jj||i!ii|ljlii|||!li;iill|i|i| 
 
 155+ 
 
 908 
 
CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
Cornell University Library 
 T 371.S55 1908 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021896877 
 
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING PUBLICATIONS 
 
 NUM BER ONE 
 
 THE 
 Theory and Practice 
 
 OF 
 
 LETTTERING 
 
 DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF 
 
 ENGINEERS AND DRAFTSMEN 
 GENERALLY 
 
 BUT ESPECIALLY FOR 
 THE USE OF 
 
 STUDENTS IN ENGINEERING 
 
 BY 
 CHRISTOPHER E.SHERMAN. C. E. 
 
 SIXTH EDITION 
 NINTH THOUSAND 
 
 MIDLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 COLUMBUS, OHIO 
 
 1908 
 
COPYRIGHT. 1897 
 
 BY 
 
 C. B. SHERMAN. 
 
 ^qtwi^ 
 
 fD 
 
 Printed by 
 
 THE CHAMPLIN PRESs' 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 
 
PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION. 
 
 The manuscript for the first edition of this manual was presented as a 
 college thesis in June 1894, and published in January 1895. In addition to the 
 changes noted in the second edition some lesser improvements were made in the 
 third and fourth. The book is now largely reAvritten, and enlarged by the 
 addition of two plates and some historical and other notes, which it is hoped will 
 lend more interest to the subject. Plates I and II have been redrawn by Mr. J. 
 H. Vosskuehler of the department of architecture and drawing, Ohio State 
 University, and plate X was designed and drawn by Prof. Thomas E. French of 
 the same department. My thanks are due these gentlemen for a number of 
 good suggestions. Plate IV has been redrawn, and thereby much improved, by 
 Mr. T. B. Messick of Columbus, O., who also drew plate IX. 
 
 I hope that this brochure may continue to be of use to the engineering and 
 drafting profession, and especially to that young engineer or student, who, like 
 the writer, is not ' a natural draftsman.' 
 
 C E. S. 
 
 August 18, 1902. 
 
 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 In the present edition Freehand lettering has received more attention and 
 is made the subject of a separate chapter, which is in better accord with its 
 importance. Three new whole page plates and eleven cuts are added. Also a 
 few minor changes have been made in the text in various parts of the book. 
 
 It gives me pleasure, in this edition, to acknowledge my indebtedness to 
 Professor J. N. Bradford of Ohio State University, for valuable suggestions 
 offered in both the present and past editions. 
 
 November 6, 1897. 
 
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 
 
 The endeavor has been made in the present treatise : (1) To compile and 
 place in order what has been written by others on Lettering, and at the same 
 time to give the writer's own ideas upon the subject, treating those parts which 
 had not previously been touched upon ; (2) To reduce the art of lettering, as 
 nearly as its nature permits, to a science ; (3) To furnish an elementary 
 practical treatise. on the subject for students in engineering. 
 
 With these objects in view, the writer has availed himself of all the books 
 he could find treating on the subject, and even had it been thoroughly covered 
 in these books taken collectively, a work of compilation, merely, would have 
 been of value, as the literature on lettering is so scattered ; but besides being 
 scattered, it is so scant and incomplete that the writer may claim almost entire 
 originality for the present work, and in furnishing a complete treatise on 
 Lettering he believes he will supply an urgent need. For a list of books' 
 examined in writing the present treatise see the latter pages of this work. 
 
 December, 1894. 
 
Chapter I. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 1. Introductory Remarks — Among the features that give effect to a 
 drawing, not one is more prominent than the lettering. A map may be well 
 drawn in every other respect and yet have its looks ruined by poor letters. The 
 subject of Lettering, therefore, requires careful attention from the student, or en- 
 gineer, who would attain even a small degree of proficiency in drafting. A large 
 number of books and pamphlets on the subject have been published, but most of 
 them, especially the earlier works, consist simply of collections of alphabets of 
 various styles, giving little or no information as to how to form the letters, how 
 to put them together to form words, what styles to use for certain purposes, when 
 to letter, disposition of the letters, etc. The later books on the subject have us- 
 ually taken up these matters, in addition to exhibiting different styles of alpha- 
 bets. 
 
 The art of making neat and tasteful letters, such as the ordinary drafting op- 
 erations of the engineer call for, is within the reach of any person who will take 
 the pains to observe the details of good models closely, and have the patience to 
 practice lettering until he has mastered those more important details. Orna- 
 mental lettering and titles, such as are made on maps intended for popular dis- 
 play, or which form the title pages to collections of drawings, may require some 
 high order of talent; but these cases do not often concern the engineer, because 
 in all drawings made for oflS.cial or professional use, which will include by far 
 the larger part of his work in drafting, the letters (even to the title) should be 
 simple, neat, and dignified in appearance, and should be in accord with the gen- 
 eral effect of the rest of the drawing. Every engineer should be able to repre- 
 sent, accurately and neatly on paper, any operations he may perform in the 
 field, or any design he may make in the office. Such operations will require of 
 the civil engineer, maps and profiles for municipal, county, and railway improve- 
 ments, plans for structures including bridge drawings, topographic and hydro- 
 graphic maps and charts, etc., etc. ; of mechanical engineers, plans for power 
 plants, drawings of machinery, patent office drawings, etc., etc.; of mining engi- 
 neers, geological maps and charts, mine maps, and other drawings; and on all 
 of these drawings simple letters, when well made, look best. 
 
 2. Historical — The origin of our alphabet is veiled in obscurity. Paleo- 
 graphists tell us that it probably originated in Egypt. Facts were there first 
 expressed by pictorial representations, or hieroglyphics, much as our 
 modern savage inscribed his messages on bark, or on the skins of animals. 
 The Egyptian priests, in transcribing, abbreviated or simplified these hiero- 
 glyphs into the so-called hieratic writing, and from this writing the Phoenicians, 
 sailors of the early seas, probably borrowed many of their characters. 
 
—2— 
 
 From tlie Phoenicians the Greeks borrowed all or a large part of their 
 letters.* The Greek alphabet thus grew up on the coasts of Asia Minor, and by 
 the middle of the 6th century B. C. had in all essential respects attained its final 
 development ; the letters had assumed the forms of the Greek capitals with 
 which we are familiar. This alphabet was adopted as the alphabet of 
 Athens in 403 B. C. 
 
 But from an early time the Greek alphabet shows a tendency to separate 
 into two types — the Eastern or Ionian, which became the classical alphabet of 
 Greece ; and the Western or Chalcidian, which was the source of the alphabet 
 of Italy. The chief differences between the two are those which still distinguish 
 our own from the Greek alphabet. The primitive alphabet of Italy, from which 
 our own is derived, belongs to the Wer;ern Greek type. As early probably as 
 the 9th century B. C. it was carried by the Chalcidians of Euboae to Cumae, 
 near Naples, which was a colony of Chalcis. It became the parent of five local 
 Italic alphabets — the Oscan, the Etruscan, the Umbrian, the Faliscan, and the 
 Latin. Owing to the political supremacy of Rome, the Latin ultimately dis- 
 placed the other national scripts of Italy, and became the alphabet of the Roman 
 empire, and afterwards of Latin Christendom, thus spreading over Western 
 Europe, America, and Australia, and thus becoming the dominant alphabet of 
 the world. 
 
 One hundred years before Christ the alphabet of Latin capitals, or roman 
 as we now call it, consisted of twenty-one of our present twenty-six characters ; 
 but the twenty-one have remained so unchanged in form these twenty centuries 
 that the child, which has but just learned its letters, could easily recognize 
 them in Rome aa they are carved on the triumphal arches which commemorate 
 the glories of that departed empire. In the time of Cicero the Romans 
 borrowed Y from the Greeks, and placed it at the end of the alphabet after X. 
 Soon afterward Z was also borrowed from the Greek alphabet and placed after 
 Y. It was introduced into the English alphabet from the French in the 15th 
 century, being used in English, as in Latin, to spell words of foreign origin 
 only. The letters U and V were practically interchangeable till about the 
 10th century, one form, V, answering for both up to that time. W is a Gothic 
 addition. J is the youngest letter of the alphabet, having been differentiated 
 from I at about the beginning of the 15th century. In the Old English, one 
 form is still used for both letters (see plate III), and in the lower case alphabet 
 the dot over the j still indicates its parentage. 
 
 It is difi&cult, at first, to see how the numerous styles of capitals to be seen 
 in a modern type catalogue, all came from the original Roman characters. For 
 example the alphabet on either side of the words Old English in plate Illf, 
 
 *This theory has lately been brought into question by recent discoveries at Abydos in Upper Egypt. See 
 paper read before the American Philological Association, July 9, 1901, by Prof. Wm. N. Bates, 
 
 fThe style here referred to is called 'black-letter' by the printers of this country ; in England the 
 bibliographers call it Gothic, because it has always been the character preferred by all peoples of Gothic descent. 
 
 ' — DeViitne. 
 
—3— 
 
 appears most unlike the roman, yet it is a degenerate form of the reman 
 character and originated in this way. The scribes and calligraphists of the 
 early centuries before printing variegated the roman letters into many queer 
 book-hands, and in some cases beautiftil papal and charter scripts. Angles 
 were rounded and flourishes added, sometimes to conceal the inexpertness of the 
 scribe, until in many instances the product could scarcely be identified with the 
 original. The German scribes appear to have carried this matter of flourishes 
 to the farthest limit ; at any rate, at the time of the epoch-creating invention of 
 printing their printers modeled their types after the fantastic letters then in vogue, 
 and this distorted and illegible letter has remained the national book- and news- 
 paper-letter of Germany until today. There are many styles of this black letter, 
 of which that called Church Text, is an example. Black-letter was carried to 
 England and was the prevailing book-type there so long, that the name Old Eng- 
 lish is often applied to it or some one of its styles. 
 
 The first printers naturally modeled their types after the best book hands 
 and scripts they could find, and as the calligraphists had developed many styles 
 by the middle of the 15th century, the infant art-craft started life with a full as- 
 sortment of type-faces, and type-founders have been adding to the assortment 
 from that day to this. (See any modern type catalogue.) Many styles of great 
 use to the printer have been thus developed, and some of use to the technical 
 draftsman. In this last class the most useful is that shown in plate II, a style 
 called Gothic by the printers in this country, but often called sans-serif, or gro- 
 tesque by English type-founders; it follows the form of roman letters, but all the 
 hair-lines have been thickened to the size of stems. Other useful styles of faces, 
 originated by type-founders, may be seen in plate VII. 
 
 Type-founders are not the only ones who have multiplied styles. The pho- 
 to-engi;aving processes have furnished means for advertisers and for writers of 
 books of alphabets to produce many other designs, some attractive and some oth- 
 erwise, and many of the styles shown in plate III have been taken from these 
 sources. 
 
 Fortunately for us, while the first German printers were reproducing the 
 black-letter and other equally fantastic forms, the early Italian printers repro- 
 duced the simple early forms of roman. These types were brought to Paris in 
 1470, and fifty years later to England, where they gradually displaced the black- 
 letter. The roman with its corresponding minuscule, has thus become the char- 
 acter preferred as a text-letter by all English-speaking peoples and all the Latin 
 races. Its only serious rival in general literature is the fractur, or the popular 
 face of German type; but even in Germany roman is largely used as the text- 
 letter for scientific books, and for inscriptions on coins and medals. Not one of 
 the many faces introduced by the type-founders of this century has ever been 
 considered an improvement on, or accepted as a substitute for roman.* 
 
 The modern face corresponding to the early roman lapidary characters, is that 
 called Roman Old Style, which diff'ers from the prevailing roman in having 
 
 *De Viiiue: Plain Printing Types, page 185. 
 
— 4— 
 
 thicker liair lines. An example of this style is given in plate III on either side 
 of the words Extended Alphabets. Objection has been raised to modern roman 
 on the score of its weak hair lines, and modern reformers have attempted to change 
 them. The most notable recent attempt in this line was that of William Morris, 
 founder of the Kelmscott Press, but so far, his reform has not been generally- 
 accepted, for book work at least. Morris' reform pertained chiefly to the present 
 roman small or lower-case alphabet. 
 
 The origin of these small roman letters is interesting. At the time of the 
 early empire, the Romans employed two forms of their letters — capitals for 
 inscriptions ; and for business and correspondence, degraded cursive forms, which 
 are known to us chiefly from graffiti scribbled by schoolboys on the walls of 
 Pompeian houses. These two roman scripts are respectively the sources of our 
 printed capitals, and of our printed minuscules or small types. Out of the roman 
 cursive, the Irish semi-uncial was developed as a book-hand about the 6th century 
 A. D. Through Scotland it was introduced into Northumbria by Irish monks, 
 and became the basis of the beautiful Caroline minuscule, so called because it 
 arose in the reign of Charlemagne, in the calligraphic schools of Tours, founded 
 by Alcuin of York. Owing to its intrinsic merits, consisting of its legibility and 
 the ease with which it could be written, the Caroline minuscule rapidly became 
 the book-hand of Europe ; but after the 12th century it began to degenerate into 
 the black-letter, which was imitated in the types of the earliest printers, and is 
 still retained in German books. The Roman printers, however, reverted to the 
 better Caroline forms, which now go by the name of "roman" type. 
 
 The wide difference existing between our capitals and small letters is thus 
 explained. We have, in fact, two alphabets, both dating from the first century 
 A. D., in concurrent use. Thus the forms a b d r g m and h are derived from 
 the old roman cursive, while A B D R G M H are the roman capitals. In d 
 the loop of D has been transferred from the right to the left of the vertical stroke ; 
 in g, two new loops have been formed, the little crook at the top being all that 
 remains of the G ; in b the upper loop of B opened out and ultimately disap- 
 peared ; in r the loop and tail of R have undergone nearly complete atrophy ; etc. 
 Seven of the lower-case roman letters are, however, simply smaller scale repe- 
 titions of the capitals. In the Russian alphabet of thirty-five letters all of the 
 minuscules but three or four are small-scale copies of their corresponding capitals. 
 
 Arabic numerals were not introduced into Europe until after the 10th 
 century A. D. Roman capital letters were used until about the 12th century by 
 the nations of Western Europe to represent numbers, and the student can get 
 some idea of the difficulties encountered by the early arithmetician by imagining 
 himself deprived of the ten arable figures and obliged to carry on his compu- 
 tations by letters. Thus, divide MDCCCXLIV by XCVIII. 
 
 The so-called Arabic figures, most writers agree, originated in India. From 
 the latter, the Arabs received their system about the 8th century A.. D. and 
 largely developed it, and the Saracens afterwards introduced it into Europe. 
 Unlike the old roman alphabet, the Arabic numerals have undergone so much 
 
— 5— 
 
 change that some forms m.ade by the early printers cannot be deciphered by an 
 unschooled reader, and the forms in use before the invention of printing are 
 much more difiB.cult still to understand. In Strange' s Alphabets is given a 
 series, of the ten figures, of the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, showing 
 their changes in form up to the beginning of printing. The desirability of 
 arranging figures in columns and tables has led to the adoption of a rather 
 condensed shape ; for example, the zero is not as wide as the letter O of the same 
 height. 
 
 Plate I shows the roman form of Arabic figures. Plate II presents the 
 Gothic style of the same figures. For a better account of the Arabic numerals 
 see Prof Robertson Smith's article on Numerals in Encyclopaedia Brittanica. 
 
 The roman numerals I V X L C D M are not now used so extensively, ex- 
 cept for numbering plates and prefatory pages in books, and for similar purposes. 
 
 The history of the alphabet and of lettering is most interesting. The most 
 authoritative work on the subject is that of Dr. Isaac Taylor, The Alphabet, in 
 two volumes, published in London in 1883. For a briefer and very interesting 
 account of the development of lettering with many illustrative examples see 
 Strange' s Alphabets, published in London and New York in 1898. Since the 
 invention of printing, the history of lettering is largely that of typography, and 
 a most useful and instructive book on this part of the subject entitled. The 
 Practice of Typography — Plain Printing Types, has been written by Mr. 
 Theodore L. De Vinne. Published by the Century Co., New York, 1901. 
 
 3. Technical Terms — The following sketches illustrate some technical 
 terms as applied to type by type-founders and printers : 
 
 H 
 
 1. 
 
 Counter. 
 
 6. 
 
 Shoulder. 
 
 2. 
 
 Hair-Line. 
 
 7. 
 
 Pin-Mark 
 
 3. 
 
 Serif 
 
 8. 
 
 Nick. 
 
 4. 
 
 Stem, or Body-Mark. 
 
 9. 
 
 Groove. 
 
 5. 
 
 Neck, or Beard. 
 
 10. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Of the above terms, only those applying to the face of the type are used in 
 lettering. Some terms used in lettering are as follows : 
 
 1. Stem, or body-mark ; a stroke similar to the upright strokes in the letter 
 H above. The straight ones are called simply straight stems, the others 
 curved stems. 
 
 2. Counter ; the space between stems. 
 
 3. Serif, or ceriph ; a horizontal light line at the top and bottom of a stem, as 
 in the above cut. 
 
 4. Hair-line; in the case of roman letters, a line joining two stems. The 
 term hair-line, as used in printing, is very indefinite. In the Old 
 Roman letters these "hair-lines" are quite thick. 
 
 5. Bracket ; when the angle between a stem and serif is filled in or rounded 
 off, the serif is said to be bracketed to the stem. 
 
~6— ■ 
 
 6. Spurs; we shall use tkis term to designate those portions of roman 
 letters which, resemble the right-hand part of the roman letter ly. 
 
 7. Capital ; that form of letter with which a sentence begins. 
 
 8. Ivower-case ; the ordinary text-letter of a book other than the capitals. 
 
 9. Maj uscule ; the name applied to a capital letter in ancient Latin manuscripts! 
 
 10. Minuscule ; small or lower-case letters. A term usually applied to the 
 small letters of old Latin manuscripts. 
 
 11. Uncial letters are those modified ^^ forms ofcapitals, one of which is 
 illustrated in the following letter : B^ They first appeared about the 
 2nd century A. D. but did not come ^^ into general use until the 4th 
 century. 
 
 The terms stem, serif, and hair line apply more particularly to roman letters. 
 
 Among printers letters are also classified as ascending, middle, and descend- 
 ing letters. The capitals of a given text are all ascending, and cap Q is both 
 ascending and descending. Lower-case h is ascending, m is a middle letter, g is 
 descending, and j is both ascending and descending. 
 
 4. Forms of Letters — The first thing the student of lettering has to 
 master is the forms of the individual letters. Plates I and II present the styles 
 of capitals for which the engineer will have the most use, and they give in detail 
 the form of and the relative space occupied by each letter. The roman and 
 Gothic capitals given in these plates may be easily shaded up in a variety of 
 ways, so that when the beginner has mastered these two styles, together with the 
 "Single Stroke Gothic", and the stump letters given in plate IV, or some other 
 suitable small letter, he is well equipped for lettering engineering drawings. 
 There is no short cut in learning the forms of the various letters : it requires care- 
 ful attention to and patient practice from good models. 
 
 Plate I presents the upright roman capitals and roman form of Arabic 
 numerals. This style of lettering has long been standard, and it is the funda- 
 mental form from which almost all others have been derived. It is used to a very 
 great extent in various kinds of work, and when well drawn is not surpassed in 
 neatness and beauty of form ; and it therefore demands careful study. The form 
 of each letter can be better understood from a careful examination of the plate 
 than from any perusal of a written description. However, attention should be 
 called to some of the more important points. 
 
 To facilitate a comparison of forms, as well as to afford a simple means of 
 drawing large letters mechanically, the space occupied by each letter has been 
 divided into a number of little squares. The length of a side of one of these 
 small squares is one-sixth of the height of the letter, and this unit — one-sixth of 
 the height — is taken as the correct thickness of the straight stems. This repre- 
 sents average practice among draftsmen, although practice varies widely accord- 
 ing to the style of letter employed. Among type-specimens one may find styles 
 in which the thickness of the stem ranges all the way from one-half to one- 
 sixteenth the height of the letter. One-sixth is usual, and will be adopted as the 
 normal xvrvt throughout this manual. 
 
ANALYTIC ROMAN 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 ^N 
 
 :^ 
 
 51 
 
 ^ 
 
 \-S--\- 1 — TTTl — FT^f^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 - 'pv T 7 L "\ ' 
 
 :. ^^- 
 
 7 _ '_ . /^ - 
 
 -- n^ 
 
 ^^ ~ 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 : iV 
 
 
 -■■-<■■ - f - 
 
 .,-.-. 
 
 --.. . 
 
 -- - — 
 
 v^V 
 
 — 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 - \\ 
 
 
 u--^- - "^,-- 
 
 s-si^ 1 — 1 r. .,< v ii 
 
 ~E/"rti '-i 
 
 M -: 
 
 _- :^^ 
 
 -- 
 
 ^ . _ . 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 rl 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 -- 
 
 T". 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 K 
 
 \ 
 
 
 -c 
 
 T-~ 
 
 
 
 
 -=> 
 
 ^, 
 
 
 , _ . _ 
 
 --- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 si 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \, 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 T 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 - - 
 
 - - 
 
 -■ 
 
 — ■ 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 -^ 
 
 1 
 
 ■■ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \- 
 
 
 it 
 
 --- 
 
 
 ] 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 = 
 
 J^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -} 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 J 
 
 LJ 
 
 ,^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 '_ 
 
 
 - 
 
 ^- 
 
 J. 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -; 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■-■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 :5^ 
 
 Jc 
 
 T5' 
 
 j~^ 
 
 EEi) 
 
 1 
 
 [^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 '^ktH 
 
 ■VI 
 
 a 
 
 -~[^? 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 .y 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
1 unit 
 
 wide. 
 
 
 31 units 
 
 wide. 
 
 
 4i " 
 
 (( 
 
 
 4i " 
 
 (C 
 
 
 41 " 
 
 (( 
 
 
 5 
 
 (( 
 
 
 5i " 
 
 <( 
 
 
 5i « 
 
 a 
 
 
 6 
 
 u 
 
 or just square, 
 
 Ih " 
 
 ii 
 
 
 In addition to tlie small squares, circles have also been drawn upon some 
 of the letters to better show their shapes. Also, instead of inking in the stems 
 solidly as in ordinary print, they have been inked in outline only, for greater 
 clearness. Letters drawn in this way, with only outlines shown, are said to be 
 "open". The best way for the beginner to study the characters is to copy the 
 plate, marking off the requisite number of squares and sketching in the letters 
 as shown. By doing this he ought to learn, in connection with the shapes of 
 the letters, the following points. 
 
 The widths of the letters vary considerably. By width is meant the 
 dimension at the widest part, always excluding serifs. 
 
 I is 
 
 J is 
 
 U and N are each 
 
 F, H, L, P and R are each 
 
 B, E and S are each 
 A, T, V, Y and Z are each 
 
 C, D, G and X are each 
 K, O and Q are each 
 M is 
 W is 
 
 Thus M is the only letter that is just square, (this is the origin of the 
 printer's em, a unit for measuring composition) ; the W is nearly two units 
 wider, but all the other letters a^^ narrower. On letters less than half an 
 inch in height, a -variation of i of a unit in width will scarcely be noticed, so 
 that on small letters F H L P R B B and S may all be of the same width. 
 
 The upper parts of the letters B E K S X and Z, it will be seen, are not so 
 large as the lower parts. This fact, which has long been recognized in printing, 
 depends upon a curious optical faculty which was known to the ancients. Take 
 either the large or small letter s for example ; if you turn a book upside down 
 and look at the letters, every S will seem much smaller at the bottom than at 
 the top, although when the book is properly held, both parts appear the same 
 size to the eye. The fault of the eye is corrected in the type by making the 
 upper parts of those letters, which cause optical illusion, smaller than the lower 
 parts. For the same reason the upper parts of the figures 3 and 8 are made 
 smaller than the lower parts. The horizontal hair line near the middle of the 
 letters B E F H and R is nearer the top than the bottom of the letter, while in 
 the letters A and P it is nearer the bottom. The curved parts of the letters C 
 D G O and Q are arcs of ellipses, as shown by the broken circles drawn on each 
 of the letters mentioned. ' Since the curved parts of these letters are so nearly 
 arcs of circles, some draftsmen draw them with the compass, as they do also the 
 curved parts of the same letters when drawn in Gothic style ; if the letter;* are 
 small the difference will hardly be perceptible, but it should be remembered 
 that in standard letters these parts should be parts of ellipses. The curved 
 parts of the letters E F L T and Z may be made with the compass if so desired, 
 
~8— 
 
 although these parts are not necessarily arcs of circles. The letter L is made 
 the same width at the bottom as the letters E and F are at the top. Two-fifths 
 of a space np from the bottom and down from the top of each letter are drawn 
 broken horizontal lines. These lines show where to begin to bracket the angles 
 at the extremities of the letters. The matter of rounding off these corners, as 
 stown, and of extending the little spurs to their proper length, should be care- 
 fully observed by the draftsman, as they not only heighten the beauty of the 
 letters, but they also give an impression of accuracy in the drawing. As a 
 general rule, beginners make the ceriphs too short, and fill the angles too 
 much. To properly draw the roman alphabet freehand is a severe test of the 
 accuracy and carefulness of a draftsman. 
 
 In the foregoing remarks some of the peculiarities of the roman letters 
 have been pointed out. The student will note others by observing the plate 
 carefully, and will perfect himself by practising on each letter. In making 
 roman capitals when no alphabet is near for reference the beginner sometimes 
 forgets which side of the letter to shade (make heavy). In such a case the 
 following rule is well to remember. All parts slanting from the upper left hand 
 corner to the lower right are shaded, and all other inclined parts, with the 
 exception of the letter Z, are not. 
 
 Plate II presents the upright Gothic capital letters and figures. In this 
 plate, as in plate I, the space occupied by each letter has been divided into 
 squares, each square having its side equal to one-sixth the height of the letter. 
 In this plate also, the letters have been inked in only in outline, in order to 
 better show their form and construction. A complete Gothic alphabet inked in 
 solidly is shown in plate IV. It will be seen that the main difference between 
 roman and Gothic letters is, that the latter are of the same thickness in all their 
 parts. The same rule which has been given for the stems of roman letters, 
 gages the thickness of Gothic letterSj that is, the thickness is generally about 
 one-sixth the height of the letter. 
 
 Taking the dimensions at the widest parts, the widths of the Gothic letters 
 are : 
 
 1 is 
 
 
 
 J is 
 
 
 
 Lis 
 
 
 
 F H N 
 
 P and 
 
 U are 
 
 B E R and S 
 
 are 
 
 D T V and Z 
 
 are 
 
 A C G 
 
 K O ( 
 
 Q X and 
 
 M is 
 
 
 
 W is 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 unit wide. 
 
 4 
 
 units wide. 
 
 44 
 
 (( « 
 
 4i 
 
 <( <t 
 
 41 
 
 i( (( 
 
 5 
 
 « (( 
 
 5i 
 
 (( (( 
 
 6 
 
 u « 
 
 Ih 
 
 (( <( 
 
 Y are 
 
 By comparing this table with the table of widths of roman letters some 
 slight differences will be noticed. The most important difference is the 
 widening of the letters A and U. This change is necessary because of the effect 
 of thickened stems on the counters. The other differences in width between 
 
ANALYTIC GOTHIC 
 
 T 
 
 S 
 
 m 
 
 id 
 
 ==? 
 
 h 
 
 m 
 
 s 
 
 =^ 
 
 m 
 
 2i 
 
 zz. 
 
 M. 
 
 K 
 
 ^u 
 
 V\ 
 
 m 
 
 5 
 
 =-5 
 
 s. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 \ 
 
 & 
 
 X. 
 
 M 
 
 it 
 
 TO 
 
—9— 
 
 roman and Gotliic forms of the same character are so small as to be neglected in 
 small letters, say in letters half the size of those shown in the plate, or smaller. 
 
 Some of the remarks on the details of the roman capitals apply also to the 
 Gothic. Thus the letters B E K S X Z, and the figures 3 and 8 are not so wide 
 at the top as at the bottom. Also the curved parts of the letters C D G O and 
 Q are arcs of ellipses, as shown by the circles dotted on them ; in some styles of 
 Gothic type the curved parts of these letters are made circular, but it is better 
 form to make them arcs of ellipses, as shown. 
 
 The student can master the Gothic alphabet, given in plate II, in the same 
 way he has learned to make the roman letters. Gothic letters being of the same 
 thickness throughout and not having serifs, nor so many curved parts as the 
 roman letters, are much more easily and quickly made, and for this reason are 
 much used by the engineer. Gothic letters can be made "open," as in the plate 
 we are now considering, or the outline may be filled in solidly, as in ordinary 
 type, or be shaded up in a variety of ways as shown in plate III, so that it is a 
 style of letter which may be used to advantage on a variety of drawings. 
 
 An especially useful letter is the Gothic alphabet shaded as shown in the 
 second line of letters from the bottom in plate IV. To make this style, each let- 
 ter is first drawn entire in pencil, then those sides of the letters are inked, which 
 would be in shade if the light were considered as coming from the upper lefthand 
 corner down at an angle of forty-five degrees across the letter; if desired the light 
 may be considered as coming from the upper right hand corner down towards the 
 lower left, and the letters shaded accordingly. Care must be taken to do the 
 shading accurately and consistently^ and especially is this true of the curved letters 
 if neat results are desired. Letters formed in this way can be easily made to look 
 neat and can be quickly drawn, two great advantages. 
 
 5. Mechanical Methods of Lettering — By the method of laying off 
 squares, as illustrated in plates I and II, having regard also to the succeeding 
 articles on spacing, sizing, and disposition of the letters, the beginner will be able 
 to letter any drawing he may choose. In this way any suitable letters may be 
 sketched on the drawing in pencil and then inked in with the right-line pen, us- 
 ing irregular curves or bow pen for the curved parts of the letters; the pencil con- 
 struction lines are, of course, erased after inking. One writer has adopted this 
 system for every alphabet in his book, with the additional simplification of replac- 
 ing all curves by straight lines ; but the resulting letters appear too stifi" and me- 
 chanical to be very pleasing. 
 
 A second method is to procure from some type foundry a catalogue having 
 a large assortment of letters, and by means of a tracing, transfer from the cata- 
 logue any desired letters to the drawing. (A series of alphabets printed on slips 
 especially for this purpose may be purchased of the Queen Supply Company of 
 Syracuse, New York, for 50 cents.) Another way still, is to procure stencils of 
 letters of desired sizes and styles from some dealer and use them with the aid of 
 the suggestions on spacing, sizing, etc., already mentioned ; but the objection to 
 
—10— 
 
 this metliod, as also to the preceding one, is titat it requires such a large number 
 of letter stamps or copies, to fit the various cases of lettering that occur, that time 
 is lost in selecting the proper letters from so many. 
 
 To save the time which good pen lettering requires, an instrument has been 
 devised by J. A. Ockerson, C. E. The device is described as follows: For letters 
 a stamp is used. The type composing any desired name is set up and clamped in' 
 a type holder at the base of the piston, and after inking, is impressed upon the 
 paper through an opening in the base of the frame. The outer edges of this base 
 being rectangular,, with two of them parallel to the line of type, serve as guides 
 in locating names. For numbers, three concentric revolving discs are used, each 
 disc containing the ten numerals in type, so that any combination of three figures 
 is readily formed. Ockerson' s device is being used to some extent by the United 
 States engineers, and it is claimed to be quite economical and efficient in offices 
 where lettering is done on an extensive scale. On smaller works the device has- 
 not as yet come into general use, and it is probable that it would not be so eco- 
 nomical in smaller offices. The device is sold by the A. S. Aloe Company, St. 
 Louis, Mo., and any one wanting a fuller description can procure a descriptive 
 pamphlet from them 
 
 Lettering triangles, made of transparent celluloid or hard rubber, are also 
 used to some extent. These instruments are used in connection with a T square 
 and are similar to the ordinary triangle in having two edges perpendicular to each 
 other, but the hypotenuse is replaced by a number of edges at various slopes cor- 
 responding to that of the stems of the letters having inclined parts. With the 
 simplest form of this instrument, the T square must be shifted for each letter of 
 different slope. In a later form this inconvenience is avoided. The most useful 
 form of lettering triangle is that devised by Professor Jacoby and made by Theo. 
 Alteneder, Philadelphia. In this triangle the edges adjacent the right angle 
 are 3 and 8 respectively, the hypotenuse thus giving the proper slope for inclined 
 or italic letters. 
 
 No mechanical device can take the place of the ability to letter drawings 
 freehand neatly and quickly. For treatment of this subject see next chapter. 
 
 6. The Spacing of Letters — The spacing of letters is fully as important 
 as their correct formation. Each letter may be perfectly shaped, and yet if the 
 letters are not properly spaced the finished word will look awkward. It will be 
 seen from plates I and II that letters vary considerably in their width, the I be- 
 ing the narrowest and the W the widest: "If, therefore, the letters composing a 
 word be spaced off at equal distances from center to center, the interval or space 
 between the letters will be more in some cases than in others. Thus in the word 
 
 .WAY 
 
 To avoid this, write in first one letter and then space off a proper interval, 
 
—11— 
 
 •and then write in tlie next letter and space off the interval as before, and so on, 
 thus: 
 
 When, as frequently happens, ^the words are very much extended in order 
 to embrace and explain a large extent of surface or boundary, and the space oc- 
 cupied by the letter is small in comparison with the interval, the disparity of in- 
 tervals will not be noticed, and the letters may then be laid off at equal spaces 
 from center to center, thus : 
 
 fA\ 
 
 A Y 
 
 When the lines of letters are curved the same rules for spacing are to be 
 ■observed as above. If the letters are upright the sides of each letter are to be 
 parallel to the radius drawn to the center of the letter, and the bottom and top 
 lines at right angles to it. If the letters be inclined, as Italic letters, then the 
 side lines of the letters must be inclined to the central radial line, as on a hori- 
 zontal line they are inclined to the perpendicular, thus:"* 
 
 However, upon closer examination, we find that the method of spacing first 
 explained above does not completely remedy the difficulty. For plainer explana- 
 tion let us take the word "Waverly." From plate II we can find the proper width 
 for each letter, and we will accordingly write ' in the letters, allowing between 
 
 *Appletoii's Cjclopediaof Drawing. 
 
—12— 
 
 each one an interval equal to two-fiftlis tlie height of the letter, (the usual inter- 
 val), thus : 
 
 It will be seen that notwithstanding the 'fact that we have not spaced the 
 letters off at equal distances from center to center, but have given each letter its 
 proper width with the same interval between each one, the word, as a whole, looks 
 awkward to the eye. The fault is that the letters L and Y appear to be quite too 
 far apart, and the letters W A and V slightly too much so, to agree with the 
 spacing of the other letters. 
 
 This defect can be remedied by making the intervals between the letters 
 mentioned smaller than those between the other letters, thus making the inter- 
 vals irregular as well as the widths of the letters, as follows : 
 
 Here it will be seen that while E R and L are a full interval apart, the 
 distance between the spaces marked off for W A and V is less than a full interval, 
 while there is little or no interval between the spaces marked off for L and Y. 
 Upon the same principle we have made the interval between the spaces 
 marked off for V and E slightly less than a full interval. Thus we may gather 
 the following : when the letters L and T, L and Y, T and A, L and V, T and J, 
 F and J, etc., come together in the order indicated, they should be spaced consid- 
 erably closer together, and when letters occur in words thus, VA, AV, LO, FO, 
 TO, WA or similar combinations, they should be spaced slightly closer together, 
 in order that the finished word will not appear to be irregularly lettered, but will 
 look correct to the eye. There should not be a preponderance of black nor of 
 white, and to gain this end the white areas between the letters should be approx- 
 imately equal in amount. The idea in spacing letters properly, thus,is the same 
 as in making map work neat generally, the letters should be so spaced as to im- 
 part the desired impression clearly and quickly and give a pleasing general ef- 
 fect. 
 
 The interval between words, ordinarily, is equal in width to the height of 
 the letters on the line. But this matter depends so much on circumstances that 
 there is no regular rule to be followed. 
 
 The details which have been pointed out above may seem trivial, but it is 
 exactly attention to these little matters that makes the skillful draftsman, and 
 if they are carefully studied and practiced at first, it will afterwards become sec- 
 ond nature for him to observe them. 
 
 7. Size of Letters — The size of letters, relative to the drawing on which 
 
—13— 
 
 they are to appear, is an important point and will depend upon two things ; tlie 
 scale of the drawing, and the importance of the object described. The largest 
 letters are generally used in the title for the name of the object or tract repre- 
 sented, the smallest for explanatory notes usually ; and between these dimen- 
 sions, the sizes are proportioned to the importance of the different features rep- 
 resented. Numerous suggestions have been offered in defining the heights of 
 the letters to be used, but it is hard to frame a rule that shall fit all cases. The 
 following proportions have been suggested by Prof Charles McMillan : 
 
 Scale. 
 
 Height of largest upright 
 capitals. 
 
 Height of small letters for 
 explanatory notes. 
 
 ^ or 1 inch=60 feet. 
 2e4o or 2 feet=:l mile. 
 6!B0 or 1 foot=l mile. 
 10660 or 6 inches — 1 mile. 
 
 j*o inch. 
 1^ inch, 
 j^ inch, 
 fo inch. 
 
 ■'iSo inch. 
 m inch. 
 100 inch. 
 m inch. 
 
 Select a map for illustration. Since a pond in one map may rank in import- 
 ance with an ocean in another, it is evidently impossible to prescribe exact sizes 
 of letters for the different features. The following has been suggested by anoth- 
 er writer : "As a rule no letter should exceed in height loo of the length of the 
 shorter border of the drawing on which it appears." This may be followed as a 
 general guide in limiting the size of the largest letters to be used, while the pro- 
 priety of relative importance, should, of course, be everywhere observed, as for 
 example, on a map a city demands larger letters than a town, a river needs larger 
 letters than a creek, and a county would require larger letters than a township. 
 The above rule, together with an examination of the drawing in hand and obser- 
 vation of other drawings, will serve to give the beginner a fair idea of the proper 
 gradation. It is the rule for beginners to make the letters too large for the draw- 
 ing, and they seldom get the lettering proportionately too small. 
 
 8. Disposition of the Letters — Names should be so placed on drawings 
 as to be easily read, show clearly the object designated, and not obscure the 
 other features of the drawing. After the careful consideration of this rule the 
 draftsman should next bear in mind that names should be so placed as not to ap- 
 pear crowded, and thus mar the general effect. The following rules taken from 
 "Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching" are well chosen, and apply to 
 drawings in general, as well as to maps in particular. 
 
 For isolated features, the names are placed, when possible, at the right or 
 left of, and close to the different objects designated and parallel to the lower edge 
 of the border, the space between the letters and words conforming to those of or- 
 dinary print. 
 
-14— 
 
 For communitations, tlie names are placed parallel and close to the edges or 
 boundaries ; the spaces between letters remaining the same as in ordinary print, 
 while the words are separated by intervals, which for uniformity in the same 
 map, may be taken equal to the largest word there used for these designations. 
 The bases of the letters are best turned toward the communication, and such part 
 of the latter should be selected for the name that when the drawing is held in its 
 proper position the letters will not be reversed : e. g. if the road extends upwards 
 to the right or downward to the left, or in a vertical direction, the name is placed 
 on the left of it ; if horizontally, above ; otherwise to the right. 
 
 For streams the same rules apply as for communications, except when their 
 widths are at least twice the height of the letters, in which case the names are 
 placed along the axis of the streams, independently of the direction of the cur- 
 rent which is indicated by an arrow. The accompanying figure shows the prop- 
 er positions of names relative to lines of features having various directions : 
 
 Name 
 
 Name 
 
 For elongated outlines, as in the case of forests, marshes and bodies of 
 water, the names are extended in the direction of greatest dimension and along 
 straight or smoothly curved lines midway between the boundaries. The letters 
 are not "extended," but, with the words, are so spaced that the name in each case 
 will occupy nearly the entire length of the feature, the spaces being proportional 
 to those used in ordinary print. In certain cases, when names placed on the 
 features would obscure them, or the scale of the map is very small, a legend, or 
 list of the names is placed in an unimportant part of the map, or outside the bor- 
 der ; and corresponding letters or numerals attached to the different names and 
 features serve as mutual references. These names should be horizontal, and ar- 
 ranged in one or more vertical rows. 
 
 When to Letter — ^The entire drawing, even to the lettering, should first 
 be made in pencil, if the draftsman would be sure of his work. Disregard of this 
 rule many times spoils a drawing and often wastes time in the end. Generally 
 in a pen drawing, with the exception of the title, the letters should be inked in 
 first, as the characteristic lines of the other features will usually be more easily 
 followed if they should be broken, than would the lines of the letters. Of course 
 
—15— 
 
 the letters should be so placed that, observing the rules already given for dispo- 
 sition, they will not fall on places which other features must occupy ; but this is 
 often unavoidable, and in such a case the feature that is more easily followed is 
 the one to be broken. 
 
 In some special cases the letters can be made large and open and the features 
 inked directly upon them ; but it is better to break the lines enough to place 
 each letter, if this will cause no mistake in interpreting the drawing. 
 
 If the drawing is to be tinted, the letters should be inked in last, having 
 been so executed previously in pencil that no erasing will be required after 
 inking ; the tint would be partially removed by erasing the pencil lines that 
 have been washed over, and, if the letters are inked before the color is laid the 
 ink will very likely blur upon being washed over, even though it may be 
 advertised as "waterproof". 
 
 The usual order of procedure, then, in a pen and ink drawing, is to make 
 the entire drawing in pencil, letter it and draw the title in pencil next (and if 
 this precaution is taken it matters not whether the lines or letters are inked 
 first), ink in lines and letters of the body of the drawing, and ink the title last. 
 
 • 10. Style of Letter to be Used — The style of letter to be used depends 
 upon the character of the drawing and upon the permanent general interest of 
 the work, and, generally more than one style is used to designate the different 
 features of the same drawing. Usually it will be found advantageous to use 
 several styles to describe the various features, but it is not advisable to use too 
 many styles on the same drawing, where many of the different features can be 
 distinguished easily by differently sized letters of the same style. 
 
 The following rule is to be observed : the letters used should agree with the 
 character of the drawing ; they should be in accord with the general effect of the 
 drawing on which they are placed. Thus, while a complicated and highly 
 finished drawing may receive letters of a more ornamental character, plain and 
 simple letters look better on a plain drawing. We would not use rustic or 
 vaguely formed letters on a geometrical drawing. In such an instance one of 
 the geometric styles, say Block letters, or the Geometrical letters j ust below the 
 Old English alphabet in the center of plate III, would be more appropriate. 
 
 In any case, no hand-writing should be allowed on a finished drawing. 
 
 In plate III a variety of styles is given, partly to show some that are appro- 
 priate for technical drawing, partly to indicate what styles not to use, and partly 
 to illustrate some miscellaneous features in lettering. The writer first learned 
 lettering from a book of " alphabets for the use of architects, engravers, 
 engineers, artists, sign-painters, etc.," without any word as to which was the 
 engravers' letter, which the sign-painters', and which the engineers', and the 
 result was even more confusing to the novice than the present plate would be 
 without an explanation. From the above source the styles indicated as Pearl, 
 Old English, and Velvet were taken. These letters, or similar styles, may be 
 
—16— 
 
 seen on many old drawings, but at present are out of date, as practice now tends 
 to mucli simplicity in technical work. 
 
 For mechanical drawing the simplest styles are used. Gothic, Geometrical, 
 Block, or Half-block are those most frequently used, but plain Gothic is used 
 more than any other. For sub-titles and details the " Single Stroke Gothic ", 
 (called also " Hairline Gothic "), is an excellent letter. For explanatory notes 
 stump letters capitalized with inclined roman are good ; also, the letter known 
 as the " Engineering News Style ", capitalized with inclined Hairline Gothic, is 
 excellent for explanatory notes, and the lettering of other small details. For 
 title-letters to mechanical drawings in addition to the above styles, plain upright 
 roman, and plain Gothic with a shade line around each letter as shown at the 
 bottom of plate V, may well be used. If the drawing were very bold and black, 
 the Half-block shaded as in" the words United' States in plate III might be 
 suitable for important title-words. 
 
 Roman is the standard style for topographic maps and charts, if drawn in 
 ink. Upright roman is used for titles, and for the names of the more important 
 political divisions, as states, counties, townships, cities, etc. Water features are 
 always designated by inclined letters ; for this either roman or Gothic may be 
 used, Gothic being used for the smaller and less important bodies of water, as 
 ponds or creeks, depending on the scale of the map. Stump letters are also used 
 for unimportant stream names, and other minor features. Inclined Hairline 
 Gothic is often used for communications, as roads and railroads. 
 
 Topographic drawings in water color require a light form of letter. Open 
 roman is most frequently used but is somewhat disappointing. For important 
 title-letters the open Finished Roman near the top of plate III, answers well. 
 Open Gothic may also be used, and where large letters must be used to cover a 
 wide expanse of symbols in color, the " Gothic Shade-line" letter, shown second 
 line from the bottom of plate IV, is very good. As in pen-topographic drawings, 
 inclined letters are used to denote water features. 
 
 For street names in large scale city plats, plats of additions and sub- 
 divisions, the Gothic shade-line letter just mentioned is good because rapidly 
 made, and because the body of such a drawing is usually light and requires a 
 light form of letter. . The " Shaded Roman " near the bottom of plate III is a 
 good title-letter on drawings of municipal improvements. 
 
 For working drawings of engineering structures, Gothic shade-line, or 
 Gothic variously shaded may be used in the title, and single-stroke Gothic, and 
 stump letters for details, bills of material, and explanatory notes. Inclined 
 roman is used as a capital letter for these stump letters, and the latter should be 
 three-fifths as high and thick as the accompanying capitals. As the plans 
 become more important and of more permanent interest the lettering may be 
 done in upright roman characters if appropriate to the body of the drawing. 
 
 For more elaborate drawings' still, such as plans for public buildings, 
 architectural designs, etc., the lettering may appropriately become more artistic. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS 
 
 
 ROMAN ABCDE/^Qf^lJKLf^lslopQFISTUVWXYZ 
 
 OLD e: J^^ -r f: jn d z: jd 
 
 '^^^^ ALPHABETS 
 
 BQ^ZG 
 KP V X 
 CF H W 
 
 dili'cLb 
 
 QJxoAAAxb TiKLiK^ PRINT Vvmina 
 
 m 
 
 (^ 
 
 i^^A 
 
 (^( 
 
 BDFHJKNPq-GBnMETRICAL-BUVy\/XYZ^ 
 
 GEOMETRIC ITRLID V3S3LVBX INCLINED GOTHIC 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 U^TEMA^Y QUAINT ROMAN ^1®^^,^^®®^!.!)^ 
 
 'PF&£M&^ ^^^ M^BiC^l^ Ml/SB 
 
 Xi 
 
 DEDIIOMAK mill 
 
 I 
 
—17— 
 
 Roman Old Style may be used in the title, and for sub-titles Quaint Open, 
 Quaint Roman, or some of the styles sbown in tbe lower portion of the plate of 
 type-specimens, always being careful to see that the style chosen harmonizes 
 with the general appearance of the rest of the drawing. In the next chapter 
 some additional architectural styles are given. 
 
 Other useful title-letters are Italian Print, (which should be used sparingly, 
 however), and roman shaded as in the words Shaded Roman near the bottom of 
 plate III. On either side of these words are the letters E M P I R etc. which 
 are too ornamental for ordinary work, but which might be used sparingly in 
 titles on a map that is to be engraved and on which, consequently, some time 
 might be spent in finishing. 
 
 If a Gothic or roman letter inked in solidly would be too black to harmonize 
 with the rest of the drawing, either style may be drawn in outline only and 
 filled with " shading " of suitable blackness. The Gothic alphabet, especially, 
 lends itself to this treatment, but the student should be careful not to choose 
 bizarre designs of filling as illustrated in the words Shaded and Letters in the 
 bottom line of plate III. The shading of Gothic and roman letters is further 
 illustrated in the first and last titles in the first plate given in the chapter on 
 titles, and these two examples indicate approximately the maximum amouut of 
 shading consistent with good taste. 
 
 Owing to the haste with which drawings sometimes have to be made and 
 the time consumed in making ordinary letters, a style of lettering called Round 
 Writing, also called German Round Hand, has for some time been in use. An 
 example of this style is given in plate III ; it has been used to quite an 
 extent by engineers, especially on working drawings. The objection to it is, 
 in kind, similar to that urged against hand-writing, that is, it does not so easily 
 give a clear and concise impression as do the older and standard styles of letters ; 
 it can not always be read at a glance. This objection is not nearly so marked, 
 of course, in Round Writing as in hand-writing. However, as lettering by 
 this means is so rapidly done, Round Writing will probably always be used to 
 quite an extent, especially in working drawings. The method was devised by 
 Frederick Soennecken, and was used in Germany before being introduced in 
 this country. The characters are all made by single strokes of the pen, an 
 especial pen and pen-holder having been devised by the inventor for the purpose. 
 The student who wishes to inquire further into the subject can procure copy 
 book, pens and holder from Keuffel and Esser, New York and Chicago. The 
 copy book contains instructions for learning the method. 
 
 The words Extended and Alphabets, near the upper part of the plate, show 
 how the proportions of letters may be changed to make words fill an elongated 
 or compressed space. Any style may be similarly treated, and when modified 
 as in the first word mentioned are said to be extended ; when treated as in the 
 word Alphabets the letters are said to be condensed or compressed. Condensed 
 letters are extensively used in newspapers for headlines. 
 
—18— 
 
 In tlie various words near the bottom of the plate, below tbe Velvet letters 
 N to Z and above tbe words Shaded Roman, is illustrated the effect of different 
 shading and filling, together with modified forms. These words selected from 
 advertisements, etc., also illustrate the value of correct spacing. Take the word 
 Melange for example ; the individual letters are oddly shaped, yet the spacing 
 is true and the word, as a whole, is not displeasing to the eye. According to 
 what has been previously said, few, if any, of these styles would be used on 
 strictly technical drawings ; they are given here to illustrate shading, spacing, 
 and the devices sometimes employed to overcome the difficulties of spacing ; see 
 the words Medical, Factotum, etc. 
 
 In the foregoing paragraphs we have given suggestions on selecting 
 suitable styles for various work, but this subject is more a matter of experience 
 and observation, than a question to be settled by rules. 
 
 If the student wishes more elaborate styles, he can become acquainted with 
 them by observing artistic street signs, lithographs, and the like, or by 
 consulting type-founders' catalogs, from which many books on lettering are 
 derived ; but if he expects to devote himself to engineering drafting only, it will 
 be better for him to master thoroughly a few simple styles, than to attempt the 
 more difficult ones. 
 
 For additional remarks on freehand styles see next chapter. 
 
IV FREEHAND LETTERS 
 
 UPRIGHT ROMAN CAPITALS 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO 
 
 PQM 8 T UTWXY 
 12 345 678 90 
 
 INCLINED ROMAN CAPITALS 
 
 ABCD E F GHIJKLMN 
 OP QR S TUVWJ^VZ 
 
 UPRIGHT ROMAN SMALL 
 
 ■ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxj)^z 
 
 SINGLE STROKE GOTHIC 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
 
 INCLINED SINGLE STROKE GOTHIC 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
 
 5TUtVlP LETTERS 
 
 abode fghij klmnopqrstaowxyz 
 
 UPRIGHT GOTHIC SMALL 
 
 a bcdefghij k I m n o pq rstuvwxy z 
 
 INCLINED GOTHIC CAPITALS 
 
 A B C D E F G H I J K L 
 MNOPQRSTUV W XYZ 
 
 UPRIGHT GOTHIC CAPITALS 
 
 1234567890 
 
 A ^ C D £ r Gj rl J J i^ L jVJ 
 NOPQRSTUVWXYZ& 
 
Chapter II. 
 
 FREEHAND LETTERING. 
 
 11. After the student has become familiar with the forms of each letter, 
 and has learned to letter by dividing up the space for each one into squares and 
 using the ruling-pen and irregular curves as explained in preceding articles, 
 he should then learn to make the letters freehand, simply using two pencil 
 lines for guides. While the mechanical methods previously explained may be 
 resorted to in making large letters on elaborate maps, or on drawings which are 
 to be kept as permanent records, and on which the draftsman will have time to 
 make the letters exact, yet in most drawings this is too slow a method, and he 
 should be able to make letters freehand neatly and quickly. 
 
 Accordingly, in plate IV are given seven alphabets which the student 
 should learn to make freehand. The upright roman and Gothic small alphabets, 
 given in the plate, have been put in more for completeness than for any great 
 use which is made of them by the engineer ; they need not be mastered, as they 
 are so little used in drafting. The upright roman small letters are used in the 
 published maps of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the U. S. Geolog- 
 ical Survey, but, outside of this, they and the Gothic small letters are little used 
 in engineering drawings, for the reason that it takes so much time to make them 
 satisfactorily. The Gothic lower case is perhaps the most difl&cult of all to make 
 look neat. Stump letters are employed almost universally in drafting in place 
 of the upright or inclined roman small letters. These stump letters should 
 slant at the same slope taken for inclined capitals, that is, a slope of three to 
 eight. 
 
 The upright and inclined roman capitals, the single stroke upright and 
 inclined Gothic, the stump letters, and the upright and inclined Gothic capitals, 
 which are given in the plate, are used almost daily by the draftsman, and when 
 the student has learned to make these letters freehand neatly and quickly he is 
 well equipped for lettering engineering drawings. Even though the student 
 may not succeed in thoroughly mastering these styles with regard to the forms 
 of the individual letters, still with the proper spacing and sizing the effect is 
 superior, as has been previously stated, to lettering in which each letter is 
 perfectly formed, but in which the spacing or sizing has been improperly done. 
 Therefore, let the student master as nearly as he can the freehand styles here 
 given and not become discouraged if he does not become expert. 
 
 In freehand lettering, at least top and bottom pencil guide lines should 
 always be drawn first, and then the letters drawn in pencil before being inked 
 in. Possible exceptions to this are single stroke freehand letters, where the 
 only pencil lines necessary in some cases are the guide lines ; but very often 
 
—20— 
 
 witli these letters it will be desirable to draw tbem in pencil first, to be sure of 
 tbe spacing. The student^ before entering upon the following instructions, is 
 supposed to know the relative width of every letter of the alphabet^ having 
 learned them, from plates I and II, or from the tabulated widths on pages 7 and 
 8, as given in the preceding chapter. 
 
 12. Preliminary to Arts. 13 and 14 — Before taking up freehand 
 lettering the student is supposed to have had training enough in drawing to 
 make him proficient in such exercises as connecting two parallel lines by- 
 freehand normals, bisecting short distances by eye, placing dots on one line 
 directly underneath those on another, etc., etc. ; if not, he should practice these 
 simple exercises until he can do them rapidly and accurately freehand, checking 
 himself with triangle and tee-square. The ability to draw freehand quickly a 
 short straight normal, as kl perpendicular to km in Figure A, and to bisect 
 short distances by eye, as km by a dot at zc, is very useful if not essential to 
 skill in rapid freehand lettering. 
 
 The student should note carefully the following injunctions before 
 beginning on the roman and Gothic letters of the next two articles : 
 
 (a) These instructions relate to drawing the letters in pencil. 
 
 (b) Use a six or seven H lead-pencil. 
 
 (c) Always keep it sharpened to a slender cone-point. You can not 
 do good lettering with a blunt pencil. 
 
 (d) Rem.ember that stems are J the height of the letter in 
 thickness. 
 
 (e) Remember that serifs are one unit long. This applies to the 
 sizes usually drawn freehand, and comprises all roman letters half an 
 inch or less in height. For larger letters than those shown in the 
 following cuts the correct length of serifs is as given in plate I. 
 
 (f) Always rule top and bottom guide-lines. If the letters are 
 large a third may be ruled midway. 
 
 (g) Rule guide-lines with straight-edge.^ draw width-lines freehand. 
 The latter lines may be drawn with triangle but this will usually take 
 more time and cause more trouble with the spacing. A given letter is 
 always finished (or nearly so) in pencil before the width-lines for the 
 next succeeding one are drawn. 
 
 (h) Always use limiting, verticals, or "width-lines" as we shall 
 call them, in connection with guide-lines., as illustrated in sketch below, 
 where de and hi are the width-lines for A. The distance apart of these 
 limiting verticals, in units of \ the height, is given for each letter on 
 pages 7 and 8, and is the width at widest part excluding serifs. 
 
 (i) Always use a square as explained below in drawing these 
 width-lines. The dot and dash lines represent the squares, the broken 
 lines denote the width-lines, in the figures following 
 
—21— 
 
 Tlie use of square and width-lines is illustrated in tlie accompanying cut, 
 and tlie advantage of using tliem may be shown in drawing tlie roman capital A. 
 Let the student first draw freehand, without side guide lines, the two ou£side 
 lines of the letter as at 1 of the figure. He will find it difiEcult thus to get both 
 lines at the same slant and the letter of correct width. Next let him proceed as 
 at 2 : here the width-line de was first drawn, then fg so as to make defg 
 square, then one unit (or a stem) cut off the right hand side leaving dehi to 
 contain the letter ; by eye bisect dh by a dot at w and join we and wi. By the 
 second method both uniformity of slope and correct width are easily secured, if 
 the student can readily estimate a square. 
 
 A square can usually be readily and correctly drawn by any person who can 
 draw a short normal as de fairly well, since the two guide lines aid very 
 materially in quickly placing freehand the fourth side very close to its proper 
 place, at least within a quarter of a unit, and this error will seldom be noticed in 
 ordinary letters. 
 
 If the beginner should attempt to mark out the rectangle for a letter 
 without the use of the square the result is usually that the narrow letters are 
 made too wide and the wide ones too narrow. Let the student draw some letter, 
 as J or W, by this method. 
 
 a d w k f k m, p t 
 
 t 
 
 9 ^ V 
 Figure A 
 
 lie: 
 
 J 
 
 In making each letter, then, the square should first be used, and the 
 necessary space cut off or added according to width of letter. Thus for N cut off 
 li stems ; for W add li stems and obtain the proper rectangle, as /> ^ r jr at 4 of 
 the above figure. After drawing the left-hand width-line, the work may be 
 abbreviated by simply placing a dot on the top guide line at a distance marking 
 off a square, instead of drawing a full line there. The amount cut off or added 
 may be as easily measured from this dot as from a line. 
 
 Each letter is finished in pencil before the width-lines for the next are 
 drawn. This rule is to aid in spacing correctly. After the letters are penciled 
 in they may be inked freehand or with the use of right-line pen, according to 
 size of letters and skill of the draftsman. 
 
 If the student has carefully noted the above instructions^ the remaining 
 ■directions are very simple^ and the method of forming each letter is sufficiently 
 indicated by the arrows in the following figures. However, a few remarks, which 
 may be helpful, will be made in connection with the letters as we pass them by. 
 
 13. Upright Roman Capitals — A few remarks applying especially to 
 these capitals first. In the following cuts the serifs are usually omitted, with 
 the understanding that they are the last strokes made in each letter. They 
 
-22— 
 
 sliOTild. be carefully extended to their proper length before rounding off the 
 corner between stem and serif, and remember that in letters half an inch in 
 height or less, these corners need little or no bracketing. This is illustrated in 
 the two L's on the preceding page. The second L shows that it is better not to 
 use bracketing at all, than to fill the angle too much — a common fault with 
 beginners. 
 
 All spurs (portions similar to the right hand part of L) should be made 
 carefully. If they are drawn as in the first L, the letter will appear too stiff. If 
 the angle is not filled enough, the letter will have a 'starved' appearance, 
 especially if accompanied by fat stems. The spur should end in a hairline at 
 either extremity. A spur on an enlarged scale, is shown at 7 of Figure A. 
 
 The roman letters have more optical illusions than perhaps any other style. 
 These are to be humored but must not be exaggerated. Thus in plate I the 
 letters are large and eccentricities are readily noticed, but on smaller letters they 
 should be reduced in proportion. For example, in letters an inch high the 
 lower right-hand corner of N if brought to a sharp point projects sV of an inch 
 below the guide line, but in a letter i of an inch high this distance would be 
 only about iJo of an inch, a very small quantity. 
 
 On small letters the sharp points on N A V M and W are best formed by 
 stopping all strokes on the guide-lines and adding the, point by a pen dot after 
 the lettering is otherwise completed. 
 
 In the cuts accompanying, the letters are grouped approximately in the 
 order of difficulty of construction. 
 
 I' ■! 
 
 I' I 'I 
 
 A 
 
 iK, 
 
 I I 
 J L 
 
 IF 
 
 ! i 
 
 "MP 
 
 I is the simplest letter to draw, and is the only one not requiring the 
 preliminary square. After stroke 1 is in position stroke 2 is drawn at one unit's 
 distance from it. The method of finding without dividers the thickness of a 
 stem for a given height is to place a dot midway between top and bottom, and 
 trisect one of these spaces as shown. 
 
 H. Mark off a square as gaged by the height of letter, cut off li stems from 
 the right-hand side, and the order of strokes is as indicated. To correctly place 
 stroke 5 first bisect the height by a dot and draw 5 very slightly above this. 
 
 In Iv T E F and Z be careful to properly draw the spurs. These spurs as 
 shown in Figure A should terminate at the free extremity in a hairline i of a unit 
 long, and all spurs should be 2i units long from the guide lines except the 
 upper spurs of B F and Z which are 2 units in length. 
 
 L. Cut off 1 ^ stems from the square. If the next letter in a word following 
 L is A, make the L only 4 or 4i units wide. 
 
 T. Cut off 1 unit from its square, and make strokes 1 and 2 each 24 units 
 long. Next bisect the distance between them by a dot which enables strokes 3 
 and 4 to be quickly and accurately placed. 
 
-23— 
 
 E is li units less than square, and stroke 2 is a hair inside of 3. Stroke 5 
 is properly placed very slightly above the middle, by first bisecting the height 
 with a dot. Stroke 6 is half-way between j and 4, and extends li units either 
 side of 5. 
 
 F. Stroke 5 is a trifle above mid-height, as in E, and 4 is midway between 
 2 and J, and same length as the corresponding stroke in E. 
 
 Z. Cut off a stem from the square. Stroke 1 is 2 units long, stroke 2 is 
 2i units long. Place a dot on the top guide, li units from right-hand width-line, 
 and stroke 3 extends from this dot down to the lower left-hand corner. Stroke 
 4 must begin exactly at the upper right corner and be parallel to 3. If 
 necessary the directions should be shifted to make the inclined stem one unit 
 thick. 
 
 In large letters inclined stems appear thicker than vertical stems of 
 the same width, and the student will therefore have to be careful not to accident- 
 ally widen slopin-g stems while inking them. 
 
 N. Cut off" li stems from a square, and make strokes in the order given. 
 Stroke 3 begins on 1 at a very small distance — \ of a unit — below the guide line 
 and ends on 2 at the same distance below the lower guide line. Stroke 4 is 
 parallel to 3 and at such distance as to make the stem a unit thick. 
 
 A. This letter may be brought to an acute apex at the upper guide, or 
 made blunt as in plate I. If accurately made the acute vertex looks better, and 
 should extend 5 of a unit over the guide line. To draw A, first draw a square, 
 cut off a stem, bisect top of the rectangle by a dot and draw strokes as shown. 
 Stroke 4 is drawn so as to apparently bisect the triangular area ; its distance 
 from the bottom should be two units. The usual mistake is to place stroke 4 
 too high. 
 
 V. Is drawn as indicated, using the dot on the lower guide to direct strokes 
 1 and 2. Its vertex extends, in the form of a hairline in small letters, 5 of a 
 unit below the lower guide. 
 
 M. Strokes 1 and 2 of this letter mark off a square. After strokes 1, 2 
 and 3, a dot is placed on the lower guide bisecting the distance between 1 and 3, 
 and strokes 4 and 5 meet each other | of a unit below this dot. Stroke 4 
 begins exactly at the intersection of 3 and the upper guide, but stroke 5 begins 
 on 1 at 5 of a unit below the top guide. The usual mistake is to begin 5 too 
 low on stroke 1, and the same error is frequently made in N. 
 
 The lower middle part of M is sometimes made blunt, as the top of A in 
 plate I, and if this is done it should not extend below the lower guide. 
 
 K. After the square draw 1 and 2. Place a dot on the top guide li units 
 from the right side of the square ; from this dot draw stroke 3 to meet 2 two 
 units from the bottom. Stroke 4 is guided by placing a dot on the lower guide 
 
—24— 
 
 2 units from tlie square line, and anotlier dot on stroke 3 one unit from 2, 
 Stroke 5 is parallel to 4 making the stem of correct thickness. 
 
 X. Half a stem off a square gives its rectangle. Place dots on the top 
 guide i a unit from the sides to guide strokes 1 and 2. The lower extremity of 
 2 should end on a dot li units from the side. It may have to be shifted slightly, 
 so that 2 and 3 shall be parallel and a unit apart, 3 to end just at the corner. 
 
 Y. Is placed iu same sized rectangle as X. Bisect the bottom of the 
 rectangle by a dot to guide 1 and 2, which are drawn indefinitely at first. On 1 
 two and one-quarter units above the bottom place a dot, and stroke 3 joins this 
 with the upper left-hand corner. Stroke 4 is parallel until it meets 2. Stroke 5 
 joins the junction of 2 and 4 to the upper right corner. Beginners frequently 
 make the inclined stem join the vertical one at the middle, instead of below the 
 middle which is proper. 
 
 W. Add li stems to a square and you have the rectangle containing the 
 letter. On the lower guide place two dots 2 units inside the ' width-lines and 
 draw strokes 1 and 2 to them. After stroke 3, bisect by a dot the distance on the 
 top guide between 2 and 3 and from this dot draw 4 parallel to 2. If 4 thus 
 drawn meets 1 on — or a hair below — the lower guide, finish the letter ; if it does 
 not, shift stroke 4 parallel to itself until in the proper position, when stroke 2 
 may be shifted a corresponding amount and the letter then finished. 
 
 Strokes 5 and 6 are parallel to 1. Stroke 6 should never fall to the left of 4. 
 In letters less than i of an inch high, or in larger sizes if condensed, the portion 
 of the stem 5-6 to the left of stroke 4 may be omitted and the middle part of W 
 brought to an acute apex on the upper guide. A common mistake is to assume 
 that the stems of W are parallel to that of V. 
 
 The lobes of B P and R are similar, and their correct shapes as given in 
 plate I, should be carefully noted. 
 
 P is similar to the corresponding portion of B, with the exception that 
 stroke 3 in P is a trifle below the middle. Stroke 5 is first made vertical and 
 straight and then rounded at each end into 4. 
 
 B. The lower lobe is about i unit wider than the upper. Strokes 6 and 7 
 are made straight verticals at first and then rounded into 4, and 5 ; dui these two 
 stems must be joined by hairlines. This remark applies also to the R following. 
 The effect of running the two curved stems together is shown in the first B, and 
 is a mistake commonly made. 
 
 D. Its width is determined as in all the previous letters, by first drawing a 
 square and reducing this by the correct amount. Make stroke 4 a vertical 
 straight line first and then round its extremities into stroke 3. Guard against 
 running the curved stem around upon the guide lines ; as shown in plate I a 
 
—25— 
 
 small portion of hairline should intervene between the curved stem and the 
 guide lines at either extremity. 
 
 U. The method of construction is sufficiently indicated in the cut. 
 
 J. The left-hand portion extends up two units or more from the lower 
 guide. Finish the lobe as a complete circle before filling in the angle between 
 strokes 2 and 5 as shown in plate I. This angle, in small letters, needs little or 
 no filling. 
 
 R is perhaps incorrectly drawn as often as any letter of the alphabet, the 
 mistakes most frequently made being to run the two curved stems together, and 
 to run the lower curved stem around upon stroke 8 as shown in the second R. 
 
 
 The curved parts of the letters C O and Q are arcs of ellipses. Not 
 infrequently the beginner makes these letters of the general shape shown in the 
 first O of the following cut, his idea being that the letter is circular, and that 
 the curved stems must extend to the guide lines. Contrast the result with an 
 O drawn after the shape suggested in the second one, which although somewhat 
 extreme in this direction is more pleasing than the first example. The correct 
 form is shown in plate I. 
 
 O. After drawing the rectangle place bisecting dots on each of the four 
 sides to guide the strokes as given. Arcs 12 3 and 4 may then be joined to 
 each other by straight (or nearly straight) lines. The verticals 5 and 6 are 
 then rounded into the outline. 
 
 Curved stems should be slightly thicker than straight ones, that they may 
 appear to be of the same thickness. See Figure B and remarks thereon. 
 
 The same general method used in O should be followed in making the 
 outlines of Q C and G. 
 
 Q. Is made as an O first and then the lower curved distinguishing part is 
 added. It is difficult to make this last part look neat. Two forms of the letter 
 are given either of which may be used. 
 
 C. Stroke 4 and the upper spur of this letter must be carefully drawn. 
 On the top guide in Figure A, at 7, is one of these spurs exaggerated to show that 
 the sharp point at the top must extend as much beyond the guide line as the 
 curved hairline accompanying. The corresponding parts of G and S are 
 similarly extended a trifle over the guides. See plate I for correct models. 
 
 G, Stroke 1 should be inside of 7. The horizontal stroke 6 must be 
 within i a unit of mid-height. The usual mistake is to get this too low. 
 
 S is usually counted the hardest letter of the alphabet to draw. Find the 
 width-lines first, strokes 1 and 2 can then readily be placed, after which a 
 method of making the other strokes is shown. Strokes 7 and 8 will usually 
 require a little readjusting. 
 
—26— 
 
 Time must be taken by the student to secure the proper form for tlie letters. 
 Tlie novice often fails to realize this. That plain roman letters look so simple 
 when completed, does not signify that they are readily made, except by those 
 who began carefully and have gained rapidity by practice. It saves time to 
 begin with care. A habit, formed at the beginning, of making letters carelessly 
 is apt to stick to a fellow through life. 
 
 The following cut exaggerates the results obtained by inaccurate work. 
 Omitting serifs, the letters H O B V and Z have all" been made the same height, 
 width and thickness of stem. The H appears wider than it really is, the O too 
 short and the stems not thick enough, the E and Z appear top-heavy although 
 no wider at the top than at the bottom, and the sharp apex makes the V appear 
 too short. The roman letters also appear slightly taller than the Gothic letters 
 following. 
 
 HOEVZ MOEAL 
 
 Figure B 
 
 The second part of the figure shows that optical illusions have also quite a 
 share in determining the forms of Gothic letters. The letters M O E A and L 
 in the figure are all of the same height, width, and thickness, yet they appear 
 quite differently. Especially is this true of the O, as compared in width and 
 height with the other letters. 
 
 These facts may help the student to be a little more patient in following 
 the instructions given on the roman and Gothic alphabets. 
 
 The order of making the strokes, z'^ inking^ need not be that used in 
 penciling but it is approximately the same. It will be better usually to make 
 the upright and inclined strokes of the pen toward the draftsman, especially if a 
 fine pointed pen is used. This kind of pen, a Gillott 303 or 170, according to 
 large or small letters, will be used for roman and Gothic letters whose stems 
 cannot be made at single strokes. 
 
 14. Upright Gothic Capitals — When Gothic letters are too large to 
 have their stems made at single strokes, the direction and order of penciling the 
 strokes given in the instructions following may be used. The Gothic alphabet 
 is easier to draw than the roman, but the same method of drawing _ it should be 
 used, that is, use guide lines, squares and width-lines as in the preceding article, 
 and draw first those strokes whose positions are at once known and which then 
 help in placing the remaining parts ; the order of drawing these remaining 
 strokes may be frequently varied from that given in the cuts, it will be found. 
 
 In the figures of this article, the ' square-lines ' and many width-lines have 
 been omitted, with the understanding, though, that they are to be used as in the 
 preceding article. The widths of the Gothic letters are tabulated on page 8, or 
 may be obtained from plate II. 
 
—27— 
 
 H After cutting oflF li stems from a square to obtain tlie circumscribing 
 rectangle, the strokes are as indicated, 1 and 2 coinciding witb tbe left and right 
 sides of the rectangle respectively. Strokes 5 and 6 are correctly placed by first 
 bisecting the height with a dot — the bar to be slightly above mid-height. 
 
 E The middle bar is placed by the use of a dot as in H and is half the 
 length of the bottom bar. The top bar is i unit shorter than the bottom one. 
 
 F Central bar placed slightly above the middle as above, and is half the 
 length of the top bar. 
 
 L Cut off IS units from a square to get its width. If the next succeeding 
 letter in a word is A, narrow the L to 4 units 
 
 T Bisect stroke 3 with a dot to guide strokes 4 and 5. 
 
 M Is somewhat dif&cult to draw neatly, the trouble being to keep the 
 junction of the inclined and vertical stems from being too thick without making 
 the middle opening appear too large. After strokes 12 3 and 4 place a bisecting 
 dot on the lower guide. Above this li units, about, place another dot, and 
 strokes 5 and 6 join this dot with points on the top guide about i of a space from 
 3 and 4. Strokes 7 and 8 are parallel to 6 and 5 respectively, making the 
 inclined parts a unit thick. This should make the width of the middle portion 
 on the lower guide less than a unit. 
 
 7 , 
 
 -'12 
 
 'i'-=7 
 
 K 4 
 
 Is '\ 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 N After strokes 12 3 and 4, place dots at unit distances from 1 and 2, as 
 shown at top and bottom. Stroke 5 begins at the dot on the top guide and ends 
 on stroke 3 at a trifle less than two units from the bottom. Stroke 6 is parallel 
 to 5 and must end on the lower dot. The inclined stem must not be over a unit 
 thick. 
 
 K After strokes 1 and 2 place a dot on 2 two units above the bottom. 
 Place a dot on the top guide half a unit from the right side and 3 joins this 
 point with the dot on 2. On the lower guide place a dot li units from the right 
 side, and another on 3 at 14 units from 2 to guide stroke 5. Strokes 4 and 6 are 
 parallel to and unit distance from 3 and 5 respectively. 
 
 Z After strokes 12 3 and 4 place a dot on 3, li units from the right side. 
 Stroke 5 joins this dot with the left end of 4. Stroke 6 is parallel to and unit 
 distance from 5, but must end at the intersection of 3 and the right width-line ; 
 some shifting of strokes 5 and 6 may be necessary to secure this. 
 
 A Find its rectangle, bisect the top by a dot which guides 1 and 2. After 
 drawing 3 and 4, place a dot 2 units from the bottom ; strokes 5 and 6 are 
 equidistant from this dot. 
 
 The vertexes of A and V may be made slightly less than one unit wide, but 
 should not be wider than a unit. 
 
 V Bisect the bottom of its rectangle by the dot which guides 1 and 2. 
 Strokes 3 and 4 are simply parallel to 1 and 2 and at unit distance as shown. 
 
—28— 
 
 W Mark off the proper rectangle by adding li stems to a square, then 
 place dots on the lower guide about 2 units from the width-lines, and a bisecting 
 dot at the top. These dots guide the auxiliary strokes 12 3 and 4 which guide 
 the outlines. 
 
 X Place dots on the upper guide li units from the width-lines. Strokes 
 1 and 2 join these dots with the lower corners as shown. Strokes 3 and 4 are 
 parallel to 1 and 2 respectively and at unit distances. 
 
 "ilHI 
 
 ^u 
 
 Y Find the center of its rectangle quickly by eye and place a dot half a 
 unit below ; this dot guides 1 and 2 (a unit apart) and marks their upper 
 extremities. Strokes 3 and 4 join these upper extremities with the upper 
 comers as shown. 
 
 D requires no special instructions, except to say that it is helpful to use 
 bisecting dots to guide the curved strokes. Thus, a dot should be placed mid- 
 height on the right width-line and stroke 3 is then made symmetrical with this 
 dot. 
 
 U The outside strokes may be made first, if desired, instead of following 
 the order given. 
 
 J Stroke 1 should begin 2i units above the bottom. 
 
 P B and R The middle horizontals in these letters are guided by first 
 placing dots at midheight. In P the bar is a trifle below the middle, in B a 
 trifie above, while in R it may be placed at the middle. 
 
 '1 
 
 it)- 
 
 3t5r 
 
 W" 
 
 srI 'iip^^ (f)]' W"^ '{fi^ cni "^h:^ 
 
 O C Q As in the roman forms, the exteriors of the curved letters are 
 better drawn first, in some such manner as shown, before the interior strokes 
 are made. Use width-lines and bisecting dots, which help in making the 
 exterior strokes symmetrical. 
 
 G Stroke 6 is but i unit below the center. 
 
 S One method of making the strokes is given ; but methods of drawing 
 this letter vary considerably with different draftsmen. Stroke 3 should begin 2 
 units above the guide. The middle portion of the letter should be almost 
 horizontal. 
 
 All Gothic curved letters, also, should extend a trifle over the guide-lines, 
 to cure the optical defects shown in Figure B. 
 
 15. Numerals and Inclined Capitals — The instructions of the preced- 
 ing two articles will be found a sufficient guide, it is believed, for the 
 construction of the large roman and Gothic inclined capitals shown in plate IV. 
 
FREEHAND LETTERS 
 Single Strohe Romarv 
 
 AB CDE &FHI<JKLMNOP QR S TITVWXYZ 
 abcdefghijhlmnopcirstuvzuxyz 
 
 SiNQLE Stroke Gothic 
 
 . A' S&B E FGmUiKk m'MQP&'ffS. tii'VWXYl 
 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
 
 Re-ISSUED-AUG 20 —97 — B 
 
 1542 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA LINES WEST OF PITTSBURGH. 
 
 SOUTH-WEST SYSTEM 
 
 TENDER, ALL CLASSES. 
 DRAFT RIGGING DETAILS. 
 
 A.R.H, 
 
 APPROVED 
 
 SUPT.M.R 
 
 COLUMBUS.O. 18 
 
 CHIEF DRAFTSMAN 
 
 This is a Style of Lettering Used in Tlie Engineering News 
 
 For Single Stroke Jtomaji and Stump Letterj aTi^dFYgures cc 
 fine pointed pen ^should, always be used 
 
 For Single Stroke GothIic Letters and 
 figures a ball pointed pen should always be used 
 
 1233 45 67 890 l -^'&4'\i'^(t'i ^8^''^>'0)' 
 II' ^ •5f^^' m^^W :tepSt (t> 123 4 567890 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
 
—29— 
 
 Tlie instructions for inclined single stroke roman and Gothic capitals follow. 
 See plate V and articles 16 and 18. 
 
 From plates I and II and tlie suggestions preceding the student may devise 
 his own method of forming the roman and Gothic forms of the arable numerals. 
 It is as important to know the correct forms of figures as to know the letters, so 
 they should be carefully practiced. 
 
 16. Single Stroke Roman — The stems, hairlines and serifs of the 
 capitals accompanying stump letters, unless the latter are unusually large, are 
 made rapidly by single strokes as shown at the top of plate V. The directions 
 for forming these letters can be seen from the alphabets there given, the first 
 one showing the order in which the strokes are made, the second a completed 
 alphabet. The direction of making the strokes, unless otherwise indicated by 
 an arrow, is in all cases downward for vertical or slanting strokes, and from left 
 to right in horizontal or hairline strokes. The instructions given are for pen 
 strokes, and a sharp pointed pen is used as in stump letters. Only two guide 
 lines are needed. 
 
 Although we have called this alphabet single stroke roman, yet a few of the 
 letters can not be made by single strokes. The middle portion of S will require 
 retouching as in the stump letter. Also the spurs of E F L T and Z will need 
 retouching after the letters are otherwise complete. In small letters these spurs 
 need but a mere pen dot to fill them enough. 
 
 After completing the letter A by drawing the two serifs on the lower guide 
 line, the letter may be improved by enlarging the junction of stroke 1 with the 
 serif below ; but the beginner must guard against making this enlargement too 
 heavy, otherwise it had better be left alone. Similar portions of the letters 
 K M N U V W X and Y may be treated in the same manner (see plate I for 
 correct forms). 
 
 Stroke 4 in the letter G is a short heavy stroke tapering to a point at the 
 lower extremity, and at its upper extremity covering a portion of stroke 3. The 
 acute angle between strokes 1 and 2 may be advantageously filled a little, if too 
 much ink is not used. Similar portions of the letters C and S may be treated 
 likewise, if the letters are not too small. 
 
 Strokes 1 in V, and 1 and 3 in W, should stop short of the lower guide line, 
 Ihe lower apex being made acute by the hairline stroke 2 in V, and by hairlines 
 2 and 4 in W. The upper apex in the letter A may also be made acute in this 
 way. 
 
 The figures are just as important — more so in some . drawings — as the 
 letters and should be as carefully practiced. Directions for forming them are 
 given in the lower portion of the plate. The height of figures, if used in 
 connection with stump letters, may be a trifle less than that of the corresponding 
 capitals. To illustrate, in the following, September t902, the figures appear 
 slightly too large to match the letters. If the word is printed in capitals thus, 
 SEPTEMBER t902, the figures appear slightly too small to match, and may 
 be enlarged a very small amount, accordingly. 
 
—30— 
 
 Upriglit single stroke roman letters may be formed aftei the methods just 
 given for the inclined. The inclined letters though, are more easily made 
 {presumably because we incline our handwriting) and are more frequently used. 
 
 17. Stump Letters — In stump letters the direction and order of making 
 the strokes are most important. The following cuts sufficiently indicate the 
 method of forming each letter, and need but few comments. 
 
 In speaking of the four guide lines we will refer to them as numbered from 
 the bottom to the top. 
 
 (a) These instructions relate to drawing the letters with pen. To be sure of 
 the spacing and spelling it will frequently be found convenient to sketch the 
 letters roughly in pencil first. 
 
 (b) Use a fine pointed pen. For letters lo to g of an inch high use a Gillott 
 170, or equivalent ; for larger letters use a Gillott 303 slightly worn ; for very 
 small letters use a Gillott mapping pen, or equivalent. 
 
 (c) Use four guide lines as shown. With a little experience the draftsman 
 will need only the two middle ones. The distance between the first and second, 
 and between the third and fourth, is i of that between the second and third. 
 
 (d) All strokes are made downward toward the draftsman^ except the few 
 horizontal strokes which occur. 
 
 (e) Straight stems and the axes of curved ones slope at j horizontal to 8 
 vertical. 
 
 Some draftsmen make the stems downward and the hairlines upward as 
 shown in the second a and d of the first cut. If this is done the hairline as 
 stroke 4 in « is apt to make too acute an angle with the stem. Also, in such 
 letters as <5, stroke 2, if made upward, is apt to drag the ink from the stem into 
 the angle. Another objection to making the hairline strokes upward is that the 
 pen is more apt to catch and splash if the paper is rough ; but, of course, smooth 
 hard paper is preferable for lettering. 
 
 a. The upper hairline of stroke 1, and similar portions oi c d g q and ^ 
 may be made downward as a separate stroke, if the letters are very large. 
 
 c. The upper part of stroke 1 may be otherwise made as in the corres- 
 ponding part of r, if desired. 
 
 e. Stroke 2 may be retouched at the angle, after the letter is finished, to 
 make it resemble the roman lower-case letter. 
 
 /. In another form of this letter the stem extends below the second guide 
 and ends as g does. The form given is simpler and looks as well if properly 
 made. If the letter is large be careful not to drag the ink from the stem in 
 crossing with stroke 2. 
 
—31— 
 
 i. The dot must not be placed too high On or a little below the fourth 
 guide is preferable. This applies also to/. 
 
 k. Do not crowd strokes 2 3 and 4 together too closely ; it is a common 
 mistake to do this. 
 
 /. Stroke 1, similar to corresponding strokes in b and d^ ends with a short 
 hairline to the right, with which stroke 2 connects. 
 
 m. Stroke 1 is a straight stem ; stroke 3 begins with a short hairline ; 
 stroke 5 begins and ends with a short hairline. Be careful to make these 
 strokes parallel and at proper distance apart. 
 
 o. Never attempt to make this letter at one stroke, as beginners frequently 
 do. 
 
 q. Stroke 3 is a straight stem without serifs. 
 
 r. Strokes 2 and 3 correspond to the upper portion of stroke 1 in ^ and s^ 
 but since this is the distinguishing part of the letter it should be drawn 
 carefully as indicated. 
 
 s. Stroke 1 is so sinuous that no attempt need be made at first trial to keep 
 the heavy part of proper thickness throughout. It can be retouched by an extra 
 stroke, after the letter is otherwise complete. 
 
 t. Stroke 1 begins halfway (or a little above halfway) between the third 
 and fourth guides. Stroke 3 is a quick hairline stroke on the third guide. The 
 precaution noted under / should be taken with this stroke. 
 
 u is practically two z's put together, with the serif left off the second one. 
 
 V. The serifs of the letters v w 2M^y are replaced by curved hairlines by 
 some draftsmen. Still another form of making these letters is shown in plate V 
 in the word 'always' in the second line of stump letters below the central title. 
 
 X. After making stroke 1 be careful not to drag the ink into the lower 
 angle when drawing the hairline across. For this reason the latter stroke had 
 better be made in two parts as shown. 
 
 z. Turn the pen sideways to make strokes 1 and 2. 
 
 All strokes in stump letters are intended to be made quickly, and with an 
 hour or two of persistent practice the student should get the ' swing of it'. 
 
—32— 
 
 Indeed, the writer never learned to make stump letters properly until obliged 
 once to spend two weeks in drawing nothing but stump letters. The letters 
 were used to mark the names of the postoffices and streams on a state map. 
 
 The serifs of stump letters are usually the last strokes made in each letter, 
 and are then made as short quick hairline strokes. The proper capital for 
 stump letters is the single stroke roman explained in the preceding article. The 
 stems of capitals corresponding to the letters in the above cuts, should extend 
 from the second to the fourth guide line, and should properly be only slightly 
 thicker than the stems of the stump letters. 
 
 18. Single Stroke Gothic^Upright and inclined Gothic single stroke 
 alphabets are given in plate IV. These two alphabets are extensively employed 
 in technical work, because so legible and quickly made. In plate V the method 
 of making the inclined letter is given, and the same method may be used in 
 making the upright form. In either case a ball-pointed pen should be used, 
 that all the lines may easily be kept the same thickness. The effect of using a 
 fine-pointed pen is illustrated in the words Re-issued — Aug. 20 — 97 — B (in plate 
 V) which were taken from a drawing the title to which appears at the central 
 portion of the plate. Glancing at the letters E, it will be seen that the 
 horizontal strokes are not as thick as the slanting strokes, and were so made 
 incorrectly, probably by making the strokes side-ways with a fine-pointed pen. 
 Even when a stroke is made toward the draftsman, if a fine pointed pen is used, 
 it is difl&cult to keep all parts of uniform thickness, so always use the proper 
 pen. 
 
 After what has been already said little need be remarked about these letters. 
 As is natural with other single stroke styles, it is natural and easier to draw 
 inclined strokes toward the draftsman ; but, since a ball-pointed pen is meant to 
 glide as smoothly in one direction as another — at the same time making a line 
 of uniform thickness — much more freedom is allowed in the direction and order 
 of making the strokes in this alphabet. In the plate, unless otherwise noted, 
 slanting strokes are supposed to be made downward, and horizontal ones from 
 left to right. 
 
 After what has been said on the freehand alphabets preceding, little need be 
 remarked about these letters. 
 
 Stroke 2 in K begins on 1 about two units from the bottom and may be 
 made upwards. Stroke 3 should be far enough away from 1 to keep the letter 
 from appearing cramped. 
 
 With a little practice the letters M N and W can be more rapidly made by 
 taking the strokes in the order given in the plate, otherwise the beginner should 
 draw the outside strokes first. 
 
 As stated before, the figures are as important as the letters and should be as 
 carefully practiced. A common mistake is to bring the middle portion of the 
 numeral 2 down into its lower horizontal part at an acute angle as shown in the 
 line Re-issued — Aug. 20 — 97 — B. The middle portion of this figure should be 
 almost horizontal as shown in the correct forms at the bottom of plate V. 
 
—33— 
 
 Beginuers frequently make tlie letters of a drawing carefully and then use 
 written forms of figures. The remark that no handwriting should be allowed on 
 a drawings applies also to figures. 
 
 19. In Mechanical Engineering the style of letters used on drawings 
 is usually of the simplest character. Roman, Gothic, and stump letters, or some 
 modification of these, are commonly employed, the Gothic letters being, perhaps, 
 used more than any others. The letters given in plate V are all suitable to use 
 in mechanical drawings. 
 
 In the center of the plate is a title taken from a drawing made in the motive- 
 power department of a well-known railroad. It will be noticed that the letters 
 are all of the plainest character, consisting of large and single stroke Gothic 
 styles. Formerly in this department Round Writing was used, but the 
 occasional ambiguity, caused by an extra flourish of a draftsman's pen, proved 
 serious enough objection to cause a change. Printed forms of a portion of the 
 titles are kept on hand, and the draftsman traces this and adds the special name 
 and number of the drawing. In the title given, the words Tender, All Classes ; 
 Draft Rigging Details, together with the number 1542, and the draftsman's 
 initials, A. R. H., form the especial title, the other words and figures all being 
 copied from the printed form. In this way all the titles are lettered uniformly, 
 and, all titles appear at the lower right hand corners of the drawings, for ready 
 reference when they are filed in cases. The rectangle at the lower central 
 portion of the title, is for the stamp of the ofiEce, which indicates the date of 
 issue of the blue print, none but blue prints being sent from the ofiice. To the 
 right of this is the date of the drawing and the chief draftsman's signature. To 
 the left is the signature of approval by the superintendent of motive power. No 
 scale is given in the title ; since the measurements must be exact, they are 
 therefore all marked on the details. Should any dimension be omitted by 
 oversight, it is asked for by telegraph, the number of the drawing, 1542 in this 
 case, easily and unmistakably designating the proper drawing. The number 
 1542 is the serial number of the sheet, all drawings being numbered consecu- 
 tively in the order of their production. 
 
 For lettering the details of the above drawing, single stroke Gothic letters 
 such as are shown in the words Re-issued — Aug. 20 — 97 — B are used. The 
 sizes of the letters vary with the importance of the details ; and the smaller 
 Gothic letters are capitalized by larger letters of the same style. The first 
 issue of a drawing is known as issue A. The design of the chief draftsman is 
 tested on the road or in the shop. If changes are desired or recommended by 
 the superintendent they are made in the chief draftsman's ofiice, the original 
 number of the drawing being retained, and the number of the edition is indicated 
 by a letter. In the case cited, the words just quoted above, which were 
 taken from the same drawing on which the title given above appeared, indicate 
 that the original has been amended once and is now, Aug. 20, 1897, re-issued. 
 The letter C would indicate that the drawing had been amended twice. 
 
—34— 
 
 It has been said tliat lower-case Gotliic letters, such, as are given in plate IV, 
 are difficult to make, and hence are little used in technical drawing. However, 
 an example of a style of Gothic lower-case is given just below the title in the 
 middle of plate V, which is easily made, looks neat, and is very appropriate for 
 mechanical drawings. Explicit directions for forming this style, and upright 
 letters of the same kind, with accompanying capitals, are given in a book written 
 by Mr. Chas. W. Reinhardt, chief draftsman of the Engineering News. 
 
 For title words in mechanical drawings, Gothic letters with shade lines 
 drawn partly around them, are easily made, and look quite well. An example 
 of this is given in the alphabet at the foot of plate V ; in this alphabet the 
 Gothic letters were quickly drawn by single strokes with a ball-pointed pen, and 
 the shade lines added with a fine-pointed pen. Block letters, also, are often seen 
 in the titles of drawings appertaining to mechanical engineering. 
 
 20. Architectural Letters — In architectural drawings lighter and more 
 artistic styles of letters are allowable than in the more technical classes of work. 
 
 Architectural drawings are, to a greater extent than other drawings, made 
 for public display or inspection, and on this account more elaborate or fanciful 
 styles may be used ; also, in such drawings there is usually an absence of black, 
 heavy outline, and to harmonize with this a lighter form of letter than usual is 
 suitable. 
 
 As in so many other classes of work, the roman letter is made to do service 
 in architectural drawing, in either its plain form with the outlines only, inked 
 in, or in one of its many modifications. A modification of the roman alphabet, 
 known as a variety of Roman Old Style, is shown at the top of plate VI ; 
 another modification is shown at the bottom of the same plate, and either one of 
 these styles is appropriate for use in the titles of architectural drawings which 
 do not present too heavy an appearance otherwise. 
 
 The second alphabet from the top, in plate VI, together with the letters and 
 figures next above the last alphabet in the plate, are illustrations of more 
 fanciful styles. These letters are better suited for title words than for detail 
 work, as they will generally require too much time to be extensively used. 
 However, they are more easily made than they appear at first sight. Permission 
 to give these styles was kindly given by the draftsmen whose names appear in 
 the plate. 
 
 In the central part of the plate is given a freehand title adapted from one on 
 a competitive design, for the improvements at the U. S. Military Academy, sub- 
 mitted by Carrere & Hastings, Architects, New York. A copy of the original 
 may be seen in the Architectural Review for July 1903. It makes an excellent 
 display letter and may be quite rapidly drawn freehand, although better results 
 still may be had by using right-line and bow pens. Notice that all letters in the 
 same line are of one height irrespective of the importance of the words. 
 
 The words Universalis t Church are copied from the words as they 
 appear upon a stone tablet in an existing structure. They exhibit another 
 style of modifying letter forms to serve an architectural purpose. 
 
ARCHITECTURAL 
 
 VI 
 
 ROMAN OUD STYLE 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV 
 12345 WXYZ 67890 
 
 VNIVERSALIST GflVlC#! 
 
 G7:>c7cyf(prn/ce 3eco?\d jiTooR- 
 
 \ 1 /-£> 
 
 -GENERAL- PLAN- 
 
 -SCALE ' ONE- JNCH - EQUALS -ETIE- MUMDREl! TEET- 
 
 -SH0WING-PlIi01P0S!fD- 
 TREATMEMTOFGROUNDS^AND-BUILBSNGS- 
 
 ^UNITED-STATES -MLHTARY-ACAPEMY- 
 
 -WEST-POINT - NEW-YORK- 
 
 r|ar^i-K^. Y\/bji^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^b 
 
 — v/it1a 
 
 ej 
 
 C 
 
 ^— Ins: L _ .^ 
 
 
 iaD45^ra3o ABCDE'F 
 
 I 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 ^ Z^4c)kJZ 00 
 
 </r 
 
 GHSJULMNOPCmaTUWAY 
 
—as- 
 Some architectural draftsmen in using the roman or modified roman letters 
 for title words, replace the letter U with a V. This mars the legibility of a 
 word, and is for this reason objectionable. 
 
 21. Type Specimens — In plate VII are given some type alphabets 
 selected from the catalogues of the American Type Founders Co. and of 
 Barnhart Brothers & Spindler. In the upper part of the plate are given 
 standard type forms of letters and figures for engineering drawings. In the 
 lower portion of the plate are given some less technical type forms, which are 
 appropriate for architectural work. 
 
 Type forms really set the standard. To say that the lettering on a drawing 
 "looks just like print" is usually the highest compliment it can be paid. 
 People who read, are accustomed day after day to see type letters of either 
 standard styles or of modified styles, which are of recognized merit. If, there- 
 fore, on a drawing the lettering in general follows a type form, but departs 
 irregularly from it, the draftsman is pretty sure to be criticised. Also, since 
 type forms have so much influence, it is possible, although it may not be 
 desirable as viewed at present, that the standard styles set by type forms a few 
 years hence, may not agree with those of today. 
 
 Type specimens, therefore, are worthy of careful observation and study. 
 
 (For mention of title given in the center of plate VII, see ailicle 30). 
 
 22. Remarks — The following extract taken from the preface of Prof. C. B. 
 Wing's little pamphlet on freehand lettering is to the point : " The importance 
 of freehand lettering seems to have been disregarded heretofore. The alphabets 
 that have been previously given are adapted almost exclusively to the elaborate 
 lettering of drawings that are to be engraved. In such cases time may be 
 profitably spent on the drawing, because it becomes a small item when divided 
 among a great number of prints. Working drawings, however, are blue printed 
 only a few times, and the lettering must be done quickly or it costs too much. 
 No one thing is more helpful to the young draftsman in gaining the confidence 
 of superintendent and workmen, than the ability to letter a drawing quickly, 
 neatly, and so plainly that no workman can ever make a mistake because of 
 inability to read words and figures." 
 
 " The author believes that every person can acquire a hand for lettering as 
 well as for writing, and that nearly as much originality is shown in one as in 
 the other. It is recommended that beginners try copying several of the styles 
 given ; that they choose the one which seems easiest ; and that they practice 
 this with great persistence till they are able to reproduce it well and quickly. 
 The acquiring of one hand gives facility in acquiring others." 
 
 " In some offices all draftsmen are expected to adopt the same style of 
 lettering, in order to attain uniformity in the drawings. The author has in 
 mind a set of standards for wooden trestle bridges in which the different plates 
 were drawn by four or five different men ; the lettering has a uniform appear- 
 ance but a careful examination will show the individuality of each hand." 
 
 " Nearly every one can learn to do good freehand lettering by careful, 
 
—36— 
 
 persistent work ; but if any one should fail, lie may select one of the geometric 
 forms, using the right line pen and straight edge, and then strive to acquire 
 speed in execution, without a sacrifice of legibility." 
 
TYPE SPECIMENS VII 
 
 ABCDErGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUYWXYZ& 
 
 abcdef^hijklmnopqrstuYwxyz 
 
 Cape 1234567890 Town 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQBSTUVWXYZ& 
 
 Lake 12 34567890 Tsad 
 
 ABCDEFGH IJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ& 
 
 Steam 1234567890 Crane 
 
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 
 
 I,AW IT ALIO 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKLMJYOPQRSTUVWX Y Z ^ 
 12345 ahcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 67890 
 
 LOCK WITH 10 FEET LIFT 
 
 DETAILS OF 
 
 UPPER PORTION OF LOCK 
 
 OUTING 
 
 ADBeDErQniJKLA\NOPQK^JTUUVWXTZ^ 
 I^E^iDENCEJ 1 234367850 
 
 QUAINT OPEN 
 
 i^PC[D)ErQ1111UilLniM©(DF@iST<m¥WXTZSf 
 
 ELANDKAY 
 
 ABBCDEFGQHIJKLnMN/IOOFQRSTUVVXTZ^ 
 ELEVATION 1234567890 
 
 DEVINNE ITALIC OUTLINE 
 
 ABCDEFGH!JKLMNOPQKSTUVWXYZ<^ 
 
 riacadamize ^^vinne 1234567890 
 
 ABCDEFGH IJKLMnNOPQRSTUVWXYZ& 
 
Chapter III. 
 
 TITLE LETTERING. 
 
 23. General Considerations — The title to a drawing should answer 
 distinctly the four questions, what, where, when, and who. In other words, the 
 title should tell what the drawing represents, for what use it was niade, and to 
 what scale it is drawn ; where the tract or object represented is located, and 
 where the drawing was made ; when, giving the date of the survey or design, 
 and the date of drafting ; who the designer or chief engineer is, and who did the 
 drafting. Thus in plate VIII, where several examples of titles are offered for 
 discussion, the first title given answers these questions. 
 
 The different parts of a title should be made prominent in the order of their 
 relative importance. Thus, taking the above mentioned title as an example, the 
 words Chattanooga to Stevenson, Ala. are made the most prominent, because we 
 are supposing the entire line to be profiled in two or more sections, each section 
 being profiled on a separate sheet or roll of paper, and one section embracing 
 that part of the line between Chattanooga and Stevenson ; it is desirable to know 
 at first glance which part of the line the profile in hand represents, and the 
 words Chattanooga to Stevenson tell this. If the profile represented the whole 
 line complete on one piece of paper, then " East Tenn. and Ala. R. R." should 
 have been the most prominent. The other words are lettered to catch the eye in 
 the order of their importance. The second title, given in plate VIII, is taken 
 from the records in the office of the Ohio State Canal Commission. Here the 
 several canals of the State have been mapped by sections, each section being 
 drawn on a separate sheet. The sheets are bound in book form, one set of books 
 to each canal, and the title mentioned above has been taken from the set 
 showing the Miami and Erie canal. The portion of this canal lying in 
 Cincinnati, having been drawn in several sections, the words, in the title 
 selected, in the order of their importance are " Eggleston Avenue," " Cincinnati, 
 Ohio," and " Miami and Erie Canal." Of course the draftsman should know 
 beforehand the order of the importance of the words before he begins to draw the 
 title, and sometimes when a number of different drawings are made in series, it 
 will require considerable thought to arrange the styles and sizing so as to obey 
 the rules already given and at the same time have all the titles appear uniform, 
 and have each title harmonize with the drawing on which it appears. 
 
 Where drawings are made to illustrate written descriptions, or are accom- 
 panied by written descriptions, the title is, of course, often not so comprehensive. 
 When the drawing represents some familiar object, a simpler title is also often 
 used. ' Thus the last title shown in plate VIII is an example. Such a title 
 might be used on a drawing, made for public display, of a well known tract of 
 
—38— 
 
 land. However, it is a good rule to make drawings as nearly as possible self- 
 explanatory, and there is little or no danger of getting too much, information on 
 them in a neat and concise form, even though they may be accompanied by full 
 written descriptions. 
 
 The descriptive part of a title is sometimes placed in small print on 
 another part of the drawing, apart from the main portion of the title. 
 
 24. Position of the Title — The title should be so placed on a drawing 
 as not to appear cramped. It is sometimes placed outside the border, especially 
 when it consists of a single line of letters, but this rule should not be followed 
 when a suitable place can be found inside. A general rule is to place the titlfe 
 above or below the center of the drawing, near, but not too near, the border, , and 
 if the drawing is symmetrical, the title should have the same axis of symmetry. 
 If the drawing is unsymmetrical, the title may be placed in either of the corners. 
 In drawings of irregular objects, maps of irregular tracts and the like, the title 
 may be put wherever the shape of the drawing affords the best space, 
 considerable freedom being thus allowed. 
 
 On drawings which are too long to be seen at one glance, as profiles or roll 
 maps, two or more titles, if necessary, may be used at convenient distances 
 apart. Where a series of drawings are to be made for permanent records, and 
 are to be filed away in drawers or cases for reference, it is often desirable to have 
 the titles on the separate sheets appear in the same corner in each one, for 
 convenience in handling. When this is the case the selected corner should be 
 reserved for the title beforehand on each drawing. The lower right-hand corner 
 is the one usually chosen in such a case, but any one of the others may be 
 selected if desired. The matter is determined often by the shapes of the plats. 
 
 25. Size of the Title-^In the first place the size of the title, as a whole, 
 should be in proportion with the drawing. For drawings of small scale the title 
 should usually be smaller than the title of a drawing of larger scale on the same 
 sized sheet. The following specific rule may be found helpful : When a 
 drawing held in position has its longest border horizontal the length of the title 
 should not be greater than one-fifth the length of this border, and the height 
 (width) of the title should not be greater than one-fourth the length of the 
 shortest border. Even this rule often allows too large a title. 
 
 The largest letters of the title, which will generally be used for the name of 
 the machine designed, the locality mapped, the structure planned, or the like, 
 should not be greater in height than joo of the length of the shorter border ; the 
 smallest letters of the title will usually be used for the date, the draftsman's 
 name, and for explanatory notes, and between these two sizes the other words of 
 the title will require letters of intermediate sizes, according to their relative 
 importance. For a scale of 1 : 10,000 (1 inch = 833J feet) Reed gives the 
 following practical rules for maps : " Make the largest letters of the title, for a 
 map of about two feet by three feet dimensions, three-tenths (fo) of an inch in 
 height. For a map of about one foot by one and a half feet dimensions, make 
 the largest letters of the title two-tenths do) of an inch in height, and 
 
—39— 
 
 proportionally for maps of other dimensions ; and since explanatory notes are 
 always very small letters, tlie intermediate grades are readily assigned." 
 
 26. Form of the Title — The form of the title may vary considerably 
 according to the size and shape of the space in which it is placed. When the 
 space allotted is high and narrow, the title should be designed as nearly in 
 harmony as possible. Where the title must occupy a long space, which is not 
 very high in proportion, the letters of the title may be correspondingly flat, and 
 to gain this end the letters may be extended as in the word Extended in plate 
 III. The title must be distinct and not appear to be cramped, nor must the 
 lines of letters be so far apart as to give the title a loose or disconnected 
 appearance. 
 
 Sometimes the title consists of one or more lines of letters across the entire 
 top of the drawing, but generally it will consist of straight lines of letters 
 grouped as in the second title given in plate VIII, or of some simple combination 
 of straight and curved lines of letters as the first title given in the same plate. 
 When the lines or rows of letters are curved, usually arcs of circles are used, 
 with the center of the arc on the axis of symmetry. Other forms may be 
 devised, but some such simple combination as either of the ones illustrated are 
 generally employed. One form of title that is seen occasionally is in bad taste ; 
 it is the form in which the curved lines sag towards (are convex towards) the 
 central line of letters. When the letters are arranged in this manner the curved 
 parts tend to give the impression that they have no connection with the rest of 
 the title. The curved lines should be arranged concave towards the central line, 
 as the word Profile is towards the line of letters Chattanooga to Stevenson, Ala., 
 in the first title given in plate VIII. 
 
 Where the space allotted to the title is irregular in shape there is often 
 room for much ingenuity in arranging the title to harmonize with its 
 surroundings. Where titles are required for elaborate drawings, which are made 
 for display or similar purposes, title lettering becomes an art by itself. An 
 example of a more elaborate title is given at the bottom of plate VIII, but it is 
 rarely necessary for the engineer to make such a one. 
 
 27. Construction of the Title — The construction of a title is illus- 
 trated in the second one given in plate VIII, to which reference through the 
 following discussion should be made. Having determined the position, size, and 
 form of the title, and which words should be given most prominence, rule pencil 
 lines for guides as shown, parallel to the bottom of the drawing. Then write on 
 scratch paper and number the letters of the main words, thus : 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 16 
 
 EGGLESTON AVENUE, 
 
 counting also the space, or spaces between words. We see that the whole 
 number being sixteen the center line should be between the eighth and ninth 
 letters, provided all the letters and the spaces between words are of the same 
 width ; but we already know that letters are not all of the same width, and 
 
—40— 
 
 suppose, in the present case, that we wish the interval between the words to 
 be a little narrower than the space occupied by an average letter, which is the 
 usual distance allowed between words. Noticing this point, and that the 
 letters A and V are the widest letters of the row and occur on the same side of 
 the center, but are spaced slightly closer together, as explained previously, we 
 would say as a first approximation that the center line comes nearer the O than 
 the N in the word Eggleston. Accordingly we begin near the center and pencil 
 in the letter N, then space off the interval between the two words, and pencil in 
 "Avenue." With the compass measure off to the left of the center a distance 
 equal to that from the center line to the end of the word Avenue, and at the 
 point thus found begin to pencil in "Eggleston." Now, if the position of the 
 center line relative to the row of-letters has been correctly estimated, the letters 
 will fall in their proper places ; if not, the work must be erased and another 
 trial made ; by erasing a few of the letters near the center slight discrepancies 
 may be adjusted. The advantage of lettering one-half the row at a time in this 
 way, is, that if the first approximation is not right, usually only a few letters 
 near the center need to be erased to gain the proper adjustment, whereas if we 
 begin at the left-hand end first and letter through the row, the whole row might 
 have to be erased. 
 
 Suppose that the next line of letters in the same title we wish to be shorter 
 and smaller, and we mark the limits as shown by the short vertical lines at 
 equal distances from the center. In this case suppose we do not wish to take 
 the time to mark the letters on scratch paper and number them, now that we 
 have one line of letters penciled in already as a further guide. If we begin at 
 the left-hand and letter through to the right, the last letter may fall outside, or 
 partly outside, the limiting line as shown, and we would have to erase and try 
 over again. It would be better to pencil the word " Ohio " backwards from the 
 right-hand limit and then commence at the left-hand and pencil in the first 
 word, allowing any small discrepancy to fall in the space allowed as an interval 
 between the two words, for, this space does not have to be so exact as that 
 allowed to a letter. This method of lettering from extremities towards the 
 center, illustrates a second way of penciling in the rows of letters. 
 
 If the axis of the title is not that of the sheet, the longest line of letters, or 
 the most difficult line, may be lettered from left to right in the usual way, its 
 length bisected and the axis taken through the mid-point. The remaining lines 
 are then fitted to this axis as above. Portions of a title which have to be 
 repeated frequently, on the same sheet or separate sheets, may be drawn on a 
 slip of paper and transferred each time. The draftsman as he progresses will 
 find a number of methods of shortening the labor of drawing a title. 
 
 Thus we see that the process of sketching in the lines of letters of a title 
 first explained is a series of approximations ; but the practical draftsman does 
 not stop to measure precisely the difference in width between the different letters 
 and intervals to calculate exactly where the center line would fall, but from a 
 casual consideration of these points and from previous experience, he estimates 
 
EXAMPLES OF TITLES 
 
 
 EAST T! 
 
 AND 
 
 CHATTANOOGA-STEVENSON ALA 
 
 LQGATiQM SURVEY MADE mi 
 
 PREIPAREID FOR THE DIRECTORS OFTHE 
 EAST TE^4^^iE:S SEE VIRGINIA & GEORGIA RY. 
 
 CH'F ENG'RS OFFICE CHATTANOO&A — • — DRAWN BY C.E.SHERMAN SEP 1889 
 
 1M~^ 
 
 ■r ^ -\ U-t 1 1 ' - >. • — M — I, 1 
 
 q-M-rm. 
 
 i '----'! I. li 'I^^Vi .'^ i I 
 
 TTTTT-'^rfr^ 
 
 .-ii'-^^^iNlMAi ! 
 
 ANiJ 
 
 >t I . . . »-l 1— I 
 
 imr 
 
 U^A1F©F 
 
 S 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 Z 
 
 £ 
 
 ~i — T — I — r— 
 
 -7~vr 
 
 !;■ 
 
 tjHiLi^^'^M'^Uj-^I:)CA^l ION nv 
 
 HE (GAM A 
 
 EGGLESTON AVENUE 
 
 C1jNCJNj\J/\TJ,0MJD 
 
 SHOWING LOCATION OF 
 
 MIAMHERIE CANAL 
 
 Cft3 
 
 'X 
 
 ^ 
 
 -o-^ <0F THE o 
 
 
 4- 
 
 BiMPii^S. 
 
—41— 
 
 wliere tlie center would fall, and is usually able with few or no changes to 
 correctly pencil in the line at the first trial. It is a mistake beginners some- 
 times make to think that the middle letter of the row should fall on the center. 
 The letter P, in the first line of letters in the title we have just discussed, 
 happens to fall at the center, because the letters M and A on the left of the 
 center are wider than the other letters in the line, and the interval between 
 words on the right of the center has, for compactness in this case, been made 
 smaller than usual. 
 
 The beginner should also be cautioned about getting the lines of letters too 
 far apart. The distance between two rows of letters in a title should seldom be 
 greater than the height of the largest letters on either side of the space we are 
 considering. The whole title should, of course, be drawn in pencil before being 
 inked in, the pencil lines being afterwards erased. 
 
 28. The Style, or Styles of Letters to be used in the title should be 
 appropriate to the drawing as a whole ; they admit of more variation, however, 
 than the lettering on any other part of the drawing. The letters of a title may 
 all be of the same style, differing only in size, they may all be of the same style 
 and shaded differently, or they may be of different finish and size in the same 
 title. 
 
 ' The letters should correspond in conspicuousness, or body of color, with 
 the rest of the drawing, not being obtrusive from great heaviness of solid black 
 outline, or unobservable from excessive faintness. Also violent contrasts of 
 heaviness among neighboring portions of the title should be avoided ; although 
 there may be a gradual change both of intensity and size from the most to the 
 least important words of the title. Plain and simple titles look best on similar, 
 drawings, while a complicated and highly finished drawing may receive a title 
 of a more ornamental character.' 
 
 Plate IX gives an idea of some of the styles used in mechanical drawings. 
 The first title was invented, and shows about the maximum limit of artistic 
 lettering employed on a mechanical drawing, that is to be sent away from the 
 shop. The remaining two titles were taken from actual designs, and show that 
 it is customary not to use so many styles as exhibited in the first example. The 
 central title is a fairly representative one, and some of the letters show that the 
 individuality of a draftsman may be displayed in lettering almost as plainly as 
 in handwriting. The last title shows how simple are the styles usually 
 employed on a mechanical drawing, and, if the drawing were intended for shop 
 use only, the lettering would be even simpler still. The fiourishes or space- 
 fillers to the left of " R. Hoe & Co." are used to balance the title. They save 
 time for the experienced draftsman occasionally, because when they are used not 
 so much pains need be taken to balance the lettering. Another example of their 
 use is shown in the first title in the plate. 
 
 Plate X shows some freehand architectural titles. The central one is a 
 heavy title made by single strokes of a Payzant pen, and is of weight suitable 
 for a drawing of somewhat heavy outline, and, for detail letters on the same 
 
—42— 
 
 drawing, those shown in the lower left-hand corner are suitable. The title at the 
 upper right-hand corner shows a 'colonial' style now frequently xised. The 
 wide spacing in the first and last lines of the title would not be so appropriate 
 with other styles. In the upper left-hand corner is a title designed to fill a panel. 
 Some of the letters of this title show that shading may also be employed in 
 architectural letters to make a title match its drawing. This title, with several 
 others in the plate, illustrate a method of avoiding spacing letters from a central 
 line. Just above the central title is a sketch letter suitable for a perspective 
 sketch, or freehand drawing of some proposed building or interior treatment, used 
 only in hastily gotten up drawings. The lettering in the lower right hand cor- 
 ner is self-explanatory. The lettering above that in the lower left hand corner, 
 shows a very useful style now much in vogue in architectural work. It is easily 
 and quickly made and is suited in character to much of the work of the archi- 
 tect. It shows the tendency of architects toward using simple styles. 
 
 The matter of punctuating the title varies considerably in practice. 
 Usually the words are so arranged that no punctuation marks are required, 
 except for abbreviations, and the periods after well known abbreviations may 
 even sometimes be omitted. // is best, however, to print all the words in full, 
 unless there is not room enough, or unless the title would appear entirely too 
 cramped in the space in which it is to be placed. The title should not be 
 conspicuous for its punctuation marks, nor conspicuous for their absence where 
 they are needed. In any case it should be so executed that no mistake can 
 possibly be made as to its meaning. The title pages of books furnish 
 illustrative examples for study. 
 
 To add to the effect of a title, or relieve it from undue stiffness, flourishes 
 are sometimes employed. This is illustrated in the title given at the bottom of 
 plate VIII. In the first title given on the same plate, in the last line between 
 the words Chattanooga and Drawn, is a flourish. Some such flourish as this, 
 two examples of which are given in plate XI, may be placed between rows of 
 letters Avliich are too far apart horizontally or vertically, to relieve the undue 
 stiffness. Two other simple designs for flourishing are given in plate XI, at the 
 right and left of the central scale designs, one of which, or some similar design, 
 might have been used in the above mentioned title, had the words Profile of The 
 been arranged on one curved line, leaving too much white space between it and 
 the next line below, the flourish being used to partially fill this space. But 
 where flourishes are used they should be simple in design, for it is easy to 
 overdo the decoration. 
 
 Titles placed on banners or fluttering ribbons, or amidst landscape sketches 
 on technical drawings, are waste of time, and, besides, are nearly always in bad 
 taste. As in the rest of the drawing, no handwriting should be allowed in the 
 
 title. 
 
 29. When to Ink the Title — The title of a drawing should be inked in 
 
 last • for after all the other details of the drawing are finished the draftsman 
 
MECHANICAL TITLES IX 
 
 PILLOW BLOCK 
 
 ROCHESTER, N.Y. 
 
 a3c^/<3 J" = J root August 3 igo2 
 
 Drawn by 
 
 Traced by 
 
 Checked by WK\^ D 
 
 Approved by Ili^-JU l\ 
 
 He^ hf\q ® yen //ife hno^rreinaem en t 
 
 Ohio S ta te Uni VERSiry 
 
 ColumbuSi, O. 
 B.F.5TURTEVANT CO., BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 Scale '/4"=l' July 3, 1902 
 
 15-7429 - C. 
 
 CAST IR9N FIVE 5TEP SPLIT C?NE PULLEY ,5- 7 
 
 RO R 
 
 No.QO 5Top-CyLiNDEF( Pf^ess m^ 
 
 SSe ass ai^ ©^ R.HOE a CO., New York 
 Half Size^ 2-2" Bolts 5*59 
 
 Drawing No.258 2-1" " 5*43 
 DraFtsmanNo. 15 G-i" Nuts 5* 10 
 
ADCniTECTV/DAL T1TLE.5 ETC. 
 
 X 
 
 .E 
 
 lL|^TPAlMq& 
 
 <' \\(o^ ^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 P R,0 P OJ" ED- PLAN 
 FOR, THE ENLAR-GEMENT OF- 
 
 BAFINESHIGH SCHOOL 
 
 •John QviNCY ViyoN- Archite^- 
 •October^- ^-i 3 o 2 • 
 
 n^T FL(D]R^ 
 
 PONVER^ PLAINT 
 
 FOR_ 
 
 CENTRAL ELECTRIC RAILWAY 
 
 SCHENECTADY, N. \ 
 
 /- 
 
 ^v^'' 5. 1^02 
 
 J 
 
 ^CAIE. 4"= I ' 
 
 RE/^e>DANpT CjlLCAAN ArchT 
 
 ■POST-OFFICE erCOVRT-HOVSE 
 
 'WM' MARTIN -AIKEN • SVPERVIStNG -ARCHT- 
 
 !^OTL - 50PPIT OF 5ALCOMY TO BE 
 TERRA COTTA MOVLDED AS 
 5HOvyN ON DETAIL SHEET !7. 
 _ TERRA COTTA CORBEL^ 
 
 DOTTED L)NE.S SHOVv/ CHASES !N 6ACK OF 
 T - c • Fon FLA&H I rio — . 
 
 N?6 
 
 /Vote - 
 
 V Hoar of hooc/ fo be /Vo. / 
 Cypres5, surfaced and mr- 
 n/'3hed fi^^o coots of ~5par 
 i/arn/3h. A// other lumber 
 fo be gooc/ quaf/fy we// 
 se05onec/ pop/ar free 
 from c/efecTs > ■ - 
 
—43— 
 
 may frequently ' balance ' tlie whole drawing, by taking advantage of tbe 
 freedom allowed in selecting the styles and finisb of tbe letters used in the title. 
 Sometimes the title is drawn on a separate piece of paper and then copied on 
 the drawing. The advantage of doing this is, that before copying, alterations 
 may be made until the title is seen to harmonize with the rest of the drawing. 
 This scheme is especially useful in cases where elaborate titles are to be made 
 and it is desirable to do as little erasing as possible on the drawing. 
 
 30. Type Specimen — In the central part of plate VII is given a portion 
 of a title (reduced one-half) taken from one of a series of drawings (blue prints) 
 of concrete structures, designed for the Illinois and Mississippi canal, which 
 were made in the U. S. Engineer Office at Chicago. The remainder of the title 
 consists of the words" Scale f in. = 1 ft.," together with a scale diagram, which 
 for lack of space has been omitted in the plate. It happens that the number 
 " 10 " comes at the middle of the first line, and is made larger to give a pleasing 
 effect. But attention is called especially to this feature ; the letters of any one 
 line are all (with the exception noted above) of the same size, irrespective of the 
 importance of the words. Thus in the last line of the title, the letters in the 
 word " of" are made the same size as those in the words " upper portion " and 
 " lock." This plan has been carried out throughout the titles and sub-titles of 
 this series of drawings, with manifest advantage. The lettering, including the 
 figures, (which is the finest the writer has seen) was first done with sets of type 
 and a hand stamp, as described on page 10, on drawing paper, then the drawing 
 and lettering together were traced on vellum from which the blue prints were 
 made. 
 
 31. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON LETTERING— We have given in the 
 preceding pages both mechanical methods, by means of which any person can 
 learn to form letters and words, and illustrations and practical suggestions by 
 means of which the student may improve himself in freehand lettering. 
 Beginning with the study of the forms of the individual letters, the student, by 
 studying spacing, sizing, disposition, and styles, progresses through mechanical 
 methods, freehand lettering and title lettering, until he has mastered the whole 
 subject of technical lettering. In the preceding pages it has been E.ttempted to 
 explain the principles and governing laws of the subject in so far as they are 
 discoverable, so that any person by study and practice may master the subject. 
 It should be born in mind, however, that the lettering, as well as the other 
 features, of a drawing is intended primarily to suit the eye ; that is, to convey 
 the ideas, the drawing is meant to conve}?, to the mind through the medium of 
 the eye, and to gain this end we find we may often depart from rule. For this 
 reason it may happen that a person may sometimes observe every recognized 
 law of the subject, and yet not excel in drafting, while a person who has never 
 studied the subject may be a good draftsman, although he is likely to follow 
 unconsciously the governing laws. 
 
 However, the writer believes that the skill for lettering technical drawings 
 well, is an accomplishment which can be acquired by study, by observation, and 
 
—44— 
 
 by practice : that beyond this we enter the realm of art where talent is required, 
 but that as technical drawing, makes up a large part of the work of the engineer, 
 he should strive to perfect himself in this branch. Lettering, therefore, as a 
 prominent feature of technical drawing, should receive its due share of attention. 
 In closing, let us again urge the importance of practice. No one would think of 
 learning to swim by simply reading how to do it, so, no one can learn to letter 
 by simply perusing text. In no other business is the saying truer that ' work 
 makes the workman.' 
 
Chapter IV. 
 
 NORTH-POINTS, SCALES, AND BORDERS. 
 
 32. The subject of north-points, scales, and borders, although not a part of 
 lettering, will be treated here in connection with that subject, as it is usually so 
 treated in such books as have touched upon the matter. In what follows, use 
 has largely been made of a chapter on map drawing and lettering by F. S. 
 Dennison in Hodgman and Bellows' " Manual of Land Surveying." 
 
 33. North-points — When the drawing is a map or plat of a survey, north- 
 points or meridians are used to indicate direction. If no north-point appeared 
 on such a drawing, the top would be taken to represent north, the right hand 
 east, and so on. Regarding north-points, the following is taken from the article 
 by Prof Dennison : 
 
 "A true meridian is a necessary adjunct of all rightly constructed maps, as 
 it is directionally their common line of comparison, and without it no just notion 
 of the situation of the territory represented by the map, or of the bearing of its 
 lines, can be obtained. It is, in fact, one of the co-ordinates to which reference 
 is made for the solution of all problems of position on the drawing, and as such 
 is entitled to consideration. This line should, therefore, be a somewhat 
 conspicious object, and the object of its existence demands that it should not be 
 so obscured by ornament as to defeat its use as a sharp, clear line of reference 
 for all north and south lines. Nevertheless, the draughtsman is warranted in 
 giving to its construction more than a hasty or careless consideration. It is 
 usual to ornament the northern end of this meridian with some neatly drawn 
 and characteristic device, such as an arrow head, a fleur-de-lis, the head of a 
 mediaeval lance, etc. At its southern extremity is sometimes placed the feather 
 end of an arrow, or a crescent. Near the middle of the line may be drawn an 
 east and west line, or four or eight pointed star, or radiating lines marking 
 convenient points of graduation of the circle. It is well, also, to draw the 
 magnetic meridian at the time of the survey, through the middle point of the 
 true meridian, and mark the declination. This magnetic meridian should be 
 even less ornamental than the true one, and when both are used it is generally 
 agreed to draw a complete arrow head on the latter, while the magnetic line is 
 subordinated by giving it only half a head, drawn on the right or left hand side, 
 as the declination is east or west." 
 
 "The construction of a meridian affords considerable opportunity for the 
 display of skill and taste in the draughtsman. It may easily be made an 
 attractive, simple and elegant figure, reflecting the intelligence and spirit of an 
 accomplished workman ; or by its awkward design -and slovenly execution, 
 shake one's confidence in the mental capacity of one upon whom we should have 
 
—46— 
 
 a right to rely. Perhaps it would not be inappropriate to say that the meridian 
 line should be sufficiently long on most maps, to serve conveniently the purpose 
 of transferring its direction to other parts of the drawing by means of a triangle 
 and a straight-edge. The arrow head at the vertex should be a sharply pointed 
 figure, entirely different from the obtuse, non-descript object which too often 
 offends the eye in that position. And, to avoid all possibility of mistake, it is 
 well to place the letter N some slight distance above or below the arrow point. 
 When a star is used to give the various points of the compass, its radiating arms 
 should be narrow and slender, with sharp points, avoiding all appearance or 
 suggestion of dullness. In short, the entire figure should be constructed in the 
 spirit of lightness and radiation, in harmony with its office, which is simply that 
 of indicating direction^ 
 
 In plate XI are given five designs for north -points which were taken from 
 Esser's 'Alphabets,' and one (the central star) taken from Worthen's, Topo- 
 graphical Drawing. For ordinary use one of the first three will generally be 
 found appropriate. However, if the drawing is more elaborate, one of the more 
 elaborate ones may be selected to correspond, or the draftsman may design one 
 to suit the case in hand. As already stated, a star is sometimes used. When 
 the magnetic meridian is also indicated, as in the central star of the plate, the 
 amount of variation from the true meridian should be stated in print between the 
 two. The size and position of the north-point may vary considerably. Usually 
 it is placed somewhere near the top of the drawing where the shape of the latter 
 affords a convenient place, but sometimes when it consists of a simple design it 
 is drawn directly upon the other features. This plan, however, should not be 
 followed when a convenient place can be found for it. Its size will depend upon 
 the size and scale of the drawing. Generally it will be slightly shorter than the 
 length of the title. 
 
 34. Scales — The scale of the drawing should, of course, invariably be 
 given. This is either done by indicating it in print, or by drawing for the pur- 
 pose some such design as is seen in the center of plate XI, or by a combination 
 of both, as in the design at the lower left hand corner of the central part of the 
 plate. Where the drawing is not to be reproduced, as a plan or other drawing 
 made for office use only, the scale may be indicated simply by lettering, as in 
 the first title on plate VIII.; but where the drawing is to be reproduced by any 
 one of the various processes of printing, as for example, a map to be engraved, 
 it is better to indicate the scale by some such design as either of these shown in 
 plate XI, as the reproduction may not be of the same size, and, therefore, not of 
 the same scale as the original, and the design will then show the amount of 
 reduction or enlargement. The scale is generally placed near the title, usually 
 underneath it ; if this rule is not followed, the scale is placed, in some part of 
 the drawing where it can readily be found. 
 
 35. Borders — Strictly speaking, the border is an unnecessary part of the 
 drawing, as the utility of the latter would not be injured by the entire absence 
 of a border. But, in at once limiting the eye to that portion of the paper which 
 
NORTH POINTS SCALES & BORDERS 
 
 XI 
 
 jS'caLe. 3 Feci Per Inch 
 
 t ' Z 3 4 5 
 
 '■ ^^-^ 
 
 o ^m o 
 
 m^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 r&" 
 
 G^^ 
 
 ^ra 
 
 ^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 rH 
 
—47— 
 
 has a distinct claim upon its notice, and in adding materially to the impression 
 of completeness, accuracy, and neatness which one receives from such a drawing, 
 the border is not without even some utilitarian value. As has been said of the 
 north-point, the title, and the lettering in general, the border should agree in 
 character with the rest of the drawing. In the lower part of plate XI a number 
 of designs for borders are given. The simple heavy line, or a heavy line 
 enclosing a lighter one, is a very good border for ordinary drawings. Two light 
 lines enclosing a heavy one in the manner shown, is a border that has been 
 much used by the United States engineers. Very elaborate drawings, or 
 drawings made for display, may receive more ornamental borders ; but even in 
 such elaborate drawings it should be remembered that freehand decorations 
 representing garlands, vines, tassels, etc., are generally in bad taste. The 
 simple borders used on the fine maps of the United States Coast Survey show 
 that plain borders are often not inconsistent with elaborate drawings, and that 
 the beginner is therefore in more danger of overdoing than underdoing the 
 matter of borders. 
 
 The border on a technical drawing usually encloses a rectangular area, and 
 should be made to enclose as small an area as is possible without appearing to 
 cramp the drawing. To gain this end it is sometimes convenient to break the 
 border and allow projecting parts of an irregular figure to protrude. When 
 parts so protrude, they should not extend farther than half way between the 
 border and the edge of the paper, if it is desired to attain neatness in the 
 drawing. 
 
 Regarding the width, " a rule commonly followed is to make the total width 
 of the border about the one-hundredth part of the shortest edge of the drawing, 
 supposing the latter to be rectangular in shape. If two lines, a heavy and a 
 light one, are used for a border, the white space between the heavy and light 
 line is usually made about the width of the heavy line." 
 
 The distance between the border and the edge of the paper is also a matter 
 for consideration. The usual width of this margin around the border is an inch 
 and a quarter or an inch and a half, on drawings of less dimensions than, say, 
 two and a half feet by three feet. The width of this margin, however, depends 
 upon circumstances, such as the scale and shape of the plot ; for example, of 
 two drawings made on the same sized sheets, the one drawn to the larger scale 
 may consistently have a wider margin. It is best to allow at least an inch and a 
 quarter on all drawings, we may safely say. Of course if colloctions of draw- 
 ings are to be bound, the above rules may be modified to suit the circumstances . 
 
 36. REFERENCES — The following works were consulted in first writing 
 this book : 
 
 Appleton's Cyclopedia of Technical Drawings, pages 65 to 70, and pages 
 174 to 181. There are some good suggestions on spacing in this book which 
 have been quoted in the article on the spacing of letters in the present treatise 
 at page 1 1. 
 
—48— 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Topographical. Drawing, extracted and slightly 
 modified from Appleton's Cyclopedia and edited by Wm. E. Worthen. This 
 work is comprised in Appleton's, but has a few suggestions in addition. 
 
 Ames' Alphabets is a collection of 35 plates of letters and figures "adapted 
 to the use of architects, engravers, engineers, artists, sign painters, draftsmen, 
 etc." This work contains several plates of letters suited to engineers, but the 
 majority of the plates are too ornamental for technical drawings. 
 
 Plain and Ornamental Standard Alphabets, by Frederick Copley, is a 
 collection of 46 plates of " alphabets of all the various hands in modern use, 
 with examples in each style, designed as a text book." Most of these alphabets 
 are too elaborate for technical use, but thei^e are a number which are appropriate 
 for titles. 
 
 Freehand Lettering for Working Drawings, by Prof C. B; Wing, of Leland 
 Stanford, Jr. University, is a little pamphlet of alphabets, only three or four of 
 which, in the writer's opinion, are to be recommended for ordinary use. There 
 is a pithy preface to this pamphlet, which has been quoted from on page 35 of 
 this book. 
 
 Industrial Science Drawing, Part II, by S. Edward Warren, contains in 
 article 246, page 146, a few suggestions on lettering, including title lettering. 
 
 Draughtsman's Alphabets, " a series of plain and ornamental alphabets," 
 by Herman Esser, is a collection of 31 plates of letters for draftsmen, sign 
 painters, architects, etc. From this work have been taken five of the designs for 
 north-points, given in plate XI. For the rest of this book, the remarks made 
 about Ames' alphabets will apply. 
 
 Students Alphabets is a pamphlet of eight plates taken from Esser' s book 
 of alphabets and slightly modified, published by Keuffel & Esser, New York 
 and Chicago. 
 
 Topographical Drawing and Sketching, by Lieut. H. A. Reed, from pages 
 68 to 69, contains some valuable ideas on lettering topographical maps. These 
 suggestions are applicable to general maps and have been quoted in part in the 
 article on Disposition of the Letters, page 13 of the present work. 
 
 The Draughtsman's Handbook of Plan and Map Drawing, by G. G. Andre, 
 contains some useful matter on lettering, together with three or four plates of 
 letters. The book is English, and hardly represents American practice at the 
 present time. 
 
 A Manual of Topographical Drawing, by Lieut. R. S. Smith, contains some 
 suggestions on lettering in articles 78 and 79, and 80 and 81, pages 40 to 45. 
 
 In a Manual of Land Surveying, by Hodgman & Bellows, is a chapter on 
 map drawing and lettering, by C. S. Dennison, which is well worth reading by 
 every draftsman. This chapter, as already mentioned, has been drawn upon 
 largely in the article upon north-points, scales, and borders. 
 
 In the Manual of Topography, by J. Enthofifer, the aesthetics and 
 construction of letters are elaborately discussed on pages 23 to 33, and three 
 plates of letters are given to illustrate the text. 
 
—49— 
 
 The Book of Ornamental Alphabets, Modern and Mediaeval, by F. 
 Delamotte, is a collection of 54- plates of alphabets, initial letters, etc., all of 
 which are too elaborate for use on technical drawings. 
 
 A System of Easy Lettering, by J. H. Cromwell, is a paper-bound collection 
 of twenty-six plates of alphabets. In this work is shown a method of lettering 
 in which "we have but to divide any surface we may wish to letter into squares 
 (or parallelograms, as the case may be), in pencil lines ; form the required letters, 
 in ink or paint, according to the style chosen ; erase the pencil lines, and the 
 lettering is complete." This method, however, results in letters too stiff and 
 awkward in appeai^ance to be used very much. 
 
 In the Theory and Practice of Surveying, by Prof J. B. Johnson, the short 
 article on map lettering, is pithy and to the point. 
 
 Mechanical Drawing, by C. W. MacCord, is "progressive exercises" for 
 mechanical engineers, in its first part, but contains on page 52 a plate of good 
 borders for drawings of machines, etc. Some of these borders have been selected 
 or modified for plate XI of the present work. 
 
 In writing the present treatise the attempt has been made to include all 
 there is on lettering in the above mentioned books that is of practical value to 
 the engineer.