326 228 79 8,273 Trawl-Nets, etc 85,366 6,897 12,439 7,462 112,164 Seines, etc 21,374 3,463 7.041 1,5" 33,389 Drift -Nets and Grill-Nets.. 540,252 11,275 24,639 234,830 810,996 "Square-Nets" 6,395 54° 1,781 150 8,866 "Throw-Nets" 62,135 2,512 14,797 20 79,464 Total 762,584 27,049 64,745 249,609 1,103,987 4. Value of takes of fishes and of marine pboducts. — The returns showing the value of the takes of fish and of the marine products for the five years ending 1900 are as follows : — Year. Takes. Marine Products, yen. ym. 1896 38,132,001 24,155,239 1897 . ... 45,038,816 29,740,358 1898 .. ... 44,840,022 26,190,460 1899 ,. ... 52,151,878 31,678,766 igoo' Average . ... 56,833,150 32,725,411 47,399,173 28,898,047 The returns for 1900 distributed among the main divisions The Main Districts, ot the Empire, the result is as follows : — Honshu Shikoku Kyushu Hokkaido Total Takes. Marine Products. ,34,430,746 16,147,437 4,303,031 2,317,218 6,251,304 3,630,684 1 1 ,848,069 10,630,072 56,833,150 32,725,411 The takes made in 1900 may be divided as follows accord- ing to the kind of fish. The figures for Hokkaido Takes and represent the amount of marine products, there being Kind of Fish, no returns available for the takes alone. 336 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Kind. Herring Sardine Bonito Cuule-Fish Calamaries Mackerel Tunny Yellow-Tail Cod Sliark "Tai" Salmon Trout Phcoglossus Sea-Ear (^Haliostis) ,,, Beche de mer Prawns Oyster Cytherea Mussel Grey Mullet Poulpe Scomberomorous sinensis Horse Mackerel Halibut Barrandas Miiraenosox cinerezts... Laieolabrax Japonicus Sand Eel Mysis Coiyphaena hippwnis... Flying Fish Sparus ScJihgeli. "Konoshiro" Flat-Fish Eel Cololabis saira Carp Crussian Carp Sea-\A'eed (algse) ... Other Kinds Total Quantity (kwaniuie). ... 29,982,824 ... 48,739,197 ... 10,996,716 ... 4,359>8i6 ... 3,255,896 ... 7,512,857 4,084,156 ... 5,462,602 1,817,148 ... 1,298,998 ... 5,228,835 ... 2,045,569 170,273 586,479 869,563 683,810 4,200,264 993,655 1,518,622 296,800 ... i,S74,5o4 1,320,632 ... 1,245,047 ... 2,270,473 681,066 384,170 606,057 254,557 565,384 ... 1,188,245 575,393 ... 1,260,437 337,055 392,556 ... 2,354,440 1,023,664 137,226 128,493 362,321 ... 7.441,117 ... 2,135,888 160,342,855 Value (yen). 7,144,072 7,306,780 4,365.887 1,562,951 1,136,710 2,159,018 1,814,704 2,224,297 372,827 464,616 4,109,802 1,023,419 129,259 449,213 508,478 174,494 1,345,340 190,091 93,305 15,366 877,080 462,374 1,011,187 612,615 306,125 134,382 364,053 185,669 68,405 153,932 200,698 103,214 264,710 185,760 823,35s 650,520 62,122 122,842 194,759 870,918 12,587,501 56,833,150 Distribution of the Principal Fish. 337 The classification of marine productg for 1900 is as follows :— Kind. Cuttle-Fish Beche de mer Sea Ear (dried) Sardine (dried) Anchovy (dried) Sardine (boiled and dried) (salted) Mussel (dried) Bonito (dried and smoked) Tunny ( » ) Prawn (dried) Shark Fin "Kainohashira " (abductor cle of shell-fish) Mackerel (salted) Tunny (salted) Cod (dried) Cod (salted) Salmon (salted) "Hoshinori" „ (sheets) Herring (dried) Herrinj; (guano) Sardine (guano) Fish Oil Yellow-Tail (salted) " Tengusa ■' "Funori " Others Quantity [kwamme). ... 1,665,493 94,141 129,555 - 2,535.988 564,793 ... 3,142,675 2,204,532 63,414 1,972,460 164,495 598,220 99,824 nus- 9,382 1,410,681 214,848 144,219 317,203 ... 1,131,194 148,615 ... 8,297,500 - 5,749,791 ... 26.147,225 ... 4,483,018 ... 1.679,3" 781,244 285,642 257,932 Total ... uhmvi:) 55,995.895 l(sheets) 8,297,500 Value i^yen). 2,466,004 206,757 406,549 914,603 277 0S5 2,138,777 617,263 64,117 4,881,303 288,809 682,321 264,171 35,663 556,357 79,008 »3i,77S 55,651 523,335 472,211 41.736 1.204,332 7,058,117 1,400,319 399,648 433,898 187,588 154,066 6,755,948 32,725,411 ly. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRINCIPAL FISH, THEIR VALUE, CAPTURE AND MODE OF CURING. (A). FISH. 1. Hkreing {Clwpea pallad). — This fish is caught in Hok- kaido, Aoraori ami Akita. In Hokkaido the fishing season extends 338 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. from March to May. The fishing grounds lie along the western shores. Pond-nets and grill-nets are used. The takes daring the five years ending 1900 and the value of these takes were as follows : — Year. Quantity (kwam.). Value {yen). 1896 41,028,680 8,340,666 1897 51,818,880 10,630,618 1898 , 35,083,640 7,289,811 1S99 38,057,480 9,047,957 1900 29,982,874 7,144,072 Average 39,194,311 8,494,625 Enormous quantities of this fish being caught at a time, it is not possible to carry out any elaborate piocess of curing. lu general only the part along the backbone and raw are used for food, the other parts being pressed for oil and guano. This guano amounts to 700,000 to 1,000,000 kolcu a year (40 kwan equal to 1 hoku.) The market of guano is vitally related to the prosperity of the Hokkaido fisheries, and the recent import of bean-cakes from North China, of herring guano from Russian Siberia, and also sardine from Korea, is seriously affecting the markets of Hokkaido guano. In view of this circumstance, the authorities have lately begun to encourage the preparation of smoked and salted herrinf, the former among the fishermen of Akita and Aomori, and the latter among those of Hokkaido. Samples have been sent both to China and Australia. 2. Saedine {Clrisanodon melanostiola) and Anchovy CEii- graulis Japonieus). — These fish are caught almost everywhere alono- our shores with seine-nets, pond-nets or purse-seines. The greater part of the fish is used as guano, but no small part is used ns food, after having been boiled and dried. The yield amounts to about 40 million kwam valued at about 6 million yen. The returns for last five years are as follows : — Year. Quantity (iwam.). Value (yea). 1896 48,610,784 4,601,782 1897 38,392,354 4,893,412 1-898 36,633,689 5.7 J ',023 1899 48,735,376 6,579,6 r 7 1900 48,749,277 7,310,120 Average ... 44,224,300 5,819,191 Distribution of the Principal Fish. 3S9 The demand for sardine and anchovj as food-stuff being still limited in Japan, the authorities are encouraging the people to manufacture tinned sardine and anchovy sauce after the French style. 3. BoNiTO (Thynnus pelamis). — This fish is found in most parts of our southern seas, and as it haunts warm currents, its area of distribution is comparatively wide. It is chiefly caught by rod and line, the bait used being generally living sardine. The fish is a favorite article of food. The business of making dried and smoked bonito, called " Fushi,'' is highly important, it being used for seasoning the dishes, The business is extensively carried on in Tosa and Izu. The returns for the last five year are shown below : — Voov Takes Value Dried Bonito Value 1 ear. (twain.). O'en). {kzvaiji.'). {yen). 1896 9,070,229 2,407,828 1,094,407 1,796,137 1897 7,736,432 2,754,442 1,228,063 2,974,448 1898 9,060,619 3,404,265 1,472,269 2,951,907 1899 9,688,513 3,931,974 1,375,926 3,376,668 1900 10,990,716 4,347,887 1,972,460 4,881,303 Average 9,309,302 3,369,279 1,428,625 3,196,093 4. " Tai " {Pagrus). — There are two species of this fish, viz., "Ma-dai" {Pagrus major) and " Chi-dai " (Cardinalis). The fish is very widely distributed but its most noted fishing-ground is the Inland Sea where the fish abounds in the intermediary season of spring and summer. They are first gathered together by "driving nets" and then caught by seines hauled by boats. Long lines are also used to some extent for capturing the fish. The fish is mostly sold raw, and very seldom in a salted form. It is also found very largely in the seas of Korea. The retuius during the last five years are as follows : — Year. Capture (kwam^. Value ( yeii) 1896 .. 5,117,708 2,i\^,Vl'i 1897 .. 4,752,147 2,609,187 1898 .. 4,445,846 2,695,830 1899 .. 4,178,697 3,316,733 1900 .. 5,228,83s 4,109,802 Average . 4,744,647 2,989,186 340 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 5. " Sawara " (Scomberoviorus Sinensis). — This fish frequents- more our eastern and south-western seas and less our northern seas. It swims in shoals and is caught by drift-nets. In the Inland Sea it is caught in the spawning season : — Year. Capture (ktvam.). Value (/««). 1896 1,110,955 393,913 1897 995,351 .509,012 1898 1,097,964 624,027 1899 1,044,086 766,093 1900 1,245,047 1,011,187 Average 1,098,881 660,846 6. Tunnies (JFhunnus schlegeli). — The fish are found everywhere- and caught by means of pound-nets, drift-nets and long-lines. They are generally sold fresh, but are sometimes preserved in salt or used in the same way as dried bonito. The figures for the last five years are : — Year. Capture (kwam.). Value {yeii) 1896 5,034,733 1,348,413 ■897 5,107,859 1,532,091 1898 3,484,084 1.423,123 1899 3,108,426 1,327,268 1900 4.084,156 1,814,704 Average ... . 4,163,852 1,489,120 7. Yellow-tail (Seriola quinqueradiata). — This fish is caught mostly in our south-western seas and in the Sea of Japan, with pound-nets, gill-uets and long-lines. It is sold either fresh or salted : — Year. Capture (kwajn.). Value {yen). 1896 3,854,715 1,056,566 1897 3,547,520 1,128,666 1898 3,345,915 1,108,295 1899 3,784,358 1,683,773 1900 5,462,602 2,224,297 Average 3,999,022 I,440,3t9 8. Mackerel (Scomber coUas). — This fish is caught everywhere by means of Shiki-ami (" spread "-nets), seines, and hand-lines. It is mostly preserved in salt. The takes are as follows : — Distribution of the Principal Fish. 341 Year. 1S96 .., 1897 .. 1898 .. 1899 ... 1900 Average Capture (irciiim.). 6,510,478 5,789,806 6,445,249 5.584,275 7,512,857 6,388,533 Value (ym). 1,069,663 1,299,612 i<475.7i6 1,934.091 2,159,018 1,587,620 9. Cod (Gadus brandti). — This fish is caught in the northern .part of Honshu and along the coast of Hokkaido, long-lines and gill-nets being generally used for capturing it. It is sold in salted or dried state while the oil is valuable as a medicine. The figures for the last five years are as follows : — • Capture. Dried Manufacture. Salted . Ye-ar. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. i'tvam. vert. ^K'am. yen. kwam. yen. 1896 1,463.991 257,764 213.975 '24,434 232,109 33.175 1897 2,311.725 444,934 1,068,104 , 396,555 286,970 33,577 1898 2,052,252 391,291 1,029,135 380,379 184,74s 20j079 1899 2,625,632 539,673 150,650 70,200 290,460 129,512 1900 1,817,148 372,827 144,219 131,77s 317,203 55.651 Average .. 2,054,150 401,298 521,216 220,669 262,297 S4,399 10. Salmon {Oncoi-hyuchus haberi and O. Perri). — Salmon and trout come up the streams flowing into the Sea of Japan or the northern part of the racific. They are especially abundant in Hokkaido and the prefectures of Aomori, Akita and JSTiigata. In the sea, pound-nets are used while in the rivers seines are generally preferred. Traps are also used in some places. Both salmon and trout are preserved in salt or are tinned. The catches for the last five years are as follows : — Salmon. Trout. Year. Quantity (/cwam.). Value {yen). Quantity {kwam^. Value {yen). 1896 ... 2,725,360 989,683 2,769,678 300,905 1897 ... 3,528,700 1,411,918 290,723 80,032 1898 ... 3.103,080 1.344.753 263,993 81,312 1899 ... 2,533,440 1,096,217 191,621 86,412 1901 ... 2,045,569 1,023,419 170,273 129,259 Average 2,787,230 i,i73.'98 737,258 135,584 842 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. (B). SHELL-FISH AND MOLLUSKS. Eak-shell, etc. — Of the shell-fish caught in our seas, ear- shell (Haliotis) is of the greatest commercial value, for besides its flesh being largely exported to China the mother-of-pearl obtained from it is in large demand for ornamental purpose. Then comes the oyster (^Oatred) in importance. The other shell-fish of commercial value are the Pearl-Oyster (Avicula), Mussel [Mytihm') Scallop (Peden) Razor shell (Solen), Solecurtus constricta, Cytherea meretrix, Maetra sulcatoria, Area granosa, etc. The- returns giving the takes and tlie value are shown below : — Ear-Shell. Oyster. Cythera. Mussel. Year. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Vajue. kivam. yen. kwam. yen. kwam. yen, kwam. yen. 1896 982,909 338,794 1,304,559 110,181 605,730 36,408 647,493 26,046. 1897 782,617 363,813 1,098,707 103,903 684,661 S9,o6o 443,604 21,755 1S98 717,196 391,629 597,350 120,775 1,067,651 100,989 377,078 25,835^ 1899 1,037,573 545,366 963,181 187,039 1,483,388 119,870 258,205 13,403 isoo 869,563 508,478 993,655 190,091 1,51.8,622 93,305 296,680 15,330 Average ... 877,971 429,616 90J,49O 142,398 1,072,010 81,926 404,612 20,475 LoBSTEES iPalinm-ui) AyD Prawns (Penaens). — Of the two the former are caught in the Pacific coast and the latter in the Inland Sea and other inlets. Lobsters are generally caught by gill-nets and prawns by trawl-nets. The takes and value of these crustaceans are shown below : — Year. Capture (kwam.'). Value (yen) 1896 ■ - 3,440,503 648,982 1897 • ... 3,641,732 815,015 1898 . ... 3.489,962 883,388 1899 . ... 4,588,174 095,485 1900 . ... 4,200,264 345.340 Average . ... 3,872,127 957,642 3. Cuttle-fish and Squids.— They are caught hy lines and trawls. In the dried form they rank first on the list of" exported marine products : — Distribution of tlie Principal Fish. 343 Year. 1896 ... 1897 ... 1898 ... 1899 ... 1900 ... Average (C). Quantity (iwam). Value (yen .. 10,060,515 1,809,243 ... 8,578.722 1,880,941 7,081,095 1,949,490 ... 7,616,099 2,492,108 ... 7,615.712 2,699,661 ... 8,190,429 2,166,289 SEA-WEEDS. The sea-weeds that deserve to be mentioned on account of their commercial value are the " Kombu " (Laminaria) " Araanori " (^Porphyra tenella, Kijelhum), " Tengusa " {Oalidium Iwmouroux), "Hijiki" (Cystophyllum I AgardK), "Arame" {Eckhnia Hornem- anna), " Wakame " Undaria Suringar), all of which are used as food. Then there are the "Funori'' Oloivpeltis J, Agardh wich are used for making paste, and the " Kajime " (Ehlonia) from which iodine is extracted : — " Kombu ,/ " Tenguss I." Year. Quantity {kwam.). Value {yen). Quantity {kwam.). Value (jieny 1896 ... . 6,097,547 494,562 944,619 238,818 1897 ... . 9,066,984 630,461 736,925 195,031 1898 ... . 5.053,154 409,223 479.141 146,310 1899 ... . 7,965,725 734,129 761,317 201,266 1900 ... . 6,454,078 602,777 965,652 252,305 Average 6,927,498 574,231 777,531 2o5,746 (D). MARINE MAMMALS. 1. Whales. — The right whale, sulphur-bottom whale, and humpback whale that were formely caught in very large number in the seas ofi" Kyushu and Shikoku, but this is no longer the case at present. The sperm whale is found in the Pacific, and the authorities are now encouraging our whalers to start open sea whaling in competition with the foreign whalers. The principal whaling grounds in our seas are Arikawa in Nagasaki, Yobuko in Saga, Senzaki in Yaraaguchi, Tsuro and Ukitsu in Kochi. The capture of whales in these four prefectures recently was as follows : — 344 Year. 1893 1894 1895 1S96 1897 Average Japan in the Beginning 0/ the 20th Century. Nagasaki. Saga. Yamaguchi. Koclii. Total. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. 7^,9S7 '5 24,650 20 29,400 20 23,122 104 149,129 60,885 22 38,000 20 33,200 21 38,164 107 260,249 54 125,953 18 37,350 33 41,120 32 44,022 137 248,445 49 107,563 14 48,530 34 70,590 47 52,214 144 283397 50 154,424 10 27,620 35 89,050 25 33,978 IIS 191,500 47 104,156 16 35,230 28 52,672 31 38,300 121 226,544 49 34 2. The Sea-Otters and Fur-Seals. — Tlie sea-otters that were formerly caught in the Kuriles are now practically extinct, and the other haunt the northern Pacific and the Sea of Japan while they are on their way to their northern home in summer. Formely there were rookeries of fur-seals in some islands 01 the Kuriles and the animal I'ell mostly into the hands of foreign sealers. Of late owing to the encouragement given by our Government, the capture of these valuable fur animals by our fishermen has become quite satisfactory : — Vear. 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 Average Sea Otter. No. Fur Seal No. .. 26 4,616 ... 21 ... 16 4,757 6,5 '8 II .. 12 .. 17 7.533 7,045 6,094 Total. 4,642 4,778 6,534 7,544 7,057 6,111 In Japan the otter skin commands the market of above 1,000 yen a piece while that of the other is about 25 yen. Y. THE FINANCIAL STANDING OF THE FISHERMAN. General Kemarks. — The only data available for making inquiries into the extent of our fishermen's investments in boats and nest are those of 1891. According to the result Total Investments. of that year's inquiries the investment amount- ed to 24,400,000 yen approximately, which, The Financial Standing of the Fisherman. 345 distributed among 900,000 fishing families, corresponda to only about 27 yen per family. There are other fishing Number and Value gear besides, but they are comparatively of of Boats and Nets, small value so that the means which our fishermen have at their disposal must be said to be extremely limited. Below is a table giving the number and value of fishing boats and nets: — Fishing-boats. Nets. No. Value {yen). No. Value (yen). Honshu ... 222,942 5-246,974 813,046 2,715,722 Shikoku ... 29,422 722,471 27,601 1,034,550 Kyushu ... 72,378 2,106,847 78,164 6,508,054 Hokkaido ... ... 52,301 1,584,450 249,848 4,481,98s Total 377,043 9,660,742 1,168,659 14,740,311 Such is the economy of our fishing people, but it is evident that it admits of great improvement if they are encouraged to lay by their earnings against the bad times that must necessarily occur from time to time in their business, and if they are further encouraged to make continuous improvements in their methods of fishing. FiNANicAL Condition of Fishery in Hokkaido. — Perhaps in no part of tte country are such improvements more imperatively necessary than in Hokkaido. About 550 years have elapsed since the south-western corner of that island was first opened by the settlers from Echizen. The fishery in Hokkaido was at that time a primitive affair, principally owing to the remoteness of the place from any of the markets, and also owing to the fishermen's ignorance of the best way of disposing of the fish caught. Owing, however, to the introduction of the manufacture of guano on the one Official hand and to the invention of pound-nets on the other, a Patronage, strong impulse was imparted to the development of the industry, and this resulted in a striking increase in the €xport of marine products to Japan proper. On the abolition of the local feudal office in Hokkaido and the establishment of the Colonial Office in 1869 to take its place, the fishing monopoly .formerly given to only a few privilegeed fishermen was .done away with, and at the 346 Japan in the Beginning of ilie 2Qth Century. same time the excis duty stations were abolished. All the fishermeD were allowed to engage in the fishery, and the Government adopted,, moreover, a certain arrangement for advancing loans at a low rate of in- terest to the fishermen, with the object of encouraging the business and also of attracting to the island settlers from other parts of the country. The discontinuation of this loan system on the abolition of the Colonial Office and the inauguration of the local administration system placed the fishermen in an embarrassing situation. Even at present they are obliged in order to obtain their woking funds, to have resource to- loans at exorbitant rates of interest, and often they have Depe:da]it to pledge beforehand the anticipated catch of the season- Condition of Under the circumstances, the lion's share of the profit Fishermen, coming from the fishery goes into the pocket of money- lenders, and it is hardly possible to expect the develop- ment of the industry while things continue in this condition. Economy of The number of nets used and the number of' Herring Fishery, capitalists engaged in the herring fishery in Hok- kaido are as follows : — Nets. Fishermen. Year. Pound-Nets. Gill-Nets. Other-Nets. Pound-Nets. Gill-Nets. I 189s S.088 298,080 1896 5,099 280,800 1897 6,161 304,920 1898 6,302 361,440 No reliable data about the proceeds and investments of fishery exist, the only returns available for the purpose being those on the proceeds and taxes. These data are as follows : — (Inquiries based on 86 fishing guilds out of the 124 existing in. Hokkaido.) yen. Proceeds 7,216,359 Taxes and Public Burdens 391,882 Fishery Tax 274,801 Sundries Incidental to Paying Taxes 21,505 Guild Expenses 39,541 Village Expenses 56,034 The rate per capita of 39,259 members of the guilds is as follows : — yen. Proceeds 183.00 Taxes 9.98 279 2,920 10,445 229 13.594 314 2,801 I0j045 203 13,049 3IS 3,020 11,201 230 14,451 341 3.404 12,261 246 15,901 The Financial Standing of the Fisherinan. 347 For obtaining so much proceeds the fishermen required funds amounting to about 9,300,000 ye7i. This is based on the estimate that the sum of 9 million yen is used on account of consolidated and working funds, exclusive of the sum required on account of public burdens ; and on the estimate that the former form about a third of the sum, and the other the remaining two- thirds. The working funds amounting to 6 million yen are generally obtained by loans, and this view has been borne out by the inquiries made into accounts of 88 guilds out of the total 124. The result of the inquiries was as follows : — FISHERY FUNDS. yen. Funds Comings out of the Fishermen's own Pockets 4j333)767 Fxmds Obtained by Loans 5,369,926 Loans from the Guilds 2,590,396 Loans from Capitalists Engaged in other Lines of Business in Hokkaido 2,287,224 L.oans from other JParts of Japan 492,304 Total 9,703,693 The following estimates show the accounts of the capital re- quired for one set of pound-net used in the herring fishery : — 1st class, and class. 3rd class. 4th cIk^s. ven. yen, yen. yen. 2,500 3,081 1,500^ ! Nets, Boats, Tools, etc Construction of Boats and Ships.. Purchase of one Fishing ground.. Buildings Deposits for Ground Leased 2,5ooi 2,626 1,500^ 500 j. i,5ooJ 4,319 •a a a >^. a 455 2,955 2,626 528 528 \ Total 2,955 2,626 10,500 7,400 Rent of Fishing-Ground ... Wages Food Fuel t 2,168^ 2,168^ 2,310^ 2,310 Repairs Sundries Total 2,696 2,696 2,310 2,310 Grand Total 5,651 5,322 12,810 9,710 348 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The capital required by every 100 gill-nets used in the herring fishery is estimated as follows : — (Nets Other Gear Boats Total /Wages... iFood ... Working JF"«1 - funds. JRopes, Mats etc. ... , I Rent of Curing-Grounds , \ Total Grand total ... , 1st class. yen. 300^ 100 > 150 550 38s 70 40 55 ISO' 700 2nd classi yen. 700 7CX3 600 600 Average. yen. 625 625 650 650 1,250 1,300 1,275 The herring fishery business is, as circumstance-! stand at present in Hokkaido, placed in a disadvantajjeous situation, for during the fishing season which lasts for only two or three months, laborers have to be engaged at comparatively higher rate of wages than they ordinary receive, in addition to which they are to be fed at the expense of employers. Money being very urgently needed and very scarce, the rate of interest deraaadei is generally exorbitant as shown in the following table : — Year. 1895 ... 1895 ... 1897 ... 1898 ... 1899 ... Average Average rate in Tokyo and Osaka, % 9.7 9.7 9-9 II. 2. 9.8 10. 1 Average Bank rate at Hako- date and Osaka. 70 12.6 II.O 1 1.7 12.8 "•3 1 1.9 Average Interest for a Loan of over 1,000 ven. ^. ^ Security. % 1 1.6 10.6 II. I On Hoal Estate. On Marine Products. % 12.2 "■3 1 1.8 11.8 % 12.2 10.9 1 1.4 "•S On Beit.!. % 16.4 15.6 12.8 14.9 On Credit. % 12.0 10.7 II. I ".3 AquicuUure. 34^ If the funds required demand such high rate of interest, the process of curing fish adopted in Hokkaido is similarly beset with disad\^antages. The kettles used in the process do not, for instance, admit of the use of coal. Fagots, far more costly than coal, have to be used, and of course the business of manufactur- ing marine products loaves therefore only a narrow margin of profit. If, however, the HokkaidS fishermen were able to procure cheaper money for their consolidated capital and were able to devise at the same time some means of curtailing the working expenses and cost of production, and if on the other they were to inaugurate a new departure in the manufacture of smoked or salted marine products suitable for the foreign market, the industry would be sure to be attended by far greater prosperity than it is at present. YI. AQUICULTURE. Peincipal Fish Eeaeed. — Aquiculture is now extensively carried on both in fresh water and in the sea. In fresh water, the raising of carp, snapping turtle, trout, grey mullet, and eel, are most important enterprises, while in the sea the culture of oyster, clams, and the " Amanori" is regarded as being the most profitable. In the case of carp and turtle the culture begins with the egg, while in that of grey mullet and eel the fries are let in the rearing-pond. In artificial fecundation of oyster and pearl- oyster (avicula), different kinds of collectors are placed in the water to obtain the spats. In the cultivation of the "Amanori " (Porphyra) fascines are used to furnish the proper place for the attachment. The inland seas near Tokyo and Hiroshima are noted for thia culture of the algae. Area and Condition of Hatching Beds. — The following table shows the area of ponds and beds of aquiculture and the value of the fish artificially cultivated:— 350 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century, Honshu. Shikoku. Kyushu. Hok'do. Total Snapping Turtle J area (tsubd). 13,112 7,698 — 219,094 647 ^ 232,206 8,345 Oyster ... . J) \ 11 ) 1,397,246 98,266 18,837 100 193.107 23,700 1,609,190 122,066 Carp J) ( " ) 7,063,855 212,114 364,519 821 321,589 2,375 1,650 7,751.613 215,555 Crussian Carp . " f " ] 3,348.132 4.813 118,015 72 65,197 742 — 3,531.344 5-627 Eel J) ( " ) 1,461,283 40,248 115,000 18 475 76 — 1,810693 40,342 Porphyra... . f " ( " \ 1,527,244 158,799 — 283,450 11,408 — 1,810,694 170,207 Others ... . f •{ 11 if 11 ;;; 10,119,947 155.640 24,930,819 677,578 73,882 486 3,098,349 26,621 8 1,650 253 13,292,178 182,75s Total 690,253 1,497 4,181,261 65,569 29,803,983 744,897 Many hatcheries of salmon and trout exist in Japan, and of these the Government Chitose hatchery in Hokkaido is the largest. Recently over 10 million salmon fries were hatched at this hatchery. In Hokkaido there are many private salmon hatcheries, and the liberation of the fry is being extensively carried on. In the northern districts of Honshu, i. e., in the prefectures of Niigata, Akita, and Aomori, salmon hatcheries may be found in many places. The number of salmon fry liberated in those districts are as follows : — Year. Chitose (Hokkaido). Niigata-ken. Akita-ken. Total. 1892 ... 3,626,415 — — 3,526,41s 1893 - ~ ... 7,355,640 — — 7,355.640 1894 ... 2,700,729 — — 2,700,729 1895 ... 8,549,598 — — 8,540,598 J896 ... 6,984,178 — 404,989 7,389,167 1S97 ... 3,815,588 — 368,952 4,184,540 1898 ... 7,881,222 — 339,466 8,220,688 1899 ... 10,453,486 2,752,14s 168,756 13,374,387 igoo ... 10,190,355 2,854,197 334,394 13,378,946 1901 ... 12,665,214 4,33«',992 340.000 17,336,206 The rearing of trout ife also carried on in many places throughout the country. Salt-Refining. YII. SALT-REFINING. 351 In Japan Peopee. — The salt used in Japan is mostly de- rived from sea-water, from which it is extracted either by means of the sun's heat alone or by sun's hea^. supplemented by artifici- al heat. The mineral salt produced in Japan is hardly worth mentioning, it being extremely small in quantity. The refining business dates back for more than 20 cen- turies, for the natural advantage enjoyed by Japan in the manu- facture of this essential ingredient of food enabled our people to carry on the business almost everywhere. At Number of present the work is carried on in no less than People Engaged- 34 prefectures besides Formosa, and the people engaged in the business number over 100,000. The output differs according to the year, but on an average it reaches about 6 million Icoku. Here is a table giving statistics with regard to industry: — Year. 1893 1S94 1895 1896 1897 i8g8 1899 1900 Area of Field. No. of Kettles. Output. Output. cho. koktt. yen. .. 7.442-3 16,795 5,507,097 4,075,742 .. 7,483-6 , 17.293 5,655,795 3.584,093 .. 7,600.1 17,010 6,649,263 3,659,353 .. 7,721-5 i7,'44 6,325,891 3,483,078 .. 7,507-0 16.253 5,995,052 3,866,674 .. 7,578-3 16,547 5,235,024 7,620,616 .. 7.841-3 18,452 6,178,094 10,104,771 .. 7,906.8 •9,075 6,364,979 8,218,514 .. 7.639-8 i6,iSS 5,81 1,021 7,542,942 .. 7.774-2 17,584 6,591,078 9,388,694 The districts bordering on the Inland Sea produce about eight-tenths of the whole output produced in Japan proper, Kyushu produce OHe-tenth approximately, and the rest the remaining one-tenth. In Formosa. — In Formosa this industry promises to become far more prosperous than in Jap^n proper, owing to the greater 352 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. natural advantages enjoyed by it in this connexion. The figures for the two years specified are given below : — Year. Area No. of Person Output (cAo). Engaged. {koku). 1898 , „. .., 168 1,122 19,726 J899 260 1,336 132,337 It may be added that the industry in that island has had a remarkable development since 1899, though the precise figures in the late years are not yet forthcoming. Salt is now a state monopoly in the island whence an enormous quantity is shipped to Japan proper. Refinikg Peocesses. — Of the two methods of refining the natural heat system is extensively adopted in Formosa. This process does not practically differ from that seen in some Western countries. To give a brief description of it a circular Natural Heat embankment enclosing a certain empty space is first System. constructed in the shoal. The space within this embankment is divided into two sections, one being used for concentrating the brine and the other for crystallization. The sea-water is first led into the concentration pond, where it is left to evaporate. After the proper degree of evaporation has been reached, it is next led into the crystallization pond. On further evaporation the salt contained in the water deposits itself on the sand. These deposits are then raked off" and conveyed to a store- house. In some parts of northern Formosa a method resembling very much that adopted in Japan proper is followed. There are two methods of extracting salt by artificial heating from the sea-water, one being called " Agehama " (up-shore style) and the other " Irihama " (in-shore style). The latter is far Artificiil more popular than the other, and indeed about 90 per Hea*; cent, of all the salt produced in Japan proper is produced Systems, by the " in-shore style." This style resembles very much the Formosan style. First a suitable plot is marked out on the beach on the occasion of the ebb-tide and is enclosed by embankments. When the sea- water which is let into the plot, has sufficiently evaporated, that is, has evaporated to such an extent as to MarJcet». 353 cause it to deposit the saline matter it contains, the deposits are collected and transferred to a box-shaped vessel made of either mud or wood. Sea-water is then poured upon the vessel and the thick saline liquid thus obtained is kept in a reservoir, to be afterwards heated in a kettle and evaporated. Sometimes the vessed is dispensed with, and in place of it a basket and a receptacle, generally a pail, are used. This style is commonly used in the salt-fields along the shores of Tokyo Bay. In the " Up-shore system," the sea-water is sprinkled repeatedly on the shore up the beach ; the sand charged with saline ingredients is put into a suitable vessel on which a quantity of sea-water is poured. A thick brine is thus produced and on its being heated, the evaporation causes the salt held in suspension to be deposited. As the salt industry carried on in Japan was regarded a& imperfect in several respects, the Government caused the matter to be inquired into some years ago, and at last in 1898, a model salt refinery was established at Tsudamura, Chiba-ken, and another at Matsunaga, Hiroshima-ken. VIII. MARKETS. (A). HOME MARKETS. General Remarks. — As already mentioned in the preceding sections, the gross value of catch of fish in Japan is estimated at about 60 million yen a year. Of the manufactured marine products, the dried bonito, guano, salted or dried fish and shell-fish, and sea- weeds are principally consumed at home. Volume of home consumption. — It is not possible to estimate with anything like accuracy the gross quantity and th^ value thereof offish and marine products consumed at home either fresh or in a cured form. However as 8 million yen worth of manufactured pro- dacts out of the total 28,900,000 ym is exported abroad, the con- sumption at home may be roughly estimated at 20,900,000 yen, broadly divided as follows : — 354 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th C&nttiry. Dried Bonito and Substitutes ... Guano Dried or Salted Fish or Shell-Fish Sea-Weeds ym. ... 3,464,415 ... 9,029,457 ... 8,430,200 ... 1,311,161 I. RAW-FISH MARKETS. General Remarks. — Data are not available as to the amount % • ^% ATSUTA (1896). Value. Distribution. Osaka and suburbs ... 9S% Yamato Kyoto . ••• »at ^% i% yen. 475,865 Miye , Shizuoka .„ Chiba Fukui Osaka , .Near Shores 25?^ 1% ^% 3S% yen. I3«,238 Nagoya Gifu .„ Shiga .., Kyoto Ml Nagano 10% %^% 3°% 20% 20% yen. 220,385 Korea Nagasaki ... I Near Shores HAKATA (1896). ••• 20% /^Kumamoto ... •.. y^!}- 1 Osaka, Yamaguchi ... e,o% iFukuoka , SHIMONCiSEKI (1896). 10% yd 'I. 169,152 Nagasald ... ... ... 40?^ Osaka ... .*• ... ... 25^ Satsuma ... ... 10^ Tsushima ... ■ •• 10^ Kyoto ... ... 3P% Hirado Karatsu ... ... 15?^ 5% yen. 161,547 Okayama ... 15?^ Wakamatsu... ^ ■ ■■ \o% Buzen ... ■ •• 10^ Near Shores ■•• • •• S% Goto ... ... • •• ■ ■• S% .lyo ... 20% Tlie market price necessarily differs according to locality, but some ideas on this point may be gathered from the following quotations : — 356 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. AVERAGE PRICE, (ym) PER lo /hvam. (1901.) Tokyo _ ... <3saka .„ ... Shimonoseki ... Yonago Atsuta .^ Average (2 . is s § 1' 3 73 d s 1 in IS II 9 9 7 8 — — 6 22 9 II •7 8 10 6 8 9 IS 10 14 II 9 8 5 8 9 9 — 13 4 4 — 3 6. 10 18 13 18 10 — — — — 7 16 II 13 lO 6 9 5 7 S The market shows the upward tendency owii)g to the greater demand, as shown from these figures based on the market ia Osaka : — Year. 1892 6897 1901 MARKET PRICE OF RAW FISH PER 10 kwam. Amount Delivered. Sale by Whole- sale Dealers. Sale by MiddJemer yen. yau yen. i,5S2.6So 607,915 202,436 1,241,654 1.379,615 459,422 1,479,985 1,655,538 S5i,294 1892. 1897. 1901. yen. yen. yen. « Tai " (Pagrus) „ ... ... 15.00 18.00 20.00 Tunnies 6.00 7.50 S.50 Yellow-Tail ... 7.50 8.50 9.50 Bonito 6.30 8.50 9.50 Shark ... 4-8o SSo 6.50 Lobsters and Prawns ... ... 7.50 9.00 11.00 ^ n. CUEED FISH MARKETS. Of the cured marine products the " Fushi " is the most im- portant, this being a dried flesh of various kinds of fisli and ex- tensively used for cooking purpose throughout the country. Markets. 357 "FusHi." — There are several kinds of the Fushi (dried and smoked fish just like dried bonito), these being bonito Fushi, tunny Fushi, mackerel Fushi, and Fushi made of miscellaneous fish. The principal centres of bonito Fushi and their output in 1900 were as follows : — Output. Value. kwam. yen. Shizuoka ^ .. 343,598 702,961 Chiba ." 303.574 675,591 Miye .. 221,879 868,047 Kagoshima 189,111 323,038 Fukushima .. 183,352 448,212 Kochi .. 159,847 584,702 Ibaragi .. 108,428 255,177 Others 462,671 1,023,57s Total .. 1,972,460 4,881,303 Places and output in 1900 of tunny Fushi were as follows : Output. Value. kiaam. yen. Miys^i 49,384 83,502 Ehime ... ., ~ ... ... 39,470 81,432 Kagoshima 20,47S 20,906 Iwate . ... - 13,238 17,617 Wakayama 12,322 20,147 Others 29,606 164,495 65,206 Total 288,809 The principal markets of Fushi M-e Tokyo and Osaka. The •delivery and distribution in the two places were as follows in 1896 :— 358 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. TOKYO. Imports. Exports. Quantity. Value. iwam. yen. Percentage of Deliyery. Quantity. Value. kwam. yen- 617,244 1,230,593 Kochi Kagoshima. Shizuoka , Chiba „, . Ibaragi... . Miyagi... ., .Iwate „. ., 224,058 454,822 z°% 1% 12% OSAKA. 2^% 617,244 1,230,593 Percentage of Delivery. Tokyo .23.0% Gumma .10.0^ Nagano 129?^ Kanagawa .. . 9-5 ?i Yamanashi „ . 9-S% Osaka . 9A% Kyoto . l-T,% Okayama .. . 5-8?^ Nagasaki . 4-2?^ Hiroshima .. . 6.3%. Miye . 2-9% Hyogo . 0.9% Oita . 0.3?^ 724,058 468,490 Kochi ... . Kagoshima Ehime... . Oita ... . Miye ... . Wakayama . Chiba ... Miyagi... Iwate ... .Fukushima . III. FISH-FERTILIZERS. 15?^ \o% ■2S% Tokyo... , Osaka ... , Kyoto ... Shiga ... Okayama Hiroshima Shimane Tottori... Fukushima Kumamoto Niigata... Toyama Ishikawa io% 10% >2S% \^S% Output and kinds of Fish-Feetilizees. — The principal centres of fish guano and their output are as follows : — HERRING (1900). Quantity. Value. kwam. yen. 5,725,620 1,197,38s 24,171 6.947 Hokkaido., Others .. •■• •■• ••< •«• •#• •■■ Total 5,749,79« 1,204,332 Hokkaido Aomori ... Chiba ... Aichi Markets. GUANO (Herring and Sardine). Quantity. kwain. 22,936,920 1,049,517 876,030 492,483 359 *•• ••• ••• Mb Value. yen. 5,806,765 328,472 424,254 169,860 Total ... ••• ••• •■ . 25,354,950 6,809,351 DRIED ANCHOVY. Quantity. Value. kwam. yen. Chiba ••• ••• • .. 2,220,052 554,510 Shizuoka ••• ••• .. 569,322 30,270 Nagasaki ••• ••• 423,402 95,864 Kanagawa ••• ••• 250,400 429,800 Otiiers .. 1,019,842 289,875 Total., 4,483,01s 1,400,319 The conditions of the delivery and distribution of fish-fertilizers on the markets of Tokyo, Osaka, and Hyogo ■were as follows in 1900 :— TOKYO. Value. yen. Percentage of Delivery. I Hokkaido ... 2,997,659 JSan-Rika ... iNear-Siiores .. 74?^ Value. Percentage of Distribution. yen, /Tokyo 21.2% Chiba 17.7?^ Ibaragi, Tochigi ... \ ^^^ -^ ^'^^^'^-^Sfc-Sashi S /Kanagawa, Shizuoka, !■ 28.8^ I Aifhi, iliye J 2.1^ 16% * Others 360 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. OSAKA. Value. Percentage of Delivery. Value. Percentage of Distribution. Osaka 33?^ Wakayama 4^ ' \ Kyoto and Hyogo .„ \o% 2,546,895;^ 2,599,690444 Toyama 76 100 Others yen. ... 70,500 - 173,854 - Total ... 435,898 "TATSUKURI" SARDINE. Miye Ishikawa ... yen. 27,641 Ibar^i 27,580 Others yen. ... 26,686 ... 195,178 Total ... 277,08s BOILED AND DRIED SARDINE. Yamaguchi Ehime Aichi yen. 321,400 Hiroshima 298,322 Shizuoka 257,914 Others yen. ... 245,964 ... 233,949 ... 781,229 Total • 2,138,777 362 Ja2:ah in the Beginning of the 20th Century. DRIED COD. Ishikawa yen. 18,324 Others yen. ... 11,451 Niigata ... 102,000 Total - 131,77s SALTED COD. HokkaidS yen. ... 43,542 Others yen. 12,109 Total ... SALTED TUNNY. ... 55,651 Aomori Nagasaki yen. 16,900 Hokkaido 12,244 Others yen. ... 12,143 ... 37,721 Total 79,ooS V. SEA-WEEDS. Output and kinds of cured Sea-weed3. — Of the sea-weeds the Komhu (Laminaria), and a few others are exported to some, extent, but by far the greater part is consumed at home. « KOMBU " (^Laminaria). Hokkaido... . yen. 562.234 Othets yen. ... 40,543 Total " HOSHINORI " {Porphyra). ... 602,777 Tokyo ... . yen. 251,019 Others yen. ... 262,928 Total .. ... 513,947 " TENGUSA " (Gelidium). Tokyo ... . Shiz.uoka ... Hokkaido... . yen. 43,380 Miye 40,502 Others 38,650 yen. 27,082 ... 108,691 Total 258,305 (B.) FOREIGN MARKETS. I. Exports. — The value of marine products er.ported daring 1901 amounted to 8,680,000 yen approximately. The returns during the last ten years are as follows, the quantity being put in Mn^ and the value in yen : — Markets. 363 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1895. unit of unit of unit of unit of unit of thousand. Lhousand. thousand. thousand. thousand Cuttle-fish - r Qua'n. 7,480 l,Val. 980 10,356 2,426 9,483 1,162 6,401 996 5,842 1,251 Beche de mer • 865 291 840 281 929 294 1,021 3«6 915 3'9 Shark Fins ■ 226 80 283 lOI 297 102 309 95 323 no Sahnon, Cod ■ 1,295 64 1.750 85 1,344 66 1,380 64 70s 40 Dried Anchovy • 71S 23 827 25 273 10 507 18 329 14 Dried and Salted Fish 782 24 617 21 911 46 993 30 947 31 Prawns ■ 1,427 190 1,404 208 1,283 171 1,535 222 1,356 209 Ear-shell 1,101 381 1,021 396 1,165 445 1,060 396 98S 408 Mussel ■ 370 30 336 27 218 21 316 32 24s 26 Solecitrfits Constricta - z - — — 356 56 Adductor muscle of shell- fish 179 S2 32s 82 541 127 156 39 333 93 Oyster (dried) ^ — — — — 225 27 Other Shell-fish - 82 98 70 85 228 17 " Kombu " (Laminarid) ...- 36,713 818 32,718 766 35,851 467 39,033 514 29,174 486 Sliced " Kombu " 6,498 J75 6,935 172 5,999 139 5,796 116 5,770 122 " Tosakanori " (JihodophyUis sp-) 257 9 22s 9 155 8 277 II 183 10 « Amanori " \Porphyra Vul- garis) ..' 4 6 S 5 9 "Kanten" (CoUe Vegetable). 1,269 581 1,452 682 1,298 495 1,118 449 1,403 995 Fish-oil 7,357 248' 13,751 533 16,668 668 2,654 525 6,175 338 Mother of Pearl (Haliotis). . . 835 59 783 60 767 SO 759 63 853 88 Coral - I 37 46 48 I 36 4 88 Salt •• ' 16,832 82 19,169 86 16,100 68 24,687 97 25,897 132 Total 4,219 S,iiS 4,470 4,120 4,381 SG4 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Cuttle-fish Beche de mer Shark fins < Salmon, Cod Dried anchovy Dried and Salted fish... Prawns Ear-shell Mussel Solecmius Constricta Adductor muscle of shell- fish Oyster (dried) Other Shell-fish " Kombu " (Za;«z«ana) ... Sliced " Kombu " " Tosakanori" (Rhodofhyllis ^■) " Amanori " {Porfhyra Vul- garis "Kanten" (CoUe Vegetable) Fish-oil Mother of Pearl (Haliotis)... Coral Salt Total { 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 190I. Average. Quan. Val. 7.093 1,413 6,046 1,268 6,390 1,362 5,191 1,158 8,798 1,842 7,308 1,276 ft 799 296 760 291 945 362 668 279 1,00s 436 875 316 347 131 363 134 390 146 360 130 388 144 329 117 n 89S 56 1,413 82 1,178 72 1,206 87 2,536 176 1,370 79 » 266 13 273 15 704 35 1,788 92 2,106 106 779 13S ft 461 18 390 27 598 66 807 73 1,857 162 836 SO «,39i 215 1,563 270 1,276 251 1,150 232 1,681 339 1,407 230 ft ft 907 396 1,035 466 1,115 530 850 429 856 483 1,010 433 » 165 20 216 32 288 46 320 52 337 52 281 34 292 41 179 28 99 20 go 17 135 26 "5 19 if ft 3SO 122 179 69 298 107 368 140 452 204 318 104 f> if 148 18 136 21 136 20 159 27 202 39 100 iS ft ft 172 17 187 22 289 32 175 27 26s 32 131 48 ft 40,357 726 33,431 549 39,666 780 30,988 730 51,526 1,092 36,946 693 f> f 4,757 104 6,342 161 6,530 166 5,053 152 9,383 325 6,306 613 tf ff 95 5 104 5 ''I 137 6 114 5 168 7 ft ft 4 4 13 12 8 7 9> 1,326 591 1,205 611 1,207 674 •,444 964 1,584 1,217 1,331 686 tf 12,657 618 954 135 6,641 391 755 172 9,182 550 798 17s 12,646 906 5" 109 14,610 1,023 439 100 2,134 S80 745 10 1 » It ID 187 36,887 300 9 169 29,511 215 21 345 39,062 278 30 354 50,354 452 47 564 38,219 303 12 187 29,672 201 _ _ _ _ 5.437 5,013 6,046 6,440 8,686 5,393 A brief description of principal marine products for export will be given in the following paragraphs : — Markets. 365- 1. CuttIjE-fish. — There are three kinds of cuttle-fish of commer- cial value, these being " Surume-ika " (Ommastrephidae), " Kabuto-ika " (Sej)ia) and '• Kensaki-ika " QLoligo). The Sepia is generally used raw, and only the other two varieties, especially Ommastrephidae, are dried. The Sepia lives most in bays or inland seas while the other kinds are caught in Kyushu, Sado and Oki in the Sea of Japan,, and also along the coast of Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi and Hokkaido. The dried cuttle-iish goes extensively to China, as shown in the following returns giving the average for the ten years ending 1901 : — Mn. yen. Hongkong 6,044,123 1,071,078 China ... "• i, 186,606 190,606 Others 85.538 I5.2S4 Total 7>3i6,267 1,276,938 2. Beche de Mer. — This is a boiled and dried sea-cucumber and is highly relished by the Chinese. Besides the Japanese product, that caught along the Siberian coast and the South Pacific also goes to China. The South Pacific variety is whitish and devoid of cutaneous projections, while the Beche de mer from Japan and Siberia is black and has projections. It is found mostly in Hokkaido and along the north-eastern coast of Honshu. Average yearly export during the said ten years was : — China Hongkong Others Total 875,299 316,970 3. ShAek-Fins. — Dried shark-fins are regarded as a dainty by- the Chinese. There are two kinds of fins, grey and black, the grey commanding higher price than the other. The fins come in the laro-est quantities from Oita and Yamaguchi, and our fishermen also cross over to the Korean coast to fish for sharks or rather for their- fins : — kin. yen. 801,37s 292,54s 71,491 21,542 2,430 2,883 S66 Japan in the Beginning of the 20 kin. yen. Hongkong 44,5«9 S,o8i Others 10,901 138 Total 55,420 5,219 kin. yen. 255,718 41,694 281,458 32,637 109,086 11,810 95,753 8,421 Marked. 36* OTHER SHELLS, 6 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1897). Hongkong 6,715 Germany 2,565 England J, 495 Others i.ogS Total 1,869 The " Yako-gai " grows in the sea surrounding the Okinawa- Islands Its shell and that of Heliotis and Avicula supply important materials for ornamental work. 13. " KoMBU " (Lahinarid). — Several varieties of Laminavia grow on the shores of Japan, especially in Hokkaido and the south- eastern districts of Honshu. The " long Komhu " {Laminaria augnstaia) is exported most of all. The " Kombu " sliced into small threads is extensively used by our people and also to some extent by the Chinese. Shanghai is the principal market, whence the goods are sent to the districts along the Yangtsz. The export to northern China is not so great, owing to the fact that the goods produced in Siberia and Manchuria being somewhat cheaper than those from Japan are much in demand tliere. "KOMBU." 10 YEARS AVERAGE (1S92- -1901). " LONG KOMBU." kin. yen. China 34,944,295 658,449 Hongkong... 1,484,198 27,137 Others ... 498,023 5,^64. Total 36,926,516 691,250 370 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, SLICED "KOMBU." China Hongkong ,. Others Total kin. yen. 5,873.54+ 155.671 292,067 6,458 140,891 1,654 6,306,502 163.783 14. " Kanten," {Golle Vegetable). — This is made by dissolving the sea-weed Tenguaa in ■water. After the refuse is removed the gelatinous infusion is exposed to the cold weather at night and made to congeal. In the daytime this congealed substance is exposed to the sun to make it less watery. " Kanten " is consumed at home and is also exported abroad. The Chinese use it as food, while in the West it is used as a substitute of isinglass and for starching woven goods or for removing the sediments of liquors. The " Kanten " is produced at Osaka, Kyoto, Hyogo and Nagano. 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). iin. ym. Hongkong .. 578,482 392,683 China .. 543,819 286,140 British India 34,046 19,322 Germany .. i8,93S 14,147 England 13,214 9,5 lo Others .. 88,395 43,000 Total 1,276,891 664,802 15. Otlier sea-weeds that go abroad are the " Iloshinori,'' ■" Tosakanori " (Rhodophyllis), " Funori " {Ghiopeltis Agardh) and " Tsuiiomata " {Chondrus slacMiouse, Agardh) ; the first for Japanese staying abroad, the second to China and the other two to othe' countries to be used as paste : — Marlcets. "HOSHINORI," lo YEARS' AVERAGE (1S92— 1901). 371 Hongkong ... China Hawaii ■Others Total yen. 1,593 4,682 482 6Sr 7.444 ' TOSAKANORI/' 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). China Others kill, if^4,873 4,259 yen, 7,5oS 291 rotai 169,132 7,796 'FUMORI," 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). England . . . Hongkong Others ... kin, 35,445 73,399 950 yeit, 4,141 2,921 8i Total 109,794 7,143 "TSUXOMATA," 10 YEARS' .VVERAGE (1892— 1901). China Hongkong Germany Others ... Total kin, 29,337 2,749 715 79 32,880 ven. 4,036 1,202 499 59 5,796 16. FiBii-(jiL. — Fish-oil is a by-protluct of fish guano. It is shipped abroad in unrefined state, and is used for leathering, -making soap, paint, tallow, etc : — 372 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. ID YEARS' AVERAGE (1892—1901). Germany ... Hongkong... England ... Belgium ... France Australia ... Clima Others Total iin. ytn. 5,527,476 293,091 1,731,359 95,402 1,514,026 61,767 622,645 42,908 1,001,584 45,169 297,98a I3,4«9 250,618 10,705 419,497 18,665 11,365,185 581,196 16. Cor.AL-^.— Corals are got by dredge-nets in the seas off' Tosa,, Satsuma and Hizen. Italy is the principal foreign market for the goods. The supply being in excess of the demand lately, owing to the greater development of the work of dredging in Tosa and Satsuma,. the market has somewhat declined : — 10 YP:ARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). Hongkong ... Italy China Others Total kin. yen. 5,087 83,52s 7,189 80,390 655 23,488 lO 345 12,941 187,751 17. Tablk-salt. — Salt was formerly exported to Korea alone,, but of late it has began to go to Siberia and Saghalien where it is used for preserving iish : — 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). Korea Siberia , Others Total 17,719,697 11,484059 467,438 Vm. 196,618 102,405 2,747 29,671 194 201,770 Markets. 373 (II.) Imports.- from 1892 to 1901 :■ -Imports of marine products during the ten years (Quantity is represented in kin and value myen). Dried 8alted-lish Shell-fish Hank-bill Turtle Shell. . Salt "Tengusa" Coral "Funori" Dried Anchovy Herring Guano , Total Dried-fish Salted-dish Shell-fish Hank-bill Turtle Shell.. Salt " Tengusa " Coral "Funori 'J Dried AnchOTy Hen'ing Guano f Quan. \ Val. ■■{ 685,2(S8 12.001 14,231 6U,1M 2,442 686,563 29,153 3,083 32,8U7 95(,309 8,831 5,112,728 92,293 1893. I,611,9fi2 44,203 13,126 70,785 3,463 465,611 19,990 4^22 41,337 772,073 31,338 8,201 ,0.'i7 1SB,189 34,231 759 368,064 1894. 2,231,632 63,197 6,935 46,062 6,656 319,547 12,123 2,108 24,821 679,446 27,798 ■10,412 628 193,636 373,298 2,641,251 107,144 14,.W9 80,798 396,443 16,462 3,239 57,650 678,901 30,860 432,342 8,561 301,220 1896. 4,863,137 231.U35 ]].1,816 30,818 14,162 197,722 65,579 £35,566 24,669 6,640 62,854 1,064,180 48,323 2,982,066 62,685 623,684 1899. 1900. 1901. ATerage. f Qiian ival. . 11,957 455 5,317 292 43,8SD 2,292 62,878 3,197 (1,428 3,484 18,547 972 1 '' 9,277,425 495,907 10,612,880 609,736 23,788,203 1,212,896 43,835,533 2,184,816 10,541,836 1,412,790 1,298,891 640,882 ( » 92 711 2S,S38 106,942 33,365 109,'!16 35,311 116,628 43,907 90,103 36,343 62,982 20,658 I » 11,478 81,203 9,89.? 99,025 7,168 68,651 9,744 79,527 9,793 69,227 11,110 76,013 J H 111,823 133,865 86,128 122,384 75,398 59,973 J 11 472,605 20,85.) 679,618 29,058 695,052 33,517 650,756 37,106 658,075 38,814 644,924 26,176 6,345 19,873 7,472 103,873 2,726 23,803 2,384 29,196 1,640 12,309 3,826 43,b62 { " 967,917 47,519 9r.9,083 46,139 829,133 43,384 1,202,643 6.1,423 1,372,232 78,443 947,482 43,858 J )i 12,565,023 288,665 5«613 128,282 2,600,706 891241 6,986,981 235,598 7,616,014 238,970 6,200,016 149,412 J n - - 17,805,000 737,167 36,909,800 1,146,116 28,063,200 1,171,626 7,251,228 305,566 Total •■•{:; 1 ,123,136 1,180,135 2,332,686 .3,945,300 8,167,407 1,368,867 A brief description of the principal imported Tiiarine products ■will be given as follows : — 1. Salted-fesh. — The most important variety of salted fi^h imported into Japan is salmon. It eomes from Kussian Siberia and 374 Jiapan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. British Columbia and the United States of America, and generally- from the Japanese fishermen who are doing business in those countries . to a large extent. lo YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901J. /fw. mi. Russian Siberia 11,713,498 566,851 United States 410,772 25,902 British Columbia 571,911 35,246 Others 292,727 12,382 Total 12,988,908 640,381 ' 2. Peetilizers. — Herring guano comes chiefly from Russian- Siberia and dried anchovy from Korea, both through the hands of Japanese fishermen and merchants. Tho impoi-t w&s. formerly free of duty, but in consequence of the enforcement by the Russian authorities of restrictive measures in regard to the fisheries conducted by Japanese fishermen along the Siberian coast, our Government passed some time ago a law imposing an ad valorem duty of not more than, 50 per cent., on salted fish and guano coming from Siberia and Saghalien. The tariff has not yet been ejiforced owing to the- relaxation of the Russian restrictive measure. 3. FISH-GUANO, 3 YEARS' AVERAGE (1899— 1901). /««. yeH. Russian Siberia , ■ — 24.'59,333 1,018,300 4. DRIED ANCHOVY, 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). iin. yen. Korea 6,056,812 144.204 Russian Siberia I2'.«29 4.783 Total 6,177,941 148,987 5. Sea-weeds. — The principal sea-weeds that are imported" into Japan come from Korea where our fishermen are collecting the jTengusa and Funori. Fishery Legislature. 375 "TENGUSA," lo YEARS' AVERAGE (1892—1901). iin. yen, Korea 513,917 24,9l5 Others 31,007 Ii2S9 Total 544,924 26,17s " FUNORI," 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). kin. yen. Korea 947,o74 45,839 6. Salt. — The import was formerly confined to table-salt alone but owing to great rise in the salt market recently at home sal, lias began to come largely from Germany, England, and China : — Year. England. Germany. China. United States. Others. Total. yen. yen. yen. yen. ye?i. run. 1892 ... ... 2,152 30 — 30 230 2,442 1893 ... .-. 2,355 57 — 989 62 3,463 1894 ... ... 4,773 — z 813 68 5,656 1S95 ... ... 1,598 — — 945 702 3,245 1896 ... ... 2,390 979 49,6n 934 1,665 55-579 1S97 ... ... 4,124' 18,299 74.841 3,526 ".033 111,823 1898 ... ... 5,75s 87,399 22,016 6,038 12,154 133,365 1899 ... ... 2,060 23,660 50,396 2,708 7,604 86,428 1900 ... ... 59,725 23.093 18 4,"9 35.429 122,384 1901 ... ... 69,158 3 3,205 3,052 ~ 75,398 IX. FISHERY LEGISLATURE. General Eemaeks. — Legislature and institutions pertaining to fishery are as yet comparatively imperfect, as these things have generally been regulated in accordance with ancient usages. This primitive method of regulations having given rise to various troubles the Government pvit in force from July 1902 the Law of Fishery. At; the same times steps were taken for encouraging deep-sea fishery, and state aids have also been granted for the encouragement of fishery education. The matters will be briefly described below. 376 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Usages awd Legislatuke about fishery. — ^Various usages have existed about fishery-grounds. In general the grounds in the foreshores of fishing village or villages were regarded to belong to those villageSi The inhabitants of farming villages situated along the sea shore did not in general care much about the grounds except perhaps for sea-weeds used as manure. The grounds in the foreshore of such villages were thei-efore left to the exploitation of neighboring fishing communities. With the increase of the fishing population and owing also to the fact that even farmers began to assert their own rights in regai-d to the foreshores, fishermen were compelled to extend their field to work even to grounds belonging to others, and this very frequently led to trouble. To minimize these troubles the Tokugawa Regency made an enactment in 1741 to the effect that the right of fishing and collecting weeds in the space lying within a line stretched from one headland to another should belong to the farmers living along the shores, but that the right of fishing and collecting weeds in the outer space should be enjoyed in common by the fishermen of all provinces. No fishing community should be allowed to interfere with the collection of weeds by farmers and no farming community should be allowed to interfere with fishing by fishermen. Fishing along the shores should be regulated according to the old usages, but fishing in the open sea should be open even to those who were new to the work. Certain fees were charged at times for the privilege of the exclusive use of shores, while fishermen eligible for service in the maritime service of the Government were given similar privilege. This simple regulation established by the Tokugawa Regency was generally adopted by the feudal princes governing seaside domains With the Restoration, the practice of exacting fees was abolished and the seas were declared to belong to the State. In all other respects the Government left the matter to be regulated according to existing usages and customs. Coming to 1886 the fishery guild regulations were enacted, but soon this simple legislature proved inadequate to deal with troubles constantly occuring among fisherrae n and at last the law in question was promulgated with the consent of the Diet. Encouragement op beep sea fisheries. — The law for the encouragement of deep sea fisheries was iwuetl in 1897 and State Fisliery Legislature. 377 •aids are now granted according to the tonnage of the ships employed in the work and to the number of the crew, provided such ships, whether steamers or sailing ships, engage in specified kinds of fishery approved of by the Government. The dvelopment of deep sea fisheries since the enforcement of the law may be inferred from the following table : — Year. 1898 1899 1500 1901 No. of Ships. Tonnage. Sum of State aids yen. ... I 90 680 ... 14 i,3'3 16,240 ... 17 1,888 25,260 ■>• 22 2,042 28,03s Japanese Fishery Enterprise in Korean waters. — Our ■fishermen were engaged in fishery in Korean waters even before the Restoration, and as their number had grown more and more numerous the Government made special arrangements in 1883 and 1890 with the Korean Government to protect them in their pursuing this busi- ness there. In 1897 these fishermen established their own association at Fusan, while in 1900 the Government commenced to grant state aids to the guild established by these men. NO. OF FISHING-BOATS TO KOREAN WATERS AND THEIR CATCH DURING THE TEN YEARS OF 1892— 1901. (In each set of figures the upper one represents No. of boats and the lower one value of catch \n yen). 'Osaka Hyogo Miye -Shimane "Okayama Hiroehinia ... Tfamagiiehi ... 1892. 1893. 1894. 1893. 10 3000 5 1,700 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 11 3,200 in 6,195 3,10) 21 9,930 10 13,1G2 8 4,001) 47 15j790 — 12 — 2,0j9 12 570 12 750 79 31,e90 97 36,164 — 452 4in 381 446 561 — 214,1)92 169,777 105,765 159,695 280,358 83 82 95 93 290 490 39,0:15 40,990 48,130 ;0,643 256,033 286,3:3 1900. in 4,S0O 41 18,013 18 720 144 2,588 771 326,626 .120 813,737 31,280 21 211,050 14 2ro I6il 582 266 21'^ 378 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century. 1S92. 1893. 1894. 1395. 1396. 1397. 1893. 1399. 1900. 1901. Wakay»ma...{ ZZZZZZZZ Z ^.gji Tokushima ... { Z Z Z Z Z Z Z n,720 26,9^4 43,208. _ •• (237 202 20S 251 361 304 ■ .316 879 430 416 •^^B*'"* \ 82.496 53,3.- 2 64,752 71,214 47,993 39,995 48,065 141,697 157,362 109,28:! „, . f 12 16 16 32 35 67 92 127 194 166 '=''""® \ 7,210 3,710 9,370 26,900 36,600 47,270 66,962 64,500 73,857 79,550 r _ «_ 41 37 43 55. Fukuoka ...| _____ _ 8^777 7_2g8 ^Q^^^^ ^^Ma Oita f -------- 304 344 ""* \ — — — — — — — — — 219,166 „„„„ (■ — — ___ — — _ ,30 68 °»sa \ — — _ _ _ _ _ _ 13118 21,702: Kumamoto ...{ZZZZZZZ 12,295 41,858 43,279- ■ir»„„>,!.„. / 66 SS 62 65 70 74 79 91 84 94 JLagosnima ... -J^ j ,.83 10.208 11,408 10,465 12,320 18,615 14,536 10,465 19,392 19,850 T.»..i / 383 873 371 897 1,000 930 1,.32S 1,822 2,5.30 2,632 lOtai ...^ 101,076 113,464 124,616 388,361 326,614 270,828 571,780 834,566 1,039,379 1,051,810 Encoueagement of fishery by the local and central AUTHORITIES. — The matter relating to encouragement of fishery by the local offices recently made a marked progress. In 1887 the disburse- ments from the local treasury on account of fishery business amounted to only 1,531 yen throughout the land. The sums swelled to 360,000' yeii in 1901 as shown in the following table : — Year. Fishery Expenditure. Year. Fishery Expenditure. yen. yell. 1887 ... I.53I 1895 31.593 1888 ... 9.359 1896 S0.468 1889 ... 2,860 1897 62,427 1890 ... 6,185 1898 71,687 I89I ... 11,011 1899 108,687 1893 ... 13,475 1900 188,911 1893 ■•■ 28,861 1901 320,417 1894 - 19,282 1902 360,043 In the foregoing disbursements the appropriation to fishery ex- perimental laboratories and training schools amounted to most, as- shown below : — Fishery Legislature. 379 Experimental Laboratory. Training New. School. Already TotaL V*"."-!^ New. Already Expenses. I ear. existing. existing. yen. 1894 ... I I — — 2 ^i,>7S 1895 ... I 2 — — 3 2.71S 1896 ... — 2 — — 2 2,998 1897 ... — 2 — — 2 3.779 1898 ... I 3 2 2 5 12,336 1899 ... 4 7 — 2 13 34,685 1900 ... II 18 2 4 35 144,006 1901 ... 2 20 — 4 26 229,754 1902 ... 4 24 — 4 32 235.643 Total ... 24 79 4 16 123 667,091 The laboratories and schools are allowed to participate in the state aids set apart, as described in the chapter of agricultural educa- tion, for encouraging agricultural education : — Experimental Laboratory. School. Total. Year. No. Aids. No. Aids. No. Aids. yen. yen. yen. 1900 ... . 7 12,200 I 1,200 8 13,400 1901 ... . 18 26,000 4 3.?oo 22 29,900 1902 ... . 21 40,100 4 5,200 25 4S>30o Fishery Education. — The progress of fishery education has been very slow compared with that of agriculture and commerce. About 1889 a course of fishery was created for the first time in the Agricultural College at Komaba, but it was discontinued shortly after. The Fishery Training School of the Japan Fishery Associa- tion did much to diffuse knowledge in regard to this important branch of knowledge among the people, and during the ten years of jts existence, for it was converted in 1897 into a Government institu- tion, it' turned out several hundreds of graduates. Of late, in consequence of the encouragement extended to fishery education by the Government, it has attained a striking improvement, as shown in the appended table : — 380 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Fishery School. Training School. District. No. Expenses. No. Expenses. SUte Aids yen. yen. yen. Hokkaido... — — I ^IZ 250 Aomori ... — — 3 2,835 7SO Akita — — I 694 150 Iwate I 3.»48 — is,- — 800 Miyagi I 4,6" — — Soo Niigata ... — — I 830 550 Fukui I 3,786 — — 1,000 Shizuoka ... I I,IO0 2 1-986 700 K5clii ... — — 3 1,044 300 Tottori ... — — . I — — J^agasaki ... — — I 1,193 400 Kagoshima — — I 840 200 Total "5,345 14 10,257 5,900 Associations and Public Bodies on Fishery. — Of the fishery associations and public bodies the Japan Fishery Association and the Japan Salt Association are the most important. The former was organized in 1883 and contains 5,216 members. It produced, as mentioned above, a large number of graduates in fishery, and in general acts as the headquarters of marine industry of the country. The other body was organized in 1896 with the special purpose of improving the salt industry. The members number 2,600. Both are publishing monthly proceedings. There are besides fishery societies of local importance, and also fishery guilds and sale guilds created in consequence of the Fishery Law. History. 381 PART III. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. CHAPTER L — General Manufacturing Industry* History — AdministFation —Legislative Measures — Principal Exports of Manufuctured Goods— Principal Imports of Industrial Goods — Output of Principal Manufactured Goods. I. HISTORY. Before the Restoration. — During the peaceful time of th© Tokugawa regime, the manufacturing industry received from the- feudal princes and the Shogunate itself protection and encouragement. The Shogunate too resumed with Korea the friendship that had been interrupted for some while, connived at our people carrying on secretly commercial transaction with Chinese merchants ; and even permitted them to expand similar transaction with the peoples of Annum. Siam, Luzon, India and various countries in the Southern Seas, also with Portugal, Spain, England, HoUaad- And Mexico. The first dawn of our industrial development may be ascribed to this commercial relations with foreign countrymen. In these days many foreign ships used to visit the ports of Kagoshima, Hakata, Goto, Hirado, Sakae, and Nagasaki to trade with our people, wliile not a few of tlie latter also crossed over on a similar mission to Siam, Luzon, and several place*- in the South Seas. It is hardly necessary to state that tliis contact with foreigners and tlie trade with them largely contributed either directly or indirectly to the development of our industry. ^ Tlie prohibition suddenly enforeced from political consideration during the 382 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Benefit of Foreign era of Kwan-ei, (1704—1710 A.D.) on this Intercourse. foreign trade and intercourse did serious harm to our trade and industry, and hence on our prosper- ity. One thing that was fortunate was that the prohibition was not absolute, and the two countries of China and Holland were allowed to continue their commercial transactions with us as before ; so that the merchants of these two cauntries brought to Japan foreign goods through the port of Nagasaki which was at that time the only open market in Japan. The permission reserved to the Netherlauders was matter of special importance to our country, serving as it did the connecting like of introducing Western civilization into Japan. Situation of the Industry at the Time of the Restora" TION. — As mentioned above, manufacturing industry found congenial atmosphere for its development during the tranquil period of the Tokugawa regime, and indeed many were the industrial articles that were then either improved or newly invented. Principal manufact- uring districts and their staple produce were as follows about the time of the Restoration : — 1. Raw Silk. — Musashi, Kozuke, Shinano, Kai, Mutsu, etc. 2. Silk Fabrics. — Nishijin in Kyoto, (relief silk), Kiriu, Ashikaga, Isezaki, Hachioji (plain silk) Kai (" GunnaJ-kaiki ") Fukushima (plain silk), Akita (relief silk), Yonezawa (figured silk). Tango, and Nagahama (crepe silk), Kawagoe (" Nanako "), Hakata (sash) Sendai (skirt for men) etc. 3. Hemp Fabrics. — Nara (breached cotton goods), Echigo (" Jofu " goods), Omi (general hempen fabrics and musquito nets), etc. 4. Cotton Fabrics. — Kokura (" Kokura-ori "), Kurume ("Kasiiri") Satsuma (" Kasuri "), Yamato (" Kasuri "), lyo (" Kasuri "), Kawachi and Mikawa (white cotton cloth), Shimotsuke (Maokai cotton cloth). 5. Porcelain. —Kyoto (AwaJa and Kiyomizu ware), Owari (Seto- Avare), Ise (Banko-ware), Kaga (Kutani-ware), Izumo (Rakusan and Fushina-ware), Awaji (Minpei-ware), Chikuzen (Takatori- ware), Hizen (Arita-ware), Satsuma (Satsuma-ware), Iwaki (Soma- ware), Bizen (Imbe-ware), etc. 6. Lacquered-Wares. — Kyoto (art ware), Noto (Wajima-ware), Kaga (Kanazawa and Yamanaka-ware), Kii (Kuroe-ware), I\va- History. 383 ehiro (Aizu-ware), Wakasa (Wakasa-ware), Mutsu (Tsugaru-ware), Dewa (Noto-ware), etc. 7. Copper Ware. — Kyoto, Kaga, Takaoka, etc. ■8. Japanese Paper. — Kyoto, Suniga, Echizen, Mine, Iwami, Tosa, etc, Other important ware and goods besides those mentioned were gold lacquered ware, carved ware, cutlery, cast iron ware, wood or bamboo or leather ware, mattings, sake, and soy. After the Restoration. — The Restoration has inaugurated a new epoch in our manufacturing industry, and this change was especially marked in regard to the introduction of labor saving machines. Not that their use was unknown before the Restoration on the contrary even prior to that period their use was encouraged by not a few feudal princes, especially in connection with cotton spinning and weaving. But it was only after the Restoration that the Government made a systematic effort to encourage the use of li.achinery in the manufacturing industry and established model workshops and factories for that purpose. This official effort was eagerly welcomed by the people who began to make extensive use of machines in the business of manufacturing raw silk. Other industries in the similar line many of which were new to Japan, were cotton and silk spinning, weaving, shipbuilding, iron industries of various sorts, the manufacture of cement, glass, bricks, New Industrie?, matches, paper of foreign style, tobacco, and beer, the refining of sugar, the preparation of india- rubber, the making of paint, artificial fertilizers, coal, gas, coke and the carrying on of electric industries of various sorts, &c. &c. In the manufacturing industry as carried on by hand the introduction of Jacquard, Butten, and other kinds of looms, and the introduction of such dye-stuffs as aniline, alizarine, etc., have imparted a powerful impulse to the development of weaving and of dyeing. In a similar way the use of Western style of kiln and of Western pigments, and the use of gypsum mould and copper lithograph have opened a new path of development for our keramic industry. The progress too of the fancy-mat making and of the making of straw-plaits has been sometliing striking and the goods as are now turned out for foreign markets display a highly finished wo^rkmanship. 384 Japan in the Beginning of the 2()th Century. The Progress of the Industry in Recent Time8> — Under these circumstances our manufacturing industry has made great strides during the last two or three decades, so that not only are articles produced for home consumption but also a large quantity of goods for the foreign markets. How great this advance is may be easily inferred from the fact that the volume of manufactured good which did not exceed 10 million yen in 1890 advanced to over 89,800,000 in 1902, an increase of about ninefold. The total volume of our export goods of all descriptions advanced during the same period from 55,700,000 to 255,600,000 yen both in round numbers, that is to say, 4.6-fold. Again, even if raw silk, straw-plaits, etc.. are excluded, the export of industrial commodities occupies about 35 per cent, of the total value of exports. Thus while in 1890 the propor- tion of industrial commodities exported constituted 18 per cent, of the total volume of export, the percentage advaaeed over to 35 in 1902. It will be seen therefore that the part played by manufsict. uriiig industry in the economy of our export trade is one of supreme importance. II. ADMINISTRATION OP MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. Matters relating to manufacturing industry were at first cont- rolled by the Industrial Bureau of the former Department of In- dustrial Affairs, to be transferred, on the abolition of that Depart- meijt, to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Though the control has remained in this Department from that time to this day, the office that had direct charge of manufactui;ing affairs has under- gone frequent alterations, for the tenure of the Bureau of Industry was precarious and was repeatedly created and abolished and finally combined, as it is still to-day, with the Bureau of Commerce. At present all matters relating to manufacture are under the control of the Bureau of Commerce and Industry, and are in direct charge of the Section of Industry which forms part of the Bureau. The Section in question deals with matters relating to experiment made with the view to improving manufacture and manufactured goods, the position and construction of workshops, the control of boilers, the Legislative Measures Relating to Manufacturing Induatry. 385 employment and engagement of operatives and apprentices together with their relief, education, health, etc. In April 1900 a temporarj' factory committee was created in the Section of Industry, and was made to inquii'e into matters concerning factories and operatives. III. LEGISLATIVE MEASURES RELATING TO MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. General Remaeks.— The first legislative measure enacted about manufacture was that issued by the Department of Agriculture and Commerce in November 1884, when an Ordinance was promulgated about the formation of guilds. The object of that measure was to encourage different interest to form themselves into guilds and to pro- vide against the production of shoddy goods. In December of 1888 regulations relating to patents, designs and trade-marks were issued by Imperial Ordinances, intended to extend protection to inventions, designs and trade-marks, and to encourage the development of manufacture and industry and to protect the interest of business men. In April of 1898 a law relating to guilds of staple export interests was enacted, entitling those engaged in the manufacture or transaction of any staple export commodity to organize themselves, on the approbation of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, into aguild and further entitling a guild so formed to compel any one engaged in a similar line to join it. Such a guild was also permitted to form itself into a juridical person. It is needless perhaps to state that the aim of the law in encouraging the formation of a guild was to put a cheek to all evil practices tending to retard the development of the business. Three years later this law was superseded by another relating to staple commodities interests, and therefore more comprehensive in its scope and opera- tion. About the same time a law relating to industrial guilds was promulgated, the object being that credit guilds, purchase guilds, sales guilds, and production guilds may be organized as economic corporations with the object of furthering the business and economy oi the members. In February 1901 rules were issued relating to 386 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. the establishment of local and communal industrial experimental laboratories or manufacturing training schools, the object of the enactment being to encourage the improvement and progress of manufacture. It was arranged about the same time that matters relating to the control of boilers, factories and operatives be left in charge of the respective local offices. lY. PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURED GOODS. Position of Manufacture in Export Trade. — The different parts played by manufactured, agricultural, marine and other goods in the economy of export trade and their movement may be seen from the following table. Kind 1902. 1901. 1898. 1890. RelativeJ'ercentage of Produce. ym, yen. yen. "Jen. 1902. isji. 1S98. 1890. Industrial ... 74,788,770 76,050,312 66,422,690 10,090,125 38.0 36.3 41.5 18.0 Agricultural ... 73,336,835 94,So7.774 66,184,407 28,776,272 37.8 45.1 41.4 51.6 Rshery 5,902,623 5,624,303 4,702,739 3,698,484 3.5 2.7 2.9 6.6 Mining 27,459,979 24,102,161 20,357,640 11,098,964 14.2 11.5 12.4 2.00 Miscellaneous... 12,324,339 9,233,027 2,278,635 2,128,002 6.5 4.4 1.5 3.8 Total ... 193,812,546 209,517,577 159,946,111 55,791,847 100 100 100 ICO It ought to be noted that raw silk of all sorts and straw-plaits are included under the head of agricultural goods. It will be seen from the foregoing table that manufactured goods have made the most striking development in the export trade, and that while in 1890 their share was only 18 per cent, against 51.6 of agricultural goods the relative proportion became 41.5 and 41.4 respectively in 1898, 34.7 and 43.6 in 1901 and 35.1 and 44.4 in 1902. In other words, agricultural goods that formerly occupied the proud position of being the most important item in the economy of export trade began to be superseded by manufactured goods. The importance of manufactured goods as a factor in export trade becomes really preponderating when raw silk of all kinds and straw-plaits are counted among them instead of being included in agricultural goods, as shown below : — Principal Exports of Manufactured Goods. 387 Percentage. JAanufactured.. Agricultural ., Others ... . Total . 1902. 127,632,276 20,493.329 45,686,941 1901. 145,522,297 25.035,789 38,959.491 1898. "3,530.035 19,077,062 27,339.014 1902. 66.0 105 23-5 1901. 69.4 11.9 18.7 70.9 1 1.9 17.2 193,812,546 209,517,577 159,946,111 loo 100 100 The manufactured goods computed in that way have always ■constituted more than 66 per cent, of the total volume while the agricultural have constituted less than 11. Peincipal export items of manufactured goods.— Below is given a table showing the movement of the export of staple manufactured goods. PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURED GOODS. Cotton, yarns Silk, law Silk, noshi Silk, waste Cotton Tissues, white Cotton Tissues, gray shirting. Cotton Tissues, cloths Cotton Tissues, tenuguiji Towels Cotton Tissues, chijind Cotton Tissues, ^(UKzVoOT'j ... Cotton Tissues, flannel or Monpa Cotton Blankets Cotton Shirts Cotton Undershirts and Draw- ers Silk Tissues, habtitae Silk Tissues, ^«z& Silk Handkerchiefs Carpets, hemp, cotton or wool. Clocks, standing and hanging. Iron, manufactures of Bronze and Copper ware (unit of thousand). 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. 1901. 1902. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yin. — 2 1,034 20,589 21,46s 19,901 3.033 13.859 47,866 44.657 74,667 76,859 672 1.445 1,347 960 995 1,694 462 1,126 1,515 3,200 3,473 4,019 — — — 1,778 I.3S7 1,079 — — — 1,754 1.347 1,523 — — — 477 823 1,13 ^ — 45 53 lOI 183 Z09 — — — 356 509 686 — SI 58S 370 380 351 — — — 190 100 49 3 400 602 512 548 — — — 235 26S 225 — — — 237 234 156 9 37 96 23s 265 334 — 818 8,354 17.43*' 23.912 24,685 — — 1,392 878 1,315 2,672 — 2,516 5.339 4.318 3.951 3,154 2 51 1.635 866 707 653 — — — 229 282 256 7 32 96 247 368 437 17 209 330 284 273 402 388 Japan in the Beylnning oj the 2Qth Century. 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900 1901. 1902. yen. yen. yen. ven. yen. yen.. /inrikisha 34. SO 104 121 234 198 Lamp and parts thereof . — — 2S2 407 48S Furnitures 9 48 103 208 210 199 Glass, manufactures of 4 77 346 478 394 439 Cement — — — 194 245 308- Porcelain and Earthenware . . . 695 1,24s •,9SS 2,471 2,491 2,461 Shippoki. 23 36 132 188 250 1S3 Copy-paper — — — 336 351 298 Paper, hanging 20 101 79 116 76 103 Paper European 2 S 40 228 251 240 Paper Napkins 28 108 506 140 IS3 1S8. Matches 60 1,489 4,672 5,760 7,392 8,169. Leather .. 258 97 I'^Z 1,133 690 76a. Match Sticks .' ... . .. — — 153 1S9 175^ Soap 6s 34 ii8 170 266 201 Eeer and other all Liquors .. — 20 132 612 1,697 1,379 Sake , 15 41 41S 549 790 83' Soy 10 23 74 280 279 390 Cigarettes 3 8 "5 715 1,683 2,188 Flour 36 43 191 73 9 16 Hats and Caps I 3 102 124 95 148 Brushes — — — 384 457 626 Umbrellas, European ... . I 114 735 860 1,023 1,037 Lacquered Ware ■• 467 572 1,083 i,o65 994 889 Straw-Plaits — 87 1,387 4,025 2,9?9 2,938 Mats , — 347 3,461 3,3!o 5,3Si 6,772 Fans, Folded and Round ., 137 339 430 949 798 795 Screens 148 269 366 408 407 433 Ivory, manufactures of ... . 23 3S 106 105 181 213. Wood, manufactures of . . . 3 142 398 344 243 269 Bamboo, manufactures of . 10s 194 417 605 536 433. Buttons Toy Boards, for Tea Box ... . :; ~- — — 319 346 398 296 346 270 371 385 4'3. Tinned Provisions — — — 229 272 European Style Clothes Foot-Gears — z — — 299 133 504 272 Silk-Bedding Gold and Silver Ware ... . — - — — 63 98 158 181 "Silk Paper" Tissue Paper Willow Plaits •I -J — — — 370 244 440. 464 Wood Parings — — — 6S 37S Total 16,525 25,774 91,229 137,293 33,544 37,605 Principal Exports of Manufactured Goods. 389 As shown in the foregoing table the staple manufactured exports ■for 1885 numbered 35 comprising raw silk of all sorts, knitting- work, carpets, iron ware, bronze ware, copper ware, jinrikisha, furniture, glass ware, porcelain and earthenware, cloisonne ware, wall-paper, paper napkin, matches, leather, soap, beer and other liquors, soy, cigarettes, flour, umbrella, lacquered ware, fans, screens, ivory ware, wooden and bamboo ware, etc. The volume of export of all those goods did not exceed 16 million yen of which raw silk, ■contributed 13,000,000 yen, porcelain and earthenware 600,000 yen, lacquered ware 460,000, each of the rest occupying the level of less than 200,000 yen. In 1890 the new items of cotton yarns, ■ towels, cotton crepe, cotton flannel, Jiabiitaije silk, silk handkerchiefs, and straw-plait made their appearance, bringing up the total export of manufactured goods to 25 million yen, an increase of about 50 per cent, compared with that of 1885. Of that sum of 25 million?, raw silk occupied 13 millions, silk handkerchiefs 2,500,000 yen, matches 1,400,000 yen, porcelain and earthenware 1,200,000 yen, -lacquered ware 570,000 yen, fancy matting 340,000 yen, folding and round fans 330,000 yen. The export of silk handkerchiefs, to such extent while it was non-existent in 1885 is a noteworthy fact, and equally striking was the advance of the export of matches which did not exceed 60,000 y^-n, in the same year. The export ■of fancy matting to the extent of 350,000 yen is also worth noticing, inasmuch as fancy matting did not figure on the list of expert goods in 1885 or at best its export was really insignificant. The appe-aranee for the first time of cotton yarns on the list is also iiulicative of the progress of our manufactures. Coming down to 1895 we find that the total export had advanced to 91 million yen, an incred^se of 550 per cent, as against that of IS^o and 350 per cent, against that of 1890. I!aw isilk with 47 million yen continued to occupy the first rank on the list, followed by 8 millions of Jiabidaye, 5 millions of silk hand- kerchiefs, 4,600,000 yen of matches, 3,400,000 yen of fancy matting, 1,900,000 yen of porcelain and earthenware. The items that were ppecially conspicuous in 1895 were hahidaye and cotton yarn=, the export of tlie former amounting to abi.iut 810,000 yen in 1890 and that of tlie latter to only about 2,000 yen. In a similar Vt'ay the 390 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. advance of silk handkerchiefs, Jcaiki silk, matches and fancy matting was also great. In 1900 quite a large number of new items appeared on the list, as white cotton tissue, shirting, cloth, gassed ^aru goods, cotton blanket, clocks, lamps, copy-paper, match sticks, brush, toys, boards of tea-chest, etc. The total export reached the figure of 130 million yen, an increase of 830 per cent, against that of 1885, 520 against that of 1890, 50 per cent, against that of 1895. The principal items were raw silk with 44 million yen, cotton yarns with 20 millions, hahutaye with 17 millions, matches- with 5,700,000 yen, silk handkerchiefs with 4,300,000 yen, straw, plaits with 4,000,000 yen, fancy matting with 3 millions, porcelain and earthenware with 2,400,000, cotton piece goods with 1,700,000 yen, hides and leathers with 1,100,000, lacquered ware with 1 million, etc. The figures for cotton yarns and Imhutaye both of which practically began to go abroad from 1890 really striking. In 1902 the nine new items such as tinned provisions, European-style clothes, foot-gears, silk bed-clothes etc. began to figure on the export list which reached over 178J millions yen in value. This shows an increase of 18 fold compared with the total of 1885, of 6.9 fold' compared with that of 1890, 1.9 fold compared with that of 1895-, and 1.3 fold compared with that of 1900. The export items that reached over million yen each numbered 1.7 in 1902, these being aa follows :— silk, 76,850,000; habutaye silk, 24,680,000 yen; cotton fabrics, 19,900,000 yen; matches, 8,160,000 yen; fancy matting,, 6,770,000 yen; silk waste, 4,010,000 yen; silk handkerchiefs, 3,150,000 yen; straw-plaits, 2,930,000 yen; kaihi silk, 2,670,000 yen, etc. all in round numbers. The movement of those staple ex- ports and the ratio of their progress as compared with 1885 arfr thowa below : — Exports. 18S5. 1890. 1895. 1900. 1902. % % % % % KawSilk ... lOO.O 106.3 367.2 342-6 5S9.7 Habutaye — lOO.O 1,020.7 2,128.9 3,015.8- Cotton Tissues — lOO.O 43.759-7 870,950.2 841,824.1 Matches ... ICO.0 2,458-5 7,715-2 9,511.7 13,489.4 Fancy Matting ... lOO.O 37,170.2 370,200.0 354,015-2 724,331.1 Sillc Waste ... 100.0 243.6 327.6 692.0 869.0 Silk Handkerchief — loo.o 212.2 171.6 «-5i Principal Imports of Manufactured Goods. 'dMl Exports. i88s. i8go. % 1895. % 1900. % 1902. % Straw-plaits — lOO.O 1,5914 4,616.2 3,370.4 Kaiki silk — — 1 00.0 63.1 191.9 Earthenware and Porcelain... lOO.O 179.2 281.2 355S 354-1 Cigarettes lOO.O 237.8 3,204.0 19,800.2 60,5755 Nosh i Silk lOO.O 214.9 200.3 143-7 251-9 Shirtings — — — lOO.O 8ii6.S Beer and Liqours xoo.o 2,016.4 13.' 39-8 60,667.7 : 1,366,076.2 Cloth — — — lOO.O 237-4 Cotton Tissue, white — — — lOO.O 60.7 Umbrella — 6,579.2 42,719.8 50,028.2 RED G0( 60,309.5 Y. PKINCIPAT. IMPORTS OF MANUFACTU DD3. Position of manufactured Goods in Import Trade. — Next the movement of the principal import goods shall be described : — • TABLE SHOWING THE CLASSIFIED TOTAL VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL COMMODITIES. Manufactured. Agricultural. Fishery. Mining. Miscellaneous. Total. yen. yen. ym. yen. yen. yen. 1902... 103,340,163 128,019,666 2,011,487 4,589,359 33,358768 271,319,443 I90I... 112,861,302 98,961,390 1,184,828 6,791,320 35,486,436 255,473,276 1900... 141,975,874 93,800,279 2,184,846 6,684,205 41,943,218 286,588,42: 1899-.. 86,424,265 96,667,462 1,212,896 4,195,829 31,550,532 2i6,o5o,';84 1898... 122,444,710 112,754,614 609,736 3,728,106 3,7733.563 277,270,729 1890... 24,621,570 42,326,361 159,753 10 439,008 4,i23,C62 81,670,354 RELATIVE PERCENTAGE. 1902... 3-81 4.72 0.07 0.17 1.23 10.00 I90I... 4.42 387 0.05 0.27 1-39 10.00 1900... 4.96 3.27 0.08 0.23 1.46 10,00 1899... 3-93 4-39 0.06 0.19 1-43 10.00 1898... 4.42 4.07 0.02 0-I3 ■.36 10.00 1890... 3-02 5.18 0.02 1.28 0.50 10.00 It ■will be seen from the foregoing table that the import of manufactured goods amounted to 24,600,000 yen approximately in 1890, that is to say 30.2 per cent, of the total import against 51,8 per cent, of agricultural imports. The import of manufactured good^ rose in 1898 to about fivefold of that of 1890, with the ratio f 44.2 per cent, against 40.7 of agricultural goods. Further, in 1899 392 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. the amount of manufactured goods imported were about three and a half times the amount imported in 1890 with the ratio of about 39 per cent, against 42 of agricultural goods. In the following year the import of manufactured goods again rose to the level of 100 million yen and to over .570 per cent, of that of 1890, the ratio to the total volume being about 47 per cent, against 32 of agricultural goods. In 1901 the ratio of manufactured goods, out of the total import, occupied 44 per cent, against 38 of agricultural goods, while coming to the next year the relative proportion was reversed, the former corresponding to 38 per cent, and the latter 47 per cent, of the total volume of import. Principal Impokt Items of Manufactured Goods. - Now the import of foreign commodities increases as a rule with the purchas- ing power of a nation, but it alone cannot prove the condition of industry in the country in question. Nevertheless a careful exami- nation of the movement of imports into our country tends to confirm the progress of our manufacturing industry, seeing that while the import of raw materials, machinery, etc. is increasing that of goods of Special sorts is declining or at best making very slow progrBss. The following table of imports will go to prove this jsoint :— PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OF MANUFACTURED GOODS. (unit of thousand). 1S85. 1890. 1895. 1900. 1901. 190Z. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. Cotton yarn 5.«9o 9,928 7,082 7,043 4,873 1,747 Cotton threads 9 59 328 333 344 359 Flax or linen yarns 3 79 708 324 100 301 Woolen and worsted yarns of all kind ; 10 494 951 1,798 866 922 Shirtings, gray 1.233 1,716 3.071 5,558 2,981 5,070 Shirtings, white 98 225 505 1,325 575 1,191 Turkey -red cambrics 430 366 418 424 189 302 Shirtings twilled and Cottonl drills 1 151 137 577 435 142 223 Victoria lawns 8 53 133 381 180 262 Cotton prints 208 478 383 2,002 6S0 2602 *Cotton flannels — — — 444 234 704 Cotton satins and Italians ... >o3 231 794 3,662 1,684 1,788 Cotton velvets 339 382 486 864- 453 1,231 Handkerchiefs, cotton 38 138 204 367 107 94 i88s. 1890. 1895- 1900. 1901. 1902. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. — — — 984 379 631 — — 921 1,120 601 1,181 26 63 119 1,162 376 242 474 1,056 3,120 5,403 2,219 3,430 287 927 961 917 313 487 906 2,784 3.633 7,364 3,339 3,754 207 572 1,569 393 78 123 31 24 78 134 122 84 78 345 431 773 1,095 965 Principal Imports of Mainijactured Ooods. 393 '*Plush or velvets, silk andl cotton f Italian cloth ■Serges Woolen cloth (cotton-woolenl cloth included) J Flannels Muslin de laine Blankets Pongee Steam boilers and engines . . . Electric motor and Electric^ light apparatus or instru-J- — 501 311 726 979 1,323 ments } Spinning Looms Sewing Paper making Printing machines Fire-engines and pump Implements and tools of farm-l ers and mach ines ( "Watch accessories *Walch movements and fit- tings Clocks *Carriages, bicycles and tri-\ cycles J "^"en^er?"'^^^'' '^'''''^'' ''^'"i ^^ ^35 ^^3 "' "^ '^^ "Cars or waggons, railway! freight I Locomotive-engines Vessels, steam Photographic apparatus Zinc, sheet Lead, sheet Ear and rod, iron Sheet iron Tinned plate or sheet Rails Nails, iron Pipes and tubes, iron ■Copper tubes } - 151 1,065 1,896 809 1,279 700 4 127 246 232 420 94 16 14 51 240 161 191 4 28 48 476 379 224 5 39 96 III 126 93 35 43 155 374 281 209 25 43 84 263 277 259 4 17 99 464 353 238 — — — 459 426 259 295 1,027 993 916 603 325 — — — 521 540 856 — I -3 99 804 793 695 93 659 ',163 1,089 1,749 1,708 636 732 4,700 2,648 2,565 1,488 I 35 116 260 239 266 48 268 500 882 700 1,078 15 60 44 174 118 61 296 830 2,085 5,243 3,5" 3,519 192 417 1,104 6,245 3,293 4.399 49 33 313 832 8S4 797 497 1,259 925 4,753 1,612 1,652 414 693 1,278 2,lSl 1,364 1,451 19 166 604 2,981 1,591 1,073 14 29 105 219 264 221 394 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Brass tubes Glass Cement Paper, printing Other European paper ... Card-board Rice-paper Imitation Japanese paper Imitation Japanese " Silk- paper" Wrapping paper *Pulp for making paper Hides or skins, bull, ox, cow,l and buffalo / Leather Oil, kerosene *Oil, lubricating .. Paraffin wax Caouchouc, manufactures of.. India rubber *Celluloid Cork , Cokes Soap Soda, caustic Soda-ash Potash, chlorate of Acid, salicylic , Glycerine *Soda, bicarbonate of , Phosphorus, amorphous Dynamite Aniline dyes , Alizarine dyes Logwood extract Paint Wines and all other liqoars.,, Alcohol Sugar, refined Sugar, half-refined Tobacco Flours Condensed milk Hats and Caps Mats, packing , Total Note : — In the table the figures marked with a quantity of which was unknown previous then adopted in compiling the returns. 1885. ycji, 19 163 33 24 5S } - 3°S 412 1,667 6 32 13 6 10 30 119 30 II 18 12 19 142 49 121 2,509 2,144 II 102 50 134 66 1890. yen. 17 394 •75 413 158 243 652 4.95° 107 99 23 19 5 51 145 182 9< 28 39 89 70 349 39 99 480 "3 S.436 2,974 214 229 177 348 80 i;95- yen. 107 426 42 307 477 igoo. igoi. 695 1,590 4.303 266 222 82 59 90 66 234 419 285 59 102 260 231 682, 192 218 292 821 440 7,673 4,074 491 413 139 82 148 yen. 242 1,149 120 2,036 806 455 656 2,085 14,162 624 S" 332 208 442 302 3'4 24.2 929 482 679 167 89 153 244 187 1,328 156 321 286 680 132 15.598 11,007 S85 3,882 663 411 221 yen. 201 i,39S 63 864 813 330 156 277 43 196 205 786 1,347 14.943 308 449 162 Z22 383 258 157 174 468 450 585 140 275 174 237 290 884 136 179 3" 69S 169 21,111 12,381 121 2,897 641 341 241 1902. yen. •Sr 1,836. 28. 1,402 1,184 351 475 19& 317 36J 813 1,346^ 14,937 324- 452 223 277 27s 143 103 366 787 519 78s '55^ 186 156. 296- 267 1.653^ 170 363. 261 69s 201 5.589- 8,878 99S 3,302: 863 232 259 21,687 47,426 69,960 141,237 112,861 103,340 star (*) denote those goods the exact to 1900, owing to the different method Principal Imports of Manufactured Goods. 395 (^).— PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL GOODS RELATING TO INDUSTRY. (unit of thousand). Kind. Cotton Rice Oil-cake Beans, Peas and Palse Indigo, Dry Flax, Hemp, Jute and China| Grass Eggs, Fresh Wool 18S5. 1890. 1895. 1900. I90I. China) Pig Bristle and Hair, otherl animal J Malt Timbers, Lumbers, Boards and) Planks / Seeds, Cotton Cocoons Seeds, sesame Lacquer Tusser Silk Yarns Ivory or Tusks, Elephant yen. 809 674 21 92 61 20 21 75 24 yen. S.36S 12,302 194 1,856 201 139 31 369 •5 27 4 9 65 yen. 24,822 4,357 946 2,554 S81 64s 95 1,136 58 159 60 145 yen. 59,471 9,201 5,696 4,817 3,902 1,700 1,243 3,919 216 619 869 739 618 194 237 351 180 yen. 60,650 11,878 8,115 5,328 2,665 1,370 1,298 4,127 260 765 709 571 342 284- 46 433 112 1902. yen. 79,74« 17,750 10,121 6,785 3,097 1,602 1,196 3,397 294 330 755 787 546 426 21 955 163 Total 1,960 20,583 35,674 93,800 98,961 128,019 (^).— PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OF MARINE PRODUCTS, (unit of thousand). Kind. 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. igoi. 1902. Salted Fish yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. — 5 107 2,184 1,404 2,011 Total 5 J07 2.184 1,404 2,on S96 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Kind. (Cj.— PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OF MINERALS, (uuit of thousand). 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. Coal Pig and Ingot, Iron Steel Zinc, Block, Ingot and Slab Lead, Pig, Ingot and Slab Tin, Block, Ingot and Slab Mercury Salt Total yen. 85 105 176 20 16 32 33 I 472 yen. no 185 194 69 85 69 102 2 yen, 853 673 503 134 313 191 141 3 2,100 926 1,153 686 927 473 258 1901. yen. 2,542 1,593 694 230 876 530 218 75 1902. yen. 1,598 982 660 255 510 501 244 237 821 2,815 6,684 6,761 4,589 ifl. OUTPUT OF PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURED GOODS. Output of Peincipal Manufactured Goods. — The industry in whicli machinery was used, was till about 1887, in a com- paratively insignificant state, but it became active two or three years after, and finally received a powerful impetus after the Japan-China war. Appended is a table of the output of our principal manufact- ured commodities during the last five years : — (unit of thousand). Kind. 1896. 1S97. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. f kwan. kwan. kwan. k-,vait. kwan. kwan. Silk, Raw 1 1,442 1,537 IA79 1,754 1-755 1,750 \ yen. yen. yen. yen. ven. ven. I - — — 110,972 86.233 86,'b23 Silk Yarns, Spinned 740 1,842 2,846 4,233 4,296 — Cotton Yarns, Spinned 39,455 50,634 56,285 81,620 73,619 94,562 Hemp and Hempen Yarn — — — 2,473 — — Silk Fabrics 54,095 63,678 73,936 90,717 83,468 76,941 Silk Tissues, Habutae 15,232 17,683 21,523 29,528 25,819 30,003 Silk Tissues, .ffazij 3,614 5,091 5,049 6,343 7,484 4,402 Silk Tissues, Chirimm (Sill crepes) '} 8,412 9,102 8,286 ",499 9,379 7,829 Others 26,836 3l,8co 39,077 43,345 40,784 34,706 Cotton Fabrics 39,oSo 42,253 48,728 52,857 61,326 49,935 Cotton Tissues, Flannel 7,350 7,718 9,089 8,893 9,720 S,2JO Cotton Tissues, Chijimi (Cot ton crfipes) .. ..' ■ 1,405 1,450 1,316 2,667 2,476 1,66s Cotton Tissues White 9,:4) I0,25l 14.5" 12,309 15,089 13,030 Others 20,373 22,823 23,811 28,985 34,040 27,010 Output of Principal Manufactured Goods. 397 (unit of 1 thousand). Kind. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. yen. yen. yeii. yen. yen. yen. Silk-Cotton Fabrics •■ 9.131 11,723 16,216 18,546 20,275 18,056 Hempen Fabrics .. 1,636 2,903 2,967 3,161 2,851 3.345 Woolen Fabrics .. 1,094 1,039 1,65s 3,384 5,034 5,083 Woolen and Worsted Cloths . — — — — — — Woolen and Worsted Tissues. — 99 123 254 — — Flannel, etc 160 122 179 393 — — Muslin de Laine — 53 54 1,064 — — Others 934 764 1,299 16,711 — — Miscellaneous Fabrics ... . — — — 549 — 233. Carpets, Hemp, Cotton Wool ."} 965 1,090 1,073 1,046 — — Silk Handkerchiefs 717 4,345 4.055 4,318 — — Knitting ■"l 293 1.457 1,661 518 1,326 — ■ — Machineries, etc - 9,370 3,730 1,971 4,17s — — Ships and Boats — — — 4,651 — — . Japanese Junks — — — 1.S24 — — Steamships — — — 2,648 — — . Others — — — 479 — — _ Clocks 676 722 765 1,190 — — Jinrikisha — 443 454 367 — — Bronze and Copper Ware 924 1,130 1,194 1,383 1,106 1,714 Porcelain and Earthen ware ... 5,205 5.163 4,965 5,867 6,873 6,935. Shippoki ... 270 219 191 31S — — Glass-Ware i — ••■\ 1,481 1,118 1,341 1,400 92 ' — — Cement, Portland • •• 1,35° 2,284 2,160 2,372 — — Brick 1,446 1,827 1,158 598 — — Paper .-. 13.053 15,268 15.293 16,640 20,986 19,791 European Paper - 2,745 3,006 2,901 4.947 7,001 7,140 Japanese Paper ... 10,308 12,261 12,392 11,992 13,985 i2,6;o Leather or Hide •■■ L 2,715 994 855 1,544 49 2,392 200 2,566 9,266 Matches — 5.464 6,548 6,445 5.871 5,886 — Oil, Kerosene - — — 1,556 — — Sulphate of Potash 65 198 260 — — — Phosphate of Soda — — — 867 — — Sulphuric acid — — — 559 — — Soap 244 933 893 794 — — Sake ... 58,723 73,3«8 83,691 108,328 — — Beer ... 636 642 809 2,809 — — Soy ... 10,900 14,616 13,938 23,782 — — i!'J8 Japem in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Sugar White Shiro-shita Brown 756 391 352 134 116 251 >» » I) Black 4,858 4,406 9,522 3,442 3,946 2,676 Tobacco, Manufactured 8, no 16 719 23,123 14c, 651 — 1 349 3,999 — — — 835 1,303 2,310 5,528 _ _ 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 190 1. kwan. kwan. kwan. yen. yen. yen. 12,642 10,550 14,527 5,662 6,216 5,207 418 473 786 571 49S 560 3» >» n 6,608 4,278 3,866 1,513 i,6j5 1,719 Cigars l. Tobacco Cut \ ~ '^'337 ^^'°^i lobacco.Cut I ^_2^^ ^^jj ^^g Flour ... { 135,1^2 — 295 432 — 552 152 102 1,235 Fans, Folded and Round -j , , ,^ , ' I 1,079 1,457 1,323 13 — — Brushes — 6S9 828 493 — Straw-Plaits 1,563 1,693 1,948 2,752 2,926 2,516 Lacquered Ware 3,295 4,io6 4,885 5,640 6,284 5,768 Hats and Caps | ^^ J^S 210 ~^ Z. ~ Umbrellas, European 3,980 2,270 2,284 2,918 Matting for Floor (/^K(Zj-<;3«)... 2,183 3,217 2,090 2,460 3,039 4960 In examining the foregoing table it is found that woven goods •with the total value of 150 million yen comes at the top of the list, followed by cotton yarns with 94 millions, raw silk with 86 milions, and paper with 19 millions. Other commodities worth mentioning are sugar, earthenware, matches, lacquered ware, ships and boats, machines of all sorts, cement, glass ware, fancy matting, straw-plait umbrella, bronze and copper ware, etc. Manufacturing EstabliahmenU. 393 CHAPTER m— Organization of Manu- facturing Industry, Manufacturing Establishments — Factories and Workpeople. I. MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS. General Keview of the Pkogkess. — The introduction of Western sciences and arts has revolutionized so to say the organiza- tion of our manufacturing industry, for besides imparting a powerful impulse to its development it has gradually modified many of our manufactures that formerely partook of the nature of domestic industry and caused them to gradually adopt the factory system including the use of elaborate machinery. This tendency has been especially marked since the Japan-China War, when our economic affairs reached a state of unparalleled activity and when factories and work- shops on a large scale began to make their appearance in quick succession. Number of Workshops. — The number of workshops employ- ing not less than 10 workpeople and of manufucturing companies is as follows : — No. of Workshops. Year. 1900... 1899... 1898... 1897... With Motor. 3,381 2,763 2,003 1,971 1,967 Without Motor. 3,791 3,788 4,067 4,346 4,403 Total. 7,172 6,551 6,070 6,317 6,370 Ratio of No. ot Companies to Companies. Workshops. 2,554 2,253 2,164 1,881 1,367 36% 34?^ 36 ?» 35?» 400 Japt the Begianiucj of the 2Qth Century, It will be seen from the above that the ratio which manufac- turing companies bear to workshop economy made a marked advance, having increased during the period under review from 21 to 36. The ratio will become higher if all the workshops belonging to one company are counted as one, for there are many companies each possessing more than one workshop. Number of Manufacturing Companies. — The number of manufacturing companies and their financial position are shown as follows : — NUMBER OF MANUFACTURING COMPANIES. Year. No. Aggregate Capital. Paid up Capital. Reserves. igoi ... 2,477 219,249,806 166,293,003 24,057,360 I9CX3 - 2,554 216,766,903 158,851,730 17,697,540 1899 - 2,253 222,673,634 147,783,280 13,467,802 1898 ... 2,164 183,657,056 122,066,653 II,6^2,993 1897 ... 1,881 165,232,633 105,381,106 7,581,535 1896 ". 1,367 143.617,530 89,900,900 7,404,980 Manufacturing Companies Classified. — Those companies be- ing classified according to kind, in the year 1900 joint stock companies numbered 986 with gross capital of 180 million yen, limited liability companies 1,176 with gross capital of 21 million yen and unlimited liability companies 315 with gross capital of 10 million yen. Paid up capital amounted to 130 million for the joint stock companies, 19 million yen, for the limited liability companies, and 10 million yen for the unlimited lia;bility companies. Of the capital invested in manufacturing business, that of joint stock constituted about 84 per cent. Of late the establishment of limited liability companies has become quite popular, as may be seen from the fact that their number in 1900 was more than double that of 1896. On the other hand the increase for joint stock companies did not exceed 68 per cent, during the same period. Below is given a list show- ing capital invested in their respective work by different kinds of companies. Manvfachtring Edahlbshments. 401 CLASSIFIED LIST OF MANUFACTURING COMPANIES (returns for 1901). Rice Cleaning Milling Sake Beer Soy and Miso Salt Sugar-Refining Tea-Manufacturing Medicine Indigo Dye-Stuff and Paint C&tton Cotton Spinning Other Spinning Raw Silk Throwning Hemp-Yarn Tapes, Bands, etc Silk-Weaving Weaving Cotton- Weaving Wool-Weaving Knitting Dyeing and Bleacliing Copper and Iron Ware ... Nails and Iron Ware Machineries, etc Shipbuilding Casting Tools and Implements ... Vehicles Railroad Cars and Wagons Weight and Measures Clocks and Watches Porcelain and earthenware Glass W^are Gas-Work Printing and Type Foundry Parjer-iJ.ll (unit of thousand). No. of Capital, Total Capital Re- Companies. Sum of. Paid up. serves. yen. yen. yen. 122 2,70s 1,534 235 27 ■898 556 48 217 6,624 4,364 220 7 4.150 2,967 826 74 1.793 1,277 72 19 550 236 35 6 3.688 2,648 S-o 6 369 227 29 52 3.865 3,ic6 243 7 36 36 537 6 598 259 12 25 562 442 30 ss 41,593 36,108 5,655 12 7,583 6,30:: 643 321 7.723 5,635 376 II 1.531 7-9 48 6 2,805 2,435 3' 9 179 149 2 42 1,341 968 26 54 2,796 2,187 15' 64 5.154 3.469 252 4 2. 1 10 1,563 68 5 637 j"9 7 41 579 3S1 20 16 1,304 731 47 6 600 551 4 3.> 1.005 780 53 15 10,394 8,710 846 8 61 60 2 33 723 536 66 6 104 73 I 5 2,650 2, 171 38 18 276 186 8 9 708 607 9 40 907 6ii 19 IS 582 352 36 4 4.762 S,^i^ 248 108 2,161 1,678 200 42 9,064 7,688 621 402 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. No. of Companies. Vermicelli and Maccaroni 13 Ice 22 Lemonade 29 Confectionary 13 Preserved Fruits and Meat I J Provisions 7 Marine Products 11 Tobacco 155 Umbrellas and Parts of S Fans ••• 7 Writing Brushes, Lead Pencils, etc... 7 Leather and Leather Ware 13 Candle-Making 5 Cords and Ropes 7 Kerosene-Boring 71 Coal-Mining 27 Cokes 3 (lils 25 Mats 13 Straw-Plaits 4 Safety-Matches 32 Incense-Sticks 5 ruses 3 Sowing 30 Lacquer-Ware 12 Bobbins 3 Bamboo-Ware 10 Caps and Hats 6 Soaps and Toilet Goods 8 Tiles and Bricks 64 Cement 21 Cokes 6 Coal 29 Clay 4 Quarrying II S^Ik and Re-reeling 21 Cocoon Preserving 28 India-Rubber Ware 5 Fertilizers 19 Others 88 Capital, Total Sum of. yen. 40 1,112 295 431 312 38 146 12,189 201 8o 82 932 180 579 16,843 9,113 67 1,608 lOI 84 675 15 13 634 277 138 123 676 67 3,354 5,215 1,014 321 203 281 96 714 63s 1,495 10 '86 Capital Paid up, yen. 27 635 1 72 232 137 21 III 11,245 154 46 31 679 180 489 6,285 6,828 32 1,045 63 54 524 15 II 495 199 125 87 543 51 2,216 4,22.1 716 262 190 150 91 415 320 981 10,214 Re- serves. yen. 522 44 14 841 6 ;8t S 139 70 I 350 70 29 167 734 583 16 233 5 19 212 "5 37 2 6 5 58 S J75 265 58 II 6 9 I 3 21 154 8,637 Total 2,4«3 219,249 166,293 26,550 Fadories ojid Workpeople. 403 Manufacturixo .T>*dusthtes and Investments. — To examiHe "the condition of all those establishments as to kind of busine=!s entfaged n and the amount of capital invested, it is found tliat filature h««iness with 321 eet-ablishments surpasses all others as to number, rf)l lowed by sake brewing -with 217 and tobacco manufacture with 155. As to amount of capital, the otton spinning busina«s with 41 million yen heads the list, followed by tobacco manufacture with 12,100,090 yen approximately, shipbuilding with 10,300,000 4/ew. In the amount of jiaid up capital, the aoinTiinq; business with 36 million yen abo comes at the top, followed bv the tobacco manufac- ture with 11 millions. The capital of 11,400,000 yen invested in the veaving business and that of 7,700,000 yen in the filature business may also be regirJad »s being an important factor in our economic activity. II. FACTORIES AND WORKPEOPLE, (A.) FACTOEIES. KlNB OF FACTORIES AND NuMBER OF WORKPEOPI^E. — The number of factories and workpeople employed will throw an important light on the condition of manufecturing industry. In 1900 the number of factories and work-shops employing not Ima than ten workpeople stood thus : — THOSE RUN BY MOTORS. Workp^oo'e. Year ,„^?- C^ \^'"- ?* J"^-"" Males. Females. Total. ^ Workshop. Plant. Power. l,Sg6 1,967 5,335 58,172 104.164 T6q7,:i5 273,889 1897 1,971 5,446 68,331 I17.0S1 174,154 291,235 1898 2,003 5-I-15 80,586 118,251 171,09^ 289,246 T899 2,763 4,166 62,131 96,181 184.111 280,292 1900 3,-3Si 4,727 84,816 100,913 181,692 282,605 THOSE NOT RUN BY MOTORS. ' 1896 4403 — — 64.122 76,509 104,631 1597 4.346 — — 66,777 82,554 i^9,.33i 1598 4,067 — — 58,224 81,328 J3%SSi T899 3,788 — — 41,938 70,679 112617 1900 3,791 — — 41.643 64,048 105,691 4C4 Japan in the B&Qinvhifj of fite 20f/i Century. On examining the foregoing table it will be seen that the number of workshops run by nK)tors is slightly larger than that of those not run by motors, the former cJorrespondiiig to about 47 per cent, of the latter. The utilization or absence of motors tlL-pcnelis of course to a great extent on the nature of manufaerure condactwl, f)i- while in waving business, manufa^ure of eartlicnwa-je and laccjiicr ware, and the brewing of sake the workshops do not utilizu in general labor-saving machines, motors are used in most cases in filature spinning, shipbuilding, machine-makhig, weaving of shirting, cement, paper-mills, beer-brewing, sugar-rcliuiiig, printing, smelting, etc. Five Classes of Factories. — To give further analyse alout factories and workshops, they may be broadly divided into these live different kinds :■ — 1. Fibre workshops (raw silk, spinning, weaving, cord-making), 2. Machine workshops (machine-making, shipbuilduig, f'urui- ture-making, casting.) 3. Chemical workshops (ceramics, gas, paper-mill, lacquering, leather-making, workshops for the manufacture of inuam- niable substances, artificial manures, drugs, etc.) 4. Miscellaneous worlishoj^s (brewing, sugar-refining, tolxiccn- manuf'acture, tea-curing, cleaning of grains, fiour, lemoniidf. mineral water, confectionary, preserved fruits and vegetaLio', printing and lithograph, paper work, Avood and lianiboo ware, leather, feather ware, reeds and straw-plait ware, lacquer ware, etci) 5. Special workshops (electricity and metallurgy.) Of the foregoing kings of workshops, those in the fibre line using motors number 2,300 with the aggregate horse powei-s of about 38,000 and the aggregate number of workpeople of about 189,000. In number the fibre workshops constiuted 77 per cent, of the whole number of workshops using motors, in horse-power about 45 per cent, and in workpeople about 67 per cent. "When those fibre workshops not using motor powers are counted in, this kind, of workshops constitutes 57 per cent, of the whole num- ber of workshops. The forgoing ratio will be seen fioni the ap- pended table: — Faetories and Workpeople. 405 W. RUN BY MOTORS. Fibre Machine Chemical Miscellaneous Special Total ... Fibre Machine Chemical Miscellaneous.. Special No. of Workshop. •■ 2,393 230 224 420 114 Horse Power. 38,571 5,050 12,672 8,196 20,223 No. of Workpeople. 189,180 25,502 13,743 21,862 32,318 . ... 3,381 84,712 282,605 NOT RUN BY MOTORS. No. of Workshop. No. of Workpeople •■, 1,763 44,978 184 4,228 701 24,744 1,041 26,827 102 4,914 Total 3.791 105,691 FiBKE WORKSHOPS. — Fibre workshops as classified according to kind the following result is obtained : — A. RUN BY MOTORS. No. of Horse No. of Workshop. Power. Workpeople. Raw Silk ... 2,1^9 7,288 109,336 Spinning 153 25.437 63,38& Weaving 96 5.557 15,389 Others 15 2,393 289 1,067 Total ... 38,571 189,180 £. NOT RUN BY MOTORS. No. of Works lop. No. of Workpeople Raw Silk Spinning Weaving Otheri ;:: ::; ::: ::: i 429 29 ,279 26 9,468 645 33,967 898 Total 1,763 44,97s The foregoing table shows that in fibre workshops filatures run by motors constitute 88 per cent, of the whole number, and spinning mills 6.3 per cent., the two taking up 94 per cent, of the whole. Even in the whole number of motor-using workshops of all kinds, these two particular fibre workshops constitute 64 per cent, and Gl per 40G Japan in the Beginning oj the 20I7S Filatures 763 Spinning 223 Weaving 2,983 Others 205 Machinery 3.57° Machine-Making 5^3 Shipbuilding 66S Vehicles 141 Others 2,198 Chemical 11,467 Porcelain and Earthenware . . . 2,388 Glass Ware 1,123 Cement 2,769 Paper-mills 593 Leather 226 Matches ',942 Others 2,426 Jliscellaneous I4,59S Ere\very 5,513 Tobacco... 1,448 Printing ',676 Reed and Straw-Plaits 1,338 Lacquer- Ware 1 58 Others 4.465 Special Workshops 3,9°! Smelting 3,9o' Others — Total 37,710 Under 14 Over 14 Years old. Years old. 89S II 46 7S3 58 213 12 no 4 87 1,873 136 206 123 131 1,197 80 859 22 69 439 51- 6 269 90 go 3,933 35,oSo 8,oSi 313 26,264 422 3"4 143 2 177 7,882 5S9 79 537 516 5,684 477 9,59 « 95 4,775 98 2,127 6 2,490 8S7 8S7 Under 14 \'ears old. 4,826 613 63 3,937 213 121 3,52 40 31 102 3. 'So 169 1,779 3 714 56 584 422 36 35 Total. 44,97s 946S 64S 33,967 89S 4,228 575 1,023 147 2,48> 24,744 3,153 1,408 3,460 1,342 22& 12,003. 3," 52 26,827 5,633 7,oo& 2,269 4,103 170 7,64& 4,914 4,914 53,764 10,284 105,691 D.VY AND Boarding Opekatives.- -Operatives may further be divided into two kinds, day operatives and boarding operatives, the former residing in the vicinity of the worlvsliops which they attend and the latter those who have been collected from distant places, the majority of them being females. Though the relative proportion of day operatives and boarders in workshops cannot admit of generali- zation, it may be stated here that the greater part of the latter Worlcpeople, 411 belongs to fibre worksliops, or more especially filatures, spinning and ■weaving ivorkshops. In some filature and spinning ^vorkshops the majority of operatives are day operatives, ■while in weaving shops about 70 to 80 per cent, are boarders, and this datum obtained from ■workshops of certain places may be applied in general to -workshops of the same kind throughout the country. Age and Sex Classificatiox of Opekativej fou Special Kind of WoEKSiiors. — No accurate statcn'cnt r,s to ihe age of the majority of operatives employed in any given kind of \vorkshops can easily bo elaborated, but broadly stated the greater part of opera- tives in filature factories are females of 16 to 22 years of age, the number of those from 22 to 30 coming next. Even -the youngest are very rarely below 1 2 or 13. In general, females of from 14 or 20 constitute 50 per cent., those above 20 about 40 per cent., and those below 14 about 10 per cent, of the total number of operatives eni]iloyed. In spinning mills also girls below 14 constitute a little over 10 per cent, of the whole number, those from 14 to 20 about 50, and those older about 40 per cent., of whom the majority are of 20 to 25 years old. The female operatives in power-loom factories do not differ from those of spinning mills in regard to the age ratio, and those in hand-weaving workshops are similar to those in' filatures. In shipbuilding, vehicle and machine workshops the workpeople employed are almost exclusively adult males, especially in those run on a large scale. Even when boys are employed they are mostly not less than 15 or 16 years of age and in very rare cases 12 or 13. In factories dealing in clock and watches, lamp accessories, .shirt-buttons, umbrella-frames, etc., female operatives and children are sometimes employed, but those factories are all on a small scale, and the number of such operatives is small. In chemical workshops, and especially in glass factories boy apprentices of 12 to 13 years are employed to some extent. In some rare cases small number of boy -apprentices of about 10 years old is employed. In paper-mills not a small number of females and children is employed, while in match factories they constitute the bulk of workpeople, the youngest of whom being about 9 years old. This is also the case in tobacco factories^ though the number of c'lildren under 10 employed in such 412 Japan in the Beginning of the 20iA. Century. factories is smaller than the number employed in match factories. In printing workshops the majority are adult males, sometimes with a sprinkling of children of less than 14 years old. WoEKiXG-IIour.s. — In general, the working-hours of operatives are 11 hours a day, but sometimes they extend as long as 16 or 17 hours. In cotton mills 12 hours are standard, both for day and night workers, they being made to take day and night work by turns every two days. In filatures the regulations hours are 13 to 14, in power-loom factories 12. But in hand-weaving workshops a great diversity prevailes, the general rule being 12 to 15, according to the season, thougli in some rare cases the hours are as long as from 16 or 17. lu bigger workshops such as shipbuilding yards, vehicle, and machine shops, the working hours are far more regular, being in general 10 hours, with one or two hours of overtimes. In such chemical workshops as cement, glass, and paper in which wo^k is carried on all through the 24 hours, 12 hours is a regular shift both by day and night. In general the regular working-hours in Japanese workshops may be put at 12, with overtime of one or two hours. Wages. — Wages arc paid in general by the day and according to the amount of work done, though payment by the month also prevails to some extent. In general the account is settled once or twice a month, thougli in soti'.b cases it is settled every six months or once a year. In filature the payment is made according to the amount of work done, and by the month, though in some places a yearly account system prevails. In cotton mills those who receive daily wages constitute about 40 per cent, of the whole and those who receive payment according to the amount of work done, about 60 per cent. The latter mode of payment is becoming more and more fashionable. The account is settled generally twice a month. In hand-weaving workshops the mode of payment is similar to that which prevails in filature, while in power-loom workshops it is similar to that in cotton mills. In such machine workshops as shipbuilding, vehicle and machine, daily payment of wages is general, but at times a piece of work is given out as a job contract to one or more artisans. The account is settled once or twice a month. In match workshops payment is made according to the amount of work done, Workpeople. 413 as is also the case in tobacco ■workshops, ^v]l^o in printing -worksliops the daily wage system and the payment by the amount of work done equally prevail. In general this latter mode is adopted in all those workshops where the amount of work done by workpeopb can be definitely computed. The rate of wages is about 30 sen a day for adult males em- ployed in such fibre workshijis as filature, cotton mills and weaving- shops, while that of females is about 20 sen. In machine workshops engaged in making ships, vehicles and machines the rate is generally high, 50 to 60 on an average, and a skilled artisan gets more than 1 yen. In match factories, on the other hand, the rate is much lower, being 12 to 20 sen for ordinary female operatives, and 5 to 13 sen for little girls. In tobacco factories and printing-shops ordi- nary females get about 20 sen and males about 40 to 50 sen. 414 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 2(Hh Century, CHAPTER IV.— Manufacturing Establishments by the Central and Local Governments. Encouragement and Protection by Central GoKeramcnt — Enoaaragemont and Protection by OflSces. I. ENCOURAGEMENT AND PROTECTION BY CENTRAL GOVERNMENT. General Remarks. — The encouragement and protection of industrial eiiterprises were carefully looked after even before the Restoration. This was especially the ease with the three daimiates of Satsuma, Mito and Saga. They established in the era of -Ka-^ (1848-1853) an arsenal after a Western model, and began to turn out guns of foreign pattern. Satsuma even started the manufacture of porcelain and glass-ware and also the work of Introduction, shipbuilding, all after the Dutch model, while coming of Western down to the era of Bunkyu (1861-1863) we find that Industries. it sent for a set of spinning machines to England, and established a pioneer mill in its territories. The construction of a shipyard on Ishikawajima by the Lord of Mito ?s also a noteworthy event. Nor did the Tokugawa Shogunate neglect to introduce a similar innovation. In fact the shipbuilding industry received from it full attention. During the era of Ansei (1854-1859) it constructed a shipyard at Aku-ura, Hizen, and a similar undertak- ing was soon arranged at Yokosuka, Sagami, only the Restoration took place before it had been completed. This partially completed shipyard was finished by the Meiji Government which in 1874 constructed another shipyard at Tategami, Hizen. The Yokosuka yard was afterward transferred to the Navy which has since raised it to its present state of efficiency and perfection. The two shipyards in Hizen were hired out to the Mitsubishi Firm in 1884 and finally sold to it three years after, so that the two are now Encouragement and Protection by Central Government, 415 known by the name of Nagasaki Shipbuilding Yard belonging to the same firm. The movement started by the Tokugawa and feudal princes by way of encouraging industry and manufactures was vigorously taken up by the Meiji Government. It established in 1872 a model filature at Tomioka, Gumma-ken, with the object of introducing the use of labor-saving contrivance in the manufacture of raw silk, while the operatives trained at this factory spread all Model over the principal silk districts the art of reeling to Pilature the new style. The filature itself supplied a model to all silk districts and similar establishments rose in quick succession. An undertaking next adopted by the Government in a similar line was the establishment in 1877 at Shimmachi, Gumma- ken, of a silk spinning mill to utilize silk waste ahd waste cocoons. This innovation also served the salutary purpose of encouraging similar enterprises on the part of private individuals. Woolen Further, in a similar way, a woollen factory was Factory. established in the same year at Senju, suburb of Tokyo, and ten years after private woollen factories began to make their appearance in several places. The cotton spinning business also received the attention of the Govern- Spinning Mill- ment which established in 1881 a model mill at Nukada-gun, Aichi-ken, and Aki-gun, Hiroshima-ken. About that time 10 sets of spinning plant each of 2,000 spindles were sent for to England and handed over to be paid in ten years instalments to people of different places who were interested in the business. The project that appeared in 1883 in Shiga-ken about hemp spinning received help from the Government which loaned to the promoters the fund required for purchasing a plant. Hemp Three years later this project developed as Hemp Spin- Spinning, uing Mill established in that province. The establishment of the Hokkkaido Hemp Company at Sapporo in 1887 received much help from the Government which besides extending to it various conveniences also granted a state aid for six years. Further, it was the Government that first started the work of manufacturing cement, having established in 1875 a cement fae^L^ tory at Fukagawa, Tokyo, where the burning of white brick 41G Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Contury, Caxent. was undertaken as a subsidiary work. Then the establish- ment of a glass factory in April 1876 at Shinagawa, Tokyo ; the creation of a paper-mill section in the Printing Bureau and the manufacture of foreign style paper besides Glass Factory, the improvement of the native style paper (the durable Japanese paper known as " Kyokushi " is the invention of the Bureau) ; launching of the work of machine- making, of soap-making, type-founding, of making Paper 11.11. porcelain in the Western style, of paint-making, also the establishment, as before mentioned, of filatures and the making of arrangements for training female operatives in all such new forms of industry — all these have imparted a poweful impulse to the progess of our manufactures throughout the country. Meanwhile factories modelled after those established by the Govern- ment began to be started by our people, and the Govcrnmen no longer perceiving the necessity of maintaining its model factories began from about 1880 to sell all of them with the exception cf the Senju Woollen Factory. As a means of encouraging the advance of industry and rcanu- facturo, the Government has not neglected to open exhibitions at home and to participate in those opened abroad. In Exhibitions. 1878 First Domestic Exhibition was held in Tokyo where the succeeding two similar undertakings were also ca,rried out. The Fourth Exhibition opened in 1895 was held in Kyoto and the Fifth in Osaka last year. Besides, Japan participated in the world's fairs held in Vienna, Philadelphia, Chicago and Paris, not to speak of various other international exhibitions of limited scope. ■ In the matter of legislative measures of protecting and further- ing industrial interest, the regulations relating to patents, d, signs and trade-marks ; the establl-hment of silk conditioning Other Measures house; the enactment of industrial interests guilds, of Industrial etc. may be mentioned. Further, the sending out of Protoctioa experts to all the provinces to encourage by lectures , and by practical experiments industrial enterprises there ; the organizing of the industrial laboratory and of the sj.ke brewing laboratory, the sending of student manufacturers and merchant* Protection and Encouragement by Local Offices. 417 to foreign countries to investigate the condition of manufactures and trade in those countries economically related to Japan, the hiring out of latest dyeing and weaving machines specially imported for the purpose to the principal dyeing and weaving districts such as Kyoto, Ashikaga, Kiryu, Fukui, Toyama, Yonezawa, etc.— all these measures have contributed to further our manufacturing industry to the pre- sent state of marvellous progress within a comparatively short space of times. II. PROTECTION AND ENC3UR&GEMSNT BY LOCAL OFFICES AND PUBLIC BODIES. The local offices and local civic bodies have followed t'le example set by the central Government and adopted measure for protecting , and encouraging manufactures in their respective districts. The Local Office of Kyoto distinguished itself above all others in this respect, for as early as 1870 it established a chemircal laborato y which attended to the business of keramics, dyeing, soap-making^ etc. ; while, in 1872, it sent a number of weavers to Lyon, in- troduced for the first time a number of Jacquard and Batten looms into the country ; established a weaving factory after the Western style in 1874 and a dyeing factory in^ the following year, and thus laid the foundations of attaining that eminence which Kyoto occupies to-day in the art of weaving and dyeing, or rather continues to occup3', for Kyoto was pre-eminent in these lines before. Other local offices equally adopted similarly salutary measures and the expenses they have incurred on this account must amount to a big figure. Those measures generally took the form of establishing experimental laboratories or training schools, opening local competi- tive fairs, the hiring out of costly machines, or the advancing of money to enable the manufacturers to purchase them. 418 Japan in tJie Beginning qf the 20th Century.. CHAPTER v.— Industrial Education. History— Existing Condition — Apprentice System. I. HISTORY. General Eemarks. — -The history of the progress of industrial education after the advent of the Meiji Government may be con- sidered as dating from the creation in 1871 of the Engineering College, subsequently united with the Imperial University of Tokyo- ■where the subjects of civil engineering, mechanical engineering, ship, building, electrial engineering, architecture, chemical technology, mining, metallurgy, etc. were taught. It followed as a matter of course that the graduates from all those course contributed very much to the progress of industry and to the diffusion of technical knowledge. The establishment in 1881 of Tokyo Polytechnique School, now known as Tokyo Higher Technical School, and the teaching of the subjects of dyeing, weaving, keramics, mechanical en- gineering, etc. has also proved similarly beneficial in the development of our industry. Similar institutions were subsequently created both by the Government and by the local offices, so that at the end of 1900 there were, to mention only institutions of higher grade, the Engineering College of the Tokyo Imperial University, the Science and Engineering College of the Kyoto Imperial University, the Tokyo Higher Technical School, the Osaka Higher Technical School, and last of all — it was created quite recently, the Kyoto Higher Technical School. The technical schools of all grades throughout the country numbered in the year in question no less than 1,008 all contributing to the common cause of furthering technical knowledge among our people and promoting the technical and manufacturing industries. This progress of technical education enabled Japan to gradually dispense witli the service of foreign experts, and though some such Existing Condition. 419 are still to be found tere, the number is insignificant compared to -what it was before. II. EXISTING CONDITION. Protection to Technical Education. — With the object of diffusing technical knowledge and of imparting a general idea of science to apprentices, young mechanics and future manufac- turers, the Government has been granting from the year 1894 states aid to the amount of 150,000 yen every year, and has also made arrangenient for turning out teachers qualified to undertake the teaching of those young people. Number and Kind of Technical Schools. — The higher grade schools of this standing, some deriving the aid from the fund in question and others not numbered 18, in June 1901. Quite recently a technical school was started both in Okayamti" ken and Ehime-ken. The foregoing schools, which, by the way, are maintained at local or communal expenses or by private individuals, are classified as follows according to the subjects taught : — Kind. No. of Schools. Dyeing and Weaving lo Metal and Wood Work 2 Painting, Metal-Inlaying "Design and Carving i Painting, Lacquer and Metal-Work, Keramics, Dyeing and Weaving i Carving, Lacquer- Work, Casting I Wood and Metal Work, Dyeing and Weaving 2 Wood and Metal- Work and Keramics i Total i8 The schools teaching dyeing and weaving exclasively are 10 in number, but when other schools which teach dyeing and weaving .«ide by side with other subjects are counted in, the number increases to 13. There are seven schools in which wood and metal-work are taught, if we combine those that are exclusively teaching them with others that teach the same subjects side by side with other subjects.- 420- Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Each of the other subjects is taught at one school exclusively or two subjects only are taught in combination at one school. Apprentice Schools. — The apprentice schools, all of them deriving aid from the said fund, numbered 21 in the same year. Classified according to kind those schools can be divided as follows : — Kind. No. of Schools Dyeing and Weaving 3 Metal and Wood-Work 5 Lacquer-Work <■ 4 Pottery 5 Shipbuilding I Others 3 Total 21 Differing from the preceding case, here metal and wood-woik and pottery are at the head of the list each with five schools, followed by those of lacquer-work, dyeing and weaving. Commercial and Technical Continuation Schools.— Com- mercial and technical continuation schools next demand attention' for these subjects occupy at present a very important place in short- course commercial and technical education. These number 34, many of them receiving grant-in-aid from the said fund. Of the schools mentioned above, some of which are maintained by communities, . others by private individuals, those that are exclu- '^ively devoted to technical matters are 12, those that combine agri- cultural, technical and commercial matters 16, the remaining 6 being of a miscellaneous character. Most of those schools are attached to primary schools for the benefit of those who cannot attend school 'n the dajtime. III. APPRENTICE SYSTEM. Formerly the apprentice systeu) prevailed universally in all brandies of technical and manufacturing work, but with the introdu- tiou of the Western systeai of manufacture and technical work this Apprentice System,. '421 custom lias began to lose its importance. The scope of the apprentice system has gradually dwindled down, and at present it only retains some semblance of its former status in such ancient lines of business as hand-weaving, pottery, and the dyeing business. It is true even jn new branches of work this apprentice system is found, but it is only in factories of small scope. Sometimes even in big factoricg the system is retained to some extent, as master craftmen engaged ;jn shipbuilding and other works often take under them a number of boys whom they employ at the factories they attend. However, taking all things into consideration, and especially with the greater necessity of division of labor in most branches of technical work and manufacture, the days of the apprentice system are doomed, to be superseded by regular mode of education. 422 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. CHAPTER VL MANUFACTURING COEPORATIONS. That combination of persons having common interests in the pros- perity of a given branch of manufacture and industry, so universal nowadays, was first seen in this country in the organization in October ]882 of the spinners' union which exists to-day in a some- what modified form. It undertakes all matters judged to further the- common interests of the members ; dispatches, for instance, merchants or experts to Bombay to inspect the condition of the cotton market or of the cotton crop, enters into contract with steamship companies for tlie import of raw cotton from Bombay. Matters about the regulations of staple commodities guilds have already been mentioned elsewhere, and it is sufiicient to state here that at present the organized bodies created for protecting their own respective interests number 192 in all. Technical Asmoiations. 423 CHAPTER Vri. rECHNICAL ASSCCIATIOSG. Scientific Associations relating to manufacture and technical affairs exist in large numbers, the principal of them being : — Name. Engineering Society Japan Weaving Society , ... Tokyo Carving Society Electric Society Japan Lacquer-Work Society ... . Japan Keramic Society Technological Society Mechanical Engineering Society ... . Shipbuilding Society Society of Chemical Technology ... Tokyo Export Metallic Ware Society . Japan Metallic Art Society Central Weaving Society Located in. Tokyo. Nagoya. Most of the foregoing societies publish proceedings, sorhe of these publications being : — Proceedings of the Engineering Society, the Japan Keramic Ar^ Society, the Technological Society, the Mechanical Engineering Society, the Shipbuilding Society, the Society of Chemical Tech- nology, etc. 424 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. APPENDIX. PLACES OF PRODUCE OF STAPLE COMMODITIES, THEIR OUTPUT AND FOREIGN MARKETS. "Habutaye" (uiiit oi yen). Principal Places of Produce. J 896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. Ky5to 308,942 372.263 834,109 853.877 1.063,994 674.077 Niigata 76,097 124,474 298.563 452,360 409,094 499.047 Saitama 221,989 232,838 270,452 555.955 338.071 81,180 Gumma 2,945.905 3.183.234 3,394.27s 1,349.827 2,361,305 7,737.356 Tochigi 2,005,564 2,116,282 2,084,150 460,109 93.155 37,327 Miye 21,048 21,499 22,262 39.729 8i,?3o 102,848 Aichi 21.015 47.243 57,130 313.0S9 371.076 226,279 Gifu 1.752,427 1,040,154 1,184,141 998,06s 832,349 958,720 Nagano 109,614 229,525 178,388 134,332 181,780 237,466 Miyagi 23,716 47.755 114,615 137,724 180,293 143,016 Fukushima ... 36 -',098 666,588 1,365,60s 2,265,435 2,719.335 2,746,124 Yamrgata ... 37,604 78.625 90,400 163,542 209,800 327,648 Fukui 6,004,426 7,400,219 8,529,420 13.786,352 11,651,264 13,669,578 Ishikawa ... 789,455 1,150,014 1,907,360 5.400,305 3.559.017 4,361,401 Toyama 412,656 786,274 946,424 2,255.737 1,383.537 3,221,946 Tottori 20,316 21,883 53,295 62,05 1 59,264 27,683 Foreign markets : — Australia, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, British America, Britisli India, China, Korea, Dutch India, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain Hawaii, Hongkong, Italy, Mexico, Philippine Islands, Russia, Spain, Switzer - land, Turkey, United States of America. " Kaiki " (unit oiyen). Kanagawa ... 58,364 10,770 117,188 83,950 Gumma 1,233,710 1,415,986 1,493,910 1,812,379 Tochigi ... 234,670 1,411,268 1,441,896 1,922,316 Vamanashi ... 2,081,774 2,245,388 1,969,296 2,435,601 63 560 209,550 2,045,624 262,740 339,448 1,509,928 5,017,206 2,26o,>5t Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Korea, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, United States of America. Appendix. 425 Crepe Silk (unit of yen). TCyoto ... - 5,540.l5S 5,636,083 5.326,858 8,362,433 6,754,236 5.657,700 HySgo ... 70,000 70,750 72,500 88,577 121,600 116,100 ■Gumma 89,919 107,411 100,343 J 5 7,485 226,252 161,828 Tochigi 26,671 5,33° 3,13s 4>,968 375,222 252,473 Shiga ... ... 2,349,283 2,414,641 2,377,831 2446,291 1,410,701 1,066,645 •Gifu ,... ... 249,128 625,332 286,723 270,633 364,438 404.553 Nagano... 34,734 50.103 588,827 51,407 71,049 87,^83 "Foreign markets : — Australia, British India, China, Korea, Dutch India, France, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Philippine Islands, Russian A%a, Turkey, United States of America. Silk Handkerchiefs (unit of^i?;z). Kyoto — — — I ,282,515 905,652 unknown Kanagawa ... 487,567 3,390,145 3,555.115 — — 396,076 ■Gumma — — — 39,649 48,738 unknown Aichi — »i6,8o8 485,165 — 277,783 221,089 Shizuoka — — — 52,900 127,964 102,884 ^Gifu 25,560 7,286 51,993 55,700 69,400 771,000 Fukui ... ... 30,000 138,990 15,416 ~ 58,986 54.756 Jshikawa 63,349 — — 18,225 43.330 unknown JForeign markets : — Australia, British America, Brtish India, China, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Hongkong, Italy, Mexico, Russia,. Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, Spain, Turkey, United States of America. Silk Goods (uhit ofym). TCyoto ... . .. 611,555 274,737 324,514 325.273 284,857 305,156 Tshikawa . — — — 40,000 7,200 unknown ■Foreign markets :— As above. Cotton Yarns (unit of ' kwan). Tokyo ... ... 2,213,766 2,129,863 2,098,139 2,278,953 2,178,572 2,010,697 Kyoto ... ... 194.072 363,420 701,694 821,880 657,507 557,495 Osaka ... ... 8,476,015 9.733,589 11,049,921 12,264,578 10,705,686 11,178,814 Hyogo ... ... 1,048,431 3,034,838 5,287,532 4.954.766 4,383,584 4,705,74s Nara ... ... 466,289 383.682 667,377 1,114,763 881,536 909,610 Miye ... ... 1,511,300 1,578,389 1,829,658 2,380 858 1,560,653 1,718,238 Aichi ... ... 1,265,113 1.735,323 1 868,036 2,242,658 2,547,988 2,566,816 •Okayama ... 1,878,067 3,030,852 3,741 825 3,743,899 3,342,403 3,216,081 Hiroshima ... 493,769 534,658 850,640 912,591 1,112,360 1,152,441 "Wakayama ... 434,446 495,730 667,734 791,763 864,265 764,888 Kagawa — 95,505 328,980 363.557 250,740 308,195 Eliime ... ... 431,882 561,824 580,405 704,740 610,320 647,490 .Fukuoka ... 990,467 1,148,444 1,493.243 1,681,073 1,408,401 1,459,143 foreign markets ; —British India, China, Korea, French India, Hongkong, Philippine -Islands, Russian Asia. 426 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. White cotton cloth (unit of yen). Prineipal Places of Produce. 1896. 1S97. 1898. 1899. 1500. 1901. Kyoto 172,146 230,053 199,676 133.083 132,117 132485 Osaka 1,322,242 1,377.983 2,045,027 2,250,52s 3,092,800 3,069.175 Hyogo 194.953 191,547 148,718 92,244 139,140 156,93+ Niigata 123.574 133,222 105,776 114,281 374,699 297,202 Saitama 761.373 617.575 511,234 587,902 633,217 555,287 Ibaragi 97.709 38,497 42,296 74.110 50,045 41,350 Tochigi 56,260 86,038 58,706 176,901 87,714 85,875 Nara 1,161,062 1,140,012 1,196,287 1,583,306 1,377,246 1,027,642 Miye 72,695 317,852 303,722 128,301 182,404 158,127 Aichi 3.555.901 4,357.627 5,182,886 5,198,111 6,260,721 5,263,659 Sliizuoka 36.430 32.324 25,754 37,633 72,616 70,248' Toyama 119,789 87.729 15,468 219,535 160,938 40,645 Okayama 112,655 146,156 365,007 237,171 484,504 575,999 Hiroshima ... 231,023 176,949 162,654 208,700 218,369 211,735 Yamaguchi ... 260,159 146 584 130,077 73.001 132,888 51,244- Wakayama ... 200,178 215,254 228,217 205,279 193,247 165,845 Kagawa 106,887 108,520 93,985 147.399 163,351 169,806 Ehime 908,256 166,064 3,108,010 802,148 1,035,493 715,003 Foreign markets : — China, Korea, Hongkong. Grey shirting (unit of ye?!-}. Osaka 419,370 406,695 538,765 601,564 1,106,736 1,230,373 Wakayama ... — 109,029 162,444 113,800 183,695 183,788 Foreign markets : — British India, China, Korea Hongkong. T. -CLOTHS (unit o{ yen). Osaka — — — 206,858 393,044 Unknown Hiye — — 3o<>,447 135.000 502,188 „ Foreign markets :— China, Korea, Hongkong. Cotton flannel (unit of yen). Kyoto .,. ... 1,991,013 1,803,634 2,480,254 3.409,779 .3,757,642 2,626,334 Osaka ... ... 646,997 404,719 526,877 556,524 761,671 593,226 Hyogo ... ... 99,586 74,767 99,889 94,403 102,005 72,270 Aichi ... 19,529 27,799 26,467 55,539 64,285 53,200 Shiga ... 72,343 134,018 88,745 77,475 133.145 77,071 Toyama ... 5,593 13,700 13,153 2,800 61,740 27,050 Appendix. 427 Cotton fI-annel (unit o( yen). Okayama ... 74,iio 162,276 591,330 270,190 242,964 145,635 Hiroshima ... 69,689 59,002 39,378 78,664 53.354 58,049 Wakayama ... 3,511,764 4.'37,745 5,260,376 3,237,217 3,440,709 3,259,438 Tokushima ... 575, 204 659,643 100,148 389,441 340,882 369,913 Ehime 161,218 39,241 79,036 444,863 5'4,753 743,793 Foreign markets :— British India, China Korea, Hongkong, Ph lippine Islands, Russian Asia. C07T0S CREPE (unit of yen). Gumma.. Tochigi , Nara Aichi Shiga Toyama Shimane Yamaguchi ... Tokushima ... 77,566 419,892 6,780 6,220 149,626 21,810 75,783 235,702 237,301 73,194 645,164 62,176 890 122,465 935 92,993 152,484 45,637 51,639 593.578 58,534 60 158,526 1,396 92,477 145,689 107,929 96,980 [,603,226 94,338 78,201 180,275 24,794 123,273 169,454 131,505 183,860 941,931 50,318 128,910 364,242 71,851 183,880 213,251 198,871 83,116 757,704 63,31 = 35,125 248,182 71,380 126,279 72,087 94,463 Foreign markets : —Australia, British India, China, Korea, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Hongkong, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Matches (unit of yen). Tokyo ... . ■ 283,265 265,919 207,040 216,874 226,979 171,388 Osaka ... . • 1,055,562 1,236.498 869,691 999,665 842,403 1,695,80s Hyogo . 3,166,541 3,585,523 3,899,994 2,559,861 2,997,327 5,954,888 Niigata... . 60,774 67,051 65,849 48,050 68,260 62567 Aichi ... . . 381.489 837,045 825,998 1,407,581 943,089 667,680 Shiruoka 63,520 43 542 62,313 68,306 128,644 88,831 Okayama . 2I,»23 3 ,774 32,182 57,348 65,084 47.702 Hiroshima . 84,248 1.0,055 •60,934 185,865 222,277 206,040 Kagawa 106,778 118,055 80,660 127,923 186,593 147,500 Foreisn markets : — Austral'a, British India, China, Korea, Hongkong, Philippine Iilands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Mats (unit of yen). Ishikawa 12,235 59,855 36,894 16,481 Okayama 779,557 1,126,258 659,874 1,088,603 Hiroshima .. 676,512 1,409-277 861,009 744,475 Kagawa 63,406 48,373 42,849 49,874 66,876 199,276 1,367,332 3,117,035 887,741 898,535 66,701 112,989 428 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Principal Places of Produce. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. FukuoVa ... 229,482 271,492 • 220,404 420,779 479,439 518,540 Oita 320.414 218,739 171,302 53.043 75,279 30.329 Foreign markets : — Australia, British America, British India, China, Korea, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Straw-plaits (unit oi yen). Tokyo ... . 126,360 96,000 114,600 69,000 62,500 64,000 Aichi ■• 333,230 201,144 344,532 582,yju 467,725 355,071 Okayama . . . 1,294,727 1,043,941 1,193,094 1,772,807 1.796,513 1,552,334 Hiroshima .. . 117,912 100,052 81,170 56,778 76,028 102,312 ICagawa 87,147 115,968 147,109 119,031 378,686 328,410 Foreign markets — Australia, Belgium, British America, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, United States of America. Porcelain and earthenware (unit oi yen). Tokyo 49,572 55,591 51,891 40,042 70,953 72,453 Kyoto 438,375 360,413 366,563 528,121 705,339 526,051 Kanagawa ... 17,200 15,000 15,000 143,300 152,900 134,950 Hyogo 127,335 134893 134,616 131.158 180,883 197,187 Nagasaki ... 115,991 102,677 82,210 76,930 107,770 96,792 Tochigi ... 40,082 46,959 53,399 49,2o8 53,6o9 59,539 Miye 88,854 98,231 97,035 86,083 145,687 152,450 Aichi 1,541,954 1,571,761 1.494.864 1,363,563 2,171,404 2,397,555 Shiga 54,477 "1,730 105,703 123,603 127,238 154,278 Gifu 1,177,573 1.155.962 878,415 972,94+ 1,004,836 1,237,740 Fukushima ... 109,837 135,922 139,872 162,784' 182,369 174,671 Ishikawa ... 239,381 176,267 248,947 308,362 322,183 214,140 Shimane ... 67,431 80,893 86,570 103,826 122,509 119,113 Okayama ... 37,330 35,996 45,357 431,163 79,552 85,540 Yamaguchi ... 57,7i6 70,008 76,688 109,254 120,103 128,560 Kagawa ... 3°,247 29,048 36,678 44,054 55,222 59,8oo Ehime io5,937 108,705 92,609 118,751 191,800 174,300 Saga 623,510 529,465 612,535 692,224 649,915 487,931 Foreign markets :— Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Korea Denmark, Dutch India, Egypt, France, French India, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Italy, Mexico, Philippine Islands, Russia, Russian : Asia, Siam, Spain, Sweden and Norway, Tutkey, United States of Amer'ca. Tokyo ... Kyoto ... Osaka .,.. Kaniigawa Nagasaki Toyama 2,087,436 Appendix. 429 Umbrella (unit of yen). 981,193 1,378,620 1,486,950 1,534,432 unknown 1,876,994 2,181,064 2,201,888 2,458,519 1,095,325 1,164,564 16,425 18,709 '4,990 5,482 6,433 7,750 — 39,868 50,010 51,522 110,500 90,000 — 3i,3-t> 52(000 33,8So 25.200 25,500 Foreign markets : — British India, China, Korea, Hawaii, Hongkong, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, United States of AmeYica. Lacquer -WAKE (unit of }>e?t). Tokyo 27,992 30,829 28,887 42,408 85,652 43.051 Kyoto 260,000 532,400 425,920 686,076 610,422 384,846 Osaka 74,186 171,224 134,360 119,84s 149,297 213,169 Kanagawa ... 230,192 232,003 480,695 358.995 350,75s 202,490 Hyogo 37,520 35,551 34,584 33,993 52,376 40,390 Niigata 63,763 55,976 53.422 57,796 89,704 119,638 Nara 35,136 40,635 55,215 6s>2 84954 82,204 Miye 39,775 60,05 1 71,939 53,293 138,465 183,444 Aichi 85,330 118,850 104,530 105,392 245,892 232,505 Sliizuoka 385,720 248,963 452,600 530,600 610,200 545,740 Shiga 113,285 180,265 228,181 227,398 244,563 234,545 Nagano 104,749 98,464 86,471 182,104 133.097 264,284 Miyagi 38,4-17 45,522 49,220 51,005 63,082 77,849 Fukushima ... 218,059 295,470 308,056 429,752 459,290 330,800 Yamagata ... 48,634 52,905 57,o38 60,393 66,150 78,395 Fukui 64,128 75.554 77,721 117,223 136,551 154,985 Tsbilcawa 359,194 464,724 450,851 499,650 639,160 681,927 Toyama ;.. 96,525 110,735 148,694 169,879 164,842 207,430 Hiroshima ... 62,400 37,318 127,150 152,425 126,503 113,518 Wakayama ... 577,792 781,133 894,590 1,202,400 1,303,612 1,049,38s Tokushiraa ... 80,045 79,125 72,760 14,400 74,400 76,000 Kagiwa 26,242 64.735 133,598 131,525 129,083 50,005 Ehime 72,68s 74,057 142,115 151,541 92,826 100,260 Foreign markets :— Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Korea, Denmarli, Dutch India, Egypt, France, French India, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, Russia, Russian Asia, Spain, Turkey, United States of America. 430 Japan in the Beginning of the 20lh Century. Fans, foldsd akd round (unit of yen). Principal Places of Produce. 1895. 1897. 1C98. 1S99. 1900. 1901. Tokyo — _ 34.488 43,676 unknown Kyoto 636,500 583,524 480,312 381,437 326,142 3il6,^o Osaka 177,848 272,355 263.396 342,275 77,314 62,759 Aiclii 353,532 321,190 304,288 334.581 237,234 223,920 Gifu 15,340 51,028 55,892 32,817 33,102 95,176 Kara — — — 13,800 14,640 unknown Toyama — — — — 3,456 3,054 Hiroshima ... — — — 106,292 6,150 6,610 Yamaguchi ... — — — 3,660 45,530 1,718 Wakayama ... — — — — 7,253 7,248 Kagawa I7",932 182,029 180,710 233,240 232,910 232,973 Fukuoka — — — 1,062 6,200 7,240 (lita — — — 3,140 3,900 4,350 Saga — — — 974 1,524 4,882 Kumamoto ... 19,887 22,111 19,050 32,754 15,325 20,362 Kagoshima ... — — — 3,600 3,124 2,2fO Foreign markets : — Australia, British America, British India, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hongkong, Italy. Mexico, Philippine Island*, Spain, United States of America. Rugs (unit oi yen). Osaka ... .,. 1,121,147 1,140,014 943,578 1,006,294 1,739,354 715,009 Hy5go ... 25,195 135,695 67,813 12.658 14,710 unknown Saga — — — — 2,142 4,000 Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Korea^ France, Egypt, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Philip- pine Islands, United States of America, Russian Asia. Wooden Ware (unit of yen). Kanagawa ... 389,725 233^5 25,470 Miyagi — 24,596 33,335 Shiga — — — Ishikawa 27,500 33,300 43,523 Kumamoto ... 20,235 44,954 41,077 — 25,009 Hnloiown 4,937 39,502 32,425 — unknown Foreign markets : — Australia, British America, British India, China, Korea, Dutch India, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, Russia, United States of America. Appendix. 431 Paper (unit oi yen). Tokyo 283,85s 310,541 325,204 711,617 573,952 831,087 Kyoto 79,415 95,414 141,356 188,267 155,133 77,510 Osaka 40,885 45,741 31,992 41,263 65,104 42,759 Hyogo 304,274 685,342 351,401 543,468 538,292 533,270 Niigata 43,493 55,370 77,722 40,680 70,242 72,751 Saitama 209,387 215,790 262,676 218,718 163,573 235,654 Ibaragi 60,332 111,012 112,050 72,527 90,037 97,168 Tochigi 41,898 46,969 138,538 140,308 62,507 117,170 Nara 52,698 57,817 80,010 44,562 87,767 29,635 Miye 103,263 185,717 99,577 150,835 124,007 98,169 Shizuoka 842,089 870,941 962,684 245,043 1,001,665 618,719 Yamanashi ... 51,228 125,094 107,634 127,867 125,449 113,907 Gifu 1,261,889 1,871,709 997,969 1,081,627 1,103,455 1,179,045 Nagano 356,422 475,975 519,321 272,270 340,463 209,487 Miyagi 87,099 182,762 113,681 105,950 114,932 130,072 Fukushima ... 104,947 82,937 167,957 141,348 147,883 146,190 Iwate 60,227 121,390 130,001 100,850 60,134 48,811 Yamagata ... 32,925 43,269 52,084 55,372 52,950 49,152 Fukui 167,230 156,632 226,239 288,657 299,467 523,820 Ishikawa 40,533 45,492 160,692 64,479 89,619 77,223 Toyama 213,402 137,979 129,391 130,161 117,242 147,756 Tottori 104,502 116,527 156,702 186,967 180,700 278,348 Shimane 242,176 313,134 329,694 305,094 343,850 282,018 Okayama ... 167,836 269,078 214,323 356,251 477,384 254,707 Hiroshima ... 177,669 200,866 182,445 179,062 252,286 214,650 Yamaguchi ... Wakayama ... Tokushima ... Kagawa Ehime Kochi Fukuoka 90,? 00 lOO.CO ) unknown 6,570 6,57' 62,463 3,So2 2,700 2,565 6,943 7,6So 7,980 6,900 2,910 8,359 15,375 10,984 18,377 1,650 3182 2,976 Screens (unit of yen). Kyoto — — 74,750 90,775 93,017 115,603 Hyogo 252,330 266,500 253,742 — 215,000 unknown Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Dutch India, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, H, II md, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, Russia, Russian Asia, United States of America. Appendix. " SiiirpoKi " (cloisonne), (unit of ym). 433 Kyoto 47>854 44,738 43.568 58,823 72,347 68,934 Aichi 223,oC6 I75,I04 107,987 206,828 448,230 487,980 Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Egyjjt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hongkong, Russia, Russian Asia, United States of America. Bkonze and copper ware (unit oi yen). Kyoto 294,164 5i°,i43 556,974 476,000 400,700 725.986 Osaka 54,289 67,018 Aichi 48,866 48,095 Ishikawa ... 50,250 30,000 Toyama ... 224,480 231,730 Foreign markets : — British India, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong- kong, Russia, Russian Asia, United States of America. Of the other goods ranking next in importance to those given above may be ineutioneil towels, lamps, buttons, entton under-shirts, cotton knit-work, shoes and boots, stockings, imitation foreign paper, cotton blankets, towel clotli, clocks, fui-iiiture, jinrikisha, leather- goods, lanterns, toilet-soap, i\oiy-goods, etc. 66,569 224,039 — unknown 50,862 58,205 56,676 72,661 19,700 17,600 165,660 183,872 278,076 319.544 302,250 429,002 434 Japan in the Bc^jlnning of the 20th Century, CHAPTER VIII.— Protection of Industrial Property. (Patents, Designs and Trademarks) Iiitroductory — History ralatin^ to Prot3ction of Patents, Dsiigns, and Trad -^arks— Protection of Foreign Patents, Designs, and Trade- Marks — Ee3ume of Existing Regulations — Provi- sions that Spacially Concern Forsigners — Statistics of Japan- ese and Foreign Patents, Designs and Trade-Marks. I. INTRODUCTORY. General Remahks. — The legislative measures relating to the protection of tlie right of industrial property comprise in regard to patent-right, designs, and trade-marks the Law of Pateiit-Kight (amended in the existing form in March 1899) the Law of Designs (as before), and the Law of Trade-marks (as before), intended to guarantee the security of. the right of both Japanese and foreign inventors and also to ensure honest dealings in business. Similarly illegitimate competition in the matter of house-marks are guarded by the provisions of the Commercial C.xle issued in 1900. Measures for providing against illegitimate practices other than those connected with house-marks are incomplete, the only provision existing in this direction being coiiKned to prohibition by the Customs Tariff' Law (March 1897) of the import of substances spuriously imitating articles covered by patent-right or registered designs or trade-marks. Tliere is no provision for prohibiting the false representation of the place of production. However, the legislative measures for protecting the right of industrial property li.ive lately been carried to a satisfactory state, especially in regard to patents, designs and ti'ade- murks, as will be briefly described below. History J-ichding to Protection of Patents. 435 II. HISTORY RELATING TO PROTECTION OF PATENTS, DESIGNS AND TRADE-MARKS. General Remarks. — Although the legislation relatir 3 to patents, designs and traJe-marks was only enacted quite recently, comparatively speaking, this does not of. course mean that the Japanese were destitute of inventions or designs, for facts may be abundant!" enunciated to prove the contrary. For instance, the Industrial arts of keramics, lacquer-ware, weaving, etc. that Protection were originally imported from Chian have been in Olden Says, carried to a special state of perfection by the genius of our people,' who also have displayed original taste of their own in the matter of designs and have won in this respect special attention for our goods in foreign markets. However, the idea of protecting inventors and thus encouraging the development of manufacture was not adopted in Japan till the advent of the Government of this era. It is true that from about the time of the Ashikaga Regency a , certain sort of monopoly was accorded to manufacturers and technical experts, but this jirotection was extended with the object of increasing the revenue of the feudal princes that exercised this privilege rather than from any idea of encouraging invention and designs. In a similar way the protection of trade-marks dated from the Restoration and it was enforced because with the development of Jap;inese trade and that of f)reign trade a necessity to adujit suitable measures for protecting trade- marks had become imperative. The first legislative measure for protecting inventions was pro- mulgated in April 1871 but was rescinded a year after, and for about fourteen years from that time Japanese inventors were New left unprotected. We do not mean to say that an Legi lative invention of meritorious character was not recognizad by Mea3ur s. the Government, for by instituting in December 1882 the Rogulations Recognizing Meritiorious Act.s inventors of distinguished merit were rewarded with the Blue-ribbon medals eszablished in the regulations. In June 1884 the regulations for protecting trade-marks were enacted, and then in the following year the regulations 436 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. relating to the propection of patents. In consequence of the restoration of the regulations, 326 cases of invention that had b>en roportecl to the local offices subsequent to 1872 were brought uniJer the protection of the regulations. But it was not till December of 1889 that the regulations relating to designs were first elaborated, and at the same time the two cognate legislative measures already existing were amended. A similar amendment was extended ten years lutei' to all the thioe, and t^.iey exist to-day in the present form. III. PROTECTION OF FOREIGN PATENTS, DESIGNS AND TRADE-MARKS. The Laws as extendkd to foreignei^s. — With the putting in operation of the revised treaties in 1899 the three laws of [latent, designs and trade-marks which, like all other laws of the land, had been liiniteil in operation to the Japanese people alone, became operative to foreigners residing in this country. The dates of the conclusion of revised treaties with difFercnt treaty countriis are as follows : — Great Britain and Ireland July l6, 1894. United States of America Nov. 22, 1S94. Italy Dec. i, 1894. Peru Mar. 2, 1895. Russia June 8, 1S95. Denmark Oct. 19, 1S95. Germany Apr. 4, 1896. Sweden-Norway May 2, 1896. Eelsium June 2, 1896. France Aug. 4, 1896. Nethcrland Sept. 8, 1896. Switzerland Nov. 10, 1896. Spain Jan. 2, 1897. Portugal Jan. 26, 1897. Austria-Hungary Dec. 5, 1897. The revised ti-caties cover the protection of foreign patents, ('esigns and trade-marks, but according to the agreement between Japan and Germany it was arrr.)igi.d to put in force this protection Resume of the Existing System. 437 of patents, designs anil trade-marks from the day of the exchange of ratification of tlie treaties, that is on November 18th of 1896 and tills agreement ensured for the first time in the history of Japan the protection of tlic right of foreigners in regard to patents, designs and trade-marks. However, with the rest of the treaty Powers the date of the exchange of this mutual protection was as follows : — Great Britain and Iieland Jan. 4, 1901. United .States of America Mar. 8, 1901. Switzerland ... July 9, 190 1. Portugal Aug. 30, 1 90 1. Italy Oct. 12, 1901. Denmark Jan. 10, 1898. Netherland Feb. i, 1898. Sweden-Norway Feb. 15, 1898. Belgium Mar. 11, 189S. Spain Sep. I, 1898. Austria-Hungary Nov. 30, 1898. It is needless to say that a similar protection was extended with the coming in operation of the revised treaties to all the rest of the treaty Powers whose treaties that had been concluded with Japan contained provisions relating to the exchange of this protection. Japan as Member of the International League for the Protection of Industrial Property. — The protocol appended to the treaty concluded between Japiin and England in July 1894 and the treaties subsequently concluded with the rest of the cjuntrics specified the entrance of Japan into the International Lwigtie for the Protection of Industrial Property, and in pursuance of that agreement .Japan joined the League on July 15th, 1899, and thus all necessary arrangements required for protecting forjigncrs in the matter of industrial property were completed. lY. RESUME OF THE EXISTING SYSTEM. General Remarks. — According to the existing system all matters relating to patents, designs and trade-marks are controlled by the Patent Bureau of the Department of Agriculture and 438 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. Commerce, which adopts a regular system of examination in grant- ing a license in answer to application for patents or in registering a design or trade-mark sent in for registration. An applicant is entitled to appeal for re-examination or for the judgment of the Comptrollers in case the application has been rejected. All cases relating to the invalidity of patents or registrations or to the con- firmation of the respective rights are attended to by the Bureau, but when any decision of the Bureau is regarded as being at variance with the law, an applicant may appeal to the Court of Cassation whose decision is final. Then a provisional protection is extended to exhibits placed on view in exhibitions or similar un- dertakings. Patent agents are subject to the control of the Patent Bureau. The agents duly registered on the list of the Bureau num- ber 193 (according to the returns made in June of 1902.) Pkixcipal clauses in the law op patents. — The Law ex- tends protection according to priority (Art. 1), while the following inventions are not patentable: — (a) articles of diet and relishes, (b) drugs and process of compounding them, (c) matters prejudicial to public order or morals, (d) matters publicly known prior to the filling of claims (excejiting those cases in which, owing to the necessity of trial examinations, the matter embodied in the claim came to public knowledge not more than two years prior to the filing of the application). Then for an additional invention based on the original one, an additional letter-patent may be obtained (Art. 2), a smaller fee being paid both for application and for license. Patents are valid (Art. 19) for 15 years from the date of registration in the ofiScial record, and (Art. 3) every year after the issue of the letter-patent the fee is to be paid in advance according to a fixed rate, while for an additional invention based on the original one, the payment of 20 yen at one time covers the whole period of the validity of the patent. Further (Arts. o'J & 40) (a) when a patentee who while himself failing to exploit in Japan and without justifiable cause his own invention within three years from the issue of the license or while suspending to make such exploitation for three years, refuses to transfer liis right under reasonable condition to a third party applying to him for the said transfer or for per- mission to use the right ; (b) when a patentee fails to pay in the Resume of the Existing Syttem. 439 fee for more than 60 days from the date on which he should have fonvarded it; (c) when a pitcntee not residing in Japan fails to appoint for more than six mouths and without justifiable reason a pi'opor attorney ; in all such cases the Chief of the Bureau is entitled to revoke the patent. PiiiNC'iPAL CLAUSES IN THE Law OF DESIGNS. — The designs ns protected by the existing Law are those of artistic type used in the form of shape, coloration or figure as applied to industrial pro- peity (Art. 1); but designs of the following description are exclud- ed from protection, (a) shape or figure resembling the Imperial coat of arms, the chrysanthemum, (b) figures that are prejudicial to pu' lie order or morals, (c) those that have been publicly known prior to the filing of the application or figures &c. re- sembling those already publicly known (Art. 2). The protection is of course determined according to priority (Arts. 2 & 8). The validity of the right of exclusive use of a design is limited to objects of specified classification as represented by the applicant (Art. 4), and this validity holds gooJ for 10 years from the time of the registration in the official records (Art. 3). A similar pro- cess as in the case of patents is in force in paying the fee on the occasion of filing application and of paying the fee every year the after registration ; but for a design resembling one previ- ously registered by the applicant, the rate is lower. In a similar way the registered design may lose its validity when the payment of the fee is neglected for more than GO days or wlien the grantee of registration not residing in Japan fails to appoint within six months a qualified attorney residing in this country. Pkincipal clauses in the Law of Ti;ade-mai!ks. — The Law protects all those trade-marks except those (a) that are identical to or resemble in form the Imperial coat of arms, the chry- santhemum ; (6) that are identical to or resemble in form the national flags, military or naval flags, or dec:)rations of this coun- try, or national flags of foreign countries; (c) that are prejudicial to public order or morals or are likely to impose upon the public; (d) that are iilontical to or resemble other registered trade-ma. ks or, when they are to be used for articles of the same nature, to those for which ope full year has not elapsed after they have lo^t 440 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. validity; (e) that are identical to or resemble trade-marks which are used by other people prior to the enforcement of the existing Law; (/) that simply represent the ordinary mode of designating goods or pLiccs of produce, or the characters, devises or marlis cus- tomarily used in trade to denote a special grade or quality or shape of the goods, or tliat merely represent the ordinary style of writing names, house-names, or names of companies or firms (Arts. 1 & 2). However, a mark of an interest organized under approval of the authorities may be used as a trade-mark and protected accordingly (Art. 21). As in the two preceding cases priority secures protec- tion over all others coming subsequently (Arts. 2 & 8), but the validity of an exclusive trade-mark is limited to the special class of objects originally indicated by the applicant (Art. 5). The term of validity of the exclusive use of a trade-mark is 20 years, and is open to renewal (Arts. 3 & 5). The fee is payable with the registration of a trade-mark applied for (Art. 1-3 of the Law and Arts. 7 & 13 of the Eegulation for puttin,:;' it in Operation). Finally a registered trade-mark is liable to lose its validity in case (a) the place of produce, tlie quality, etc. of the goods for which it is used are falsely represented sulisequent to its registration, (b) or when in case the applicant who does not reside in Japan, does not appoint within six months from the date of the registration a qualified attorney residing in this country (Art. 11). Y. PROVISIONS THAT SPECIALLY GONCEKN FOPvElGNERS. NoN- Resident FoREirxX Applicants. — To enumerate those pro- visions in the existing laws, that specially relate to foreigners, wherf a foreigner not residing in Japan wishes to secure a latter-patent or to have his design or ti'ade-inark registered, he must file in an application through his attorney appointed from among those in this country. He must further appoint, when his application lias been accepted by the Patent Bureau, an attorney to represent him in all dealings with the Bureau and in all possible civil or criminal actions thereof The neglect to appoint such an attorney without justifiable reason within six months will invalidate, as mentioned above, the Provuions that Specially Concern Foreigners. 441 efficacy of his patents or registration (The Law of Patent, Arts. 6 and 38: LaAv of Designs Arts., 12 and 22; Law of Trade-Marks, Arts. 20 and 9.) Form of Documents. — Any document intended to be filed in the Bureau must be written in Japanese, and when it is drawn up in any other language Japnnese translation must accompany the original. Further, a foreigner who is not residing in Japan must submit a document properly certifying his nationality, domicile and place of business (Arts. 3, 4 and 9 of tlie Regulations for putting the Law of Patent in Operation : Art. 8 of the Erg ihitions for putting the Law of De-igns in Operation; Art. 17 of the Rogula. tions for putting the Law of Trade-marks in Operation.) Specifications and Drawings. — AVhen an application is filed jn within the prescribed period of priority as provldjd in Art. 4 of the International J_ieague for the Protection of Industrial Pro[)erty, application, specifications and drawings certified by the Government of the country of the original application must be submitted (Art. 25 of the Regulations for putting the Law of Patent in Operation ; Art. 8 of the Regubitions for putting the Law of Designs in Opera- tion ; Art. 17 of the Regulations for putting the Law of Trade- marks in Operation). PROVISIONAL Peotection. — During the period of provisional protection extended to an invention or design or trade-mark exhibite in an international exhibition, a similar protection shall be uoaor.Iod to it in this country during the period of the exhibition, jirovidjd the certificate establishing the fact of the jsrovisional protecMon in the country where the exhibition is held is submitted on the occasion of sending in an application, (Art. 25. of the Law of Patent and Art. 26 of the Regulation, thereof; Art. 22 of the Law of Designs and Art. 8 of the Regulations thereof; Art. 20 of Trade-marks and Art. 7 of the Regulations thereof.) Term of Registered Trade-Marks. — A foreign registered trade- mark duly registered in Japan shall be valid during the same period of validity, in the original country, but within the maximum limit of 20 years (Art. 3 of the Law of Trade- marks.'^ Exploitation of Patents. — The exploitation of the patented invention must be made in Japan, but, in case a patentee, while 442 Japan in the Beginviiitj of iho 'IQth Century. neglecting to do so for more than three years, refuses without justi- fiable reason to assign or to permit the use of the patent under reasonable conditions by a third party who has ap|)lioJ to him for such assignment or permission, the patent is liable to be revoked. (Art 88 of the Law of Patents.) ¥1. STATISTIC OF JAPANESE AND FOREIGN PATENTS, DESIGNS AND TBADE-MAEKS. The applications for patents filed by Japanese and foreigners and the number of letters-patent granted in Japan daring the period indicated are given in the following table : — Year. 1885 1886 1SS7 1S88 1SS9 1890 1891 1892 i*>93 1894 1895 1895 1897 1898 1S99 1900 1901 1902 1903 No. of Application. No. of L'.cea 425 99 i.3'^4 205 905 109 77S I S3 1,064 209 i.iSo 240 1,288 367 • ■• 1,344 379 • ■• i,3.>7 31S 1,250 3 -'6 1,112 223 ... 1,213 169 1,542 iSS ... 1,789 293 ... 1,915 597 1,980 5S6 ... 2,372 606 •■■ 3,050 871 ■■ 3,253 1,024 Total 29,'95 6,992 Statistic of Japanese and Foreign Patents. 443 Year. 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 1895 1899 1900 1901 , 1902 1903 Total 6,377 1,573 TRADE-MARKS. Year. No. of Application. No', of Registration. 1884 883 — 1885 1,296 949 1886 624 50S 1887 757 361 1888 568 436 1889 1,029 664 1890 819 583 1891 8<;5 554 1892 1,146 588 1893 ''243 648 1894 1.350 877 1895 'o73 923 1896 1,578 858 1897 ... ... 3.22S 2,335 1898 2,232 1,597 1899 2.837 1,942 1900 2,776 1,767 DESIGNS. No. of Application. No. of Regis 176 23 497 82 290 "7 262 48 250 59 336 64 ... 318 94 300 96 320 90 26S 52 . ... 342 139 , ... 397 130 514 141 , ... 9ZO 252 , ... i,i8r 366 I90I 2,6oS 1,621 1902 3-529 2jOl6 1903 .3.743 '.924 Total 34419 21,151 Note : In the figures for the years subsequent to 1899 as many as 62S cases of con- tinuation are included in applications and 599 in registrations. 414 Japan in the Beginning nf Ihe 20tli Century. The following figures show the number of ;ipplications, licenses and regiistrations relating to foreigners from November 1896 to Dscember 1903, the countries being mentioned in alphabetical order : — Pat ent. Des ign. Trade-mark. No. of Applica- tion. No. of Licenses. No. of Applica- tion. No. of Registra- tion. No. of Applica- tion. No. of Registra- tion. Austria-Hungary 23 10 — — 14 14 ISelgium 3 2 — — 8 4 Cliina — — — — 20 10 Denmark 20 8 — — 3 3 France 78 43 4 I 245 200 Germany 228 100 7 I 1.274 950 Great Britain 339 189 12 9 1,59? iiSj Nctherland ... lO 3 — — 7 5 Italy 12 5 — — 4 3 Korea 5 2 — — — Portugal I I — — I I Russia 8 3 — — — — Spain 4 — — — II 8 Sweden-Norway iS II — — 4 3 Switzerland ... II 8 — — 53 . 3~ United States of A nerica. 831 486 I I 4So 33S Total 1,591 871 24 12 3,696 2,756 Note : — The figures for Great Brilain cover those for its col'onies. TaflJ System. 445 PART IV. FOREIGN TRADE. CHAPTER I. TARIFF SYSTEM. The OniGixAL Tariff System. — Tlio tariff system of Japan was originally based on the treaties coiicludod with the foreign countries. The treaties concluded with Great Britain, Uuiteil States of America, France, Russia and Netherlands in the 5th year of Ansii (1858) reguUited, by means of the commercial agreeaient appended to the treaties, all matters relating to the entrance and departure of ships, the import and export of comniodiiiis, as well as import and export duties. In June of 1859 the three ports of Yokohania, Nagasaki, and Hakodate were opened to commerce, and customs house was established. Subsequently Kobe, Osaka and Nilgata wei-e similarly opened, the first in December of 18G7, the second in July of 1868, *nil the last in November of the same year. In May of 186G, as the rei^ttlt of an agreement with the Ministers of Great Britain, France, United States of America and Netherlands the rate of import and export duties was fixed on the basis of 5 per cent. ad valorem. First Revision. — The idea of drawing iip a regular tariflf system was inootai fiequeiitly and at last coming to 1804, it took definite shape as the Tariff System which was promulgated in 1897. Tlie system divided imports into three main classes, dutiable goods, non-dutiable goods, and prohibited goods. The tariff for dutiable goods ranged from 5 to -iJ per ceiit. ad valorem, and divided into 16 grades. The schedule has us standard rate, so to say, 20 per cent, for oriliuary refined goods, this rate to decrease in one direc- 446 Japan iu the Beginning of the Wth Century. tion but to rise in another. (1) Natural produce, (2) scientific instruments and apparatus and raw materials,- (3) mucliinery, (4) half-niauufactureJ materials, (5) articles of ordinary consump- tion occupy the decreasing side of the schedule, while articles of luxury and liquors and tobacco occupy the other extreme. The tariff in question was put in force in January of 1899. SuBSKQUEXT Amendment.?. — Subsequently the tariff received more or less amendment cither in the interests of the inland rcveime or with tlie object of encouraging home industries. Thus in the same year the tariff for manufactured tobacco was raised to 100 per cent, ad valorem, alchol to 250 per cent., Chinese liquor, sake, and otlier distilled liquors not mentioned in the list, to 80 to 100 per cent. In the same year i-aw materials required by the State mono- polies and match-making were relieved from ail duties as were alfo artificial and natural fertilizers. In 1901 the rate on tobacco was advanced to 150 per cent, and that on alcohol to 42 sen per litre, and at the same time rate on some other imports was also advanced more or less. Further in 1902, in compliance with a resolution of the House of Representatives, a law for putting a duty of 15 to 25 per cent, on raw eggs was promulgated. Tariff Law. — AVith the putting in force of a regular tariff schedule it was necessary for Japan's tariff' autonomy to have a regular tariff law, for no such law had existed in regular shape ; there was only a semblance of it in the shape of commercial agree- ments appended to the old treaties. With the object of filling this serious gap in the tariff legislature of the country, the draft ot a tariff law was drawn up after consulating foreign laws on this subject. It was placed l)efore the 13th session of the Injperial Diet, was passed by it in its original form, and at last it became law in 1899. The establishment of a regular tariff law may be said to have ushered in a new era in the history of our tariff' system. By that establishment many matters that fjrraerly led to diplomatic inter- ference have been transferred to the 99S — 306,255 61,835 16,269,447 I8S6 ... 44,749 119,558 — 263,446 75,711 17,368,799 1887 ... 42,018 163,774 — 507,481 122,249 26,479,695 1888 ... 128,290 200,133 — 659,607 25,941 39,829,551 1889 ... 47,002 144,663 — 765,008 186,892 36,340,281 IS90 .. 23,210 128,744 — 858,610 103,406 39,515,862 I89I ... 44,341 111,887 — 544,970 108,776 29,489,096 1892 ... 17,600 67,680 — 713,650 95,993 32,641,607 1893 ... 32,619 86,578 — 669,301 73,106 40,373,854 1894 ... 30,174 170,340 8,468 6e9,2o8 73,744 56,580,337 1895 - 61,535 148,465 46,046 1,040,212 276,563 66,249,591 1896 ... 62,799 182,924 97,956 2,534,217 233,835 90,376,306 1897 ... 57,992 213.267 47,933 2,555.905 2 1 8,493 95,049,888 1898 ... 242,869 385,819 116,291 3,498,310 319,917 104,469,552 1899 ... ... 914,405 236,988 49,123 1,676,669 284,643 78,046,222 igoo ... 809,620 450,106 309,227 3,012,505 426,477 126,393,400 1901 ... 408,244 154,382 210,276 2,208,574 606,068 96,785,357 1902 ... ... 772,666 186,813 103,114 1,951,047 625,814 93,916,491 458 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. CHAPTER IV. PRINCIPAL EXPORTS. Tlie principal exports from Japan are raw silk, hahidaye, cotton yani!=, iiiatclies, fancy matting, tea, cimiplior, marine products, copper, CO il, etc. Of these raw silk and habutm/e stand out conspicuous in volume and value, and have in the United States of America and France their best customers. In 1892 the total value of their ex- ports amounted to 40, .300,000 yen approximately, to be advanced to about 101,540,000 yen in 1902. Cotton yarns go mostly to China, Hongkong and Korea, matches and coal to China, Hongkong and British India; fancy natting to the United States of Amei'ica, etc: m.arine products to China and Hongkong; copper to Hongkong, England, Germany, etc. 'Detailj from 1868 are given below. TOTAL VALUE OF CHIEF COMMODITIES EXPORTED. (unit olfen). Kaiiten Year. Tea. Rice. Dried Cuttle-fish. (CoUe .'^ea-weeds. Vegetable.) Camphor. i868 ... ... 3.581,769 ? 125,854 62,679 163,449 77,098 iS6; ... 2,102420 ? "73.5S6 66,263 454,638 "5 339 1870 ... 4511,616 ? 195,602 98,102 415,221 235.703 Principal Exports. 450 Kanten Tea. Rice. Dried Cuttle-fi.sh. (Colic Vegetable.) Sea-weeds, . Camphor. 4,671,761 ? 204,454 108,388 472.798 129,864 4,226,108 ? 278,192 78,166 296,492 88,722 4,659,392 533,431 282,030 102,920 397,448 68,437 7,253,405 316,126 3S3.737 134,243 259,261 155,550 6,862,855 ■6,059 242,346 201,656 284,883 138523 5,453981 810,236 323,079 303.014 397,672 174,318 4,375,275 2,169,091 414,956 245,762 339,975 238,166 4,283,695 4,643,882 379,155 227,498 479,109 323,665 7,445509 416,879 553,917 269,867 636,383 455,910 7,497,881 210,652 648,388 291,758 577,434 598,224 7,021,593 261,737 477,886 333,048 681,338 706,138 7,029,718 1,652,043 648,682 211,237 408,309 869,128 6,106,496 1,000,941 802,986 242,405 244,669 707,993 5,819,695 2,169,942 789,103 309,084 274,303 549,503 6,854,121 766,759 903,742 345,720 544,745 558,646 7,723,321 3,301,169 1,007,621 392,644 503,377 928,028 7,603,341 2,255,114 1,051,721 337,880 462,000 1,130,596 6,124,816 7,421,239 1,071,963 329,222 373,552 1,017,887 6,156,729 7,434,654 1, 088,605 270,511 471,253 1,391,372 6,326,681 1,321,635 I,2i,S,712 323,444 563,505 1,931,993 7,033,050 6,123,332 1,003,703 453 124 618,925 1,629,105 7,525,316 4,162,452 980,307 581,218 818,841 1,274,753 7,702,088 5,001,158 1,426,781 682,140 766,573 1,308,611 7,930,287 5,593,152 1,162,453 495,625 467,235 1,023,956 8,879,242 7,207,346 996,030 449,271 514,275 1,526,832 6,372,329 7,951,087 1,151,143 595818 4S6 930 1,119.196 7,860,460 6,141,218 1413,647 591,057 726,896 1,318,292 8,215,665 5,920,185 1,268,257 611,336 549,355 1,174,574 8,498,783 10,282,012 1,362,068 674,435 780,009 ',754,496 9,035,819 3,576,569 1,158,794 964,322 730,844 3,070,701 8 854,327 6,908,913 1,842,249 ',217,195 1,092,923 3,904.974 Year. 1871 1S72 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1090 ... , 1891 ... , 1892 ... 1893 - 1894 — 1895 ... 1896 ... 1897 ... 1898 ... 1899 ... 1900 ... 1901 02 10,484,017 6,679,544 1,802,415 1,108,544 609,143 3,404,833 4C0 Japan in the Beginnmr/ of the 2Qih Century. Year. SLlphur. <^°r'pe^;^oar5epi^^O;(_ Ve|e^taM^ Raw Silk. ^^\^ 1868 6,479 8,687 9,322 308,468 6,253,473 61,748 '869 4.474 — 3.013 93,445 S.720,182 98,539 1870 5,461 100,768 no 102,082 4,278,752 82,908 1S71 16,711 142,954 4,169 207,270 8,004,144. 127,514 •872 14.487 423.716 15,397 273.520 5,205,237 205.927 1873 19,916 539,643 274 429,840 7,208,421 H7,737 1874 35,555 40,717 — 227,699 5,302,039 85,244 1875 24,317 135,685 — 188,027 6,424,916 128,473 1876 41,282 178,684 — 188,724 13,197,921 238,547 1877 17,186 519,758 — 162,207 9,626,956 87,185 ■ 878 35,531 788,929 - 99,909 7,889,446 254,157 1879 37,420 797,726 — 329,975 9.734,53+ 578,322 18S0 37,319 422,056 10,621 244990 8,606,867 605,294 1881 66,982 579,062 3,098 307,497 10,647,310 961,075 1S82 31,225 827,184 105,783 326,368 16,232,150 1,008,149 1883 119,765 724.819 153.782 390.089 16,183,550 1,089,961 1884 66,645 1,386,799 340,269 136,633 11,007,172 1,020,55s i8Ss 137.932 1,825,065 108,166 371.878 13,033872 672.630 1886 76,763 2,148.840 87,992 326,174 17.321,362 1,297,623 1887 136,023 2,031,5 14 38,689 326,445 19,280,003 1,264,780 1888 120,903 3,518,787 64,457 381,983 25,916,861 1,434623 1889 313,322 2,878969 80,695 350641 26,616,5 )2 1,424,107 1890 263,284 5.352,313 63,239 266,848 13,859,339 1,445,275 1S9I 284,832 4,877,089 175.803 316,835 29,356,339 1,428,654 1892 280,963 4,863,922 248,621 285,567 36,269,744 1,896,772 1893 238,832 4.569,229 533,480 383.766 28,167,411 1,594,582 1594 244,542 4900,754 668.063 562,135 39353.156 1,632211 1595 296,136 5.157,667 525.045 334.847 47,866257 i,3i7.256 1896 308,588 5,478,602 338,486 371,701 28,830,602 1,247.813 i<-97 321.341 5774.699 618,478 730,576 55,630,460 1,187,531 1898 477.014 7,267,075 391,721 609760 42,047,411 1,082,917 1899 574.868 11,383358 550,961 642,219 62,627,721 1,298,248 19^0 698,284 12,725,935 906,821 561,435 44,657,029 960,687 iroi 661, S79 13,904,611 1,023,631 610,371 74,667,331 995,407 1902 759.0S3 10,261,984 1,502,603 789,87s 76,859,478 1,694,272 Principal Exports^. 4fil Year. Silk Wasle. Habutae. (Silk Tissues.) Kaiki. (Silk Tissues.) Silk ITand- kerchiefs. Col Ion Yarn. Cotton Fl annel. 1868 ... 19,829 ? ? ? ? 1869 ... 48,472 > ? ? ? 1870 ... 44,140 ? ? ? ? 1871 ... 63,176 ? ? ? ? 1872 ... 88,011 -> ? ? J 1873 ••■ 83,007 ? ? ? ? 1874 ... 107,081 ? ? ? ? 187s ... 122,658 J 7 ? ? 1876 ... 227,562 ? ? ? ? 1877 ... I74,9'3 ? ? ? ? 1878 ... 344.957 ? ? ? ? 1,812 1879 ... 647,291 ? ? ? ? 802 1880 ... 685,221 ? ? ? ? 1,008 18S1 ... 828,607 ? ? ? ? 3,'43 1882 ... ... 1,206,495 ? ? ? ? 652 1883 ... ... 878,973 ? ? ? ? 296 18S4 ... - 655,139 ? ? ? ? 326 1885 ... ... 462,553 ? ? ? ? 1,185 1886 ... 833,264 ? ? •> ? 1,833 1887 ... 807,548 ? ? 1,146.381 ? 1,210 1888 ... ... 944,371 ? ? I 233,927 ? 3907 1S89 ... ... 832,469 ? ? 2 104,459 ? 3461 1890 ... ... 1,126,579 818537 ? 2,516,946 2,364 3,175 1891 ... ... 1,014668 1,445,639 ? 2,811,820 7,873 22.585 1892 ... ... 1,314825 4,030,476 ■> 3,494417 7,720 106,100 1893 - ... 1,201,182 3.553 604 1 3,899 646 59,176 281,151 1894 - ... 1,576,381 7,254.478 ? 3,628 129 955,530 221,918 189s - ... 1,515,464 8,354.490 ? 5 339.955 1,034,479 400,520 1896 ... ... 1,516,252 7,052,217 233,809 4,617,720 4,029,425 427,881 1897 - ... 1 832,442 9530676 186,040 3 390 146 13,490,197 231,749 1898 ... ... 1,57 iOi4 IZ055 505 573.551 3,555,"5 20,116,586 350,830 1899 ... ... 2 775,8 i7 15 799.014 1,4^:952 3 46',572 28,521,438 768,952 1900 ... ... 3,200,631 17,436,381 878,3'3 4,318,553 20,589,263 602,0 ji iqoi ... ". 3,473,362 23912,356 1,315,780 3,95 1, '92 21,465,573 512448 1502 ... 4,019,524 24,685,408 2*672,887 3,'54,237 19,901,522 848,787 4G2 Japan in the Ber/iniiing of the 20tJi Century. Year. White Cotton Tissues. Gray Carpets and Shiitings. Carpetings. Cigarettes. Coal. Fans. i858 .. ? ? ? 79,519 ? 1S69 .. ? ? ? 82,978 193 1870 .. . ... ? ? ? 139,085 ? 18 I ? ? ? 100,429 2,055 I iyj .. . ... ? ? ? 180,278 19,142 1S73 ,. ? ? ? 225,158 49,653 1S74 .. ? ? ? 146,471 90,977 1875 •• ? ? ? 213.385 113,697 1S76 .. ? ? ? 187,500 132,514 1877 .. ? ? ? 289,235 135,899 1878 .. ? ? ? 381,974 154,977 1879 .. . ... ? ? ? 454,988 239,272 1880 .. ? 2,043 165 460,086 240,202 1881 .. . ... ? 4,741 709 395,020 224.431 1882 .. ? 1,487 572 435,595 156,857 1883 .. ? 3,205 1,801 395,389 89,061 1S84 .. ? 3,707 2,745 607,124 94,994 1885 . . ... ? 2,727 3,613 622,515 107,945 1886 .. ? 8,646 3,319 694,002 195.144 1S87 .. . ... ? ? 19,833 2,088 496,291 248,925 1888 .. . ... ? 52,714 5,077 1,197,825 280,039 1889 .. . ... ? 54,215 3,210 2,749,552 252,131 1893 .. ? 51,048 8,593 3,099,862 295,448 1891 .. ? 94,732 11,229 3,179,203 319,875 1892 .. . ... ? 177,446 17,250 2,854,300 304,886 1893 .. . ... ? 391,989 29,854 3,288,843 424,156 1894 .. . ... ? 1,134,073 56,877 4,674,305 319,416 1895 . ? 1,635,902 115,760 5,409,111 399,519 i?96 . . ... ? 182,113 1,035,195 81,937 6,242,931 693,893 1837 - . ... 782,698 346,036 847,480 231,611 8,316,776 885,601 1898 .. . ... 694,944 386,226 850,759 133,441 12,240,622 499,233 1899 .. ■ •■• 996,997 669,074 721,127 294,548 11,784,731 532,176 1900 . ■ •- 1,778,532 1,754,4" 866,591 715,554 13.703.655 911,077 1901 ■ ■■■ 1,357,588 1,347,605 707,770 1,683,320 17,542,273 733.432 1902 .. ■ - 1,079.908 «,S23i06i 653.330 2,188,592 17,270,417 727,458 Year. 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Primip d Expoi f.^. 4g;i Lacquered Wares. Matches. Mats. Porcelain an Earthen- wares. ^ Straw Plaits. European Umbrellas. 17,065 ? 23,015 ? ? 1,909 ? 4,704 ? ? 43,199 J 26,236 ? ? 60,387 p 22,354 ? ? 88,029 ? 45.531 ? ? 159,445 ? 116,481 ? ? 223,201 ? 384 108,675 ? ? 167,880 ? 334 113,224 ? ? 116,894 ? 636 73.792 ? ? 185,262 ? 933 120,853 ? ? 148,597 20,400 317 169,100 ? ? 277,730 83,589 274 307,039 ? ? 449,645 369,672 215 474,579 ? 7.587 525,415 249,759 927 711,351 ? 12,948 555,304 37,240 741 578,641 ? 1,610 519,723 3,165 350 543,768 ? 966 451,666 2,792 1,325 525,933 ? 3,545 467,521 60,566 935 695,269 ? 1,762 589,170 378,022 2,709 1,002,384 ? 12,083 630,725 941,576 • 36,296 1,311,901 350,450 26,852 589,649 740,934 148,224 1,295,316 268,557 53,858 628,466 1,137,952 166,883 1,449,888 146,847 84,255 572,157 1,489,030 347,541 1,245,957 87,196 114,228 577,372 1,843,637 656,123 1,287,027 193,777 161,504 528,075 2,202,041 1,176,680 1,480,411 155,162 364,309 708,992 3,537,974 1,723,383 1,577,191 378,349 589,276 797,539 3-795,635 1,965,493 1,484,854 743,399 746,068 1,083,212 4,672,812 3,461,370 1,955,060 1,387,643 735,207 948,734 4,986,260 3,056,759 1,974,854 2,234,354 773,627 767,401 5,641,993 3,232,738 1,819,061 3,181,915 627,050 782,933 6,273,949 3.938,450 1,990,781 2,404,003 687,197 988,662 5,890,666 3,717,489 2,181,336 2,770,178 953,545 1,066,390 5,760,869 3,310,042 2,471,904 4,025,159 860,986 994.654 7,392,869 5,354,976 2,491,668 2,989,836 1,023,638 889,079 8,169,966 6,772,496 2,461,544 2,938,858 1,037,926 404 Japan in the Bef/inning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER V. PRINCIPAL IMPORTS. Of the imports into Japan machineries, iron ware, petroleum, sugar, raw cotton, cotton fabrics, woollen gouJs, etc. are the princi- pal items. Of the machines locomotives and mules surpass all the rest, the former coming from. England and the United States and the latter from England. Iron ware come from the United States, and Russian Asia ; sugar from China, Hongkong, and Germany ; ginned cotton irom the United States, Hongkong and British India ; cot.-un goods from England. and Germany; woollen goods irom England, Germany, Belgium, and France. The advance in the impoit of all thjse articles is due to the develojjment of our industry and to the rise of tlie scale of living of our people. Among those goods, there are many which Japan has begun to manufacture or is about to manufacture with the exception of woollen goods, so that though the import of law materials or others ministering to one or another manu- facturing industry in this country is destined to advance, that of manufactured goods may be expected to decline. Details regarding the value of priiici^jal imports are given in the following table: — TOTAL VALUE OF COMMODITIES IMPORTED. (unit ; of yen). Year. Locomotive Lnginui). Fresh Eggs. Salted Fish. Flour. Aniline Dyes. Dry indigo. I8C8 ... ? ? ? ? V 1.743 1869 ... ? ? ? ? ? 4,758 1870 ... ? ? 7 ? ? 8,546 Principal Imports. 4G5 Year. 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 18S8 1S89 1S90 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1S98 1899 1900 1901 1902 Locomotive Salted Aniline Dry Engines. Fresh Eggs. Fish. Flour. Dyes. Indigo. ? 21 ? ? 20,859 ? 379 ? ? 28,724 ? 267 ? ? 3,187 ? 47' " ? 968 ? 3S9 " ? 6,689 V 612 ? 4,353 > 29S ? 7,094 ? ? > > ? 328 3,875 1,135 ? ? ? 7,365 9,098 2,902 ? ? 10,299 ? ? 9,272 ? ? 4,514 ? ? 12,638 21,842 ? 8,367 ? 137,059 34,678 60,222 21,979 1,458 ? 144,375 1,381 93,292 21,8=0 728 ? 142,432 6,343 90,090 38,421 862 ? 185,335 85,518 95,523 46,068 760 ? 266,635 56,654 301,197 45,596 3,765 ? 367,042 155,721 284,144 28,821 4,582 ? 293,234 250,471 659,604 31,370 5,260 226,157 349,579 201,071 595-474 33,442 10,928 340,540 386,604 186,857 200,418 70,444 12,064 275,092 418,482 386,193 356,534 108,056 44,203 319,659 405,047 444,208 . 1,580,273 56,119 63,198 619,009 543,494 329,861 . 1,163,695 95,207 107,145 406,855 682,138 581,370 . 1,620,768 300,389 231,035 994,202 1,139,929 1,067,257 . 4,235,617 337,769 495,907 1,156,569 931,197 1,538,022 . 4,282,502 492,553 609,736 2,022,413 1,218,842 2,270,815 . 1,968,374 826,960 1,212,896 1,370,857 904,013 2,903,829 . 1,089,209 1,243,065 2,184,846 3,882,517 1,328,751 3,902,559 . 1,749,408 1,298,611 1,442,790 2,873,302 884,834 2,665,043 . i,7( 38,014 i,i( )6,455 2,011,487 3,2' 8,324 1,653,220 3,097,981 4g6 Japan in the Heginning of the 20th Century. Year. i858_ 1869... 1870... 1871 .. 1872... 1873.. 1874.. 1875.. 1876... 1877... 1878... 1879... 1880... 1 881 .. 1882 .. i3S3_ 1884... iSSs .. 1S86.., 1887 „ i8S3... 18S9... 1892,. 1893.. 1894.. 189s ■ 1896.. 1897.. 1898.. 1899 . 1900 . 1901.. 1902., kVindpw Glass. Soja Beans. Rice. Sole Leather. Pig Iron. Iron, Bnr and R( d,- 10,144 ? 435,956 ? 16,732 ? 19,043 J 4,431,885 ? 16,902 * 1 15,616 ; 14,598,114 ? 4,406 ? 32,232 1,260,179 ? 18,519 ? 452.586 ? ? 3,339 ? 103,325 , 29,785 ? 23,491 ? 55,654 ? 24,366 ? 38,981 ? 58,495 ? 2?,77,6 ? 91,063 ? 100,570 ? 590 ? 18,015 ? 91,885 ? 300 ? 40,734 ? 101,337 ? 66 ? 44,786 ? 68,453 ? 248,271 ? 31,621 ? 105,463 ? 434,315 ? 87,,i\n2 ? 98,112 ' 134,838 ? 112,338 ? 36,569 ? 20,134 ? 95,438 ? 137,628 ? 69 87,334 116,044 404,590 97,485 ? ",529 137,417 88,436 301,852 109,455 ? 674,330 165,935 105,843 296,348 186,405 ? 18,757 143,471 101,034 396,720 116,07s ? 129,315 260,437 118,369 447,101 i6o,99S > 21,628 290,664 397,165 749,916 257,24s ? 136,756 310,922 164,148 842,511 202,638 ? 12,302,884 234,380 185,948 830,116 300,160 ? 3,907,991 243,503 199,209 870,410 160,594 ? 2,052,901 219,430 241,317 871,702 359,315 ? 3,254,842 215,702 446,477 975,787 246,033 ? 8,413,148 281,782 743,553 1,339,034 309,802 ? 4,357,096 497,774 673,796 2,085,534 570,442 ? 5,662,337 576,584 739,556 2,399,705 488,090 5.450,878 21,528,429 462,524 934,010 3,046,132 669,807 6,291,064 48,219,810 716,879 1,381,443 4,061,805 1,256,577 7,891,928 5,960,165 549,029 965,544 2,603,676 952,919 4,425,079 9,021,536 984,798 962,910 5,243,408 1,084,833 5,177,360 11,878,958 590,713 1,593,311 3,511,756 1,581,071 4,9 56,009 17,750,817 531,392 982,326 3,519,1-6 Principal Imports. ,', '.:■■.. \\. 4G7 v, Ti -1 Iron, Plate (Jalvanized Iron Pipes ■ » vr -i j c„ ir I car. i ? •> •? 9,748 1870 •> ? ? ? 18,373 1871 .. ., 5> ? ? y •3.406 1872.. .. ? ? ? ? 24,780 '873 ? ? ? ? 12,586 1874 .. .. ? ? 13,199 •/ 52,428 1875.. .. ? ? 9,600 1 33,222 1876 ? ? 10,969 ? 33,260 1877 ? ? ? 18,167 ? 39,577 1S78 ? ? ? f:o,286 ? 56,744- 1879 .. 1 ? ? 31,438 ? 40,959 18S0 .. .. i6£,9i5 ? ? 23,014 ? 55,989 iSSi 109,047 ? ? 24,828 ? 38,072 18S2 247,638 ? J 26,016 ? 6o;48i 1883... . 43,386 189,903 ? 19,954 263,905 u6,959 i834 - • 174,998 186,391 5,515 16,933 294,729 115,993 1835... • •• 361,497 166,797 19,683 19,738 414,739 79,462 1886 .. . 497,816 211,010 19,536 34,o3i 456,499 65,008 1887,.. . •• 653,534 218,932 27,531 334,015 393,840 75,650 188S . . .. 1,462,429 219,812 57,874 71,589 875,709 75,037 1889... . .. 686,871 335,910 78,975 203,110 799,840 87,347 i8go .. . -• 1,259,381 314,067 73,025 166,536 693,791 80,561 1891 .. . .. 700,538 298,007 62,836 106,592 656,179 59,736 1892... . 67,438 240,584 80,157 55,815 906,422 114,111 1893- ■ 667,108 330.098 121,011 122,886 887,790 93,791 1894 .. . .. 1,209,205 726,739 156,740 484,086 1,332,638 86,074 1895... ■ -■ 925,531 918,459 "2,743 604,753 1,278,055 143,318 1896 •■ 2,595,459 1,335,885 310,190 891,339 1,440,254 129,987 1897... . ,.. 3,325,005 1,175,266 541,194 894,582 1,458,294 181,079 1898.- . ... 2,631,721 1,405,855 464,466 i,332,94« 1,150,343 119,924 1899 .. . - 435,054 2,220,415 902,595 953,436 2,223,432 410,582 igoo .. , ... 4,753,371 4,080,543 1,323,316 2,955,216 2,181,064 i,ioS,8io 1901... , ... 1,612,540 2,032,651 703,654 1,591,680 1,364,668 332.751 1902... , ... 1,662,700 2,442,791 1,273,640 1,073,638 1,451,125 279.399 Note : - Prior to 189S, the value of imported goods was the original price at the place of their purchase, bat, since that year, the cost of insurance, transportation, packing charges and all other expenses incurred up to the time of the arrival at the destination have been added to it. 4CS Japan in the Begianing of tlte 2Qth Century. Year. ~ , . Materials of Lead, Pig, Petroleum », ■ »• Telegraph ^^.^^^^ ^^^ j^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ Prmtmg ^^"'^- Buildings. blab. sene Oil. "P"" Sugar. i863... . ' 1 107,327 7,236 7 529,313 1869 ... . . ? 134,021 1,662 ? 1,090,894 1870... . . ? 30,618 21,516 7 2,317,921 1871 ... . . 7 17,229 72,170 7 2,188,314 1872... . } ? ? 160,608 7 1,156,697 1873 ... . . } ? 2,222 330,599 •> 1,599,960 1874... - . } ? 8.187 306,723 ? 1,838,935 1875... . . ? ? 24,634 573,671 ? 2,582,890 i'876... . . ? ? 63,771 444,134 9 2,185,982 1877... . . ? ? 287,775 605,598 ? 2,105,026 187S... . ? ? 187,595 i,8c_„o76 ? 2,222,975 1879... . 9 ? 104,655 2,185,224 ? 2,375,757 18C0 ... . 53,611 ? 51,134 1,400,471 ? 2,480,580 i3Si ... . 13.976 ? 87,208 979,112 9 2,287,158 18S2... . 1,759 ? 46,796 2,3=0,905 ? 2,887,888 1883... 3°,i" ? 134,387 2,456,261 38,159 2,581,639 1834... 2,104 ? 67,958 1,773,361 21,264 2,917,032 1885... . 93 9 16,678 1,667,722 24,729 2,144,291 1886 ... 2,935 ? 71,667 2,358,498 62,383 1,928,698 1887... 2,837 ? 108,835 1,871,42s 115,171 2,418,893 i8S3 .. 27,745 ? 201,252 3,519,255 387,682 2,428,608 1S89 ... 33,549 ? 173,487 4,587,13s . 178,33s 2,078,136 1890 ... 74,357 ? 85,425 4,950,256 413,486 2,974,074 1891 ... 60,286 ? 104,028 4,535,720 159,622 2,461,625 1892 ... 89,294 ? 245,383 3,328,398 217,310 2,810,331 1893 - 121,986 ? 149,328 4,401,041 217,695 3,514,720 1894-- 142,215 ? 177,63s 5,135,332 257,857 4,551.848 1895... 205,714 V 313,632 4,303,929 307,699 4,074,241 i8g6... 506,490 579,520 257,383 6,331,036 723,438 3,480,588 1897 ... .. 477,775 937,379 257,805 7,667,350 856,957 4,809,455 1S98... .. 408,842 1,908,562 365,202 7,552,880 2,283,215 7,333,700 1899- 817,200 285,842 412,15s 7,918,149 748,414 8,359,736 I goo ... ... 1,095.575 1,880,314 927,152 14,162,652 2,036,844 11,007,634 igoi ... 683,658 1,481,153 876,228 14,943,401 864,041 12,381,466 lyo::... ... 7 39,983 341,797 510,713 14^937,169 1,402,862 8778,657 Principal Imports. 4C9 Ginned Year. iS6S . 1869 . 1870 . 1871 . 1G72 , JS73 ■ 1S74 1875 1875 . 1877 1S78 J879 1880 18S1 1882 1883 1884 1885 1SS6 a887 1888 18S9 1S90 3891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Sugar llefined. o-iniicu Kaw Cotton. Cotton in llie Seed. Cotton Yarns. Cotton Flannel. Cotton rrints. 356,836 421,874 ? 1,239,580 7 77,051 531,340 1,087,992 7 3,418,148 9 109,882 729.832 628,308 ? 4,522,194 7 200,097 845,777 206,799 ? 3,520,141 ? 216,602 533,50s 85,703 ? 5,335,141 7 210,354 576,012 264,430 ? 3,400,225 7 2<6,i86 706,180 1,091,447 7 3,573,257 ? 104,509 842,574 371,132 7 4,058,036 7 195,554 595,388 456,362 ? 4,151,664 7 207,067 688,653 418,125 ? 4,084,714 ? 196,247 666,631 287,641 1 7,205,931 •> 282,775 974,168 101,603 •> 6,179,857 ? 179,377 1,055,067 170,639 7 7,700,477 ■9 392,539 1,444,434 196,721 7 7,263,776 ? 407,038 1,557,908 467,249 7 6,562,012 7 107,442 1,810,707 247,506 7 6,164,721 ? 233,197 2,452,516 561,262 ? 5,153,252 •} 244,634 2,527,168 601,778 "07,294 5,190,095 1 208,191 3,641,226 618,429 76,657 5,905,457 •/ 145,957 3,318,503 711,952 202,016 8,235,204 1 318,375 4,451,681 1,652,244 569,525 13,611,898 7 389,070 4,151,356 3,464,326 2,204,512 12,522,039 V 398,560 5,436,068 4,134,790 1,230,363 9,928,092 ? 478,463 5,289,387 6,998,534 1,200,717 5,589,290 7 140,905 6,724,254 11,026,637 1,298,017 7,131,980 7 436,545 7,957,2" 15,294,898 856,673 7,284,243 ? 635,903 8,707,392 19,103,923 506,838 7,977,366 y 521,697 7,673,018 24,304,814 517,283 7,082,975 7 383,365 10,263,358 32,106,276 467,076 11,371,950 7 1,193,162 15,013,320 43,122,263 497,952 9,625,258 252,929 986,443 21,105,595 45,410,457 333,914 8,547,589 602,781 1,176,789 9,156,303 61,365,755 844,962 4,963,326 797,425 1,438,245 15,598,894 58,500,002 971,627 7,043,046 1,515,409 2,002,732 21,111,901 59,799,300 851,062 4,873,738 234,672 680,468 5,589,157 78,779,858 i;oo4,9i4 1,747,875 704,812 2,602,032 470 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, Year. io63 .. 1S69 .. 1870... 1S71... 1872... 1S73... 1874... ,1875 .. 1876... 1877... ,1878... ,1879... iSSo... iSSi... .1SS2... 1883... 1S84... J8S5... 1886... 1SS7.., i8£8.., 1889.. 1890.. ■ 1S91.. 1892... 1893. 1894., 1895.., 1896.. 1897.. J89S.. 1899 . J900.. 1901.. 1902.. Woolen and Cotton Satins. Gray Shirtings. White Shirtings. Wool. Worsted Yarns of All Kinds. Flannels, 355 1,504,788 ? ? 1 lo,74S 1,56s 1,666,241 407 i« ? . 5,493 130 1,727,037 — • . 1 8,099- — 4,362,020 49398 » 9 8,514 308,698 3,117,956 20,052 } ? 105,324 294,870 3,043,702 60,325 > ? 7.?/|,032 74,987 3,594,994 27,770 p 498 30,229. 218,739 2,425,676 44,646 ? 149 45,695 201,397 2,187,265 29,235 ? 4,790 39,896- 271,023 1,835,213 64,335 ? 879 130,578 294,465 1,881,821 85,961 ? 1,448 170,983. 356,158 3,359,593 68,958 ? 1,231 34.358- 478,259 2,208,711 102,738 ? 3,639 28,348- 416,458 1,914,316 103,738 ? 2,022 60,317 96,179 2,426,822 94,676 ? 4,043 105,785 157,843 1,092,743 "5,951 89,845 2,994 94,583- 98,547 855,920 120,756 42,519 2,323 172,588 103,148 1,233,746 98,814 75,38s 10,218 287,182 47,994 848,370 120,851 150,002 60,831 318,180 198,991 1,169,817 266,800 189,899 255,302 323,780 298,761 2,332,564 212,652 300,369 165,295 549,357 189,583 2,010,715 174,125 302,085 256,112 1,029,986 231,592 1,716,981 225,889 369,914 494,316 927,562 135,880 1,656,681 216,895 206,548 168,385 406,860- 525,658 1,727,186 330,559 302,502 427,993 1,073,743 855,398 2,315,124 168,305 425,120 513,930 1.389,714 1,266,151 2,935,034 337,607 567,197 563,501 308,834 794,136 3,071.496 505,720 1,136,951 951,035 961.332 2,610,925 4,057,692 655,449 1,017,441 1,114,872 1.997,245 1,796,973 3,783,309 250,864 1,062,398 1,337,424 1,187,656- 1,645,229 4,382,509 708,348 1,642,819 785,192 1,360,038 949,750 3,575,191 517,808 4,324,427 593,338 374,959' 3,662,638 5,558,004 1,325,142 3,919,413 1,798,535 917,932 1,684,497 2,991,651 575,743 3,127,760 866,760 313,297 1,788,536 5,070,651 1,191,777 3,. .97,564 922,147 487.350- Principal Imports. . 471 Year. i86S .. 1S69 ., iSyo .. 1871 .. 1872 .. 1873 .. 1874 ■■ 1875 ., 1876 ., 1877 . 1878 . 1879 . 1880 . 1881 . 1882 . 18S3 . 1884 . 1 885 . 1886 . 1887 . 1 888 . 1889 . 1890 . 1891 . 1892 . 1893 . 1S94 . 1895 ■ 1896 , 1S97 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Woolen and Plush or Italian Cloths. Motisseline Woolen and Worsted Velvets, de Laine of Worsted Cloths in Silk and All Kinds. Cloths. Part of Cotton Cotton. Mixture. 2,786 73,278 235,345 ? ? — ^. 606,171 ? ? .■42,617 — 646,306 ? •? •17,759 — 840,039 ? ? — — 3,036,480 ? .? 155.599 i,076,<44 1,320,896 ? •? 50,616 981,237 112,887 ? •? 214,695 2,393,158 530,868 ? ? 188,480 2,263,273 594,601 ? ? 496,081 2,373,621 684,936 ? ? 339,814 2,693,767 702,653 ? ? 651,929 3,126,043 212,109 ? ? 898,429 3,478,057 188,484 ? > 531,827 2,709,341 89,235 ? ? 573,495 1,221,785 i8i,88i ? ' ? 995P9I 1,618,072 192,121 80,578 ? 450,338 1,859,998 467,642 68,072 ? 828,055 906,617 391,905 82440 ? 857,537 830,774 615,574 198,547 ? 921,662 1,126,675 1,402,809 501,928 ? 1,485,059 2,364,092 1,041,539 225,264 ? 1,378,852 1,979,344 606,323 195,825 ? 1,686,642 2,784,393 901,130 155,198 ? 1,846,328 1,891,884 432,001 64,946 ? 1,062,572 2,448,900 640,417 196,618 ? 1,489,305 2,305,506 801,408 3 '8,799 ? 1,759,796 3,150,823 641,270 175,559 ? 921,741 3,633,468 2,951,042 169,266 ? 2,813,097 6,498,162 3,407,151 706,902 136,470 1,815,582 3,835,881 1,943,532 290,544 325,647 1,068,270 4,408,753 2,803,607 444,144 599,495 1,132,575 4,350,934 2,004,198 531,554 675,231 1,120,737 7,364,991 2,969,763 2,437,123 984,935 601,439 3,339,121 1,318,162 901,39s 379,402 1,181,17s 3,754,836 2,000,012 1,430,034 631,233 472 Japan in the BeCfhining of the 20th Century. Vear. riax, nemp, Jute and China Grass. Leaf- Tobacco. Coal. Oil-Calces. i868 ? 33,754 537 1S69 39 96,739 669 1870 — 24,963 50,765 1871 78 145,237 102,333 1872 — 179,758 3.738 1873 15,298 236,711 1,354 1874 11,385 99,960 24,626 1875 6,836 147,513 10,900 1876 3,695 193,601 408 1877 4.232 159,073 40 1878 9,975 257,122 25.036 1879 58,551 164,636 118,965 1880 88,199 156,227 233,110 1881 62,970 ? 256,625 29,335 16S2 34,966 ? 149,716 44,468 1883 18,399 ? 103,322 11,802 1884 20,132 .•■ 21,685 361 1S85 . ... 20,139 ? 85,038 21,672 1886 23.413 ? 65.383 965 1887 . ... 50,292 ? 65.275 229,687 1888 . ... 88,069 ? 29,880 164,193 1889 ■ -.. 93,611 ? 40,015 201,953 1890 • •■• 139,777 ? 110,497 194,296 1891 . ... 149,661 ? 142,918 355.989 1892 - ... 213,217 ? 105,380 824,652 1S93 • - 326,337 ? 81,707 599.893 1894 ■ ■■■ 5J7,92S ? 472.757 822,195 1895.- ■ . ... 645,841 ? 853,080 946,028 1S96... . . ... 708,162 35,537 519.380 3,220,600 1897... . • ■■■ 654,791 320,854 57^.570 3,315,587 1898 . ... 590,517 4,527,660 399,189 4,614,967 1899. ■• . ■ — 1,245.049 5,086,354 937.094 6.791,813 1900... . . ... 1,700,409 454,293 2,100,054 5,722,764 igoi... . ■ ••• 1,370,183 30,272 2,542.133 8,115,908 1903... . . ... 1,602,799 956,817 1,298.374 10,121,712 Provisions for Eneouraging Foreign Trade. 473 CHAPTER VI. PROVISIONS FOR ENCOURAGING FOREIGN TRADE. 1. Chambeks of commeece : — Commercial and industrial bodies (liscliarging the functions of regular chambers of commerce had pre- viously existed in Japan even prior to the Restoration, but as an institution owing its origin to regular legislative arrangements the Chamber of Commerce first saw the light in September 1890. Since that time 58 chambers have already been established througho;it the country. The regulations about the Chambers of Commerce having proved defective in working, officials were sent to the West to investigate the organization of the institutions as they existed there. A draft was drawn up after careful investigations by the Government and leading business-men into the system of the Western organizations of this description, and a new law was l)romulgated in March 1902, this law being now in force. To enumerate the principal clauses in the new legislature, the Chamber is ; (1) a juridical person ; (2) qualified to investigate all measures calculated to encourage trade and industry; (3) to repres.'nt to the offices concerned its views about legislature relating to trade and industry and also on all matters relating to the interests of trade and industry ; (4) to give reply to the queries referred to it by the offices concerned ; (5) to inquire into the situation of trade and industry and to compile statistics bearing on the same subject ; (6) to undertake similar inquiries at the request of merchants or manufac- turers, and also to gurantee the place of produce, price, etc., of commodities ; (7) to appoint, at the request of Government offices, appraisers or consulting agents relating to trade or industry ; (8) to act as arbitrator in disputes of merchants or manufacturers at request of the parties concerned ; (9) to establish, subject to the approval of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, institutions of a commercial or industrial character or to manage them or to make other provisions calculated to encourage trade or industry. The right of election and the right of eligibility for member- 474 Japqn'\intlui,Begimiing oj the 2(ith Gentury. ship are confined only to Japanese subjects or to juridical persons established under Japanese laws. The right of election is accorded to those who are carrying on in their own names business coming under Arts. 263 and 204 of the Commercial Code ; or those who arc engaged 4n manufacturing business-coming under those, provisions, also to exchanges, mine-owners, and directors of juridical persons undertaking 'business on a large ■ scale. The qualifications for ihe enjoyment, of the jjght are precisely specified and only those who possess the right are eligible. The regular number of members must not be more than 60 ; besides there are " special members " not exceeding one-fifth of the number of regular members. The election' is carried on according to the method of ordinary election, compound election and class-election. The expenses for maintaining chambers are to be borne by those enjoying the right of election. Besides the chambers existing at home, the Japanese subjects residing in the various part of Korea, as Fusan, Mukpho, Gensan and Jinsen have chambers of their own. Though their establishment is subject to the, approval of the Japanese Consuls, those chambers do not come under the control of Japanese laws. A number of legislative measures besides the Law of Chambers of Commerce are in force, to regulate matters relating to the institution. 2. The Highek Council of Ageicultuke, Commerce anb Industey.— The Government does not neglect to make provisions calculated for encouraging foreign trade, on the contrary it has set apart since the 1896-'97 an item of foreign trade expansion expense in the Budget. One of such provisions was the creation of the Higher Council of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry established in 1896 with the object of devising measures for encouraging foreign trade. The council is composed of twenty members apart from a chairman and a vice-chairman. Of the members five are officials of the Departments of Agriculture and Commeice, Foreign Affairs, Finance, and Communications, and the remaining fifteen are business men of note. At first the council deliberated on matters relating to foreign trade alone, as may be seen from the subjects placed before it for deliberation by the Department of Agriculture and Commerce iu its first session. Those subjects were as follows : — matters relating to (1) the dispatch of commissioners to the Yangtesking region of Provisions for Encouraging Foreijn Traded - WS China to investigate the navigation route there, (2) the expansion bf bank- ing facilities in connection with foreign trade, (3) the establishment of bonded warehouses under supervision of the Customs Hoilses, (4) the exJ pansiofi of sale of the principal exports, (5) correspondence on the situation of foreign markets,- (6.) marine insurance, (7) control and prOtectiotiof workmen (the above were placed before the 189G session of the Diet)j (8) the operation of the gold monometallic system and its effect oa agriculture, commerce and industry at home, (9) its effect on, foreign trade, (10) the measures to be adopted for minimizing, the evil side and for increasing the beneficial side of that effect, (11) en- couragement of the business of tea exporting, (12) encouragement of exportation of silk (the above were principal subjects discussed in the second session held in 1897.) The council also ddiberated on sundry other matters at its own initiation and passed a resolution,' to give one of such instances, totally abolishing export duties. In June, 1897, the organization of the council was amended so as to allow it to deliberate on matters relating to domestic trade as well as. on matters relating to foreign trade. The number of the the members was ■ at the same time increased from 20 to 30. 3. Inspection of Foeeign Maekets. — The Government has been dispatching from 1895 a number of officials and commissioners to foreign' countries to cause them to investigate the state of the foreign markets, especially with the object of promoting direct export by our merchants, and also inquiring into other matters calculated to further the interests of foreign trade. Besides Government oflScials, stuilent commercial 'agents and student manufacturers, and private individuals experienced in respective lines of trade were despatched on similar missions, the chambers supplying them with either a part or the whole of the travelling expenses. During the eight years from the 1895 to 1901 fiscal years altogether 124 people were sent abroad, some of them to China, others to Europe, and still others to Korth and South America, and a few to the South Seas, the Strait Settlements, Siberia, Korea, India, the Philippines, etc. 4. Industeial Guilds. — ^An outline history of regislative measures relating to industrial guilds haying been given in a section of Agriculture, a brief survey of the formation of guilds of industrial and commercial interests may be sufficient in this place. 476 Japan in the Berjinning of the 20th CentuTy. As matters relating to the guilds were left outside the control of Government offices prior to 1884 when rules were enacted requir- ing the approval of the authorities in forming a guild, it is not possible to ascertain how many guilds of different interests had previously existed throughout the country. The returns drawn up in November 1886 first supply reliable information on this subject. The number was as follows at that time: — Commercial Guilds 62S Industrial Guilds 404 Commercial and Industrial Guilds 547 Total 1,579 On the issue of the Staple Exports Guild Law in 1897, a numbers of guilds organized under the former regulations were aboli- shed, so that at the end of 1889 the guilds numbered as follow :— ' Commercial Guilds 538 Industrial Guilds 442 Commercial and Industrial Guilds 188 Total 1,168 The replacement of the Law in question by the Staple Commodi- ties Law in 1900 was again followed by change in the figures, thus : — Commercial Guilds 529 Industrial Guilds 433 Commercial and Industrial Guilds 187 Total 1,149 Of the foregoing number of guilds quite a large portion have been established in conformity with the Staple Export Guilds Law and its suscessor the Staple Commodities Guild Law. This is showfs in the following table : — Year. C°™- mercial. In- dustrial. Com. & In'al. Total. Dis- solved. Number existing. 189S 18 18 24 60 — 60 1899 27 26 52 103 — ■ 65 190 > 18 13 43 71 2 237 igoL 10 As existing at the end of 1 901... 73 II 62 21 140 42 4 275 . Provisions for Encouraging Foreign Trade. 477 According to the returns made in July, 1902, tlie guilds engaged in tLe manufacturing business numbered 61, and those in sales and in raauufacture and sales numbered respectively 66 and 150. 5. SxtTDENT Commercial Agents and Manufacturers. — These constitute one of the regular measures adopted since 1896 as a means of expanding our foreign trade. The object is to send abroad capable young men so that they can get a practical training either at commercial establishments or in factories. The candidates are selected from among those recommended by leading business-men and other influential people of the provinces. A certain amount of pecuniary help is given to the students, though there are some who decline if. All those students, whether receiving help or not, are under the control of our nearest legations or consulates, and the students receiving help are obliged to regularly send a report to the home Government about the given subjects which they are intended to be studying. The number of students and the places where they got training were as follows : — 1896 — 10 ; one each at Mexico, Germany, England, France, China, five at the United States of America. 1897 — 13 (10 continued from the preceding year); one at Bombay, two additional at U.S. A ; the rest as above. 1898 — 16 (13 continued from the preceding year, 4 new, and 2 not receiving help) : one each at Mexico, Germany, England, British India, three each at China and France, eight at U.S.A. 1899 — 47 (15 continued from the preceding year, 27 new, 5 not receiving help) : one each at Mexico, England, Belgium, Kussia, Siberia, Australia, British India ; six at France, five at Germany ; 15 at U.S. America ; 12 at China. 1900 — 58 (32 continued from the preceding year, 24 new, 2 not receiving help) ; 16 at U. S. America ; 12 at France, six at Germany, two each at England, Russia and Siberia, one each at Belgium and Australia, 14 at China. 1901 — 97 (31 contiiiued from the preceding year, 59 new, and 7 without receiving help) ; 11 each at France and Germany, two each at British Canada, Mexico, Peru, Strait Settlements, and Java, : three each at Belgium, Hongkong and Australia, Siberia, one each at Kusiia, Switzerland, and Philippines, 14 at U. S. America, 25 at China. 478 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20tJi Centupy, 6. CoMMEEcrAL SAMPLES MusEUM. — Japan possesses 38 com- Inercial samples museums, not to mention those that are now being set up. The Cormr.'eTeial Museum established in premiaes of the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Commerce feeing the most important of the institutions of this deewiption though not the oldest, deserves to be described here at some length. It was established eight years ago, and contains 23,161 samples of which 12,756 are of foreign and tlie remaining 10,405 of domestic origin. Bosides, there are 4,188 by foreigners and Japanese. The samples collected by the Museum Gomprise in regard to domestic produce, commodities that now constitute the principal items of export or are likely to become so in the near future, also those that are competing with imported goods on our market or arc qualified to do so. As to the foreign samples collected, they represent commodities of principal import or those that are likely to become so, or those that are actually competing or are likely to do so on .foreign markets with the goods exported from Japan. Then samples judged to represent the situation of our industry in all its manifold ' forms are also placed on view in the Museum, as also raw materials of all descriptions both foreign and Japanese, that arc judged capable of being exploited with profit in Japan. The Museum keeps in touch with the movement of our trade and with the situation of all important commodities, and while it serves as a medium of presenting in a business-like way all the succinct points .which foreign merchants or manufacturers may wish to know about :our goods in opening regular transaction with our merchants or manufacturers, the latter are similarly supplied with all the necessary information about foreign goods. This intermediary function played by the Museum is highly appreciated both by our countrymen as well as by foreigners, so that while the Museum keeps up at the request of our people correspondence with Japanese consulates, foreign museums and such bodies so as to find for their goods suitable markets abroad, the institution extends to similar applications coming from foreign countries an equal amount of attention and satisfaction. In short the Museum is now widely regarded as one of the most convenient institutions both by Japanese and foreigners for keeping Provisions for. I^iieouroiffin^ Foreign Trad,e.^ 479 themselves in touch with the situatioa of ■ commerce' -' and industry both at home and abroad. With this growing iraportanoe of the Mugeum, the namber of samples either presented by Japanese ot foreigners or of applications from them to place their samples on view has began to increase to a marked extent, and the Museum is even now embarrassed to find room for those samples. This is indeed a great advance on the time when the Museum experienced no small difficulty in inducing Japanese or foreign merchants or manufacturers to send samples of their goods to be exhibited in its rooms. The Museum makes a loan of its exhibits or sometimes spares a number of its exhibits to local museums or shows with the object of more widely extending the benefit for which it was established. It also keeps up a regular correspondence with foreign museums or commercial schools, exchanges printed matters with them, and in shoit spares no pains for efficiently discharging its function. 7. CoMMEECiAL SAMPLE MusEUMS ABROAD.— The establish- ment of commercial sample museums in foreign countries was another item included in the foreign trade expansion programme inaugurated in 1895. The museums are placed under the control of the Japanese Consulates and are left in charge of merchants properly qualified for the purpose and also qualified to act as a medium for the conclusion of transactions between Japanese and foreign merchants or manufacturers. The museums thus organized numbered six in the opening year, and were established at Vladivostock, Odessa, Bombay, Singapore, Shasi, and Mexico. In the following year one was established at Amoy. From that time till t]ie 1902 fiscal year several others have been started at different places, but as some whose existence was not justified by results, have been closed, at the end of the year in question the official museums existed at the following places, viz. Shasi, Hangkow, Chunking, Bombay, Newchwang, Singapore, and Bangkok. At the same time a number of private sample museums have been granted state aids, these being the Ping- Yang-Hong at Fuchow, Seoul Commercial Museum at the Korean capital, the Japan-China Commercial Museum at Shanghai, and one at Constantinople. It may be stated that the samples on view at the official commercial museums comprise articles either purchased by 480 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Centur^j. the Government or articles presented by merchants or manufacturers concerned. 8. Experimental pkoductios of oomjieecial commodities. — Since 1896 the Government has caused teelmical schools and workshops to undertake by trust the production of commodities at the rcques; of the Government. The result of this experimental work cannot fail to improve and encourage the respective lines of industry und it has been made public. 9. Industrial Eepoets. — The Bureaux of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce concerned have been compiling reports since 1895 on industrial subjects respectively left in their charge, especially in their bearing to foreign markets and the situation of proiluctio i at home. These reports which are supplying a want long felt by all the public are being distributed among the Government OiBce.=, public institutions, and business people. The subjects previously treated were cotton fabrics, umbrellas, wood-ware, rape-seed oil, wood, wax, copper and bronze-ware, silk fabrics, handkerchiefs and other silk-ware, rugs, porcelain and earthenware, cloisonne-ware; cotton yarns, straw-plaits, matches, glass-ware, matting, paper and paper- ware, lacquer-ware, screens, and fans. To this list cigarettes and other manufactured tobacco, brushes, iron-ware, buttons, clocks, soap, cotton blankets, cotton knit-work, cement, cotton undershirts, stock- ings, beer, sake and other liquors, and soy have lately been added. Besides the reports forwarded by Japanese Consuls, student com- mercial agents and manufacturers, and also reports embodying the result of investigations made either at home or abroad on industrial matters, have been published and similarly distributed. Central Finances. 481 PART V. FINANCES. CHAPTER I— Finances. Central Finances — Formosan Finances — Local Finances — DebtB — Currency — Money Market— Banks — Clearing-Houses. I. CENTRAL FINANCES. Finances Before Hie Restoration. — Though circumstances made it comparatively easy of accomplishment the work of reinstat- ing the Imperial Government, nevertheless it involved in the adjust- ment of the finances labor of stupendous description. This was prin- cipally due to the necessity of unifying the different financial systems that had been followed for a long period by the 277 Feudal Fiefe. feudal daimyates that existed during the pre-Restora- tion days, systems that were, too, in a state of extreme disorder and complication. The reason is because many of the feudal princes had been compelled by necessity to make various shifts, such as issuing fiat currency, minting debased coins, ordering the payment of taxes in advance or contracting loans. The debts for which the feudal princes thus made themselves responsible were enormous, and these devolved entirely on the Imperial Government. On the other hand the revenue was in arears to an astonishing extent, for its only important resource, the Land Tax, did not supply more than one-tenth of the whole expenditure. The Government had therefore to fall back on issuing inconvertible notes to meet this deficit. For several years after the advent of the Restoration, the finances remained in this deplorable condition. In the meanwhile 482 Japan in the Bisginniiig of tJie 20th Century. the Government energetically strove to establish the taxation system on a regular and sound basis. For this the first thing that demanded attention was to definitely define in regard to land the right of fief formerly exercised by the feudal princes and the right of ownership by private individuals. As was generally the case in most other places where feudalism prevailed, this distinction was far from clear ; the princes besides exercising the right of control held at the same time a sort of right of ownership over all the land in their respec- tive dominions. The right of ownership was therefore rather the right of tenantry, and the tax or tenant-rate, paid with rice, was the principal source of revenue to the feudal princes. The rate of this so-called tax was not uniform ; but it was excessively heavy, ranging from 30 to 70 per cent, of the yield of the field. Some sort of tax was also imposed on manufacture, but this was of course insignificant. The revenue of the princes was principally devoted to maintain- ing their military organization and supporting their retainers. The farmers and merchants were therefore made use of merely as tool for supporting this unproductive class. The Shogunate. — The Shogunate was peculiarly situated in regard to finances. It exercised the power of control over the feudal princes, but it did not govern directly the people inhabiting the princes' fiefs as apportioned by the Shogunate. The people in those fiefs were not therefore obliged to pay any tax to the central Govern- ment, and all their duties in that direction ended with their respec- tive lords. The princes, however, were under obligation to discharge at their own expense the military and other services demanded by the Shogunate, and also to pay tribute, mostly nominal, to it. The ordinary revenue of the Shogunate consisted of the taxes levied in its own dominions, so that in this respect the Shogunate was in a position no better than the feudal princes it had under its control. Indeed the Shogunate's revenue was even less than that of some powerful princes. Financial Difficulties of the Eestored Imperial Govekn- MENT. — The Imperial Government therefore at once found itself confronted by a grave financial complication when, on the fall of the feudal system, the real right of administration passed into its • . ' Ceiitml FinanceSt 483 Land. Moverover the transfer of ^ the power of the central admini- stration to the new Government in 18G8 wa^ not accompanied in' practice by that of the national revenue. Even the revenue that the Shogunate enjoyed did not wholly go to the revenue of the reha- bilitated Government, and yet it had to undertake the gigantic task ■of thoroughly reorganizing political and social institutions. It was necessary first of all to devise some financial arrangements which all those undertakings absolutely required. As the first step towards consummating these arrangements, the Govei'nment had to deal with the important question of the fiefs and pensions of the feudal princes and their retainers. This was the most delicate aflfair of all, inas- limch as the restoration of the Imperial regime was by no means AVdlcoined by all sections of the people ; on the contrary some of them were, for one reason or another, bitterly opposed to it. But for accomplishing this grand work of the unification of administra- tion, which was the primary object of the reinstatement of the Imperial power, it was absolutely necessary to secure the compliance to it of all the influential quarters, and with their compliance to put all the important measures under the new political system. This mighty national movement was fortunately backed by all the powerful feudal princes, who in 1869 surrendered their fiefs of their own accord to the central Government, and thus laid the foundation of the present imposing fabric of the Imperial Government. With the enforcement in 1871 of the local system, the reality of administrative unification was first brought about. The privileges enjoyed by the feudal princes and their retainers were annuled, the whole country was placed under one and the same legislative measures, and all the distinctions of social rank and class' were abolished. Private Individuals and Ownership of Land. — With re- gard to the surrender of their fiefs by the feudal princes, which led to the clear setting up of the right of ownership of land by private individuals, those princes were actuated by the noble altruistic prin- ciple, acknowledging themselves as subjects of the sovereign and therefore not entitled to any sovereign right over land or to rule people who were subjects of the same rightful lord as themselves. On its own part, the reinstated Government, while maintaining its 484 Japan in the Begiimiiig oj tJie 20th Century. authority in accordance with the advanced principles of latvr, appor- tioned in a fair and equitable manner the right of ownership of land to private individuals, and paved the way toward laying the foundation of sound finances. The duty of people as tax-payers was for the first time solved properly, and the burden of taxation was made uniform throughout the whole land. The Land Tax. — In establishing the system of finance the Government undertook first of all the re-arrangement of the Laud Tax, and this is a measure which should remain prominent in the financial history of the Empire. It was 1871 that the measures relating to it were taken in hand. In 1873 a law embodying the result of the deliberations and investigations conducted in this connection was promulgated, but it was not till ten year later that the great work of reorganizing the tax had been completed. This taxation measure was one of special importance, in that it first established in a thorough manner the principle of the unification of the taxes. The principal features in the new Land Tax law were these ; — (a). Tlie establishment in a firm and fixed way of the right of ownership of land by private individuals. When feudal system was abolished in European countries the central government liad to pay a price for the fiefs held by the feudal lords, but in Japan the feudal lords were recom- pensed with public bonds when they were induced to surrender their dominions. (b). The removal of all the restrictions that had formerly existed in connection with the ownership of land by private indivi- duals; During the pre-Restoration days the purchase or sale of land by common people was forbidden ; nor were farmers left free in determining the crop they wished to cultivate in their land. The fact was as rice was used as medium for the pay- ment of the Land Tax, and as the production of this cereal was therefore regarded as the most important factor in the economy of the various little states, the feudal governments were apt to interfere in the work of the farmers to the extent of ordyring the cultivation of rice even when the soil was not, Central Finances. 485 suited for it. The new Law of Land Tax while oonfirming indisputably the right of individuals to own land, removed all restrictions on land, and allowed land-owners to sell or mortgage their land or to use it in any way they liked. The discontinuation of that pernicious practice of interference has enabled the farmers to utilize their land to the best ad- vantage, and to further the development of the national re- sources. (c). The determination of the official value of land throughout the country. As the products of the land formed the basis of taxations in former times, the tax-gatheres of each feudal government inspected every year the condition of the harvest in tlie domi- nions of such government and determined the rate of the tax payable for the year. There was no fixed rate. The new Government decided to determine the official value of the land and to place the taxation on a basis at once sound and fair. It was a gigantic task, but with admirable energy the Govern- ment set about the work, and finally completed it in a com- paratively short space of time. The method adopted in determin- ing the official value consisted in taking the average harvest for five years, to convert it into money by taking the average price ruling in the same period, using that price as basis of capitalization and of heuce determining the value of the land. The work was concluded in 1881. To carry the valuation to a state of greater perfection and fairness, the re-assessment was carried out in 1899. (d). The payment of taxes with money. Taxes were formerly payable in kind, that is in rice or some other such produce. By the enforcement of the new law of taxation and the cessation of the quasi-tenantry nature of the Laud Tax, the tax began to be paid with money and by fixed rate according to the official value of the land. All those changes have considerably reduced the burden of the farmers. The tax was at first fixed at 3 per cent, of the assessed value, but this was reduced to 2^ per cent, in 1877. After having remained unaltered for a long while the rate wag 486 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. slightly raised, for five years ending 1903, the inoreiase' being at the rate of 2i per cent, of the assessed value for dw.elling land in urban districts and 8/1,000 for other kinds of land- With the expiration of this period the rate was restored to the original rate, that is from 1904. Such is a brief history of the Land Tax liaw. It may be thought strange that this particular tax should have occupied such a promi- nent position in the finances of the Government in the early stage of its re-instatement. The reason is simplj^ this, that Japan was at that time an almost purely agricultural country and all other forms- of industry, such as -manufactures, etc., were then in a very primitive state. Thus in the year when the assessment of the value of land Was completed, the proceeds of the Land Tax amounted to 43,000,000' yen out of the total of 60,000,000 yen derived from all kinds of taxes. New Taxes. — With the progress of the country, however, demands on State disbursements necessarily advanced, and the- Government was obliged to seek some suitable sources from which liew taxes could be colleetted. The sources from which taxes had been drawn during the pre-Restoration days were throughly investi- gated, and it was decided that some indirect taxes should be imposed. The result was, in 1887 a new indirect tax, in the shape of an income tax was inaugurated. The Tax on Sake. — Of the indirect taxes newly established, the tax on sake was, as it is still to-day, the most important. The system as enforced to-day consists in levying the tax according to- the quantity of the liquor brewed, that is per koku. The tax was- created in 1878. The rate of the tax has been advanced by rather rapid stages, and what was only 4 yen per koku before the adoption of the so-called post-bellum programme has been raised to 15 yen. Effect of the Japan-Chixa War ox National Finances. — Indeed the expansion of national finances since the Japan-China War has been something extraordinary. Prior to that the ex- penditure amounted to about 80 million yen. In the 1896-'7 fiscal' year, when several post-bellum expansion measures had been in- augurated, the corresponding figures rose at one jump to 170 million yen, then to 220 million yen in the 1899-'8 year, 290 millions in the 1900-'l year, and 280 millions in the 1902-'3 year. The war, in. ■Ccnti'al Finances. . 487 short, mai'lcs a new era iov our finances, as indeed for all otlier affairs in Japan both public and private. The post-bellum Peogeamme. — The successful conduct of the, post-bellum measures demanding the expansion of the finance hand in hand with the development of economic resources, the Government while raising taxes or floating loans, has not neglected to take sucli measures as were calculated to encourage the development of economic undertakings, such as the improvement of the monetary system or the establishment of additional important banking mecha- nisms. This subject of post-bellum finance covering wide field, it is im- possible to treat it here at any length, so that the reader who is 'interested in the subject is advised to consult the History of the Post-bellum Finance published in English by the Imperial Japanese Treasury. All that can be stated here about this great question will be merely categorical. Suffice it here to state that, of the large number of measures under- taken in that programme, the most important are the expansion of national armaments, the establishment of the Iron Foundery,. the ex- pansion of the existing railroads and construction of the new, the expansion of the telephone and telegraphic service ; the creation of the Imperial Kyoto University and of additional Higher Schools and Technical and Commercial Institutes; the establishment of the Japan Hypothec Bank, of Local Hypothec Banks, Hokkaido Colonial Bank and of the Formosan Bank ; and lastly several other measures for promoting agriculture, manufacture and trade ; and then engine- ering work for controlling unruly rivers. All those measures have been carried out with a view to developing the national resources aod industries. It being impossible to meet with the proceeds of the ordinary revenue the enormous expenses involved in the undertakings coi - templated, it was decided that the outlays on account of those extru" ordinary works should be met by means of the Indemnity and loans, and that the additional requirement on account of ordinary expendi- tures should be obtained by increased tax measures. In pursuance of this poiicy these measures were carried out in the 1 896-7 fiscal year, then in the 1898-'9 and lastly in the 1901-'2, the additional ■ proceed from this new source being estimated to amount to 95 inilliou yen, as will be demonstrated in the following paragraphs. ^ 488 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th CeniMry. The Tax on Sahe that stood at the rate of 9 yen per koku in 1896 ■was raised to 12 in 1898 and 15 in 1901. The latest tax on liquor is that on beer which is at the rate of 7 yen per hoku The proceeds from the tax on all the different kinds of liquors amount to about 55 million yen, so that this source stands at the head of all direct or indirect taxes in the amount it yields to the revenue. The rate of the Land Tax increased in 1899 to 3.3 per cent of the assessed value brought in an additional revenue of about 8 million yen. but this addition was procurable for only five years end- ■ ing 1903, when the rate was restored to the original 2\ per cent. One thing to be noted in this connection is the marked advance that has taken place recently in the price of rice, and hence of the capitalized value of land on which the tax is based, the present price being about threefold that prevailing on the occasion of the last assessment. Therefore even at the rate of 3.3 per cent, it practically amounts to only 1 per cent., when considered in connection with th.it advance. The Income Tax was at the same time advanced by 1 to^Si per cent but the creation of the Business Tax in 1896 was a far more important measure. This tax being extremely complicated in „ ° its assessment, all that can be ttated within the ness Taxes. ,. . , ,. , • , , . • , limited space at our disposal is that the tax is imposed according to the proceeds realized from the sales of commodities, the amount of the rental of the buildings, of capital invested, the number of persons employed, etc. The tax is one of special importance in view of its relation to franchise, for a man who pays this tax above a certain limit is entitled to exercise this important right. The relation between the exercise of legislative functions, and the Business Tax has developed a new feature in the history of the national legislature, as it has led to the admission (as the Land Tax did in the case of agriculturists from the first) of the business classes to the exercise of this important privilege, and therefore to establish some balance between agriculturists and business people in the privilege of national representation. The inauguration of the tobacco monopoly meafiure by discontinu- ing, the former stamp duty on tobacco was another special financial Central Finances, 489 Tobacco Monopoly, feature incidental to the post-bellum pro- gramme. The monopoly originated from the idea of increasing the revenue from this source and of doing away with the complicated stamp duty and the license duty. The post-bellum programme has not confined itself, in regard to taxation, to creating new taxes or increasing the rate of the old, for it has at the same time abolished some of the existing taxes and has generally simplified taxation. The existing taxes, besides those already enumerated, comprise exercise on sugar, soy tax, tax on the issue of convertible notes, tax on bourses, tax on mining, tonnage dues, tax on Other Taxes, patent medicines, regisration tax, stamp duties, etc. Then there are proceeds from such Government under- takings as railroads and post and telegraph services, and the pro- ceeds from this sources are steadily increacing. Customs duties were at first insignificant, for with the tariff fixed, under the then existing treaty, at 5 per cent, ad valorem, and with foreign trade remaining inactive, the receipts realized Customs Duties, did not for several years exceed 3 million xjen. The development of the trade was naturally attended by a great increase in the amounts of custom receipts, and in 1898 the recipts, even under the old 5 per cent, rate, amounted to about 9 million yen. With the revision of the treaty in the following year, tariff autonomy was partially restored. At the same time export duties were entirely abolished, and the tariff was confined to imports alone. The tariff rate, according to the new arrangement, ranges from 5 to 35 per cent, ad valorem, and the enforcement of this nfew system was at once followed by a marked increase in the receipts. In the 1899 fiscal year, for instance, it amounted to about 16 million yen, and excepting the 13,600,000 yen in the 1901 fiscal year, that of the other three last years exceeded 16,500,000 yen, so that this source now constitutes an important item in our national revenue. Even from the brief survey given above of the development of our taxation system, it will be seen how our financial system is growing more and more sound with the development of the national economy. At the beginning of the era, the Land Tax was pratically the sole resource of revenue for the Government, while to-day the 499 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Contury. list conWinS a large numbet of ' taXes some of ^yhich eyen. yield a larger revenue than that primary tax. Financial Administration. — The reason why the taxation system has been here described at some length arises from our desire to show the soundness of our finance and also because the financial system must occupy a place of special importance in any explana- tion of the national condition of the new Japan..- For other aspects of our finances only a short notice will therefore be .given. A brief description of the history of the management of the finances .will not however be out of place here. As might have been expected^ the financial system was extremely complicated in the beginning of .the era, and no regular method existed with regard to financial administration. Each Department of the State was financially independent, and there was no unity in the State finances. On the enforcement in 1871 of the first local administration system, it was ar7 ranged that all financial matters should be controlled by the Treasury, while, coming to 1873, a regular procedure was adopted for receipt^ and payment, and this was a forerunner of the present Budget systein. In 1880 the Board of Audit was created and placed under the direct control of the Emperor. Considerable difiiculty was ex- perienced in bringing financial administration under the control of the Treasury and the auditing business under that of the Board of Audit, for each Department of the State had been used to separately look after its own money matters, while no definite system had existed in regard to the finances of the State. It was therefore feared that an attempt to unify financial affairs might not be beneficial in its result. Ex- perience has, however, entirely falsified this prediction, and the new arrangement has proved as efiicient as it has been beneficial. The year 1882 was indeed a memorable one in the history of Japanese finances, for from that year the sole control by the Treasury of the right of receiving or paying Government money was obtained ; and all irregularities that had previously attended this important branch of State affairs were entirely removed. In this year too the Bank of Japan was created, and was made to act as cashier for the Government. To mention other important financial meAsures, the budgets and settled accounts were made public every year from 1886, while on the occasion of the promulgation of the Imperial Central Finances. 491 Constitution in 1889, the Law of Finance was amended, and our financial system first assumed the form it presents fo-day. The Budgets, as provided in the Constitution, are compiled by the Minister of Finance and carried into effect by him with tlie approval of the Diet. The settled Accounts are introduced to the Diet' also fefter having been audited by' the Board of Audit. FXNANCE AND THE IMPERIAL DiET. — On the advent of the Constitutional regime, a new epoch was inaugurated ip financial affairs, so that while previously those affairs were arranged at the discretion of the Government alone, the approval of the Diet is ' now required for them. The compilation of budgets and the reporting of settled accounts are of course no novel process in the West, but its adoption by Japan is a significant sign proving how Japan has energetically striven to regulate her finances according to the enlight- ened system of the West. Statistical Tables. — Before proceeding to treat other subjects about finances, statistics relating to State expenditures and revenue, proceeds from different items of revenue, and other affairs shall be giveia -first : — TABLE I.— ANNUAL STATE REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE PERTAINING TO THE GENERAL ACCOUNT. (unit oi yei )• Revenue. Fiscal Year. Ordinary. Extraordinary. Total. 1868 (a) ... . . ... 3.664,783 29,434.533 33.089,313 1S69. {b) ... . . ... 4,666,056 29.772,349 34,438,405 1S70 (r) ... . . ... 10,043,628 10915,872 20,959,500 1871 {d) ... . . ... 15,340,922 6,803,676 22,144,59s 1872 (e) ... . . ... 24,422,742 26,022,431 50,445,173 1S73 (/) ... . . ... 70,561,688 14,945,557 85,507.245 1874 („) - • . ... 7 ',090,481 2,355.063 73 445,544 1S75 (i-) ... • ■ ■- 83,080,575 3,240,502 86,321,077 1875 . ... 63,786,587 5,696,090 69,482,677 1S76 . ... 55.684,997 3,796,039 59,481,036 1877 . . :,. . . ... 49,967,723 2,370,410 52,388,133 1878 .:. ,.. , ■ ••■ 53,558,117 8,885,632 62,443,749 492 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 2(Hh Gentury, Revenue. Fiscal Year. Ordinary. Extraordinary. Total. 1879 • 57.7>6,3«2 4,435,428 62,151,751 1880 . 58,036,574 S.330,681 63,367,255 1881 . 64,304,512 7,185,368 71,489,880 1882 . 69,888,873 3,619,554 73,508,427 1883 . 76,425.687 6,681,171 83,106,858 1884 72,102,109 4,567,464 76,669,654 "885 (/') • 56,429,622 57,272,213 62,156,835 1886 . 7i,o9),268 14,231,876 85,326,144 1887 76,068,094 12,092.980 88,161,074 1S88 • 74.253,414 18,703,519 92,956,933 1889 . 82,355,442 14,332,537 96,687,979 1S90 ■ 78,593,498 27,875,856 106,459,354 1891 76,264^852 26,966,636 103,231 488 1892 80,728,018 20,733.893 101,461,911 , 1893 . 85,883,080 27,886,300 113.769,380 1894 . 89,748,454 8,421,574 98,170,028 1895 ■ 95.444,652 22,988,069 118,432,721 1896 • 104,904,501 82,114,922 187,019.423 1897 . 124,222,964 102,167,159 226,390,123 1898 . 132,869,336 87,184,792 220,054,128 1899 • 177.328,528 76,925,996 254.254,524 igcxD . 192,170,080 103,684.787 295,854,867 1901 . 202,035.071 72.323.950 274.359,021 1902 . 226,114,613 56.318.351 282,432,964 1903 • 231,802,499 19,879,462 251,681,961 Expenditure. Sumlu*; OT Fiscal Year. Ordinary. Extraordinary. Tota Deficit. 1868 (a) 5,506,253 24,998.833 30,505,086 2,584,227 1869 (d) 9.360,231 11,425,609 20,785,840 13,652,565 1870 (c) 9,750,003 10,357,669 20,107,672 851,828 1871 (d) 12,226,382 7,008,776 19,235 158 2,909,440 1872 w 42,474.919 j5.255.106 57,730, 025 *7,284,852 1873 (/) 50,639,552 12,039,048 62,678,600 22 828,645 1874 Q 60,001,916 22,267,612 82,269,528 *8,823,9S4 ■875 U) 52,842,348 13,292,424 66,134,772 20,186,305 1875 56,613,037 12,590,205 69,203 242 279455 1876 56,815,326 2,493.631 59,308 957 172,079 1877 45.344.216 3,084,109 48,428,325 3,909,808 1878 :. ... 55,988,710 4,954,626 60,941 336 i,5o-',4ij CeiUral jpinances. 493 Expenditure. ^.^|^^...^.^U.S,. Surplus or Fiscal Year. Ordinaty. Extraordinary. Total. Delict. 1879 •• SS,2oS,S39 5,112,040 60,317,579 1,834.142 1880 .. 60,297,322 ^,843,574 63,140,896 225,359 l88i 60,413,710 11,046,611 71,460,321 29,559 1882 •■ 59,750,727 13,729,940 73,480,957 27,760 18S3 • • 67,914,175 15,192,682 83,106,858 1S84 .. 60,724,554 15,938,554 76,663,108 6,546 1885 (/O .. 47,543,037 13.472,277 61,115,314 1,041,521 l886 ■■ 67,613,793 15,610,167 83,223 960. 2,102,184 1887 66,042,669 13,410,367 79 453,036 8,708,038 1888 - 66,439,715 15,064,308 81,504,024 11,452,909 18S9 •• 63,785,569 15,928,103 79,713.672, , 16,974,307 1890 •■ 66,752,431 15,372,972 82,125.403 24,343,951 1891 .. 62,935,312 20,619,579 83,555,891 19,675,597 1892 63,818,030 12,916,710 76,734,740 24,727,171 1893 ■ • 64,545,499 20,036.273 84,581,872 29,187,508 1894 60,421,346 17,707,297 78,128,643 20,041,385 189s 67,148,007 18,169,173 85,317,180 33,115,541 1896 .. 100,712,815 68,143,692 168,856,508 18,162,915 1897 - 107,695,127 115,983,717 223,578,844 2,711,279 1898 •• ii9,o72,:44 100,685/1.24 219,757,568 296,560 1899 ■ • i37,59o,4>8 116,575,120 254,165,538 88,985 1900 .. 149,134,167 143,615,893 292,750,060 3,104,807 1901 ... 160,363,583 106,493,241 266,856,824 7,502,197 1902 - 177,596,966 104,156,229 281,753,195 . 679,769 1903 ... 178,464,121 66,288,225 244,752,346 ,6,929,615 Note : — The length of term of fiscal years given in this and the following four tables is not uniform; (a) comprises 13 months ending December 31st of i858; (i) 9 months ending September 30th, 1869; (c) 12 months ending Septemljer 30th, 1870; ((^ 13 months ending October 31st, 1871 ; (e) 14 months ending ' December 31st, 1872; (/) 12 months ending December 31st, of the respective years; (,j) 6 months ending June 30th, 1875. The rest comprise 12 months each, 1875 and 1884 fiscal years ending on June 30th and the others on March 31st, of the respective following years. The figures for 1868 to 1900 fiscal years represent settled accounts ; those for 1901, actual accounts as they stood on November of loUowing year, and lastly those for 1902 and 1903 estimates on the budget. The figures marked by an asterisk'(*) denote deficit. 494 Japan in the Beginning of ilve 2(ith Gc^itury. TABLE II.— SOURCES OF THE ANNUAL STATE REVENUE PERTAINING TO THE GENERAX AfC JUNT. (unit oi yen). Ordinary Revenue. Fiscal Year. Taxss. Stamp Receipts. i86S . ... 3,265,483 — 1869 • ... 4,431.332 — 1870... .. • •.. 9,634,864 — 1871 • — 14,270,058 — 1872 . ... 22,566,525 — 1873 .. ■• . ... 64,537,656 354,478 1874 . ... 64,836,528 332,650 J87S . ... 75,808,346 412,445 1875 ■ ■■• 57,764.039 ■ . 7-o°,7Si 1876 . ... 50,250,312 670,944 1877 . ... 46,231,261 - 761,725 1878 • — 49,740,694 666,949 1879 ■ - 53,462,90: 784,918 1880 , ... 52,692,914 962,701 1881 , ... 58,813,403 .1,002,333 1882 , . ... 64,893,531 1,039,710 1883... ,.., ■ - 64,223,783 975,636 1884 . ... 63,799,177 1,078,963 1885 , ... 50,116,710 709,701 18S6 . ... 63,356,863 922,594 1887 ■ •■• 65,279,634 878,23s 1888 , ... 63 324,078 1,305,364 1889. . ... 70,506,158 622,127 1890 , ... 65,363,608 580,763 1891 , ... 63,660,190 588,099 1892 ... 66,415,217 659,999 1893 ... 69,166,393 761,531 1S94 ... 70.417,709 793,437 189s ... 73,567,908 900,980 1896 1897 1898 1.899 igoo igoi 1902 1903 ... 75,042,271 - 93.700,752 . 96,187,335 , ... I?6,034,543 ... 133,926,095 ■ — 139,530,008 ... 153,430,541 ... 158,488,644 6,493,055 7,182,667 7.605,170 11,942,825 12,289,237 12,274,702 14,304,951 13,532,121 Receipts . from I'ublic Undertaliings and State I'roperty. 101,856. 127,708 193,761 327471 229,375 2.376,256 2,601,703 3-550,504 5,175,820 4,643,593 2,854,395 3,021,107 3,304,588 4,197,878 4,288,261 3,763,322 4.335,841 4,812,012 4,287,510 5,304,752 6,126,533 6,841,354 7,677,951 8,733420 8,2^5,177 9,585,488 11,602,974 13.957.192 15,767,916 17,555.922 19,491.926 25,410,159 34.742,000 40,073,716 44,304,017 51,821,303 52,739,522 Transferred ior the , Payment of Interest on' Deposits. 994,497 634,229 632,513 913.ZI4 1,036,609 1,018,057 1,548,193 1,535,679 1 ,099,000 2,024,2i/I 2,381,896 2,319,314 3,309,805 3,3"9,8oS Central Finanees. 495 Fund Transfer- red for Redemp- Education Other Miscella- Fiscal tion of Formo- Fund Trans- Funds neous Total. Year. san Public Works Loan. ferred. Trans- ferred. Receipts. 1868 ... . ... — . 297441 3,664,780 1869 ... . ... — — • — 107,016 4,666,056 1870 .., . ... — — — 214,998 10,043,628 1871 .., . ... -^ — — ' 743,393 15,340,922 1872 .., . ... — . — — 1,626,842 24,422,742 1873 ... . ... -^ — — 3.293,298 70,561,688 1874 - . ... — — — 3,319,600 7.i,o9o;;48i 1875 .. . ... — — — 3,309,280 83,o8o:575' 1875 .. . ... — — — 145,977 ■63,786,587 1876 ... . ... — — — 120,148 55,684,997 1877 ... . ... — — — 120,342 49,967,723 1878 .. . ... — — — 129,367 53,558,117 1879 - . ... — — — 163,916 57,716,323 1880 .. . ... — — — 183,08: 58,036,574 1S81 .. . ... — — — 200,512 64,304,512 1882 .. . ... — — — 192,310 69,888,873 1883 .. . ... — — 6,658,303 232,124 76,425,687 1884 .. . ... — — 2,190,926 221,107 72,102,190 1885 .. . ... — — 1,113,155 202,546 56,429,622 1886 .. . ... — — — 1,510,059 71,094,268 1887 .. . ... -^ — — 3,783.962 76,068,094 1888 .. . ... — — — 2,782,718 74,253,414 1889 .. . ... — — — 3,549,206 82,355,442 1890 .. . ... — — — 2,921,210 78,593,498 1891 .. . ... — — — 3,097,157 76,264,852 1892 .. . ... — — — 3,134801 80,728,018 1893 .. . ... — — — 3,435,968 85,883,080 1894 .. . ... — — — 3,543,507 89,748,454 J 895 -.. . ... — — — 4,139,791 65,444,952 1896 .. ,. ... — — 2,711,823 «,553,237 104,904,501 1897 ., .. ... — — — 2,311,940 124,222,964 189S .. — — — 2,567,672 132,866,336 1899 .. 23.333 — — 2,561,539 177,328,527 1900 .. 338.939 623,61 1 — 2,536,594 192,170,081 1901 .. 563,768 541,752 — 2,223,280 202,035,071 1902 .. 1,000,303 500,000 — 1,747,710 226,114,61 ■1903 -. 1,350,000 500,000 — 1,882.407 8 7,831,811 — 1858,383 1,994102 18,703,519 92,956,933 1889 1,581,433 — 2,266,247 2,132,486 14,332,537 96,687.979 1890..:... 5520,725 _ 726,187 677,000 27,875,856 106469,354 1891 1,588053 , — 610,454 424,178 26,966,636 103,231,418 1892 239670 , — 627,885 190740 20733,893 101,461,911 1893 468,524 — 678,968 3,011,637 27,886,300 ii3,769;3S;o 1894 145 252 — 655,683 1,872,216 8,421.574 98,170,0,28 1895 155.557 — 645,356 2,145,771 22,988,069 118433,721 1896 29,594,817 324400 1,110,965 3203,210 82114,922 187,019,423 1897 1,233705 .398,200 922,500 4,699,169 102,167,159 226,390,123 1898 844,699' 664,859 800,942 623,136 87,184,792 220,054.12i8 1899 3.401 104 637,282 827.957 412,449 76,925.996 254.254,523 1900 20,000,000 1,246.975 931,288 5,669,591 103,684,787 295854.868 1901 — 1,060,655 1,254,632 2,157620 72,323.950 274,359,051 1902 — J,I97,I41 1,111,125 36,297.314 156,318,351 282,432,964 1903 — 1,076,800 894,375 4,535,373 19,879,462 251,681,961 Note — For the 1893 fiscal year some of the items belonging to stamp receipts were included, according to their nature, to various headings, instyad of being treated according to the ordinary mode of classifying settled accounts. Hence the figures for the same period as given iij thi^ table may not agree with those given in other statistical publications. ' ' The figures marked with anasterix (*)iUcliide temporary loans inisiirred o - account of tlie Boxer trouble. . ' '- 498 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. TABLE III.— ANNUAL AMOUNT OF TAXES FROM VARIOUS SOURCES. (unit of yen). Taxes in Force. Fiscal Year. Land Tax. Business Tax. Income Tax. Sa/ce Tax. Sugar Excise. Soy Tax- 1868 . 2,009,014 — — — — ,— i8t9 . 3.355^64 — — — — — 1870 . 8,218,969 — — — — — 1871 . 11,340.984 — — — — — 1872 . 20,051,917 — — 16,208 — — 1873 . 60,604,^42 — — 961,031 — — 1874 • S9.412.429 — — 1,683^30 — — ■875 . 67,717.947 — — 1,3 '0,38 1 — — 1875 • 50.345,328 — — 2,555,595 — — 1876 . 43,023,426 — — 1,911,639 — — 1877 .. 39,450,551 — — 3,050 318 — — 1878 .. 40,454,714 — . — 5,100,063 — — 1S79 ,. 42,112,648 — — 6,463,894 — — 1880 ,. 42,346,181 — — 5,5 1 1,335 — — 1881 • 43.274,032 — — 10,646,163 — — 1S82 . 43,342,188 — — 16,329,624 — — 1883 • 43,537,649 — — 13.490,730 — — 1884 . 43,425,996 — — 14,068,133 — — i8-;s - 43,033679 — — 1,053,465 — 640,179 1886 .. 43,282,477 — — 11,743,778 - — 1,188413 1X87 ,. 42, '52,17 1 — 527,724 13,069,808 — 1,252,7.21 1S88 ■• 34,650,528 — 1,066,895 17,063,801 — 1,350^986 1889 .. 42,161,328 — 1,052,982 16,439.720 — 1,288,078 1890 . ^50,084,496 — 1,092,378 13,912,126 — i,zio,57S 1891.... •■ 37,457,500 — 1,110,554 14 686,920 — 1,254,106 1892...., .. 37,925,243 — 1,132,359 15,812,888 — i,27S,oii 1893 .. 38,808,680 — 1,238,763 16,637,436 — 1,332,793 »894 .. 39,291,495 — 1,35 3,5 «8 16,130,471 — i,383,«7gi 18 s .. 38,692,868 — 1,497,095 17,748,73s — 1,463,073 1896 .. 37,640,283 52 X,SlO,22I 19,476,512 — 1,534,022 1897 •• 37,964,727 44«6.249 2,095,092 31,105,172 — 1,532,101 1898.... .. 38,440,976 5,478,020 2,35 M20 32,959,857 — 1,535.543 1899.... .. 44,861,082 5*507,147 4.837,320 -48,918,423 — 2,453.392 1900.... ., 46,717,797 6,051,515 6,368,039 50,293,951 — .3.153.890 1901.... .. 46,666494 6,481,04s 6,836,890 58,017,368 612,344 3,464,023 1902.... .. 46,845,971 6,604,003 6,109,809 63,805,207 6.o77/x)5 3.328,499 lyoj.... .. 46,99(>,212 6,792,818 7,412,801 66,535,404 7,184.637 3,444.034 Central Finances. 499 Tax on Saie Duties Tax on Exported on riscal Convertible Tax on Mining Tonnage from Patent Customs Year. Bapk Notes. Bourses. Tax. Dues. Okinawa Medi- Duties. Prefecture. cine. 1868 , — — — — — — 720,867 »86) — — — — — — 502,817 1^70 — — — — — — 648,453 1871 — — — — — — 1,071,631 1872 — — — — — — i,33iiS6o .1873 — — — — — — 1,685,97s 1874 — — — — — — 1,498,258 .1875 — — 44,492 — — — 1,038,104 j8-,s — — 7,43' — — — 1,718,733 iS;6.... — — 8,903 — — 28,455 1,988,668 1877 — — 9,339 — — 87,089 .2,358,654 1878 — — 10,610 — — 74,219 2,351,635 >879 — — 12.073 — — 78,770 2,691,205 1880 — — 12,990 — — 86,041 2,624.177 18S1 — — £6,631 — — 84,246 2,5691666 »882 — — i8,8o6 — — 364,942 2,613,291 1883 — — 14,816 — — 495,441 2,681,321 1884 — — 13.501 — — 363.589 2,750,165 1885 — — 18J46 — — 282,127 2,085,250 1886 — 269,111 21,447 — — 438,658 2 989,686 1887 — 189,762 29^176 — — 424,033 4,135,652 1888 — «73,P48 46,738 — 2,110 451,714 4,615,494 1889 — 219,391 95,579 — ",693 485,155 4,728,023 1890 1,986 254,162 * — 14,900 498,976 4,392,566 1891 — .230,355 * — 14,814 517,940 4,539,687 1892 — 223,812 134.033 — 12,380 589,219 4,99«,S24 1893 — 350,969 178,869 — 17.834 636,433 S,«2S,372 1894 6^969 587*691 241,418 — 25,186 670,133 5.755,456 1395 408,662 780,3" 247,061 — 19S48 778,613 ,6,785,640 1896 926,240 1,001,173 335,502 — 35,199 , 881 604 6,728,323 1897 560,975 I 106, 20S 421,381 — 56,831 982,381 8,020,513 1898 . 1,251,610 856,036 567,992 — 72,616 1,061,438 9,092,592 1899 846,582 1,177,040 605948 240,323 81.572 "3,525 15.936,890 1900 . 1,404,794 1,^28,461 ,624,248 336,352 156,834 "7,799 17,009,815 1901 . i,693>599 836,397 727,722 361,098 117,496 121,954 13,630,815 1902 . 1,145.416 i,cS7,tSo 774,091 330,353 154420 116,976 17,045,611 1903 . 1,149,6^6 1,030,605 759,578 . 348,726 144,148 119,410 16,570,655 500 Japan in tJie Beginning of tlie 2()th Century. Items that have been abolished. Fishery Confec- Other Mis- Fiscal Dues in Tobacco tionery Tax on Tax on cellaneous Total. Year. Hokkaido. Tax. Tax. Vehicles. Vessels. Taxes. iS68 — — _ _ — 53S,6o3 3.265,483: 1869 — _ _ _ _ 572,551 4,431.332 i 1S70. — _ _ _ _ 767,442 9.634864 1871 — _ _ — _ 1,857,443 14^70,058^ 1872 — _ _ _ 7,803 1,159,037 22,566,525 1873 — _ _ _ 83,123 1,203,285 64,537,656 1874 — _ _ _ 125,677 2,116,634 64,836,528 1875 _ _ _ 96,578. .12,336 5,588,508 .75,8o8,346' 1875 342,526 206,748 — 213,193 128,515 2,245,970 57,764,039 1876 348,584 244,149 — 234,902 133,119 2,292,467 50,2:0,312 1877 361,121 227,080 — 261,859 194,738 230,512 46,231,261 : i8;8 509.595 274,533 — 289,134 133,589 542,602 49.740^694 : X879 813,416 269,575 — 335,940 134,658 550,722 53,462,901 V 18S0 '899.C87 292,881 — 379,486 135,289 405,447 5.2.692,914- ■ 't8,8i..i... 817,837 276,332 — 428,211 133,418 556,867 58813,403 ■1882 864,712 280,849 — 453,869 135219 490,031 64,893531 1883 559,19s 2,154,211 — 462,088 218,040 610,292 64,223,783, ,1884 ■501,443 »,2943>6 —. 478,512 230,453 673,069 63,799.177 .1885 554,778 905,187 437,893 484,029-238,334 383,543 50,116,710- ■ :i886 611.4QO 1,235,814 544,901 531,103 250,469 249,606 63,35^863 .1887 220,273 -1.^90,752 595,738' 577.390 258,945 255,219 65,279,364 S.18S8 218,776 1,907343 628,323 611,366 370468 257,488 63,324i078 :; .1889 21,5,101 1,981,540 647,033. 648,096,280,330 252,709 70,506:^58 • 1890 223,406 1,814,033 662,647 664,229 282,530 254,625 65,363608 ,1891...... 1219,086 1)798,137 614,192 680,812 278,373 255,714 63,660,190^ 1892 303.656 2,161,655 587001 729634' 1276,915 256,887 66,415,217 1. 1893...... . ,303769 2,640,351 593,809* 773,948' 275,701 254,666 69,169,393 • 1894...;... 301,925 2,680,468 637,626 :'8ii;o32 281,525 259,920 70,417,709 ' 1895...'... . 301,344 2,740,774 689,133 861,951 I 291,350 261,450 .73,564,908 ''i896'..'... 3'6r,5i2 2,977,630 546,136 469,491 152,087 226,326 75,042,271 ''1897...'... '359,289 4;$3S.i73 _'^' _ ^ 147,651 93,700,752 "1898 '3i53,J88 2,120,555'- _ _ n 45,481 96,187,335 -'•1899.. .". '357,611 — _ _ _ 97688 126034,543 1900 '^67,962 — '— " — — 94,938 I33i926,ci95 ■^'i9di;...'.. '■'■' 1- — — — — 7,661 139^574,809- ''1502:...'.. ''■."'"■!_ _ _ ■' _ _ :_ 153430,541 '-■-1903 '■ — ''—•■•': .^' — — — is8,488,&44 Central Finances. 501 TABLE IV.— RECEIPTS FROM PUBLIC UNDERTAKINGS AND STATE PROPERTY. (unit of;' en). Tiscal Year. Post and Telegraph. Forests. State Property. Profit from Tobacco Monopoly. Railroais. 1863 — — 101,856 — . — 1869 — — 94,184 — — 1870 — — 155,917 — — 1871 1,238 — 166,532 — — .872... ... . J8,334 — 48,246 ' — — 1873 138,302 — 160,804 — 544.233 ^874 282,227 — 106,093 — 468,247 j875 705,351 — 243,159 — 542,337 187s 748,938 — 1,268,337 — 642,204 1876 920,585 94.503 157,826 — 808,883 1877 809,856 62,789 229,203 — 384,088 1878 968,266 178,356 248,077 — 456,622 1879 1,307,028 61,054 247,239 — 698,784 a88o .. 1,638,421 411,266 258,557 — 888,561 •1881 1,923.308 282,258 199,629 — 1,127,479 1882 .. 1,703,527 1 76,002 146,334 — 913,846 iS83 2,346,945 311,160 176,569 — 933,778 1884 2,209,856 300933 218,820 — 750,539 1885 1,601,188 240,697 149,862 — 453.890 18S6 3,009,974 456,218 264,105 — 678,124 1SS7... ... . .. 3,400,859 633.5 '4 257,251 — 1,021,749 iSSS .. 3.272,067 899,798 215,059 — - 1,346,226 1889 .. 3,859,23 s 648,255 735,188 -- • 434,953 iSro... ... ., .. 4,637,987 732,580 206,969 — I 722,102 3891... ,. 5,049,360 744,366 241,642 — 1,419,611 J892... ... . .. 5.5«8.9i3 872481 223,257 ■ — 2,085,068 S893 ,. 6,487,688 1,060,913 221,936 — ■ 2,709,760' 1894... ... .. ,. 8,381,049 844,300 220,884 — 3,176,707 ii895 .. 9.553.879 1,134853 217,664 — 3 602.594 .1896... .. 10,466,083 1,286,614 413,924 — 3.970,999^ 1S97 I2,20),OI2 i,577,"4 232,618 292,142 4.558.56.'; aSgS.... ,. 13,603,285 1,625,632 205,805 S.145.999 4,278,547 1899 .. 17,424,951 1,930,218 22i,934 7,559,534 6,901,653 1900 • 20,699,331 2,271,020 209,175 7,244,159 8,090,066 1901 . 20,934,987 2,347,914 244,710 10,866,700 7,706,161 3902 ... 25.856,730 2.914,387 223,706 11,728,526 8,817,510 J50J .. 25,515,940 2,955 361 229,908 I2,6o6Joi2 8,785,089 502 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Fiscal Year. Mint Profit. Mining Profit. Other Profit. Miscellaneous Receipts. Total. I86S — 101,856 1869 — — — 33,524 127,708 1S70 — — — 37,849 193,766- 1S71 — — — 159,701 327.471 1872 — 38,895 — 123,900 229,375 1873 .. i>o9S>S94 154,845 — 281,478 2,376,256- 1874 •• 1,024,517 316,122 — 404,497 2,601,703 1875 253,081 869,389 — 935,187 3,550,504 1875 1,450,036 799,949 — 266,356 5,»75>82o. 1876 .. 1,152,037 827,221 — 682,538 4,643,593 1877 834,285 251,202 — 282,972 2,854,395 187S... ... . 910,496 102,350 — 156,940 3.021,107 1879.- -. ... ■ 505,628 237,945 — 246,910 3,304,588 1880 487,410 397,728 — "5,935 4,197,878 iSSi 385.233 308,729 — 61,627 4,288,264. 18S2 46-',6o7 289,321 — 71,685 3,763,322 1S83 398,155 100,087 — 69,147 4,335,831 1884 376,065 233,131 — 722,668 4,812,012 1885 .. 1,459,102 178,922 — 203,849 4,287,510- 1S86 88,469 271,689 302.734 233.439 5,304,752 1887 241,383 155.703 254,906 161,168 6,126,533 188S 200,712 490,142 243,509 173,841 6,841,35+ 1889 524,062 27,514 104,916 343,831 7,677,951 1890 681,595 15,046 424,288 312,853 8,733,420 1891 296 590 — 207,405 326,203 8,265,177 1S92 295,481 — 272,466 317,822 9,585.488 1893 494,461 — 252,185 376,031 11,602,974 1S94 637,423 — 265,314 431,51s 13,957,192 1S95... .... . 429,869 — 416,196 415,861 15,767.916 1S96 .. 772,588 S06 294,201 411,007 17,555,922 1897 — — 240,249 387,226 19,491,926 1898... .1. . — — 183,640 367,251 25,410,159 1S99 — — 274,682 428,028 34,742,006 1900... , ... . — — 571,567 988,389 40,073,712 igoi — — 521,100 1,706,235 44,327,807 1902... ... . — — 171,961 2,108,483 51,821,303. I!,03... ... . — — 213,380 2,033,831 52,739,522 Kote : — As llie mining tax for 1890 and 1891 could not be distinguished from other license fees among which it was counted in, it was included with other license fees under the heading of " Other miscellaneous taxes." Central Finances, 503 TABLE v.— ANNUAL APPLICATION OF THE STATE EXPENDITURE PERTAINING TO THE GENERAL ACCOUNTS, THE CIVIL LIST AND THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE STATE. (unit of yen). ( Ordinary. Fiscal Year. Civil List. Foreign Affairs. Home Affairs. Finance. Army. Navy. 1868... 249.595 111,671 2,818 3,639,462 1,059,798 1869... ... 384,955 151,949 15,291 7,109,653 1,547,966 1870... 554,232 46,626 5,683 7,475,142 1,500, 174 1871... 513,801 83,532 9,808 8,037,979 3,252,966 1872... 912,754 349,229 132,796 29,765,330 7,699,347 1,869,044 1S73- 678,204 699,342 72,752 36,855,985 8,497,755 1,190,313 1S74- ... 775,035 711,105 11,593,167 31,917,093 8,733,176 1,685,237 1875... 443,837 146,299 7,445,247 31,083,656 7,262,599 3,522,3co 1875... 933,211 644,942 11,345,277 24,851,556 6,959,736 2,825,843 1876... ... i,ir8,i37 535,044 10,917,65s 24,950,982 6,904,829 3,424,998 1877... ... 1,249,286 518,287 10,838,161 18,697,931 6,035,940 3,167,512 187S... ... 1,266,382 576,818 10,887,076 29,166,518 6,409,005 2,804,021 1879... ... 1,342,889 804,748 ",574,341 25,446,073 7,766,916 3,079,859 1880 .. ... 1,393,559 1,138,638 12,965,636 26,370,598 8,434,530 3,165,222 1881... ... 1,909,893 675,534 8,679,471 31,549,850 8,20g,6o9 3,014,758 1882... ... 2,184,354 726,105 8,212,196 29,130,919 8,588,117 3,160492 1883... ... 2,363,651 748,285 9,998,442 33,320,368 10,250,424 3,080,634 1S84... ... 2,327,101 785,299 9,224,383 25,584,429 10,618,712 3,193,300 1885... ... 1,797,246 608,247 8,929,943 18,985,172 9,606,237 2,634,658 1886... ... 2,449,835 787,782 9,742,410 30,596,845 11,464,226 4,699,5" 1887... ... 2,500,000 750,580 9,688,532 28,149,249 11,805,903 4,941,524 1888... ... 2,690,888 749,472 9,475,916 28,129,164 11,786,416 5,468,552 J889... 3,000,000 728,791 9,125,552 25,116,713 12,206,362 ' 5,277,332 1890... ... 3,000,000 742,051 7,671,272 27,238,063 12,437,989 5,786,381 1891... ... 3,000,000 704,115 7,795,789 23,540,822 12,656,741 5,412,491 1892... ... 3,000,000 671,437 7,770,597 24,213,245 12,498,235 5,347,186 1893... ... 3,000,000 623,982 7,662,106 24,915,268 12,419,829 5,141,475 1894... ... 3,000,00a 718,627 7,493,926 25,462,541 7,828,074 4,573,605 1895... ... 3,ooo,oco 1,047,050 7,502,230 29,935,724 8,410,211 4,913,244 1896... ... 3,000,000 1,216,105 *13,8S8,033 38,393,881 22,613,590 7,351,330 1897... 3,000,000 1,445,849 8,262,075 39,173,414 28,746,263 9,543,889 1898... ..., 3,000,000 1,641,557 9,621,053 38,734,238 32,562^72 ",191,475 1899... .... 3,000,000 1,929,427 10,762,427 47,001,622 35,577,310 14,577,114 1900... ... 3,000,000 2,425,724 10,954,703 47,297,090 36,123,892 16,911,000 1901... ... 3,000,000 2,153,243 9,899,403 51,566,742 37,433,911 19,484,953 1902... ... 3,000,000 2,284,270 10,583,417 62,142,664 38,432,317 21,349,054 1903- ... 3,000,000 2,284,160 10,627,469 61,870,627 38,495,727 22,077,695 504 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century, Fiscil Year. Justice. Education. Agriculture and Commerce. Communi- cations. Total. 1898 385,200 57,709 — — 5.506,353 1869 46,936 103,481 — — 9,360,231 1870 44,534 123,612 — — 9.750,003 1871 61,533 114,965 — 121,79s 12,226,382 1872 464,83s 571,641 — 709,943 42,474.9' 9 1873 ... . 767,383 1,303,536 — 574,282 50,639,552 1874 - • 883,788 1,330,348 — 2,372,967 60,001,916 1875 - • 259,365 869,741 — 1,809,304 52,84?,348 187s - • 1,111,505 1,743,514 — 6.197,453 56,613,037 1876 ... . 1,385459 1,695.311 — 5,882,911 56,815,3:6 1877 ... . 1,299,425 1,164,298 — 2,373,376 ' 45,344,216 1878 ... . 1,214,936 1,138,653 — 2,523.301 55,986,710 1879 .■• ■ 1,345.043 1,187,542 — 2,658,128 SS.205,559 1880 ... . 1,779,823 1,177,198 281,098 3,591,020 60,297,322 1881 ... . 1,786,737 895,897 2,690,801 1,002,160 60,413,710 1882 ... . 2,070,556 935,035 3,337,770 1,405,183 59,750,727 1883 ... . 2,082,765 940,477 3,461,509 1,667,621 67.914,176 1884 ... 2,267,106 961,690 3,461,116 2,301,508 60,724,554 1885 ... 1,673.704 695,996 553,341 2,158,493 47,643,037 1886 ... 2,549,701 976,846 933,872 3,412,76s 67,613,793 1887 ... 2,931,263 1,109,089 506,631 3,659,993 66,042,669 1888 ... 2,976,148 1,031,228 541,463 3,590,469 66,439,716 1889 ... 3,016,614 1,003,256 461,485 3,849,464 63,785,569 1890 ... 3,510,863 1,054,697 876,169 4,434,946 66,752,431 1891 ... 3,568,324 950,911 808,558 4498,561 63,936,312 1892 ... 3,500,936 790,674 947,003 4,898,717 63,818,030 1833 ... 3,451,911 932,562 928,942 5,469,524 64,545,599 1894 ... 3,387,609 923,384 862,344 6,171,236 . 60,421,346 189s ... ■3,339,542 1,047,011 909,745 7,043,250 67,148,007 1896 ... 3,452,933 1,422,389 1,142,498 8,262,057 100,712,816 1897 - 3,543.489 1,985,729 1,364,923 10,629,496 107,695,127 1898 ... 3,825,687 2,336,691 1,644,371 14,515,000 119,072,144 1899 ... 4,965,174 3,033,053 1,779,455 14,964,836 137,590,418 1900 ... 1901 ... 1902 ... 1903 ••. 7,803,152 ... 10,436,392 10,837,646 ... 10,593,532 4,456,708 4,740,253 4,845.708 4,994,286 2,209,883 2,559,002 2,948,913 2,943,949 17,952,015 19,089,674 21,172,977 21,606,676 149,134.167 160,363,583 '77",596,966 178,464,121 Kote : — Of the expenditures for the years prior to 1885, those items which were not assigned to any departments are placed in this table under such departments as they might belong to by their nature. * In the ordinary and extraordinary expenditures of Home Affairs for 1896 are included those of the Colonial Department which was created in that year and abolished in the next. Fiscal Yea! 1868 1869 1870 1S71 1872 1873 1874 i87S i87S 1876 1877 1878 1S79 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 i8go 1891 1892, 1893 t894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1S99 19:0 1901 1902 49^3 Central Finances. . 505 Extraordinary. Civil List. Foreign Affairs. Home Affairs. Finance. - ,700,000 — — 21,446,022 — — . 9,347,977 — — 9,753.835 — — 6,913,386 — — 14,550,147 — , — 11,017.780 — 3,790,972 14,238,009 — 2,567,459 8,418,914 — 232,687 12,357,518 — — 2.493631 — 436,917 2,124,016 — 243,508 4,208,699 — 272,419 3,722,778 — 51,818 1,203,310 — 347,710 9,059.817 — 35.569 12,387 772 — 42,853 10,181,141 — 29,394 12,079,508 — 22,385 10,082,788 — 1,822,959 9.303,956 — 2,325,918 5,480,542 — 2,373,935 5,656,925 80,000 4,365,531 3,563510 1,029 4,010,792 1,89 '.479 2,375 10,458,597 2,820,509 — 2,899,268 1,075,162 19,265 11,465,283 1,185,170 311,888 2,426,552 4,748562 300,987 3,668,978 2,051,804 173.674 , « 1 5,690,603 2,579,837 118,460, 19,556,088 10,224,769 125.185 13.055,539 6,143 09 V 101,932 17,314,247 6,766,518 309,907 15,386,964 6,408,930 6i4j620 15,854,030 , . 6,,S59,4io 92,724 17,065,028 41,550,611 108,765 16,708,430 SA'3>9S^ 506 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, Fiscal Year. War. Navy. Justice. Education. i86S 3.552.8" — — 1869 2077,632 — — 1870 603,834 — — 1871 95.39° — — 1S72 704,959 — — 1873 1,021,268 — — 1874 4,238.631 — — 1875 2,306,051 — — 1875 — — — — 1876 — — — — 1877 - - - — 1878 1879 18S0 1881 1882 1883 1884 ... ... 1885 1856 168,926 4,191,297 2,725 13.000 1857 613,772 4876,752 20,397 13.000 1858 957627 4,341,004 42,498 10,000 1889 1.919.341 4.045.826 147,870 165,657 1890 3.095.090 4.372,923 205,270 110,109 1891 1,523,426 4,089,201 89,300 69,616 1892 2,137.016 3.785,921 106,627 223,577 1893 2,301,397 2,959,446 75,561 135,240 1894 2,580,862 S.679,549 51.648 125,304 1895 1.605,723 8,607,025 77,259 106,105 1S96 30,628,934 12,654,428 162,896 327.950 1897 31401,725 40,850,645 215,016 626,870 1898 21,335582 47,338,427 310,087 658,703 1899 16,973,888 47,084,496 480,453 1,199,741 1900 38,714,310 41,363,895 ' 531,476 1*377,608 1901 20,947,869 24,494,375 515,866 1,487,990 1902 8,262,789 7,076,586 565,640 2,045,156 1903 3,676,241 7.118.575 543,907 1,665.080 2o,ogo 16,494 — 352,437 58,892 — 158,925 250,650 — 383,340 245,961 — 413,348 249,162 — 316,910 3.935,019 — 501,300 3,067,564 — 571,858 2,699,473 — 168,926 4,191.297 2,725 613,772 4876,752 20,397 957627 4,341,004 42,498 1,919,341 4,045,826 147,870 3.095.090 4,372,923 205,270 1,523,426 4,089,201 89,300 2,137,016 3.785,921 106,627 2,301,397 2,959,446 75,561 2,580,862 5,679,549 51,648 1,605,723 8,607,02s 77,259 3b,62S,934 12,654,428 162,896 31401,725 40,850,645 215,016 21,335 582 47,338,427 310,087 16,973.888 47,084,496 480,453 38,714,310 41,363,895 ' 531,476 20,947.869 24,494.375 515,866 8,262,789 7,076,586 565,640 3,676,241 7,118,575 543,907 Central Finances. 507 Agriculture and Communi- t Fiscal Year. Commerce. cations, Total. Grand total. 1868 — — 24,998,833 30,505,086 1869 — — 11,425,609 20,785,840 1870 — — 10,357,669 20,107,672 1871 — — 7,008,776 I9.235.'58 1872 — — 15,255,106 57,730,025 »873 — — 12,039,048 62,678,600 1874 — — 22,267,612 82 269,528 >87S — — 13,292,424 66,134,772 187s — — 12,590,205 69,203,242 1876 — — 2,493,631 59.308,957 »877 ,.■ — 523,176 3,084,109 48,428,325 1878 — 465.835 4,954.626 60,941,336 1879 — 705,514 5.112,040 60,317,579 i88b 352.707 826,164 2,843,574 63,i40j896 l88i 31.817 977,9G6 11,046,611 71,460,321 1882 7,181 636,908 13.729.940 73.480,667 1883 ... 178,631 538,054 15,192,682 83,106,858 1884 166,197 94,591 15.938,554 76,663,108 1885 73,547 22,226 13,472.277 61,115,314 1886 76,260 31,044 15,610,167 83,223,960 1887 51.968 28,000 13,410,367 79.453.036 i888 722,319 960,000 15,064,308 81,504,024 1S89 ... 611,234 999,134 15,928,103 79.713.672 1890 342,281 1,343,999 15,372,972 82,125,403 1891 ... 115,851 1,450,704 20,619,579 83.555.891 1892 ... 377.657 2,311482 12,916,710 76,734,740 1893 ... 493,177 1,401,734 20,036,273 84,581,872 1894 333.905 1,449,027 17.707,297 78,128,643 189s ... 325.975 ' 1,425,312 18,169,173 85,317,180 1896 ... 488,032 4.738,193 68,143,692 168,856,508 1897 - - ... i,S>4,i88 ".475,956 115.983.717 223,678,844 1898 .;. 2,3i2-,oo4 9,406,803 100,685,424 219,757,568 1899 •••■ - ... 4.939.904 21,713.941 116,575,120 254,165,538 igoo ... 9,372,883 30,149,620 143,615,893 292,750,059 1901 ... 8,516,244 27.502,837 106,493,241 266,856,824 1902 ... 4,049,070 23,448,625 104,156,229 281,753.195 1903 ... 7,469,752 23 873,524 £6,288,225 244,752,345 508 Japan in the Beginning of the 20lh Century. II. LOCAL FINANCES. General Remarks. — The civic covporation system was first established in 1878 by the promulgation of the Prefectural Assembly Regulations and the Local Tax Regulations, but it was on the promulgation of the Law for Cities, and Towns and Villages in 1888 and of the Law for Districts and Prefectures in tlie year 1890 that the civic corporation system was completed. The Law for Districts and Prefectures was amended in 1889. According to the existing regulations, the expenditures of civic corporations, are determined by estimates for which the approval of the local legislative bodiej is necessary. The revenue consists of receipts accruing from the property of the corporations, fees for using such property, and other receipts. Any deficit is met by levying taxes, which are as follows for prefectnrar finance? :-^— Land rate not exceeding one-third of the land-tax. Business tax and miscellaneous taxes. House tax. Taxes for civic corporations are : — Rate on district taxes and prefectural taxes. Special taxes either direct or indirect. The District does not levy taxes upon its inhabitants, and the expenses required by it are supplied by the towns and villages con- tained in it, the ratio to be duly alloted. The allotment is collected by each town or village on the approval of its legislative council, and forwarded to the cofiers of the district. Before any new local tax is levied it must receive the apj.roval of the prefectural or city, town or village legislative council as the case may be. For a tax of importance the sanction of the Minis- ters of Home Afiairs and of Finance must be obtained. The development of self-government affair is inevitably attended by an increase of expenditure. Less than ten years ago the prefect- ural and communal revenue aggregated about .59,660,000 yen ami ths expenditure about 48,970,000 yen. In 1899 the revenue an I ex- penditure amounted to 145,510,000 yen and 120,060,000 yen respec- tively. This increase is chieHy attributable to the greater disbursements Local Finances. 509 required on account of public works, agriculture, education, industry, sanitary affairs, etc. A tendency in a similar direction must be expected with the progress of times, and the central Government is exercising strict attention to prevent any undue expansion of the local expenses. The following tables will demonstrate ^ the progress of prefectural and communal finances subsequent to 1890 :— Statistics. — Statistics relating to local finances are : — TABLE I.— ANNUAL AMOUNT OF TOWN AND VILLAGE REVENUE. (Settled Account). (unit oiyeii). 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. Eates on r Land Rate 5,679,278 5,9I3,"3 5,926,105 6,025,720 national ] I°'=°'"« Tax ^^'^ - 24,581 28,802 31,532 40,459 Taxes. (.Business Tax Rate ... _ _ _ _ r.ates on ("House Tax ... ... 7,541,93° 6,999,372 7,263,244 7,436,677 rre- J Taxes. (_ Business Tax Rate .^. 606,301 601,828 609,582 670,290 Rate on Indirect National Tax.. I,I73 1,556 1,251 1,634 Special / Average Rate 356,5o6 317,849 280,432 309,235 Taxes. I Sundries 50,193 70,118 102,884 135,255 Service in Kind " 324,395 274,361 305,342 313,296 Property 31,110 14,626 9,697 6,711 Total 14,615,467 14,221,624 14,530,069 14,939,277 Receipts from other Sources ... 5,705,457 7,605,952 8,610,321 9,152,767 Grand Total 20,320,924 2i,8?7,576 23,140,390 24,092,044 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. .. Kates on /-Land Rate 6,349,446 6,895,880 7,520,419 8,721,137 :-KaSll I'^'=°"'^TabcRate ... 42,251 55,667 66,073 120,222 Taxes, l Business Tax Rate ... — — — 311,337 Bates on f House Tax Pre- J 8,082,583 9,561,533 10,699,233 13,173,019 • Taxes.' (.Business Tax Rate ... 703,886 830,924 983,982 1,113,562 Rate on Indirect National Tax.. 1,291 748 1,101 733 Special (-Average Rate Taxes. \ Sundries 372,164 ,415,202 544,598 566,599 138,711 161,844 185,273 230,595 Service in Kind 268,851 265,615 285,960 476,103 Property ... I2,OI3 7,108 ,9,690 9,428 Total 15,971,196 i8,i94,52i 20,296,328 24,722,735 Receipts from other Sources ... 10,308,516 10,756,229 12,040,832 16,144,099 Grand Total 26,281,612' ^85950,750 32,337,160 40,866,834 510 Japan in the Beginning 0/ the 2(ith Century. 1898. 1S99. 1900. Kates on (-Land Rate 9,913.975 10,250,588 11,661,724 N?JI„'nil]ln^<'"'«T^^Kate ... I55P8S 312,636 444,232 Taxes. I Business Tax Rate ... S33.I77 578,188 7i7,6r6 Eates on C House Tax Pre- J 15,7*5.174 18,564,453 21,488,592 laxes. (.Business Tax Rate ... 1,360,892 1,576,817 1,956,965 Rate on Indirect National Tax.. 932 3,530 4,400 Special /Average Rate Tuxes. \ Sundries ;.. 747.854 777,832 835,681 279,677 321,185 328,515 Service in ;Kind 374,949 400,344 399,740 Property 9,70s 9,282 8,381 Total 19,141,420 32,794,855 37,845,856 Receipts from other Sources ... 17,549.587 20,406,697 24,423,937 Grand Total 46,691,007 53,201,552 62,269,792 Note : — In consequence of the destruction by fire, in 1894 of the documents at a certain village office in Nagano-ken, a sum of l,gtoyeii was included in the grand total alonCjits distribution among the different headings not being clear. TABLE II.— ANNUAL AMOUNT OF TOWN AND VILLAGE EXPENDITURE. (Settled Account). (unit oiyen). Items. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. Offices ;. ... 6,649,958 6,554,562 6,600,276 6,741,05s Assemblies 317,211 3 '5,453 355,588 343,251 Public Work .4,7,59,018 5,447,582 5,636,870 5,462,255 Education 6,260,326 6,738,466 7,290,187 7,909,885 Sanitary 406,984 318,798 380,967 432,659 Police 163,849 i5',645 158,108 163,009 Industry 115,118 86,569 113,213 128,967 Public Loans 140,393 242,203 365,023 469,882 Control of Property 5,476 8,758 15,996 35,461 Taxes and other Burdens ... 120,105 263,387 333,810 366,003 undrifcT 207,936^ 243,112 281,789 Funds and Reserves 33,172 43.444 69,571 Subsidies and Contributions. — ' 404,043 8,490 14,80^ Others 58,443, 49,446 32,898 Total 19,237,989 .20,531,466 21,598,530 23451,441 Loml Finances. 511 Items. Offices Assemblies Public Works Education Sanitary Police Industry Public Loans Control of Property Taxes and othe Burdens ... Sundries Funds. and Reserves Subsidies and Contributions. Others Total 1894. 6,974.378 336,973 6,295.709 S,237433 705,920 304.770 161,397 644,708 56,424 467,4'3 347,062 99,603 12,297 52,274 1895. -7,316,991 363,598 5,433,882 9,159,759 1 4802,466 352,465 145.094 960,575 62,252 624,532 463,300 113,809 5,966 71,138 7,829,910 378,797 5,591,935 10,639,378 1,712,367 393,576 369,898 1,183,418 89,463 1,194,301 539,843 164,693 9,830 55,762 1897. 8,887,201 425,068 8,466,227 12,695,094 1,822,181 350,280 820,667 1,693,851 135,291 1,687,204 654,681 470,290 22,144 71,637 24,696,364 264875,827 30,153,171 38,201,816 Items. 1898. 1899. 1900. Offices 10,347,929 11,515,996 12,163,714 Assemblies 457,621 474,912 528,838 Public .Works 7,427,855 7,083,796 8,162,496 Education 14,593,100 16,984,949 21,120,549 Sanitary 3,121,742 4,628,219 4,323,066 Police 379,959 392,296 422,819 Industry 495,615 570,295 693,060 Public Loans 2,323,787 2,609,806 3.576,112 Control of Property , 138,157 210,760 460,692 Taxes and other Burdens ... 2,557,262 3,084,007 3,918,615 Suwlries 821,687 527,451 1,299,691 Funds and Reserves 608,199 799,493 995,092 Subsidies and Contributions. 71,592 86,256 245.563 ethers 98,374 63,019 89,720 Total 43,442,879 49,376,255 58^000,025 612 Japan in the Beginning of the 205 S,449,33i 10,181,533 Gi-and Total 10,384,807 10,971,171 11,125,116 13,662,068 1898. 1899. 1900. Direct ("Land Tax Rate ... Tax i Income Tax Rate... Rates. (_ Business Tax Rate. 239,597 410,836 965,494 1 243,506 692,924 ,170,527 389,360 1,190,595 1,791,788 Local f Household Rate ... Tax -j House Tax Rates. (Business Tax ^ ... 731.672 1,056,247 526,138 I 955,608 [,482,067 ,655,023 968,337 1,234,253 499,501 IndiTect National Tax Rates 274 14,749 2,195 Special Taxes ... 719,659 875,872 3,553,493 Service in Kind — ' — — Total 4,649,917 '6,090,279 9,629,522 UUra-Taxation Receipts ... 10,661,724 1; 3,742,988 14,744.134 Grsiid Total ... ,..■ 15,3x1,641 19,833,267 24,373,656 Local Finances. 513 TABLE IV.- ANNUAL AMOUNT OF MUNICIPAL EXPENDITURES. (Settled Account). (unit oiyen). Items. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. Offices S°».SS6 S37,9oS 526,294 535,954 Assemblies 26,929 53,838 43,86i 54,i85 Public Works 540,647 444,7iz 563,871 632,978 Education 57i,095 865,083 920,165 1,163,437 Sanitary "3,957 99,9iS 108,708 154,298 Police • 46,408 44,749 43.427 51,203 Industry 3,240 5,757 6,049 4,66i Public Loans 102,069 207,475 288,908 439,128 Control of Property 3,829 57,968 91,462 109,839 Taxes and Other Burdens... 1,682 3,265 2,347 2,794 Sundries 59,494 73,976 81,657 62,269 Funds and Reserves 10,871 421 100,257 94,992 Subsidies and Contributions — — — 40 Others 79,iii 580,263 1,226,031 1,192,326 Total 2,060,88s 2,957,327 3,985,037 4,498,354 Items. Offices Assemblies Public Works Education Sanitary Police Industry Public Loans Control of Property Taxes and Other Burdens... Sundries ..• Funds and Reserves Subsidies and Contributions Others i ••• Total .■• ..t 1894. 539,431 69,479 467,144 1,314,974 176,331 57,114 29,017 497,763 103,490 3,730 100,294 104,699 621 1,698,599 1895. 556,378 43,021 512,656 1,338,289 353,857 76,830 12,306 628^60 110,633 3,745 132,346 92,627 4,943 2,376,320 598,487 49,403 994,696 1,699,334 303,233 64,348 28,267 996,292 120,419 5,796 238,476 98,342 938 2,755,742 1897. 779,693 59,467 1,272,677 2,354,009 399,690 85,585 30,718 2,480,128 161,952 75,605 217,768 77,273 2,760 2,571,470 5,168,694 6,242,411 7,953,773 10,568,795 514 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 2Qlh Century. Items. 1898. Offices 1,088,405 Assemblies 75, '69 Public Works 1,472,963 Education 2,639,947 Sanitary 446,467 Police 90,994 Industry ' ... 37,331 Public Loans 1,481,642 Control of Property 210,958 Taxes and Other Burdens... 289,858 Sundries ... _ 253,042 Funds and Reserves 121,279 Subsidies and Contributions 2,129 Others 3,069,466 1899. 1,263,941 73,058 2,083,294 3,354,027 653,608 104,524 53,75° 1,656,745 337,039 400,328 218,956 144,251 36,708 4,629,687 1900. 1,625,285 84,163 2,893,994 4,071,702 1,069,970 144,416 67,195 2,190,588 611,964 1,398,714 521,725 642,484 31,966 3,689,53s Total 11,279,650 15,010,516 19,043,701 TABLE v.— ANNUAL AMOUNT OF PREFECTURAL REVENUE. (Settled Account for Years Prior to 1900 and Estimates after Those of 1901). (unit of ^-^b). Items. 1892. 1893- 1894. _ 1895- Land Rate .. 8,409,156 8,904,420 9,023,498 9,523,782 Business Tax , . .. 2,746,183 2,876,027 2,912,033 3,031,368 Miscellaneous Taxes ... . .. 1,671,68s 1,772,792 1,869,272 1,995,302 Kate on Business Tax — — — — House Tax 3,186,331 Appropriated from Cities,! Towns and Villages .. / Income Tax Rate — 3,157,64s 3,342,061 3474,070 Total .. 16,011,35s 16,710,884 17,146,864 18,024,522 Ultra-Taxation Receipts . .. 10,958,162 15,103,524 12,417,622 9,710,790 Grand total .. 26,969,517 31,814,408 29,564486 27,735,312 Items. 1S96. 1897. 1898. 1899. Land Rate 12,204,844 Business Tax 3,375,309 Miscellaneous Taxes 2,256,617 Rate on Business Tax ... — House Tax 4,993,134 Appropriated from Cities,! ,„, „_„ Towns and Vinaees ...] '°S,070 Income Tax Rate — 13,327,790 1,895,888 3,486,296 7 ",795 5,318,838 68,907 17,458,866 2,123,415 4,097,2-52 886,813 6,604,031 282^96 20,718,817 2,291,587 4,619,667 928,062 7,940,101 557,349 M3S Total .. 22,934,974 24,809,484 3M2S473 37,057,018 Ultra- Taxation Receipts . .. 18,098,23s 21,229,710 16,187,123 19,214,261 Grand total .. 41,033,209 46,039,194 47,639,596 56,271,279 Local Finances. 515 Items. 1900. Land Rate ... ^ 21,938,961 Business Tax 2,389.934 Miscellaneous Taxes 5,134,914 Rate on Business Tax 900,969 House Tax 7,896,753 Appropriated from Cities,! Towns and Villages ...J 1,533,099 Income Tax Rate 11,560 Total 39,806,190 Ultra-Taxation Receipts ... 19,067,499 Grand total 58,873,689 I90I. 21,189,944 2,418,737 5,604,885 892,999 7,598,543 1,353,796 13,261 39,072,165 10,847,752 49,919,917 1902. 21,988,227 2,635,850 6,134,245 964,-92 r 7,755,634 1,554,023 32,922 41,065,822 10,632,310 51,698,132 TABLE VL -ANNUAL AMOUNT OF PREFECTURAL EXPENDITURE. Items. Police Police Works Subsidies- to Above Assemblies Sanitary Subsidies to Above Education Subsidies to Above Office Expenses, Salaries and\ Allowances Relating District Offices. Industry Subsidies to Above Collection of Prefectural I Taxes ( Allowances to Prefecturall Offices i Share ill River Work Ex- pense Prefectural Loans Sundries iries and\ ting to 1 Kx-l (unit oiyen). 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895- 4,702,037 4,732,562 4,750,260 4,943,067 7,305,504 7,320,626 8,827,577 7,448,422 2,541,265 3,382,101 3;i 13,767 2,114,706 348,632 312,995 301,995 301,490 379,840 425,694 527,891 998,296 — — — 58:382 1,193,599 1,333,129 1,288,580 1,653,17-^ 77,295 "1,535 42,864 51,549 1,728,243 1,690,398 1,691,866 1,678,226 246,386 303,777 431,99s 460,7x8 — — — 36,814 3iS,"o 324,830 362,670 377.218 3J,43i 60,509 7S,io8 74,767 I Z 740,310 4,519,648 4,505,64s 4,587,974 3,865,501 Grand total... ... 23,388,990 24,503,801 26,002,550 24,802,642 516 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Century. Items. Police Police Works Subsidies to" Above Assemblies Sanitary Subsidies to Above Education Subsidies to Above Office Expense, Salaries and-j Allowances Relating to I District Offices j Industry Subsidies to Above Collection of Prefecturall Taxes f Allowances to Prefecturall Offices ( Share in River Work Ex- pense Prefectural Loans Sundries ':] Grand tolal Items. Police Porice Works Subsidies to Above Assemblies Sanitary Subsidies to Above Education Subs.idies to Above , Office Expense, Salaries and^ Allowances Relating to > District Offices f Industry Subsidies to Above ... Collection of Prefecturall Taxes f Allowances to Prefecturali Offices .'. ...| Share, in River Work Ex-i perise I Prefectural Loans Sundries IS96. 1897. 1898. 1899. 5,070,201 5,577,134 6,621,542 7,070,202 11,415,15s 14,895,778 13,085,775 15,629,798 2,933,497 5,576,837 4,021,542 3,139,201 346462 340,594 301,925 351,264 808,398 787,739 1,027,749 1,713,159 126,576 135,394 622,441 1,065,075 2,404,241 2,788,026 4,317,481 6,278,373 165,062 206,616 158,593 266,698 1,764,860 1,953,096 2,197,661 2,325,5" 667,225 723.871 951,556 1,135,045 54,509 223,251 178,778 248,967 442,670 495,135 591,256 656,967 127,690 254,402 397,385 554,582 293,300 293,300 293,300 295,300 772,713 952,433 1,466,267 1,629,005 4,237,894 4,843,621 5,486,470 6,090,037 31,638,453 40,047,2^7 41,719,721 48,478,005 1900. 1901. 1902. 7,801,318 15,792,611 3,198,485 449,489 1,600,515 1,464,728 8,584,511 276,508 8,434,595 11,682,518 2,535r7o8 450,540 1,224,410 643,139 9,931,556 44.1,006 9,132,134 12,872,976 2,399,653 469,372 1,288,676 841,402 10,082,010 487,952 2,726,287 2,842 ,960 2,920,336 1,737,493 318,793 2,113,112 519,354 2,668,581 636,806 757,323 <•- 761 ,894 803,301 753,78s 946,771 1,073,666 864,654 865,655 863,654 2,786,748 ■2,909,336 3,908,448 2,591,292 3,7i2,'05 I.284,2^C> 52,022,567 49,891,958 51,537,552 Grand total. I^'ote :— As the sum of 28,821 jwj of Toyama-ken in 1899 could not be distributed among the respective items owing to the occurrence of fire, it was included iu the grand total atone. National Loans. 517 CHAPTER n— Loans. National Loans -Local Loans. 1. NATIONAL LOANS. General Remarks. — As already described in the section of finances, administrative and all other national affairs underwent a radical change at the time of the Restoration and many of the new measures were carried out with funds obtained by raising Iqans. The amount of loans thus raised early in the era has gone on increasing with the progress of the times, for the State had to adjust its finances, strengthen its armaments, and to devise measures calculated to improve and encourage the development of economic undertakings, communication service, etc. The only instance in which loans were raised for other purposes was in connection with the South-westeru First Foreign Civil War and the Japan-China War. The Nine per Loan. cent. Sterling Foreign Loan raised at London in April 1870 was the first national loan raised by Japan. This was followed by the floating of the Seven per cent. Sterling Foreign Loan. The former was devoted to laying railroads between Tokyo and Yokohama and between Kobe and Osaka, while the latter was used for supplying funds to those " Shizoku " who had on their own accord surrendered their hereditary pensions and who were entering on a business career. 618 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20th Century. In March of the same year the "New" and "Old" Loan Regulations were enacted with the object of converting the debts incurred by the feudal princes into national debts, and First Domestic bringing the financial affairs of the country into L:an. a state of uniformity. This loan was the first raised at home. In 1874 the Voluntarily Capitalized Pension Bonds were issued for granting some relief in the form either of cash or bonds to those "Shizoku" who had surrendered their pensions, in Capitalized order to enable them to procure funds for engaging^ Pension Sends, in business pursuits. The greater part of the cash required for this purpose came from the proceeds of the Foreign Loans above described^ In 1876, when the old hereditary pension system was entirely abolished, a regular system for compounding the pensions with capitalized pension bonds was instituted. In 1878 a similar favor of granting pension bonds wa* extended to Shinto priests who had, in consequence of the change in the administration of the Shinto temples, been deprived in 1871 of their posts and of their means of subsistence. It was natural that in accomplishing such a grand work as the Restoration the Government should have required an immense amount of money and that it should have been compelled '' £insatsa " to issue paper money to meet a deficit in the treasury- Exchange But this issue of paper money occasioned great financial Loan Bonds, disorder. To remedy this state of things, the Govern- ment promulgated in 1873 the " Kiusatsu " Exchange Loan Bond Regulations, with the object of withdrawing from circula- tion paper money in exchange for the bonds, exchange to be made at the request of the owners. In 1884 the withdrawal was carried out on a larger scale than before, in order to bring paper money to par. The issue of the bonds in accordance with the " Kinsatsu " Exchange Loan Bonds was discontinued and insteadi the Unregistered " Kinsatsu '' Exchange Bonds were issued. Com- ing to 1899, with the object , of redeeming l~yen paper notes- and notes of larger denomination, the Gavernment borrowed from the Bank of Japan 22 million' yen in the shape of convertible- bank notes. National Loans. 519 Meanwhile matters relating to the development of industry also received a due share of attention from the Government. In the year 1878 the Government raised the Public Undertakings Economic Loan to the amount of 12,500,000 yen and undertook Loans. the work of laying the Kyoto-Otsu Kailroad, the Tsuruga-Ogaki Railroad, the construction of a new road the Shiraizu-goe pass, the drainage of Lake Inawashiro, the supply of water to Nasu plain, etc. Then in 1881 and 1885 the Nakasendo Railroad Loan amounting to 20,000,000 yen was raised to connect Tokyo and Kyoto by means of a railroad service through the Nakasendo route. This plan was subsequently abandoned, and part of the fund raised for the purpose was appropriated on account of the work of the Tokaido Railroad and other railroad the speedy construction of which was necessary. The deficit in the fund was met by raising in 1888 the Railroad Supplementary Loan. From 1893 the Railroad Loan has been raised several times, and the construction of important lines has been completed, with the result that this service has been biought to a state of great eiBclency and usefulness. The Hokkaido Railroad Loan was established in 1897, the loan to be floated according to the state of the market and as the progress of the work requires. The outbreak of the South-Western Civil War in 1877 involved big disbursements which could not be met out of the ordinary revenue. Fortunately the Fifteenth National Bank just started about that time had a supply of capital which was too great to be profitably manipulated, so that it asked to the Government to use part of its capital as a loan. The Government accepted this offer, and borrowed a sum of 15,000,000 yen as a war fund. Between 1886 and 1889 a Navy Loan amounting to 17,000,000 yen was raised with the object of bringing the Imperial fleet to a state of greater efficiency and making it more adequate ITavy Loan, to defend our expanded interests. The fund raised was used for establishing a number of admiralties, arsenals, building warships, and also for manufacturing torpedoes and ammunition of war. Meanwhile as a result of the institutions of the State having 520 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. been brought to a state of greater perfection and espeoially as a result of the proper development of organs of monetary Consolidated circulation, the scale of rate of interest had began to Loan. fall, so that coming to 1896 the interest for deposits stood at a:bout 3 to 4 per cent. The national bonds bearing interest at the rate of 6 per cent, or over naturally began to rise above par. The time had therefore arrived for consolidating several kinds of loans that had formerly been raised at a higher rate of interest. Accordingly the Treasury promulgated in October of that year the Consolidated Loan Bonds Regulations, in order, on the one hand, of consolidating the loans bearing a higher rate of interest and of reducing the expense of the Treasury as also of the burden of the people, and on the other of unifying the various kinds of loans. The loan bonds to be redeemed by this arrangement were the 6 per cent. "Kinsatsu" Exchange Loan Bonds, 6 per cent. Capitalized Pen- sion Bonds, 6 per cent. Public Undertaking Bonds, 6 per cent. Unregistered " Kinsatsu " Exchange Loan Bonds, 7 per cent. Nakasendo Railroad Bonds, 7 per cent. Voluntarily Capitalized Loan Bonds, 7*-per cent. South-western War Loan, etc. All these loans aggregated over 173,010,000 yen. The regulations having been drawn up with the object of unifying all the diiferent kinds of loans, they remain to this day as the fundamental provisions for ••egulating matters of loans. In 1894 some trouble in Korea culminated in the outbreak jf war between this country and China. The war involved immense expenses as to oblige the Government to promulgate an Urgency Imperial Ordinance entitling it, to float at its own discretion, loans and to contract other kinds of debts. The Imperial Di^t that was convoked soon after approved of the measure of disbursing the war expense of 250,000,000 yen and of supplying that amount by means of domestic loans. In accordance with this programme the Govern- ment raised the War Loan and also got a loan from the Bank of Japan and procured the fund needed in repleiiishing the war chest. Pn the conclusion of peace with China in April 1895, it was arranged for the convenience of both parties that the indemnity JapaiiChina from China should be paid and received at London War Loan, and in English pound sterling.; The indemnity was National Loans. 521 set apart as a special account, so that it might be afterwards manipulated to greater advantage. At the same time this account led to the opening of a mutual loan arrangement between the Treasury and the Bank of Japan, with the result that a species of short-term national loans was brought into existence. The glorious termination of that war imparted a powerful im- petus to the development of national affairs in all spheres of activity. The Government itself also decided to undertook several important measures for promoting our economic affairs and for supplementing national armaments. With the consent of the Imperial Diet the Government made arrangements for improving the Post-Bellum existing system of railroads, constructing the HokkaidS Programme railroad, establishing a steel foundry, expanding tele- Loans, phone service, creating the tobacco monopoly, streng- thening the national defence, etc. These measures appeared in the shape of Public Undertakings Loan promulgated in 1896. The financial results of the Japan-China War were not confined to those enunciated above, for the annexation of Formosa to Japa- nese dominions necessitated the raising of a loan for exploiting the resources of the island. This loan is the Formosa Public Under- taking Loan issued in 1899. In 1897 the Law for readjusting the Capitalized Pension Bonds was promulgated, in order to adjust the capitalized pen- sions, which therefore required the issue of a loan. How- ever the various matters connected with this loan being yet under investigation, some time must expire before the loan is to be raised. Besides these mentioned above, there are some contract affairs which involve disbursements not covered by Budgets, and for which the consent of the Diet has been secured. One of them relates to the procuring of the North China Affair Fund (1901 fiscal year), another to a loan to be transferred to the Iron Foundry Exchequer Working Fund (1902), while there are also the Treasury Bonds, etc- Bonds Regulations issued in 1884 and Law No. 16 issued in 1894 for raising loans. These two latter 522 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Cer.tary. legislative measures invest in the Treasury an important privilege of procuring funds with which to meet the prescribed outlays originally arranged tp be paid with the proceeds of the year's instal- ment of leans. For it frequently happens that the Treasury is obliged to fulfill payment while the proceeds from the loan are not yet forthcoming. By virtue of this expedient the Treasury is enabled to raise short-termed loans and thus to meet the necessity of prescribed outlays. In consequence of the great discretion exercised by the Treasury in adjusting the State finances, and as the Treasury, in pursuance of that judicious policy, has converted and consolidated loans bearing higher rates of interest, of the 21 different loans heretofore raised by the Governihent (Treasury Bonds and short-termed loans excepted), 11 have already been redeemed or converted and consolidated, and there remain at present 10 loans which the Empire has yet to redeem. The redemption of the loans was previously made by redeeming the prescribed instalment for such of the loans whose redemption was regulated in that way ; also by converting and consolidating old loans, and also by redeeming by drawings a certain amount of bonds. Later the Government, with the consent of Mode of the Diet, made an arrangement for purchasing, when- Redemption. ever the state of the market favored such purchases, loan bonds, and of redeeming them by this pro cess. This was duly provided by Law No. 5 issued in 1806. This purchasing method and the drawing method have since been availed of for redeeming loan bonds, and for adjusting State finances. The history and all the circumstances relating to the origin of national loans having been c'eicribed in this section, it remains for us to give some brief account of the items of those loans with their respective amounts, the classfication of the loans, and some other financial subjects. Items of National Loans. — The loans heretofore raised by the Imperial Government, excepting the Treasury Bonds and short- termed loans, number 21, to which one loan to be newly raised some time in future to be -added, making in all 22 items, as appended in the following table : — National Loans. 523 EXISTING LOANS. Name. Date of Issue of Regulations or Conclusion of Contract. Rate ot Interest. Months for Paying Interest. Old Loan Captalized Pension Loans Navy Loan Consolidated Loan Mar. 25, 1873. Aug. 5, 1876. June 12, 1SS6. Oct. 16, 1SS6. No Interest. — S%, (>%, 1%, 10% May and Nov. Railroad Loans War Loans Public Undertakings Loans Hokkaido Railroad Loan f June 20, 1892. '" (.April 19, ,1899. f Aug. 15, 1894. ... .j Oct. 23, 1894. (Mar. z, 1895. /Mar. 29, 1896. ■ \ April 19, 1899. /May 13, 1896. •\ April 19, 1899. FormoSan Public Undertaking ■) jyj^^ ^^ ^g^ Loan -. J ■ ' Foreign Loans New Loan Kinsatsn Exchange Loan Capitalized Pension Loan Pro-Rata Pension Bonds for 1 (<)% April 23, 1870. — \l% Jan. 13, 1873. Mar. 25, 1873. Mar. 30, 1873. Mar. 28, 1874. ,, ,, ..,■.. T) • . '^ I Mar. 13, 1877. the i'orraer bhmto Priest... J jj / 1 South-Western War Loan Public Undertaking Loan Nakasend5 Railroad Loan May 22, 1877. May I, 1878. Dec. 28, 1883. Unregistered Kinsatsu Ex-1p^_,^g gg change Loan J Railroad Supplementary Loan. Jan. 28, 1889. ^Monly'...^!'^.'^'?!."^ ..^''^."} A"S 9, 1S90. No Interest. 1% 1% ^% 9% 7S?» May and Nov. June and Dec. Mar. and Sept. June and Dec. June and Dec. Mar. and Sept. June and Dec. Mar. and Sept. June and Dec. June and Dec. Feb. and Aug. Jan. and July. June and Dec. May and Nov. Nov. Nov. May and Nov. June and Dec. June and Dec. May and Nov. June and Dec. TO BE RAISED IN FUTURE. Capitalized Pension Adjust- /Oct. 29, 1897. ment Loan \Mar. 22, 1899. Mar. and Sept. 524 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. EXISTING LOANS. Name. Old Loan Capitalized Pension Loans .. Navy Loan ;.. Consolidated Loan Loan for Redeeming Paper Maney Railroad Loans War Loans Public Undertaliings Loans. Hokkaido Railroad Loan ... Formosan Public Undertak- ing Loans Date of Issue. 1872. 1877. 1886-1889. 1S87-1897. I 1890. ( 1893-1902. I 1899. 1895-1900. ■ 1897-1902. . 1899. r 1898-1901. L 1899. 1 1900-1902. Term for Leaving Loans Un- redeemed. 5 years. 5 years. 5 years. 3 years. 5 years. 10 years. 5 years. 5 years. 10 years. 5 years. 10 years. 10 years. Term of Redemption. 1st Payment. 1872. 1882. 1891. 189:2. 1893. 1898. 1902. 1900. 1902. 1909. 1903. 1909. last ' Payment. I9SI. 1906. 1923- 1951. 1^12. 1956. 1955- 1954- 1957- 1953- 1956. 1953. 1946. LOANS REDEEMED. Foreign Loans |9^ 1870. New Ixian 1872. Kinsatsu Exchange Loan ... 1873-1883. Capitalized Pension Loan ... 1874- 1876. Pro-Rate Pension Bonds fori 00 the Former Shinto Priest. / ' South-Western War Loan... 1877-1878. Public Undertaking Loan ... 1878. Nakasendo Railroad Loan... 1884-1885. Unregistered Kinsatsu Ex- "1 ,0- jS^fi change Loan j '^ ' ' Railroad Supplementary! iJjoq Loan J ^' 3 years. 2 years. 1873- 1875. 3 years. 1875. 3 years. 1876. 2 years. 1876. 2 years. 18S0. Until 1896. — 2 years. 1880. 5 years. 1889. 5 years. 1S89. 5 years. 1S94. 1882. 1897. 1896. 1897. 1884. I8S6. 1897. 1902. I9I4. 1920. »943- TO BE RAISED IN FUTURE. Capitalized Pension Adjust- ment Loan ... !:} 5 years. National Loans. 525 The items of short-term loans, that is to say, the Exchequer bonds and temporary loans are given below. Of these items, thosj that are remaining are Exchequer bonds, temporary loans contracted for adjusting balance of receipts and disbursements of Exchequer, the loan appropriated on account of the Formosan Public Under- taking Fund, and the loan on account of the North China Affair. There is only one loan to be contracted in future, according to the prescribed programme, and that is a loan appropriated on account of the Iron Foundry "Working Found. The particulars are as appended in the table. Date of Issue of Regulations. Septi 20th, 1884. EXCHEQUER BONDS. Cause of Loans. Regulation Interest, Interest-Bearing or (fith Discount (Rate Fixed by the Finance Minister). Actual Interest Per Annum. Per Diem. Discount 4-7'A% I-7-I-9 TEMPORARY LOANS. June llth, 1894. Oct. 23rd, 1894. Mar. 2nd, 1895. Mar. 4th, 1896. Mar. 20th, 1899. For Adjusting Ex- chequer Receipts and Payments. Japan-China War. Do. Mutual Accommoda- tion between Exche- quer Cash Account and Indemnity Deposits. Transferred Toward Formosan Under- taking Fund. Transferred Toward North China Affair Not more than Spi Fund. For Supplementing Iron Foundry Not more than 7^ Working Fund. Interest-Bearing. Not more than 6^ Do. Rate to be Fixed by the Finance Minister. Rate to be Fixed by Government. I— 10^ (>% 2,% at First, No Interest Afterward, 1% 2.2—2.4 sen. i% Amount of the Debts. — As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the first loan ever raised by the Imperial Government was the 9 per cent, foreign loan, while in respect to redemption 526 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. the repayment in 1872 of the first insfalment of the Old Loan was the first. From that time forward the raising Capitalized of new loans was generally alternated by the redemp- Fension Loan. tion of the old, and though the amount reraain,ing unpaid necessarily differed according to the times, in general it grew larger with lapse of time. The Capitalized Pension Loan raised in 1877 amounted to an immense sum, as it was in- volved a momentous change in the social organization of the country. The sum was no less than 173,900,000 yen in round numbers, and the incurring of this enormous loan raised at one Consolidated bound the total sum of the State liabilities. The Loan. Consolidated Loan raised in accordance with the Regulations promulgated in 1886 was still larger, as it amounted to 175,000,000 yen. However as this loan was raised with the primary object of converting and consolidating loans bearing higher rates of interest, the flotation of this loan, nominally stupendous as it was, did not materially alter the sum total of the State liabilities. The outbreak of the Japan-China War in 1894 and the necessity it occasioned of the war loan and temporary loans swelled all at once the loans of the State, and this tendency was further accelerated by the appearance of the Public Undertakings Loan required by the various post-bellum measures. At the end of Total National the 1902 fiscal year, the national debts reached the Debts. figures of no less than 584,620,000 yen approximately. Appended are the tables demonstrating the viscis- situdes of the national loans since the first loan of the 9-per cent, foreign loan was raised. Amount of Amount Amoimt Remain- Debt Year. Loans. Redeemed. ing at the End of the Year. per Capita. l8703'i ... 4,880,000.000 — 4,880,000.000 •147 1872 •. 23.39S.550.000 219.454-500 28,056,095.500 .843 '873 .. 13,292,200.000 707.454.500 40,640,841.000 1.209 1874 6,986,250.000 707.454.500 46,919,636.500 1.380 187s .. i'D,23o,55o.ooo 1,339,994.500 55,810,192.000 1.625 1876 7,400.000 1,890,248.500 53.927,343.500 1-557 •877 .. 183,388,900.000 975,854.500 236,340,389.090 6.772 1878 .. 18,348,050.000 2,324.273.500 252,364,165.500 7-05S 1879 — 2,165,406.500 250,198,759-000 6.964 National Loam. 627 Amount of Amount Amount Remain- Debt Year. Loans. Redeemed. ing at the End of the Year. per Capita. iSSo... . . ... 3,002,650.000 3,863(178.500 . 249,338,230.000 6.S58 1881... . . ... 627,550.000 3,838,239.500 246,127,541.000 6.706 18S2... . . ... 427,950.000 6,044,207.500 240,511,283.500 6.497 1883... . • - 372,550.000 13,220,944.500 227,662,889.000 6.079 1884... . . ... 16,414,600.000 4,215,575.500 239,861,913.500 6-334 1885... . . ... 6,582,700.000 5,188,626.500 241,255,987.500 6.324 1886... . . ... 41,682,600.000 25,456,272.500 257,482,314.500 6.687 1887... . . - 74,554>45o.ooo 66,644,182.500 265,392,582.000 6.793 1888... . . ... 48,872,900.000 54,196,662.500 260,068,819.500 6.566 1889... . . ... 31,166,850000 31,182,553.500 260,053,216.000 6.490 1890... . • — 25,347,45o-ooo 10,163,996.500 275,236,669.500 6.804 1891... . , ... 19,462,450.000 20,073,110.500 274,626,009.000 6.744 1S92... . . ... 40,850,350.000 37,582,047.500 277,S94,3"-5oo 6.763 1893... . . ... 18,987,900.000 30,067,360.500 266,814,851.000 6,447 1894-. • . . ... 32,500,000.000 16,078,797.500 283,336,053,500 6.774 189s . • • - 144,234,000.000 35,346,158.500 392,123,895,000 9.276 1896 ., . . ... 105,928,875.000 70,930,835.500 427,121,934.500 10.001 1S97... . . - 57,453,378.000 72,791,052.500 411,784,260.000 9.014 1S98... . . ... 61,123,350.000 59,625,736.500 413,281,873.500 8.940 *i899... . . ... 100,365,750.000 10,446,974.500 503,200,649.000 10.733 igoo... . . ... 31,125,400.000 7,661,874-500 526,664,194.500 11.089 1901... . . ... 107,710,800.000 60,409,954-500 573,965,040.000 12.0S4 1902... . . ... 115,693,050.000 94,014,564.500 595,643.525-000 12.541 Notes : — • The population of Formosa is included in the returns for this and sub- sequent years, and as the census returns for 1901 and 1902 are not forthcoming, those for 1900 were tentatively used for those two years. The loans given in the foregoing table sum up to 1,345,016,553 yen, while the amount redeemed totalled 749,373,027.500 yen (the total amount of the loans divided by 32, the number of years intervening between April 1870 and March 1902, the average of loan contracted per year amounts to 42,031,767 yen and the redemption made averages 23,417,907 yen approximately). Hence the amount remaining unredeemed at the end of March 31st, 1900, was 595,643,525.500 yen. The unredeemed amount distributed among the different loans, the following table is obtained : — 528 Japan in the Beginning of the 20tk Century. National Debts. 9-per cent. Foreign Loans 7-per cent. Foreign Loans New Loan Old Loan ICinsatsu Exchange Loan Voluntarily Capitalized Pension Loan Capitalized Pension Loan Pro-rate Capitalized Pension Loan for Former Shinto Priests Public Undertaking Loan Nakasendo Railroad Loan Unregistered ICinsatsu Exchange Loan Navy Loan Consolidated Public Loan Railroad Supplementary Loan Railroad Loan War Loan... Public Undertaking Loan Hokkaido Railroad Loan Fonnosan Undertaking Public Loan Total ~ Exchange Bonds South-western War Loan Paper-Notes Redemption Fund Loan Temparary Loans ^ ... Total Grand total Amount Amount. Remaining Raised. Redeemed. Unredeemed. 4,880,000 4,880,000 — 11,712,000 11,712,000 — 12,422,825 12,422,825 — 10,972,725 6,803,095 4,169,636 6,669,250 6,669,250 — 16,565,850 16,565,850 — 173,902,900 149,774,010 24,128,890 334PSO 334.050 — 12,500,000 12,500,000 — 20,000,000 20,000,000 — 7,929,900 7,929,900 — 17,000,000 8,203,400 8,796,600 175,000.000 7,663,550 167,336,450 2,000,000 2,000,000 — 62,559,500 13,728,050 48,831,450 124,920,750 9,112,700 115,808,050 144.977450 11,813,150 133,164,300 4,912,000 — 4,912,000 11,246,150 — 11,246,150 820,505,350 302,111,825 518,393,526 162,866,509 142,866,500 20;ooo,ooo 15,000,000 15,000,000 — 22,000,000 — 22,000,000 324,644,703 289,394,703 35,250,000 361,644,703 304,394,703 57,250,000 1,345,016,553 749,373,028 595,643,526 On examining the amount of interest paid for the national debts that are bearing interest, the rate of interest show a gradual tailing off, but the aggregate amount paid on this account has increased to a greater or less extent, this increase being especialyl striking in 1877. National Loans. 529 Year. 1871.., 1872.., 1873.. 1S74.. 1875. 1876.. 1877.. 1878 1879.. iSSo.. 1881 ifSi.. 1J83.. 1884 . 1885 . 1SS6 . 1887.. iSSS 1889.. 1890 I89I.. IS92.. iS93- 1S94.. 189s- 1^:95. 1897. 1S98.. 1S99.. 1900 , 1901.., 1902.. (unit of ;'?«). Amount of Interest Interest-Bearing Yearly Amount per 100 yen Intere Debts Remaining at of Interest. of Unredeemed per Caj the End of Year. Debts. 4,88o,cxx) 439,200;Ooo 9.000 .013 ... 17,302,825 936,113.000 S-410 .028 30,107,024 1,806,845 000 ^>O0I .054 ... 36,605,27s 2,309,158.000 6-30S .06S - 45,7i5-285 2,050,853.200 6.674 .0S9 ... 44,051.891 2,934,057.120 6.660 .085 ... 226,684,391 14,917,887.220 6.581 .427 ... 242,927,622 15,809,583 040 6.508 .442 ... 240,981,670 15,658,136400 6.493 -436 ... 240,340,590 15,558,088.720 6.473 .428 • ■• 237>349>36i 15.315,594.520 6.453 -417 ... 241,952,558 14,898,672.660 6.158. .402 ... 229,323,618 i4,309,76i.3'o 6.240 .3S2 ... 231,742,097 15,105,274.790 6.518 •399 - 233.355.625 15,111,262.200 6.476 -396 ... 249,801,407 15,530,584-940 6.217 -403 - 257,931,129 15,370,909.780 5-959 -393 ... 252,826,821 14,726,657.670 S-825 .372 ... 253,030,672 •14,285,742.540 5.646 •357 ... 246,433,580 13,758,211.400 5-583 ■340 ... 246,042,374 13,342,664.980 5-423 .328 ... 249,530,131 12,966,631.820 5.195 .316 ... 238,670,125 12,157,348.100 5.094 .294 ... 255,310,782 13,116,248.840 5-137 •314 ... 364,418,078 18,656,661.060 5.120 •441 - 399,635,572 ,18,586,453-640 4-651 -435 ... 377,686,220 18,884,311.000 5.000 •413 ... 386,234,420 19,311,721.000 5.000 .418 ■ - 476,372,650 22,892,332.500 4.806 .48S ... 500,055,650 24,345,482.500 4.869 •S13 • • 547,575,950 28,244,597.500 5-158 •595 ... 269,473,890 28,670,994.500- 4-929 •591 530 Japan in the Beginning of the IQlh Century. Classification op National Dicbts. — The national debts in- curred by the Government since the beginning of the era amount to a large sum, as mentioned in the preceding parts. But it must not be forgotten that all those debts have generally been occasioned by the reorganization of the national institutions, the arljustment of the finances, and the development of civil and military affairs. None of them have been engendered by deficit in the ordinary revenue of the State. It is true some debts have been contracted by war, but their sum is -comparatively small. This point will be made clear by the fullowing table in which the debts, (Extchequer bonds and temporary loans excluded), are classified according to the object for which they were raised. (unit of yen). Object of Debt. Name of Loan. Amount Raised. Amount Redeemed. Amount not yet Redeemed. •2 I Feudal Got- j erninents I Debts Con- 1 solidated. Feudal Pensions Capiial- ized. New Loan 12,422,825 12,4^.2,825 — Old Loan 10,972,725 6,803,089 4,169,636 Total 23,395.550 19,225,915 4.169,636 per cent. Foreign Loan. 11,712,000 11,712,000 — apitalized Pension Loan. 16,565,850 16,565,850 — Pension Loan 173,902,900 149,774,010 24,128,890 The Old ShintS Priest Pension Loan 334,050 334,050 — Total 202,514,800 178,385910 24,128,890 Grand Total ... 225,910,350 197,611,825 28,298,526 Q4i t3 Railroad Construc- tion. 9 per cent. Foreign Loan. 4,880,000 4,880,000 Public Works Loan ... 5,694,300 5,694,300 Nakasendo Railroad Loan. 20,000,000 20,000,000 Railroad Sup'tary Loan... 2,000,000 2,000,000 Railroad Loan 62,559,500 13,728,050 Public Undertaking Loan. 24,431,400 1,990,750 Hokkaido Railroad Loan. 4,912,000 — Total 124,477,350 48,293,100 48,831,450 22y440,80O 4,912,000 76,184,250 Iliivbor- Works, Artirtcial Canal, Iloart, Mining, Telephone, u'x. (Public Works Loan ... 6,805,700 Public Undertaking Loan. 30,873,450 Total 37.679.150 Grand Total 6,805,700 2,515,650 9,321,350 28,357,800 28,357,800 162,156,500 57,614,450 104,542,050 National Loans. 331 Anioi'.nt Object of Name of Loan. Amount Amount not yet Debt. Raised. Redeemed. Redeemed. Expansion f Naval Loan ... 1 7,000,000 8,203,400 8,796,600 of Arma- Public Works Loan ... 77.458,900 6,311,550 71,147,350 ment. I Total ... 94,458,900 14,514,950 79,943,950 r Civil War Loan ... ... 15,000,000 15,000,000 — War. War Loans ... 124,920,750 9,112,700 115,808,050 I Total Grand total... ... 139,920,750 24,112,700 115,808,050 •■• 234,379,650 38,627,650 195,752,000 Kinsatsu Exchange Loan. 6,669,250 6,669,250 Redemp- tion of Unregistered Kinsatsu Ex- change Loan 7,929,900 7,929,900 , •5 _3 Paper Money. Redemption of Paper Money... 22,000,000 _ 22,000,000 < Total 36,599,150 14,599,150 22,000,000 1 Consolida- " tifinol' old t.ouns. Consolidated Loan 175,0 0,(O3 7,663,550 167,336,450 Tobiicco Monopoly. Public Undertaking Loan. 12,213,550 995,200 11,218,350 Total 223,812,700 23,257,900 200,554,800 Railroad 7,722,350 _ 7,722,350 Land Surveying 1,274,550 — 1,274,500 Exploitation of New Territory. Harbor- Work Construction of Govern- ment Offices 1,462,000 787,250 1,462,000 787,250 Total Grand Total 11,246,150 — 11,246,150 857,505,350 317,111,825 540,393,525 It will be seen from the foregoing table that the national debts incixrred for military purposes number four, the amount of their loans corresponding to less than 27.3 per cent, of the whole sum (the debt iucurrtd for civil wars correspond,-? to Eatio of only 16.3 per cent, approximately), and this item Different Kinds therefore is the largest ; then come the debts in- of Dibts. curred f6r the reorganization of public institutions. These debts number six and their aggregate amount 532 Japan in ilie Herjinning of the 20th Century. corresponds to about 27.1 per cent, of the whole sum, and therefore almost equal to the item above mentioned. The five debts resultiui^ frotti the financial adjustment measures correspond to about 2G.7 per cent., a ratio differing much froni the preceding two. Tlie debts which economic undertakings occasioned are the largest as to number, though their aggregate sum does not exceed about 18.2 per cent, of the whole amount. There is only one raised for the purpose of exploiting the new territory of the Empire, and its amount does not exceed .7 per cent., and is therefore the smallest item of all. The two items of economic undertakings and the ex- ploitation of the new territory are, however, destined to grow larger with the lapse of time. Coming to the ratio which each item of redemptiou bears to the aggregate amount redeemed, that ratio is in the case of the financial adjustment amount to about 38.4 per cent., iu the case of the military item about 36.6 per cent., economic undertakings about 18.3 per cent., reorganization of public insti- tutions about 5.7 per cent., and the exploitation of the new territory about 1 per cent. The amount of loans, of redemption. Ratio of Loans Raised and of the sum not yet redeemed being aad Redeemed. classified according to foreign and domestic debts, the following figures are obtained: — Kind. Amount not yet Amount of Loan. Amount Redeemed. Redeemed. Domestic Foreign 743.283,350 114,220,000 300,519,824 16,592,000 442,763,526 97,630,000 Total 857,505.350 317,111,825 540;393>525 Furthur classification being made into Eatio of InterestBearinjf those bearing interest and thosij not be.ir- Loa'iS aad Those not ing interest and also into tliose that Bearing Interest. have issued bonds and those that have not, the following comparison is obtained : — National Loanx. INTEREST-BEARING. j33 Kind. Those that have not Issued Nei^o-' liable Bonds (Temporary Loans) Amount Amount of Amount not yet Loan. Redeemed. Redeemed. 1 809,532,625 z95.308.735 514,223,894 \ 15,000,000 15,000,000 — Toial ... 824,532,625 310.308,735 514,223,890 NOT EEARIXG INTEREST. Those that have Issued Negotiable! Tr,nT7T?c Bonds (Public Loans) f '°'9/2.725 Those that have not Issued Kego-I tiable Bonds (Temporary Loans ... ( 22,000,000 32,972,725 5,803,090 6,803,090 4,169,636 22,000,000 26.169,636 TOTAL. Those that have Issued Negotiable) q , Bonds (Public Loans) ^ »-0,505o50 Those that have not Issued Nego liable Bonds (Temporary Loans) ':] 37,000,000 302,111,825 15,000,000 518.393,526 22,000,000 Total ... £57,505,350 317,111,825 540,393,526 Lastly the de' ts shall be classified according to the presence or absence of interest and according to the rate uf interest. 531 Japan in, iJic Beginning of the 20th Century. J'j. Name of Loan. lo Voluntary Pension Loan 9 9-percent. Foreign Loan ^Capitalized Pension Loan 8 s Old Shinto Priests Pension Loan I Total 7'j Civil War Loan 17-per cent. Foreign Loan Capitalized Pension Loan Nakasendo Railroad Loan Total Kinsatsu Exchange T,oan Capitalized Pension Loan ' Public works Loan Unrc^M^tered Kinsatsu Exchange Loan 'I'otal Capitalized Pension Loan Civil War Loan Naval Loan Consolidated I,oan Railroad supplementary Loan ■ Railroad Loan ^^'a^ Loan Public Undertaking Loan Hokkaido Railroad Loan Formosan Undertaking Loan Total New Loan Railroad Loan Public Undertaking Loan Hokkaido Railroad Loan Total No rOldLoan Inte-\Paper Money Redemption Loan rest I Total Amount Amount Amount not of Loan. Redcemnd. yet Redeemed. 9,244,005 4,880,000 16,565,850 334,050 16,899,900 10,000,000 11,712,000 108,242,785 20,000,000 139,954,785 6,669,250 25,003,705 12,500,000 7,929,(^00 52,ioj,S55 31,412,405 5,000,000 17,000,000 175,000,000 2,000,000 44,981,750 124,920,750 66,925,200 2,912,000 11,246,150 481,398,255 12,422,825 17,577,750 78,052,250 2,000,000 110,052,725 10,972,725 22,000,000 32,972,735 9,244,005 4,880,000 .6,565,850 334.050 16,899,900 10,000,000 11,712.000 108,246,785 20,000,000 139,954,785 6,669,250 25,003,705 12,500,000 7,927,900 52,102,855 7,283,515 5,000,000 8,203,400 7,663,550 2,000,000 13,728,050 9,112,700 11,813,150 24,120,890 8,796,600 167,336,450 31,253,700 115,808,050 55,112,050 2,912,000 11,246,150 416,593,890 17,577,750 78,052,250 2,000,000 97,630,000 4,169,636 — 22,000,000 6,803,089 26,169,636 64,804,365 12,422,825 12,422,825 6,803,090 Grand Total. 857,505.350 317,111,825 540,393,526 Note: — That portion of the South-Western Civil War Loan which had been paid oC in 1883 when the rate of interest was revised was included in the item of the old rate of interest, and the remainder in that of the new rate. National Loans. II. LOCAL DEBTS. As already mentioned, the d'i'ots contracted by the feudal prhices were converted into the public loans of the Iinpeiial Government and were thus brought under a uniform system. For a considerable period from the advent of the First Lo al Loans. Imperial regime local loans were practically non- existent, nor were there any regular rules in force to regulate this branch of local finance. It was as lale as 1890, when tlie local Government system had been completed, tliaj; regular provisions relating to local loans were enacted for the first time. According to the provisions now in force, the prefectural and communal corporations are allowed to raise loans only for the pur- pose of redeeming older debts or when it is impossible to meet with the ordinary revenue extraordinary disbursements Ob'eets of occasioned by natural calamities or similar occur- Local Loans, rences of an unavoidable nature or by undertakings judged to confer a permanent benefit on the cor- porations. But a loan cannot be raised unless the details relating to it have been voted by the legislative organ of the corporation and .unless such decision has been approved by the Ministers of Home Affairs and of Finance. However this restrictive provision may not apply to short-termed loans redeemable in not more than three years Though local loans are subject to such restrictions, the develop- ment of the self-government system and the expaiision of local expenditure occasion disbursements which can not be easily met out of ihe ordinary revenue. Then again tlie frequent occurrences of calamities and disasters have f'urtlier obliged the prefectures and corporative bodies to resort to loan expedients, ami the result has been that the local loans have attained enormous proportions. The supervising authoriaes are exercising the utn;ost care to put a judicious check on this tendency. 63G Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, STATISTICS RELATING TO LOCAL LOANS. Table I.— Existing Amount of Local Loans. (unit : o( yen). Loans of At the End Loans >f V^ans of Loans of Towns and of Year. Prefecturjts. Districts. Cities. Villages. J 890 570.301 — 150,000 — 1891 1,263,481 — 863,112 1,652 1S92 . 1,295,15s — 2,961,419 16,609 1893 • 1,529,507 — 7,501,644 19,232 1894 2,281,511 3,000 7,529,760 120,574 1895 . 2,209,945 2,500 7,820,960 128,241 1896 2,204,854 6,:oo 8,019,596 163,173 1897 , 4,5co,i49 21,479 8,732,123 236,921 189S . 7,885,203 45,729 11,501,480 383,386 1S99 8,672,641 62,646 14,676,75s 491,949 1900 ■ 9,719,984 135,613 18,889,033 829,498 1901 •■* ■ 10,379,695 339,348 19,263,663 ' Local Loans 1,514,455 At the End Loans of Local Total. Redeemable Grand Total. of Year Associations. within 3 Years. 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 , 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 6,508 43418 1:6,408 138,289 124,589 247,489 448,682 724,308 1,195.345 1,687,674 720,301 2,128,245 4,279,692 9,093,801 10,061,253 10,299,934 10,518,414 13,738,162 :o,264,4So 24,628,299 30,769,473 33,iS7,Ko5 2,614,652 3,2i9,5i7 3,629,904 5,010,447 7,520,166 720,301 2,128,245 4,279,692 9,093,801 10,061,253 10,299,934 10,518,414 16,352,814 23,483,997 28,258,204 35,779,921 40,707,97- National Loans. Table II. — Aggregate Amount of Local Loans. (unit of yen.) Total of Existing Increase Compared Rate of Amount. with Preceding Increase. Year. 537 i! 590 .. 720,301 — — I89I •• 2,128,245 1 ,407,943 I 955 1892 .. 4,279,692 2 ,151.447 I.OII 1893 ■• 9,093,801 /] ,814,109 I. 125 1894 ,, 10,061,253 967,451 106 1 895 .. 10,299,934 238,681 024 1895 ., 10,518,414 218,480 . 021 1897 .. 16,352,814 5,834.400 555 1898 .. ... ,,, 23,483.997 7 ,131,182 436 1899 •• ■■• ••• 28,258,204 4,774,206 203 1900 ••• ••• .. 35,779,921 7,521,717 266 1901 40,707,972 4 ,928,051 • 137 Table in.-CLASsir I'icATioN OF Local Loans Existing in 1901. (unit of i'^«.) Education. s-'-y- S. Industry. Redemp- tion of Total. Old Loans. Frefectural... 745.952 — 9,599,312 34,400 — 10,379,664 ^District ... 130.770 — 93.437 106,000 9.141 339,348 City 312,210 7,500 18,919,651 — 24.297 19,263,662 Town and villas re ... 435.720 9,734 633,109 324,907 112,970 1. 5 1 7.449 Association... — 900 1,585,655 12,490 88,628 1.687,673 Total... 1,624,656 18,134 30,832,164 477,797 235,045 33,187,796 At the end of l( )oo ... 336,456 86,740 29,851,443 285,941 208,892 30,769,473 1899 232,29s 85,480 23,999,226 170,444 140,852 24,628,299 1898 .. ,. 204.787 85,720 19,738,000 85,045 150,927 20,264,480 1897 .. .. 105,395 37,540 13,490,746 75,045 29,434 13,73 ?,i6l 1896 .. 43.033 40,400 10,351,700 75,545 7,734 10,518,414 1895 25,316 2,600 10,187,912 75,545 8,559 10,299,934 1894 ., 23.378 4,000 9,953.790 75,545 5,040 10,061,253 1893 9,8 81 4,000 9,078,300 1,620 9,093,801 533 Japan in the Beginning of t!ie 20ih Century. CHAPTER v.— Currency System. Existing System and its History— Effect of the Coinage System on the Finance and Economy of the Country. I. EXISTING SYSTEM AND ITS HISTORY. Gold Coinage System. — The existing currency system is based on the Coinage System promulgated in the year 1897, and which ushered iu the gold standard in this country. The principal points in the currency system are these : — 1. The unit of the coinage shall be 2 fan oi' pure gold (11.574 grains), and shall be one half the value of the old gold unit. 2. The gold coins shall be of thrpe denominations, > yen coins, 10 yen coins, and 20 yen coin?, and the gold coins issued under the old coinage law shall have double the value of the coins of corresponding denominations issued under the new coinage law. 3. Subsidiary silver pices shall be of three denominations, 10 SS71 pieces, 20 sen pieces, and 50 sen pieces. The 5 sen silver pieces issued under the old coinage system shall remain in cJrcuIatiiin as before. 4. Subsidiary copper coins shall be of three denominations. 5-sen nickel pieces, 1-sen copper pieces and 5-r/)( coppei- pieces. The 2-sen pieces, 1-sen pieces, H-rin and 1-rin ])iece3, issued before shall continue in circulation as before. 5. The circulation of 1 yen silver coin that was used ss legal tender to any amount at the rate of 1 yen gold piece was prohibited on April 1, 1898, and its withdrawal from circulation was effected on July 31st of the same year. A brief history of tlie development of the existing monetary system shall be described iu the following paragraphs. Existinr/ St/iitem and iU Hidory. 539 FIRST rEKIOD. One of the fu'st things which the Imperial Government attempted in the way of internal reform was to unify the currency systepj with the object of securing its stability. The promulgation of the New Coinage Regulations in 1871 first laid the basis of a sound monetary system. The regulations adopted 1 yen gold piece weigh- ing 23.15 grains as the unit of standard, and minted 2 yen, 5 yen, 10 yen, and 20 yen pieces. Subsidiary coins eon- First Coinage sisted of silver and copper pieces, the former being Regu ation of four denomination:) of 5-sen, IQ-sen, 2Q-sen and bO-sen and the other also of four denominations, '\-rin 5-rin 1-sen, 2-sen (5-sen nickel pieces were first minted in 1889.) At the same time the Government issued 1-yen silver coin equal in weight and quality to the Mexican dollars that were circulating extensively at that time in the Far East. The 1-yen coins called "trade dollar" having been issued to Trade " Dollar " serve the convenience of merchants engaged in foreign trade, they were acceptable only within the limits of the tretity ports. The relative value of the 1-yen silver pieces was fixed at the rate of 100 silver yen to 101 gold yen, that is to say at the rate of 1 of gjld to about 16.014 of silver. (By Kotification issued in 1876, 100 yen in silver coins was made equaj in value to 100 yen in gold, the rate being 1 of gold to about 16.174 of silver.) SECOND PEHIOD. The gold mono-metallism that was adopted early in (lie era began to be seriously afl^ected from about 1873, when the gold price of of silver fell very 'considerably in Europe and America, so that whereas at first the relative value was 1 of gold to 16 of silver, it fell to one of gold to 19 or 20 of silver. Situated as Japan wts in the midst of silver using countries, it was decided, for the sake of promoting transactions with those countries, to reduced to make the trnde dollar legal fender throughout the Ei Metallini. country and to allow it to I e circulated to any amount .side by side >\ii!i the gold coins. In conse- 640 Japan in ihc Beginning oj the 20th Century. qiience of this new arrangement put in force in 1878, the monetary system of Japan was no longer gold mono-metallism, but was changed to a sj'stem of gold and silwr bi-nictallism. Tin ED PDRIOD. The paper notes issued by the Treasury in 1868 were a result of imperious necessity of meeting the various urgent calls of ex- penditure occasioned by the inauguration of the new Government. At first tliey were convertible notes, but coming to 1871, they began to suffer depieeiiition. A similar remark applies to the bank notes issued in virtue of the Notional Bank RegulatioUg Paper and promulgated in 1872. They were at first convertible Ba k Notes, into specie, but when in 1876 the Regulations were amended to the effect that the bank notes were convertible into inconvertible Treasury notes, they were brought down to the same level of inconvertibility as the other kind of notes. Though those notes were reduced to that unlucky position, the evil resulting there- from was not yet serious, owing to the fact that the amount of the two kinds of notes was still comparatively small. The outbreak of the South- Western Civil war in 1877 and the issue of 27 million yen at one time by the Government and also the issue of no small amount by the banks at once inflated the volume of inconvertible notes. This tendency was further accelerated, for as a result of amendment of the National Bank Regulations in 1876 the creation of new banks followed in quick succession. At the end of 1879 therefore the volume of inconvertible paper money swelled to as much as 34,000,000 yen. The evil effect of this condition of the currency soon began to make itself felt in every direction ; the price of commodities rose rapidly, specie left the country, the importg continued to exceed the exports, public bonds* continued to come down to an alarming extent, and in short it seriously impaired the prosperity of trade and industry. The Government adopted measures calculated to remedy this disastrous state of affairs. , From 1880 systematic eflf!)rts were made to accomplish this adjustment, ami to redeem the paper Currency money. In pursuance of that resolution the Govern- Adjustreat. ment began to hoard specie. Coming to 1883 we find Existing System and its History. 541 that it amends'l the National Baik Rsgulations. It afcerwanls caused the banks to dspo .it speci-e reserves with the Bank of Japan that had been established in 1884, and this central bank was made to issue convertible notes on the bases of the specie reserves it had in its vault. The redemption of the inconvertible notes and the issue of convertible notes to take their place reduced the volume of notes in circulation, and restored their value to par. At the Issue of Con- same time the exodus of specie was stopped, trade vertible Notes, revive?, prices and the rate of interest fell, and thw market and industry Iwgan to recover their normal state of activity. Meanwhile the specie reserves against Government notes went on accumulating, so that the Government was in the position in June of 1885, to give notice that specie payment would be resumed from January 1886 and that the inconvertible notes would be redeemed with silver specie. Thus the important oiject of financial adjustment was at last realized. The circiiLition of Government notes was prohibited not later than December 31st of 1899, while that of bank notes was similarly prohibited on December 9th of the same Government year. It was announced at the same time that during Notes. the five years after the notice of withdrawal from circulation a holder of those notes would be entitled to have them exchanged for convertible legal notes. This period has not yet come to an end. FOURTH PERIOD. With the redemption of paper money by silver after 1886 and the placing of paper on par with silver, the monetary system of Japan, though theoretically a bi-metallic system, Practically practically became one of silver. Though this Silver financial state was an outcome of unavoidable Mono-Metallisn]. circumstances, this change of the gold mono-metallic system into a silver standard system proved highly disastrous for our country. For the fall of silver that began to take l)laoe about 1877 kept on at greater rate, and was still more accelerat- ed owing to the conversion of many silver countries into gold countries. 542 Japan in the Beginning of ike 20th Century. It is true that the United States of America made an attempt to check this downward course by adopting the Sherman act and by convening an International Monetary System Conference. These efforts ended in a failure and the fall continued with unabated force. This movement of the silver market inflicted no small injuries on our national economy, so that the Government at last decided to institute inquiries into the question of monetary Inv stigatioi standard, and appointed in 1892 a commission charg- in Moa tary ed with this special task. The commission was Sys ems- composed of officials of the Departments of State concerend with this affair as well as of economists and business-men at large. The points which the commission wei-e asked to deliberate on and discuss wjre, (1) the causes of the recent fluctuation in the price (.f go'd a d silver, and tluir general efftct ; (2) the effect of those fluctiiiitions on the economic condition of the country ; (3) whether, in view of these fluctuations, there was any need of making a change in the coinage system of the countr}', and if so what system ought to be adopted, and what measures should be taken for effecting that change. The commission sat for about two years, and after having ma le careful investigations into the subject came to the conclusion that our coinage system required a change, and that the change should be the adoption of the gold standard- The Government, however, had at that timi' no fund at its disposal to enable it to carry out this decision of the commission. Fortunate- ly the Japan- China war and the indemnity paid by China enabled the Government to procure that fund. FIFTH PERIOD. This Indemnity reached Japan at a very opportune moment so far as the change of the coinage system was concerned, for id came just when the Government, impelled by iieces- Inauguratioa sity, was thinking of carrying out the change just of Gol I System, referred to and when the time for making that change had in fact come. Determined to effect this important monetary change, the Government introduced in 1897 the Coinage Bill to the Diet. The bill with the approval of both Houses, was passed in March oi the sau)e year, and jjut in force on Effect of the Coinage Reform on the Finance. 543 October 1st of the same year, as briefly described at the beginning of this cliapter. As soon as the adoption of a gold standard had been decided upon, the Government began purchasing abroad gold bullion with part of the Indemnity, and the bullion brought home was handed over to the Imperial JMint with instruction to stamp the gold coins with the greatest possiLle speed. The Mint attended to the work with gri a energy, and minted over 76,000,000 yen gold coins from July 30th to April of the following year. II. EFFECT OF THE COINAGE REFORM ON THE FINANCE AND ECONOMY OF THE COUNTRY. Geseeal Eesiarks. — As only not more than six years have elapsed since the putting, in operation of the new coinage system, it is not yet possible to define with any precision the effects which the new system has had upon the economic condition of the country. There have been, moreover, other accidental causes in operation feince that time, such as, for example, the abnormal influence exerted on our economical system by the sudden expan.sion of Government and private enterprises after the Japan-China War, the outbreak of the North China trouble, the failure of the rich crop, the coming into operation of the revised tariff laws, etc. Benefit of the new Currency System. — All those things have tended to complicate the economic condition of the countryi rendering it extremly diiBcult to point out in any clear manner the effects attending the adoption of the gold standard. However the i-esult of the new coinage system may be broadly stated, in the following paragraphs : — The adoption of the gold standard has placed our currency sysiem on a firm basis and relieved it from those fluctuations that had constantly disturbed the market Stability of while it rested on silver basis. Not only did Currency Systex. these fluctuations always affect the standard of price, but they also placed our currency system in a position of great insecurity, inasmuch as the specie 544 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. reserves against convertible notes of the Bank of Japan, which principally consisted of silver, constantly fluctuated in price. The adoption of the gold standard has rendered the basis of the . cvirrency system stable and firm, as it has made the standard of price secure and free from fluctuations. Had Japan remained to be a silver country, her credit among thg gold countries now that the price of silver has steadily gone down, would have fallen in value on the other hand, while her liabilities would have increased. The result would have manifested itself in the exodus of specie, and the weakening of the stability of the convertible system, even to the extent of imperilling the security of the monetary system. From all those risks and also from other unexpected risks incidental to them, the country has been exempted, thanks to the adoption of the gold standard. The change of the coinage system, while it did not disturb the relation of creditors and debtors that had existed, has ren- dered that relation one of greater security Smooth Operation and therefore has tended to facilitate the of Commercial smooth operation of commercial trans- Trausactionf. actions. The reason why the change of the coinage system has not disturbed the relation that had existed between creditors and debtors, is not far to seek. It will be remembered that, prior to that change the legal relative value of gold and silver was at the rate of one of gold to 16.174 of silver. But in actual price the rate stood at 1 to 31 to 35, and the transactions were carried on the standard of silver. The new coinage system reduced by one half the weight of gold in the 1-yen gold pieces and 2 fun (11.574 grains) was fixed on as the weight of a \-yen gold piece. In other words, ratio of gold to silver became to bear the ratio of 1 to 32.348. The consequence was that the only change that attended the adoption of the standard consisted in the transfer of the standard of price from silver to gold and that the actual ons-yen standard remained unchanged. While the silver system was in force, the fluctuation in the price of silver constantly afiected the interests of creditors Effect of the Coinage Reform on the Finance. 545 and debtors. The sense of insecurity which the people natu- rally felt owing to that cause very much obstructed business transactions, while on the other hand this insecurity imparted to those transactions a feature of speculation. All these things did not fail to seriously affect our social economy. By the adoption of the gold standard the evils of insecure relation between creditors and debtors and the obstructions standing in the way of transactions have been removed, and the system of credit has been encouraged and developed. The prices are no longer influenced by the fluctuations of the price of silver, and are therefore prevented from making any undue advance. Owing to the stability Mark t Prices of the standard of value in consequence ot: of Commodities, the adoption of the gold standard, any fluctuations affecting the market prices of commodities are regulated by the normal relation of supply and demand, and therefore the complicating feature inci- dental to the constant changes of the price of silver has been eliminated from the market. If any relation exisls even to-day between the currency and the prices of com- modities, that is solely attributable to the volume of tha former, and the changes arising from the changes in the value of the currency have entirely disappeared. This stability in the standard of value has, it is hardly necessary to point out, introduced order and system into business trans- actions, both domestic and foreign. It is easy to conceive how, had Japan still remained a silver country, the market prices of commodities, now that the price of silver is steadily declin- ing, would have been far higher than at present, and how,, in foreign trade, imports would have always exceeded exports. Salaried people would be placed in a very unfortunate position, for their earnings would lose more or less of their purchas- ing value and the amount of the salaries and wages would be merely nominal. Moreover the presence of the silver standard would seriously hamper the rise of legitimate and useful enterprises. Thanks to the adoption of the gold standard Japan has escaped from all those causes of evils. 646 Japan in, the Beginning of the 20th Century. The new coinage system has placed financial measures and useful undertakings on a sound basis. Since the adoption of the gold system and since the stan- Finaccial Measures dard of value has been made stable and and Eoonomic Under- secure, it has been possible, on the one takings. hand, to render all the financial measures of the Government sound and free from unexpected changes, and on the other to place tradal and industrial enterprises on a similarly sound basis. In .short those enterprises are freed from risks of unexpected changes and dangers of miscalculations inseparable from the varying changes of the value of silver. The exchange business with gold-using countries has been made stable and the sound develojiment of foreign trade has been secured by the new coinage Exchange with system. The trade with silver-using count- Gold-using Couatrier. ries has also advanced satisfactorily, instead of being subjected to any difficulties. In- deed the exchange rate with gold-using countries has been made practically stable, and free from all those sudden elianges that frequently appeared formerly. Tlie result has been a powerful and healthy stimulus to the development of our trade with gold-countries. During the four years prior to the carrying into effect of tlie gold standard, that is from 1893 to 1896 inclusive, the imports from gold-using countries averaged 74,500,000 yen a year. The average during the five 3'ear3 commencing 1898 when the gold system was established amounted to 144,500,000 yen being about double the former average. Further, the average of Japanese exports to gold-using countries during the four years and the five years both specified above, was 74,800,000 and 117,590,000 yen. respectively, showing an advance of over 57 per cant. The trade with silver-using countries, in spite of the presence of deterring influences in the shape of the constant fluctuations of the silver market, has also shown a prosperous condition, pro- bably owing to the development of our productive enterprise, of the means of transportation, and of the increase of the foreign Effect of tJie Cohiage Hejonn on the Finance. 547 deraaud for our goods. During the first four years in question the imports from the principal silver countries averaged 25,700,000 yen, against the corresponding figure of 61,200,000 yen for the other five years, an increase of about 71 per cent. In exports to those countries the average that stood at 00,300,000 yen in the first period advanced to 83,000,000 yen, an increase of over 174 per cent. Tlie advantage which the new coinage system confers on Japan in connection with her foreign payments is not small. This is indeed an important thing when Effjct of Foreign it is remembered that Japan's creditors are Payments. principally gold-using countries, so that Japan, had she remained as a silver country, would have to pay in the ever-fluctuating silver the principle and interest of her foi'cign loans, the price of her purchases, travelling- expense, etc. Not to sjieak of the great uncertainty in transac- tions and tliB great inconvenience in remittance, tiie loss which Japan would have to incur on that account would not be small. For instance, for one and the same amount of liabilities, abso- lutely speaking, Japan would have to bear in that case a heavier burden. From all these evils Japan has been relieved by the adoption of the gold standard. The benefit of international community in economic affairs has been established by the new coinage system, for it cannot be denied that of all the various devices Clo er Econoiiiic that may be made use of for bringing Btlation with different countries into closer economic Foreiga Countries, relation with each other, the identity of the coinage system constitutes the most potent cause. Now as a result of the adoption of the gold standard, Japan's money market has been brought directly into touch with the central markets of the world. The closer relation thus brought about has led to the capital of other gold countries flowing into this country and contributing to the development of its economic enterprises. The loans raised by Japan in London or the b653,334 3,858,526 5.624.603 39.307,39+ Effect of the Coinage Bcform on the Finance. 649 Subsidiary At the end Silver Coins Subsidiary Copper Coins of Dec. Gold Coins. {i yen). Silver Coins. (Nickel Coins Total. included). 1873 ... .. <3,SSi,i84 3,663,334 7,597,453 5,634,318 60,446,289 1874 ... .. 39,711,743 4,572,401 8,764,775 6,059,964 59,108,883 1875 -. .. 32,316,939 4,478,033 9,610,291 6,933,898 53,339,161 1876 ... 29,840,204 6,140,056 12,868,301 7,952,201 56,880,762 1877 ... 25,740,862 5,869,48s 15,546,649 6,034,018 56,191,014 1S78 ... .. 23,227,193 6,423,124 16,912,550 9,734,404 56,297,276 IS79 .. 19,822,836 7,383.620 14,158,987 10,191,861 51,557,304 i8£o ... .. 14,929,448 9,442,914 9,589,113 10,665,859 44,627,334 1981 ... .. 13,696,639 9,367,593 8,135,836 11,240,608 42,440,676 1SS2 ... .. 13,049,148 13,842,648 7,499,259 12,231,164 46,622,219 1883 ... 12,655,270 17,195,954 7,301,312 13,168,768 50,351,304 1884 ... 11,997,820 20,138,400 7,263,039 14,182,618 53,581,877 1885 ... .. 12,555,240 22,413,577 9,252,885 14,755,563 58,977,270 i8S6 ... .. 13,287,555 24,086,570 9,253,031 15,078,536 61,705,693 1887 ... 14,110,861 22,015,114 11,244,581 14,912,627 62,283,183 1S88 ... .. 14,688,827 26,179,765 11,982,799 14,799,247 67,650,639 1389 ••. .. i6,355,;6o 31,673,733 12,194,949 13,485,114 73,909,556 1890 ... 16,271,829 27,361,663 12,192,756 14,864,425 70,690,673 1891 ... 17,208,066 35,383,284 13,192,519 14,692,121 80,475,990 1892 ... .. 12,209,757 46,921,639 14,301,597 14,835,144 88,368,138 1S93 ... .. 12,236,519 52,124,353 16,188,905 15,020,757 95,570,534 1894 ... .. 11,957,378 46,292,212 18,170,550 15,506,679 91,926,819 1895 ... 12,254,526 47,192,176 20,751,998 15,490,366 95,689,066 1896 ... .. 12,811,389 50,977,504 23,228,777 15,521,101 102,538,771 1897 ... .. 79,899.898 31,048,987 29,395,940 16,093,962 156,438,788 1898 ... .. 83,648,655 — 45,814,139 16,992,185 146,454,979 1899 ••. .. 93,360,986 — 5^,610,031 17,504,068 165,475,085 1900 ... .. 52,930,394 — 57,118,376 17,446,096 127,494,866 1901 ... .. 59,342,303 — 58,298,490 17,758,238 135,399,031 1902 ... .. 89,247,908 — 59,177,328 17,921,896 166,347,134 550 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. Amount of Paper Money Issued [, Amount of Coins and Paper in Circulation. At the end of Dec. Government Paper Money. Notional ■iznk Notes. Convertible Bank Notes. Total. IS5S ■ 24,037,390 — — 24,037,390 24,037,390 i85g . 50,090,867 — — 50,090,867 50,030,867 1870 . 55 500,000 — — 55 500,000 55,500,000 1S71 . 60,272,000 — — 60,272,000 72,712,818 1872 , . 68,400,000 — — 68400,000 107,707,394 1873 . 78,381,014 1,362,210 — ■ 79,743.224 140,189,513 1874 . 91,902,304 1,995,000 — 93,897,304 153,006,187 1875 . 99,071,870 1,420,000 — 100,491,870 153,831,031 1876 . 105,147,583 1,744,000 — 106,891,583 163,692,345 1S77 . 105,797,092 13,352,751 — 119,149,843 175,340,857 1878 • 139,418,592 26,379,006 — 165,697,598 221,994,874 1879 . 130,308,921 34,046,014 — 164,354,935 215,912,239 iSSo . 124,940,486 34,426,351 — 159,366,837 203,994,171 iS3i . 118,905.195 34.396,818 — 153,302,013 195,742,689 18S2 109,369,014 34,385 349 — 143,754,363 190,376,582 1883 ... „. . 97,999,277 34,275,73J — 132,275,013 182,626,317 1884 , 93,380,234 31,015,942 — 124,396,176 177,978,053 1885 , 88,345,096 30,155,389 3,956,161 122,456,646 178,122,455 1SS6 , 67,800,846 29,501,485 39,549,815 136,852,146 174.935,831 1887 . 55,815.045 28,604,133 53,454,803 137,873,981 169,160,489 18SS . 46,734,741 27,679.657 65,770,580 140,184,978 177,519,246 1889 • 40,913,035 26,739.205 79,108,652 146,760,892 188,634,493 1890 . 33,272,715 25,810,720 102,931,766 162,015,201 205,408,438 1891 , 27,886,721 24,869,508 115,734,545 168,490,774 210,872,584 1892 . 20,828,245 23,890,510 125,843,363 170,562,118 216,786,121 1893 16,407,000 22,756,119 148,663,128 187,826,247 238,498,319 1894 . 13,404,547 21,781,796 149,813,700 185,000,043 247,711,285 1895 , 11,129,224 20,796,786 180,336,815 212,262,825 282,000,811 1896 ■ 9,376,172 16,497,889 198,313,896 224,187,957 300,373,686 1S97 7,451,098 5,024,729 226,229,058 238,704,885 330,470,142 1S98 5,411,726 1,866,563 197,399,901 204,678,190 285,619,698 1899 4,125,783 981,608 250,562,040 255,669,461 337,809,481 1900 1,767,814 483.933 228,570,032 230,821,779 320,282,13s 1501 , 1,009,772 449,320 214,096,766 216,155,858 308,766,069 1902 1,551,791 431,576 232,094,377 234,078,744 326,572,380 Nole; — As the Government notes with drawn from circulation irom December 3lst,l 899, and the bank notes from December 9th, 1S99, are allowed lelemption within five years irom the respective dates, the amount Oi the two notes judged to remain on tlie market is included in the tabic. Fffeet of the Coinage Reform mi the Finance. 551 EXPORTS TO GOLD STANDARD COUNTRIES, (unit of veil). British America Year. of America. Britain. France. Germany. Belgium. 1893 27.739,458 4.995.974 19,531.975 1,380,040 226,284 1,720,559 1894. 43,323,557 5,950,198 19,498,776 1,517,549 19,480 2,211,687 1895 54,028,950 7,883,091 22,006,386 3,340,013 131,944 1,986,169 1S96 31,532,341 9,012,398 19,027,389 2,972,137 111,467 I,59.1.,045 1897 52,436,404 8,481,196 26,213,654 2,207,018 109,312 2,05^,620 1898 47,311,155 7,783,643 20,593,407 2,469,242 101,164 2,265,620 1899 63,919,270 11,270,770 29,247,837 3,796,927 331,41s 2,353,099 igoo 52,566,396 11,262,997 19,150,423 3,556,613 296,512 2,950,662 1901 72,309,359 11,482,504 27,275,671 5,251,071 519,327 3,276,114 1902 80,232,805 17,346,149 27,283,458 4,737,029 600,497 3,485,841 Year. Australia. Switzerland. Italy. Total. Average. 1893 890,637 227,141 1,631,908 58,343,976 1894 1,098,066 703,021 2,900,390 77,222,724 1895 1,281,104 467,718 3,550,736 94,676,111 } 74,809,414 1896 1,458,253 617,707 2,669,106 68,994,843 1897 1,875,170 897,047 2,991,889 97,256,310 J 189S 1,995,680 236,686 2,485,362 85,244,959 1899 2,169,921 111.573 3,581,709 116,787,5:6 1900 2,530,525 117,877 7,"09,3" 99,560,316 J 117,572,263 1991 2,533,357 150,284 12,569,485 135,367,172 1902 3,172,092 755,916 13,287,556 150,901,343 Note : — In this table the returns of only those countries which bear close commercial relation with Japan are given, and those with Holland, Austria-Hungary, Sj^ain, Norway-Sweden, Turkey, Portugal, Denmark, Hawaii, etc. are omitted. British India having been converted into a gold country in 1899 it 's also omitted. This remark also applies to the table relating to imports given next. IMPORTS FROM GOLD-STANDARD COUNTRIES. (unit of ^^k). Year. 1893 .. 1894... 1895... 1896... 1897... 1898... 1899... 1900... 1991... 1902... United States of America. ,„ 6,090,408 .. 10,982,558 .. 9,276,360 • • 16,373,420 .. 27,030,538 .. 40,001,098 .. 3,845,894 .. 62,761,198 .. 42,769,430 .. 48,652,825 Great Britain. 27,929,628 42,189,874 45,172,111 59,251,780 65,406,266 62,707,572 44,836,994 71,638,220 50,575,789 50,364 0-9 Franca. Germany. 3,305,277 4,348,048 5,180,135 7,682,347 5,147,592 6,579,!i93 5,768,160 8,095,820 3,752,828 4,745,776 British Belgium. America 7.318,134 7,909,542 12,233,159 17.183.953 18,143,260 25,610,962 17,613,191 29,199,696 28,320,102 25,812,921 935.001 1,201,121 2,066,245 3,106,094 3,'73,2i8 4,316,703 5.415.815 7.949,253 5,810,897 6,977,656 16,629 45,395 13,718 51,525 129,129 156,986 183,018 316,669 181,785 517,274 552 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. Year. AuEtral'a. £ witzerland. Italy. Total. Average. 1893-. 319,034 669,301 86,578 46,669,990 1894.. 534,763 629,208 170,340 68,010,849 1S95 • 1,031,725 1,040,212 143,465 76,162,120 74.511,069 1896.. 835,046 2,534,217 i8.-.,924 107,201,306 1897.. 897,050 2,555.905 213,267 122,696,245 . 1S9S . 1,403,435 3,498,310 385,819 44,660,869 1899 . 1,708,670 1,676,569 236,988 115,654,414 1900.. 2,455,940 3,012,505 450,107 85,879,048 144,525.327 1901.. 1,777,599 2,208,574 154,382 135,551.386 1902.. 1,672,218 1,951,047 186,813 140,880,559 J EXPORTS TO SILVER-STANDARD COUNTETFS. (unit of yen). French Year. China. Hongkong. Korea. India. 1893 7,714,4"° 15,688,875 1,301,243 — 1S94 8,813,987 16,199,481 2,365,112 24,523 1895 9,i35i'"9 18,362,803 3,831,477 17,555 1S96 13,823844 19,965,900 3,367,693 30,461 1S97 21,325,065 25,390,^94 5,196,573 35,514 1898 — 29,193,175 31,473.896 5,844,332 111,421 1S99 40,257,034 34,291,303 6.995.931 161,048 1900 31,871,590 39,177,455 9,953,272 114,407 1901 42,925.579 41,786,647 11,372,551 148,470 1502 46,838,545 PhiTppine 25,876,059 10,554,183 158,411 Year. Islands. Siam. Total. Average. 1893 120,417 ' 6,403 24,831,358 1S94 220,587 2.953 27,626,743 1S95 194,832 7,930 31,549,706 30,348,321 1896 187,786 9,892 37,385,576 1897 186,383 22,466 52,156,295 1898 115,433 41,720 66,779,977 1S99 286,772 26,614 82,018,707 1900 1,257,126 35-621 82,409,471 83,054,674 1901 2,580,682 32,002 98,849,930 1902 i,73:,739 56,347 85,215 Note :- —In this table the returns of only those countries bearing close con imercial rcla- tion with Japan are given, and the returns of Peru, Mexico, etc. are therefore omitted. As Russia was changed to a gold country in 1898 its ret irns are also omitted. This remark also applies to the naxt tabli. Effect oj the Coinage Hejorm on the Finance. IMPORTS FROM SILVER-STANDARD COUNTRIES. 553 Year. 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Year. 1893 1894 1895 1895 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 China. 17.095.675 17,511.507 22,985,144 21.344,521 29,265,849 30,523,862 28,687,731 29,960,740 27,256,986 40.590.858 Philippine Islands. 567,133 1,698,819 1,220,745 1,804,914 2,675,300 3,294,183 2,383,874 2,284,294 2,98^,031 1,493,865 (unit of yen). French Hongkong. Korea. India. 8,268,071 1.999,439 — 8,999,718 2,183.313 6,087,615 8,078,190 2,925,400 3,382,674 9.133.778 5,118,925 1,673,388 12,027,197 8,864,360 9,525,552 15,604,467 4,796,032 26,668,444 7.338,45s 4,976,167 4,489,326 10,659,855 8,805,618 3,632,642 11,141,788 10,052,438 4,082,897 2,454,881 7,957,946 5,649,945 Siam. 54.391 618,859 143,095 203,275 1,190,669 4,175,610 757,030 585,480 1,195,082 1,695,779 Total. 27,984,709 37,099,831 38,735,248 39,278,801 63,549,223 85,362,598 48,632,583 55,9-8,630 56,710,221 59,843,275 Average. 35,774,647 61,295,461 554 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2C this satisfactory provision for trade, that relating to agriculture and manufacture still remained unsatisfactory. The ba,nks attending tO' the interest of those industrial pursuits must be distinct iu nature i'rom those for trade, for it is impossible to expect from agriculture 578 Japan in the Beginning of the 20lh Century. and manufacture any success in a short space of time, while at the same time the profit derived from the undertakings is incompara" tively small. Hence it follows that fjnds to be used for agricul- tural or manufactural undertakings must be of long term and at a cheap rate. It was long maintained therefore by nil those concerned in the matters that banking organs for promoting the interest of farmers and manufacturers should be established as quickly as pos- sible. At last in April, 1S96, -the Law relating to .the Hypothec Bank of Japan and the Law relating to the Local Hypothec Banks were promulgated, the former to act as the central organ and the latter as local organs, and both to attend to the business of supplying loans on long terms and at a cheap rate to fanners and manufacturers with the view of encouraging the development of industrial undertakings. The Hypothec Bank was opened to business on August 2nd of the next year with a capital of 10 million yen. From 1898 the banks of this particular kind began to be started in many prefectures. Only a few years having elapsed since the creation of those banks, it is not yet possible to say any- thing definitely as to the effect they produced on agriculture and manufactures. It may safely be stated however that they are conferring an immense benefit on the development of economic pursuits. The central and local Hypothec Banks being banking organs for making loans principally on real estates, their establishment did not promote to any particular extent the interest of all those who wished to get loans on negotiable bonds. The same reason which demanded the establishment of special banks for farmers and manu" facturers therefore demanded the creation of banks to satisfy this special requirement of this special class of people. Indeed tlie absence of banks of this particular kind was a serious defect in the banking fystem of Japan. In 1900, therefore, the Law relating to the Japan Industi'iul Bank was promulgated, and the bank was opened to business on April 11th, 1902, with the capital of 10 million yen. Banking Oegansfor outlyixg-DIsieicts. — Banking£iciliticsfor the outlying parts oi" the Empire have received the proper attention of the authorities. The creation of a special kind of bank for Formosa History, 579 -was a matter of urgent importance, for everything in that island being in an initiary stage, the exploitation of its resources and the ^ncoui'Ugement of economic undertakings demanded banking facilities adopted to the condition of the place. In March of 1897 the Law relating to the Bank of Formosa was passed, the bank to have a capital of 5 million yen. It need hardly be stated that the organi- zation of this bank was distinct from that of the banks in Japan proper, and that it was adapted to the special circumstances prevail- ing in the island. The bank was opened to business on September 26th of 1899. In a similar way Hokkaido required a banking organ suited for supplying the funds needed in exploiting the land. The result was the promulgation in 1899 of the Liw relating to the Plokkaido Colonization Bank. The object of the bank does not differ much from that of the Local Hypothec Banks, only the circumstance prevailing in Hokkaido being different from those in Japan proper, the creation of a bank of this sort was necessary for this northern island. For instance, while the local Hypothec Banks are mainly devoted to advancing long-term loans on the security of real estate, the Hokkaido Bank, besides making loans on real states, accepts iigricultunhl produce and negotiable bonds as objects of security, and also deals with matters relating to the issue of debenture bonds deposits, and advances on goods. The capital of the bank is 3 mil- lion yeti and it was opened to business on April 31st of 1900. Obligations and Privileges of Banks under official PATRONAGE. — The Bank of Japan, the Yokohama Specie Bank, the Hypothec Bank of Japan, the Local Hypotliec Banks, the Hokkaido ■Colonization Bank, the Bank of Formosa, and the Japan Industrial Bank have all been established under official protection of one descrip- tion or another, and in consequence of that protection more or less rest- riction is placed on their business operations. For instance the banks must get the approval of the Government for their articles of iissociation, and must also obtain the approval of the Minister of Finance even in carrying out business operations within their xeppective legitimate province. Then the authorities eometinies iipiKiint one or two overseers for the purpose of efficiently control- ling those establishments, while the Governors, Presidents or Directors 580 Japan in the Begijuning of the 20th Century. are either directly nominated by the Government or appointed by it after they have been elected by the general meeting of share- holders of the respective banks. In returns for all these inconveni- ences, the Iwnks enjoy various privileges sufficient to compensate them. II. VARIOUS BANES. National Banks. — Established in conformity with the National Bank Regulations already mentioned, the national banks were the iirst banking establishments that were organized in Japan oa the Western model. The main causes that led to the creation of these financial institutions were to supjjl}' banking facilities required in tradi and also to redeem .Government paper money issued to an amount out of proportion to the demand of the market.- These banks were organized in the main after the pattern of the American national bank system, and were allowed to issue bank notes convertible in specie. According to the National Bank Regulations the " Kiusatsu " Exchange Bonds which were newly issued for the redemption of the Government paper money in circulation, were to be deposited by national banks as security for the same amount of bank notes issued, which, however, might not exceed .'60 per cent, of their capital. Besides, they Avere obliged to keep specie reserve for the redemption of the notes and equal in value to 40 per cent, of their capital, so that two thirds, of the notes issued were always covered by specie reserve. But the price of specie was steadily rising at that time, producing a considerable difference between specie and paper, so that as soon as the bank notes were issued, so much. I demand for, redemption was ■ mad0 on the banks, that these .notes never obtained any extensive circulation in the market. ; The 1 natul-al consequence Ayas that only a few nati'onal banks were • established , and even these were sooi}, placed in, a, deplorable conditioHr SO; much so that the: National Bank Regulations could not be upheld ia; ifull ofteration, and the Government was soon induced to introduce ,sum«( revisions in the Regulations. By the amendment made ia 1876' ■''..Various Banks. 681' the national banks were now allowed to place, as security for the bank notes the new Hereditary Pension Bonds besides the " Kinsatsu " Exchange Bonds. It ought to be remembered that the Pension Bonds were issued in a large amount at that time and the general ■depreciation of public bonds appeared almost certain, unless some .special measures were deviced to prevent it. The most important point in the amendments was that the obligation of the note-conversion in .specie was abolished, and that any kind of Government paper cur- rency might now be kept as reserve against note-redemption. At the same time the amount of reserve was reduced to 25 per cent, of the capital. These amendments gave a strong impulse to the forma- tion of new national banks ; indeed they sprang up so rapidly that iho Government was now resolved to check this tendency, by putting •a limit to the amounts of notes the banks might issue. Still they kept ■on increasing from year to year, until at last paper currency consider- ably fell below par and the consequent rise of price of commodities. When about 1878 the value of paper currency was further falling, with no immediate prospect of amelioration, the Government decided to make a radical reform in the banking system of the country, and after much deliberation this arduous task was commenced in 1882 by the ■creation of the Bank of Japan, so that the national bank system might be replaced by that of the single central bank of issue. In 1684 the Convertible Bank Notes Regulations were enacted by which the privilege of issuing notes was exclusively lodged in the hands of the Bank of Japan. Meanwhile, certain revisions and additions were introduced in 1883 in the National Bank Regulations, provid- ing, among other things, that the national banks were, on the expiration of their term of character, to give up their privilege of issue, but allowed to continue their business as private banks ; besides proper measures were introduced to effect by degrees the redemption of their notes. Two laws were enacted for facilitating the change, one (Law No. 7, 1896) to regulate the winding of national banks on the expiration of their term of charter and the other (Law No. 11, same year) being the regulations for the special winding of national banks prior to it. The latter law induced many national banks to hasten reorganising themselves into private banks ; hence unly seven national banks remained as such until the expiration of 582 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. the term of their charter. The last closed its business as bank in. February 1901 and thus the change was completed sooner and easier than had been expected. 1. The Bank of Japan. — The Bank of Japan, the central banking organ of Japan, was founded in the form of a joint- stock company in accordance with the Imperial Onlinance for the- Bank of Japan issued in 1882. Its authorized capital was at first 10,000,000 yen but was twice increased making the present amount of 30,000,000 yea fully paid up. This bank has the privilege to issue convertible bank notes- on the security of gold or silver coins and bullion equal to the amount of the notes issued, and to issue further those notes on the security of Government bonds and Treasury bills, or other bonds or commercial bills of a reliable nature, within the limit of 120,000,000 yen. This amount was limited to 85,000,000 yen before 1899 and to 70 million yen before 1890. The notes issued in excess of the said amount are subject to- a tax of 5 per cent, or more per annum of the amount of the- same. The following lines of business are conducted by the bank: — 1. To discount or purchase Government bills, bills of exchange, commercial bills, etc. ; 2. to buy or sell gold or silver bullion ; 3. to make loans on the security of gold or silver coins or bullion ; 4. to make collection of bills for banks, companies and merchants, who are regular customers ; 5. to receive deposits in current accounts and accept the custody of object of value, such as gold, silver, other precious metals and documents ; 6. to make advance in current accounts or loans for fixed periods upon the security of Government bonds, Exchecquer bills or other bonds and shares guaranteed by the Government. In addition, the bank is entrusted with the management of the Treasury fund. 2. The Yokohama Specie Bank. — The Yokohama Specie Bank was founded in 1879 with the authorized capital of 3,000,000 yen for furnishing financial facilities for the foreign trade of the country. It was at first supporttJ by the Government in various Tarious Banks. 583 directions. For inst;ance, it was entrusted with the management of several million yen of the Treasury Reserve Fund and thus to possess an ample amount of capital for discounting foreign bills of exchange. In 1882, -when the Bank of Japan -^vas established, all those kinds of support were withdrawn, and instead of them the Bank of Japan was made to rediscount foreign bills of exchange upon the demand of the Specie Bank to an amount not exceeding 20,000,000 yen a year at the rate of 2 per cent. In March 1887, regulations for the Specie Bank were promulgated and at the same time the capital was raised to 6,000,000 yen. The consequent growth of its transactions necessitated the further increase of its capital to 12,000,000 yen in the same year. In 1899 the capital vras again doubled, making 24,000,000 yen of which 18,000,000 yen are now paid up. The following lines of business are transacted by the bank : — 1. Foreign exchanges ; 2. inland exchanges ; 3. loans ; 4. deposits of money and custody of objects of value ; 5. discount and collection of bills of exchange, promissory notes and other cheques : 6. exchange of coins. The bank may also buy or sell public bonds, gold or silver bullions and foreign coins, if the condition of business demands it. The bank may also be entrusted with affairs bearing on foreign loans and the manage, ment of public money for international account. 3. The Hypothec Bank of Japan. — The Hypothec Bank of Japan was founded in 1884 as a joint stock company with a capital of 10,0C0,000 yen under the special patronage and control of the Government. The object of the bank was, as is still the case, for the furnishing of long-period loan at low rate of interest for purposes of agriculture and industry. It is to serve as the central organ of credit for agricultural and industrial enterprises of larger scale throughout the whole country, as the local Hypothec Banks under- take similar business in the respective localities. The cliief lines of business transacted by the bank are as follows : — To make on the security of immovable property, loans redeemable in annual instalments within tlie limit of period of not more than fifDy years ; to make loans on a similar Si.'curity. 584 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Gth Century. redeemable at a fixed term of not more than five years, provided the total amount of sucli loans not exceeds one-tenth of the total amount of loans redeemable in annual instalments ; (The amount of loans made on the security of any immovable property may not exceed two-thirds of the value thereof, ai appraised by the bank) ; to make loans without security to Prefectures, Districts, Cities, Towns and other public bodies organized by law ; to take up the mortgage debentures of Local Hypothec Banks ; to accept the custody of gold and silver bullions and negotiable instruments. The bank is authorized, when at least one- fourth of its nominal capital is paid up, to issue mortgage debentures up to an amount not exceeding ten times its paid up capital, provided the amount of such debentures does not exceed the total amount of outstanding loans redeemable in annual instalments and the debentures of Local Hypothec Bank in hand. These deben- tures shall be redeemed at least twice a year by means of drawings in proportion to the total amount of redemption of loans redeemable in annual instalments in the same year and the debentures of Local Hypothec Banks in hand. Besides, for each issue of debentures premiums of various amounts varying from ten to one thousand yen are allotted to a certain number of the debentures determined by drawings. This is the single exception in the midst of the general prohibition of lottery or any lottery-like system, specially allowed to the Hypothec Bank, in order to attract smaller capitals to the sub- scription of its debentures. Tlie Government guarantees profit for ten years from the founding of the bank, v,"hen the profit does not reach 5 per cent of the paid-up capital. 4. The Local Hypothec Baxks. — The Local Hypothec Banks were established in 1896 in accordance with the Law for the Local Hypothec Banks as local organs of credit for the same object as that of the Hypothec Bank, each with a capital of two hundred thousand yen or upwards. As a general rule each bank has for its business district the whole part of the prefecture where it is established, each prefecture having one bank, but it is provided that if the circumstances require, a prefecture may be divided into Various Banks. 585 two or more business districts, but this provision has not as yet been made use of. Tlie following lines of business are transacted by these banks : — To make, on the security of immovable property, loans redeemable in annual instalments within the limit of period of not more than thirty years; to make loans on a similar security, redeemable in a fixed term of not more than five years, provided the total amount of such loans does not exceed one-fifth of the total amount of loans redeemable in annual instal- ments, (loans made on the security of any immovable property may not exceed two-thirds of the value thereof, as appraised by the banks) ; to make loans on the same conditions without security to Cities, Towns, Villages and other public bodies organized b}' law ; to make loans without security, redeemable in a fixed term of not more than five years to more than twenty persons combined with joint liability, who are engaged in agriculture or industry and whose reliability is recognized ; to receive fixed deposits and acdept the custody of gold and silver bullion and negotiable instruments. Besides, the banks may be entrusted with the I'eceipt and disbursement of the public funds of prefectures. E;ich of these banks is authorized, when at least one-fourth of its capital is paid up, to issue mortage debentures, to an amount not exceeding five times its paid up capital. Such debentures may not, however, exceed the total amount of outstanding loans redeemable in annual instalments. The debentures shall be redeemed at least twice a year by means of drawings, in pro- portion to the amount of the redemption of the said loans. In accordance with the provisions of the Law for giving support to the Local Hypothec Banks, the Government gave over to the prefectures funds with which to subscribe to the shares of the respective Local Hypothec Banks. The amount of the said funds is iimited by the law at the rate of 70 yen per 100 clio of taxable lands in each prefecture, excepting building sites, mineral spring lots and swamps, and the total amount assigned to each prefecture may, under no circumstances, be more than 300,000 yen, nor may it exceed one-third of the paid up capital of each bank. 586 Japan in tJie Beginning of tlw 20th Century. 5. The Hokkaido Colonization Bank. — The Hokkaido Colonization Bank has for its object the promotion of enterprises of colonization and exploitation of Hokkaido, as is indicated by its name. It was established by law issued in 1889 in the form of a joint stock company with a capital of 3,000,000 yen and is allowed to transact the following lines of business : — To make on the security of immovable property loans redeemable in annual instalments within the limit of period of not more than thirty years, or redeemable in a fixed term of not more than five years ; to make loans against the pledge of shares and debentures issued by joint stock companies under- taking various works for exploiting the resources of the islanf^^ and to take up debentures of such companies up to an amount not exceeding one-fifth of the total sum of outstanding loans above mentioned ; to make loans or issue bills of exchange on the security of agricultural products in the island ; to take up deposits; to accept the custody of objects of value; to make without security loans redeemable in annual instalments or in fixed period to municipal districts, towns and villages placed under the civic corporation law of Hokkaido and other public bodies recognized by law. This bank is authorized to issue mortage debentures to an amount not exceeding five times its paid up capital. The debentures, however, may not exceed the total amount of outstanding loans redeemable in annual instal- ments. The debentures shall be redeemed at least twice a year by means of drawings, in proportion to the total amount of repayment of said loans. In order to give support to the bank, the Government subscribed 1,000,000 yen of its shares and for the first ten years the dividends on these shares are to be added to the reserve fund of the bank. The Bank op Fokmosa. — The Bank of Formosa was created in 1897 for the purpose of promoting the economical development of the island. It is a joint stock company with a capital of five million yen, and is endowed with the privilege of issuing bank notes convertible in silver yen against the reserve of gold or silver coins or bullion and Government bonds, treasury bills, notes of the Bank of Japan, any other negotiable papers or commercial bills of reliable Various Banks. , 587 nature. The amount of notes not covered by specie reserve is limited to 5,000,000 yen and may in no case exceed the amount of notes issued agaiast specie reserve. Notes issued beyond this limit in cf.se of emergency are subject to a tax of five per cent, or more per annum. The Government has subscribed one million yen of the shares of the bank and dividends paid to these shares are added to the reserve fund of the bank for the first five years, for which period tlie Government is engaged not to transfer its shares. The Government has furtlier made an advance of 2,000,000 yen in silver to the bank with no interest, to be added to the specie reserve ibr bank notes issued. The following lines of business are transacted by this bank : — 1. To discount bills of exchan<,e and other commercial bills ; 2. exchange business ; 3. to collect bills for companies or merchants who are regular customers of the bank ; 4. to make loans on the security of immovable or movable property of a reliable nature; 5. to open current accounts; 6. to accept the custody of objects of value, such as gold and silver coins, precious metals and documents ; 7. to buy or sell gold or silver bullion ; 8. to act as agent for other banks. G. The Industrial Bank of Japan. — Established in April, 1902, the Industrial Bank of Japan is a joint stock company with a ca,pital of 10,000,000 yen of which 2,500,000 yen are paid up. As the Hypothec Bank and the Local Hypothec Banks are intended to furnish long and cheap loans on the security of immovable property for agricultural and industrial enterprises, especially for tlie former, the Industrial Bank has for its special object to handle with bonds and shares of various kinds. It may be regarded as a kind of credit mobilier, while the former are credits fouciers with sjjccial forms and purposes. The business allowed to the bank by the law comprises : — 1. To make loans on the pledge of public loan bonds, local loan bonds, companies' debentures and shares ; 2. to sub- scribe or make up public loan bonds, local loan bonds and com- panies' debentures ; 3. to accept deposit of money and custody of valuable objects ; and 4. to transact various kinds of trust business with local loan bonds, companies' debentures and shares. 588 Japan in the Beginning 0/ tlie 20th Centurij. Thus, loans without security or on the security of other tliini negotiable papers and discounts of bills are not within the scope of the bank's business. In order to enable it to obtain necessary amount of capital for carrying out its object, the bank is also endowed with the privilege of issuing debentures to an amount of five times its paid up capital, which, however, may not exceed the total amount of advances made by the bank, the local loan bonds and companies' debentures appropriated by it. Besides, for the first five years the dividend of 5 per cent, against its paid up cajjital is guaranteed by the Government. 7. Ordixaey Banks. — At the beginning of the era, there were no regulations so far as ordinary banks were coucerned, except that their establishment was subject to the approval of the authorities. Under such a system or want of system, much inconvenience was felt by the Government in the way of the administrative control of those institutions, and the issue of regulations to deal with ordinary banks was called for repeatedly, but this desire was long not fulfilled. It was in 1890 that the general regulations for trade and companies were first established by the Commercial Code, while tho Laws for Ordinary Banks and for Savings Banks were issued, the three to go in force simultaneously on 1st June, 1891. However the operation of the Code was twice postponed, and that of the two laws were similarly held back. Subsequently, after introducing in 1893 certain amendments in the Commercial Code and the Law for putting it in force their operation was announced to run from 1st July of the same year, and the two laws in question also came in force from the same date. By the new laws, ordinary banks were put under the control of the Minister of Finance, the permis- sion of the said Minister being required for the establishment of a new bank ; he is also empowered to order at any time investiga- tions into the conditions of the business and property of the bank. Besides, provisions were made about business hours and days of rest, the obligation of making report on business, and the publication of property list and balance sheet in newspapers for each half year, etc. 8. Savings Banks. — According to the exsting law for Savings Banks which came in force on 1st July, 1893, Savings Banks Various Banks. 589 must be joint stock companies with a capital of not less than 30,000 yen. They may take up minor deposits from the general public on a compound interest system, and in order to safeguard the interest of the depositors they have to consign to the Deposit Office of the Treasury national or local loan bonds bearing interest, correspond- ing in value to one-fourth of the deposits received, for which the depositors concerned have a preferencial right. In case, however, the national or local loan bonds consigned exceed in value one half of the capital of the bank consigning them, the excess may be replaced by commercial bills or other reliable shares and stocks of any company. In other respects the regulations for ordinary banks apply also to savings banks. BANKS. TABLE I.-.NATIONAL BANKS. DEPOSITS. (unit of yen). Depos its. Government Funds Number Authorized Paid up and Public Money. Year. of Banks. Capital. Capital. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1S73 ... 3 3 200,000 3,200,000 — • 7,080,022 1S74 ... 4 3,450,000 3,450.000 — 3,668,520 iS7S ... 4 2,4511,000 2,450,000 — 1,917,433 1876 ... II 20,505,799 20,505,799 — 834,235 1877 ... 37 24528,600 24528600 — 1,768,631 1S78 ... 139 38,851,150 38,851,150 — 2,466 215 1S79 •■: 152 42,111, IO« 42,111,100 92,648,182 3,508,297 iSSo ... ISO 43,216 100 43,216,100 107 460,729 4,230,065 1881 ... 148 43,996,100 43 996; 1 00 146,174 173 4,382,322 1S82 ... 143 44,206,100 44,206,100 141,907,452 6,305,399 1883 ... 141 44,386,100 44,386,100 166,331,76s 6,594,430 18S4 ... 140 44,536,100 44,536,100 195,258,008 6,342,813 1885 ... 139 44,456,100 44,456,100 220,809,633 10,202,949 18S6 ... 132 43.556,100 4!;556,ioo 26'!, 364,607 11,649,625 1887 ... 136 45,838,851 45,833,851 218,552,635 11,879,046 1888 ... 135 46,877 639 46,877,639 216,452,158 10,096.462 1889 ... 134 47,681,380 47,681,380 184,705,818 10,058,015 i8='"=^- Amount Transacted. Balance. — 2 593 128 — 2,298,918 — 2,3-39,801 — 2,397,047 — 4.871.890 — 8,794,852 217,305,983 11,382,587 252,579,031 13.197.296 1,964 4.735 — 10,273,240 — 5.967,438 — 4,3« 7.234 — 3.23',282 — 6,642,485 — 11,265,802 39 445 193.330 18,504 309,993,610 14,909,388 134.855 360.233.090 17,562,216 274,713,429 13,965.315 766,991 338,023 421.654,593 18,685,660 281,476,169 12,951,828 1,080,037 443.832 424.463.658 19,701^59 238,377.726 16,978,010 1,752.636 775.750 406,462,127 24,348,290 229,073.791 i5.7<3o55 2,352,379 937,692 426,684,178 22,993,570 311,720,307 19,631,362 2,635,865 i,oSi,ooS 435,165,805 30,915,319 257,023615 23,273,820 3,584,293 1,542,563 521,872,515 36466008 313,730.621 25,081,168 4.294.557 1,727.908 536.577.813 38,688,122 3.11,554692 26,594,806 4999.390 2,062,600 563006,240 38,753,86s 406092,662 27,990,393 6617,851 2,546,837 597.4'6,33i 40,595245 416,877,760 27,478,390 7,542,891 1,289 514 573.705,139 33.598,156 432,067,983 31,223,985 3,730010 1,448,820 505,569,188 40,214,394 545,848096 40,173664 4.155,666 1.730,853 641274,958 49.976,965 693866,385 5'i39.8Si 1730.853 53,521 755,289,829 59,887,131 807.346,127 57,941,263 — — 9:4326535 66.977,141 986,032,332 67,456,530 — — 1,299,963,549 74.999,390 911,968,640 55,191,265 — — 1,009,090,931 61,825,619 562,938,651 24,888,519 — — 631,606,678 27,766,196 147,066,080 745.077 — — 159,277.980 867^219 Various JJanks. TABLE II.— NATIONAL BANKS. 691 LOANS. (unit of yen). Advances. Loan to the Government. Other Advances. Year. Amount Balance. Amount Balance. Transacted. Transacted. 1873 - ■ — — — 2,892 929 1874 ... . — — — 2,393,932 1875 ... . — 19 — 2,460,179 1876 ... . — 6,210,181 — 3.899,493 1877 ... . — 12,076,207 — 6,360 048 1878 ... . — IS. 436,967 — 16,393,097 1879 ... . — 15,455.337 131,121,044 24,826,439 18S0 ... . .. 15,621,163 15378,75' 162,138,466 28,131,990 18S1 ... . .. 16,720,748 15,421,098 197,595,636 30,330,274 1882 ... . ... 15,695-303 , I5,373.'3J '89.575,983 32,161,869 1883 ... . ,., 15,495.865 10,366 299 160,868,799 32,346,236 1884 ... . .. 10,650,254 10,394,282 156405,021 35.615.271 1885 ... . .. 10,899.395 10,509,277 137.233,879 32,734,003 1S86 ... . ... 10,758,822 10,754703 150,313,318 35,062 507 J887 ... . .. 10,625 4'3 10,296,041 188,737,616 44,871.519 18S8 ... . ... 10509,000 10,280,471 222,478,384 49.104.407 18S9 ... . ,.. 10,504,503 10,262,301 368 633,232 57,976,593 i8go ... . ... 10,320480 — 303,827,963 71,697,231 1S91 ... . ,.. 10,000.000 10,000,000 286,691,829 66,173.259 1892 ... . ... 10,000,000 10,000,000 308,389 960 61,905,6521 1893 - ■ ... 10,000,000 1 0,000,000 474, "7,505 80,013,852 1804 ... . IO,C0O,OCO lo.oco 000 450,819,214 86,151,515 1S95 ••. • 8,cf;o.ooo 8,000,000 518,363,525 9',897.575 1S96 ... . — — 523,411,974 105,720,154 i!l97 ... . — — 274,158,846 28,264,169 1S98' ... . — — 58,551,264 606,749 592 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Advances. Bills Discounted. Total. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1S73... . — 3.430 — 2,896,359 1874.. — 3,245 — 2 387,'77 1S75 . — 130,635 — 2,590,833 1S76 .. . — 58,239 — 10,167,933 1S77 — 31.772 — 18,468,072 1S78... — 94,875 — 3 1, 9 24,939 1879... 9,?CS,353 3S3i'5 — 40,664,891 iSSo... , ,.. 20,947,189 1,283,593 198,706,81s 44,794 3.34 1881... , ... 27,544,^85 1,133-705 241,860,669 46,891 077 1SS2 .. 26,132,054 1,457,089 231,403380 49,00 ,093 1SS3... - 25 634,033 2,i7o,')84 201,998,697 44,90 1, 2 it> 1884... ... 38,536,382 3,000,346 205,591,657 49,0O9,S9> 1885,.. 27,883,651 3,069 0O6 176,016,925 46,321,346 18S6... ... 43,365.569 3,772,291 204,437,709 49,589,500 1887... ... 67942,433 5,299.158 267,305462 60,466,718 1SS8 .. 78,3S6,6[4 7,572,743 3' 1,373.998 66,957,621 18S9... ... 99.775,103 8,306,531 378,913,238 76,545,525 1S90 .. ... 111,425,607 — 425,574,050 — 1S91 .. ... 124,468,416 — 421,116,245 — 1892 .. ... 158,456,633 — 476,846,623 — 1893- ... 229,439,293 - 613,656,798 — 1S54 ■■ ... 275,353,347 — 736,172,561 — 1S95 .. ... :524i4i'> 594 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Private Deposits. Total I. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1882... . 647,612 305,613 6i7,6i2 ' 305,613 1883... . 15,293,608 1,707,951 37,209,4 "9 6,404,387 1884 .. . 27,889,193 759,131 155,507,352 15,119,359 1S85... . 13,884,219 1,324,069 218,758,102 32,965,687 1886... . 22,712,368 329,450 465,737,297 32,829,605 1887... . 27,574,974 677,981 670,245,91s 31,884,939 1888... ., 39,979,793 665.865 652,053,665 26,238,; 67 1889... ., 19,876,981 242,808 662,858,437 31,674 5<: 2 1890 159,320,310 6,315,287 199,985,518 7,126,526 1891 ,. ... 138,352,867 3,246,794 187,419,356 5.730,49s 1892 .. ... 219,359,557 4,706,974 276,991,510 8,792,418 1893 ,. ... 261,998,049 1,969,578 312,249,282 3,587,905 1894 . ... 271,152,072 1,726,291 341,743 969 4,918,523 1895 421,853,071 1,939,370 440,665,431 6,653,909 1896 . ... 964,835,605 1,408,318 1,377,208,93s 195,117,672 1897..; .. 1,039,822,453 3,821,937 1,964,945,714 78,1 lOjOOO 1898 . ... 1,015,199,006 1,497,135 1,725,404,724 27,210,547 1899 . ... 1,282,760,830 4,938,725 1,823,219,745 74.671,57s 1900 . ... 1,756,602,168 2,027,234 1,974,135.600 35,258,024 1901... .. ,. ... 1,627,032,997 2,557,762 2,O0I,IQ2,III 20,157,054 :i9c2 „ ... 1,948,621,563 3,363,388 2,298,054,687 18,887,790 Year. 18S3... 1883... 1884... 1885... 1886... 1887... 1888... 18S9.., 1890.. 1891.. 1892.. 1893.. 1894.. 1895.. 1895.. 1897- 189S.. 1899.. 1900.. 1901.. 1902.. Various Banks. TABLE IV.— BANK OF JAPAN. (unit oi ym). LOANS. 585 Loans to the Government. Other Loans. Amount t>„^„„^„ Transacted. ^^1^"'="- Amount Transacted; Balance. — — 935,000 777,300 1,500,000 1,000,000 4,827,050 691,700 2,000,000 — 6,198,775 1,412,795 10,159,000 1,050,000 35,793,962 13,971,824 2,414,710 566,687 63,732,702 19,189,87s 2,899,03s 1,854,603 83,092,912 25,181,924 8,735,141 3,538,972 95,071,157 19,175.024 22,061,334 774,718 91,885,034 17,071,984 22,000,000 22,000,000 86,653,225 15,823,831 22,000,000 22,000,000 111,730,549 11,747,563 22,000,000 22,000,000 107,699 568 8,460,441 22,000,000 22,000,000 108,486,071 . 10,060,427 43,500,000 37,500,000 163,299,642 16,564,613 71,500,000 63,500,000 257,025,696 29,327,418 ... 129,033,87s 72,000,000 389,277,271 42,243,642 ... 89,050,82s 28,831,132 588,596,044 -53,048,444 72,851,132 22,000,000 713,266,508 .33,270,57° 22,000,000 22,oo'j,ooo 702,058,929 i6,73r,979 38,000,000 34,000,000 523,235,302 14,477,675 96,000,000 62,000,000 322,780,611 9,348,602 99,000,000 50,000,000 274,2Sp,2S4 5,3^3,178 596 Japan in tJie Beginninr/ of the 20th Century, LOANS. Bills Discounted. Total. ^'^" Amount Balance Amount Balance Transacted. Jialance. Transacted. tia.ance. 1882 52,800 — 987,800 477.3°'' 18S3 i,S94^oo 555.55° 7.92i.25o 2,247,200 18S4 11,124,007 1,990,848 19,322,782 3.403.643 1885 6,015,858 1,314.567 51,958,820 16,336,391 1886 10,870,104 3.559,336 77,0x7,516 23,315,898 1887 24,342,496 5.498,639 "0,334,443 32,535,166 1888 26,429,999 5,616,101 130,236,297 28,330,097 1889 40,091,309 11,961,995 154,037,677 29,808,697 1890 77,547,370 21,562,322 186,200,595 59,386,153 1S91 76,725,843 20,350,203 210,456,395 54,097,766 1892 63,819,821 16,437,433 193,419,389 46,897,974 1893 77,841,360 24,563,815 208,327,431 56,624,242 1894 112,467,246 20,037,184 319,266,888 74,101,797 1893 129,639,502 34,690,723 4SS,l65,i98 127,518,141 1896 212,580,969 49,344,429 730,892,115 163,598,071 1897 270,192,385 56,307,428 947,839,!'57 138,187.004 1898 287,746,027 55,524,621 1073,863,667 110,795,191 1899 419,206,172 108,141,186 1,143,265,101 146,873,165 1900 588,249,090 97,558,216 1,149,484,392 146,035,891 «90i 505,893327 46,576,059 924,673,938 117,924,661 1902 274,635,000 50,763,487 647,915,284 16,086,665 Various Banks. m. TABLE v.— YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK. DEPOSITS. (unit of yen). Deposits. Government Funds and Authorized Capital. Paid up. Capital. Reserves. Deposits. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1880 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 — 4,641,256 2,105,434 1881 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 49,300 10,383,226 3,156,259 1882 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 114,133 ",346,354 2,957,122 1883 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 621,662 22,522,086 11.977,899 1884 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 500,003 35,657,475 16,818,905 18SS - 6,000,000 3,000,000 865,995 57,849,050 15,516,950 1886 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 1.373.123 81,474,282 16,696,44s 1887 ... 6j00o,ooo 4,500,000 3,337,700 49,816,076 10,891,165 1888 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3.820,468 58,047,466 13,675,585 1889 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,904,661 21,437,636 5,291,837 1890 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,767,334 8,890,845 539.342 1891 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,947,600 2,005,232 483,404 1892 ... 6/D00,OOO 4,500,000 3,550.085 2,057^775 407,889 r893 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,812,958 2,248,631 384,192 1894 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 4,053,634 2,555,607 434,359 189s ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 4*336,634 3,361,327 269,290 1896 ... ... 12,000,000 6 000?300 6,118,259 2,202,528 245,834 1897 •- ... 12,000,000 9,000,000 6,798,260 1,827,439 130,449 189S ... ... 12,000,000 10,500,000 7,403,126 3,139,878 159,660 1899 ... ... 24,000,000 1 2,000,000 8,016,038 4,951,848 2,103,501 1900 ... ... 24,000,000 18,000,000 8,678,516 8,910490 40S421 1901 ... . . . 24,000,000 18,000,000 9,035,059 7,4So,67S 427,664 1902 ... ... 24,000,000 l8,D0O,OOO 9,837,237 7,082,166 582,871 69S Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. DEPOSITS. - Private Deposits. Total Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. iS8o .. ... 19,530,221 1,081,612 24,171,480 3,187,046 iSSi 35.319,098 857,896 ' 45.702,324 4,014,155 1882 40,081,297 892,132 51,427,651 3,849,254 1883 55,954.472 J,764,i63 78,476,558 13,742,062 1884 .. ... 83,131,834 4,009,979 118,789,309 20,828,884 1S8S 89,954,554 1,046,932 147,803,604 16,563,922 18S6 ■• '■• 37.999,849 776,263 119.474,131 17,472,708 1887 54,029,432 1,866,811 103,845,50s 12,757,976 18S8 62,576,176 1,796,347 120,623,642 15,471,932 1889 63,101,186 1,851,317 84,538,822 7,143,154 1890 84,470,683 4,192,300 93,361,528 4,731.642 1891 74,698,326 5,049,068 76,703,558 5,532,472, 1S92 ._, ... 92,742,630 . 2,334,872 94,800,405 2,742,761 J 893 112,666,758 6,038,212 II4,9IS>389 6,422,404 1S94 .. ... ,236,685,116 10,567,986 239,240,723 11,002,345 1895 320,052,114 12,781,678 322,413,441 13,050,968 1895 •'■ - 553,834,602 9,940,167 556.037,130 ' 18,186,001 1S97 671,626,922 36,003,300 673,454.361 36,133,749 1S9S 832,365,993 .^0,452,774 835,505871 40,612,434, 1899 ijO04,82i,868 71,388,242 1,009,773,716 73,49 ':743 1900 878,613,934 52,570,533 887,524,^24 52,978,954 1901 .844,045,269 4^.083,183 851,534,944 46,510.847 1502 '979,95?i965 58,461,249 987,035,131 59,044.420 Various Banks. TABLE VI.— YOKOHAMA SPECIE EAN]C, LOANS, (unit oi yen). LOANS. Loans to the Goveriment. 599 Other Loans. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1880 ... — — 12,528,797 2,738,921 1881 ... — — 20,011,304 3,454,04s 1882 ... — — 22,511,748 ■ 3,205,823 1883 ... 867,829 — 29,663,508 " 4,650,214 1884 ... 4,971,947 — 45,891,433 . .6,894,238 188s ... 4,967,537 102,603 56,378,854 5.224,119 1886 ... 2,462,845 6,591 35.877,856 4,678,487 1887 ... — — 41,609,803 4,945,084 1888 .. — — 42,571,428 4,766,827 18S9 .. •■• ~~~ — 39,500,255 ' 4,890,914 1890 .. — — 34,755,173 ' 4,642,850 1891 .. — — 40,928,849 - * 4,550,902 1892 .. — — 45,480,763 .4118,128 '893 .. • •• ^^ — 39,541,717 „ . S.912,970 1894 •• — — 57.331,298 , 4,846000 «895 .. ■ ••• ""^ — 64,095,000 .4,365,166 1896 .. • ••• ■ ^~* — 139,568.886 8,696,598 1897 .. • •• ~^ — 148,408,027 ^4,912,124 1898 .. • •• ~~* — *27i,882,772 *20, 668,929 1899 .. ••« ~~ — *358,498,736 , *2i,482,246 1900 ,. — — 282,461,246 26,506,663 1901 .. — — 294,056,195 25,496,825 1902 ... — — 359,412,906 31,693,236 600 Japxn in tlie Beginning of tJie 20th Century. LOANS. Bills Discounted. Total. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1880 ... , 454,241 87,910 12,983.038 2,826,831 1881 ... 1,163,30s 128,744 21,174,612 3.582.789 1882 ... , 308,157 20,000 22,819,905 3.225.823 1S83 ... 360,994 18,500 30.892,331 4.677.714 1884 -.. • 1,738,574 338,348 52,601954 7,232.586 188S ... . 2,955.864 637.154 9 64.302.255 5,963,876 18S6 ... . 8,734,770 J,5iS.473 47.075,501 6,200,551 1887 ... . .. 38,311,386 2,007,521 79,921,189 6,952,505 18S8 ... . .. 59,037,385 590,686 101,608,813 5,357,513 1889 ... . .. 33,934,785 438,27s 73,435.040 5,329,189 1890 ... . .. 42,901,189 2,125,904 77.656,362 6.768,754 1891 ... . .. 44,617,260 2,433,383 85.546,109 6,984,285 1892 ... . .. 50,300,806 1,407,497 95.781.569 5.525,625 1893 ... . •■ 52,530,482 2,396,605 92,072,199 8,309,575 1894 ... . .. 72,099,903 2,957,089 129,431,201 7,803,089 1895 ... - .. 82,301,235 4,286,297 146,396,235 8,681,463 1896 ... . .. 154,718,737 6,033,502 294,287,623 14,730,100 1897 ... . .. 197,840,904 9,313.763 346,248,931 , 14,225,887 189S ... . .. 230,659,018 12,726,776 502,541,790 33,395,705 1899 ... . .. 223,727,051 12,423,426 582,225,787 33,905,675 1900 ... ., .. «6o,597,339 18,305,351 443.058,585 44,812,014 1901 ... . .. 115,655,641 9,021,841 409,711.836 34,518,666 1902 ... . .. 73,028,653 8,305,622 432.441.s59 39,998,858 Various Banh. Yen. 1S9S 190a 1901 igoz TABLE Vn.— HYPOTHEC BANK OF JAPAN. (^JTangyo Ginko). (unit of yen). LoMis. Authorized Capital. 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 Paid up Capital. 2,500,000 2,500,000 2,500,000 2,500,000 2,500,000 Reserves. 7.361 34003 70,926 Amount Transacted. Balance. Debenture Issued. 1,376,012 1,376,012 ^ 6,776,609 6,706,734 4,972,io» 9,062,816 8,774,842 7,328,36« 12,236,256 11,650,631 9,64o,8&i 135,926 14,463,861 14,048,578 I3,378,43« 10,000,000 3,250,000 210,926 18,560,174 17,320,102 14,240,961) TABLE VIIL— LOCAL HYPOTHEC BANKS. (unit of yen). Deposits. Vast. No. Authorized Paid up Capital. Capital. Reserves. Amount Transacted. Balance,. 1397 ••• •■■ 6 3,850,000 962,500 — — : 139S ■... ... 4« 25,620,000 8,798,020 1,422 962,686 300,45? 1899 ... ... 45 27920000 15,980,365 82,480 2,647,296 [,222,8t$ 1900 ■•• ... 46 28,370,000 22,923485 324,012 9,555,687 2,147,05* 1901 •*• ■•. 46 28,370,000 26,100,000 793,157 14,129,373 3,421,135 1902 Year. 46 28,370,000 27,657,234 Loans. 1,440,714 18,275,899 Debentures Issued. ^,oo4,79a> Amount Transacted. Balance. 1897 ... — — — 1898 ... 4,356,537 4,221,119 — 1899 ... 12.717,549 12,063,021 530000 1900 ... 20,822,745 19,200,809 630.000 190 1 ... 25,675.396 23,065,850 1,023,900 1903 ... 38,4>8.8oi 25, "4.438 2,011,530 TABLE IX.— HOKKAIDO COLONIZATION BANK. (unit of yen). Deposits. Loans. year. Authorized Paid up j^ Amount Capital. Capital. Transacted. ■900 3,000,000 1,050,000 2,343 276,466 53.951 1901 3,000,000 2098400 15,248 1,134,916 219,230 1902 3,000,000 2,098400 76,400 2,100,000 400,547 Amount Balances Transacted. 710,757 703,54* 1,698450 i,5o[,6a& 2,918,918 2,102,8$;^ 602 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i7i Century. TABLE X— BANK OF FORMOSA. Year. 1899. 1900 . 1901 . 1902 . DErOSITS. (unit oi yen). Paid up Deposits. Authorized Government Funds Capital. Capital. Reserves. and Deposits. Amount Transacted. Balance. 5,000,000 I 250,000 — 5,618 2,810 5,000,000 1,250,000 17,900 901,205 2061 5,000 000 1,250,000 77,900 173.561 Mio 5,000,000 2,500,OIX) 140,400 153,814 — Deposits. Total Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance, 1899 ... 7,582,171 965,410 7,587.789 968,220 1900 ... ... 40,055,575 4,974.275 40,956,780 4.976,336 1901 ... ■- 44,342.027 4,539,771 44,479,588 4,541,181 1902 ... - 59,308,450 6,470,529 59,462,264 6,470,816 TABLE XI. —BANK OF FORMOSA. LOANS. (unit oi yen]. LOANS. Loans lo Government. Other Loans. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1899 - 2,500,000 2,500,000 1,000,252 267.380 1900 ... 8,200,000 6,200000 5,094,145 414,917 1901 ... 6,700,000 5,200,000 6,231,433 531 463 1902 ... 7..350,ooo 6,850,000 8,5iH.772 963,785 Various Banhi. C)3 Loans. Bills Discounted. Total. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. Debentures Issued. 1899 . ... 1,209,694 607,253 4,7P9,946 3,374,633 I.834.917 1900 7.892,515 1,057.373 2i,i'86,66o 7,672,290 3 690,892 igoi 12,199,065 1,256,976 25,130,498 6,988,439 2,943,751 1902 ,. ... 16,271,978 2, 1 74, '25 32,1^5,750 9,987,910 3,977,349 TABLE XII.. -JAPAN ] [NDUStRIAL BANK. {A'ogyo Ginke). ' (unit oi yen). ;■ Deposits. Loans. ■,, Authorized Paid up Re- Amount „ , Amount tj , Year. <- ^ 1 r- ■• , i- ^ 1 Balance. „ . , Balance. Capital. Capital, serves. Iransacte^* Transacted. ' 1902 10,000,000 2,500,000 1,148 8,867,606:. 1,108,213 4,497,108 3,237,658 TABLE XIII.— ORDINARY BANKS. DEPOSITS. l^umber. Amount Capital. (imit olyen Paid up Capital. Reserves. Deposits. Year. Government Funds and Public Money. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1887...., >• 221 — 18,896,061 — . . — 6,113,522 1S88.... 195 — 15.790,259 4,132 41a — 5,529,442 1889.... 218 — 17,472,170 4,735,433. — 6,615,947 1890.... ^■zz — 18,976,622 S.039 875 — 4.501,727 1S91.... .. 26S — 22,142,721 5,523,617 — 3,242,,972 1S92.... 270 — 22,356,177 3,214.250 — 4,864. ?o8 I893-- 604 — 31,030,248 2,813,666 31,362,139. ?,8o7,56S 1894.... 700 — 37,410,781 4141,507 63,246,082 2,656,402 i«95 792 — 49,919,654 ■5,693.951 , ,76,3^9,016 2,86^(^66 1896 ... 1,005 142,714,944 88,974,847 . 8,947,748 88;785,022 6i499,Q52 1897 1,223 224,971,674 149,887,838 , ■ 13,407,84?., 143.937 350 11,979,37s 1S9S,.... .. 1,444 276,839 734 189 439,761 .20,214 846 277,738,840 »6,945,05i 1899 1,561, 296,388,809 209,973,431 ?7i73?,597 ; 187,717,686 12,527,346 1900 .. 1,802 35^,729,770 245,158,916 33,«>3?.336 179,480,814 12,808,911 1901 .. 1.S67 365,031,900 251 700,369 38,868,^61 ;i65,i6s.ii8 11,501,826 604 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20th Century, Private Deposits. DEPOSITS. Savings Deposits. Total. Vear. 1887.. l888.. 1889.. 1890. . 1891.. 1892.. >893- 1894. 1895.. 1896 1897.. »898.. 1899.. 1900 . 1901.. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amonnt Transacted. Balance. 15.644,295 14.527,993 16,228,849 18,409,747 17,820,290 22,899,477 35,618642 46,540,017 81,386,199 . 210,633,254 . 486,512,288 . 766,259,957 ',469,959,999 135,438,038 .2241,366,166 195,761,906 .3,115,305,708 270,100,184 •4,305,218,581 379.729.434 .5,491,031,118 423,970,909 ■5,192,383,459 438,684,701 — 2,059,948 — 24,904,444 — 2,426,504 _ 25,337,978. — 3,630,233 — 24,693,493 — 5,475,000 _ 33,238,685 — — 241,995,393 38,426,210- — — 549,758,370 49,196,419 — — 842,575,973 84,252,865 — — 1,558,745,021 141,937.090 — — 2,385,303,516 207,741,284 — — 3,393,044,548 289,045,235 — — 4,492,936,267 392,256,780. — — 5,670,511,932 436,779,820 — — 5,357,548,577 4So.«86,527 TABLE XIV.— ORDINARY BANKS. Year. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. Loans. Amonnt Transacted. i46,Ti9,oS6 253,074,134 380,898,955 761,497,455 1,297,402 583 1,576,200,337 ".825,389,469 2,114,925,789 1,901,107,405 Balance. 28,697,174 36,698,170 39,537,835 40,922,441 33,882,673 49,083,472 59,178,194 89,165,458 157,200,254 241,899,87s 294,192,883 311,349,289 351,550,653 356,316,556 LOANS, (unit of yen). LOANS. Bills Discount. Total. Amount Transacted. 23,705.458 17.237,568 36,335,987 42,148,241 S4,879,iO;j 67.707,985 96,357,015 198,242,173 458,129,582 730,434.151 Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. — 213,827,071 — — 349,431,149 — — 579,141,124 — — 1,219,627,037 — — 2,027,836,734 — 913,186,574 139,311447 2,489,386,911 433.504330 1,584,252,168 261,771,981 3409,641,637 573,121,270. 2,119,235332 301,647,126 4,234,201,121653,197,779 1,831,516,006 272,015,225 3,733,623411 628,375,781 I'an'ous Banks. 605 TABLE XV.— SAVINGS BANKS, (unit of j'?«). Savings Deposits. fear. Number. i«93 24 1894 31 1895 92 1896 193 1897 312 1898 418 1899 531 1900 681 1901 714. Year. 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 Reserves. Authorized Paid up Capita!. Capital. — 566,500 25,113 — 683,000 63,013 5,290,000 1,889,355 104,421 12,172,500 5,039,381 303.696 20,199,000 10,698,093 812,531 26,699,300 14,966,242 1,371,026 34.930,300 19,979,151 2,188,083 48,465,300 26,834,957 2,907,597 50,281,300 29,608,687 3,462,264 Ordinary Deposits. Amount Transacted. 10,760,771 17,661,594 27,325,886 51,729,525 75866,192 86,109,383 "9,033,523 149,235.683 144,028,072 Total. Balance. 6,035,455 6,871,327 12,178,268 18,214,200 25.393,453 30,042,074 44,748,884 49,4S8,S?o 44,021,626 Amount Transacted. 15,423,123 48,169,545 93659,013 171,211,852 280,189,418 237,431,192 Balance. 2,459,608 7,651,500 12665,035 22,892,281 29,423,061 30,188,630 Amount Transacted. 10,760,771 17,661,594 27,325,886 67.152,648 124,035.737 179,768,396 290,245,375 429,425,101 381,459,264 Loans. /'■■""'^■" .^»«™^.^«™^ Year. Amount „_, ^ rr. .J Balance. Transacted. 1893 1,802,716 1,066,330 1894 1,776,144 675,061 1895 6,409,067 2,728,006 ■1896 25,162,385 8,088,206 1897 50,699,695 16,569,899 1898 72,884,013 23,576,480 1899 106,226,648 30,201,705 1900...... 131,302,787 38,393,253 igoi 127,170,469 41 117,028 TABLE XVI.— SAVINGS BANKS. LOANS, (unit oi yen). Bills Discounted. Balance. 6,035,455 6,871,327 12,178,268 20,673,808 33,044,953 42,707,109 67,641,165 78,881,641 74,210,256 Total. Amount Transacted. 2,356,356 6,256,976 '3,536,092 31,870,677 46,468,726 49 887 394 97,285,819 156,120,870 "9,392,480 Balance. 5790,376 7,909,428 17,669.320 25,024,609 19,542,862 Amount Transacted. 4,159,072 8,033, ' 20 19945,159 57,033,062 97,168,421 122,648,639 203,512467 287, ♦=3,657 246,562 949 Balance. 22,360,275 31,485,90$ 47,871,052 63,417,862 60,659,890 iOfJ) Japan in the Begmnlnrj of tlie 2Qth Century. CHAPTER VI —Clearing Houses. Introductory— Various Clearing Houses. i. INTRODUCTORY. General, Remarks. — ^Tliougli the custom of usiag commenfiai bills in trade existed long ago, it was only in recent years tliat a cle^rjiig house modelled oq the Westei-n system was establislied in Japan. .The- Osaka Clearing House established in December 187f' "was the poineer, institution of this kind in Japan, Then followal the Clearing Houses ' of Tokyo, Kobe, Yokohama, and Kyoto. All these establishments partly partake in their organization and workinir system of the Houses of tondon and New York. The Japanese clearing houses business, though more or le.«s subjected to \'icissitudKs, ha<, on the whole, made a (satisfactory progress, as the perusal of the following section will show. 1. The Tokyo Clearixci-IIousk. — The Tokyo Cleariug-House commenced its business at the end of 1887, with a perceptible good result, but the subsequent development of banking business necessi- tated the organization cf the clearing-house, and in 1881 tlie new- clearing-house, as it now stands was established. Its organizatioii was mainly based on those of clearing-he iiiscs iu Europe and America, The number of associateil banks at the end of 1901 was 36, besides the Bank of Japan. 2. The Kyoto CLEARiso-ilousE. — The Kyoto Clearing-House- was founded iu 1888 ; the number of associated l>anks in De(!ember 1901 was 21. 3. The Osaka CLEAEixc-HorsE. — The Osaka Clearing-House founded in 1879 is the iirst of all clearing-houses established in onr country. In Osaka, the centre of trade in our country since old time, checks and bills were iu use kmg before the Restfu'afi.ju. The number of associated banks in December, 1901, was o.'>. •i. The Kobe Ci.E'VuiNii-HoKSo.-The Kobe Cleanng-Hcrjse- Various Clearing Houses. 607- vfas founded in 1897 ; the number of associated banks was 16 in December 1901. o. The Yokohama Cleaeing-House. — The Yokohama Clear- ing-ilouse was founded in 1900 ; it had 12 associated banks in Doceuiber, 1901. The Nagoya Clearing-House is the latest establishment, having l-een founded in September, 1902. At the end of that year it hud 19 a.<::-ociated banks. II. VARIOUS CLEARING HOUSES. Amount Of Bills Cleaked at VAiiious Clkakixc housed Tokyo. Osaka. Year. 1879 -. 1880 ... iSSi ... 1552 ... 1553 ... 18S4 ... 1885 ... 1SS6 ... 1S87 ... 1888 ... 1889 ... 1890 ... 1591 ... 1592 ... 1593 ... 1894 ... 1895 ... 1896 ... 1897 - 1898 ... 1899 ... igoo ... IC.01 ... 1002 ... Number of Amount Number of Amount. Bills Cleared. Cleared. Bills Cl.'ared. Cleared. — — 2,835,892 — — 37,457.435 — — 48,065,853 — — 46,487,5 10 — — 31,385.877 . — — 22,656,066 — — — 17,73 ,207 — — — 22,074,700 1,987 1,232,186 — 24,072,164 25,289 12,281,949 94.797 28,898 S48 36,524 19,559.401 112,821 34,187 151 42,301 20,706,095 123.47^ 37,247,780 59.521 67,595.4-'3 137,899 39,i22,5of 97,190 113,576,595 161,489 49,610,071 134,505 148,018,871 174,035 63,600,661 172,189 185,597,497 180,842 67,543 8n7 223,123 289,102,424 208,622 79,654,11s 349,423 417,425,507 324,816 138,4"9,333 442,034 552,890,212 308 624 160,967,475 792,151 790,247,459 484,539 225,980,828 . 1,251,921 I 095,805,417 760,976 376,853,277 . 1,830,607 1,405,449,664 1,033,143 523 552,745 . 1,860,156 1,268,802,079 1,229,327 528,122,083 . 2,210,388 1,350,791,066 1,550,430 663,659,703 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Tokyo. Yokohama. Number of Amount Number of Amonnt Year. Bills Cleared. Cleared. Bills Cleared. aeared. 1879 — — — — 1880 — — — — 1881 — — — — J882 — — — — 1883 — — ■ — — 1884 1885 1886 — — — — — — — 1887 — — — — 1K88 — — . — — J889 — — — — 1890 1891 1892 — — — — — — 1893 — — — — •894 — — — — 1895 — — — — 1896 — — — — 1897 - ... — — — — 1898 ... 230,858 69,034.033 — — 1899 - - ... 406,390 133,616,955 — — 1900 - 527.033 167,566,438 215,441 348,306,775 1901 ... 538,199 145,905.182 237.925 390,5 16 606 1902 ... 610,277 > 55.957,015 257,165 416,126,576 Kobe. Nagoya. Number of Amount Number of Amount Year. Bills Cleared. Cleared. Bills Cleared. Cleared. 1879 — — — 1880 — — — — 1881 — — — — 1882 — — — — i8'(3 — — — — 1884 — — — — 1885 i — — — — 1886 — — — — 1887 — — — — i888 — — — 1889 — — — 1890 — — — — 1891 — — — — 1892 — — — — 1893 ... - — — — — 1894 — — — — 1895 — — — — 1896 — — — — 1897 - 30,789 27,633,168 — — 1898 ... 104,790 100,843.119 — — 1899 ... 123,971 I '5.914.379 — — 1900 ... 175,679 168,228,769 — — 1901 ... 191,848 202,658,853 — — 1902 ... 246,406 251,656,959 87,884 43,083,087 'fables for Bejerenes eo9 Tables for Reference, For convenience of reference the following tables about the ■world's output of gold, quotation of gold bullion in London, and ^sorae other similar figures will be given below : — WORLD'S OUTPUT OF GOLD AND SILVER. (Relative price of gold and silver). Year. 1868 . 1869 . 1870 . 1871 . 1872 . 1873 ■ 1874 . 187s . 1876 . 1877 . 1878 . 1879 . 1880 . 1 881 . 1882 , 1883 , 1884 , 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 Ounces. 6,270,086 6,270,086 6,270,086 5-591,014 5.591,014 4,653,675 4,390,031 4,716,563 5,016,488 5,512,196 5,761,114 5,262,174 5,148,880 4,983,742 4,934,086 4,614,588 4,921,169 5,245,572 5,135,679 5,1 16,861 5,330,775 5.973,790 S.749,306 6,320,194 7,094,266 7,6i8,8ii 8,764,362 9,615,190 9.783,914 11,420,068 13,877,806 14,859.28s 12,366,319 Unknown Ounces. Relative Price. 43,051,583 15-59 43,051,583 15.60 43,05 ',583 15-57 63,317,014 15-57 63,317,014 15-63 63,267,187 15.92 55,300,781 16.17 62,261,719 16.59 67,753,125 17.88 62,679,916 17.22 73.385.451 17-94 74,383495 18.40 74,795.273 18.05 79,020,872 18.16 86,472,091 18.19 89,175.023 18.64 81,567,801 18,57 91,609,959 19.41 93,297,290 20.78 96,123,586 21.13 108,827,606 21.99 120,213,611 22.10 126,095,062 19.76 137.170,919 20.92 153,151,762 23.72 165,472,621 26.47 164,610,394 32.56 167,500,960 31.61 157,061,370 30.65 160,421,082 34.34 169,055.253 3501 167,577.533 3436 172,838,870 3336 Unknown 34-67 CIO Japan in the Beginning of' the 2Qth Century. QUOTATION OF GOLD BULLION IN LONDON, (per I ounce). Date. Maximum. Minimum. Average. £■ s. 7 11.0625 luiic jj 3 17 11.7500 3 17 II. 1250 3 J 7 11.4500 Jnly „ 3 17 11.3750 3 17 II. 1250 3 7 II. 1875 Af.g. „ 3 17 11.5000 3 17 11.0000 3 7 11.2813 Sept. „ 3 17 11.5000 3 17 11.0000 3 7 "•3750 Oct. , 3 17 it.7500 5 17 11.0000 3 7 11.5000 Nov. „ 3 17 11.7500 3 17 11.7500 3 17 11.7500 Dec. , 3 18 00.0000 3 17 11.5000 3 17 11.7500 Average of Maximum and Minimum }' 18 00.0000 3 17 09.5000 3 [7 11.1136 Jan. 898 3 17 n.uouo 3 17 10.5000 3 [7 10.8750 Feb. „ 3 17 11.0000 3 17 09.5000 3 ■7 10.3125 iSrar. jj 3 17 10.7500 3 17 10.2500 3 17 10.6000 Apr. „ 3 17 11.5000 3 17, 09.7500 3 '7 n.oooo May „ 3 17 09.7500 3 17 09.0000 3 '7 09.4063 Jitne „ 3 17 10.5000 3 17 09.7500 3 17 10.0000 July 3 17 10.7500 3 17 10.2500 3 17 10-3750 Aug. 3 17 10.7500 3 17 10.0000 3 17 10.2500 S,-pt. „ 3 i8 00.0000 3 17 10.2500 3 17 ii.i8-;s Oct. 3 17 "•3750 3 17 09.50CO 3 17 io.46f;8 Nov. „ 3 18 00.0000 3 17 09.5000 3 17 10.0500 1>X. 3 18 00.0000 3 17 11. 2500 3 17 11.6875 Averages of Maximum \ , and Minimum /-^ 18 00.0000 3 17 09.0000 3 17 10.5170 Tan. ] S99 3 17 10.7500 3 17 09.5000 3 17 10.1250 TA. 3 17 09.5000 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.3125 Jfar. J) 3 17 09.7500 3 17 og.2500 3 17 09.5500 Apr. j> •" • 3 17 09.5000 3 17 09.0OGO 3 17 09.2500 Way " 3 17 09.0000 3 17 09.0000 3 17 09.0000 Jii....^ « - 3 17 09.0000 3 17 09.0000 3 17 09.0000 Jttly jf •*■ ••■ ... 3 17 09.5000 3 17 09.0000 3 [7 09.2500. Tables for Hi'Ji': GU' Date. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Averages of Maximum" and Minimum ^ Jan. 1900 Feb. „ Mar. „ Apr. „ ... May „ June ., J"iy „ Aug. „ Sept. ,, Oct. „ IS'oi'. „ Dec. „ Averages of Maximum 1 and Minimum J Jan. 1901 Feb. „ Mar. „ Apr. „ May June „ July „ Aug. „ Sept. „ Oct. „ Kov. „ ^^ec Averages of Maximum" and Minimum j Jan. igo2 Teb. „ Mar. „ ., Maximum.' Tiliiiimiim. Aver.nge. £. s.. ,d.. .£: J-. d. £■ ,s. ... 24.9543 2.6120 50.6587 — 99.2500 72.8269 Aug. „ ... 25.4977 2.6710 51-7130 — 99.2870 73.2500 Sept. »» ... 26.1125 2.73 «o 52.7250 — 99.5000 73.2500 Oct. » ... 25.5601 2.6810 5J-6538 — 99.5000 73.250a Nov. tt ... 24.8125 2.6004 50.0521 — 99.5000 72.3650 Dec. » ... 23.8558 2.4970 48.1731 — 98.8650 72.1440 Jan. 1 189s ... 23.3125 2.4450 47.1250 — 98.0000 71-9375 Feb. »> ... 23.3152 2.4450 47.2170 — 99-1520 71.6090- Mar. )f ... 23.8565 2.5020 48.2150 — 99.5100 71.500a Apr, » ... 25.6050 2.6870 51.7600 — 99.5300 71.5000- May n ... 25.5528 2.6960 52.1630 — 99.4570 71.154a June i» ... 25.5500 2.6800 51.7900 — 99.3900 71.120a July ft ... 25.6065 2.6820 51.9630 — 99.2280 71.6634 Av^. tt ... 25.8264 2.7080 52.4027 — 99.5000 71.4629 Sept. >t ... 26.1927 2.7430 53.1354 — 99.5000 71.5000 Oct. » ... 26.5120 2.7850 53-7740 — 993940 71.7210 Nov. n ... 26.2812 2.7580 53-1325 — 99.1850 71.8750 Dec. „ ... 25.4279 2.6680 51.7115 — 99.0000 71.500a fan. 1 [896 ... 25.5285 2.6742 52-0455 — 99,0000 71.500a Feb. j> ... 26.0885 2.7298 S3-J7I9 — 99.1875 71.5000 Mar. )» ... 26.6925 2.8058 54.2500 — 99.8700 71.800a Apr. » ... 26.5450 2.7868 53-8750 — 100.0000 72.250a May » ... 26.6750 2.7900 54Xxx)o — 100.28S0 72.4520 [une f» ... 26.6394 27953 54-0192 — 100.8270 72.750a fuly » ... 26.5919 2.7902 53-8796 — 100.4350 72.7500 Aug. „ ... 25.9952 2.7267 52-4952 — 99.3890 72.663s Sept. tf ... 25.3025 2.6546 50.9150 — 99.0800 72.285a Oct. » ... 25.1971 2-6433 50.8990 — 99.0000 71.7981 Nov. » ... 25.5272 2.6815 51.5842 — 99.5710 72.0652 Dec. » ... 25.6505 2.6920 51.8704 — 99-9580 72.2361 Jan. : 1897 ... 25.4531 2.6692 51.2046 165.7273 99.6023 72.2955 Feb. It ... 25.3363 2.6590 51-1905 165.8571 99-7262 72-3335 Mar. »F ... 24.6082 2.5881 49.9423 162.8462 100.4712 72.6^50 Apr. )t ... 24,3495 2.5528 49-3657 160.4400 100.5288 72.9615 May f» ... 23.9849 2.511S 48.6010 162.3269 100.0446 73.000a Tables for Reference. 617 Date. London per I yen. Paris per I yen. New York and .San Francisco. per ioo_j'f«. Bombay per 100 yen. Hongkong per IOO_J'i?». Shanghai per 100 yell. d. /■ $ rupee. $ t. June 1897 ... 23.8990 2.5015 48.4808 162.5600 99.5100 73.3200 July S> ... 23.9208 2.5015 48.4667 157.7321 100.5403 750583 Aug. >J ... 24.0625 2.5169 48.6683 154.0190 107.6480 82.026S Sept. n ... 24.1950 2.5308 48.8900 150.5200 108.3207 83-235' Oct. » ... 24.3225 2.5436 49.0250 154.3400 104.3947 77.2360 Nov. M ... 24.3943 2.5425 48.9541 154.8958 103.9520 76.4760 Dec. n ... 24.3125 2.5446 48.8750 157.6481 101.6600 74-6252 Jan. 189S ... 24.2983 2-5457 48.8920 150.6590 103.0000 76.3636 Feb. » ... 24.2500 2.5450 48.8750 151.2830 106.0326 78.5980 Mar. „ ... 24.2292 2.5461 48.9201 150.3240 106.7600 80.0200 Apr. s» ... 24.1611 2-5437 48.8221 15 1. 4615 106.3557 79-7788 May s» ... 24.2380 2.5488 4S.9422 150.0000 106.9040 80.3269 June » ... 24.3125 2.5550 49.2163 150.3846 106.4615 80-03 -4 July >* ... 24.3125 2.5506 49.2500 151.3460 104.3846 78-3650 Aug. » ... 24.3625 2.5538 49.2500 151.5000 104.2870 77-3055 Sept. 77 ... 24.3625 2.5590 49.2500 151.3400 103.9300 75.8000 Oct. 77 ... 24.3650 2.5620 49.2360 151.8080 104.1250 75.462a Nov. » ... 24.3125 2.5560 49.2500 151.0000 103.4270 74-8230 Dec. ,j ... 24.4595 2.5700 49.4490 151-3330 103.4160 74.5190 Jan. 1899 ... 24.7357 2.5957 49-8579 152.3180 104.4091 75-5454 Feb. » ... 24.8071 2.6000 49.9076 152.7830 104-5434 76.1630 Mar. tf ... 24.6025 2.5832 49.6800 153.0800 104.4000 76.8100 Apr. 7J ... 24.6560 2.5875 49.9170 153-3330 104.0416 76.166S May W ... 24.6875 2.5900 50.0000 153.4810 103.5556 75.4440 June if ... 24.6875 2.5900 50.0000 153.0000 103.5769 75.2110 July it ... 24.6418 2.5900 50.0000 153.2110 103.5096 75-3700 Aug. „ ... 24.59S6 2.5877 49-9470 153-4230 103.5865 75-^404 Sept. » ... 24.4800 2.5734 49.6850 152.0200 103.8750 75-9 '5» Oct. J» ... 24.3825 2.5686 49.4650 151. 1200 104.9800 76.4635 Nov. it ... 24.4375 2.5700 49.0989 151.5000 104.3906 74.3S0C Dec. „ ... 24.4183 2.5502 49.5817 151.5000 103-3557 73-5 76» Jan. : 1900 ... 24.3750 2.5630 49.5056 151. 1590 102.9488 73.8010 Feb. „ ... 24.3750 2.5600 49.5000 151. 2710 103.1042 74.cSta Mar. » ... 24.2720 2.5481 49-2933 151-3850 103.0048 74.1010 Apr. M ... 24.2500 2.5450 49.2500 151.5000 103-0052 74.0050 May « ... 24.2500 2.5450 49.2500 151.5000 103.0000 73.9420. June » ... 24.2500 2.5440 49.2500 151.5000 102.7692 73-7885 July W ... 24.2837 2.5430 49-3173 151.0960 101.5481 72.1250 Aug. » ... 24.3125 2.5450 49-3750 151.0000 ICO 5296 71.4720 618 Jwpan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Date. London per I yen. Paris per I yen. and San Franciseo. per looyen. Bombay per looyen. Hongkong per looyen. Shanghai per looyen. Sept. *> ... 24.3125 2-5458 49-375° 151.9000 101.5400 70.7700 Oct. » ... 24.3125 2.5500 49-375° 151.0000 103.0481 69.3510 Nov. 97 ... 243125 2.5500 49-375° 151.0000 i°3-293S 69.1875 Dec. ty ... 24.3125 2.5500 49-375° 151.0000 103.5442 68.9330 Jan. 1 901 ... 24-3125 2.5450 49-375° 151.0000 97.4890 70.2500 Feb. » ... 24.3125 2-5480 49-375° 151.0000 100.4240 72.8804 Mar. „ ... 24.2550 2-5454 49.3100 151.0000 100.8700 72.8900 Apr. .» ... 24.2500 2.5450 49.2500 151.0000 101.5000 73.1667 May II ... 24.2500 2-5450 49.2500 151.0000 102.0926 73:6944 June II ... 24.3250 2.5510 46.4000 151.0000 102.690a 74-4400 July II ... 24.4861 2.5685 49.6250 151.7220 104.9352 76.7963 Aug. „ ... 25.5000 2:5700 49.7407 152.0000 105.2870 770555 Sept. „ ... 24.5000 2.5700 49.7083 152.0000 104.8229 76-5937 Oct. II ... 24.3726 2.5542 49.3606 151.3460 104.8266 76.9135 Nov. If ... 24.3125 2.5468 49-340° 151.0000 106.2188 78.i77» Dec. II ... 24.3125 2.5500 49-5°oo 151.0000 107.5385 79-6915 Jan. 1902 ... 24.3130 2.5500 45.5000 151.0000 — — Feb. ' II ... 24.4400 2.5590 49.6630 151.0870 — — Mar. II ... 24.4850 2.5640 49.7200 151.5000 — — Apr. 11 ... 24.4350 2.5596 49.6200 151.7800 — — Note : — The foregoing table is based on the report of the Yokohama Specie Bank. As the bills on Shanghai payable on sight for the month of April could not be quoted, the quotation of bills payable after ten days was used instead. introductory. 619 PART VI. ARMY AND THE NAVY, (the ked cross society op japan.) CHAPTER I— Army, /ntroductory— Distributions of the Standing Army— Tb4 Person- nel on Peace Standing — Factories— Appointments of OfBcers — The Complement of Non-Commissioned OflBcers— Recruiting of Privates— Education— Punishment and Goals— Medical Affairs. I. INTRODUCTORY. Gfneeal Remaeks. — In ancient times ■when the civil and mili- tary afFaivs were one and indivisible, all the adults in the realm weie obliged to offer their services in the army with the emperor of tho 3 No. 13 Imperial Bodyg'rd-* Imperial Bodyg'rd l Tokyo, corps. corps, I — — /-Narasbino. — — Tokyo. — — Takasiiki. — — Sakura. — — Tokvo. — — Tokyo. — — Narashino. — — ■ffarashino. — — Konodai. — Shiiuo-sliisu^. . 4 > Nagoya. — 'oyohiishi, — Shizuoka. 3 1 Osaka. — Otsii. — Fiishimi. Hiroshima. : — Besides those mentioned in forts, garrisons In Tsushima — Hainada. -- Yanniguehi. g Kiunamoto. Kagobliima. — Kiunamoto. — Onima. ~ ^Sapporo. 7 ^ Asabigawa. . jj Aoniovi. Hirosaki, — Akita. — Yaiiiagata. 9 SiCanazuwa. . — Tsuniga. — Sabne. ^^ Tottoii. — ) Fuknchi- — J yariiii. — Himcji. — jMntsuy:MU:i. J, Koclii. JMariit^anie. Jii I-Kokiira. ) — Fiiknoka. — Kurutii'i. ahove table there are artMlcry corps in all ihcr Fovmosa, and Ralway corps in "iokyo. Personnel on Peace Standing. III. PERSONNEL ON PEACE STANDING. 621 According to the inquiries carried out at the end of the year 1901 the strength of commanding staif on peace standing is as follows : — Kind of Service. Active Service. 1st Reserve. Land-Wehr. Total 1900 1899 1898 1897 1896 ."'} General and Non-Corabatant of Equivalent Rank Gendarmes Infantry ■Cavalry Artillery Engineering ■Commissariat Paymaster Surgeon Veterinary Surgeon Band no 91 4,427 421 1,519 474 252 712 932 148 7 9,093 8,608 7,994 7,400 6,632 5,78s 27 54 1,654 95 239 98 73 307 526 45 3,"8 2,400 1,931 1,496 1,340 1,345 27 873 28 98 42 34 168 128 27 1.435 1,165 994 86s 775 528 Total. 147 127 6,954 544 1,856 614 359 1,187 1,586 220 7 13646 12,173 10,916 9,761 8,784 7,658 lY. FACTORIES. Arsenals. — Subjoined to the j\Iilitary Arms and Ammunition ■Office, the Arsenals manufacture and repair all sorts of arnis re- quired in the Army and also ammunition for the fleets. The Arseudls are situated in Tokyo and Osaka, the former undertaking to manufac- ture small arms, cartridges, and the implements and tools pertaining to small arras. It maintains at Meguro, Itabashi and Iwahana the powder factories. The Osaka Arsenal undertakes the manufacture ■of guns, cannon-balls, and other objects of a like nature, and main- tains the powder factory at Uji and the arm workshop at Moji. In 1901 the operatives employed at the Tokyo Arsenal number- ■ed 2,064,480 men and 96,325 women, in all 2,160,805 calculated 62'2 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. according to the nuaiber of days the opsratives attended work Computed in the same number, the O^aka Arsenal employed in the same year 1,461,916 men and 37,641 women, in all 1,499,557. Senju Woolen Factory. — This factory undertakes the weav- ing of woolen goods. In 1901 it employed 144,381 men and 173,745 women, in all 318,126 computed according to the numbers of days each operative attended work. Administration of Horse Affairs. —The administration of affairs connected with military horses may be divided into three stages from the commencement of the era. In the first period, that is from 1868 to 1872, the supply of chargers was obtained by purchase from the stock-farmers and distributed at once among the troops. In the second period, that is from 1873 to 1874 year, the horses purchased from the stock-farmers were first trained before being distributed. In the third period, that is 1881 and on, colts were purchased, and were distributed after they had been fed by th& army veterinarians. In order to facilitate the business of making this purchase the Horse Supply Office has been established, with has its headquarters in Tokyo and seven branches in the provinces.. At the branches, cultivated fields, pastures, and grass-land are- provided, these measuring in all 10;502 cho. y. APPOINTMENTS OF THE OFFICERS. In the beginning of the military system early in the present era the complement of officers and non-combatants of equivalent rank was made up of those who had held a cerresponding post in the ser- vice of the previously existing feudal governments, and also with those qualified for the posts and selected from among the candidates in general. Officers of Various Corps. — The officers of infantry, caval- ry and commissariat services are appointed from among the following ■who have undergone the following routine of study either in the ti-oops or at the Shikan Gakko (Officers' School) : a. Those who have graduated from the central military pre- paratory school. Appointments of the Officers. 623 b. Those -who have graduated from the Government or public ordinary middle schools or schools recognized by the Education Minister as institutions of equal standing or those ■who possess scholarship equal to that of those graduates and who have passed with success the entrance examination. Paymasters. — The paymasters are appointed from among those liieutenants or Sub-Lieutenants on active service at the various corps who, having been admitted through entrance examination to the Paymaster School, have gone through the regular course there, or those who come under any of the following heads and have gone through the required training at the Paymaster School. a. Those students of the Colleges of Law of the Imperial Uni- versities or of the Higher Commercial Schools wl o on aj> plication have been elected as paymaster candidates and who as such have gone through the respective courses at those institutions. b. The graduates of the foregoing institutions or of the gradu- ates of foreign institutions of equal standing who have ap- plied for the paymastership. Surgeons. — The complement of army surgeons is filled with those coming under the following headings who have acquired the re- quired knowledge at the infantry corps or at military hospitals : — a. The students of the Colleges of Medicine of the Imperial Universities or of a special school for medicine or of a local medical school regarded as of equal standing by the Minister of Education as the ordinary middle schools, and who have applied for admission to the service and who have grduated from the respective institutions. b. The graduates of the above-mentioned institutions (or the graduates of foreign institutions possessing equal schoolar- ship) who have applied for admission to the service. e. The graduates of the Army Surgeons School. d. The one-year volunteers possessing either the license of medicine or of pharmacy who have applied for admisgioa to the service. Military Veterinary Surgeons.— The staff of Military Ve- terinary Surgeons is supplemented with those coming under the fol- 624 Japan in the Beginning of the ZO'h Cen'.urj. lowing heads, and who have acquired the required knowlelge at the Eemounting Corps. a. The students of the course of Veterinary Surgery of the Colleges of Agriculture of the Imperial Universities or of the Practical Veterinary Course at the said Colleges who have gone through the prescribed course at such a college. b. The graduates of the above-mentioned institution (or of foreign schools regarded as of equal standing) who have applied for admission to the service. c. The one-year volunteers possessing the license of veteri- narians who apply for admission to the service. Band-Masters. — The band-masters are appointed from among the assistant band-masters who have served with distinction for at least three years on active service. YI. THE COMPLEMENT OF NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS. The complement of non-commissioned officers is supplemented of as follows : — Gekdaemes. — The non-commissiond officers are recruited from sunong the lance-corporals of the corps who have been with the colors for not less than two years or from among the non-commis- sion officers of the infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering and commissariat corps who have been with the colors for not less than six years and who have passed the recruiting examination. Non-Commissioned Officers of Various Corps. — Of the non-commissioned officers in these corps, those belonging to the longer term service are appointed from among those who are not on the active or reserve service of the army or the navy and who have passed the admission examination ; or from among the privates who have applied for admission to the services and who have received a suitable education. The non-Commissioned officers of shorter-term service are appointed from among the lance-corporals who have been with the colors for at least two years from the date of enrolment and who are qualified to undertake the service. Recruiting of Privates^ 625 Foremen of Gunnery Workshops. — The foremen of gunnery 'workshops are appointed from among those not on active service or on either the reserves of the army or the navy who have graduated from the Gunnery Artisan School or from among the privates of various corps who, having been selected on examination in the first year of their service, have also graduated from the same institution. Foremen of Farriery. — The foremen of farriery are appoin- 'ted from among those not on the active or reserve force of the army or the navy and who have graduated from the farriery course at the Veterinary Surgery School, or from among the farriers of the cavalry, artillery or commissariat corps who on applying for admission to the service have been judged to possess qualification equal to non-commisioned officers and who have passed the required course of study at the Veterinary Surgery School. Foremen of Tailor and Shoe-Workshops. — The foremen of tailor and shoe-workshops are appointed from among tailor-privates and shoemaker-privates attached to the diflerent corps. Medical Assistants. — Medical assistants are recruited from among male nurses not on the active or reserve service of the army or the navy who, having been selected on examination, have received the necessary education. Paymaster-Clerks. — Paymaster-clerks are appointed from among the non-commissioned officers of the various corps who have served with the colors for at least three years and who have received the necessary education at the Paymasters School. Band-Sergeants. — Band sergeants are appointed from among the bands-men who have been on active service for not less than two years and who are judged to possess qualifications equal to those •of non-commissioned officers. Yll. RECRUITING OF PRIVATES. The privates were at first recruited from the various feudal governments, the number determined according to the amount of 626 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. their fief. This system prevailed till 1873. Early that year the conscription system wag first instituted, and Conscription males who have reached the age of twenty men were Service. all included in the army list. Thus the system of recruiting was completely changed. Since that time the system has undergone frequent modifications, till it has assumed its existing form. To briefly enumerate the fundamental points in the existing system, first. All the Japanese male subjects from full seven- Classification teen years old to full forty are liable to military of the Service- service. The service is divided into active service, land- wehr service, dep6t service, and landsturm service. The active service is divided into service with the colors and with the first reserve, the former to extend over three years and ta be obligatory on all who have attained the age of full twenty years. Service with the first reserve is obligatory on all who have finished the service with the colors and lasts four years and four months. The landwehr reserve lasts five years and is organized of those who finished the first reserve service. The depdt service is divided into the first dep6t service- and the second depot service, the former to last seven years and four months and the late one year and four months. The first depot service is organized with those who have not beeii enlisted for active service while the second dep6t service is orgiiuized with those who have not been enlisted for the first dep6t service. The landsturm service is divided into the first and second divisions, the former to be organized with those who have com- pleted the term of the landwehr service and the first depot service and the second division includes all those who are not on .the other services. In 1901 all the males liable to conscription service numbers ed 539,282 throughout the country. They were umoer iigible distributed as follows as the result of conscription^ for Couscription. ... service examination ; — Education. 62'( Distribution. Number. Percentage. Levied for Service 187,907 34-84 ■(Active and 1st and 2nd DepQt Service). Levy Postponed 108,016 2003 Levy Exempted 194,003 '35'98 Service Exempted 34.278 6.36 Others 15,076 2.79 Total 539,282 YIII. EDUCATION. The Staff College. — This institution enables young officers of distinguished ability to study the higher branches of military science and also to acquire those knowledge necessary for all who ■wish to conduct investigations pertaining to military affairs. The Artillery and Engineering School. — Sub-Lieutenants of artillery and engineering corps are taught here all the science required for discharging the duties of officers in the artillery and engineering corps. The Officers' School. — This school is composed of cadets of various corps who receive the education necessary to subordinate of- ficers. The term of study is one year, and every year about 450 cadets are admitted. The Military Training School (Toyama Gakko). — This school is principally devoted giving to students sent from the infantry corps ti'aining in tactics, shooting excrises, fencing and gymnastics, with the object of promoting their efficiency in the service. The term of study is from two or seven months and the number of students to be admitted determined every year. The Central Military Preparatory School. — This school is attended by the graduates of Local Military Preparatory Schools with which it is regulary connected, and gives to the students a general education and also the preliminary military education neces- sary for military cadets. It is devoted to training cadets of various crops. The term lasts two years and every year about three hund- red students are admitted. {528 Japan in the Beginning 0/ the 20th Century. The Local Militaey Peepaeatory Schools. — These schools give a general education and military training to those boys who aspire to become officers. The schools are connected with the Central Military Preparatory School. There are six schools of this descrip- tion, these being located at Tokyo, Sendai, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshi- ma, and Kumamoto. Each admits about 50 students every year. The term extends for three years. The Militaey Eiding School. — The school collects from the different cavalry corps students who wish to receive a training in tactics and riding. The term extends for about eleven months and the number of students to be admitted is fixed beforehand every year. The Militaey Field Artilleey Shooting School. — This collects students from the Field Artillery corps to give training on tactics and shooting exercises in field artillery. The term lasts two or three months and the number of students to be admitted is determin- ed every year. The Militaey Foets Abtilleey Shooting School. — This school collects students from the Fort Artillery corps to give them a training in the subjects of fortification, tactics and shooting. The term extends for two or three months and the number of students to be admitted is determined every year. The Militaey Paymastee School. — This school trains those ■desirous to become military paymasters, the candidates to be admitted being the applicants from among Lieutenants and Sub-Lieutenants admitted on examination, and also applicants from among the graduates of the Colleges of Law of the Imperial Universitis and of the Higher Commercial School. There are two coui'ses, one of two years and the other of six months. The number of students to be admitted is determined every year. The Aemy Sukgeey School. — The students of this school con- sist of the surgeons of the Army Medical corp and also of the licensed medical practitioners and pharmatists who wish to become army surgeons on active service. The first class students are taught for four months and the second class for one year. The number to be admitted is determined every year. The Militaey Veteeinaey Suegeey School. — The students Punishment and Gaols. 629- of this school consist of veterinary surgeons of the Military Vete- rinary Surgeons corps who receive training in this particular branch of science ; also the farriery-foremen of the various corps are trained in the science of farriery. The course of study extends for from three to nine months, and the number of students to be admitted is determined every year. The Military Gunnery and Mechanics Work School. — The school trains those who wish to become foremen-smiths, foremen - saddlers, foremen-gunsmiths, foremen of wood mechanics, and foremen of casting work. The course of study extends for one to two years, and the number to be admitted is fixed every year. The Military Band School. — The school gives training to those desirous to become band-men. The course of study is about one year and the number to be admitted is determined every year. IX. PUNISHMENT AND GAOLS. The Couet-Martial — In 1872 the Conrt-Martial was establi- shed, and the Garrison Central and Branch Detention House Regula- tions were also enacted, and all matters relating to military justice and criminal procedure were first brought under a regular system. In 1883 the Military Criminal Procedure was elaborated ; it was amended in 1888, and it remains to-day in this amen led form The Court-Martial deals all criminal offences committed by combatants and non-combatants, and it enforces the Military Crimi- nal Code and the ordinary criminal provisions. The Court-Martial is divided into the Higher Court and the Divisional Court. The latter is established in each Military Division and deals with criminal matters that have happened within its juris- diction. The Higher Court is established at Tokyo and deals with Criminal matters relating to officers of the rank of Generals ; it also' deals with the cases of appeals made against the judgment of a Divisional Court-Martial. The Military Justice comprises the officers of Kensatsu-kan (Prosecutors), Rijl (Preliminary Judges), Rokuji (Clerks), Hanshi- €30 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qih Century. clio (Chief Judge) and Sanshi (Collegiate Judges). They are pre- sided, in the case of a Divisional Court, by the Commander of the Division, and, in the case of the Higher Court, by the Minister of War. The Kansatsu-han takes charge of matters relating to prose- cution of crimes ; the Miji of the examination of eases, corresponding to preliminary examination of the ordinary court ; and the Mokuji corresponds in function to clerks of the ordinary court. They are all civil officials. The Sanshi-cho and Hanshi are military officers and five of them are to sit over a case. The Riji takes part in judgment, though he does not enjoy the voting right. The Court- Martial is composed of the Sanshi-cho, the Hanshi, and the Miji, the Bokitji and the Kensatsukan being outside the limit. A judgment ac- quires validity on the approval of the Emperor or of the supervising chief, according to the official rank of the defendant or the relative gravity of the office. Then it is declared and carried into effect. Military gaols. — In 1876 Rules relating to the Qualification of Jlilitary Gaolers were first provided. The Military Gaols, others wise called Garrison Gaols, are located at places possessing garrison and Divisional Court-Martials. The Garrison Commanders are made to control the gaols. These gaols confine combatants or non- combatants who have been convicted either by the Military or ordinary laws of an offence not graver than misdemeanor and who are still connected with their respective services. Z. MEDICAL AFFAIRS. The establishment in 1868 of the Temporary Military Hospital in Tokyo was the origin of this institution in Japan. The system has undergone changes several times, and it now exists in the form of the Garrison Hoi^pital Eegulations enacted in February of 1898. A military hospital is located, according to the provisions of the regulations, at each place possessing a military garrison. It takes care of all cases requiring medical treatment that appear among the troops, takes charge of the keeping and supply of medical stuif and instruments, and also undertakes the education of surgeon-privates Medical Affairs. C31 and surgeon-non-commissioned officers. All the expenses relating to the medical treatment of those receiving treatment at the hospital are borne by the Government, except for those who occupy the rank of special sergeants or above and for the one-year volunteera. 632 J^nan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. CHAPTER II —The Navy. Personnel on Peace Standing— Naval Works — Complement. of the Personnel— The List of the Imperial Fleet — Education— Punishment— Health and Hygiene — Hydrography and Chart. I. INTRODUCTORY. Gen'eeai, Remarks. — Though nothing definite is lino-vm about the maritime affairs in ancient times, this much can be stated with certainty that the ait of navigation seems to hava been tolerably ■well developed in Japan about 26 or 27 centuries ago, that is to say about six or seven centuries before the Christian era, for history records of the existence of intercourse as that remote peiiod between this country and Korea. Coming down to the period corresponding to the 15th or 16th centuries after Christ something like a regular navigation service connected Japan with the neighboring countries, especially Korea and China. Soon the scope of the maritime enterprises was expanded and our ships began to cross over to the South Seas, Siam, India, and even to the American continent. There is reason to believe that these ocean-going ships must have numbered about two hundred at that time. It was an irreparable loss to the country that this enterprise was sternly suppressed by the Tokugawa Shogu- iiate about the middle part of the 17th century of the Christian era, and that it should, from religious prejudice, enforce the exclu- sion policy, for tlie Shogunate prohibited on pain of severe penalty the building of big ships, and the maritime traoS40o 731,531 Sasebo , 9 816 945,317.68 483,254 Maizuru „ — 1,651.50 1,042 Yokosuka Arsenal ... 2 SO 307,973-15 153,119 Kure 41 2,797 2,035,548.46 1,040,699 Sasebo „ 2 40 174,371-69 88,050 Maizuru ^, — 401.40 319 Tokyo „ 9 239 462,587.73 227,088 Shimose Powder Factory I 62 61,222.83 23,565 Total 109 5,078 6,892,820.31 3,528,718 Note : — The Maizuru Dockyard and Arsenal were opened on October 1st of igoi. IV. COMPLEMENT OF THE PERSONNEL. The Higher Service. — Concerning the method of complementing the personnel of the higher service no authentic record relating to the initial stage of the navy remains. It was very likely, however, that those officers who were employed on board the warships belonging to the Shogunate or the feudal princes got commission for the Navy of the Imperial Government. Also, the commission was given to the few who had studied the naval science in foreign coun- tries and sometimes the graduates of the Naval Academy, as is the case at present. According to the Naval Appointment Regula- tions now in force, the Naval Engineers are filled with the graduates of the Naval Engineering School, while Surgeons, Paymasters, Con- structors, Pharmatists, etc. are filled with the graduates of the Naval Institutions for the respective services, also the graduates of the OoUeges of the Imperial Universities or of the institutions of equal standing. Complement of the Staff of Warrant Officers and Sea- men. — In the year 1872 Rules relating to the Levy of Seamen were promulgated, and they inaugurated the system of conscription service for the fleet. The conscription service system is supplemented by the Voluntary Service System promulgated in 1899. The Conscription Rules were put in force for the first times in 1885. At present the levying is carried on both by the conscription and voluntary ser- vice systems Chief Warrant Officers are filled with Warrant Officers of merit and the latter 'with seamen of merit 6-jG Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Y. THE LIST OP Name. Class. TOiere Built. Date of Launch Asahi. 1st Class Battleship. Great Britain. 1899- Mikasa. -» tt 1900. Hatsuse. ,, tt 1899- Shikishima. ti tt 1898. Fuji. it tt 1896. Yashima. it tt ;j Izumo. 1st Class Armored Cruiser. J, 1899-^ Iwate. »j „ 1900. Asama. >j tt 1898. Tokiwa. jt tt „ V^akumo, ty Germany. 1899^ Azuma. tt France. ,^ ^,. , . (KiT»r- Nisshindaira, t* Italy. 1904. Kasuga, Moreno) i> tt 3i Chinyen. 2nd Class Battleship. Germany. 1S82. Kasagi. 2nd Class Cruiser. United States of America. 1898.^ Chitose.. „ ri „ Itsukushima. „ France. 1889. Matsushima. »» »j 1891. Hashidate. ,, Yokosuka. fj Takasago. „ Great Britain. 1897 Yoshino. „ tt 1892. Toyohashi. Torpedo Tender. „ 18S8. Fuso. 2nd Class Battleship. »» 1877. Naniwa. 2nd Class Cruiser. it 1885. Takachiho. j> it 5> Akitsushima. 3rd Class Cruiser. Yokosuka. 1892. Izumi. J* Great Britain. 1883.. Akashi. »t Yokosuka. 1897. Suma. It tt 1895. Saiyen. 3rd Class Coast Defence. Germany. 1887. Chiyoda. 3rd Class Cruiser. Great Britain. 1890. Kongo. 3rd Class Coast Defence. It 1877. Hiyei. tt » » Heiyen. 1st Class Gun-Boat. China. 1887. Tsukuba. 3rd Class Coast Defence. East India. Unknown Miyako. Dispatch-Boat. Kure. 1897. Takao. 3rd Class Coast Defence. Yokosuka. 1S87. Vaeyama. Dispatch-Boat. » 1889. T/te List of the Imperial Fleet. 637 THE IMPERIAL FLEET. Displace- Indicated Speed. Armaments. Material Ordinary Quick- Torpedo- ■of Hull. ment. Horse Power. Guns. Firers. Tubes. Steel. 15,443 15.207 18 4 46 4 3* 15.362 15.207 18 4 46 4 „ 15.342 14,700 18 4 46 4 3> 15.088 14,700 18 4 46 5 ■JJ 12,64.9 13,687 18 4 34 5 ■SJ 12,517 13,687 18 4 34 5 ■9» 9,906 14,700 21 '^ 38 4 J> 9,906 14,700 21 — 38 4 ■J) 9,855 18,248 22 — 38 5 ■3J 9.855 18,248 22 — 38. 5 7J 9,800 15.500 20 — 36 5 5) 9,456 16,600 20 — 36 5 ■»T 7,700 13.500 20 4 24 4 tf 7,700 13.500 20 4 24 4 >» 7,335 6,000 IS 4 14 3 ■w 4,978 17.235 23 — 30 4 ?» 4.836 15,714 23 — 30 4 ■>? 4,278 5,400 16 I 30 , 4 ■»f 4.278 5,400 16 I 27 4 „ 4.278 5,400 16 I 29 4 3> 4,227 15,967 23 — 30 5 »> 4,225 15,967 23 — 36 5 J> 4,120 1,870 13 — 5 — Iron. 3,777 3,650 13 4 16 3 Steel. 3,709 7,604 18 — 20 4 3J 3,709 7,604 18 — 20 4 7» 3.172 ,516 19 — 20 4 J5 2,967 5,576 17 -> 14 — 91 2,800 8,000 20 — 20 2 >» 2,700 8,500 20 — 20 2 »» 2,481 2,839 15 4 6 4 W 2.439 5.678 19 — 25 3 ' » 2,284 2.535 13 8 2 2 « 2,284 2,535 13 8 z 2 Steel. 2,18s I,20O II I 7 — Wooden. 1.978 526 8 7 — — Steel. 1,800 6,130 20 — 12 ■ 2 1,778 2,332 15 5 2 2 -£teel. 1,609 S.400 20 — XI 2 638 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qih Cenivry. Name, Tenriu. Katsuragi. Yamato. Musashi. Tsukushi. Kaimon. Chihaya, Amagi. Tatsuta. Iwaki. Oshima. Maya. Atago. Chokai. Akagi. ' Soko, ' Chinto. Chinsai. Chinnan. Chinhoku. ' Chinchu. Chinpen. Shirakumo,, Akatsuki. i' Ikazuchi, Inazuma. Akebono. Sasanami. O'boro. Murakumo.j, Shinonomc, YOgiri, Shiranui. Kagero. Usukumo. Class. 3rd Class Coast Defence. 1st Class Gun-Boat. 3rd Class Coast Defence. Dispatch-Boat. 2nd Class Gun-Boat. Dispatch-Boat. 2nd Class Gun-Boat. Torpedo Destroyer. Where Built. Date of Launch,. Yokosuka. 1883.- » 1SS5. Onohama. „ Yokosuka. 1S86. Great Britain. Unknown. Yokosuka. 1883. J) 1900. „ 1877. Great Britain. 1S94- Yokosuka. 1878. Onohama, 1891. *i 1886.. Yokosuka. 1S87.. Ishikawajima. )> Onohama. 1888. China. 1869. Great Britain. iS8i^ 1 901.. 1S99- 1S9S.. 1S99. I9OOU Grand Total 74 vessels 3%e List of the- Imperial Fleet. 639 Displace- meut. Indicated Horse Power. Speed. Armaments. Material of Hull. Ordinary Guns. Quick- Firers. Torpedo- Tubes. Wooden. 1,547 1,267 12 7 — — 1,502 1,622 ■3 7 4 — 1,502 1,622 13 8 — — 1,502 1,622 13 8 — — Steel. 1,372 2,433 16 7 2 — Wooden. 1,367 1,267 12 8 — — Steel. 1,250 6,000 21 — 6 5 Wooden. 926 726 II 6 4 — Steel. 864 5,069 21 — 6 5 Wooden. 667 659 10 3 — — Steel. 640 1,217 13 4 5 — Iron. 622 963 10 :£ 2 — 922 963 10 2 — — Iron. 622 963 10 2 — — Steel. 622 963 10 4 6 — Wooden. 610 117 9 2 I — Steel. 447 420 10 3 — — „ 447 420 10 — 2 — 3> 447 ■ ' 420 10 — 2 — >» 447 ' 420 10 3 — — t 447' 420 10 3 — — « 447 420 10 3 — — 1 37-! 7,000 3" — 6 2 » 35S 6,000 3« — 6 2 » 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 W 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 » 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 J» 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 » 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 M 279 5,475 30 — 6 2 J» 279 5,475 ■ 30 — 6 2 *> 279 5475 30 — 6 2 „ 279 5,475 30 — 6 2 „ 279 5,475 30 — 6 2 91 279 5,475 30 — 6 2 267,580 486,588 160 1,072 I6S 640 Japan in the Beginning of the 20 39.CXX3 85 990 23 ,2 3 No. 31 ... , .. » 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 No. 32 ... . »j 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 Jfo. 33 ••• . )) 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 No. 34 ... . » 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 No. 35 ... . •• j» 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 No. 36 ... . •• jj 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 No. 39 ... . )» 46.482 no 2,000 27 3 No. 40 ... . „ 46.482 no 2,000 27 3 No. 41 ... . •• 46.482 no 2,000 27 3 No. 42 ... •• 46.482 no 2,000 27 3 No. 43 ... . jj 49.482 no 2,000 27 3 No. 50 ... .. 3rd class. it 34-000 S3 657 20 2 No. SI ... . jj 34.000 S3 657 20 2 No. 52 ... . ■• >» 34.000 S3 657 20 2 -No. 53 ... » 34.000 54 660 20 2 -No. 54 ... •■ »» n 34.000 54 660 20 2 Total... — — — 2,883 48,039 — 45 85 TORPEDO BOATS ATTACHED TO MAIZURU NAVAL STATION. No. 44 ... -No. 47 ... No. 48 ... No. 49 ... No. 60 ... No. 61 ... Total... 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 39.000 .S3 1,200 24 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 — 498 7,200 — 6 18 -Grand total — 4,675 11,654 72 151 642 Japan in the Beginning oj (he 20th Century. ¥1. EDUCATION. The Naval Staff College. — Founded in 1888 the colleg» gives higher education to officers and engineers. The Naval Academy. — Subordinate to the Board of Naval Education, the school educates those who aspire to become officers. It was founded in 1872 and was originally located in Tokyo. At present it is situated at Edajima, Hiroshima-ken. The Naval Engineering School. — Founded in 1878 as subordinate to the Naval Academy, it was converted into an in- dependent institution three years later. The school instructs those who wish to become naval engineers. The Naval Surgery School. — ^The school gives higher course of science on naval surgeons and also teaches surgeon-cadets to qualify them for the service. It is controlled by the Director of Surgery Bureau of the Navy. The Paymaster Training School. — The school teaches the necessary knowledge to Paymaster cadets and also to the men in the- service. It is controlled by the Paymaster Bureau. The Naval Gunnery Training School, the Toepedo Prac- tice Training School, and the Engineering Practice Train- ing School. — All those institutions give training to the men on. the respective services. YII. PUNISHMENT. The first regular office to manage matters relating to admiralty punishment was established in 1872. "With the elaboration of the Admiralty Code of Punishment, a Permanent Admiralty Court wa* established at Tokyo and at all the places possessing admiralties. The fleet holds a court of justice as circumstance requires. YIII. HEALTH AND HYGIENE. With the inauguration of the Naval Department in 1872 a Naval Hospital was founded in Tokyo. When in December of 1884 History of Hydrography and Chart. 643 the Yokohama Admiralty was established, a Naval Hospital was also founded there, the Admiralty to control the Tokyo Naval Hospital. In November of 1888 that Hospital was abolished. At present each admiralty maintains its own hospital, so that we have a hospital at Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, and Maiziiru. IX. HISTORY OF HYDROGRAPHY AND CHART. It was about the year' 1872 that a reliable chart of the seas ia the Far East was first dtawn by Japan. We had another chart much earlier than that, for in the 12th year of Bankwa (1815) and at the time of the Tokugawa Shogunate the celebrated hydrographer of the day, Chukei Ino, compiled one that was highly valuable. In 1862, the authorities of the time prepared, according to the method taught by the Dutchmen, a chart for part of the, Sea of Ise. The sounding having been incomplete while the art of printing was imperfect, the chart did not much serve the purpose of any practical utility. The sailors of those days were therefore obliged to use the charts prepared by Dutchmen and English. In 1871 the Hydrographical Bureau was created and the work of hydrography was commened in a regular manner. The task involved serious difficulty, owing ' to the fact that the business was quite novel to 'the country and could not, therefore, obtain speci- alists qualified for it. The late Rear- Admiral Yanagi who was- ordered to take charge of the business experienced innumerable dif- ficulties. He himself possessed the best knowledge on the subject at that time, having learned mathematics and surveying at Nagasaki from the Dutchmen. He, in conjunction with the commander of the British Surveying Ship "Sylvia," started the work of sounding the coast of the Inland Sea and of Hokkaido. (It may be remarked here that the Naval chart No. 991 published by the English Hydrographical Office was based on this combined sounding ; in Japan it ap- peared in the shape of Naval chart No. 2). Next the chart of Kamai- shi on the Pacific coast of Honshu waS made, based on the result of sounding carried by Japanese experts alone. This was No. 1 chart of Japan and was adopted for use by our navigators. During €44 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth, Century. the 32 years that have- elapsed since that time, the work was at- tended to with greater efficiency and diligence, and soon the agree- ment was concluded with many of the Western Powers for the ex- change of our charts with those compiled by them. Our charts have been frequently exhibited in international exhibitions, as those held in Holland, France, America, cte. and have been received with apprecia- tion. The charts thus for prepared number 278. At the same time the Hydrographical Registers were compiled, those relating to Hok- kaido and the " Southern islands " published in 1873. The other records worth mentioning are the Hydrc^raphical Registers round the coast of Japan (18 vols.), the Japan Hydrographical Work (5 vols.), the China Hydrographical Work (9 vols.), the Korean Hydrography, the Amur Coast Hydrography, the Fiji Ar- chipelago Hydrography, the Pacific Navigation Route, and so forth. The hydrographical business of Japan stands conspicuous aa work completed by our countymen without th« help of foreign speci- alists. THE RED CROSS SOCIETY OF JAPAN. The Red Cross Society of Japan owes its origin to the South- western Civil War that occurred in 1877. It was called at that time the Universal Benevolence Society (Haku-ai Sha) and was devoted to the work of tending wounded ofiieers and men. This ''7 Disbursements Fiscal Year. Receipts. Disbursements. per 100 yen Receipts. yen. fen. JWl. 1894 195,493 298,672 152.8 189s .. 281,363 353,801 125-7 1896 .. 468,524 699,685 149-3 1897 .. 723,335 988,501 136-7 S988 .. 883,887 1,013,946 "4,7 1809 , •• 1,065,975 1,404,901 131.8 1900 .. 1,338,873 1,642,332 122.7 1901 .. 1,540,561 1, 800,669 116.9 1902 .. 1,684,263 1,690,467 100.4 6G8 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. CHAPTER n— Postal Money Orders. Domestic Ser¥ice— Foreign SerYice— Receipts and Disbursements. I. DOMESTIC MONEY ORDERS. HisTOEY. — The postal money order business was inaugurated about four years later than the general post service, that is in January of 1875. . As banking facilities had not yet advanced much at that time this convenient mode of remittance was eagerly welcomed by the public,, so that although the ordinary money order service alone was under- talsen the amount of money dealt with reached as much as 2,120,000 yen approximately in the opening year of the service. The neces- sarily imperfect orga,nization of local post offices and the difficulty that existed with regard to supplying outlying offices with futids obliged the authorities to restrict the amount of the remittance made by a single person, except when the remittances were drawn on Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka, Yokohama or Kobe. Later this unrestricted, remittance was extended to all places possessing provincial adminis- tration offices, but as it was discovered that businessmen began to abuse this service for the purpose of remitting large amount of money, the Government was soon obliged to limit more or less the amount of postal remittance. la 1885 the principle embodied in the postal money order system was extended to the telegraph service and at the same time the petty money order service was inaugurated and the fee for the use of ordinary money order was somewhat reduced. Several alterations and improvements have since been effected. To mention some of them, in April, 1890, the payment of a fee in cash was superseded by payment with postal stamps, and in the following year the 3rd class post offices were made to deal with the money order business even on Sundtiys and other holida3's. Tea years after this all-the-year round-system was enforced throughout the- Foreign Money Orders. 669 •country. During the Japan-China war the field postal money business was established for the benefit of those at the front, while in April of 1899 the maximum limit of a single money order that had been fixed at not more than 30 yen, was increased to 50 yen. The system of paying money orders at residences was adopted ia January of 1900 and was first put into effect in the principal cities, to be afterward extended gradually throughout the country. In October of the same year the Postal Money Order Law was enforced and several amendments were effected, as, for instance, the abolition of the system of limiting the number of orders to be issued in one day for the same person, and the increase of maximum limit ■of the petty money order from 3 to 5 yen. In April of 1901 a provision was made for the transfer of a money order by means of crossing it. In consequence of all such improvements the service has been carried to the state of greater perfection and efficiency than it was before. Statistics of the Service ; — The progress of the service «ince its inception is shown belew. — No. of Offices. Domestic 1 Ord( jr. Year. No of Application. Amount of Money. yen. 1875 ... ... 222 115.703 2,123,146 1882 ... ... ... 678 630,713 9,188,262 1892 ... ... 2,276 2,944,622 23,872,453 1902 ... ... - 5,514 8,955.295 89,788,407 II. FOREIGN MONEY ORDERS. HiSTOHY. — The foreign postal money order service was first established in December of 1897 by an agreement with the Hong- kong Postal Administration for the exchange of postal money orders. The Yokohama Post Office opened this service for the first time ia Japan in January 1880 and other offices were soon after given the same privilege. Since March of the same year the exchange of money orders with every colony in Australasia and the Straits C70 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Settlements has been carried on. Arrangement for the exchange of postal money orders was concluiied with Great Britain in 1881 and through the intermediary of the postal Administration of Great Britain money orders have been exchangel with Germany since January 1883, and with British India througn Honkong. In the following year, another agreement was concluded with France. In February, 1885, arrangements were concluded for the exchange of postal money orders with all the countries of Europe and America and all the British colonies through the intermediary of the Postal Ad. ministration of Great Britain. An agreement was also concluded with the United States of America that year. In that year also, our country joined the International Postal Money Order Agreement which had been formed in accordance with the stipulations of Article XIII of the Universal Postal Convention concluded at the Universal Postal Congress assembled at Paris in 1878. At first Japan transacted direct exchange of money orders with only Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Switzerland, Luxemburg, Eoumania and Belgium, while with other countries the exchange was effected through the intermediary of the Postal Administrations of Great Britain and Hongkong. The same agreements were concluded with Italy in 1886, and with Canada, in 1889. As to the international postal money orders " the Arrangement concerning the Service of Postal Money Order " concluded at the Universal Postal Congress which met in Washington in 1897 is in operation at present. Statistics of the Service. — The following figures will demonstrate the development of this service since its inception : — • Year. i87S 1883 1892 1902 Foreign Orders. Orders Issued. Orders Received. No. of Amount of No. oi Amount of Application. Money. Application. Money. — — — — ,.. 316 5>57o loS 2,279 .. 2,309 59,93s 3,957 167,699 ,.. 8,407 244,560 5^,437 3,817,522 Heceipts and Disbvrsemevts. 671 III. RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. OnciNAEY receipts stood at 260,000 yen approximntely in 1894, to be advanced to about 816,000 yen in the year 1S*02. On the other hand disbursements amounted to about 295,000 yen and about 837,000 yen respectively. In 1894 the disbursements were at the rate of about 113 yen per 100 yen of receipt, and this ratio decreased 103 yen per 100 yen in 1902. Details may be gathered from the appended table. RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS OF POSTAL MONEY ORDER SERVICE. Fiscal Year 1S94.... . 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Receipts. Disbursements yen. yen. 260,23s 295,572 314,115 324,646 327.134 378,17s 384,702 430,727 409,929 541,316 519,084 754,060 643,206 778,633 687,561 826,161 816,331 837,193 €72 Japan in the Beginning oj tlie 207i7.o34 1,252,559 20.5 1899 21,968,529 1,239,669 17.7 1900 23,411,135 1,396,147 16.8 1901 23,965,437 1,979,640 12.1 1902 27,196,802 2,363,335 11.5 1903 29,554,725 2,859,143 10.3 In the matter of postal savings bank business there is no- particular account to be called receipts. On the other hand, disbursements show a gradual increase in consequence of the rise of the price of commodities. In 1894 they amounted to about 193,000^ ytw, and the correspondent sum in 1902 was 549,000 yen approxi- mately. Domestio Telegraph. 675 CHAPTER rV— Telegraph. Domestic Telegraph — Organization of the Service — Foreign Telegraph — Telegraphic Construction —Telegraph Apparatus and Materials. I. DOMESTIC TELEGRAPH. Gbneeal Eemaeks. — It was in 1868 that Japan possessed for the first time the service of telegraph, but the introduction of telegraph instrument took place much earlier, for in 1853 two sets of the instrument were presented by Commodore Perry to the Tokugawa Shogunate. They were never applied to practical purpose. In fact the Shogunate was at that time in the throes of death and had no time to devote to studying telegraphy. Nor did the majority of the people possess any knowledge about this great civilizing factor : they rather detested the apparatus as outlandish, and the sets were left to mould and decay in a storehouse. It was destined for the Restoration Government to inaugurate this important service of communication. That Government sent for an expert to England and in 1867 Tokyo and Yokohama, separated by 20 mile?, were first connected by telegraph. This pioneer line suffered much from the persecution and maltreatment of the ignorant masses, who betrayed their simplicity by regarding telegraphy as a sort of watch-craft, and taxed the patience of the Government by frequently injuring the line. The task of guarding it alone was no easy matter. Fortunately, while the Government was firmly re- solved to maintain the service and did not spare trouble and expense to improve it, the people too were soon convinced of the utility and importance of the service, so that the telegraph lines were no longer in danger of demolition. In 1873 the Telegraph Code and the Telegraph Service Rules were promulgated, and the service was for the first time placed on a regular basis. However it was not till the outbreak of the civil war in Kyushu that the telegraph service could demonstrate with convincing efficacy its usefulness and ■C76 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. importance. After that time and especially owing to the Emperor's tour round Japan in the following year of that trouble, the pro- gress of the telegraph business was very rapid, and many were the telegraph offices that were newly opened at that time. At the same time the country- joined the Universal Telegraph Union, and thus both internally and externally the telegraph service was placed on a fair road of satisfactory development. The state of market after the civil war and a sudden activity of business occasioned impressed the people with the necessity of telegraphic communications. The same people who only a few years before regarded telegraph with awe and superstition now began to vie each other in applying to the authorities for the construction of lines in their own districts, and even offered to contribute the money required for the work. The authorities decided to avail themselves of this new tendency on the part of the people, accepted the ■contribution in cases where the acceptance was regarded useful, and thus by the combined efforts of Government and people the telegraph seivice was expanded. This was the state of affairs prevailing iibout 1881, and it may be regarded as the first period of expansion. The fall of paper considerably below par in consequence of its excessive issue on the occasion of the civil trouble in Kyushii and the marked rise of the price of commodities, and the reaction that began to make appearance about 1883 by the issue of convertible bank notes naturally resulted iu largely bringing down the market prices, with a depression of trade. This state of affairs could not but affect the Government work, and its telegraphic business therefore did suffer much. On account of this fact, and also owing to the lines having already been constructed by that time through all the important districts, the authorities decided to suspend the policy of progress and advance and to adopt instead one of conservation. This period of temporary halt in the work of expansion was utilized for perfecting the internal arrangements of the service. It was on that occasion that by the amendment of the Telegraphic Service Regulations the fee was made uniform throughout the country irrespective of distance, that the system of running the service as a contract work at telegraph offices situated in minor Domestic Telegrajih. 677' towns was began, and that the post and telegraph offices were combined. At the same time the external relation was carried to the state of greater perfection. Japan dispatched a delegate to the meeting of the Universal Telegraph Convention to represent its views about the international service, and in 1884 our country joined the International League for the protection of submarine cables, the rules relating to it being enforced in Japan two years later. About 1890 therefore our telegraphic system both in internal and external relations was completed, so far as the circumstances of the time required. Meanwhile the state of the economic market had began to recover *ts normal activity, while the Constitutional regime was inaugurated. The policy of expansion was once more resumed, and several new lines were constructed and a number of new offices were started. The Japan-China war supplied an unusual occasion for displaying the efficacy of the service. The lines for the use of the Army were specially constructed through the interior of Korea, while watch-towers were constructed at the important places along the coast of Japan, to be connected with the nearest telegraph offices. The new lines were extended to a long length both by land and sea. , The termi- nation of the war and the annexation of Formosa to our dominion was signalized by the laying of a cable between it and Japan proper. Then the cable connecting the island and Fuchow was purchased from the Chinese Government. The lines in the interior of Japan proper were also added to a large extent, as the experi-- ence during the war had demonstrated that the service was not quite satisfactory and efficient in time of unusual stress. Needless to add that a sudden rise of all business activity subsequent to the war has also been a cause of the expansion of the service. In 1899 from considerations of an economic and financial nature the rate of fee of domestic service was slightly raised, and in the following year the Telegraph Law and rules pertaining to it were amended. Statistics of the Seevice. — The following figures will serve to indicate the main features of the development of this important branch of communication work in Japan : — ■678 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Year No of Offices Mileage Total Mileage No. of Telegranu \ear. JNo. ct UHices. „„„,.„ of Lines. (i/iotisand). Offices. Mileage Routes. ri. i8 160 i8S 1,990 633 3,557 1,202 7,612 1872 18 160 185 81 1882 185 1,990 5,116 2,979 1892 633 3,557 10,052 5,412 1902 2.202 7,612 33.567 17.605 Telegraph business has undoubtedly been more or less affected since the telephone service was inaugurated with great activity in 1898. The reason why telegraph receipts made an increase in 1899 compared with those of the preceding year in spite of a decrease in the total number of transmissions, was due to the rate of the fee being raised. The decrease both of the number of transmission and amount of receipts in 1901 compared with the corresponding figures in the preceding year was a result of general economic depression. NUMBER OF TRANSMISSION OF TELEGRAMS AND RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. Fiscal Year. 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Telegrams per 100 People. Receipts. Disbursements. Disbursements per 100 yen Receipts. yen. yen. yen. ... 197 2,185,011 1,196,779 54.8 ... 21.8 2,405,570 1.297,13s 53-9 ... 25.6 2,449,188 1.584,575 64.7 ... 32.6 3.107,780 1,995,237 64.2 ... 34-3 3,254,717 2,734,156 84.0 ... 32.2 3,753,011 3,442,211 91.7 ... 36.7 4,307,082 4,007,524 930 ... 35-6 4,077,004 4,365,048 107. 1 ... 38.2 4,314,673 4,486,059 104.0 II. ORGANIZATION OF THE SERYICE. Central Office op Control. — At the outset the telegraphic business had neither a special office nor special officers to take care of it, and it was in 1871 when the Public Works Depart- ment was established that an office specially devoted to this business was for the first time created under control of that Department. Organization of the Service. 671) The Department of Communications which was esfablished in 1885 was next made to manage the telegraphic service, and this has been the case since that time. Though the seat of the controlling power in this service thus unilerwent frequent changes the Government has strictly adliered to the principal set down from the first and has made it as a monopoly of its own. This was a happy arrangement, when it is remembered that owing to some misarrangeraent at first there are even at present some couutries whose governments can not j'et succeed to secure the right of monopoly 'of the service. Local Offices of Costeol. — The Department of Communica- tions established at first in the principal places throughout the country offices which were made to supervise the subordinate tele- graphic offices respectively placed under them. Subsequently these supervising offices were kept only at places possessing local ad- ministrative offices. At present these supervising centres number eighteen in all, and these, subject to the control of the central office, look to the business carried on in their jurisdiction. Offices of Telegraphic Opeeations. — The offices that have charge of the technical part of the business, were known by dif- ferent names in diffiirent periods, but since they have been amalgamated with post offices situated in the same districts they have been known by the name of post and telegraph offices, divided into three grades. These offices are of two grades, namely second class and third class. a. Fiest-Class Offices. — These are the eighteen super- vising offices mentioned in the foregoing part of this section, and they are known by the name of First-class Post and Telegraph Offices. Besides attending to matters of ordinary post and telegraph service, they also undertake the work of tele- grapliic construction. The First-class Office located at Nagasaki is one of special importance, in that it is the terminus for foreign telegrams coming to Japan or wired from Japan. b. Second-Class Offices — These number over ninety and are located at so many cities and towns throughout the country. They are principally devoted to dealing with the technical part of the business. 680 Japan in tJie Beginning p/ the 20th Century. e. Third-class Offcces. — These being located at places of less importance than others possessing either First-class or Second-class Offices, receipts are often found to fall below dis- bursements, so that there is not much room, if indeed any at all, for improving the service out of the profits of the- offices. In view of this consideration, the special arrugement is made with regard to their organization, and they are gene- rally run as contract work. The chief of an office of this grade draws no regular salary but simply gets a certain amount of allowance. Appoiilted by the Minister of Communications according to the prescribed rules of appointment, the chief gets from the Government a certain amount of money with which to work and manage his office. Besides, he is under obligation to supply an office at his own expence. The offioes- of this lower grade number about 4,000 throughout the coun- try, and one-third of them undertake to attend to the tele- graphic service. Subsidiary organs. — Subsidiary organs exist in the shape of telegraphic agencies one kind of which being run either as private or Government enterprise. The private enterprise is generally sup- plied by railway companies which maintain the telegraphic service at their stations. As a result of certain arrangement these speci- al telegraph offices offer their service to the general public, anJ^ for this service they get from the Government a sum of money equal in amount to not less than one- third of the fee they receive from applicants, the rate of fee being equal to that enforced at Government offices. The agencies mantained by the Government are found in places not yet possessing regular telegraph offices. Lastly, there is another kind of agency of a lower grade, which simply receives message.' for transmission from people to forward them to the nearest telegraph office. These agencies, also conducted as contract work, are maintained in the principal parts of a large city. Telegraph Offices Abroad. — Besides all those offices main- tained in the interior the Government also possesses a telegraph office at Fusan, Seoul, and Jinsen, all in Korea. Such is, in short, the organization of our, telegraphic service,. Foreign Telegraph. 68 1 a«il though' k large number are being newly established every year, still on account of a greater expence than in the case o{ }»ost office, the total number does not come up to that of th« other kind of offices. Nontheless the telegraph offices of all grade* tfltal about 2,200 throughout the country. In more thickly [lopuiiit- ed ;in's share in the central maintenance fund that had been pre- vioiislv one of the fourth class rate was raised all at once to one of first class. In 1884 Japan joined the International Convention for the Protectioil of Submarine Cables. The foreign telegraph service in Japan was commenced in 1871 when the Gi-eat Northern Telegraph Company laid cables between Nat^asaki. Shanghai and Vladivostoek. Aft-sr the completion of a ♦.elegraph line between Tokyo and Nagasaki two years after, the 682 Japan in the Beginmng of the 2Qth Century. Japanese telegraph offices accepted foreign telegrams, but, as our country had not yet joined the Internationa] Telegraph Otn- vention at that time it could have no direct communication with foreign countries ; the transmission of messages was limited therefore by the boundaries of the Empire ; all communications beyond Nagasaki being entrusted to the Great Northern Telegraph Company. In 1883, an agreement was entered into between our Govern- ment and the Gi)vernmeut of Korea for laying the Japan-Korea calile, and the work of laying it was undertaken by the Great Northern Telegraph Company. The cable was opened for service in February of the fullowing j^ear. Korea subsequently constructed lines in its interior and, joining them with the Japanese telegraph offices, entered into connection with the service of the rest of the world. However as that country hat? not yet joined the International Telegraph Convention and was not ncquainte Japan in the Beginning of the '20th Centitry. of time sufficieut knowledge to undertake the work on their owd responsibility. At the same time the graduates of the course of electric engineering increased in number, and they were able after » time to take charge of the work without the help of foreign experts. Japanese Experts no longer Needing Foreign Help. — • As a natural result of this advance of Japanese technical and scientific knowledge of electricity, the service of the foreign expert!* was dispensed with from about 1880. However Japan was still obliged to depend upon the service of foreigners in the Avork of laying cables,, and it was by them that the Hakodate- Aomori cable and the Shikoku cable were constructed. In course of time the Japanese experts became fully qualified for the work, and the laying of additional cables at the Strait of Tsugaru and Shikoku was done by them, as alo* the work at Goto, in Hizen. The Formosa-Osumi. — ^By far the most important work accompli- shed by them was the laying of cables between 0,;umi and For- mosa, and indeed this latter feat deserves special mention in the history of our telegraph business, as it stands a permanent proof of the advance of telegraphic engineering in Japan. The work was planned by the War Office, as it was one of special importance in connection with the maintenance and exploitation of the new territory of Formosa. In 1895 soundings were carried out,. and next year the cable steamer Ok-iiiawa 2Iara which had been ordered into a dockyard at Glasgow, arrived. The work was launched in July of the same year, and by September of that. year the laying was finished for the Ohama-Oshima and Oshima- Okinawa trunk lines and the Ohama-Tauegashiiuu and Tanegashima- Yakujima branch lines. Owing to the unfavorable condition of the sea work was suspended, to be resumed in April of the following year. At last on May 30th of the same year the Osumi-Formosa cable was completed. The trunk line measures 870 nautical miles in length making with the branches altogether 1,045. 3 miles. The trunk line cout ists of two circuits, one being the Ohama-Naha section and the ether the Naha-Kelung circuit. It starts at Ohama, Osumi pro- vince, and reaches Okinawa via Osliinia. Then it reaches via Telegraphie Apparatus and Materials. 687 Yayeyama the place called Hasshakumon, Formosa, being separated Ijy a little over one ri from Kelung. This trunk line contaiug more or less land lines constructed on various island lying on the r«ute. ¥. TELEGRAPHIC APPARATUS AND MATERIALS. A descriptions will be next given of the apparatus and materi- als used in our telegraph service. Wires. — -At Krst No. 8 iron wires were exclusively used, except iu place where a special sort of wires was required, but to tcijiiouiize the cost of construction No. 11 iron wires were adopted. Fui- >everal years afterwards this grade of wire as exclusively uted ill prefeience to others. They are no longer used now, except iu consttucting street lines and other short lines. Evidence coniirining this fact was obtained (juite accidentally in 1890 when for testing tile telegraph and leleplione composite system and long distance telei)lioue service two lines of No. 12 hard copper wires were cou- stnicted between Tokyo and Osaka. It happened just at that time that the telegraph business between the two cities was unusually busy, so that the two lines just constructed at that time for an- other object were temporary utilized for the ordinary telegrapn service. The result obtained emphatically demonstrated that the copper wires posSLbsed better power of tj-ansmission than the No. 8 iron wires. The i-ate of speed did not differ much wheu iustru- jiieuts worked by hand were used, but with automatic instruments the copper wires showed about double speed. The experiments car- aied out in Osaka in 1891 proved that whereas 1,076 letters could be obtained per minute wheu the copper wires were used the cor- resjioiidiug number for tiie iron wires was only 491. In cities possesgiug a large number of electric wires aerial rubber cables or lead covered paper aerial cables are used instead of ordinary bare aerial wires, or otherwise, for owing to the crowding of telephone and electric light wires, the use of ordinary wires is -jadged risky for the efficiency of the service. Telegraph poles. — 8u(ji (Cryptomeria japouica) Hinokt €88 Japan in the Beginning oj cfie 20t^ Century. (Chamaecyparis obutosa.) and other kind of trees are not availaWe for the posts until after they have grown 30 to 40 years. The period of preservation does not exceed six or seven years in ordinary circumstances. Here comes in the necessity of providing some devises for prolonging that period. At first Japan adopted for this purpose the charring and tarring methods, but after the experience of several years they were found to be not quite satisfactory, so that they were discontinued in 1879. A tarred post could be preserved for only seven or eight years. An injection of copper su]|)h.'ite was next adopted, a method in 1871 by a French expert, and now known as Boucherizing treatment. This method was first tried in 1879 when the Tokyo-Kofu line was coustructed. In the following year the central authorities ordered the electric engineers to adopt this method. Besides copper sulphate treatment that with carbolium, creosote aud other chemical compounds is being experi- mented upon. As to the exact period of the preservation of Boucherized poles, it is not possible to give a final verdict, the experiments not yet being concluded. So far as the result thus far obtained goes, this treatment seems to be far better than the other methods previously used, for in ground of a proper nature the poles thus treated appear to last 15 to 16 years, that is to say, twice the period of non-injected poles. Insulators. — At first foreign-made insulators commonly called the earthenware insulators were used. These, however, were found to be inferior in quality and not quite satisfactory for preventing^ leakage, not to speak of their being rather costly. The consequence was that the authorities gave orders to the potters of Arita, Imari, Seto, etc. to make insulators. They succeeded in making one of good quality and cheap in price, so that from about 1875 the home-made insulators began to be used in place of the imported articles, and at present these are exclusively' used. This may be regarded as the first step in the improvement of the insulator service. These insulators were generally of single cap insulator but as this kind of insulator waa discovered to be unsuited for a .ong circuit service, in 1883 double cap insulators were used for the Tokyo-Nagasaki circuit. The result was highly satisfactory, the Telegraphic Apparatus and Materials. 689 the leakage and the danger of mixing being considerably minimized. The single-insulators liave gradually been superseded by the double, and this change marks the second stage in the improvement of the insulator-service. It may be noted that so far as the experiments jnade in Japan go the ratio of breakage of double-insulators has been ascertained to be 2.6 per cent, against 3.9 of the otlier. For packing the bolt to the cap of the insulators a mixture of sulphur and brimstone has heretofore been made use of but this is not entire!}' satisfactor}-, so that experiments are now carried on with >the oliject of discovering a better composition. Apparatus.- — The apparatus first used for the Tokyo-Yokoliania Jine was the Bregnet needle machines, ordered abroad in 18t)9 with ^11 the other apparatus and materials required in the work. Two years later it was decided to adopt the Simens and Morse apparatus, the machines and other necessary accessories being ordered from England. These apparatus are yet to be seen in many parts of tlie •country. In 1873 a workshop for making telegraphic apparatus was first established, the work being carried on under the direction of a foreign expert. It mainly consisted in making repairs. For the iirst time in 1878 Japan manufactured Morse instruments herself, ten sets in all. They were entirely manufactured by hand, as the -complete set of machinery required in the work had not becu provided at the workshop. Later on the knowledge of making tlie Morse and other apparatus has made so much advance that at jireseut Japan supplies almost all the home demand for the instru- ment and its accessories. In 1880 a wire-.shop was established and the wires used in the service were manufactured. This business was transferred to a private concern in 1887. At present the manufacture of copper wires is carried on extensively in Japan, but in iron-wire work we have not been so successful, and in fact for the supply of this particular kind of wires Japan has to depend ■even now on the help of foreign countries. The history of the work of telegraph machine-making in Japan from the inception of ihe service, may be divided into three stages, the period of training and apprenticeship, extending from 1873 to -about 1880; the period of imitation extending, to about 1887, and -the last i>eriod which came next may be regarded as the period of coo Japan in the Beginnn/ of the 20th Ceriiurt/. improvement and of original work. Improvements and originaF wiiik began to be most en evidence in 1896. Duplex telegraphy. — The duplex system was first used iji 1880 for the Yokohama-Kobe line, and it was also adopted for other lines constructed later on. After the introduction of the use <£ the double current key and retardation-coil in 1893 the duplex method began to be worked with special success. All of these apparatus in use were manufactured at home, with only a few exceptions. Automatic recorder. — Wheatstone's automatic recorder was fii-.st introduced in 1882, and was used in the Tokyo-Osaka service, and its practical utility was confirmed with special effect in 1S89. The machine used at that time was purchased from Eng- land, as that imported seven years before was also brought from that country ; but in some details of construction the former had been much improved. Yfith that recorder it was found possible to receive 400 words . per minute, the current used being one of 25 mill-Ampier. This recorder is still used in almost all the parts of the country. About that time the shunted condenser were first experimentally used for automatic machines. Coming to IfjSJl the automatic machine was put up both at Osaka and at Sliimonoseki, and the transmission was undertaken for the first time jiccorJing to the duplex automatic system. It was at that time that the retardation coil was first used for duplex telegraphy. Receiver. — At firet the Morse ink-writer was universally used for transmitting or receiving the messages, but as a result of the- exjjeriinent canied out in 1887 telephone apparatus was substituted for the Mor^e ink-writer. This contrivance is generally used at present at all the offices which have not to deal with many messages. The apparatus now used for the purpose is one of Delville or Solid-back type. The Morse ink-writer being attended in its use by some defects, ill 1894 the sounder machine was first used instead of it in Tokyo, and this apparatus is now used extensively in Japan. Reflecting Galvanometer. — When the work of laying a cable- lietwesn Osiuvii and Formosa had been completed the reflecting galvanometer adapted for a submarine cable was adopted, but in 1H'.)'.i it was superseded at the three oflfiees of Ohama, Naha an L Telegraphic Apparatus and Jfaterials. 691 Kelung by Muirhead's syphon recorder, so that a complete duplex system was commenced between the three offices in question. In the intermediary stations Oi Kuji and Yayeyama the reflecting apparatus is still in use as the operation there is limited to certain hours in the day, and the business therefore is not brisk. Automatic Repeater. — The automatic repeater contrivance was first adopted at Kobe, but it was of the ordinary Morse system, and the speed was very slow. The adoption in 1893 at Aomori of the latest repeater board as a substitute of the old system, marked an advance in repeater operations. The double current automatic duplex repeater was next adopted at that place, while owing to the greater activity of the business and the construction of new lines, with the greater need of automatic repeaters, in 1897 a high speed simplex and duplex repeater, simplex repeater and double current duplex and simplex repeaters were adopted for the Tokyo-Sapporo circuit. In the following years the latter was adopted for several other lines. Then coming to 1900 the Hakodate-Nemuro, Tokyo- Ohania and Sakata-Hakodate lines got repeaters of double current single system; in 1901 the Tokyo-Otaru line obtained a high-grade repeater. In that year automatic telegraphy instruments and repeater apparatus were distributed among the principal telegraph offices, to be used as reserves. The quadruplex automatic repeater is now being experimented with. Double current key system. — In 1882 when trouble occurred between Japan and Korea the double current key system was first used between Tokyo and Nagasaki, in order to expedite the transmission of messages the number of which had suddenly increased. Up to 1894 or 1895 the contrivance was not in much demand, owing to the fact that lines of long circuit operation were not many. The condition of things has undergone a marked change since that time, and with a large increase in the number of long circuit lines the double current key has began to be in greater demand than before. Quadruplex apparatus. — In 1890 a number of quadruplex telegraph apparatus were purchased both from England and America, and two years later the quadruplex system was first used for the copper wires of the Tokyo-Osaka lines. In the following €92 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. year this instrument was also adopted for the Tokyo-Sendai and the Osaka-Shimonoseki lines, and its use has therefore become quite extensive. What is to be noted about it is that these intruments are now being made in Japan, and that the originals were even improved upon somewhat. In 1891 a contrivance for facilitating the superintendence of the operations was adopted and this testing machine which, by the way, has been manufactured at home was set up at Tokyo and Osaka in 1899. This example will be followed in the other principal offices. SvNCiiROJfic Signaller. — The synchronic signal of noon that had been carried on by hand-worked switch began to be conducted by an automatic time switch made in Japan. The subsequent appear- ance of the double current signal system required the improvement of the instrument, so that coming to 1899 the double current auto matic time switch was devised and manufactured, and operated with excellent result at tlie three offices of Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The instrument has been distributed among all the other principal places, and this mid-day signal is now working quite satisfactory. AViRELESs Telegr.\phy. — Wireless telegraphy was first investi- gated in 188G and in June of that 3'ear it was experimented upon with success along the uf)per banks of the river Sumida over a distance of 120 yards and at the coast of Tsukiji at a distance of 80 yards. Coming to 1898 the wireless telegraphy with electric waves was experimented in the Bay of Tokyo, and then in the followins; year between Tsukiji and Shinagawa fort, a distance of 3 nautical miles. The result was satisfactor)' in both cases. Further on in 1900 a similar experiment was carried out in the same bay and be- tween Yawata, Kazusa province, and Fuuabashi, Shimosa province, the two places being 11 miles apart. This and the experiment car- ried on between Fuuabashi,, mentioned above, and Otsu, Sagami province, a distance of 34 miles, were similarly successful. Similar experiments since undertaken have been attended by satisfactory results, so that arrangements are now being made to carry out ex- ])eriments on a larger scale and over longer distance. The cable steamer Okinawa Maru is about to be fitted with the instrument. Battery. — The common battery system being more economical than the ordinary one, it is now taking the place of the battery, Telegraphic Apparatus and Maieiiah. 69$ Since 1902, 420 clirolide accumulators have been used with excellent results in place of the 6,645 Daniel batteries that had been previ- ously in use; This new arrangement will be extended to all other offices where a large number of the Daniel's is used. €94 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER V— Telephone Service. IntFoductory — Technical Matters. I. INTRODUCTORY. General Eemaeks. — Telephons were first used in this country in 1877, and they were principally short distance telephones. However after the experiment carried out with success in 1888 between Tokyo and Atami, telephones began to become largely used as public means of communication. The scope of the Experiments, operations was next extended as far as Shizuoka, and then to Osaka, and with success in both cases. At first there was talk of leaving the telephone business to private enterprise, but this idea was given up and it was decided that the business should be undertaken by the Govem- The Service Opened, ment as part of the telegraph enterprise. The working principle being settled in that way, the Government at once proceeded to carry the business into effect. In December 1890 the service was opened in Tokyo and in Yoko- hama and also between the two places. The people did not appreciate at first the benefits of the service and the number of subscribers was therefore extremely limited ia the two cities. This state of affairs lasted for only a short while, comparatively speaking, and in 1893 when the Growing Demand service was opened in Osaka and in Kobe and on the Sertiee. between these towns, the number of applications for subscription reached a considerable number. Gradually the value of the service began to be appreciated, so that by 1895, owing to limit of accommodation applicaitts who could not yet get telephone connection numbered more than 4,000. Meanwhile petitions arrived at the central authorities from many cities in the provinces requesting that a telephone service shouM be opened in Introductory. 6&5 their districts. In consideration of this and other matters of a like nature, the Government made up its mind to largely expand the scope of the business. Accordingly it drew up, with the consent of the Diet, a programme to devote during the seven years ending the 1902 fiscal year a sum of over 12,800,000 yen to the work of expanding the scope of the business. The programme contemplated the estab- lishment of the business in Kyoto, Nagoya, Nagasaki, Shimonoseki, Sapporo, Hakodate, Sendai, Kumamoto, etc., to extend limit of the business already carried on in other cities, and finally to bring all those cities into telephone connection with each other. Acting upon that plan, in 1899 the long distance service was opened between Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, Kyoto, and other cities, and the scope of the business in those cities Avas also enlarged. As already mentioned all, matters relating to telephones were at first regulated according to the provisions of the Telegraph Service Regulations, but in the Telegraph Law enacted in 1900 special provisions relating to telephone were distinctly set forth. Then the Telephone Exchange Rules that were drawn up on the occasion of the commencement of the service, were also thoroughly recast in 1897. Data of the Service. — About thirteen years have elapsed since the service was inaugurated in Japan, and the record of progress during that interval of time has been something remarkable, as shown in the following description. At the end of 1890 there were only two telephone Number of exchange ofiices and 16 telephone call offices . Telephone Offices, these figures grew at the end of 189-3 to 4 and 24 respectively, to 27 and 151 respectively together with 134 automatic telephone at the end of 1902. At the end of 1890 the subscribers numbered Number of Subscribers, only 343 ; advanced to 2,858 at the end of 1895, and further to 29,941 at the end of 1902. At the end of 1890 the ratio of subscribers per Ratio of Subscribers 10,000 peoples was only two, to be increased to per 10.000 People. 14 five years aftar, and lastly to 60 at the end of 1902. 696 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. The number of applicants for connection heing beyond the scope of the provisions, there are quite a ilfnmber of Non- large number of non-connected subscriber:^- connected Sabscribers, At the end of 1895 these non-connected sub- scribers numbered over 4,000, and the number rose to no less than 23,300 approximately at the end of 1902. At the end of 1890 the telephone cir- Lengthof Telephone Routes cuits totalled 50 ri with the lines in. and Lines in Operation, operation extending to 331 ri; to rise to 178 ri and 2,156 ri respectively, five years later, and to be further advanced by 1902 to 1,039 ri ami 43,345 ri respectively. The progress of the financial side of the business was quite commensurate with that of the technical side. In the year of inception ordinary receipts fell short of disburse- Telephone Receipts ments by over 2,300 yen. This was the onlj- and Disbursement?, case of financial failure, for subsequently the balance was always on the side of excess of receipts. This excess amounted to about 7,900 yen in 1891, grew to about 50,800 yen in 1895, and lastly to 984,600 yen approximately in 1902. The following table will give a complete survey of the financial progress of the business from the 1892 fiscal year : — TELEPHONE RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. Fiscal year. Receipts. Disbursement yen. yen. 1892 48,069 32.722 1893 94,959 52,849 1894 132,967 75,229 189s 142,431 91.549 1896 ■• 150,444 113,605 1897 228,505 179,612 1S98 574.332 324.038 1899 ••• 1.035-957 630,474 i960..; ... ^ ... 1,513,912 964,900 1901... ■ ... ... ... 1,810^4.11 I.175.982 1502 ... 2,263,626 1.278.001 Balance in Favor of Receipts. yefi. 15.347 42.110 57,738 50,882 36.839 48,893 250,294 405,483 S49-,oi2 634,429' 984,63> Technical Matters. 69J II. TECHNICAL MATTERS- A. Steuet Telephone Lines. Aeeiai, bare "WIRES. — When the service was first opened in 1890, owing to the small number of applicants the work was on the overhead wire system, B. W. G. No. 18 hard copper wires beinj; used. From about 1892 No. 17 hard copper wires were exclusively adopted, though in such places as Hokkaido and the north-eastern districts of Honshu which are liable to snowstorms No. 14 zinc coated iron wires had to be used. Then in Tokyo also No. 17 wires were found liable to injury from storms, so that since 1893 No. 17 silicated copper wires have been used. Aerial Cables. — From about 1891 overhead rubber cables were adopted for places traversed by many electric wires, while with the advent of the telephone service expansion programme in 1890 the underground cable system was adopted for Tokyo, Osaka, Yokohama, Kobe, Kyoto and Nagoya. This underground portion was, however, to be confined to trunk lines, the rest to be made with lead-covered paper cables. For other telephone offices over- head cables of the same kind are to be employed, though rubber cables are used when the wires are stretched across the street and in places where only a short distance has to be traversed. The cables are generally of two kinds, one containing 100 centres and the other 50. On rare occasions one with 26 centres is used. Underground Wires. — ^Underground wires have, as mention- ed above, been laid in Tokyo, Osaka, Yokohama, Kobe, Kyoto, and Nagoya since 1896, the length of these wires extending with the lapse of year. For conduits iron pipes alone were at first used, but later on earthenware pipes have been adopted at the same time, one or the other to be used according to the requirement and circum- stances of the locality. The iron pipes are imported, but one kind of the two earthenware pipes in use is made at home, the other im- ported from America. Those coming from America are MacRrOy conduits^ and these are exclusively used in Nagoya and some times in Tokyo to some exent. The underground cables op lead-covered kind. — They 698 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. contained at first 200 centres, afterward they were increased to 300 and lately to 400. CiKCUiT. — At first the single wire system was adopted but from 1895 it has been superseded by the metallic system, so that at the present time all connections consist of the double. PoiiES. — Both in the urban and suburban districts Sugi timbers are used for poles, though iron poles are used for the junction of cables and naked wires. The timber poles are either Boucheringed, or are coated with an anti-putrefaction preparation. Aems. — ^Arms are made of Keyaki wood for a pole supporting not more than eight wires, but when the number is more than 12 an iron arm is used. B. Suburban Telephone Wires. Routes. — The lines are all of naked aerial wires especially con- structed for the telephone service, though the lines that are not of much importance may be constructed in the spare rooms of the existing telegraph poles. Sometimes the existing telegraph wires are used, so that they are made to fulfill the service both of the tele- graph and the telephone business. CiKCUiT. — It is entirely on the metallic system. In a circuit of short distance the multiple system is used, while in another that is operated comparatively little, four offices are connected by one circuit. Then telephone and telegraph service is sometimes made interchange- able as to the utilization of each other's circuit, the telephone wires doing service for telegraph wires in some cases and the telegraph wires returning the service for telephone in other cases. In the former the Cahilo's system or Schiwnsky system is used while the composite system of the American Long Distance Telephone Com- pany is adopted in the latter. Wires. — Hard copper wires are generally used, the size being B. W. G. No. 8 or No. 12 or No. 14 according to the distance of a given line. For a line of short distance or for a circuit of not much importance, zinc coated No. 8 or No. 11 iron wires are some- times used, while bimetallic wires or steel wires are used where, as in the case of crossing a river, the distance between the poles is comparatively long. In the strait separating Moji and Shimonoseki Technical Matters. 699 8-centred steel -wires insulated by gutter-percha, that is to say, tvco lines of 4 circuit submarine telephone wires, are used. C. Apparatus at the Subsceibebb' Houses and AT Telephone Call Offices. Apparatus. — It was in 1877, that is to say, the very next yeai after Prof. Alexander Graham Bell's invention of workable apparatus was made public that the instrument was first introduced into Japan. Afterward the Edison, Blake, Belton and Ader types arrived. The Gower apparatus that arrived in Japan about 1887 having been judged to be well suited for the purpose, the receivers of this type were adopted for use of subscribers when in 1890 the exchange offices were first established in Tokyo and Yokohaira. The battery used for transmitter and receiver was of the primary battery type. From 1895 a magnetic-motor was also used. In the same year, in consequence of the expansion of the city telephone business and also of the construction of long disatnce telephone, it was decided to replace the Gower apparatus by either the Solid-back or Derville type, the former being judged to be not quite satifactory for working a long-distance service. At present the subscribers get either the Solid-back or the Derville, while the latter is exclusively used either in a city or on a short-distance service. Desk-telephones also use the Solid-back. At all telephone offices also the Solid-back is a rule, as also is the case of the automatic call offices established recently in cities or in places situated close to cities. Arrestees. — Formerly the Hibberd Fuze apparatus was used, but of late it has been superseded by the No. 12 arrester made by the Western Electric Company, as the latter is more securely pro- vided against the danger of strong currents and of thunder. Batteries. — At the time the Gower apparatus was used the Daniel was used both for local and signal circuit, but with the disuse of the Gower the Leclanche was adopted, though in place of the Solid-back the Fuller battery was adopted. D. Apparatus at Telephone Exchange Offices. Exchange Apparatus. — At the time of the commencement oJ 700 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. the service the standard switch board made by the Western Electric- Company was adopted, and with an increase of the number of subscribers the apparatus at the exchange offices in Tokyo and Osaka waa substituted in 1893 with the serries multiple switch board manufactured by the same company. At the same time the Mann's instrument was set up at the Kobe Office. In 1895 the expanison of the business led to the offices in Tokyo, Osaka, Yokohama and' Kobe adopting a still more perfect type, this time the parallel switch board with self-restoring drop also by the same company. This is the type now in use at all the principle exchange offices throughout the country. The authorities are thinking of setting up in the course of this year the lamp signal switch board at the Shitaya Branch Office in Tokyo and of installing the common battery system board at the office in Kyoto. It may be noted that the standard board makes 100 connections ; the serries multiple- switch board 240, the parallel multiple switch board 300 to 450 ; and the universal battery composite type 630. The operator's transmitter was at first the Blake type; then the Berthon and Ericsson were used, but at present they have all been disused in favor of the Solid-back. Toll Board. — At first for the Tokyo- Yokohama and Osaka- Kobe service the standard switch board was used as also in the case of city service, but when that board was superseded shortly after by the parallel switch board type, the toll board combining calculagrapk to designate the conclusion of a conversation was installed. Chief Oeeeatoe's board, arresters and Testing Set. — With the adoption of the parallel testing set switch board the- operator's board for supervising the work of the operation began to be set in operation. For the testing service at first the set board provided with a mica lightning rod was used, while the paraffin wire was used for cross and premise lines. With the adop- tion of the parallel multiple switch board No. 4 main distributino- boards and the intermediate distributing boards made by the Western Electric Company were adopted. For small exchange offices a. handy testing distributing board and with No. 4 A-type arresters and Fuze boards were adopted. Power Plant. — In exchauge offices where the parallel switch Technical Matters. 7U1 ioards are in operation the power plant is necessary. At the offices in Tokyo and Yokohama the gas motor supplemented by electric motor is in use, while in Osaka, Kobe, Nagasaki and Kyoto electric motor supplemented by kerosene motor is in operation. For the battery the chloride accumulator is used, though at Yoko- hame and Kobe the Hagen accumulator is used at the same time. The machine made by the Crocker Wheeler Company is used for the purpose of replenishing the current and of giving signals. At exchange offices where either serries multiple switch boarda or standard switch boards are adopted the monochromic accumulator is used, while for transmission and signalling the role-changer is used 702 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. CHAPTER VI.— The Personnel. How the Staff is Recruited Post and Telegraph School. — For the purpose of training Biose who have to attend to the management and operation of post »nd telegraph affairs the Government maintains the Post and Tele- graph School. This institution was established in 1869, when a flumber of the Shubunkan School in Kanagawa-ken were selected to receive instruction in the technical part of the business under Mr. Gilbert, an Englishman. As the machine in vogue at that time was of the letter indicating type, and therefore very simple in operation the students easily mastered the principles of the system. The introduction of far more complicated Morse invention was followed by the establishment of a special course of training, so that a school-room was opened for that purpose in the premises of the Department of Public Works. In 1873 this was enlarged and made into a regular school, the main school being in Tokyo and a branch school in Osaka. The branch school was once abolish- ed, then restored and finally given up, but the head school was expanded in scope under the new name of the Tokyo Telegraph School and made to teach, besides the technical knowledge of com- munication, the knowledge of electric machines, batteries, wires, etc. as also a practical knowledge of construction. In 1890 a course of post affairs was created in the school to train students qua- lified to take charge of post service. Two years later the standing of candidates for admission was determined to be equal to that of the graduates of ordinary middle schools. In 1899 the courses were again changed, into those of management and those of technical operation. In the former the students who were to attend to the duty of managing post and telegraph business were taught while in the other the students were taught the science and practice of telegraphy and telephone. The standing of the courses was at the same time elevated. The course of study extends for two years for Technical Matters. 703 i»otb courses, and the graduates are under obligation to give their services to the Department of Communications for five years dating from the period of graduation. With the revision of the courses in 1899 a special course giving special technical teaching on all matters connected with electric communication was created, the students being selected from among these who were attending to the business of electric communication in the Department. The course of study is one year and the term of obligatory service five years. The graduates trained by the Department since the establish- ment of the special class-room in 1871 numbered, up to March 31, 190-3, 36 in the course of management, 1,888 in the course of technical department, and 131 in the special course, in all 2,255. 704 Japan in the Beginning of the 2S)th Ceniury. TRANSPORTATION. CHAPTER I —Railroads. Official Organization — Legislative Measures — Railroad Lines— Rolling Stock — Capital — Volume of Traffic — Receipts and Disbursements. I. OFFICIAL ORGANIZATION. General Remarks. — It -was in November of 1869 that the Government decided to start the work of railroad construction, and caused the then existing Department of Civil Affairs and of Finance to conduct the business. In March of the following year the Department appointed railroad officials, and these on the splitting up of this dual Department into two independent offices, were transferred to the Department of Civil Affairs. Again the control of railroad matter passed into the hands of the Department of Public Worlis when this was created in October of the same year. The Department established a special Bureau to attend to this business, but the Department was abolished in December of 85 and the Railroad Bureau was placed under the direct management of the Cabinet. At the same time it was affiiated to the Home Office. This connection with the Home Office came to an end in July of 1892 when the Department of Communi- cations was created, and naturally the Railroad Bureau. This occurred in November, 1893, was brought under the control of the new Depart- ment. With the progress of the times railroad business had grown so expanded in scope, that it was decided to divide the controlling office into two bureaux. This division was carried out in August of 1897. One bureau was made to attend to the worls of supervi- sion and the other bureau to traffic and construction. The new Legislatice MecLsures. 700 •office was called the Railroad and Construction Bureau, and this division of labor is still continued to this day. Prior to this, in April of 1896 a new Department of State for -Colonial Affairs having been created, the railroads in Hokkaido were detached from the control of the Communication Department and were transferred to that of the new Department, but as this ■office was abolished in September of the following year the Hokkaido railroad business was again restored to the Department of Com- munications. II. LEGISLATIVE MEASURES. General Remarks. — The first legislative measure relating to railroad was published in February of 1872 to provide general rules about railroad work. It was amended soon after. About the same time. Punitive Rules relating to Railroad were promulgated. In •September of that year Supplementary Rules relating to Conveyance •of Goods on Railroads and also the freight tariff were determined and made public. In January of 1874 it was proclaimed that in future any change of the tariff of railroad passengers and goods would be determined at the discretion of the Department of Public Affairs. In pursuance of that announcement, in November of that year rules relating to luggage were enacted. It was announced in October of 1879 that cases in the Punitive Rules relating to Railroads that clashed with a provision in the Criminal Code would be determined according to Art. 5 of the Code. Then in July of 1883 it was enacted that the General Rules relat- ing to Railroads and the Punitive Rules thereof would apply corres- pondingly to private railroads. Rules relating to the Conveyance of Explosives on Railroads and to the treatment thereof were made public in April of 1885 in the form of Notification No. 14 of the Department of Public Works. The Regulations relating to the Finances of Railroads were provided that year. But a legislative measure of far greater importance was the promulgation in May o^ 1887 of the Regulations of Private Railroads and in June of 1892 ■oi the Law of Railroad Construction prescribing the route along 7f>5 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. which Government railroads were to be laid. In that year also waj elaborated the organization of the Railroad Council. The Law relating to Railroad Construction ■ in Hokkaido was issued in 1896, and in March of 1900 was enacted the Law of Private Railroad is to supersede the Private Railroad Regulations. At the same time th& Law of Railroad Traffic was enacted. Such is in brief the history of, Japanese railroad legislation. Principal Points in Private Railroad Law.^ — Below will be enumerated those points in the Law of Private Railroads that deserve special notice : — 1. Railroad shares must not be acquired except by the payment of money. 2. Unless in virtue of a decision arrived at by a general meeting of share holders and with the sanction of the Minister concerned, no railroad can be chartered or hired or its management entrusted to others. 3. Unless with the sanction of the Minister concerned and after not less than one-fourth of the share capital has been paid up, no railroad company may issue debenture bonds. 4. With the approval of the Minister, a company may contrac*^ a loan by mortgaging its railroad with accessories, but they must not be used as object of right of mortgage. 5. The debenture bonds and loans together must not exceed the total sum of the paid-up capital. 6. No company must declare dividends unless after the principal and interest of the bonds and loans payable every year have been substracted from the proceeds. 7. Except in cases specially approved of the gauge must always measure 3ft 6 inches. 8. The Minister concerned may order an alteration of tarifT rate, when such alteration is judged necessary for the sake of public interest. 9. The tariff" rate of third-class passengers must not exceed 2 sen per mile. (This may be increased to no more than 4 sen for a distance not exeeding 2 miles.) 10. A company shall be held responsible to offer its lines in accordance with the provisions determined by law or Railroad Lines. 707 ordinance, for the use of the Army or the Navy either in time of war or in time of peace. 11. The Government reserve the right of purchasing the line ■with all its appurtenance after full 25 years from the granting of a permanent charter. III. RAILROAD LINES. General Remarks. — The service which possessed lines extending altogether 4,237 miles on March 31st of 1903 had at its inception in 1872 only one short line, that is the Shimbashi-Yokohama Kne, It was the original idea of the Gotrernment to lay a trunk line from Tokyo to Kobe and Osaka and Kyoto. The Tokyo- Yokohama line and a line starting from the vicinity of Lake Biwa and terminat- ing at Tsuruga were to form deflections. For the trunk line extending from Tokyo to Kyoto the programme originally adopted the Naka- sendo route. But a result of the final survey demonstrated that the route involved stupendous labor and expense, many steep liills and passes being present along it. Therefore that route was abandoned and the Tokaido route was adopted as a substitute. Consequently the Takasaki-Uyeda line that had been intended as part of the trunk line and the Uyeda-Naoyetsu line that had been selected to facilitate the conveyance of construction materials had to form combinedly an independent section known by the name of the Shinyetsu line. The programme of construction as contemplated at first consisted In the main in the shape as indicated above. In 1889 however, the construction of the Ofuna-Yokosuka section was decided upon. The routes indicated in the Law of Railroad Construction are to be undertaken in principle by the State, but some provision for the modification of this general rule existed to meet applications made by any private railroad company for permission to lay its own line along a route comprised in the Government programme but the construction of which was not yet taken in hand. But in allowing a private company to construct its own line along such a route the Government had to get the consent of the Diet, as is still the 708 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20482 yen jjer one mile of State lines and 70,912 yen per one mile of private lines, the average of the two being 80,059 yen. ¥1. VOLUME OF TRAFFIC. Data Relating to Passenger and Freight Trafitc. — • Data relating to passenger and freight traffic reqiiiiing compli- cated inquiries, it is not possible to obtain reliable fimncs for the years prior to 1889. The only data available for thoss^ early yesirs consist of the number of passengers and the tonn: ge of gooils. They are however devoid of any great value for investigating the exact state of railroad traffic. For that purpose the data for deiDonslrating the extent of utilization of the service both by pasicngei-s and goods must be obtained. In other words the passenger niileage (calculating the mileage of travel by passengers) and goixls ton mileage (calculating the mileage of the conveyance of goods) are necessary for giving accurate statistics on railroad traffic business. Consequently the returns from 1890 which have been eoinpiled on the principle explained will be given below :^ Volume of Traffic 715 PASSENGER TRAFFia Fiscal Year. Government. Private. Totat. 1891 ... 11,265,383 it.57S,247 22;840,630 1892 ... 12,873,547 15,590,168 28,463,715 1893 ... 14,444,327 18,090,836 32,535,163 1894 .. „ ... 14,883,986 21,639,321 36,523,307 1895 ... 18,764,387 30,451,191 49,215,57s 1896 ... 22,750,749 43,478,370 66,229,119 1897 ... 27,922,577 57,175,600 85,098,177 1898 ... 31,590,764 67^71,125 99,067,889 1899 ... 28,663,683 73,452,259 102,115,942 1900 ... 31,944,856 81,766,015 113,710,871 1901 ... 32,074,254 79,136,954 111,211,208 1902 ... 31,897,045 78,121,456 110,018,501 PASSENGER MILEAGE. Fiscal Year. Government. Private. Total. 1891 284,831,381 185,469,252 470,300,633 1892 298,958,693 283,962,002 582,920,695 1893 341,637,33s 314,135,567 655,762,902 1894 403,536,788 423,933,330 827,470,118 189s 523,044,579 552,554,089 1,075,598,668 1896 535,925,403 633,642,176 1,169,567,579 1897 623,335,927 839,118,73s i,462/VS4,662 1898 675,040,127 958,284,992 ',633,325,119 1899 635,044,513 1,076,805,648 1,711,850,161 1900 115,213,181 1,187,768,933 1,903,042,114 1901 725,605,652 1,173,647,72s 1,899,253,377 1903 732,737,482 1,140,854,317 1,873,591,799 PASSENGER RECEIPTS. Fiscsl Year. Government. . Private. Total. 1891 3,183,383 1,966,532 5,149,915 1S92 3,335,609 3,122,946 6,458.55s 1893 3.791,501 3,404,926 7,196,427 1894 4,229,005 4,326,804 8,55S>8o9 189s 5,656,410 5,883,506 11,539,916 1896 5,984,581 7,242,49s 13,227,076 1897 7,003,795 9,904,292 16,908,087 1898 7,722,425 11,929,364 19,651,789 1899 9,291,050 14,126,326 23,417,376 1900 ... 10,441,171 16,100,291 26,541,492 1901 10,648,762 16,929,621 27,578,386 1902 II,520;422 17,097,369 28,617,791 716 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Century. GOODS TRAFFIC. Fiscal Year. Government. Private. Total. 1891 671,561 1,088,645 1,760,206. 1892 982,404 1,719,316 2,701,720- 1893 1,076,689 2.414,394 3,491,083 1894 1,018,298 3,265,404 4,283,702 1895 1,100,059 4,231,353 5,331,412 1896 1,266,119 5,579."^ 6,845,231 1S97 1,558,194 7,070,315 8,628,509. i8g8 1.793,896 8,122,230 9,916,126 1899 2,391.471 9428,563 II, 820,034- 1900 2,806,560 11,594,960 14,401,520 1901 2,659,602 11,750,150 14,409,752 igo2 3,183,720 12,938,951 16,122,671 GOODS- TON Mileage. Fiscal Year. Government. Private. Total. 1891 ... 25,744,580 39,337,845 65,082,425 1892 ... 44,827,316 92,017,807 136.845,123; 1S93 ... 54,437,438 114,637,372 169,074,810. 1894 ... 72,334,004 161,025,073 233,359,077 1895 ... 76,823,086 207,484,549 284,307,635 1896 ... 74.334,819 238,766,349 313,101,168- 1897 ... 96,480,877 312,901,264 412,382,141 1898 ... 133,132,239 346,041,975 479,174,214- 1899 ... 177,318,088 422,152,648 599,470.736. 1900 ... 223,654,688 508,844,010 732,498,698 1901 ... 215,280,085 575,826,909 791,106,99 + 1902 ... 348,131,029 660,675,941 9o8,8o6,.f;;o GOODS RECEIPTS. Fiscal Year. Government. Private. Total. 1891 778,79s 998,742 1,777,540 1892 1,075,342 1.743455 2,816,797 1893 1,243,850 2,166.556 3,409,90& 1894 1,589,565 2,933,9j6 4,523491 1895 1,808,489 3.S.v'!,i27 5,646,616 1896 1,646,323 4,439,366 6,085689 1897 2,064,776 6,055.547 8,120,263 1898 2,810,033 7499,787 10,309,8 -O 1899 3,73>.976 8,994 -'-'■■"' 12,726,845 1900 4.499,792 10,926,376 15,426,168 f 4.404.917 ■■• 1*535,784 11,431,032 15.835-949 1901 *1, 199,167 *i,7,34.95i 1 5,053,487 ■■■ 1*638,601 12,152,660 17,206,147 1902 *i,936,o83 *2,5 74,684 Note : — The figures marked with (*) indicate charges incidental to arri^ , 1 and ^ending, of goods. Relation Betwekn Passengke and Freioiit Tr.-vffic. — As shown in the preceding table, though in the returns of latest year's traffic volume, in one or two items a slight decrease is noticed, on the whole the volume inilitvitfs a steady advance, showing: Volume of Traffic. 717 iow the railroad service is contributing very much to the exploita- tion of industries and to their development. One cannot but regret, however, that the degree to which our people make use of this im- portant factory of civilization and prosperity is still comparatively liniited. ■" The volume of passenger traffic for the last year givea above compared with the population, the ratio per one person does not exceed only 2.4 ridings and 42 miles of travel in a year. At the same time this comparatively imperfect utilization of railroad by our people is not without a consoling side, in that it serves as a sign of future hopefulness of the business. The existing condition of the traffic service lends powerful support to the reasonableness of this conjecture, for whereas in most other countries the volume of goods traffic and the receipts thereof surpasses those of passenger traffic, the former being the principal item of revenue and the latter .subordinate to it — in Japan the relative position of t!ie two is reversed, the volume and receipts of passenger traffic always ex- ceeding those of the other. This state of railroad traffic in Japan is entirely attributable to the fact that the progress of the country is not j'et so perfect as in the West. Already signs are discernible that our railroad business will develop before long a normal feature as seen in Europe and America, for as shown in the followiiig figures the ratio of volume and revenue of goods traffic to the volume and revenue of passenger traffic is steadily advancing. The 4irrival of that period will not only enable our railroads to discharge their function with more efficiency than is the case at present, but will at tlie same time serve as a clear proof that our economic enterprises have reached a stage of real activity and pros[)ei-ity. In short, any amount of room exists for the future development of ■our railroad business. RATIO OF FREIGHT RECEIPTS PER loo OF PASSENGER RECEIPTS. Fisc;il year. 1890 1891 1892 >893 1894 1895 34-5 39.5 43-6 47-4 52.9 48.9 Fiscal Ye.ir. 1896 ... 460 •897 ... 480 1808 ... 52.5 1899 - 54 3 1900 ... _. ... 581 1901 ... 6,17 1902 ... 6y.i 713 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Century. The average traffic mileage of passengers and goods and the average receipts per one mile are shown belo\v, the increase of the average passenger fare being attributable to the advance of the i-ate carried out in view of the general advance of the n rket ^rice of commdities. Per One Passenijer. Per One Ton of Goods. Fiscal year. Mileage. Mile. 1S91 ... . 21 1892 ... . .. 20 1893 ■•■ . ... 20 1894 ... . ■• 23 1895 ... . ... 22 1896 ... . .. 18 1897 - . .. 17 1898 ... . .. 16 1899 ... . .. 17 1900 ... . .. 17 1901 ... . .. 17 Kare per ,,., Freight per OneM^ile. ^''^^^g^' One mL sen. Mile. sen. 1. 10 37 2.69 I.I I 51 2.06 1. 10 48 2.02 1.03 54 1-94 1.07 S3 1-99 1. 13 46 "-94 1. 16 48 1.97 1.20 48 2.15 1-37 51 1.39 51 2." 1.45 55 2.00 The average volume of traffic per one mile and per one day computed on. the returns for the latest year mentioned in the table, the ratio for passenger amounts to 1,313 and that &r goods 547 tons. 2 ¥11. TEAFFIC RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. General Remarks. — To review the returns from the com- mencement of the service to the 1901 fiscal year the receipts for 1873 totalled about 441,000 yen as against the disbursement amoun- ing to over 232,000 yen, yielding a piofit of over 208,00 yen. Iii 1876 the receipts amounted to 1,284,060 yen and the disburse- ments to over 434,000 yen, leaving a net profit of over 8-50,000 yed^ In the following year the receipts fell oil' while the disbursemeuta increased, and the result was that the amount of net profit did not reach even one half of the profit in the preceding year. Coming- to 1878 3'ear the normal aspect was somewhat recovered, though the Traffic lieeeipts and Disburntmevfs. JU) net profit did not exceed 45G,000 yen in round numbers. Mutters C'jntinued improving from 1879 to 1881, the profit for the hist- niontioned year amounting to over 1,030,000 yen. In the followiii;^ year owing to traffic expense having gone up compared with the iccc'ipts, the net profit fell to about 910,000 yen. The openiag of several private railroads and the better facilities affbrded to railjoad travelling resulted in more or less of an increase of the traffic receij)> in 1883, but in the following three years the record again sustaiiiecj a slight fall, from which, however, it recovered once more in 1887, The profit was unusually great in the two following years it haviiig exceeded 2,470,000 yen in the first and 3,530,000 yen in the second. From that time onward the receipts have steadily continued to advance, to 16,400,000' j/en in the 1895 fiscal year and to 26,410,009 yen in the 1902 fiscal year, both being in round numbers. Private railroad companies are entitled to undertake at tho same time warehousing and carriage business and also the extractioa of coal and other minerals. The receipts of this special kind ara indicated by an asterisk in the following tables: — EARNINGS. (unit ofyeit). Fiscal year. Government . Kailraads. Private Railroads. Total. »873 ... , 441.615 — 441,615 »377 910.336 — 910,336 »882 ... 1,840,394 — 1,840,394 l887 ... 1,693,873 1,182.345 2,881,218 1892 ... 4.580,632 5,096,631 9,677.266 1893 ... 5,384455 5,981,057 11,365.512 1894 ... 5,819,413 7,803,008 13,622,421 189s ... ■ 8,004,234 »o>543.3S7 18,547,621 1896 ... 8,273,652 12,373.775 20,915,814 1S97 ••• •• ... • 9.727,490 17,764,176 27,491,666 1S98 ... 11,165,889 21,413,932 32,579.821 1899 ... ;.. ... 13,804,375 24,866,300 38,670,675 1900 ... .. ... 16,045,77s 29,014,009 45.059,784 1901 ... 16776,519 31,640,328 48,416,874 1902 ... 18,336,582 33,344,213 51,680,795 520 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. EXPENSES. 1873 232,830 — 232,830 1877 526,248 — 526,248 1882 926,548 — 926,548 1887 677,124 392,542 1,069,666 1892 2,166,199 2,437,138 4,603,337 1893 ... 1,942,37s 2,512,149 4,454,524 1894 ... ••' 2,181,696 3,'55,459 5,337,15s 1895 ... - 2,951,561 4,195,234 7,146,795 1S96 ... 3,815,663 5,237,426 9,053,089 i«97 ... 4,785,049 7,578,047- 12,364,096 1898 ... 6,380,951 11,422,514 17,803,465 1899 6,706,112 12,236,540 18,942,652 1900 . ... 7,27>,56S 13,622.156 20,893,721 1901 , ... 8,547,226 15,093,086 23>640,3t2 1902 , ... 9,066,165 16,203,223 25,269,388 NET EARNINGS. 1873 1877 1882 1887 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 1S99 1900 1901 1902 208,785 384,088 913,846 1,021,749 2,414,433 3,442,080 3,637,717 5,052,673 4,457,989 4,941,441 4,784,938 7,098,263 8,774,210 8,229,293 9,270,417 789,803 2,659,496 3 468,908 4,647,549 6,348,153 ■ 7,404,736 10,186,129 9,991,418 12,629,760 J 15,391,853 I* 953.897 1 16,547.242 I* ',094,453 1 17,140,990 \*i,2i8,850 208,785 384,088 913,836 1,811,552 5,073,929 6,910,988 8,285,266 11,400,826 1 1, 862,725 15,127,570 14,776,356 19,728,023 24,166,063 * 953,i>97 24,776,535 *i,<-9iAS3 26,411,407 *i,2iS,85o Account per one mii.e. — With this marked advance of traffic receipts and profit the traffic mileage has also made an equally marked extension. The traffic earnings and expenses as well as tlie net earnings per one mile are given in the following table: — Traffic ReceipU and Disbursements. GOVERNMENT RAILROADS. 721 fiscal year. J873 >877 1882 1887 1892 1893 1894 1S95 J896 1S97 J898 1899 1900 1901 1902 (unit oiyen). Earnings. ■ 24,534 • J3.97S . 17,892 7,209 • 8,319 ■ 9,656 . 10,294 . 13,651 ■ 13,537 . 15,020 • 15,420 . 16,898 ■ 17,914 • 16,451 . 16,185 PRIVATE RAILROADS. Expenses. Net Earnings. I2,93S 1 1,599 8,075 5,896 9,008 8,884 2,873 4,336 3,934 4,385 3,483 6,173 3,859 6,435 5,034 8,617 6,243 7.,294 7,390 7,630 8,812 • 6,608 8,209 8,bS9 8,118 9,796 8,381 8,070 8,002 8,183 1883 6,355 2,419 3,936 1887 4,964 1,648 3,316 1892 4,082 1,952 2,130 1893 4,468 1,876 2,592 1894 5,354 2,165 3,189 1895 6,520 2,594 3.926 1896 7,453 3,088 4,365 1897 8,764 3,739 5,025 1898 8,684 4,632 4,052 1899 9,124 4,490 4,634 1900 10,214 4,796 5,418 igol 10,748 5,127 5,621 1902 11,194 5,439 5,755 GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE RAILROADS. 1883 11,387 4550 6,837 1887 6,081 2,258 3823 1892 5,378 2,558 2,820 1893 5,994 2,349 3,645 1894 6,735 2,639 4,096 1895 8,418 3,233 5,174 IS96 9,065 3,923 5.142 1897 10,279 4,623 5,656 1898 10,211 5,580 4.631 1899 10,915 5 347 5,568 1900 12,095 5-592 6,467 I90I I2,2>S 5,964 6 251 1902 12,570 6,146 6,424 722 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Items of Railkoad Account. — Receipts accruing from railroad traffic are classified into three main headings, namely, passenger car receipts, wagon receipts, and miscellaneous receipts ; then traffic expenses are divided into four classes, maintenance expense, locomotive expense, transportation expense and general expense. These different items were as follows in the 1902 fiscal year : — TRAFFIC RECEIPTS. Items. >'.?». Per Centage. Passenger Car Receipts 30,039,870 58.1 Wagpn Receipts 19,934,142 38.6 Miscellaneous Receipts 1,706,783 3.3 Total 51,680,795 loo.o TRAFFIC EXPENSES. Maintenance Expense Si474>979 ^'-T Locomotive Expense 10,140,771 40.1 Transportation Expense 6,619,857 z6.2 General Expense (Including Taxes) ... 3,033,781 12.0 Total 25,269,388 100.0 In comparing, on the basis of the same year's returns, the ratio ■which traffic receipts bear to cost of construction of lines under traffic, it is found that it amounts to 7.4 per cent, for the Stat* lines and 8 for the private lines, the average being 7.8 per cent. Ships. 723 CHATER II, — Ships and Shipping Business. Ships— Shipbuilding— Sailors -Life-Boat Bnsineas— Protection to Navigation - Nautical Signals— Open Ports. I. SHIPS. General Remarks. — Ships as originally existed in Japan -were those known by the name of junks. In construction and size they were utterly unsuited for ocean service. With the adoption of the polity of enlightened progress by the Imperial Government and the encouragement of marine navigation the list of foreign-patterned ships steadily went on increasing in number. In reviewing the liistory of our carrying trade during these last thirty four or five years it is found that the number and tonnage of steamers steadily increased up to the end of 1893. The Japan-China war of 1894 — ■ 1895 yeai-s served as an occasion of introducing epoch-making change in the condition of carrying trade, for so remarkable has been its pi-ogress since that time and so many were the steamers that were added to the list, that at the end of 1902 they numbered altogether 1,441 with an aggregate tonnage of 610,446 tons. Compared with the list at the end ef 1893 the number increased twofold and the freight capacity threefold. The case was somewhat different with sailing ships, for though they continued to increase both in number and tonnage up to 1888, they began to fall off after that year, this downward movement reaching the climax in 1896. At the end of that year the ships of this class numbered 644 representing 44,055 tons altogether. After 1898, however, another change came over this branch of shipping activity. At the end of that year the aggregate increased at one jump to three times as much as it was in the preceding year. This tendency continued in the succeeding years, so that at the end of 1901 the ships of this type numbered 4,020 with no less than 336,436 tons altogether. In the following 724 Japan in the Beginning of the 20iA Century. year the corresponding figures fell slightly, being 3,977 and 336,154 respectively. This remarkable increase both in the number of vessels and in theii tonnage compared with what it was before is to he sought in the fact that, in consequence of the amendment of the Ship Inspection Law, the holcu system of computing the capacity that had previously been adopted for quite a large number of ships was superseded by the ordinary method of computation by tonnage. Naturally this resulted in a large increase in the gross tonnage. The increase of steamers has also had a stimulating influence on the construction of subsidiarj' vessels of this particular type. Number and Tonnage. — The principle of the survival of the fittest has driven the native junks to the wall, for not only are they not up to the requirements of modern navigation, but the Government has decided to restrict the building of ships of this type. Below is given a table showing the number and tonnage of ships from 1870, and especially during the last ten years : — Steamers. Sai!i ing Ships. Junks ( 'over 50 kohl). Ve=r. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. koku Tonnage 1S70... 35 15,498 II 2,454 ? ? 1872,.. 96 23,364 35 8.320 18,640 3,312,281 ,187/... ... 183 49,105 75 13,648 18,964 3.251.425 18S2... ... 344 42,199 428 48,985 17,331 2,930,842 1S87... ... 486 115,365 798 64,416 17.194 2,851,247 1S92... 642 165,764 780 49,085 18,205 3,069,816 1893... 680 176,915 749 48,303 17,209 2,878,462 1894- - 745 273,419 722 46,959 17,300 2,876,131 1895... ... 827 341,369 702 44,794 17.360 2,960,887 1896... ... 899 373,588 644 44.055 17,612 3,066,128 iS97.. ... 1,032 438,779 715 48,130 19,097 3,320,284 1898... , ... 1,130 477,430 i,9H 170,894 19,099 3,049,035 i899-.. ... 1,221 510.007 3,322 286,923 18,479 2,713,646 1900 .. , ... 1,329 543,365 3,850 320.571 18,796 2,785,114 1901... .. ',395 583,532 4,020 336,436 19,758 2,921,565 '902... ... 1,441 610,446 3,977 336.154 18,743 2,351,950 Note : —The tonnage as given in the table was the registered tonnage prior to 1884 incLisive, after which tlie gross tonnage computation has been used. The kokit used for indicating the freight capacity of Japanese junks amounts to one.tenth of a gross ton. SJdps. V2o- Two Main Classes of Ships. — It sliould lie noted here that Japanese ships and boats are divided, accordini^' to the provisions of the Law of Ships, into two main classes, that is those which require shipping certificates and those which do not rc(|uire such certificates. (Art. 20 of the Law of Ships provides that ships below 20 gross tonnage or the kohit, freight capacity not exceeding 200 Icoku, lighters or boats worked by the use of oars alone need not require shipping certificates). The ships requiring the certificate are called " regis- tered ships " and those not requiring it " unregistered ships." It is hardly necessary to add that the ships of the registered class form the mainstay of the maritime trade, and those of the unregistered type are accessories to them. Hence it is sufiicient to give here data about the registered class ships alone. Before doing so a lirief remark will be made on the relative numbei', kind, etc. of registered and unregistered ships during the last ten years : — Registered Ships. Unregistered Sh ps. " Tonnage " " koku " " Tonnage " "koktC^ Year. Steamers Sailing Sailing Steamer. Sailing Sailing Ships. Ships. Ships. Ships. 1893 ... . 400 218 — 280 531 17,209 1S94 ... . 461 196 — 284 520 17,300 1895 - . . 528 173 — 299 529 17.360 1896 ... . . 57° i6s — 329 479 17,612 1897 ... . 626 171 — 406 544 19,097 1898 ... . 674 1,310 — 456 604 19,099 1899 ... . . 753 2,783 222 46S 539 18,257 1900 ... . . 859 3,309 911 470 541 17,885, 1901 ... . . 969 3,56s 1,355 426 455 18,403, 1902 ... . . 1,033 3,591 1,260 40S 386 17,483 ^ Carrying Capacity of Ships. — The average carrying capacity of ships flying Japanese flag increases or decreases with the progress of times and according to kind, for though the carrying capacity should enlarge with the extension of scope of navigation, the pro- gress of trade or of shipbuildings business, this' remark can apply only to ships of one and the same class, placed under the same circumstance. But the ships diflTering in construction or kind, or dilfering in the nature of service cannot make any uniform progress 726 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. in their average carrying trade. In making farther inquiries, the average carrying capacity of steamers of registered class that ^viis 427 tons in 1887 and 419 in 1892, jumped at one bound to 572 in 1894. The average recorded after 1895 was even as high as 689 tons. This extraordinary increase of the average tonnage was chiefly attributable to the purchase of many large steamers on. the occasion of the Japan-China war and also after it. The average of "tonnage" sailing ships was 135 tons in 1887, 143 in 1892, 160 in 1897. Coming to 1902 it fell down to only 92 tons. Number of Ships Classified by Cakeying Capacity. — The number of registered ships classified according to size, the bulk for " tonnage " sailing ships consisted during the last ten years of those ranging from 20 to 100 tons ; those of 100-500 tons followed next, while only a small number were of over 500 tons. This progres- sive diminution of number with an increase of carriage capacity is also seen in steamers, for those of over 5,000 tons did not exceed one-fiftieth of the whole number even at the time when big steamers reached the highest record. The following table showing the comparative statement of registered tonnage, etc. will further explain this point : — STEAMERS. 20 — loo loo — looo looo — 5000 Over 5000 Year. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Total. 1893 ... "9 225 56 — 400 1894 ... 132 242 76 I 461 1895 ... 148 266 "3 I 528 1896 ... 157 287 125 I 570 1897 ... ' I7S 3" J 32 8 626 1898 ... 202 328 "3° 14 674 1899 ... 262 343 132 16 753 igoo ... 349 351 142 »7 859 1901 ... 427 372 ISO 20 969 1902 ... ... ... 479 372 162 20 1.033 Ships. - TONNAGE " SAILING SHIPS. 30 — 100 100 — 500 Over 500 Year. Tons. Tons. Tons. Total. 1893 108 I02 8 218 1894 ... 85 104 7 196 1895 68 98 7 173 189$ ... 67 91 7 165 1897 ... 69 95 7 171 1898 ... 63s 668 7 1,310 1899 ... 1,752 1,025 6 2,783 1900 ... 2,201 1,104 4 3,309 1901 ... 2,362 2,20I 2 4,565 1902 ... 2,348 1,241 2 3,591 727 Number of Ships Classified by Types. — To classify tlie registered ships according to their type and the material used in their construction of the frame-work, steamers were generally built of wood at first. With the expansion of the service and the increase of carrying capacity, iron or steel-framed steamers have increased in number. Then in the relative number of iron -frame or steel-frame steamers, the latter were at first very small, not exceeding one-sixth of the whole in 1892. The ratio gradually advanced till the relative position was reversed after 1899. At the end of 1902 sfcoel-frame steamers constituted 17 per cent., the iron- frame ste imers 12 per cent., and the iron-wood composite steamers 1 per cent., in the whole number of registered steamers. The state of things was entirely different with registered sailing-ships. Prior to 1897 there was only one iron-framed vessel and between 1898 and 1900 one steel-framed vessel, the rest having wooden-frames. The following table gives the relative number of ships built during the last ten years, and classified according to the nature of the material of which they were built: — 723 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qih Qentury. STEAMERS. Steel or Steel-Iron. Iron Iron-Wood. Wood. Total .. I8 91 12 279 40a •• 3-- IIZ II 303 461 .. 4- 131 II 340 528 .. 6o 138 II 361 S/O- .. 8i 136 12 397 626 .. 94 125 12 443 674 .. Ii6 123 «3 501 753 .. 136 130 13 580 859 .. 154 13s 13 667 969^ .. 171 129 13 720 1,033- « TONNAGE '■ SAILING SHIPS. Steel or Iron. Wood. Total. ... ..• >■• 1 217 2l8 I 195 196 I 172 •73 • •• * 164 165 I 170 1,309 2,782 3.308 171 1,310 2,783 3,309 — 3,565 3,591 3,56s 3,591 Year. 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 igoi 1902 Year. 1893 ... 1894 ... 1895 ... 1896 ... 1897 ... 1898 ... 1899 ... 1900 ... 1901 ... 1902 ... Number of Ships as to age. — To classify the number of registered ships as to age, at the end of 1902 the ships (steamers- and sailing ships combined) that were five to ten years old number- ed most, followed by those under five years, while those above tei» yeara gradually dwindled in number with their increase in age. For the registered steamers the order of the relative superiority of number was as follows as to age : 5 to 10 yeai-s, under 5 years, 10 to 15 years, 15 to 20 years, 20 to 25 years. The foregoing^ classification also holds good for " tonnage " sailing ships. However the condition differed ' slightly for " koku tonnage " sailing ships, for in this case the number of ships less than 5 years old was less than- that of those 10 to 15 years old. Number of Ships on Different Service.s. — Aeeordinsr to the Shipbuilding. 729 existing laws and ordinances bearing on navigation and ships, there are four kinds of service, these being ocean service, territorial sea service, coasting-service, and inland-water service. The same legis- lative measures provide strict regulations about the kind, tonnage, construction, etc., and only those that are judged seaworthy are permitted to run on the service. The registered ships classified according to the different kinds of service were distributed as follows at the end of 1902. Ocean-going Service. — 87 steamers with 287,794 gross tonnage, 5 " tonnage " sailing ships with 598 gross tonnage. Teeeitoea-L Sea Seevice. — 269 steamers with 237,098 gross tonnage ; 3,369 " tonnage " sailing ships with 318,355 gross tonnage, 1,002 " koku tonnage " sailing ships with 480,759 koku. Coasting Seevice. — 332 steamers with 43,613 gross tonnage. Inland-Watee Service. — 339 steamers with 3,557 gross tonnage. Besides, there were in the same year other ships which could not be included in the above list owing to the fact that they had not yet undergone fresh examination after the term of the certificate they obtained before had expired, or that they had not yet received the certificate even when they underwent the examination. Among the ships of this extra class there were 6 steamers with 2,565 gross tonnage, 217 " tonnage " sailing ships with 9,230 gross tonnage, 258 "koku" sailing ships with 67,663 koku. II. SHIPBUILDING. General Remaeks. — It goes without saying that the carrying trade being inseparably connected with shipbulding work, the ex- pansion of the one depends upon the activity of the other. As might naturally be expected, the shipbuilding work of Japan that had formerly been confined to the building of Japanese junks alone underwent, with the advent of the new order of things, a radical change in the nature of its work and began to include the building of foreign-shaped ships. With only imperfect experince and with insufficient materials, Japanese shipbuilders could at first build only 730 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20lh Century. sailing ships and small steamers, so that Japan had to depend on foreign shipyards whenever any large steamers had to be built. Steadily and gradually our builders acquired greater experience and knowledge, and the industry, encouraged by the putting in operation in October 1896 of the Law for Encouraging Shipbuilding, has began with energy to make a new dejjarture. Though only a few years have elapsed since that time, already our shipbuilders have succeeded in building large steamers well qualified to be placed on a foreign service. They have even built some steamers to the order of foreign countries. One serious defect however, still, remains nnremoved in our shipbuilding industry. That is our inability to get a supply of the necessary materials at home. It is satisfactory, however, to think that the steel-making industry has been started here and there that there is great hope of our shipbuilders being supplied before long with home-made materials which they must now order abroad. When that time has arrived a new epoch will dawn on the shipbuilding industry of Japan. NuMBEE OF Foreign-built and Home-built Ships. — Though the supply of ships of large displacement can to-day be satisfied at home, Japan is still more or less dependent in this matter on foreign countries. The relative proportion of foreign-built ships and home- built ships in Japan is shown with greater accuracy by the follow- ing statement : — Built at Home. &7 Purchased Abroad. Year. yteamers. Sail ng Ships. ;amers. , Sailing bhips. Ko. Tonnage. No" Tonnage. No. Tonnage. nI" Tonnage. i!(70-'7 2 • 13 250 I 50 71 '7,179 34 8,660 ««73-'77 - • 43 I,i7« 32 2,448 77 34,826 29 6,987 1876-'!! 2 • '49 8,899 431 39,568 18 2,946 47 13486 3iiS;-'a7 . ■ 95 8,846 113 10,718 32 24.849 9 2,376 l8Sb-'s 2 - H7 23,172 63 5.357 40 42,124 I 440 JS93 . 26 3,967 4 459 10 13,036 2 1,778 1894 • 33 5S47 10 1.311 38 96,072 — 1895 ■ 47 8,977 6 95 1 35 96,424 2 572 i8v6 • 36 5,860 II 1,061 27 34,89' — 3897 - 57 10,698 18 2,472 22 67,454 — 1898 .. . • 54 13.9-9 202 20,836 10 44.110 1 114 i8c,5 .. . • 53 18,157 216 20,342 9 25.474 I 83 1900 • 53 15.308 193 17.873 13 28,492 2 23s 1901 - 71 31,829 202 20,259 12 16,344 I "3 3902 67 16,328 137 i3.c^35 10 20,634 — Note :- -The tonnage consisted of registered tonnage prior to 1889, after which yeat the gross tonnage has been adopted, Shipbuilding. 731 The foregoing table demonstrates that in the matter of building tailing-ships, the industry began to show great activity from about; ^876. After 1889 the sailing-ships purchased abroad numbered only one or at most two every year. At present Japan builds all the sailing ships she wants. On the other hand, though the number of foreign-built steamers fell below that of the home-built ones after 1876 in respect to tonnage this superiority of home-built ships occurred only in 1878 — 1883 years, the tonnage of foreign-built ■steamers generally surpassing that of the other in most other years. This relative superiority of the tonnage of foreign-built steamers was owing to the fact that the art of shipbuilding had not yet advanced sufficiently at that time in Japan to allow of her under- taking the building of ships of large displacement. Average Tonnage of Home-built and Foeeign-built SHIPS. — The relative average tonnage of the two classes of ships will make this point still more clear : — Year. Average Tonnage of Home Built Ships. Average Foreign Steamers. Tonnage of Built Ships. Steamers. Sailing Ships. Sailing Ships l87o-'72 .. 19 50 242 255 i873-'7S .. 274 77 452 241 i879-'82 .. 60 92 164 287 i883-'88 .. 93 95 777 264 i889-'92 .. 158 85 1,053 440 1893-97 .. 178 138 2,105 588 1898-1902 .. 321 97 2,557 109 Tonnage and Type of Home-built Ships. — In order to explain the latest condition of our shipbuilding industry, the displace- ment and construction of newly built ships at home during the last four years will be shown in the following table : — TONNAGE OF REGISTERED SHIPS BUILT AT HOME. St ;amer3. Sailing Ships. Year. 20-100. 100- 1000. 1000- 5000. Over 5000. Total. 20-100. 100-500. Over 500. Total. 1898 ... ... 198 278 2 I 479 635 662 4 1,310 1899 ... ... 258 290 4 2 554 1,750 1,018 3 2.771 1900 ... ... 342 300 9 2 653 2,201 1,098 3 3,302 19OI ... ... 4>7 318 15 4 754 2,362 1,196 I 3,559 1902 ... ... 469 320 20 4 813 2,348 1,235 i 3,585 Steamers. Sailing Ships. Steel or Steel-Iron. Iron. Iron- Wood. Wood. Total. Steel or „, , Iron. ^°°''- TotaL ... 22 16 4 437 479 I 1,300 1,301 - 37 i5 5 496 554 I 2,770 2,771 ... 56 18 6 573 653 I 3,301 3,302 ... 70 22 6 656 754 — 3,559 3,559- ... 81 19 6 707 813 - 3,585 3,585- 732 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. CONSTRUCTION OF REGISTERED SHIPS BUILT AT HOME. STear. 189S 1899 1900 1901 1902 Sailing ships being now almost wholly made at home, the relation of home-built sailing ships and foreign-built sailing ships as to tonnage and construction is practically identical with that ex- plained at some length in the first chapter concerning the general condition of sailing-ships in Japan. As to steamers, the smaller vessels not exceeding 100 tons numbered most being followed by those ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons, steamers above 1,000 tons being comparatively scarce. In regard to construction the majority of the vessels were of wood, followed by steel-framed and iron- framed vessels, and lastly by wood-iron composite vessels. Comparing^ ' the foregoing particulars with the details as specified in the first chapter, it can be seen that while vessels under 1,900 tons displace- ment were mostly built at home those of large displacement came from foreign dockyards. Then in construction the wooden vessels- were in most cases built at home, steel and wood-iron composite^ vessels being built at home and foreign dockyards in nearly equally proportion. But in regard to iron-framed vessels the share contri buted by home shipyards was very small. Shipyards. — Our shipbuilding yards have considerably been, increased in number. At the end of 1892 they numbered only 60, and the number grew to 106 six years later, and then to 1,666 at the end of 1902. Protection op Shipbuilding Work. — A few words should be- said concerning the Law of PJncouraging Shipbuilding mentioned iShips Crew. 733 ubove. The encouragement bestowed by this law is in the form of bounties granted to ships built according to the rules prescribed by that law. They must also be built at the shipyards possessing the qualifications determined by this law. The bounty is 12 yen per ton of the body of the ship for steamer of not more than 700 or not less than 1,000 gross tonnage. The rate is 20 yen for one exceeding 1,000 tons. Further, the additional bounty at the rate of 5 yen per one horse-power is granted on the engine. The steamers built or in course of building at our shipyards from the enforcement of the law in question to the end of 1902 number 33 with an aggregate gross tonnage amounting to about «0,091. III. SHIPS CRE¥/. Legislative Measure. — The first legislative measure was that issued by the Government in June 1896. It related to the license examination of captains, mates and engineers for foreign-shaped ships. The measure provided that unless possessing the licenses granted in accordance with the provisions contained in it no person could become captain or mate or engineer for a foreign-style ship of not less than 100 registered tonnage and 50 efiecti¥e horse-powers. The measure has more than once been subjected to amendment until it finally assumed its present form. The existing law was issued in 1896. Officees. — The ship's officers comprise, according to the law, captains, first and second mates, chief and first engineers, all of whom are required to possess the proper license to be qualified for their respective services. No discrimination with regard to nation- ality is enforced with regard to this qualification, and those who are legally qualified according to the Japanese law are permitted, no matter what nationality they belong to, to be officers of ships flying the Japanese flag. Appended is a statement giving particulars ■of the number of the licensed officers and of the relative number of Japanese and foreign officers from 1882 to 1887 and also during th& last ten years. 734 .Japan in the Beginning of the 2()th Century, LICENSED OFFICERS. 1st Class, years, 1882 1S87 1S92 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 The foregoing table shows that the number of Japanese officers of all classes and grades is steadily advancing. This was also tha case with foreign officers prior to 1898, but since then, as a result of legislative changes, their number has gone down quite suddenly. To carry the comparison still further, the management of craft of larger displacement had to be left at first, owing to the peculiar cir- cumstances of the case, in charge of foreign officers, so that Japanese officers had to content themselves with being captains and engineers of ships of smaller displacement. As the system of nautical education has since then become more and more perfect and as the number of Japanese trained under that system has increased, there are at 1st Class. 2Dd Class. Captains 2nd Class and Mates. Chief Eng- ineers. Engineers. Total. Captains. Mates Captains Mates. Japanese. 33 Foreigners. 103 137 77 323 2 790 22 — II 72 607 45 1,901 325. 189 243 no 359 2 1,247 21 — 29 135 785 75 2,737 532 176 256 339 143 415 2 1,533 21 — 74 172 1,267 124 3,804 718 ,1 it 190 263 360 142 428 2 1,541 20 — 83 174 1,294 126 3,896 727 198 286 367 156 434 2 1,547 20 — 91 184 1,341 139 3,978 788. 308 380 169 432 2 1,559 20 — 125 196 1,412 146 4,135 839- 282 328 384 184 448 2 1,618 20 — 165 203 1,581 150 4.477 887 346 362 373 18S 480 2 2,496 21 1,199 228 212 1,922 153 7,044 938 » 339 141 303 38 3°5 1,969 I 8,202 252 67 1,826 29 13,196 276. 351 145 323 48 3" 2,047 I 8,632 I 259 73 2,013 34 13,93& 302 » 366 146 364 51 325 2,099 I 8,976 I 275 75 2,153 34 14,558 3" J, 396 155 445 SI 335 2,179 I 9,349 I 299 75 2,395 36 15,389 319 42s 162 495 51 341 2,274 I 9,515 I 326 79 2,601 39 15,977 333- Ships Crew. 735 the present time many Japanese sailors as well qualified to manage first class steamers as foreigners. Training op officers and Men. — The organs now existing for the purpose of training officers and men are the Nautical College conducted under the direct supervision of the Government, Merchant Navigation Schools of a briefer course established under the Technical Education Law, and lastly the Sailors Home. The Nautical College originated in the Mitsubishi Merchant Navigation School established in 1875 by the Mitsubishi Firm in accordance with the instruction of the Government. It was convertal Seven years later into a Government institution. The Nautical College trains boys who are to become officers of the highest grado both in the art of navigation and in that of engineering. The graduates are enrolled in the Naval Reserve list, and hence subjecfc to observe the rules enforced in the Naval service. Sailors Home. — The Sailors Home was established in August of 1880 for the purpose of training officers and sailors and also for according protection to them and their families. The home has been receiving a State Subsidy of 10,000 yen since 1896. Pilots. — Rules relating to pilots and pilotage were first enacted in December of 1876, the rules applicable only to ships of foreign pattern. In consequence of that enactment only properly qualified persons were permitted, as is also the case at present, to discharge the duty of pilots. The existing Pilotage Law that was promulgated in 1899 and it provides that no person not qualified according to the law, may act as a pilot in the pilotage roads; that the pilots must be Japanese subjects who have passed the prescribed exami- ■ nation and whose names appear in the official pilotage list. Formerly the pilotage licence was granted to people of all nationalities, provided they were qualified according to the Japanese law, but as mentioned above the restriction as to nationality was enforced by the new Pilotage Law, with this reservation, however, that within the limit of five years from the enforcement of that law the Minister of State concerned is entitled to grant the licence jO properly qualified foreigners. Consequently the pilotage list still contains quite a large number of foreigners. The appended statement will make this point clear : — 736 Japan in the Beginning of the 20lh Ceidury. Year. 1879 1882 1887 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 PILOTAGE LIST. Japanese. Foreigners. 18 15 12 17 17 14 18 19 18 18 18 17 19 18 Total. 19 20 16 23 24 22 27 28 26 24 23 22 26 26 lY. LIFE-BOAT PROYISINOS. The existing legal provisions about life-boat affairs were issued in 1899. The law provides that life-boat matters are dealt with by mayors of municipal or headmen of rural, corporations, and they are entitled, in carrying out the rescue business, to requision the service of men and ships, wagons, horses and other necessary matters. »The mayors and headmen have to deal with salvage and to settle expens incidental to the rescue, and they are also under obligation to furnish a rescue report to the captain when the latter makes a request to have it. However when the attempt of rescue fails the expenses required have to be defrayed out of the State Treasury. The Life-boat Law also contains provisions to flotsam and jetsam. The Japan Life-boat Association was established in November 1889. At first it possessed only two rescue stations, one at Yojima and the other at Tadotsu, both in the province of Sanuki. With the expansion of the scope of the work, and especially since the State decided in 1897 to grant 20,000 yen every year, the number of main stations has been increased to 21 with 17 branches and 6 life-boat associations. Protection to Navigation. 737 y. PROTECTION TO NAVIGATION. General Remarks. — That the prosperity of Japan is inseparably -connected with the prosperity of her carrying trade is a foregone conclusion, considering the situation of the country. Japan there- fore has faithfully adhered since 1870 to the national polity of encouraging carrying trade, and especially to maintain an active and efficient ocean service. Two different systems of protection are adopted in this con- nection, one being special portection accorded to special service and therefore limited to special kind of shippers while the other is general protection and therefore accessible to all shippers who fulfill certain prescribed conditions. The two systems being there- fore distinct in nature and possessing distinct history had better he described under separate headings. Special Protection. — The protection given for the first time to our shippers was more than special ; it was not merely to help -their business, it was really to support their very existence. It was with this end in view that in 1870 the Government caused the Eeiganjima Navigation Company to run with two steamers a monthly service between Tokyo and Osaka. When two years later that company was wound up, and the Japan Mail Steamship Company was created, the Government sold to the new company the steamers it had in its possession and made them to carry on regular coasting services. . . -,. After three years this company ceased to exist, but its disap- pearance did not much afiect the prosperity of the maritime business of Japan, for by that time the Mitsubishi Steam- Mitsubishi S. S. ship Company had been in existence for some years. Company. This Company was the next recipient of the Government protection, and had a number of stea- mers belonging to the Government sold to it in easy terms. The carrying trade of Japan made at the same time a noteworthy ■departure, for its scope of operation was extended to Shanghai to which a reo'ular service was established. Both on this and also on the regular coasting service the Government granted a certain Amount of subsidy. 738 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. In 1882 the Kyodo Unyu Kaisha (Union Steamship Com- Kyodo Unyu P^ny) was established and the Government protected Eaisha. its business, on condition that the company would run certain regular service. The amalgamation of the Steamship Company and the Mitsu- bishi Steamship Company in 1885 and the establishment, as result of this amalgamation, the present Nippon Nippon Yasen Kaisha Yusen Kaisha was an occasion of altering and Osaka Shosen somewhat the system of giving protection. Xaisha. The new system consisted in guaranteeing the profit of the company and his was agreed to for fifteen yeare from the date of the creation of the com- pany. The guaranteeing of the profit was limited within a certain fixed rate of dividend to the paid-up capital of the com- pany. In return for this protection the company was made to- ooen various new regular services, both domestic and foreig. In 1887 the guaranteeing of profit was altered into granting a cer- tain fixed amount of subsidy. In the following year another steam- ship company, the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, was granted a subsidy for eight years for consideration of running regular services on prescribed routes. The subsidy to the two companies ceased with the expiration of the respective contracts, so that this special form of protection is. no longer in vogue. Protection of Foeeign Services. — With the discontinuation of this system of protecting certain shippers another and more comprehensive method of encouraging foreign services and of protect- ing them has been adopted. In pursuance of that policy, protection was granted in 1896 on the Yokohama-Adelaide service ; in 1898 on the Shanghai-Hankow, Shanghai-Suchow, and Shanghai-Hangchow services ; in 1899 on the Hankow-Ichang services. Those services, were somewhat altered soon after, while at the same time several subsidized lines were newly established. The subsidized lines now run by Japanese shippers in accordance with the order of the lllinister of Communications are as follows : — Yokohama-Melbourne, Yokohama-Bombay, Japan-Europe, Hongkong-Seattle- Yokohama-Shanghai, Kobe-North China, Kobe-Vladivostock, Kobe-Otaru, Aomori-Muroran, Hongkong-San Francisco, Shanghai-Hankow, Hankow,. Ichang, Kobe-Korea, Shanghai-Suchow, Shanghai-Hangchow, Suchow-Hang- chow, japan Sea. Protection to Navigation. lc>9 Subsidized Local Lines. — Besides, there are otlier subsiflized' liner of local importance, these being undertaken under help from the Formosan Government, Hokkaido Government and Prefectual Govern- ments, as follows : — Subsidized by the Formqs/iN Government : —Tamsui-Tokosu, Kelung- ICobe (two), Takao- Yokohama, Kelung-coasting, Tamsui-Hongkong, Amping- Hongkong, Fuchow-Hongkong, Fuchow-Santuugao, Fuchow-Hinghwa, Amoy- Shima services. Subsidized by the Hokkaido G^overnment : — Nemuro-Hakodate, Nemuro- Shana, Nemuro-Abasliiri, Otaru-Wakanai, Wakanai-Abashiri, Hakodate-Otaru, Otaru-Teshio, Hakodate-Otsu, Ishikari river services. Subsidized by Prefectural Governments concerned :— Ogasawara group (4), Osbima group (Kagoshima), Oki group and main island, Sakijima (Okinawa), Okinawa islands services. General Peotection. — Besides the protection given to special routes for maintaining regular service necessary for keeping up regular facilities of conveyance and intercourse, protection is extended, in accordance with the Law of Encouraging Navigation, to service of other descriptions irrespective of shippers or routes, with the object of furthering in general the cause of general shipping trade. This protection in the form of subsidy is given to all those services which satisfy the conditions specified in the law in question. To be more in detail, the law subsidises steamers which come up to the standard mentioned in the provisions and which carry on regular service between Japan and foreign coast or along the coast of foreign countries. The subsidy is at the rate of 25 sen per ton per 1,000 miles covered, and for steamers that are not less than 1,000 gross tonnage capable to develop the speed of 10 knots per hour. The rate increases with an increase of tonnage and speed. Retuens eelating to Geneeal Peotection. — The number of steamers, gross tonnage and the distance traversed by them since the law was put into operation are given in the appended table: — • Distance Traversed. Miles. 251,740 771,647 1,164,708 543.906 471.321 477,561 Fiscal Year. Number. Gross Tonnage 1879— II 48,596 1898— .. 24 115,102 1899— .. 29 130,461 1900 — .. 18 74.530 1901 — .. IS 57.199 1902 — •■ IS 49,446 740 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. VI. NAUTICAL SIGNALS. Geneeal Remaeks.^ — It was in May of 1866 that Japan agreed in accordance with Art. XI of the tariff convention con- cluded with Great Britain, France, United States of America, and Holland to construct after foreign style nautical signals in the vicinity of the open ports. To fulfill this agreement the Govern- ment of the day purchased from England a set of necessary light- house materials, and also engaged an expert from the same country. Kinds of Signals. — The nautical signals of Japan are divided according to construction and method of maintenance into three classes, namely, Government, communal and private. The private signals numbered over 100 formerly, but they were far from satis- factory in construction and working. At last the Government decided to prohibit the building of signals by private individuals in 1885, and a notification to that effect was issued in that year. It was provided that the construction of new private signals for the use of public would be prohibited in the future; that the old signals that had not been exacting due should be discontinued by 1895; that the due-collecting signals the establishment of which was permit- ted for a specified period should be stopped on the arrival of that period, and finally for other signals of the same kind that had no iixed period of existence such period should with the approval of the supervising authorities, be determined. Even at present, therefore, .■nore or less private signals exist. On the other hand the number of signals constructed and Jnaintained by civic corporations is gradually increasing as is also the case with the Government signals. NuMBEE OF Signals.— The appended table will explain the condition of the work since 18G9 when Japan constructed for the first time nautical signals after Western pattern. Here is the table :^ Year. 1869 1872 1877 1882 1887 1892 1898 1902 Government. Communal or Private. Total 9 108 " 117 ... 32 lOI 133 - SS 100 155 ... 66 145 211 ... 78 140 218 ... 106 35 89 230 ... 140 45 21 206 ... 172 53 15 240 Open Forts. YII. OPEN PORTS. 741 Number op the Ports. — At present there exist 30 ports open to foreign trade, these being Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki, Hakodate, Niigata, Ebisii, Osaka, Shimizu, Taketoyo, Yokkaichi, Itpzaki, Shlraonoseki, Moji, Hakata, Karatsu, Kuchinotsu, Misumi, Izuhara, Sasuna, Shikami, Naba, Hamada, Sakaye, Miyazu, Tsuruga, Nanao (southern basin), Fushiki, Otaru, Kushiro and Muroran. With the object of maintaining order and tranquility in such of the ports having busier shipping traffic Harbor Regulations were issued in 1898. Three ports of Yokohama, Kobe and Nagasaki were at once placed under this legislation, whicn was also extended two years later to Moji. Shipping Returns of the Four Ports. — The number of ships, both Japanese and foreign, that have entered and cleared those four ports since the enforcement of the regulations is given in the appended statement : — Yokohama. Kobe. Nagasaki. Moji. Year. 1898 1899 1900 I901 1902 No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. Japanese. Foreign. 1,012 1,357,005 238 872,258 2,080 3,009,340 522 1,986,342 2,050 2,743,196 570 2,286,083 2,129 3,194,064 554 2,360,712 2,156 3.308,779 565 2,466,958 4,178 2,415,124 291 1,039,687 10,261 6,036,509 723 2,808,642 10,682 5,917,988 752 3,110,569 11,400 6,658,896 722 3,194,738 11,653 7,147,892 784 4.442,540 906 292 2,120 729 1,775 871 1,807 749 2,241 687 720,963 846,185 1,734,939 2,422,103 1,648,924 3,254,457 1,793,070 2,773,739 2,040,934 2,668,478 2,161 1,945,256 313 959,215 14,336 7,101,179 839 2>7o3,i87 15,172 7,112,140- 799 2,514,639.- 742 Jd/pan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. PART VIII EDUCATION Introductory— General Education — Higher Education Technical Education — Libraries. I. INTRODUCTORY. In the Pee-Restoeation days. — Education in Japan dates from remote antiquity, and the national traits of faithfulness, filial piety, a.s well as valor have received from education a powerful stimulus. Intercourse with China and Korea naturally left on our educational system a peculiar stamp of its own, and Japan owed very much to these two neighbors in respect of her science and art. Whatever may have been the moving force of our education in its early stages, there exist ample authentic evidences attesting how even in ancient times culture and learning attained a high degree of development. Then followed centuries of intellectual retrogression occasioned by the incessant civil strifes of the " Middle Ages," to be succeeded by the revival and renaissance of the period of the Tokugawa. It ought to be remembered, however, that education as it was known prior to the Restoration was extremely narrow in scope and limited in operation. In fact it practically consisted in belles-letti-es and what are called humanity studies, the latter based on the Chinese and Japanese classics. It has been only since the Restoration that education in its modern sense has first been planted on our soil and that the system has been subjected to a thorough change. After the Restoration. — True to national tradition, the Government bestowed special attention on matters of education, and in the very first year of the era several institutions were either Introductory. 743 :;reated or thoroughly re-organized. The year 18G9 saw the ■establishment of an Imperial University, while two years later educational affairs were entrusted to an independent Department of ■State. Next year the educational system was drawn up and proclaimed, and the utmost efforts were made to promote the cause of general and higher education. Since then, in accordance with the require- ments of the times, amendments of the system and improvement of the arrangement have been carried out frequently, till we witness the very full previsions as are existing to-day. In describing the existing educational system, a brief survey of the administrative organizations bearing upon it should first be given. Educational Administration. — The Department of Education superintends the educational affairs of the country besides maintain- ing institutions essential for the State. In a similar way each local office superintends the educational affairs in its own jurisdiction and maintains at its own expense the schools required iu it, and this remarks also applies to each district, municipal or rural corporation. The institutions maintained by the Department are called Govern- ment institutions ^^'hile those maintained by local, district or corpora- tion expenses are called public or communal schools. The latter are of two kinds, one of them established in conformity with the order of the Government and the other established at the initiation of the body public concerned. Normal schools, middle schools and higher girls' schools are schools which the provincial offices are obliged to maintain in their jurisdicli.in, the number to be one or more according to cirumstances. ITie schools which a municipal or rural corporation is under obligation to maintain are primary schools. All the other kinds of schools maintained by all these public bodies are maintained by such bodies of their own accord and of coursa with the approval of the central Government. Besides, there are schools established by private individuals on their own account, and these are called private schools. Being under the direct control of the Department of State, all matters relating to the establishment or abolition or re-prganization of the Government institutions are solely determined by the Depart- ment, while all matters relating to the establishment or dis- continuation or re-organization of prefectural schools are carried ©uS 744 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. by the respective prefectviral offices with the approval of the Minister of Education, while the appointment or relief from office of directors and teachers is made by the prefectural Governors concerned. It ought to be added that the directors of normal schools are civil officials of the higher civil service. Matters relating to schools maintained by districts and municipal or riiral corporations are carried out with the approval of the Ministei of Education, when they relate to the establishment, abolition or re-organization of higher girls' schools, middle schools and technical schools. The prefectural Governors concerned arrange on their own sole respon- sibility all those matters relating to schools of other descriptions. Similarly matters relating to the establishment, abolition or re- organization of private schools are dealt with by the prefectural Governors as in the case of district or communal schools. Government schools are allowed, in accordance with the Law of Special Finance, to set apart as permanent funds of the schools, the income and other receipts, and in a similar way public or communal schools are allowed to create their permanent funds by setting apart their income of whatever description. Matters relating to the establishment, abolition or re-organization, of kindergartens, or public libraries as also to the appointment and relief from office of the staff thereof are generally dealt with ac- cording to the corresponding process of the schools mentioned above. Then in case private individuals apply to the authorities for permission to establish and maintain at their own expense schools, kindergartens, or public libraries, the Minister of Education or the prefectural Governors concerned give permission when they judge that such permission should be accorded. Those private institutions then receive similar treatment and privilege as public institutions of the corresponding character. The qualifications of the members on the staff of the Govern- ment schools are determined according to that section in the Civil Appointment Regulations that relates to teachers, while the qualifica- tions of public or private schools are limited only to those who possess the license granted either by the Minister of Education or by local Governors, according to the kind of the schools. The teachers of both the Government and public schools are entitled to- Introductory. 745 a pension either for themselves or to their families, in accordanc* with the respective legislative measures provided for the purpose. The administrative affairs relating to education are, as described above, taken charge of by the Department of Education, prefectural offices, district offices and civic corporations. In the Department of Education several bureaux and sections are established to deal with educational affairs, and, besides, school-inspectors are appointed to inspect the condition of the schools throughout the country. The prefectural offices also keep their own school-inspectors and assistant school-inspectors are appointed or relieved of office as officials of the higher civil service. The district also keeps its own inspectors to superintend its education, but in civic corporations this duty is undertaken by officials who have to attend to it as additional function. Appended is a table showing the condition of the various edu- cational institutions existi;ig at the end of 1901 fiscal year: — SCHOOLS. Kind of Schools. Primary Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb . Normal Higher Normal Middle Higher Girls High Universities Special Technical Others • ■ Total Kind of Schools. Primary Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb Normal Higher Normal .. Middle Higher Girls High Universities Special Technical Others Total , Government. 2 I Public. 26,659 I 54 207 61 4 36s 274 Private. 349 13 34 8 4S 27 1,200 Total 27,010 IS 54 2 242 70 S 2 57 401 1.474 34 27,625 1,676 29,33s 'ROFESSORS AND TEACHERS. Government Public. Private. Total. 38 101,551 I, III 102,700 ) ... IS 17 47 79 — 1,032 — 1,032 118 — — 118 29 3.526 678 4,233 18 807 133 958 282 28z 327 — — 327 227 78 896 1,201 250 1,784 202 2,236 — 191 4,747 4,93* 1,304 108,986 7,814 118,104 746 Japan in tJie Beginning of the Wth Century. STUDENTS AND PUPILS. Kind ot Schools. Primary Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb Normal High Normal Middle Higher Girls High Universities Special Technical Others Government. 1,091 238 860 340 32s .. 4,361 .. 3M2 ■• 3>3'4 2,121 Public. 4,923,270 215 17,982 72,823 '4,975 1,462 31,954 13,062 Private. 56.243 344 15,228 2,240 13,112 2,702 &3,I22 Total. 4,980,604 797 17,982 860 88,391 17,540 4,361 3,612 17,888 36,787 96,184 Total .. 16,262 5,075,743 173,001 5,265,000 GRADUATES. Kind of Schools. Government. Public. Private. TotaL Primary 277 841,540 8,553 850,376 Elind and Deaf-and-Dumb 32 9 14 55 Normal — 9,216 — 9,316 Higher Normal .. 176 — — 167 Middle 52 6,904 2,540 9,K,6 Higher Girls 64 2,773 812 3,654 High „ - 756 — — 756 Universities .. 671 — — 671 Special 515 253 IJ18 2,486 Technical 423 5,286 347 6,056 Others — 1,590 17,095 18,685 Total ... 2,966 867,576 31,079 901,621 II. GENERAL EDUCATION. A. Kindergartens. The first kindergarten in Japan was established in Totyo in 1876. The number has- since been considerably, increased; so that at present every province has one or more kinder- gartens. The necessity of an institution for tlie training ot mialified nurse having come to be felt, a nurse course was newly General Education. 747 <3poned in 1878 in the kindergarten affiliated to the Tokyo Womens' Normal School. The example set in Tokyo has since been followed in many provinces. According to the existing provisions the number of children to be taken into a kindergarten is limited to 100, which number could in special circumstances be increased to 150. Each nurse has to take charge of not more than 40 children. According to the in- quiries instituted at the end 1901 fiscal year, there were 254 kinder- gartens throughout the country and they comprised one Government establishment, 181 public establishments, and 72 private establish- ments. The number of nurses totalled 671 of which six were in Government establishments, 496 in public institutions and 169 in private establishments. The pupils numbered 23,671. B. Peimaey Schools. History. — Family schools and schools maintained by the local feudal fiefs were in olden days the seats of learning, the former being mostly for children of the plebeian class and the latter for those of the samurai. The schools maintained by the fiefs taught first of all Chinese classics, then penmanship and arithmetic while the humbler schools taught penmanship, reading and counting. The education in those days was, therefore, far from perfect, absolutely speaking, but such as it was it satisfied the requirements of the time, and, especially as it was supplemented by the influence of a rigid domestic education, it attained the principal end of education, that is, it formed character and it supplied culture. Not a few primary schools based somewhat on the Western model were established soon after the Restration, but it was not till 1871 that schools of this grade, based on an entirely new system began to make their appearance. In that year the Department of Education brought under its direct control the six primary schools in Tokyo and at the same time it distributed among all the places throughout the country the rules put in force in those six schools. In the following year the school system was elaborated and the whole country was divided into 53,760 primary school sections each with one primary school. This elaboration of the system marks the new era in our education, for it was followed by the creation for the first time of communal and public primary schools. 748 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The system underwent amendments and revisions on many oc- cations, the last change taking place in 1900. That change was- caused by the existing Primary School Law. At the same time rule* for putting it in operation were promulgated. Kinds of Schools. — Primary schools are divided into ordinary primary schools and higher prioiary schools. The two may either exist separately or in combination, in which latter case the schools- are called ordinary and higher primary schools. Th( term of an ordinary primary school extends four years and that of a higher primary school two to four years according to- circumstances. The subjects taught at the ordinary primary school* are morals, reading, arithmetic and gymnastics. Drawing, singing or hand-work, either one or more, may be added according to local circumstances, while for girls a sewing lesson may be added. The subjects at the higher primary schools comprise morals, reading, arithmetic, history, geography, science, drawing, singing and gymnastics. For girls the subject of sewing may be added. For a higher primary school of two year course either science or singing or both may be dispensed with, or a lesson on hand-work may b& added ; for one of three year course the subject of singing may be dispensed with and on the other hand elementary lesson in agricul- ture, hand-work or business, may be added. Lastly the lesson in, English may be added to the curricu jum of the four year course in- higher primary school. At both ordinary and higher primary schools a continuation, course may be established for the benefit of those who have graduated from the prescribed course of study, the term of this- course not to exceed two years. The programme of study is different according to local circumstances. The text-books used by primary schools are selected by local text-book committees from among the text-books compiled by the Department of Education or those prepared by private individuals- and contained in the approved list. The selection is determined on the approval of the local Governors concerned. As a rule a text- book adopted has to be used for four years, after which the selection is to be made anew. School Attendauce. — The school-age of children extends eight General Education. 749 years commencing from the age of full six years and ending at full fourteen. Parents or tliose who act for them are under obligation to send to school the children who have reached the school-age, the sending to commence at the beginning of the first school year after the attainment by the child of its school-age. It ought to be added that those who eng;ige children who have not completed the course of elementary education are ordered not to object to those children attending school. Establishment, Maintexance, Fee. — A municipal or rural community is under obligation to establish and maintain one or more primary schools sufficient to admit children of school-age residing in its jurisdiction. When, however, a rural community is Judged to be incapable of bearing this obligation alone, it may enter into an agreement with another community placed in proximity and they may both maintain one primary school in common. Then, in ease of the scarcity of children sufficient to form one school, a village may entrust the schooling of its children to a neighboring village possessing one. The expense required for establishing and maintaining a school must be paid by the corporation concerned, but when a rural corpo- ration is judged to be unable to pay the whole cost the district in which it is contained may give a suitable amount of grant-in-aid. In the case of a district unable to discharge this duty or in the case of a municipal corporation unable to pay the cost required for primary schools, the obligation of making good the deficit devolves on the local treasury. No jsrimary school can exact a fee from its pupils, unless special circumstances exist to allow it, with the approval of the local Governor, to collect the fee. The amount of this fee may not exceed for ordinary primary schools 20 sen a month in the case of a school existing in a municipal district, and 10 sen in the case of a town or village school. For a higher primary school the amount may not exceed 60 sen a month in the case of a municipal school and 30 sen in the case of a town or village school. Children of poor families unable to pay the fee may be exempted either entirely or in part. The fee may also be reduced for a family sending mora than two children at the same time. 75& Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, Teachers. — There are three kinds of teachars, regular licensed teachers who are qualified to teach all the subjects in the regular coures, special teachers who have to undertake the teaching of special subjects such as drawing, singing, sewing, English, agriculture, etc. Lastly there are assistant teachers who assist the regular- licensed teachers. Teachers raust have a regular license which is of two kinds, one being good for all the country and the other good for only ou& particular locality. The latter, called a " prefectural licence," is- granted by the local authorities to those who have graduated from the prefectural normal school or other schools approved of by the- JMinister of Education, or those who have passed the prescribed license examination. The other license called " national license," is- granted to those teachers of distinguished service who have been in the service for more than ten years ; also those who, after having- graduated from a higher normal school, have served not less than three years as regular licensed teachers in a city or rural primary school. This license is also granted to those who have graduated from a special course of study at a school approved by the Minister of Education, provided they have been on the teaching staff of a primary schoql for not less than three years. Treatment of Teachers. — There is fixed schedule of salary for primary school teachers. This extends between the minimum of 6 yen and the maximum of 20 yen for an assistant teacher, the cor- responding limit being 8 to 40 yen for a special licensed teacher, and 10 to 75 yen for a regular licensed teacher. The maximum for the last kind of teacher may be increared to 100 yen provided the teacher in question has rendered distinguished service to the cause of education. Further, special allowances of greater or less amount may be granted to those who undertake to teach more than SO hours a week, while under no circumstances is the salary of a. teacher reduced without his consent. In the case a teacher dies while on active service or after he has retired, a sum of money corresponding to three times the salary he had drawn the month preceding his death, is given to his family. A special allowance over and above that sum may be granted in. the case of a school-master or teacher who has rendered distinffuish- General Education. 75i ed service. A school-master or teacher who has sustained injury or contracted disease in the discharge of his duty is allowed his medical expenses. In general, according to local circumstances, houses may be provided or house-rent granted to school-masters or teachers. A regular licensed teacher of meritrious service who has been on the service for more than five years in one and same province receives an additional allowance of 24 yen a year and an assistant teacher similarly qualified receives an allowance of 18 yen a year. For every additional five years a regular teacher gets an extra 18 yen a year and an assistant 12 yen. A licensed teacher who undertakes the teaching of a single-class primary school may receive an extra allowance of 24 yen a year, and in a similar way a teacher discharging service at a multiple-class school situated in a remote district may get extra allowance of 18 yen. The outlay involved in those special allowances described above is to be disbursed by the National Treasury in accordance with the Law relating to State Aid to Primary School Teachers. School Statistics. — According to the returns compiled at the end of 1901 fiscal year there were 20,284 primary schools throughout the country together with 6726 branches, making a total of 27,010. Teachers on duty numbered 102,700 and pupils in attendance 4,980,604. The ratio of daily attendance was 85.50 pe? 100 on the school record. Ordinary primary scliools provided with the continuation course numbered 2,113 and higher primary schools possessing similar accommodations 26, making a total of 2,339. The children of school-going age numbered 7,566,886 of which 6,487,499 reached the limit of attendance, the remaining 969,397 not reaching that limit. The ratio of attendance per 100 children who reached the limit of attendance was 93.78 for boys and 81.80 for girls, the average being 88.05. C. Blind and Deaf-and-Duimb Schools, Normal Sondoi.s etc. 1. Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb Schools. — It was in 1878 that a blind and deaf-and-dumb school was first established in Japan. It ■was established at Kyoto by private individuals. It ought to be added, however, that even before the Restoration there were provisions for teaching the art of acupuncture and shampooing to the blind who 752 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. ■were thus provided witli a means of earning a livelihood. The teaching, however, was simple and hardly deserved the name of education as the term is understood to-day. The first blind and deaf-and-dumb school mentioned above was subsequently converted into a municipal institution, and, owing to the grant of money and building made to it by the Imperial Court, it has been considerably expanded in scope. The school is now known by the name of the Kyoto Municipal Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb School. Following the worthy example set by the people of Kyoto, the citizens of Tokyo also established in 1880 a similar institution of their own, which was transferred to the management of the Depart- ment of Education. Under the new management the school has very much enlarged its scope, and it is now a model institution of its kind. The TSkyo Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb School is divided into two departments, ordinary and technical. The blind students in the - ordinary course are taught reading, arithmetic and oratory, and those in the technical course music, acupuncture and shampooing. The deaf and dumb students in the ordinary course are taught reading, penmanship, composition, arithmetic, also written conversation and gymnastics. In the technical course they are taught drawing and painting, sculpture, cabinet-work and sewing. In general every student is made to attend to the ordinary course and to one or more subjects in the technical course ; but, according to the request of the parents, this arrangement may be somewhat modified. The term of study lasts three years for blind students learning shampoo- ing and for others it lasts five years. According to the returns made in March 1902 blind and deaf-and-dumb schools both Govern- ment and private numbered fifteen, with 79 teachers and 797 students. 2. Normal Schools : — In 1872 a normal school was establish- ed in Tokyo and for the first time a provision for training primary school teachers was created. The schools that had previously existed were private schools or family schools and no institution existed for giving special instruction and training for teachers. In the follow- ing year six Government normal schools were established at so many different places, while at the same time a women's normal school was established in Tokyo for training women teachers. In 1875 General Education. lb'6 •each prefecture was made to establish its own normal school, and in 1877 the Department of Education announced that it would disburse 50,000 yen a year as grant-in-aid to all the prefectural normal school expenses throughout the country. The sum was increased to 70,000 yen during the subsequeut three years. With the appearance of prefectural normal schools the Govern- ment normal schools that had previously created ceased to exist, and ■only the Tokyo Normal School and the Tokyo Women's Normal -School were left remaining to serve as models for prefectural normal schools. Shortly after a special course for training middle school teachers was established at the Tokyo Normal School. In 1886 the Normal School Regulations were promulgated, pro- viding that the normal schools should be divided into higher and ordinary normal schools, the former, one in number and that one flocated at Tokyo, to be placed under the direct control of the Minister of Education, and the latter, one in every province, to be -controlled by the local Office. In 1897 the regulations in question were superseded by new regulations, the provisions of the two legis- 4ative measures however remaining practically identical in the main. To describe the system of ordinary normal schools as they exist at present, these institutions are schools where those who wish to become primary school teachers are trained. Each prefecture must have at ieast one normal school which may he divided into male and female •departments. In some prefectures independent female normal schools are established. All these schools are under the control of the res- ■pective local Governors and the expenses required are paid out of -the local treasury. The school expenses of the students are supplied -by the same treasury, and in return for this help the students are ■obliged to give their services at one or another primary school in ■the prefecture, for ten years in the case of men and five years in the qase of women. The schools may also keep students who pay ^;heir own school expenses. In March, 1902, 54 normal schools existed throughout the -country with teachers numbering 1,032 and with students of three difierent courses (main, brief and preparatory) totalling 13,900 and ■those of training course 4,082. Each normal school has subjoined to it a model primary school. 754 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. which at the same time serves the purpose of giviug to the students^ practical experience in teaching. Further, to give similar opportu- nities to the girl-students and students of kindergarten nurses, a kindergarten is also provided at some normal schools. _- 3. Higher Normal Schools. — Higher Normal Schools are places -where teachers qualified to teacher at normal schools, middle schools and higher girls schools are trained. There are two higher normal schools, one at Tokyo and the other at Hiroshima. Placed* under the control of the Minister of Education, the outlay is paid out of the State Treasury, while the school expenses of the students are supplied by the respective schools. In return for this help, the students are under obligation to attend for ten years to the work of education at places specified by the Government. 4. The Higher Women's Normal School. — This school trains female students who are to become teachers of normal and' higher girl's schools. The Tokyo Higher Women's Normal School is the only institution of this kind existing in Japan. The school is managed by the Minister of Education and the schooling expenses of the students are paid by the school. The students are therefore- under obligation to attend to work of education for five years from the date of their graduation. 5. Middle Schools. — Established for the first time in 1872, the middle schools as originally arranged were schools where boys- intended for business or who aspired to enter higher institutions were taught. The regulations provided two kinds of middle schools, ordinary and higher, the former established in the provinces and' therefore prefectural establishments and the latter Government schools established at important local centres. The regulations that are now in force are those amended in 1901. The}' provide that one or more middle schools are to be established in every prefecture, the- exact number to be determined according to local requireruents. The outlay is of course to be met out of the local treasury. A district or a rural or municipal corporation may establish either singly or in combination a middle school of its own, but only whei> such establishment does not interfere with the work of primary education. Private individuals may also establish a middle school in conformity with the regulations. Higher Education. 755- Xu. general the number of students of one middle school is fixed at not more than 400 which number may be raised to 600 under special circumstances. A single class must not contain more than 50 students, and the number of teachers must be at the rate of at least two per class for a school containing not more than five classes. For every additional class above five the number of teachers must increase at the rate of H per class. 6. Higher Girl's Schools. — In 1872 one girl's school was established in Tokyo and another in Kyoto, the former being a Government and the latter a prefectural institution. Similar schools have been created in almost every prefecture and district throughout the country. Indeed the Higher Girl's School Regulations enacted in 1889 made the establishment of this kind of school in the pro- vinces compulsory. The regulations now in force were those revised in 1901. They provide that a higher girl's school give general education of a higher class to girls, and that one or more schools be established and maintained. Provisions similar to those for middle schools apply in the case of communal schools or schools established and maintained by private individuals. III. HIGHER EDUCATION. 1. The Imperial Universities. — ^The Imperial Universities, one in Tokyo andi the other iu Kyoto, are maintained by the State Treasury in accordance with the Imperial Universities Regulations. a. The Tokyo Imperial University — .The Tokyo Imperial University, which consists of the defunct Tokyo University, the Engineering College (created in 1885) and the Tokyo Agricultural and Dendrological College (affiliated in 1890), had its origin in the " Institute of Western Knowledge " that existed in the latter days of the Tokugawa Shogunate. It was transferred to the control of the Department of Education of the rehabilitated Imperial Govern ment in 1871. The Tokyo Medical College was united to it six- years after and with this union the name was again changed to the Tokyo University. The University comprises six colleges, namely Law, Medicine, Engineering, Literature, Science, and Agriculture. The College of 756 Japan in the Beginning of the 2()ih Century. Law is subdivided into two courses, that of law proper and that of politics ; and in the same way the College of Medicine consists of ■the courses of medicine and pharmancy. The College of Engineering consists of nine courses; namely, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, electric engineering, technology of arms, -architecture, chemical technology, technology of explosives, mining and metallurgy.f The College of Literature includes philosophy, Japanese classics, Chinese classics, Japanese history, general history, philology, English literature, German literature, and French litera- ture. The College of Science is made up of eight courses, mathema- tics, astronomy, pu^re physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, and geology. Lastly the College of Agriculture comprises the courses ■of agriculture, agricultural chemistry and veterinary medicine. The number of chairs is 29 for the College of Law, 27 for the ■College of Medicine, 29 for the College of Engineering, 21 for the College of Literature, 21 for the College of Science, and 22 for the "College of Agriculture. The students who have finished the University preparatory ■course in a High School are admitted to colleges of their own choice. When, however, the number of candidates is in excess of the accommodation in a given college than admission is made by ■competitive examination. In case the number of 'applicants for admission falls short of the number of places vacant, the deficiency may be filled up with the graduates of schools judged by the ^Minister of Education to be of equal standing with the University preparatory course or those who have passed the examination arranged by the colleges concerned and conducted at the respective High Schools, the examination to be suited to the scholarship of the Schools. The term of study is not fixed for the College of Law, the diploma being given to those who have passed four academic ex- aminations. In the course of pharmacy of the College of Medicine it lasts four years while in all the other colleges it is three years. Besides the regular courses mentioned above there is a post- graduate course, the term of wnich lasts five years. This special •establishment is known by the name of " University Hall." The students of Law studying at the Hall are precluded during the first Higher Education. 767 two years from attending to any work not connected with the subject of their special study : and the students of Literature may not attend to any. work not connected with their study, unless with the consent of the College of Literature. These two kinds of Hall students are also prohibited from residing elswhere than in Tokyo. The Hal] students of Medicine, Engineering, Science and Agriculture are under obligation to devote themselves for the first two years to their respective courses of study ; nor may they attend to work not connected with the subjects of their study unless with the consent of the Deans of their respective colleges. At the end of the two- years the students have to report to their Deans the progress they have made in studies. This report is to be submitted at the end of every year by the students of Law and Literature studying in the Hall. The reports are then submitted by the Deans to the exami- nation of the faculty meeting. Those students of the Hall who wish to obtain the degree of " Hakushi " shall submit at the end of the prescribed five years to the Deans an essay on their special subject of investigations. A Committee will be elected from among the members of the- faculty to examine the essays submitted. The applicants for the degree may be required to undergo examination when it is judged, necessary by the Committee. The provisions apart from class-rooms are the library for the, ■whole University; hospital with all the accommodations pertaining thereunto for the College of Medicine; the historigraphical works. and reports of linguistic investigations of the Japanese language for the College of Literature ; the Tokyo Observatory for the College of Science, the Observatory undertaking astronomical observations and, the compilation of almanacs. The same College has also attached to it the botanical garden, seismic observatory, and marine labor- atory, while the College of Agriculture has a nursery bed, veterinary hospital, orchard, and training forests. At the end of March, 1902, the faculty of all the University Colleges comprised 104 professors, 51 assistant professors, 72 lecturers, and 18 foreign professors, making a total of 245. The alumnii as computed fi'om the foundation numbered 1,336 for the College of Law, 715 for the College of Medicine, 1,072 for the College ot 758 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Engineering, 542 for the College of Literature, 380 for the College of Science, 481 for the College of Agriculture, in all 4,521. The students numbered 467 for the University Hall, 969 for the College of Law, (besides 26 in the elective course), 398 for the College of Medicine (besides 124 in the elective course), 421 for the College of Engineering (besides 6 in the elective course), 285 for the College of Literature (besides 17 in the elective course), 65 for the College of Science (besides 3 in the elective course), 65 in the College of Agriculture (besides 275 in the practical course), in all 3,121 classified into 2,670 students proper and 451 students in the elective and practical course, including 11 foreign students. h. The Kyoto Imperial University. — Established at Kyoto in June 1897 by Imperial Ordinance, the University had at first only the combined College of Science Engineering. In July 1899 the Colleges of Law and of Medicine were added. The Collegiate provisions are not in conformity with the Imperial Ordinance relating to Universities, so that the LTniversity possesses only the Colleges of Law, Medicine, and Science and Engineering, no ■College of Literature yet existing. The College of Law comprises the two courses of Law and Politics, the College of Medicine contains only the one course of Medicine, and the College of Science and Engineering the following ■eight courses ; viz., mathematics, physics, pure chemistry, chemical technology, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, electric engi- neering, and mining and metallurgy. The qualification for admission is equal to that for the Tokyo Imperial University. The term of study extends three years for the Colleges of Law and Science xind Engineering, and no students are allowed to remain in one course for more than six years. The term for the College of Medi- cine lasts four years, and no student may remain in it for eight years or above. Outsiders may attend lectures in one or more subjects at a college when there is room for them. In the College of iMedicine licensed practitioners may be ad- mitted as elective students. Their term may not exceed one year. The number of chairs is 24 at the College of Law, 27 at the Oollege of Medicine, and 26 at the College of Science and Engineering. Higher Education. 759 2. Higher Schools. — There are eight Higher Schools, respec- tively designated the First to Sixth Higher Schools, the Seventh Zoshtkan Higher School and the Yamaguchi Higher School. They are all Government institutions. The First Higher School is located at Tokyo, tne Second at Sendai, the Third at Kyoto, the Fourtli at Kanazawa, the Fifth at Kumamoto, the Sixth at Okayama and the Seventh at Kagoshima. The Yamaguchi Higher School is at Yamaguchi. The Higher Schools Avere forrzierly called Higher Middle Schools and in 1886 five such schools were created at so many places, and gave instruction to those young men who wished to enter the University or to enter business. The schools were allowed to establish courses on law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, agriculture and commerce. The courses of medicine were in general separate establishments. At the same time there were the Yamaguclii Higher Middle School and Zoshikan Higher Middle School which were originally founded by private individuals but were placed under the control of the Government. In 1894 the Imperial Ordinance relating to Higher Schools was issued to supersede the Higher Middle School Kegulations, and the new title of Higher School was given to those institutions. Accord- ing to the regulations, the main object of the Higher Schools was to teach the students on special subjects, and to give at the same time and subordinate to this main work, a preparatory education for those who aspired to enter the university. The Third Higher School which previously opened the law course in 1889 established the engineering course in 1894, and the Fifth Higher School opened that same course at the same time. In 189r5 the Kagoshima Zoshikan High School was abolished, and it was announced that the special course 0^' study established at the Third Higher School would be closed by 1900. In that year tlie Sixth Higher School and in the following year the Seventh Zoshikan Higher School were founded. In the same year the medical departments attached to the First to the Fifth Higher Schools were completely separated and converted into special medical schools. 3. Special Schools of Medicine. ^The Medical Schools are situated in Chiba, Sendai, Okayama, Kanazawa, and Nagasaki. 760 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. They were formerly medical departments of the Higher Middle Schools and the Higher Schools. In April 1901 they were con- verted into independent institutions. Prior to the detachment, a course of pharmacy was added to each medical department. The Special School of Medicine is connected with the prefectural hospital of the place where it is situated, and the students are thus given opportunities of acquiring experience and of attending to clinical: lectures. 4. The Tokyo Fine Art School. — This school was established in November of 1888 though strictly speaking this was not th& first art institution in Japan, for as early as 1876 an art school was established by the Department of Public Works and students were taught on the subjects of painting and sculpture. In 1884 the Committee for the Investigation of Drawing was appointed in the Department of Education and in the following year Commissioner* on painting and drawing were appointed. Both the Committee and Commissioners were made to carry out inquiries into the- subject of art education with special bearing on painting. The inquiries resulted in the creation of the Tokyo Fine Art School^ and it was opened for work in 1889. The course of study was divided into two departments, one being the ordinary course lasting two yeais and the other the special course lasting three years. The practical education in the former consisted of instruc- tion in painting and moulding while in the' other it consisted of painting, sculpture, and applied art, the last divided into metal- work and lacquer-work. The organization has since been changed several times, with the result that the school has finally attained ita present state of comparative perfection. At present the school consists of four departments; namely, painting, design, sculpture, and applied art, the last divided into glyptic art, metal-laying, metal- casting, and lacquer-work. Architecture is lacking for the present. The course of study lasts four years in each department, and there- is one year of preparatory study in each department. 5. The Tokyo Foreign Language School. — This school waa at first established in April of 1897, as an institution affiliated to the Higher Commercial School. Two years later it was separated and made an independent school under the above-mentioned title. Higher Education. 76 1 The school has a precursor which existed as early as 1874. In that' year the two courses of English and French that formed part of the then University Institution and the Language School in the Foreign Office teaching German, Russian and Chinese were combined under the name of Tokyo Foreign Language School. At the same time the Tokyo English Language School was founded and the department of English in the Foreign Language School was transferred to it. In 1880 the department of the Korean language was created, while in 1884 the Higher Commercial School was founded, subordinate to the Language School. Next year the Language School and the Commercial School were combined into one institution bearing the title of the Tokyo Commercial School. Two years later the depart- ment relating to foreign languages was abolished. Eleven years later the school was resuscitated, as described before. The present school contains the eight departments of English, French, German, Russian, Spanish, Ciiinese, and Korean. The course of study extends for three years. 6. The Tokyo Music School. — The appointment in the Department of Education of a number of Commissioners on music in 1879 was the origin of this school. In the following year a music teacher was engaged from America. He and some Japanese experts were made to carry out an investigation on matters musical both foreign and Japanese, and especially on the songs and arts that had previously existed in our country. Those that were available were set to music with or without modification, while some new aiis were composed, and forsthe first time the adapted music was taught to the students of the "Tokyo Normal School, the Tokyo Women's Normal School, and the Peer's School. A number of students were also taken by the Commissioners, and those students may be regarded as the first regular music students in Japan. In 1887 the scope of the education was enlarged, resulting in the creation of the Tokyo Music School. In 1893 the School was subjoined to the Higher Normal School, to be again converted into one independent institution in 1899. The school contains five difi'erent departments namely, the pre- paratory department, the main department, the special department, the teachers' department, and the elective djp .rtmeut. The main 762 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. department is further subdivided into the vocal course, instrument course, and singing course. The teachers' department is also sub- divided into A. section and B. section, the former to train teachers qualified to teach in normal or middle schools and higher girl's school, the latter in primary schools. The terra of study lasts one year for the preparatory department, three years for the main department, two years for the special, two years and seven months for A. section teacher's course and one year for B. section. The term for the elective department is not definitely fixed. lY. TECHNICAL EDUCATION. General Remarks. — The importance of encouraging technical education was early recognized by the Government, especially in recent times. The promulgation in 1894 of the Rules relating to Apprentice Schools, of the Rules relating to Agricultural Schools in 1883, the Rules of Elementary Agricultural Schools in 1894 may be mentioned among the legislative measures pertaining to industrial education. In a similar way the Rules relating to Com- mercial Schools were issued in 1884 while the Rules relating to Technical Continuation Schools were issued in 1893, this latter kind of school being intended to give technical education of secondary or lower grade. The cause of technical education received in 1894 powerful encouragement, for in that year the Law for subsidizing Technical Education was passed, by which law the State pledged itself to give grant-in-aid to technical schools judged useful for promoting technical education. At first the sum set apart on this account by the Treasury was 150,000 yen a year, but this has been griidually increased with the expansion of this particular branch of eilucation and at the present ■oiime the outlay amounts to 320,000 yen. This sum is voted every year by the Diet and comprises the expense on account of training teachers for technical schools. la 18. )9 the Technical Education Regulations were enacted and at the same time the Rules relating to different kinds of technical schools were drawn up. In 1900 similar rules relating to fishery schools were issued, and in a year later the Rules relating to the Technical Technical Education. 763 Continution Schools were amended and the details about their working were made public. All these endeavors made by the authorities to •encourage technical education were eagerly responded to by the people, so that technical schools were founded, one after another, in quick succession. At persent the technical schools of the higher and lower grades number 240 and the Technical Continuation Schools 1,021. A. Schools relating to manufactuee. 1. Higher Technical Schools. — There are three Higher Technical Schools, these being the Tokyo Higher Technical School, the Osaka Higher Technical School and the Kyoto Higher Technical School. They are all Government institutions. a. The Tokyo Higher Technical School. — Founded in 1881 under the style of the Tokyo Technical School it assumed its present name in 1900. The school devotes itself to giving instruc- tion both theoretical and practical to those who aspire to engage in manufacturing and technical work. It contains six different depart- ments, these being dyeing, ceramics, applied chemistry, mechanics, electricity, and designs as applied to the manufacturing industry. The dyeing department is further subdivided into dyeing proper and weaving, while the department of electricity is subdivided into electrical engineering and chemical electricity. The school has attached to it an apprentice course. b. The Osaka Higher Technical School. — This schools was founded in the city of Osaka in 1896 and it aims at educating those who have to engage in industrial work. The courses provided in it are mechanical engineering, chemical technology, and shipbuild, ing. The chemical department is subdivided into five different branches, these being applied chemistry, dyeing, ceramices, brewing- and metallurgy. The shipbuilding department is subdivided into the two branches of hull work and machinery. c. The Koyto ' Technical School. — This is the latest of the three, having been established in 1902. The school educates those who wish to engage in manufacturing industry or to become teachers in technical schools. This school comprises the three courses of dyeing, weaving and designing. 2. Technical Schools. — The Technical Schools are institu- 764 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. tions which teach technical education of secondary grade. They are either prefectural or communal schools. The curriculum of the schools of this kind comprises morals, reading, composition, mathematics, physics, chemistry, drawing, gymnastics, and practical training on the technical subjects taught. Geography, history, natu- ral history, foreign languages, political economy, statute laws, and book-keeping may be added to the curriculum, the number of such additional subjects to be one or more, according to circumstances. The technical subjects in which a practical training is to be- imparted on the students are selected from the following, the number of such subjects to be one or more according to circum- stances : — Civil engineering, metal-work, shipbuilding, electricity,, wood-work, mining, dyeing, ceramics, designing. 3. Apprentice Schools.— The school of this kind is intend- ed to give the necessary teaching to those desirous of becoming me- chanics. It is either a prefectural or communal establishment and may be attached to either an ordinary primary or a higher primary school. The subjects taught are morals, arithmetic, geome- try, physics, chemistry, drawing, and practical training on one or more technical subjects. All those subjects, with the exception of morals, may be made either optional or may be suitably modified according local requirements, while the technical subjects for giving practical training may be limited to those easily accessible to the school. The terra of study ranges from six months to four years, and the teaching may be conducted on Sundays and in the evening besides at ordinary hours. It may also be limited in certain season. B. Schools eelating to agricultural education. 1. Higher Agricultural i>'Stitutions : — There are besides- the College of Agriculture of the Tokyo Imperial University, two- higher institutions devoted to agricultural education, and these are the Sapporo Agricultural College and the Morioka Higher Agricul- tural and Dendrological School, both being Government establish- ments. a. The Sapporo Agricultural College : — Founded at Sap- poro, Hokkaido, in 1875, this institution gives education in thfr higher branches of agriculture, theoretical and applied, and other subjects required in the work of exploiting the island of HokkaidS- Technical Education. 765 The courses consist of main course, preparatory course, civil engineer- ing course, forestry course, and practical agriculture course. One ■conspicuous feature in this institution is the possessing of about 6,000 cho of an arable land, a large tract forest land, about 200 horses and cattle, a botanical garden measuring about 34,800 isubo, and a museum containing over 12,000 specimens. These are quite sufficient to satisfy the demand of the faculty and students for materials and opportunities both of scientific researches and prac- tical training. b. The Morioka Higher Agricultural and Dendrologi- <3AL School. — The school was opened only in April, 1903, the courses provided being agriculture, dendrology and a veterinary ■course. 2. Agricultural Schools of class A. — The schools belong- ing to this category are either prefectural or communal schools and are intended to give a scientific and practical training to far- mers or their sons. The main aim kept in view is to impart necessary knowledge to future farmers of the middle class. The subject taught is mainly agriculture, but besides it the subjects of sericulture, forestry, and veterinary surgery may be provided, the jiumber of subjects to be one or more. A school of this kind has to provide itself with suitable ac- commodation for giving practical training to the students, this accommodation differing in nature according to the kind of the principal subject taught. "' 3. Agricultural Schools of class B. — A school of this cate- gory is lower in grade than the one mentioned in the preced- ing paragraph and the term of study is not to exceed three years. :The object of this school is, (a) to impart an elementary agricul- tural knowledge to those who finished their primary education, and -(b) to teach farmers within a short period of time on agricultural subjects closely connected with the local circumstances. For those who belong to the former class the term extends for two to three years, while the term may not exceed one year for the students of the latter class. The longer term school may be a permanent establishment but the other may be tem- porary, and the class-rooms may be provisionally established at 766 Japan in the Beginning of tlie Idth Century. different ' places. A school of this grade may be either a prefee- tural or communal establishment. In October 1902 the record of the two grades of schools read as fpllows : — Number of Schools 93 Number of Teachers 733 Number of Students 9,763 Nurr/ber of Graduates ',755 C. Schools Eelating to Fishery. The schools of this description are comparatively small in number. There is only one institution where higher education on the subject is taught, and that is the Fishery School under control of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. The other fishery schools are intended to give technical education on fishery of secondary or lower grade and are maintained either by a prefecture or a community. The course of study at all those schools is generally divided into fishing, manufacture and fecundation. Some schools adopt one or more of the foregoing subjects as special courses of study. These courses of study may be established side by side with those on marine navigation or on other technical subjects. In October of 1902 the fishery education record read aa follows ; — Number of Schools 6 Number of Teachers 26 Number of Students 351 Number of Graduates 8 D. Schools Eelating to Commercial Education, 1. Higher Commercial Sehools. — The schools of this grade- are two in number, namely the Tokyo Higher Commercial School and the Kobe Higher Commercial School, both being maintained by the Government. a. The Tokyo Higher Commercial School. — The school was founded in 1885, and during the subsequent 17 years it was the only place where higher education on commerce waa Technical Education. 767 givph. The school course divided into preparatory, main, aud professional departments. h. The Kobe Higher Commercial Schools.— This wag opened at Kobe in April 1903 and is intended to satisfy the growing demand for commercial education which demand could ,iiot be easily met by the Tokyo institution alone. In standing and all other respects the younger school is identical with the older school. 2. Commercial Schools of Class A. — The schools belong- ing to this category are designed to give technical educatioa on commerce of secondary or lower grade, and are maintained either b}' a prefecture or by a community. The first school of this kind was founded in 1884, and since then the number has considerably increased some of the schools being even higher than tlie regulation standard. The candidates for admission must be graduates of the four year course of a higher primary pciiool or those of equal scholarship. An examination in a foreign language may be insisted on prior to admission to the school. In general a preparatory course is provided for the benefit of the graduates. 3. Commercial Schools of Class B. — The schools of the grade admit those who are not less than ten years old and who have finished the four year course in the ordinary primary school. The term of study extends for not more than three years. The subjects of study are nearly equal to those in the grade A. schools. These inferior schools may add some Jther subject of study suitable to local circumstance or may create a special course. The school is a prefectural or communal establishment. The record of the commercial schools of the two grades read as follow in October 1902 :— Number of Schools 48 Number of Teachers 650 Number of Students 1 "jTSS Number of Graduates i,S92 E. Schools Relating to Navigation. The only institution where a higher course of nautical 768 Japan in tJie Beginning oj the 20th Century. education is imparted is the Nautical College maintained by the Department of Communications. 1. Nautical Schools of Class A. — The schools of this class devote themselves to training mariners of the higher class. The course of study is subdivided into navigation and engineering, and the subjects of teaching comprise morals, reading, composition, mathematics, physics, geography, a foreign language, drawing, gymnastics, and practical ' lessons on technical subjects. Besides, chemistry, statute law, and other subjects allied to nautical work may be added. 2. Nautical Schools of Class B. — Being a school where seamen of a lower class than those in the above-mentioned schools are trained, its course of study does not generally exceed two years, and it admits graduates of primary schools. As yet no nautical school of this inferior class actually exists. The figures with regard to navigation schools was as follows in October 1902:— Number of Schools 7 Number of Teachers 53 Number of Students 7S4 Number of Graduates ■ 4 F. Technical Continuation Schools. The Technical Continuation Schools are places where element- ary knowledge on technical subjects is given to those who are either actually engaged in technical business or are desirous to enter such business. They are at the same time intended to supplement primary education. This being their object, the Technical Continuatioa Schools present very irregular aspects in points of details. The sub- jects taught are agriculture, manufacture, commerce and fishery, and in most cases one school combines two or more subjects. The term of study is also diverse, extending for two or three years in some schools and in others only six months or so. Then some may collect a fee, of not more than 30 ten at most, while no fee is collected in others. Teachers of this kind of schools are generally teachers of primary schools who attend to this particular business in their spare hours, and the number of these teachers does not exceed three or Technical Education. 769 ■four for one school, besides the schoolmaster. Provisions for train- ing teachers of this sort are now sufRcieiitly maintained, for some of the local technical schools provide a special course to answer this purpose, and the summer schools opened every year under the patron- age of the Department of Education also offer excellent opportunities to primary school teachers and other desirous of being initiated into the subject. In schools of this class candidates for admission must have at least completed the ordinary primary school course. However a special arrangement exists for the benefit of those who have not jet finished that course. It was in 1894 that the term Technical Continuation Schools -was first officially adopted. In that year 22 schools of this grade were founded, the number being increased to 186 by June 1901. After that year some schools were converted into schools of another nature while a few were closed; on the whole the cause of this branch of education is making steady progress. Of those schools about one-third are enjoying a grant-in-aid from the Treasury. The latest returns on the Schools are as follows : — Number of Schools 221 Number of Teachers 431 Number of Students 12,992 Number of Graduates '.779 G. Technical Education Funds. As mentioned in the preceding part, the Government has been paying since 1894 no small sum, comparatively speaking, towards the encouragement of technical education. The schools enjoying this help are generally technical schools maintained by the public funds, and those maintained by industrial or commercial asso- ciatiom may also participate in the benefit. The sum set apart on this account was at first limited to 150,000 but has since been increased till at present it amounts to 320,000 yen. This increase was owing to the founding of a large number of new technical and com- mercial schools subsequent to the coming into operation of the encouragement programme. At first there were about forty or tl ty ■schools that were allowed to participate in the fund, but the cor 770 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. responding number increased to 179 ia March 1901 and to 210" a year after. Theoretically the help from the funds may come up to the level of the sum disbursed by the founders of a school for main- taining it, but owing to large number of schools entitled to the allowance from the funds, the rate of the help generally ranges- from 16 to 25 per cent of the amount of maintenance. H. Training of Technical School teachers. With the advance of technical education and the increase of the number of schools of this description and of the students, pro- visions for supplying teachers qualified to undertake the teaching^ are required. In pursuance of that object the Department issued in April 1899 Rules relating to Techuical Education Teachers,, which were amended two years after with the object of enlarging the- scope of operation. Some details of the working of this provision will be mentioned below. 1- Help to Students aspiring to become teachers of tech- nical SCHOOLS. — The sum of 6 yen a month is being furnished- by the Department of Education to those students who engage to become teachers of technical schools after their graduation, the stu- dents being those of the following institution : — course of agricul- ture (both main and practical) of the College of Agriculture of the Tokyo Imperial University, Tokyo Higher Commercial School, Tokyo Higher Technical School, Tokyo Nautical College, Tokyo Fine Art School, Fishery School (under control of the Department of' Agriculture and Commerce). 2. Training Schools.— Tha College of Agriculture, the- Tokyo Higher Commercial and the Higher Technical Schools also establish teachers' training courses of agriculture, commerce and technology respectively, and teachers qualified to teach at the- Technical Continuation Schools are being trained. Technical Education. 771 Y. LIBRARIES. The Imperial Library is a Government establishment and is situated in Tokyo. It was established in 1872 in the premises ol the Museum controlled by the Department of Education. It is- the pioneer institution of the kind in Japan. In March 1902, the Library contained 363,661 volumes of Japanese and Chinese works, 54,931 volumes of foreign works, in all 418,592, volumes. During the one year ending the above date the Library was open 334 days, and was visited by 133,803 per- sons, the daily average of 400. The accommodation being judged inadequate to satisfy the growing number of visitors and of the books, pictures, etc. to be kept, the work of constructing new building has been started. Of the local libraries, the one in Kyoto is the oldest, follow- ed by the two in Osaka. At that particular date libraries of all kinds existing throughout the country numbered 49 containing 408,570' volumes of books, etc. The visitors to the local libraries num- bered 107,790, the daily average of 10 persons, during the one year mentioned above. Of these libraries the most noteworthy in the relative perfection of their accommodation are the library be- longing to the Imperial Education Society in Tokyo and the library maintained by the prefacture of Kyoto. The library main- tained by the prefecture of Miyagi comes next. The rest are of smaller scope and visited by a smaller number of people. 772 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. SUPPLEMENT. FORMOSA. Introductory— Agriculture— Fishery— Forestry— Mining- Trade — Finance— Communications — Education, Sanitation and Religion. I. INTRODUCTORY. A. Geography. Geneeal Remarks. — The districts under the jurisdiction of the Ocvernor-General's OfRce of Formosa comprise Formosa, Hoko-to (the Pescadores) and all the islands lying about them. Formosa extends from 21°10' to 25°30' N. latitude and from 119°10' Positions, to 122°10' E. longitude. The Tropic of Cancer runs almost through its centre and the southern half of Formosa therefore belongs to the tropical zone. The accurate geodesic surveying of Formosa being not yet completed, the positions of the principal places can only be approximately indicated, as follows : — Name of Place. North Latitude. East Longitude. Kelung ... 25° 8' 121° 45' Tansui ... 25° 10' 121° 25' Taihoku (Taipeh) ... 25° 4' 1210 28' Taichu ... 24° 2' 120° 40' Tainan ... 22° 59' 120° 47' Anpei (Anping) ... 22° 59' 120° 13' Takao , ... 22° 36' 120° i(/ Hoko-to (the Pescadores) ... 23° 33' 119° 34' KSshun ... 22° 4' 120° 47' Karenko , ... 23° 55' 121° 35' The area of Formosa can only be approximately given, for the extensive work of surveying started some years ago is not Introductory. 773- yet completed. According to the latest available returns Area, the area of Formosa proper measures about 2,260 square n, -while that of the Pescadores and other islands covers about 13 square ri. The area of Formosa proper being classified according to elevation, the following table is obtained ; — ■ Elevation (metre) Area (sq. Ht ) Above loo About I.47449I , SOO „ 984 923 ,, I,ooo if 486.923 I.50O 3> 223.923 >, 2,000 >y III. II ,, z,50o >j 48.8 3,ooo „ 1745 For further descriptions of the geography of Formosa the reader is referred to the Introductory chapter of this work. B. Fauna and Flora. General Remarks. — A brief description of the fauna and flora of Formosa will now be given. According to "Wallace's " Geographical Distribution of Animals," the fauna of Formosa belongs to the Oriental section which comprises the south-eastern part of the continent of Asia Fauna, and the islands lying south thereof. A certain Western authority states that the mammals found in Formosa number 35 as to species, and of these 14 are peculiar to this island. There are 196 species of birds, according to Mr. Tada ol the College of Sciences of the Imperial Tokyo University, and of that number 31 are judged to be, peculiar to this place. Then there are several species of saurians very xarely met with else- where. Some of the snakes are poisonous. Of fish may be mentioned species of Sclachaiclei and Balordei ; then carps, eels, etc., while of moUuces may be mentioned species of Pecten, Tridacua, Chiton, Murex, Oclapada, etc. Oystei's are extensively cultivated. A large number of insects are found, some of them being extremely beautiful. According to Mr. Grisebach's formulae of geographical dis- tribution of plants, the flora of Formosa belongs to the extreme south division of the China-Japan zone and is practically identical with that of the trade wind zone region of India. The Formosan flora is- 774 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. furtli !■ divisible into tLree main parts. For instance, the flora of hills and plains presents characteristics possessed by the flora of India and Southern China, the southern flora has qualities more or less in common with the flora of the Philippines, while the flora in mountainous districts much resembles that of Japan proper, middle China and Himalaya. According to Mr. Augustine Henry's exploration, Formosa oontnins 1,429 species of plants, exclusive of algx, as follows : — Phanerogamia 1283 Filices 131 Zycopodiacea; •. Marsiliaceae >- 15 Equisetaceae ■' As 20 species of acclimatized plants and 81 species of •cultivated plants are included in the above figures, the plants indigenous to the island are reduced to 1,328 of which the flower- ing plant number 1182 and the flowerless plants the remaining 146. Mr. Henry's investigation is not complete, however, as it did not extend to the backwood regions. Especially in Ericaceas and ■Coniferffi his investigation has been found incomplete. His list ■contains only 6 plants of the latter order, but 16 more have already been discovered. According to the investigations so far carried out by our scientific experts, 103 species divided into 79 genera are judged to be peculiar to Formosa, though the genera themselves also exist elsewhere. It is curious to observe that the majority of acclimatised plants are of American origin, as, for instance, Psidium nuyala, Ascrepias curassavica, Mirabilis jazapa, Tycopersicum eseulentum, etc. Another thing that is noteworthy in this respect is the fact that plants peculiar to Australia, as Acacia, are found in plains and hills, the Acacia growing luxuriantly in southern Formosa. These plants evidently came from the South Pacific and acclimatis- ed in some remote time. Prof. Honda, of the Imperial Tokyo University, who has Introductory. 775 iuvestigated the forest zones of the island, tabulates them as follows : — Forest Zone. Extent of Zone. Tropical Forest. Banyan Zone. Below 1,500 ft. Below 2,000 ft. Broad-Leafed 1 fCamphore Zone 1,50010 3,500 ft. 500 to 4,500 ft. ,, > Torrid Forest < Quercus-Pasania evergreens J ^ ^une 3,5oo to 6,000 ft. 1,500 to 8,500 ft. iCIiamaecyparis & Aiaucaria Zone 6,000 to 7,000 ft 5,500 to 7,500 ft, I'iceaZone ... 7,000 to 8,500 ft. 6 500 lo 9,000 ft. Tsuya Zone ... 8,500 to 10,500 ft. 8,000 to 11,000 ft, •Conifers. Frigid Forest ... Abies Zone ... Above 10,500 ft Above 10,000 ft. In the Tropical forest 18 species of banyan trees is fonnd, the principal species being Ficus retuca and Ficw Wigh- tiana. In the Torrid forest the principal trees are Cinnamomum ■camphora, various species of Quercus, Paaania cuspidata, and ■others. In the Temperate forest the principal trees are several species of Chamrecyparis, Picea, Tsuya and others. Finally the Frigid forest contains Abies, Juniperus, Pirus, and a few others. It may also be noted in conclusion that the forest zone of the mountainous regions somewhat resembles the Californian flora, especial- yl in the possession of Libocedrus, Chamsecyparis, Taxacese, and others. C. History. General Remarks. — The history of Formosa may be divided into six parts, namely (1) period of chaos, (2) Dutch occupation, (3) Spanish occupation, (4) period of native kingdom (5) Chinese rule, (6) annexation by Japan. 1. Period of Chaos. — By the "Period of Chaos" is meant that period when the island had no definite government to rule it and when it was a haunt of outlaws from China and other places who used it as their hiding-place. The discovery of Formosa, so far as authentic history goes, took place in the beginning of the 7th century of the Christian era, during the reign of the Sui dynasty in China. But the sovereign rulers of China of that dynasty and most of the others that succeeded it, did not trouble themselves much about annexing the island as part and parcel of their dominions, and the outlaws who invariably made their appearance on every ■occasion of dynastic changes in China and also of other people 776 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. also placed outside the pale of Chinese control were left unmolested masters of the island. The number of such political outlaws wh» came over to Formosa was especially numerous when the present Manchu Dynasty overthrew the Dynasty of Ming. Nor were outlaws from Japan altogether absent from the island; on the contrary, they also came to the island and used it as their base of operation. They were in most cas^s buccaneers who occupied themselves as pirates along the coast of China. Their stay in the island was therefore temporary, and very seldom , they settled down, as the refugees from China generally did. It is interesting to note that the name "Formosa" was given to the island by the Portuguese navigators, and signifies "The Beautiful." 2. The Dutch Occupation. — The Dutch occupied the Pes- cadores in 1622, probably out of rivalry to the Portuguese who had planted their colony at Maccao, and to the Spaniards who had already held Luzon, one of the Philippine group. It should be added that this occupation of the Pescadores by the Dutch, at first objected to by China, afterward obtained the assent of that Government. It agreed, under certain conditions,, to allow the Dutch to occupy the Pescadores and Formosa. The Dutch East India Company was made to govern the island. The Dutch erected a fort at Anpin and Tainan, the two re- ceiving the Dutch titles of Zeelandia and Providentia respec- tively. The Dutch Colony numbered 600 and their garrison about 2,200, while the Chinese settlers numbered from 25,000 to 30,000 families. The Japanese were also in the island, though their number is unknown. They generally lived there to carry on trade with western people residing in the Far Ea&t, for about this period the Shogunate of Japan encouraged our people to undertake foreign trade and a large numbers of our trading ships navigated in the South Sea. The Dutch administrator was once placed in hot water as a result of his unjust treatment of a Japanese trading ship. To give a brief account of this interest- ing episode, that ship was plundered by the Dutch inhabitants on the Pescadores as she took shelter there on her way to Fuchow. The Magistrate of Nagasaki, in whose jurisdiction the Introdudory. 777 roreii,ni trade business af Japan was placed, sent an experienced South Sea. trader to Formosa to demand damage. So strongly did this trader represented the case entrusted to him, that at one time the incident even threatened to bring about a serious trouble between this country and Holland. At last the Dutch gave way, and at the instance of the Grovernor-General stationed at Batavia the administrator in Forniosa was replaced and thus Japan carried her points in this affair. The Dutch rules were by no means liked by the Chinese in the island for the latter had many grudges to entertain against the others. Especially did the Chinese fret against the imposition of taxes from which they had been left free before the arrival of the " intruders.." This souldering sense of hostility of the Chinese at last broke out ablaze in their organized attempt to dethrone the Dutch sway by a bold coup. In 1652 the leading malcontents in the neighborhood of Providential, that is Tainan, openly rose against the Dutch garrison and colony. They pressed them hard. A Dutch contingent from Zeelandia arrived on the scene of trouble in a hurry, and with the help of a force of the friendly aborigines, at last succeeded in suppressing the insurrection. About 4,000 insurgents were killed in the last battle. Meanwhile the power of Holland began to wane in Europe, and this of course affected the Dutch influence in the Par Eiist. The Japanese too had disappeared from the island, for Japan had changed her policy about foreign intercourse and prohibited her people from venturing abroad. In 1661 the Chinese general named Chfing Kung, better known as Koxinga by the Western people, who refused to swear alle- giance to the new Manchu Dynasty demanded of the Dutch administrator in the island that he evacuate the place, and when this was refused Ch^ng invaded the Pescadores and Zeelandia at the head of 20,000 men. The Dutch consul in the island sent the alarming intelligence to Batavia and asked the immediate dispatch of reinforcements. Batavian Government at iirst tried to arrive at some sore of compromise with the invading army and as a raeitsure towards that end recalled the consul. Chtog would not listen to this prjjposal and invested Zeelandia. The garrison held out for seven months, when it was forced to surrender. This occurred in January, 1662, so that the Dutch occupation of the island lasted 38 years. 778 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 3. The Spanish Occupation. — The Spanish occupation of the island was almost contemporaneous with that of the Dutch, for it took place in May, 1626. The two rival colonies divided their spheres of influence, so to say, and while the Dutch established themselves in the middle and southern Formosa the Spaniards held the northern part. Tiiey stationed their garrison at the present Keluug which they called San Salvador and also at Tansui which they culle.l Santiago. The rival colonies that had already been looking askance at each often at last came to blows in 1642. The Dutch were ■victories and the Spanish occupation was at an end in the 16th year of its existence. 4. The Period of Native Kingdom. — Koxinga who drove the Dutch out of the island was one of the most illustrious of the remnant of Chinese captains who faithfully defended the fallen cause of the Ming Dynasty and withstood the ascendency of the new Manchu rulers. He and his little band of compatriots raised their rebellious banner in southern China, but they were dislodged from one position after another by the superior force of the Im- perialists till at last they were cornered in the little island of Amoy. Then it was that these faithful adherents of the fallen dynasty began to direct their attention to Formosa and decided to obtain there a more secure and extensive footing. The cause which Koxinga upheld was however doomed to fall even after his removal to the new place. The "Legitiniatists," as Koxinga and his adherents called themselves, at first devoted their attention to procure means to carry on their operations against the " Usurper's " army and for this purpose to open wild land in noj'thern and middle Formosa. Leaving a part of the men to garrison the important places, all the rest betook themselves to the peaceful work of reclaiming the virgin soil. ' Though Koxinga princi- pal design never bore fruit, this peaceful undertaking that was subordinate to it proved a lasting source of benefit for the island, in that it was during the short tenure of Koxinga's ascendency that a large tract of level land in the vicinity of Hozan, Koshun, Kagi, Shoku, Shlnchiku, Taihoku and others was brought under cultivation. Circumstances not favoring Koxinga to carry into execution his Introductory. 779 resolution to make a descent on tl e Manchu dominions, he next turned his attention to expanding the area of footing towards the south, and to add Luzon to his base of o^ierations, for Luzon at that time contained a large number of Chinese who espoused in common with Koxinga the cause of the Ming Dynasty. A plan was concerted between Koxinga and his Luzon friends for the overthrow of the Spanish rulers. This was discovered before it was mature, and the Spanish massac- red as many as 24,000 Chinese in cold blood. About this time the sad intelligence reached Formosa of the assassination in Burmah of the last legitimate heir of Ming Dynasty. This was a death- blow to the ambition of Koxinga, and he himself was carried away by decease a few months afterward. After the death of Koxinga the cause of the " Legitimatists " went from bad to worse, for his son Ko- shung on whom fell the mantle of Koxinga, could not naturally enjoy sufficient prestige among his captains to command their faithful obedience. He himself lacked the enthusiasm of his father, while the disaffection that made its appearance among the captains made the matter worse. Ch^ng Ko-shwang in May, 1683, the Manchu Government sent an expedition against him and occupied the Pescadores. Ch^ng Ko-shwang surrendered with all his captains in July of that year and with this the ascendency of the Koxinga family in the island terminated. 5. The Period of Chinese Rule. — The surrender of Ko-swang gave rise to a practical question of what should China do with Formosa ; in other words, whether China should leave the island to shift for itself or whether it should be brought under the sway of her dominion. The latter view prevailed and Formosa was placed under the jurisdiction of the Province of Fukien. During the space of over two centuries, from 1684, when Formosa was brought under Chinese rule, to 1895 when it was ceded to our country, Formosa proved more a source of trouble and humiliation and less that of benefit to China. Insurrections frequent- ly broke out in the island and in one or two cases the insurrection- ists held for some while the control of the island in their hands; Nor was China less troubled about the island in her foreign relations, on the contrary Formosa constantly involved its owners in humilia- 780 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. ting and awkward positions. The savages in this island very- frequently plundered ships and murdered the crews wrecked on the dangerous coast of the island, and such occurrences of course occasion .'d trouble between China and the foreign governments to which the ships belonged. Once a trouble was occasioned on that account with the United States of America and next with Japan. The case with Japan was specially serious. As the Chinese Govern- ment refused to hold itself responsible for the murder of some Luchu fishermen by the savage aborigines, Japan sent an expedition against them, to inflict upon the a severe chastisement. The diplomatic negotiations that were next opened on the subject between Japan and China did not proceed smoothly at first, for the latter refused to pay indemnity for acts committed by the aborigines of Formosa. The negotiations that were in imminent danger of rupture were at last amicably terminated, and China was prevailed upon at the eleventh hour to listen to the demand of Japan and to pay th& indemnity. Another important part which Formosa played in Cliina's foreign relation occurred in 1884 when war broke out between China and France about Annam, and when the squadron of the latter occupied the Pescadores and sealed the ports of Formosa. Warned by such international troubles which Formosa frequently engendered, China determined to bring affairs in the island to better order and paethod. In pursuance of that resolution, Formosa with- all its adjoining islands was detached from Fukuien and elevated to the dignity of an independent province. The first Governor appointed was the celebrated Liu Ming-Cliw6a under whose energetic administra- tion Formosa began to prosper as never it did before. But fate was- against China in regard to this island, and China had to lose the island forever and cede it to Japan, the formal transfer of the island taking place on June 2nd, 1895. 5. Annexation by Japan.— The ajinexalion was merely formal, for the islanders, instigated by their last Governor Liu— for Liu had resigned his place years ago as his progressive system of administration was not regarled with favor by the central Govern uient — , rebelled against their new rulers. The new rulers had theierore to undertake the double task of Introductory. 781 subjugation and administrations. The suppression of these hostile movements on the part of the islanders was concluded in about » year and the island was placed on ^larch 31st, 1896, under the civil administration of the Governor-General's Office, while within two years from the ratification of the Treaty of Peace, that is by April, 1897, the natives were to decide whether they would swear allegiance to the new rulers or preferred to remain as Chinese subjects. The administration policy of the Governor-General judiciously •combined moderation and severity. The natives were left free and unmolested in their old customs and manners even when those practices were regarded injurious, as, for instance, the custom of foot- finding of women. Even in regard to the deleterious habit of opium- smoldng, the Government did not prohibit it all at once; instead it adopted measures for eradicating this vicious habit by gradual process. At the same time the authorities sternly repressed all those acts inimical to the maintenance of order in the island, and in this the Government was confronted with the most arduous task in suppressing the disorderly practices of the so-called " armed raiders " who constituted a perennial source of grave evil for the main- tenance of order in the island, when it was held by China. The raiders were originally refugees or settlers from southern China, and were a sort of professional freebooters who exist almost everywhere in Ghina, and who are known under different names in different places. The former Chinese officers and officials who were on duty in the island, out of spite to the Japanese authorities, stooped to join iands with their old foes, and abetted and instigated them to rise against the new rulers of the island. For about three years from the formal transfer of the island to Japan the troaps stationed in the various parts of the island devoted themselves to quelling the risings of those raiders. By 1898 the raiders had had enough thrashing from the soldiery and constabulary force and were given opportu- nities to take the oath of allegiance to their new rulers and to become as law-abiding people. The raiders eagerly availed them- selves of this opportunity and took the oath, and in northeru Formosa at least peace was completely restored. Jlatters were not so satisfactory in districts remote from the 782 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century. iseat of the Government, especially in middle and southern Formosa. They had grown even more troublesome as they were reinforced by bands of coiifir.ned peace-breakers coming from the northern districts. In order to purge completely once for all this standing menace to peace and prosperity in that district the Governor-General carried out in about six months beginning at the end of 1901, an organized clearing movement. It was a completely success, for while it entirely shattered whatever power of resistance that the raiders and banditti retained, it impressed powerfully on all the other classes in the island of the futility of any attempt at resisting the Impeiial Government. Thus in eight years from the annexation of the island peace was completely restored, and apparently the island has been relieved from this source of trouble from which the Chinese rulers had been constantly annoyed. It should be aiided that the law-abiding people of the island being equally interested with the authorities in the restoration of order, tendered their services for attaining this common end. For this purpose they organized themselves into voluntary corps charged with the task of preserving peace and order in their own districts. D. Population. 1. Total POPULATIOX. — Thi e latest census returns put the total population of Formosa and the Pescadores as fol lows : — Ratio of Females No. of Family. Male. Female. Total, jj per 100 of Males. District. 'eople from pan Proper. Natives. Taihoku 60,484 161,349 132,972 294,321 60.25 83.89 Kelung ... *■• ... 17,890 56,922 44,513 ioi,43S 58.37 79.40 Gilan 20,746 57,164 49,173 106,337 50-37 86.5a Shinko ... 8,149 22,564 18,329 40,893 22.92 81.61 Toshiyen 29,897 Joo,545 86,397 186,942 69.79 85.98 Shinchiku 29,651 86,855 75,204 162,059 63.95 86.84. Eyoritsu 22,219 67,999 62,166 130,165 63.51 91.64 Taichu ... 34,901 104,617 85,518 190,135 56.65 82.16 Shokwa... 49,202 146,018 118,725 204,743 52.10 81.43 Kanto ... 13,617 33,607 31.583 65,190 38.24 94.49 Toroku ... 38,747 "0,073 94.163 204,236 40.75 85.89 Introd ictory. 78S Ratio of Females No. of -• r per 100 of Males. euplc from " District. Family. Male. Female. Total. Japan Proper. Natives. Kagi •• 43.344 "6,391 97,107 213,498 51.80 83.65 Ensuiko 46,020 137.018 113.440 250,458 25.81 83.04 Tainan ■• 39.424 102,642 85.641 188,283 68.23 83.^9 Eanshoryo ... 9,198 23.549 22,138 45,687 31-35 94.50 Hozan .. 36,348 93,402 81.347 174,749 50.18 87.54 Ako .. 32,628 91.635 83,540 175,175 35-89 91-39 Koshun 4,229 11,980 ".037 23.017 3S.89 9303 'J ailo 11,226 27,773 25,825 53,598 42.29 93-S3 Pescadores ... .. Io,866 27.185 26,966 54,151 73-41 99-77 Grand Total ... 558,786 1,579,288 1,345.784 2,925,072 57.36 85.69 Kole : — In the above figures the inhabitants of Betel Tobago Island in the jurisdiction of Taito are not inclided, the returns about them being lacking. Nor are the ofi5cers and men of the garrison included. However the figures includii the actual number of aborigines. There were besides five families, consisting of 8 n-.alcs, who lived among the aborigines' communities in the jurisdiction of Koshun. The foregoing figures classified according to the origin of the three main divisions of people in Formosa, that is, people from Japan proper, native islanders, and aborigines, the following three tables are obtained : — a. PEOPLE FROM JAPAN PROPER. No. of People Actually Residing. No. of Resident Family. . V ""1'"- •'-^"-"j • *^-'" — &■ District. Male. Female. 'I'otal. Taihoku .•• 5.771 io,ic8 6,090 16,198 Kelung 896 3,243 1,893 5.136 Gilan 305 754 380 1,134 Shinko 84 144 33 177 '1 oshiyen 166 331 231 562 Shinchiku 582 957 6l2 1,569 Byoriisu 211 518 329 847 '1 aichu 998 1,723 976 2,699 Shokwa 217 595 310 905 Nanto 133 306 117 423 Toroku 386 827 337 1,164 Kagi 604 776 402 1,178 Ensuiko 174 589 152 741 'I'ainan ... 1,704 2,981 2,034 5.015 Banshoryo 152 185 58 243 Hc'Zan 524 i,ii8 561 1,679 Ako 154 365 131 496 'voshun 83 198 77 275 "auo 304 454 192 646 lv;»cadores 329 598 439 J.037 (Jrand Total... ... 13.777 26,770 15,354 42,124 184 Japan in tite beginning of tTie 20th Veniury. District. Vaihoku Kelung CiJan Shinko Toshiyen Sbinchiku Byoritsu ... ... Taichu Shokwa Nanto Toroku Kagi Ensuiko Tainan Banshoryo Ho2an Ako Koshun Tailo fescadores Grand Total No. of Resident Family. — 54,713 ... 16,994 19,606 7,958 ... 29,024 ... 28,286 ... 21,698 ... 33,408 ... 48,985 ... 11,955 — 37,958 42,610 ... 45,846 — 37,720 ... 8,56s ... 35,824 ... 28,945 2,448 3,505 ... 10,537 NATIVE ISLANDERS. No. of People Actually Residing. 526,585 Male. 151,241 53,679 54,148 22,130 98,459 84,023 66,781 101,896 145,423 29,056 107,433 1 14,854 136,429 99,661 21,419 92,284 81,812 7.805 8,987 26,587 1,504,107 Female. 126,882 42,620 46,502 18,001 84,45s 7.2,777 61,247 83,595 118,41s 27,756 92,117 96,042 113,288 83,607 20,268 80,786 74,587 7,154 9,900 26,527 1,284,526 TotaL 278,123 96,299 100,650 40,I3« 182,914 156,800 128P28 185,491 263,838 56,812 199,550 210,896 249,717 183,268 41,687 «73>o7o 156,399 »4,'959 16,887 53,»I4 2,788,633 District. Gilan Shinko ... . Toshiyen ... . Shinchiku ... . Byoritsu . Taichu ... . Nanto ... . Toroku ... . Kagi ... . Banshoryo... Ako Koshun ... . Tailo Grand Total . 3. ABORIGINES. ■NT r -NT CT, ■■, No. of People Actually No. of No. of Resident , ■ •' Community. Family. Male. Female. Residing. 14 5 28 54 22 15 79 64 21 19 59 53 185 618 835 107 707 783 310 495 1,529 403 130 481 3,529 1,698 7,417 18,424 2,262 290 1,755 1,87s 700 998 4,24s 1,813 761 1,945 9,458 3,977 18,322 48,411 2,291 295 1,711 1,815 590 947 3,710 1,709 663 1,812 8,822 3,806 17,733 45,904 TotaL 4,553 585 3r466 3,690 1,290 «,945 7,955 3,522 1,424 3.757 18,280 7.783 I 36,065 94,315 "ijputatlon. 785 2. Relative Density. — According to the returns compiled at the end of 1900, the relative density of population in the various •districts of Formosa was as follows : — strict. Number of Pop'n. per I squ. ri. People from Native Japan Proper. Islanders. Total. Ratio of People from Japan Proper per 1,000 Islanders. Taihoku 77 2,606 2,683 29.44 Taichu 13 2,076 2,089 6.49 Tainan 16 1,868 1,884 ^•57 Gilan 34 3,oi6 3.050 1 1. 42 Taito... _^ '> 78 80 29.20 Pescadores 72 3,686 3.758 I9S9 Grand Tot al ... 25 1,805 1,830 14.12 1899 - .. ;.. 22 1.750 1,772 12.61 1898 ... 17 1,725 1,742 988 1897 ... II 1,800 1,811 6.05 1895 ... 7 1,718 1,752 4.1 1 i on Formosa Proper. 5. Faiwan '^ 6. Puyuma 7. Amis 8. Peipo 9- Yarui _ on Botel Tobago Island Of the foregoing nine tribes, Peipo sometimes called Peipo-hoatt or Sek-hoan, possesses an interesting feature that distinguishes it from the others. This tribe originally occupied the western plains. Adtniimtratice System. 787 of the island, but in consequence of the arrival there of the Dutch and the Chinese settlers, their superiors intellectually, the Peipo either lost their original characteristics or become entirely extinct. The remnants that are found to-day can hardly be distinguished both in their exterior and their intellectual standard from the Chinese settlers with whom they live as neighbors. C. Administrative System. 1. The Governor-General's Office. — Since the Office was established on June 17th, 1895, more or less changes have taken place in the administrative system of the island. The system now in force was that revised in November, 1901. The Administrative new system is that of two stages while the old one Syitem. was of three ; in other words, whereas, according to the old arrangement, administrative business had to pass three stages before it can reach the people or the Governor- General's Office, only two stages intervene in the existing system ■which therefore bring the authorities and people into closer touch. The Governor-General's Office consists of the Civil Affiiirs Bureau and the Military and Naval Staff. The former Organ'zatioa is further subdivided into several offices dealing with of the Office. Police Affairs, General Affairs, Finance, Communica- tions, Trade and Industry, and Public Works. 2. Local Administration. — At first three prefectures and four district offices were established to look after the administration of the island, but as a result of administrative rearrangements carried out in November, 1901, they were abolished and in place of them 20 district offices were established, situated at the following places : — Taihoku, Kelung, Gilan, Shinko, Toshiyen, Shinchiku, Byoritsu, Taichu, Shokwa, Nanto, Toroku, Kagi, Ensuiko, Tainan, Banshoryo, Hozan, Ako. Koshun, Taito, Hoko (the Pescadores). Under each district office a number of communal offices exist to serve as mediums between the Government and local Communal people. These offices number about 563 in all. They Officss. are intended to become in time organs of local self- government. 788 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Century, The Peace Corps system is a relic of the Chinese rule and attends, subject to regular Police offices, to preserving peace in the respective districts. A unit of corps is made up of Peace Corps, ten families placed under the control of one of the seniors. The Peace Corps p-issess a Volunteer Baud composed of adult males. This is chiefly intended to provide against; the raid of armed banditti and also against calamities, as fire flood, etc. 3. Legislature. — The Governor-General is empowered in virtue of his own authority to pass sentence inflicting a confinement not exceeding one year in term or a fine not exceeding 200 yen. In ordinary cases, however, the legislative affairs are determined by the Governor- General's High Council consisting of the Governor. General, the Director of Civil Affairs Bureau, Officers on the ISfjlitary and Naval Staffs, Chief Councillor, Councillors, Chief Judge and Chief Procurator of the Appeal Court, I'hief Police Commissioner, Directors of the Bureaux. A decision of the Council acquires validity on approvel of the Emperor, but in case of urgent need that approval may be obtained afterward. All the laws and regulations in force in Japan proper are not enforced in Formosa, but only those that are specified for the new dominion are in force. In civil and commercial affairs a portion of the codes is enforced over the Japanese from Japan proper and also in regai'd to matters which relate in common to those Japanese and natives. Matters which relate to Chinese and natives are to be dealt with according to pre-established usages. This expedient is also followed in settling matters about land when they relate to Japanese from Japan proper and natives. In criminal affairs all the inhabitants in the island are subject to the Criminal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure. 4. Judiciary. — The judiciary system is dual, that is it consists of Local Courts which deal with matters relating to first instance and the Appeal Court whose judgment is final. Three Local Courts and five Branch Courts exist, the former at Taihoku, Taichu, and Tainan and the latter at Shinchiku, Gilan, Kagi, Hozan and Hoko. The Appeal Court is located at Taihoku. The qualifications of judges and procurators do not differ from those Agriculture. 789' established in Japan proper. In the Local Court judgement is given by a single judge but in the Appeal Courb a college three judges sit over a case. The barrister's service and rules are in vogue in the island as- in Japan proper. II. AGRICULTURE. A. Tillage. 1. Natural Classification of Land.— Of the area of Formosa measuring 2,260 sq. ri (about 3,500,000 cho) the greater part is occupied by hilly places. There are only four plains of some extent, these being the plain extending from Shokwa A'^eas of Plains to Hozan, a district round about Taihoku, Gilan and Hills. and Taito. All these plains consist of quarternary formation. Presuming that places more than lOO metres above sea level are hills and forest-land and those of lower elevation plains available for cultivation, the whole land in Formosa may be classified as follows: — Hills and Forest-land 2,250,000 cAa Plains and Arable-land 1,264,852 „ Total 3,514,852 c/w 2. Classification of Aeable-land. — As in the cnse of Japan proper, the arable-land in Formosa may be diviiled into paddy-fields and upland-fields, the former capable of receiving the cultivation of rice twice a year. Rice being a staple article of diet, its AreaofPaddy-Fi lis cultivation receives the largest share of and Upland F,.eld?. attention from the native farmers, and the area of paddy-fields is therefore larger than that of any other as follows : — 790 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Ko. per ceiitage. Paddy Fields 213,165.06 55.9 Upland Fields 168,317.95 44-1 Total 381,483.01 loo.o Note : — I ko corresponds to about 9.724 tan. 3. Cultivation. — The natives, being too much disposed to depend upon the natural advantage which the climate extends to them, are content with a simple mode of cultivation which yields a comparatively small amount of harvest. As it is, though paddy- fields give two harvests of rice, the profit which the farmers derive from them does not exceed 20 to 30 yen per -ko. The advantages which bountiful nature bestows upon the islanders are indeed so great that the Formosa farmer can even obtain three crops in one year, two crops of rice and one crop of either a cruciferous or leguminous plant. One special feature in the tillage prevailing in the island is a greater utilization of the labor of beasts than in mde of Tillage. Japan proper, especially buffaloes. Implements used in the cultivation with buffaloes are also ingenious. 4. Pkincipal Products. — Of the principal agricultural products, tea, rice, sugar-cane, fibre-plants, etc. deserve first attention, and they will be described below briefly. a. Tea. 1. Kinds. — There are two kinds of tea produced in Formosa, and they are Oolong-tea and wrapper-tea. Curing is done entirely by hand. The process is divided into several stages, the preliminary process being undertaken by farmers and the finishing or recuring process by tea-merchants. 03long Tea- In the preliminary manufacture the leaves are dried in the sun three times. This is done with the object of causing their fermentation and to bring out a flavor peculiar to this tea. After the leaves are dried, they are then fired twice in the pan, then dried by weak fire. This fire-drying is performed three times. From the first sun-drying to the last fire-drying in about 7.50 hours are required for the spring leaves, 5.54 for the summer leaves, 7.38 for the autumn leaves, and 7.13 for those of winter. The Agriculture. 701 ■whole process being guided solely by experience and without depend- ing upon the help of instruments, properly so-called, the utmost attention is demanded of the manufacturers. Four kin of green leaves produce about 1 kin of half-manufactured leaves, so that supposing that 1 ko of tea-farms yields 2,000 kin of green leaves, the farmer can get 500 kin of half-manufactured tea from so much area of tea-plantation. The finishing process done by the merchants is simple, and consists first in assorting the leaves by passing them through sieves and then drying them in the pan for about seven or eight hours. The leaves are then packed. The Oolong tea manufactured in that manner stands midway in taste between black tea and green tea, and possesses a peculiar strong flavor, while it is devoid of either bitter or stringent taste. Wrapper tea derives its name from the fact that the tea of this special sort is contained in a paper-wrapper, before it is packed in a box. This tea is a recent innovation, dating only 20 years back. The principal point that distinguishes this tea "Wra-.per from the Oolong is that, in manufacturing it, a flavor of Tea. certain kinds of flowers is imparted to the leaves. Four difierent flowers are used for this purpose, so that the ■wrapper-tea is broadly divided into four brands, according to the kind of flower used. 2. Export. — The custom returns on the recsnt export of Oolong and wrapper teas are quoted below. EXPORT OF OOLONG TEA. (unit oiyeji). Year. 1867 1868 1869, 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 187s 1876 Quantity. Declared Value. Average per 100 izn. 203,000 396,100 546,000 — — 1,054,000 1,486,800 ^^ ^^ 1,951,300 — — 1,560,900 2,461,000 808,369 32 4,157,300 5,890,500 1,049,601 25 792 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20th Century. Quantity. Declared Value. Average per 100 iin. 6,923,000 1,904,65s 27 8,026,100 2,283,778 28 8,503,200 2,955,916 34 9,047,500 3.278,524 36 6,944,600 3.395.207 5 9,030,300 3,651,130 40 9,905,000 3,398,048 34 9,867,400 3,539,633 35 12,273,000 4,122,746 33 12,128,700 5,066,109 41 12,644,200 4,995.065 39 13,574,100 4,429,826 32 13,070,800 4,366,901 34 12,862,900 4,688,475 36 13.S75.300 4,126,891 30 13,671,700 4443.364 32 16,394.900 6,167,761 37 15,400,300 6,144,719 39 13,399.800 5,991,171 44 15.923,475 5,854.019 36 15,228,643 6,906,030 45 15,095,111 6,222,575 41 14,547,826 5,511,402 37 14,598,548 5,300,193 36 14,539,305 4,185,828 28 Year. 1877.. 1878.. 1879.. 1880.. 1881.. 1882.. 1883.. 1884 . 1885.. 1886.. 1887.. 1888 . 1889.. 1890 . 1891.. 1892.. 1893.. 1894. 1C95.. 1896 . 1897.. 1898.. 1899 • 1900.. 1901 . b Rice. 1. Yield.— Two harvests of rice are obtained, as mentioned before, from paddy-fields of Formosa, and as these fields constitute over 55 per cent, of the whole area of arable-land, the quantity of rice pro- duced ought to amount to immense figures, if cultivation is conducted with more care. At present, however, the output is comparatively small, as demonstrated by the following returns showing the crop of 1901. Area (io) 155,232.08 13.30" -41 140,902.89 12,470.15 The average yield in the earlier harvest was only 22.1 kokti^ even when the circumstances were so favorable, while that in the m Harvest {^^ but on the advent of the new regime, the system was abandoned' ;ftnd salt manufacturers were left free. The result of this new departure was a failure, and inflicted, harm on both the manufacturers and the consumers. This was due to the fact that the removal of official interference was at once followed by a large increase of the number of manufacturers who were, in consequence, obliged to sell tlieir goods at a very narrow margin of profit or even by incurring loss. Then, whereas formerly something like a uniform price was maintained throughout th& island, with the adoption of the new system, people residing in remote- districts had to pay a far higher price on account of cost of trans- port for this important article of living. This contrast between the eld and new arrangements will be made clear from the following comparison of the prevailing prices under the two systems : — Price per 100 A'm. Official Price in Days of Chinese Rule. 1.40 to 1.60 yen. Average Market Quotation under new Rule. 0.70 to 9.00 ven. In view of those circumstances, the Government decided to- Forestry. 7!)9 review the manopoly system and this was enforced from May IStli, 1899. 2. Government Monopoly.— At present the Salt Monopoly Offices are established at niile different places and they have charge «f the purchase of salt. The sale is entrusted to the men belonging to the Salt Seller's Guild, which exists under official control. The Guild is organized solely with natives and is made to maintain selling offices at 2i> places and briin'Gh offices at 79 places, the central office being; located at Taihoku. The Guild is also made to undertake by contract the business of transporting salt. 3. Salt-Fields. ^The area of salt-fields has increased with great strides since the resuscitation of the monopoly system, for while the fields that were left in waste shortly after the adoption of the free competition method have been revised with the return of brigliter hope, while a large number of fields has also been newly laid out under official sanction. At present about 515 eho are engaged ia manufacture, while' 339 eho are about to be laid out. Then permis- sion has been given' to construct new fields measuring altogether 347 eho. These figures show a great advance compared with what was existing in the time of Chinese rule, when the fields measured only about 400 ckb. lY. FORESTRY. A. Genekal Condition of Forests. I. Extent ofFoeests. — The forests exist in the range of hillg longitudinally traversing the island and also in the aborigines' quarters situatedi in the eastern region. Though the exact extent of all those wooded areas is not yet known, it may be roughly estimated at 2,116,000 eJio at least, that is to say, about 60 per cent, of the whole area of the island. The natiiial resource of this particular description; : must be considered as immense, when it i» remembered 'thit vast primeval' forests exist in many parts of the r(":io!i of the aborigines.' 800 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 2. Peinoipal Species. — The sylvan flora of the island being gtill imperfectly known, it is not possible to give any definite list of principal titriber-trees in the island. Some of those trees have already been mentioned in the paragraph of flora given in the pre- ceding part of this section. B, Camphok. Camphor being one of the most important wood products in the island, deserves mention at some length. Besides it is in Formosa that the world's supply of natural camphor is obtained. , i 1. C!oNi)iTioN Existing before the Enfokcement of toe Monopoly. — The camphor administration was at first mainly con- ducted along the old usage that had prevailed before the island was annexed to Japan. The authorities issued license to refiners, restricted the districts where the refining could be carried on but left the licensed persons to maice free use of camphor tree^ witliia those districts. But this method did not keep proper .balance between supply and demand, for the refiners, who in most cases had only a limited capital at their disposal, were led to produce a larger amount than the market required and therefore to keep the price very low. What was far more serious was the fact that the absence of control of the felling of the trees naturally tempted the refiners to use only those portions of the trees that yield the largest percentage of camphor with the minimum of trouble and expense. The waste of the trees was therefore extensive. Then the refinere, in order to increase the margin of profit, too often resorted to the fraudulent devise of mixing camphor with rubbish. The system therefore was a grave defect so far as the interest of refiners- and the proper utilization of camphor were concerned. In those days therefore the camphor market stood so low that the refiners could barely pay the tax of 10 yen for camphor and 3 yen for camphor oil, each per 100 kin. 2. Government Monopoly. — All. those facts convinced the authorities to convert the camphor industry into a state monopoly and the new departure was made on August 5th, 1899. By this system the authorities put a limit on the quantity of manufiicture Forestry. 801 "the season of manufacture, the districts where it could be carried out, and the number of kilns. Moreover certain rate of prices was ■fixed for the trees. The enforcement of the monopoly system, though at first com- plained of by a section of the people who were deprived tem- porally of means of subsistence, has proved a great boon to such of those who, in virtue of their established character, were al- lowed to engaged in the work of refining, for whereas formerly the lion's share of profit of the refining business went to the •jpocket of capitalists, the business was for the first time placed on a firm footing. At present the refiners have simply to i^ell their goods to the Government at the proper rate determined ac- cording to the state of the market, while all the troubles and ex- pense involved in providing against the raid of hostile aborigines residing in the vicinity have now been transferred to the shoulders ■of the Government. The enforcement of the monopoly has metamorphosed the quality of Formosa camphor, for the refiners, who are under strict order to sell their half-refined camphor to the Government alone, get a ■higher price, as their quality is superior. 3. Monopoly Agent. — The half-refined goods thus procured by the authorities are mainly sold to a monopoly agent, at present a British firm, which is obliged to observe various conditions incident- al to this sole privilege, besides depositing with the Government a security amounting to 1,900,000 yen. 4. Mode of Eefining. — The refining process that was formerly prevailing in the island was quite primitive. Soon after tlie annexation of the island, the Japanese process was introduced and has at last entirely superseded the native method. To give one (Significant illustration of the superiority of the new process over ihe native one, it may be observed that the native refiners were first enabled by that mode of refining to obtain camphor oil. This important by-product formerly went with the waste. 5. Supply of Eaw Material. — Camphor-trees being found in the primeval forests which have not yet been accurately explored, it •is impossible to estimate the supply of raw material that exists in the ■island. It may, however, be stated that the supply of camphor-trees 802 Japan in the Beginning oj ttie 20tk Century. can last 40 or 60 years according to the present rate of conversion. The supply may also be expected to be permanent as the authorities liave been planting millions of young camphor plants in suitable places. Y. MINING. 1. Gexeeali Remakks. — The mineral resources of Formosa at present consist of gold, coal, sulphur and petroleum with a greater or smaller quantity of building stones. 2. Gold. — Gold exists both in the shape of viens or rather lode and of alluvial deposits. The lodes occur in Tertiary formation. At present seven gold mines are worked, but of these the mines at Kinkwaseki, Kyufun and Botan are the most important. The mining in those mines is cairied on partly in Western style and partly in the old simple style. Alluvial deposits occur in the vicinity of all those mines and are especially rich along the course of the river Kelung. They are exclusively worked by natives who attend to their business in a rude simple style. However the output of placer digging sometimes^ surpasses that of regular mines, as may be seen from the following; returns. Year. Output of Gold Mine. (mommej. Output of Placer-digging. [monwie). Total. (tnomme). 1S99 32,610.00 7,148.63 39,758.63 1900 92451-38 9>473-40 101,924.78 1901 15,422.54 127,785.14 283,207.68 3. Coal. — Coal occur in Tertiary formation, and is founif throughout the island, though richer towards the north and poorer towards the south. Li general there are nine seams, each separated from thft other by a deep layer of sand-stones and shales. The seam is in m>jst cases comparatively thin, generally 2 to 4 feet. The mining is at present left to native workers who extract the miiiural on the old laborious style. Mill ill tj. 803 Data atout coal-mining are as follows : — 1899. 1900, 1901. Number of Concession . 39 41 42 Total Area of Concession (Isttbo) .. 3,266,320 3,970,563 3,934,742 Output (/£!«) 29,811 41,944 62,703 4. SuLPHUE. — Sulphur deposits occur, to inentioa only those that are important, in the neighborhood of Mt. Daiton, situated due north of Taihoku, and on Kizan island in the jurisdiction of Gilan. Data are as follows : — 1899. 1900. 1901. Number of Concession 7 4 5 Total Area of Concession (tsubv) ,., 332,79s 249,705 294,205 Output (/J;«) 958,100 1,231,168 2,732,860 5. Petroleum. — Indications of the preseuce of petroleum veins aie discovered along the elevated districts bordering on the central mountain ranges and the plains contiguous to them, but as yet petroleum is a potential source of wealth and is still left prac- tically unexploited, YI. TRADE. 1. General Kemarks. — On account of the lack of regular shipping facilities between the island and the opposite coast of China, imperfect communication iii the interior, absence of ordinary banking organs and of a reliable and accurate system of weights and measures, trade in Formosa was in a backward state, and it was only after it came under Japanese rule that the change for the better has markedly began to manifest itself, for the new Govern- ment, anxious to push this important factor of national prosperity to a level of the mother country, has energetically endeavored to remove all those causes standing in the way of its development. 2. Trade with Japan Proper. — Trade with the mother country may be said to date from 1897, by which time order had been to a large extent restored in the island. The following returns give a survey of the progress of this particular branch of Formosau trade in recent years : — S04 Japan in the Beginning 0/ the 2Qth Ceniury. EXPORT TO MOTHER COUNTRY. (Value ia yen). Item. Oolong Tea... Rice Brown Sugar "White Sugar Salt Tengusa ■Camphor Camphor Oil Hides Others Total ... 1901. 684,749 1,024,332 2,243,452 49.145 87,447 36,608 1,571,496 1,325,836 60,869 262,018 1900. 482,508 93,"8 1,473,834 64,003 49,958 32,275 945,383 962,643 57,058 241,326 1899. 275,483 62,622 1,620,275 128,602 28,997 292,261 1,074.529 22,333 145,369 1898. 53.218 1,146,489 1,556,037 46,227 24,739 27,247 334,830 540,949 15,608 397.432 1897. 18,020 74,616 1,194,000 747 13,968 180,108 437,626 4,037 181,524 7,345.956 4,402,110 3,650,475 4,142,777 2,104,648 IMPORT FROM MOTHER (Value vayen). Item. 1901. Railroad Material 242,162 Other Machines 130,023 Metals 128,771 Ironware "5,674 Other Metallic Ware 110,703 Rice 506,502 Beans etc 99,57o Cuttle-fish 74,172 Dried and Salted Fish ... 163,911 Bonito and others 103,464 Soy 187,955 Miso 75,778 Orocer's Goods 59,757 Picliled Provisions 64,733 Tinned Provisions 100,464 Shoes and Foot-gears 66,672 Clothes and accessories ... 68,436 Medical Stuff 110,420 Olass and Glass-Ware ... 68,065 Petroleum and Oils 103,709 Paper 186,774 Woven Goods ... 837,082 Cigarettes 490,993 Cut Tobacco ... 121,134 Sake i 58,'?40 ^'^' \ 661,429 igoo. 617,520 144,104 39,853 129,193 24,884 545,410 75,582 47,835 125,405 22,046 132,943 58.673 79,007 75,524 123,240 40,553 4,074 110,340 53,107 120,334 118,055 367,998 512,585 COUNTRY. 1899. "4,558 2,023 165,166 868,713 28,549 98,522 162,777 93,130 36,926 -305,506 22,347 283,832 26,476 56,005 63,420 280,317 252,208 1898. 16,721 15,120 335,672 55,863 1,978 3,964 7,254 97.875 30,199 52,383 18,806 76,397 4,372 9,000 ;87,987 9,965 6,214 59,950 1 14,696 95,617 1897- 93,071 615 52,147 286,773 261,916 1.324 35,83 1 4,797 64.635 26,729 1,880 90 «> 15,685 59.797 52.359 625,805 586,514 478,328 163,449 Trade. 805. Item. Beer , Coal and Cokes . Boards , Cement and Ash. Matches Others Total ... . I90I. 1900. 1S99. 1S98. 1897. 213,755 212,470 165,212 I23,56t 19,827 63,186 18,804 40 4,368 — 785,967 1,220,449 587,706 255,556 67,642 98,877 250,248 67,790 io,7SS 8,300 198,485 210,121 20,412 4,078 260 2,484,783 2,349,26* 3,733,675 1,990,082 2,505,736 8,782,258 8,439,032 8,011,826 4,266,768 3,723,721 3. Foreign Trade. — China declared in 1858 to open ports in Formosa to foreign trade, and in 1863 the four ports of Takao,. Anpei, Tamsui and Kelung were opened. The following table reviews the progress of trade in those ports, that is practically in the whole of the island, since their opening to trade in 1863. The figures, however, include the volume of trade with the mother country which was at first represented by China and lately by Japan. FOREIGN TRADE UNDER CHINESE RULE. Year. Tamsui and Kelung (tael). Takao and Anpei (tael). TotkL 1863 ... 247,366 347,867 595,233 1864 .. 659,881 927.405 1,587,286 1865 710,628 1,893455 2,604,083 1866 862 1,862,313 2,724,567 1867 .. 782,339 1,832,648 2,614,987 1868 822,846 1,296,679 2.119,525 1S69 .. 759,657 1,537,796 2,797,455 1870 .. 985,766 2,144,899 3,130,66s 1871 .. 1,239,820 2,277,961 3,5'7,7Sr 1872 ., 1,493,944 2,159,280 3,653,224. 1873 •• 1,445,910 1,829,898 3,275,808 1874 .. 1,626,945 2,303,229 4,266,101 1875 .. 1,842,221 2,279,470 4,121,691 1876 .. 2,410,370 2,698,320 5,108,690. 1877 •• 2,776,597 2,837,714 5,598,311 1878 .. 3,089,309 2493 383 5,582,692^ 1879 .. 3,633,186 3,750,925 7,384,111 1880 .. 3,926,995 4,527,544 8,454,53* 1881 .. 4,165,880 4,059,311 8,225,191 1882 .. 4,018,723 3,170,667 7,189,39* 1883 .. 3,561,682 3,772,996 7,334,67* 1884 .. 3,653,416 3,084,608 6,737,484 1885 .. 4,537,465 2478,681 7,oi6,i4fr 806 Japan in the Beginning of the 2(ith Century, Year. Tamsui and Takao and Total. Kelung (tael). Ampei ftael). 1886 5,462,503 2,583,625 8,046,128 1887 5,641,990 2,762,538 8,404,528 1888 5,701,185 2,862,020 8,563,205 1889 5,294,796 2,746,464 8,041,260 1890 5,579,713 3,575,723 9,155,436 1891 5,352,554 3,131,260 8,483,814 1892 5,796,284 2,932,311 8,728,59e 1893 7,880,204 3,295,869 11,176,073 The share which the staple exports and imports play ic th» respective volume of Formosan trade may be gathered from the following two tables : — STAPLE EXPORTS OF FORMOSA. (unit otym). igoi. 1900. 1899. Oolong Tea 2,996,002 4,186,702 4,723,450 Wrapper Tea 505,061 630,948 572,34s Rice .. 1,132,419 2,276,359 1,265,727 Sesame Seed 213,883 61,341 3", '79 Brown Sugar 678,369 452,723 1,216,061 White Sugar 352,944 216,521 370,884 Lungngaiis 91,617 ■■ \ 124,618 15,872 29,748 65,642 95,725 Camphor 789,290 1,385.645 1,732,739 Ginger 91,186 128,732 125,587 China (Jrass etc. ... 382,798 368,654 298,406 Oil-Cakes 124476 77,203 101,872 Coal 134,654 95,905 75,213 Others 681,476 644,924 440,085 Total .. 8,298,800 10,571,285 11,114,921 1898. 1897. 1896. Oolong Tea .. 5,696,841 6,445,120 5,854,019 Wrapper Tea 526,733 460,910 — R.ce .. 2,168,339 1,799,763 913,291 Sesame Seed 114,951 153,790 35,"6 Brown Sugar .. 1,417,921 1,146,820 >, 093,538 White Sugar 566,454 347,221 435,921 Lungngaws / 46,311 •■ t 83,468 101,153 50,288 125,238 144,071 Camphor 961,945 1,329,116 2,247,930 Ginger 84,031 52,831 29,563 China Grass etc. ... 378,885 353400 219,078 OU-Ci>kes 140,957 69^^27 29,463 Coal 60,550 23.885 16,541 Others 599,779 425,264 12,759,293 258,449 Total ... 12,827,189 11,402,226 Trade. 807 STAPLE IMPORTS OF FORMOSA, (unit of ym). Flour Salt-fish Dried Mushroom Marcaroni Shoes (Chinese) Ginseng Opium Beans Rice Iron Pan Lead (lump) Petroleum Paper Refined Sugar (1st class). Refined Sugar (2nd class) Ginned Cotton Cotton Satin T cloth Shirting China Cotton Fabrics ... Velvet Hempen Fabrics Rhamie Fabrics Cut Tobacco Leaf Tobacco Swine Oil-Cakes Boards for Tea Chest ... C>ther Boards Bricks Fire-Works Packing-Mats Porcelain and Earthen- Ware Card Board . . . Incense Sticks Others . ■;} igoi. 339,728 "3.o« 56,034 86,646 70,264 70,471 2,310,424 76,805 229,832 88,537 102,680 841,069 228,445 179,692 221,551 67,891 197,495 165,249 278,103 685,928 118,842 147,016 142,178 113,931 242,683 408,170 74,797 87,604 430,281 5,212 56,589 74,881 133,663 384,277 73,137 3,859,624 1900. 355,5 'I 89,201 51,368 95,678 58,361 53,436 3,392,602 112,150 167,382 09,636 111,080 1,199,056 307,825 184,795 105,976 76,024 157,060 165,760 293,556 689,637 1 10,474 101,361 165,523 84,755 1x6,891 562,126 97,552 84,462 538,182 68,647 54,406 26,840 121,138 337,070 71,819 3,293,276 1899. 334,655 153.723 38,033 113.577 62.316 58,088 2,775.809 107,848 2,584,968 71,792 98,904 694.:! > 7 228,461 165.250 53,640 66.408 9,033 126,482 221,843 611,611 129,106 89,324 201,100 449,981 26,259 660,549 38,24s 84,218 525,312 58,115 37,272 48,628 107,416 207,724 64,037 2,787,326 Total 12,809,794 13,570,663 •4,273,092 808 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Geniury. 1898. 1897. Flour 338,621 217,684 Salt-fish 170,733 Il6,o8l Dried Mushroom 78,939 63,552 Marcaroni 189,839 124,961 Shoes (Chinese) 110,796 84PSS Ginseng 86,761 I2S,3SS Opium 2,044,392 1,570,347 Beans 152,383 "3.299 Rice 870,609 182,248 Iron Pan 78,779 55.46o Lead (lump) 105,154 87,050 Petroleum 714.851 723,673 Paper 284,866 332,940 White Sugar (ist class). 413,998 270,672 White Sugar (2nd class). — — Ginned Cotton 107,027 103,34a Cotton Satin 58,260 30,654 T-cloth 202,432 173.535 Shirting 322,586 342,979 China Cotton Fabrics ... 1,370,877 1,040,924 Velvet 125,639 139,074 Hempen Fabrics 134,188 60,847 Rhamie Fabrics 319,583 385.457 ■Cut Tobacco l,357,9o6 788,641 Leaf Tobacco 14,427 13,588 Swine 1,009,497 734,313 Oil-Cakes 26,52^ 24,144 Boards for Tea Chest ... 86,640 88,258 Other Boards 719,643 418,643 Bricks 53,295 34,93o Fire-Works 84,295 68,62a Packing-Mats 48,334 48,010 ""w^'e'"..":!.^"*":} '64,77a 122,37a Card Board 233,759 "6,353 Incense Sticks 91,7" 82,787 Others 4,703,076 3.874,431 Total 16,875,404 12,659,29s 1896. 218,898 72,767 36,382 60,441 38,968 110,315 1,164,856 91,584 765,834 79,633 370,671 190,617 89,804 5,043 16,006- 220,914 258,169 5'3,453- 96,133 12,034. 86,997 411,950 1.539 179,008 29,293 74,466. 144,939 9,915 23.550 24,979 37.6«fr 46,704 3,102,506. 8,631,001 Finance. YII. FINANCE. 1. Revenue. — ^The prin ;ipal sources of revenue .do not differ much as to kind from those that were prevailing before the island was converted into a, territory of Japan. Nor do the rates of the various kind of taxes differ much from what they were in olden dayg. At present the principal items of ordinary revenue are taxes on \a,ad„ tea, mining, excise on sugar, percentage fee on the transfer anc! mortgage of real estate, export dues, customs tariff, tonnage due^ receipts from Government undertakings and a few others. The relative importance of those sources of revenue is shown in the following table: — REVENUE 1 (From 1896 1. ORDINARY to 1902 Fiscal REVENUE. Year). (unit oiyen). Item. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Inland Revenue I,.S63,736 1,891,736 1,979,089 »,979,39l Land Tax 752,698 835,650 782,058 841,95s Tax on Tea — 412,143 410,198 392,7 t4t Tax on Sugar Refining ... 201,298 242,004 260,715 224,8lJ Tax on.Vehicle — — — ■ — Excise on Sugar — — — — Camplior Tax 399,137 353,64s 419,800 379, 'S* Tax on Ship — — — — Tax on Mining 10,602 17,675 20,644 18,231 Registration Fee — 30.615 85,672 - Percentage Fee — — — 115,412 Export Due — — — 7,07s Custom Tariff ... 665,335 732,276 907,864 i,48i,40j- Export Tariff 279,872 262,400 272,539 307,234 Import Tariff 385.463 469,876 635,325 i,J74.37* Tonnage Due — — — — Eeceipts from Gov. Works] and Undertakings J 563,«45 2,513,900 4,424,950 6.570,757 Post and Telegraph 225,492 334,049 369,019 441.390 Salt Monopoly — — — 270,827 Camphor Monopoly — — — 917,877 Opium Monopoly — 1,640,210 3,467,337 4,249,577 Forests — MI9 3.481 19,966 Hospitals 1S.631 32,646 45,088 61,404 Railroad 89,162 231,04s 288,518 3o5,85« 810 Japan in ilie Beginning of the 2Qih Century. Item. Miscellaneous Custom Re ceipts Convict Work Tenant Rate , Hire of Gov. Property ., Stamp Receipts Stamp Receipts Cash Receipts Various Licenses and Fees. Miscellaneous Receipts ':} 1896. 29,071 202,894 892 119,604 1897. 32,099 3.436 229,546 9Ml 177,96s 27,871 16,743 200,278 I 6,609 181,745 Total of Ordinary Re- venue Item. Inland Revenue LandTax Tax on Tea Tax on Sugar Refining Tax on Vehicle Excise on Sugar Camphor Tax Tax on Ship Tax on Mining Registration Fee Percentage l''ee Export Due Custom Tariff Export Tariff Import Tariff Tonnage Due Receipts from Gov. Works and Under-l takings f Post and Telegraph .^alt Monopoly Camphor Monopoly Opium Monopoly Forests Hospitals Railroad Miscellaneous Custom Receipts Convict Work Tenant Rate Hire of Gov. Property ... Stamp Receipts 1900. 1.629,033 912,922 405,267 178,144 3,720 11,281 92,125 «5.57» 1,567,801 390,668 1,177,133 15,309 9,692,796 5",i74 358,333 3,752,267 4,234,979 62,990 83,119 412,300 15.437 255.317 6.87s 54,73^ 1901. 1,906,312 869,003 383.'90 107,768 243 372.190 19.999 129,754 24,163 »,534,533 352.489 1,182,044 11,846 8,063,584 536,842 5 10,202 3,253,391 2,804,894 81.573 94,465 526,086 26,329 224,214 5,582 62,-, 99 1899- 30,991 17,232 309,916 5,721 53.220 53,220 750 73.123 ^;| 2,711,822 5,315,879 7,493.65° »o,i58,6Si 1902. 2,094,049 861,791 402,757 689,419 21,281 107,724 iip77 i,499,'67 323,414 1,175,753 15,306 8,873.079 628,307 740,411 2.385,329 3,917,086 150,372 90.479 722,500 16,070 216,341 6, 18+ 71,152 Stamp Receipts Cash Receipts Various Licenses and Fees Miscellaneous Receipts Total of Ordinary Revenue... Finance. m 54,732 61,799 71,155 — 1,000 — 12,166 5,ioi 11,901 90,681 130.494 86,041 13,062,520 » 1,7 14.673 12,650,69s Item. Sale of Gov. Property Land Buildings Articles Ships Supplementary Fund Transferred from Central 1 Treasury f Transferred from Publie Loans Transferred from Previous'! Account ( Total of Extraordinary! Revenue | 2. EXTRAORDINARY REVENUE. 1896. liel 1897. 8,338 468 X49S. 8,114 1899. 3.192 215 — — 6,848 805 5.959,048 8,114 3,984,540 3,192 6,200,000 5,959,048 , 3,984,540 3,000,000 — — 3,200,000 1,098,070 795,65s 1,064,773 7,065,456 4,788,310 7,267,966 Grand Total of Revenue... 2,711,822 12,381,336 . 12,281,960 17,426,618 Item. Sale of Gov. Property Land Buildings Articles Ships Supplementary Fund Transferred from Central Treasury... 2,598,611 Transferred from Public Loans Transferred from Previous Account ... 1,103,069 1900. ' 1901. 1002. 5,493 5,405 5,556 3 5,013 S.556 5,556 476 — — 8,098,611 7,251,072 7,199,763 2,598,611 2,386,689 2,459,763 5,500,000 4,864,382 4,740,00c 1,103,069 795,»8« . — Total of Extraordinary Revenue... 9,207,174 Crand Total of Revenue 22,269,695 8,051,659 19.766,333 7.205,319 19,856^14 Note : — Figures for 1902 represent estimate, ihosts for all others being settled account. 812 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 2. Expenditure. — It is unavoidable that the expeudituie- should advance in such a newly acquired territory as Formosa, where the Government is confronted with the necessity of unJer» taking many new things involving big disbursements and also of undoing other things , which the previous mal-administration of the Chinese Government had inflicted on the island. Some idea about: this f^int may be gathered from tlie following table : — EXPENDITURE (From 1S96 to 1902 year). I. ORDINARY liXPKNDITURE. ngl Civ^ Administration ... Formosan Temple Governor-General's Office Local Offices Police Offices ._ Police and Gaolers Training School Prisons Hospitals Medical Schools ... Education Custom Houses ,„ Communication ,,, Observatories „ ... Nautical Signals ... Quarantine Ships and Crews ... Telephone Service State Railroad ... Monopoly Offices ... Formosan Undertaking ... Loan Redemption Fund \'arious Refundments . ... Emergency Relief Fund Reserves .. Doctors in Charge of Public ) Hygiene / (unit of jr«). 1896. 1897. 3,183.394 4,73i>893 183,878 733.530 184.552 1,528,247 1,801,58s 1,216,23 37,811 1898. 4,363,189 185,938 1,380,628 1,993.520 80,631 1899. 522.352 962,834 [,409429. 97,719- 274,054. 198,511 27,96* 131,894 226,809. 875,119. 22,444 50,671 4i7,2Sr 4,668,637- 137 16,912: 34.785 Total of Ordinary Ex- 1 „„„, ,a_ _ <- o penditure ... ... ... 1 5-9°''387 7,698,737 8,003,990 10,289,481 JFinance. 813 Civil Administration , Formosan Temple Governor-General's Office Local Offices Police Offices . Police and Gaolers Training School Prisons Hospitals Medical Schools Education Custom Houses •Communication Observatories Nautical Signals •Quarantine Ships and Crews Telephone Service State Railjoad Monopoly Offices Formosan Undertaking ... Loan Redemption Fund m. Various Refundments Emergency Relief Fund Reserves Doctors in Charge of Public Hygiene. 1900. 509,433 959,101 1,572,209, 89,169 424,736 231,169 33,359 i;;2,8oo 231,951 963,508 32,490 58,653 19,182 3,521 497,85s 5,531,031 338,935 85 10,071 50,000 33,999 1901. 18,000 575,987 918,827 J, 7 14,634 98,225 494,710 241,379 38,106 178,504 238,426 995,249 25,888 50,620 24,596 7,70s 55,575 682,778 4.507,585 563,768 76 5,196 50,000 33,9" 1902. 18,000 ?45.28<» 704,522 >,69o,935 105,766 543,019 259,759 41,049 130,658 282,958 1,086,526 28,380 67,08s 27,365 ",954 724,021 4,907,140 1,000,303 98 8,000 50,000 400,000 Total of Ordinary Expenditure ... 12,017,296 ",839,073 2. EXTRAORDINARY EXPENDITURE. 1896. Special Undertaking Funds... — Railroad Construction audi Improvement j , Harbor Construction of) Kelung / Temporary Land Survey- 1 ing J Construction of Prisons ... — Construction of Official.1 Residences / public Undertaking 3,526,827 Encouragement of Sugar \ i Industry J 5th Domestic Exhibition. — Animal Ep'demic — 1897. 1898. 3,100,786 1,597,671 10,217 6,858 '3,245,073 1899. 2,744,998 1,975,096 94,828 440,865 111,185 123,022 1,768,143 7,390 8U Japan in the Beginning of the IQth Century. Sanitary Expense « 'Industrial Fund . ... .,, Compilation Expense ... ... Subsidies Navigation Schools Formosan Railroad Stores ... Formosan Temple Festival... tpidemic Diseases Natural Calamities ..'. ... Policing Aboligines Frontiers. Paris Exhibition Rewards Granted in the Sup- 1 preSsion of Armed Raiders. J Reshipping Chinese who ar-l rived without Permission... J Relief Fund 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899- — 39,868 39,517 39,76& 11,854 9,246 4,805 »5,257 59,999 514,500 514,500 7oo,oco 59.999 514,500 514,500 700,000 92,027 50,000 23,726 84,107 36,273. 128,628 964,197 657,668- — 1,538 38,006 — — 26,563 2,996 ^Expendifurr°'.'!°*Z}3.7S0,709 3,829,970 3.2.3.196 6,034,067 Grand Total of Expenditures. 9,652,098 11,528,708 11,217,187 16,323,548 1900. 1901. 1902. Special Undertaking Funds 5,880,134 4,939,233 4,740,00a Railroad Construction and Improve- " ment^ 4,524,894 2,642,903 2,500,000 Harbor Construction of Kelung ... 346,436 1,186,666 490,000 Temporary Land Surveying 650,845 905,501 1,600,000 Construction of Prisons 164,503 121,790 150,00a Construction of Official Residences. 193,454 82,371 — Public Undertaking 2,369,884 1,299,771 586,241 Encouragement of Sugar Industry ... — — 149,769. 5th Domestic Exhibition — — 20,000 Animal Epidemic 9,877 13,934 15,000 Sanitary Expense 39.688 28,465 40,000 Industrial Fund 31,216 178,340 240,000 Compilation Expense iS,'>3 13,965 •5-732 Subsidies 798,069 ■ 818,599 667,000 Navigation 795,969 798,599 640,000^ Schools 2,100 20,000 27,000 Formosan Railroad Stores — — 137,199 I'Hrmosan Temple Festival — 5,980 — Epidemic Diseases — "7,175 — Finance. 81.> 1902. Katai-al Calamities ... ... Policing Aborigines Frontiers Paris Exhibition 1900. 253.917 37,071 22,544 1901. 211,207 Rewards Granted in the Suppression! of Armed Raiders j' — Keshippirg Chinese who arrived with- 1 out Permission .' ' j' — — Relief Fund ... '^ture°'..^'T"!!?'?.^T"^':} 9.457,216 7,526.672 6.6,0,94. Grand Toti.1 of Expenditure 21,474,513 19,365,745 19,856,014 A glance at the two foregoing tables will show that Formosa can not yet claim to be financially independent, and that it is obliged to seek help from the mother country. However the prospect of the i.-ii;iiid finance is quite bright, as judged from what it has experienceii s<> fur. The subsidy from the mother country shows a gradual lUlling-ofi; frqm over 6,900,000 yen in 1896 to only 2,300,000 yen. approximately in 1902, for the supplementary fund procured by means of loans to meet the demand of useful, public undertakings sliould properly be left out of account in this calculation. Com- paiison made between ordinary revenue and ordinary expenditure must be considered as decidedly satisfactory, for while in the year 1899 the two were practically balanced, in the following two years the revenue exceeded the other account. The account for 1902, being an estimate, can not give a definite illustration, though the exp<'nditure is estimated to exceed the revenue by about half 3 million yen. It may confidently be expected therefore that, wheu all such undertakings, as construction of railroad, adjustment of land and many other useful enterprises which at present constitute principal outlays are completed, Formosan finance is sure to sh>m a bright record. LOCAL FINANCE. REVENUE (Fromi898 to L902 Fi..ca] Year). I. ORDINARY REVENUH (unit of _)'£•»). 1898. 1899. Hica. igoj. 190Z. Local Taxes .747,850 1,590,854 1,826,456 2,045,474 1,952,220 Land Kate 215,552 454,026 S15.SJ23 570,879 558.632 House Tax 252,394 550 733 628,478 720,250 707,842 Buiiness Tax 129,685 323,845 i65,745 368,81 1 355.616 Miscellaneous Tax 99,835 239,5*^9 2/o,5.'>9 341,639 320,077 Miscellaneous Receipts. 383 747,85'' 22,658 1,590,854 3f.839 l,S2<4,456 43,913 2,0:3,474 10,050 Total 1,952,220 £16 Japan in the Beffinning of the 20th Century. 2. EXTRAORDINARY REVENUE. 1898. 1899. 1900. 190I. I9C2. Carried from Previous "I _ .j,^ 118,308 — — Account J Transferred from Previous! _ 121,714 54,73* 337,797 261,620 Account / Donations 410 2,500 9,741 10,105 — Total 410 1 64,918 182,783 347,902 261,620 Grand Total 7,48,260 1,755,773 2,009,239 2,393,377 2,213,841 LOCAL FINAN'CE. EXPENDITURE. I. ORDINARY EXPENDITURE. (unit oiyen). 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. District Offices 89,747 197,529 252,508 278,939 307,800 Police Offices 339,802 887,889 1,836,971 1,882,825 2,173,554 Communal Offices 67,016 148,307 153,933 159,921 157,834 Doctors in Charge of Public Health } - 35,480 54,385 59,614 70,870 Education 46,724 135,740 200,731 247,393 303,794 Hygiene 9,104 40,604 52,025 77,921 9!>,889 Industry 4,974 22,758 30,078 45,602 40,002 Reclamation of Aborigines ... — 4,002 11,205 8,837 30,613 Meteorological Signals — 100 985 i,oS6 1,610 Relief 1,959 11,308 9,670 12,301 II 867 Collection of Local Taxes .., 18,425 34,053 62,397 63.73s 50,559 ILocal Administration — — — 1,327 — Pension to Retired Teachers. — — 636 713 »,247 Calamity Fund — — 83,698 84,436 91,902 Refundments and Non-col- lectables } " 5,092 7.972 13,620 5,229 Reserves — — — — 35,000 Government Offices 14,581 — — — — Total 592,364 1,522,868 1,757,199 2,938,225 3,380,774 2. EXTRAORDINARY EXPENDITURE. 1898. Repairs, Constructicn andl „ Public Works / ■'*' Anim. 1 Epideiuij — Subsidies ^ Swine Plague — 1899- 1900. 1901. 1902. 174,647 318,537 394.128 71,138 381 668 764 I oo> 3,037 — — 42,042 — 392 158 — Total 34,191 178,066 319,599 395,051 114,1^ Grand Total 626,546 1,700,935 3,076,798 3^333,327 3,494,954 Finance. 817 3. Banking Organs and Currency System. — Properly speak- ing, both banking organs and a currency system were lacking in Formosa before it was brought under the Japanese sway. In fact no particular necessity was felt about them, in that the Banking trade, besides being practically controlled by Chinese Organs. merchants residing on the opposite coast of China, and by a small number of resident foreigners, was iusignificar', for Formosa had only a few products to sell and could buy only u little of foreign goofl,?. Tlie establishment of a number of branch offices by the Thirty- fourth Bank of Osaka soon after the advent of the new regime and the establishment of the Formosan Bank, the central banking organ iu the island, in 1899 have ushered in a new order of things that were adopted for the requirements of the time. Data of this central bank were mentioned under the section of Finance. AVhatever currency Formosa possessed consisted in copper and ^silver coins minted by other countries. These, moreover, were not circulated according to their denomination, they were Cuirency. used by weight. Practically therefore they were nothing less than bullion, and Formosa was a silver bullion mono- metallic country, if it is possible to use such a term. The 1-yen ■silver coins which Japan introduced into Formosa found there a ready welcome, and those coins were not mutilated as old foreign silver and as they were finer they were preferred by the natives in preference to all others. The established custom in the island being in favor oi silver currency, the authorities decided, when they adopted in 1897 gold mono-metallism in Japan proper, to regard a Formosan currency system as an exception, and to leave this new dominion as a sort -of silver country. It was decided at the same time that the ofiicial quotation of the gold price of silver should be determined and pro- claimed from time to time, and that the silver quotations prevailing at Hongkong and Shanghai should be adopted for determining this standard price for Formosa, so that the intimate tradal relation existing between the island and China should be promoted as much as possible. The first official quotation was fixed at 1037 pieces of stamped -silver yen against 1,000 yen of gold, or 1 yen piece against 0.964 81 S Japan in the Beginning of the 2(ith Century. ifcn of silver. The Formosan coins bore a stamped mark because- tliey were the pieces that had been withdrawn from circulation iu J.ipan proper in consequence of the adoption, of the gold standard and because the authorities had to provide against the trouble and risk of exchanging the withdrawn coins with gold. The determination of the official quotation on the silver prica prevailing in China was soon judged to be subject to inconvenience, ior very often that price was not uniform with the quotation in tlie world's silver market. At present, therefore, the official quotation is based on the price ruling on that market. The silver currency, both stamped pieces and subsidiary coins, that was put for circulation in Formosa from September 1900 to May 1902 reached a rather large volume. At the same time other coins and the Formosan Bank note were in circulation, so that the- total reached the following amount : — yen. Stamped ji'iTK Pieces 23,657,428 Subsidiary Coins 1.345.799 Foreign Coins 3,228.856 Nickel and Copper Pieces 223,000 Formosan Bank Notes ... 3,353.631 Total 31,808,714 The foregoing volume seems to be too excessive for Formosa^ where trade is still primitive and industry is but poorly developed. But it must be remembered that the natives can not yet divest themselves of their simple custom of secretly hoarding silver. Con- sequently the amount thus withdrawn from circulation must be quite large. It is hardly necessary to add that the custom of tha^ natives towards currency being so primitive they do not themselvei cai« at all about monetary system. Communications. 8 1 ^ YIII. COMMUNICATIONS. In this chapter will be briefly described the conspicuous features in the communication affairs of Formosa, that is to say, railroad and highways. 1. Raileoad. — Formosst possessed even before its annexation by Japan about 62 miles of railroad laid between Kelung and Shimchiku via Taihoku. This line was built during the Governor- ship of Liu mentioned in the preceding part of this section. The railroad was, however, poor in construction and defective in workingt Gradient erred on the side of excess while curve erred on tha. of the opposite nature. Traffic management was so defective that even fares and freights were almost daily subject to changes, not to say nothing about irregularity of time-table. In justice to the energetic administration, comparatively speaking of Liu, it ought to be added, however, that this line proved immensely beneficial to our troops of subjugation sent at first to restore order in the island, for Formosa was notorious, as is also the case even to-day, for the absence of regular highways. With the restoration of peace, a number of capitalists in Japan proper promoted the Formosan Railway Company with the idea of laying railroads in the island by obtaining some help from the Formosan Government. This undertaking flashed Privats Baihoad in the plan and the company was wound a few Enterprise. months after its creation, for further investiga- tions had convinced the promoters that even with the help which the Government promised to accord them, it would be hardly possible to derive any satisfactory profit from this busi- ness. With this disappearance of private enterprise, the Government decided to undertake the scheme on its own account. In 1900 the Formosan Undertaking Loan Law, mainly compiled with the object of laying railroads, was approved by the Diet Government Rail- and promulgated, and the programme of laying road Programme- a trunk line through Formosa and of improving the existing line was elaborated. This programme •820 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. contemplated an outlay of 28,800,000 yen spread over ten years to ■end with the 1909 fiscal year. The improvement of the existing line first demanded the atten- tion of the authorities. The work was started in the 1899 fiscal year. The whole line was thoroughly reconstruct- Improvement of ed, and as even the old track was abandoned in Existin°; Line, greater part the Kelung-Shinchiku line existing at present is a complete metamorphosis of the old line, both in engineering work and trafiic management. At the same time the work of laying a new line, about 170 miles from Shinciiiku to Takao, was commenced from both terminii. Of that length the Takao-Kagi section, extending 65 Hew Railroad miles 60 chains, was completed in April, 1903 and Work. opened to traffic, while in the northern half the Shincliiku-Sanshaka section of 32 miles 12 chains was opened to traffic in October of the same year. Besides the trunk line, a deflection to Tansui, 13 miles 12 ■chains, was built in August of 1902 and the shipping facilities of that harbor were considerably improved. Considering the condition of things in Formosa, the railroad business can hardlj^ be called a paying investment. Nevertheless traffic receipts and disbursements have begun to present a satisfactory aspect. Thus in the 1902 fiscal year receipts were Traffic estimated to almost cover ordinary disbursements, the Account, former put at 722,535 yen and the latter at 724,021 yen. The disbursement account shows an excess of only 38,000 yen approximately compared with that of the preceding year, but the excess of the other account amounts to as much as 240,380 yen. 2. Light Eailkoad. — There are two kinds of light railroad in Formosa, one constructed for military purposes and the other for ordinary purposes. The former was the first thing which our sub- j'lgation army had to attend to on their arrival in Military Light the island, as this was absolutely necessary for their Railroad. operation. The line was laid in a hurry between Shinchiku, the southern terminus of the then existing Formosan railroad, and Hozan, the two extremities being separated by 185 miles. With such creditable celerity was the work conduct- Communications. 821 ed that it was completed, in a few moutlis and for tlie first time in its history the northern and the southern halves of the island ob- tained a complete line of overland communications, though it was necessarily imperfect. With the construction of a regular track, the light railroad that connected the same places was removed, and at present the light tracks originally laid for military purposes al- together measure 125 miles, trunk line and deflections added together. The light railroad constructed for ordinary use Light Railroad for is yet an insignificant affair, comparatively speak- Ordinary Purposes, ing, for at present the working line fhat between Koshun and Taihanroku, measures only 2J miles... The other lines contemplated are: — Rokko — Shokwa Banshoryo — Nanshiko Hozan — Ako Gllan — Suwo Total ., 52. 64 It ought to be added that the light railroads in Formosa are- pushed by men. 3. Highways. — It may properly be said that highways, as the word is used in ordinary places, do not exist in Formosa, for whatever road there is in the island is not better than animal tracks. This absence of the most common means of intercourse and! communication may be accounted for from the fact that the islanders used to carry on intercourse more with the people on the opposite coast and less among themselves, while transportation of goods was made almost exclusively on men's backs. The presence of many un- ruly streams across the roads must have also deterred the con- struction of good highways. In order to improve this serious defect the Governor-General issued Regulations of Roads in 1900, and surveying has been completed for most of the contemplated routes.. In many parts of Tainan and vicinity the work of road-making; has been completed, or is about to be completed. m. cli. 7. 34 19. 55 10. 5S IS- 00 *22 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20th Century. IX. EDUCATION, HYGIENE, RELIGION. A. Education. 1. General Remarks. — Educational affairs in Formosa are divided into three departments according -to as many classes of people residing in it, that is to say, (1) education for people from Japan proper, (2) education for the natives of Chinese origin, and. (3) education for the aborigines. . 2. For Japanese from Japan Proper. — The provision for giving instruction to people from Japan proper consists of primary jBchools only where their children receive elementary instruction. Thirteen schools of this description exist in various parts of the island. According to the latest report, the teaching staff comprised 60 teachers and the pupils numbered about 2,000. The curriculum is identical with that prevailing in the mother country, so that the pupils taught in a Formosan school are easily enabled to follow the study even when they ai-e transferred to a school there. 3. r'oR the Natives. — Educational arrangements for the natives are receiving the best attention of the authorities. The Medical School, Japanese Language School, Normal School, and Communal Schools all exist for the benefit of their children or their brothers and sisters. The Medical School may be regarded as the only school of the kind existing in the Far East devoted to giving a regular course of modern science and practice of medicine to students of Chinese origin. Situated in Taihoku, its course covers five years, the instruction given in Japanese. At present over 130 students attend school and already three graduates have been sent out. The National Language School was originally intended to serve a, double purpose, one being to give training to ordinary Japanese in the native languages to qualify them to act as interpretei-s, translators and as oflicials, and the other object being to teach Japanese to the islanders. The department for the native has been considerably modified, and at present it comprises several depart- ments, as technical course (railroad, telegraph, agriculture), second- ary education course, and girls' course. The Normal School exists to train native youths as teachers of Education. 823 native primary scb'^ols. A number of graduates have already been turned out. Communal Schools present the most flourishing aspect for they are institutions -where the Formosan native boys receive elementary education. At present 130 schools and branch schools of this grade exist in various parts of the island. The teaching staflf comprises 521 teachers and the attendance numbers 18,149. Besides there are about 1800 "family-schools" kept mostly in old style by native schoolmasters, and they possess as many as 32,000 attendants approxi- mately. 4. For the Aborigines. — The National Language Training School is the first institution established by the Government. Ori- ginally it was intended to teach only the sons and brothers of the islanders, but as more perfect educational organs for them have since been erected, at present this school is devoted to giving ele- mentary instruction to the children of aborigines. The school list contains 723 such pupils. The institutions bearing the name of the National Liinguage Training Schools number five main schools and about eleven branch schools, all situated in the abor'~iue's districts or at places adjoining them. 5. Girl's Education. — The only place where girls are ex- clusively taught is a girl's department established at Shiringai of the National Language School. There the girls are taught in sub- jects of elementary education and also in some handicraft work. A number of little girls also receive education at several communal schools, but in classes of their own, for the Formosan natives are strict against co-education, faithfully adhering to the antiquated Confucian maxim that men and women should not sit in the same room after they have grown above seven years old. The authorities are trying to disillusion the natives of this absurd notion. The other educational institutions are missionary schools, botJi by foreigners and Japanese Buddhists ; a museum and a library. <524 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. B. Hygiene. 1. Public Hygiene. 1. Geneeal Remarks. — Matters of public hygiene necessarily show a deplorable defect in Formosa ; in fact any provision on this- subject may be said to have been practically absent formerly. 2. Watek-Supply. — The only thing worth mentioning in this- respect is the boring of a number of artesians wells in Taihoku during the Governorship of Liu, by engaging for that purpose several well-diggers from Japan. The well-boring was extensively carried out by the new rulers- of the is'and and in Taihoku and neighborhood alone over 800 wells have been bored. The well-water obtained from them is not judged absolutely wholesome, though far superior and healthier than the contaminated river water and the water from the shallow native wells, both of which the native were accustomed to use former- ly as drinking-water. This fruitful source of epidemics in Formosa has therefore been deprived of much of its virulence. Bi Kelung and Tansui, where the supply of wholesome water- was even more defective than in Taihoku, water-works have already been constructed. Well-borings have also been accomplished in several other places, while investigations are being conducted at Taihoku and other towns for constructing regular water-works. 3. Street Improvements and Sewerage. — The streets in. all the cities of Formosa are now undergoing thorough re-coustruc- tion, for besides being narrow and defective iu the facilities of com- munication, they have obstructed considerably the drainage of refuse water. At the sametime the re-construction or more properly a new construction of sewer-ways is being carried oa in several of those cities, for sewer-ways, in the ordinary acceptance of the term, have been absent in them. This work of street improvement and sewerage construction is being carried on a large scale in Taichu (Mid-Formosa) than in other cities, for the Government, in anticipation of the important part which the place is destined to play in the island where it occupies the central position, has decided to ui\dertake this work while it admits of easier and cheaper execution, for at present. Hygiene. 825 Taichu is the least populous and flourishing of all the cities in the island. The programme of the work involves an outlay of about 1,200,000 yen, and, started in the 1899 fiscal year, about a fourth part of the contemplated work has been completed. 4. Pbovisions against Epidemic Diseases. — The appear- ance in May, 1896, of pest in Auping occasioned the necessity of enforcing some preventive measures, and this was the first instance in the history of Formosa of the enforcement of such sanitary pro- vision. The authorities had to experience considerable trouble at first, owing to the ignorance of the people. They regarded the Govern- ment measures at best with indifierence and withheld from rendering any cooperative service, without which an official business of this kind can never be a success. The Government subsequently modified the rules originally transplanted wholesale from Japan proper to satisfy the urgent need of the occasion^ and made them more amenable to the obtuse notions of the natives. They have acquired some knowledge of the import-, ance of the preventive measures and in some places lockup hospitals have been established with the contributions of the people, while in a larger number of places the inhabitants have organized themselves into sanitary corpoirations. Though in a highly imperfect way owing to lack of proper provision Quarantine regulations were also enforced in Kelung, Tansui, Anping, Takao and Eokko in September, 1896, when caws of pest were reported from several places on the opposite coast of China. By the beginning of the 1899 fiscal year a bona fide arrangement had been completed at Kelung, and rules specially applicable to Formosa were enforced. The central quarantine office exists at Keluag aiid a branch at- Tansui and other ports. 2.. Medical Aeeaibs. 1. lIosPFTAM. — ^At present the authorities maintain a Govern- ment hospital at Taihoku, Kelung, Shinchiku, Taichu, Kagi, Tai- nan, Hozan, Gilan, TaitOj and Hoko (Pescadores), with a number of branch hospitals established at less iriiportant places. 2. Medical Peactiti'ONEBs. — There are several kinds of medi- cal practitioners doing feusioesB in the. island- First there are doctors 826 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. who in return f6r soMe official profcection, are made to take charge of matters of sanitary administration as assistants and advisers of regular officials. At first such doctors numbered, 150^ for at that time the presence of regular practitioners possessing knowledge of modern medicine was small in the island. As these doctors have subsequently increased in number, the necessity of maintaining so many official doctors was no longer felt and at present they number 76. Licensed practitioners from Japan proper number 43. Lastly there are native practitioners who are permitted to pursue the occupation in deference to their previous experience, for though these men are, devoid of knowledge of modern medicine, and are not qualified for the task, the natives from their custom are still dis- posed to seek their help. These quasi-practitioners number 1,938. 3. Opium. 1. Opium Administration. — The question^ of .opium-smoking was one of the gravest afiairs which demanded the foremost attention of the Governor General's Office as soon as it was installed in the island. In other words, it had to adopt either one of these alterna- tives ; namely, should the Government prohibit, as in Japan proper, this deleterious practice in the island? or should the Government adopt a policy of toleration in deference to the long-established custom among the natives, vicious as that custom is? At last the policy of moderation prevailed, and the Government decided to adopt the scheme of gradual suppression and to efiect by that means the eradication of the evil from this new dominion. 2. Modus Operandi. — In pursuance of that policy, the au- thorities drew up a regular programme of opium administration, combining the two functions both of permission and discouragement. In other words, that programme issued special permission only to confirmed smokers. This permission had to be given under strict control, so that it may act in perfect unison- with the main aim of gradual suppression. To effect this object, a list of licensed smokers had to be compiled, the Government had to control tlje supply of opium in its hand?, and the sale of this drug had to be restricted to licensed agents, while the Police to enforce strict vigilance to pre- vent all practices infringing the rules of opium-smoking. At the Beligiom. 827 same time medical practitioners and others were enjoined to incalcate, whenever they had opportunities, the evil of smoking among the people at large, ■ and school-teachers were also bidden to explain in the schoolrooms to their pupils the injurious effect of this habit. 3. Licensed Smokers. — The first list drawn up toward the end of 1897' as to the number of regular smokers contained only 51,581. This was considerably below the mark, for the authori- ties, judging from various data, had estimated the number of smokers at about 180,000. It was evident that a greater part of smokers did not report themselves at all from the desire of evading the fee of the smoking license which was fixed at the rate of from 20 sen to 3 yen a month. The grades of the license were therefore abolished and in place of monthly payment the fee was reduced to only 80 sen irrespective of grades and at one time only. At the same time the Police were made to exercise strict vigilance te prevent concealment. In September, 1900, the list compiled in thai way was completed and it contained 169,064 smokers. This was judged fairly accurate nearly coinciding with the estimate number of 180,000, for no small number of smokers must have either died or given up the practice since that estimate was compiled more than three years ago. Since that time the number of licensed smokers has gone on declining, either through death or discontinuance, and at the end of March, 1902, it stood at 152,044. It is hardly necessary to add that those smokers are only natives of the island, for people of Japan proper and also foreigners are strictly forbidden from indulging in this vile and injurious practice. The authorities are confident that judging from past experiences they may be enabled to eradicate the baneful custom from this island in about thirty or foity years. 4. Opium Agents. — The privilege of selling opiurh is granted only to natives of established standing. At the end of March, 1902, these agents numbered 1,254 throughout the island. C Keligions. The religions in vogue in the island are Budahism and Chris- tianity, for that kind of ancestor- worship that previously existed and stil! exists in the island can hardly deserve the title of religion. 828 Japan in tlve Beginning of the 20lh Century. 1. Buddhism. — This is by far the most flourishing religioD, and possesses over 90 preaching places and about 30,000 believers. The Buddhist propagandists are mostly from Japan proper. 2. Christianity. — Christianity in the island may be classified into three national divisions for the sake of convenience; namely, Catholics who are relics of the old Spanish occupation, the English Protestant Church, and lastly the Christianity propagated by Japanese missionaries. Of ihe three, the English Protestantism conducted by Rev. William Campbell appears to be most active and prosperous. The churches of all sects and nationalities number about 90 and- their believers about 10,000. The End. DATE DUE At |l^ O /• 197fiHl Aub ^ ^ n{ i ' ' ., 1 Utu <- DEC< .2 2C00 ; i \ 1 CAYLORD PRINTED IN U.S.A.