.1! ^ e shows when this volume was taken, ^m ro renew this book copy the call JJo. and give '^H ^jsimm^ -- to the librarian. - ■ '.^ A PR 2W\ Mi -*: .ji.,!...;. i^ HOME USE RULES mkY 1 1. j3H..|iii ■ — . All Books subject to recall All borrowers must regis- ter in the library to bor- row books for home use. nPT^^^llBfllfli**'^ AU books must be re- ■^""S^^^^^^^^^ ' turned at end of college ' year for inspection and repairs. Limixed books must be ~ returned within the four , , week limit and hot renewed. ' Students must return all , , books before leaving town. OfEicers should arrange for J... :..... the return of books wanted during their absence from town. r Volumes of periodicals ' and of pamphlets are held .., in the library as much as , ■ possible. For special pur- poses they are given out for a limited time. 4 Borrowers should not use I their Ubrary privi^ges for * ./.,./. the1>enefit of othCTpersons. ''■','■ Books of special value ■' and gift books, when the giver wishes it, are not al- ••■••'■■! lowed to circulate. Readers are asked totre- port all cases of books .- .". marked or mutilated. - i ■_. . I • __^___^^ Do not deface books by marks and writing. DS 485.K2U2 """"'"" '""'"^ mmm««filSy...S:f. Kashmir / 3 1924 024 086 286 'w The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924024086286 e^ ^-., in I THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR WALTER R. LAWRENCE, LC.S., CLE. SETTLEMENT COMMISSIONER, KASHMfR AND JAMMU STATE WITH ILLUSTRATIONS Jiottion HENRY FROWDE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE AMEN CORNER, E.G. HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY CONTENTS I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. INDEX Introductory Descriptive Geological Flora . Fauna Archaeology . Political History Physical History Statistical Social Life Religions . Races and Tribes . Agriculture and Cultivation Live Stock .... Industries and Occupations . Trade . The Old Administration The New Settlement Language and Glossary I. Language . II. Glossary 12 40 66 106 161 179 204 221 24S 284 302 .^19 358 370 383 .199 434 454 454 458 467 LIST OF PLATES I. View of city and river. To the left the Shrine of Shah Hamadan. The architecture of the Shrine is typical of all Kashmiri Ziarats II. A typical view of mountain scenery. High elevation with birch-trees in foreground .......■■■ III. Winter in Kashmir. Shows part of the European quarters in Srinagar. The hill crowned with a temple is the Takht-i-Suliman . IV. The old teraple of Narastan. In the background is a peasant's house . V. The old temple of Payech. The interior is occupied by the Linga or Phallic emblem ..... .... VI. A view of the Zogila. The pass leading from Kashmir into Little Tibet \'II. An ordinary peasant's hut. The sentry-box to the left is the granary VIII. Shows a graveyard covered with Iris flowers, and shaded by the Brimij (Celtis Australis). To the right is the village mosque . IX. A view of a modern Hindu temple in Kashmir X. A group of Hanjis. The basket in front is the Kangar. The poles held by the two women are the pestles with which rice is husked. They rest on the mortar .......... XI. A group of Kashmiris. Numbers 3 and 4 in the back line from the left are Gujars. Numbers 5 and 6 in the back line from the right are Sikhs. Of the rest those to the left are Musalmans. Those to the right commencing with the Pandit boy are Hindus (Pandits) . XII. A view illustrating agricultural implements. Behind the plough to the left is the mallet for clod-crushing — to the right is the spade. In front of the plough bullocks are the creel in which manure is carried and the hoe. The garden wall to the right is the Dos or earthen fence of Kashmir .....,..,. XIII. Illustrates the most important work in agriculture — the Khtishaba of rice. The men to the right work with their feet ; those to the left work the rice-plants with their hands. In the centre are the bullocks which are driven up and down the rice-fields ..... XI\". Shows the floating cultivation of the Dal lake. The floating rafts are moored by poles ........ . . XV. An ordinary pair of plough bullocks yoked to a clod-crusher (Maj) XVI. Shows chenar-trees. The boat to the right is the Dunga or passenger- boat. That to the left is the common cargo-boat of Kashmir XVII. Group of Kaslimiri porters resting on march ..... Fi To face ontispiece page \-t 176 246 249 271 297 3>.S 316 325 327 346 358 381 383 MAP . . .... .... CHART of the Rise aud Fall of River Jhehim at Shergarhi Palace, 1893, 1894 . CHARTS showing sections of the most interesting mountain-passes leading from the Valley ; — J . Srinagar to Jammu via Banihal Pass and Oodampur 2. Shupiyon to Panjab, via Pir Panjal Pass .... 3. Section of Gilgit Road, from Srinagar to Gilgit At end Page 212 It 247 „ 247 „ 247 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. This report, which is written on the lines of the Punjab Gazetteers, Chaf. I. deals with Kashm/r proper. Though our Settlement operations have — *^ — extended to Gilgit and to Jammu territory, it has been necessary to exclude information gathered in those countries, even though connected with Kashmir. It has been difficult to decide what facts should be re- corded and what discarded, but so far as it has been possible I have avoided the repetition of information already presented to the State in the fifteen Assessment Reports of Kashm/r which have been written by me. In them will be found the rates of assessment, the mode of classifying and valuing soils, and many facts bearing on the past revenue administration of Kashmir. In this report I shall deal with subjects of general interest. It has been written at odd hours, in the midst of much interruption, and I regret that I have not the leisure to use one half of the notes made by me during the six seasons I have worked in Kashmir. In this opening chapter I allude to matters which may help to elucidate points incidentally mentioned in other parts of the report, and I offer suggestions which may help the future administration of the country. Kashmir, as possessing a distinct nationality, character, language, dress, and body of customs, affords much that is interesting, while its unique history and curious administration are worth careful study. The beautiful valley has been for many years a pleasure resort of Europeans, and many books have been written on the subject of Kashmir. But even the best of these, Drew's Jammu and Kashmir, says little about the valley or its people, and most works which I have read do not add much to the information gathered by Vigne. Strange and hazy ideas have prevailed regarding the wealth of the country, the character of the people, and the system of administration — 2 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. I. ideas which can only be confirmed or refuted by one whose life and work " have brought him into close contact with the villagers and officials. From the first I have found the villagers communicative as they sat by the camp fire, while the officials are often well informed, and excellent talkers, by no means reticent. Kashmfr in 1887, when the Settlement commenced, may be described as an absolute monarchy. If an aristocracy of power ever existed, the tall poppies were cut down years ago, and the people looked to the Mahdraja as their direct lord and master. They yearn for personal rule centred in one man, and they are bewildered and disgusted when rule and power filter into many channels. In Kashmir the Maharajd is repre- sented by a Governor (Hakim-i-Ala), and it is of the highest importance that this official be a man of energy and experience, and that all depart- ments, whether revenue, police, forests, &c., should be absolutely under his control. If this be borne in mind, the administration of Kashmfr will be very easy. It is a small country, and an energetic Governor could visit any village in the valley in a day's ride. Much has been written of the abuses which have prevailed in the ad- ministration of Kashmfr. They were numerous and deplorable, and when I first came to Kashmir in 1889, I found the people sullen, desperate and suspicious. They had been taught for many years that they were serfs without any rights but with many disabilities. They were called Zulm parast, or worshippers of tyranny, and every facility was afforded to their cult. They were forced by soldiers to plough and sow, and the same soldiers attended at harvest time. They were dragged away from their houses to carry loads to Gilgit, and every official had a right to their labour and their property. Their simple proposition yus Karih gonglu sui Karih Krao ^ was ignored, and their position was infinitely worse than that of the Tiers Etat before the French Revolution. While the villagers were thus degraded, the people of the city were pampered and humoured, and the following passage from Hazlitt's Life of Napoleon Bonaparte gives a fair idea of Kashmfr before the Settlement commenced : — ' The peasants were overworked, half-starved, treated with hard words and hard blows, subjected to unceasing exactions and every species of petty tyranny - . . while in the cities a number of unwholesome and useless professions, and a crowd of lazy menials, pampered the vices or administered to the pride and luxury of the great.' It was no wonder that cultivation was bad, that the revenue was not paid, and that the peasants were roving from one village to another in the hope of finding some rest and freedom from oppression. The Kashmfri is ' He who ploughs shall reap. INTRODUCTORY.' 3 made up of contradictions. He is timid yet persistent, degraded yet intel- Chap. I. lectual. Village life meant little to him. His one object was to escape — " — the pressgang when carriage was wanted for Gilgit, and to secure some share of the autumn's grain when the tax collectors appeared. He would not hesitate to throw his burden on to his neighbour's shoulders, and if he failed he would depart to some other village under the aegis of a privileged person who would protect him from the corvh, and would allow no one but himself to oppress the wanderer. Pages might be written by me on facts which have come under my personal observation, but it will suffice to say that the system of administration had degraded the people and taken all heart out of them. The country was in confusion, the revenue was falling off, and those in authority were making hay while the sun shone. Strong personal government is, I believe, the only form of government possible in Kashmir for many years to come, but it is difficult for the Maharajas to supervise the administration of the valley when they are away in their winter capital Jammu. The peasants, one and all, attributed their miseries to the deputies through whom the Maharajis ruled, and they have always recognized that their rulers were sympathetic and anxious to secure their prosperity. But the officials of Kashmir would never allow their master to know the real condition of the people, or to find out that the revenue of the country was diminishing. If the Governor of Kashmir were not active and honest, dishonesty ran rampant through every grade of officialdom. 'There's not a crime But takes its proper change out still in crime If once rung on the counter of this world,' and the slightest weakness or corruption on the part of the Governor had its echo in every corner of the valley. Not only were the officials corrupt but the peasants and their headmen were also dishonest, all joining to rob their master's treasury. His Highness the Maharaja Pratdb Singh, G.C.S.I., recognizing that it was impossible to check these abuses without records and statistics, resolved on effecting a land Revenue Settlement of his country. At first it was extremely difficult to persuade the people that the Settlement would be a reality, or to inspire them with a belief that there would be some continuity in the administration. Little by little, confidence has sprung up. Land which had no value in 1 889 is now eagerly sought after by all classes. Cultivation has extended and improved. Houses have been rebuilt and repaired, fields fenced in, orchards planted, vegetable gardens well stocked, and new mills constructed. Women no longer are seen toiling in the fields, for their husbands are now at home to do the work, and the long journeys to Gilgit are a thing of the past. When the B 2 4 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. I. harvest is ripe the peasant reaps it at his own good time, and not a soldier — " — ever enters the villages. The old saying — ' Batta, batta, Tah piyada patta,' which meant ' we are asking for food and the tax collector is after us,' is no longer heard, for the people are left with ample grain to feed their families. Before 1887 the peasants rarely tasted their beloved food rice. Now all eat rice, and enjoy salt, and the luxury of tea. Little shops are springing up in the villages, and whereas I never saw a metal vessel in any peasant's house three years ago, now a brass cooking-pot is by no means rare. There has been a great change, but it is important that the State should remember that the change has been sudden, and every effort should be made to keep faith with the villagers. A few breaches of the promises made at Settlement would again plunge the country into confusion, and it is well to bear in mind that many hungry middlemen (the fermiers) driven out by the Settlement are waiting and watching. It is well too to re- member that a people so broken and degraded as the Kashmiris do not in a few years harden into a resolute and self-respecting community. They are a soft, timid people, only too ready to avoid a citizen's responsibilities and to shelter themselves behind the plausible and fraudulent middleman. There is not a single middleman left in the villages at the present time, but if the State withdrew its vigilant watch some 40 per cent, of the peasants might again become the serfs of middlemen and officials. Security of tenure has a magical effect, but I think that immunity from forced labour has been as efficacious in promoting confidence among the villages. The construction of the Gilgit road, and the organization of a transport service have done much to abolish the worst incidents of the corvee, but if the Mahardjd himself had not set the example of limiting the demands made by his camp-followers, ' Purveyance ' would have lingered on for years. It was no uncommon thing for 300 sheep to be collected at one stage. Nothing would be paid for them. Now all supplies are paid for. If honest dealing continues for another ten years I believe that the Kashmfris, so hardly spoken of, will become honest. It should be re- membered that from the point of view of the peasant, honesty has not hitherto been the best policy. Kashmfr is a very old country, and its people are very old-fashioned. Those who have studied the history of Kashmfr say that the people have not changed much since the times of ancient Hindu kings. This is quite possible, but I think that many of the hard things said about the Kash- mfris are due to the fact that the official interpreters of their character have been foreigners, often grasping and corrupt, always unsympathetic. INTRODUCTORY. 5 Mughal Subahs, Pathdn Sirdars, Sikh and Dogra Governors dismissed all Chap. I. difficulties of administration, and all humane suggestions emanating from ^ their masters, with the remark that the Kashmiris were dishonest, treacherous and zulmparast. It is the old tale of giving a dog a bad name, and I must confess that during my first year's work in the valley I shared these views. But I soon grew to understand that the Kashmiri, like other orientals, has two sides to his character as distinct as light and darkness. His great yearning. is to be left alone — to till his fields and weave his woollen cloth. The official visit, which to us officials seems so pleasant to all concerned, sends the pulse of the village up many degrees, and those are happy who dwell far away from the beaten tracks. The dark side of the Kashmiri is revealed when he is in the presence of officials. He has had good reason to hate and distrust them, and his only weapon against them is deceit. His light side is seen when he is in his field or with his family in the house. Take as an instance the relations of a Kashmiri cultivator with the village shopkeepers. The shopkeeper (wdni) is a Musalmin and must not take interest. He lends money to the peasants on a system known as wad. A man borrows 5° rupees, and promises to pay this within the year in blankets, ghi, apples, grain, &c. The rate fixed by the wdni for blankets will be 3 rupees, whereas the market price at which the wdni will sell is 3 rupees 8 annas, or 4 rupees. No bond [hujat') is signed by the borrower, and the only record of the transaction is an entry in the daily ledger of the wdni. I have always made a point of talking with the wdnis whenever I see a village shop, and they are unanimous in saying that they never make a bad debt and that they are never obliged to sue a debtor. This state of things does not argue that the Kashmfri peasants are dishonest. In the statistical chapter, facts will be found which show that crime is almost non-existent in Kashmir. Crimes of dishonesty may be said to be absolutely non-existent among the peasants. Property is entirely safe, and during the six years which I have spent in the villages, I have never heard of crimes of theft, or burglary being committed by agriculturists. This surely points to the fact that the Kashmiris are not the dishonest people they are represented to be. Since 1890 all suits connected with land, saving larid situated within Srinagar and a few adjoining villages, have been removed from the ordinary courts and have been made over to me for decision. My procedure has been to hear and decide such suits in the village where the claim has arisen. Under a chendr tree in the presence of the assembled villagers the claimant prefers his suit and the defendant makes his reply. Then the old men of the village and the headmen of the neighbourhood give their opinion on the case, and a brief entry is made by me which finally settles the claim. 6 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. I. This may seem a very rough and ready way of disposing of land suits, but — " — so far no man has ever appealed against my decision. If a claimant went to the Courts in Srinagar, the dark side of his character would appear. Pleaders and Court attendants would adulterate his simple claim, and in the same way the defendant would throw off the candour and truthfulness inspired by the presence of his neighbours in the village, and would lie in the most ingenious and surprising manner. For five years this procedure of enquiry on the spot has gone on, and I attribute much of the quiet prosperity which is now growing in the villages, to the fact that money is not spent and bad blood is not engendered by litigation. My system is the old system of the village panchdyat. The commonest intellect can tell from the faces of the villagers whether the claim is just, and the ' genius loci ' seems to keep both claimant and defendant to the point and to the truth. This system is easy and possible in Kashmir, for as I have alrea:dy remarked, one can reach any village in the valley in a day's ride. My object in alluding to this procedure is to add further testimony to the fact that the Kashmiri peasants are not dishonest. If they had been the hopeless liars they are reputed to be, I could never have disposed of the many suits which have arisen. A Kashmiri will rarely lie when he is confronted in his village by his fellow villagers ; he will invariably lie when he enters the murky atmosphere of the Law Courts. Perhaps this summary procedure would have been impossible if I had not in 1889 induced the State to withhold from the Kashmiris the power to alienate their land by sale or mortgage. If hereafter, when population increases and communications are improved, the State should unfortunately see fit to give the fatal gift of alienation to their Musalman tenants, I trust that some portion of the holding (which should be two acres of irrigated and four acres of dry land) will be rendered absolutely inalienable. I hope too that the suggestion that pleaders should be allowed to intervene in suits connected with land will never be made again, or that if it is made that it will meet with the wise veto which was accorded to it in 1892. If litigation is fostered in Kashmir prosperity in the villages will be checked. The work of Settlement has been anxious and difficult. Powerful interests were at work against us, and if it had not been for the loyal and consistent support rendered to me by His Highness the Mahariji and his advisers, these interests would have made a Settlement impossible. These adverse interests were : (i) The official classes and the Pandits who held land on privileged terms. (2) Thfe headmen of the villages. (3) The city of Srinagar. As regards the officials it is pleasant to be able to say that from active INTRODUCTORY. 7 opposition tliey have now passed to friendly co-operation. The Tahsildars, Chap. I. on whom the Revenue Administration chiefly depends, have been reduced " from fifteen to eleven. With one exception they are all men of the old officialdom of Kashmir, and at the present time only one of the eleven is a Pandit. It would have been easy to carry out temporary reforms in Kashmir, if trained Tahsildars had been imported from the Panjab as was at one time suggested. But apart from the unfairness and unpopularity of such a measure, I am not sure that reforms effected through so foreign an agency would have been permanent. By selecting the best of the Kash- miri officials as Tahsildars, by raising their pay and by treating them with the respect due to their office, I believe that the most important agents of the revenue administration have grown to look on the Settlement with favour. Of course numbers of superfluous officials who hovered round the carcass of the revenue have disappeared from the scene, and the fermiers and the soldiers have been obliged to seek other Occupations. Happily, owing to the large influx of silver into the country, and to the briskness of internal trade, most of the drones have found a livelihood. As regards the privileged holders of land every effort has been made to treat them with indulgence, and for another ten years they will continue to be privileged, though their revenue will be somewhat higher than it used to be. The headmen of villages have on the whole accepted the change brought by the Settlement without any prolonged opposition. They have now to pay revenue for their land like other cultivators, but their social position is better, and they are paid five per cent, on Revenue Collections, whereas formerly they received nothing. The interests of the city have from the earliest times been opposed to the interests of the villages. The city people want grain and other village produce at rates far below the cost of production. ' What the eye does not see the heart does not grieve ' — and the authorities saw and heard the city, but the villagers were out of sight and out of mind. I have described in another chapter the facts connected with the collection of revenue in kind. Low prices of the chief staple rice (lower this year, 1894, than they have been for years) coupled with difficulty in selling the State grain brought into Srinagar at the end of 1 893, the opening of a cart road from Bdrdmula to Srinagar, the extraordinary increase in the amount of silver now in circulation in the city, and last, but not least, the growing desire of shawl-weavers and even Pandits to obtain labour, all point to the conclu- sion that a new era has dawned for Srinagar, and that before long honest industry will be the rule, and helpless and ignoble dependence on the State and its charities will be the exception. I have urged on the authorities the establishment of Technical Schools ; 8 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. I. and the State which has unwittingly done so much to pauperize and ^ emasculate the population of its summer capital, has splendid work now before it in raising the Shahr-bash'^ to the position of self-helping and industrious citizens. In Chapter X, I have endeavoured to describe some of the most striking points of the national character, and it will be wise to bear these points in mind when further reforms or changes are contemplated. A feeling of impatience may be aroused when the reformer sees that the Kashmiris are opposed to changes which are obviously for their good. It should, however, be remembered that if it had not been for their essentially con- servative nature the Kashmiris would have succumbed to the stern rules of social evolution, and would have been blotted out as a distinct nation- ality by their strong superiors the Mughals, Pathdns, Sikhs, and Dogras. It is no exaggeration to say that these successive dynasties have left no impress on the national character — that there has been no progress in the ordinary sense of the word, and that the Kashmiris are now, in spite of many experiments in administration, very much what they were in the times before the Mughal conquest linked the valley with India. It is therefore necessary to be patient, and it is wrong to condemn the Kashmiri if he is sceptical regarding the advantages of progress. The people have a keen intellect, and this joined to their steady aversion to change makes them very difficult subjects for administrative experiments, Many changes have been introduced by the Settlement, but they have been made after a careful study of the character and ideas of the people. Old institutions have been adapted to new wants, and in the future reform will be futile unless it proceeds on these lines. But in order to understand old institutions it is essential to learn the customs of the people, and the shortcomings of past administrations are chiefly due to the fact that the authorities considered the Kashmfris and their usages unworthy of study. My experience is that in dealing with so peculiar a people nothing, however small, is unimportant if it gives a clue to the working of their minds. Take as instances the old practice of espionage, or the blind credence which the village people place in any news coming from Srinagar. The Kashmiris are well styled HdwaUn'^, and it would save much trouble and disquietude if the State would endeavour to suppress the evil system which still lingers on of disseminating false rumours. The Z aina-kadal, or fourth bridge of the cityj used to be the place where false rumours were hatched, but now the news makers have moved to the first bridge, the Amiran-kadal. Though the wise knew that Khabar-i-Z aina-kadal^ was false, the majority are not wise, and much misery is caused to the villagers by the reports which ' City people. ^ Watchers of the wind. ^ News from the Zaina-kadal. INTRODUCTORY. g emanate from the city. T^e Kashmfris are very unstable and very prone Chap. I. to give undue weight to rumours. They are emotional and ruled by sen- " — timent. They will do excellent work on water-courses and embankments if .coaxed, and praised, and encouraged with small presents of snuff. They will do little if paid a full daily wage. They like and admire stern determination in their ruler. All they ask is that they may have access and hearing on certain occasions. They are accomplished talkers, but have an instinctive dread of their words being committed to paper. Writing in their opinion is a trap and a fraud. While on the whole they like certainty in the revenue administration, and are not as some sup- pose enamoured of the elastic properties of a fluctuating assessment, they would hate our western ideas of justice and judicial procedure. I have done my utmost to leave the system of Kashmir alone where it was possible, and should deplore the introduction of elaborate rules and pro- cedure. These Sibylline books, with officials as interpreters, would do no good to Kashmir. All that the State need now do. for its agricultural population is to leave the villagers alone. Cholera and small-pox should be grappled with so that the population — at present inadequate — should increase and multiply. Kashmir is generations behind the Panjab, and what is good and necessary in the Panjab is dangerous and premature in this country. A wise Kashmiri with whom I was conversing on the subject of the alleged oppression of the police, said, in answer to a question of mine, ' Of course the police annoy us, and I presume that this is the purpose for which they are employed. There is no crime in the country, and the police must have something to do.' There is no doubt work for the police in the city and towns and on the road, but I doubt whether their presence is necessary in the villages. But police are necessary in thei Panjab districts, and it has perhaps been argued that human nature being the same in all countries police are required in the districts of Kashmir. I merely mention the police as an instance to show that Kashmir is a peculiar country, which need not necessarily be administered at present by the strict pattern adopted in British India. While the object of administration should be to leave the people alone to recover from the atrophy which has been caused by over-government, much can be done by example and advice. At the present time the Kashmiri is ruled by Rawdj'^ and is content to abide by the Ain"^ of the country. In some respects he is better off than his fellows in India, he has ample grazing for his sheep and cattle, fuel for the winter, good warm clothes, and sufficient manure for cultiva- tion. He is not extravagant, and happily spends little on marriages and similar occasions. But it is possible as prosperity increases the Kashmiri ' Custom. * Code of Customs. C lo THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. I. will follow the example of India and will increase the expenses of — *" — marriages. If the State will intervene and order that the old scale of marriage expenses shall be observed the people will gladly obey. They are docile and always ready to carry out orders which are conservative in their tendency. They understand that they are responsible for the main- tenance of irrigation, channels, and of communications between villages, and it would be a great mistake if the State ever relieved them of this responsibility. Apart from the work of settling the villages and assisting in the revenue administration of Kashmir, I have held charge of Viticulture, Hops, Horticulture, and Sericulture. These subjects will be discussed elsewhere, but here I wish to state that although the last three have been worked with a fair profit they will never become of real importance until the State makes them over to private capitalists. I think that whereas no Europeans could live and thrive as ordinary agricultural colonists in Kashmfr, they could do good to themselves and to the State if they settled in Kashmir and devoted capital and labour to the pro- duction of wine, hops, canned and dried fruits, vegetables and silk. The cultivation of vines could be enormously extended in the immediate neighbourhood of Srinagar ; there is a vast area of land admirably suited to hops. Horticulture can practically take care of itself, while the countless mulberry trees and the ease with which the tree can be propagated open out a wide field for sericulture. An amateur's experiences, though extending over six years, may not be worth much, but the opinions I now express are founded on the views held by men who are practical experts in viticulture, wine-making, and sericulture. As regards hops I can appeal to the best criterion, financial results. If private enterprise were allowed in these special industries, the good which would result to the State would be a perceptible increase in the revenue, and what is of greater importance an increased field of labour and employment for the people of Srinagar. My best thanks are due to His Highness the Mahdraja Pratab Singh, G.C.S.I., and his brother Rdjd Sir Amar Singh, K.C.S.I., for the help and encouragement which they have always extended to me. They and the Revenue Adviser to the State, Rai Bahddur Pandit Surijkoul, CLE., have, by their knowledge of the country and by their insight into oriental character, been able to protect me from falling into errors arising from ignorance and haste. By the interest which they have shown in the Settlement and by their personal kindness and sympathy they have made my work easy and pleasant, and I can never sufficiently acknowledge my gratitude nor bear fitting testimony to the fact that the Dogra rulers of Kashmfr mean well and kindly by their subjects. My warmest thanks are also due to Colonel Parry Nisbet, C.I.E., INTRODUCTORY. ii Colonel Prideaux, and Colonel Barr, who have held the office of Resident Chap. I. in Kashmir while the Settlement was in progress. They never failed to —** help me by advice, and the interest which they have taken in a work which is somewhat monotonous and technical has assisted my operations in many ways. I have further to acknowledge the friendly assistance of Dr. W. King, Director of the Geological Survey of India, for perusing and revising the chapter on Geology. In the chapter on the Flora of Kashmfr Dr. Aitchison, CLE., F.R.S., London and Edinburgh, has helped me in the kindest manner, while Mr. Duthie, Director of the Botanical Survey of Northern India, has contributed a list of plants which will form an admirable basis for further investigation. In the chapter on Fauna all that is valuable regarding mammals is due to Colonel A. Ward, while the splendid list of Birds has been compiled at a moment's notice with great labour by Colonel Unwin^. The chapter on Political History has' been revised by the Sanskrit scholar. Dr. Stein. For the illustrations I am indebted to Major Hepburn, Captain Allan, Captain Godfrey, and to Alam Chand, the State photographer. Many friends have read through my chapters on Social Life, Tribes and Castes, and Agriculture, and have helped me with their advice. Written as this report has been without books of reference, and at odd hours snatched from other more urgent work, it_will appear clumsy and disjointed. I have probably left out much which would have been useful and interest- ing, but I have done my best to bring information regarding Kashmir up to date. When English words are printed in italics their Kashmiri equiva- lents will be found in the glossary. ' This list has been most kindly revised by Dr. Bowdler Sharpe, of the British ^fuseum. C a CHAPTER II. DESCRIPTIVE. Chap. II. General. If one looks at the map of the territories of His Highness the Mahdraja of Jammu and Kashmfr one sees a white foot-print set in a mass of black mountains. This is the valley of Kashmir, known to its inhabitants as Kashir. Perched securely among the Himaldyas at an average height of about 6,000 feet above the sea, it is approximately eighty-four miles in length, and twenty to twenty-five miles in breadth'. North, east, and west, range after range of mountains guard the valley from the outer world, while on the south it is cut off from the Panjab by rocky barriers fifty to seventy- five miles in width. The valley is a resting-place for adventurous traders who seek the distant markets of Yarkand and Central Asia, and it furnishes a base whence military operations have been in recent years directed against the wild and turbulent tribes of the Shinaki country to the north and north-east. More to the east lie the peaceful valleys of Baltistan or Little Thibet, where the gentle Baltis lead their harmless lives in a high, dry climate. Between Kashmir and Skardu (8,873 feet), the chief stronghold of the Baltis, are the great mountain plains of Devsai (13,400 feet), and to the east lies the high valley of Dras, through which runs the road to Leh and Yarkand. A journey of a few days from Kashmir carries one into countries of new languages, customs and religions, and the ethnologist and philologist would find much of interest in the primitive Shins, who live along the spurs of the mighty Nanga Parbat, in the Mongolian Baltis of Little Thibet, and in the simple Ladakhis, — Buddhists and polyandrists. South of the valley of Kashmir amidst the great mountains, the ethnologist would find the pleasant pastoral Gaddis, and might, if native historians are to be believed, discover in the customs of the old-fashioned Hindus of Kishtwar the ancient manners and usages of the Kashmiris as they were before the dwellers of the valley were converted to Islam. The mountain ranges rising to a height of 18,000 feet on the north- east, dip down to something over 9,000 feet in the south, where the Banihdl pass affords an exit from the valley. Up to the end of May and sometimes DESCRIPTIVE. 13 by the beginning of October there is a continuous ring of snows around the Chap. II. valley. The winter snows disappear in summer, and with the spring and — ^ — summer rains drain into the Jhelum river which rises within Kashmfr. The catchment area of the valley has been calculated to be 116 miles long, with a width that varies from forty to seventy-five miles. So that the great artery of Kashmir receives the rainfall of some 3,900 square miles. The only outlet for this from the valley is the narrow gorge at Baramiila where the placid river leaves the smooth grassy banks, and hurries headlong down its rocky course to the plains of the Panjab. It has been the custom to describe the valley as an oval plain girt with a chain of mountains. But no figure can give a true idea of the splendid variety in the trend of the ranges, in the midst of which lie other vales rivalling in beauty the main valley of Kashmir^. Much has been written by Europeans on the subject of this beautiful country since Bernier told the world of ' Cachemire, the Paradise of the Indies ^,' and even the languid orientals, supposed by some to be incapable of appreciating beauty of scenery, are moved to admiration when they see Kashmir. In their language the valley is an emerald set in pearls, a land of lakes, clear streams, green turf, magnificent trees and mighty mountains — where the air is cool and the water sweet, where men are strong and women vie with the soil in fruitfulness. In the words of the Kashmiris the valley was a rock-bound prison from which in past time escape was difficult. The great snow mountains suggested nothing to them beyond the hopelessness of flight from tyranny. In the brief delineation of the valley, which I shall attempt, a comparison of Kashmir with other well-known countries would have been of great assistance. But its high elevation, its dry climate and curious flora, in which east blends with the west, render this impossible. In latitude Kashmfr corresponds with Peshawar, Baghdad, and Damascus in Asia : with Fez in Morocco : and South Carolina in America, but it presents none of the characteristics of those countries. Persons have likened the climate of the valley to that of Switzerland until the end of May, and of Southern France in July and August. But as I shall explain, it is impossible to speak of Kashmfr as possessing any one climate or group of characteristics. Every hundred feet of elevation brings some new phase of climate and of vegetation, and in a short ride of thirty miles ' An excellent account of Kashmir is given in the Ain Akbari. With the exceptions that the inhabitants no longer ' go upon the lakes in small boats to enjoy the diversion of hawking,' and no longer ' train leopards to hunt the elk,' the description is absolutely accurate at the present time. " In his introduction to the Rajtarangini Kulan or Kalhana, Pandit says of the valley : ' It is a country where the sun shines mildly, being the place created by Kashayapa as if for his glory. High school-houses, the saffron, iced-water and grapes, which are rare even in heaven, are common here. Kailasa is the best place in the three worlds, Himalaya the best part of Kailasa, and Kashmir the best place in Himalaya.' 14 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. one can pass from overpowering heat to a climate delightfully cool, or " can escape from wearisome wet weather to a dry and sunny atmosphere. Though this report on Kashmir is written for the State administration with the object of recording the statistics and resources of the valley, it may not be out of place in this chapter to touch briefly on certain points which possess an interest for Europeans as well as for the rulers of Kashmir. I allude to these facts with the less hesitation, firstly because the country benefits to some extent by the visits of Europeans, and secondly because it has long been the ambition of the Maharajis of Kashmir to accord hospitality and assistance to all who travel in their dependencies. In no country in the world are the officials more courteous and helpful than in Kashmir, and the old saying of Mahirija Gulab Singh to the effect that the British subaltern was in his eyes equal to a king is still remembered and acted on. From an English point of view the valley contains nearly everything which should make life enjoyable. There is sport varied and excellent, there is scenery for the artist and layman, mountains for the mountaineer, flowers for the botanist, a vast field for the geologist, and magnificent ruins for the archaeologist. The epicure will find dainty fruits and vegetables cheaper here than perhaps in any part of the world, while the lounger can pass delightful days of dolce far niente in the mat house-boats moored under the shady chenar tree. And last, but not least, the invalid must find somewhere in the varied climate of Kashmir the change of ' air and water ' which will restore him to the health of which the heat of the Indian plains have robbed him. Some authorities say that the valley is good for consumptive people. There are sulphur springs at Wean, within easy reach of Srinagar, and I imagine that the day will come when Kashmir will be a health resort not only of Anglo-Indians, but also of people from all parts of the world. Neither the natural beauty nor the delicious climate of the valley has been exaggerated in the books which I have read, and every year's residence in the valley discloses some new charm and new interest. Mountains. The mountains which surround Kashmir are never monotonous. Infinitely varied in form and colour, they are such as an artist might picture in his dreams. Looking to the north one sees a veritable sea of mountains, broken into white crested waves, hastening in wild confusion to the great promontory of Nanga Parbat (36,620 feet). To the east stands Harimukh (16,903 feet), the grim mountain which guards the valley of the Sind. On it the legend says the snow only ceases to fall for one week in July, and men believe that the gleam from the vein of green emerald in the summit of the mountain renders all poisonous snakes harmless. Further south is Mahadeo, very sacred to the Hindus, which seems to almost look down on Srinagar, and south again are the lofty range of Gwash Brari DESCRIPTIVE. 15 (17,800 feet), and the peal^of Amarndth (17,331 feet), the mountain of the Chap. II. pilgrim, very beautiful in the evening sun. On the south-west is the Panjdl ~~** — range with peaks of 15,000 feet, well-known to travellers from thePanjdb — further north the great rolling downs of the Tosh Maidan (14,000 feet) over which men pass to the Poonch country, and in the north-west corner rises the snowy Kazi Nag (12,135 feet) the home of the Markhor. Every mile reveals some exquisite peak, around which cling curious legends of battles, demigods, and elephants. As the time draws on for the harvesting of the rice, the pir or pantsdl^, as it is called in the Kashmfr language, possesses a painful interest for the cultivators, since early snows on the mountain tops carry a chill air to the valley which will do considerable injury to their crops. On the west, and wherever the mountain sides are sheltered from the hot breezes of the Panjdb plains, which blow across mountains fifty to seventy miles in breadth, there are grand forests of pines and firs. Down through these forests dash mountain streams ^ white with foam, passing in their course through pools of the purest cobalt. When the great dark forests cease, and the brighter woodland begins, the banks of the streams are ablaze with clematis, honeysuckle, jasmine and wild roses, which remind one of azaleas. The green smooth turf of the woodland glades is like a well-kept lawn dotted with clumps of hawthorn and other beautiful trees and bushes. It would be difficult to describe the colours which are seen on the Kashmfr mountains. In early morning they are often a delicate semi-transparent violet relieved against a saffron sky, and with light vapours clinging round their crests. Then the rising sun deepens shadows, and produces sharp outlines and strong passages of purple and indigo in the deep ravines. Later on it is nearly all blue and lavender, with white snow peaks and ridges under a vertical sun, and as the afternoon wears on these become richer violet and pale bronze, gradually changing to rose and pink with yellow or orange snow, till the last rays of the sun have gone, leaving the mountains dyed a ruddy crimson with the snows showing a pale creamy green by contrast. Looking downward from the mountains the valley in the sunshine has the hues of the opal, the pale reds of the kar^wa, the vivid light greens of the young rice, and the darker shades of the groves of trees relieved by sunlit sheets, gleams pf water, and soft blue haze give a combination of tints reminding one . irresistibly of the changing hues of that gem. It is impossible in the scope of this report to do justice to the beauty and grandeur of the mountains of Kashmir, or to enumerate the lovely glades and forests, visited by so few. ' Pir is the Dogri word for a mountain peak. Pantsdl the Kashmiri word. Pir Panjal, which- is a corruption of Pir Pantsal, is a reduplication of terms. ' A mountain stream flowing noisily over stones is called by the Kashmiris Arrdh. When the stream reaches the flat country and flows gently it is known as a Ch6p. i6 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. Excellent guide-books tell of the magnificent scenery of the Sind and — " — Liddar valleys and of the gentler charms of the Lolab, but none have described the equal beauties of the western side of Kashmir. Few countries can offer anything grander than the deep green mountain tarn Konsa Nag in the Panjal range, the waters of which make a wild entrance into the valley over the splendid cataract of Arabal, while the rolling grass mountain called Tosh Maidan — the springy downs of Raiyar looking over the Suk Ncig river as it twines, foaming down from the mountains— the long winding park known as Yusumarg, — and lower down still the little hills, which remind one of Surrey, and Nilnig with its pretty lake ^ screened by the dense forests, are worthy to be seen. Apart from their beauty and variety of temperature the mountains of Kashmir are of great importance to the country. They supply water for irrigation, timber, fuel, and the grazing upon which so much of the agricultural prosperity of the valley depends. As the summer draws on the sheep and cattle are driven up from the valley to the woodland glades, and as the sun grows hotter they pass on to the Margs^ those beautiful stretches of turf which, ringed round with great forests, lie at an elevation of from 7,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea. But the best of the grazing is found even higher up, when the forests of pines and firs cease, and the birch trees appear. This high country is known as lldk ^, and is the summer home of the shepherds and graziers. Many of the Margs are visited every year by Europeans, and Gulmarg, Sonamarg, and Nagmarg are charming places for a summer holiday. Perhaps Pahlgam, the village of the shepherds which stands at the head of the Liddar valley with its healthy forest of pines, and Gurais which lies at a distance of thirty-five miles from Bandipura, the port of the Wular lake, will before long rival in popularity the other Margs. Gurais is a lovely valley five miles in length lying at an elevation of about 8,000 feet above the sea. The Kishnganga river flows through it, and on either side tower mountain scarps of indescribable grandeur. Perhaps one of the most beautiful scenes in the whole of Kashmir is the grove of huge poplars through which the traveller enters the Gurais valley. The climate is dry and mild, excellent English vegetables can be grown, and the wild raspberries and currants are delicious. As one descends the mountains and leaves the woodland glades cultivation commences immediately, and right up to the fringe of the grown and walnut trees abound. A little The lateral valleys. forests the useful maize is ' ' This is also held sacred, and many fanatics consume themselves with fire on its border '— Ain Akbari. ' There is a Persian word {Margh) signifying a garden abounding in plants, but the Kashmiris use the word to denote land lying at a distance from the abode of men. ^ The summer quarters of the Persian nomad tribes are known as flak Platk T„ f,„r I'.v^, ,7 A',-ri//7r hy („/•!, nil ,\lhi n'l'K ,\I. VII. \V Ol- MOUNTAIN SCKNKK'.'. 1111,11 KI.KVA'IION WITH BIRCIl-TRKKS IN FOR Kf I !<< lU N 1 1 DESCRIPTIVE. 17 lower down, at an elevatioe of about 7,000 feet, rice of a hardy and Chap. II. stunted growth is found and the shady plane tree appears. Lower — ** — still superior rices are grown, and the water-courses are edged with willows. The side valleys which lead off from the vale of Kashmfr, though possessing distinctive charms of their own, have certain features in common. At the mouth of the valley there is the wide delta of fertile soil on which the rice with its varying colours, the plane trees, mulberries and willows grow luxuriantly, a little higher up the land is terraced and rice still grows, and the slopes are ablaze with the aniline blooms of a wild indigo, till at about 7,000 feet the plane tree gives place to the walnut and the rice to the millets. On the left bank of the mountain river endless forests stretch from .the bottom of the valley to the peaks, and on the right bank, where there is a nook or corner which is sheltered from the sun and the hot breezes of India, the pines and firs establisb themselves. Then further up the valley the river, already a roaring torrent, becomes a veritable waterfall dashing down between lofty cliffs, whose bases are fringed with maples and horse chestnuts, white and pink, and the millets are replaced by the buckwheat and Tibetan barley. Soon after this the useful birch tree appears, and then come, grass and glaciers — the country of the shepherdis. As regards the formation of the vale itself, perhaps the theory of- its The valley. lake origin will best explain the slopes and ledges which render the. configuration of Kashmir striking and unique. Where the mountains cease to be steep, fan-like projections, with flat arid tops and bare of trees, run out towards the valley. These are known as Kar^wa. Sometimes these dry table lands stand up isolated in the middle, of the, valley, but whether isolated or attached to the^ mountains the karewa present the same sterile appearance and offer- the same abrupt walls to the valley. The karewa are pierced by mountain torrents and seamed with ravines. It has been suggested- that ' a plane, not indeed an even one joining the tops of all the remaining plateaus, would represent the position and form of the lake bottom at the last.' Bearing in mind that Kashmfr was once a lake, which dried up when liaturie afforded an outlet at Bardmula, it is easy to recognize in the kardwa the shelving shores of a great inland sea, and to realize that the inhabitants of the old cities, the traces of which can be seen on high bluffs and on the slope of the mountains, had no other choice of sites, since in those days the present fertile valley was buried beneath a waste of water. Leaving the karewa one drops down to the alluvial soil which The river and slopes gently towards Jhelum, the great river. The Hydaspes of the S°eams!" ancients, the Vedasta of the Hindus, it is known to the Kashmfris as D i8 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. the Veth. When it leaves Kashmir at Baramula it is called the Kashur — ^ — Darya, and after joining the Kishnganga, it is spoken of as the Jhelum river. This river is navigable without a single lock from Baramula to Kanabal, the port of Islamabad, a distance of I02 miles ^ Up to the present by far the larger part of the traffic of the country is carried along it in the flat-bottomed boats vifhich are towed up stream or drop gently down at the speed of about i^ miles an hour. The lazy river and the absence of roads and wheeled carriage have had their influence on native character, and time seems to be no object to a Kashmiri. The great Wular lake may be regarded as the delta of the Jhelum in Kashmi'r. In its course from Kanabal to the Delta the fall of the river is 165 feet in the first 30 miles, and 55 feet in the next 24 miles. From the Wular to Baramula the fall is very slight. In December, when the river is at its lowest, the average breadth is 210 feet and its mean depth is 9 feet. To the ordinary observer it would seem evident that the river arose from the grand spring of deep blue water at Vernag which bubbles up underneath a steep scarp of rock clothed with pines, but the Hindus maintain that a spring a little below Vernag, known as Vethvatru, has the honour of being the source of the great Kashmi'r river. Above Kanabal the mountain streams from the south, the Sdndrin, the Brang, the Arpat from Kotahar, the Kokarnag and the Achibal springs, join the river, and just below Kanabal on its right bank the Jhelum receives one of its most important tributaries, the Liddar or Lambodri, which comes down from the everlasting snows which over- hang the head of the Liddar valley and from the lake of Tarsar. Further down on its right bank the Jhelum receives the water of the great Arpal Ndg spring and the drainage from the Wastarwan and the mountains above Trahal, and at Pampur a small amount of overflow from irrigation channels falls into the river. The Sind river, the most important of all the tributaries of the Jhelum, joins it at Shadipur, the place of marriage of the two rivers, and after passing through the Wular lake the Jhelum receives only one more tributary on its right bank before it reaches Baramula, the Pohru stream which drains the Loldb valley and enters the main river at Dubgdm. On its left bank the Jhelum receives the drainage of the western mountains, but none of the streams possesses the same importance as the Liddar and Sind rivers. The chief tributaries on the left bank are the Vishau, the Rembidra, the Ramshi and the Dudganga, which last joins the Jhelum at the lower end of the Srinagar city, the Suknag and ' From Vernag to Kichhama, the point below Baramula where the Jhelum may be said to leave the valley, the distance is 122 miles. DESCRIPTIVE. 19 the Ferozepura, which Iqge themselves in the large marshes under the Chap. II. banks of the Jhelum, and the Ningl which flows into the Wular lake — " — and affords a secure haven to wind-bound boats. Of these streams^ the Pohru, Sind and Vishau are navigable for a short distance. In ordinary times the Jhelum river flows gently between high stable banks of deep soil, and until the stream shrinks in November, navigation, in spite of the absence of a proper tow-path, is easy. But in the winter the river above Srinagdr is blocked by shoals, and the boatmen often have to dig out a channel for the heavy grain barges. In times of flood the river overtops its natural banks, and when the flood is high the water pours over the artificial embankments which have been constructed on either side of the river. Great damage is then caused to the crops of maize and linseed, and sometimes stacks of wheat, barley, and rape- seed are swept away. The loss caused by floods is always greatest below Srinagar, as the fall of the country is slight and the flood-water remains on the land rotting the crops. Above Srinagir the fall of the river and the slope of the country cause the flood-water to run down quickly and the crops often recover. In former times the villages lying along the river were obliged to keep the artificial embankments in repair, and flood-gates existed which let out the water of the inountain streams, and protected the country against the floods oT the Jhelum. For many years this obligation had not been enforced, and under my supervision the embankments below Srinagar were repaired, and the normal floods of 1892 were kept in check. Above Srinagar the question of repairing embankments is complicated by the presence of the city, the safety of which must not be endangered. It is unfortunate that Srinagar should have been built on its present site. It is not only exposed to constant danger from floods, but is itself the cause of floods, because it checks the drainage of the country. The old Hindus were wise for they chose high land for their cities, arid ancient Srinagdr stood on ground secure from floods. Akbar, the first of the Mughal rulers, selected the slopes of the Hari-Parbat for his city Nagar, but his successors, without thought for the future, closed the Dal lake to the floods of the Jhelum, and thereby robbed the river of one of the escapes for its flood- water. Later the Pathans built their palace on the left bank of the Jhelum and prevented the river from escaping to the west, and now all the flood-water from the south of the valley must pass through the narrow waterway of Srinagdr. There the channel of the river is narrowed by stone embank- ments, by the piles of encroaching city magnates, and the flow is further ' Among the streams the Ningl; the Suknag and the Sind are considered to give the best drinking-water. Abdullah Khan the Pathan governor had his drinking-water brought daily from the Ningl to Srinagdr. D a 20 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IL arrested by the cumbrous though picturesque piers of the seven bridges. — ^ — Below Srinagar the old system of embankments has led to the usual result, and the river is now above the level of the country on its left bank. The consequence is that there is a series of swamps into which the drainage from the mountains of the west pours, and from which there is no outlet to the Jhelum, except in the winter months or in years of drought. The situation is further complicated by the fact that the Wular lake— the Delta of the river— is silting up. When the great king Zain-ul-abadin made the island on the lake the waters of the Wular stretched south to Asham and Sumbal, and the island was in the centre of the lake. Now the island is in one corner, and Asham and Sumbal are high and dry. Men who know the Wular well declare that within the last twenty-six years a strip of land over three miles in breadth has emerged from the lake, and I believe that the silting-up process is going on rapidly, and that it will probably lead to difficulties in the future. The question of floods will be dealt with in the chapter on Physical History, and it need only be remarked here that the placid Jhelum, useful as it is to the people as a waterway, is looked upon by them as a sleeping lion. The lakes. Kashmir abounds in mountain tarns, lovely lakes, and swampy lagoons. Of the lakes the Wular, the Dal, and the Manasbal are the most beautiful, owing to the varied scenery given by the mountains which surround them. The Wular lake is the largest in India, being about i'i\ miles by 5 rniles in extent, and is almost surrounded by the lofty mountains which tower over the north and north-east of the valley. The Bohnar, Madmati, and Erin streams flow into the lake, while from the south the Jhelum seeks a passage through the Wular to Baramula. The lands around the Wular are never safe when the floods come down, and 34 hours of rain over the valley with melting snows will spread the lake over many miles of country^. The natives say that the Pohru stream when in flood is the cause of the inundation effected by the Wular and the Jhelum river, and that the Pohru forms a bar checking the overflow waters of the lake. In the north-east corner is an island made by the great Kashmiri king Zain-ul-abadin, and the ruins on it show that it must have been a place of great beauty. It ' The following details regarding the Kashmiri lakes may be nsefnl : — In normal years the Wular lake is 12-90 miles in length, 6-07 miles in breadth, and has an area of 78-3030 square miles. In years of flood, such as 1893, its length is 13.30 miles, breadth 7.81 miles, and its area is 103-8730 square miles. The Manasbal lake is 2-40 miles long and 0.47 miles broad. It covers an area of 1-1280 square miles. The Dal lake is 3-87 miles in length and 2-58 mil?s in breadth. It covers an area of 9.9846 square miles. Of this area 1890 acres consist of demb or fixed cultivation, so the total area of the Dal under water and floating gardens is 7-0346 square miles. The Anchar Dal is 3-51 miles in length and 3-15 miles in breadth. It covers an area of 7-5465 square miles. DESCRIPTIVE. 21 is said tiiat the good king jjpilt the island as a storm-refuge for boats. The Chap. II. Wular has a bad reputation among the boatmen of Kashmir, for when the — " — winds come down the mountain gorges of Erin and Bandipura, and the gale blows from Shukr Din hill over the deep water, the quiet surface of the lake changes into a sea of rolling waves most dangerous to the flat-bottomed craft of the country. It is said that where the blue waters of the Wular now rest there was once a great and wicked city which was swallowed up in an earthquake, and the floods completed its destruction. The meaning of the word 'Wular' is cave^, and legends say that the remains of the wicked city have been seen by boatmen. The charm of Manasbal chiefly consists in its deep clear water and its pink lilies, but it has behind it a grand mountain which forms an effective contrast to the gentle beauty of the lake. The waters of Manasbal flow out through a canal to the Jhelum river. The Srinagir people visit the lake in boats, but it does not possess the same importance in Kashmir as the Wular and the Dal lakes, which are rich in natural products. It has some hot springs which never freeze even in the coldest winters. The Dal lake, measuring about 4 miles by z\, lies close to Srinagar, and is perhaps one of the most beautiful spots in the world. The mountain ridges which are reflected in its waters, as in a mirror, are grand and varied, the trees and vegetation on the shores of the Dal being of exquisite beauty. It is difficult to say when the Dal is most beautiful. In the spring the fresh green tints of the trees and the mountain sides are refreshing to the eye, but it is perhaps in October that the colours of the lake are most charming. The willows change from green to silver grey and delicate russet, with a red tone on the stems and branches, casting colours on the clear water of the lake which contrast most beautifully with the rich olives and yellow greens of the floating masses of water weed. The chenirs are warm with crimson, and the poplars stand up like golden poles to the sky. On the mountain sides the trees are red and gold, and the scene is one of unequalled loveliness. Perhaps in the whole world there is no corner so pleasant as the Dal lake. If one looks at the mountains, the shapes and shadows are wonderful in their boldness ; citywards from the lake stands the famous hill, the Takht-i-Suliman to the left; and to the right the hill of Hari- Parbat, with its picturesque fort full of recollections of the grandeur of past times. Between these hills lies Srinagar, and away to the west are the snow- capped mountains of Kashmir. The water of the Dal is clear and soft as silk, and the people say that the shawls of Kashmir owe much of their excellence to being washed in the soft waters of the lake. Those who can afford to fetch a good drinking-water will go to Gagribal, the south-east quarter of the Dal, and will eschew in cholera times the polluted liquid of ' Dr. Buhler states that the Sanskrit name is ' UUola,' (the lake) with ' high going waves.' 22 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. the Jhelum. Nature has done much for the Dal, but the Mughal emperors ^ have in their time nobly exerted themselves to enhance the natural beauties of the lake, and though the terraced gardens of Jehangir and Shah Jehan, with the prim rows of cypress through which formal cascades tumble down to the edge of the Dal, may not please the European landscape gardener, the magnificent plane trees ^, which the great Mughals bequeathed to posterity, have added a distinctive charm to the lovely Dal lake, the lake par excellence of Kashmir. The park of plane trees known as the Nasim Bagh, the garden of breezes, which was planted in Akbar's time, is the most beautiful of all the pleasure places of the royal gardeners of old times, but wherever one looks the Dal lake has some new view of beauty, and nothing is perhaps more striking than the ruined Pari Mahal, standing grandly on a spur of the Zebanwan mountain, a memorial of the Mughal love for letters. The Pari Mahal or fairies' palace was built by Prince Dara Shikoh for his tutor Mulla Shah. Mulla Shah's tomb is at Mulshahi Bagh, near the entrance of the Sind valley. Strange tales are told of the Pari Mahal, of the wicked magician who spirited away kings' daughters in their sleep, how an Indian princess by the order of her father brought away a chenar leaf to indicate the abode of her seducer, and how all the outraged kings of India seized the magician. People say that the lake is silting up, and there can be no doubt that as years pass by the deposit of the Arrah river which feeds the Dal must result in the lake becoming even more shallow than it now is, as its only i-eal outlet is through the narrow gate, the Dal Darwaza at Drogjun, which lets out the lake water and prevents the inroad of the Jhelum floods. Unless great vigilance is shown the floating gardens of the lake will be extended, and the already narrow waterways to the Mughal gardens will become blocked to boat traffic. Springs. Kashmir is rich in springs, all associated with the quaint old snake- worship. The people recognize the springs of great sanctity by the fact that their water is cold in the summer and warm in the winter, and curious legends are told of intermittent fountains and of other hydraulic phenomena. The springs are useful auxiliaries to the mountain-streams in irrigation, and are sometimes the sole sources of water, as in the case of Achabal, Vernag and Kokarndg on the south, and Arpal in the east. Perhaps the most beautiful of all the springs is Achabal, which gushes out of the Sosanwar hill, and was at once enlisted by the emperor Jehangir in the service of beauty and pleasure. It is said that the Brang river which disappears at Dewalgam in the fissures of the limestone is the real • There is mention of plane trees in the Ain Akbari. ' Shaebeddempoor is situated on the Behut, whose banks are planted with plane trees. At this town the rivers of Behut and Sind unite their streams." Bernier, who visited Kashmir in 1664, does not notice the plane trees. DESCRIPTIVE. 23 source of the Achibal spriijg. Vernag on the road to Jammu is another Chap. II. spring of great importance and beauty, with deep blue water which also ~" — issues from the bottom of a high scarp of a mountain spur, and here again Jehangir built a pleasure garden and a summer house. Islamabad or Anantndg, 'the place of the countless springs,' sends out numerous streams. One of the springs, the Maliknag, is sulphurous and its water is highly prized for garden cultivation. All these springs are full of sacred fish, a kind of carp. The Kashmfris are judges ^ of water and will discriminate between the properties of the various springs, but all seem to give to Kokarndg ^ the first place as a source of drinking water, though Chashma Shahi above the Dal lake, from which the richer citizens of Srinagar procure their water, stands high in order of merit. One of the points which at once strikes a visitor to Kashmir is the Roads, absence of roads fit for wheeled carriage. In the flat country around the Wular lake, low trollies resting on wheels roughly fashioned from the round trunks of trees are used for carrying crops, but at the time when I write, there is no other wheeled carriage in Kashmfr. There are roads along which ponies and bullocks can pass in fair weather, but roads as understood in other countries do not exist. The main roads at present connect Srinagar with Islamabad, Vernag and Jammu via the Banihal pass (9,200 feet) with Shupiyon, Bhimber and Gujrdt in the Panjab via the Pir Panjal pass (i 1,400 feet) with Gandarbal at the mouth of the Sind valley, and Ladakh via the Zojila pass (11,300 feet) with Bandipura and Gilgit via the Rajdiangan (11,700 feet) and Burzil (13,500 feet) or Kamri (13,101 feet) passes and with Baramula, whence a cart road runs down the Jhelum valley to the Panjdb. In fair weather these roads, so far as the valley is concerned, are easy for the traveller, but heavy rains and snow render them difficult ; and the frail bridges over the side streams are often carried away by floods. There are no real difficulties in road-making in the valley, and when the cart-road now being constructed from Baramula to Srinagar is completed, it is hoped that other cart-roads will be made. They will prove of the greatest benefit not only to the villagers, but also to the people of Srinagar, who will be no longer at the mercy of the boatmen^ so clever in adulterating grain when it reaches the barges. Besides the main routes already mentioned, there are other tracks leading to the headquarters of tahsils, and each village is connected with its neighbour by a path which is intersected by irri- gation channels, and is wearisome and sometimes dangerous to equestrians. ' A people who drink nothing but water are naturally connoisseurs. They always consider the weight of the water as the point of chief importance. A heavy (hard) water suits some dispositions, a light (soft) others. ^ ' Here is another spring called Kokarnag, whose water satisfies both hunger and thirst, and it is also a remedy for indigestion ' (Ain Akbaii). The author of the Ain Akbari notices that touch- stone is found in Kokarnag. 24 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. Some of the roads and tracks are well shaded by trees, and the traveller — "*— can always find rest underneath the shady planes and walnuts, and delicious water from the innumerable springs. And at present he need not want for food as mulberries, apricots, apples, pears, and walnuts abound along the roads, and no one grudges them to the traveller. This will change as time goes on, and the Kashmfris will find that fruits have their value. Trees. The trees of Kashmir will be dealt with in another chapter, but here it may be said that the trees of the valley form one of its greatest charms. The delightful plane trees, the magnificent walnuts ; the endless willows, the poplars and the elms, the countless orchards of apples, pears, and apricots give the valley the appearance of a well-wooded park. There is a curious mixture of the East and West. The crops are eastern, but the rounded forms of the trees, the rivers and the streams with their banks of green turf, and willows recall the West, and the Lolab with its villages rich in fruit trees through which pass lanes shaded by elms and overshadowed by hills covered with the graceful Deodars, presents a scene which has nothing eastern in it. Climate. In many books remarks have been made regarding the climate of Kashmir, and as opinions on the subject seem to differ I have obtained from Mr. John Eliot, Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India, notes and data not only for Kashmir, but also for places surrounding the valley. So far meteorological observations are only made in Srinagar, which is in latitude 34° 5' north and longitude 74° 48' east, and lies about the centre of the valley. The south and south-west limits of the valley are separated from the plains of the Panjab by a wall of mountains ranging from 50 to 70 miles in breadth. The mountains on the west of the valley seem to catch the tail of the monsoon of India, but the valley itself is apparently beyond its full influence, and heavy rain in the hills on the Panjab side of the Himalayas does not necessarily connote rainfall in the Kashmir valley. In the Ain Akbari it is said, ' It rains and snows here at the same seasons as in Tartary and Persia, and during the periodical rains in Hindustan here also fall light showers.' In considering the data available for Srinagar it should be remembered that a day's journey from the capital will bring one into a wholly different climate, and I have known constant rains in the southern end of the valley while Srinagar and the northern part of Kashmir were parched with drought. The rains may be either partial or may be what the Kashmfris call alamgir or world -em bracing. When the clouds gather over the Konsandg lake on the south-west mountains and over the Wular lake on the north, the Kashmfri can predict 1 with some degree of certainty that there will ^ The Kashmiris are weather-wise, and do not, like the people of India, consider it presump- tuous to make prophecies regarding rain. They believe in our proverb— J Ol DESCRIPTIVE. 25 be a general rain over the galley, and 24 hours of rain will cause heavy Chap. ll. floods on the river. The fords of the mountain streams become impass- — " — able and the frail bridges are ; swept away. But happily rain of 34 hours' duration is a rare occurrence, and, as a rule, la hours' rain is followed by pleasant sunshine which soon dries up the soil. In the spring months showers are frequent, and when the summer heat becomes excessive in June a heavy thunderstorm . will cool the air for days, and in July and August the peasant expects showers every fortnight, though he sometimes expects them in vain. . Showers sometimes fall in the beginning of September, known .to the people as . kdmbarka, of great importance to the spring crops of the next year. : September, October, and November should be and usually are dry months, but in December the sky becomes overcast with clouds and haze, and by Christmas the snows set in. This may be said to be the normal year in Kashmir, but unfortunately the rains often behave in a very abnormal manner, being excessive in the spring and deficient in the summer, or vice versa. Thus in 1889 the spring rains were very heavy and protracted, followed by a drought in the summer months. The winter was clear and sunny, the snowfall being below the average. In 1890 the spring rains were moderate, the summer rains good, the chmate cool, and the winter snowfall, which commenced on Christmas Day, the heaviest that had been known for fifty years. In 1891 the spring rains were deficient, the summer rains badly dis- tributed and protracted, and the winter snowfall very deficient. In 1892 the spring rains failed, but the summer rain was in excess and saved the rice crop. The first- snow fell on December 1 7, the winter being one of unusual severity. In 1893 the spring rains were moderate, but the summer rains of unusual heaviness causing the disastrous floods. The old men of the valley declare that the climate is changing, and they are very positive that there are now no such winters as they remem- bered as boys. In Mahardjd Gulab Singh's time. the snow was up to a man's shoulders, in Mahardja Ranbir Singh's time, up to his knees, but now winters pass without any fall of snow. Nearly, every man who talks on the subject holds to this belief, and they all say that much less water comes into the valley than of yore. They point to villages which once grew rice, and to old canals which are now dry, and they maintain- that the mountain springs are decreasing and that the climate of Kashmir is becoming milder and more like thst of the Panjdb. The Hindus attribute 'Rpd in .the night the sKepherd^'s delight, , . . Red in th^ morning the shepherd's warning,' Obras hetun ndr, that is, the clouds have caught fire in the evening, is a sure prelude tq fine weather j Nihdau, which is red in the morning, presages rain. White clJuds are certain to bring heavy rain ; dark clouds mean no rain or light showers. E 26 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap, il the falling off in water and the diminished productiveness of the land to " the fact that we are living in the Kaliyug. I do not know how much truth there is in this, but the cold season of 1890-91, when the snow was four feet deep in the valley and the thermometer fell below zero, shows that King Winter does visit Kashmir still, and the intense cold of January and February, 1893, when it was possible to skate all over the Dal, will not be soon forgotten. Winter is a hard time for men and animals in Kashmir, and when wood and charcoal are dear the poorer citizens of Srinagdr are much to be pitied. After the winter the smell of the warm eager earth, which glows with sudden and beautiful colours, is very pleasant, and it is no wonder that the Kashmiris of the city hail the spring with joy, and flock to the almond-gardens and pay pilgrimages to the sweet lilacs. It is not mere love of beauty and colour that impels them, but a spirit of thanksgiving that the winter with its miseries of cold and its dreary monotony of white snow has passed, and that the earth has come to life again with all her bright flowers and promise of kindly fruits. Directly spring appears the days become warm and sunny, in June, July, and August if the rain keeps off the temperature rises to a considerable heat over 90° in the shade, and the climate of Srinagar in the last two months becomes muggy and unwholesome, and mosquitos swarm. As the temperature rises the valley is covered with a haze, said by the people to be dust from the plains of the Panjdb, which hides the mountains from view. The sun is bright, and seems as powerful just after sunrise and before sunset as it is at noon. The dryness of the air and the glare from the flooded fields make v/ork in the valley very trying to the eyes. In September the temperature begins to fall, the nights become cool, and by the end of September the evenings are almost cold. I have seen autumnal tints on walnut trees as early as August 25. October and November are bracing months with a bright, pleasant sun and cold nights, and October, which is so unhealthy in India, is perhaps the healthiest and most delightful of all montl;s in Kashmir. As in the case of rainfall, so in the case of temperature, a short ride will take one from heat unpleasant to Europeans to a perfect climate, and a journey of 30 miles from Srinagdr will enable a traveller to reach a height of over 8,coo feet where the mean temperature never rises above 60°. In severe winters the cold of Kashmir becomes very intense and the Jhelum river sometimes freezes, causing great distress to the people of Srinagar whose chief highway is thus blocked to traffic. But a greater calamity than this is the occurrence of the Kot Kushu, which seems to freeze the damp moisture of the air and destroys trees and even congeals eggs. Walled in by snows, with frozen lakes and freezing rivers, Kashmir in a hard winter is like a huge refrigerator. I append the notes and data which DESCRIPTIVE. 27 have been kindly supplied l^j^ Mr, John Eliot. The remarks on Murree Chap. II. and Leh are taken from Mr. Blandford's book on the Climate and '^^ — Weather of India. The remainder of the notes are written by Mr. Eliot, and are based on the observations made at Srinagdr during 189a and 1893. ' Murree. — This is the chief sanatorium of the Western as Simla is of the Eastern Panjdb. It is situated on the summit of the ridge that divides the Jhelum Valley from the Patwar (the tableland above fhe Salt range), and commands an extensive view of mountain and plain. The hills around are well wooded except in the direction of the plains. None of those in the vicinity of Murree are of much greater elevation than the station itself, which stands nearly 7,500 feet above the sea. The observatory, which was established on its present footing in 1875, is at the Lawrence Asylum, the military school, and fully 1,000 feet lower than the station, on the crest of a spur that runs down towards the plains, and has a somewhat higher mean temperature than the station itself, while it is screened from northerly winds by the main ridge. ' Being thus situated on the crest of one of the outermost spurs of the Himalayas, its climate, like that of other Himalayan sanatoria, is of a very different type from that of Leh and Quetta. Although drier than that of stations such as Mussooree and Naini Tal, similarly situated but further to the south-east, its atmosphere is much damper than that of the plains immediately below, and subject to smaller variations of temperature both annual and diurnal. The mean ternperature of the observatory is 56°, in January and February 39°, and in June 71°/ From this time it falls gradually to 65° in September, and then rapidly to the end of the year. The lowest temperature is generally reached in February, when the mean minimum reading is 34°. The lowest yet recorded, in 1886, is 16-7°. Owing to the comparative lightness of the summer rainfall, the temperature from June to September is higher than at the most easterly hill stations. Notwithstanding the elevation the shaded thermometer not unfrequently rises above 90° in June, and in 1880, a very dry year, registered as high as 987°. The diurnal range varies but little in the course of the year. It is rather smaller in the winter and in August, when it amounts to 14°, than at other times of the year, and is greatest in the driest months, viz. from April , to June, when, however, it does not much exceed 17°. These figures, it must be remarked, represent the conditions of the observatory only, and it is probable that the amounts would be found to differ considerably, with differences of position and aspect, in different parts of the station, but those general characters which distinguish the climate from those of other hill stations are doubtless shared by all parts of the site. ' I'rom June to November the air is much drier than that of Simla or any E 2 28 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. other hill station of the outer Himalayas, but in February it is apparently " damper, and in the remaining months of the winter and spring of about the same character. The humidity is highest in August, when it amounts to about 80 per cent, of saturation. In March the skies are as cloudy as during the rains. In the spring months, from March to May, it rains on an average about one day in three, most frequently in April. The rainfall on each rainy day averaging about one-fourteenth of an inch. Rain is less fre- quent in June, but increases again in July and August, when about half the days are more or less rainy and the falls heavier than in the spring, averaging three-quarters of an inch on each day of rain. The number of rainy days has varied from 74 only in the dry year 1880, to 123 in 1885, and the total quantity from 39-1 inches in the former to 71-8 inches in the latter year. ' October and November are the clearest months, but even these, and every month up to May, are more cloudy than at Simla or on the plains. On the other hand, in July and August there is less cloud than at Simla or other more easterly stations, as might be expected from the smaller frequency of rain. ' Leh. — Situated 4° further north than Quetta, and 6,000 feet higher, this station in the leading characteristics of its climate represents that of Western Tibet. Its observatory, 11,500 feet above the sea, is the most elevated in Asia, and has now furnished a register for twelve years. ' Leh, the chief town of the province of Laddkh, is situated in the upper valley of the Indus, which is here from six to eight miles across for a distance of forty or fifty miles, and shut in on both sides by portions of the Tibetan plateau, averaging 16,000 feet above sea-level, and bearing some of the loftiest ranges of the Himalayas. The flats and terraces along the banks of the river are all cultivated, and dotted with numerous villages, but for a mile on each side, between the fields and the foot of the hills, is a waste of sand, gravel, and large boulders, similar to that which fringes the much lower hill ranges of Baluchistan, but on a larger scale. The town of Leh nestles under the hills north of the valley, at a distance of some four miles from the river, up a long gentle, gravelly slope. ' The atmosphere of the valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and the heat of the sun very great. There is generally a difference of more than 60° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer in vacuo and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has occasionally exceeded 90°. It has been mentioned on a former page that Dr. Cayley succeeded in making water boil by simply exposing it to the sun in a small bottle blackened on the outside, and shielded from the air by inserting it in a larger phial of transparent glass. Owing to the diminished pressure of the atmosphere at the elevation of Leh, this would, however, take place DESCRIPTIVE. 29 at about 191° or 192°, or abqjit 30° below the normal boiling-point at the Chap. il. sea-level. — ** — ' The mean annual temperature of Leh is 40°, that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°; but it rises rapidly from Feb- ruary to July, in which month it reaches 6a°, with a mean diurnal maximum of 80°, both in that month and August, and an average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and afternoon. The mean highest tempera- ture of the year is 90°, varying between 84° and 93° in the last twelve years. On the other hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below 0° Fahrenheit, and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of recorded temperature is, therefore, not less than 1 ic°. ' The air is as dry as at Quetta, and rather more uniformly so. In the driest month (June) the mean humidity is but 37 per cent, of saturation, and in the dampest months (January and February) only 6 1 per cent. But the skies are more cloudy than these circumstances would lead one to expect, and in no month does the mean cloud-proportion fall much below four-tenths of the expanse. The amounts of rain and snow are, however, insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 27 inches in the year, and twice that amount is the greatest yet recorded in any one year (1879), while in one year (1876) it was less than half an inch. It snows most frequently in January and February, but the falls are very light in the valley and soon disappear. Rain is most frequent in July and August, but even then it occurs, on an average, only on one day in ten, between one and two-tenths of an inch being the average fall of each rainy day. Agri- culture is, therefore, almost entirely dependent on irrigation. ' The winds are generally light, and depend on the local direction of the valleys. At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the valley leading to the Khardong Pass, the most common directions are between south and west in the daytime and summer, and from north-east in the night, especially in the later months of the year. ' In January and February the air is generally calm, and April and May are the most windy months of the year. ' Srinagar is situated in the Kashmfr Valley, at an elevation of about 5,300 feet. The valley is enclosed on all sides by mountains rising to an elevation of 15,000 feet and upwards, and is hence completely shut in, so that it does not share in the general air circulation of the Panjab or Western Himalayan area. The winds are, in fact, chiefly from south and south-east, and appear to be mainly determined by the general direction of the river valley. The obseivatory was established in 1891, and hence the observations are too few in number to give more than the broad features of the climate of the Kashmfr Valley. The mean annual temperature is probably S^°. The 30 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIr. Chap. II. coldest months are January and February, when the mean temperature is '"' 36° or 37°. It increases until the months of July and August, when it is 73°, and then decreases rapidly to the end of the year. It is probably slightly cooler than Murree throughout the year, except in the months of July, August and September. As might be expected, the diurnal range of tem- perature is in clear weather much greater than at Murree. In the cloudy weather of January and February it averages 15°, and is nearly the same as at Murree. It then increases to an average of 25° in April, May and June, when it is 8° more than at Murree. It decreases slightly to an average of 31° during the next three months of July to September. In the clear months of October and November it rises to 32°, when the diurnal range is twice as great as at Murree, and nearly as great as on the plains of India. With the return of cloudy weather in December it falls to a mean of 19°. 'The air is much damper at Srinagar than at Murree. The mean pressure of aqueous vapour for the year is about -34", or 30 per cent, greater than at Murree. The mean humidity of the two years 1893-4 was 84°, whereas at Murree it was only 57°. The greater humidity of Srinagar is, of course, mainly due to its position in a closed-in valley on the shores of a large body of water. There is also more cloud at Srinagar than at Murree. The average cloud amount of the past two years at Srinagar is 4-6, whereas at Murree it is only 37. The climate by its humidity and greater cloud hence approaches more nearly to that of England than Murree. The most remarkable feature at Srinagar is the calmness of the air. Thus out of 731 observations of wind taken at Srinagar at 8 a.m. during the years 1893-4, 345 are recorded as calms, out of the remaining 386 observations 198 were from south or south-east directions, and eighty-one from the opposite or north or north-west direction. ' In the Western Himalayan mountain area the precipitation is chiefly received during two periods, and under very different conditions. The chief periods are the cold weather period from December to March or April, and the south-west Monsoon period from July to September. During the intervening period, April to June, thundershowers are of occasional occurrence, and give what might be termed hot weather rain- fall ; but it is of comparatively little importance. The cold weather rainfall is chiefly due to storms of a somewhat peculiar character, their chief feature being that the precipitation increases with elevation up to 20,000 feet at least, and probably higher. On the other hand, the south-west Monsoon rainfall is heaviest at the foot of the Kashmfr hills facing the Panjib, and decreases with elevation, and also in proceeding into the interior, and is of little importance in Ladakh, Gilgit, &c. Hence, although DESCRIPTIVE. 31 all parts of Kashmfr receive rainfall during each of these two periods, the Chap. II. south-west Monsoon is the predominant feature in Jammu and Kishtwar, — '^ — whilst in Ladakh, Gilgit, and the higher ranges the cold weather pre- cipitation is the heaviest and most important. It occurs chiefly as snow in the Kashmfr Valley and mountains, and on the higher ranges as much as forty to sixty feet of snow falls in a severe winter season. In the intermediate regions of the Kashmfr Valley the rainfall is fairly distributed throughout the whole year. ' In Jammu the chief rainfall is the summer rainfall. In Kishtwar it is also probably the chief period, but the fall is more equally divided than in Jammu. ' In the Indus Valley the rainfall is always very small at Leh, but appears to increase in descending the valley, as the average rainfall at Iskardo (as far as is indicated by two years' data) is four times as much as at Leh. The rainfall at Leh and Iskardo in the Upper Indus Valley occurs almost solely during the cold weather, which there extends from December to April or May, and as a rule little or no rain falls in the period June to December. The rainfall at Gilgit is similar to that of Leh in amount, but, so far as can be judged, it is remarkable for the non-occurrence of rain in the cold weather, and its chief rain is due to scattered showers from April to September. The neighbouring mountains have frequent snow in the cold weather, and the melting of these snows probably enables cultivation to be carried on. At Srinagar the rainfall appears to be divided over the whole year. It has a good winter rainfall from December to March, light to moderate rain, probably from thunder- storms, in May and June, and occasional rain during the height of the Monsoon from July to the middle of September.' 32 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. The following data will give some idea of the climates of the countries *^ by which the valley is surrounded, and show all that is known accurately about Srinagar itself. * ■^ M rO *— . ►H -^J->0 C c: i O wi 1—, 1 c^ ^ U3 t^ ctl S W CO ^ CO i-^ a, O N CO a\ S c* c» ■i? 00 "H- 0\ CO fa O uj c ITi -^J- rt •-1 O cf )-<* l-l C* CO J? a\a\0\ K*' 00 CO CO > * P>-. r- lO ^^ ■-^ - lOOO lO M g 00 in^H w s; \o "^ CO 00 ,^ 6 o6 CO ci ^ CO « ceo o - i \0 U5 i3 c-- M rO fa O 0\ ■^ CI c 1— > in HH o- 6 CO ■^CO l-l CI CO o^ a\ ov OC 00 CO M M W S *>• «i ^ -^ g: -^ o ^^ Th\o .t^ *n i-10u3S DESCRIPTirE. 33 Pi < O <; CO v ^ o\« „ '^C >. ^ s s . -a ffi i4 N (S s o"00 -(f >< \o . r>. . •c a, m !>. < J>. NO 1 ON eo •s N in PIH O rO »0 rO d N CO Jl ^ ^ t-.' 0\0n On > 00 00 00 * p ^ 00 N o o ■-•-1 .oo VO s Iz; <: p< o tl^+j o uj ^^'^ q£ (U HI >— o kJ 'O ON '«h N >H ■^ Tt- si NO t^ Th fi t^OO 00 W O M >■ 1 U-. CO rt «5 « M o 00 Tt- l-H ■•^ rO CO J fr CO l^ ^v6 CO lO *r; s= NO i^ < \o «5 >, CO r^ PO o\ VO lO c »r:NO ■i-NO t^ UJNO IS «) ON HI M «5 US -J a < -^ -^ is ONOO ONrO CO rO 00 « fe a I>. -^ Chap. II. O !;>■ CO t^ JJ-,*' O N N o ^pH CO lONO «3 o o d^-*j O OJ 34 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIr. Chap. II. Health. For people who can travel the valley offers a climate perhaps unsur- passed by that of any country, but in July and August, Srinagar, surrounded as it is by swamps, is apt to prove unhealthy and depressing. Speaking generally the valley may be said to be fairly free from disease. Malarial fever, liver complaints, consumption and dysentery are rare, and typhoid fever is said to be unknown. But certain diseases are unfortu- nately very common. In October and throughout the winter small-pox is very prevalent and causes great mortality among children. Vaccination has not yet been introduced, and in the winter of 1892 the ravages of small-pox among the children of the valley and the city probably caused greater mortality than the cholera epidemic of the same year ^. Goitre is frequent and is especially common in villages where drinking-water comes from limestone or magnesian limestone rocks. In one group of villages in the Cherat tahsfl, known as the Gadaru or goitre circle, nearly all the peasants are afflicted with this disease. Among the cultivators who work stooping in the cold water on the rice-fields lumbago is a very common complaint, and coughs are very prevalent. The Kashmiri is much given to clearing his throat by spitting, and he is evidently a man of a delicate throat for he will not eat ' ghi,' the butter of India, and he considers the use of tea and of snuff as essential for clearing his head and throat. Scald head is a very frequent and unpleasant complaint among the Musalmdns ; and the children seem to suffer from ophthalmia. But the great scourge of Kashmir is the cholera, for when once this terrible epidemic enters the valley the mortality is very heavy. The epidemic finds a congenial soil in the alluvial parts of the valley, but its nursery is the filthy city of Srinagar, a sad and striking illustration of the saying that 'God made the country and man made the town.' Cholera has visited the valley ten times since 1834, but probably the worst epidemic within the memory of man occurred in the summer of 1892 when, according to the report of the Chief Medical Oflficer of Kashmir, 11,712 persons died in the city and in the valley. The panic was so great and the registration of deaths so imperfect, that it is quite possible this figure does not represent the total mortality ; my own impression is that the mortality in the villages, which is given as 5,931, was far greater, and that not less than 18,000 people died of cholera in 1892 in the whole valley. I was in camp in the villages during the cholera, and have never seen anything so awful as the helplessness and despair of the people. All work was suspended, and silent groups of villagers would sit all day long in the graveyards. They mistrusted all remedies, but seemed to believe in the eflScacy of sour green grapes, and in blood-letting by the village The State has now taken np the question of vaccination, and an excellent beginning was made at the end of 1893. Marked progress was made in 1894. DESCRIPTIVE. 35 barber. Much has been written by experts on the subject of cholera in Chap. Ii. Srinagar, and all are agreed that something should be done^. But it — *♦— should be remembered that the towns of Kashmir and the larger villages equally call for sanitary reform. Before concluding this very inadequate description of the valley it is necessary to attempt some account of the great city known to most as Srinagar^, the city of the sun or the blessed city, also known to the cultivators of the valley as ' Kashmir.' Srinagar became the capital of Kashmir about A.D. 960. Considering its unhealthy surroundings of lakes and swamps and its low lying position, it is a matter for regret that some higher and more healthy site was not chosen. The city consists of 32,448 houses crowded together in utter confusion on either side of the Jhelum river, which winds through Srinagar with an average width of eighty yards. These houses occupy a length of about three miles and a breadth of about one-and-a-half miles on either side of the river, but the greater part of the city lies on the right bank. The houses vary in size from the large and spacious burnt-brick palaces of the Pandit aristocrat and his 500 retainers, warmed in the winter by kammdms, to the doll house of three stories, and three rooms of wood and sun-dried bricks, where the poor shawl-weaver lives his squalid cramped life and shivers in the frosty weather. Frail as most of the houses seem with their walls of single bricks held together in wooden frames, their very frailness is perhaps a protection against earthquake, but their wooden walls and their thatched roofs make them an easy victim to the fires which sweep at steady intervals through the city. After a conflagration the houses are built up again in the same confused jumble and with the same want of plan and arrangement. In these 32,448 houses, 118,960 persons eat and sleep and die. Writing on the cholera epidemic of 1892, the Chief Medical Officer of Kashmir, a Bengali gentleman, who has worked for many years in the city, makes the following remarks on its insanitary condition, and I can vouch from personal observation that the description is in no way exaggerated : — 'The Kashmiris are notoriously filthy and negligent of personal cleanliness. Within an area of six square miles live a population of ' Sinde this was written the work of sanitary improvements in Srinagar has commenced. Much bppositlon was shown at first, but thanks to the energy and tact shown by those in charge of the work, this opposition is diminishing, and the people who live near the new road on the right bank of the city, most clamorous at first, are now congratulating themselves on the transformation wrought ip their lives. An excellent street, airy and well drained, has replaced the filthy tortuous kennel ■\yhich fprraerly existed. Surgeon-Colonel Harvey, who visited Srinagar duiing the epidemic of cholera in 1892, writes, ' It is not too much to say that the inhabitants eat filth, drink filth, breathe filth, sleep on it, and are steeped in it and surrounded by it on every side.' ^ Kashmiris pronounce Srinagar with palatal S = Sh. F 2 36 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. 118,960 in houses low and dirty, built irregularly and without any — " — method, on narrow tortuous paths. Ventilation in the town is therefore very imperfect. Few houses have latrines, and small lanes and alleys are used as such. Two hundred sweepers are now engaged by the municipality, but the number is too microscopic compared with the requirements of such a vast population. There is no drainage. Slush, filth and ordure are washed by storm-water into the river and the Nalla Mar which supply the city with drinking-water. On account of absence of snow in winter and rain in spring, the river was dry and low and the bed of the Nalla Mir canal was converted into a string of cesspools. People were immersed in a polluted atmosphere caused by the products of putrefactive and fermentable matter accumulated in houses and numerous narrow lanes, passages, nooks, and crevices which intersect the town. This produced an epidemic constitution in the people fitted for the reception and fostering of cholera-germs.' This is the city of the sun exposed with the scalpel of the Sanitary Officer, but when the river runs high between the raised banks formed by a Musalman king from the stone sculptures and plinths of Hindu temples, when the seven wood bridges which knit the city into one almost touch the water, and the earth-roofs of the houses are covered with green herbage and flowers, Srinagar in spite of its internal squalor is one of the most picturesque places in the world. The hill of Takht-i- Suliman, which rises abruptly to a height of i,coo feet, and the Hari- Parbat ridge with the fort of Akbar surmounting it, form an appropriate frame to the scenery, and beyond these near hills the great mountains seem to tower over the city as one passes up the river highway. The very absence of order in the location of houses and their tumbled-down appearance add a peculiar charm to the scenery, and Srinagar possesses at once the attraction of a city full of life and of a city of ruins. The fashionable sites for houses are the banks of the river and the Nalla Mar, the snake canal. This is the most important of the many canals which intersect the city. It connects Srinagar with the Anchar lake and the Sind valley. Its curious stone bridges and shady waterway are most picturesque, but the canal is choked with filth, and the dreadful odours make one oblivious of the beauties of the Nalla Mir. From the riverside windows the city people can see life — busy, picturesque, and various. Boats of all sizes are to be seen, from the great grain barges which lie moored to the ghdts to the little shell in which the Dal lake cultivator paddles his vegetables and lake-produce to market, and up and down the river paddled with many strong arms go the dungas of officials, merchants and travellers. Perhaps the daily boat up to DESCRIPTIVE. 37 Islamabad or down to Baramula is at last starting, if sufficient passengers Chap. II. have taken seats, the boat is low down in the water and each man is — *^ — sitting in his neighbour's lap ; or a pleasure party is starting to Minasbal, or a pilgrim boat is setting off for some shrine. The topsey-turvey bathing-boxes are full of people leisurely bathing, chattering, and gesticulating. In the winter the scene changes, the river narrows and falls, the lattice windows are covered with paper, and no one stirs out on the river except on urgent business. High up the river, below the first bridge, ' Amiran Kadal,' stands on the left bank the Sher Garhi, where the palaces of His Highness the Maharaja and the offices of the Government are situated. The picturesque palace which stands next to the golden temple was built by Mahdraja Ranbir Singh, and is a reminiscence of the Dogra country. New palaces of another style are springing up, and before long the Sher Garhi will be a mass of large buildings. Across the river is the finest ghdt in Srinagar, the Basant Bagh, with grand stone steps pillaged from the mosque of Hassanabad. In the old days a rope was stretched from Basant Bagh to the palace and petitions were hauled up from the river to Maharaja Gulab Singh's hall of audience. Hindu temples glistening like silver are dotted along the banks, and below the third bridge, the Fatteh Kadal, on the right bank, is the beautiful wooden mosque of Shah Hamdan. Beneath it on the river is a large bathing-house, where the Musalmans perform their ablutions before they go to their prayers. Nearly opposite is a grand stone mosque which rigid Musalmans rejected because they despised its foundress, and the Patr Masjid is now the chief of the State granaries. Below the fourth bridge, the Zaina Kadal, is the tomb of Kashmir's great king, Zain-ul-abadin, and on the right bank is the Mahdraj Ganj, where the art wares of the city are exposed for sale. Below the sixth bridge, the Nawa Kadal, is the temple built by the well-known and respected Pandit Ramju, and last of all comes the Safr Kadal or bridge of departure. These bridges are cheap, effective, and picturesque, and their construction ingenious. Old boats filled with stones were sunk at the sites chosen for pier foundations. Piles were then driven and more boats sunk. When a height above the low-water level was reached wooden trestles of deodar were constructed by placing rough-hewn logs at right angles. As the structure approached the requisite elevation to admit of chakwaris (house-boats) passing beneath, the deoddr logs were cantilevered. This reduced the span, and huge trees were made to serve as girders to support the roadway. The foundations of loose stones and piles have been protected on the up-stream by planking, and a rough but effective cut-water made. The secret of the stability of these old bridges may perhaps be attributed to the skeleton piers 38 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. II. offering little or no resistance to the large volume of water brought down " at flood-time. It is true that the heavy floods of 1893 swept away six out of the seven city bridges, and that the cumbrous piers tend to narrow the waterway, but it should be remembered that the old bridges had weathered many a serious flood. Not long ago two of the bridges, the Habba Kadal and the Zaina Kadal, had rows of shops on them, reminding one of old London, but these have now been cleared away. At close intervals the river is approached by ruined steps ; up and down these the people pass to bathe, to wash their clothes, and to fetch drinking-water. The ghats are known as Ydrabal, ' the meeting-place of friends.' In the summer, when the vines and other trees are in full leaf, climbing over trellis and falling down the sculptured stones which line the river bank, when the people are splashing about in the water, the highway of the city is a very pretty and lively scene, but its chief beauty is derived from the peeps of the hills and the snow mountains which are caught between the narrow winding alleys running from the river banks. East and south of the city run magnificent poplar avenues, but the oldest and finest was planted by the Ata Mahomad Khan, one of the Pathan governors, and leads almost to the foot of the Takht- i-Suliman. It is showing signs of decay, and the people are hurrying on the work of destruction by barking the old poplars. A longer but more recent poplar avenue, planted by Wazir Punnu in 1864, runs for about seven miles along the Shupiyon road. There is also a fine avenue leading from the Sher Garhi to the bridge over the Dudganga river. Between the Takht-i-Suliman and the right bank of the river lies the Munshi Bagh, an orchard planted many years ago by Munshi Tilok Chand, and it is there that the European community chiefly lives. West of the Munshi Bagh is the Residency, and further west still are the Post Oiifice and the provision shops for the supply of Europeans. On the left bank of the river are gardens of the Rajas ; between them and the Amiran Kadal lie the Lai Mandi and the State Hospital. The Lai Mandi is a fine building used for State banquets and other public purposes. Across the Amiran Kadal, in an angle formed by the poplar avenues which run to the Dudganga river, and along the Shupiyon road, is the cantonment of the Kashmir troops, and across the Dudganga river lies the great parade ground. Scattered about within the limits of Srinagar there are numerous gardens and open spaces, and at survey we measured 1,634 acres of orchards and cultivated land, most of which is under tobacco and garden crops. In this short account of Srinagar I have for want of space had to discard much that is of interest to the historian or archaeologist, but Srinagar has been so well and minutely described that it becomes unnecessary to give the numerous interesting DESCRIPTIVE. 39 details of the canals, temples,#ind mosques which all deserve mention. Chap. II. I shall attempt in other chapters to discuss the occupations of the city — *^ — people and their condition. It must, however, be borne in mind that the name Kashmir given by the villagers to the city carries with it a deep meaning, that for many generations Srinagar has monopolized the attention of the rulers of Kashmir, and that the interest of the cultivators and the country have been jealously subserved to the well- being and comfort of the city. In short, Srinagar was 'Kashmir' in fact as well as in phrase. CHAPTER III. GEOLOGICAL. Chap. in. THE geological facts of the Kashmir valley have been recorded in " a memoir^ written by Richard Lydekker. His treatise represents the labour of seven long seasons spent in Kashmfr and the neighbouring regions, while to his own personal knowledge, Mr. Lydekker has added the observations of many other geologists who have visited the valley. Mr. Lydekker's great work deals with an enormous mountain country of about 68,000 square miles, of which the valley of Kashmfr forms a small, but from a geological point of view, not an unimportant part. For the purpose of easy reference I shall in this chapter give the more important extracts, from Mr. Lydekker's memoir, which refer to the valley of Kashmir. Physical Features. Lakes. The lakes or tarns, which occur in the mountains surrounding the valley, mostly lie in what are generally considered to be true rock basins, but it is difficult to say whether the lakes in the valley itself are real rock basins. The depth of Mdnasbal suggests that its bottom is below the level of the rock gorge at Baramiila, but Lydekker shows that the real rock entrance to the Kashmir valley is blocked by alluvium, so that the level of its base is unknown, and therefore the rock basin theory cannot be proved in the case of Manasbal. As regards the other lakes of the valley they are so covered by alluvium that no conclusion can be drawn as to the nature of their basins. Caverns. Mr. Lydekker only notices the well-known caverns near Bawan in the Liddar valley. One of these has its opening about forty feet above the ground and may be traversed for a length of about aio feet, but seems to extend farther. The entrance to the second is nearly 100 feet above the ground, and the cavern itself is about 48 feet in length. A thick coat of stalagmite forms the floor of these caverns. ' The Geology of the Kashmir and Chamba Territories and the British District of Khdgdn, by Richard Lydekker, B.A. (Cantab.), F.G.S., F.Z.S. ; late Geological Survey of India. Extracts are given in inverted commas. GEOLOGICAL. 41 Mr. Lydekker gives facts wl^jph show that the glaciers of the Kashmir Chap. in. Himalaya were formerly of vastly greater proportions than they are at — " — present, although the existing ones include the second largest in the world, "^l^^s-t'™- He points out that glaciers existed at levels and in districts where there are none at the present day. Mr. Drew thought that a very fine impal- pable buff sand occurring among the alluvial deposits (karewa) was glacier mud, and Prof Leith Adams considered some of the gravels at Baramiila to be of glacial origin, which would point to the existence of glaciers in the valley at a level of 5,000 feet, but Mr. Lydekker is doubtful. He says : — ' Leaving these more or less doubtful instances, cases may now be noticed where there is no question of the validity of the evidence. On the Pir-Panjal range Mr. Drew has recorded that at heights where mountain tarns are nurnerous there are abundant and unequivocal signs of former glaciation ; both in the form of rock-groovings and polishings, moraines, and scratched stones. On the Kashmfr side of the range the numerous small valleys running parallel with the .strike of the rocks, and known by the local name of Margs, are generally surrounded by rounded masses of detrital matter, which, in the opinion of the present writer, are unquestion- ably of glacial origin. These moraines are well exhibited at the summer station of Gulmarg, and extend downwards to an elevation of about 7,000 feet.- In the Sind valley, on the north side of the Kashmir valley, Mr. Drew has observed a well marked roche moutonn^e near the village of Kulan, at an elevation of about 6,500 feet above the sea level, or 1,500 feet above Srinagar. Other similar traces of extinct glaciers have been observed near the same place ; while higher up the Sind valley, at and in the neighbourhood of the summer station of Sondmarg, at an elevation of some 9,000 feet there are undulating valleys which are entirely made up of old moraines. Small glaciers are now found at Sonamarg at a level of some a,ooo feet above these old moraines.' In connexion with glaciation the sacred cave of Amar Ndth is described, although this cave and its form need not necessarily be attributed to glaciation. 'This cave, which is situated at an elevation of some 16,000 feet, is a large hemispherical hollow in the side of a cliff of white mesozoic dolomite. At the back of the cave there issue from the rock several frozen springs, the ice from which juts forth in spirals which subsequently reunite and form a solid dome-shaped mass of ice at the foot of the back wall of the cave : the size of this mass of ice, which is esteemed sacred by the Hindus, varies according to the season. G 42 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. ' In palaeozoic and again in eocene times, as will be fully shown in the -^ — sequel, there is abundant evidence that igneous, or volcanic agencies were Tneousaction actively at work in the Kashmir Himalaya, as is proved by the outpouring '^ ^* of vast quantities of volcanic rocks. Remains of volcanoes themselves have not, however, been hitherto detected among any of the volcanic rocks ; and none of the latter are known to have been erupted since the eocene period. The persistence of subterraneous thermal action is, however, indicated by the prevalence of numerous thermal springs ^ some of which are of relatively large size, and show evidence of having formerly been still larger." I may add that there are sulphurous springs in the valley, and that the Kashmiris claim that all the real Nags or springs possess the charac- teristics of the Thed spring, and ai-e hot in winter and cold in summer. The phenomenon noticed by the late Dr. Hugh Falconer, and quoted by Lydekker, occurred I imagine at Soiyam in the north-west of the valley : — 'A very remarkable manifestation of some form of igneous, or volcanic action is briefly recorded by the late Dr. Hugh Falconer. He states : " I have met with a most remarkable volcanic tract in Kashmfr, and so far as my reading goes, without example elsewhere, a tract of alluvium with the strata elevated at a slight angle, and torrefied up to the surface to the condition of a well-burnt brick ; but there is no outpouring of lava, and the tract is very circumscribed. Thirty-three years ago [this passage was written in 1837, which would make the date referred to 1804] the ground was so hot that the Hindus of Kashmir, simply by digging a few inches, were enabled to boil rice by the heat of the under strata. There must have been a layer of incandescent matter underneath ; but strange, is it not, that it nowhere reached the surface?" From the mention of the inclined alluvial strata in this passage, it is evident that the locality alluded to must be somewhere along the fringe of the Pi'r-Panjal range^ although the present writer has not been able to identify the precise spot. There can be no question that, as stated by Dr. Falconer, the phenomenon was due to subterranean volcanic action.' Soiyam is a tract of land situated in the village of Nichhama, Machipura. The soil became heated in 1875, and for thirteen months the heat was so great that the Hindus who flocked to see the miracle were enabled to cook their food over the burning ground. The soil ' Thed. A spring hot in winter and cold in summer, situated at the village of Thed on the Dal lake. IVian. At Wean, south-east of Srinagar and north of Pampur, there are three sulphurous springs with a high temperature issuing from the limestone rocks; they are caXXeA phiik ndg. Islimdbad. Two sulphurous springs issue from the limestone rock at the back of the town. GEOLOGICAL. 43 has been burnt to a hard red lyick, in which are perfect impressions of Chap. III. leaves. Some thirty-six years before 1875 the soil became hot, but the — ^ — phenomenon only lasted for two months. The people believe that the occurrence is a Karan, that is, an abnormal display of the powers of nature manifested at certain fixed periods. And they are quite certain that Soiyam will again boil up in the year 191 1. Dr. W. King, the Director of the Geological Survey of India, who has kindly read through my notes, remarks with reference to Dr. Hugh Falconer's observations : — ' It must not be forgotten, however, particularly as the locality is doubtful, that there are reported instances in the Kashmfr region of hidden seams of tertiary coal having taken fire and produced the burnt appearance of outcrop described above. The case quoted answers very well to such a phenomenon.' Mr. Lydekker, writing in 1883, alludes to the present rarity of earth- quakes, which pointed to the conclusion that subterraneous igneous action was slowly dying out. Two years later one of the most violent earth- quakes, ever experienced in Kashmfr shook the valley, destroying countless houses and cattle, and killing some 3,000 people. Since \ 885 hardly a year has passed without distinct shocks of earthquakes, so it is possible that subterraneous igneous action is either not dying out or else the fact of any necessary direct connexion between earthquake's and igneous action is questionable. Again, if the natives of Kashmfr are to be believed there are numerous thermal springs besides those mentioned. The position of the meizoseismal and first isoseismal areas of the earth- quake of 1885 is of interest. The isoseismal area was an ellipse with Srinagar as its eastern and Baramdla as its western focus, and the fact that the subterraneous force was extremely violent at Barimula would seem to confirm the view that the desiccation of the valley was caused by an earthquake which created an outlet for the lake waters through the Baramtila gorge. The earthquake of 1885 was accompanied by loud noises. Large fissures were formed, from which water and fine sand smelling strongly of sulphur were thrown out. Many irrigation springs disappeared and a large landslip occurred to the south of Baramula. This landslip, which took place on sloping ground at Larridura, about 1,500 feet above the level of the Wular lake, has left behind it a hardened clay in which I have found many perfect specimens of Singhdra nut. This would indicate, perhaps, that in former times the waters of the lake of Kashmfr rested over Larridura, and suggests that the climate of the country was G 2 44 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Geological fonnations. Alluvial system. Chap. III. milder than it now is, as I doubt whether Singhara nuts could be grown — **— at the present elevation of Larridura. Among the many interesting geological facts connected with the Kashmir valley none are of greater interest than those which support, or refute, the tradition that Kashmir was once covered by the waters of a vast lake. Mr. Lydekker has discussed this question in his memoir, and as the system within which it falls stands first in his table ^ of geological formations, I quote extracts from the chapter on the alluvial system or prehistoric and pleistocene rocks. 'It may be observed in the first place that the Kashmir valley is distinctly basin-shaped, and that it has a length of about eighty-four, and a width varying from twenty to twenty-five miles. The lowest point in the valley has an elevation of 5,200 feet, and the mean elevation is 6,000 feet above the sea. The lowest (Banihal) pass in the Pi'r-Panjal range, forming its outer boundary, is 3,000 feet above the level of the valley. ' In its course the river Jhelum, below the town of Islamdbdd, flows through a plain of low level recent alluvium : the width of this plain varies from two to fifteen miles. It appears level to the eye, having in the first thirty miles a fall of 165 feet, but only fifty-five feet in the lower four-and-twenty miles. There is no doubt but that this alluvium has been formed by the river in flood, and its formation may still be locally observed, though the operations of natural agencies have been greatly impeded by artificial embankments. ' It is chiefly composed of loam and clay, and it would be difficult to distinguish it from the deposits now forming in the lakes of the valley, though the latter may be more distinctly stratified. There is no evidence ' The following table of geological systems, in descending order, is given by Mr. Lydekker for the whole of the Kashmir territory ; — Kashmir territory. Alluvial system Tertiary system ' Siwalik series Low level alluvia, &c. .... I High level alluvia, glacial, lacustrine, and Karewa series ! outer ...... inner ( Murree group ..... Sirmiir series < Subathii group . Indus tertiaries f Chikkim series . Zanskar system \ Supra-Kuling series . ( Kuling series Panjal system (not generally subdivided) Metamorphic ( Metamorphosed Panjals, &c. system ( Central gneiss .... European equivalents. Prehistoric Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene Eocene Cretaceous Jura and Trias Carboniferous [ Silurian I Cambrian Palaeozoic and Archaean GEOLOGICAL. 45 to show that any change of levgl has taken place since the deposition of Chap. in. this alluvium, which contains in many cases pottery and other works of — " — art, of a comparatively modern date. ' On the borders of this great plain of recent alluvium, or forming islands within it, there occur extensive elevated plateaus of alluvial or lacustrine material, which occupy a great portion of the valley, and to which the local name Karhvd is applied, a name which has been generally adopted for the deposits. From their elevated position these karewas cannot generally be brought under irrigation, and are, therefore, in summer easily distinguished from the plain of the river alluvium, which in most part is densely covered with rice crops. In the central parts of the valley the karewas consist chiefly of loam, or loamy clay, with but faint indications of stratification and with level surfaces. ' They are divided from each other, sometimes cut into stripes, so to say, by ravines of from 100 to 300 feet in depth ; occasionally they are surrounded altogether by lower ground, but more generally they connect on to some of the mountains that bound the valley. Karewas, and their dividing ravines, occupy a width varying from eight to sixteen miles, along the south-western side of the valley, for a length of about fifty miles, from near Shupiyon to the river flat between Sopur and Bardmiila. Beyond Sopur again, the north-western end of the valley is mostly kar^wa ground. Lastly, on the north-east side of the valley across the river, on its right bank, are spaces of karewas ; in some cases these are in recesses made by retiring hills, in others they project out from spurs. The karewas adjoining the mountains have their surfaces inclined from the latter with decreasing slopes. On the south-eastern side of the valley, the karewas reach upwards to an elevation of about 6,500 feet, or 1,300 feet above the lowest part of the plain of the river alluvium. 'The flat-topped karewas always consist of horizontal beds, and in the neighbourhood of Islamabad attain a thickness of 300 feet. A charac- teristic section of a portion of a kardwa near that town is given by Mr. Drew, and is as follows, viz. : — Feet. Rather coarse drab or brown sand, with some small pebbles . 20 Fine soft brown sand 3 Hard, very fine grained, sand 15 Blue sandy clay 5 Fine soft sand ■ • -5 Coarse sand like the uppermost bed 2 'The coarse sand is occasionally hardened to stone; and in some places there occurs a fine impalpable buff sand, which Mr. Drew thinks may have been formed by the grinding action of glaciers on silicious rocks. 46 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. 'The sloping kar^was are best studied along the flanks of the Pi'r- — *• — Panjal range, where they form a continuous series reaching from Shalura in the north-west to below Shupiyon in the south-east. In the neigh- bourhood of Baramiila these beds are composed of yellowish clays, sands, gravels, and conglomerates with an average dip of io° to the north-east; the pebbles in the conglomerates seldom exceed three or four inches in diameter, and consist of the rocks of the old formations of the Pi'r-Panjal : the dip varies from 5° to 20°, and to the south-east stiff blue clays are frequently intercalated among the yellow beds. Colonel Godwin- Austin ^ estimates the thickness of these beds at upwards of 1,400 feet, and has obtained from them many species of land and fresh-water shells all apparently of living forms, together with plant remains and minute fish scales. Old land surfaces are indicated by anthracitic and lignitic layers of from one to three inches in thickness. In a later memoir^ the same author terms these tilted beds the Hirpur series, from a village of that name near Shupiyon, on the Pir-Panjal road ; this name will not, however, be adopted here. To the south-east of Baramiila, almost as far as Shupiyon the lowest beds of these deposits consist of the above-mentioned stiff blue clays, but the conglomerates reappear at Hirpur. ' A section across the strike of these beds, towards the centre of the valleys, such as may be seen along the road from the summer station of Gulmarg to the capital, shows that as the distance from the Pfr-Panjal increases, the dip of the beds gradually lessens until it is scarcely perceptible : at the same time the blue clays and conglomerates disappear and give place to the brown loamy clays and sands of the flat-topped kar^was of the centre of the valley. There does not seem to be the least sign of unconformity between any of the beds of the series, although false bedding is frequent, and there would seem to be no doubt but that they all belong to one continuous formation, the lower beds of which are tilted and either conglomeritic or clayey, while the higher beds are undisturbed and clayey or sandy. The lower tilted beds may be called the " lower karewas," and the undisturbed the " upper karewds." 'Reverting once again to the upper karewas in the neighbourhood of Islamabad, Mr. Drew observes that " behind the town, below the level of most of the beds we have been looking at [the upper kar^wd-s], there are beds of conglomerate of rounded pebbles of the [mesozoic] limestone, of all sizes, and upon these is an accumulation of large angular blocks. These beds He sloping on the sloping face of rock, their angle with the horizon varies from f to 15°, there is sand and calcareous mud mixed up with the limestone pebbles." The relation of these beds to the upper karewas is not apparent. ' Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc, vol. xx. p. 383. 2 ^^{^ Assoc. Ref., loc. cit. GEOLOGICAL. 47 ' At the mouth of the Si^ valley, on the north-eastern side of Chap. III. Kashmir, there are thick deposits of conglomerate, sand, and gravel, with — *^ — a slight inclination towards the centre of the valley of Kashmir, but whose relations to the upper kar^was are likewise not apparent. ' From the similarity of the conglomerates of Islamabad and the Sind valley to those of the Pi'r-Panjdl it would seem highly probable that these also belong to the lower karewa group. ' Before considering the manner in which these deposits were formed, two points in connexion with them must be noticed. In the first place it appears that the great development of the conglomerates exists on the present lines of drainage ; thus they are in great force at Hirpur, on the stream flowing from the Pi'r-Panjal pass; again at Baramula, on the Jhelum, where it flows out of the valley at the mouth of the Sind river, and at Islamabad on the Liddar. Minor developments occur on the smaller Panjal streams, as below Gulmarg. It would therefore seem pretty certain that the conglomerates are, at all events in part, stream deposits. 'The second point is the lower boundary of the valley of Kashmir. At the present time the Jhelum makes its exit from the valley through a narrow rocky gorge a short distance below the fort of Baramula. This, however, does not appear to have been the original exit from the valley, since to the left (south-east) of the present gorge there is first a hill of slate and then a long high ridge of tilted lower karewa deposits, over which the road passes, which blocks another gap and forms the present boundary of the valley. The bottom of these deposits is not seen, but it is probable that if they were removed the rocky bottom would be lower than the present gorge of the Jhelum. The open plain which occurs below this ridge of lower kar^wds would, in the absence of the latter, form a part of Kashmir proper. There are traces of the same deposit for some miles below the Baramula ridge. It will be at once apparent from the foregoing remarks that until the depth of the lower karewas of the Baramula ridge is known, it is impossible to say whether the valley of Kashmir is a true rock-basin, or a blocked river-valley, but in the opinion of the author it is most probably the latter. ' The question as to the manner in which the karewa deposits were formed, may now be taken into consideration. From the great similarity in the petrological characters of the lower kardwas (which have only been detected along the sides of the valley, fringing the mountain ranges, and probably do not extend across the valley) to the higher Siwdliks of the Outer Hills, it is highly probable that the two series have been deposited in an analogous matter. In the case of the Siwaliks it has been proved that these beds are not of lacustrine origin, but have been ^8 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. laid down by the action of rivers, torrents, and rains, and they may ~" — conveniently be designated as ''■ wash deposits." In the karew^ds as already said, the presence of thick beds of conglomerate near the present valley of the Jhelum at Baramula, has led to the inference that these beds were probably deposited by the river itself, which must then have flowed out from the valley in a course not very far removed from its present one; if this be correct no lake could have existed here at that time. ' With regard to the upper karewas, it seems difficult to imagine how a series of fine clayey and sandy deposits, perfectly horizontal, and extending completely across a wide and open river valley, and attaining a height of more than 200 feet above the level of that valley, could have been accumulated without the aid of a dam lower down the valley by which its waters have been ponded back. Accordingly, the only explana- tion of the mode of formation of the upper karewds that presents itself is that Kashmir Was formerly occupied by a vast lake, of which the existing lakes are remnants. Mr. Drew estimates that at one period of its existence this old lake must have reached a level of nearly 2,oco feet above the present level of the -valley. This estimate is, however, probably far too high, as it is made to include the sloping karewds of the Pi'r-Panjal, which are probably not of lacustrine origin at all ; and, even if they are, they were probably horizontal when deposited, and far below their present level. ' The question as to the nature of the barrier which dammed this old lake cannot be certainly determined, until it is finally decided whether the lower karewas of Baramula. are true lacustrine, or " wash deposits.'' If they are the former, the old lake must have continued below the Baramula ridge ; but if, as seems probably the case, they are the latter, this ridge may have formed the boundary of the lake. On the latter hypothesis it may be that the tilting of the lower karewas of Bdramiila, which was probably connected with a general rise of the country along the whole length of the Pi'r-Panjal range, may have caused the valley of Kashmir, which was previously an open river valley, to have become elevated and blocked at its tower end in the neighbourhood of Baramula, and that in the basin thus formed the upper karewds may have been deposited, with their southern edges resting apparently conformably on the tilted beds of the lower karewas. This basin may have been subsequently drained by the river cutting down the present rock-gorge at Baramula. Should this explanation be the true one, traces of the " overlap " of the upper karewas on the lower beds of the same series ought to be detected. ' Should it be that the lower karewas are in part of lacustrine origin, then it will be necessary to assume that the barrier existed below Bara- mula, and the most likely place of its occurrence would be the narrow GEOLOGICAL. 49 gorge for Rampur, some distance below Naushehra. As, however, it is Chap. III. highly probable that the former solution may be the correct one, it would — ►" — ■ be idle to discuss what might have been the nature of a barrier at Rimpur, which may never have existed. ' The whole question, however, requires further light thrown upon it by an observer well versed in the study of similar deposits, before there can be any hope of arriving at any very satisfactory conclusions, as to the barrier which dammed the old Kashmfr lake, and the relative period of its existence. ' With regard to the age of the karewas, their considerable geological age is indicated by the tilting which their lower beds have undergone, and by the amount of denudation which they have suffered, as well as by their relations to the low-level alluvium of the Jhelum. The lower karewas bear, as already said, a very marked and striking resemblance to the topmost Siwaliks of the Outer Hills, which are likewise tilted, and have a similar north-westerly strike. In the Outer Hills, the period of dis- turbance did not extend down to the post-Siwalik deposits (? higher pleistocene) and it seems, therefore, highly probable that the same disturbance may have acted on the upper Siwaliks of the Outer Hills, and the lower karewas of Kashmfr. If this be so, the age of the later must be either lower pleistocene, or the very highest pliocene, whichever the topmost Siwaliks may be ; while the upper kardwas may belong to some part of the pleistocene period. It would seem likely, as already said, that the elevation of the Pi'r-Panjal, which probably caused the tilting of the karewas, took place during the later part of the lower kar^wa period, and that the upper kar^wds were deposited in apparent conformity on the inner border of the tilted lower beds. 'The glacial period presents the usual difficulties and perplexities in connexion with these lacustrine and wash deposits. If, as seems probable, they are in great part of pre-glacial age (although, from the presence of what has been supposed to be glacial mud, their upper beds, as Mr. Drew suggests, may be of glacial age), it is difficult to see how they were preserved, if the Kashmir valley ever filled with ice. This difficulty may perhaps be solved if it be considered that, although glaciers descended to the level of the Kashmfr valley, yet they never filled it with ice ; and this may really be the clue to the problem. This view, . of course, involves the conclusion that the glacial period in these regions was not so intense as has sometimes been supposed.' The latest summing-up of the evidence regarding the formation of the Kashmfr valley, and of its deposits is given by Mr. R. D. Oldham in the second edition of the Manual of the Geology of India (1893). I-I 50 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. Zaiiskar system. ' The best published description of these beds {kar^wds) are those of Colonel Godwin-Austin and JVIr. Drew, by both of whom they are regarded as of lacustrine origin, an opinion also adopted by Mr. Lydekker, but difficult to accept in its entirety. It is very probable that some of the finely-bedded fine-grained deposits described by Colonel Godwin- Austin were deposited in still water, but the frequent alternations of beds of shingle with sand and the layers of lignite from one to three inches in thickness, point to subaerial conditions of formation. Even the presence of true lacustrine deposits does not prove that the whole of the Kashmir lake basin was ever occupied by a lake. This rock basin was probably gradually formed by a deformation of the earth's crust, and the hollow so produced was filled up almost, if not quite, as soon as formed. At the present day true lacustrine deposits are being formed in those places on the northern limit of the valley where, owing to a deficiency of deposition, hollows have been left in which water has accumulated, and it is probable that the conditions have been much the same as at present, throughout the geological history of the Kashmir valley, and that a minor area of true lacustrine deposits has been accornpanied by a greater area where subaerial accumulation of sediment has been in progress. ' It is possible that some of the older beds of the karewas may be contemporaneous with part of the upper Siwdliks, but the only fossils yet found, besides undetermined fish-scales and plant remains, have been land and fresh-water shells, all apparently belonging to living species.' The Zanskdr system (Mesozoic and Carboniferous rocks) plays the next important part in the geology of the valley. As regards the designation Zdnskdr and its correlation in the above list with the European names, Cretaceous, Jura, Trias, and Carboniferous, Mr. Lydekker warns his readers that this correlation must be regarded only in the most general sense. 'It can only imply that the general relative order of the succession of organic forms has been in the main the same, but it cannot be strictly considered, even in the homotaxial sense, that one Himdlaydn formation is the exact equivalent of its European namesake. Thus since, as will be shown below, in the Kashmir valley no break has been detected between strata containing fossils characteristic of the lower carboniferous (mountain limestone) of Europe, and the overlying and underlying strata which have respectively been referred to the silurian and the trias, it is quite evident that these cannot really exactly correspond to the European formations after which they are named, but must rather collectively GEOLOGICAL. 51 correspond, in a homotaxial sense, to the whole of the silurian, devonian, Chap. hi. upper and lower carboniferous, permian, and trias of Europe. Again, — " — the carboniferous of Kashmir, which contains fossils characteristic of the lower part of that period, is only a few feet in thickness, and cannot, therefore, contain divisions corresponding to the European divisions of that great system, nor can it represent anything like a period of time corresponding to the enormous carboniferous epoch of Europe. ' At the mouth of a narrow gorge situated at the village of Khunmii (Khoonmoo), on the north-western side of the Vihii valley, some five miles north of Pampur, the following series of rocks are found overlying the older palaeozoic trappean rocks which form the great bulk of the neighbouring mountains. Feet. Supra-Kuling series, i. Limestones 2,200 (?) Kuling series. 2. Bed with shells and Athyris . 3. Grey limestone 4. Limestone with Produdus and Spirifer 5. Hard limestone with Orthoceras . 6. Sandy calcareous and shaly beds . 7. Compact quartzite 2 6 3 10 10 12 43- ' Another section also modified from Colonel Godwin-Austin's memoir, taken near the village of Barus, on the right bank of the Jhelum, under Wastarwan peak, to the south-east of the Vihu district, is as follows : — Supra-Kuling series. I. , 2. 3 4' Kuling series. ■/ 5, Feet. Hard grey compact limestone (denuded) 150 (remaining). Micaceous sandy calcareous beds with . Spirifer, Produdus and Chonetes . . 60 Calcareous slate or shale . . . .30 Compact limestone with obscure fossils . 100 Shaly limestone with Fenestella and Strep- |- 300. torhynchus 50 Hard compact limestone with Produdus, Terebratula and Athyris . . .40 ' 7. Compact quartzite 20 ' ' The fossils occurring in the beds marked two to six of the foregoing section, which have been named the Zewan, or Ziawan beds, by Messrs. Godwin-Austin and Verchere, are all of carboniferous forms, and will be further discussed below. They indicate that these beds, with the underlying quartzite, which vary in thickness from a little over 40 feet to upwards of 300 feet, must be referred to the carboniferous, and it will be subsequently shown that they correspond to the Kuling series of Dr. Stoliczka. In the Khunmii ravine, from some of the limestones marked i in the above section, the present writer obtained a specimen H 2 52 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. of a large triassic species of Megalodon, indicating the triassic age of — ^ — some of these limestones ; and from the same great series Colonel Godwin-Austin has obtained a cephalopod referred to the genus Gonia- tites, while numerous other fossils, noticed below, were obtained by Dr. Verchere. It is difficult to assign any very fixed boundaries to the Kuling and the supra-Kuling series in this district, as the two pass insensibly one into another. As, however, in the upper Sind valley a characteristic triassic fossil has been found at the base of limestones and dolomites corresponding to No. i in the above section. It has been deemed advisable for the present to class as Kuling only such beds as contain characteristic carboniferous fossils, all the higher beds being provisionally referred to the supra-Kuling series. ' The Kuling rocks, as already observed, in the Vihii district are generally underlain by massive amygdaloidal and other traps, which frequently, when the bottom quartzitic bed is less strongly developed, pass insensibly upwards into the fossiliferous beds, and it is accordingly probable that some of these traps with their associated shales may really be of carboniferous age. From the remarks already made as to the propriety (when there is no strong palaeological evidence to the contrary) of restricting the European geological terms to accord with the petrological conditions of the rocks of other countries to which they are applied, it will be inferred that it is considered best to confine the lower extent of the Kuling, or carboniferous, to the proper beds of the fossiliferous series : all the traps in this district are, therefore, referred to the older palaeozoics. The carboniferous rocks of Vihu may be traced to the northward into the Arrdh valley, to the north-east of Srinagar, where they bend round to take a north-easterly direction below the survey station of Mahadeo : fossils have, however, not been generally found in the Arrah valley, and the upper boundaries of the Kuling series are consequently given somewhat approximately. The whole series is here inverted on the northern side, the supra-Kuling rocks under- lying the Kuling series, and the latter the older palaeozoic rocks, which are more generally sedimentary in their character. The eastern boundary of this area of Zdnskar rocks runs across the western side of the upper Trdl valley, thence cutting again into Vihu on the northern side of the peak above Awantipura (Wastarwan peak). Along this boundary line the characteristic carboniferous fossils are to be found in great abundance, especially on the high ridge to the north-east of Prongam, and also to the south-east of Mandakpal. The Kuling rocks on this side generally consist of black and brown highly carbonaceous shales, cherts and blue limestones, in varying proportions. The shales, when freshly split, omit a strong fetid odour, and are frequently crowded with fenes- tellae and other fossils. Near Mandakpdl the cherty beds often GEOLOGICAL. 53 pass into a highly siliceous blu^ or white rock, closely resembling flint Chap. III. or chalcedony. From south to north along this border, the underlying — ^ — rocks change considerably in character, becoming entirely trappean on Wastarwdn peak. The Kuling series, overlain here and there by supra- Kuling beds, may be traced round the north-western flanks of the same peak. On the south side of this peak, to the north-west of Awantipura, there is a small outlier of the Kuling series occupying a spur projecting from the underlying traps, the rocks of which are crowded with the characteristic fossils. The connexion existing here between the sedimentary Kuling rocks, and the underlying traps is extremely intimate, and fossils are frequently found in juxtaposition with the traps ; so that on splitting open the rock it will not unfrequently be found that a fossiliferous layer divides so as to leave one portion adhering to the underlying trap, and the other to the overlying shales. Occa.sionally the fossils are found entirely in beds which cannot be well distinguished from the traps, though doubtless consisting in part either of contemporaneously altered sedimentary detrital rocks, or of those mingled with ashes. This intimate connexion of the Zanskar and Pdnjal systems will be subsequently referred to. The lime- stone rocks of Vihii and other parts of the Kashmir valley form a very striking feature in the landscape, their light blue and white tints standing out in marked contrast to the sombre hues of the older slates and traps. The limestones are usually thin-bedded ; narrow partings of shale dividing the different layers, and causing the sides of the cliffs of these rocks to present a very characteristic banded appearance, which in Vihii is rendered still more picturesque by the numerous graceful folds and waves into which these strata have been thrown. From the base of cliffs of these rocks in various parts of the south-eastern end of the valley of Kashmir, burst the numerous springs of water which form the sources of the Jhelum. The largest of these occur at the villages of Bawan, Islamabad, Achabal, and Verinag. The water is remarkable for its transparency, and frequently gushes out in great volumes : it is generally somewhat higher in tempera- ture than the surface water. ' The next development of Zanskar rocks to be noticed occurs in the Liddar valley, where these rocks are to be found at the village of Pahlgam, and again lower down half-way between that place and Islamabad. The latter outliers of these rocks commence at the village of Aishmakam, where they occur in three ellipses, situated on the strike of the Vihii rocks, thickest on the line of the river, and gradually dying out on either side. Their relations will be best made clear by a brief description of the whole section from Pahlgim to the mouth of the Liddar valley. At Pahlgam itself there occur the characteristic thin-bedded limestones and dolomites of the supra-Kuling series, underlain by a thin band of the Kuling shales 54 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. and limestones in which the characteristic fossils are of not uncommon — ** — occurrence: these rocks gradually pass downwards into a great mass of amygdoloidal traps of the Panjal system, which show some signs of stratifi- cation in their higher beds, but lower down are extremely massive. Some eight miles down the valley, below the village of Bhatkot, these trappean rocks are underlain by a band of Kuling rocks with their characteristic fossils ; among which the caudal part of a specimen of a trilobite of the genus Phillipsia, not improbably identical with P. semenifera of the carboni- ferous of Europe, was obtained in 1 880 by the writer. These Kuling rocks are in their turn underlain by dark slates and light coloured quartzites of the Panjal system, and the latter by a band of Kuling rocks, which is followed by the Panjil slates and quartzites. Approaching Aishmakim these Pdnjil rocks are again underlain by a band of the Kuling shales and calcareous rocks, followed inferiorly by limestones, dolomites, and green and purple shaly slates, some of which are evidently the representatives of the supra- Kuling series, and below which there again occur the rocks of the Kuling series with their characteristic fossils. Below Aishmakdm there is once more a series of the sedimentary Panjdl rocks, which to the south are inverted upon the rocks of the Zdnskdr system of Islamabad. Some further inferences from the Liddar section will be drawn in the subsequent chapter, but it will suffice here to say that the section indicates a vast inversion of a great part of the series coupled with complex folding, the original extent of which is approximately indicated in the accompanying section. 'The Zinskdr rocks of Pahlgam which on their south and south- western border consist of Kuling series, overlain by supra-Kuling series, form a sub-oval-shaped mass, of some eight miles in length, extending up the two branches of the Liddar river. It is probable that the Kuling rocks also occur along the north-eastern border of this oval, since on the eastern branch of the river, on the road to Sheshndg, the strata have a northerly strike and a westerly dip, and the rocks of the Zanskdr system are underlain by the traps of the Panjal system. The Kuling series on this line seems, however, to have been obliterated by the traps, as will be shown to be the case elsewhere, and it has consequently been found necessary on the map to place the rocks of the supra-Kuling series, in direct contact with the Pdnjal rocks. ' Turning now to the great truncated ellipse of Zdnskar rocks occupying the axis of the south-eastern extremity of the valley of Kashmir, it has been already stated that these rocks first occur at Isldmdbad, where they form the high isolated rock at the back of the town, having a low north- easterly dip, and consisting chiefly of thin-bedded limestones and dolomites with shaly partings. A band of kar^wa deposit conceals the northern GEOLOGICAL. 55 part of these rocks, beyond whicj^ they reappear at the village of Bawan, Chap. III. where they> are inverted under the older palaeozoic rocks of the lower -"*• — Liddar valley. To the south-east of Bawan the boundary of these rocks runs close to the village of Naubug, where there is a considerable flexure, and thence across the Marbal pass to a point some six miles on the eastern side, where the writer obtained characteristic Kuling brachiopods in a hard grey shaly slate. At this south-eastern extremity of the ellipse the Kuling rocks, which are here the only representatives of the Zanskar system, are almost indistinguishable from the underlying slaty Panjals, and would not have been recognized to the eastward of the pass, had it not been for the above-mentioned fossils. Along the inverted Naubug boundary, fossils may here and there be detected in the normal Kuling shales. ' Towards the .south-west the rocks of the Zdnskdr system extend as far as the northern flanks of the Pi'r-Pdnjal range at Binihal, whence their boundary probably runs to meet the point to the eastward of the Mdrbal pass where the above-mentioned fossils were obtained. On the road leading up to the Banihal pass, as far as can be seen through the dense forest which covers the mountain side, the Zdnskar rocks consist of dolomites and limestones of the supra-Kuling series, having a south-westerly dip towards the older Panjal rocks; the dip of the latter, as recorded in a section taken some years ago, being in the opposite (north-east) direction. ' The rocks in the centre of this great eclipse of the Zanskar system belong mainly to the supra-Kuling series, and are characterized by the prevalence of light-coloured and thin-bedded dolomites and limestones. On the line from the Mdrbal pass to Sagam, however, there occurs an anticlinal axis, in which the cherts and shales of the Kuling series, crowded with various species of Productus, Spirifer, and Fenestella are well exposed. Owing, however, to the variation in the petrological characters of the beds themselves, as well as the absence of fossils at Sagam itself, the precise boundaries of the Kuling series are diflScult to determine, and it is possible that rocks of the Panjal system may be exposed. ' Passing to the north-western side of the valley, two small outcrops of supra-Kuling limestone appear on the flanks of the Pir-Panjal range, at and near the village of Berwa (Berii). These limestones have a low north-easterly dip, and protrude through the karewa formation ; they are on the strike of the Shahabad ellipse, and it is probable they are connected below the kardwa formation with lower Zanskar rocks, over- lying the older palaeozoics of the Panjdl range. ' On the opposite side of the valley three small patches of Zanskar rocks occur in the neighbourhood of the Wular lake. The first of these 56 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. is situated at the village of Manasbal, forming the shore of the small — '^— lake there, and running in two projections high up on the sides of the adjoining "mountains. Near the mouth of the Sind valley these rocks consist of pale-blue banded limestones overlying the blackish amyg- daloidal trap, with a north-easterly dip: they extend a little distance to the south of the Safapur trigonometrical station, to the west of which the trappean rocks again project into the middle of the Zanskir rocks ; the latter having a quaquaversal dip around the former. To the south of the lake anothef small dome-shaped mass of amygdaloidal trap under- lies the calcareous rocks. Near this spot, at the village of Kandarbal, the Zanskar rocks consist mainly of nearly pure white thick-bedded dolomitic limestones, which are largely quarried for the manufacture of cement. ' Remains of crinoids and obscure shells are very common in these rocks, but the only well-preserved fossil that has been obtained from them is part of the shell of a specifically indeterminable Orthoceras, which was collected by Mr. W. Theobald. The Mdnasbal rocks are much contorted, and are characterized by the usual banded appearance, which, with their light colour, forms a striking contrast to the under- lying unstratified traps. These rocks are the same as the supra-Kuling series of other parts of Kashmir, but no traces of the fossiliferous carbonaceous shales and cherts of the underlying Kuling series have hitherto been detected at their base resting upon the traps. The most probable explanation of this apparent anomaly, here and elsewhere, seems to be that the trap, which, from its showing no signs of intrusion into the overlying limestones, must be of contemporaneous origin with the rocks with which it is associated, was outpoured during the deposition of the Kuling series, and has, so to speak, absorbed these deposits, and altered them out of all recognition. On this theory the upper trap here, and in other localities where similar conditions prevail, must really belong to the Zanskar system, but, as already said, it is found more convenient to class the whole of it with the underlying Panjdl system. ' To the northward of Mdnasbal another small patch of Zdnskdr rocks occurs near the village of Hajan, and there are other patches in the neighbourhood. These small patches lead on to the larger mass which occurs at the village of Bandipura, at the north-western extremity of the Wular lake. At this spot the rocks of the Zanskdr system occupy a rudely triangular area on the left bank of the Bandipura stream ; having a low and regular north-easterly dip, or one towards the older rocks. From this dip, and from the fact that there is evidently no inversion of the rocks at Manasbal, it would seem probable that the junction between the Zanskdr and Pdnjal systems is here a disturbed GEOLOGICAL. 57 one. The lower beds (assuming^ the absence of inversion) consist of Chap. ill. cherty sandstones, and blue limestones, with occasional shaly bands, — ^ — while the higher beds consist of thin-bedded, light-coloured, and frequently dolomitic limestones ; the lowest exposed beds contain numerous crinoids and corals. The greater part of these rocks certainly belong to the supra-KuHng series, but whether the Kuling series may not also be represented at the base of the series must remain uncertain until it be definitely determined whether the beds are in their normal position, or inverted. ' At the extreme north-western end of the valley of Kashmir, rocks belonging to the Zanskar system are met with at the village of Tregam. These rocks consist mainly of the usual limestones and dolomites, the former being generally of a dark blue colour, and frequently occurring in beds of some two feet in thickness, they apparently rest in a synclinal of the Panjal rocks ; and do not extend across the ridge into the valley of the Kishnganga. The greater part of these rocks certainly belongs to the supra-Kuling series, but on their northerly and easterly borders they are underlain by some greenish and black shaly and slaty beds mixed with earthy limestones, which must probably be regarded as the representatives of the Kuling series, although fossils have not hitherto been obtained from them. On the western border of the exposure, the basement beds are in great part concealed by alluvium and debris. ' The mode of occurrence of the Zdnskar rocks in the valley of Kashmir, will lead to the conclusion that this valley is formed on the line of a synclinal axis of newer palaeozoic and mesozoic rocks, the original symmetry of which has been partially destroyed by faulting or other movements. It is probable that the area now covered by alluvial and kar^wd. deposits is mainly underlain by the rocks of the Zanskar system.' The name Panjil is a local term, like Zanskar, employed to denote The Panjii all the rocks below the Kuling (lower carboniferous) and above the^^^'^™' metamorphics. These rocks consist mainly of dark slates, sandstones, quartzites, conglomerates and volcanic rocks. It is noticeable that the strata of the Panjal system are totally devoid of organic remains. ' Underlying the Zanskdr rocks in the neighbourhood of Srinagar and Mdnasbal, the amygdaloidal rocks of the Pi'r-Pdnjal attain a great develop- ment, and, as already stated, in some instances entirely obliterate the characteristic rocks of the Kuling series. These rocks form almost the whole of the small isolated hill on which the fort of Hari-Pdrbat near Srinagar is built, and also the conspicuous hill at the back of the town so well known to all visitors a^s the Takht-i-Suliman. On the north-eastern side of the latter, on the road from the Munshi-bagh to the Dal lake, fine I 58 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. splintery black and green slates are partly interstratified with the amyg- ■ " daloidal rocks, but in great part appear to underlie them. These slates form a considerable part of the higher hills to the north-east of the gap behind the Takht through which the road passes, while on the north- eastern side of the Dal lake the high ridge forming the outer boundary of the Arrah valley, consists mainly of the massive amygdaloidal rocks. At the foot of this ridge, near the Nishat Bagh, there occur some calcareous sandstones, dark cherts and slates, occasionally containing obscure impressions of fossils, and dipping towards the ridge, which may be the representatives of the Ruling series. The amygdaloidal traps of the above- mentioned ridge are continuous with those at the mouth of the Sind valley, Manasbal, and the shores of the Wular lake. ' The amygdaloidal and allied rocks in this neighbourhood are generally of a greenish, or blackish colour, sometimes containing numerous amyg- dules ; but at other times are homogeneous, fine-grained rocks like green- stone. The latter rock not unfrequently contains large isolated pear-shaped amygdules of chalcedony, reaching to two or three inches in length. The whole formation is generally devoid of any visible signs of stratification, and forms bold, massive cliffs, from which cuboidal fragments disintegrate. In many parts of the Pir-Panjal, and, as already mentioned, in the neighbourhood of Awantipura, these rocks pass insensibly downwards into the argillaceous and arenaceous rocks with which they are inter- stratified. ' A very characteristic rock of not unfrequent occurrence among' the traps of the Kashmfr valley, is a dark compact trap, having at intervals clusters of small white (? felspar) crystals diverging from a central point in the form of a many-rayed star, to which Dr. Verchere applied the name of Suldimdnite, from its common occurrence in the Takht-i-Suliman. One of the most common varieties may be described as a felspar-porphyry, or perhaps rather as a porphyritic trap, since the base appears to be basaltic ; and accordingly these rocks may generally be alluded to as altered basalts. ' From the foregoing observations it may be taken as certain that the amygdaloidal rocks of Kashmfr are of volcanic ^ origin, and that they are mingled with what are probably trap-ashes and other rocks, which from their mode of deposition, and from the effects of subsequent metamorphic action, have become so fused with detrital sedimentary rocks, that it is now frequently impossible to distinguish the one from the other. With regard to their geological age and mode of origin, it will in the first place be apparent from the descriptions given in an earlier chapter, that these rocks cannot be intrusive, since they underlie the rocks of the Zanskdr system ' The term volcanic is employed here as analogous to igneous, and does not necessarily imply any connexion with a true volcano. GEOLOGICAL. 59 without penetrating tliem by dy^gs : and as they are interstratified with Chap. III. those rocks, and also with the slates of the Panjdl system, it is evident that — " — ' they must be of contemporaneous origin with the rocks with which they are associated. ' From the. extremely intimate connexion existing between the traps of the valley of Kashmfr and the rocks of Kuling series, which are certainly of submarine origin, there would seem to be little or no doubt that the traps were likewise poured forth beneath the surface of the ocean. In regard to submarine lavas it is remarked by Professor Geikie that these rocks differ from lavas poured forth on land only " in their more distinct and originally less inclined bedding, and in their tendency to the admixture of non- volcanic or ordinary mechanical sediment with the volcanic dust and stones. No appreciable difference either in external aspect or in internal structure seems yet to have been established between subaerial and submarine lavas. Some undoubtedly submarine lavas are highly scoriaceous. There is no reason, indeed, why slaggy lava and loose non-buoyant scoriae should not accumulate under the pressure of a deep column of the ocean." In their great intermixture 'with what are apparently materials of non- volcanic origin, the traps of Kashmfr agree well with the above-mentioned characteristics of submarine and volcanic rocks. ' In their mode of occurrence these partially altered volcanic rocks of Kashmir appear to present considerable resemblances to certain still more altered amygdaloidal and tufaceous volcanic rocks occurring in the devonian of Devonshire, beneath the carboniferous. The metamorphism of the latter has, however, been so great as to produce a schistose structure in the amygdaloids, which is wanting in those of Kashmir. In Devonshire rocks, which are partly lavas, partly tuffs, and partly tufaceous sediments, are mingled together in a manner very similar to the mode of occurrence of the pailaeozoic volcanic rocks of Kashmir. ' Summing up the general conclusions to be derived from the study of these rocks, it appears probable that during the Panjal period, which immediately preceded that of the lower carboniferous, very extensive submarine eruptions of lava and ashes were emitted, probably from volcanoes : these eruptions probably took their origin from several distinct points, and at several distinct intervals of time. Throughout the whole period, during which these eruptions were continued, uninterrupted- deposition of ordinary sedimentary detrital material appears to have- continued at the sea-bottom, the strata resulting from which became at once so intimately mingled with the volcanic products as to render it now difficult to distinguish between the original factors of the deposit ; while subsequent metamorphic action has served to obliterate still more completely their original distinction. In certain spots, as at Minasbal, I 3 6o THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. the Kashmir valley, the eruption of volcanic matter appears to have — **— continued, during a part or the whole, of the Kuling, or lower carboniferous period, and to have rendered the distinctive sedimentary rocks of that period in many places totally unrecognizable.' Metamorphic In the chapter describing the Panjal system, Mr. Lydekker notices ys em. ^^^ occurrence of a considerable thickness of coarse gneiss, associated with grey sandstones and beds of limestone, some of which is white and highly crystalline, and some blue and scarcely altered. These rocks are found at Kangan in the Sind valley, and on either side of the mouth of the Wdngat valley which runs off from the main valley. Mr. Lydekker writes : — ' The age of the Kangan gneiss is not easy of determination ; if the sequence be uninterrupted from its relation to the traps, it would appear to occupy a place high in the Pinjal system, but no such rocks are found in a similar position in the neighbourhood, and it may, therefore, be that the junction of the rocks is not really undisturbed, and that the gneiss may be below the great mass of the Panjdls as in the Panjal range itself.' This is the only instance of the crystalline and metamorphic system in the valley of Kashmir, but it is impossible to determine whether these rocks correspond to the central gneiss of Mr. Lydekker's table : — ' If it should prove to be the same, it would seem probable that there must either exist considerable dislocation between the granitoid gneiss and Panjdl rocks, or that the higher beds of the latter overlap the former, because the Panjal rocks adjoining the gneiss belong to the higher volcanic portion of that system.' Economic Although there has been no organized exploration, Mr. Lydekker is geo ogy. qJ. Qpj^jQ^ ^YiaX the Kashmir Himalaya is not likely to be an important producer of the precious metals. But the chance discovery of valuable sapphires in the Padar country in i88a leads one to hope that other sources of mineral wealth may still be found in the territories of His Highness the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, and I do not think that in a state like Kashmir it is correct to infer that the natives of the country would be prompt to disclose the existence of rich lodes, or that they would prove energetic miners. The people are engaged in agricultural or pastoral pursuits, and their experience in the past teaches them that the discovery of mineral wealth is attended with drawbacks in the shape of forced labour and the presence of a large number of officials who have to be fed. Mr. La Touche in his note on the sapphire mines of Kashm/r agrees with Mr. Lydekker. Mr. La Touche writes:— GEOLOGICAL. 6i ' So much has been said lately about the great mineral resources of Chap. ill. Kashmfr, that it may perhaps be well, in conclusion, to say a few words — " — on the subject. In speaking of the mineral wealth that might be brought to light by properly-conducted prospecting, it does not seem to be generally taken into consideration that the natives of the country have for ages had good opportunities of discovering what minerals the hills contain, and that as a rule they have shown themselves fully cajpable of making use of their opportunities. I think that I am not far wrong in saying that in very few instances in India have useful minerals been discovered in localities that were unknown to the natives, and in which the ores had not been worked by them at one time or another. Even the more uncivilized hill tribes are more or less well acquainted with the minerals their hills contain, and are by no means in the condition of the blacks of Australia or the bushmen of Southern Africa, in whose country the European prospector has found so great a field for his energies. To take a single instance, the Khasis of Assam, who till the beginning of the present century had hardly felt the influence of Western civilization, have for ages obtained their iron from an ore which occurs as minute grains of magnetite disseminated in the granite of their hills. Many a highly-trained European geologist might justly have been sceptical as to the possibility of obtaining a productive iron ore from granite, and would very possibly have passed the rock over as being utterly useless for such a purpose. Yet the Khasis discovered the mineral, and in all parts of the hills ancient heaps of slag testify to the use they made of their discovery ; moreover, they obtained the ore by a process which was ingenious and even scientific, in fact a kind of hydraulic mining somewhat similar to the latest process devised for obtaining gold in California. Can it be doubted that if any other useful minerals existed in their hills, the Khasis would not have found and worked them long ago ? Similarly, in Kashm/r any mineral deposits that exist are probably well known to the natives, and, if useful, are already worked, and these are not of any great importance. Even the common minerals, coal and iron, are not found in any large quantity, and where they do occur are poor in quality. Accident may bring to light the presence of some of the rarer minerals, as in the case of the sapphires, but even the most energetic and intelligent prospector might spend years among the mountains before making such another discovery.' With great diffidence I still maintain that there are special reasons in Kashmir, which would lead the natives of the country to look upon the discovery of the valuable minerals as a calamity to their neighbourhood. I have often discussed the question of iron-mining with the villagers who 62 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. Coal. Peat. Sulphur. Gold. Copper. Iron. live near Sof, and if their views on the subject of mineral wealth represent the general ideas of the people, it is not an exaggeration to say that the Kashmiris detest the very name of mining. I have heard the same views expressed in other parts of the valley, where iron has been found, and have noticed that the Kashmiris, who are ready to talk with me on all subjects relating to their country and its products, are strangely reticent on the subject of minerals. It may therefore prove in the future that organized exploration will reveal mineral wealth. Men who were in charge of the sapphire mines in Padar have told me of other valuable minerals being found in that direction, and there are persons still alive who tell stories of the discoveries of mineral wealth in Gwdsh brari and in the mountains below Haramak. There are reasons perhaps unknown to Messrs. Lydekker and La Touche which cause both State and people to view the exploitation of minerals with disfavour. Mr. Lydekker notices that some of the Zdnskar rocks of the Kashmfr valley have here and there almost a coaly nature, but he remarks that there does not appear to be the slightest probability that workable coal will ever be found in the Kashmir territories. I have seen the blacksmiths of Kashmfr using a black substance like fossil peat, and they say that it gives a great heat. Peat is extracted from the low-lying ground which lies on both sides of the Jhelum river below Srinagar. Potters use it, and if the peat is cut in the dry weather and stacked it is an excellent fuel. I have used it regularly for two winters in Kashmir, and mixed with wood it is at once a cheap and effective fuel. It is formed of the remains of water- plants, and at present it could be obtained in enormous quantities. It is known to the Kashmfris as demb tsak. There are several strong sulphur springs in Kashmfr at Wean, Islamabad, Sadarkat, and elsewhere. Specimens of native sulphur from the Kashmfr valley were shown to Mr. Lydekker, but at present no sulphur is produced in the valley, and the supply comes from Pugd in Laddkh. Kashmfris who reside in distant parts of the valley affirm that gold has been found in the Wastarwdn mountain. This may be a legend like the widespread belief that there is an emerald mine in the crest of the Haramak mountain. It is said that copper was once extracted from the mountain on which Aishmakam in the Liddar valley stands. In old history it is stated that the great king Zain-ul-abadin defrayed all his private expenditure from the proceeds of a copper mine which he discovered in Kashmfr. Iron has been discovered and worked in several places in the valley and there are extensive workings of iron ore in the neighbourhood of GEOLOGICAL. 63 Sof. In 1893 an Englishman sp|pt some time in exploring the resources Chap. ill. of Sof. He held that the supply of ore was practicably inexhaustible, ~~" — and that owing to the presence of pine forests iron smelting could be carried on with profit. He had a good opinion of the iron, which he described as being equal to mild steel, and his preliminary operations led him to hold most sanguine ideas as to the future of an iron industry in Kashmfr. The Kashmiris regard the Sof iron as superior to the iron imported from India for the purposes of agricultural implements, and the blacksmiths always speak of it most favourably. No iron is at present extracted from Sof or the other mines, and the experience of past years . points to the fact that the State cannot work its iron mines with profit. The heavy cost of carriage on imported iron might perhaps allow of the Kashmir mines being worked with success if they were placed under proper management. The cost of fuel would not seriously hamper the industry. Mr. La Touche, however, writing in 1889, says of the Sof mines : — ' I also paid a visit to the ironworks of Sof in the Kashmfr valley, the ore for which is obtained from a bed of impure calcareous limonite intercalated in the limestone and rocks to the east of Achabal. The bed is only one or two feet in thickness, and dips at an angle of 35° into the hill, but its outcrop extends for a distance of at least two miles along the hillside, and there must be sufficient ore here to keep the small native furnaces supplied for many years to come, so long as there is any demand for the iron, but it would certainly not be advisable to start large blast furnaces on the English plan, and moreover the ore seems to be very poor in quality.' No salt is found in the valley, but certain salt licks exist to which the Salt. stags resort in the spring. Small nests of saltpetre (potassic-nitrate) are found occasionally in some Saltpetre. of the upper kar^was of the Kashmir valley. This is known to the Kashmiris as Gach. It is obtained in large Gypsum, quantities from a place below Baramiild on the right bank of the Jhelum, and also from the lime mountain, Ahak Tang, which overlooks the Manasbal lake. Up to the present the chief source of limestone has been the Ahak Tang Limestone. or lime mountain. Lime is also extracted at Ajas on the Wular lake, and used to be burnt at Bird Other more convenient sources have recently been discovered on the shores of the Dal lake, and on the banks of the Jhelum. There is Kankar in most of the kar^was, all of which makes good hydraulic lime. An excellent chalk similar to tailors' chalk is 64 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. III. Bnilding stones. Slate. Clay. Mill stones. Lapidaries. obtained from a karewa near Srinagar, and is known as SiJ)ar. It is used for wall plaster and for writing on slates. Blue limestones belonging to some part of the Zanskir system are, according to Mr. Lydekker, the chief materials both of the ancient and modern buildings of Kashmir. ' These limestones can be worked as a freestone, are very durable, and have been quarried in blocks of great length. The largest buildings in which they are employed are the old temples dotted over the valley, the chief of which are situated at Martand near Islamabad, at Awantipuri, at Pandratan near Srinagar, and at Payech. The old building at the summit of the Takht-i-SuHman at Srinagar is also built of the same stone. In the city itself the modern temples and the handsome flights of steps and embankments on the river in the neighbourhood of the Maharaja's palace are constructed of the same stone. The buildings of the Mughal period on the borders of the Dal lake are largely built of these limestones, the supports of the pavilion in the Shdlamar gardens consisting of handsome columns of black and grey fossiliferous marble. ' The Zanskdr rocks of Vihii are probably the source of most of the limestone employed in the buildings of Srinagar, but it is to be regretted that much of the material used in the construction of the modern erections is obtained from the demolition of the ancient buildings rather than from the quarries. The distribution of Zanskdr rocks in the valley of Kashmir is such as to render them peculiarly convenient for the construction of buildings in any part that may be desired.' Slates are obtained from Baramula, and recently a slate quarry has been opened near the village of Brain on the shores of the Dal lake. The Baramuld slates are much used for the floors of Hammams, and are known as Sang-i-farash. The Kashmir valley is rich in a variety of clays most suitable for potters' purposes. Some rude attempts have been made in the ceramic art, and it is believed that some of the clays are admirably adapted for the manu- facture of a superior pottery. An Englishman acquainted with some well- known potteries in England pronounced certain clays which I sent to him to be of considerable value. Special localities in the south of the valley are famous for their superior clays, but at present the Kashmiri potters aim at nothing higher than turning out water- and cooking-vessels of the simplest description. I have pointed out in another chapter that metal is very rarely used for domestic purposes, and rough earthenware supplies all the wants of the Kashmiri peasants. These are made from sandstones and grits of the Panjal system. The lapidaries (Hakak) import all their more valuable stones, such as GEOLOGICAL. 65 agate, bloodstone, cornelian, cat's-^ye, garnet, lapis-lazuli, onyx, opal, rock Chap. III. crystal, and turquoise, from Eadakhshdn, Bukhara, and Yarkand. There " ■ are, however, certain local stones for ornaments and buttons. These stones are soft, and are incapable of a high polish. Among the more common may be mentioned : — Vernacular name. Takht-i-Sulimdn Sang-i-Musd . Bilor Sang-i-Swrndk Sang-i-Shalamar Sang-i-Ratel . Sang-i-Nadid . Colour. black with white streaks . black white crystal .... blue or purple with green spots green chocolate dark coffee colour Locality. Wastarwan Mountain. Krihu. Wangat. Besides these a kind of jade, which used to be employed for flint locks, is brought from the Wastarwan mountain, and from the same locality a kind of moss agate is procured. Cups and plates are made of a stone known as Sang-i-Nalchan. The stone is so soft that it can be cut like wood. It is a kind of soap-stone, grey, yellow and green in colour. Sajtg-i-ddlam is obtained from a place near Vernag, and is used by goldsmiths. Sang-i-baswatri is a yellow stone used in medicine. K CHAPTER IV. FLORA. General. Chap. IV. In this chapter I shall only attempt to enumerate the plants and trees of the Kashmir valley and its mountains which possess some well-known economical value for the people, and even this limitation would not be sufficient to keep the chapter within the bounds required by this report, for the Kashmiris turn nearly every plant and tree to some use, and attribute medicinal properties to every growing thing. At the outset I am met with the difficulty of classification. In the first place it is not easy to decide whether certain plants should be noticed under agriculture or under the heading attached to this chapter. Thus I have dealt with walnuts and with the water-chestnut in the chapter on agriculture, because these plants are subject to certain operations which are akin to cultivation. Next I have been uncertain as to whether the plants of Kashmir should not be classified according to their habitat or environment, and I thought that the valley might be divided into mountains, hilly country, plain, lakes and lagoons. But perhaps the easiest classification, and the one most ready for reference, will be found in grouping the various indigenous plants and trees under their several economic uses and properties, and in the following remarks I shall endeavour to adhere to this classification. Where possible their scientific nomenclature with their European and Kashmir synonyms will be given, the last in italics : — 1. Condiments. ! 8. Medicines. 2. Drugs. 1 9. Poisons. 3. Dyes and tans. I 10. Scents. 4. Fibres. 11. Soap and Alkali. 5. Fodders. 12. Timber. 6. Foods and Fruits. 13. Yeast. 7. Hair-washes. 14. Adulterants. FLORA. 67 1. Condiments. — The most important of the condiments is Carum sp., Chap. IV. the zirah siyah. This plant grows on the karewas of Kashmir when the — " — land is cultivated ^v^ith wheat and barley. It is a peculiar circumstance ^eeds^"'*^ that the zirah siyah is not produced in any quantity unless the land is ploughed for cultivation. In former days zirah siyah was taxed, and the tax was farmed out to a contractor. The seeds of another umbelliferous plant (Daucus Carota), known in Kashmir as the mor mujh, are used as an adulterant for the real carraway of the zirah siyah. No attempt has ever been made to cultivate the zirah siyah. %. Drugs. Cannabis indica {Bhang). — This plant grows in great Hemp, profusion along the banks of the Jhelum and the Vishau, and not* long ago it was the custom to reserve the land on the river banks, for a distance of 1 5 yards on either side, for the growth of the bhang, and occasionally hemp seed was sown. The farm of the right to collect hemp drugs and hemp fibre once realized as much as Rs. 35,000, but at the present time the amount of hemp drugs made in Kashmir is very small, and the revenue from the hemp plant for the last five years has averaged Rs. 6,aoo. The Kashmiri's usually speak of the drug manufactured in the valley from the hemp plant as charras, and it has been stated ^2Xganja is not produced in Kashmir. It is also said that though the charras of the valley is inferior to the drug of Yarkand it is superior to the charras of Bukhara and Kabul. But recent inquiries show that in the south of the valley the drug known as gard bhang or churti charras, is extracted from the female plant, and Indians who consume it declare that it is real ganja and utterly distinct from the Yarkandi charras, which is also procurable in Srinagar. It is stated that the annual production of this so-called ganja is about 70 maunds, and that about 400 maunds of fibre are collected every year. Below Srinagar the hemp plant does not yield any drug and is only used for its fibre. About 600 maunds of fibre are annually collected in the country below Srinagar. The consumption of hemp drugs in Kashmir is about equal to the local production. The Kashmiri's do not use the hemp-plant leaves for smoking or drinking, but the preparation known as majun is eaten to some extent. If the Kashmiri drug is ganja and not charras it is somewhat surprising, and I have taken some pains to verify the: statement made by the official who investigated the subject of hemp drugs. He and the men employed in the trade maintain that the drug made in Kashmir is ganja. I had always understood that ganja could not be obtained from the female plant after impregnation, but the female plant in Kashmir is impregnated and the hemp seeds yield an oil which, like charras, is used for intoxicating purposes. Artemisia (Tetwan).— This is a very common plant in Kashmir, and from its leaves is distilled a drug known as ibsdntin, a name no doubt K a 68 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. derived through the Arabic from the Greek absintha. Large quantities " are exported to the Panjab. Assafoetida is not produced within the limits of Kashmir, but I found Narthex Assafoetida below Doian in the Astor Tahsil. I have procured plants for Dr. Aitchison with a view to experimental cultivation in Kashmir. As far as I know the assa- foetida of commerce is not manufactured in Astor, but the natives use the fresh plant in cooking, and the milky juice which exudes from it gives forth the well-known odour of assafoetida, wholly unlike the pleasant celery smell of Ferula Jaeschkeana. 3. Dyes and Tans. — The people are somewhat reticent on the subject of the dyes used in the arts. In the days when the shawl trade flourished every factory employed a skilled dyer, who, by mixing the vegetable dyes of the country, produced colours of the softest tints. Datisca cannabina, ■waft tanj or pdt, gives a yellow dye which was mixed with all colours save red and dark blue; Rubia cordifolia and its more common substitute Geranium nepalense, both known as Mazait^ were mixed with rose, gold, and cream ; Pamb tsallan, the wild rhubarb, was mixed for orange and gold ; the pomegranate flowers and rind were mixed with red, gold, and black ; Ruhil, mixed with other dyes, furnished a Khaki and black colour ; Mowwin was mixed with an ashy grey. Mallotus philippinensis, Kamila, is said to be a product of Kashmir. Brown dyes are obtained from the outer rind of the walnut and from the bark of a species of Cotoneaster. The fruits of the apricot and mulberry give characteristic dyes. Among tanning materials may be mentioned the deodar, spruce, apricot, bark of alder and rind of pomegranate. 4. Fibres. — Kashm/r is very rich in fibres, and the natives make great use of them. It is possible that as communications with India improve a trade in fibres may be developed, as every year sees a great waste of valuable fibre-yielding plants. The boatmen of Kashmir require ropes of good quality, and it is stated that for towing-ropes the cotton fibre is the best material. The following indigenous plants yield fibre for ropes and other purposes : — Iris ensata Krishm. Cannabis sativa Bhang. Abutilon Avicennae . . . Yechkar. Rush Vandil. Typha sp Pits. Betula utilis Burza. Carex nubigena .... Koin^ Carex sp Fikal. Ulmus Wallichiana . . . Bren. Celtis australis Brimij. Indigofera heterantha . . Kats. Cotoneaster sp Lun. Parrotia Jacquemontiana . Pah. Salix sp Vir. The krishm, or river bank iris, grows in great quantities along the river banks, and at a distance its mass of blue flowers resembles water in colour. FLORA. 69 The fibres are used for the manufacture of ropes which serve many Chap. IV. purposes in agriculture. The fibre is not very durable. — " — The bhang furnishes an excellent fibre, from which strong and durable ropes are made. The stems of the plant are used for wattled fences around gardens, and in the winter the open ends of the tops of the houses are shut in with bhang stems. In former days Kashmir was famous for its paper. For Korans and for superior paper the pulp of the bhang fibre was always used. The yechkdr grows in low, damp, rich soil, and is an excellent fibre for ropes, mats, beds and kiltas. It is superior in some ways to the bhang fibre as it resists the action of water. The fibre of Abutilon Avi- cennae is pronounced superior to Indian jute and finer than Manilla hemp. The vandil (literally grocerjs rush) is used for the manufacture of twine, and is used by shopkeepers to tie up parcels. The pits is the swamp plant from which the excellent matting {waggu) of Kashmir is made. The Anchar lagoon, to the north of Sri'nagar, is the great home of the pits, though it is found in most of the swamps of Kashmir. All boats are roofed with the pits matting, and the mats are employed as coverings for floors and in numerous other ways. The industry of mat-making gives employment to a large number of the people. The villagers of Lasjan to the south of Sri'nagar are perhaps the best mat-makers in the valley. The burza, or paper birch, grows at high elevations from 9,000 to 13,000 feet, and is of great importance to the Kashmirfs. The bark, known as bhoj pattar, is used to perform the duties of rough paper, and the roofs of all the better class of houses and of shrines are formed of birch bark on which a thick layer of earth is laid. The stems of hookahs are lined with it. Village shopkeepers always use it for writing-paper. Snuff, sugar and tea are wrapped up in bhoj pattar. Many of the old manuscripts are written on birch bark. Art-ware sent down to India is usually packed in this useful substance, which is at once strong and impervious to water. This last quality renders it an admirable material for roofing, and it is much to be regretted that this useful tree is not protected from the destructive herdsmen. For extracting the bark an instrument like a tin opener is used. The operator cuts a vertical line in the tree which pierces seven coatings of bark, then two horizontal rings are cut and the bark is stripped off. It is said that if the incision is limited to seven layers the tree recovers and will again make new bark. Koin grows along the banks of rice fields, and provides an excellent rope for agricultural purposes and also fibre for chapUs. The koin grass forms the bed on which the Kashmiri Hindii is ushered into the world and on which he dies. 70 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. Fikal is chiefly used for interlacing the stakes of irrigation weirs. — "" — It is able to stand the action of water. The bren, or elm, gives from its young shoots an excellent fibre, rough but very strong and used for ropes. The kats which flourishes in all parts of the valley, together with the lun and the pok, furnish in their pliant branches materials for the useful and universal kilta or creel and for wattle fences. The outer covering of the hangar or chauffemain of Kashmir is frequently made of poh or luni. The vir, or willow, grows in every village of Kashmir where there is water or moisture, and its reproduction is very simple. There is an enormous waste of withies every year, as the! young wands are cut down for fodder and after being stripped of their leaves are burnt for fuel. I have suggested that a Kashmiri should be sent to England to learn the basket industry. There is ample material in the valley to supply the whole of India with excellent baskets and chairs. 5. Fodders. — The people of Kashmir depend very much for their comfort on milk and wool, and in the severe winter plough- and milk- cattle and sheep are penned in the byres which form the lower story of the Kashmir house. The straw of rice and the stalks of maize furnish a portion of the fodder required for the winter months, but this has to be supplemented, and nature has been very bountiful in supplying food for cattle and sheep. In September one sees various kinds of maimed trees bearing in their forks the fodder which has been cut for winter use. Of the trees used for fodder the chief are as follows : — Salix ( Vir). This is the best of sheep fodders, and the willow is cultivated almost entirely with a view to providing food for sheep. There are varieties of willows, and the mountain willow is much prized as a cattle fodder. The Indian chestnut, Aesculus indica {Ddn), the Cotoneaster sp. lun, the hawthorn ring, poplars, phrast, are always lopped to provide cattle-fodder in the winter. In the spring the tender shoots of Ulmus Wallichiana form a favourite food of the buffalo. Kashmir is rich in grasses, and the boundaries of the rice fields furnish a fine crop of hay every year. This hay is twisted into long ropes, which are suspended from trees. This protects the hay from the weather. In the higher villages fields are set apart for hay {lao), and the hay is made and stacked in the Engli.sh fashion. The best grasses are the beran,lundr,jab, bataklut (clover) and methi (Trigonella Foenum-graecum). There is a poisonous clover which is very deadly to cattle before flowering, though innocuous to horses, and there is a grass known as kungi (Stipa sibirica) which produces a curious intoxicating effect on horses and other cattle, and unless remedies are applied the kungi often proves fatal. FLORA. 71 (Two remedies are employed : tjjp animal's head is placed over dense Chap. IV. smoke, and, if this fails, acid fruit and vinegar administered internally *^ sometimes give relief) The cattle of the country seem aware of its poisonous effects and do not touch it. The swamps of Kashmfr produce some valuable fodder plants, and in the . summer one sees ponies deep in the water grazing upon the marsh plants. The most valuable of the swamp fodders is the nari, a kind of reed, which is either eaten green or is stored away for the winter. It is considered an excellent food for horses, and the State stables use no other. The khur (Limnanthemum nymphoides) is a round-leafed swamp plant, much valued as a food for cows. It is said to increase the yield of milk. The tari grass is also a valuable fodder for horses, and the habbal grass (the dub grass of India) is very common and much prized as a fodder. Among other grasses should be mentioned the spurious rice, hdma (Panicum colonum), which is alluded to in the chapter on agriculture. This is one of the most fattening horse foods in the country. The durhdma (Sorghum halepense) is regarded as poisonous till it comes into flower, but its poisonous properties then depart and it is one of the best cattle fodders. Rye (Secale cereale) grows wild in the wheat fields and is used as a fodder. It is sometimes cultivated for thatching purposes. No rats will go near it. The Kashmiris call it French wheat. 6. Foods and Fruits. — Under this head I have decided to eliminate the important water-chestnut and the walnut, and they will be described in the chapter on agriculture. In that chapter I have also mentioned the wonderful wealth of food given by the wild plants of the Dal lake. But as these plants occur on other lakes and swamps I shall at the risk of repetition enumerate them here. I should further preface my remarks on the foods and fruits yielded by indigenous plants in Kashmfr by the observation that it is impossible to mention all plants that are used for food. I can only mention those plants which are in common use, and cannot find space for the numerous products of the swamps and forests which were eagerly devoured in the famine time. There is a superstition in Kashmir that plants like the kdmbe (Solanum nigrum), trer, kuna and kreri, which were largely eaten in 1877-79, only appear when famine is imminent, and from all accounts experiments were made in that awful calamity with nearly every plant in the valley. One plant known as brdri caused many deaths. Krdla mundu (Capsella Bursa-pastoris) ; bera muji (Um- bellifer); koi kok, a turnip-rooted Umbellifer; throh (Barbarea sp.), and many others which cannot be identified, were greedily eaten by the starving. On the lakes and swamps we find the following food plants growing wild : — 72 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR Chap. IV. Water-chestnut Water-lily . Sacred lotus Sweet flag Reed mace Trapa bispinosa Singhdra and gai-i. Euryale ferox Jewdr. Nymphaea stellata .... Bumposh. Nymphaea alba. Nelumbium speciosum . . Pamposh or Pambach. Acorus Calamus. Typha sp Pits. The singhdra will be described in the chapter on agriculture. The jewdr gives a soft, sweet seed which is eaten raw or roasted. The bumposh provides from its fragrant white flowers a pleasant sharbat, and from its stem a relishable vegetable. The pamposh gives a sweet nut, while its stem is the white nadru which the Kashmiri's stew with meat. From the pollen of the pits the dal nabdd or lake sweetmeat is made, and the root of the pits is also eaten. In the streams the familiar watercress (Nasturtium officinale) ndg bubr is found. In every field the bright blue flower of the Cichorium Intybus (handiposh) is seen, and people value it as a vegetable. The plant is often cultivated in the gardens. Phytolacca acinosa and Megacarpaea polyandra [chattr) form useful potherbs, while Nepeta raphanorhiza furnishes an excellent root which would rival the radish if it were cultivated. The outer skin comes off easily and has the flavour of a radish. The inner part is milk- white, delicious to eat, somewhat like a good almond. Rheum [pombahak) grows at high elevations, and gives a rhubarb which is, in my opinion, far more delicate and delicious than the cultivated rhubarb. Sehbargi (Oxalis corniculata) mixed with mint makes a delicious, some- what acid chutney. Polygonum polystachyum (tsok laddar) and Polygonum rumicifoHum {rumach) provide a vegetable quite equal to the finest English rhubarb, and not so acid. Rumex {aibij) is picked and dried for winter use, and is much valued as a potherb. Another Rumex, probably R. acetosa {kakutari), is employed as an acid vegetable. The young leaves of the red poppy (gulala) are much esteemed as a vegetable. They are known as tanyal. Chaerophyllum sp. (Kev) is looked upon as an excellent substitute for carrots both by the herdsmen and by the red bears. Wild onions {prdn), the wolikot, which resembles the national vegetable (the karam sdg\ the hopal (Dipsacus inermis), the pamsal, and the leaves of the wan ruhan are largely eaten. Wata krim (Lychnis sp.) makes an excellent sweet potherb. The roots of the zergogal, a turnip-ro.oted Umbellifer, give a warm food. Chaun- charu, the adder's tongue, is said to be extremely pungent as a vegetable. Drab (Polygonum sp.) is eaten boiled with milk. Chari hak (Campanula sp.) is a warm potherb. The bark of the yew, Taxus baccata (posthil), not FLORA. 73 long ago, when tea was a luxury anly enjoyed by the few, was regularly Chap. iv. used by the Kashmiris in the place of tea, and was largely exported to " Laddkh. In the famine the bark was ground into flour and consumed by the people. Venna (Mentha) is a sweet herb somewhat like peppermint, and is sometimes used by the Hindus as a substitute for the tulsi. The valley or rather the mountains of the valley are rich in fungi, and the people assure me that the English distrust of the huge, coral-like excres- cences which cover the forest trees is uncalled for, and numerous fungi are eaten by the Kashmiris with no evil results. Our mushroom, Agaricus sp. (hedur), is common, and the morel (Morchella sp., kanaguchi) abounds in the mountains and forms an important export to India. It is an ex- cellent addition to a stew, and it is surprising that it is not more frequently used by the European visitors. Hydnum coralloides and Agaricus flam- mans, known to the people respectively as kdho khur and silri or sMri, are highly thought of by the natives. Agaricus flammans is only found on the bark of the elm, while Hydnum coralloides affects rotten wood and the burnt-out hollows of Picea Morinda. Mazkhel, which is found on the walnut, pine and mulberry, sometimes weighs two pounds and is an excellent fungus. Of the ferns the ded is dried and eaten in the winter. It is like bracken in appearance and is considered a good and healthy food. Of the fruits of Kashmir, the following are indigenous and are found in all parts of the valley. Their fruit is not so good as that of the cultivated trees, but it is by no means to be despised, and though the Kashmiri's always speak of the wild fruit as bears' food {hapat kheun), I notice that they do not scorn to eat the apples and pears : — Mulberry Moras sp Tul. Bitter cherry . . . Prunus Cerasus Alucha. Plum Prunus communis .... Ar. Apple Pyrus Malus ...... Tsunt. Pear Pyrus communis .... Tang. Vine Vitis vinifera Dach. Walnut Juglans regia Dun. Pomegranate . . . Punica Granatum .... Dan. The following list contains the chief indigenous plants which grow wild in Kashmir and yield an edible fruit : — Raspberry Blackberry Bramble . Strawberry Gooseberry Red currant Black currant Rubus niveus . . . . . Chdnch. Rubus fruticosus . . . . Dhdn chdnch Rubus lasiocarpus . . . . Sur chdnch. Rubus saxatilis . . . . . Popai. Fragaria vesca . . . . . Ingra. Ribes Grossularia. Ribes rubrum. Ribes nigrum . . . L . . Hdrgil. 74 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. Bird cherry . Barberry . . . Prunus Padus . . . Berberis Lycium . Elaeagnus . . Beam tree . . . Elaeagnus parvifolia . Pyrus lanata . • . Hazel . . . Guelder . . . . Corylus Colurna . Viburnum foetens . Ztimb. Kdoddch. „ , , , r Like the kdoddch but Chuktphal. i^ith red berries. Gaun. Mailiang. [ Tree found at high eleva- Chirain < tion with a slightly acid ( berry. Virin. Kulntanch (honey flower). As regards these fruits, I would only say that the raspberry and the currants are, in my opinion, equal to the cultivated varieties of Europe. The black currant is identical with our English black currant. The red currant is similar in flavour, but there is a difference in the arrangement of the berries. I have only seen hazel-nuts of a small size, but travellers say that on the slopes of the Pir Panjdl they have met with excellent filberts. 7. Hair-washes.— The Kashmiris take some pains with their hair, and besides using butter and oil they employ the following plants :— To strengthen the hair they use the powdered roots of a plant known as zonir, mixed with butter. To destroy insects they use washes made from Euphorbia Thomsoniana {hirhi) and from Aconitum sp. [inanirah dag). To induce a curliness in the hair they employ a wash made from Corydalis Falconeri {dt nit). 8. Medicines. — The hakims of Kashmir, the native physicians, attri- bute some property to every plant, and when I have made inquiries as to the various herbs which I have seen in the valley and on the hill-sides, I am always told that they are hot and good for cold humours, cold and good for hot humours, dry and beneficial to damp humours, damp and beneficial to dry humours. The Panjabfs employed in my department, usually inclined to despise all Kashmiri methods, show great respect for the hakims, and have told me of wonderful cures effected by the herbs of the valley. I give below a list of the more common medicinal herbs : — Scientific name. Kashmiri. Uses. Aconitum heterophyllum . Hyoscyamus niger . . . Macrotomia Benthami . Viola serpens .... Patis or Nar-Mdda . Bagar bhang . . . Gdo sabdn .... Banafsha .... Root, tonic. Much exported. Regarded by Kashmiris as an excellent substitute for quinine. Fetches one rupee per seer. Leaves and seeds exported. Used for the heart. Also called nuna posh or salt flowers, as they used to be exchanged for their weight in salt. FLORA. 75 Scientific name. Kasnmiri. Uses. Artemisia Tetwdn Largely exported. Peganum Harmala . . . ' Isband Employed in rheumatism and colds, also to avert the evil eye. Euphorbia Thomsoniana . Pichorhiza Kurrooa . . Hirbi Roots, purgative. Choh-i-kor .... Much exported, a bitter root and tonic used in Kashmir for horses. Berberis Lycium . . . Kdoddch A remedy for cholera, is astrin- gent. Senecio Jacquemontiana . Khalar. Salvia sp Sholra Used for bringing boils to a head. Chap. IV. Podophyllum emodi, Colchicum luteum, and Atropa Belladonna are common in Kashmir, but they are not used in medicine. The following list contains the most important of the indigenous medicines of Kashmir not already mentioned. I give the Kashmiri names and where possible the scientific names, together with the property of each plant : — Kashmiri. A bast ... Hantesha bahar Wanprdn . . Krits .... Kakilipot . . Bobuna . . . Sot .... Sosan . . . Brarigasa . . Kalavoint . . Mantsaran . . Gewihir . . . Wedang . . Mowal . . . Nunar . . . Lisa .... Janiddafn . . Zadibabr . . Rangarichh . Taritus . . . Pahand . . . Maniphal . . Krotha . . . Pala mdnz Mitsari Kund Abuj .... Hunak dun . Sutsal . . . Scientific name. Mirabilis Jalapa spread from cultivation Allium sp Dioscorea deltoidea . . . Cuscuta sp Cotula anthelmintica . . . Urtica dioica Iris sp Labiate Adiantum Capillus Veneris . Action. Salvia sp. Aesculus indica . Malva rotundifolia Seeds used as astringent. Used internally as antiphlogistic. Stimulant, expectorant. Diuretic, dose i dram. Poison in large dose. Laxative. Stomachic, considered good for rheumatism. Diuretic. Stimulant, expectorant. Anthelmintic. Antineuralgic. Antidysenteric, used in men- orrhagia. Expectorant. Anthelmintic. Seeds used as demulcent. Styptic internally. Expectorant. Diuretic. Expectorant. Seeds emetic. Diuretic. Do. Emetic. Used in renal calculus. Internally used in herpes. Diuretic. Astringent. Cathartic. Expectorant. L 3 76 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. Kashmiri. Tsari latshaj Sazaposh . Tromba . . Boin . . . Kawa dachh mul Tsoka ladar . . Ziri gogul . . . Most Bamtsunt . . . Botajat. . . . Shahtarr . . . Gulala . . . Mora kachh . Jugi padshah . Zakhmihayat. Bombiposh . . Pambachh . . Kambai . . . Gula . . . . Punda ndst Mangal . . Sooi . . . Gugar Kund Sulai . Gurgds Butvir Gandalinu . Dand lidar Sarpang Wan bubr . Pahltnund . Halkagds . Pancnpatri . Sheoramgds Sunt Krilu Scientific name. Fagopyrum esculentum Platanus orientalis . . Pyrus Cydonia Fumaria officinalis Papaver Rhoeas . Nymphaea stellata . . Nelumbium speciosum Solanum nigrum . . Rhododendron campanula- tum Astragalus sp. Labiate Gramen Salix sp. Daphne oleoides Berberis sp. , Euphorbia sp. Mentha sp. Pyrethrum sp. Polyganum sp. Geranium sp. . Mentha sp. . . Rubus sp. . . Action. Antiperiodic. Internally as antiphlogistic. Anodyne. Capsules used internally in oph- thalmia. Used as gargle in toothache. Astringent. Diuretic. Stomachic. Demulcent. Stomachic. Used internally in skin diseases; cooling sharbat for fevers. Cardiac tonic. Soporific. Internally as antiphlogistic. Internally in ulcer. Antiperiodic. Nervine tonic. Antiperiodic. Styptic internally. Used as snuff for headache. Internally in skin diseases. Stomachic. Root used for toothache, also for tooth-brushes. Used as an eyewash. Leaves pounded applied exter- nally for snake bites or pan- ther wounds. Leaves bitter, employed as a cooling remedy for fevers, as a local application to the feet. Good for colic in horses and tumours. Root good for horses. Good for scurvy and skin dis- eases, used both internally and externally. Dried powdered leaves good for wounds inflicted by the bear. Root good for toothache. Good for saddle sores. Good for burn wounds. Good for sword wounds. Good for dropsy. 9. Poisons. — Among the poisons may be mentioned : — Impatiens Roylei Trul. Aconitum Napellus Mohundguji. Datura Stramonium Ddtur. Hyoscyamus niger Bdgar bang. Atropa lutescens. Rhus acuminata Arkhor. FLORA. 77 The seeds of the Datura Strsyinonium of Kashmir have been largely Chap. iv. exported of late years, and Panjibi dealers give Rs. 5 per maund. I have — ^ — not been able to ascertain for what purpose they are exported. 10. Scents. — The folloviring plants are valued as scents : — The sweet- scented lousewort, Pedicularis brevifolia (kasturi), grows at an elevation of 11,000 feet and has a delicious odour, but not of musk. The roots of Jurinea macrocephala {gogal dhup) are largely exported to India, where they are used by Hindus, and the dried plants and roots of Morina longifolia (Jiandcher or khandif) are esteemed by the Ladakhis as an incense. The most important of the aromatic plants of Kashmir is the Saussurea Lappa {kui). This plant grows at high elevations from 8,000 to 9,000 feet, and is more especially abundant on the mountains of the northern end of the valley. The root, which has a scent hke orris with a slight blend of violets, is extracted in the summer by the shepherds and herdsmen. Every year a large amount of the roots of the Saussurea Lappa is demanded by the State, and the villagers are obliged to bring a certain weight, for which they receive Rs. 4 per kharwar from the State. The root, which is known as chob-i-kot, is exported to India, and at present the monopoly in chob-i-kot is farmed out to a contractor for Rs. 45,000 per annum. The root loses weight by drying, but it is believed that the price obtained in Bombay, whence the chob-i-kot is exported to China, allows of a very hand- some profit. In China the root is used for incense in the Joss houses, and is also used in India for clearing wells. It is an excellent remedy for preserving clothes from insects, and is much used in perfumery. As a medicine it has many properties, tonic, aromatic and stimulant, and it is useful in cough, asthma, fever, dyspepsia and skin disease. It has also been used as an ingredient in a stimulating mixture for cholera, and has been applied in cases of toothache and rheumatism. From Bombay and Calcutta the root finds its way to China and the Red Sea. It is very easy to adulterate chob-i-kot, and its perfume is so strong that ao seers of the real drug will flavour 100 seers of spurious root. It is stated that in 1864 the Kashmir State obtained nearly Rs. 90,000 from the sale of chob-i-kot. The present revenue of Rs. 45,000 compares unfavourably with the revenue of 1864, but it is believed that prices have fallen, that a large quantity of the root is now imported into India from Afghanistan, and that undue exploitation of the chob-i-kot has led to a diminution in the supply of the plant in Kashmir. No attempts have as yet been made to cultivate the Saussurea Lappa, but experts believe that cultivation would be at once easy and profitable. Salix caprea [bed mushk) from its flowers yields an essential oil or attar much used in perfumery. The roses of Kashmir were formerly used for 78 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. the manufacture of attar, and in the Mughal times the roses and willows *^ in the gardens on the Dal lake yielded a revenue of one lakh of rupees per annum. On certain occasions, such as the recitation of a Saint's texts (kkatm), or at the funeral pyre of a wealthy Hindu, sandal-wood (tsanduni) is burnt. Many Kashmiris say that the sandal-wood grows in Kashmir, but this is impossible, and the sandal-wood used in the valley is imported. 11. Soap and Alkali. — The roots of the Aster diplostephioides {sakour) and of Dioscorea deltoidea {krits) are much used in the washing of wools, while in the manufacture of soap the alkaline ashes of the pine, elm {breti) and the amarantus [gankar) are much employed. These ashes furnish a substance known as sas, which, when mixed with mutton fat and the flour of a kind of pulse known as mah, constitutes the soap of Kashmir. Sopur was once famous for its manufacture of soap. The red beans of the labia are also much used in the washing and in the preparation of woollen fabrics. 12. Timber. — Kashmir is rich in grand forests, which produce a great variety of timbers. The most valuable timber, that of the deodar, is not very widely spread, and with the exception of a few small cedar patches along the west of the valley all the deodar forests are located in the north-west corner of Kashmir. The system of farming out timber to contractors resulted in the destruction of many fine forests in the vicinity of rivers, and tracts which the contractor has spared have suffered at the hands of the ubiquitous Gujar, who with his small axe cuts down trees partly for the sake of fodder and partly from a kind of natural instinct which impels him to make forest clearings for the sake of grass. It is a melancholy sight to see huge trees felled and left to rot, and the past administration of forests in Kashmir has been reckless and short- sighted. Dry timber is harder to cut up than green trees, and the contractor, instead of using trees which have been felled, prefers to cut down fresh ones. A department has now been formed under the supervision of a European Forest Officer, and it is to be hoped that the indiscriminate and wanton destruction of forests will cease. In a country like Kashmir, where the houses are chiefly constructed of timber, and where the greater part of the fuel consists of wood, forests must always be of great importance, and it is a matter for congratulation that the danger of scarcity of timber and fuel threatened by the thoughtless and self-interested action of tem- porary contractors will now, perhaps, be averted by the introduction of some system of forest conservancy. It should, however, be borne in mind that forests are subservient to the wants of the agricultural community, and any system of conservancy which would tend to make timber and fuel expensive to the agricultural classes is to be deprecated in a country like Kashmir. FLORA. 79 The following is a list of th%more common trees in Kashmir. It Chap. IV. is a curious fact that no oaks occur in the valley and its mountain sides, " — and I have never seen the holly or the Himalayan rhododendron : — No. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lo II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Scientific name. CedrusLibani, var. Deodara Pinus excelsa Picea Morinda Abies Webbiana .... Taxus baccata . ► . . . Aliius nitida Ulmus sp 1 „ Wallichiana . . J Prunus Padus Fraxinus floribunda . . 1 ,, Moorcroftiana . / Juglans regia Aesculus indica Corylus Colurna .... Celtis australis Crataegus Oxyacantha . . Populus nigra „ alba Acer sp Salix tetrasperma .... Viburnum foetens .... Betula utilis Parrotia Jacquemontiana . Platanus orientalis .... Morus sp Pyrus Malus „ communis .... Cotoneaster bacillaris . . Euonymus sp Zizyphus vulgaris .... RhusWallichii Juniperus excelsa. Kashmiri. Deodar or Didr . Kairu or ydr. . Kachil .... Budal or Sungal Posthal .... Sarul or Kanzal Brenn .... Zonh . Horn. Dun . . . . Hdn . . . . Virin . . . Brimij. Ring. . . . Phrast . . . Dudh Phrast . Kanar . . . Vir . . . . Kulmdnch . . Bursa . . . Poh . . . . Boin . . . . Tul . . . . Tsunt . . . Tang . . . Lun. Choi . . . . Bre . . . . Arkhor. Wutil. English. Deodar. Himalayan blue pine. Himalayan spruce. Himalayan silver fir. Yew. Alder. Elm. Bird-cherry. Ash. Walnut. Indian horse-chestnut. Hazel. Hawthorn. Italian poplar. White poplar. Maple. Willow. Guelder. Birch. Witch Hazel. Plane. Mulberry. Apple. Pear. Spindle tree. Jujube. I. The best of all timber is that produced by the deodar. It is much in request for houses, boats and bridges, and it seems to be impervious to water. The old shrines, some of great age, are made of deodar, and the great Juma Masjid of Srlnagar, with its lofty shafts of cedar, is said to have been constructed of timber cut from the Tashawan Forest. The Tashawan Forest is now part of the city lying on the left bank of the river between the Fatteh and Zaina bridges. It is interesting to notice that isolated deodars are found at low elevations in many parts of the valley, where they resemble in growth the cedar of Lebanon. It is probable that in old days the deodar was spread all over the valley, but the building requirements of Srlnagar soon exhausted the deodar forests in the vicinity of the city. At present, with the single exception of the forests of the north-west of the valley, there are no deodars within reach of the streams ; they have all been cut either for export to the Panjab or for local' use. Young deodar poles (hamatola) are much sought after by boatmen for poling purposes, and in former days the hop gardens were supplied 8o THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. with deodar poles. From the roots of deodar a resin is distilled, used by the herds- — M — men as an ointment for buffaloes. The mortars {kans) in which paddy is husked are usually made of deodar. 2. The blue pine (ydr or kairu) is much valued as a timber for house building. It lasts for a long time. The white resin of the pine [kanglan) is used by the natives as an application to wounds and for medical purposes, and from the roots of the tree a kind of black pitch is distilled known as Mam. Men who work in the rice fields anoint their legs and arms with kilam in order to protect themselves against the kirza, or water insects, which are troublesome. Sheep are marked with the kilam. The jfaV furnishes the people of the higher villages with light, and every house stores up a quantity of pine shavings which are made into excellent torches {lashi). Many a pine tree is hacked into for torches, and if it does not contain sufficient oil is left to die. The ydr yields an excellent charcoal much esteemed by the blacksmiths of Kashmir. 3. The Himalayan spruce {rayil or kachil) furnishes a timber much used in house building. The wood, although largely employed for shingles, is not durable when exposed to wet. Excellent planks for indoor work are obtained from the spruce. The young cones of the spruce are used in the manufacture of a drug known as gas pipal. 4. The silver fir (budal) is preferred by the Kashmiris to the spruce. It is easier to work, as it is free from knots, and it is more durable than the spruce. It is very suitable for joists. Both the spruce and the silver firs grow to an enormous height. Trees have been measured no feet long with a girth of 16 feet. The people have an idea that land on which the silver fir has grown will never repay cultivation. 5. Yew [posthal) is not valued as a timber for house building. I imagine that it does not lend itself to the Kashmiri methods of cutting all timber with the axe, but for small work like the legs of a bed, &c., the yew is useful. 6. The alder grows by river banks up to 7,000 feet. As a timber the alder is valued for furniture and ploughs and it yields an excellent fuel. Its twigs are used for rope bridges and its bark is employed in dyeing and tanning. 7. 8. The elm is found at all elevations up to 9,000 feet and is a favourite tree for shrines. It attains a great height and girth. In one village, Rahama of Hamal, I measured two elms. At 5 feet from the ground one had a circumference of 33 feet 6 inches, the other 35 feet i inch. The Hindus regard the elm as sacred to Ganpati, but the Musalmans use the tree for making trays {tattul), ploughs, for building, for fuel. The ashes of burnt elm have alkaline properties. The young shoots of the tree are much esteemed as a food for buffaloes. The elm abounds in the Lolab valley. 9. The bird-cherry is used for spinning-wheels. 10, 11. The ash furnishes a strong, useful timber much prized by agriculturists for implements, more especially the handles of ploughs. Boatmen esteem the wood for paddles. 12. The timber of the walnut is in great demand for furniture, gunstocks, ploughs and spinning-wheels, but it is difficult to procure the dark-grained wood. Walnuts are to be found in every village, from an elevation of 5,500 to 7,500, but in many places the old trees are showing signs of decay, and in few cases do the people make any effort towards reproduction. Some account of the walnut will be found in the chapter on agriculture, but it may be mentioned here that the wild and FLORA. 8i indigenous walnut of the forests yields a>nut which by boiling is made to yield oil. Chap. IV. Kashmir is well suited to the culture of walnuts, and steady pressure should be — " — brought to bear on the people to replace their old trees. The mistletoe (ahalu) attaches itself to the walnut and the people make no attempt to remove it. They say that it would be cruel to rob the bulbul of its favourite food. The walnut tree attains a great size. Three trees in the village of Tikar, at 5 feet from the ground, had a circumference respectively of 14 feet 11 inches, 15 feet 2 inches and 16 feet 4 inches: One tree which I measured at Goglusa had a circumference of 18 feet 10 inches. 13. The timber of the Indian horse-chestnut is much used for furniture, for pattens and spoons. 14. The hazel is used for making spinning-wheels and for spoons. The large spoon in which tea is ladled out is always made of hazel. 15. The brimij is usually found in graveyards and in the vicinity of shrines, where it sometimes grows to a magnificent tree. I measured one tree in Andrhama (Lolab) ; at 5 feet from the ground it had a circumference of 9 feet 3 inches. When brimij can be obtained from places not consecrated it is always used for the yokes (yiput) of plough cattle, as it is a soft, cool wood. 16. The hawthorn is chiefly used for the roller employed in oil presses, and for the pestle with which paddy is husked. The wood is very hard. 17, 18. The poplar is not esteemed for its timber. Poor people however use it for house building, more especially in the city. The poplar grows at all elevations from 5,ogo to 7,500 feet. It is spoken of by the Kashmiris as the minister of the kingly plane tree. There are several varieties in Kashmir, and the Kabuli phrast is a very beautiful tree with white bark and. silvery leaves. There are fine avenues of poplar near Srinagar, Islamabad and Baramula, and it is usually stated that the Mughals introduced the poplar. Near shrines the beautiful Kabuli phrast is always found, and one of the most charming objects in Kashmir is the grand grove of poplars at the entrance to Gurais valley. The Gurais poplar is Populus alba and attains to a great height, one having been measured 127 feet in height with a girth of 14J feet. 19. The maple grows at high elevations. Its wood is valued for making ploughs. Maple yields an excellent fuel, but so far no saccharine matter has ever been extracted from this tree. I shall allude elsewhere to the question of introducing the sugar maple in Kashmir. The golden foliage of the maple makes a charming contrast to the dark green of the firs and other trees of high altitudes. 20. The willow is not valued for its timber, but good light pattens are made of it. As a fuel it is not esteemed highly, but it is cheap and plentiful. The valuable withies of the willow are practically wasted in Kashmir, and there is an abundance of material ready for chair and basket making. 22. The birch grows at such a distance from the habitations of man that hitherto its elastic timber has not been much used. It gives an excellent fuel. 23. Poh supplies a good hard wood for the pestles {mohl) with which rice is husked. Poh poles are also used for the rafters of houses, and in. the absence of deodar poles I have used poh in the hop-garden. Poh is, however, very inferior to deodar as a hop-pole. 24. The boin or chenar is a royal tree, and, like the walnut, belongs to the State. Its reproduction by cuttings is a very simple matter, and of late years I am glad to say that people have planted many chenars in the villages. As a shade tree the chenar is unrivalled, and when the soil is suitable and water is near its roots it M 82 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. attains a magnificent size. In their old age the chenars decay, and many fine trees — M — in the Nasim Bagh are hollowed out. The Kashmiris consider 300 years to be the age limit of the chenar, but long after the tree goes at the top vigorous growth is seen from the buttress of boles with which the chenar surrounds itself The finest tree is said to be the Langar boin in the Chenar Bagh. One boled giant I measured in the Lolab had a circumference of 63 feet 5 inches at a height of about 5 feet from the ground. The chenar is especially valued for making oil presses, and its fine- grained wood is used for small boxes. It would be suitable for furniture. Its wood and charcoal are considered the best fuel in Kashmir. The seeds of the chenar seem to be in most instances sterile, but I know of a few trees which give good seed. On the banks of the Jhelum river, for two marches below Bdramula, may be seen numerous chenars banking up the river, originating from the seed that is carried down by the streams. A similar phenomenon may be seen on the Srinagar-Gulmarg road between Magam and Rerum. Like the poplar the chenar is said to have been introduced by the Mughals. 25. The mulberry wood is chiefly used by the natives for the doors of shrines and for ploughs. Europeans have employed it in boat-making, and its pliability would make it suitable for bent-wood furniture. It yields an excellent fuel, but the mulberry may not be cut down, as the tree is preserved for the purposes of seri- culture. This prohibition is wise, as apart from its potential value in sericulture, the mulberry yields an enormous amount of food to the people and to cattle and sheep. The leaves are especially valued as a sheep fodder. The mulberry lives to a great age and attains fine dimensions. One measured by me in Andrhama (Lolab) at 5 feet from the ground had a circumference of 23 feet. 26. The apple gives a good timber for ploughs. It yields a first-rate fuel. 28. The lun furnishes excellent alpenstocks. 29. The chol is now a somewhat rare tree, growing at high elevations from 6,000 to 7,000 feet, and its wood is highly valued as a material for the famous pen boxes of Kashmir and for tablets in lieu of slates at school. 30. The bre gives a hard red-coloured wood, and the richer people of Kashmir esteem the bre for chairs, lintels and hair combs. In many of the shrines the lintels are made of bre. The tree grows at Drogjan near Srinagar, but is not common. 31. No carpenter in Kashmir will meddle with the poisonous arkhor. The sap of the green wood is said to cause terrible weals or blisters if touched. Wax for candles is said to be made from the berries of this tree in Japan, but the Kashmiris make no use of the seed. 32. The wutil is a tree with red berries. Its wood is used for spoons and combs. 13. Yeast. — The jawen or wild thyme is commonly employed for khamir or leaven. The Kashmfrfs use other plants for khamir, and the celebrated bread of Pampur is made from a leaven which is kept a strict secret. 1 4. Adulterants. — The bark of the yew and the roots of the strawberry are used as a substitute for, or adulterant of tea. The dried leaves of the Rhododendron campanulatum {yung patr) are mixed with snuff to increase the sternutatory action. The seeds of Daucus Carota {mor mujh) are used as an adulterant of carraway seeds. Many roots are used as adulterants of the valuable FLORA. 83 chob-i-kot (Saussurea Lappa). Th^ chief are the roots of Salvia lanata, Chap. IV. Ligularia sp. and Aconitum sp. — "~~ These hsts of plants possessing some economical uses are by no means exhaustive, and I have only mentioned the plants which have been pointed out to me by the villagers. There are many other plants which would be of interest to the economical botanist. Most books on Kashmfr mention the great variety of the Flora of the valley, but so far as I know no list of plants has yet been published. By thckindness of my friend Mr. J. F. Duthie, the Director of the Botanical Survey of Northern India, I am enabled to furnish a list of the plants which may be found in the neighbourhood of Gulmarg. The list omits perhaps some of the more common plants which occur at Gulmarg and at many of the other margs of Kashmfr, but it will be of use and interest to visitors who come to ramble in the beautiful dells and mountain lawns which surround Gulmarg, and may serve as a good basis for future investigation. The plants marked A have been added by Dr. Aitchison, CLE. M 2 84 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. 2 g p. 1 A. A. A small insignificant-looking plant, and very local. Abundant, becoming more dwarf at the higher elevations. Very handsome, and showy. A . Tall, handsome, with large white flowers, worthy of cultivation. Very handsome. Closely allied to one of the English Buttercups (R. acris). Common in England. A characteristic marg plant at Gulmarg. Very showy. A. 1 Amongst scrub Amongst bushes Forest Stony ground Forest Above forest Forest Marg Rocks Birch forest High margs Damp ground Still water Forest Margs Wet rocks Water- courses High margs ° a S s o s 5- White Yellow White Dingy purple White Greenish White Blue, yellow and white Fls. woolly White Yellow ' Yellow ' Yellow White Yellow Lilac, white and yellow Light blue Purplish with deeper- coloured veins s4 tl ■ • a |l s 5-7.O0O 6-7,000 8-9,000 8-9,000 8-9,000 9-11,000 8-9,000 8-12,000 11-13,000 11-12,000 11-12,000 8-12,000 10-12,000 8-10,000 10-12,000 8-10,000 11,000 4J a at I Meadow rue Pheasant's eye Marsh marigold Columbine Larkspur a u 1 1 Clematis montana. Ham. ..... „ orientalis, L Thalictrum foliolosum, DC „ minus, L „ pedunculatum, Edgew. . . „ alpinum, L Anemone Falconeri, Thoms „ obtusiloba, D. Don .... „ tetrasepala, Royle .... Adonis Chrysoscyathus, Hook. f. & T. . Ranunculus laetus, Wall „ aquatilis, L., var. trichophyllus „ diffusus, DC „ hirtellus, Royle .... „ hyperboreus, Rotlb. . . . „ pensylvanicus, L Caltha palustris, L., var. alba . . . Trollius acanlis, Lindl Aquilegia vulgaris, L., and varieties . . Delphinium denudatum, Wall. . . . „ cashmeriannm, Royle . . FLORA. 85 Chap. IV. > tn O O .s § s o a s o U « ^ << i? zi S M H u> o " s^& o ° n S ° o o I, o « rt o O Blue or jreenish blue right blue U.2 13 a It How bite hite hite ilac hite hite >le or Ute ^Si. i? >- ^eS ts u >-(S ^^^^^ CM m a] n K X W XK ffiK w K. KK XXKXK awK , tntn 08 H O 0000 "00 >. . . |3 ST S C rt J3 s >! 13 S o S 'O a a O o EdH D O Q .2 S CA U 5.2 ^ 3,2 < ° „.2 u M— ja ja « fe o D-.S J2 •> J b u ■-^ > •'-^ j5 c .ti ^ ;3 'S cl - 3 ■ m tn tiihiH X XX xxxx XX XXX X X X X o ^ a o o o o o C) « o c* 1 1 1 oil . e o S c4 t3 < u s 3 s s ■= It; a u (X, ^s S'-S « ^ wo •a tag A4 a ptj 3 »s HO nrJ .. S " cs 3 S ol O .« "C ° 3 a 3 5 :; o P ^ •s I a i a 3 U g a 3 FLORA. 87 g Chap. IV. ^S 11 3 Ul .11 SO .£3 .a *J T3 m EJ U) s s c b " ^ JJ 3 •s^ gj3 ^J 'Soli " H a 2 {ZJ^PhCOI-^SoCX B 5 ^^ S S ^ ^ ^^ 3^ 5 .-S ^-i r^^ PU 4) C/3 £ CO s in KK X xx m K PhPhPh SPIkPhPhCIh hhhh I 1 00 00 ci qj ^ y « J3 g'3 ►. §"0 13 S? 5 ■a ^ g c)^^ M) si ■H ? S|£ crip rt.S ri ■c- . •^ « - I §1 2 aj « C3 S^ EA U K Lri B O O Q S M r^e- u d Jg^ "3 ^3 ■c ■ .0 O « r-^ .ap^ ■- T as Is 1-3 ^ « 5 K cn 4-> o s 1 ^ri »f a C .3 «^ i g s .J^ g f§^ 1 ^ 88 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. JS i is c 0) I 3 I o ►J o ;Ih(Ih o o o fedi So 0.2 P^ 01 O) ^j o ° o S g g o U2 OJ 0) ty3 s e ll ^ CA B S COM U HH Yellow Yellow Purple White Yellow MS Si Q 4i fr Pi Red Yellow Yellow Yellow Purple EKWWW g eg 5 eg H. Shrub Small shrub Small shrub Small shrub .^ .JS o 4S o. •2t; M iz; "So a ^ (/I qj O rt o ^. O 3'C P.S 5 ■« C1.T3 spq i = 5 a Ken •S, < =0 id ■^OT 4) -i S^. . 3 a B O.B ■^ o s S IS'.i 8 WpvS 3 •c «^ -c o S .a 2 O pi' S 5 ON ONck" e- I (U . o N g g" •■I i-i. o 05 T- d 2 S-P| •1^ .SSu o « w 3 O O .1 c3 ^ ^ bid rt 3 Si: rt w OS'S 3 as rt.Sa OQ > FLORA. 89 s-^ ^•s •c ■a Chap. IV. :S a .t!cn .3^ ■a-g 55 ■C;S s , „ o J ^ •a 'a o tj P o o o PL,1C .2 S -IJ u c "■ Si tj o "" ''J G "?« o pp .2 3 g S : a » 1-1 33 g PL, J2 O a S Oh CO 1-1 "3 ■ v-3 . bn.a §|cn -S^ U 1-1 ? ■ a a, .ti p s o ■»-• b/j D^ o S § a a a .?i-l 11 if .Si u 1 j: a 4 U) S i = N go THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. 4-> OJ ■pa y\< g ^ ^ a — CO ^ g.s ^ P 13 ""^ T3 O Sf £^ s w a a 1= ra 4> CO ba g-g u 1) .:*: o S bjotzi h^ [1.(1. ii f-'S p< & 0-° •^ c " Mo o «« o a (1) .£3 i! j^ H m c d o jj g •S ■S u «i « rrt .■tj .■y .ti ."tJ 5 vM 3 .-s.S ^ (S ■■^=1 .5 1) s -fi •- .5 J3 Silo o ■O.t! 2 a; H U3 HH 5 Eg e CO III S III |x||Z| III J3 J3 e e to CO S Iz; o d -e K J3 1 H J3 .2 f§ Ph o o o o o o o o o o o o I m •D ■ J ^ w' o >> rt M^ O V? (« Q « J a^ s J"a S,s u O -a o .2" ^ O. 'Oi ^ K 'S o .W .a oi J3 i! MCO ^ ^ •g PM P!i 4 I ii ^ o ■s'S a*i-« s -s - CO FLORA. 91 c o u > Chap. IV. ■3 s= St3 a.l ^•3'E- » 1 S ■2:2 ='-a = .3 2 i "% > § I a s a s«. '^ ^ ^ ««; f^pi St3 |i< ^^^ o o . Sxl If. to m J3 i» M ^ I S N a 92 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. to a W ~ > J2 < S S -a K/< J3 (U 2 ^ C! < p5 e %~ o tit U a O o g S ■» 3 Si °> s s ^■2 O o m 1n O 1° o ^ u S.li j3 .*j .3 .+^ cj o JS O.J3 ■&. pj ^ MM ■S § "^ -s S '^ e-ssi ^ fi^Q^ £5^^ Bi o «^ in EffiS 5 S X Mm = 1 g S J3 J= o w _ ^ aj •^i^ 3^ Si B p p " j3qW5 cocncnS 2 cSn °- ^ O^CT^ o^ I I 00 00 9 o o o o UJ z £ a. .2 5^ a Ui fQ ■I s |3? s ^ S;^- iz; Scg-I d ° vill oros lium o S B£ » ^ ^-3 o-a " 0.2 a ii-= c ■C = V, U<-^ I : : -■^^ ui rt "^ 2 - rt .9 2 rt o^ g •< (i< E Q J -J S - 3 ^1-1 i^ >^ cr* G O O ^ '^ .^ m S 3 i ^ s a" c 31 Cl.i .S-i J3 < " o .S 'S. 0.0 n d « ;e « 3 s ■s ^aprifo Adox Samb £ <1 w FLORA. 93 -g j3 Chap. IV. ^ S > > 6 o 3 M j3-n ^ o a p4 ^'t. [3 uU ,Q e . t ri Cli t- > ^ ^ gj rt < >ffl IH&S c o is C =■ 3 « a ° "1 U" o.2- Sn S l> ■** ■^ 3i rt S O Sj O > • o o in .11 o S s ~ u o m ^i^ <3 C *?> . 0-3 Pi "3 «^ § S" ''3'S "a 'Sjj I ° S i .1 S o - ■is |i a. 2 0,rt c J »- S.2 pa oj 1>,2 In n s a S 13 en . { « JcJl-1 U O . .1.2-3 8 £<.o 6 53 w ° a s O. rt nj fS S g g g u p o OH •c s a J3 a B OJ £ 13 O .a B a J! u 94 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. o -^o a o ^ <; ^ a-s i^s hn i^ f c T3 G N S-o ? rf !* bo •c So 5 o <6 a S e .So O < '> ^ fe " OJ o 5 S M oj Ph ■ap. W HH Ph KKK |i| SSI^Sli; 5 ^ & ^ .Ti O O O > u tu lU m m 5 o. o ssii;ii;s III III XK - 5 • o . 0\ -s a fl S §0 QQJ t/3 .UU.M .M .So I' 3W9 ■2 o o i. « c8 all,
  • I^ -^ Iw J3 ".S ^ rt.5 m^ •'3 1-1 !>'(g g o.-S O E pH K K K ;- j2 J2 .a .a "3a s as OT ! J - ■2 3'° I 13 I "2 'o as 5 d e U 3 .g 96 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. J3 3 <<: "3 O s o U s "3 O o o 3 o 1-1 .2 g Kg o ^ a w c 9^ • fc^-S o.i5 3 a 3.J' 3 •3 rt B)« c« M a,0 So &« B)^ Bo S 1^3-0 S 2 5 a Si a Ctj o o -^^^ CU 3 a s 1 wm m ^ Wh with green 11 s .a _ ° ,, s > M m pq u g-g g.-| ft. W WW W W l-tn W HH HH P^ HH Dh o ■c o PL| B 3 > s '-I = p -« u u 00 oo B%^ a a -5, 2 .§! o > .2 ^ o S3 .a a .s Pl( =0 ■a.B .s a ex ^ •^ u WH B 1i "o -S -iS 3 " B a s u M a U 1 ?2 s 1.1 -3 S I (J 1-1 OT PLH 1-1 S o FLORA. 97 tf: J3 S .Q :§» ^ s B g «i 'S Go «i &■ « « g.2 Ms t" o O cn ii ■t-> B O 'C a. V, g So O O •a ^ rt cn (U Eg|20 J3 g g ^ rt T3 o O Q > ^ MM I o IS u Q ,.2 i S S w 1-1 rt O a" I -s at P 1 a TS .« a § a :a i 3 ^ 1 0. 2 i ."^ •^ CA) 0.3 > g s a 'a E g£ ^^ 1 38) Si cd - 1-9 (U o t3 O pn cn ^ CA ■s PL| ■O 98 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. _§ s o ^ •J3 aJ w a. m J3 S s la- o^ . ■a a M a'g 1= a|l fl a '^ OO ■^ ^ •S U ii a "trt >^'^ *i — ct "> ■Sl 3^ a g* p< OJ rt S >. j; P, u .a s O o rt '-' ^ W S g g g O t- O b il i 3 '3 4i^ ^ 3 .it MJ5 O p2^ HIS WMK K ffl 1|ww hM pHpHhRiIphH rHHHHH ii •8j5 -a '"s -S ■ ° >r _ -tS •3.2 rt S'*' g"© 13 3 ..;- n u a c u .S -g -3 S .S ;::::: ^ s !•§. a-o » 1^ 2 -IS'S ;> I—. S8 ^1 o ^ ^ 3 s ^ ■a S "■a > > t/l Q u ■a ■B a a M SO o ci._q a ^ s j-w o cj 2.S, » 3 '^3 j3 g 5 3^.g a =.« o a .. Bug iz; FLORA. 99 Chap. IV. c o a s o U d tJ ^^ '3 s| w -S tA T= S U ^ ja TS ^ Bo >. ■M rt fl ^^ u fn O "3 J< •o O a, O w a S fiiO' Ills llipm !i| U^n S Ph in ffiM ffi WK i « rt CU fi 3 bfl i^ O 2 roo THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. -iii J> _ ulmar colou A. at Gti iderab rst di 1884 ^^^ si^£ i2 -scrub a charmi Kashm a ui (^ u ^ (U "^ w-a i: a ofunde eld a used in arasite, ere it the Waste 3 tX4 0) * 4J T3 ormsm Leave Fibre -s •3 c3 " >■ a fl rt <; bH 13 < "*3 4) H W H S -S mS u ** S o&lw^^g,|n^ C^ few rt US S"^ bpto o « K K W W K X XX X 3 .Q in a a.a 7: •a WWK 8 o °„ o O -£ o Pi e a ^ "3 MM 7, Q. b ■3 a =2 ■n •Q S3 o -g |l 8 s Qi .0 n o X 8 g J3 1 1 FLORA. TOI ^■2 5^ ■5 "^ Chat. I\. »' a 1-4 O O O O ?? "U tn Jfi b ^ lU b; o o en J3 J3 J3 43 J3 g Ee g g E 2i a a j:] px: ^ ^ KnKntntn eg HHHH HH Ph Ph ::8 if ^w 00 o o 9 ° 9, " •a H en a o U M "" « K W " t3 3 t: I -3 I J. ■§" J ^ B 3 "o U cn O < d tn t-t u rt rt S ffi a m d •S "« to I O 0) Si CQi-l .J t? 013 a a [A S g « -a g UPLt := a < ^3 rth-l o SI?; u I02 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IV. o a o o i^ :; g-S s -Ho g .3 s a .M !U Very spi Flow a S3 o S o UtH ■^ffi QJ tn g * (L) "^ CL *J -I t5 KK •"r- "^ '^ -FH ^ Qd'5 *3 ..WO EK M III n XX i'H o ° o o o pT o\ o\ o o s Iz; :§ □ ^1 o S b .2 £ o S Iz; ■a 9 Oh o Q P a Q Q .2i-l eg q "^ So ^ in" -T ,^ o g a s M ci c ;:^ s -a a. >> O •§ .2 § -a ^ O ^ S I S re .S ■• « :S S § -^ h p. 8 .!« P K X § 3 I I II o ^^ i V '>% w o K •c ;s d d +J nn (b O FLORA. 103 O .13 Chap. IV. o s g •C S- 3 MB S 5 s u S 1 en S E3h II : i-i hi 1 0. ■a a ■TIS << .a » t/} w s a 2 - ■ ^ ■ !n"S " -D . rt • %S cS-o-l f « J2 -S O C a^ mps m su a cri >tisp nuta ° cj en ^ escha risetn oeleri ragro elica ^H fi s ri •;:■ CH«Wg pw , .. a : ' ■ i-S 0..5 ' a s > 0,-0 J- c: a ° « o - « « B a-S u) O ri ^ :: ? rt < UOCJ o FLORA. 105 Chap. IV. I o E S ca S rt n o > o St c -u.y^pii^^ (U ^ o » W >\ 2 h» Sen Eiai Sji, 2 .Mfi, [I, fx, h [1, o >a M mm S tn -^ m -° til .iT aj E S S lU E S S EESES lillilSE Eliliil S X EX K o 000 000 ^00 " o^ 000 000 o ■a < e ■a eS O ."O-M^ • 9^ •s Ji ►J rj I o -S J3 Jitf 1 1 § 1 g 1 § 3 73 i- 1 :^ e!5 ? 1i- rt" « d" S fe B O S™ - oii-B i-2.» a B a g? 1 2 "S. o <; s:^^3i s„- .1 ^ in r-- ! u □ en rij a J o 4J - ^ U n s M ja (A O " cj -t; S ff i<-> Hits 9 s b p ^» 00 CHAPTER V. FAUNA. Chap. V. THE valley of Kashmir offers great attractions to sportsmen, and, for its ^ size, possesses a large and varied animal kingdom. Facilities of communi- cation, and a rapid increase in the number of visitors who come to the valley for the purposes of sport, have had their natural result, and those who wish to make large bags must seek the distant corners of His Highness the Maharaja's territories. In 1890, the diminution in the big game of Kashmir, led the State to re-introduce rules for the preservation of bara- singh, ibex, and musk deer, which had fallen into abeyance after the death of Maharaja Ranbir Singh, and it is believed that these rules have already had a beneficial effect. The State maintains a few preserves, in which the public are not allowed to shoot without special permission, and these preserves may have tended to retard the rapid extinction of game. But the chief cause of the diminution of game, may be traced to the wholesale slaughter of hinds in the winter. When the snow lies deep, the hinds, in their stress, would approach the villages, in the hope of finding food, and the Kashmfri, in his greed for venison, would cut their throats with little scruple. Europeans, who ought to have known better, have occasionally disgraced themselves by stag-driving in the snow, and one case was reported, a few years ago, when a person killed fourteen stags, which were driven through the deep snow, past the chair on which he was comfortably seated. Driving is now prohibited, and there is every hope that the splendid stags of Kashmir will be saved from extermination. The musk deer were harried by natives and others, for the sake of their valuable musk bags, and were usually driven and caught in nets. They, too, will be protected by the rules recently framed by the Kashmir State. But, though the State is anxious to co-operate in the interests of game preservation, and recognizes that it is the sport of Kashmir which chiefly attracts the European visitors whom His Highness the Mahdrdja welcomes so FAUNA. 107 hospitably, I do not think that ga"] . Alcedo bengalensis. The Common Indian Kingfisher. Very common in all rivers and streams in Kashmir, very tame in its habits, perching on the roofs and prows of boats, often within a few feet of the boat people. Stays all the year round, breeding in holes in river banks. Plumage — head and neck dusky, the feathers edged pale blue ; a white patch on the sides of the neck ; whole back bright turquoise-blue ; wings and tail dusky greenish- blue ; some light blue specks on the wing-coverts ; beneath bright orange- brown ; bill blackish above, orange below; feet orange-red. Length about 6^ to 7 inches. 88. Ceryle rudis. The Pied Kingfisher. Common at all seasons in Kashmir. This kingfisher searches for prey on the wing, hovering over the water and then darting down on a fish ; other species watch from some fixed station, and drop obliquely on any fish they espy. Sub-Order Upupae. Hoopoes. 89. Upupa epops. The European Hoopoe. Exceedingly common in spring and summer ; breeds in holes in walls and trees. The nest emits a most abominable, carrion-like stench. The bird is said by Dr. Jerdon to be venerated by Muhammadans on account of its having been a favourite bird of king Solomon, who is said to have employed one "as a messenger. The bulk of the hoopoes disappear from Kashmir in autumn, but some certainly hibernate here. I have seen one tempted out by mild FAUNA. 137 weather which preceded snow in Jginuary, and during the severe winter of Chap. v. 189T I heard one calling faintly at 2 a.m. while a snowstorm was going on ; ~~^ the call seemed to come from some hollow in a neighbouring chenar tree. Sub-Order Meropes. Bee-eaters. 90. Merops apiaster. The European Bee-eater. Appears in great numbers in the valley in April. After keeping together in flocks and holding counsel for a day or two, they separate to breed, which they do in holes in banks. In August the birds again congregate, and may be seen sitting on telegraph wires, &c., in long lines. The migration commences almost immediately, and by September scarcely a bee-eater is left in the valley. In early September, 1891, I saw a large flock crossing Gulmarg and passing south-west. Sub-Order Caprimulgi. Night-jars. Apparently no species of Night-jar has been found in the valley up to the present date, and the Hume collection does not contain a specimen. Caprimulgus unwini may perhaps be discovered in Kashmir some day. Sub-Order Cypseli. Swifts. 91. Chaeturanudipes. Hodgson's Spine-tailed Swift. I have several times seen this splendid swift in the mountains, at from 8,000 to 10,000 feet elevation, generally in scattered flocks, wheeling and circling over some high ridge or plateau. Its flight is extraordinarily swift and powerful, and I believe that no other bird can equal the velocity it maintains in the air. One instant the flock is dashing round your head, and the next it is out of sight beyond some distant peak : suddenly again you hear the rush of wings, and the birds are wheeling round you again, and a quick — very ~ quick — shot may secure a specimen. To prevent confusion with the next species, found in similar places but not equalling it in flight, I note plumage as follows: — head, nape, upper tail-coverts, rump, wings and tail black, with a blue-green gloss ; back whity-brown, palest in the middle ; chin, throat and neck white ; lower neck, breast and tielly sooty-brown ; bill black ; feet livid purple ; irides brown. Length 8^ inches ; expanse of wings ao to 21 inches; tail feathers ending in rigid spines. g2. Cypselus melba. The Alpine Swift. Found on the Kashmir mountains. Of fast and powerful flight, but not equalling C. nudipes. Above wood- brown, glossed purple ; beneath white ; a wide pectoral band of brown. Length 9 inches; expanse 19 inches. T 138 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIr. Chap. V. 93- Cypseliis pekinensis. The Pallid Swift. Adams says this swift is — M — common in Kashmir, frequenting rocky streams, and I have seen it myself in various localities. Other swifts likely to occur in Kashmfr are : — C. affiiiis. The Common Indian Swift. C. leuconyx. The White-clawed Swift. Collocalia brevirostris. The Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet. All these have been obtained in Hazara, and may be found at any time to visit Kashmfr — a good problem to work out ! Order COCCYGES. Cuckoos. In treating of this Family the following excerpt from Dr. Jerdon's famous work may be of interest. Speaking of their well-known habit of laying their eggs in the nests of other birds, and of the young Cuckoo ejecting his foster-brethren from the nest, he remarks : — ' The cause of this peculiar habit is supposed to be that the eggs of the cuckoo are matured very slowly, and that she requires an interval of several days to elapse between the laying of each egg, and the young too require to be fed longer than the young of other birds, which circumstances combined would make it difficult for her to incubate her own eggs and rear the brood. It may be that from want of intelligence she is unable to con- struct a nest. The low development of the parts subservient to generation, the small eggs of some, and a weakening of the parental impulses which is likely to accompany this, have been supposed to afTord an explanation of their peculiar habits.' 94. Cuculus canorns. The European Cuckoo (Kashmiri, Shakuk or Kuku). Is a regular visitant to Kashmfr, arriving in May, though rarely seen in the valley proper ; the side valleys, lower slopes, and forests, shelter great numbers, while they ascend to a considerable elevation, and I have seen them in numbers on the crest of a pass over 13,000 feet high, with nought but snow and rock around, calling and answering each other as they flew and perched among the crags. The cuckoo seems to take some little time to find his voice after arriving in the spring, and I have watched one practising and only able to utter a hoarse monosyllabic note. 95. A cuckoo which I have never shot, but which I believe belongs to the genus Hierococcyx, is common in May, June, and July, and in all the mountain Nalas. I have seen it in the Sind, Liddar, Wardwan, and else- where. The general colour is a brownish-ashy, and M. H. Dauvergne, who shot one many years ago, describes the head and back as fulvous ; FAUNA. 139 wings umber-brown, beneath white ; tail barred black and white in ovate Chap. V. stripes. — m — It is a very noisy bird, calling day and night, and the cry becomes a great nuisance in camp. The call is composed of six notes, running up in crescendo and down again, each group of six notes being repeated four or five times in a low key rising to a high one, and then falling to a lower tone at the end, thus ' chap, chap, chap, chap, chap, chap, cheep, cheep, cheep, cheep, cheep, cheep, choop, choop, choop, choop, choop, choop.' I shall take the first opportunity of identifying this species. It may possibly prove to be Cuculus mtermedius, of which a specimen from Ruttun Pir is in the Hume collection. 96. Coccystes jacobinus. The Pied Crested Cuckoo. This cuckoo is found, though not very commonly, in the valley in summer. It does not ascend to high elevations. Its loud, whistling call is most often heard at the commencement of the rainy season in July. Order SCANSORES. Climbing Birds. Sub-Order Capitones. Barbets. I have often been surprised at never finding a single representative of the Barbets in Kashmir. Order PICIFORMES. Woodpeckers. Sub-Family PiclNAE. True Woodpeckers. 97. Dendrocopus himalayensis. The Himalayan Pied Woodpecker. Pretty common in all Kashmir forests up to 9,000 feet elevation. Adams mentions a woodpecker in Kashmir, which had the head white, neck and breast bluish-black, belly and vent red (possibly the ' White-cheeked Nut- hatch,' Sitta leucopsis). D. himalayensis is the only one of the pied wood- peckers I have seen here. D. brunneifrons must also occur in the valley, and Jyngipicus nanus has been procured by Capt. Stackhouse Pimrill at Dharmzala. 98. Gecinus squamaius. The Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker. Seen at various elevations from the mountain forests to the groves near Srinagar ; has a loud, cackling call. This is the only Gecimis that I have observed, but its relation, G. occipitalis, the Black-naped Green Woodpecker, is also doubtless to be found in the Kashmir forests. T 2 140 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. V. Sub-Family JYNGINAE. Wrynecks. 99. Jyiix torquilla. The Common Wryneck. Is pretty frequent in Kashmir in spring and summer. I have seen it in the Munshi bagh, in many parts of the valley, and in several of the side Nalas, though never at any great elevation. Order PSITTACIFORMES. Parrots. 100. Palaeornis schisticeps. The Slaty-headed Parrakeet. This is the only parrot I have seen in Kashmir, and it is not very common. The Pir-Panjal side of the valley probably holds most, but I have seen it in the Sind and Liddar glens, and in autumn it plunders the walnut groves at Atawat, and it has been shot in the Lolab. Breeds in holes in trees and has a cheerful, pleasant note, enlivening the woodland corries it frequents. The slaty blue on the head comes after the first moult. It is easily tamed and is gentle and affectionate ; one I brought up would follow me round the garden, climb up my clothes, and sit on my shoulder. He learnt to talk in a few months, practising when alone, and it was only by accident I found out the proficiency at which he had arrived. I have never seen it in Kashmir later than October. General plumage green, tail blue and yellow. Order PASSERIFORMES. Perching Birds. Family CoRViDAE. Crows. 101. Corvus corax. The European Raven. True ravens are rare in Kashmir, and I conclude that the few seen must be of this species. I had always thought that C. tibetanus, the Tibet Raven, must be the one we see here ; but I am now informed on good authority that the Tibet Raven only arrives at Leh during the autumn, from the high plateaux of Tibet (where it breeds and passes the summer), and that it is never known to come from the direction of Kashmir. The bird we have here, therefore, must be C. corax, which is very common in the north Panjab in winter. 102. Corone Corone. The European Carrion Crow. Maybe seen on the 'jheels' near the Wular lake in the winter, together with his poaching confrhe the Hooded Crow, C. sharpii, both, probably, on the look out for wounded wild-fowl. 103. Corone sharpii. The Eastern Hooded Crow. Is found as above stated. Both species are more common in Kashmfr than in the Panjab, where they are looked on as a great prize by collectors. Dr. Bowdler FAUNA. 141 Sharpe, of the British Museum, ^tes that in Scotland and other places Chap. V. in Europe the two species of crows interbreed, and the young are patterned — " — like the Hooded Crow, but are smudged with black on the mantles and breast. Both have the same peculiar, rather shrill ' caw.' 104. Corotte inacrorhyncha. The Jungle Crow. Very common in the forests and mountain margs. Round one's camp his hoarse voice is ever present, he is always ' in at the death ' of a stag or bear, and I believe he will follow a stalk in hope of profiting by the result. In the cooler months he may be found round towns and villages in the valley. One once carried off out of a cage a young blackbird {Merula casianea), which I had found away from its nest, and was trying to rear. Corvus inter- medius, Adams, has been described as ' smaller than C. corone and not larger than the Indian Jackdaw (C splendens), abundant on the moun- tains round the valley of Kashmir.' I have not observed it in Kashmfr myself, and Oates unites C. intermedius with C. macrorhynchus. 105. Corone splendens. The Indian House-Crow. This well-known pest, with his thoroughly inappropriate Latin title, is, unfortunately, much more common at Srinagar and the towns on the Jhelum now than formerly, and has thus obtained a right to a place among the birds of Kashmir. 106. Trypanocorax frugilegus. The Rook. May generally be seen feeding in flocks in the fields in autumn and early winter. Later on it makes its way to Hazara and the Northern Panjab, where immense numbers congregate in winter. I do not believe that it breeds here. 107. Coloeus collaris. The White-necked Jackdaw. Very common indeed all over the valley. Breeds in holes in trees, walls, &c. The eggs are pale blue-green, with dark brown spots, and are capital eating. I have seen them served in mistake for plover's eggs at a garden-party in Srina- gar. Roosts in great numbers in the palace at Srinagar, the island on the Wular lake, and elsewhere. Some must migrate to the North Panjab, where large flocks are seen in the winter. 108. Nucifraga multipiinctata. The Many Spotted Nutcracker. Is very common in the Kashmiri forests, generally seen singly, but sometimes in groups of two or three ; has a loud, harsh, grating cry, constantly repeated ; frequents the tops of pine trees. It seems to have a good deal of curiosity in its composition, hanging round the spot where it sees any one sitting quietly in the forest, watching, and uttering its discordant cry. Oates records the Himalayan Jay {Garrulus bispecularis) from Eastern 142 THE VALLEY OF KASHmIr. Chap. V. Kashmir, but neither of the two species of jays found in the Himalayas — " — have ever, to my knowledge, been seen in Kashmir. I will therefore pass on to the genus Urocissa, which is. allied to them. 109. Urocissa cucullata. The Yellow-billed Blue Magpie. This hand- some bird, with its blue and white plumage, and long tail-feathers, is pretty common in the Kashmir forests, up to 7,000 or 8,000 feet elevation. It has a loud, ringing call, often repeated. Once when I was waiting over a goat that had been killed by a bear, two blue magpies kept up an in- cessant chattering over a thicket close by, from which, when it grew darker, the bear walked out straight up to the carcase. No doubt the magpies had watched him from the first. 1 10. Pica Pica. The IMagpie. ' Said by Biddulph to be at all times common in Kashmir.' He found its nest on two occasions (cf. Os.\.ts, Faun. Brit. Ind. Birds, i. p. 25). 111. Dendrocitta rufa. The Common Indian Magpie. Is fairly common in the valley, frequenting groves and gardens. I have generally seen it in autumn. It has a great variety of notes, some harsh, and others softer, clear, and metallic. Sub-Family Fregilinae. Choughs. 112. Graculus Graculus. The Red-billed Chough. Is common on the higher mountains, generally above the forest line, in flocks and detached parties ; has a clear resonant call. Plumage black ; bill and feet bright red, which characters distinguish it from the next species. Some migrate to the plains in winter. 1 13. Pyrrhocorax Pyrrhocorax. The Alpine Chough. Is found in similar localities to the above species, and the two may be seen on the same hill-side. It occasionally descends to the lower valleys, and the natives say that it eats mulberries ; but as a rule it remains at high elevations. Is found in Europe on the Alps and Apennines (Jerdon, vol. ii. p. 370). Glossy black ; bill yellow ; feet bright red. Call, much the same as that of the Red-billed species. Kashmir shikdris say that these two choughs are ' Halal ' as food. Family SxuRNlDAE. Starlings. 114. Sturnus humii. The Himalayan Starling (Kashmiri, Tsinihagoor). Found all over the valley, breeding in holes of trees, buildings, &c. Eggs pale azure blue. Out of the breeding season large flocks congregate to FAUNA. 143 roost in trees near swamps. A (jjiimber remain in the winter, but there Chap. v. is a large migration to India at that season. Plumage glossy black with — — a pale whity-brown tip to each feather ; feathers of back lanceolate. Young bird dull brown ; bill brown at first, changing to yellow in the breeding season. Legs yellow-brown. Length about 9 inches, wings 5 inches, tail 3 inches. 115. Sturnus porphyronottts . The Central-Asian Starling. Has the rump reddish like the back. The wing is coppery bronze, and is over five inches in length. A specimen is in the British Museum from Kashmfr, and doubtless the species migrates to India through the valley, with other species of starlings (cf. Gates, Faun. Brit. Ind. Birds, i. p. 531). 116. Stwnus menzbieri. The Common Indian Starling. Distinguished by having a purple head, purple ear-coverts, and a purple' throat. Breeds in Siberia, and winters plentifully in India. Hume believes that it breeds also in Kashmir, and specimens in his collection from our country show that it either nests or at least passes through on migration. 117. Acridotheres tristis. The Common Myna. Very common in the valley, not ascending the higher glens. Family DiCRURiDAE. Drongos. 118. Dicrurus longicaudatus. The Indian Ashy-Drongo. Dr. Adams says that this species is common in Kashmir, where he has often found the nest. It is not, in my opinion, very common, and is rare in the valley proper. The side valleys and lower forests contain a good many. It may be known by its close general resemblance to the well-known King-crow {^Dicrurus ater) of India, from which it differs in not having the white spot at the gape. Family Oriolidae. Orioles. 119. Oriolus kundoo. The Indian Oriole, ' Mango bird' of \^di\a.,Poshnal of Kashmir. Arrives here at the end of April and remains throughout the summer. Its rich yellow and black colouring, and pleasant, mellow whistle are easily recognizable. I have seen it up to about 7,000 feet elevation. Builds in trees, suspending or binding its nest in a fork ; eggs, three or four, white with dark spots. The nest is most ingeniously fixed with strips of rag, long grass, and twine, &c., worked in and out and bound round the supporting branch. 144 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. V. Family Fringillidae. Finches. '^ 130. Pycnorhamphiis icterioides. The Black and Yellow Grosbeak. Common in the forests up to 9,000 feet or higher. Has a short sharp twit- tering call, often repeated. Male — head, neck, wings, and tail black, rest of plumage bright yellow. Female — olivaceous grey, rump, quills, and tail black; bill pale greenish-yellow, thick and massive, i inch long at front. Length 9 inches. \'ix. Mycerobas melanoxanthus. The Spotted- winged Grosbeak. Male — head and entire upper parts dull slaty black, beneath pale yellow, a con- spicuous white wing-spot. Female — smaller, upper parts as in the male, but a yellow eyebrow and some pale yellow on head and back, also on cheeks ; beneath yellow spotted with black ; general appearance, more spotted than in the male. The bill is enormously tliick, as deep as long, plumbeous in colour. Length of bird 8| inches. Is found in our Kashmir forests, but much rarer than the last species. Frequents the tops of the highest trees, and has a plaintive clear whistle, audible from a considerable distance, and also a sort of chattering note. Is very fond of the fruit of the bird-cherry, the stones of which it cracks. 122. Pyrrhula aurantiaca. The Orange Bullfinch. This charming bird is well represented in some parts of Kashmir. I have seen it in the Wardwan, in Wangat, in the Bandipura glen, in woods just across the Sat Saran Pass, and most numerously at Sonamarg. Male — reddish orange, with black wings, face, and tail, white tail-coverts. Female — ashy and black. Has a sweet soft whistle, also a pleasant chirrup. Is very tame, sitting close to one on a tree, and feeding at the door of one's tent. On one occasion, while having a ' chota hazari ' before sunrise, two or three quite entered my tent and hopped about close to my feet. 123. Pyrrhula erythrocephala. The Red-headed Bullfinch. Found in Southern Kashmir (cf Oates, Faun. Brit. Ind. Birds, i. p. 205). 124.. Propasser rkodockrons. The Pink-browed Rose Finch. Has been found at Dharmsala (cf. Oates, t. c. p. 217). Breeds at high altitudes, and descends in winter to lower elevations. 125. Carpodacus erythrinus. The Common Rose Finch. Is not un- common in Kashmir, frequenting fields, groves, and cultivation. General plumage brown, tinged ruddy ; head, throat, breast, and rump, rosy crimson. FAUNA. 145 126. Carduelis caniceps. Than Himalayan Goldfinch (Kashmiri, 5/r«). Chap. v. Found in flocks in the valley in spring and winter, and in the higher glens — '*"" in summer. I found the nest on the Takht-i-Suliman in May, placed on the ground under the edge of a stone. It was made of grass and moss, lined with fine grass and hair, and contained five eggs, ashy-white, lined and mottled with purplish-dusky. Has a pleasant note and is easily tamed. 127. Hypacanthis spinoides. The Himalayan Greenfinch. Plumage yellow and olive-brown. Is seen in flocks in all mountain glens, and near woods and cultivation. Is not so common in the valley proper as the Goldfinch. 128 Collacanthis Burtoni. The Red-browed Finch. I have seen this species at Gulmarg, in the Sind valley, Bandipura, and elsewhere, always in fir forests, and at from 8,000 to 10,000 feet elevation, and have examined it carefully through a glass at from 10 to 50 yards' distance, on several occasions, and seen it feeding on the ground within a few feet of my tent door. It is a bird of quiet habits, and I have not heard its note ; it associates in small flocks of four to six, but is sometimes seen in pairs. Found in June, July, August, and October. The Kashmiris say that it comes lower down in winter, but I have never seen it out of the upper forests. 129. Meioponia pu'silla. The Gold-fronted Finch. Breeds in Kashmir at heights of from 5,000 to 10,000 feet, according to season (cf. Dates, t. c. p. 231). It may be found in the valley in winter. 130. Passer indictis. The Indian House-Sparrow. Very common and familiar all over the valley. Diff"eis only from the European house- sparrow in its purer colours. 1^1. Passer cinnamomeus. The Cinnamon Tree-Sparrow. Found round mountain hamlets, in tree copses, and forest glades up to quite 9,000 feet elevation, and often quite away from the haunts of man. It is much quieter than P. indicus, and is seen in fewer numbers. General plumage above cinnamon rufous ; some dark marks on back ; a black patch on throat ; beneath f ellowish light-grey. Length 5i inches. Sub-Family Emberizinae. Buntings. 132. Emberiza leucocephala. The Pine Bunting. Found in Kashmir in winter, but not so common as the next species ; elevation 6,000 to u 146 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. V. 9,000 feet. The top of the head is white in the male, greyish in the — ^ — female. Jerdon gives the length at 6 to 6 i inches. I found a male to measure 7^ inches. 133. Eniberiza Stracheyi. The Eastern Meadow Bunting. Very common in Kashmir. Frequents open bushy ground, edges of woods, and cultivation, &c. ; elevation 5,500 to 9,000 feet. 134. Ember iza Sieivarti. The White-capped Bunting. Common in the valley, about fields and bushes, and in the mountains up to 9,000 feet. 135. Emberiza arcuata. The Kashmir Grey-headed Bunting. Frequents bushes, fields, and open lands. I obtained it in the Nowboog Valley, and have seen it elsewhere in Kashmir. Family Alaudidae. Larks. i'^6. Ammomanes pkaenicuroides. The Desert Finch Lark. Is found in the Kashmir Valley and on open slopes at the base of the hills. Length about 6 inches. Feet yellow-brown. Theobald records it. 137. Melanocorypha bimaculata. The Eastern Calandra Lark. [Jall'm Kashmiri.) Bill convex, very stout ; length about 7 ^ inches, wing 4^ inches, tail 4^ inches (Jerdon's Birds of India, vol. ii. p. 427). General plumage lark-like, lighter underneath, with a conspicuous black-brown crescent- shaped mark on the upper breast. Has a very sweet song, and is kept caged by natives as a song-bird. Stated to be numerous in the valley in winter, when the natives catch them in snow-time by placing a piece of matting on the snow with some rice spread on it. The larks descend to eat the rice, and are caught in horsehair nooses which are secured to the matting. A newly-caught bird sells for two to four annas, but a well- trained songster will fetch ten or twelve British rupees. My informant mentioned a Pathan who refused fifty shillings for a *Jall' he had brought from Ghuznee. The bird's voice is improved by feeding him on a pulse pounded up in ' ghee.' In summer the birds retire to more northern localities to breed. 138. Otocoris loiigirostris. The Long-billed Horned Lark. I have not myself noticed this lark in Kashmir, but it is found on the higher elevations. \'i,(). Alauda gulgula. The Indian Skylark (Z'^rt'a;- of Kashmir). Very abundant in the valley in spring, summer, and autumn. Its general aspect FAUNA. 14^ and song are well known. Is kejjt by the natives as a song-bird. ' I once Chap. V. timed a lark as it sprang from the ground and soared singing upward till — '*— almost out of sight. From the start till the return to the ground the time occupied was fifteen minutes ; a wonderful muscular and vocal effort for such a small bird. Family MOTACILLIDAE. Wagtails. 140. Motacilla Hodgsoni. _^ Hodgson's Pied Wagtail. This I believe to be the species which is very common in Kashmir both in summer and winter. In the latter season they collect in small flocks to rout in the grass and reeds of some quiet swamp or pool. M. personata and M. alba doubtless pass through on migration. 141. Motacilla melanope. The Grey Wagtail. More common in the hills than the last species. I have seen it up to 8,000 feet, and also in the valley. 143. Motacilla beema. The Indian Blue-headed Wagtail. Passes through Kashmir on migration (cf Oates, t. c. p. 297). 143. Motacilla citeoloides. Hodgson's Yellow-headed Wagtail. Very common on the weedy lakes and swamps in Kashmir, where it may be seen running over the water-lily leaves, &c. : also frequents marshy streams and ditches. Its yellow and black summer plumage makes it easily distinguishable. 144. Anthus similis. The Brown Rock Pipit. Obtained on the open slopes at the foot of the hills near Pandratan on May 33, 1894. The general colouring and dimensions, the arrangement of the quills, and the oblique tipping of the outermost tail-feathers, together with the well-curved hind claw, correspond almost exactly with Jerdon's description oiA.sordida [Birds of India, vol. ii. p. 236), but the bill seemed to be one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch longer. Blyth got it in the N.W. Himalayas, and Mr. Theobald found it in the Alpine Panjab, and we may now assign it a place among Kashmir birds. Shot at about 5,300 feet elevation. Length 8 in., wing 3fin., tail 3j in., bill at front \m. to | in., tarsus 15 in., hind toe and claw yfin., first primary minute, second, third, fourth and fifth quills subequal and lo.ngest. 145. Anthus rosaceus. Hodgson's Pipit. F'ound on the lower slopes of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam (cf. Oates, t. c. p. 311). u 3 1^8 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. V. Family Certhiidae. Creepers. ~~^ 146. Certhia himalayana. The Himalayan Tree-creeper. Is common in the forests, and in spring and autumn may be seen in groves and orchards in the valley and in the higher forests. 147. Certhia Hodgsoni. Hodgson's Tree-creeper. Occurs sparingly in the pine-woods near the snows (cf. Oates, op. cit. i. p. 330). 148. Tichodroma muraria. The Wall -creeper. Is often seen in Kashmir in autumn and winter. I have not observed it in summer. Frequents rocky hill sides, clay banks and cliffs. Its bright crimson wing-patch, only seen when the bird is flying, makes it very beautiful as it flits from rock to rock. Feeds on insects. 149. Sitta leucopsis. The White-cheeked Nuthatch. Is very common in the mountain forests, frequenting the tops of the highest firs and pines. Its cry, resembling the bleat of a small kid, is one of the commonest sounds in a Kashmir forest. 150. Sitta cashmiriensis. Brooks' Nuthatch. Is also found in Kashmfr, though not so often as the species above noted. Family Paridae. Titmice. \^\. Lophophanes dichrous. The Crested Brown Tit. Adams obtained it and entered it in his list of the Birds of Kashmfr. 1^2. Lophophafiesmelanolophus. The Crested Black Tit. Adams records it, and I have seen it myself in the Kashmir forests. 153. Parus atriceps. The Indian Grey Tit. Common; is sometimes very tame. While staying at Gulmarg in 1 890 with a friend, one frequented our mess-tent, coming close to the breakfast-table and eating small crumbs, and roosting at night under the fringe of the pardah, inside the tent, without minding the lamps, talking at dinner, &c. 154. Parus monticola. The Green-backed Tit. Throughout the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan (cf. Oates, op. cit. i. p. 50). 155. Aegithaliscus niveigularis. The White-throated Tit. ' I have examined specimens obtained at Gulmarg ' (Oates, t. c. p. 53). 156. Sylviparus modestus. The Yellow-browed Tit. 'Throughout the Himalayas from Kashmfr to Bhutan ' (Oates, t. c. p. 54). FAUNA. 149 Sub-Family Laniidae. True Shrikes. Chap. v. 157- Lanius erythronotus. The Rufous-backed Shrike. Is the only ""*"" true shrike I have seen here. It arrives at the end of March, disappearing again in autumn ; ascends to about 6,500 feet. It is a wonderful mocking bird ; I have heard it imitate the Black Partridge, Kestrel, Reed- Warbler, Wattled Lapwing, and Skylark most successfully. Family Sylviidae. 158. Acrocephalus stentoreus. The Indian Great Reed -Warbler (Kashmfri, Karkat). Is very numerous in the long reeds in the lakes, and along the banks of rivers where tall grass or weeds exist, from April to August ; has a harsh note, ' Prit, Prit, Pritik,' continually repeated. 159. Tribura major. The Large-billed Bush-Warbler. In summer this species is found throughout Kashmir (cf Oates, op. cit. i. p. 363). 160. Sylvia althaea. Hume's Lesser White-throated Warbler. Breeds in Kashmfr at an elevation of 9,000 feet, and winters in the plains of India. 161. Sylvia affinis. The Indian Lesser White-throated Warbler. Brooks found this Warbler breeding in Kashmfr at a height of from 5,500 to 6,coo feet amongst small bushes in May by the side of rivers (cf Oates, t. c. p. 398). 162. Phylloscopus Tytleri. Tytler's Willow- Warbler. Summers in the higher elevations of the Himalayas, from Kashmfr to Kumaon. Winters in the lower portions of the same mountains, and also descends into the Peninsula (cf Oates, t. c. p. 402). 163. Phylloscopus tristis. The Brown Willow-Warbler. Summers in the higher portions of the Himalayas in Kashmfr (cf. Oates, t. c. p. 403). 164. Phylloscopus iftdicus. The Olivaceous Willow-Warbler. Breeds in Kashmfr, visiting the plains in winter (cf. Oates, t. c. p. 404). 165. Phylloscopus subviridis. Brooks' Willow- Warbler. Breeds in Kashmfr (cf. Oates, t. c. p. 409). 166. Acanthopneuste nitida. The Green Willow- Warbler. Probably breeds in Kashmfr. Winters in the Indian Peninsula (cf. Oates, t. c. p. 413). 150 THE ] ALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. V. 167. Acanthopneuste trochiloides. Blyth's Crowned Willow-Warbler. — ►^ — Observed in summer in the Himalayas from Kashmfr to Sikhim, and probably wintering in the lower valleys (cf. Gates, t. c. p. 419). 168. Cryptolopha xanthoschisia. Hodgson's Grey-headed Flycatcher Warbler. From Nepal to Kashmfr (cf. Gates, t. c. p. 425). Pretty common in woods and copses in the forests up to 8,000 feet. 169. Horornis pallidus. The Pale Bush- Warbler. Breeds in Kashmfr (cf. Gates, t. c. p. 437). 170. Suya crinigera. The Brown Hill- Warbler. Occurs throughout the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan (cf. Gates, t. c. p. 445). 171. Prinia inornata. The Indian Wren- Warbler. Is said to occur in the valley. Family TURDIDAE. Thrushes. 17a. Henicurus maculatus. The Spotted Fork-tail. Is pretty common on smaller hill streams in Kashmir, particularly on those with wooded banks and occasional waterfalls. General plumage spotted black and white. Very conspicuous as it flits in front of you up the bed of a watercourse, uttering its pleasant, clear, metallic whistle of one note. Length 10 inches. 173. Microcichla Scouleri. The Little Fork-tail. Seen on the larger streams ; not so common as H. maculatus. Jerdon states that it often contends with the Plumbeous Water-Robin, Rhyacornis fuliginosa, for a choice perch on a rock, and is generally vanquished by the latter. I can vouch for this from personal observation. 1 74. PratiiKola maura. The India Bush-Chat. Common in spring and summer in the valley, and on the lower slopes ; goes to India in winter. 175. Saxicola montana. Gould's Wheatear. Found in summer on open plateaux, at from 7,000 to 9,000 feet elevation ; not very common. 176. Rhyacornis fidiginosa. The Plumbeous Redstart. The name explains the colour of this little fellow. He has a rusty red tail which he expands and flirts while sitting on a rock in some roaring hill torrent. He is common on all mountain strearhs up to 7,000 feet elevation, and is very pugnacious in defending a favourite rock against other intruders. 177. Chimorrornis levcocephala. The White-capped Redstart. Also FAUNA. 151 very universal on Kashmir streatms and torrents. The handsome plumage Chap. V. of black and rich chestnut with the white cap make it easily identified. It — »— is very restless, flitting froni rock to rock over the water and constantly uttering a short, clear, metallic whistle. 178. Ruticilla frontalis. The Blue-fronted Redstart. From Gilgit and Kashmir to Assam (cf. Oates, t. c. p. 92). 179. Ruticilla erythronota. Eversmann's Redstart. A winter visitor to every portion of Kashmir (cf. Oates, t. c. p. 94). 180. lanthia rufilata. The Red-flanked Bush-Robin. Found in the forests up to 7,000 or 8,000 feet. Blue above, bright rufous beneath, with white eyebrow. Not very common. 181. Cyanecula suecica. The Indian Bluethroat. I have seen this bird at the end of March and in April. Its quiet, pale brown plumage is prettily relieved by the bright sky-blue on the throat and upper breast ; it frequents low shrubs and bushes at the foot of the lower hills. The female has the breast dull white with some darkish spots edging it. 182. Tharrhaleus Jerdoni. Jerdon's Accentor. Has been found breed- ing near Sonamarg by Capt. Cock, and is probably found in many districts of Kashmir. There are doubtless other species of Accentors to be found in Kashmir, as several occur in Gilgit. 183. Petropkila cyanus. The Blue Rock Thrush. I have seen this rock thrush pretty often on low rocky hills in summer. A pair or two are generally to be seen on the Takht-i-Suliman at Sn'nagar, where I am certain that they breed, though I never, after patient watching, was able to find their nest. Disappears from Kashmir in winter. 184. Petropkila cinclorhyncha. The Blue-headed Rock Thrush. I have only seen this thrush at Palgam in the Liddar valley, where it frequented a pine wood in which I was camped during May, June, and July. 1 85. Merula unicolor. The Dusky Ground Thrush (• The Song Thrush of Kashmir,' Adams ; Kashmiri, Kao kumr). Is very common all over the valley, frequenting chenar groves, gardens, &c. The song may be heard from April till July, and the bird seen hopping on the turf in search of worms, &c. It sings at all hours of the day, and particularly in the morning and evening, and on cloudy days with rain impending. Adams 152 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. V. compares the note to that of the blackbird, but it is far more like that of — " — the English thrush {Turdus musicus), though less full and varied. ] 86. Meriila maxima. The Central Asian Blackbird. ' I have examined specimens of this blackbird from Kashmir ' (Oates, t. c. p. 1 24). 1 87. Merida boulbotd. The Grey-winged Blackbird. Is rare in Kashmir ; called Kastura by natives. It has a full rich melodious song, very like that of the English blackbird, to which it has a great resemblance, excepting in the grey bar it possesses on the quills and greater wing- coverts ; it fetches a high price as a song-bird. J 88. Merula castanea. The Grey-headed Ouzel. This handsome thrush is fairly common, especially in the hills on the south and south-east side of the valley. The song is uttered generally in the evening, as the bird sits on the summit of some tall fir-tree, and is very charming, being the nearest Himalayan resemblance to the note of our English song-thrush. The bird being apparently little known to Englishmen in Kashmir, I give a short description. Male — head ashy white, darker on crown, lighter on throat and neck ; general colour light chestnut or rufous, darker on back and brighter below ; wings and tail blackish. The female has colours less intense and more brownish, chin and throat nearly white ; bill, eyelids, and legs yellow ; length io| inches. Is found in summer at Gulmarg, and I have heard it singing at Dandwar in early April, while the snow yet lay deep in the forests. Breeds in May and June, often placing the nest in the lower branches of a (Budil) fir-tree {Abies Webbiand). Lays four or five eggs, greenish blue, thickly mottled with brown. 189. Merula airogularis. The Black-throated Ouzel. Quite common in early spring, in the valley and willow groves and orchards, and again in late autumn about low hills with bushy jungle. Also in early autumn in the upper hill forests. I have never seen it in summer, and know not where it breeds. I have seen it occasionally in winter. 190. Turdus pilaris. The Fieldfare. Is tolerably common in the forests, and I have seen it, in flocks of twenty or more, above the forest level, perching on rocks, also round the skirts of open 'margs' and forest clearings. Is generally shy and wary, and may be known by its low, husky note, ' Tirr-r,' repeated as it flies from tree to tree. It is very good eating. Adams records it in Kashmir. I have only seen it in summer and autumn in the hills. 191. Myiophonus Temminckii. The Yellow -billed Whistling Thrush. FAUNA. 153 Common on hill streams, and about copses and gardens, &c. Has a loud, Chap. v. clear, musical whistle, and shares with Mernla boulboul the name of — "— Kastura among the natives. It is sometimes called ' Blackbird ' by Englishmen. Colour black, with a smalt-blue gloss. Nests on rocks overhanging some roaring torrent, and under bridges, breeding in May and June. Migrates to the lower Indian hills in winter. I have heard it sing at all seasons of the year. Family Cinclidae. Dippers. 192. Cinclus asiaticus. The Brown Dipper. Found along running streams, flying along their courses. It plunges into the water or some- times walks in deliberately and remains below the surface for some time searching for larvae and water insects. Is found at lower elevations than the next species. 193. Cinclus kashmiriensis. The White-breasted Asiatic Dipper. Jerdon writes : ' This bird is only found in the streams of the higher mountain ranges in Kashmir, whence it was brought by Dr. Adams.' I have seen it in such localities. Once, on reaching the edge of a small tarn lying at the eastern foot of the 'Kotwal' peak, over 14,000 feet elevation, I saw the water circling as if a fish had just risen, and while I was watching for another rise, a Dipper emerged and, seeing me. flew off down the little stream which runs from the lake down-hill towards Boorphrao in the Sind valley. Family TroGLODYTIDAE. Wrens. i<)4i Anortkura neglecta. The Kashmir Wren. Adams saw this species 'among stony places, in glens, and round the margins of avalanches on the Kashmir ranges ; common.' I have seen the bird in lower localities, in bushes and low scrub, &c. It is very like the English wren in its ways. Family TiMELIlDAE. Babbling Thrushes. 195. Trochalopter on simile. The Western Variegated Laughing Thrush. It is tolerably common up to 7,000 or 8,000 feet, frequenting bushy coverts and copses on the edges of forests. Has a noisy but cheerful whistling note, often repeated. 196. lanthochtcla rufogularis. The Rufous-chinned Laughing Thrush. Found in hill-side thickets and woods in Kashmir up to 8,000 or 9,000 feet. Has a low chattering note, much uttered just before it roosts for the night. 197. TrochalopteroH lineatum. The Streaked Laughing Thrush. X 154 THE VALLEY OF KASHmIr. Chap. V. Common in Kashmfr, in gardens, &c., and in bushy hill-sides. Remains ** here in winter. Family Pycnonotidae. Bulbuls. \f)Z. Otocompsa kucogenys. The White-cheeked Crested Bulbul. A per- manent resident in the valley, but not ascending the higher glens. Very common and exceedingly tame and impudent, entering boats and houses freely. I have seen one perch on the sugar-basin and steal the sugar within a couple of feet of me. Nests in low trees or bushes ; eggs white, with purplish speckles. It is a great pest in gardens and orchards, destroying buds and fruit. Family Campophagidae. Cuckoo-Shrikes. 199. Pericrocotus brevirostris. The Short-billed Minivet (' Raja bird ' of Europeans in India). It is often seen in the hill forests, and sometimes at lower elevations, flying from tree to tree in flocks, where the bright scarlet and black of the males and yellow and grey of the females show most brilliantly in the sunlight. Has a pleasant, low-toned, twittering note. Migrates to the plains and lower hills in winter. Family MusciCAPlDAE. Flycatchers. 200. Stoparola melanops. The Verditer Flycatcher. Is found occa- sionally in wooded glens and groves. Its light blue colouring is very conspicuous. 201. Hemichelidon sibirica. The Sooty Flycatcher. Permanent resident in Kashmir, breeding in June. 202. Sipkia hyperythra. The Indian Red-breasted Flycatcher. Spends the summer in Kashmir, and winters in Ceylon. 203. Cyorttis leucomelanurus. The Slaty-blue Flycatcher. Breeds in Kashmfr in the beginning of June, when the nest was found by Brooks. 204. Cyornis super ciliar is. The White-browed Blue Flycatcher. Is by no means common, generally seen in woods and copses, at about 6,000 to 8,oco feet elevation ; it is inclined to be tame, sitting close to one's tent on a branch, from which it darts at insects, returning each time to its perch. Adams noted it in Kashmir. 205. Alseonax ruficauda. The Rufous-tailed Flycatcher. Inhabits Kashmir in summer. 206. Terpsiphone paradisi. The Indian Paradise Flycatcher. Common FAUNA. 155 in the valley, side glens and lowg- wooded slopes in summer, arriving in Chap. v. April. The male, during his first two years, is bright chestnut above and — **— white below, assuming the pure white plumage in his third season. I have seen them chestnut, with the long tail-feathers white ; and white, with one tail-feather chestnut. The female is smaller, chestnut above, smoky white beneath, and the long tail-feathers are wanting. The nest is beautifully made of cobweb and grey moss, lined with hair, placed in a forked branch. Eggs five or six, white with reddish streaks. Family HIRUNDINIDAE. Swallows. 207. Hirundo rustica. The Common Swallow. Called ' Katij ' by the Kashmiris. Arrives as early as latter part of February, and is fully established in the country early in April. 208. Chelidon kashmiriensis. The Kashmfr House-Martin. Above black, with steel-blue reflections ; tail brownish-black ; throat, under surface, and rump, pure white ; brownish on flanks ; axillaries and beneath the shoulder dark brown. Dr. Adams found it abundant in Kashmir on the rocky banks of rivers. The Common House-Martin also probably occurs in Kashmir, but I cannot at present identify several of the species of swallows. Ptyono- progne rupestris and Hirundo nepalensis breed, in all probability. REPTILES. Snakes are known in Kashmfr as Sarraf, and I have met with snakes in every part of the valley. It is universally said that no poisonous snakes exist in parts of the valley from which the peak of Hardmak can be seen. There are two poisonous snakes ; one is called Gunas, and is found in the Sind valley, the other is known as Pohur, and is met with on the east of the Liddar valley. The natives say that when the Pohur is old hairs appear on its back. The bite of the Gunas and Pohur is said to be usually fatal ^, ' Colonel Unwin writes : ' I have only seen one " Pohnr " since I have known Kashmir, and this was on a spur above " Kollnr," in the Liddar valley. He tried to bite my shikari, who, however, killed him. The man was very agitated, saying that he had escaped the bite of the most deadly snake in Kashmir. It was about two feet long, thick, and of a dark brown colour, with long poison fangs. The Kashmiris tell wonderful stories of the Pohur, saying he springs on you from a distance, &c. I believe it to be deadly. Natives in Hazara have died from the bite of a snake exactly resembling the Pohur I saw at Kollur. The " Gunas" is common, and varies from twelve or fifteen to thirty inches in length. General colour: above dusky grey, with a brownish angular pattern along the back ; beneath dark grey. Natives say they grow to three or four " traks " in weight. The bite of a large one may be deadly ; but I have seen several cases of terriers bitten by small Gnnaj, which all recovered, the dogs not seeming to suifer much. The bite was attended by a great deal of swelling about the head and neck in every case.' X 2 156 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. V. and I lost one of my surveyors who was bitten by a Gunas at Sonamarg. ^'^ — Dr. Elmslie writes of the Gunas : — ' It is a poisonous, round-headed, short, thick serpent found on the mountains of Kashmir. It is said to be black on the back and yellowish on the belly. It is a foot and a half long and ash-coloured according to some natives. Its bite is often fatal. When a person is stung on the arm or leg a ligature is applied between the heart and the wound, which is besmeared with foam. The patient has arrack and conserve of roses given him to eat, while music is played to cheer him up. This is the native treatment of serpent-bites. The Gunas is said to be numerous in the Lar pargana. Serpents are seldom seen on the southern side of the valley.' Lizards (kauklat) and frogs {ningi mundak) are common, and on the slopes of the mountains the scorpion {bick) is frequently found. The Kashmiri scorpions are not very venomous, and the people look on the sting of a scorpion with indifference. Centipedes up to five inches long are found. INSECTS. Flies and sandflies abound, but the great pest of the low-lying parts of the valley is the mosquito. I have never seen mosquitoes in India so abundant as they are on the Jhelum river below Srinagar and on the lakes. They swarm, and in the evenings, in camp, it is necessary to sit in the fumes of dung fires if one wishes to escape the persistent mosquito (muK). Though they seem to be more numerous in Kashmir than in India, I think that they are less venomous, and the bite of the mosquito of the valley is not so irritating as the bite of its Indian brother. Mosquitoes occur some- times at a high elevation, and on the Rajdiangan pass, ii,8co feet, they often appear, and seem more vigorous and aggressive than they are in the more enervating climate of the valley. Fleas {pish), bugs {tsar) and other unpleasant insects are common, and the Kashmiris say that though their native doctors have found a remedy for all diseases they have failed to discover any specific for fleas. Ticks are very numerous, especially in the upper forests after the snow has melted, and the large green-headed gadfly is, in some upland margs, in July and August, most numerous and aggressive. Locusts {halu) occasionally find their way to Kashmir, and in the year 1868 considerable damage was done to the rice crops by the locusts. Large swarms appeared at the beginning, of the summer of 1891, but were happily diverted to the side valleys and perished on the snows, where their frozen bodies were greedily devoured by the bears. No damage was caused in 1 89 1 to crops. FAUNA. 157 There is a caterpillar, known«as Moru to the Kashmiris, which causes Chap. v. considerable loss to trees, especially to the Wych Hazel. In a few days — ^ — the Moru will leave a forest bare of leaves, but the damage caused is not permanent and the trees recover. Among vegetable pests may be mentioned snails [hangt), leeches {drik), and a fish-like insect known as Dddu. These cause injury to the rice- plant. The leech used for blood-letting is imported from the Panjab. The darz is a darkish grub which injures the roots of maize and cotton, and is one of the worst of our vegetable pests. FISH. Fish forms an important item in the food of the Kashmiris, and those who dwell near the lakes ; and the floating population of boatmen depend for a considerable part of their sustenance on the prey of their nets or lines. Fish are eaten fresh with oil or are dried without salt and kept for the winter. It has been suggested that the fecundity of the Kashmfri women is due to the fish and oil diet. At present it does not seem necessary to take any measures for the conservancy of fish, and the malpractices so common in India, such as the use of dynamite, are as far as I know unknown in Kashmir. I have heard no complaints of the diminution in the fish supply, and although prices have slightly increased the rate of 9 pice per seer, which is about one penny for 2 pounds, is not excessive. On the death of Mahardja Gulab Singh the killing of fish was strictly pro- hibited for about six years, and even now no man may catch fish between the Amiran Kadal and the Zaina Kadal (the first and second of the city bridges). The right to fish is leased annually. The average amount realized by the State for the last three years is Rs. 2,000. The Rainbow trout of Canada, used to snow-water, might very easily be introduced into Kashmir, and the Telbal valley, when the waterworks reservoir is completed, would be a very suitable place for the experiment. Colonel Unwin also suggests that pike might be tried in the Dal and Manasbal lakes^. The following notes give the names of the principal fishes and much information on the subject. Charri Gad. — The average weight of this fish seems to be from 2 to 3 lbs. ; it is sold for 3 pice a seer. It has one dorsal and five ventral fins, a large mouth, dark spotted back, silver belly and a line along the side . ' I would suggest that the ' Rainbow ' trout of Canada and America would be more suitable than the English trout, as being more used to snow-water. The ova of the ' Rainbow ' is now, I believe, to be obtained in England. Pike might also be tried in the Dal and Manasbal lakes, and in the small detached lakes near Sumbal. — W. H. U. 158 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIr. Chap. V. from near the eye to the tail ; it has a soft scaleless skin. The Charri Gad ~~" — is caught during the months of October and November. Sattar Gad. — The average weight of this is said to be half a seer, and it is sold at the same price as the Charri Gad, of which it seems to be a small variety. It has one dorsal and five ventral fins, silvery sides and mottled back, with a soft, scaleless skin. This fish is very plentiful, and caught at all seasons of the year. Krotit Gad. — Average weight from half to three-quarters, of a seer, same price. It has one dorsal and five ventral fins, which are of a pink colour, a dark back, yellowish-white belly and soft skin. This fish is said to live under stones and rocks, and is caught throughout the year ; it seems to be of the same species as the Charri and Sattar Gads. Pikut or Pekri Gad. — Averages from 8 to 16 seers and is sold at the same price. It has a large mouth and is covered with scales, colour white ; a scarce fish, in season from November to July. Chash Gad. — Average weight half to one seer ; same price. This fish has a pointed head and small mouth, soft scaleless skin, white colour. It is caught from December until March, but is very scarce. Harj. — Average weight half a seer or less ; same price. One dorsal and five ventral fins, small mouth, dark back, silver belly, firm scales. In season October until May. Ramah Gad. — Average weight, a chittak ; sold at 2 pice a seer, colour dark green This fish is taken in the Jhelum in June ; when the water becomes cold, it retires to the lakes and morasses. Unyour. — Average weight, a chittak ; sold at 2 pice a seer, colour black ; sf^ason and habits the same as the Ramah Gad. Tet Gad. — Average weight, one chittak or less ; sold at % pice a seer, dark colour ; in season from August until October, when very small is known as ' tet Gardu.' When the river falls this fish is caught in shallow basins and channels which are made in the sands on the banks of the stream. Dras. — Sold at a pice a seer ; this fish is taken in August and September, it is doubtful if it is a separate species, being more probably a name given to any fry that comes to the net. Ait Gad. — A small white fish ; sold at 2 pice per seer ; it inhabits the smaller streams flowing into the Jhelum and is carried into the river when the waters are high. All the fish enumerated in the above list are said to be caught in their seasons throughout the entire course of the Jhelum, between Islamabad and Baramula. In the month of June the Mahsir (Pairim Gad, or the Panjab fish) is taken at various places in the Jhelum below Srinagar. A small fish called the Gih^an inhabits the streams and morasses. In the Dal lake the Sattar Gad is taken with net and hook, and the Charri Gad FAUNA. 159 and Ait Gad with hook only ; ag the fish inhabiting this lake are said to Chap. V. become of a dark green colour, which is attributed to the mass of vegeta- — *" — tion, grass and weeds amid which they live. In the Wular lake the Sattar Gad and Charri Gad are taken in nets and also with hooks, the Pikiit Gad with net only, and the Chash Gad and Harj with hook. Fish are also frequently speared in the waters of this and other lakes. In the Sind river, which also abounds with fish below Gandarbal, are found the Sattar Gad, Chash Gad and Charri Gad, the latter species attaining a very great size. Consequent on the low temperature of the water of this river, the fish do not take readily except during the height of summer, the takes are then so plentiful that during the mulberry season the fishermen are not uncommonly attracted from the Jhelum to its waters. The tame fish which fill the sacred pools at Mattanji, Vernag and else- where seem to have no generic name, they are called Nag. The month of March and the early spring is the most favourable fishing season in the Jhelum ; in the winter months, from December until February, when the river is at its lowest, the fish betake themselves to Wular. Fishermen using the net {zail bans) form a distinct class from those getting a living by hook and line {wail bans). These latter use a long line, said to measure more than 1,000 yards, to which the hooks are attached at short intervals of less than a yard, and between each hook the line is weighted with a small stone or pebble. During the months of December, January and February worms are used as bait, and at other seasons of the year a paste which is usually made of barley flour. The lines are immersed throughout their entire length, being fished up with a hooked pole ; in the summer months the fisherman in a small boat under-runs his line about every four hours, but in the winter, when the fish are sluggish and do not bite readily, they are usually placed at night and taken up in the morning. The hooks, which are very neatly manufactured by the fishermen themselves, diifer in substance and shape from those used in Europe. Iron being found to be too brittle they are made of brass, the end of the hook is carried straight down from the barb and bent back abruptly to the shank instead of being curved. It is claimed for this shape that it renders the escape of a fish that has once taken bait impossible. From two to three traks a day seems to be an average take for a successful fisherman ; fish, however, are sold at eight seers ^ to the trak. Vigne in his notice of the fish of Kashmir remarks : — 'I am aware of only six different kinds, of which by far the most 1 The retail sellers of fish, however, give six seers to the trak, which is the ordinary trak weight. i6o THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. V. common is Himalaya trout, and it varies so much in colour and appearance, ** according to its age and season and feeding-ground, that the natives would seem justified in trying to make me believe that there were several species instead of one. Unlike the true trout it rises rarely and very sluggishly at the fly. I tried fly-fishing in Kashmir until I found it an unprofitable employment. I remember that at Islamabad some fish were brought to me that in colour more resembled the real trout than any I had seen, but I believe that they were only fish of the above-mentioned species. They vary also in size from one, two or three pounds in weight ; and I was informed that there were a few in the lake far larger than any I saw. I have seen fish of a yellowish copper-colour, blotched with dark spots, caught in the lake of Kashmfr when out of season. The fish from the river are much better than those from the lake, but they are insipid when compared with the real European trout ; this fish is also called the Sattar Gad ; Gad signifies fish. ' I have seen what I believe to be the white mullet of India in the stream at Sopur Nagri on the Karywali of Zyn-i-gyr ; but it is most probably found also in the Jhelum. There is also a little white fish, bluish on the hook, and somewhat resembling a bleak, called Chotur ; its length is about six inches. There is another, I believe called the Tatur Gad, in the lake and river about five inches long. There is also a fish much resembling the American cat-fish in shape and called the Aumur, its general colour is dusky olive, inclined to reddish at the tail, it has three ventral and two dorsal fins, the eyes are nearly on the top of the head ; a horny plate shaped like a horseshoe is continued between the gills to the mouth, and from it two feelers are projected at right angles, and there are also two worm-like appendages under the chin. Those I saw were very small, but it grows, I was informed, to three or four pounds' weight. Lastly comes the Ram Gad, or fish of Ramah, which has been already mentioned as being caught at the village of Sopur Nagri. The ground colour of this I believe new and singular fish is a reddish gold, fins reddish, its sides are covered with broad stripes of a very dark, dull, bottle-green colour ; two worm-like appendages are pendant from the horn of the upper lip ; a small, sharp spur, which it can erect and use as a weapon of offence, is situated close in front of the eye, and between it and the mouth, its curve being back- wards and downwards, so that a straight line, if continued from its point, would cut the centre of the tail. It grows to about three-quarters of a pound. Fish forms a great proportion of the food of the poorer classes in the valley, or at least of those living near the lakes.' CHAPTER VI. ARCHAEOLOGY. The Valley of Kashmfr is the ' holy land ' of the Hindus, and I have Chap. VI. rarely been in any village which cannot show some relic of antiquity. — ^ — Curious stone miniatures of the old Kashmiri temples (Kulr-Muru), huge stone seats of Mahadeo {Badrpith) inverted by pious Musalmins, Phallic emblems innumerable, and carved images heaped in grotesque confusion by some clear spring, have met me at every turn. The villagers can give no information as to the history of these remains, save the vague guess that they were the works of the Buddhists or of the Pandus. The Pandits of the city care nothing for archaeological research, and know little about the past glories of their country in the old Hindu times. When one comes to the more recent period of the Mughals tradition becomes more definite, and I have seen curious mosques built in a style unlike the present, of wooden beams with stones between, mostly raised by Aurangzeb. He built religious edifices, while the other Mughals devoted themselves to stately pleasure-domes, gardens, terraces, waterfalls, and pretty summer- houses. While the old Hindu buildings defy time and weather the Musalman shrines and mosques crumble away and have little now of their pristine grandeur. Here and there the excellent masonry of Jehangir has withstood the great destroyer, but unless money is spent quickly and judiciously there will be little left, save the wild roses of the valley, to remind posterity of the pleasure-haunts of Selim and Naurmahal. It is to be hoped that the Kashmir State will never allow the beautiful pleasaunces of Achabal and Vernag, Shalamdr and Nishat to pass away, but unless early steps are taken these fair places will become sad and unsightly ruins. As regards the older buildings of ancient Kashmir it is hard to say whether it would be possible to protect these monuments from further damage. I have often looked at Martand and noticed with sorrow that the temple to the north, supposed by Cunningham to be the fane of Ranesa, is sloping away from the main temple, and the push of an earth- Y i62 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VI. quake would send it crashing into the mass of mighty stones beneath. — *• — But if Martand — ' precious specimen of ancient art, deserving a foremost place amopg the remains of antiquity '—is to be preserved, not only money but artistic skill would be required. A brick buttress would be an act of desecration. If the State ever takes up the work of conservation of ancient monuments, I think that the two relics of the old Hindus most worthy of preservation would be Martand and Payech. The former is the grandest of the ancient buildings, the latter the most perfect. Earthquakes will always render the future of the Kashmir temples uncertain, and the shock of 1885 caused great damage to the buildings at Pattan. I have made extracts from the greatest authority on the archaeology of Kashmir, and have quoted descriptions of the most important of the buildings of the old Hindus, but a rich field awaits explorers in the valley. Chance excava- tions, for irrigation and other works, reveal curious sculptures and interesting relics of ancient history, and any one with money and leisure might find profitable employment in tracing the old cities on the hill slopes and the karewas of Kashmir. In i88a Mr. Garrick, late of the Archaeological Survey of India, carried out extensive excavations at Ushkpur near Bar^mula. He excavated a tope or stupa of squared stones, held together with iron clamps, in the hope of finding certain copper plates which, according to the Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, were deposited thereip. On the copper plates were engraved the pro- ceedings of a Buddhist synod held in the reign of Kanishka. Mr. Garrick's excavations were thorough, but unsuccessful. It was at Ushkpur that Lalitaditya is said to have built an image of the Mukhtswami and a large monastery with a stupa for the Buddhists. Along the eastern side of the valley one sees everywhere on the slopes of the mountains remains of ancient cities. I do not know how far these have been examined, but am under the impression that explorers, owing to the short time of their stay in the valley, have chiefly confined their attention to the well-known temples. I am also under the impression, founded on what the people say, that many valuable relics have been carried away from Kashmfr, while the State itself has removed several sculptures and thousands of lingams from their old sites to Srinagar. The island on the Wular is a notable example of this. To the explorer I would recommend the eastern side of the valley. Tradition assigns Sumbal, on the Jhelum, as the site of the ancient Jayapura, and the people say that excavation at Sumbal would reveal great treasures. Hardly a year passes without rumours of fabulous treasure being discovered in Kashmfr. Official measures are at once taken to secure the State's interests, but since I have been in the valley all such rumours have proved to be unfounded. It is quite possible, however, that treasure is found, and it is very possible that systematic exploration might ARCHAEOLOGY. 163 discover some of the wealth witii which Lalitaditya and other conquerors Chap. vt. endowed the valley. — ^ — My duties left me no leisure to investigate the history of the ruined forts and the little palaces (kutrdj) which occur so frequently on the western side of the valley. The forts are recent, of Mughal or Pathan times, but the little palaces carry one back to the prehistoric ages when Kashmir was parcelled out among a number of princelings. The forts and palaces are now mere heaps of stones, the abode of snakes and jackals, 'the populous city is deserted, and thorns and briers have come up upon the land.' A curious antiquity known as Raman Kan, not described in previous accounts of the valley, may be mention- i here. On the Kutraj karewa, near the village of Khushipura, the arrows of Ram Chandr and Lachman are to be found. The arrows are of cut stone, octagonal in section, stand about four feet out of the ground, and the depth to which they have penetrated the soil after their long flight is unknown. The karewa also has a number of depressions, varying in size and depth and containing water and weeds. This table-land was once the abode of the Rakshas, devils in human form, who lessened the tediousness of time by wrestling-matches among themselves and by devouring men. The depressions were made by the rubbing of giant elbows and knees against the ground during the wrestling-bolits. Th6 avatars at last took compas- sion on the people thus oppressed, and preyed upon, and iired arrows from Ram Koond and Lachman Koond, sacred places in Machipura, where Hindus go to bathe, and the Rakshas were slain. The legend is interesting in that it points to a time when the Kutraj country was inhabited by a lawless people who made periodical inroads on the peace- loving and better-favoured lowlander. I have visited all the buildings which are now to be described, and have debated with myself whether anything of interest could be added by me to the excellent and accurate descriptions which expert writers have already given. I have decided that it would be presumptuous and useless, and just as in the chapter on geology I have availed myself 6f Lydekker's researches, so in this chapter I repeat the words of the greatest of Indian antiquariansj the late Sir Alexander Cunningham. I first give his general remarks on the architectural remains of Kashmir, and in the detailed description of each temple I reproduce the notices contained in Bates' Gazetteer. ' The architectural remains of Kashmir are perhaps the most remarkable of the existing monuments of India, as they exhibit undoubted traces of the influence of Grecian art. The Hindu temple is generally a sort of architectural pasty, a huge collection of ornamental fritters huddled together, either with or without keeping, while the Jain temple is usually Y 2 i64 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap VI. a vast forest of pillars, made to look as unlike one another as possible by — ►— some paltry differences in their petty details. On the other hand the Kashmi'rian fanes are distinguished by the graceful elegance of their out- lines, by the massive boldness of their parts, and by the happy propriety of their decorations. They cannot, indeed, vie with the severe simplicity of the Parthenon nor with the luxuriant gracefulness of the monument of Lysicrates, but they possess great beauty, different indeed, yet quite their own. ' The characteristic features of the Kashmi'rian architecture are its lofty pyramidal roofs, its trefoiled doorways, covered by pyramidal pediments, and the great width of its intercolumniations. The Grecian pediment is very low, and its roof exceedingly flat, the Kashmi'rian pediment, on the contrary, is extremely lofty, and its roof high. The former is adapted for a sunny and almost rainless climate, while the latter is equally well suited to a rainy and snowy climate. But besides the difference of climate, there was perhaps another reason for the form of roofing peculiar to the two countries in the kind of material most readily procurable for buildings. In Greece it was stone, in Kashmir it was timber. The former imposed low flat roofs with small intercolumniations, the latter suggested lofty roofs and wide intercolumniations. ' In the Kashmi'rian architecture the great width of the interval between the columns- (which is constant) is perhaps the most characteristic feature of the order. Indeed I have suspicion that the distinctive mark of the Kash- mfrian style was well known to the Greeks ; for an intercolumniation of four diameters, an interval seldom, if ever, used by themselves, was called Araiostyle, a name which would appear to refer to the intercolumniation common amongst the Hindus or Eastern Aryas, the 'APEIOI of Herodotus. The vulgar etymology of Araiostyle from 'APAI02, "rare," seems extremely far-fetched if not absurd ; while the etymology of the " Arian columnar interval" appears both natural and appropriate, as the intercolumniation followed by the Aryas of Kashmir was never less than four diameters. ' Now the interval between the Kashmi'rian pillars being always Araio- style, I feel inclined to call the style of architecture used by the Aryas of Kashmir the " Arian Order." This name it fully merits, for it is as much a distinct order of architecture as any one of the more celebrated classic orders. Like them it is subject to known rules, which confine the genius of its architects within certain limits. A Kashmi'rian pillar is indeed distin- guished from all Indian pillars by having a base, a shaft, and a capital, and each, besides, bearing a certain proportion to the diameter. How unlike is this to the columnar vagaries of the Hindus, which are of all shapes and of all dimensions A favourite Hindu pillar has the lowest fourth of its height square, the next eight-sided, and the third sixteen-sided, and the upper ARCHAEOLOGY. 165 part round ; another has a doni>le capital with a low flat base ; whilst Chap. vi. a third has a shaft of only one-fourth of its height, the remaining three- — ^ — ' fourths being all base and capital, and yet these three pillars may be neighbouring columns of the same temple. ' The superiority of the Kashmi'rian architecture over all other Indian buildings would appear to have been known to the Hindus themselves, for one of their names for the people of Kashmir is Skastra-Shilpina, or " architects," a term which could only have been applied to them on account of their well-known skill in building. Even now the Kashmiris are the most expert handicraftsmen of the East ; and it is not difficult to believe that the same people, who at present excel all other orientals as weavers, gun-smiths, and as calligraphers, must once have been the most eminent of the Indian architects. ' Before entering upon any details of the Arian order of architecture, and upon the comparisons naturally suggested between it and some of the classical orders, I will first describe the present state and appearance of the principal buildings that still exist in Kashmir, all of which were accurately measured by myself in November, 1847. They are entirely composed of a blue limestone, which is capable of taking the highest polish, a property to which I mainly attribute the present beautiful state of preservation of most of the Kashmi'rian buildings ; not one of these temples has a name, excepting that of Martand, which is called in the corrupt Kashmi'rian pronunciation, Matan, but they are all known by the general name of Pandavanki lari or " Pandus-house," a title to which they have no claim whatever, unless indeed the statement of Ptolemy can be considered of sufficient authority upon such a subject. He says " circa autem Bida- spum Pandovorum regio " — the Kingdom of the Pandus is upon the Betasta or (Behat), that is, it corresponded with Kashm/r. This passage would seem to prove that the Pandavas still inhabited Kashmir so late as the second century of our era. Granting the correctness of this point there may be some truth in the universal attribution of the Kashmi'rian temples to the race of Pandus, for some of these buildings date as high as the end of the fifth century, and there are others that must undoubtedly be much more ancient, perhaps even as old as the beginning of the Christian era. One of them dates from 220 B. C. ' Most of the Kashmirian temples are more or less injured, but more particularly those at Awantipura, which are mere heaps of ruins. Speaking of these temples, Trebeck^ says, "It is scarcely possible to imagine that the state of ruin to which they have been reduced has been the work of time or even of men, as their solidity is fully equal to that of the most massive monuments of Egypt ; earthquakes must have been the chief agents in 1 Travels, vol. ii. p. 245. i66 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VI. their overthrow." I have quoted this passage to show the utter confusion' ^ that characterizes the ruins of the Awantipura temples. In my opinion their overthrow is too complete to have been the result of an earthquake, which would have simply prostrated the buildings in large masses. But the whole of the superstructure of these temples is now lying in one confused heap of stones totally disjoined from one another. I believe, therefore, that I am fully justified in saying, from my own experience, that such a complete and disruptive overturn could only have been produced by gun- powder. I have myself blown up a fort, besides several buildings, both of stone and of brick, and I have observed that the result has always been the entire sundering of all parts one from another, and the capsizing or bouleversement of many of them. Neither of these effects can be produced by an earthquake. It seems also that Trebeck and Moorcroft would most likely have attributed their destruction to the same agency, had they not believed that the use of gunpowder was unknown at the time ; for in speaking of a traditional attempt made by Shah Hamdan to destroy Martand, they say, " It is fortunate he was not acquainted with the use of gunpowder." I admit that this destructive agent was most probably unheard of in Kashmir so early as the reign of Shah Mirshah of Hamdan ; but the destruction of the Kashmi'rian temples is universally attributed, both by history and by tradition, to the bigotted Sikander, whose idol- breaking zeal procured him the title of But-Shikan, or " Iconoclast." He was reigning at the period of Timur's invasion of India, with whom he exchanged friendly presents, and from whom I suppose he may have received a present of the " villanous saltpetre." This is not at all unlikely, for the furious Tamerlane was as great an idol-breaker as Sikandar himself Gibbon, it is true, denies that either the Mughals or Ottomans in 140a were acquainted with gunpowder, but as he points out that the Turks had metal cannon at the siege of Constantinople in A. D. 1422^, I think it is no great stretch of probability to suppose that gunpowder itself had been carried into the East, even as far as Kashmir, at least ten or twenty years earlier, that is about A. D. 1400 to 1420, or certainly during the reign of Sikandar, who died in 1416. ' Even if this be not admitted, I still adhere to my opinion that the complete ruin of Awantipura temples could only have been effected by gunpowder, and I would then ascribe their overthrow to the bigotted Aurangzeb. Ferishta ^ attributed to Sikandar the demolition of all the Kashmfrian temples save one, which was dedicated to Mahddeo, and which only escaped " in consequence of its foundation being below the surface of the neighbouring water." In A. D. 1580-90, however, Abulfazal' ' Decline and Fall. c. 65, note 93. ^ Bnggs, vol. iv. p. 465. ' Ain Akbari, vol. ii. p. 1 24. ARCHAEOLOGY. 167 mentions that some of the idolsi^ous temples were in " perfect presei-va- Chap. VI. tion ; " and Ferishta himself describes many of these edifices as being — ** — in existence in his own time, or about A. D. 1600^. Besides, as several of them are still standing, although more or less injured, it is quite certain that Sikandar could not have destroyed them all. He most likely gave orders that they should all be overturned ; and I have no doubt that many of the principal temples were thrown down during his reign. For instance, the tomb of his own queen in Srinagar is built upon the foundation, and with the materials of a Hindu temple ; likewise the wall which surrounds the tomb of his son, Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din, was once the enclosure of a Hindu temple ; and lastly, the entrance of a Masjid in Nawashahra ^ of Srinagar, which, according to its inscription, was built during the reign of his son Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din, is formed of two fluted pillars of a Hindu peristyle. These instances prove that at least three different temples, in the capital alone, must have been overthrown either by Sikandar or by one of his predecessors. But as the demolition of idol temples is not attributed to any one of the earlier kings, we may safely ascribe the destruction of the three above mentioned to Sikandar himself. But besides the ruthless hand of the destroyer, another agency, less immediate, but equally certain in its ultimate effects, must have been at work upon the large temples of Kashmfr. The silent ravages of the destroyer who carries away pillars and stones for the erection of other edifices have been going on for centuries. Pillars from which the architraves have been thus removed have been thrown down by earthquakes, ready to be set up again for the decoration of the first masjid or tomb that might be erected in their neighbourhood. Thus every Muhammadan building in Kashmfr is constructed either entirely or in part of the ruins of Hindu temples. ' Even at first sight, one is immediately struck by the strong resem- blance which the Kashmfrian columnades bear to the classical peristyle of Greece. This first impression is undoubtedly due to the distinct division of the pillars into the three members — base, shaft and capital, as well as to the fluting of the shafts. On further inspection the first impression is confirmed by the recognition that some of the principal mouldings are also peculiar to the Grecian orders, but more especially to the Doric. Thus the echinos, which is the leading feature of the Kashmfrian capital, is also the chief member of the Doric capital. A still closer examination reveals the fact that the width of the capital ' Briggs, vol. iv. p. 445. '^ Cf. Fergusson, History of Itidian arid Eastern Architecture, pp. 281, 282. i68 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VI. is subject exactly to the same rules as that of all the classical orders — ♦^ — excepting the Corinthian. ' Even the temples themselves, with their porches and pediments, remind one more of Greece than of India ; and it is difficult to believe that a style of architecture which differs so much from all Indian examples, and which has so much in common with those of Greece, could have been indebted to chance alone for this striking resemblance. Professor Willis admits the probability that the Kashmi'rian pediments may have been borrowed from those of the Syrian. Greeks, and he founds his opinion upon the fact that the trefoiled arch of the Kashmi'rian temple rises high into the tympanum of the pediment ; a practice which was not introduced into the classical architecture until after the com- mencement of the Christian era. But the Professor had not, I believe, seen any examples of the older Kashmi'rian buildings, such as the enclosing walls of the temple on the Takht-i-Suliman and of the tomb of Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din, as well as the perfect little cave temple of Bhumju. Of these specimens the first dates as early as 220 B. C, at which time the Kabul valley, and even the western Panjab, were occupied by the Bactrian Greeks, under Euthydemus and his son Demetrius. If, there- fore, it is admitted that the Kashmi'rian architects have been indebted to those of Greece for their pediments, for their fluted columns, or even for any of their minor details, I think that they must certainly have borrowed them from the temples of their immediate neighbours the Bactrian Greeks, and not from the buildings of distant Syrian Greeks ; I think also that had these pediments been imitated from the later Romanized examples the copyist would scarcely have overlooked the structural arches which occupy their pediments. In fact the forms of the principal Kashmi'rian mouldings, which are all quirked ovolos, or echini, could only have been borrowed from the pure Greek style of an earlier period than the Roman innovation of circular segmental mouldings. ' Another striking resemblance between the Kashmfrian architecture and that of the various Grecian orders is its stereotyped style, which during the long flourishing period of several centuries remained unchanged. In this respect it is so widely different from the ever-varying forms and plastic vagaries of the Hindu architecture, that it is impossible to conceive their evolution from a common origin. I feel convinced myself that several of the Kashmi'rian forms, and many of the details, were borrowed from the temples of the Kabulian Greeks, while the arrangement of the interior, and the relative proportions of the different parts, were of Hindu origin. Such, in fact, must necessarily have been the case with imitations by Indian workmen, which would naturally have been engrafted upon the indigenous ARCHAEOLOGY. 169 architecture. The general arj^ngement would therefore still remain Chap. VI. Indian^ while many of the details, and even some of the larger forms, might — ►* — be of foreign origin. 'As a whole, I think that the Kashmfrian architecture, with its noble fluted pillars, its vast colonnades, its lofty pediments and its elegant trefoiled arches, is fully entitled to be classed as a distinct style. I have therefore ventured to call it the "Arian order," a name to which it has a double right ; firstly, because it was the style of the Aryas, or Arians of Kashmir ; and secondly, because its intercolumniations are always of four diameters, an interval which the Greeks called Araiostyle.' Bhumju or Bumzu or Bhaumajo lies at the mouth of the Liddar valley, and is easily reached from Islamabad. ' These caves are situated on the left bank of the Liddar river about a mile north of the village of Bawan, the largest is dedicated to Kaladeva. The cave-temple stands at the far end of a natural but artificially enlarged fissure in the limestone cliff. The entrance to the cavern, which is more than 60 feet above the level of the river, is carved into an architectural doorway, and a gloomy passage, 50 feet in length, leads from it to the door of the temple. It is a simple cella, 10 feet square, exterior dimensions, raised on a badly moulded plinth, and approached by a short flight of steps. The square doorway is flanked by two round-headed niches de- spoiled of their statues, and is surmounted by a high, triangular pediment, reaching to the apex of the roof, with a trefoiled tympanum. There is no record ^ nor tradition as to the time of erection ; but from absence of all ornamentation, and the simple character of the roof, which appears to be a rudimentary copy in stone of the ordinary sloping timber roof of the country, it may with great probability be inferred that this is the earliest perfect specimen of a Kashmir temple, and dates from the first or second century of the Christian era. Close by is another cave of still greater extent, but with no architectural accessories ; and about half a mile further up the valley, at the foot of the cliff, are two temples, the larger of which has been converted into a Muhammadan tomb. Both are, to a considerable extent, copies of the cave-temple, but may be of much later date. ' The shrine of Baba Ramdin Rishi and the tomb of his disciple Rukii din Rishi are also close by. Hugel states that the Bhumju caves occupy a very conspicuous place in the fables of the timid Kashmiris, and are supposed to have originated from the following causes. In the year Kali a 1 08 (993 B.C.) Raja Nara succeeded his father, Vibishana; during his reign a certain Brahman espoused Chandrasaha, the daughter of Susravas, ^ Dr. Stein believes that the temple is the same as the Bhimakeiava temple mentioned by Kalhana. It was built by king Bhima^ahi, who ruled in the Kabul valley in the first half of the tenth century. Z 170 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VI. a serpent-god, whose place was in a lake near the Vitusta, and near a city — *^ — built and inhabited by Nara. One day, as Raja Nara beheld the beautiful daughter of the serpent on the shore of the lake, moving gracefully through the calm waters, he was struck with the deepest admiration, and en- deavoured vainly to inspire the same sentiments he himself felt. At length he resolved to carry her off from her husband, but the plan failed, and the enraged Brahman called on her father to avenge the insult. A storm was accordingly called up, and the earth opened and swallowed up the king and his whole court. The sister of the serpent-god assisted him, and hurled on the city huge stones from the Bawan mountain. The caverns of Bhumju are said to be on the spot where these rocks were uptorn (Hugel, Growse).' Awantipura lies on the right bank of the Jhelum and is distant about 18 miles by land from Srinagar. 'The ancient capital of Awantipura was called after its founder, the famous king Awanti-Varma, who reigned from A. D. 854 to 883. The whole neighbourhood is strewn with ruins, but the only traces that remain of its former greatness are the two temples which he founded — one before his accession to the throne, and the other and larger one subsequently. Both were dedicated to Mahadeva, the former under the title of Awanti- Swami, the latter under that of Awantiswara. These two temples are situated on the bank of the river, one at Awantipura and the other about three-quarters of a mile to the north, near the village of Janbior. They are now shapeless masses of ruins, but the gateways of both are standing, and the colonnade of the smaller temple, which had been completely buried underground, has recently been partially excavated. The style corre- sponds with that of the Martand quadrangle ; but the semi-attached pillars of the arched recesses are enriched with elaborate carving of very varied character, while the large detached columns are somewhat less elegantly proportioned. ' The writer in the Calcutta Review, from whose description the above account has been extracted, is of opinion that the silting up of the Awanti- pura quadrangle can only be explained by the supposition that all the Kash- miri temples were originally surrounded by artificial lakes ^ Forster, who visited Awantipura in May, 1783, calls the place Bhyteepour.' Martand lies on the karewa above Islamabad, and is easily reached from Islamabad, Bawan and Achabal. ' The ruins of the Hindu temple of Martand, or, as it is commonly called, the Pandu-Koru, or the house of the Pandus and Korus — the Cyclopes of the East — are situated on the highest part of a karewa, where it commences to rise to its juncture with the mountains, about ' Cp. Dr. Stein's remarks, p. 175. ARCHAEOLOGY. 171 3 miles east of Islamabad. Qccijpying, undoubtedly, the finest position in Chap. vr. Kashmir, this noble ruin is the most striking in size and situation of all the — ^ — existing remains of Kashmir grandeur. The temple itself is not now more than 40 feet in height, but its solid walls and bold outlines, towering over the fluted pillars of the surrounding colonnade, give it a most imposing appear- ance. There are no petty confused details, but all are distinct and massive, and most admirably suited to the general character of the building. Many vain speculations have been hazarded regarding the date of erection of this temple, and the worship to which it was appropriated. It is usually called the House of the Pandus by the Brahmins, and by the people " Mar- tand," or the sun, to which the temple was dedicated. The true date of the erection of this temple — the wonder of Kashmfr — is a disputed point of chronology ; but the period of its foundation can be determined within the limits of one century, or between A. D. 370 and 500. The mass of building now known by the name of Martand consists of one lofty central edifice, with a small detached wing on each side of the entrance, the whole standing in a large quadrangle, surrounded by a colonnade of fluted pillars with intervening, trefoil-headed recesses. The length of the outer side of the wall, which is blank, is about 90 yards ; that of the front is about ,56. There are in all eighty-four columns — a singularly appropriate number in a temple of the sun, if, as is supposed, the number eighty-four is accounted sacred by the Hindus in consequence of its being the multiple of the number of days in the week with the number of signs in the zodiac. The colonnade is recorded in the Rajatarangini as the work of the famous king Laltaditya, who reigned from A.D. 693 to 729. From the same authority we gather — though the interpretation of the verses is considerably disputed — that the temple itself was built by Ranaditya, and the side chapels, or at least one of them, by his queen, Amritaprakha. The date ^ of Ranaditya's reign is involved in some obscurity, but it may safely be con- jectured that he died in the first half of the fifth century after Christ. The remains of three gateways opening into the court are now standing. The principal of these fronts due west towards Islamabad. It is also rectan- gular in its details and built with enormous blocks of limestone, 6 or 8 feet in length, and one of 9, and of proportionate solidity, cemented with an excellent mortar. 'The central building is 6^, feet in length by 36 in width, and, alone of all the temples of Kashmir possesses, in addition to the cella or sanctuary, a choir and nave, termed in Sanskrit the antardla and ard- dhamandapa ; the nave is 1 8 feet square. The sanctuary alone is left entirely bare, the two other compartments being lined with rich panellings ' Fergusson gives the date of Martand as A. D. 750, and fixes the reign of Ranaditya as A.D. 578-594- Z 3 172 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VI. and sculptured niches. As the main building is at present entirely un- — ^ — covered, the original form of the roof can only be determined by a reference to other temples and to the general form and character of the various parts of the Martand temple itself. It has been conjectured that the roof was of pyramidal form, and that the entrance chamber and wings were similarly covered. There would thus have been four distinct pyramids, of which that over the inner chamber must have been the loftiest, the height of its pinnacle above the ground being about 75 feet. 'The interior must have been as imposing as the exterior. On ascending the flight of steps, now covered by ruins, the votary of the sun entered a highly decorated chamber, with a doorway on each, side covered by a pediment, with a trefoil-headed niche containing a bust of the Hindu triad, and on the flanks of the- main entrance, as well as on those of the side doorways, were pointed and trefoil niches, each of whicla held a statue of a Hindu deity. The interior decorations of the roof can only be conjecturally determined, as there do not appear to be any ornamented stones that could with certainty be assigned to it.. Baron Hugel doubts that Martand ever had a roof, but as the walls of the temple are .still standing the numerous heaps of large stones that are .scattered about on all sides can only have belonged to the roof\ ' Cunningham thinks that the erection of this sun-temple was suggested by the magnificent sunny prospect which its position commands. It overlooks the finest view in Kashmfr, and perhaps in the .known world. Beneath it lies the paradise of the east, with its sacred streams and glens, its orchards and green fields, surrounded on all sides by vast snowy mountains, whose lofty peaks seem to smile upon the beautiful valley below. The vast extent of the scene makes it sublime ; for this magnifi- cent view of Kashmir is no petty peer in a half-mile glen, but the full display of a valley 60 miles in breadth and upwards of xoo miles in length, the whole of which lies beneath the " ken of the wonderful Martand." ' Narastan. In the east of the valley about 35 miles from Srinagar, via Trahat. 'This is one of the most interesting ruins in Kashmir. Its situation is very picturesque, looking down the narrow valley, while behind it the ground slopes up towards the lofty mountains of the Brariangan range. The cella stands in a walled enclosure about 65 feet square. This wall, which is about 5 feet thick and 8 feet high to the top of the coping- stone, has in some places fallen to the ground. The main entrance is on the west side, through an imposing portico ; the outer portal is arched, the pediment possessing the usual characteristics of the Arian order of ' Fergusson thinks that the roof was of wood. fl. ARCHAEOLOGY. 173 architecture. It was suppc^ted by two columns about 8 feet high, Chap. VI. the width of the entrance between the pillars being about 4^. feet. ■ " The outer vestibule measured about 8 feet by 4 ; in the middle is a square gateway opening into a second vestibule of rather larger dimensions. ' In the middle of each of the other three sides of the wall within the enclosure there is a blank arched recess, and on the north side there is also a small square postern, measuring about 3 feet by a, and a similar one on the west side seems to have led into a square chamber which occupied the south-west corner of the enclosure ; this chamber was lighted by a small arched window. Projecting into the enclosure from the southern wall is a small cell about 5 feet square, with a pyramidal roof. 'The cella of the temple which occupies the centre of the enclosure is similar in general appearance to those of Payech and Pandrathan, but more imposing in its proportion and elaborate in its details. Each side measures about 15 feet above the plinth. The porch, which is on the west side, projects rather more than 3 feet from the face of the wall. ' In the middle of each of the other three sides is a blank trefoil archway corresponding in proportions to the portal. On either side of the vestibule the figure of a Hindu god is carved in bold relief on the panel contained within a trefoil-arched recess. 'The inner entrance is a square gateway about 6\ feet high by 3^ wide supported by pillars ; both this and the middle gateway of the north seem to have been fitted with stone doors. The inside chamber is about 8| feet square, the walls are blank, with the exception of a small arched recess on the south side of the entrance. The flooring is of stone, which has given way in the centre, where probably the lingam stood. About 8^ feet from the ground there is a cornice, from which the roof seems to have tapered to a point ; the walls are now standing to a height of about 24 feet, and the pinnacle was probably about 10 feet higher. In each side of the roof was a lancet.' Pandrathan lies on the Srinagar-Islamabid road, and is easily reached from Srinagar. ' The place is remarkable for a very old and interesting Hindu temple, standing in the middle of the tank, about 50 yards from the river bank, surrounded by a grove of willows and chenars. The tank is about 40 yards square, and in ordinary seasons 4 feet deep ; it is filled with reeds growing in a bed of soft mud ; the water is derived from small springs on its northern side. ' Access to the interior is therefore a matter of some difficulty, which is unfortunate, since the domed roof is well worth inspection, being covered with sculpture of such purely classic design that any uninitiated person 174 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VI. who saw a copy of it on paper would at once take it for a sketch from """ a Greek or Roman original. ' The temple is i8 feet square, with a projecting portico on each side, and displays in a confused exuberance of decoration, more especially the repetition of pediment within pediment and trefoil within trefoil, clear indications of having been built at a later date than other existing ruins ; it is probably the most modern example of the true Kashmir style extant. It was erected during the reign of king Partha, who governed Kashmir from A.D. 921 to" 931, by his prime minister, Meru, who dedicated it to Mahadeva under the title of Meru Vardhama Swami. ' The ground about it was then occupied by the original city of Srinagar, the modern name of Pandrathan being a corruption of the Sanskrit Puranadhishthana, i. e. " the old capital." Dr. Elmslie, however, supposes the name to be derived from Pandu and Durendun, the father of the Pandus. The seat of government had been transferred to the present site by king Pravarasena II nearly 500 years before the foundation of this temple ; but the old city was not entirely deserted until its destruction by fire in the reign of Abhimanyu, about the year A.D. 960. The con- flagration was so violent that, excepting the temple which was protected by the water about it, no other building escaped. There are in the neighbourhood some few fragmentary remains, consisting of two large lingams, one 6 feet high, erect and entire, the other broken into three pieces, the lower part polygonal, the upper round with conical top, which together made up a height of 16 feet. Near these, which are separated from each other by a short interval, is a huge mass of stone, being the feet and legs as high as the knees of a colossal seated figure, probably a Buddhist image. At some little distance beyond this an isolated crag has been cut, as it stood, into some sculptured form, apparently a Chau- mukhi, i. e. a square pillar with a figure on each face. But the rock has been overthrown, broken into three pieces, and so defaced by the action of fire that it is impossible to speak positively as to the original design. Of three fragments, one the base is still attached to and forms part of the natural rock. Baron Hugel calls the Pandrathan edifice a " Buddhist temple," and states that there are some well-preserved Buddhist figures in the interior. But he is doubly mistaken, for the temple was dedicated to Mahadeva, and the figures in the inside have no connexion with Buddhism. ' Trebeck, Moorcroft's companion, swam into the interior, and could discover no figures of any kind ; but as the whole ceiling was formerly hidden by a coating of plaster, his statement was at that time perfectly correct. ' The object of erecting the temples in the midst of water was doubtless to place them immediately under the protection of the Nagas or human- ARCHAEOLOGY. 175 bodied and snake-tailed gq|Js who were zealously worshipped for ages Chap. VI. throughout Kashmir (Moorcroft, Hugel, Vigne, Cunningham, Growse). — " — Dr. Stein in his "Tours Archaeological and Topographical in and about Kashmir" — read before the Royal Asiatic Society, London, November 13, 1894 — speaking of his recent examination of ruins in Kashmir says, " In every case where a thorough examination of the ruins is still possible, I have found the Naga in a separate, larger or smaller walled basin in front or by the side of the temple. Irrespective of Pandrathan, which now stands in a morass, I have come across nowhere a trace of that arrangement, according to which, as has been frequently assumed, all Kashmirian temples were placed in the middle of tanks.'" Patan lies on the Srinagar-Baramula road, about half-way between these places. ' It is recorded in the Rajatarangini that Sankaravarma, who succeeded Awantivarma, and reigned from A.D. 883 to 901, in conjunction with his queen, Sugandha, dedicated to Mahadeva, under the title of Sankara Gauresa and Sugandhesvara, two temples at his new capital of Sankarapura. This town is identified with the modern Patan, where beside the highway on the south-east side of the village two stately temples are still standing. Each is a simple cella ; but in the larger one, the projection of the closed porches at the sides is so considerable that they form deep niches, or rather shallow chambers, in each of which was once a lingam. In both the architecture is of the same character as at Martand, and of equal excellence. Here and there the carving is as sharp and fresh as if executed yesterday, but there are many ominous cracks in the walls, and if the forest trees which have taken root in these crevices are allowed to remain and spread, the destruction of both buildings is imminent. ' By the wayside to the north of the village, near the hamlet of Gasipur, are two very curious stone pillars which the natives call Gurmat, and believe to have been mortals who for their misdeeds suffered a fate similar to that which befell Lot's wife. These pillars are, however, nothing more than the miniature models of temples which occur here and there through- out the country, but they possess this peculiarity that they are not hollowed out in the interior, the place of the open doorway being occupied by a sculptured panel ^. ' A few letters also remain of an old inscription which Vigne copied and sent to Calcutta, but they were found to be illegible, although bearing some resemblance to Sanskrit (Vigne, Growse).' Payech lies about 19 miles from Srinagar, under the Naunagri karewa, about 6 miles from the Jhelum river. ' I have seen many of these miniature temples. The people call them kulr-muru. Dr. Stein says that they are in all probability funeral monuments. 176 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VI. ' On the south side of this village, situated in a small green space near " the bank of the stream, surrounded by a few walnut and willow trees, is an ancient temple, which in intrinsic beauty and elegance of outline is superior to all the existing remains in Kashmir of similar dimensions. Its excellent preservation may probably be explained by its retired situation at the foot of the high table-land, which separates it by an interval of 5 or 6 miles from the bank of the Jhelum, and by the marvellous solidity of its con- struction. The cella, which is 8 feet square, and has an open doorway on each of the four sides is composed of only ten stones, the four corners being each a single stone, the sculptured tympanums over the doorways four others, while two more compose the pyramid roofj the lower of these being an enormous mass 8 feet square by 4 feet in height. It has been ascribed by General Cunningham, on grounds which, in the absence of any positive authority either way, may be taken as adequate, to king Narendraditya, who reigned from A.D. 483 to 490^. The sculptures over the doorways are coarsely executed in comparison with the artistic finish of the purely architectural details, and are much defaced, but apparently represent Brahma, Vishnu, Siva and the goddess Durga. The building is said to be dedicated to Vishnu as Surya or the sun-god. ' Inside the cupola is radiated so as to represent the sun, and at each corner of the square the space intervening between the angle and the line of the circle is filled up with a gin or attendant, who seems to be sporting at the edge of its rays. It will be observed that the roof has been partly displaced, which is said to have been the result of an attempt made by the Patans to take it down and remove it to the city. 'The interior is still occupied by a large stone lingam, and from the water-drain and the bulls carved on the smaller pilasters of the doorways it is evident that this was the original intention (Vigne, Growse). ' Takht-i-Suliman. The temple crowning the Takht-i-Suliman is stated to be the earliest of all the temples in Kashmir. Baron Hugel records that its erection is ascribed to Gopiditya of the Gonerdya dynasty, 370 B. C, but later authorities seem to agree that the first religious edifice on this commanding site was built by Jaloka, the son of the great Buddhist convert Asoka, about aoo B. c. In all probability there is not a fragment of this now remaining. The temple was subsequently rebuilt and dedicated to Jyeshtesvara, a title of Mahadeva, by Raja Gopiditya, who reigned from A.D. 353 to 328^. To this date may be ^ Fergnsson considers that Payech belongs to the thirteenth century of our era, ^ Talcht-i-Suliman. Dr. Buhler, referring to speculations by which the Takht and its temples are connected with Sandhimati, or are regarded as identical with Gopadri, and as due to Gopaditya, writes, ' It seems to me that in neither story have we to deal with a genuine tradition, but with the speculations of the learned, and that the real name of the Takht, as well as the name of the builder of its temples, have still to be discovered.' Plati; V To fan- pni^r 1 76] [Negative hy .Unin CI:,,!,,!. CC. THE OLD TEMPLE OE PAYECH. THE INTERIOR LS OCCUPIED B^' THE LINC.A OR PHALLIC EMBLEM ARCHAEOLOGY. 177 ascribed the low enclosing viall and the plinth of the existing temple, Chap. VI. but all the superstructure is evidently modern or greatly modernized. — " — Its summit has been damaged, but its general figure has been that of a cone, with four sides formed by the rectangular adjustment of eight gable-shaped slabs of masonry, the surface of the outer slab being much less than that of the inner one. The cone, which is about 25 feet in height with proportionate base, rests upon an octagonal raised platform, whose wall is about 10 or 12 feet above the rock on which it is built, and whose circumference may be about 100 feet. A handsome flight of steps, formed, as the whole building is, of limestone, leads from the ground to the door of the temple. At a little distance below the latter building, which rises on the very summit of the Takht, are some ruins that indicate the existence of another edifice of the same material. 'The interior is circular, and 14 feet in diameter; the roof is flat and 1 1 feet high ; the walls, which are 8 feet thick, are covered with white plaster composed of gypsum, and the roof is supported by four octagonal limestone pillars. In the centre of the floor there is a quad- rangular stone platform ; it supports a lingam of black stone, around which is carved a coiled serpent. Upon the hinder of the two pillars on the left there are two Persian inscriptions ; that upon the front of it states that the b-^t or idol was made by Haji Hushti, a Soukar, in the year 54 of the Samvat or Hindu era, or about 1,870 years ago, while that at the foot of the back part of the same pillar states that " he who raised up this idol was Kwaja Rukm, son of Mfr Jan, in the year . . ." The remainder of the inscription is below the pavement, and cannot be made out.' Fergusson is convinced that the temple as it now stands was commenced by some nameless Hindus in honour of Siva, during the tolerant reign of Jehangir, and that the building was stopped at the date engraved on the staircase, A. H. 1069 (a. d. 1659), the first year of the reign of the bigot Aurungzeb. ' Wangat. About three miles north of Wangat, at the head of the glen, far from all human habitations, are some ruined temples. They are situated high up on the precipitous mountain side, in the midst of dense jungle and towering pine-trees, which lend a more than religious gloom to their crumbling walls. ' In antiquity these ruins are supposed to rank next after those on the Takht-i-Suliman, at Bhumju and at Payech. They are in two groups, situated at a distance of a hundred yards from each other, and consisting respectively of six and eleven distinct buildings. The luxuriant forest growth has overthrown and buried almost completely several of the smaller temples; on the summit of the largest a tall pine has taken root and rises straight from the centre, in rivalry of the original A a 178 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap VI. finial. The architecture is of a slightly more advanced type than at " Payech, the most striking feature being the bold projection and lofty trefoiled arches of the lateral porches. ' In close proximity is a sacred spring called Nagbal, and by it the footpath leads up the height of Haramak to the mountain lake of Ganga- bal, a celebrated place of pilgrimage. A great festival is held annually about August 20, which is attended by thousands of Hindus from all parts of Kashmir. By this footpath the Tilail valley may also be reached. ' It is probable that the Wangat temples were erected at different times by returning pilgrims as votive offerings after successful accom- plishment of the hazardous ascent.' CHAPTER VII. POLITICAL HISTORY. The Kashmiris divide their history into four periods : the early period Chap. VH. of the Hindu kings chronicled in the famous Rajataranginf ; the period of — " — the Kashmfr Musalmans, known as the Salatfni Kashmir ; the period of the Mughals, known as the Pddshahi-i-Chagatai or Shahdn-i-Mughlia, and the period of the Pathans, known as the Shahan-i-Duranf. Each of these periods if dealt with in detail would furnish much of historical interest, but I can only attempt a brief sketch of the history of Kashmfr. I have endeavoured to reproduce the events which seem best remem- bered by the people — events which even now are common talk of the country side. I do not mean to imply that there is a survival of a genuine popular tradition in Kashmfr, although there are some remarkable instances of local traditions of great age surviving in particular places. It is pro- bable that the history of the country as I have gleaned it from the villagers may all be traced to literary sources. Most headmen of villages can read and write, and have had access to translations of the Rajataranginf. These headmen repeat the stories of Kalhana's Chronicle, and the uneducated villagers have thus acquired a general idea of the history of their country. It is vague and often contradictory, but the names and events mentioned in my brief abstract rarely fail to arouse recognition as one talks with the villagers by the camp-fire. The following note by Dr. Stein indicates the sources available for the study of Kashmfr history, and furnishes some excuse for my not attempting anything more than a popular account of the historical events of the country. ' Kashmir can claim the distinction of being the only region of India which possesses an uninterrupted series of written records of its history, reaching back beyond the period of the Muhammadan conquest and deserving the name of real chronicles. In other parts of India the historical student is obliged to reconstruct the general outlines of the country's history with the help of the scanty and frequently uncertain data A a a i8o THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. which a patient examination of inscriptions, coins, and occasional references " in Hterary works may reveal, and he can scarcely ever hope to recover a continuous account of the leading events even for a couple of centuries. If the student of Kashmi'rian history finds himself in a far better position, this is. due to the preservation of the documents alluded to ; they testify to the continued existence among the population of the valley of that genuine historical sense in which the Indian mind on the whole is so conspicuously deficient. ' These Chronicles have, on account of the striking contrast they offer to the scantiness of historical traditions in India proper, attracted early the attention of those European scholars who began the critical study of Indian antiquities. It was in consequence of the steady search made for these interesting documents by Colebrooke and other pioneers that Dr. Horace Hayman Wilson was able to publish in the Bengal Asiatic Society's Transactions of 1825 his famous " Essay on the Hindu History of Kashmfr,^' in which the materials available for the study of Kashmi'rian history were analyzed for the first time, and in a manner truly admirable considering the condition of Indian philology of those days. Dr. Wilson showed that the Sanskrit History of Kashmir called the Rajatarangini, for which Sir William Jones had looked out in vain, was not one entire composition, as had till then been thought, but a series of four Chronicles, written by different authors, the last three being intended to serve as successive continuations of the first and most important work of the series. ' This is the Rajataranginf of the Kashmirian poet Kalhana. It comprises in eight cantos of Sanskrit verse the history of the various dynasties which ruled Kashmfr from the earliest period down to the time of the author, who began to write this work A. D. 1148, in the reign of king Jayasimha. Although Kalhana himself mentions several historians as his predecessors, none of their works have come down to us. The Rajatarangini has thus become the most direct source of information on the ancient history of Kashmir. Allowing for the legendary character of much that is related in the first three cantos regarding the earliest dynasties and discarding the artificial chronology of these portions, we retain in Kalhana's work a connected account of Kashmirian history which has well stood the test of historical criticism. It can be accepted as a reliable record from the seventh century onwards, and steadily increases in detail and interest as we approach the time of the author. ' Kalhana's work was continued by Pandit Jonaraja, who, writing in professed imitation of his predecessor's style and method, brought down the history of the valley through the troubled times of the last Hindu dynasties and the first Muhammadan rulers to the time of Sultan Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din, who ascended the throne in A. D. 141 7. POLITICAL HISTORY. i»i ' Sn'vara's Jaina-Rajatarangifif takes up the account of Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din's Chap. Vll. rule and continues the history of his descendants down to the accession of — " — Fatteh Shah (a. D. i486). The series of Sanslfrit Chronicles is closed by Prajyabhatta's Rajavali'pataka, which records the history of the valley till its conquest by Akbar (a.d. 1586). ' For the period of Moghul rule we can utilize, besides general works of Muhammadan historians of India, the existing Persian histories of Kashmir written by Haidar Malik, Mohammad Azim, Narayan Kul, and other authors, most of whom seem to have lived in the early part of the eighteenth, century. Though these works also contain more or less garbled accounts of the periods of Kashmi'rian history previous to Akbar's conquest, it is yet very doubtful whether their authors possessed any materials for this purpose besides the Sanskrit Chronicles, which are still accessible to us. ' That the interest in historical events has not ceased to exercise the minds of educated Kashm/rians in more recent times, is amply proved by numerous Persian works like the Tawdrikh of Bi'rabal Kacheri, the Gulzar- i-Kashmfr of the late Diwan Kirpa Ram, which besides embodying the accounts found in earlier narratives describe also the history of the valley in the times of the Sikh and Dogra dominion. ' We have already noted that Dr. Wilson was the first who attempted to utilize the contents of Kalhana's Rdjatarangini for a critical study of the early history and antiquities of Kashmir. His abstract embraced the first six captos only, and was based on manuscripts so imperfect as to render a close translation quite impracticable. Ten years later the first edition of the work was published in Calcutta from a complete copy which had been obtained through the energy and zeal of Mr. Moorcroft, who had visited Srinagar in 1823 on his ill-fated expedition to Turkestan. This copy, though transcribed from the Codex which has proved the original of all existing manuscripts, was still so imperfect as to render the text of the Calcutta edition, which was based on it, unintelligible in many important passages. With the help of the same insufficient materials Mr. Troyer undertook in 1840, under the auspices of the French Asiatic Society, an edition and translation of the work. The former was never completed, and the very limited value of the latter has long ago been pointed out by competent scholars. ' Subsequently researches of General Cunningham, Professor Lassen and others, have brought to light valuable results regarding the chronology of the Hindu dynasties and their connexions with territories outside Kashmir. Still, when in 1877 one of the most distinguished of living Indo- logists, Professor Biihler, had to review the work done up to that time for the elucidation of the Chronicle, his opinion was recorded in terms by no means reassuring to the general student of Kashmi'rian history : " It may i82 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. seem scarcely credible that a book which has engaged the attention of so — '— many Sanskritists, and of some of the first rank, is, after all the labour expended, not in a satisfactory condition, and that its explanation leaves a great deal to desire ^." ' Professor Biihler attributed rightly the scantiness of these results to the great deficiency of the materials on which European and Indian scholars had worked up to that time, and showed that close study on the spot of the old geography and antiquities of Kashmir was an indispensable condition for the further elucidation of that difficult work. The English translation published by Mr. Jugesh Chandra Dutta, soon after Professor Biihler's Report, has only tended to confirm the above opinion. Based on the corrupt text of the Calcutta edition, and made without corresponding researches in Kashmir itself, this translation can be used only with caution by the student to whom the original text is not accessible, however much commendation the translator may rightly deserve for his industry and devotion to the task. In 1892 a new edition of Kalhana's work was pub- lished by Dr. Stein, under the auspices of the Kashmir State Council. In this the correct text of the Chronicle was restored for the first time, on the ground of the Codex Archetypus, to which the editor had secured access. The second volume of this publication, which is to bring the results of researches carried on in the valley itself with regard to the interpretation of the work, has not yet appeared. ' As regards the later Sanskrit continuations of Kalhana's Rajatarangini, it need only be noted that no translation has hitherto been attempted, and that the corrupt state of the text in the only available Calcutta edition would render at present such an undertaking practically impossible. ' Reference has already been made to the fact that the Persian Chronicles cannot claim any independent authority for the earlier periods of Kash- mirian history. As they are almost all of recent date, it is necessary in each case to inquire carefully into the question of their respective sources before they can be used with confidence even for the study of the Muham- madan epochs. None of these Chronicles have been printed, nor is there any translation or abstract which would make their contents conveniently accessible to the European student.' The above remarks will sufiSce to show the wide range of research which a systematic study of the whole of Kashmfrian history would have to embrace, and also the peculiar difficulties which beset this study at present, notwithstanding the ampleness of the materials. Under these circum- stances no attempt can be made within the limited space of this chapter to take up the authentic history of the valley for each of the main periods. ' Detailed Report of a Tour in search of .Sanskrit Manuscripts made in T^ashmit, Journal of the Bombay Branch, Royal Asiatic Society, 1877, p. 53. POLiriCAL HISTORY. 183 I shall only allude to the ofeief events which to this day are common Chap. VIL talk of the country-side. One cannot look at the grand buildings of old — « — Hindu Kashmir, or see the traces of the great cities on the hill-sides and the table-lands without wishing to know something of those men of large ideas who once lived in the valley. The buildings are in ruins, and are dismissed by the Kashm/ris of the present day with the remark that they were Pdndavlari — the houses of the Pandus. It is nothing to them that Kash- mir was the birthplace of the fair-faced Pandu race, and 'furnished sovereigns to the plains of Hindustan ^' Again, it is interesting to hear Kashmiri villagers talking of the power and grandeur of China. They assert with confidence that Kashmir was once under the sway of Tartar princes from China, and Hushka, Jushka, and Kanishka^, who flourished about the beginning of our era, are spoken of as Tartars and Buddhists. It would be of equal interest to trace the beginnings of Brahmanism, to watch it displacing and absorbing local cults, and fiercely combating the Buddhist heresy*. These are subjects for ' An Essay on . the Hindu History of Kashmir, by H. H. Wilson, Esq.: 'It appears very evident that Kashmir has been a regular kingdom for a period that transcends the limits of legiti- mate history, and even if we feel disposed to contest the accounts of our author and to dispute his stries of dynasties and princes, we must still rest satisfied with the proof of its existence either under the names of Caspapyrus or Abisarius as early as the days of Herodotus and Alexander. There can be no doubt, however, of the regular organization of this state at a period much antecedent, and it is probable that in remote times it exercised a more decided interference in the concerns of India than it has done for many centuries past ; it seems highly probable also that it was the original dominion of the Pandava princes, and that it furnished in them sovereigns to the plains of Hindustan.' Dr. Stein remarks : ' There is nothing to prove any special connexion of the Pandu family with Kashmir The name of this ancient clan has spread through the Hindu Epics over the whole of North-Westem India, and its localization in any particular part of the country is beyond the hopes of legitimate historical research.' " Dr. Stein remarks : ' It would be very interesting to record the survival of this tradition if its genuine character could be authenticated. The names of Hushka, Jushka, and Kanishka are found in Kalhana's first Book, and it would not be astonishing if a knowledge of these names has reached directly or indirectly also half-educated persons. I have met with so numerous cases of qu.isi-traditions of this kind which could be traced back to artificial sources of information, that I should hesitate to accept the tradition regarding these particular names, unless established by special inquiry. Kanishka's date has been fixed with something approaching certainty. The year of his accession is used as the beginning of an era in his and his successors' inscriptions, and is now identified by almost all Indologists as A. D. 78, the initial year of the Saka (Indo-Scythian) era.' ^ An Essay on the Hindu History of Kashmir, by H. H. Wilson : ' It appears that the Buddha schism was known in Kashmir at a very early period and possibly preceded the introduction of a fully organized Brahmanical priesthood, it probably, in short, preceded the introduction of the Brahmanical caste^ With reference to this Dr. Stein writes : ' Modern research has given up all theories relating to a forcible extermination of Buddhism in India proper, and there is no proof whatever for the assumption of real antagonism between Brahmanical cult and Buddhist creed in Kashmir. The two existed, as far as our evidence goes, jjeaceably together in Kashmir as they did elsewhere in India. Buddhism had a foothold in Kashmir, as e. g. the old tradition of Kanishka having held a "Council" there shows. But the Chinese pilgrims (e.g. Hwen Thseng about 638 A. D.) found the mass of the population addicted to the Devas, and the monasteries few and partly deserted. There is very good historical reason to believe that the Kashmirians were from the 184 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. the Sanskrit scholars. I must follow more humble paths, and base my ^ sketch on the ideas of the Kashmiris of the present day. For chronology in the Hindu period I use Mr. J. C. Dutta's table in his translation of the Rajatarangini. For chronology in the later periods I use the dates given in certain vernacular histories. These dates are only approxi- mately accurate, but they will serve my purpose, which is to give a popular account of the history of the valley as accepted by the people. To the real historian the facts on which the people dwell may seem insignificant as compared with other facts which literature reveals. Every educated Hindu and most Musalmins in Kashmir believe that the valley was once a vast lake on which the goddess Parvati sailed in a pleasure-boat from her mountain home on Haramak in the north to Konsa Nag lake in the south. In her honour the lake was known as Satfsar, the tarn of the chaste woman. But there dwelt in the lake a cruel demon Jaldeo ^, whose patron was Brahma, and this demon destroyed all life on the shores and rendered the country waste. By chance Kashaf, a grandson of Brahma, found his way to the lake, and distressed at the havoc wrought by Jaldeo resolved to overcome the demon. For 1,000 years Kashaf gave himself iip to religious exercises and then braced himself up for a struggle with Jaldeo, but the demon eluded him and hid under the water. Then Vishnu came to the help of Kashaf and struck the mountains at BaramiiU with his trident, and the waters of the lake rushed out. But Jaldeo entrenched himself in low ground near the Hari-Parbat, and though the gods searched for him with the sun in one hand and the moon in the other the demon baffled them. But at last the goddess Pirvatf dropped a mountain on top of him, crushing his life out, and the mountain is now known as Hari-Parbat ^, and on it is a great shrine in honour of Devi. After this the valley was known as Kashafmar, the home of Kashaf, and it is now corrupted to Kashmir. Other legends say that Kashaf was a mighty wrestler, who becoming suddenly religious was smitten with a desire to worship at the one thousand temples which were hidden under the waters of the lake. He pierced the mountains at Baramiili with a tunnel and so dried up the valley. When Jaldeo was crushed to death the smaller demons lost heart, and men began to visit the valley in the summer, as winter came on earliest period accessible to us chiefly Saivas, what their Brahman castes have remained to this day. Buddhism seems to have lingered on in Kashmir till the time of the Muhammadan conquest.' ' Dr. Stein notes : ' This name is an instance of " popular etymology " for the old Jalod- bhava of the Nilamata Purana and other Kashmirian texts. ' ' Dr. Stein remarks : ' Kashmiri, Hara-Parvat : Hari-Parbat is a Dogra " popular ety- mology." The name has nothing to do with the name Hari = Siva. Har is the modern form of the name Sarika. Pdrvati has been worshipped under this name since ancient times on the slope of the hill. Every / of Sanskrit becomes h in Kashmiri.' POLITICAL HISTORY. 185 withdrawing to the warmer add drier regions of Kishtwar and leaving chap. Vll. Kashmir to the demons. But by chance an old Brahman, who was unable — ►< — to walk, spent the winter in the valley and went to Nilanag, and the deity of the fountain gave to him the Nilamata Puran. By studying the precepts of the Purdn the Brahmans were enabled to rout the demons, and Kashmir became permanently inhabited about the twentieth century ^ before the Christian era. At first the country was split up into numerous little kingdoms known as Kutraj, the remains of which may even now be seen, but the little kings of these little kingdoms began to fight among themselves, and those who were worsted called in a Rajput from the Jammu country. So the Kashmfris say, and it is worthy of notice that the neighbouring countries of Kishtwar and Jammu always play a promi- nent part in the history of the valley. Whether Gonanda the First was the Rajput in question, and whether he lived B.C. 2448 or B.C. 1400 or B.C. 1260, as affirmed by Mr. R. C. Dutta, are points immaterial to me, for Gonanda's name is no longer remembered in the valley. Of the early kings who lived at the beginning of the Christian era, Asoka, the man who followed Buddha, is well known, and it is known that his son Jaloka reverted to the worship of Siva and was the lover of the Naga maidens. But a little later the Buddhists again waxed strong, under the auspices of the Turushka kings, Hushka, Jushka, and Kanishka. The Nagas took offence, and destroyed many of the Buddhists by rolling down boulders of ice from the mountains. At last Chandra Deva, a descendant of Kasaf or Kasyapa, interposed, and restored the rites of the Nilamata Purdn. The next name remembered in the legends of the people is that of the wicked Mihirakula (515 a.d), the prince 'cruel as death.' The people ^ point to a high pass in the south-west of the valley, and relate how the king, crossing the mountain with his army, was amused by the agonies and cries of an elephant which had fallen down a ravine. The king's amusement was so keen that he ordered a hundred more elephants to be forced down the precipice. Another tale is told of this tyrant. It was necessary to remove a stone from the Chandra Kulya river, and the king was told in a dream that the stone ' Dr. Stein writes ; ' Tlie chronology of tlie Rajatarangini, previous to tlie Karkota dynasty, is avowedly artificial and must be set aside entirely. Only a few dates (like that of Asoka, Mihi- rakula, Kanishka) can be fixed by independent evidence and with reference to contemporary Indian history. Under these circumstances I should suggest the advisability of omitting all dates earlier than the seventh century after Christ.' ^ Dr. Stein writes : ' Mihirakula's date is known from reliable sources (inscriptions, Chinese travellers' accounts, &e.) as about 515 A.D. The legend recorded below has been localized on the Pir Panjal Pass, where the ridge to the south of Aliabad Serai bears to this day the name of Hasti Fa»;' (ascertained by local inquiry, 1891). The form in which the legends regarding Mihirakula , are told, clearly indicates a. literary source, i.e. derivation from the Rajatar. or one of its Persian renderings.' B b i86 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. could only be moved by a chaste woman — ' many a citizen's wife tried to — ** — move the stone in vain till Chandravati, wife of a potter, accomplished the feat. The king was enraged to find so many women unchaste, he ordered them to be killed, together with their husbands and brothers, three millions in all.' Good king Gopaditya forms a pleasant contrast to bad Mihirakula. He did much to purify the Brahmans of Kashmir and to advance their interests. The legend of the great famine of king Tunjina's reign is remembered. The famine was averted by the miraculous arrival of countless pigeons. The name of Matrigupta is of interest, as it would appear that he was appointed to be king of Kashmir by the great monarch Vikramaditya of Ujain. Matrigupta was a gentle prince, and the story of his submission to Raja Pravarasena shows a chivalrous courtesy and nobility of character which speak well for the manners of the age. Raja Pravarasena is said to have founded Srinagar, in the centre of which was the hill of recreation, from whose top the whole city could be seen. But the name best remembered by the Kashmiris is that of Lalatadit, the famous king Lalataditya, 697-738 A.D. He was the son of Raja Pratapaditya, king of Kashmir. His mother was the mistress of a magnificent merchant, and her beauty had attracted the notice of Pratapaditya. Shortly after his succession Lalatddit set off on a tour of conquest through India. After subduing the kings of India he turned his attention to central Asia, and everywhere victorious returned, after twelve years, to Kashmir by way of Tibet. He brought with him learned men and skilled artisans from all countries and devoted himself to great public works. He built grand temples and ornamented them with the gold which he had acquired in India. He raised a mighty column at Paraspur, and built ^ the temples in Mdrtand. He made fine canals, and reclaimed by drainage large areas of swamp land. He constructed a large cauldron from which ioa,coo men could be fed daily. He was just and magnificent, but at times, when intoxicated, he issued cruel orders and did not always keep faith. After a time he yearned for more conquests and left Kashmir for central Asia (Uttara Kuru). The Kashmiris besought him to return, but he died in Turkestan after a reign of thirty-seven years. Before he left Kashmir he gave his subjects wise advice, some of which sounds like a gloss ^ of latter-day chroniclers. He commences by warning ' Dr. Stein writes : ' The Rajatar. distinctly attributes the building of the Martand temple to Lalataditya. The notion that he merely repaired an older temple (of Ranaditya) rests on a mis- . understanding of another Rajatar. passage, and can be traced back to a paper of Gen. Cunningham, {Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1848).' ^ These are quoted from the Rajatar. iv. 347. POLITICAL HISTORY. 187 • them against internal feuds, aijji says that if the forts are kept in repair chap. vil. and provisioned they need fear no enemies. He lays down the rule — ^ — that in a mountainous country discipline must be strict, and that the cultivators must not be left with grain more than sufficient for the year's requirements. Cultivators should not be allowed to have more ploughs or cattle than absolutely necessary, or they will trespass on their neighbours' fields. Cultivators must be repressed and their style of living must be lower than that of the city people or the latter will suffer. Finally Lalatdditya orders that offices should not be held by family cliques. ' When the Kayasths are united to one another by marriage ; when kings see their officers behaving like Kayasths, then you will know for certain that the people's lot is going to be changed for the worse.' Lalataditya was a glorious conqueror, and his advice to his people has a ring of prophecy. It is true that in a fit of drunken madness he ordered Pravarasena's beautiful city to be set on fire and that he laughed as he watched the flames. But posterity pardons him for this. King Avanti- varma, 855-883 A.D., was no conqueror, but during his reign attention seems to have been paid to the drainage of the valley. A curious story is told of Suyya^, a sage. Owing to the waterlogged condition of Kashmir cultivation had declined and famine appeared. Suyya was consulted and he replied, oracularly, ' I have intellect, but no money.' The king placed the treasury at his disposal. The sage took the money in boats to the place where the course of the Jhelum (Vitasta) was obstructed by rocks and proceeded to fling handfuls of coins into the river. All said that the sage was mad, but the 'villagers, who were suffering from scarcity, began to search for the dinnaras (coins) and in so doing removed the rocks which were in the bed of the river and cleared the passage of the water.' Things have not changed much since Suyya's time, for the valley is still in some places waterlogged, and the Kashmiris of the present day would work harder if paid by Suyya's system than they do on a daily wage. Avantivarma is said to have had a leaning towards Vaishnavism, from which it may be inferred that in those days the Hindus as a body worshipped Siva as they do now. Avantivarma's son, Shankaravarman, was a great conqueror. Though Kashmir had fallen off in population 'he was able to set out with nine hundred thousand foot, three hundred elephants, and one hundred thousand horse.' The question arises as to whence this great army was recruited. There is mention of the warlike Tantris and Damaras of Kashmir — tribes which exist to the present day, but ' Dr. Stein writes : ' Kalhana's story of Suyya records clearly historical facts, but in the form which they had assumed in the popular tradition of his own day. Accurate details are given by Kalhana regarding the dams, canals and villages built by Suyya, and these can be verified by actual inspection, even at the present time. Suyya's name survives in the modern Sopur = Suyyapura! B b a i88 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. the point of interest is whether the ever-victorious soldiers of Lalataditya — «— and Shankaravarman were natives of the valley or mercenaries from the Panjab. It is hardly possible to believe that a country which once bred splendid soldiers should, even after centuries of oppression, now contain no fighting men ^. Shankaravarman is remembered by the temples of Pattan. Though a great conqueror, he was an avaricious tyrant, a gambler, and debauchee. Signs now appear of dissension in the kingdom of Kashmir. The Brah- mans had already been thorns in the side of the kings. The Brahmans of Tulamul, powerful then as now^ had brought king Jayapida to death in 783 A. D. King Yashaskara, 939-948 A. D., began by keeping the Brahmans at a distance, and ended by bestowing his wealth upon them. Mention is frequently made in the Rajatarangini of the rising power of the Palas, Damaras, Tantris ^, Diviras, Lavangas, Khashas, and Thakhurs, and it would seem that when the kings of Kashmir no longer invaded India their soldiers, sick of inaction, turned to civil war. In the succeeding period the rule of queen Didda possesses special interest. This remarkable woman, a granddaughter of king Bhi'ma of the Kabul Shahi dynasty, was the wife of king Kshemagupta, in whose reign she already exercised much influence on the affairs of the State. After his death (958 A. D.) Didda ruled Kashmir as the guardian of her minor son Abhimanyu. Subsequently she seems to have been concerned in his early death, and disposing, by equally doubtful means, or open murder, of three grandsons in succession, she at last assumed government in her own name in 980 A.D. Her rule lasted for twenty-three years longer, and appears to ' 'As late as Akbar's time it would appear {Ain Akhari) that the valley famished 6,420 cavalry and 50,530 infantry. It would be interesting to know how the cavalry were mounted. Did they ride the little Kashmiri ponies or were remounts imported from the Panjab ? ' Regarding this Dr. Stein writes : ' The figures given by Kalbana for Sankaravannan's army (reproduced in the text) scarcely deserve close examination. The question as to the composition of Kashmirian armies under the later Hindu kings is very justly raised. From the detailed accounts which Kalhana gives of the feuds in his own time and in the preceding rules, it is quite clear that foreign adventurers from the hill-country to the soutlj of Kashmir (Pamotsa = Punch, Rajapnri = Rajaori, Baddivasa = Budil, &c.) played the main part in the fighting. Some of their leaders, true condottieri, rose to great power, e.g. Tunga under Didola. There is reason to believe that the conditions were not veiy different in the earlier centuries. The Damaras and Tantrinis are repiesented as "great warriors" only in the civil wars, and are not credited with conquests outside the valley. It is characteristic that where Kalhana describes the contest of Tunga with Hammira (Mahmud of Ghazni), vii. 5739, he takes care to describe the cowardly behaviour of the Kashmirian troops in contrast to that of their allies.' ' Dr. Stein writes : ' I am afraid the Eachbhatts of Tulamul have no better position now- adays than the rest of the fraternity at other sacred springs of the valley. Even in Kalhana's time the Purohitas at Tirthas were a body receiving but scant respect from the rest of their Brahman caste-fellows.' ^ The Palas, Damaras, Tantris, Khashas, and Thakhurs still exist in Kashmir. As regards the Diviras, Dr. Stein suggests that they may be recognized in the modem Dyor. POLITICAL HISTORY. 189 have been comparatively fre% from disturbing influences during this Chap. vil. later period. The peace which Kashmfr seems to have enjoyed under this — " — strong queen soon gave way to protracted periods of internal strife under her adopted son Sangrdmadeva and his descendants. In Vchchala's reign, A. D. iioi-iiii, it is said that 'his ministers and petty chieftains acted like highwaymen ; his brother wished a civil war in the kingdom, and his treasury was empty.' From iioi to 1149 A. D., when Kalhana Pandit ends his history, there was little else than civil war, and the Ddmaras, ' well-skilled in burning, plundering, and fighting,' were a terror to the country. Central authority was at an end, and the kings seemed to grow more and more helpless and incapable. It is doubtful whether king Vchchala's policy of discarding the Kayasthas was wise, if one judges by the weakness of the subsequent administrations. It is said of the king that he held the view ' that besides spasmodic cholera, colic, and the disease which ends in sudden death, the Kayastha officers are the sources of the speedy destruction of the subjects.' All things point to a breaking up of the Hindu kingdom, which had lasted for so many centuries, and in 1305 a. D. when Raja Simha Deva was king, Kashmir was a country of drunkards and gamblers, and the women were no better than they should be. In this reign Zulkadar Khan, the Tartar, invaded Kashmfr, and helpless Simha Deva fled to Kishtwar. The Tartar Zulzu ^, as he is commonly known, slaughtered the people, took slaves, and set fire to the city Srinagdr. After an occupation of eight months, Zulzu, who had depopulated the valley, found provisions scarce, and tried to get out of Kashmir by the passes leading from the south through the Kuli Ndrawao Valley, but snow overtook him, and he and his army and his Kashmiri captives perished. Meanwhile, Ram Chand, the commander-in-chief of Simha Deva, had been trying to keep up some semblance of authority in the valley, and when Zulzu departed he moved down to Indrkot^ and drove out the Gaddis who had come in from Kishtwar on a raid. Ram Chand had with him two men who, like other foreigners before, were destined to play an iniportant part in the history of Kashmir. One was Shah Mirza from Swdt, at whose birth it was prophesied that he would become king of Kashmir ; the other was Rainchan Shah, who, having quarrelled with his father the king of Tibet, came as an adventurer to the valley. Before many days had passed Rainchan Shah broke with Ram Chand, and with the assistance of mercenaries from Tibet, attacked and killed him ^- He ' Jonaraja calls the Khan D.ilcha. ' Perhaps the village called Andarkot, on the Nuni canal, is meant here : it marks the site of the town Antara Kotta, founded by king Jayapfda. " Dr. Stein writes : ' Jonaraja mentions as the place of this event Lahara Kotta, i. e. the fort of Lahara = LAr. As the attacking force is described as Bhauttas = LadAkbis, the locality seems correctly indicated.' igo THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. then married Kuta Rani, Ram Chand's daughter, and proclaimed himself — " — king, 1323 A. D. At this time it would appear that there was much confusion in the matter of religion in Kashmir, and Rainchan Shah, who had no strong convictions, found it necessary to adopt one or other of the various forms of faith which existed in the country. He could not become a Hindu because none of the Hindu castes would admit him to their brother- hood, so he determined to leave his religion to chance. One morning he saw Bulbul Shah at his prayers, and admiring that form of devotion, he decided on Islam, and taking the name of Sadr-ud-din, built the Jama Masjid and a great shrine for Bulbul Shah, known still by the name of ' Bulbul Lankan' After a short reign of two-and-a-half years Rainchan Shah, the first of the Musalman kings, died. At this juncture Udayanadeva, brother of Siniha Deva, appeared on the scene, and married Kuta Rani, the widow of Rainchan Shah. Urwan, a Turki, just then invaded Kashmir, and Udayanadeva, who like his brother was lacking in courage, fled, but his wife collected an army and sent it, under the command of Shah Mirza, against the foe. Urwan was defeated and Udayanadeva returned and reigned for fifteen years. On his death Kuta Rani assumed power, but only wielded it for fifty days, as Shah Mirza (or Shah Mir as he is usually known) declared himself king (1343 A. D.). In order to consolidate his power Shah Mir proposed marriage to Kutd Rani, and she, seeing that she was in his power, tried to temporize. At last she was forced to accept his advances, but as he entered the bridal chamber, she, the last representative of Hindu royalty, stabbed herself to death. Shah Mir then became king of Kashmir, under the name of Shams-ud-din, and was the first of the Salatin-i-Kashmi'r. In 1394 A. D. Sultan Sikandar came to the throne, and soon earned the nickname of Butshikan or Iconoclast, from the intense zeal he showed in destroying the grand old temples which the Hindu Rajas had bequeathed to Kashmir. Sikandar was brave and cultured, but all his good qualities were warped by his gloomy fanaticism. He attracted learned Musalmans to his court, amongst others Muhamad Khan Hamadani, the successor of the famous Shah Hamadan, who added fuel to the fire of the king's fierce zeal. Hindu temples were felled to the ground, and for one year a large estab- lishment was maintained for the demolition of the grand Martand temples. The massive masonry resisted all efforts, and finally fire ^ was applied, and the noble buildings were cruelly defaced. It is said that in certain temples stones were found prophesying that these buildings would be destroyed by ' In an essay on the Arian order of architecture as exhibited in the temples of Kashmir, Captain Cunningham believes that the complete and disruptive overturn of the temples could only have been produced by gunpowder. Dr. Stein, however, remarks : ' This early use of gunpowder in Kashmir has been doubted by others, and I believe rightly. Earthquakes and the imperfect fitting of the stones, observable in all Kashmirian temples, are sufficient to explain the complete ruin, not- withstanding the massive character of the materials.' POLITICAL HISTORY. 191 Sikandar, and he grimly remark^ that if he had known of these inscrip- Chap. VII. tions he would have spared the noble piles, for he had no wish to fulfil the — " — predictions of an idolatrous people. There was a certain method in the mad zeal of Sikandar, for he used the plinths and friezes of the old temples for the embankments of the city and for the foundation of the Jama Masjid. Having glutted his vengeance on Hindu temples, Sikandar turned his attention to the people who had worshipped in them, and he offered them three choices, death, conversion, or exile. Many fled, many were converted, and many were killed, and it is said that this t?horough monarch burnt seven maunds of sacred threads of the murdered Brahmans. All books of Hindu learning which he could lay his hands on were sunk in the Dal lake, and Sikandar flattered himself that he had extirpated Hinduism from the valley. In this gloomy reign wine, gambling, and music were strictly prohibited, and during Sikandar's twenty-five years of power Kashmir must have been a dolorous country. It is pleasant to turn to the more enlightened reign of Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din, who succeeded to the throne of Kashmfr in 1417 A. D. ; he is known in Kashmir as the great king, and his long reign of fifty-two years is even now quoted by the Kashmiris as the happiest period of their history. He was virtuous in his private life, self- controlled and frugal, paying all the expenses of his establishment from the income of a copper mine which he had discovered. He wisely entrusted the details of government to his brother, Muhammad Khan, while he devoted himself to bigger questions of policy. His accession was marked by acts of liberality, such as the release of prisoners taken by former kings, and he set himself to the task of regulating the profits of middlemen. He built a magnificent palace, twelve stories high, each story containing fifty rooms, and in each room five hundred men could sit. This building, known as Zaina Dab, was supplied with water from the Sind river. The great king was a staunch friend of the cultivators, and built many bridges and constructed many canals. In his time the waters of the Dal lake flowed into the Jhelum past the Haba Kadi, but the king closed this channel and forced the water into the Nalla Mdr, which he spanned with seven bridges of masonry. He was fond of sport, and wherever he went he planted gardens, but his favourite pastime was boating on the Wular lake, where he made an island, and on it reared a magnificent, three-storied palace and a mosque. He raised a grand causeway from Andarkot to Sopur, and carried out many other useful works. But the chief glory of the great king's reign was his tolerance ^ towards the Brahmans ^, and regarding this ' According to the Ain Akbari he forbade oxen being slain. '^ Dr. Stein writes : ' It is most probable that by the time of Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din all Hindu inhabitants, except the Brahmans, had adopted Islam. It would seem more exact to use henceforth the term Brahman instead of the too general " Hindu." ' 192 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. a curious tale is told. It is said that the king was on the point of death " when a Hindu Jogi volunteered to give his soul for the dying monarch on condition that his body should be preserved in some safe place, the king took the Jogi's soul but burnt the body, and thenceforward the real king of Kashmir was not Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din but the Hindu ascetic. Whatever may have been the cause it is true that from the time of this illness the king manifested every desire to repair the wrongs inflicted on the Hindus by Sikandar. He remitted the Jazia or poll-tax on Hindus, taught them Persian, and encouraged 4hem by grants of land and in many other ways. He repaired some of the Hindu temples, among others the temple on the Takht-i-Suliman, and he revived Hindu learning. The result of this religious tolerance was the return of the exiled Pandits, and in their train came many Brahmans from the south. Previous to this the official language of the country was Sanskrit ^ and it was fortunate for the Pandits, and to their credit that they quickly adapted themselves to the use of Persian, in the writing of which their descendants are now most proficient. It was from this time that the Brahmans of Kashmir split up into three divisions. Those who took to the use of Persian and entered official life were known as the Karkun Brahmans, those who adopted the functions of priests were known as Bichbatt Pandits, while those who devoted them- selves to Sanskrit learning formed the class known as the Pandits. The great king was the patron of letters, of the fine arts and of pyro- technics. He introduced many art manufactures from foreign countries, and his court was thronged by poets, musicians and singers. An amusing story is told of a quarrel between the poet Mulla Ahmad Kashmiri and the king. The poet was expelled from Kashmir, but on his writing a panegyric in praise of the king he was speedily recalled. It was not, however, all peace in this reign, and the king had his warlike side. He conquered Tibet and the Panjab and established his kingdom from Peshawar to Sirhind, and in Kashmir he had serious difficulty with the mischievous Chaks who had sprung into sudden notoriety. They set fire to the grand Zaina Dab and gave much trouble until the king drove them back to the country of the Dards. Having secured the person of their leader, Pandu Chak, the king flogged him to death, but with characteristic generosity took his son Hussain Chak into favour. Sultan Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din died at the age of sixty-nine, having ruled Kashmir well for fifty-two years, and he has left behind him the reputation of a mild, generous and accomplished prince. Unfortunately he bequeathed no permanent system of government to his ' Dr. Stein observes : ' Sdradd is the name of the character in which Sanskrit is written in Kashmir, an older sister of Devanagari. We possess handboolcs teaching the drafting oi official documents (grants, judgements, police reports, &c.) in Sanskrit, which were undoubtedly composed under Muhammadan rule.' POLITICAL HISTORY. 193 successors, and his son Haji Kfean, who succeeded to the throne about Chap. Vll. 1469 A.D. under the name of Haidar Shah, was a drunkard whose weakness ^ gave the Chaks the opportunity for the aggrandizement of power. Little is known about the origin of the Chaks, but their pluck and patience suggest that they were not of the same blood as the Kashmfris, and it is said that they came from the country of the Dards. Legends point to the fact that the Chaks came from the north. In Uttar Machipura the lovely pool of Trigam, one of the most beautiful scenes in Kashm/r, is said to have been constructed by Maddan Chak. At Regipura, in the same neighbourhood, are the remains of an old Chak city. The stone arrows in Xhushipura, also in the north-west, known as Raman Kan, are said to have been aimed by the gods at the turbulent Chaks who had a fort at Khushipura. In the south of the valley there are no places connected with the Chaks. One of the leading men in Raja Simha Deva's reign was Langar Chak, and Pando Chak, Halmat Chak and Shams Chak, all seem to have been men of renown. A fable says that Pando Chak sprang from a father who was the offspring of a Kashmfri woman and an amorous demon, and that this branch of the Chaks, who lived at Trigam, were of enormous stature. The Chaks were Shias, and for the first half of the sixteenth century they gradually increased their power, subduing their rivals the Magris and Rainas, and at last, in 1556 a.d., Ghazi Khan, son of Kazi Chak, was practically king, the nominal kings of the line of Shams-ud-din being mere puppets. These Chaks, brave as they may have been, were not the men to found a stable dynasty. Ghazi Khan was a tyrant to the Sunnis, while Yusaf Khan, who came into power in 1580 A.D., married a peasant woman and gave himself up to pleasure. He was the first ruler of Kashmfr who discovered the charms of Gulmarg, the summer retreat of the valley. He was an unwise man and quarrelled with his minister Saiad Mubarak Khan, who promptly turned him out of Kashmir. Yusaf Khan's son, Yakub Khan, was a different stamp of man, and in 1583 A.D., when Akbar^ made his first attempt on Kashmfr, he got together a force of the Bombas and Kukas who lived in the Jhelum valley and defeated the Mughals with great loss, though it is right to add that scarcity of food in the invading army, and heavy rains which made the country impassable, helped to the rout of Akbar's troops. Yusaf Khan had from the first wished to acknowledge Akbar, and it is to the credit of ^ Previous to this, according to the Ain Akhari, the Mughals had attempted the conquest of Kashmir. Saber's generals were at first victorious but were forced to leave the valley. In Huma- yun's. reign fMehrum Kowkeh' subdued Kashmir. 'This Kowkeh exercising great tyranny the people rose against him, and the Mughal chiefs were obliged to sue for quarter and to return to their own country. Later, Humayun sent Mirza Hyder. He subdued the whole country, prevailed upon the Kashmirians to read the Kutbah and strike the coin in the name of the emperor Humayun instead of that of Nazek Shah.' C C 194 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. Yakub Khan that he withstood his father's weakness and declined to yield " ■ Kashmir to the Mughal. After his temporary success Yakub Khan became very cruel to the Hindus and Sunnis, and they sent representations to Akbar, who promised them religious tolerance and the abolition of the slave trade. Mirza Kasim was despatched with a force to Kashmir via Rajauri in 1585 A.D. Yakub Khan moved out to meet him with an army largely composed of malcontents who soon deserted to the Mughal side. A brisk contest ensued but Yakub Khan had to give way, retreating to the south of the valley. Mirza Kasim and the Mughal force reached Srinagar 1586 A.D., but were again attacked by Yakub Khan, who took up a position on the Takht-i-Suliman, and by Shamsi Chak, who moved up from the south. The Mughals were very nearly defeated, and for some time desultory fighting went on, but Kashmir was lost when the army of Akbar passed Hirpur, and from the year 1586-87 the valley passed from the period of the Sultans of Kashmir into the period of the Mughal Emperors. The emperor Akbar apparently visited Kashmir three times. In 1587 he brought with him his revenue minister Todar Mai, who, with more speed than precision, settled the revenue arrangements of the valley from his camp at Patan. It is said that he omitted the villages around Patau from his records by an oversight. On the occasion of his third visit Akbar built the great fort on the Hari-Parbat hill at an enormous cost, and in the vicinity of the fort ^ he raised the town of Nagar Nagar, where his nobles built gardens and houses. It is said that the fort and the Hari-Parbat hill was commenced with the view of attracting the Kashmfris back to Kashmir, whence they had fled in the troublous times of the Chaks. High wages were given to men and women, married women receiving 6 annas and single women 4 annas per diem. It is probable that Akbar had not the leisure or inclination to spend much of his time in the delightful valley, and saving the Hari-Parbat fort and the rapid work of Todar Mai the great emperor has left little behind him. His successor Jehangir loved Kashmir ^, and when he was asked on his death-bed at Bahramgalla whether he wanted anything he replied 'only Kashmir.' His numerous visits to Kashmir were marked by the construction of lovely pleasure gardens, and he set a fashion which was followed by his nobles. Magnificent chenar trees planted throughout the valley, with the ruins of cascades and summer-houses, all owe their origin to the Mughal vogue, and though it has been said of the emperors ' Akbar's fort known as the Sangin Darwaza fort or Nagar Nagar fort surrounds the slopes of the Hari-Parbat hill. The wall is of great strength and has numerous bastions. The fort on the top of the hill is of later construction and was built by Atta Muhamad Khan the Pathan governor. ^ According to his autobiography he married a Kashmiri. ' After him, by the daughter of the prince of Kashmir who was of the society of the Jonggies, I had another daughter who died a year old.' POLITICAL HISTORY. 195 that they were stage kings, s^ far as Kashmfr was concerned, they Chap, VII. would be entitled to the gratitude of posterity if only for the sake of — ** — the beautiful and shady plane-tree. In the vicinity of the Dal lake there were 777 gardens in the Mughal times, and the roses and the bed- musk brought in a revenue of one lakh of rupees per annum. With an enormous empire to control, it was impossible for the Mughals to leave any strong personal mark on the administration of Kashmir, and every- thing depended on the character of the subah or pro- consul left in charge of the country. These subahs varied in character, but on the whole it would appear that the rule of the Mughal emperors was fairly just and enlightened, and their laws and ordinances were excellent in spirit. Itikad Khan, one of Jehangir's subahs, was a cruel ruler, but he was energetic, for he finally crushed the Chaks. The emperor Shah Jehan was also a great builder of pleasure-places, but he was fortunate in his subahs, Zaffr Khan and AH Mardan, who are still spoken of with affection as kind and just rulers. Zaffr Khan abolished many of the severe taxes imposed by Itikad Khan, and reformed the system under which the revenue, on account of saffron, was collected. He reduced the poll-tax on boatmen and the taxes on wood and sheep, and put down with a firm hand the practice of seizing all the best fruits for the use of officials, which had led to the people cutting down their trees. Alimardan Khan was credited with the possession of the philosopher's stone, and it was believed that it was through this he was enabled to build the splendid Serais on the Pir Panjal route to India. In his time there was a severe famine in Kashmfr, and he distinguished himself by the energy with which he imported grain from the Punjdb. The name of Aurangzeb is execrated by the Brahmans of Kashmir, and though he only visited the valley once his fierce zeal against the unbelievers made itself felt in Kashmfr. A legend is told of his persecu- tion of the famous Rishi Pir Pandit Padshah, a Hindu ascetic. A messenger was sent citing the Rishi to appear before the emperor at his court in India. The Ri.shi travelled in one night through the air to India, and appeared in a terrible form, mounted on a lion, as the emperor lay asleep. Aurangzeb, in his fear, agreed to the Rishi's retaining his title of Padshah, but the legend does not say that the emperor relaxed from that time in his persecution of the Hindus. As the Mughal empire began to decay, the subahs in Kashmfr became independent and high-handed, and in the reign of the emperor Muhamad Shah the Hindus were greatly oppressed by Abdul Ganni and Mulla Sharf-ud-din. Kaldshpura, a Hindu ward of the city, was set on fire, and the Hindus were forbidden to wear turbans. In this reign the subahs fought among themselves, and Kashmir fell info wild disorder. By the year C c a 196 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. A. D. 1751, the office of subah of Kashmir appears to have become — *— hereditary and practically independent of Delhi. Then the unfortunate valley passed into the hands of new masters, and from 1752-54 Kashmir became subject to the Pathan rule, the cruellest and worst of all. Before briefly sketching the chief events of the Shahani Durani period, it will be well to consider some of the characteristics of the preceding periods. The Hindu period must from certain points of view have been one of great magnificence. With the plunder of conquest splendid temples and fine public works were constructed, and their ruins show that Kashmir in those days was endowed with noble buildings, while the potsherds of ancient cities on the karewas and elsewhere suggest that the valley must have been very thickly populated. About the condition of the people little is known, but as Hindus living under Hindu kings their lot must have been fairly happy, and irrigation canals testify that the Rajas did not spend all their wealth on temples, but had some thought for the cultivators. Whether they were a brave, warlike people is equally unknown, for it is possible that the fighting-men of the State were mercenaries from the Panjab. In the next period, that of the Salatfn- i-Kashmfr, there is the bright period of Zain-ul-Ab-ul-din's reign, but there is little else that is healthy or pleasant. The rise of the Chaks to power cannot be regarded as the brave struggle of a national party, for they were in all probability as much foreigners as the Mughals or Pathans, and in civilization they were the inferiors of both. The Mughal period, if the bad times of one or two cruel subahs be excluded, must have possessed many elements of happiness for the people. The magnificent courts of the emperors, though perhaps inflicting hardship on the people in the way of purveyance and forced carriage-^, must have introduced wealth into the country, while their civilization and splendour could not fail to have an effect on the ideas and life of the Kashmiris, for they, like all orientals, appreciated the outward display of imperial splendour, and were no doubt willing to pay for it. One hears so much of the junkettings and picnics of Jehangir and his lovely consort, the 'light of the world,' of the courtiers vieing with one another and with ' Bemier informs us that on the occasion of the visit of Aurangzeb to Kashmir 30,000 porters were employed to carry the luggage of the camp from Bhimbar to Kashmir, ' an enormous number when it is considered that the king and the omrahs have been sending forward baggage and the tradespeople articles of every sort for the last month.' In those days, however, the porters received ten crowns for every hundred pounds weight carried from Bhimbar to Kashmir. I have alluded to the high wages paid by Akbar to the coolies who worked on the construction of the Hari-Parbat fort, and the inscription on the Kathi Darwaza expressly states that no one was impressed and that all were paid. ' Mah karda ba kasbegarnya.' Another couplet on the same inscription says that the emperor furnished one crore and nine lakhs of rupees and 200 Indian artisans for the work. The very durability of some of the buildings of the Mughals suggests that the work was paid for. Buildings constructed by forced and unpaid labour do not last long. POLITICAL HISTORY. 197 their royal masters in the con^ruction of splendid gardens, that one is Chap. VII. apt to think that the Mughal rule in Kashmir was one continuous — ^ — pageant of pleasure, and that the real work of administration was set aside during the Kashmir recess. But public works were not neglected, and Todar Mai's revenue arrangements, though hasty, had much of permanence in them. The institution of village officers ^ dates from the times of the Mughals. When, however, we pass from the Mughal period to the period of the Shahdni Durani, we pass to a time of brutal tyranny, unrelieved by good works, chivalry and honour. Men with interest were appointed as governors, who wrung as much money as they could out of the wretched people of the valley. Wealth had to be accumulated rapidly, as no one knew how many days would elapse before he was recalled to Kabul, to make room for some new needy favourite of the hour ^. Amir Khan Jawan Sher was perhaps the best of Pathan rulers, for at least he built the Amiran Kadal, the bridge which stands at the entrance of Srinagar, and constructed the palace of the Shergarhi, but, on the other hand, he showed petty spite in destroying the Mughal gardens on the Dal. The other Pathan rulers are now only remembered for their brutality and cruelty, and it is said of them that they thought no more of cutting off heads than of plucking a flower. , ' Sir buridan pesh in sangin dilan gulchidan ast.' The victims of these fiends were the Pandits, the Shias, and the Bombas of the Jhelum valley. First in the rank of oppressors comes Asad Khan, who boasted that the savage Nadir Shah was his prototype. It was his practice to tie up the Pandits, two and two, in grass sacks and sink them in the Dal lake. As an amusement, a pitcher filled with ordure would be placed on a Pandit's head and Musalmins would pelt the pitcher with stones till it broke, the unfortunate Hindu being blinded with filth. The Pandits, who formerly wore moustaches, were forced to grow beards, turbans and shoes were forbidden, and the ' tika ' or forehead mark was interdicted. It is said that the exaggerated forehead marks and the absurdly long turbans now affected by the Pandits, still serve to keep alive the memories of the tyranny of Pathan times. The jazia or poll-tax on Hindus was revived, and many Brahmans either fled the country, were killed or were converted to Islam. Asad Khan was ' Dr. Stein, however, remarks : ' A regular system of village administration is alluded to in more than one passage of the Rajatarangini, which also knows of an intricate system of b^gdr dependent on the other. The same is proved for the time of the early Muhammadan rulers by the Sanskrit handbooks for "Office Correspondence" mentioned before. The Mughals may have introduced changes, but village officers were certainly known long before their time.' ' Azim Khan made a fortune of two crores of rupees in six years. 198 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. succeeded by Madad Khan, and there is a well-known proverb ' ZuIm-i-Asad " ra rasid madad,' which means that Madad out- Heroded Asad. Mir Hazar was another fiend who used leather bags instead of grass sacks for the drowning of Brahmans. He drowned Shias and Brahmans indiscriminately. Atta Muhamad Khan was a ferocious libertine, and his agent, an old woman named Koshib, was the terror of Brahman parents, who rather than allow the degradation of their daughters destroyed their beauty by shaving their heads or cutting their noses. In those days any Musalman who met a Pandit, would jump on his back, and take a ride, and the saying ' Buta chuk ta khosa dita,' which means in Kashmiri, ' You are a Brahman and I will mount you,' is still quoted. It would be wearisome to recount instances of the brutal cruelty of the Pathans, but, at last, the oppression became so unendurable that Kashmir turned with hope to the rising power of Ranjit Singh, the Lion of the Panjab. It would seem that Fatteh Khan Barakzai had been nego- tiating with Ranjit Singh, and had promised him eight lakhs of rupees per annum if he would take Kashmir. A force was sent up to Kashmir by the Pir Panjal route, and the libertine governor Atta Muhamad Khan, though he made some show of resistance, yielded Kashmir. Fatteh Khan paid eight lakhs of rupees to Ranjit Singh and left his brother Muhamad Azim Khan to govern the country. Muhamad Azim failed to pay the annual tribute to Ranjit Singh, though he managed to accumulate two crores of rupees for himself, and in A. D. 1814 a Sikh army advanced by the Pir Panjal, Ranjit Singh himself watching operations from Poonch. A false rumour was started by the Raja of Rajauri that the van of the Sikh army had been routed by Muhamad Azim at Hirpur, and the whole Sikh army fell back in orderly retreat. Elated by this success, Muhamad Azim now gave himself up to the delights of torturing Brahma,ns, and Pandit Birbal Dar, one of the leading men of Srinagar, escaped by stealth and got out of Kashmir by the Kulli Narwao valley, with his son Rajkak. They repaired to Lahore, and begged Ranjit Singh to come to the assistance of Kashmir. Muhamad Azim, hearing of this, sent for the ladies of Birbal Dar's family. Birbal's wife committed suicide, but Rajkak's young bride was made a Musalmani and sent to Kabul, where she was living until quite recently. Muhamad Azim became alarmed when he heard of the success of Birbal's mission to Lahore, and departed hurriedly for Kabul, leaving his brother Jabar Khan as governor. In A. D. 1819 Misr Diwan Chand, Ranjit Singh's great general, accompanied by Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu, defeated the governor with little difficulty, and entered Shupiyon. Thus Kashmir, after five generations of Musalman rule, passed again into the hands of the Hindus. It must have been an intense relief to all classes in Kashmir to see the downfall of the evil rule of the Pathans, and to none was the relief greater than to the peasants, POLITICAL HISTORY. 199 who had been cruelly fleeced b)»the rapacious sirdars of Kabul. I do not Chap. VII. mean to suggest that the Sikh rule was benign or good, but it was at any — ^ — rate better than that of the Pathans. The following extracts from Moor- croft (Part III. chapter ii. p. 335 and pp. 293, 294) show that the revenue system left much to be desired, and that the Kashmfris met with little mercy at the hands of the Sikhs. ' The village where we stopped was half deserted, and the few inhabitants that remained wore the semblance of extreme wretchedness ; without some relief or change of system, it seems probable that this part of the country will soon be without inhabitants. Yet the soil seemed favourable for rice cultivation, and the crop appeared to have been a good one. The poor people, however, were likely to reap little advantage from their labours, for a troop of tax-gatherers were in the village, who had sequestered nine-tenths of the grain for their employer, Jawahir Mai, the farmer of the revenue. ' The number of Kashmi'rians who were to accompany us over the mountains proved here to be no exaggeration, and their appearance, half naked, and miserably emaciated, presented a ghastly picture of poverty and starvation. Yet wretched as they were, the relentless Sikhs would have levied a pice a head for permission to pass the post had we not interfered. The Sikhs seem to look upon the Kashmfrians as little better than cattle. The murder of a native by a Sikh is punished by a fine to the government of from sixteen to twenty rupees, of which four rupees are paid to the family of the deceased if a Hindu, two rupees if he was a Muhamedan. The body of a stout young man, whose throat had been cut, was lying close to the road on one part of this day's journey, and the only notice taken of it was by Mardan Ali, the Malik, who ordered it to be covered with grass, that our porters might not be frightened by the sight. Three other bodies were met with on the route ; those were some of the followers of Jawahir Mai, who, to the number of forty-five, it was asserted, had perished in crossing the pass lately, in rough and cold weather, against which they were ill defended by clothing or shelter. Some of the people accom- panying us were seized by our Sikhs as unpaid porters, and were not only driven along the road by a cord tying them together by the arms, but their legs were bound with ropes at night to prevent their escape.' Moti Ram was the first Sikh governor ; Hari Singh and Pandit Birbal were associated with him in the government. Hari Singh quickly brought Bombas and Kukas to their senses, and Moti Ram by his just and humane conduct restored confidence in the valley. In A. D. 1825 Kirpa Ram was governor. He was a mild, self-indulgent man, fond of boating and boat- 200 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. women, and nicknamed Kirpa Shroin, ' Shroin,' being the Kashmiri word ^ for the sound of the boat-paddle. In 1827 there was a severe earthquake, and the city was almost destroyed, this was followed by cholera. In this year three Brahman women were burnt as Satis. After an easy rule of five years Kirpa Ram, in the midst of a pleasure party on the Dal lake, was recalled to Lahore, and there being disgraced, retired to Hardwar, where he lived an ascetic life. It is said in jest by the Kashmiris that Kirpa Ram introduced crows into Kashmir, considering that they were necessary to the due performance of funeral rites, as it is the custom in the Panjab to feed crows on such occasions, and this valuable contribution to the fauna of Kashmir forms perhaps the most important act of Kirpa Shroin's idle rule. Sher Singh, the reputed son of Ranjit Singh, became nominal governor in 1831, but he amused himself, and left all business to Baisakha Singh. A serious famine occurred, and Jamadar Khushal Singh was sent up from Lahore to watch events. He by unwise interference deepened the famine, and numbers of Kashmfris fled to the Panjab. The famine of Sher Singh is still a great mark in Kashmir history. In 1 833 Colonel Mian Singh, the best of all the Sikh governors, came to Kashm/r, and by importing grain and eggs from the Panjab he restored some measure of prosperity to the villagers who had lost their grain seed and fowls in the awful famine. Mian Singh, with a view to stimulating population, remitted the tax upon marriages, and set to work to bring some order into the administration. Revenue divisions were made, and the villages were either farmed out to contractors or leased on the principle that the State took half of the produce in kind. Agricultural advances were made free of interest, proper weights were introduced, and fraudulent middlemen were punished. Colonel Mian Singh decided cases justly and quickly ^ and won a great reputation in Kashmir. But his useful life was cut short by mutinous soldiers, and the remainder of the Sikh rule was disorder and anarchy. To punish the murder of Mian Singh Raja Gulab Singh came up to Kashmir with a force, and having effected his object he returned to the Panjab, leaving Shek Ghulam Muhiuddin as governor, A.D. 184a. In A.D. 1 843 the Jhelum valley was thrown into confusion by the restless Bombas. These Bombas still live in the Jhelum valley and in the country known as Karndo. They claim a Turkish origin, and before the Pax Britannica were a brave and troublesome tribe. Their leader, Sultan Zabardast Khan, had been entrapped by the authorities and imprisoned in Srinagar. To avenge this Sher Ahmad, the most daring of the Bombas, destroyed 7,000 men of the Sikh army at Kahori, and after raiding the country marched with 8,000 matchlocks against Kashmir. At Shilhal, in the north-west of Kashmfr, the 1 ' Sikha Shahi ' is an expression used very comnaonly in the valley to denote ' summary justice,' as distinguished from a decision made after regular inquiry. POLITICAL HISTORY. aoi governor's son, Imamuddin, wiljj a force of i a,ooo men was defeated. Chap. Vll. Snow fell, the Sikh leaders were forced to retreat, and Zabardast Khan was — " — given back to his friends. In the same year, 1843, Shekh Ghulam Muhi- uddin opened the Jama Masjid, the gates of which had been closed since A. D. 1819. In A. D. 1845 Imamuddin became governor, and the next year, on March 16, 1846, Kashmir, and all the hilly and mountainous country situated eastward of the river Indus and westward of the river Ravi, which had been ceded by the Sikhs to the British Government in lieu of indemnity, was made over to Maharajd Gulab Singh, and the heirs male of his body, for the sum of seventy-five lakhs of rupees. But Imamuddin, although believed to be well affected towards Maharaja Gulab Singh, did not give up Kashmir without a struggle, and for some time fighting went on in Srinagar. He called in brave Sher Ahmad and his Bombas, and invested the Hari-Parbat fort for forty days. Mahdraja Gulab Singh's troops were defeated, and his representative, Lakpat Rai, was killed. The Bombas and Kukas raided the valley and plundered the city. At this juncture a British force moved into Jammu territory and Imamuddin surrendered. Mahdraja Gulab Singh, the first of the Dogra ^ rulers, was a man of great vigour, foresight and determination. His first care was to safeguard his new property against the restless Bombas, and with this view he estab- lished forts which commanded the Koi Watawan, a pass of evil repute, and completely held the road over the Nastachhana mountain. Sher Ahmad struggled on for seven years, retreating to Kaghan whenever pursuit became too warm. Mahardja Gulab Singh treated him with liberality, and he died not long since on his estate in the Deosar Tahsil. Next the Mahd- raja looked carefully into the revenue administration of Kashmfr. Gazing at the valley from a hill, he said that one part was mountain, one part under water, while the remaining third was in the hands of Jagirdars. He very soon altered this, and, by dint of untiring industry and by strict supervision of his officials, made the most of the revenues of the valley. Exaggerated reports state that the purchase-money paid for Kashmfr was recouped in a few years, but this is not correct. Mahardja Gulab Singh took care that the revenue reached the treasury, and he also took care that there should be no unnecessary expenditure. He repressed opposition and crime with a stern hand, and was universally feared and respected by his subjects and ' ' Dogra ' is the name given to the country around Jammu, and is said to be deriyed from a word meaning the ' two lakes,' as the original home of the Dogra people was cradled between the lakes of Siroensar and Mansar. There are numerous castes in the Dogra-country, and the Hindu, Musalman, and Sikh religions are represented. All, whether Hindus or Musalmans, whether high- bom Rajputs of the Maharaja's caste or low-born menials, are known as Dogras. At the time of the first Sikh war the Dogras had a great reputation as soldiers. This has been worthily main- tained and increased by the gallant conduct of the Dogra troops in the Hunza Nagar expedition, and in the affair at Chilis. Dd 202 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VII. servants. He brought the principle of a personal rule to perfection, and —**— showed the people that he could stand by himself. If he wanted their services he would have them, without resorting to the old-fashioned device of paying for them by the alienation of State revenues. The State was Maharaja Gulab Singh, and as he spent much of his time in Kashmfr, and was an able, just and active ruler, and a fairly wise landlord, the condition of the people improved, and after many years some confidence was inspired in the permanence of administration. He was a good friend to the British Government in the troublous time of 1857, and died in that year. The day of his death was marked by an earthquake. His cenotaph is built on the banks of the Dudh-Ganga river. He was succeeded by his third son Maharaja Ranbir Singh, who was a model Hindu prince, devoted to his reli- gion and to Sanskrit learning, but kind and tolerant to the Musalmans, to whom he allowed the free exercise of their religion. He was extremely hospitable to the Europeans, and his efforts to introduce dispensaries and schools in his state showed that he was an admirer of the institutions of the British Government. In 187a there was an outbreak between the Sunnis and Shias, and the Maharaja evinced his spirit of justice by granting three lakhs of rupees as compensation to the Shias. MaharAjd Ranbir Singh made great efforts to introduce new staples into Kashmir, and money was freely spent on sericulture, vines and wine-making and hops. He was an enlightened prince, who would have done much towards the development of the valley if he had possessed the stern determination of his father, and could have kept his servants in hand. The latter part of Maharajd Ranbir Singh's life was darkened by the occurrence of the ghastly famine of 1877- 79, and by a disease from which he never recovered. In September, 188,5, he was succeeded by his eldest son, Maharajd Pratab Singh, who was created a Grand Commander of the Star of India in 1892. Like his father he is intensely devoted to his religion, and though his tastes are conserva- tive, he has done much to change and improve the position of his subjects. His kindness to all classes in Kashmfr has won him the afifection of his people. It is difScult to realize the change which has come over Kashmfr in the short period of Dogra rule — a period of less than fifty years. Anarchy and constant warfare have been succeeded by complete peace, and the annual inroads of foreign troops, who pillaged the country and rendered the forlorn condition of the Kashmiris more and more desperate, has given place to the welcome invasion of European visitors, who spend large sums of money in the happy valley, and give employment to all classes of the population. In no part of India, perhaps, has the Pax Britannica effected such changes as in Kashmfr, and, next to the immunity from foreign conquest and a constant change of rulers, the most important incident of the Dogra administration POLITICAL HISTORY. 203 is the completion of the cart ro%d from India to Baramula, by which the Chap. Vll. railway can now be reached in two days. — ^ — The isolation of Kashmfr, which in former days was practically cut off from communication with India in the winter, has, from the days when the valley passed into the hands of the Mughals, been an important factor in the history of the people. It placed them at the mercy of shortlived governors, ignorant of their language and customs, who worked their will on the Kashmiris regardless of the policy of the courts of Delhi, Kabul and Lahore, and looked upon Kashmir in the same light as that in which the Roman proconsuls regarded Africa. The dependence on the whims and idiosyncrasies of foreigners of brief authority, coupled with the fact that the Kashmiris never knew how long the rule from which these strange governors drew their power would last, has had a powerful influence on the character of the people, and there is a strong and hereditary disbelief in the permanence of institutions and in the benevolence of rulers. Perhaps no country furnishes so curious a record of constant change as Kashmir, and it is a matter for surprise that under rapid transition of governments, varying in race, religion and language, the people of the' valley should have retained their peculiar nationality unimpaired. The isolation of Kashmir accounts in a great measure for this, and it is quite possible that the Jhelum valley road will effect a change in the customs and ideas of the Kashmiris which Mughals, Pathans, Sikhs and Dogras could never have accomplished. As will be seen in the chapter on the social aspect of the people, there is much room for change ; but the revolution which will follow the more rapid communication with India is one which will require wise guidance and most careful watching. D d 3 CHAPTER VIII. PHYSICAL HISTORY. Chap. VIII. As will be seen in the chapter on the Political History of Kashmfr, the — " — frequent changes of rulers and the absence of continuity in the admini- stration have had a powerful effect on the character of the Kashmiris, but the incidents of the Physical History of the valley have also done much to unsettle the people and to make them suspicious and incredulous. Among the incidents of the physical history I shall include Jires, floods, earthquakes, famines and cholera, and it is hardly to be wondered at that a people constantly liable to these calamities should be sceptical and doubtful as to whether things are ordered for the best. The Kashmfri always gives me the idea that he has just recovered from a fright or that he is daily expecting some great disaster, and hardly a day passes without reference being made to the curse under which the people have fallen and to the sin which gave rise to the curse. Fires. The ravages of fires are chiefly felt in Srinagar, where the wood houses and their thatch roof fall an easy prey to the flames, and when once a fire has commenced it is very difficult to arrest it. Accepting the fact that a fire is an incident of the curse, and therefore inevitable, the wretched people will make no effort to extinguish the flames, and it devolves on the authorities and the troops to prevent their spreading. There are no roads in the city along which fire-engines could be brought, and small pitchers of water are of very little effect when the conflagration has once commenced. Twice in the time of Mahardja Ranbir Singh the greater part of Srinagar was burnt down, and before his accession the city had been destroyed by fire sixteen times. Every man, woman and child carries a potential instrument for a conflagration in the Kdngar, and the beds of straw very quickly start a fire. I have never seen a city so liable to destruction by fire as Srinagar, nor have I ever seen a place in which it was so difficult to stop a fire, in spite of the fact that the water of the Jhelum river is so near at hand. Probably city roads, waterworks and the use of tiles in lieu of thatch will some day give PHYSICAL HISTORY. 205 immunity from fire, but at present every spell of fine, dry weather is sure Chap. VIII. to be followed by a conflagration, which inflicts misery and sometimes ruin — ^ — on the helpless citizens. In the villages houses are not crowded together, and though fires often occur the damage done is quickly r,epaired. Many disastrous floods are noticed in the vernacular histories, but the Floods, greatest was the terrible inundation which followed the slipping of the Khadanyar mountain below Baramula in A.D. 879. The channel of the Jhelum river was blocked and a large part of the valley was submerged. In 1841 there was a serious flood, which caused much damage to life and property ; but though old men have shown me marks which suggest that the flood of j 841 equalled or surpassed the disaster of 1 893, I cannot ascertain any accurate facts regarding the flood level in 1841. Some marks shown to me suggest that the flood of 1841 rose some nine feet higher on the Dal lake than it rose in 1893, but thanks to the strong embankments around the Dal the flood level in 1893 never rose on the lake to the level of the floods on the Jhelum. The flood of 1893 was a great calamity, but it has had the good effect of warning the State that valuable house property in Srinagar was inadequately protected, and works are now in progress which may eventually render Srinagar secure from inundation. But the security of the city unfortunately means loss to cultivation on the banks of the river above Srinagar, for all the flood waters of the South must pass the city in their course to the outlet at Bdramula. The more, therefore, that Srinagar is protected the more obstruction will there be to the passage of waters from the south through the city. All things point to the fact that the founders of Srinagar have bequeathed a serious engineering problem to their successors, and some say that the only way out of the difficulty is to lower the bed of the river at Bdrdmula, regulating the water level of the valley by gates. Others talk of providing an alternative channel to the Jhelum which would run in a north-westerly direction above Srinagar, but this scheme is rendered diiificult by the fact that the Dudh-Ganga river, the bed of which is higher than that of the Jhelum, must be crossed. Perhaps a solution of the difficulty might be found in dredging. I have pointed out in the second chapter of this Report how generation after generation has hemmed in the river as it passes Srinagar, and have shown that the Wular lake, which is the natural delta of the river, is gradually filling up from silt. The whole question is one of the first importance. Naturally Srinagar is the first consideration, but from the point of view of land revenue it is of equal importance to protect the crops from constant loss by inundation. In 1893 the floods cost the State Rs. 64,804 in land revenue alone,. 25,436 acres under crops were submerged, 2,225 houses were wrecked and 329 cattle killed. Floods in Kashmir are caused by 2o6 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. viii. warm and continuous rains on the mountains which melt the snows or — •< — precipitate them down the hill-sides into the streams. Melting snows alone will not cause a flood ; nor will heavy rains unless they are assisted by the melting snow. My observations show that rain rarely falls for more than twelve hours and that twelve hours of rain is followed by pleasant sunshine. Rain which lasts for twenty-four hours, if it is widespread, causes high water on the river, but not serious floods. In 1893 the rain which commenced on the morning of July 18, and continued without a break for fifty-two hours, was warm, and it was very noticeable when the clouds cleared away that the great mountains were denuded of snow. There was only one meteorological station in Kashmir when the flood occurred at Srinagar and five inches of rain were registered before the station was destroyed by the inundation. Warning was received by telegraph from Islamabad that a heavy flood was coming down, but unfortunately we do not know any facts about the rainfall in the south of the valley. However, we know that the rainfall was heavy and abnormal, and the simple fact that in the Deosar Tahsil a bear and a panther were found drowned side by side, while in Uttar Machipura a huge python was carried down to the plains, shows that the mountain torrents must have been very huge and violent. Large trees torn up by the roots and carried into the midst of cultivation, the Wular lake dotted with ricks of oilseed and barley, rising ground strewn with the fragments of the city bridges and the wooden ruins of dwelling-houses, and here and there corpses of men and cattle tossing on the stream indicated a great and sudden calamity. Mercifully the flood reached its climax in the day- time and the people were prepared. In the low villages around Panjinara the people hurried off' to the higher villages with their children and cattle, and there was little loss of life. Those who stayed on spent the night in trees and begged hard for help from passing boatmen. But in too many cases the boatmen were grasping and heartless, and from information gathered in Srinagar and in the villages, I believe that the Hanjis, as a body, behaved in a brutal and disgraceful manner. In the city itself there was wild confusion. The second bridge, one of recent construction, succumbed to the flood and apparently swept away the other five bridges, not by collision but by piston-like pressure. All communication between the two sides of the city was at an end, for the Amiran Kadal, the first bridge, though it stood the shock of the flood, was under water and impassable. So reports were at once started that men whose work lay on one side of the river and whose homes were on the other were drowned, and the night of July ai was one of anxiety and uncertainty. Marvellous escapes from drowning are recounted, and considering the size of the flood and the low level of the Rahnawari Mohalli, it is at once a matter for PHYSICAL HISTORY. 207 surprise and congratulation tha4 out of a population of 118,960 people, chap. Vlll. only seventeen were killed, sixteen from drowning and one from the — ^ — falling of a house. In the villages the mortality was on the whole very light. In the low-lying country, where the crops had been destroyed, there was hardly any loss of life, for the people are always on the look-out for floods. But in the hilly country loss of life did occur, and men, cattle and sheep were carried off by rapid torrents which coursed down the ravines. One or two sad cases came to my notice in which men left their houses and sought refuge in trees, but the trees fell and the unfortunate creatures were carried off by the hill torrents. The chief victims to the floods were the herdsmen and shepherds who at night- time gather their cattle and sheep near the streams. They were taken by surprise and their mangled bodies were hurled down the steep ravines. But, as in the case of the city, it is a matter for congratulation that out of a total rural population of 670,988 only thirty-two perished in the great flood of 1893. Of these thirty-two men, twenty-one were drowned, five were killed by the falling of a tree in the forest above Gulmarg, and six were killed by the falling of houses. The loss of stock was not as great as might have been expected. There was no accurate estimate of the loss of sheep and goats, which in July are away grazing in the mountain pastures, but report said that many sheep were destroyed. The total loss of horned cattle was 329, and this figure may be accepted as correct, though it should be remembered that by the middle of July all plough- cattle and cows not in milk have been driven up to the high grazing grounds. But though I heard of sheep being drowned far away in the mountains, I did not hear any reports of cattle being drowned by the floods. The river is to a certain extent a truthful witness, and few carcasses of cattle were seen floating down towards Baramula. In Kashmir proper a,aa5 houses were destroyed by the floods, and these houses varied, from the frail huts of poplar wood in which the half-amphibious cultivators of the Dal lake live, to the larger and more substantial houses of the ordinary description found in the valley. Near the forests these houses are often real log huts, but further from the forests, where timber is more expensive, the buildings are of unburnt bricks set in wooden frames or are made of panels fitted into grooved beams. It is a noteworthy fact that this latter style of building showed a great power of resistance to the floods. It is difficult to assign a money value to the ordinary house of an average Kashmir cultivator, as the work of building is done by the villagers working in co-operation. Food is given to the friends who assist in bringing timber from the forest and in erecting the house, and regular fees are paid to the skilled carpenter and mason. In normal times there is no diflficulty, and the Kashmiri likes to linger over the work. But ao8 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VIII. unfortunately, owing to the disastrous fire which destroyed so many houses " in Srinagar in 1893, there had been a great demand for carpenters and masons and wages had gone up. This rise in wages spread to the villages, and although the State showed its sympathy with the people who suffered from the floods by allowing the free felling of timber in the forests for two months, still the cost of building new houses was very heavy. And the winter was near and in many villages it was feared that the cultivators who had lost their houses would be forced to seek shelter with their friends and relations, as it was impossible to rebuild so many houses in so short a time. In order to prevent wandering, and to attach the people to their villages, I did my utmost to persuade them to lose no time in rebuilding their houses, but the great demand for carpenters, both in the city and villages, delayed the work, and sorne time would elapse before the once prosperous hamlets in the neighbourhood of Panjinara would recover from their former condition. Above Srinagar the damage to crops was small. This was due to the formation of the country, which drains rapidly into the Jhelum, and to the fact that from Islamabad to Srinagar the fall of the river is of appreciable extent. Around Srinagar the damage was considerable, but the greatest loss occurred below the city. At the time when the great flood occurred, the spring crops of wheat, barley and rape-seed had been harvested, but for the most part had not been threshed or removed from the threshing- floor. The autumn crops of rice were either in flower or coming into ear. The maize was in ear, and other crops such as pulse, cotton and sesamum {HI) were well forward and gave promise of an excellent harvest. When the torrents of the mountains of the south reached Kanabal, the port of Islamabad, their speed relaxed and the Jhelum came down slowly though in enormous volume. Along the Jhelum, on either side of the banks which the river has itself made, are erected embankments known as Sathu, and as has already been explained efforts were made in 1893 to repair these embankments and to raise them to a height sufficient to resist a normal flood as far as Pampur and Kakarpura. But at certain points the hill drainage comes into the Jhelum, and at these points in old days flood-gates were erected, which let out the hill drainage but kept back the water of the Jhelum when it came down in flood. It was the intention of the Director, Public Works Department, to restore these gates, but for some reason or other they were not put up. So that when the river came down in flood the water poured in at the entrances which should have been closed by gates, and in many places either over-topped the embankment or made large breaches in it. But I am of opinion that even if the flood-gates had been erected in time the floods would have still forced their way through or over the embankments which lie above Srinagar. Spring crops lying on PHYSICAL HISTORY. 209 the threshing-floor were damaged^nd in low-lying tracts, where the water Chap. vill. stood for some days, were destroyed. In the same way the standing crops — "^ — of rice and maize were destroyed where the water stood for some time, and in many places the embankments built with the object of keeping the flood water out served to keep the water from flowing back into the river. As the floods approached Srinagar the city and its bridges undoubtedly held up the water and converted the country to the south of Srinagar into a vast, almost stagnant, lake. The river embankment of the Munshi Bagh for the most part withstood the floods but the back embankment breached, and at the same time the water rose over the river embankment. The European visitors were all prepared, and, thanks to the foresight and energy of Raja Sir Amar Singh, boats were provided for all. Had the climax come in the night instead of at noon there might have been great loss of life. Much discomfort was caused to the European visitors and others who live along the right bank of the Jhelum above Srinagar, and the officials of the Telegraph and Postal Departments suffered greatly. Communication with India and Gulmarg was at once cut off, and all business was at a standstill. There was no dry land anywhere within reach save the slopes of the Takht-i-Suliman. Ponies and cattle climbed into verandahs, and many men spent the night of July 21 in trees. The boatmen took advantage of the situation and charged ex- orbitant prices for , taking people from trees and housetops, and in the city itself these harpies refused to ferry persons across the river unless they paid extravagant fares. In the city there was great alarm. The houses on the banks on either side of the river were never reached by the floods, but the crash of falling bridges, and the sight of the people struggling in the water filled the citizens with terror, and wild rumours were spread as to the loss of life. Women at once jumped to the conclusion that their husbands who were at work on the other side^of the river were drowned, and for some days exaggerated reports were abroad as to the mortality caused by the floods. The river had broken through the gate which protects the Dal lake from floods, and had submerged the lake gardens, destroying the melons, cucumbers, vegetable marrows and tomatoes, which form an important part of the citizens' diet in the month of July. All roads to the city were closed, water-mills had been washed away in the villages and prices at once began to rise. Rice, the staple food, rose from 26 seers to 18 seers per rupee, wheat rose from Rs. 4 to Rs. 5 per kharwar. Oil rose from Rs. i \ to Rs. 2 per 6 seers, and salt rose from 7 seers to 6 seers per rupee. This rise in prices was, however, only temporary, except in the case of oil and salt. As regards the former, though the price fell from Rs. 2 to Rs. i.ti.o, rates E e 3IO THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VIIT. continued high, as great damage had been done to rape seed, and — ^ — some loss had been caused to linseed. As regards salt prices con- tinued high until the road to Kohala was again opened. In the low- lying suburbs of the city, notably Rahnawari, several houses were destroyed, but I was surprised when I visited Rahniw^ri and the other low-lying parts of the city to find that there had been so little damage. For though the gate of the Dal lake had been swept away, and though the great Sathu Kazi, which banks out the Jhelum floods, had been severely breached, still the level of the Dal waters never rose to the level of the river floods. Below Srinagar the river runs with a very slight fall towards the Wular, and to the north the Anchar Dal was brimful of water from the Sind river, while on the right bank of the Jhelum the embankments had been carried away, and the floods of the Sind and the Jhelum rivers were mingling. The whole of the Achan Ilaka on the right bank was hopelessly submerged, and speaking generally the country as far as the Wular was a vast lake, beneath which grand crops of rice and maize lay rotting. Houses and fine ricks of wheat, barley and rape-seed were carried off, and the country presented a pitiable sight. Directly the rain had ceased, on July ao, a bright, hot sunshine followed, and this had the effect of rotting all crops standing in water. Rice as an aquatic plant has a greater power of resistance than maize, but the floods below Srinagar were so persistent that only a very little of the rice submerged survived. The smell of the rotting maize and rice was very pungent, and the villages were for the most part deserted, as the cultivators had fled with their cattle to the uplands. Here and there on the karewa cliff's cattle were collected, and the people were bivouacking in the open air. Up from Shadipur to the Sind valley great damage had been done by the floods, and in the delta of the Sind the fields were strewn with timber, and still worse with deep, white sand, which destroyed the rice for the year and rendered the fields unfertile for some years to come. Men were dancing and weeping in their ruined fields, and in all directions there was wailing and despair. Marvellous tales were told of the efficacy of the flags of saints which had been set up to arrest the floods, and the people believe that the rice-fields of Tulamula and the bridge of Sumbal were saved by the presence of these flags, which were taken from the shrines as a last resort. The worst havoc was wrought in the neighbourhood of Panjinara. In the times of the Mughals enormous embankments were erected to reclaim land from the Wular, and these embankments still preserve the memory of Jehangir and Shah Jahan. The core of the embankments is of heavy blocks of stone, for experience has shown that banks of earth are not PHYSICAL HISTORY. 211 sufficient when the foundation is^n the peaty soil which is found in the Chap. Vlli. neighbourhood of the Wular. Where stone is not available it has been *^ the custom to drive piles in the ground, in order to consolidate the earth and to provide a firm foundation. I do not know whether this practice is justifiable from an engineering point of view, but all officials and cultivators in Kashmir believe that no embankment on the river-side is sound unless it has a foundation of piles. The land enclosed in the old Mughal embankments is known by the name of gund, and in one or two instances some of these gund were saved from the floods by dint of working day and night at strengthening the weak points. The people near Panjinara always live in expectation of a flood, but in 1893 they were lulled to a false security by two circumstances. In the first place the Wular lake, owing to the short snows of 1891-93, had dried up in an unusual manner, and its wide shores were dry and thirsty. The people argued that any ordinary flood would find ample room in the Wular. Next there had been a heavy flood on the Jhelum about a month previous to the flood of July 21, and having escaped without damage the people calculated that in all probability there would be no second flood. So wheat, barley, and rape seed were lazily left on the threshing-floors, and when the floods came these splendid crops were absolutely destroyed. The maize crop, which was the finest that had been known for many years, was utterly submerged, and apart from the loss of the grain there was the further loss of fodder. For in this tract cattle are very numerous, and their one food is the stalks of the maize. The whole tract consists of low, peaty soil, reclaimed at various times from swamp, and in many parts it was doubtful whether the land would be fit for cultivation for some years. For the land lies below the level of the Jhelum bed, and it would require a succession of dry years, and careful embankment against the Suknag river and the swamps to the south, in order to bring the land under cultivation again. Towards the Wular the people who had lost their maize crops devoted their attention to the harvesting of the singhara nut, and it luckily happens that in years of heavy floods the outturn of singhara nut is always large. But the villages further away from the Wular had no such resources, and the State promptly started the construction of the road from Baramula to Srinagar as a famine relief measure. For those who had lost their year's crops in the neighbourhood of Srinagar ample work was provided on the repairs of embankments and on the construction of the waterworks. In every way the State acted with the greatest liberality and consideration, and though 1893 will be remembered as a year of calamity, the calamity was tempered by the humane action of the Durbar. E e 2 212 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. vm. The following diagram shows the rise and fall of the river in 1893, — " — and also the extraordinary and unexpected flood which again visited Srinagar in June, 1894. Rise and Fall of River Jhelum at Shergarhi Palace, 1893, 1894. Earthquakes. Fires and flood, however, sink into insignificance when compared with earthquakes, famines, and cholera. Since the fifteenth century eleven great earthquakes have occurred, all of long duration and accom- panied by great loss of life. In the present century there have been four severe earthquakes, and it is worthy of notice that in the last two, of 1864 and 1885, the most violent shocks were felt in an elliptical area whose focuses were Srinagar and Baramula i- The earthquake of 1885 ' The fact that Baramula is a focus of the seismal ellipse supports the theory that the dessica- tion of the valley was caused by earthquake action. PHYSICAL HISTORY. 213 commenced on May 30, and sh^ks more or less violent were felt up chap. vill. to August 16. Houses were destroyed and there was a general panic, — " — people sleeping for many days out of doors. It is said that some 3,500 persons were killed, and the number of cattle, ponies and other domestic animals crushed by falling buildings was enormous. Baramula and Patan seem to have suffered the most, and large earth fissures were caused, from which it is reported that sulphur fumes and inflammable gases were emitted. Many old water-springs disappeared and landslips occurred, one of which, at Lari Dura in the Krihun Tahsil, revealed fossil singhara nuts at an elevation of about 1,500 feet above the level of the Wular lake. It has been suggested that the style of architecture in Kashmir is not calculated to withstand the shocks of an earthquake, but the inhabitants of the valley claim that the apparently frail structures escape when heavier and more massive buildings would succumb, and it must be remembered that the temples of Patan and the palace of Srinagar suffered in 1885. Even now I have noticed in the courtyards of many villagers' houses a temporary wigwam, which is always kept in readiness for shelter in times of shocks, and the dread of another earthquake is always present. Native historians record nineteen great famines, regarding which Famines, they give gruesome details, but the important fact on which they are all agreed is that the famines were caused by early snows or heavy rain occurring at the time when the autumn harvest was ripening. In this century there have been two terrible famines, one known by the name of Sher Singh, which was caused by the early, heavy autumn snow of 1 831, and the other, more recent disaster, which was similarly caused by continuous rains which fell from October, 1877, till January, 1878. It has been calculated that the population of Kashmir was reduced from 800,000 to 300,000 by the famine of Sher Singh, and a flood which followed the famine destroyed many important irrigation works and permanently submerged large areas of valuable cultivation. In the famine of 1877-79 there was an enormous loss of life. One authority has stated that the population of Srinagar was reduced from 127,400 to 60,000, and others say that of the total population of the valley only two-fifths survived. Years have now passed since the last famine, but the Kashmiri proverb ' Drag tsalih ta dig tsalih na,' which means that 'the famine goes but its stains remain,' is true in all senses, and the country has not yet recovered from the awful visitation of 1877. As the great famine is still fresh in men's minds, and forms a constant topic of conversation with the villagers in camp, I will notice a few of the more important facts connected with it, for there are certain lessons to be learnt which may be of use should famine again 214 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. viii. unhappily visit the valley. In the first place, it must be remembered — " — that the one circumstance which can lead to a real famine in Kashmfr is the occurrence of rain or snow when the rice and maize is being harvested, and this is a circumstance which cannot be met by any preventive works. Intense drought may cause a slight scarcity, but Kashmfr is so amply provided with irrigation that drought cannot do much harm to the great staple food, rice. In 1877 much rice might have been saved if the people had been allowed to cut their crops and carry them. The old system, which delayed reaping operations for revenue purposes, has now been abolished, and the cultivators can cut their crops when they like and place them under cover. If this had been the case in 1877 the crops which had been reaped before the rain commenced would have been saved. It has often struck me that if the villagers would erect temporary thatched sheds at the time of the autumn harvest, rice and maize might be cut and placed under cover, for even when the rain is continuous, lasting for over three months as was the case in 1877, some portion of the crop could be saved, while in years when the rain is intermittent, and the weather catchy, the rice would be harvested in much better condition if temporary sheds were built. In 1877 the autumn crops were good, but as the rain went on they were beaten to the ground. The rice and maize which had been cut were stacked wet. Combustion set in and the grain became black and rotten. When it was evident that there would be no rice or maize for food, an order was issued to sell the State stocks of barley at Rs. 1.4.0 per kharwar to the city people. Middlemen at once bought up barley and wheat at this rate and afterwards retailed it at Rs. 19. As the winter drew on the plough-cattle began to die from want of food, and in the spring of 1878 the authorities turned their attention too late to the problem of obtaining seed for the autumn crops. Unfortunately an order was given to search houses for seed grain, and by this time the people were utterly demoralized, and rather than make over their scanty stocks to greedy and unprincipled officials they hid their grain in the damp earth or sunk it in the river. The one hope at the beginning of 1878 lay in the spring crops of barley and wheat, but heavy rain injured the harvest, and of the poor remnant very little was allowed to go to the cultivators. The same heavy rain had damaged the fruit trees, and when the hungry people had devoured the blossoms of the apples and pears, and the unripe fruit of the mulberries, they turned to the grasses and roots of the swamps and forests. The bark of the elm and the yew was ground into flour. Those near the forests lived on herbs while the skim milk lasted, but herbs without milk soon proved fatal, and by the summer of 1878 famine was PHYSICAL HISTORY. 215 raging. Then that awful sig;^ of demoralization and helplessness, Chap. vill. manifested by the non-burial of corpses, appeared : wells and holes — ** — were choked with bodies, and prowling dogs began to prey on human carcases. The Gujars of the mountains were the heaviest suiTerers, and many orphan girls were sold to the city Amj'is. Terror spread through the country, and men never thought of sharing their scanty stock of food with their relations, but greedily devoured all they could lay hands on. In ordinary times a seer of rice is sufficient for a day's food, but men ate twice and thrice this quantity and still remained hungry. There was a Jin or demon in every one's body, and the Jin had to be fed. Many attempted to escape to the Punjab, but at the barriers troops were stationed to prevent the migration of the people, and harrowing tales are told of the fathers of families getting past the barrier by bribing the guardians of the passes, while the wives and children were left to die in Kashmfr. When the vegetables were finished the gaunt people took to oilcake and rice-chaff, and this diet soon hastened the work of death. Then, too late, half-hearted and feeble attempts were made to organize famine relief. A few almshouses were established and grain was imported from the Punjab ; but the agency for its distribution was often corrupt, and the grain was adulterated with dirt and embezzled by officials, who retailed it to the wealthy at Rs. 25 per kharwar. At the end of 1878 the old system, Rahddri, under which no man could leave the valley without permission, was given up, and the weak survivors tottered over the passes to the Punjab, many dying on the way. The mortality was greatest among the villagers. In the city the unfortunate shawl-weavers were the chief victims of the famine. It is worthy of notice that there was little mortality among the Hindus from starvation. The Musalmans attribute the immunity of the Pandits to the fact that they were a privileged class, whose official power enabled them to seize all available grain. But in justice it should be mentioned that the Hindus of Kashmfr are daintier feeders than the Musalmans and that they are accustomed to fasts. It is undesirable for many reasons to recount the horrors of the year 1878, or to comment on the apathy and wickedness of certain officials, who looked on the awful suffering of the people merely as an opportunity for making money. The Maharaja Ranbir Singh did his utmost to save his people, but he never knew the real extent of the disaster until the end of 1878, and false reports were sent to him denying that there had been any deaths from starvation. When the Maharajd knew that his subjects were perishing in thousands he spared no money, and if the grain, brought with great difficulty over the long, bad roads, had been fairly distributed to the people, even at that late hour, great mortality could have been prevented. 2i6 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VIII. But unfortunately the ofificials of Kashmfr could not be trusted, and — "* — the Maharaja's charity was turned by them into a source of profit. Even the turnip seed, which was wisely despatched to Kashmir, was intercepted by unscrupulous men and in its place rape-seed was sold to the villagers. Until October, 1879, all the horrors of famine prevailed, though many lives had been saved by the imports of grain and by the good fruit harvest. In June cholera had appeared to aggravate the miseries of the country, and great anxiety prevailed up to August as to the condition of the rice crop, which was mercifully saved by timely rains. It is impossible to say whether the estimate that only two-fifths of the population of the valley survived the famine is accurate, but it is correct to say that when I commenced the work of inspecting villages in 1889, there was hardly a village where I did not see deserted houses and abandoned fields, the owners of which had perished in the great famine of 1878. It is a great landmark in their history and in my settlement operations, and by the orders of the Durbar the greatest con- sideration has been shown to the unhappy fugitives of 1878 who have returned, after the lapse of more than ten years, to claim their ancestral holdings. Though untimely rains and snow may again fall when the rice and maize are ripe for the sickle, I do not think that it is possible that so awful a famine can revisit Kashmir. In the first place, the policy of the State towards the city on the one hand and the cultivators on the other has greatly changed, and it has been recognized that it is bad economy to sacrifice the interests of 695,281 cultivators to the welfare of the 118,960 residents of Srinagar. But it was different in 1878, and the one preoccupa- tion of the responsible officials was to save the city at all costs from the horrors of famine, and little mercy or consideration was shown to the cultivators. An active and sensible tahsildar, if he had not been hampered by requisitions for the city, might have kept his villagers together, might have exploited the wild foods of the forests and the swamps, and might have induced the people to let the fruit trees bring their fruit to maturity. But the villagers fell into a panic, and there was no one to guide them ; and orders such as those for searching the houses for grain made every one suspect that the city alone was to be helped. Then when the spring crops of barley and wheat ripened it would have been politic, as well as merciful, to have encouraged the cultivators by a liberal division of the crops; but never was the number of State watchers so great or their greed so keen as in 1878, when they sat day and night watching for the crops to ripen, and eventu- ally gave the starving cultivators a bare fourth of the harvest. It is no wonder that men surrounded by the dying and the dead should have lost heart, that crime should break out, and that they should make desperate PHYSICAL HISTORY. 217 efforts to get out of the charnel-ho»se of the valley and escape to the Punjab. Chap. Vlll. In the second place, there was no organization, and no attempt to start — *^ — relief-works nor to constitute relief-circles was made till too late ; and in this fertile country, where everything can be grown— where potatoes, turnips, carrots can be raised quickly and with ease — the people were prostrate and helpless merely from the failure of one harvest. It is all the more sad to reflect on the waste of life and the waste of energy when one considers how many excellent famine relief-works there are at hand in Kashmir — of the roads that might have been made, and of the irrigation channels which might have been restored and repaired in that horrible 1878, when thou- sands sat listlessly waiting for death. When famine next threatens the valley it may be safely said that there will be some organization to meet and arrest it. In the third place, the old system, under which no one was allowed to cut or carry his crops without official permission, has been abolished, and every cultivator can now keep his sheaves dry in his own house. And lastly, there is now a cart-road to India, along which grain for the relief of scarcity can be imported ; and this alone, in my opinion, would be sufficient to prevent a recurrence of the disaster of 1878. But it must be remembered that it is a long way from Baramula to Rawalpindi, and, though rigid political economists would condemn the policy of preventing export, I venture to hold that until Kashmir is linked to India by the railway, the State is justified in prohibiting the export from the valley of the great staple, rice. Among other lessons to be learnt from the famine of 1878, is that it is fatal to issue an order for the searching of houses ; and in the numerous conversations which I have had with all classes of Kashmiris I have always been impressed with the stress which they lay on the fact that the searching of houses for grain, in the spring of 1878, was the chief cause of scarcity deepening into famine. One other fact must be mentioned which will greatly modify the effect of the next real famine. In 1877 it was the fixed policy of the State to leave no sur- plus grain with the villagers. Everything which could be taken from them was carried into Srinagar, and was placed in large, leaky storehouses, where the grain very quickly became unfit for food purposes. Under the new Settlement a considerable surplus of food-stocks remain every year with the villagers, and there are already signs of an incipient thrift and a desire to save which were formerly unknown. If this thrift is encouraged I believe that when the next famine occurs it will be found that villages will hold together, and that there will be sufficient food and fodder to support the life of men and cattle till the spring crops are harvested, and that wandering will not commence before relief-works can be started and food and stocks be obtained from the Punjab. Finally, it may be said that in a country like Kashmir, in spite of its Ff 2l8 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. viii. isolation from India and the railroad, a famine ought to be impossible, if — " — the administration is prepared and makes full use of the resources of the valley. Even leaving out of consideration the enormous mass of food which is provided by fish, horned water-nut, and other products of the lakes and swamps, by the roots and other edible products of the forests which fringe Kashmir, and by the teeming fruit-orchards which are dotted all over the valley, much can be done to save life by increasing the cultivation of the potato, turnip and carrot. In the chapter on agriculture it will be seen that the Kashmiris are fully alive to the importance of vegetables ; but the State could do much to improve the vegetable gardens of the villages by starting a small seed-farm in the neighbourhood of Srinagar. Preparation and a fixed policy for meeting scarcity are all that is wanted to prevent Kash- mir from ever again being depopulated by famine. In 1877-9 all estimates regarding the food stocks of the country, of the cultivated area and pro- bable outturn of crops, and of the population, were mere guesswork. This is all changed, and the State now possesses accurate information on all these points. In the absence of any trustworthy statistics it is impossible to say whether the population is now as great as it was before the famine of 1878; but it is safe to say that for proper cultivation the population is still far too small, and in the interests of the land revenue alone every effort should be made to remove causes which lead to such awful and lamentable mortality as occurred in the famine. It has been noticed by many that the Kashmiri women are extraordinarily prolific, and one observer has accepted the statement that every woman has on an average ten to fourteen children. Cholera. There is no doubt that children are very numerous, and if it were not for famine, smallpox, and the last of the incidents of physical history with which I shall deal — namely cholera, the population of Kashmir would soon be sufficient for the soil. In talking over the question of population many Kashmiris, while admitting the fecundity of their women, always remark that ' God takes his share,' and this is unfortunately true. This question will be discussed elsewhere, and though there are many other causes for infantile mortality, such as smallpox and cold weather, I think that the gigantic proportions of the cholera epidemics of Kashmir entitle them to a place in the physical history of Kashmir. As far as I can ascertain the first mention of cholera is in A. D. 1598, and before that time the disease was unknown or was known by a name different to that now used, ' Waba.' In the present century there have been ten epidemics of cholera, all more or less disastrous to the people of Kashmfr, and of these perhaps the worst was the last, which occurred in A. d. 189a. It is stated by the chief medical officer of Kashmir that 5,781 persons died in Srinagar, and 5,931 in the villages. I was in camp during the epidemic, and moved through some PHYSICAL HISTORY. 219 of the most infected centreSj an^ I believe that owing to the panic which Chap. viiI. set in the registration in the districts was not so careful as it may have been ^ in the city, and that 5,931 deaths does not represent nearly the total mortality from cholera in the villages. Terrible gaps have been left in many families and villages which I know, and though it was not necessary to remit land revenue on account of cholera, the epidemic has thrown back the prosperity of many villages for years. It is generally agreed that the centre and nursery of cholera in Kashmir is the foul and squalid capital, Srinagar ; but when it is once established there it soon spreads to the dirty towns and to the villages ; no medicine or medical organization seems to avail, arid the people sit silent and resigned to wait till the plague exhausts itself It is a curious fact, which I noticed in my tours, that the villages on the kar6wa plateaus seemed free from cholera, and that the disease was most rampant in the alluvial parts of the valley. The question of cholera in Kashmir has been discussed exhaustively by competent authorities, and all hold that something must be done to change and clean Srinagar. Some say that unless' drastic measures are adopted cholera will become endemic ; and now that Srinagar is joined to India by a road there is a twofold necessity for sanitary reform. For if cholera becomes endemic the Punjab and the great military cantonment of Rawalpindi will always be threatened, while, on the other hand, the occurrence of an epidemic in India is sure to be followed by cholera in Kashmir, for cholera, like trade, travels by roads. Before the road from Bdramula to the Punjab was opened cholera might occur in India while Kashmir was healthy, and whereas there were twelve epidemics of cholera in the Punjab between 1867 and 1890, there were only five out- breaks in Kashmir during the same period. Now it is almost certain that if cholera reaches the Punjab it will find its way along the crowded road and the narrow valley to Srinagar. I have stated above that if the disease is once established in the congenial filth of Srinagar it soon spreads to the villages, causing heavy mortality among the revenue-paying cultivators of the State, and just as I urge that, even in the interests of the land revenue alone, it is politic to prevent famine, and the utter disorganization and financial ruin which attend on famines, so do I urge that it is financially wise to clean Srinagar, and to remove the ever present danger of cholera. I would add that it is equally necessary to clean Baramula and Sopur, the dirty towns which stand on the line of communication between India and Srinagar. There are higher considerations than those of land revenue which will doubtless move the State to put their house in order both in the matter of famine and of cholera. The horrors of the former are known to me only by hearsay and by the vivid evidence given by ruined villages and abandoned cultivation, but I have been an eyewitness of the ravages and demoralization caused by cholera. Defoe's Plague of London shows how F f 2 220 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. VIII. ^ even the strong English character fails in an awful pestilence, and it is not ** to be wondered at if the less stable orientals become unhinged in a visita- tion such as that of 1892. All business was stopped^ and the only shops which remained open were those of the sellers of white cloth for winding sheets. Men would not lend money, and in the villages the people would sit all day l*ong in the graveyards absolutely silent. In the city the people would go out at dawn to the gardens and parks in the suburbs, returning at night to hear that more of their relatives and friends had perished'. The long lines of coffins borne to the graveyards resembled an endless regiment on the march, while on the river a sad procession of boats floated down to the burning-ghats, and living passengers in other boats passed by with averted faces. Men telling rne how they had lost all the members of their family would break into hysterical laughter, and I have never seen such utter despair and helplessness as I saw in 189a. Conclusion. When it is remembered that these calamities are not rare events, and that in one generation, fires, floods, earthquakes, famines and cholera may occur and are always expected, one should deal leniently with the Kashmiri character^. I have no means of ascertaining whether the inhabitants of other countries that re specially liable to earthquakes and other disasters are less stable in character than the people of countries happily free from such visitations. But I think that much that is to be regretted in the disposition of the Kashmiris arises from the constant fears and doubts which they feel regarding the terrible forces of nature. The valley is full of superstitions, which the religions of the country foster and accentuate ; the administrations of the past have shaken all faith in the honesty and benevolence of rulers, and when on the top of this calamities recur again and again, which make men lose all confidence in the order of the universe, we have a chain of circumstances not conducive to the formation of a vigorous and reliant national character. Superstition has made the Kashmiri timid. Tyranny has made him a liar, while physical disasters have made him selfish and incredulous of the existence of good. Fires, floods, famines, and cholera can all be prevented^ and the consideration that efforts devoted to the removal of these evils will eventually result in the moral amelioration of the much abused and little pitied inhabitant of Kashmir, should excite the State to grapple with them regardless of cost and labour. ' Take the instance of Patan, a village which lies about halfway between Srinagar and Bara- mula. It has a population of about 165 families. In 1885 seventy persons perished in the earthquake. In 1892 fifty-five persons were carried off by cholera. This is a terrible record for seven years, but it is by no means an unusual record in Kashmir. CHAPTER IX. STATISTICAL. There are several reasons rendering it difficult, if not impossible, to Chap. IX. give statistics for the Kashmfr valley which would convey any accurate " — idea of the condition of the country previous to the operations of the Land Revenue Settlement and of the census of 189 1. Akbar's great statistician in the Ain Akbari gives rough figures for the Subah of Kashmfr, of which the valley formed a small and imperfectly defined part. Subsequent histories and notes give vague statistics, founded on no systematic inquiry, and while the figures of population and area are mere guesswork, they are further complicated by the fact that no accurate explanation is given of the country comprised in the geographical name Kashmir. As regards the figures which have been made public from time to time on the subject of the revenue of Kashmfr, it is necessary to remember that each succeeding dynasty has done its utmost to exaggerate the financial resources of the valley, and to collect the revenue in accor- dance with exaggerated estimates. It should also be remembered that it is an old-established custom of the officials of Kashmir to manipulate accounts in such a way as to conceal from their masters the fact that the revenue was nominal, and that the real collections fell far short of the hand- some income which existed only on paper. It is a curious fact that while individuals in the East modestly underrate their incomes, oriental States are prone to magnify their resources ; and the hard-headed accountant, who declines to recognize in figures an elasticity by which the half is equal to the whole, would have met with small favour at the hands of the magnificent Akbar. The glory which attaches to huge areas, large populations, and enormous revenue is dear to the oriental ruler, and I believe that many of the exaggerated ideas regarding the financial capacity of the Kashmfr valley are due to this sentiment. Again, the officials of Kashmfr look upon averages as a sordid and contemptible method of calculating the resources of a country, and if in one year of extraordinary harvest a vigorous governor collected an astonishing revenue, THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. they would look upon that as the standard, and would omit from their ■ **~~ calculations years of famine, flood and pestilence. It is good to be sanguine and to view one's country on the sunny side, but in statistics the average inevitably presents itself. Just as Akbar's statistician included Kabul and Kandahar in the Subah of Kashmir, so more recent notices of Kashmir include parts of Jammu territory, and it is very difficult to ascertain from rough estimates, which are ■ to be found in scattered notices, how much of these estimates should be credited to the Valley of Kashmir. In order to prevent any mistake in future I must explain that the Valley of Kashmir treated of in this Report, and in this chapter, consists of the three wazdrats or districts of Khas, Anantnag, and Sopur, and excludes the wazirat or district of Muzzafarabad, which lies below Bdrdmula. When I commenced work in Kashmir there were three wazArats in the valley — Khas, Anantnag and Sopur, and there were fifteen tahsils distributed as follows: — Tahsils. Khas. Ich Nag^m. Donsu Manch^ma. Wular Vihu. Cherat. Anantnag. Sri Ranbir Singhpura. Deosar. 9. Dachanp^ra. 10. Shupiyon. 11. L^I. 12. Hamalzainigir. 13. Uttar Machipura. 14. Biru Magam. 15. Krihun. I. Kh^s Wazarat 2. Anantnag Wazarat 3. Sopur or Kamraj 3- 4- 5- 6. 7- 8. I have maintained three wazarats, as before, but have reduced the tahsils to eleven. They are as follows : — 1. Kh^s Wazarat . 2. Anantnag Wazarat 3. Sopur Wazarat . 1. Lal-Phdk. 2. Srinagar. 3. Sri Partib Singhpura. 4. Nagdm. 5. Wantipura. 6. Anantnag. 7. Haripura. 8. Sri Ranbir Singhpura. 9. Uttar Machipura. 10. Sopur. 11. Patan. STATISTICAL. 223 It should be explained thafe the Gurais valley, which, previous to Chap. ix. Settlement, formed part of the Gilgit province, has been surveyed and — ►^— assessed and is now part of the new Sopur Tahsil. The changes in the administrative divisions made by me were based on two principles, one, that so far as possible each irrigation system of the country should be under the jurisdiction of one tahsildar, the other that the river Jhelum should be utilized as the boundary of the tahsil. The local divisions of Kashmir have varied considerably. In old days the country was divided into two parts, Maraj, the south, and Kamraj, the north. Tradition says that two brothers, Marhan and Kaman, fought for the crown, and that all the country below Srinagar fell to Kaman and was known as Kamanraj, and that all above became the territory of Marhan and was known as Marhanraj. These local divisions are still recognized by the people, and the patois of Maraj differs from that of Kamraj, and both differ from that of Yamraj which is the old name for Srinagar. In these divisions were thirty-four subdivisions, still recognized by the people, and though the State may for adminis- trative purposes make changes in boundaries and in designation, the old names will linger on, and the people of Ranbir Singhpura Tahsil will style themselves residents of Shahabad and Brang for many years to come. In 1871 we find that the country was divided into five wazarats or districts, Srinagar, Patan, Anantnag, Kdmraj, and Shupiyon. These were again subdivided into thirty-seven tahsils. In 1887, that is just before the Settlement commenced, there were four districts, Srinagar, Haripur or Shupiyon, Kamraj, and Anantnag. These districts contained twenty-eight tahsils and were said to contain 2^,487 villages. The Kashmir valley, with its three wazarats and its eleven tahsils, is under the executive charge of the Hdkim-i-Ala, or Governor of Kashmir. This officer is also the executive head of the districts of Gilgit, Astor and Muzzafarabad. Ladakh and Skardu districts are under the charge of the Hakith-i-Ala or Governor of Jammu. As before explained, the statistics contained in this chapter refer to the Valley of Kashmir as comprised in the three districts of Khas, Anantnag, and Sopur, with eleven tahsils, and do not include Muzzafarabad, Gilgit, or Astor. In 1835 it was stated that the population of the valley did not exceed Population. 300,000 persons, ' to which number it had been in twenty years reduced from 800,000 by oppression and the awful dispensation of earthquake, pestilence, and famine.' In 1868 a census was taken of the population of Srinagar, but its accuracy was doubted. The census gave a population of 113,715 persons, of whom 34,945 were Hindus and 87,770 Muhammadans. The number of houses was stated to be 30,304. 224 T^^ VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. In 1873 another census was taken, which returned the total population " - of Kashmfr, including the Muzzafarabad district, as 491.846. Later, some time before the terrible famine of 1877-79, Dr. Elmslie, who had resided in the valley for six years as a medical missionary, calculated the, population of the valley to be 402,700, of these 75,000 were Hindus and the rest Musalmans. The city of Srinagar accounted for 127,400, and the rural population amounted to 375,300. No accurate idea can be formed of the extent of the mortality caused by the famine, but my impression — gained from constant conversation with the villagers on the subject— is that the following description, written in 1879, is in no wise exaggerated: — ' No European who carefully examined the city this summer (1 879), with a view to guessing its population, ever put the people at over 60,000 souls, but nothing can be exactly known. A number of the chief valleys to the north were entirely deserted, whole villages lay in ruins, some suburbs of the city were tenantless, the city itself half destroyed, the graveyards were filled to overflowing, the river had been full of corpses thrown into it. It is not likely that more than two-fifths of the people of the valley now survive.' If, therefore. Dr. Elmslie's figures were approximately correct the famine removed' 67,400 persons from the city, and 174,220 persons from the villages. Many of these escaped with their lives to the Punjab, and many have since returned to Kashmir. It is stated on the authority of a French shawl-merchant, long resident in Srinagar, that whereas in former times there were from 30,000 to 40,000 weavers in Srinagar only 4,000 remained after the famine. Census of The census of 1891 supplies statistics of population which may be taken as accurate. It shows that the Kashmir valley contains a population of 814,241, of which Srinagar accounts for 118,960, that is to say in twelve years the population of Srinagar has nekrly doubled, while the rural population, which was supposed to have fallen to 101,080 in 1879, has risen to 695,281 in 1891. This would indicate great powers of recuperation and would bear out the observations of Major Montgomery, who remarks in his notes on the survey operations in Kashmir : ' It is said that every woman has at an average ten to fourteen children.' I should, however, be inclined to think that Dr. Elmslie's calculation was under the mark, and in this I am supported by old and intelligent Kashmiris, who maintain that the population in 1891 was almost exactly equal to the population of the valley at the beginning of 1887, before the famine occurred. It is useless, therefore, to attempt any comparison between the population as determined by the census of 1891 and the lijgi. STATISTICAL. 225 Chap. IX. population as estimated by Dr. ^Imslie and others. Thus the census .shows that out of a total population of 814^341 only 52,576 are Hindus. — " — By Dr. Elmslie's calculation there were 75,000 Hindus before the famine, and it is a notorious fact that the Hindus of Kashmir did not suffer heavily in the famine. One important matter can, however, be elicited from these figures. I believe that although the census taken of Srinagar in 1868 may have been inaccurate as to the number of persons, it was probably accurate as regards the number of houses. In 1868 there were 20,304 houses, in 1891 there were 22,448. This increase is due to the fact that a large number of villagers migrated to the city after the famine of 1877-79, ill order to escape from forced labour and to obtain cheap food. The following table shows the division of the people according to Religions, religion : — Hindus. Sikhs. Muhammadans. Christians. Parsis. 52,576 4.092 757.433 132 8 That is to say the Muhammadans form over 93 per cent, of the total population, while the Hindus represent less than 7 per cent. The census recognizes four towns in Kashmir. Their population is as Urban popula- follows: — Srinagar AnantnSg Sopur Baramula tion. Total 118,960 10,227 8,410 5.656 143.253 The population of Srinagar may be fairly regarded as urban, but in the other three towns a large proportion of the people are agriculturists. The small towns of Shupiyon, Bij Behara, Pampur, and Bandipur, contain, how- ever, a non-agricultural population, and if they be included they will balance the agricultural population of Anantnag, Sopur, and Baramula, which has been classed in the census as urban. It may therefore be said that the urban population forms about 1 7 per cent, of the total population of Kashmirj and it has been the policy of the rulers of the valley from time immemorial to sacrifice the interests of the agricultural population to the care and comfort of the people of Srinagar. The following table shows the division of the rural population according Rural popula- tO districts :— tion according to districts. Name of District. No. of Villages. No. of Houses. No. of Houses per Village. Total Population. No. of Persons per House. Khas Anantndg .... Sopur or Kamraj Jagirs of the Rajas 847 I, III 116 28,330 32,536 34.904 3,620 33 41 31 31 190,825 214.331 241,498 24,334 I 1 1 Gg 226 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. The average number of persons per house is thus seven. But Major Mont- — *• — gomery, in his notes on the survey operations of Kashmir, writes : ' In the country generally the number of inhabitants in each house, including every living soul, ranges from ten to thirty ; in twenty-three different villages in which special inquiries were made the average was found to be eighteen.' Assuming that the census figures are correct, we find that the patriarchal system is disappearing and that there is a tendency on the part of the agriculturists to leave the paternal roof and to set up for themselves. This tendency undoubtedly exists, and our Settlement operations brought it daily to my notice. It is a healthy tendency so far, because the hold- ings of the various members of a family are still too large for high cultivation. Sexofpopula- Qf the total population 429,464 are males, 384,777 are females. In Srinagar itself and the towns there are 817 female Hindus for every 1,000 Hindu-males, and 916 Muhammadan females for every 1,000 Muhammadan males. In the villages there are only 721 Hindu women to every 1,000 Hindu men, but the Muhammadan agriculturists are better provided^ since for every 1,000 men there are 895 Muhammadan women. The rates of females to males among the Muhammadan agriculturists is perhaps higher than it should be, for at the time of the final enumeration, viz. February 26, 1 89 1, a considerable number of Muhammadan males were away in the Punjab. The deficiency of females is, however, sufficient to account for the fact that both among Hindus and Musalmans polygamy is extremely rare. Births and The census of 1891 fully confirms the remarks of Major Montgomery tality. ^'^'^ other observers on the subject of the prolific character of the Kashmiris. The proportion of children to the total population is, among the agricultural classes, 4,463 per ten thousand. For the whole of India the proportion is 3,888 per ten thousand. The census reveals other facts which are of interest besides the fact that births are more numerous in Kashmir than in other Indian provinces. Deaths of children under two years are more frequent than they are in India, but from ,the age of two to four there appears to be greater vitality in Kashmir than there is in India. The chief victims of early mortality are female children, who succumb to smallpox, and who perhaps do not receive the same care which is bestowed on male children. It is a sad fact that in Kashmir about one-half of the children die after birth, and nearly one-third die after attaining one year, and it is especially to be regretted that though there are more females born than males, the ratio of females to males should be so small for the whole population. I have elsewhere discussed the enormous importance of intro- ducing a vigorous system of vaccination. Kashmir requires a much larger agricultural population than it posses.ses at present, and self-interest and STATISTICAL. 227 humanity alike demand that the Jpaby girls should be protected against Chaf. ix.. smallpox. Cholera is deadly, but it has not the same results on the — •■• — population as smallpox. It has often been remarked that the valley is so healthy that men, like Longevity. crows, have only one ailment to dread — old age. I have met with many old men in the valley, but my impression is that fifty years would be considered a ripe old age, and I have often noticed white-haired men of forty years. In one village, Wana kari (Hamal), I found a striking instance of longevity, due it is said to the purity of the water-spring igangaji). Krishn Das is 95 and has four sons, aged respectively 70, 60, 40, 30; Krishn Das' father died at the age of 105, and his uncle died recently aged 114. Krishn Das' wife died at 90, Krishn Das can walk f 30 miles with ease. His memory is excellent, and he attributes his vigour to goats' milk. He has never used tea, tobacco, or liquor. According to the census, the life expectancy or average duration of life in Kashmir is as follows : — Rural. Urban. Males 20-11 years. 21-30 years. Females .... 19-19 „ 20-35 » The easy life of the citizens gives them an extra year in which to enjoy the blessings of cheap food and security from exertion. The hard life of the agriculturists and exposure to damp and cold remove them from the valley one year sooner than the well-fed citizens. Our Kashmiri life expectancy contrasts unfavourably with the English average. Kashmir is happily very free from crime, and one gaol, in Srinagar, is Crime, sufficient for the valley. In the year 1891-93, which may be taken as ^° ^' a year of normal conditions, 343 convicts were admitted to gaol, and of these some were not inhabitants of the valley, but came from the Muzzafar- abad district. Of these convicts only two were women ; and the agricul- tural population of 670,989 only contributed forty-one men. At the beginning of the year 1891-93 there were J si convicts in gaol, but by the end of the year, including the new admissions, there were only 1 37 convicts in custody, and the daily average of strength of prisoners was 1 39. Taking, however, 343 as representing the average number of convicts in Kashmir in any one year, we find that whereas in England convicts form -070 ^ of the total population, in Kashmir they represent only •039. The small number of convicts is due to no leniency on the part of the executive nor to want of zeal on the part of the police. In no country is secret espionage more keen than in Kashmir, and the absence of crime is due, in my belief, partly to the non-criminal character of the people, and ' Secrets of the Prison House, by Arthur Griffiths, vol. i. p. 356. Gg3 228 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. Police. Education. partly to the fact that, as every one is a potential spy, men on the brink of crime are kept back by the knowledge that their friends and relations will betray them. The total expenditure in 1891-93 on gaols in Kashmfr amounted to Rs. 9,185, and the income was Rs. 1,708. Apart from the fact that crime is rare in Kashm/r, it is satisfactory to notice that the offences are chiefly against property and not against persons. Thus in 1891-93 of 543 cases reported only thirty-five were offences against the person, and no case of burglary occurred. Within the last ten years there have been only five capital punishments inflicted in Srinagar, and of the men hanged only one was a native of the valley. It is also satisfactory to notice that juvenile criminals are rare. Thus out of 243 convicts only two were boys under sixteen years of age. To control crime in Kashm/r, and to watch 814,241 persons, a police force of 436 officers, rank and file, costing Rs. 58,31a per annum, is sufficient. The police officers are assisted, however, by the village watchmen or chaukidars, who are a numerous, vigilant, and inquisitorial body, numbering over 1,000 men. They are mostly of the Dum class, and have keen detective faculties and an excellent system of transmission of intelligence. Everything of the slightest interest which occurs in a village is promptly reported by the watchman to the police. The watchman receives no pay from the State, and lives on the contributions of the villages within his beat. Even his uniform of blue and red and his official spear are provided by the villagers. The system works well, in that Kashmfr is extraordinarily free from crime. It has been suggested that the watchmen should be paid by the State, but I hold that neither the State nor the villagers would benefit from the change. At present the watchman is a village institution, taking a lively interest in the one great event of village life — the outturn of the harvest. If the harvest is good the watchman's share of the crops is sufficient. If the outturn is bad the watchman suffers like the villagers. At present it is to the watchman's interest that the villagers should attend to agriculture and should eschew pursuits which would bring them into trouble. If he were a paid servant of the State he would soon strive to gain pro- motion by official zeal, and as an official he would soon cease to be one of the village community, and would thus lose his usefulness. In most countries drink is considered to be a pregnant source of crime, education a powerful check. In Kashmir drink and drugs do not enter into the life of the people, but the absence of crime cannot be in any way connected with the spread of education. The following table will show the extent of educational operations in the valley, so far as the State is concerned. I again take the year 1891-92 as representing the normal condition of the country : — STATISTICAL. 229 No. of boys on roll . ^ IjS^S Average daily attendance 1,228 No. of scholars learning — English 299 Vernacular only i>54i Sanskrit only 44 Religion — Hindus i)327 Sikhs 21 Muhammadans 233 Others 4 That is to say, out of a population of 52,576 Hindus only 1,327 are receiving State instruction, while out of a population of 757,433 Muhammadans only 233 obtain any benefit from the State schools. These figures also show that though the Hindus form less than 7 per cent, of the population, they monopolize over 83 per cent, of the educa- tion bestowed by the State. A further fact should be noticed, which is that of the 1,585 boys on the roll of the State schools 1,220 attend schools in Srinagar. These figures would justify the opinion that education is backward in Kashmfr, and it might be urged that the State ought to establish more schools. Considering the enormous sums and the vast labour which have been expended in India on State education, it is only natural to ask why the Kashmir State, which is always so apt to borrow institutions from India, has not followed the example of giving a practically free education to the people of the valley. The answer is that the more affluent of the villagers prefer the mosque schools, or the system of private tuition, to the instruction given by the State, and it is a surprising fact that a large number of rural Muhammadans can read and write Persian with ease. The rural population does not at present want assistance from the State, and fathers have the old-fashioned idea that homely morals are better than the scholarship and advanced thought which is born of the State schools. The State is also old-fashioned and recognizes that the supply of educated Pandits is already far greater than the demand, and that the manufacture at State expense of a number of hungry students, for whom there is no employment, would be likely to cause discontent. If the Kashmfri Pandits would leave their country in search of work it might be well to extend education, but they prefer to stay in Srinagar. As regards the rural classes the State holds the view that those who want education will obtain it at their own expense, and that it is doubtful whether in the present circumstances of the agricultural population it would be wise to educate the masses at the cost of the exchequer. I think that the best policy will be to leave the rural classes alone at present, and to use every effort to introduce technical education in Srinagar. Chap. IX. 230 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. The Kashmiris have artistic instincts and are famous for their skill in art — " — manufactures. Nature has been bountiful in furnishing raw material for arts and manufactures, but owing to the want of technical instruction the excellent fibres, willow-withies, leather, and clay of the valley are practically wasted. I know of no place where technical education would succeed better than in Srinagar. The artistic faculty is always present — all that is needed is skilled direction, and perhaps at the outset State encouragement and patronage. There are many considerations which call for effort in the direction of technical education. The huge city population, already a burden to the State, is becoming every year more helpless and more degraded. The terrible system of pauperization by which the city people receive food-grain at half rates has removed the great incentive to industry and progress. Wages have no honour, and are a mere token representing so much rice and so many days' food. The Kashmiri artisan does not grumblg at the small wage and has no quarrel with his employer, the middleman, who openly avows a profit of 50 per cent. But the Kashmiri artisan would very soon grumble if the State allowed prices of grain to be regulated by the laws of supply and demand. The fact is that the artisans of Srinagar have not yet discovered that the old conditions, under which they were practically slaves of the State, have disappeared. As I have shown elsewhere, in the good days of the shawl trade it was financially expedient to feed the shawl-weavers with cheap grain, for the loss to the State was handsomely recouped by the large and easily collected tax on shawls. But now the shawl trade is dead, the artisans contribute nothing to the exchequer, and the State might in fairness withdraw from its former position, and might allow prices to follow natural laws and wages to follow prices. The change has commenced, and I believe that directly some part of the middleman's profit finds its way into wages, and wages become a reality, there will be a marked improve- ment in the quality of the manufactures of Srinagar. Work and wages have their dignity in most countries, but in Kashmir there is no feeling of honest independence, and all realize that they are paupers — existing at the will of His Highness the Maharaja. The change must come, for the State has recognized the fact that the only class which benefits from the old system of pauperization is the middleman class. Another consideration which urges the introduction of technical instruction is that the Musalmdns, who now practically derive no benefit from the educational institutions of the State, would gladly avail themselves of the chance of learning new handicrafts. Medical aid. The State has always done its best to afford medical help to the people, and maintains one excellent hospital in Srinagar and six dispensaries, three of which are situated in the districts. The following table shows the extent STATISTICAL. 231 to which the people availed thenpelves of State help in the normal year Chap. ix. 1891-93: — — " — Total number of in-door patients .... 615 Total number of out-door patients .... 122,960 Total .... 123,575 2,188 surgical operations were performed, of which 383 were major operations. Eight cases of double amputation of legs were performed, in Srinagar, for gangrene after frostbite, all of which ended in recovery. In a country like Kashmir, where travellers are liable to frostbite on the passes, and where mountain accidents and injuries from wild beasts are frequent, the Srinagar hospital is a great boon. If is noticed that venereal diseases form fully 35 per cent, of the surgical cases. Of the diseases treated in the State hospital and dispensaries the following are the most common : fevers, syphilitic diseases, rheumatic affections, nervous system diseases, eye diseases, respiratory diseases, dyspepsia, diseases of digestive system, connective tissue and skin diseases. It is interesting to compare the working of the splendid Medical Mission. ' Kashmir Medical Mission, 1893. (These figures are about the average of last five years.) ' Hospital Srinagar, eighty beds — In-patients 853 Out-patients 8,688 Total visits 20,606 ' Temporary winter branch, two months only — New patients 1,469 Total . . . 2,022 ' Villages, number of days' work ninety — Number of patients seen . . . 5)i67 ' Surgical operations — Major 5°3 Minor 2,086 ' Average income Rs.io,ooo from voluntary sources. ' Villagers have apparently great faith in European medicines, e. g.. at Hanjipore, Tahsil Deosar, 3,500 patients came for treatment in eight days, and at the opposite end of the valley, e. g. Tragam, the numbers have been almost equally great. But in the city and larger towns Kashmfris usually resort to their own Hakims, in the first instance, for ordinary medical (non- surgical) diseases, and only consult Europeans for surgical complaints, or when in extremis. With regard to remoter parts, such as Dras, Kargil, the Wardwan and Skardu, the conditions seem similar to those of Kashmir villages.' 232 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. ** — Lepers and lunatics. The census gives no figures showing the number of lepers or lunatics in Kashmir. It appears that in 1891-93, 103, and in 1893-93, 360 lepers were treated. From an inquiry made in 1890 it seems that there were 133 lepers in the valley. A large number of lepers are to be found among the nomad herdsmen who visit Kashmir in the summer. The State has shown great liberality in dealing with leprosy, and there is a State leper hospital which is under the charge of the Kashmir Medical Mission. In 1893-93, 146 lunatics were treated at the asylum connected with the Srinagar gaol. This is not an asylum in the English sense, but is a place where medicinal treatment for insomnia and attacks of intense excite- ment is given. Dr. Mitra Rai Bahadur estimates the number of lunatics at 250, and he notices that they are chiefly Hindus. It is unfortunate that we possess no statistics regarding lunacy, but my frequent tours through every village in the valley have acquainted me with the sad fact that lunatics are common. Some are lunatics from their birth, some have gone mad from the excessive use of charras, others have lost their senses through some calamity. The lunatics are a harmless people, and are well treated by the villagers. I have discussed the question of establishing a lunatic asylum, but the villagers think that the lunatics are happier as they are, and that captivity would do more harm than good. They regard them much as the Swiss regard the cretins. Suicide is very rare in the valley, but I have known cases which, in unscientific language, might be styled death from a broken heart. The Kashmiris are a nervous people, and cannot stand sudden and great misfortunes. They are very demonstrative, and when overtaken by calamity gesticulate in so frenzied a manner that one wonders that their mind regains its balance. Compared with the ordinary Kashmiri, the natives of India would seem cool and phlegmatic. Goitre is common. In 1891-93, 530 cases were treated. Blindness is very frequent, and is chiefly caused by smallpox. The number of deaf persons is also great, but we have no statistics on the subject of these infirmities. It is only of late years that the Kashmiris have begun to recognize the benefits of the Western system of treatment, and the, growing belief in the efficacy of the European methods is due to the devotion and skill of the medical missionaries of Kashmir. Even now the mass of the people believe in their own doctors, many of whom are men of considerable ability and experience. There are 300 Hakims or doctors in Kashmir, and as a rule the profession is hereditary. Their system is based on the Greek system of medicine, and I have known cases in which some of my subordinates have derived great benefit from the skill of the Kashmiri Hakim. Once, when I was in great STATISTICAL. 233 anxiety, a deputation of Kashmfsis begged me to allow a well-known Chap. IX. Hakim to treat my son. They urged that this Hakim had never failed — ►^— to cure the disease. The Hakims have a considerable knowledge of herbs, and their herb-collectors are the shepherds, who spend the summer on the high mountains where the most valued plants are found. The Hakim charges a wealthy patient eight annas a visit, but he makes some money by compounding medicines. He does not dabble in surgery. He will mark with a pen the vein which is to be opened, but a barber must be called in to operate. There are over 1,900 barbers in the valley. If leeches are to be applied a special man is sent for. Such simples as the Hakim does not obtain from the shepherds are bought from the druggists, of whom there are 159 in Kashmir. The Hakim never attends midwifery cases ; special women, of whom there are seventy-four, dispose of these cases. Besides the professional Hakims \h&ve are many ' wise women ' in the villages who have considerable knowledge of the properties of herbs, and it is a remarkable fact that nearly every peasant seems to know something about the medicinal powers of plants. The sovereign remedy of the Hakims for all very serious cases is the chob-i-chin (Smilax China), a kind of root brought from China and admin- istered internally. Inoculation for smallpox, so common in Astor and elsewhere, is unknown in Kashmir, save to the Gujars of the mountains, and apparently the only help in smallpox is the reading of the Koran by a Pir. The people believe greatly in the efficacy of amulets given by Pirs. They cu^e all diseases. The amulet is either fastened on the right ^ arm, neck or turban, or is put in water and the water and ink of the writing drunk by the patient, or is burnt and the smoke inhaled by the sick man. This inhalation brings dreams, and the dreams must be told to the Pir, who at once knows what is to be done. The chief principle in the treatment of the Pir fraternity is that illness is caused by evil spirits (Jin), and that a talisman suitably prepared, with the name of the patient's mother on it, will drive out any devil. There are many Pirs in Kashmir. They and others engaged in Priests, religious occupations number 4,005, and with their dependants niake 5,^^^^^^' *" up a total population of 15,713. These are all fed at the expense of the working-classes. Beggars, with their dependants, number 34,673, while buffoons, actors, singers and dancers contribute 1,421 persons to the population. That is to say, over 5 per cent, of the population lives on the work of others, and adds nothing to the wealth of the country. In these figures are not included the lazy hordes of faqirs or beggars who wander up from the Panjab every summer like hungry locusts. ' The Jewish phylactery is worn on the left arm. Hh 234 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. Revenue. The term faqir in Kashmfr does not imply a religious habit. A recluse who gives himself up to religious meditation is known as Darvesh. I have alluded to beggars in the chapter on races and tribes. Begging is regarded as an honourable calling in Kashmfr. We learn from the Ain Akbari that the total revenue of Kashmir was 30,11,619 kharwars, worth 6,21,13,040 dams. From this it may be inferred that the value ascribed to the kharwar was 8 annas 3 pies. But unfortunately there are inaccuracies in the Ain Akbari which are incapable of explanation. Thus of the 30,11,619 kharwars stated to be the revenue demand, 9,43,507 kharwars, valued at 12,10,18,880 dams, were to be collected in cash. This gives a rate of 5 annas 3 pies per kharwar. In other places in the Ain Akbari the value of the kharwar works out to 8 annas 4 pies and 5 annas 9 pies. For the purpose of calculation I have adopted the rate of 8 annas 3 pies as representing the money value of the kharwar in the Mughal times. Not only are there discrepancies in the Ain Akbari as regards rates of commutation, but even in the total of the revenue demand there are differences which are not explained. Thus, when I add up the detailed revenue demand according to pargannas, I find that the total revenue demand of the valley of Kashmfr (Sirkdr Kashmir) was 28,61,468 kharwars, or in rupees 14,75,445 ; of this 9,28,780 kharwars, representing a money value of Rs. 4,78,903, were to be collected in cash. I can identify all the pargannas with pargannas now existing in the valley with the exception of Der, Dachan Khawra, and Banihal. Dachan Khawra how forms a part of the Muzzafarabad district. Banihal belongs to the Udampur district of Jammu, while Der cannot be traced. According to the Ain Akbari the revenue demand of these three pargannas amounted to Rs. 28,331. The city of Srinagar contributed Rs. 1,77,733 towards the total revenue demand, so that to find out the land revenue demand from the valley, as it is now constituted, we must deduct the amounts Rs. 28,331 and Rs. i, 77, 733 from the total revenue demand. The land revenue demand of the valley would then be Rs. 12,69,381. But unfortunately there is no detailed account of the items of this revenue demand. We find in the Parganna Super Saman mention that 4,130 kharwars are included as a tax on firewood, and it may be inferred that the Rs. 12,69,381, which I have taken as representing the taxation on land in Akbar's time, really included other taxes, such as taxes on towns, grazing fees, forest dues, taxes on village servants, and a host of other imposts, which cannot fairly be included in land revenue. It is still more unfortunate that we have no evidence to show how much of the revenue demand was realized. One history states that the Mughal occupation of the valley was not successful from a financial point of view, and it is quite possible that the demand of Rs. 12,69,381 was not collected in full. We know that the STATISTICAL. 235 condition of the villagers of K^hmir in the time of Akbar was not Chap. IX, prosperous, whereas Srinagar was in its heyday ^ — m — For purposes of comparison with the revenue statistics of later times we may assume that the revenue demand of the Kashmir valley, excluding the city of Srinagar, was Rs. 12,69,381, and that the total revenue demand was Rs. 14,47,114. It is, therefore, somewhat startling to learn from vernacular histories that the revenue of Kashmir was estimated at sixty lakhs of rupees in the time of the Pathans. We do not know what the value of the rupee was, but I think it may be safely said that not even the Pathans could have squeezed sixty lakhs of imperial rupees from the valley. Probably the word Kashmir included other territory besides the valley, but as the statement that sixty lakhs were collected rests on no trustworthy evidence it is unnecessary to pursue the subject. In the Sikh times it is stated that the revenue demand was twenty-eight lakhs and that Ghulam Muhi-ud-din farmed the revenue for twenty-six lakhs of rupees. But here, again, it is not stated what rupee was' meant. It may be that the rupee used in Kashmir in the time of the Sikhs was the Hari Singh rupee of eight annas. If, therefore, it is correct to surmise that the twenty-six lakhs of rupees offered by Ghulam Muhi-ud-din were Hari Singh rupees^, we arrive at a sum of thirteen lakhs of imperial rupees, or about one-and-a-half lakhs less than the demand in the Mughal limes. It should be added that Ghulam Muhi-ud-din's farm included the district of Muzzafarabad. About 1861 it would appear from Mr. Bowring's Eastern Experiences that the land revenue of Kashmir was not more than ;£'i5o,ooo, while the total revenue was ;£^a5o,ooo. Mr. Bowring calculated the rupee at two shillings, so that if his estimate was correct the land revenue was Rs. 15,00,000. Ten years later an estimate is forthcoming of the receipts for 1871-72, but unfortunately nothing is known as to whether the estimate was ever realized. The person responsible for the budget was of a sanguine dispo- sition, for he estimates the receipts at Rs. 41,79, i53- He was equally sanguine as to economy in expenditure, for his estimate of civil expen- diture amounted to only Rs. 4,50,600. I give the heads of receipts. Most of them refer to the valley alone, but some, such as town duties and ' ' This city has for ages been in a flourishing state, and abounding with workmen of every denomination.' — Ain Akbari. ' Moorcroft wrote in 1823: 'At the time of our visit the sum paid by the farmer was thirty-eight lakhs of Panjab rupees, equal to twenty-nine lakhs of Sicca rupees, or about (C29o,0oo.' Mr. H. H. Wilson adds a note to the effect that in 1835 scarcely any revenue could be raised. In 1836 twenty-three lakhs were demanded, but, according to Baron Hiigel, it was not likely to be raised. In 183^ it was stated that Ranjit Singh reduced the demand to eighteen lakhs, but even this could not be collected. H h a 236 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. customs, opium and mint, obviously include revenue of Jammu territory. — ^ — The details of taxes on shops and artifices, which I also give, are of interest. They have mostly disappeared, like the once considerable income from the monopoly on shawls, but they present some idea of the universality of taxation in Kashmir. The Chilki rtipee equals ten annas. Estimate of Receipts, 1871-72. Chilki Rs. Value of Government's share of rice crop Revenue in cash Receipts from the Shawl De partment . Tribute from petty Chiefs Town duties and customs Timber .... Sheep and goats Opium .... Offerings of pious Hindus Cows and buffaloes Ferries .... Tobacco .... Courts of Justice Churrus (or hemp drugs) Saffron .... Silk Khateenah (circumcision) 29,44,844 14,96,741 6,00,000 37>i63 5,76,000 1,14,210 1,07,311 1,56,000 98,647 18,265 15.599 40,840 18,692 21,000 34,656 50,000 600 Receipts from the Dal lake . Singhara Government ponies hired Zar-i-kazaya (fines on petty quarrels and wedding fees) . Mint Stamps Miscellaneous fines Post Office Sale of wild fruit Sale of Government horses Sale of chenar leaves Fruit of Government gardens Taxes on shops, artificers and others .... Total . or, Imperial Rs. . 20,792 35,615 51,178 17,250 12,600 9,600 17,230 5,312 1,350 67,500 25 3,708 1,13,916 66,86,644 41,79,152 Details of Taxes on Shops, Artificers, and others. Sugar-makers Fruiterers, makers of pickles and sweetmeats . Bakers .... Corn-chandlers . Porters Masons Carpenters . Sellers of betel-nut Butchers Cotton-carders Blacksmiths Goldsmiths . Braziers Dyers .... Sellers of woollen thread Prostitutes . Cloth-merchants . Sellers of glass bangles Menial Muhammadans {halalkhor) 8,110 8,891 8,385 4,800 775 1,500 2,995 365 21,750 380 795 992 150 3,450 2,829 1,900 1,250 575 11,965 Soap-boilers . Polishers of arms Gardeners Fringe- and tape-makers Farmers and saddlers . Cloth-brokers Turners in wood Cloth-dressers Knife-makers Painters Basket-makers Shoe-makers Grave-diggers Boatmen who carry stones Earth-cutters (peat) Wood-cutters Money-changers . Cutters and polishers of precious stones Leather-sellers 1,442 160 3,110 706 1,850 1,430 215 120 85 275 180 550 810 700 40 630 716 192 160 STATISTICAL. 237 Makers of woollen garments . 165 Bow-makers 475 Cowherds 12,670 Weavers 2,160 Friers of grain . . . . m Leech sellers and dealers in medicine .... 913 Comb-makers .... 30 Sellers of firewood . . . 400 Chap. IX. Moongarees (makers of rice — « — bread) 623 Paper-makers .... 775 Miscellaneous .... 366 Total or, Imperial Rs. 1,13.916 71,197 These direct taxes on shops and artificers have disappeared, but Srinagar Taxation of is still liable to a certain amount of indirect taxation in the form of octroi. °""''8*''- The exact revenue realized by the octroi cannot be given, as it is lumped up with the Kashmir import duties. Rice, the staple food of the city- people, was exempted from octroi at the beginning of 1893, by my advice. I am strongly of opinion that direct taxation is advisable in Srinagar. The present system, under which municipal expenditure is met by a con- tribution from general revenues, is destructive of real municipal life and economy. A heavy outlay is now being incurred on the construction of a waterworks for Srinagar and on sanitary improvements. The citizens will pay nothing towards this ; and the general revenues of the country, which should be devoted to communications and irrigation works, are diverted to purely municipal requirements. The estimates of 1871-a suggest that the land revenue amounted to Rs. 37,75,990. In this the revenue of Muzzafarabad district, which is now about Rs. 84,000, was included ; but even after deducting this we obtain a land revenue demand for the valley which, I feel sure, could never have been collected. In 1887 the estimate of land revenue furnished to my pre- decessor amounted to Rs. 16,07,543 ; but, as I have shown elsewhere, this revenue existed only on paper ; and the actual average of collections of land revenue from 1880 up to 1888 was only Rs. 13,68,380. I show below the actual collections of land revenue from 1888 to 1893 of the valley of Kashmir : — Rs. 1888-89 12,31,258 1889-90 12,55,734 1890-91 12,48,374 1891-92 12,49,614 1892-93 14,06,634 1893-94 14,79,839' It is interesting to notice receipts from other heads, such as excise, court fees, courts and gaols. Posts and Telegraphs, and other miscellaneous sources, such as receipts from timber-dep6ts, gardens, Rakhs and farms of chob-i-kot, &c. ; — ' Rs. 80,605 remitted for loss by flood included in this. 238 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. 1888-89 1889-90 1890-91 1891-92 1892-93 1893-94 Rs. 5>53.i24 5,72,440 4,02,859 5,93,441 6,27,119 9,15,265 I am chiefly concerned with the land revenue of the Kashmfr valley, but the income from miscellaneous sources is of importance, and, like the land revenue, is increasing. I have shown in the chapter on the new Settle- ment that the result of my work has been to increase the land revenue by Rs. 1,85,103 per annum; but it should also be remembered that the large amount of waste land granted to applicants for cultivation will further swell the land revenue ; and it may be said that the waste land granted up to the date of this Report, viz. 18,115 acres, will bring in a land revenue of Rs. 51,893 per annum. I look upon the valley of Kashmir as a very valuable and promising estate, if only it is wisely managed, and believe that if the rural population increases steadily it will be possible to enhance the revenue considerably at the end of ten years. So far as the statistics given can be trusted, it would appear that the present land revenue of the valley is rather higher than it was in the time of the Mughals : — Period. Revenue of Kashmir Valley Mughal . . Rs. 12,69,381 Pathan . Unknown. Sikh . 13,00,000 Dogra — 1861 . 15,00,000 1871 estimate . 27,75,990 actual Unknown. 1887 estimate . 16,07,542 actual Unknown. 1888 actual 12,31,258 In attempting any comparison between the present and the past, it should be remembered that a considerable item in the land revenue was alienated when Raja Ram Singh, C.B., and Sir Amar Singh, K.C.S.I., received large tracts of cultivated land in the valley with a supposed land revenue of Rs. 74,607. Further, in the year 1872 fifty-seven villages, with a revenue of Rs. 59,490 per annum, were alienated to Mian Rajputs in the old Tahsils of Deosar and Shupiyon. Again, in 1891, land revenue amounting to Rs. 6,305 was alienated for religious endowments. These deductions, which involve a revenue of Rs. 1,40,40a, should be borne in mind when we compare the land revenue of the valley of Kashmfr as it now is and as it was in 1861. STATISTICAL. 239 The total area of land surveye^by my department amounts to 1,195,555 Chap. ix. acres. Our practice was to survey up to the limit of cultivation. We — " — have included the whole of the valley of Kashmir, saving the areas under lakes and hills — such as the Takht-i-Suliman and the Ahak-Tung— and we have included all cultivated and culturable areas in the side valleys leading from the main valley. Forests and the sides of mountains have been excluded, and the boundaries of villages situated on the slopes of the moun- tains have been determined by the limit of cultivation. Where villages are situated in some distant nook of a mountain, separated from the plain by a long stretch of unculturable mountain land, we have not included in our statement of area these intervening stretches. Thus the Gurais valley is situated at a distance of 40 miles from the valley of Kashmir. The 6,054 acres of cultivated or culturable land contributed by Gurais to the total of 1,195,555 acres represents the area of the Gurais villages, and excludes mountain-sides, forests, and the long and intervening tract which separates Gurais from the Kashmir valley. It is quite possible that as population increases the margin of cultivation will ascend the mountain- sides, and already we have many applications for permission to break land up for cultivation in the forests and on the mountain-slopes, in tracts which lie beyond the limits of the village boundaries. The total area of 1,195,555 acres represents the land occupied by the Kashmiris for agricultural pur- poses. Much of the portion of this area which is returned as not available for cultivation is the swamp land, which will not be rendered available for cultivation until draining operations are undertaken. The villages situated around these swamps obtain excellent grazing from them for their cattle, and one or two dry years bring a large area on the edge of the swamps under cultivation. The swamps also yield a large amount of food to the people who live in their vicinity, and they may be considered as auxiliaries of cultivation. The area surveyed excludes the Jagir villages of Rdja Ram Singh, C.B., and Rija Sir Amar Sing, K.C.S.I., and also a small number of villages held revenue-free by other persons. The area with which I have had to deal is larger by 8,359 acres than the counties of Hereford, Hertford and Huntingdon, and supports a rural population of 646,654 or 267,840 more than the population of the three English counties. The area actually under crops is some 5,000 acres larger than the area of Oxfordshire. The subjoined tables give the more important statistics regarding land in Kashmir. 240 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. Classification of Area. Wazarat Khas. Wazarat Anantnag. Wazarat Kamraj. Total. Area by village papers .... Acres. 398.945 Acres. 408,036 150,028 91.423 14.056 152,529 Acres. 388,674 Acres. 1. 195.565 Not available for cultivation . Cultnrable waste other than fallow Current fallows ... Net area cropped during the year . 134.487 87.729 7.233 169,496 127,554 78,208 12,720 170,092 412,069 257,360 34,009 492.117 Irrigated from : Canals ...... Tanks ... . . Other sources .... 93.461 2,306 93,757 ^84 57.235 170 1.531 244,453 170 4,121 Total area irrigated 95.767 94.041 58,936 248,744 Crops irrigated : Wheat Other cereals and pulses Miscellaneous food crops Miscellaneous non-food crops . 803 1.971 88,894 6,951 176 1,415 89,463 4,780 206 815 56,846 1,450 1,185 4,201 235.203 13,181 Acreage under Crops. Wazarat Khis. Wazarat Anantnag. Wazarat Kamraj. Total. Cereals and pulses : Rice Wheat ... . . Barley ... . . Maize Other food grains including pulses Oil seeds : Linseed Til or gingelly .... Others Condiments and spices . Fibres : Cotton Drugs and narcotics : Opium ...... Tobacco ..... Others [ Orchard and garden produce . 69,708 13,421 8,699 35,524 10,111 12,653 725 1,939 27 7,584 346 78 11,722 75,260 7,324 6,258 27,088 14.130 6,560 1,250 1,415 3 7.275 40 132 7.801 44,384 9,095 15,146 68,033 19,629 2,272 1,752 3.033 9 1,630 6.956 189,352 29,840 30,103 130,644 43,870 21,485 3.727 6,387 39 16,489 51 386 295 .25.479 Total . .... Area cropped more than once . 172,588 3,092 154,536 2,007 171,023 931 498,147 6,030 Net area cropped during the year 169,496 152.529 170,092 492,117 STATISTICAL. St#ck, etc. 241 Bulls and bullocks Cows . Male bviffaloes Cow buffaloes Young stock (calves and Sheep . Goats . Horses and ponies Mules and donkeys Ploughs Wazarat Khas. 28.549 44,121 98 2,891 14,270 139,040 4.364 6,576 457 13.948 Wazarat Anantnag. 28,693 33,77° 318 3.437 19.365 146,186 4,865 4,480 294 13.301 Wazarat Kamraj. 20,141 27,611 121 6,174 15,685 109,228 8,387 5.161 149 9,990 Total. 77,383 105,502 537 11,502 49,320 394,454 17,617 16,217 900 37,239 Chap. IX. Srinagar stands twenty-second in the order of magnitude among the towns of India. It is a struggHng city, occupying an area of 3,795 acres. Of this area some portions are densely populated, others are sparsely inhabited or totally uninhabited. Including the suburbs lying between the slopes of the Takht-i-Suliman and the river Jhelum, and taking the village of Sonawar as forming a part of Srinagar, we find that the area of 3,795 acres contains a population of 139,410 persons, of whom 96,06 a live on the right bank and 43,348 on the left bank of the river Jhelum. The most densely crowded parts of the city are close to the river banks. On the right bank, between the river and the Nalla-Mar, we find a population of 160 per acre. On the left bank, between the Kut-kul and the river, there is a population of 100 per acre. The length of the river, from Sonawar to the last bridge (Safr Kadal), where the city population ends, is 6-66 miles ; as the crow flies it is just under 3 miles. The distance from the first bridge (Amiran Kadal) to the last bridge, measured along the river, is 2'7i miles. The greatest width of the city, measured as the crow flies from the Dud-Ganga river to the edge of the Dal lake, is just over 2 miles. The real city population, as distinguished from the city and suburban population, is 118,960. These 1 1 8,960 persons are engaged in the following occupations : — No. Occupation. No. of workers, with their dependants. 1. Administration and defence 10,482 2. Employed in connexion with live stock and agriculture . 3,246 3. Personal and household service 11,660 4. Provision-sellers, artificers, &c 65,395 5. Commerce and transport 8,309 6. Learned and artistic professions 8,371 7. Indefinite occupations and persons independent of work . ii,497 I i 242 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. Weights and measures. The most interesting of these divisions is No. 4, which includes most of the real workers of Srinagar. Among the callings which make up the total of 65,395 the wool industry alone accounts for 22,502 persons. Tailors and darners account for 13^117 persons, while the others follow crafts of that curiously minute and subdivided kind which are created by the requirements of a large oriental city. Among the most important of these may be mentioned dairymen (2,601), butchers (1,432), grain-dealers (3,437), vegetable-sellers (2,059), fruit-sellers (1,348), tobacconists (945), sellers of fuel and grass (1,077), gold and silver workers (1,827), embroiderers (1,027), copper-workers (606), carpenters (1,316), chemists and druggists (557), boot and shoe makers (1,606). Division 5 is necessarily small, for, as explained elsewhere, the trade of the country has hitherto been in the hands of the State, and it is to be hoped that many of the persons included in division i will disappear from administration, and will find their proper sphere in commerce. Of the total, 8,309, 3,582 persons are engaged in boat traffic, so that the commercial business of Srinagar, practically of Kashmir, is transacted by a population of 4,727 persons. Division 6 shows that out of a total of 8,371, 6,519 persons depend on religion for their livelihood. Literature accounts for 206, law feeds 48 persons, while medicine and midwifery give occupation to 738 workers and dependants. Division 7 shows that there are 1,254 mendicants. These persons must be lost to all sense of shame to be beggars, and to return themselves as beggars, in a city where food is so cheap, and wages so high and so easy to obtain, as in Srinagar. There are three different rupees in currency in Kashmir besides the British rupee. They are the — Khdm Rupee, value 8 British Annas, bearing the letters I.H.S. Chilki Rupee, value 10 British Annas. Ndnak Shahi Rupee, value from 12 to 16 British Annas. Weights. The Nanak Shahi rupee is passing out of circulation, and the British, or double rupee as it is called, is becoming more and more the coin of the country. The villagers, however, still make their calculations in Khdm or Chilki rupees, and great confusion is caused, unless one carefully prefaces an inquiry into prices by a distinct understanding as to the value of the rupee. I have always found the Chilki rupee of 10 annas the best and easiest basis of calculation. The kharwar, or ass's load, has been from centuries past the standard of weight in Kashmir. The word is usually abbreviated to khar. STATISTICAL. 243 4 Kham Rupees = 3f tolas = 1 Pal. Chap. IX. 30 Pals = 108 tolas = I Manwata = 2J;ff lbs. — m — 4 Manwatas = i Trak = ix^ lbs. 16 Traks = i Kharwar ' = i77^ff lbs. Land measures are calculated not by length and breadth, but by the amount of seed required by certain areas of rice-cultivation. It has been found by our measurements that the kharwar of land — that is the rice area which is supposed to require a kharwar's weight of rice-seed — exactly corresponds to 4 British acres. 20 Pals = I Seer. 30 Pals = I Manwata = 10 Marias. 4 Manwatas = i Trak = 2 Kanals = i Rood. 16 Traks = i Kharwar = 32 Kanals = 4 Acres. There are other local measures of land. The only one of these which need be noticed is — 25 Kurus = I Trak. 16 Traks = i Kharwar. For rice-straw, the following measure is used — 6 Phulas = I Gaddi. 2 Gaddis = 1 Kuru. For lengthj the following measure is used — I Gira = 2J inches. 16 Giras = i Gaz. 20 Giras = i Gaz, in measuring Pashmina cloth. There is no sealed yard measure in Srinagar, but from frequent ex- periment I have found that the gaz of 16 giras is about i in. longer than the British yard. In his preliminary report, Mr. Wingate observed that in Kashmir prices Prices, were non-existent ; and in 1889, when I commenced work, it might be said that money prices did not exist. Salaries were paid in grain, and I remember that in 1889 I was requested to take oil-seeds, in lieu of cash, in payment of the salary of myself and my department. Oil-seeds were looked upon as an appreciated currency, while maize and singhara nuts, with which many persons were paid, were regarded as a depreciated medium. Not only did the State pay its officials in grain, but private persons paid their servants in the same fashion, and 16 to 30 kharwars of shall was the ordinary wage of a domestic servant. The currency was to a great extent shali, ' By local custom a kharwar of shali, maize, and barley consists of only 15 traks, or i66|f lbs. I i 3 244 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. and silver played a subsidiary part in the business of the country. It is ~~" unfortunate, for the purpose of statistics, that the exact amount of coin minted by the State for use in Kashmir, as distinct from Jammu and other parts of H. H. the Maharaja's territories, cannot be shown, but the following figures give the value, in British rupees, of the Chilki rupees coined since 1888 for the currency in Jammu and Kashmir. In the mint at Jammu, silver bullion is used as well as old uncurrent coin, and it may be taken that bullion forms one-third of the material used. Value in British Rupees of Chilki Rupees coined. 1888 2,88,521 1889 288,240 1890 i,50i442 1891 3,09,471 1892 3,81,171 1893 4,54,423 Beside the Chilki rupee, value 10 annas, a considerable number of British rupees are in circulation. These British rupees are brought into Kashmir by European visitors, and an examination of the currency in which the land revenue is paid shows that of late years a respectable part of payments made by the villagers has been in British coin. The number of European visitors is steadily increasing ; and the number of permanent European residents, which in 1888 was practically represented by the Missionaries, is now considerable. Payments made by Europeans are necessarily made in cash, and though the amounts spent by them sink into insignificance when compared with the amount spent on public works, they are of importance, and have formed one among other causes leading to the substitution of a silver for a grain currency. In 1889 the road from Kohala to Baramula was opened. Apart from the easier access given by this road to visitors and to trade, its con- struction has brought out Rs. 31,78,870 from the State hoards and has thrown this large amount of coin into circulation. Next, the road from Srinagar to Gilgit has similarly withdrawn from the State treasury a sum of Rs. 15,18,060, while Rs. 6,50,000 are annually spent on the purchase of grain, hire of carriage, and wages of labour in the valley of Kashmir for the supply of the Gilgit garrison. The amount which will be spent on the Srinagar waterworks for wages will be about Rs. 3,05,000. When it is remembered that all this coin has been suddenly thrown into circulation within the brief period of about five years, and when it is considered that the old system of paying the army and officials in grain has given place to regular cash payments, and that, in addition STATISTICAL. 245 to the public works I have noticed, a large amount of money is being Chap. IX. steadily expended on other works, it will be understood that the — ** — currency of Kashmfr has been inflated. As a natural consequence money prices of commodities and labour have risen, but I am not sure that the rise in prices will be permanent. The great staple of Kashmfr, shall, has, partly by artificial means, partly by an extension of and improvement in cultivation, been kept down to its old price, and this year and last year (1893 and 1894) rice has been cheaper than it has been for some years. But other commodities over which the State has exercised no artificial checks, have shown a decided tendency to rise in price, and though the price of shdli might fairly be applied as a basis for wages it is obvious that it has ceased to be what it once was, the currency of the country, and the standard by which all commodities were valued. I have often been bitterly attacked by the Pandits of the city, and accused of raising the prices of agricultural produce. It is always hard for men on fixed incomes to find prices rising, but many of the most vehement opponents of the settlement in the city were themselves landowners, and they forgot the fact that, though they lost in wages of servants, they won in the higher prices that they obtained for their farm produce. It was no use my attempting to explain that the settlement had nothing to do with the rise in prices, or to quote Mill and Ricardo on the relation of prices to the currency. The rise in prices was contemporaneous with the operations of the Settlement, and that was sufficient argument for the Pandits of Srinagar. The amount of silver now in Srinagar is said, by competent observers, to be greater at the present time than it has ever been since the time of the Pathans. Briefly, the accumulated hoards of the State treasuries have passed into the circulation of Kashmfr. The following rise in prices of village commodities has practically taken place since 1887: — Woollen Blankets have risen from Rs. 3 to 4. Bullocks, prices have risen by Rs. i per annum since 1887. Ghi used to sell at 4 seers per Rupee. Now sells at 3 or 2J seers. Ponies used to sell at Rs. 15 to 20 Now, owing to the great demand for ponies on the Gilgit road, the price ranges from Rs. 25 to 35. Walnuts used to sell at Rs. 3 per kharwar. They now fetch Rs. 8 per kharwar. Wool used to sell at 2 seers the Rupee. Now sells at ij seers. There are numerous passes leading from the valley. Abul Fazl Communica- mentions twenty-six, but the following table shows the passes chiefly *'°°^" used by travellers and traders : — 246 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. IX. Situation. Name. Elevation (feet). Destination. Distance from Sriaagar in miles. Nortli Razdiangan 11,800 Gurais 73 Burzil 13,600 Gilgit 230 South Marbal . 11,67° Kishtwar J09 Banihal . 9,200 Jammu Sialkot 147 174 Pir Panjal 11,400 Bhimber Gujrat 1 48 176 East. Margan . 11,600 Ward wan Zogi La . 11,300 Ladikh (Leh) . 253 Kara Koran Sugit Dawan . 18.317 18,137 Yarkand . 777 West Tosh Maidan . 10,500 Poonch . Jhelum . 69 173 North-west Nattishannar . 10,200 Kamao (Titwal) Muzzafarabad . Abbottabad . 88 163 I attach charts showing sections of the most interesting passes. Chart 1 shows the direct route to the Panjab via the Banihal pass. On arrival at Kanabal (Islamabad) trade usually leaves the road and is carried in boats on the Jhelum river. Chart 3 shows a short length of the well-known Pir Panj'al route. Chart 3 gives an excellent idea of the route to Gilgit, and is charac- teristic of the country. It shows how to the north of the valley trade must toil up mountain after mountain. It will explain better than words why, in this respect, such stress is laid on the importance of the new Gilgit road to the people of Kashmir. Before the present excellent road was made the difficulties of the journey to Gilgit were enormous, and men who had to carry loads to the distant garrison suffered heavily. PlATl- VI :3i^^^|g To far( pOii, i-^e] A \-|K\V OF niK /OC.ILA. TIIK TASS LFADIXC, FROM KASHMIR I X lO LITTLE TIBET r suspension bridge. bungalow Chauliee. m Block house. ■ TOP BURZIL. '"NewBungaloW), Sardar HothI B/ocA house. lOO- .Hanttbaf Jhelum R. Vernag. BannihalPas. Taltia. ^ CD "0 .Chenab R. Bridge. ^ W Datoti. i/unchon RoutB. Q. o o 3 T3 C CHAPTER X. SOCIAL LIFE. 'Hills, vales, woods, netted in a silver mist, Farms, granges, doubled up among the hills. And cattle grazing in the watered vales, And cottage chimneys smoking from the woods. And cottage gardens smelling everywhere Confused with smell of orchards.' Aurora Leigh. Chap. X. THE Kashmiri village is beautiful in spite of itself. Shaded by the — " — unrivalled plane-tree, by walnut, apple, and apricot, watered by a clear e VI age. sparkling stream, the grass banks of which are streaked with the coral red of the willow rootlets, surrounded by the tender green of the young rice plant, or the dark, handsome fields of the hnbrzal and other rices of the black leaf, the Kashmiri village is rich in natural beauties. Later on the patches of rice-blooms look like a tesselated pavement, with colours running from red and russet green to copper. The rice-blooms are very varied, passing from deep bronze through olive, dark, and light green to pink and Indian red, all glowing like burnished metal under strong sunlight. Out through the luxuriant foliage peeps the cultivator's cottage, with its tumble-down, thatched gable roof. Each cottage has a garden plot well stocked with vegetables. Close to the cottage is the wooden granary, an erection like a huge sentry-box, in which the grain is stored, and from which it is taken out by a hole at the bottom. In the courtyard by the cottage the women are busy pounding the rice or maize, and the cotton-spinning wheel is for the time laid aside. Dogs are sleeping and httle children rolling in the sun, while their elder brothers, also children, are away looking after the milch cows and cattle. On the stream is a quaint-looking bathing-house, where the villager leisurely performs his ablutions, and below the bathing-house the ducks are greedily eating. One of the prettiest objects in the village is the graveyard, shaded by the Celtis Ausiralis and bright with iris, purple, white {guli sosan) and SOCIAL LIFE. 249 yellow {zambak), which the pe^le plant over their departed relatives. The Chap. x. village enjoys ample room. There is no crowding of houses, and each — ^ — man's cottage stands within its ring fence of earth, stones or wattling. The earth walls around the garden plots are built in a very simple and ingenious manner. The earth is thrown into a mould formed by wooden planks, and on the top of the earthern slabs thorns are laid, over which more earth is placed. The thorn covering protects the walls against the rain, and the structure will last for some years. This kind of wall is known as Dos. The houses are made of unburnt bricks set in wooden frames, and of Houses, timber of cedar, pine and fir, the roofs being pointed to throw off snow. In the loft formed by the roof wood and grass are stored, and the ends are left open to allow these to be thrown out when fire occurs. The thatch is usually of straw. Rice straw is considered to be the best material, but in the vicinity of the lakes reeds are used. Near the forests the roofs are made of wooden shingles, and the houses are real log huts, the walls being formed of whole logs laid one upon another, like the cottages of the Russian peasantry. Further away from the forests the walls are of axe-cut planks fitted into grooved beams. Outside the first floor of the house is a balcony approached by a ladder, where the Kashmfri delights to sit in the summer weather. Later the balcony and the loft are festooned with ropes of dry turnips, apples, maize-cobs for seed, vegetable marrows and chilies, for winter use. Sometimes in the, villages one finds the roofs of the larger houses and of the shrines (zidrats) made of birch bark with a layer of earth above it. This forms an excellent roof, and in the spring the housetops are covered with iris, purple, white, and yellow, with the red Turk's head and the Crown Imperial lilies. In the city nearly all the houses of well-to-do people are roofed with the birch bark and earth, so that looking down on Srinagar from the Hari-Parbat hill one sees miles of verdant roofing. In some of the larger and better houses there are pretty windows of lattice- work, open in the summer and closed by paper in the winter. As spring approaches the paper is torn down and the windows look ragged and untidy. On the ground floor the sheep and cattle are penned, and sometimes the sheep are crowded into a wooden locker known as the dangij, where the children sit in the winter and where the guest is made to sleep, for it is the warmest place in the house. One might imagine that the Kashmiri houses were neither comfortable nor healthy, but as a matter of fact they are warm enough. In the summer weather the houses are airy, and as winter comes on the chinks are stopped: by thatch and grass and the dwelling is kept at a! hot-house heat by the warm breath of the cattle and sheep, which comes, up through openings from the ground floor to the first floor where the family lives. Some houses have fireplaces, but as a rule the villagers depend for warmth in K k 250 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Kangars, Clothes, Chap. X. winter on their sheep. For lighting purposes they use oil, and in the higher villages torches made of pine wood are employed. The useful kangar, which forms so important a part of the Kashmiri's life, must not be left unnoticed. There is a proverb ' What Laili was on Majnun's bosom so is the kangar to a Kashmiri.' The kangar is a small earthenware bowl of a quaint shape, held in a frame of wicker-work. In the winter, and even in the summer when rains chill the air, hot embers are put into the kangar and it is slipped under the voluminous gown which all Kashmiris wear. Small children use the kangar day and night, and few of the people have escaped without burn-marks caused by carelessness at night. It is said that the kangar is often a cause of cancer. Sometimes the frequent fires which occur in the villages and in the city have been traced to the kangar. The kangar has been stated to have been introduced from Italy, but as there is mention of it in the Raja Tarangini it seems probable that it is indigenous. Much as the people owe to it they are wont to blame the kangar as the cause of their want of courage, and the ' goat heart ' of the Kashmiri is always connected with its use. Among its other properties the kangar is said to aid digestion. A famous native physician was struck with the enormous meals of cold rice and singhdra nut consumed by the Kashmiris, but when he saw the kangar he understood that the Kash- miris possessed a remedy against the evils caused by gorging. Among the most prized of the Chhrar Sharif^ fairings is the pretty painted kangar. The best fuel for the kangar is ' hakl the small drift-wood which is collected at the mouth of the hill rivers by nets. Cowdung, and other dung mixed with dried chenar leaves, is also commonly used as fuel for the kangar: Some patriots go so far as to assert that the introduction of the kangar, and its necessary auxiliary the gown, was an act of statecraft on the part of the emperor Akbar, who wished to tame the brave Kashmiri of the period. But others say that the great king Zain-ul-abadin, in his effort to reduce the proud spirit of the Hindus, insisted on the use of the kangar, the gown, and bdsi roti (food cooked some hours before it is eaten). The furniture of a Kashmiri house may be described briefly. There is none. In the villages and city alike the people sleep on mats and straw, bedsteads being unknown. A cotton-spinning wheel, a wooden pestle and mortar for husking rice, a few earthen vessels for cooking, and earthen jars for storing grain, complete the interior of a Kashmiri house. The useful kilta is found in all. This is a large creel, which the Kashmiri straps on his back, and in which heavy loads are carried. The kilta is usually made of the withies of willow, Cotoneaster or Parrotia. The clothes of the villagers are simple and extremely mean in ' Chhrar Sharif is the place which holds the shrine of Kashmir's greatest saint, Nur Din. For illustration of a kangar, see p. 3 [3. Furniture. SOCIAL LIFE. 251 appearance, and there is veryiiittle difference between the garb of a man chap. X. and a woman, as they both wear the effeminate gown. Heavy and full ^^"^ it buttons at the neck and falls to the feet. Weight is given to the bottom of the gown by a deep hem, and sometimes this is artificially weighted, in order to exclude the air and to keep in the heat of the kangar when a man sits down on the ground. Underneath the gown the man wears drawers. In the winter these garments are made of wool, in the summer of cotton, either manufactured at home or imported from the Panjab. The ordinary headdress of the Kashmiri cultivator when he is at work is a cotton skullcap, but on State occasions he dons a white pagri. The fashionable Kashmiri likes to wear his pagri rather on the back of his head, and displays a large amount of forehead. The sleeves of the gown of the Musalman cultivators are wide and loose, and it is a sign of respectability to wear the cuffs turned back. Leather shoes are worn by the well-to-do and by most people on holidays, but the ordinary covering of the foot in Kashmir is the leather or straw sandal, known as tsapli and pulahru, and the wooden patten for wet weather. Every Kashmiri can make his own pulahru from a wisp of rice straw. In the villages there is a strange absence of colour in the dress of the people, and the only thing which breaks the dull monotony of the dirty grey is the coloured skullcap of the children. The total absence of colour in the dress of the villagers is, from a picturesque point of view, much to be regretted. It is a relief to visit Jammu territory and to see again the bright oriental colours of the Rajput dress. The Kashmiris are by no means enamoured of their present fashion in dress, and have often told me that if an order is given they will adopt the Kishtwar fashion. But I am afraid that so long as the kangar is used so long will the effeminate gown remain in fashion. Out of the material of one gown a native of India could make two good coats. The Panditanis, however, wear dresses of dark maroon, known as krimsi (our cramasie), and blue, and fasten a girdle of white cloth around their waists. Their headdress is a kind of veil, which falls over the back of the head, and they and all Kashmiri women wear their hair in a peculiar arrangement of many plaits, in which black wool or silk is interwoven. Up to marriage these plaits are separate, but after marriage they are gathered together and fastened with a heavy tassel. Only the women of the wealthy veil themselves from the public gaze. The Kashmiris assert that their national dress is to be found in Kishtwar, and that it resembles the dress of a Kashmiri when he goes on a journey. The gown is then tucked up and bound around the waist by a cloth belt or tucked inside the drawers, and the drawers turn into manly knickerbockers, with leggings, which are simple and effective. Bandages of woollen cloth, the well-known puttie K k « 252 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. CHAP. X. of the Indian army, are wound around the calf of the leg and are said to — " — give great support on long journeys. There is great art in binding the bandage and the Kashmiri knows the art. The Kashmfri villager spends little on show. His clothes are spun, woven, and made at home, and a reason often given for the absence of smartness is that any outward show was at once interpreted by the officials to mean hidden wealth, and domiciliary visits ensued. If the character of a people is reflected in its clothes, then the Kashmiris are mean and effeminate. There are certain Distinctions in peculiarities in dress which distinguish the Pandit from the Musalman. ffindus and The Pandit wears the tuck of his white turban on the right, the Musalman Musalmans. on the left ^. The Pandit fastens his gown on the left, the Musalman on the right. The Pandit has long, narrow sleeves, the Musalman short, full sleeves. It seems that the Musalmans were enjoined to distinguish themselves from the Hindus, for I find that Musalmans will invariably mount their ponies from the off side while the Pandits mount from the near side. And while the Pandit begins his ablutions from the left leg, the Musalman invariably begins from the right leg. Other distinguishing peculiarities may be mentioned. The Pandits wear tight drawers, head- dresses of narrow white cloth, of twenty yards in length, and a smooth skullcap. They also retain a small lock of hair on their head, which is carefully guarded from the barber. Further, the Pandit uses his long narrow sleeve as a kind of glove, and though he may have put on his shoes with this glove he does not hesitate to eat food with the same sleeve. Musalmans on the contrary wear loose drawers, pagris of broad white cloth, never more than ten yards in length, skullcaps with raised patterns ; they shave their heads entirely, and they would regard food touched by the sleeve as impure. There are many differences between the Musalmani and Panditani style of dress, and there are wide differences in their character. The Panditani wears a girdle, but no drawers. She has a white headdress, and has no embroidery except on her sleeves and around the collar. She never wears leather shoes but sticks to the old- fashioned grass sandal. She is more devoted to her husband than to her children, and will never mention her husband's name. The Musalmani wears no girdle, but if she be of good position she will never stir out of the house without drawers. She wears a red headdress and has her tunic richly embroidered. She uses leather shoes. She is more devoted to her children than to her husband, and thinks it no shame to mention her husband's name. Finally, it is commonly said that the Pandit housewife is a far better and more economical manager than the Musalmdni. Both Hindu women and Musalmauis ride on ponies when occasion arises, man-fashion. ^°™atb^ The Kashmiri divides the day into thirty parts, and the night too has ' In India this is exactly reversed. SOCIAL LIFE. 253 its thirty divisions. He is iibt an early riser, and does not begin any Chap. X. real work before 7 A.M., though he boasts that he rises at cockcrow when —^ — the weeding of the rice-fields commences. Still, when once he has com- menced work, the Kashmiri cultivator will, when working for his own gain, exert himself, and duriiig the season of rice-cultivation he thoroughly earns his night's rest when evening falls. When winter comes on many of the able-bodied men carry down apples and other loads to the Panjab, and work as porters in Lahore and elsewhere, returning to Kashmir in the spring. Those who stay in Kashmir are busy looking after their sheep and cattle, and pass the short days and the long winter nights in weaving woollen cloth and making baskets. Often the family works up to midnight, by the poor light of the pine torch or the oil dip, and it is no exaggeration to say that the villagers rarely sleep more than four to five hours in the winter months. As will be shown in the description of agriculture the Kashmiri cultivator has not much spare time. The land holdings are large, and up to quite recent times the cultivator spent a considerable part of his days on forced labour. Things have changed,' but for some years to come the ordinary Kashmiri will have his days fully occupied. The safed posh class of villagers, that is the more affluent men, who wear white clothes, do not work, but look on while others toil. They have a better kind of house and often have excellent gardens and good orchards. They sometimes indulge in the luxury of a private cemetery. They ride the small ponies of the country and travel great distances, carrying their bedding with them. They pay frequent visits to the city, and are usually connected in marriage with Srinagar families. Their lives are fairly easy, and they have considerable influence in the villages. They have not much sympathy for the ordinary culti- vators, and they are always spoken of in the country side as Darbdri men, who side with the native officials. The Kashmiri cultivator is fond of eating, in fact is often a very gross Food, feeder. When at work in the rice-fields a cultivator requires plenty of sustenance, the chief staples of food being rice and other grains cooked as porridge, or ground into flour and made into bread, vegetables, oil, salt and pepper, and unlimited milk. The ordinary meal of the Kashmiri indicates little of taste or culture. The boiled rice is made into balls and bolted ; the sight of a villager at his food is not pleasant. But when the professional cook is called in some taste is displayed in the preparation and arrangement of viands, and the earthenware platters filled with brightly-coloured foods make a pretty show. The red rice in itself is bright to see. Clarified butter {ghi) is not much eaten, as the Kashmiri finds that it irritates his throat. Poultry (fowls, ducks and geese) is abundant, and the ordinary cultivator will eat fowls perhaps six times 254 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. X. a month, and mutton perhaps five times in the month. Whenever fish — ^ — can be caught it is eaten. Hindus will not touch poultry or eggs, but they will eat wild fowl ^ and the eggs of the lake birds. Not long ago the villagers rarely obtained rice for their food, as it was always taken to the city, and maize, barley, millets, and buckwheat formed their diet. The more affluent villagers are very fond of tea ^ and sugar, and tea and snuff are both considered good for the cough which is very prevalent. The tea comes from three sources : Bombay tea from China, hill tea from Kangra in the Panjab, and green tea from China, via Lhassa and Ladakh. The Kashmiris like their tea very sweet or very salt : the former is known as kahwa and the latter as shiri, and is always mixed with milk. Both are made in the Russian samovar, which is a popular institution in Kashmir. It is the custom always to eat wheaten bread or biscuits with tea. Often spices, more especially cinnamon, are mixed with the tea. The sugar comes from the Panjab, and is either a cheap brown sugar known as batds or white loaf sugar known as nabdt. Salt is an important article of diet both for men and for cattle and sheep. The Kashmfris like their food very salty. There are two kinds. The better comes from the Panjab, but salt of an inferior quality is brought from Ladakh. If rice is to be obtained a Kashmiri will not look at any other food, and the dish dearest to the people of the valley is rice coloured with turmeric. It must be confessed that the Kashm/ri Musalman is extravagant and greedy. He bolts his food, and sometimes eats more than is good for him. It is a curious fact that very few Pandits died in the great famine of 1877-79, whereas the mortality among the Musalmans was enormous. Apart from the fact that the Pandits had great authority in the country and were better off than the Musalmans, there is the further fact that the Pandits are the more dainty feeders, and that their religion accustoms them to abstinence from food, and thus perhaps they were better able to endure hunger. In the summer the abundant fruits of Kashmfr sustain a large population, and there is a wealth of vegetable food. First come the mulberries, which feed not only the people but sheep, ponies, and even dogs ; then the apricot and later apples and pears. So eager are the people to get fruit that most of the apples are eaten unripe. Later still come the walnuts, but walnuts are not esteemed as a food. Cucumbers, melons, and vegetable marrows supply abundant, if not wholesome, meals to the people when the cottage granaries begin to run low, and in the winter dried vegetables and dried fruits form an important article of diet. The Kashmiris consider that all kinds of grain are either hot or* ^ A curious fact has been brought to my notice, viz. that Hindus in Kashmir insist on having any birds they eat made Haldl in Musalman fashion. ^ Tea is said to have been introduced by Mirza Haidar from Yarkand. .'■ SOCIAL LIFE. 255 cold, and are somewhat parficular as to the way in which the various Chap. X. grains, vegetables and fruits should be mixed. Thus the dried apple, ~~** which is cold, is always boiled and eaten with the flour of the Amaranth, which is regarded as an extremely hot grain. This wealth of fruit and vegetables and the abundance of milk must be taken into consideration when an opinion is formed as to the condition of the rural classes. There is, however, no accumulation of wealth, and a failure of the autumn crop would at once be followed by considerable distress. If one looks to the purely material condition of the villagers I should say that the Kashmfri peasant is in every respect better off than his fellows in India. He has ample food, sufficient clothing, a comfortable house, and abundance of fuel, and he obtains these without much effort. There is general comfort but no luxury, and the process of distribution of wealth, by which a country is divided into the very poor and the very rich, has not yet commenced in Kashmfr. There are professional beggars who are very well off, but there are no indigent poor. When the day's work is done the Kashmiri seeks his home and Pastimes, after his food retires to rest. There is no place of meeting where the sociable pipe is passed around, and the use of the pipe seems to have passed out of fashion in the great famine of 1879. Now people have taken to snuff, which is brought over from Peshawar. There is no society in the villages, and the only gatherings are at weddings or at the fairs at the shrines of the saints. The women do not gather at the well, but there is gossip at the water-mill, from which the maize and wheat-flour is brought back in skins. There are no games for the young or old, and in the villages there is no leisure for games. Life is terribly earnest, and the child who can walk can work. Before the time of Maharaja Gulab Singh the different wards of Srinagar city used to turn out with slings and stones, and played a very earnest and serious game. But Gulab Singh did not approve of this fighting spirit, and put a stop to the mimic warfare. Tipcat, which is common all over India, is played in Srinagar, and the loser has to give the winner a ride on his back. Hop-scotch is also a common game, and one of the seven compartments is known as ' hell.' Little girls have their rag dolls, and carry them in toy palankins, playing at marriage. And now cricket has found its way to Srinagar, and will spread. At fairs are seen aged men of religion jumping about with single-sticks 1, but the country- people never step into the ring ; and although Kashmir was celebrated for its wrestlers I have never seen a wrestling-match. The men are splendid walkers and their physique is frequently admirable and athletic. I have tried to get up mountain races, but the people have no game ' The Kashmir Silihs excel in single-stick. 256 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. X. instincts in them, and only cared about the money prizes. The Kashmfri — *^ — may be said to have no idea of amusements, and probably he regards a seat in a balcony or a boat as the most perfect form of amusement. He is never so happy as when, at rest under the shade of a chenar tree, he issues orders to others who are working in the sun, and cries ' Shah Bash.' Perhaps, however, a love of game and of sport is latent in the Kashmiri, for many of the professional shikdris are good, keen sportsmen, and in saying that the Kashmiris have no game instincts, the boatmen, who will paddle till they drop rather than be beaten by a rival crew, should be omitted. It is probably due to the Kashmfri's inaptitude for active amusement that the strolling players, the Band or Bhaggat, have such a hold on the people. These players, who are well known in India, are enthusiastically received, and their wit and power of mimicry entitle them to a warm reception. I have seen the best companies in Kashmfr, though perhaps the best ^the Bhaggats of Syebug — died off in the famine of 1877, and men now sigh : ' Alas ! poor Yorick,' and speak of their excellent acting. The Bhaggats portray village life in a most vivid manner. Their dresses and make-up are excellent, and they represent most faithfully the internal working of a village community. It is said that Mahdraja Gulab Singh acquired a very intimate knowledge of village administration from the Bhaggats' performances, and I have picked up some hints from them as to the methods of the patwari, the village accountant. The plot is very much the same. The Raja rides by, burning to redress injustice, and his Waz{r seizes on the patwari and the lambardar and calls for the village accounts. The unfortunate villager who has brought his grievance to the Raja's notice is at first very loud and noisy in his complaints, but as he sees the Wazi'r and the patwari laying their heads together he becomes silent and sits as one fascinated. The denouement is that the Wazir finds that the patwari is innocent, and the complainant receives a severe flogging. Other scenes of village life are depicted, and one of the most favourite representations with the country-people is the sowing, plucking and spinning of cotton. I shall have some more to say about these interesting Bhaggats later on. They relieve the sadness of village life in Kashmir. The Shairs must be distinguished from the Bhaggats for they never act. They are either minstrels who sing to the accompaniment of a guitar, or the village poets, who suddenly spring up in the midst of business and recite in a loud shrill tone the praises of the most influential person present. I knew many of these poets, and have spent many hours listening patiently to rhymes which seemed to have no end, and which jumbled up in a very curious manner oriental tropes with the most commonpkce and technical terms of survey and revenue SOCIAL LIFE. 257 work. It is good to give these poets a few rupees, for they are often Chap. X. miserably poor. Many whom I have met are unfortunately not quite " sane, and one, a Musalman, who had formerly been a tutor to a high official, was hopelessly given to drinking, and justified his propensity by quotations from the Persian Poets. He reviled me in the strongest language when I declined to give him whiskey, and said that the ' iron age ' of the Hindus had indeed arrived, and left my camp in tears. In the city there is at any rate a crowd, and there is the sacred river with its floating life. The day can be passed somehow. The citizen can saunter down to the river £^/iais and bathe, he can do a little shopping or listen to the song-birds and the minstrels, or he can work his way up to the Amiran Kadal, the first bridge, and find out the latest rumour which has been concocted by the professionals who live by fabricating news. If he lives on the river or the Snake canal he can enjoy life from his latticed window. 'Ah, such a life, such a life as one leads at the window there. Bang-whang-whang goes the drum, tootle-ie-tootle the fife, Oh, a day in the city square, there is no such pleasure in life.' He can also lounge down to the palace and see what is going on. All are admitted, and all can have a public audience of His Highness the Maharaja. Elsewhere I shall speak of the advantages of residing in Srinagar, but apart from the material advantages of getting food without exertion there is the further advantage of excitement and stir. The Kashmiris, like the Athenians of old, are greedy for news, and every day some new rumour is started for their edification. There are no representative institutions in Kashmir, but though the Kashmiri has no vote he can always afifix his name to a monster petition got up by some official who is seeking office. A clever man of the city will affix several names to the petition, for the art of forging signatures is studied in Srinagar. One well-known professor would in his zeal stand in cold water in order to give a shaky turn to his handwriting. The customs and ceremonies connected with birth, marriage and Customs of death in Kashmir are of some interest, and as they have not been ^ death!'^^^ described before it may be of use to enumerate them at some length. It must be explained that the customs vary according to the position and wealth of families, and that there is some difference between the observances of the city people and the villagers. But the chief incidents in birth, marriage and death are the same, and in the following description I have endeavoured to ascertain and describe the practices of the average Hindu and the average Musalman. And inasmuch as the Musalman villager and the Kashmiri Pandit are the most important and numerous L 1 258 THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. X. classes in the valley, I have set forth their customs and ceremonies and —*• — have not attempted to give the special observances of the Hanji, Watal, and other tribes. Though these tribes have their special customs, the main ideas and ceremonies are practically the same as those which are found among the villagers. If a comparison be made between the customs of the Hindus and the Musalmans, it will be seen that there are many points of resemblance, and the curious prominence of the walnut and salt, and the use of the mendhi dye, will be noticed. Besides the mehnzrdt, or use of the mendhi dye, in both religions there is the laganchir or fixing of the marriage day; phirsal, the visit paid by the bridegroom to the bride's house after marriage ; gulimiut, the giving of money and jewels ; the dress and the title of the bridegroom as mahdrdjd and of the bride as mahdrdni \ chudsu, the giving of presents on the fourth day after death, and the wehrawari and barkhi, the celebration respectively of the birthday and day of death. I give the customs as they are at present, but do not venture to speculate on their origin. The vernacular words must be given in the text, instead of relegating them to the glossary, for they have no English synonyms. They are words which one hears in daily intercourse with the people, and any one who has work in the valley will find that a knowledge of these words and customs will give him a hold over the Kashmfris. Hindus' birth. A Hindu child is ushered into the world on a bed of soft straw of the darb (or koin) grass, which has been rendered holy by perfumes and by the utterance of Sanskrit mantras, and when the Musalmdni midwife has done her part the exact time of the birth is carefully noted by the family astrologer. The birth-bed is known as hurru, and near the bed is placed an earthen vessel known as hurlij. Close to the vessel the floor is care- fully swept, and a mystic figure is traced on it in chalk, and on this figure is placed a stone pestle which is worshipped by some girl of the house. Around the stone and on all four sides of the bed boiled or uncooked rice is daily scattered [rit). The mother is known as losa, and if this is her first child she is called sadh piai. Often before the confinement a ram is brought into the room which the patient strokes three times. She then puts a handful of rice into a basket, her mother puts in a handful of flour, and her sister puts in some money. Then female relations come in, all bringing presents of figs, dates, almonds, rice and money. All these gifts are eventually given to the priest. Later the women scatter rice, flour, and money around the bed, and when the child is born, if it is a boy, the assembled relations shout and rejoice regardless of the effect of excitement on the patient. All food taken by the mother after her confinement has to be cooked on a fire worshipped by the girl and is placed in the hurlij, and the girl after the fire-worship anoints her forehead and the foreheads of SOCIAL LIFE. 259 the mother and child with ghi. m For three days after childbirth the mother Chap. x. must eat but little, but on the fourth day a feast called Panjiri, composed — " — of sesamum, walnuts, almonds and sugar fried in oil, is prepared and sent round to relatives and friends. On this day the mother eats some food from earthen vessels, and on the same day the mother's parents send her presents of roast meat and unleavened bread. On the ninth day after the birth {sundar) the mother and child are bathed in some auspicious hour and the child receives its name. On that day, too, the child is given clothes {zafiru), and the midwife throws away the old straw bed and makes a fresh one. After bathing, seven vessels, either of clay or of bronze, are filled with food. These vessels represent seven deities, and as some are flesh-eating deities and some vegetarian, the foods chosen have to be selected with care. Pulse, rice, walnuts and meat are the common selection, and they are worshipped. Seven women of the household must be present to represent the seven deities. After the food has been made holy, the midwife lights a torch of birch-bark and waves it around the heads of the mother and child and finally flings it into an earthen bowl filled with water. She then takes her leave, and in rich families is succeeded by a Musalman wet nurse, and the holy food is distributed among relatives and neighbours. On this, the ninth day, the mother is allowed for the first time to eat from bronze vessels, and her parents send gifts of roast meats, bread, and cash. On the eleventh day the bed is again thrown away and the mother, no longer unclean, sallies forth to the courtyard, and with her child on her lap sits down on the same mystic figure mentioned above, and shows the sun to the infant. But if it happens that any woman of the gotra up to the seventh generation gives birth to a child, or any one of the gotra die during the eleven days, the weary days of purification must drag on for another eleven days. If the death or birth in the gotra be in families dating back to the eighth generation only four days more are added to the original term of eleven days. If beyond the eighth generation, only one day is added. Provided no such untoward birth or death has happened and the house is free from uncleanness {sutak) the hons or impurity is removed. The family Brahman is then summoned, and a curious ceremony known as kah netar is performed. The mother has to drink the five products of the cow. The seven vessels are again filled with food, of which relatives and friends partake. Among other details connected with the kah netar may be mentioned the tracing of a tree in chalk upon the wall. When the Brahman priest has discharged his functions, the astrologers of the father and the mother cast the child's horoscope {zdtuku). On the day of the child's birth the parents send presents of walnuts to their relatives, and the mother's parents send a basket of sweetmeats and turmeric and ginger to their daughter. If the mother's recovery is slow the deities have to be appeased, L I a 26o THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR. Chap. X. Shaving of head. Investiture of the sacred thread. and the kak netar ceremony is repeated, and if the child wails or refuses nourishment the sundar rites are again performed. Sometimes on the eleventh day after birth, when the child takes its first look at the sun, a pen- box is placed before the child if a boy and a stone pestle if a girl. When the child is a month old [mas netar) he receives new clothes, and a feast of rice and milk is given to relatives and friends. These first clothes are made by the priest's wife, and she uses not a needle but a thorn of the wild rose. The needle is made by man, the thorn by God, and there is a super- stition that the child whose first clothes are made with a thorn will never handle a sword, or hurt man or beast. When he reaches the age of six months he takes his first taste of rice boiled in milk {ann prds), and his ears are pierced. On this day food is distributed among relatives and friends, and in some families it is the custom to place before the child various articles, such as pen-boxes, grain, needles, &c. If the child touches the pen- box first, it is a sign that he will take to writing as a profession. In the third year the ceremony of shaving the child's head {zar kasa) takes place, this being a very joyous occasion. The day before the ceremony the boy's hands and feet are coloured red with the dye of mendhi (Lawsonia inermis) or of a Lichen, and a great feast is prepared by the paternal aunt. The custom of dyeing the hands and feet with mendhi is known as mehnzrdt, and is also observed on the occasions of assuming the sacred thread and of marriage. The food on this occasion is known as wdri, and there are three kinds of wdri. The first consists of rice, the fat of sheep or of goats, ginger, carraway seeds, salt and oil, and is known as wdri hat. The second is made of turmeric, salt, carraway seed, assafoetida and pulse, and is known as masdladdr wdri, and the third, which is known as wdri, consists of pulse and rice fried in oil. For her services the paternal aunt receives congratulatory gifts (zang) of rice, salt, and cash, and all the relatives and friends feast heartily on the wdris. In the case of a girl there is no shaving of the head. The boy's hair is carefully buried under a tree. When the boy has attained the age of seven years, and before he reaches his thirteenth year, he must don the sacred thread and become a true Brahman. An auspicious day is fixed by the astrologer, and five days before the date relatives are invited to the boy's house, and there is con- stant feasting, and the women sing and make merry. The maternal uncle presents gifts, and the day before the sacred thread is put on the rites of deogun are performed by the family priest. Deogun is a ceremony when the protection of sixty-four deities called yoghis is invoked. Friends and relatives give the boy's father money (awarah bat), and sometimes considerable sums are received. On the day the boy is confirmed as a Brahman a small earthern dais is made in the courtyard on which a fire SOCIAL LIFE. 261 is lighted, and the boy throws