%wmi. it: (Hmmll Uttiw litg Jitotg THE GIF ...'dJj\,,...]£ "B.OUvil SU- .kz5..HSS.%. OF It?. mdu-. 357 Cornell University Library 3 1924 031 271 202 olin,anx The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 271 202 Ni:\v AvMVTic Anitovt, Piivs;ui.o,:y and ITycTEXE. NEW ANALYTIC Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene HUMAN AND COMPAEATIVE. FOR COLLEGES, ACADEMIES AND FAMILIES WITH QUESTIONS. BY CALVIN CUTTER, M.D. Wirn NUMEROUS ENaBAVIMUiL PHILADELPHIA J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. r-s Entered -according to Act of Ckjngress, In the year 1870, by CALVIN CUTTER, M.D, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C L1PFIN00TT*S P'JtBSB, PHILADBLFHIA, TO MY AFFECTIONATE WIFE, EUNICE P. CUTTER, WHO UNTIBINGI-T AIDED ME IN THK FBEFABATION OF MT FOBHBR WOEK IN lSi9, AND IN ITS EBVISION IN 1852, AND TO OtJB TWO SONS, JOHN CLARENCE CUTTER AND WALTER POWERS CUTTER, TBCSTINO THAT THET WILIi SEE THAT ALL TIMELY BEVISION AND EMENDATION ABE MADE IN FUTtTEE, TO MEET THE DE- MANDS OF INCBEASINO ZNTELLIOENCE, THIS TREATISE IS DEDICATED BY HUSBAND, FATHER AND AUTHOR. PREFACE. The solicitation of my publishers, and the request of many teachers, have induced me to review and remodel my school- book on Outline Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, adapt- ing it to the advanced position of teachers, schools and the community. My former work was published in 1849, and thoroughly revised in 1852. Several hundred thousand copies of the revised edition have been published. It has been translated and published in five different languages, by the missionaries in Asia and Europe. In general arrangement, the present Treatise is modeled after the former. The aim has been to improve the analysis ; to bring the Chemistry and Histology to the present ad- vanced st^te of these sciences; to make the Anatomy and Physiology concise and definite, the Hygiene plain and practical ; to introduce some Comparative Anatomy ; and to furnish illustrating cuts, both apposite and artistic. I am under great obligation to Joseph Leidy, M.D., of Philadelphia, who kindly permitted the use of his original illustrating cuts from his very valuable work upon Human Anatomy; also to the works of Marshall and Owen, and otner scientific men, whose writings have been quoted and opinions adopted. As my physical frame is much enfeebled from wounds re- ceived while surgeon in the volunteer army, I am under i» 5 6 PREFACE. special obligations to Miss Ada L. Howard, Principal of Ivy Hall, Bridgeton, N. J., not only for the ready pen, but for much detailed investigation, for simplifying the abstruse and erudite statements of our strictly scientific works, and for bringing into close, contact, relationship and harmony — in a word, unifying — what, without skillful combination, would be isolated and fragiuehtary. To the educational men and women, to all dealing know- ledge of themselves, physically, intellectually ai d morally, this small volume is respectfully submitted. Calviu Cutteb. Wabrbh, Mass., July, 1870. TO TEACHERS. Allow me to suggest that the method of study and in- struction of this work should be Analytical, with Synthetical Reviews ; that the Headings of the several chapters may be used as Topics ; that each subject should be thoroughly con sidered, viewed in its relations to other subjects, and, if pos- sible, investigated beyond the limits of this elementary work ; that the Chemistry and Histology should receive due atten- tion, as the underlying basis of the Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene ; that, as far as possible, the subject should be made an object study — the Chemistry, by simple experiments, the Anatomy, by examinations of parts of domestic animals ; also, that Outline Anatomical Diagrams or Charts are as desirable as a map in History or Geography ; that, in case of limited time or other necessity, the Comparative Anatomy, Histology and Chemistry, one or all, may be omitted (though with great loss to the pupil), and the remaining sections will be well adapted to each other. ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. DIVISION I. jECT. CHAPTER I.— GENERAL REUARKS. f^ag, 1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared U-Vd 2. Definitious i3,« CHAPTER II.— QENEEtAL HISTOLOGY. 3. Cells '. 14-17 4. Tissues 17-25 fi. Membraues i 25-30 CHAPTEIl III.— GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 6. Solids and Fluids '. 30-34 DIVISION II. MOTORY APPARATUS. CHAPTER IVv— THE BONES. 7. Anatomy of the Bones 36-47 8. Histology "- " 1 » 47-64 9. Chemistry " " 64,65 10. Physiology " " 66-SO 11. Hygiene " " '. 60-«6 12. Comparative Osteology 67-72 CHAPTER v.— THE MCSCLES. 13. Anatomy of the Muscles 73-79 14. Histology " " 79-81 15. Chemistry " " - '. 81,82 10. Physiology " " ■ 83-89 17. Hygiene " " - 89-98 18. Comparative Myology .^. 98-102 DIVISION III. NVTRITIYE APPARATUS. CHAPTER VI.— THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 19. Anatomy of the Digestive Organs 103-109 20. Histology " " " • • 110-116 21. Chemistry " " " 116-120 22. Physiology " " " 120-122 23. Hygiene " " " '. 122-131 24. Comparative Splanchnology 131-13" A* 9 10 ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. BBCT. CFIAPTER VII.— ABSORPTION. rjOM 25. Anatomy of tlio Abscrbents 138-141 26. Histology ' " 141-143 27. Chemistry " " , 143,144 28. Physiology " " 144-146 29. Hygiene " " 146,147 CHAPTER Tirr.— THE CIRCTTLATION. SO. The Blood 148, 149 91, Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs 150-156 3?. Histology " " " ., .• 156-160 33. Chemistry " " « 160-162 34. Physiology " " " '. 1...; 162-168 36. Hygiene " » " ......'......... 168-172 86. Comparatlre Angiology : ; ; 172-175 CHAPTER IX.— ASSIMILATION. 37. Assimilation, General and Special...' '....„... '....'. ', '. 176rl81 CHAPTER X.— THJ! RESPIRATORY AND , VOCAL. ORGANS. 38. Anatomy of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs ..182-185 39. Histology " " .. « ■ ■ ; ; 186-188 40. Chemistry " " " " .-. 188-190 41. Physiology " " " •■ ....; 190-196 42. Hygiene " " " " 197-205 43. Comparative Pneumonology 205-209 DIVISION IV. SENSOSIA L A PPARA TVS. CHAPTER XI.— NERVOUS SYSTEM. 44. Anatomy of the Nervous System 210-225 46. Histology - " " 225-2-.;S 46. Physiology " " " '. 229-240 47. Hygiene " " " „ 240-252 48. Comparative Neurology ',.. .". 252-269 CHAPTER XII.— THE ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 49. Anatomy of the .Organs of Special Sense 360-281 80 Physiologj " » " " 281-288 11. Hygiene " " " " 489-298 APPENDIX. CHAPTER XIII. CiEB o» THE Sick 299-303 Poisons and TiiEin Antidotes 30:^-306 OiossAKY 807-317 iMDex 319-322 For Treatment of Wounds, see \ 363 For Recovery of Drowned Persons, see \ 43Q For Treatment of Burns, see If 810. For Treatment of Frost-Bite, see If 612. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. DIVISION I. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. § 1. The Three Kingdosis of Nature Comparkd. — Essential die- tinetions between the Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms. — Nature of the Life-force. — Vitalized and Non-Vitaiized Bodies com. paredt — Plants and. Animals compared. 1. " LaPIDES CKESCUNT ; VeQETABIIiIA crescunt et vivunt; A-Nimalia ceescunt, vivunt et sentiunt,"* was the Linnsean distinction between the three great king- doms of Nature. Though imperfect, it is still suggestive of the boundaries of each division. The Mineral kingdom in- cludes all things naturally destitute of life; the Vegetable kingdom, all organizations having a certain type of life, but no power to feel or to will ; the Animal kingdom, those pos- sessing a higher type of life and the powers of sensation and voluntary motion. 2. Inorganic, or Mineral bodies are made up of atoms combined and arranged according to certain mechanical and chemical laws. Organic, or Vegetable and AifiMAL bodies are combinations of like atoms, according to the same laws controlled 'by Vitality or the Life-force. Plants have a * " Stones grow ; Plants grow and live ; Animals grow, live and feel." 11 12 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. vegetable vitality — animals an animal vitality. Of the real character of this life-force we know nothing. Nature works in her inner laboratory with "No admittance" upon her door. We are at liberty to examine her products, but the mighty' principle upon which they are wrought she holds fast as a secret unrevealable to us with our present limitations. 3. Among the Distinctions between Oeganized, or Vitai^ IZED, and Unoeganized, or Non- Vitalized bodies, are the following : An Organized body consists of an assemblage of parts called organs, having a mutual relation to, and de- pendence upon, each other ; these taken together constitute an individual, a being; therefore the parts when separated are incomplete, as is seen in a, divided plant. Not so with the Unorganized body : each fragment of a rock possesses all the essential characteristics of the original mass. Organized bodies, being subject to constant wagte from vitalized activi- ties, demand nourishment; Unorganized bodies, being per- manent in their nature, require no food. Organized bodies grow by means of particles of matter conveyed to their in- terior and there assimilated ; Unorganized bodies increase in size by simple layers upon the exterior : the former have a limit in size; the latter have no natural limit. Organised bodies have their period of duration : decay and death await every living animal and vegetable ; but, from the nature of the Inorganic world, we speak of the mountains as everlasting. Organized bodies have their particles arranged in lines gene- rally more or less curved, with varying angles, as in animals and plants; Unorganized bodies have their lines straight, with angles- mathematically exact, as in the crystal of com- mon salt. Organized bodies reproduce themselves, each species after its own kind ; Unorganized bodies have no such ppwe/ of reproduction. 4. The Distinctions between Animals and Plants are im- portant. Animals take in oxygen and give out carbonic acid gas; Plants take in carbonic acid gas and give out oxygen. Animals subsist upon the products of the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; Plants, upon those of the minera) GENERAL REMARKS. 13 kingdom. Animals, possess the power of sensation and volun- tary motion ; Plants, neither. 5. These distinctions are obvious and definite in the higher grades ; but in the descending scale we recognize a gradual approach of plants and animals to each other, and likewise to the mineral kingdom ; so that, in the lower forms of life, all perceptible traces of organization disappear, and, like converging radii, the three kingdoms of Nature blend in one common centre. ? 3. Definition op Terms. 6. An organized body consists of parts called Wganb. A collection of organs so arranged that their combined actions shall produce a given result is culled an Appara'tus. The definite, peculiar use of an organ or apparatus is called its Function : ' Example. — The digestive apparatus consists of the organs — teeth, stomach, liver, etc. — whose combined func- tions result in the digestion of food. The description of the form and position of these organs is called Anat'omy;* the description of their functions, Physiol'ogy ; f the examination of the conditions most favorable to their health, Hy'giene. J 7. The organs are composed of a variety of structures, called Tissues, which are themselves composed of Cells. The description of the form, color, constituents and origin of these tissues and cells, or their minute anatomy, is called Histol'ogy;§ the sciience which treats of their ultimate ele- ments is called Chem'istry. || * Gr., ana, through, and tonrn, a cutting. •(■ Gr., phusis, nature, and logos, a discourse. J Gr., hugieinon, health. J Gr., histos, a web, and logos, a discourse, II Ar., ki'mia, hidden art. 2 CHAPTER II. GENERAL HISTOLOGY. \ 3. Cells. — Unity of Plan exhibited in Plants and Animah. — SimpU Cells. — Adaptation to Dij^erent Offices. — Modes of MiUtiplication. 8. Wherever we find the work of the Infinite, there we find Unity of Plan. Whatever the extent of the applica- tions of this plan, whatever its modifications, there is still more or less apparent the distinct central idea. Amid the seemingly great di/ersity of substances in plants and ani- mals, there appears a beautiful and remarkable exhibit of this Unity. 9. Protoplasm* is the formal basis of all living bodies. Animal Protoplasm, or Blastema,'\ as it is often called, is an albuminous fluid, generally regarded as identical with the liquor sanguinis, or fluid portion of the blood, in which the red corpuscles are suspended. Floating in this protoplasm are numerous minute spheroidal cells, and an infinitude of smaller bodies having the appearance of dots called granules, from this organizable fluid every material part of living beings is formed ; here is Unity of Substance. 10. The simple Nucleated cell is the earliest organic form of every living thing, and increase of size is but an increase of the number of cells. There are sundry very low animals, each of .which is structurally a nucleated cell, a colorless blood-corpuscle leading an independent life; a step higher come those which are little more than aggregations of similar lells ; and at length, as the vital functions become more and more diflferentiated, appear those with cells variously modi- fied, forming increasingly well-defined and complicated organs, till they seem to reach perfection in man. • Gr., jyrotos, first, and plasma, formed. f Gr., blaslos, a germ. 14 QENEEAL HISTOT-OGY. J5 11. In the plant-world we find the same plan pursued; under the microscope, the vegetable and the animal cell appear essentially the same, but they are by no means iden- tical. In examining the nucleoli of animal cells, little cir- cular bodies dart across the field of view. These seem to possess the power of voluntary movement ; and, had we the requisite refinement of sight, we should doubtless be able to classify even these minute bodies as accurately as we no\fr do the fully-developed animal. In the vegetable cell these are never seen. Fig. 1. FiQ. 1 {Leidy). An Ideal Cell. — 1. Cell with its wall, protoplaum, nucleus and its Ducleolua. 2, Tho same divided into two. 3, The same divided into four cells. 4, The same divided into mauy cells. Tlie dark portion, the protoplasm ; the white spot, the nucleus ; the inner small circle, the nncleulua. Magnified. 12. It appears, then, that the lowest and the highest organism — the fungus and man — have, in their earliest development, a unity of form of which the type is the simple cell. 13. A Simple Cell consists of a delicate sac containing protoplasm, in which is another very minute sac, called the nu'cleus, which contains yet another sac — the nucleolus, or little nucleus. Very minute particles, or granules, are also seen. A good example of a simple animal cell, on a large scale, is an egg : the lining of the shell is the cell-wall or sac ; the white is the contained protoplasm; tho yolk is the nu- cleus; and its germ-spot is the nucleolus. 14. Cells in the course of their development are subject to numberless modifications — the animal cell, to subserve various purposes in the animal economy ; the vegetable cell, in the vegetable economy. As if under the immediate control of intelligence, they select each its own appropriate substance, 16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. rejecting all else. One set of cells has for its ofBce the pro- duction of motion ; another set is for the purpose of secre- tion ; another, for assimilation ; anothei-, for absorption ; still another, for reproduction; and so on, through all the dis- similar offices of the animal economy. 15. Cells vary in size and shape ; the normal form is prob- ably spheroidal, as in cells of fat ; but they often become many-sided, sometimes flattened, as in the cuticle, and some- times elongated into a simple filament, as in fibrous tissue or muscular fibre. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fio. 2 {Ifidy). Process of MoLTipuoATioif, or Cartiiaoe Cells.— 1, Simple cartilage cell from the embryo. 2, Increase of cartilage cells by division of the primary cell. S, 4, Groups of cartilage cells, from an adult articular cartilage. Maguified. Fio. 3 (Leidy). Peooess of Developmeht of ah Oeoanio Cell feom a OEAXtnA.— I, A granule. 2, A vesicle developed upon the granule ; the two constituting tlie nu- cleus aud contained nucleolus. 3, The same, increased in size. 4, 5, Grauules developed in tlio contained liquid of the nucleus. 6, The cell-wall developed on the nucleiU. 7, 8, 9, Successive increase of the cell, and developmunt of granular conteuts. Magnified. 16. Cells multiply in three ways : 1st, A cell may elongate, contracting in the middle like an hour-glass or dumb-bell, by the infolding of the cell-wall, till a complete division is made and two cells are formed, each with its own share of the original nucleus ; the new cells divide in a similar manner, and like divisions are repeated indefinitely; 2d, Another form of multiplication is by the division of the nucleus within the cell; each part appropriates a portion of the fluid, and at length vesicles are formed, the old cell-wall breaks, and the vesicles develop into perfect cells; and 3d, Cells are sometimes developed de novo from the protoplasm, which contains nuclei and granules. GENBEAL HISTOLOGY 17 17. Cells have their period of growth, of perfection and of decay. While the vital force directs and controls the chemical and mechanical agencies, they tend to preserve and build up the system ; but when the vital powers yield, they tend to its decay, and, " as if they were the grave-diggers of Nature, fulfill the old motto — ' Earth to earth and dust to dust.'" i 4. Peimaky Tissues. — Fibrous Tissue. — Areolar. — CkurtUajgirums. — Adipose. — Sderovs. — Mvscidar. — Tubular. — Nervous. 18. By the various aggregations and transformations of cells the different tissues of the body are formed, and their individual characters depend upon the peculiar selecting power of these cells. 19. The Peimaky Tissues are reducible to the following : the Fibrous, the Areolar and the Cartilaginous, which, col- lectively, form the Connective tissues ; and the Ad'ipose, the 'Scle'rous, the Mus'cular, the Tu'bular and the Ner'vous tissues. '20. The object of the Connective tissues seems to be, mainly, that of binding together organs and their parts. It has few nerves and blood-vessels, and is, therefore, except when inflamed, nearly insensible, and attended with little hemorrhage under surgical operation. 21. The Fibrous form of connective tissue is composed of minute filaments arranged in parallel and somewhat wavy bundles, marked with faint cross-waves. It is strong, un- yielding and glistening. The fibrous tissue has two distinct forms-^the White Fibrous and the Yellow Fibrous. 22. The White Fibeous lissue is formed of white, glisten- ing, inelastic bands, having longitudinal creasings, but not admitting of separation into filaments of determinate size. This tissue, by long boiling, is entirely resolved into Gel'atin, The white fibrous tissue is found under three forms : 3Iem'- brane, Idg'ament and Ten' don. 23. The Yellow Fibrous tissue is composed of yellow elastic bands separable into their component filaments. It is called the Elas'tie tissue, elasticity being its chief charac- 2* 18 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. teristic. It does not gelatinize by boiling. It is found in ihe middle coat of the arteries, in the vocal cords; between- the vertebrae, and in many other places where elasticity is needed. The proportion between the white and the yellow fibrous tissues, when found together, varies — the greater the elasticity required, the greater the proportion- «f yellow elastic fibres. FlQ. 4. Fig. 5. Fia. 4 (Leidy). Fibrous Tissub. — ^1, Portion of tendon, exhibiting its composition of prismatic bundles of fibrous tissue, the filaments all parallel to one another. 13, A few' bundles drawn from the others, exhibiting their union by delicate crossing' filaments of connective tissue. 3, One of the varieties of fibrous tissue. 4, A single bundle, more highly magnified, with a portion (5) of the filaments fretted out. Jia. i (Leidy). Elastic Tissra. Highly magnified. Observation. — In rheumatism the connective white fibrous tissue is the part chiefly afiected; hence, the large joints and the loins, where this tissue is most abundant, sufier most. Where there is predisposition to rheumatism, the tendency to it may be lessened and attacks relieved by increasing the amount of clothing over the part afiected. 24. The Areolar form of connective tissue consists of bands of the fibrous, both of the white and yellow, which interweave in every direction, leaving open spaces between, called cells ; hence this tissue is sometimes named Cellular. These spaces communicate through the body, and contain a fluid resembling the serum of the blood. Although the con- nective areolar tissue enters into the composition of all organs, it never loses its individuality. In the nerves and muscles it shares neither the sensibility of the one nor the contractility of the other. GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 19 Observation. — The swelling of the feet so often seen in feeble persons shows the peculiarity of this tissue, which allows the fluid to pass from part to part and accumulate in the lowest portion of the body, while a recumbent position restores the origiiral shape. Great excess of the fluid pro- duces general dropsy. The free communication between all parts of this tissue is still more remarkable in regard to air. Sometimes, when an accidental opening has been made from the air-cells of the lungs into the adjacent tissue, the air in respiration penetrates every part of the surrounding tissue, and even of the entire body, till inflation endangers life from suffocation. Butchers often avail themselves of this fact, inflating their meat to give it a fat appearance. Fis. 6. Fig. r. Fm. 6 (Itidy). Poetiom of Conhectiti Tisbot, from the axilla, exhibiting its compos), tion of bundles and filaments of fibrons tissue crossing in every direction. The rounded bodies represent a single row and a portion of small groups of at cells. Magnified. Fio. 7 (Leidy). 1, Pokiion of CosNiiOTiVB Tibsoe, from that which envelops the flexor tendons of the fingers as they pass beneath the annular ligament, treated with acetic acid. The pale, dotted portion is intended to represent the fibrous element fading away ; the blacker, tortuous lines and iiets represent the mixture of elastic tissue. 2, 3, Sinq>la tortuous fibres and a net of elastic tissue. Magnified. 25. Cartilaginous tissue consists of a solid mal'riee, ap- parently homogeneous in structure, resembling ground glass. In this are imbedded nucleated cells, sometimes arranged simply, but usually in groups. It has no perceptible nerves nor blood-vessels. Cartilage is elastic and flexible, but in^ extensible — qualities admirably essential to its use in the 20 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND IIYGIEXE. formation of the joints and in giving to other organs form and strength, without too much rigidity. This tissue consti- tutes the articular cartilages, the cartilage of the ribs, of the larynx (except the epiglottis), of the trachea and its divisions, and of the nose. The bones usually originate in cartilage, wliieh disappears as bony matter is deposited ; such cartilage is called temporary, while that which continues till later years \s c&W&d permanent. Pig. 8. Fro. 8 (XeuZy). Gartilaob — sectiOD through the thickness of the oval cartilage of the nose. I, Toward the exterior. 2, Toward the interior surface; highly magnified. It exhibits groups of cartilage cells imbedded in a homogeneous matrice. Fig. 9. Flo. 9 (Zetdy). Sectioit or FiBiuyCARTiLAOB from thi Auricle op tok £ar. — ^'nie cells are seen Imbedded in a flbroiis matrtoe. 1, Exterior surface, where the cells are parallel to it. 2, Toward the middle. Highly magnified. 26. When the matrice assumes a fibrous condition, Fihro- cartilages are formed, as in the intervertebral disks, the inter- articular cartilages, the epiglottis, the cartilages of the ear and Eustachian tube, and those of the eyelids. Between pure fibrous tissue and pure cartilage there are various degrees of GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 21 intermixture. Fibro-cartilage unites the elasticity of carti- lage with the toughness of fibrous tissue, and is therefore ^¥ell adapted to the firmest union of bones accompanied with moderate flexibility. 27. Adipose tissue has the peculiarity of not being essen- tial to the constitution of any organ. It is composed of deli- cate aggregated cells, of nearly spheroidal form, containing a substance called fat. It is found in the interspaces of areolar tissue beneath the skin and around the heart and kidneys ; while none is ever found within the skull, the lungs and the eyelids, where its presence would interfere with their several Fio. 10. Fio. 11. Fio. 10 (Zeidy). Crossiko Bands of fibrous connective tissue. Via. 11 (Leidy). Adipose Tissue, with Connectivk Tissue, from the superficiaT faf( ia of the abdomen; highly magnified; The groups of fat vesicles are observed contain id In the meshes of connective tissue. functions. Fat accumulates more readily than other matter, and is the earliest removed in disease. It is a storehouse of nutriment, always ready for use, and a non-conductor of heat ; it also gives roundness and beauty to the form. 28. ScLEKOUS tissue is found in the bones and teeth. Its composition and arrangement vary at different periods of life. 22 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 29. Muscular tissue is composed of fibres, which are themselves composed of minute fibres, called fibriUm, or fila- ments. The fibres of this tissue are of two kinds-^-mow- striaied and striated. The former are soft, pale, smooth, either i?oundish or flattened, and indistinctly granulated, having no markings, or striae; the latter are soft, yellowbh, prismatic, and composed of quadrangular particles so arranged as to give transverse strise. This tissue has for its peculiar chaiac- FiG. 12, Fig. 13. Fio. IZ {Letdy). Fideils fsom a Muscuiar Fibre of the Axouitl, a Batracbuh Reptile ; highly magnified, a, Bundle of fibrils, b, An isolated fibre. Fia. 13 {Leidy). Two Portions of a Muscular Fascicdlcs, from the trapeziua muscle; highly magnified. 1, Two portions of h muscular iasciculus, composed of prismatic striated fibres. terminating below, in rounded extremities, among the fibrous tissue 'of the commencing tendon, 2, Cut extremities of the fibres, showing tlieir prismatic ft)rm. 3, Delicate sheath, composed of obliquely^rossing filaments of fibrous tissue. 4, The fibres of the commencing tendons. Partly u diagram. teristic, contractility, and is the instrument upon which the sensible motions of the body depend. It is a good conductor of electricity, and very sensitive to that agent. It has within itself constant electrical currents, called, collectively, the mtts- volar current 30. TuBUJ-AR tissue consists of a network of minute tubes, GENEEAL HISTOLOGY. 23 called cap'illary* vessels. These vessels connect the tertuiual extremities of the arteries with the commencement of the veins, but are otherwise closed, and never communicate ex- cept by imbibition with the structures through which they pass. Their walls are composed of exceedingly thin, trans- parent, structureless membrane containing scattered nuclei. They vary in size, being largest in the bones, and smallest in the brain and in the lungs. This tissue is found in all parts of the body, excepting the substance of the teeth, the cartilage of the joints, the transparent part of the eye, the epUhe'lial tissue, the hair and the nails. ' Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Pio. 14 (AJtar Wagner.) A Piece of the Web op a Froo's Foot, slightly enlart.cil, showing the fine capillary network connecting the terminations of the arteries with the commencement of the veins. Flo. 15 {AUan Thomson). Minute Piece op the Maboin of the Frog's Web, show- ing the ultimate capillaries, connecting the end of a small artery with the beginning of a minnte Tein. The oval blood-corpuscles are seen in these vessels, and the anon a entering and passing oat of the artery and vein indicate the course of the blood-current ; magnified about thirty diameters. 31. The Neevous tissue is distinguished from all other tissues hf its sensibility. Like the muscular tissue, it lias consta,nt electrical currents. It forms the essential substance of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. This tissue contauw * Lat., capiUus, a hair. 24 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. three distinct microscopical elements — Nerve-Cells, or Gang- lionic Corpuscles; Gray or Gelatinous fibres; axid White or Tubular fibres. fia. 16. Fio. 16 {KoUiker and Hannover), 1, Nucleated cells from a Bympathetic ganglion. 2, Branched or stellate cells from the gray substance of the spinal cord. 3, Branched cells from the medulla oblongata. 4, Simple and blanched cells from the convolutions of the brain. 5, A large cell ftom the gray substance of the brain ; magnified one han. dred diameters. Fio. ir. Fia. 17. DiAOSAH OP HuHur Braik, in Yiktiou Sxctioh, showing the sltnation of the difl^rent ganglia and the course of the fibres. 1, Olfoctory ganglion. 2, Hemisphere. S, Corpus striatum. 4, Optic thalamus. 6, Tubercula quadrtgomlna. 6, Cerebellum. 7, Qanglion of tuber annulare. 8, Oaugllon of medulla oblongata. 32. The Ganglionic Corpuscles are cell-bodies contain- ing pulpy matter, with one or more nuclei surrounding colored granules. These cells vary in shape, being roundish, pear-shaped, or branched in a caudate or stellate manner, these ofisets being continuous with the cell-wall and its contents, and GBNEKAL HISTOLOGY. 25 often entering another cell and connecting the two. These nerve-cells are found in the brain, spinal cord and ganglia, and at the extremities of the nerves of sight and hearing. 33. The Gkay or Gelatinous fibres are soft and granular, with no distinct medullary sheath. They contain many dark nuclei, and are most abundant in the sympathetic ganglia and their branches. 34. The Whitk or Tubular fibres are microscopic tubes. The walls are structureless membrane enclosing a layer of meduUated matter resembling fluid fat, which acts as a sheath ; within this is a firmer part, or core, called the band-axis, or axis cylinder ; this is albuminous. 35. The gray substance is most abundant in the outer part of the brain, and the white in the inner ; but the two intermix more or less in every part of the nervous system. 2 5. Membranes. — Basement Membrane. — Epithelium. — Serous Mem- brane. — Synovial Membrane. 36. Basement Membeane is an exceedingly thin, deli- cate, structureless layer of protoplasm or blastema, resem- bling, under the microscope, a film of transparent gelatine. Upon it, in various parts of the body, are imbedded minute epithelial* cells. The membrane formed by these cells is called epilhe'lium. The relation of this structureless mem- brane to the epithelium gives it the name of Basement Memr brane. Pie. 18. FcQ. 18 (Leidy). Diaobah exhibiting the Belative Position of the Couhon Ana- TOHIOAL ELEUENTS OF SEBOUS AND MUCOUS MeMBBANES, THE GLANDS, THE LUNGS ANX THE Skin. — 1, Epithelium, secreting cells or epidermis, composed of nucleated cells, and occnpying the free surface of the structure mentioned, 2, Basement layer, representeo much thicker than natural, in comparison with the other layers. 3, Fibrous layer, in which the arteries and reins (4) terminate in a capillary network. Magnified. * Gr., epi, upon, and Uthemi, I cover or place. B 26 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 37. From difference in form and other peculiarities, the Epithelium is divided into several varieties — as the Squa- mous Epithelium, consisting of several layers of thin scales, which are flattened cells having a nucleus and a few scat- tered granules, as in the mucous membrane of the mouth ; the Pavement Epithelium, consisting of from one to four layers of nucleated cells, six-sided and regularly arranged like the blocks of a pavement (whence the name), as in the serous membranes ; the Cbfttnmar Epithelium, consisting i'''raies. — Sones of the Head. — Of the Thoraa.—, Of. the Extremities. 152. The tissues, cells,, and chemical composition of all animals are essentially the same, but their different appoint- ments in the plan of creation require special conformations. Animals have therefore been arranged, according to their plan of structure, into four sub-kingdoms : — 1. Veetebeata, including man and other animals having an internal skeleton with a back-bone as its basis, the bones being composed chiefly of phosphate of lime : 2. Aeticulata, comprising animals having an external skeleton made up of similar segments, or rings, consisting mostly of the carbonate of lime ; as insects, lobsters and worms : 3. Mollusca, including soft-bodied ani- mals covered with a hard shell consisting of one or two pieces, also composed of carbonate of lime ; as cuttlefish, oysters, clams, and snails : 4. Radiata, having no proper skeleton or shell-covering, but parts more or less symmetrically arranged about a vertical axis; as star-fishes, sea-anemones and coral animals. 153. The Vertebrata are classified as Mammals (including man, monkeys, bats, quadrupeds, etc.). Birds, Reptiles and Fishes. 154. The Veetebral Column of all Mammals is similar to that of man. The cervical vertebrae, with two exceptions. Dumber seven: the dorsal, average thirteen; the lumbar, from three to seven; the sacral, usually four; the caudal, from four (the number of the coccyx in man) to forty-six. The length of any part of the column seems to depend not so much upon the number of the vertebrae as upon their length; thus we find seven cervical vertebrae in the long-necked giraffe and in the short-necked mole. In Birds, the flexibility of the neck enables any part of the body to be reached by the beak. This is owing to the ball-and-socket articulations, and to the great numbej, of cervical vertebrae, which in the swan are twenty-four ; in the ostrich, eighteen ; and in the domestic 68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. cock, thirteen. The dorsal vertebrae vary from seven to eleven, and are generally consolidated into one ; but in birds that do not fly, they remain distinct and movable. The lumbar and sacral vertebrae are united into one. The last caudal vertebra has a large, strong process for the support of the large feathers. In ReptUea, the vertebrae vary in num- ber from some twenty-four, as in the frog, to four hundred, as in some snakes, as the Python. Perhaps about one hundred is the average number. In Fishes there are but two kinds of vertebrae, the dorsal and the caudal, and these vary in num- ber from twenty to two hundred. The vertebral bodies pie- sent a conical, cup-like depression on each side, which contains a gelatinous fluid having the same use as the elastic inter- vertebral substances in mammals. FiS. 56. Fio. 66. SmuiTON OF A BiED.— 1, The head. 2, Oerrical Tertebra. S, Dorsal and lam- bar vortebriB. 4, Scapula. 6, OlaTlole. 6, Coracold bono. 7, Sternum. 8, Humema. B, Badliu. 10, Ulna. 11, Carpus. 12, Metacarpus. 13, IS, Phalanges (flngors). li, remur. 16, Tibia. 16, Fibula. lT,Iareni. 18, Metatarsus. 19, Phalanges (toes). THE BONES. 69 155. The Bones of the Head of all the Mammals re- semble, in many points, those of man. In some quadrupeds, as the horse and the cow, the frontal bone is in two parts ; in others, the two parietal bones are united : Between the two upper maxillary bones, are two small bones called inter- marillary; the lower jaw consists of two pieces. In Birds, the bones of the head, in number and position, resemble mammalsy but they are early united, leaving no trace of the Butures. The superior mandible, or upper jaw, of the bird is BO articulated with the cranium as to admit of motion inde- pendent of the lower jaw (which never occurs in mammals), and the inferior mandible, instead of being articulated directly with the cranium, is connected through the intermedium of a distinct bone called the Os Quadratum. In Reptiles the head-bones are irregular in form, and greatly vary in num- ber. In Fishes the bones of the head are numerous and irregular, and their study is a matter of much interest in acquiring a fuU knowledge of Natural History. 156. The obvious use of the Clavicle is to maintain the shoulders apart; hence in quadrupeds, where its presence would be a defect, it is wanting, as in the horse and cow. The clavicles of Birds are peculiar ; they unite at their ante- rior extremity, forming a forked bone called furcula, or wish- bone. In birds of powerful flight, as the eagle, the clavicles are very strong ; in others, as the domestic turkey, they are weak. Connecting the scapula to the sternum is the cor'acoid bone, which is placed side by side with the furcula, and is the main source of support to the wings in flight. In some Reptiles, as the tortoise, both the clavicle and the coracoid bone are found, while in others, as serpents, both are want- ing. In Fishes the true clavicle is wanting, but in some species there is a modified form of the coracoid bone, free at its lower extremities, which may, perhaps, be considered as homologous with the coracoid bone or clavicle of the higher animals. 157. The Scapula is present in all Mammals and Birds, and most Reptiles and Fishes. 70 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fia. 57. FiQ. 67. Skeleton of a Tobtoibb.— 1, Gerrical, 2, Boisal, 3, Lumbar vertebne. £, Scapula. 6, Clavicle. 6, Gonicoid boDe. 13, Humoms. 14, TTlna. 15, Badios. 16, Carpus. 17, Phalanges (fiugers). 7, Femur. 8, Tibia. 9, Fibula. 10, Tarsus. 11, Meta- tarsus. 12, Phalanges (toes). 158. The Steenum of birds is the largest bone in their bodies. It has upon its anterior surface a ridge resembling the keel of a ship, for the support of the pectoral muscles used in flying. The size is proportioned to the powers of flight; hence in the little humming-bird, which is on the wing most of the day, it reaches the maximum of develop- ment. Of the Reptiles, serpents have no sternum; but in turtles, it has an extraordinary development, and extends from the base of the neck to the commencement of the tail, forming the ventral part of the shell-covering. In some £^he», the sternum is represented by a chain of bonea. THE BONES. 73 169. The Ribs are much alike in all Mammals. In Birds, the cartilage that unites the rib to the sternum is osseous, giving solidity to the chest. In some Reptiles, as lizards, crocodiles, and other reptiles formed in the same way, the ribs are more numerous than in mammals and birds, and protect the abdomen as well as the chest. In the turtle, the ril)8 are expanded, forming the dorsal part of its shell, or the roof of its portable dwelling-house. In serpents, the lower or anterior extremities of the ribs have no cartilage : they aid in progressive movement, or crawling, as, under the skin, their ends can be placed on the ground like feet. In some Fishes, the ribs are wanting ; in others, they are very com- plete and surround the trunk ; in still others, they are con- nected with a chain of bones representing the sternum. Fig. 58. Fio. 68. The Skeleton 0¥ a Haddock. 160. The Humerus is usually a long, hollow bone, with r rounded head at the upper extremity, but in animals that swim or burrow, it is short and flattened at the ends for the attachment of muscles, thus enabling the fore-limbs to be used with much force. In Birds, the humerus is larger than the femur, contrary to the relative proportion in man. 161. The Radius and Ulna are present in most Mammals, but they are incapable of moving upon each other. In Birds, they are longer in proportion than in Mammals, especially in birds of flight. 72 162. The Caepus of Mammals is made up of two rows, but the number of bones varies from five to eleven. In Birds, it ia represented by two short bones. The Metacakpus usually consists of five elongated bones, but, in the horse, only one bone with two rudimentary ones are found. Most. mammals have five fingers, of which the thumb is generally rudi- mentary. In some Birds, the thumb is entirely wanting, also the little finger. The middle finger is longest, consisting of two and even three bones. 163. The PosTEEiOE Exteemitiis of quadrupeds are usually less modified than the anterior. In Birds, the Femur is short ; the Tibia is the chief or longest bone of the hind limb ; the Fibula is a small bone united at various dis- tances down the tibia in difierent birds. A single bone re- presents the Tarsus and Metatarsus ; this supports or carries the toes, which in birds never exceed four in number. In some Reptiles, as the tortoise, lizard and others, the anterior and posterior limbs are composed of bones which, in number, form, position and functions, much resemble the correspond- ing ones in mammals and birds: in the serpent tribe, the limbs are wanting. In FisJies the extremities are rudi- mentary, being represented by fins. Suggestion. — ^The osteology of the three lower sub-kingdoms of animals is replete with interest and instruction, but the necessarily limited space of this elementary school-book en- tirely precludes their consideration: allow us to advise all who can command the leisure, to extend this study to thS beautiful and wonderful works of creation as seen in these parts of the garden of the Lord. CHAPTER V. TSE MUSCLES. \ 13. Anatomy of the Musoi-es. — Law of Muscular Oonlraetion. — Oonsequeni Forms of Muscles. Modes of Attachment of Muscles. — Nwmher and General Arrangement. Musdes of the Head and Neck. — Of the Upper Extremities. — Of the Trunk. — Of the Lower Extremities. 164. The Chaeaoteeistic Peopeety of muscles is con- traetility, and the law is, that they shall contract toward the centre. To accomplish this, there must be diversity of form, adapting them to different positions ; hence, muscular fibres are longitudinal, terminating at each extremity in a tendon, forming a spindle-shaped or fusiform muscle; disposed like the rays of a fan, converging to a tendinous point, a radiate muscle; converging to one side of a tendon running the whole length of a muscle, as one side of the plume of a feather to its shaft, a penniform muscle; converging to both sides of the tendon like an entire feather, a hi-penniform muscle; or run- ning in a circular direction, an orbicular, or sphincter muscle. Fig. 59. Pia 69. 1 A Representation op the Direction and Arrangement op the Fibres In a fasiform oi spindle-shaped muscle. 2, In a radiated muscle. 8, In a penniform tnuscle. 4, In a bi-penniform muscle, t, t. The tendons of a miisole. ,,' D 78 74 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 165., Muscles are usually attached by both their extremities ' to the bones, either directly, or indirectly by means of the inelastic but flexible tendons, which may be cord-like (either round or flattened) or flat and broad, supporting the organs which they surround, and named Aponeuroses, or Fascm. Sometimes the muscle is attached to bone by one extremity only, the other being fixed to the skin or other soft part, as certain of the muscles of the face: sometimes there is no connection with bone, as in the orbicular muscle of the mouth. When a muscle is attached to bone by one extremity only, that attachment is called its origin, the other being tei-med its insertion; when attached at both ends to the bones, the attachment nearer the centre of the body, and which is usually the more fixed point, is called the origin, while that more distant and movable is named the insertion. Muscles may have one, two, three, or many points of origin, and some muscles have more than one point of insertion. Fig. 60. tut. 60. A Tbanbvbbse Seotion op the Nkck. — Tlio separate muscles, aa tliey are arranged In layers, with their Investing foficlro, are well represented. 12, The trachea. 13, The oesophagus. 14, Carotid artery and jugular vein. 28, One of the bones of the spinal column. (The figures in the white spaces represent fascia ; other figures, mascles ; u the system is symmetrical, figures ore placed only on one side.) 166. The NUMBER of muscles in the human body is more THE MTTSCLES. 75 than five hundred. In general, they form about the skeleton two layers, distinguished as mperjuAal, and deep-seated muscles ; yet in some parts there are three, four, five, and even six layers. 167. Witli the exception of twelve single muscles, they are arranged in pairs. Each muscle has its antagonist; when one contracts, the other relaxes. The muscles passing over the back of a joint are usually called Extensors, because they serve to extend the part beyond the joint ; while those lying in front of the joint are, for the opposite reason, called Flexors. Uxamples. — 1st, Clasp the arm midway between the shoul- der and elbow, with the thumb and fingers of the opposite hand ; when the arm is bent, the inside muscle is hard and prominent, and the tendon near the elbow, rigid, while that upon the opposite side is relaxed : straighten the arm, and the outside muscle swells and becomes firm, while the inside muscle and its tendon are relaxed. 2d, Clasp the fore-arm about three inches below the elbow, then open and shut the fingers rapidly, and the alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscles on the opposite sides of the arm are felt, the movements corresponding to those of the fingers: when the fingers bend, the inside muscles contract, and the outside ones relax; when the fingers open, the inside muscles relax, and the outside con- tract. This action of antagonist muscles may be felt in all' the different movements of the limbs. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NEQK. 168. The Occipito-Feontalis elevates the eyebrows. The Orbiculakis Palpebraeum closes the eyelids, and, by pressing back the ball of the eye, it also compresses the lachrymal gland and causes a flow of tears. The Oebiculaeis Oris closes the mouth, and enables the lips to embrace any substance placed between them. It re- ceives into its periphery the fibres of the surrounding muscles, which meet here as in a common centre. It enters largely 76 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. (11 THE MUSCLES. 77 into the diversified expressions of the countenance, and in no one respect exhibits more varied adaptations than in the performance on wind instruments. The Masseter and Temporal give motion to the lower jaw. The Sterno-Cleido-Mabtoid, when both sides contract, draws the head forward or elevates the sternum. MUSCLES OF the ANTERIOR PARI OP THE TRUNK. 169. The PectOealis Major draws the arm by the side, and across the chest, and also draws the scapula forward. The Serratus Magnus elevates the ribs in inspiration. The Obliquus Externus and Rectus Abdominalis exert an equable pressure upon the organs contained in the abdominal cavity ; when acting together they bend the body forward or elevate the hips ; they also depress the ribs in respiration. When the muscles of but one side act, the body is twisted to that side. MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR PART OP THE TRUNK, 170. The Trapezius, Ehomboideus Major and Minor draw the scapula back toward the spine: the two latter draw the scapula upward toward the head, and slightly backward: the former draws the head back and elevates the chin. The Latissimus Dorsi draws the arm by the side and backward. The Serratus Posticus Inferior depresses the ribs in expiration. muscles of the upper extremities. 171. The Deltoid raises the arm from the side of the body to a horizontal position. The Biceps flexes the fore-arm on the arm, as in preparing for striking a blow. The Triceps extends the fore-arm on the arm ; it lies on the back of the humerus and is used in striking a blow. 7» 78 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fis. 62. Fio. 62. This Dorsal Muscles. — ^The first, second, and part of the thinl layer of mnsclei Bf the back. The first layer fs shown on the right, and the second on the left aide. 1, The trapezius muscle. 4, The latlasimu^doisi muscle. 5, The deltoid muscle. 7,8, The glutens medius muscle. 9, The gluteus maximus muscle. 11, 12, The rhomboidens mi^or and minor muscles. 16, The serratua posticus inferior muscle. 22, The sermtns mognus muscle. The Flexor Cabfi Badialis passes under the annular ligament and bends the hand on the wrist. The Flexor Carpi Ulnaris bends the hand in the direction of the ulna. The Flexor Digitorum bends the fingers. The Extensor Digitorum extends the fingers. The Extensor Carpi Radialis extends the wrist on the fore-arm. THE MUSCLES. 79 MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 172. The Glutei give power of retaining the erect posi- tion. The Saetorius bends the lower extremities into the posi- tion assumed by the tailor at his work. The Kectus Pemoeis, Vastus Externus, and Vastus Internus extend the leg on the thigh. The Triceps Abductor Femoris bends the thigh tn the pelvis, rotates it outwardly and acts powerfully in bending the limbs inward. The Biceps Femoris forms the outer hamstring, assists in turning the leg outward, and also flexes it upon the thigh. The Extensor Digitorum splits into four tendons which pass under the annular ligament, and extend the four lesser toes and flex the foot. The Peroneus Longus extends the foot and inclines the sole obliquely outward. The Gastrochnemius Externus raises the body in walking, and extends the foot on the leg. The Tendo- Achilles (heel-cord) is formed by the con- joined tendons of the gastrochnemius externus and internus (and plantaris). It lies directly beneath the fascia and in- teguments. ? 14. Histology of the Mv8cijES.—An set" o*- s J: N s o a> o g ♦" m _: S 3 *o £• V j: O to . 00 p a _r s «■ g B *■ g S §.S • B S a " e « § =■1 I 2^ ti ^ 2 1 1 i 221. The muscles of the air-breathing Reptiles are always pale in color, and the fibres are tenacious of their contractility; 100 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOG-X AND HYGIENE. the energy of their contraction in some instances and on some occasions is great, but it cannot be continuously exer- cised, such power being soon exhausted. The form, size and relative number of the muscles are as various as in mammals and birds. In reptiles the muscular system of the trunk reaches its maximum development 'in serpents, and its minimum dc- THE MUSCLES. 101 velopment in the tortoise. The mandibular development ia generally large, while that of the limbs is comparatively small or entirely wanting. Fi8. 7?. no. 78. Mdsoles of thi Toktoibx.— I, DigMtrictu. 2, 3, Deltoides. 4, SerratoB Mag- nus. 6, 6, Triceps Brachii. 7, Biceps Brachii. 8, Uloaria IntemuB. 0. f lexores Dlgi^ tcnun. 10, Bartorins. 11, 12, Gafltrochnemius. 13, Triceps Adductor. 222. In Fishes there is a modification of the active motor organs, and a marked deviation from the fundamental ver- tebral type. The chief masses of the muscular system are disposed on each side of the trunk in a series of vertical plates, or flakes, corresponding in number to the vertebrae. Each lateral flake (myocomma) is attached by its inner bor- der to the osseous and fibrous parts of the corresponding seg- ment of the skeleton within ; by its outer border, to the skin ; and by its fore and hind surfaces, to the septum between it »• 102 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. and the contiguous myocoramas, or flakes. The gelatinous tissue of these septa is dissolved by boiling, and the muscular segments, or plates, are then easily separated, as we find in carving fish for the table. Each flake is arranged in a zig- zag manner. The muscular tissue of fishes is usually color- less, sometimes it is opaline or yellowish, but it is white when boiled. Fi». 74. Fia, H. MoBous oi ihi Fuh. — a, b, c, Tho ilgxag arrangement of the myocomma DIVISION III. THE NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 223. In the mastication and deglutition of food; in its conversion into fluids ; in its circulation in all parts of the system ; in its assimilation into the various tissues and organs of the body ; in its dis-assimilation, and in the excretion of useless matter ; — in a word, in the building up and repairing of the system, from the earliest period of embryo life to the last moment of earthly existence, certain organs are, used, which together may be termed the Nutritive Appaeatus : including the Digestive, the Absorptive, the Circulatory, the Assimilatory and the Respiraiory organs. CHAPTER VI. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. ! 19. Anatomy op the Digestivb Obgans. — Anatomy of the Mouth, — The Teeth. — The Salivary Glands. — The Pharynx. — 2%e (Esophagus. — The Stomach. — I%e Intestines. — 2%e lAxer. — The Pancreas. — The 224. The Digestive Oegans include the Mouth, Teeth, Salivary Glands, Palate, Pharynx, (Esophagus, Stomach, Intes- tines, Liver, Pancreas and Spleen. 225. The Mouth is the space bounded by the lips in front ; the soft palate behind, which separates it from the pharynx ; the hard palate above, enclosed by the teeth and alveolar arch ; and the floor below, upon which rests the tongue (the floor being included within the lower teeth and alveolar arch). I A3 104 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. 75. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 105 226. The Teeth are attached to the upper and the lower jaw-bone by means of bony sockets called alve'olar processes. The attachment is strengthened by the fibrous, fleshy struc- ture of the gums. Each tooth has "two parts — ^the erowra and the root: the crown is that part which protrudes from the jaw-bone and gum, arid is covered by the enamel ; the root, or fang, is that part contained in the socket of the jaw ; and the slightly constricted portion clasped by the gums is the neck. ti8. 76. Fia. 76 BEFB£BZHTS THz Addli TxETH^l, 2, Ihe cntting teetb (inciaoni). 3, £ye-toutli (cnepid). 4, 6, Small grinders (bi-ciispids). 6, 7, 8, Griudera (molars). 9, 9, Neck of the tooth. -These bony processes are absorbed after tho extraction of a permanent tooth, leaving the jaw-bone covered only by the lining membrane of the gum. This gives the narrow jaw and retreating lips of old age. A piece of the alveolar process sometimes clings to a tooth when extracted and the dentist has the credit of " breaking the jaw." 227. The first set of teeth, appearing in infancy, is called temporary, or the milk-teeth. They are twenty in number; ten in each jaw. Between six and fourteen years of age, they are replaced by the second set, called permanent teeth, num- bering thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. ES 106 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGHEITB, The four front teeth in each jaw are called Incisors (cutting teeth). They are convex in front, concave behind, gently rounded at the sides, and have a broad, chisel-shaped body, based on a rounded neck, terminating above in a sharp and slightly' serrated cutting edge. The next tooth on each side, the Ouspid (eye-tooth in the upper jaw, and stomach-tooth in the lower) is round, strong, with a very long, tapering root, and the body terminating in a point having on each side a partial serrature : the next two, Bi-cuspids (small grinders) have a rounded body terminating on its grinding edge in two points, one before, the other behind, with a rough groove between them : the next two. Molars (grinders), situated behind all the other teeth, have a crown, square or cuboid in form, with four points on the triturating surface separated by channeled depressions ; the last molar is the dens sapientice, or " wisdom tooth," smaller than its fellows, late in its development, and early in its decay. Fig. 77. Fio. 78. Fio. 77. Th£ Mouth and Neck LUn Open.— 1, The teeth. 3, 4, Upper and lower j.tira. 6, The tongue. 7, Parotid gland. 8, Sublingual gland. 9, Tnuihea (wind-pipe). 10, 11, (Esophagus (gullet). 12, Spinal column. 13, Spinal cord. Fia. 78. A Side View of Vaoe. — 1, 2, Trachea. 3, (Esophagus. 7, Sabmaxillair. S, Parotid gland. 9, Duct fl'om the parotid gland. 4, 4, 4, 6, 6, Muscles. The incisors, cuspids and bi-cuspids have each but one root ; the molars of the upper jaw have three roots ; those of the lower jaw, two roots. the' "digestTVe organs. 107 228. The Salivary Glands consist of three pairs — ^the Parotidj"^ the Submax'illary and the Suhling'ual. The Parotid Gland, the largest, is situated in front of the external ear, and behind the angle of the jaw. A duct (Steno's) from this gland opens into the mouth opposite the second molar tooth of the upper jaw. The Submaxillary Gland is situated within the lower jaw, anterior to its angle. 1 ts excretory duct (Wharton's) opens into the mouth by the side of the /rce'n.Mm lin^wz (bridle of the tongue). The Sub- lingual f Gland is elongated and flattened, and situated beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth; on each side of the frsenum lin^use, by the side of which are seven or eight small ducts opening into the mouth. Observation. — The "mumps" is a disease of the parotid gland, and the swelling under the tongue, called the " frog," a disease of the sublingual gland. 229. The Pharynx, or throat, is the funnel-like cavity about four inches in length, extending from the base of the . skull to the top of the fifth cervical vertebra, where it be- comes continuous with the oesophagus. The pharynx has four passages ; one leading upward and forward to the nose ; the second, forward to the mouth ; the third, downward to the trachea and the lungs ; and the fourth, downward and backward to the stomach. 230. The CEsophagus is a large membranous tube, ex- tending from the pharynx to the stomach. It lies behind the trachea, the heart and the lungs, and passes through the diaphragm. 231. The Stomach is a somewhat pear-shaped dilatation of the alimentary canal. When moderately filled, it mea- sures twelve inches in length, by four inches in diameter. It has two openings, one connected with the oesophagus, called the car'diac orifice ; the other connected with the upper por- tion of the small intestine, called the pyhr'ie orifice. * Gr., para, near, and oua, ear. t Lat., sab, under, and lingua, the tongue. 108 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 232. The Intestines are divided into the iSmall and the Large intestines. The small intestine is about twenty-five feet in length, and divided into three parts — the Duodenum, the J^u'num and the Il'emn. Fig. 79. Fio. 79 (Leidy). TuE Stomach and Intestines. — 1, Stumach. 2, Bnodenmu. 3, Siiinll Inteetine. 4, Temiiuatiou of tho iloum. 6, Coeciiin. 6> Vermifbrm appendix. 7, Aacend-- iDg colon. 8. Transverso colon, . 9, Besconding colon. 10, Sigmoid flexure of the colon. 11, Boctnm. 12, Spleen. Duodenum signifies twelve, and this part is so called be- cause its length is about twelve fingers' breadth, or ten inches ; Jejunum signifies fasting, the food passing quickly through this portion, leaving it empty ; Ileum, hmsted, is so named from its numerous coils or convolutions. 233. The large intestine, about five feet in length, is also divided into three parts — the Cceeum, the Colon and the Rectum: The Gceoum is so called from its forming a blind THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 109 pouch perforated at one end only ; the Colon, because the excrements are arrested, for a considerable time, in its folds ; and the Rectum, from its straight course. Attached to the extremity of the coecum is the appendix vermiformis, a worm-shaped tube, about four inches long, and the size of a goose-quill. Its function is unknown. The Colon is divided into three parts — ^the ascending, the trans- verse and the descending ; the lower portion of the descending colon makes a double curvature, called the sigmoid flexure. The Rectum extends from the sigmoid flexure to the terminus of the intestinal canal, a distance of six or eight inches. 234. The Liver is the largest glandular organ in the body, weighing about four pounds. It is situated in the right side below the diaphragm. It is convex above and slightly con- cave below; its convex surface being fitted accurately^ into the concavity of the diaphragm, and its concave surface in contact with the stomach, duodenum, colonp by the absorbent vessels and conveyed to the blood ; while tlie inuutritious portion is excreted from the system. 260. The absorbing surface of the intestines is enormously increased by tlie projecting forms and great abundance of the \illi: they hang out into the nutritious, semi-fluid mass con- tained in the cavity of the intestines, as the roots of a tree penetrate the soil, imbibing the liquid portions of food with wonderful rapidity. 5 33. Hygiene op the Digestive Organs. — Suggestions rekuive to the Preservation of the Teeth — To their Bemoval. Oonditions affecting the Quantity of Food demanded by the System. The QvuUUy of Food. Directions relating to the Manner of taking Food. Oonditions of the System requisite for the proper Digestion of Food. 261 . For the Preservation of the Teeth, the first requisite is to keep them clean. After meals they should be cleansed, to prevent the collection of tartar, and to remove any remain- ing particles of food. Such as are inaccessible to the brush, may be removed by tooth-picks made or wood, ivory or the common goose-quill. Metal injures the enamel. Night and morning, the mouth should be cleansed with pure, tepid water, after which the teeth should be thoroughly brushed on both surfaces. Occasionally, refined soap may be modStately used, if followed by thorough rinsing of the mouth. Sudden changes of temperature crack the enamel, hence extremes of heat and cold in food and drinks should be avoided. Acid and corrosive substances should also be avoided, as acidulated drinks and mineral waters, that " set the teeth on edge." All tooth-powders containing such articles should be banished from the toilet. Tobacco contains a "grit" which injures the enamel. It also discolors the teeth, debilitates the vessels of the gums, THE DIGBSTrVB ORGANS. 123 taints the breath and renders the appearance of the mouth forbidding. The teeth should be frequently examined, that if enamel is removed and decay commenced, they may be filled with gold-foil. All amalgams, pastes and cheap patent articles should be rejected, both for the sake of the teeth and the general health. 262. The Removal of the Teeth. The temporary teeth should be removed at once, when loose ; or before, if the per- manent teeth appear. This is essential to the regularity and beauty of the second set. Irregular or crowded permanent teeth, generally, require the removal of one or more. By pressure upon each other, the enamel is injured and the appearance rendered unsightly. With a little care the spaces left after extraction will soon be filled with the remaining teeth. Toothache does not always indicate the necessity of ex- traction, as the nerve, or investing membrane, may be dis- eased, and the tooth sound. Relief will then be afforded by proper medication. Observation. — When the removal of a tooth is necessary, apply to some skillful operator: something more is needed than strong muscles and a pair of forceps. Skill is as requi- site in the proper extraction of a tooth, as in the amputation of a limb. 263. The health '.f the Digestive Organs, in general, re- quires the observance of certain conditions relative to their natural stimulus — Food. These will be considered under the following heads : 1. The Quantity of Food. 2. The Quality of Food. 3. The Manner of taking Food. 4. The Proper Conditions of the System for receiving Food. 264. The Quantity of Food necessary to the system varies, being affected by age, occupation, temperament, habits, temperature, amount of clothing, health and mental 9tate. 265. The supply must equal the waste of the system. In every department of nature, waste attends action. The greater the 124 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. amount of exercise, the more rapidly will the particles bo worn out and removed, and their places need supplying with new atoms. During the period of growth, the supply must exceed the waste, for the building of new tissues. This accounts for the keen appetite and vigorous digestion in childhood. The same is true when persons have become emaciated from famine or disease. 266. When exercise is lessened, the quantity of food should be proportionally diminished, otherwise the tone of the digestive organs will be impaired, and the health of the system en- feebled. This is especially applicable to students, who have been accustomed to laborious employments. Self-denial should be practiced for a few days, when the real wants of the system will generally be manifested by a corresponding sensation of hunger. It is a common remark that in semi- naries and colleges, students from the country suffer more from indigestion and impaired health, than those from the cities. 267. More food is required in winter than in summer; hence, by diminishing the amount of food as the warm season ap- proaches, the tone of the stomach and vigor of the system will be better maintained, thus lessening the liability to 'f summer complaint." In this respect, the lower animals seem to learn from instinct, what man is slow to learn from reason. 268. The amount of food shouM be adapted to the present condition of the digestive organs. Imperfectly digested food irritates the mucous membrane of the intestines and debili- tates the system instead of invigorating it. In sickness, the attending physician is the person to decide respecting the proper amount. In health, the natural appetite is generally a safe guide, as to plain, nutritious food; but condiments, spices, etc., excite a morbid appetite, whose cravings it is un- safe to gratify. General languor of the body after meals, shows that undue demands are made for an increased supply of fluids to enable the overloaded stomach to free itself of its THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 125 burden. This, with the extra labor of the secreting glands, will soon be followed by debility and consequent inaction. 269. The Quality of Food shouid be both nutritive and digestible. Substances are nutniiovs in proportion to their capacity to yield the constituents of chyle. Substances are digestible in proportion to the facility with which they are acted upon by the digestive fluids. Articles highly nutri- tive in themselves, but diflScult of digestion, often yield less nourishment than those poorer in nutritive quality, but easy of digestion. If we confine our diet to easily digested articles, the digestive organs will be weakened from want of proper exercise ; if to highly concentrated diet, they will be injured by over-work ; hence, the necessity of choosing, in this respect, the " happy medium." 270. Proper aliment must contain the three stamincd prin- ciples of food. These are albuminous, oleaginous and saccha- rine substances ; the first contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen ; the last two are destitute of nitrogen. Various experiments have shown that if we feed upon any one of these groups, to the exclusion of the other two, or upon any two to the exclusion of the third, the health will be impaired. Milk contains all the food principles ;-^the albuminous, being furnished by its caseine; the oily, by the butter; and the saccharine, by the sugar of milk. Beef is rich in fat and albumen, and also contains inosit, or muscle sugar. Most of the cereals contain gluten (an albuminoid), starch, sugar and oil. Wheat, however, has the first three constituents without the oil. It is most nutritious in the form of " Graham flour ;" by rejecting the bran, most of the gluten is lost. Eggs are ■\'ery rich in albumen, and the yolk also contains oil. Beans, peas, etc. afibrd starch and much legumine (an albuminoid). Potatoes abound in starch. Sago, tapioca, rice, arrow-root, etc., are constituted almost wholly of starch. These articles or their substitutes, properly combined, will yield the neces- sary elements to the system. 271. Food should be properly cooked. However nutritious an article of food may be, if not well cooked, it is not only 11* 126 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. unsavory to the palate, but hurtful to the digestive organs. The simplest methods of preparation by cooking are the best. Meat should be broiled, roasted, or made into soup. Pried meats are apt to be indigestible and also less nutritious. The fat used in frying is infiltrated by the heat and usually penetrates the whole mass. It is mistaken economy to fry meats for the laboring class; better throw the fresh steak upon coals, and add simply salt and pepper, than to deluge it in boiling fat. Much of the nutriment of beef when salted, is extracted by the brine ; and during the process of boiling, still another portion remains in the boiling water, thus leaving but little more than, hardened muscular fibre to grace the platter. (The liquor of boiled beef may be converted into soup.) The breakfast "hash" is too frequently unfit to be eaten by the student or sedentary person, from want of being well cooked. The cooking of vegetables should be thorough and com- plete. The proper combination and cooking of a few articles of food (as flour, milk, eggs and butter), require skill, which in reality, assumes the importance of no inferior art 272. The Quality of Food should be adapted to the season and climate. Highly stimulating food may be used almost with impunity during the cold season of a cold climate ; but in the wsrm season and in a warm climate it is very injurious. Animal food being more stiniulating than vegetable, is there- fore well adapted to winter, and vegetable to spring and summer. Where the digestive organs are weakened or dis- eased, it is very important that a nutritious vegetable diet be adopted as the warm season approaches. 273. Vegetable diet is most suitable for diiMren. The organs of a child are more sensitive and excitable than those of an adult; hence, stimulants of every kind should be strictly avoided, and the food mainly of a vegetable character. Id this "fast age," this is a suggestion of vast importance. Parents mourn over many evil effects of unrestrained passion and moral deterioration in the rising generation, while in truth, these are too often but the legitimate harvest of the THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 127 seed they have themselves sown in the form of stimulating food and drinks. The old spelling-book assertion, that "Bread and milk is the best food for children" is as true now, as it was in the days of our fathers. 274. Some temperaments require more stimulating' food than others. As a general rule, persons of obtuse sensations, and slow movements, are benefited by animal or stimulating food ; while individuals of highly sensitive constitutions, and quick, hurried movements, require a nutritious and unstimu- lating vegetable diet. 275; The Manner of taking Food exercises a control- ling influence upon the health of the diggstive organs. 276. Food should be properly madieated. This is essential to secure the fine division necessary to the proper action of the gastric juice and other fluids, and especially to mix the food with the requisite amount of saliva. Bapid eating should be avoided, not only as a violation of good table man- ners, but as a violation of the laws of our physical nature, whose penalty, in the form of dyspepsia with its numerous train of evils, will sooner or later be visited upon the trans- gressor. 277. Drink sluyuM not be taken with th&food. Nature sup- plies the appropriate moisture, and if tea, coffee, or any other fluid be used as a substitute, indigestion will follow, from the absence of the necessary amount of saliva. Again, drinks taken into the stomach must be absorbed before the digestion of other articles is commenced. Thirst between the meals does not always arise from a demand of the system for fluids, but may be induced by fever or local disease of the parts connected with the throat. This may often be relieved by chewing a cracker, or some other dry substance, thus exciting the salivary glands. This is a safe resort when thirst accom- panies a heated condition of the system, arising from over- exercise ; while the practice of taking cold fluids is dangerous and should never be indulged. 278. Regard should he paid to the temperature of food and drink. Hot food or drink, for a short time unduly stimu- 128 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. lates the vessels of the mucous membrane of the gums, m«utb and stomach ; then reaction follows, bringing loss of tone and debility of these parts. This practice is a fruitful cause of spongy gums, decayed teeth, sore mouth and indigestion. On the other hand, if food or drink be taken too cold, an undue amount of heat is abstracted from the stomach, this arrests the digestive process, and thus deranges the system. 279. Food should he taken at regular and suitable perwda The interval between the meals should be regulated by the character of the food, and the age, health, exercise and habits of the individual. In the young, the active, and the vigorous, food is more rapidly digested than in the aged, the indolent and the feeble; consequently, it should be taken more fre- quently by the former class than by the latter. The average time required to digest an ordinary meal is from two to four hours. The stomach should always have from one to three hours of rest, before the next meal. Eating between meals, is a habit ruinous to the digestive organs, inasmuch as the chemical processes are by this means disturbed, and the stomach given no time for rest. 280. The Conditions of the System foe keceiving Food, are of practical importance for the healthy action of the digestive process. 281. Food should not be taken immediately before or after severe exercise of body or mind. The functional exercise of any organ abstracts fluids, sanguineous and nervous, from other parts of the body, thus weakening those parts for the time. Severe exercise of muscle, concentrates the forces in the muscle ; severe exercise of the brain, concentrates the forces in the brain ; the same is true of the vocal and other organs. Aftei severe exercise, from thirty to forty minutes should be allowed before eating, for restoring equilibrium to the system. The student, farmer or mechanic, who hurries from his toil to his dinner to " save time," will, in the end, lose more time than he saves. After eating, the digestive organs need, for a time, the chief use of the vital forces, and •f they are habitually expended elsewhere, as io itudy or THE DIGESTIVE OBvJAKS. 129 labor, digestion will be arrested, the chyle cheated of its proper elements, and headache, dullness and general derange- ment will follow. A moderate exercise of the muscles, a social chat and a hearty laugh, aid digestion, and tend " to shake the cobwebs from the brain." These directions are particularly applicable to the ambitious student who feels that he must "save time" and "must have the lesson." Let him try the experiment, and he will soon find that in the after-dinner hour, his. lesson is better learned when he spends half the hour in recreation, and the other half in close appli- cation. Many students are obliged to give up their course of study, from simple neglect of these rules. Observation. — The same principle will apply to lower ani- mals. They will perform more labor by having a suitable period of repose after being -"fed. Two dogs were fed upon the same kind of food, one was kept quiet, the other sent in pursuit of game. In an hour both were killed. In the stomach of the "quiet dog, digestion was nearly complete ; in that of the other, the food was scarcely altered. 282. Persons should abstain from eating at least three hours before retiring for sleep. It is no unusual occurrence for those persons who have eaten heartily immediately before retiring to have unpleasant dreams, or to be aroused from their un- quiet slumber by colic pains. In such instances, the brain becomes partially dormant, not imparting to the digestive organs the requisite amount of nervous influence ; this being deficient, the unchanged food remains in the stomach, causing irritation of this organ. A healthy farmer who was in the habit of eating a quarter of a mince pie just before retiring, became annoyed with unpleasant dreams, and among the images of his fancy, he saw that of his deceased father. Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physician, who, after a patient hearing, advised the patient to eat half a mince pie, assuring him that then he would see his grandfather. 283. The mental state exerts an influence upon the digestive process. This is clearly exhibited when an individual re- ceives sad intelligence. Let him be sitting at a plentiful F» 130 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. board with a keen appetite, and the unexpected news destroys it, because the excited brain withholds the stimulus ; hence all unpleasant themes, labored discussions, or matters of busi- ness, should be banished from the table. Light conversa- tion, enlivening wit and cheerful humor wonderfully promote digestion, Indigedion arising from nervous prostration should be treated with great care. The food should be simple, nutritious, properly cooked, moderate in quantity and taken at regular periods. Large quantities of stimulating food, frequently taken, serve to increase the nervous prostration. Exercise in the open air, and a cheerful state of mind, are very bene- ficial in restoring the natural, healthy action of the brain, and thus aiding the digestive powers. 284. After long abstinence, unstimvlating food should be taken, and in small quantities. As in case of sickness, when the appetite begins to return, the nurse must use much dis- cretion, and the patient, often, self-denial. The popular adage, " that food never does harm, when there is a desire for it," is untrue. Too frequently, when a patient satisfies his cravings, it is to induce relapse into the former disease, and at the risk of life. The digestive organs are weak, and must be gradually brought into action. It is often better to give the food in a solid, rather than liquid form, so that the salivary and mucous glands may be stimulated to action. 285. The condition of the skin exercises an important in- fluence upon digestion. Let free perspiration be checked, either from uncleanliness, chills or any other cause, and the functional action of the stomach is diminished. This is one of the fruitful causes of "liver and stomach complaints" among the filthy and half-clad inhabitants of our cities and villages. Attention to bathing and clothing would prevent many "season complaints," especially among children. 286. Pure air is necessary to give a keen appetite and vigorous digestion. The digestive organs must have a plentiful supply of pure blood, and to have pure blood we should breathe pure air. Poor ventilation is a frequent cause of indigestion. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 13] Persons who sleep in ill-ventilated rooms have little or no appetite in the morning. A manufacturer stated before a committee of the British Parliament, that he had removed an arrangement for ventilating his mill, as he noticed that his men ate much more after his mill was ventilated than before, and he could not afford to have them breathe the pure air. Compression of the vital organs prevents the introduction of a sufficient supply of pure air, and is one of the causes of dyspepsia now so prevalent among ladies.. General Observations. — All aliment is separated into nutri- ment and residuum. The latter should be regularly expelled from the system, otherwise headache, dizziness and general uneasiness will ensue, and if allowed to continue, the founda- tion will be laid for a long period of suffering and disease. For the preservation of health, there should be in most per- sons a daily evacuation of residual matter. Evening is the best time, especially is this true when persons are afflicted with piles. Constipation may, in many cases, be relieved by friction over the abdominal organs, and by making an effort to evacuate the residuum at some stated period each day. RECAPITULA.TION. — Digestion is most perfect when the action of. the cutaneous vessels is energetic; the brain moderately stimulated; the blood well purified; the mus- cular system duly exercised ; the food properly cooked and masticated, taken at regular periods, and adapted in quality and quantity to the present condition of thff individual. § 24. Comparative Splanchnology. — Nutritive Apparatus of Verte- brates. Compare the Mouths and Teeth of Vertebrates. — The Digestirt Fluids. — The Stomach and Intestines. 287. In the Nuteitive Appaeatus of all vertebrates, as IE the Motory, a general plan of parts obtains, subject to the variations required to preserve the harmony. of relation' between the organization and the use to which it is to be applied. 132 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 288. In no part do we find a greater variety or a, nicer accommodation to particular wants than in the Mouths and Teeth of different animals. In Mammals, the project- ing jaws, the wide mjuth, the strong, pointed, sharp, ena- meled edges of the teeth enable carnivorous, or flesh-eating animals, to seize and hold their prey, and the hinge-like movement of the jaw, to divide it like a pair of scissors ; as seen in the cat and the lion. The full lips, the rough tongue, the furrowed, cartilaginous palate, the broad, rough surface of the teeth, the central plates of enamel and the lateral move- ment of the jaw, qualify the herbivorous, or grain-eating ani- mals, for grazing, and grinding their food, as .the grain is crushed between the upper and nether mill-stone; as the sheep and the horse. The elongated, tapering muzzle, the Fig. 85. Fig. 86. '^mmm^ V^B^ "^■^'*ii^^|^i,.;3>-^ Fig. 85 REPREBBNTS THB TEETH OF CARNITORA, OR FLKSH-EatING ANIMALS. riS. 86 BEFRBSRHIS TBI THEIB OF InSXCTITORA, OR iHSECT-EATIHa AHIUALS. cone-pointed, enameled molars locking into the enameled de- pressions of the opposite jaw, enable the insectivorous animals to burrow in the earth, for the insects and worms upon which they feed, and also to crush them ; as in'the mole and hedge- hog. The two chisel-shaped incisors, enameled only in front, allowing more rapid wear of the posterior than the anterior part, keeping them always sharp; the bag of pulp at the base of these teeth, providing for growth equal to the wear a,t *he top ; the backward and forward movement of the jaws ; THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 133 and the great size and strength of the lower jaw, adapt the rodeutia, or gnawers, to their mode of life ; as in the rat and the squirrel. Fie. 87. Pio. 87. LowzB Jaw of a Sqtiiiuizl. — 1, The enamel of the gnawing tooth. 2, Tlif iTory. 3, The lateral furrows of the molar teeth. 289. In Birds the mouth receives a new character, both in substance and in form. Instead of fleshy lips and teeth of enameled bone, we have the hard and horny investment of the jaws, known as the bill, destitute of true teeth. This organ varies in size and form, according to the food of the species, which may be grains, insects, fishes or flesh. 290. Reptiles swallow their food without mastication, hence, their jaws and throats are made capable of great dilatation, and their teeth, used only for seizing and retaining their prey, all resemble each other. 291. The jaws of most Fishes are armed with teeth, and in many cases these are placed in all parts of the mouth, and even in the gullet. 292. In most animals, the digestive fluids are supplied by mucous follicles and glands, similar to the salivary glands in man. The simpler the function of the mouth, the smaller and simpler the arrangement for the supply of these fluids, as is seen in birds, also in reptiles, and some fishes that swal- low their food without mastication, and have no organ of secretion but the liver. 293. The Stomach and Intestines of vertebrates vary in size, form and relative length. They are simpler, smaller and shorter in carnivorous than in herbivorous or granivorous 12 134 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. animals ; while the ox has intestines about twenty times the length of his body, those of the lion are but three or four times its own length. Fio. 88. £'io. 89. Fia. 8S. Stomach op the Sheep. — ^1, The oesophagus. 2, The rumen. 3, The reticulum. i^ The omasum. 6, The abomaaum, or rennet. 6, The intestine. Fia. 89. Stomach of an Ox. — 1, The oesophagus. 2, The rumen (paunch). 3, The reticulum (honeycomb). 4, The omasum (many-piles). 6, The abomasum (rennet). 6, The Intestine. 294. Buminants, as the sheep and ox, have a stomach with four cavities. The first stomach, called the Ru'men, or "Paunch;" the second, the Retic'ulum, or "Honeycomb f the third, the Oma'sum, or "Many-Plies ;'' the fourth, the Ab'omor mm, or "Rennet :'' the latter, taken from the young calf, is used in cheese-making. The food, when first swallowed is received into the Rumen, where it accumulates while the animal is feeding. Here it is moistened by the fluids secreted by the walls of this cavity. It then passes into the Reticulum, where it receives addi- tional secretions, and is made into little pellets, or "cuds," which, when the animal is at rest, are returned to the mouth, to be re-chewed and mixed with the saliva. This pulp passes directly into the third cavity, to be prepared for the fourth, where true digestion takes place. It is then received by the intestinal canal. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Fio. 90. 135 Fio. 91. Fia. 90. Thi Auhentabt Canal op Man. — 1, OEsophagus. 2, The stomach. 3, Car- diac orifice. 11, Pylorus. 5, Biliary duct. 4, 4, 4, 4, Small inteBtines. 6, Fancreatio dact. 7, Ascending colon. 8, Transverse colon. 9, Descending colon. 10, Rectum. Fia. 91. The Alimbntabt Canal op a Fowl.— 1, The cesophagus. 2, Inglnvies (crop). 3, ProTenticuluB (secreting stomach). 4, Triturating stomach (g'izard). 6, Intestina 6, Two cffica. 136 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fia. 92. FiQ. 93. fto. 82. The Auhehtaet Cahu of thb FiTiira Lizabb.— 1, The (Bsophagna. 2, Th» •tomacb. 3, 3, Small Intestine. 4, Large intestine. I'lO. 98. Tub Aumimiaet Canal of lira Swok»-Fish.— 1, Liver. 2, 3, CascDS, or pouches, connecting with small intestine. 4, 5, Small intestine, coiled. 6, Iiorge lutes' tine. 7, Biliary duct 295. In Birds there are usually three cavities, or stomachs ; the first is a dilatation of the t)eso])hagus, called the Orop, or " Inglu'vies," where the food is macerated and softened; the second is the true stomach, named' JFVovenfnoWMS," where the mucous membrane is provided with mucous follicles, secreting au acid which acts still farther upon the food ; and the third is the Gizzard, or Trit'uraiing cavity. The latter, in graniv- orous birds, has immense strength, being composed of mus- cular fibres running in different directions, and lined with a homy membrane. Gravel arid angular stones are instinctively THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 137 swallowed to assist in the grinding process. In flesh-eating birds the gizzard is thin and membranous. 296. In Reptiles the alimentary canal differs much from that of mammals or birds. As a general rule, it is shorter in proportion to the trunk than in warm-blooded vertebrates. The transition from the cesophagus to the stomach ^s by a pouch-like enlargement ; the small intestines usually have a few coils; the large intestines in most reptiles are short, simple and straight, without csecal appendage at its begin- ning. The liver is relatively large. 297. In Fishes^ the alimentary canal is more diversified in length, size and form than in reptiles ; the cesophagus is a short and funnel-shaped canal ; the stomach is shaped either like a syphon or a pouch (cseca). In some species of fish, the small intestines extend in a line from the stomach to their termination; in others, there -are found from two to eight coils. The large intestines are short and straight. The liver is usually large, with numerous appendages. In the cod it is soft and saturated with oil, which is expressed for medicinal purposes. Fig. 94. _^ 3 Fia. 94. The Alihentart Canai op thb Herbwo.— 1, (EsophaguB. 2, Slomnuh. 8, 8, 3, 3, Small intestine. 4, 0»ca. 5, Air-bladder. 7, Pnenmatio duct. 12* CmPTER VII. ABSORPTION. 298. We have observed the changes in food till its forma- tion into chyle — changes which have taken place in the ali- mentary canal, and which are included under the general term, Digestion. The chyle, however, is virtually external to the animal body. The process by which it is conveyed within is called Absorption ; and the vessels conveying it are named Absorbents. The term absorption, used in its largest sense, however, includes more than the mere taking up of nutrient material from the alimentary canal. It embraces that general pro- cess by which all external soluble substances, whether solid, liquid or gaseous, beneficial or poisonous, nutrient, stimulant or respiratory, are introduced into the tissues of the body. It also comprehends, in part at least, the process by which portions of the living tissues are themselves removed, or ab- sorbed within the body. The former may be called General Absorption, and the latter. Intrinsic, or Interstitial Absorption. ? 35. Anatomy op the Absorbents. — The Process of AhatrpHon — Specific and Oeneral. The Absorbent Vessels. Lymph. IHatribnlion of the Lymphatics. The Thoracic Jhui. The LymphaMe Dad. Posi- tion of Lymphatic Olands. Absorbent Veins. 299. The absorbents consist of certain blood-vessels, espe- cially the venous capillaries, and the absorbents proper, viz., Lymphaiio* Vessels and Olands. The fluid conveyed by the lymphatic absorbents is a trans- parent, transuded portion of the blood, called Lymph. The lymphatic vessels of the small intestines are named 2iac'teafo,f * I/lt., lympha, water. f Lat., lac, milk. 138 ABSORPTION. P^G. 96. ir>9 Fl8. 96. A RzPESBENTATtOH OP THE LVMPHATIO yESBEM AND GLANDS.— J, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Tho lymphatic Tcssels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic glands. 8, The com- Diencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The lymphatics of the kidney. 10, Of the stomach. U, Of the liver. 12, 12, Of the lungs. 13, 14, 15, The lymphatics and glands of the arm. l6, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 19, 20, Large veins. 21, The thoracic duct. 140 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. from their milky appearance during active digestion, whev. they are filled with chyle. In the interval of digestion, they convey lymph like the other lymphatics. 300. The Lymphatic Glands through which the vessels pass are somewhat hard, pinkish bodies, varying in size from that of a hemp-seed to that of a large pea. 301. The Lymphatic Vessels are distributed through most of the system. Few are found in the muscles, and none in the brain or spinal cord, though they doubtless exist there. They abound in the secreting membranes, especially in the skin and the mucous membrane. The finer lymphatics unite into trunks, which either accom- pany the blood-vessels and form the deep lymphatics, or run on the surface of organs or in the sub-areolar tissue, forming mperfidal lymphatics. From all parts of the body, these trunks run toward the root of the neck and unite in two main trunks which end in the venous system, viz., the 3%o- raeie and Lymphatic Duets. The lymphatics of the lower limbsfof the abdomen, of the left side of the head and neck, and of the left upper limb, form the Thoracic Duct ; those of the right side of the head and neck, and right upper limb, form the Lymphatie Duct. 302. The Thokacic Duct commences with a dilatation, named the " Eeceptaculum Chyli," or receptacle of the chyle. This vessel is formed by the convergence of lymphatics from the lower extremities, the intestines, stomach, spleen, pan- creas, kidneys and the greater part of the liver. The " recep- taculum chyli" is usually placed upon the second lumbar vertebra, a little to the right of the aorta (329). It soon passes behind the arch of that vessel, crossing over the oeso- phagus, and ascends on the left side to the root of the neck, where it curves downward and outward behind the great blood-vessels, and finally opens into the angle at the junction of two large veins (330). 303. The Lymphatic Duct is about an inch long, and has a similar termination on the right side of the body. 304. The lymphatic glands are found in the axilla of the ABSOEPTION. 141 rio.06 (Leidy). TiEW or ihb Greit Lym- phatic Trunks.— 1, 2, ThoKujic duct. 4, The rigbt lymphatic duct, 5, Lymphatics of the thigh. 0, Iliac lymphatics. 7, Lumber lym- phatics. 8, Intercostal lymphatics, a, Supe- riorcava. 6, Lefti&tiumiuatevein, c, Right innomiuate vein, d. Aorta, e, Inferior cava. arm (arm-pit) and in the groins ; chains of glands are found on each side of the neck ; a few in the arm ; also many about the bronchi, or air-tubes; and in the pelvis or abdomen; — those of the lacteals being abundant in the Mes'entery* 305. The veins of the in- testines acting as absorbents unite with those coming from the stomach, the spleen and the pancreas, thus forming the Portal vein, which enters the liver through a fissure in the concave surface. ? 36. Histology of the Ab- sorbents. — Histology of the lymphcUic Vessels — Olands. Origin of the Lymphatics. 306. Most of the Lym- phatic Vessels are long, thread-like, transparent tubes, with coats so exceedingly deli- cate that their structure is a matter of inference from that of the Thoracic Duct, which has three coats, like the veins. The external coat is the thickest, and consists of white fibrous tissue, with longitudi- nal webs of elastic tissue ; the middle coat consists of uii- striated muscular, elastic and connective tissues ; the inter- • Gr., mescs, middle, and enteron, the intestine. 142 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. nal coat, of a lining epithelium, an elastic basement mem- brane, supported by longitudinal laminae of elastic tissue. The larger lymphatic tubes are liberally supplied with valves formed by the infolding of the inner coat. These valves are arranged in pairs, and are much more numerous in the smaller than in the larger vessels. In the thoracic duct, they are sometimes more than an inch apart. A very strong pair is placed at the opening of the thoracic duct into the large veins. Pig. 97. Fig. 98. Fig. 99. Fig, 97. A Singlb Lthphatio Vessel, much magnified. Fig. 98. The Taltes of a lymphatic trunk. Fig. 99. 1, A Lymphatic Gland, with several Tessels passing throngh It 307. The Lymphatic Glands are not well nnderatood. They seem to be composed of a large number of vesicles, or pouches, which communicate with each other and also with the lymphatic tubes. The tubes, or vessels, entering the gland, are called afferent vessels, and those emerging from i(, efferent vessels. Each vesicle of the gland seems to connect with an afferent and an efferent vessel. 308. The lymphatics are of such tenuity and transparency, it is with the greatest difficulty that they can be discovered. ABSORPTION. 143 hence, their origin is imperfectly known. They appear to originate in a capillary network among the sanguiferous capillaries, but not to communicate with them. The lacteals originate in the villi of the intestines, and unite more and more till their entrance into the receptaculum chyli. 309. The Lymph consists of a fluid part containing nuclei, minute granules, and sometimes a few oily globules. i 87. Chemistry of the Absorbents. — Chemioal Changes in the Absorbent System — In the Portal Circulation. 310. We know little of the chemical changes which take place in the absorbent system ; but the chyle drawn from the large absorbent trunks near their entrance into the " recepta- culum chyli" is very different from that just absorbed by the lacteals. During its passage through these vessels and their glands it undergoes important alterations, assimilating it to the blood. 311. The following table, by Carpenter, gives the relative proportions of the three chief ingredients of the chyle in different parts of the absorbent system. In the afferent lacteals, from the intestines to the mesen- teric glands : Fat in maximum quantity (numerous fat or oil-globules). Albumen in medium quantity. Chyle-corpuscles, fevf or none. - Fibrin almost entirely wanting. In the efferent lacteals, from the mesenteric gland to the Thoracic Duct : Fat in medium quantity. Albumen in maximum quantity. Chyle-corpuscles very numerous, but imperfectly developed. Fibrin in medium quantity. Tn the Thoracic Duct ; Fat in minimum quantity (few or no oil-globules). Albumen in mMium quantity. Chyle-corpuscies numerous, and more distinctly cellular. Fibrin in maximum quantity. 144 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 312. In the portal circulation, soon after the absorbed sub- stances are introduced into the blood, and come in contact with its organic ingredients, they become converted into other substances; the albuminose is in part changed into blood-albumen, a substance very different from albuminose or the original albumen. There is also probably some fibrin, while the sugar rapidly decomposes, losing its characteristic properties. The contents of the portal vein undergo changes in the liver before being taken up by the hepatic vein, but these are not well understood ; arriving at the entrance of the general circulation, these newly-absorbed ingredients have already become measurably assimilated to those pre- viously existing in the blood. § S8. Physiology op the Absokbents. — Office of the Lymphalia. Absorbent Power of Different Tissues. Absorption, in eases of Disease. Imbibition of Animal Membranes. 313. It was formerly supposed that the office of the Lym- phatics was excretive — that of conveying from the system portions of waste matter no longer of use ; but as these ves- sels are found to commence most frequently in tissues where nutritive changes are few — as there is a conformity in the nature of the fluids, chyle and lymph, the chief difference being due to the presence of fat, and a large proportion of albumen in the chyle — as the two fluids are conveyed into the general current of circulation, just before the blood is again transmitted into the system at large — the almost in- evitable inference is, that lymph, like cliyle_, is a mdritimu fluid. There is much evidence that the lymph is obtained from the blood, and it is not improbable that the lymphatics take up those crude materials which were absorbed directly by the veins and subject them to an assimilating agency, resembling that acting upon the nutritive substances in the lacteals. 314. The office of the lymphatics may also include an- other, assimilation. Disintegration of the tissues is every- where taking place. Every respiration, every heart-beat, every ABSOEPTION. 14-5 muscular movement, every thought, is produced at the ex- pense of the life of some of the tissues ; but, says Carpenter, " The death of the tissues by no means involves their imme- diate and complete destruction; and there seems no more reason why an animal should not derive support from its own dead past, than the dead body of another individual. Whilst, therefore, the matter that has undergone too com- plete a disintegration, to be again employed as nutrient mate- rial is carried off by the excretory process, that portion which is capable of being again assimilated may be taken cp by the lymphatic system." This whole lymphatic systeta may be looked upon as one great assimilating or blood-making gland. 315. Different membranes have different absorbent powers, and the power of the same membrane varies with change of condition. The most active is the mucous membrane ; thus, in the alimentary canal, it takes up a large portion of the food ; in the lungs it absorbs gases in a state of solution. In this way are introduced into the system miasmatic and con- tagious exhalations. Fine, solid particles are sometimes ab- sorbed, as arsenic. Instances of poisoning are not uncommon among manufacturers of artificial flowers and green paper- hangings, arsenite of copper or " Scheele's green" being em- ployed in the coloring. 316. Though much impeded by the cuticle, absorption takes place to a considerable extent through the skin, and the use of medicinal baths is based on this fact ; shipwrecked sailors, destitute of fresh water, find that thirst is relieved by immersing the body in salt water. Life is sometimes sup- ported for a time by immersing the patient in baths of milk or broth. 317. In serous and synovial membranes, the fluids poured out into the joint in rheumatism and other inflammations are absorbed. Absorption is shown in areolar tissue, as in taking up dropsical fluids ; also by sub-eutaneous injections of a solu- tion of morphia, to relieve suffering from neuralgic pain, from severe operations obstinate cough and other irritations. 13 6 146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Observations. — 1st, In cases of disease, where no food ia taken into the stomach, life is maintained by the absorption of fat. In consumption, even the muscles and more solid parts of the body are absorbed. 2d, Animals living in a half-torpid state during winter, derive their nourishment from the same source. 318. There are no visible openings In the membranes for llie passage of these absorbable substances, but their entrance seems to be effected by a peculiar action of animal mem- branes which enables certain fluids to pass directly through them by a kind of imbibition, a process called endosmo'm.* § 39. Hygiene of the Absorbents. — Oynditiom of Air off Absorption. Effect of Nutritious Food. Effect of the Bemcnxd of the Oaticle. 319. The air should be as free as possible from impure vapors and gases; hence the importance of thorough ventilation, especially in the sleeping-room, since exhalations from the system are greater at night than by day. Observation. — In infectious diseases, the impure air should be constantly carried from the room, and the nurse should be careful to avoid the infected air, approaching the patient on the side in which the currents of air are admitted. 320. Moisture increases the activity of the absorbents ; hence, persons living in marshy districts contract miasmatic and contagious diseases more readily than those living in a drier atmosphere. In such localities the house should be plenti- fully supplied with fresh air, and kept dry by the use of fires. Especially is this necessary morning and evening, in spring and autumn, and often in summer. Observation. — For the above reason, the air of the sick- room should be kept dry, otherwise the poisonous exhalations are absorbed by the lungs and skin/ both of the patient and of the nurse. 321. Nutritious food lessens the activity of the absorbents; * Gr,, endon, within, and osmos, impulse. ABSOEPTION. 147 hence, in cases of infectious diseases, due attention should be given to the food of the attendants and of the family. Some persons use alcoholic stimulants or tobacco, "to prevent taking disease," but these increase the activity of the ab- sorbents, and the liability to contract disease. A moderate amount of nutritious food will be more efficacious. 322. In handling poisons, care should be taken that the cuticle be unbroken, as absorption is very rapid when the skin ia removed. In contagious diseases, if the skin is broken, it should be covered with adhesive plaster while at work over the patient. ' In handling dead bodies, it is well to lubricate the hands with olive-oil or lard. The absorption of poisonous matter through a slight "scratch" or puncture of the cuticle, as the removal of a " hang nail," has cost several valuable lives. aaMUMCAmriDAlirair- WSmi'.KA wran/Mt juauLAi van -j^^^^S, '1 Ji'ia. 100 CHAPTER VIII. THE aiRGULATION. § 30. The Blood. GamposUion of the Blood. Relation of the Ahaorbeiii System to the Blood. 323. As the contents of the absorbent vessels enter the blood-vessels, they undergo their last complete change into that remarkable fluid, the blood, which contains all tiie mate- rials for the support of every part of the animal fabric. The blood consists of a liquid portion named liquor san- guinis, the plasma, or liquor of the blood, which holds in sus- pension multitudes of minute, circular bodies, called blood- corpuscles; these are of two kinds, the white, or colorless, and the red ; the latter are so minute that no less than one hundred millions are said to exist in a single drop of blood ; the red color is due to their accumulation, as, when in thin layers, they appear yellowish. They contain only a slightly colored fluid, while the white corpuscles have, in addition, a nucleus and indistinct granules. 324. The blood is constantly undergoing loss, from supply- ing material for the secretions, for nutritive changes in the solid tissues, and also in the blood itself. Observation. — The French call blood " chair coulant," run- ning flesh, and with reason, since it not only contains the same constituents as flesh, but one-fifth of its weight is solid matter. 325. In order that this blood with its cargo of supplies should fulfill its mission of nutrition, it must be kept con- stantly moving in a circuit, including every part of the body; this movement is called its Circulation, which takes place through the Heart and the Blood-vessels, which consist of the Arteries, Capillaries and Veins. 13 • 149 150 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. I 31. Anatomy or the Cieculatory Obgans. — Construction of the Heart, The Arteries, Veins and Capillaries, and their Mdaiion to eoei other. The Aorta and its Divisions. Arrangement of the Veins. 326. The Heabt is a LoUow muscle enclosed in a sac, named Pericardium,* In the male its proportion to the body is about 1 to 169 ; in the female, about 1 to 149. The heart is cone-like in shape, whence its triple division into base, body and apex. Its length is about five inches, and its basal diameter about four inches. It is everywhere free or unattached excepting at the base, which by means of the large blood-vessels is joined to the vertebral column, reach- ing from the region of the fourth dorsal vertebra to the eighth. The apex is directed downward, forward and to the left, pointing to the junction of the fifth rib with its cartilage. The interior of the heart is divided by a longitudinal mus- cular septum, or wall, into two chambers, named the right and the left chamber ; each of these is divided by a trans- verse constriction into two apartments, named the Au'ride'\ and the Ven'triele ; the auricle occupying the basal end of the organ, and the ventricles the body and apex. There are virtually two hearts placed side by side, having no communi- cation with each other and difiering in function. The right division is sometimes called the pulmonic heart, and the left the systemic heart. 327. The Arteries are firm, membranous, cylindrical tubes, arising from the ventricles of the heart by two trunks ; that from the left ventricle, named the Aorta, is the systemic trunk; and that from the right ventricle, named the Put- monio artery, is the pulmonic trunk. The systemic trunk,' or aorta, divides and subdivides into finer and finer arteries, like the branches from the trunk of a tree, excepting that these branches communicate with each other in a finer network, till the ultimate ramifications, too minute to be seen by the naked eye, extend to every * Gr., peri, about, and kardia, heart. f Lat, amis, an ear. THE CIRCULATION. 151 nook and corner and atom of the body. These final branches are called Capillaries. The Capillaries serve to connect the terminations of the arteries with the beginning of the veins, so that it is impos- sible to tell just where the artery ends, and the vein begins. Fig. 102. Fig. 101. A Front View op the Heart. — 1, The right auricle of the licart. 2, The left auricle. 3, The right yentricle. 4, The left ventricle. 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Vessels through which the blood parses to and from the heart. Fig. 102. A Back View op the Heart. — 1, The right auricle. 2, The left auricle. 3, The right ventricle, 4, The left ventricle, h, 6, 7, The vessels that carry the blood to and from the heart. 9, 10, 11, The vessels of the heart 328. The Veins thus commencing with the capillaries unite into larger and larger veins, converging toward the heart, like the branches of a tree toward its trunk, till the final union in two trunks (the ascending and descending Vense Cavse), that connect with the right auricle of the heart. The aorta and cavse constitute the large vessels of the Systemic, or general circulation. The Pulmonic, or lesser circulation from the right ventricle through the lungs to the left auricle, has a similar set of vessels; the trunk leaving the right ventricle is named the Pulmonic artery, and corresponds to the aorta ; those trunks conveying the blood to the left auricle and corresponding to the venae caviB, are named the Pulmonary veins. 152 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. 103. I'M. 103 {Leidy). The Aokta.— 1, Arch of tlie aorta. 2, Thoracic aorta. 3, Abdominal aor^ 4, Innominate artery. 5^ Right com- mon carotid. 6, Right subclavian. 7i Left common carotid. 8, Left subclavian. 9, Bron- chial artery, a small branch of tlie aorta. 10, (Esophageal arteries. 11, Intercostal arteries of the right side; 12, of the left side. 16, Oastrlc artery. 16, Splenic artery. 17, Hepatic artery. 18, Superior mesenteric artery. 19, Supra-renal arteries. 21, Infe- rior mesenteric artery. 22, Lumbar arteries. 23, Common iliac arteries. 24, Middle sacral artery, a. Aortic orifice of the diaphragm. 6, Articulation of the head of the ribs, o, Anterior scalene muscle. 329. The Aoeta springs from the left ventricle of the heart, is about an inch in diameter, and is the main trunk of the arterial system, supplying pure blood to every part of the body. It is divided into the arch, the thoracic and abdominal aorta. The Arch ascends from the heart, slightly in- clines toward the right side, curves obliquely backward to the left side, and descends to the left side of the third dorsal vertebra, where it be- comes the Thoracic Aorta. The arch gives off main branches as follows : the right and left Coronary ar- teries, whose branches ramify upon the walls of the heart ; the three trunks going to the head and upper extremities ; viz., the fe/< Carotid and left Subclavian and the In- nominata trunk, which soon divides into the right Carotid and right Subclavian arteries. 330. The Thoracic Aohta commencing with the termi- nation of the arch, descends at the left of the vertebral column, gradually inclining toward the median line, which it nearly reaches oppo- site the last dorsal vertebra, THE CIRCULATION. 163 where it passes through the diaphragm and becomes the abdominal aorta. The thoracic division gives oflf branches to the lungs, pericardium, oesophagus, lymphatic glands, the intercostal, pectoral and serrated muscles, also those of the back. 331. The Abdomikal Aosta inclines a little to the left, gives off branches to the liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, kidneys and to the abdominal muscles. Opposite the fourth lumbar vertebra, it divides into two large trunks, called the common Iliacs. These subdivide into two branches, called the external and internal Iliac arteries. The continuation of the external iliac when it reaches the groin, is named the Femoral ' artery, which passes down the groove of the thigh between the extensor and adductor muscles; after passing through the tendon of the great adductor muscle it is called the Popliteal artery, which divides into the anterior and pos- terior tibial arteries, the latter providing the fibular artery and various branches sent to several parts of the foot and toes. 332. The carotid arteries are divided into two branches, the external and the internal ; the former giving off branches to the face and head, excepting the brain and orbits, which are supplied by the latter. The subclavian arteries furnish branches to the brain, spinal cord and membranes, the ears, pleura, and various muscles of the back and neck. The extension of the subclavian artery is called the brachial in the inner and fore part of the arm ; the two main branches of the brachial extending down the fore-arm are named the radial, at the anterior and outer part of the fore-arm, and the ulnar, situated at the anterior and inner part of the fore-arm. The radial artery toward the wrist runs near the surface, being covered only by the fascia and skin. We learn the condition of the general circulation by its throb- bings, which we call the pulse. The radial and ulnar arteries divide and subdivide into the vaiious carpal, pal- mar and digital ramifications, supplying the wrist, hand and fingers. a* 164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fis. 104. Fia. 104 {Leidy). Left Common Cabotid iiTismo israo ini Extebkal amb Ihtibhax Caeotid Aetbbiis.— 1, Common caiotid artery. 2, Internal carotid. 3, External carotid. *, Superior thyroid. 6, Lingnal. 6, Pharyngeal artery. 7, Facial. 8, Inferior palatine and tonsillar arteries. 9, Submaxillary. 10, Submental. 11, Occipital. 12, Posterior auricular. 13, Parotid branches. 14, Internal maxillary. 16, Temporal artery. 16, Subclavian artery. 17, Axillary. 18, Vertebral artery. 19, Thyroid axis. 20, Inferior thyroid giving off the ascending cervical. 21, Transverse cervical. 22, Snprarscapular. 23, Internal mammary artery. 333. The Veins are arranged in two sets — the superficial and the deep-seated ; the former lie immediately under the skin, possessing no corresponding arteries; the deep-seated veins directly attend the arteries, and usually take the same name. The largest arteries have one venous trunk; the medium-sized have two, called venoe comites. The veins unite into eight trunks with their branches; the coronary vein receives the blood from the walls of the heart, aqiJ con- veys it to the right auricle ; the Superior Vena Cava derives THE CIECULATION. 155 its branches from the head, neck, upper extremities and walls of the thorax. It termi- nates at the upper back part of the right auricle of the heart. The Inferior Vena Cava col- lects the blood from the lower extremities, pelvis and abdo- men, and terminates in the right auricle. The Portal vein is a short trunk about three inches in length, derived from the con- vergence of the veins of the stomach, spleen, pancreas and intestines ; this passes into the liver, where it divides and subdivides, being distributed throughout the organ. This blood, with that of the hepatic artery, is returned to the gene- ral circulation by the hepatic veins (244). The Pulmonary veins are, four in number, two /or each lung. They commence with the capillaries of the lungs, and converge till a single trunk is formed for each lobe, or three trunks for the right lung and two for the left; but the trunk from the middle lobe of the right lung joins that from the upper lobe of the same side, and the four mouths dis- charge into the four angles of X Pig. 105 (Leidy). Veins of the TnoRas AND Abdomen. — 1, Inferior cava. 2, right, 3, Left renal veins. 4, Superior cava. 5, Right, 6, Left innominate yeins. 7, In- ternal veins. 8, External jugular veina, 9, Subclavian vein. 10, Azygos vein. 156 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the left auricle. The pulmonary veins perform the function of arteries, as they convey pure blood. Fio. 106. Fia. 106 (Zeidy). Ths Postal Ststeh or Ykins. — 3, Portal Toin. b, Splenic rein. Ct Right gastro-epiploic vein, d. Inferior meseDteric Tein. e, Superior mesenteric vein. /, Trunk of the euperior mesenteric artery. 1, Liver. 2, Stomach. S, Spleen. 4, Pan- creas. 6, Duodenum. 6, Ascending colon : the transverse colon ia removed. 7, SmoU intestine. 8, Descending colon. § 33. Histology op the Ciroulatort Organs.— J%e Pericardium and Endoawdivm. The Valves of the Heart. The Museular Slruc- twe of the Heart. The (hats of the Arteries — Of the Veins — Of the Capillaries. 334. The Peeicaedium, or heart-case, is composed of two layers, one fibrous, and the other serous. The fibrous layer forms a loose sac over the heart, being connected only at the THE ClECULATION. 167 base, from which it embraces the several blood-vessels and becomes continuous with their external coats. The serous layer closely invests the heart and also the great blood-ves- sels at its base, from which it is reflected to line the fibrous layer of the pericardium. Fro. ins. Fi6. 107. Fib. 107. Diagram or the Heabt, with its Imvesthkkt. — ^1, 1, Kight and left auricles. 2, 2, Right and left ventricles. 3, 4, Pericardium. 5, Pulmonary artery. 6, Aorta. Fio. 108. Bu&EAH op THE HEART AND Valteb.— 1, Descending vena cava (vein). 2, Ascending vena cava (vein). 3, Right auricle. 4, Opening between the right auricle and the right ventricle. 5, Right ventricle. 6, Tricuspid valves. 7, Pulmonary artery. 8, 8, Branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung. 9, Semi- lunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 10, Septum between the two ventricles of the heart. 11, 11, Pulmonary veins, 12, Left auricle. 13, Opening between the left auricle and ventricle. 14, Left ventricle. 15, Mitral valves. 16, 16, Aorta. 17, Semilunar valves of the aorta. 335. The Endocardium, or lining membrane of the heart, is a thin, translucent membrane continuous with the inner coats of the blood-vessels. It consists of an epithelium, an exceedingly thin basement membrane and a fibre-elastic layer closely adherent to the general muscular structure beneath. At the opening between the auricles and ventricles, at the commencement of the aorta and of the pulmonary artery, the fibro-elastic tissue forms four rings, sometimes called fibrous zones. It also forms valves by its little folds, en- closing muscular fibres. Those at the openings of the aorta and the pulmonary artery are named, from their shape. Semi- 14 158 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. lunar valves. They form complete pockets, three in number, and have a triangular arrangement about the orifices. Be- hind each of these valves is a cavity, or pouch, in the artery. 336. Between the auricles and ventricles are valves also formed by foldings of the endocardium. On the left side are two, named Mitral valves. They form a kind of curtain, from whose floating edge small white cords (chordae tendinse) pass to some of the columnse carnse, thus preventing the edge from being carried into the auricle. On the right side are three valves formed of three folds of membrane, called tho Tricuspid valves. Fig. 109. Fig. 110. Fia. 109. Spiral nnd involuted arrangement of the fibres of the heart Fia. 110. Otration of the fibres of tho heart at tho apex. 337. The muscular structure of the heart is based upon the four fibrous zones, which furnish a point of departure for most of the muscular fibres in the ventricles. Those of the auricles and of the ventricles are quite independent of each other. The crossing fibres form networks arranged in three circular laminae, the superficial, middle and internal. Tho superficial fibres commence at the base, and pursue a spiral course to the apex ; those of the right side, running from right to left ; those of the left side, from left to right. These two spiral sets encircle the apex and cross each other some- what like the lines in the figure 8, thus forming a remark THE CIECULATION. 159 able whorl, called the vortex. They do not stop here, hut pass inward and turn upward to the auriculo- ventricular fibrous rings from whence they started, forming the deep- seated layer, or the true walls of the ventricles with their fleshy columns ; hence the deep-seated and superficial layers are continuous muscles. Between these two layers is the middle stratum of fibres, more or less circular, forming a truncated cone, with its base corresponding to the auriculo- ventricular orifice. 338. The muscular fibres of the auricles consist of a super- ficial set investing the anterior portion of both auricles, and a deep-seated layer which in the left auricle constitutes a network of circular and oblique fibres, all traceable to the auriculo- ventricular orifice, around which they form sphincter muscles. The corresponding fibres of the right auricle intersect each other, and are traceable to the corresponding orifice. 339. The Arteries have comparatively thick walls, com- posed of three coats continuous with the endocardium and the fibrous coat of the pericardium. The external coat is chiefly of white fibrous tissue, with the spiral fibres crossing each other from opposite sides of the vessel. This coat is quite thin in the aorta and larger trunks; it forms about half the thickness of the walls in the medium-sized vessels, and disappears entirely in the smaller vessels. The middle coat is thick in the large arteries, and gradually becomes thinner till its disappearance before reaching the capillaries. This coat is, in the large trunks, chiefly composed of elastic tissue with some muscular fibres ; in the smaller vessels, of muscular tissue with few elastic fibres. The inner coat is thinnest and most elastic ; like the endocardium, it has an epithelium, a basement membrane and a layer of connective elastic tissue. The latter is intimately connected with the middle coat. 340. The Veins are constructed, in general, like the ar- teries, but their coats are much thinner. Many of the larger veins, particularly in the limbs, have crescent-shaped valves, usually arranged in pairs and opposite each other. These are 160 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. formed by the doublings of the lining membrane, strengthened with intervening fibre-elastic tissue. Behind each valve there is a dilatation of the vein, forming a little pouch. The pul- monary veins have no valves : the same is true of the vense cavse, the portal vein and its branches, the hepaticse, renal and spinal veins, and most of those of the head and neck ; they are more abundant in the lower than in the upper ex- tremities. The walls of both arteries and veins are furnished with nutritive vessels and with nerves. Fia. Ill (Leidy). DiAORAMS EXHiBiiufo the Arrangeubnt op th£ Valtss of Vuns. — A, Vein laid open, showing the valves in pairs. B, Longitudinal section of a vein, in- dicating the mode in- which the valves, by apposition of their &ee edges, close its calibre. The dilated condition of the walls behind the valves is also seen. 0, Vein distended, showing how the sinuses behind the valves become dilated. 341. The Capillaeies are exceedingly delicate tubes, which are continuous with the basement membrane of the in- ternal coat of the arteries and veins. The network of the capillaries varies, adapting itself to the particular tissue in which it is found ; thus, in the lungs it takes the form of the air-cells ; in the muscles the meshes are elongated. i 33. Chemistry of the Blood. — Amdysis of the Blood. Bdative Proportions of Different GkenmaX Sabstances in the Oorpusde and the Ptaema. 342. The analysis of blood by diflferent chemists gives very different results, due chiefly to the variable composition of THE CIRCULATION. 161 this fluid under different conditions connected with health, age, temperament, etc. The following table from Lehman shows the composition of 1000 parts of blood, calculated from the analysis of venous blood by Lecanu : Corpuscle. Plasma, Total. Water 344.000 451.45 795.45 Hfimatin 8.375 8.375 Globulin 141.11 141.11 Fat 1.155 .86 2.015 Extractive matter 1.3 1.97 3.27 Salte 4.06 4.275 8.335 Fibrin 2.025 2.025 Albumen 39.42 39.42 500.000 500.000 1000.000 343. According to this estimate, blood contains about eighty per cent, water and twenty per cent, solid matter. In round numbers, of the 205 solid parts, 166 belong to the red and white corpuscle, and 141 are globulin (modified albu- men), 8} parts hsematin ; the red coloring substance, 1 part fat, IJ extractive matters, and 4 parts salts, chiefly salts if potash. The remaining 49 parts of solids belong to the liquor sanguinis, or fluid portion of the blood, and include rather more than 2 parts blood-fibrin ; the rest of these solids are proper to the serum of the blood, and consist of 39} parts of albumen, 1 fat, 2 extractive matters, and 4i salts, chiefly soda. 344. Other mineral substances are found in small quan- tities. The distribution of mineral substances in the blood is peculiar. Thus, the red corpuscles contain ten times as much potassium as the liquor sanguinis, but only one-third as much sodium ; the corpuscles contain five times as much phosphoric acid as the liquor sanguinis, but only about half as much chloride. The chloride of sodium (common salt) is, there- fore, chiefly contained in the fluid plasma of the blood, and the phosphoric acid principally, and the potassium almost entirely, in the corpuscles, which also contain a large share of the fatty matters. 14 • 162 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Blood charged with gases, especially oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid, has a saline taste, and is an alkaline fluid. When blood is exposed to the air, the fibrin coagulates, carrying down with it mechanically the corpuscle; this leaves an amber-like fluid, called serum, in which the clot floats. I 34. Physiology of the Circtjlatory Oegans. — Necessity Jm OirciUaiion—For the Dovhle System of drcvlalion. Plan of Systemii Cfireulaiion — Of Pulmonic Oirculation — Their Relation to Each Other. Provisions necessary in a Oireidatory Apparatus, The (Xreulatory Im- pulse. Preoention of a Be-flow. Additional Forces for maintaining the Current in the Arteries — In the Veins. Equalization of the OurrenU Supply of a due Proportion to each Organ. Provision for Contingencies. The Mechanism of the Body Compared with Works of Art. 345. The tissues are so constructed that their vitality de- pends upon their activity, and their activity upon the amount of oxygen and nutritive material supplied ; the oxygen being essential to the chemical combinations, without which there • could be no new deposit of tissue particles, and also to fur- nish a stimulus, especially to the nervo-muscular system ; and the nutritive matter being necessary to supply the waste produced by these chemical and vital activities. Hence, the necessity of a pneumatic apparatus for providing a constant and sufficient supply of oxygen ; and of a hydraulic appa- ratus for conveying the prepared nutriment to every atom of the body, and also to remove the waste, worn-out particles. The former need is met by the exquisite mechanism of the lungs, and the latter by the no less refined mechanism of the heart and blood-vessels. The two apparatuses are brought into use and harmonious co-working, by the double circulation of the blood, hence the necessity of the double heart 346. From the left ventricle the blood is forced into the aorta, to be diffused through the arteries to the capillaries in every part of the body ; thence it is returned by the veins, through the vense cav£e, to the right auricle, which delivei-s it to the right ventricle; this completes the Systemic dreur lotion. From the right ventricle it is thrown into the pul- THE CIRCULATION. 163 monary artery, and through its branches to the pulmonary capillaries, thence, returned by the pulmonary veins, which coalesce into four trunks, and finally enter the left auricle, which immediately pours it into the left ventricle. This completes the lesser, or Pulmonic OirculaMon, and the two constitute one complete circuit of the double circulation. Fig. 112. Fig. 113. Pio. 112. A DlAOBAM. — 1, Left ventricle of the heart. 2, 3, Aorta. 5, 5, Arteries that oxtend to the lower extremities. 6, 6, Arteries of the neck. 7, 7, Arteries of the arms. Fio. 113. A nusBlll. — 1, Right auricle of the heart. 2, 3, Large veins that open into the right auricle. 4, 4, Veins of the lower extremities. 5, 5, Veins of the ar:na. 6 Veins at the neck. The arrows show the direction that the blood flows. 164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 347. Both circulations are carried on at the same time, that is, the auricles contract and dilate simultaneously ; the same is true of the ventricles, whose action immediately fol- lows that of the auricles. Hence, at the same instant, by the action of the ventricles, pure blood is thrown into the body, and impure blood into the lungs ; and at the same in- stant, the auricles receive impure blood from the body, and pure blood from the lungs. Fio. 114. Via. 115. Fio. 114. A DlAGRAU, — ^1, Left auricle, 2, Bight auricle. 3, Left Teutricle. 4, Right Tentricle. 5, 5, Pulmonary artery. 6, Trachea. Flo. 115. A DiAOBAH. — 1, Right auricle. 2, Left auricle, 3, Right Tentlicle. 4, Left Tentricle. 6, 5, Right and left pulmonary veius. 6, Trachea. 348. How to construct and keep in successful operation an apparatus which should secure the free circulation of the blood, was no easy mechanical problem. It was necessary to provide the requisite motor-power at the starting-point; to prevent a backward flow ; to protect the arteries against the force of the heart ; to maintain a ceaseless current ; to equalize the pressure, especially in the capillaries ; to ensure the proper relative quantity of blood to each organ ; and to provide for contingencies arising from accident, or other ab- normal action. 349. For giving the proper circulatory impulses, we find in each heart, instead of a single cavity, the auricle and ventricle affording a far more powerful impulse. The auricle THE CIRCULATION. 165 is gradually filled by steady streams from the veins, hence the contraction and consequent force is moderate ; but as the ventricle receives the whole quantity at once, there is a sud- den energetic contraction or jerk, hence, a powerful thrusting of the blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery. Also the peculiar spiral and circular arrangement of the muscular fibres of the ventricles is most effective in producing the greatest projectile force. Here comes in a beautiful example of the adaptation of each part to its destined use. The walls are much thinner in the auricles than in the ventricles ; and of the two ventricles, they are thinner in the right than in the left, inasmuch as the right sends the blood only to the surrounding lungs, the left, to the remotest part of the body. The power and the required impulse exactly correspond. 350. Though the arrangement of fibres in the heart is such as to give the blood a decidedly forward impulse, yet the danger of a backward flow is evident. This movement is prevented in the auricles, by the contraction of the muscular fibres about the mouths of the veins ; by the contraction of the vein-walls ; and also in the right auricle, by valves in the mouths of the inferior vena cava and the cardiac sinus, and by the valves in the veins at the base of the neck. The re- flow from the ventricles is prevented by the mitral or bicuspid valves of the systemic heart, and by the tricuspid valves of the pulmonic heart. By the contraction of the muscular columns of the ventricles, the chordae: tendince, or little cords of the valves, are stretched, bringing the delicate membranes together and into the ventricle, thus efiecting a closure. The reflux from the aorta and the pulmonary artery is obviated by the semi-lunar valves. The slightest re-flow fills the little pouches behind the valves, thus closing them till the next contraction of the ventricle. The valves of the right side are more delicate than those of the left, their strength and form being, in each case, exactly adapted to their specific work. 351. The arteries are protected against the sudden action of the heart, by the elastic fibres of their middle coat, which yield easily, thus preventing the liability to rupture. 166 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 352. The maintenance of the circulatory current, though largely due to the original impulse of the heart, or the " vis a tergo," is aided in various ways. The smooth, glassy sur- face of the inner arterial coat lessens the friction ; the recoil of the elastjc fibres of the middle coat after distension, and the contraction of the muscular fibres of the same coat, urge the blood forward. These fibres increase in number, accord- ing to the distance from the heart. The respiratory move- ments also aid the arterial flow. 353. The capillaries have probably no contractility, and though the heart-impulse may be sufficient to inject the blood into them, it can hardly effect the passage through. Hence other means are employed. We think the following physical principle, as applied by Prof. Draper, will account for the capillary circulation. If two liquids communicating with one another in a tube, have for that tube different chemical affinities, movements will ensue, and that liquid having the strongest affinity will move most rapidly, often driving the other liquid before it. Now, these are the exact conditions in the capillaries of the systemic circulation ; the arterial blood, as it contains oxygen, with which it is ready to part and take in exchange carbonic acid which the tissues set free, must have a greater affinity for these tissues than has the venous blood in which these changes have already taken place. Hence, the arterial blood entering at one end of the capillaries must drive before it, and expel at the other end, the blood which has become venous in passing through them. The same principle holds in the pulmonic circulation, but the affinities are opposite. The venous blood has a strong affinity for the oxygen in the air-cells of the lungs, and contains car- bonic acid which it is ready to give up ; hence, the exchange takes place, and the arterialized blood, having no longer an affinity for the air, is driven by the venous blood, and thus the circulation goes on as long as the blood continues to be Derated. The portal current is accounted for in the same way. The oile-secreting cells of the liver are made up of materials con- TUB CIRCITLATION. 167 veyed by the portal veins and capillaries, and hence have an afl^ity for them. The supply having been deposited and the affinity thus destroyed, the fluid will be driven into the hepatic capillaries, thus maintaining the portal current. 354. The flow through the veins is continued by the com- bined action of several forces; viz., the capillary impulse; the suction-power of the dilating auricles, drawing the blood to the heart, or the " ids a fronte ;" the presence of valves, single in the small veins, double in the larger trunks, and sometimes composed of three flaps ; and the thoracic respira- tory movements. 355. The intermittent pressure caused by the action of the heart is equalized by the frequent branching and the anas- tomosing of the arteries as they approach the organs to which they are distributed, since the more points of entrance, the less will be the pressure ; and by the elastic coat of the ar- teries, whose after-distension gradually converts the separate impulses into a continuous motion, otherwise the capillaries of many delicate structures would doubtless be ruptured. "We find the elastic tissue most abundant in the vessels near the heart, just where it is most needed. 356. The proper relative amount of blood is secured to each organ primarily by the adaptation of its main artery, and it is interesting to notice how the size of the artery every- where corresponds to the need of the organ. Again, the calibre of the arteries is susceptible of variation within . cer- tain limits ; hence, the supply of blood to any organ may be in some measure regulated by the contractility of its arteries, which is itself controlled by the nervous system. 357. Contingencies are also provided for, by the frequent anastomoses of the arteries, by their capability of distension, and also by their capability of positive enlargement by the increased nutrition of their walls. Hence, though obstruc- tions should exist in some part, the organ may be measurably supplied with blood. 358. Though our knowledge is so imperfect, our tracing BO indistinct, our souls must be dead indeed if they do not J 68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. respond to the exclamation of him of old, " I am fearfully and wonderfully made" — fearfiilly, for often, as in the heart- valves, there is but a gossamer web, a tendinous cord, be- tween the life here and the life beyond : wonderfully, for in all the round of human arts, we find nothing which can at all compare, in perfect simplicity, in faultless skill, in match- less beauty, in the refinements of philosophy and in the subtleties of chemistry, with this vital workmanship, which can be none other than that of God. Till we reach our utmost range of vision, it is ever the same unfolding of the care, the wisdom, the -benevolence of Him to whom nothing is great and nothing small ; and beyond our finiteness, His eye alone surveys the work of busy legions of artificers, ever building up what the wear and tear of life is ever breaking down ; His ear alone listens to the music of the million life- rills, as they murmur on in their ever-ceaseless flow. 2 35. Hygiene or the Cntcui-ATOBY Organs. — OondUumsfoBoring Free Circulation. Treatment of Divided Arteries. 359. A natural and equal temperature should be preserved. The blood-vessels are contracted by cold, hence, a chill in any part of the body drives the blood to other parts. The chilled part is thus weakened, while the over-burdened parts suffer from congestion. If the surface is chilled, the blood is thrown upon the internal vital organs, hence the necessity of warm clothing, and also frequent bathing, which favors the free action of the cutaneous vessels. 360. The elothing should be loosely worn. Compression of any kind impedes free circulation. Pressure about the vital organs is especially injurious. Ligatures used to retain in place any article of apparel should be elastic. Tight dress- ing of the neck deprives the brain of its due amount of blood, and retards the free return of venous blood from this organ ; an item of particular importance to students, public speakers and persons predisposed to apoplexy or any brain disease. 361. Exercise promotes the circulation of the blood. By the action of the muscles, the blood is propelled more rapidly THE CIRCULATION. 169 through the blood-vessels, thus promoting a vigorous circula- tion in the extremities and skin. The best stimulants for a pale skin and cold extremities are a union of vigorous mus- cular exercise with agreeable mental action, and systematic bathing attended by thorough friction. 362. The quality and quariMy of the blood modify the action of tlie heart and blood-vessels. If this £uid is abundant and pure, the circulatory vessels act with more energy than when It is deficient in quantity or defective in quality. ' Illustrations. — 1st, If blood in large quantities is drawn from the veins of an athletic man, the heart will beat feebly and the pulse become weak. 2d, A similar effect is pro- duced when the blood becomes vitiated by the inhalation of impure air. Fie. 116. FiO. 118. Thi Mahiiss op CoMPEESSDia DmDBD Aktbeiss.— A,Compre8slngthe large Krterj of thb arm with the thumb. B, The subclavian artery. G, Compressing thr iiTided extremity of an artery in the mound with a finger. 363. Hemorrhage frrnn divided arteries should be arrested, 15 H 170 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. otherwise the heart soon ceases its action, and the person faints. If a large artery be wounded, every beat of the pulse throws out the blood in jerks. Until surgical help can be summoned, the flow of blood may be stopped either by com- pressing the vessel between the wound and the heart, or by compressing the end of the artery next the heart in the wound. Fio. 117. Fio. 118. Fig. 117. Tb£ Method of Applying the Knotted Handkerchief, to compross « iliTided artery. A, B, Track of the brachial artery. Fia. 118. A, C, The track of the femoral artery ; the compress applied near the groin. After compression as described and illustrated, take a square piece of cloth, or handkerchief, twist it comerwise, and tie a hard knot in the middle. Place the knot over the artery between the wound and the heart, carry the ends around the limb and tie loosely. Place a stick under the handkerchief near the last tie, and twist till the 'fingers can be removed from the compression without a return of the bleeding. When an artery in a limb be cut, elevate the limb as far as possible, till the bleeding ceases. 364. In flesh wounds, when no large vessel is divided, wash the parts with cold water, and when bleeding has ceased, draw the incision together, and retain it with strips of ad- hesive plaster, not more than a quarter of an inch in width. Then apply a loose bandage, and avoid all ointments, " heal- THE CIRCULATION. 171 ing salves " and washes. In removing the dressing from the wound, both ends of the plaster should be raised and drawn toward the incision. To lessen the liability of a reopening, a proper position for the union should be regarded. If the wound be between the knee and ankle, and on the anterior part, extend the knee and bend up the ankle ; if on the pos- terior part, reverse the movement, and, in general, suit the position to the case. Fio. 119. Fig. 119 represents the Manner of applying adhesive strips to woaadB. Ohservaiion. — The union of the divided parts is effected by the action of the blood-vessels, and not by salves or ointments. The only object of the dressing is to keep the parts together and protect the wound from air and impurities. Nature per- forms her own cure. Such wounds seldom need a second dressing, and should not be opened till the incisions are healed. Fig. 120. Fio. 120. a, a, REPRESENTATioif op Womojs on the back part of the arm and fore-arm, h, b, Wonnds of the anterior part of the arm and fore-arm. By bending the elboir and wrist, the incisions at a, a, are opened, vhile those at b, b, are closed. Were the arm ex- tended at the elbow and wrist, the wonnda at a, a, would be closed, and those at b, b, vould be opened. Wounds made by bluut instruments do not admit of direct 172 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. and immediate union. In these cases, a soothing poultice, as of linseed-meal, may be applied, and the limb should bo kept still. A physician should be consulted, as dangerous diseases may be induced by such wounds. Wounds from poisonous bites may be treated at first by suction, either by cupping-glasses or the mouth, thus preventing the absorption of the poisonous matter into the system. When this is effected, cover the wound with a poultice, as one made of ground slippery-elm bark. Observation. — Although animal poisons, when introduced into the circulatory fluid through the broken surface of the skin, frequently cause death, yet they can be taken into the mouth and stomach with impunity, if the mucous membrane lining those parts is unbroken. § 36. Comparative Anqiology. — The Oomposiiion and Gireulaiilm of the Blood of other Mammals, of Birds, of SeptUes and of Fishes, as compared with the same in Man. 865. In most Mammals, the blood is similar to that of man, but the largest animals, as the elephant, have very small corpuscles. All mammals have four cavities in the heart, as in man. Its form, however, is more rounded and less elongated. The heart in quadrupeds lies on the median line of the body, and not a little to the left of it, as in man. There i^ a marked peculiarity in the distribution of the Fio. 121. Fio. 122. Fio. 123. Fid. 121, DiAQBAH 07 TDii IlEAST OT TBI Muiiuu— 7, Right aurlcle. 8, Right Ten- trtclo. 10, Fulmonto artery, 12, Pulmonic veiD. IS, Left auricle. 16/Loft ventricle. Via, 122. VuaniLJS or the Hsurt of the Beptilb.— 1, Pericardium. 2, Single Ten- triclo. S, Left auricle. 4, Right auricle. The arrows show the direction of the blood. Ti(i. 123. DiAOiiAH OF THE Heaet OF THE Fisii.— 1, Pericardium. 2, The Tentrlcl* that recelTes the blood from the body. 8, The Tontriclo that sends blood to the gills. THE CIRCULATIO^ 173 Fia. 124. arteries of quadrupeds. In the long necks of grazing animals, there is found a large number of small arterial trunks, which are termed "Wonder Nets." Were these trunks few and large, as in man, the life of the animal would be endangered by the constant dependent position of the head. 366. The blood of Birds has the highest temperature of the vertebrate ani- mals. It is richer in corpuscles than that of Mammals, and these corpus- cles are elliptical in form, instead of globular. The heart of birds is highly muscular, and of large size in proportion to the bulk of the body. The aorta, at its commencement, di- vides into three large branches, of which the first two convey the blood to the head and neck, wings, and muscles of the chest; while the third, curving downward around the right bronchus, becomes the de- scending aorta. There are " Won- ^"'' ^^ Aetekies of the Tkcnk of a Bied (the Grebe). — 1, The aorta. 2, The vena cava. 3, A cerebral artery. der JN etS in Va- The small Imes on each side represent the arteries and rioUS parts of the veins of the lungs. 15* 174 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. body, especially in the arteries supplying the brain, eyes and legs. Fio. 126. Fio. 126. Vii. 126. OiiiouL;VTiOH Or A RiFTiu (a Lizard).—!, Iloart. 2, Left auricle. S, Rigi-t Auricle. 4, Arches of the aorta. 6, Superior vena cava. 6, 10, Abdominal aorta. 7, Inferior Tenava. 8, Pulmonary artery. 9, Portal veinB. .12, Lnnga. IS, Stomach. 14,Int«tlnea. Tia. 126. Bloos-Vibskls of a Vibh.— 1, Auricle. 2, Tentriole. S, Arterial bulb. 4, Bronchial artery (gill). 6, Bronchial Teaseia. 0, 10, Dorsal artery. 7, VonouB siniuk 8, Portal vein. 9, vena cava. 11, Intestines. 12, Kidneys, THE CIRCULATION. 175 867. In Reptiles, the blood is mucli cooler than in mammals and birds, and, having fewer globules, is lighter in color. The heart has only three cavities instead of four, viz., two auricles and one ventricle. The arterial blood coming from the lungs is received into the left auricle, and the venous blood from all parts of the body into the right auricle ; both are poured into the single ventricle, thus mixing the pure and impure blood, which will account for the sluggishness of these animals. A portion of this mixture returns by the aorta into the different organs it is intended to nourish, while another part proceeds to the lungs by vessels springing from the ventricle or the aorta. The arrangement of the blood- vessels of different classes of reptiles greatly varies, as some breathe by gills and others by lungs ; the frog in its early condition is furnished with the former, but in its later growth with the latter. 368. In Fishes, the blood is cold, usually red, and the cor- puscles small and bi-concave. The heart has but two cavi- ties — one auricle and one ventricle, containing only impure blood ; this blood is sent to the giUs, which answer the pur- pose of lungs, and, after being there exposed to the oxygen of air contained in tJie water and purified, it is distributed immediately to the different parts of the body, without the interposition of a heart CHAPTER IX. ASSIMILATION. § 37. AsrniUation, General and SpeeUd. Formation of Different Pof turns of ike Blood. Ohanges included under Secondary Assimilation. Searetion, or Special Assimilation. Excretion, charaeteristie of all Se- cretory and Excretory Qlands. The Kidn^s. 369. In the human body, as elsewhere, the essential con- dition of physical life is death. While the vital force holds the mastery over the chemical forces, the more frequent the death-knell of the particles, the more abounding is the life. They perform their mission, yield up their vitality and pass away, while their places are supplied with new material. This new material is obtained from the food after its proper assimilation. As before stated, the processes by which food is converted into chyle, and then into blood, may be included under Primary Assimilation; while the changes which con- vert portions of the blood into solid tissue may be termed Secondary Asairriilation ; both of these we will include under the head of General Assimilation, and the processes of secre- tion under Special Assimilation. 370. The formation of chyle has already been fully noticed, and also its general relations to the blood. The white cor- puscles of the blood are supposed to be replenished from the corpuscles of the lymph and chyle, which enter the blood and are identical with its white corpuscles in size, form, struc- ture and general composition. Some suppose the red cor- puscles are developed from the white. The albuminous portion of the liquor sanguinis, or blood- p'.asma, is supplied from that of the lymph and chyle, and by the venous absorption of digested food ; but it may also con- tain more highly elaborated albuminoid materials derived from the corpuscles, whose elaborative office is undoubted. ASSIMILATION. 177 371. Secondaey Assimilation, or Nutrition of the Organs and Tissues, consists of the following stages : Fird, A nutritive fluid, or plasma, exudes from the blood, through the coats of the capillaries, filling the finest inter- stices of the tissues between the capillary networks, and bathing all the elementary parts of those tissues. The nature of this plasma is the same in all parts of the system, and it is sometimes thought to be identical with the liquor sanguinis of the blood, but this is doubtful ; it is more probable that the exuded plasma destined for the nutrition of the tissues is of a purer nutrient material. The second stage of the nutritive process consists in the exercise of a certain selective act by the elementary parts of tissues and organs, enabling them to appropriate to them- selves such portions of the nutritive fluid as are suitable, either with or without further change, to renew, molecule by molecule, their worn-out substance. " The nucleated cells of the epithelium and epidermis; the corpuscles of the gray matter of the brain ; the tubular fibres of the white nervous tissue ; the complex fibres of the striated muscles ; the simple fibrous forms of the contractile non-striated muscles; the fibres of the fibrous and areolar tissues ; and lastly, the con- solidated substance, with the remnants of cells imbedded in it, as in cartilage and bone — each derives from the exuded plasma of the blood, and assimilates its required constituents." This assimilating power of the tissue-elements is the persistent, primitive, nutritive force inherited from the germ-cell. It is probably possessed by every cell, however modified or remote in its descent from the parent cell. This power is greatest at the commencement of the life of any animal, and declines till the power to maintain the body is overcome by the forces which lead to its decay. Third, The result of the act of assimilation is to leave a residual fluid in the interspaces of the tissue-elements outside the capillary vessels. The nature of this fluid must difier in the difierent tissues, inasmuch as diflerent tissues make dif- ferent appropriations. This fluid is not worthless, but only H» 178 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. defective, and portions of it are probably taken up by the lymphatics, re-assimilated and returned to the blood through the absorbent system. Fourth, The final residue of the exuded plasma, that which is not taken up by the tissues nor lymphatics, is probably taken up by the venous capillaries. Fifth, With the final residuum are mingled the efiete par- ticles of waste from the tissues, which also enter the venous lilood, through the walls of the venous half of the capillaries and of the minute veins. These processes, though separately described, are, of course, in the living body, all going on at the same time, and continuously, and, in a healthy condition, with a perfect balance of action. 372. Nutrition not only supplies the waste, but in nev) growth, new cell-elements, or germinal centres, are constantly reproduced and developed. This process occurs after the body has attained maturity, in the epidermis, nails, hair, the epithelial tissues, and probably the gray nervous substance, and perhaps in some of the other tissues. 373. Special Assimilation, or Secretion, is the separa- tion from the blood of materials in a more or less fluid con- dition, through a gland or memhrane. After assimilation, or secretion, the products are discharged from the ducts of the glands, or the surfaces of the membranes, and are used for certain purposes in the living economy. 374. The secreting glands are the liver, the pancreas, the salivary and the lachrymal glands ; the true mucous glands of the nose, mouth, fauces, pharynx, oesophagus and dnod- enum ; the simple tubular glands of the stomach and intes- tines ; the sebaceous and the mammary glands. The secreting membranes are the mucous, serous and synovial membranes. The serous and synovial fluids are little more than transuded materials of the blood-plasma, unaltered in chemical charac- ter, but modified in their relative proportions. By other secreting processes, substances are formed which do not exist in the blood, but resemble its constituents, being albuminoid in character ; as pepsin, pancreatin and salivin, etc. Others ASSIMIIiATION. 17J> differ from the blood in chemical constitution, and are very- complex in character, as certain acids of the bile, and the fat of the sebaceous secretions. Extreme examples of special secretive power, by which compounds not existing in the blood are formed from it, are afforded by the appearance of sulpho-cyanogen in the saliva, and of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice ; so also soda is withdrawn from the normal soda salts of the blood, by the agency of the liver, to combine with the fatty acids of the bile. 375. ExcKETiON is effected by glands only, and the educts are eliminated from the blood and thrown out of the system. The excretory glands are the kidneys, the sweat glands of the skin ; to a certain extent, the liver, and, perhaps, the intes- tinal tubuli, especially of the large intestine, also the seba- ceous glands of the skin, and lastly, the lungs, which eliminate carbonic acid from the blood. In excretion, the substances eliminated from the blood pre-exist in that fluid as the result of decomposition, and are sometimes completely oxidized, and always to a greater extent than the secretions. The successive stages of oxida- tion remove substances more and more from an organiz- able character and necessitate their removal from the system. 376. In all cases of Secretion and Excretion there is in- variably found, even in the ultimate ramifications of the gland-ducts, a basement membrane covered by a layer of epithelial cells. All glands are very vascular, and receive large quantities of blood. In many secretory processes the epithelial cells are ruptured, and their" contents, and some- times the cells themselves, escape as an essential part of the secretion itself; as in the saliva, pancreatic fluid, gastric juice, the sebaceous and mucous secretions, and perhaps the bile; but the lachrymal and excretory processes simply withdraw their substances from the blood, and convey theju from the body without themselves undergoing dissolution or decay. 377. The numerous glands and membranes have been 180 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. noticed in other relations, with the exception of the kidneys and the glands of the skin. 378. The Kidkeys lie one on each side of the spinal column, in a line with the lowest dorsal and the two or three Fig. 128. Fig. 12r, Fio. 127 (LeMy). Losoitusihal Seoiioh or a Kidxit.— 1, Cortical substance. 2, Renal pyramid. 3, Banal papillffl. 4, PolviB. 5, Ureter. 6, Renal artery. 7, Renal vein. 8, Branches of the latter vessels in the sinns of the kidney. Fia. 128 {Lsidy). Diagram of the Structure of the Kidnbts. — ^1, Two orinifuroua tubules of the cortical substance lined with a pavemont epithelinm. 2, Dilatation of a tubule at its extremity. 8, Branch of the renal artery onding in yessels which enter the dilatations as seen at 4, 6. 6, Knot of blood-vessels freed ih>m its investment. 7, Veins emerging ttam the vascular knots. 8, Plexus formed by the latter veins among the urlnlferous tubules, fi'om which plexus originate the branches of the renal vein. upper lumbar vertebrse; the right kidney is a little lower than the left. Their shape is that of a bean, and their color a brownish red. They are made up of two very different substances, one covering the whole organ, called the Cortical ASSIMILATION, 1 8 1 substance ; the other is called the Medullary substance, and consists of a series of pyramids, with their bases toward the surface of the organ, and their summits, or renal papillae, toward the fissure. The substance of the kidney is mainly composed of secretory tubes, named Uri'niferous tubules, and blood-vessels, with little connective tissue. These tubules are convoluted in the cortical substance, and straight in the medullary, where the terminal orifices are seen by hundreds at the summit of each renal papilla. The tubes are lined with an epithelium which secretes the urine. This secretion is conveyed to the bladder by a cylindrical tube about eighteen inches in length, called the Ureter. Observation. — ^The retention of the secretion of the kidneys should never be allowed by the young or the old, the healthy or the diseased, as suppression of the secretion of these glands immediately affects the whole system, especially the nervous centres. Both the quantity and color of this secretion indi- cate the condition or health of the body. 379. The glands of the skin will be described in Chap- ter XII. U 182 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. 129. Fia. 129. A Front View of the Okdins of ing Chxst and Abdomen.— 1, 1, 1, 1, The muscles of tlio chest. 2, 2, 2, 2, The ribs. S, 3, 3, The upper, middle and lower loboa of the right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left lung. S, The right ventricle of the heart 6, Ths left ventricle. 7, The right auricle of the heart 8, The left auricle. S), The pnl- moLary artery. 10, The aorta. 11, The vena cava desccndons. 12, The trachea. 13, The oosophaguB. 14, 14, 14, 14, The pleura. 16, 16, 16, The diaphragm. 16, 16, The right and left lobes of the liver. 17, The gall-cyst 18, The stomach. 26, The spleen. 19, 19, The duodenuiL, 20, The ascending colon. 21, The transvci-se colon. 26, The descend- ing colon. 22, 22, 22, 22, The small intestine. 23, 23, The abdominal walls turned down. S4, The thoracic duct, opening into the loft subclavian vein (ZJ), CHAPTEK X. TSE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. \ S8. Anatomy op the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. — The Organs of the Voice and of Reapiraiion — The Larynx — Trachea — Bronchi — Lungs. 380. The Respieatoey and Vocal Oegans consist of the Larynx, the Trachea, the Bronchi and the Lungs, the whole being acted upon by a complicated series of muscles. 381. The Laeynx, the organ of the voice, is a short, quadrangular, cartilaginous cavity, extending from the root of the tongue and the hyoid bone, to the trachea, with which it becomes continuous below. It is separated from the spinal column by the pharynx, into which it opens above by a triangular and oblique aperture. The Larynx is composed of five principal parts — the Thi/- roid, the Ori'coid, the two Arytenoid cartilages, and the Epiglottis. The Thyroid* is the largest cartilage. It con- sists of two lateral, quadrangular, wing-like plates, which meet in front and form the prominence called pomum Adami (Adam's apple). This cartilage is connected with the hyoid bone above, and with the cricoid cartilage below. Th^ Gricoid'\ cartilage is about one-fourth of an inch wide in front, and one inch behind. This cartilage connects above with the thyroid cartilage by an articulation permitting the latter to move downward and forward, and also in the re- verse direction; below, it communicates with the first ring of the trachea. The ArytenoidX cartilages are two in number, small, tri- * Gr., thureos, a shield. t ^''•i Jcnkos, a ring. J Gr., arutaina, a pitcher. 183 184 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. angular and curved. They are placed upon the summit and back part of the cricoid cartilage, forming articulations. The Epiglottis is oval-shaped, having its convex surface toward the mouth. It stands in a vertical position above the aperture of the larynx, which is closed by it in the act of swallowing. Fig. 130. Fi8. 131. Fia. 130. A SisE Visw OF THE Oaktilaqes of the LA.RYNX. — *, The front side of tlie thyroid cartilage. 1, The os hyoides (bone at the base of the tongue). 2, The ligament that connects the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage. 3, 4, 5, The thyroid cartilage. 6, Xhe cricoid cartilage. 7, The trachea. Fia. 131. A Back View of the Cartilaqes and Lioahents of the Laat2(x.— 1, The posterior &ce of the epiglottis. 3, 3, The os hyoides. i, 4, The lateral ligameDts which connect the os hyoides and thyroid cartilage. 5, 6, The posterior &ce of the thyroid cartilage. 6, 6, The arytenoid cartilages. 7, The cricoid cartilage. 8, 8, The Junction of the cricoid and the arytenoid cartilages. 12, The first ring of the trachea. 382. The Trachea is a vertical tube about an inch in diameter and four inches in length. It is continuous with the larynx and extends to the third dorsal vertebra, where it divides into two branches, called Bronchi. The trachea is separated from the spinal column by the cesophagus. 383. The Bronchi* carry air to their respective lungs, and again divide, sending a branch to each lobe. These ' Gr., brogcKia, the windpipe or throat. THE EESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 185 divisions, called bronchise, are repeated, until each ultimate ramification terminates in a dilatation, called an air-cell. 384. The Lungs, consisting of two divisions, are situated in the cavity of the chest, enclosing between them the heart and the great blood-vessels. They accurately fill the cavity, adapting themselves to the varying size attending respira- tion. They have the form of a double, but very irregular eone, with the apices above, and the basal ends below. The outer surfaces- are convex, fitting the form of the chest ; the inner surfaces are concave, conforming to the shape of the heart ; the basal portion is also concave, owing to the upward pressure of the diaphragm. They are everywhere unattached, excepting at the root, where they are firmly secured by the pulmonary ligaments, the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary veins and nerves, and the bronchial tubes. The lungs are closely invested with a serous membrane, named pleura. The right lung is shorter than the left, but wider, and of somewhat greater bulk. It is divided into three lobes ; the middle lobe being the smallest, and the lowest one the longest. The left lung has two lobes, of which the lower is the larger. Fig. 133. Fio. 132, Fia 132. The Luitgs. — 3, 3, 3, The lobes of the right Inng. 4, 4, The lobea of the left InDg. 5, 6, 7, The heart. 9, 10, 11, The large blood-Tessels. 12, The trachea. 15, 15, 15, The diaphragm. FiQ. 133. The Bbonchle. — ^1, Outline of right lung. 2, Ontline of left lung. 3, 4 Larynx and trachea. 6, 6, 7, 8, Bronchial tubes. 9, 9, Air-cells. 16* 186 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. i 39. Histology of the Besfiratory and VocAii Oboans. — Minvie Structure of the Larynx. — The Trachea — The Bronchi — The I/umgs and Pleura. 385. With the exception of the epiglottis, the so-called cartilages of the Labtnx are true cartilage, and in advanced life are strongly disposed to ossify. They are invested with a periohon'drium.* The articulations of the cricoid cartilage are lined with synovial membrane and covered with capsular ligaments. The epiglottis is of a soft, elastic nature, fibro- cartilaginous in structure, and invested with mucous mem- brane. Fie. 135. F'lQ. 134. Fig. 184. A View of the Lartnx, showinq the Vooal LiaAKENis. — 1, The anterior edge of the larynx. 4, The posterior face of the thyroid cartilage, 6, 6, The arytenoid cartilages. 6, 6, The vocal ligaments. 7. Thoir origin within the angle of the thyroid cartilage, 8, Their termination at the base of the arytenoid cartilages, 8, 10. The glottis, 7io. 135, Ah Ideal Section op the Laktnx. — ^1, The trachea. 2, 2, The lower vocal cords. 8. 8, The upper vocal cords, 4, 4, RIma glottidis, or glottis. 6. 6, Cavities be- tween upper and lower vocal corda. 386. In the cavity of the larynx, the mucous membrane is reflected at each side, outward and upward, forming a pair of pouches, called the ventricles of the larynx. Just below these ventricles, are the true vocal cords, extending from a small process on the fore part of each Arytenoid cartilage tu the recessed part of the Thyroid cartilage. They are com- * Gr., peri, around, and chondros, a cartilage. THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 187 posed of yellow elastic tissue, covered by mucous membrane, and form two ridges, having very fine, smooth edges turned toward each other, and placed accurately on the same level. 387. The Trachea is made up of cartilage, fibrous tissue, muscle and mucous membrane. The cartilaginous part con- sists of flattened rings, or rather segments of circles, as they are wanting in that part of the tube next to the spine. The last ring is so modified as to accommodate it to the two first rings of the bronchi. The fibrous part is of yellow elastic tissue. It commences at the cricoid cartilage, and not only covers the rings in front, but forms for each a distinct sheath, thicker in front, and gradually losing itself with the termina- tion of the rings. The posterior third of the trachea has a basis of strong, elastic fibrous tissue, arranged in longitudinal bands. The muscular portion has a simple layer of fibres running transversely, being attached to the ends of the car- tilaginous rings and to the connecting tissue. The trachea is lined with mucous membrane. 888. The Bronchi are constructed like the trachea, ex- cepting in the ultimate bronchial ramifications, where the car- tilages are composed of several pieces distributed around the tube, and the muscular fibres form a continuous layer. The cartilaginous element finally disappears, when the tubes con- sist only of fibro-elastic membrane with muscular fibres and a lining mucous membrane. 389. The Lungs are made up of numerous small, poly- hedral, primary lobules, or clusters of air-cells, which unite into larger secondary lobules. The latter give rise to the polyhedral markings seen upon the external surface of the lungs. The lobules seem to have no communication with each other, each primary lobule being in itself a miniature lung, performing independent functions. It has been cal- culated that no less than eighteen thousand of these air-cells group around each terminal tube, giving a sum-total of not less than six hundred millions. The air-cells are connected together by fibro-elastic tissue, which renders them highly elastic. The cells are surrounded 188 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fio. 136. by fine networks of capillary vessels, the terminations of the branches of the pulmonary artery which accompany the branches of the bronchi. The tra- chea, bronchial tubes and air-cells are lined with a mucous membrane having a ciliated epithelium. 390. The Pleuea is a serous membrane which lines the thorax and then is reflected from the root of each lung over its surface. A fold of this membrane extends from the root downward to the diaphragm, and is called the pulmonary liga- ment. The pleural cavity is lubri- cated by the serous secretion, thus preventing friction during the re- spiratory movements (43). By the approximation of the two pleurae in the median line, they form the inedias'tinum, or partition of the thorax, which contains the heart enclosed within its pericardium. Flo. 136 (Letdi/). DiASEAM OP Two Priuary Lobules of the LUNQS, magnified. — ^1, Bronchial tube. 2, A pair of primary lob- ules connected by fibro-elastic tissue. 3, Inter-cellular air-pas- sages. 4, Air-cells. 5, Branches of the pulmonary artery and Tein. i 40. Chemistry of the Eespiratory and Vocai, Organs. 391. Respiration consists of two conjoint processes : that of supplying to the body the requisite amount of vitalizing oxygen, by inspiration ; and that of removing from the body the deleterious carbonic acid, by expiration. The source of the oxygen is the air ; the sources of carbonic acid are the blood and the tissues. 392. Some carbonic acid is generated in the blood, both from the respiratory or heat-giving elements of food, which chiefly enter the blood and are there oxidized, and from the changes of growth and decay to which the corpuscles of the blood are themselves subject. It is also probable that some intermediate or partly oxidized products of the de- composition of solid tissues undergo further oxidation in the blood. THE KESPIRATOEY AND VOCAIj OKGANS. 189 393. We find the main source of carbonic acid, however, in the tissues. It appears both as a product of their natural decay, and of muscular and nervous activity. The sum of all the chemical changes of the body is oxidation, and the chief product of this oxidation is carbonic acid. 394. The proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid in venous and arterial blood are — Oxygen. Carbonic Acid. 100 vols, venous blood 5 vols. 25 vols. 100 vols, arterial blood 10 vols. 20 vols. It has also been found that the proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid in venous blood returning from muscles at red are — oxygen, 7.5 vols. ; carbonic acid, 31 : from muscles in action : oxygen, 1.265 vols. ; carbonic acid, 34.4. 395. The exchange of oxygen and carbonic acid in the capillaries is effected partly by physical and partly by chemical processes. The physical process is in accordance with the law of the " diffusion of gases." Two gases of dif- ferent densities, and having no chemical affinity for each other, will intermix when brought into contact, and also when separated by a porous septum, provided they have no chemical affinity for that septum. These are the exact con- ditions in the capillaries ; the oxygen and carbonic acid are the two gases, the capillary walls the porous septum. In addition to this physical process, there is a chemical process ; the venous blood has a strong affinity for oxygen, hence readily unites with it in the pulmonic capillaries. When the arterial blood reaches the systemic capillaries, it yields its oxygen to the elements of the decomposing tissues which sur- round them. The carbon and hydrogen in their nascent state, or at the moment of liberation, seize the oxygen with great avidity, and give in exchange carbonic acid and water. 396. The air of expiration di^rs from that of inspiration, not only in its increase of carbonic acid, but in that of moisture and of temperature. As a rule, the expired air is saturated with moisture. The drier, the external air, the greater the pulmonary exhalation, for in breathing air already saturated, 190 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. only so much more can be added as the higher temperature of the body will enable it to dissolve. The pulmonary ex- halation has, besides water and carbonic acid, traces of ammonia, chlorides, urates, and even some albuminous sub- stances ; it readily undergoes decomposition. 397. The heat of the body is the result of the various chemical actions. The temperature of the tissues generally ranges from 98° to 100° ; that of blood, from 100° to 102°. The blood varies in temperature in different parts, being warmest in the hepatic veins. i 41. Physiology of the Kespikatory and Vooai, Oboams. — Objects of Segpiration. Two Modes of Be^iration. Senomtion of the Air in the Lungs. Amount of Air concerned in each Respiration. Conditions affecting the Number of Sespirations. Modifications of Be- epiraiory Movements. Dovbh Function of the Larynx. Besemblance between the Action of the Vocal Cords and Beed InstrumeiUs. Con- ditions affecting the Tone and Strength of the Voice. 398. The Function op Eespieation has for its imme- diate object, the purification of the bhod, and for its ultimate uses, the production of heat, motion and nervous energy. The blood which becomes impure in the systemic capillaries, is carried to the pulmonary capillaries, which everywhere sur- round the air-cells. Through the thin walls, the poisonous carbonic acid passes from the capillaries into the air-cells, and is expelled from the body ; at the same time, the oxygen of the external air passes from the air-cells into the capil- laries, and the blood is changed from a dark maroon, to a bright red color. The chemical changes in every part of the body caused by the union of this oxygen with carbon, hydrogen and other elements of the blood and tissues, maintain the temperature of the body, and are the source of its nervous power and electricity. 399. Respiration consists of two acta — ^taking air into the lungs, or inspiration, and expelling air from the lungs, or expiration. An act of inspiration is effected by the enlarge- THE EESPIEATOEY AND VOCAL OEGAHS. 191 ment of the chest, which is done by elevating the ribs and sternum, and depressing the convex surface of the diaphragm. To elevate the ribs, two sets of muscles are used ; those which are attached to the upper rib and sternum, contract and ele- vate the anterior extremities of the ribs; this enlarges the cavity between the spinal column and the sternum. The central portion of the ribs are raised by the intercostal muscles. The second rib is elevated by the contraction of the muscles between it and the first ; the third rib is raised, by the combined action of the muscles between the first and second, and between the second and third. Fia. 137. Fia. 137. A Tbont View o; the Ohist and Absoubh m Sxspnunoii.— I, 1, Tke position of the walls of the chest in inspiration. 2, 2, 2, The position of the dlaphtagm in Inspiration. 3, 3, The position of the walls of the chest in expiration. 4, i, 4, The position of the diaphragm in expiration. 5, 5, The position of the walls of the abdomen In inspiration. 6, 6, The position of the abdominal walls in expiration. The motion of each succeeding rib is increased in the same way, so that the movement of the twelfth rib is very free, as it is elevated by the contraction of eleven sets of intercostal muscles. Simultaneously with the elevation of the ribs, the central por- Missing Page Missing Page 194 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. air-current. In the lining mucous membrane of the trachea and the bronchial tubes, the cilia of the epithelium are always directed from below upward, and, like all ciliary motion, it has the effect of producing a current in the fluids of the mu- cous membrane (41). '^"'- ^^"- Now, the air in the tubes must move, to a certain extent, with this current, hence, a double stream of air is established in each bronchial tube ; one „ „ = „ m current passing from Fia. 139, DlAOBAH OP A SSIALL BRONCHIAL TDEE, ^ ^ * ^ showing outward and inward current, produced by within OUtward, alol VOCAL OEGANS. 201 Bhort time, the cool, stagnant air becomes oppressive, and we select the open window with its eirculation of air, even if it is a little warmer. Windows should be made to lower from the top. 421. In winter, ventilation may he obtained by properly con- structed flues. As cold weather approaches, we must close the windows, excepting when in bed ; but good flues secure a good circulation of air. Leeds, in his " Lectures on Ventila- tion," in speaking of the value of an open fireplace for ventilation, says, "Thousands of lives are thus saved, and many more would be, if all fireplaces were kept open. If you are so fortunate as to have a fireplace in your room, paint it when not in use ; put a bouquet of fresh flowers in it every morning, if you please, or do anything to make it attractive, but never close it; better use the fire-boards for kindling-wood. It would be scarcely less absurd to take a piece of elegantly-tinted court-plaster and stop up the nose, trusting to the accidental opening and shutting of the mouth for fresh air, because you thought it spoiled the looks of your face to have two such great, ugly holes in it, than to stop your fireplace with elegantly-tinted paper because it looks better." 422. For heating a small room, where the occupants may change position at pleasure, an open fire is the healthiest known means, for the air cannot become stagnant, as the fire is continually drawing a considerable amount from the room to support combustion, the place of which is supplied by other air. Just here comes in the greatest inconvenience of the open fire ; if the cold air comes in at the cracks of a door or window on the opposite side of the room, it will flow across to the fire, chilling the feet and backs of those sitting in its track. 423. A stove is a very economical mode of heating ordi- nary sitting rooms, offices, etc. ; but there should be an air- chamber, or box, on or near the top of the stove, and com- municating with this should be a pipe for introducing fresh air from the external atmosphere. If this supply of fresh air I* 202 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. is abundant, with a constant evaporation of moisture, and an opening into a heated flue near the ceiling, to be opened when the room is overheated or the lights are burning in the evening, and kept closed at other times, with another open- ing into a heated flue on a level with the floor, which should be always open to carry off the cold, heavy, foul air from the floor ; if a stove be thus arranged, for many small, isolated looms, it is one of the most economical, comfortable and wholesome means of heating at our command. 424. For the general warming of a house, heating the air by steam is one of the most healthy arrangements, and a very good mode is thus given by Leeds: "Where a steam furnace is used, two-thirds of the heating surface should be below the floor, and fresh air be brought into it, and thence conducted to the rooms through large pipes. The warmed air should be let into the room at the floor, and an opening into an exhaust-flue, two-thirds the size of the inlet, should be provided at the floor for the escape of the foul air. The remaining one-third of the heating surface should be exposed in the halls and some in other parts of the house, to heat by direct radiation, but under no drcumstanee should a room or office be occupied which is heated exclusively by direct radiation from exposed steam-pipes. It is one of the worst, most un- healthy, killing systems in existence." " Probably one of the very best arrangements is to have a good steam furnace, with a large fresh-air box, letting in an abundance of air mode- rately warmed, and overflowing the house with this, also to have some direct radiation in the halls, and a bright, cheer- ful, open fire in the family sitting room." Two things are indispensable in every furnace — a large fresh-air box com- municating with the external atmosphere, and a large evapo- rating vessel. Few persons realize the necessity of supplying a proper amount of moisture in our stove and furnace-heated rooms. If it is not furnished by other means, the heated air will have it from the natural moisture of the skin and lungs, thus producing a dry, parched, feverish condition of the system. THE EESPIRATOEY AND VOCAIi ORGANS. 203 425. TJie conditionn of proper respiration require not only that the air be pure, but sufficient in quantity. Hence the chest and lungs mud not be reduced in size. In children who have never worn close garments, the circumference of the chest is generally about equal to that of the body at the hips ; and similar proportions would exist through life if there were no improper pressure of the clothing. Such is the case with the Indian woman, whose blanket allows the free ex- pansion of the chest. The symmetrical statues of ancient sculpture bear little resemblance to the "beau ideal" of American notions of elegant form. The chest is often con- tracted in infancy, because of the mother's ignorance of the pliant character of the ribs and cartilages ; thus she sows the seeds of disease and shortens the life of her offspring. In later years the same result is produced by a steady and moderate pressure. It is in this way that the "genteel," tapering waist is produced. The style of dress adopted at the present day is a prolific cause of deformity, for deformity it certainly is, since the design of the human chest is not simply to form a connection between the upper and lower parts of the body, like some insects. 426. The Chinese, by compressing the feet of female chil- dren, prevent their growth, so that the foot of a Chinese belle is not larger than the foot of an American girl of five years ; the American women compress their chests, so that the chest of an American belle is not larger than the chest of a Chinese girl of five years. In these respects, which country exhibits the greater intelligence ? 427. Individuals may have small chests from birth, this being, to the particular individual, natural. That like produces like is a general law. If the mother has a small, tapering waist, either hereditary or acquired, the form may be im- pressed on her offspring, thus illustrating the truthfulness of Scripture, which declares that the sins of the parent shall be visited upon the children unto the third and fourth generations. 428. The question is often asked, Can the size of the chest 204 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. and the volume of the lungs be increased when they have been once compressed 1 Yes. The means to be used are, a full inflation of the lungs at each act of respiration, and a judicious exercise of them by walking in the open air, read- ing aloud, singing, sitting erect, and practicing appropriate gymnastic exercises. Unless these exercises are systematic and persistent, they will not afford the beneficial results de- sired. Fig. 140. Fig. J41. Pia. 140. A Correct Outunb of tub Venus dr Medici, the btau ideal of feiuala Bymmetry. Fio. 141. An Ooilinb op a Weu-Corseted Modern BEAntr. One haa an artificial, insect waist; the other, a natural waist One has sloping shoul- ders, while the shoulders of the other are comparatlTely elevated, square and angular. The proportion of the corseted female below the waist is also a departure from the sym- Diotry of nature. Observation. — Peraons of sedentary habits should often, during the day, take full, deep breaths, filling the smallest air-cells with air ; the shoulders should be thrown back, and the head held erect. 429. JRespiration is much influenced by the condition of the nervous system. Abstract thought, anxiety and the depress- ing passions diminish the contractile energy of the diaphragm THE RESPIRATORY AST) VOCAL ORGANS. 205 and the muscles that elevate the ribs, thus preventing the full inflation of the lungs. Cheerfulness, joy and all the ex- hilarating emotions favor free respiration, and consequently promote health. 430. To resuscitate persons asphyxiated from drowning, strangulation, electricity or breathing poisonous gases, the chest should be suddenly and forcibly pressed downward and back- ward, then the pressure suddenly discontinued. This should be continually repeated till a pair of bellows or some other means of artificial respiration can be obtained. When bel- lows are used, introduce the nozzle well upon the base of the tongue, and closely surround the mouth and nose with a towel, press upon the part of the neck called Adam's applo while introducing the air, then press upon the chest to expel it, thus imitating breathing. If. other means of artificial respiration cannot be immediately obtained, let the lungs of the sufferer be inflated by air from the lungs of other per- sons present. That this air may be as pure as possible, the lungs should be quickly filled, and the air instantly expelled into the lungs of the asphyxiated person. The patient should be placed in pure air, and a physician pro- cured immediately. In case of drowning, wrap the body in warm flannel and place near the fire; use no friction till breathing is restored. Observation. — Inhaling the gas from burning charcoal placed in an open pan to warm a room, or gas from a fur- nace or coal stove, when the draught is imperfect, is dele- terious, often producing death. Care should be taken, when gas is used" for lighting, that it is completely turned off before retiring to sleep. ? 43. Comparative Pneumonology. — Bespiraiory Apparatus of Mammalia — Of Birds — Of Reptiles — Of Fishes. 431. The Respieatory Apparatus in all the Mammalia Is similar to that of man, both in structure and function. There are similar arrangements and movements of the ribs, sternum, intercostal muscles and diaphragm. The lungs fill 18 206 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the cavity of the thorax, and have the same general com- position of lobes, lobules and air-cells. 432. In Birds the lungs are confined to the back part of the thoracic abdominal cavity, being firmly attached to the ribs in their interspaces. They are not sepanvted into lobes, as in the mammalia, but are lengthened, oblong and flattened in shape, and connected with large membranous cells scat- tered through every part of the body. They have the larynx, trachea, bronchia, pulmonary arteries, veins and capillaries, although much modified. 433. The ultimate pulmonary capillaries do not form a network lining definitely-bounded air-cells, as in mammals. THE EESPIEATOEY AifD VOCAL ORGANS. 207 but each capillary crosses an open air-space of its own. They interlace in every direction, forming a mass of capillaries, permeated everywhere by air (B, fig. 144). Fig. 144. Fi6. 143. Fio. 143 (Owen). The Biqht Luno of a Goose. — 1, A bronchna whicli divides intd two tubes that open Into tbe abdominal air-receptacles at 2, 2. f 16. 144 (Owen). Ideal Seciion^ of a Bins, magnified two hundred and sixty times. — I, A primaiy bronchus dividing into secondary bronchi that end in caeca, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, These secondary bronchi give off smaller penniform branches that ramify among the lobules. B, A plexus of capillary vessels. 434. A marked modification of the respiration of birds is the connection of the pores of the bones and feathers with the bronchial tubes and air-spaces of the lungs, so that there is an interchange of air between the lungs, the bones and the investing plumage. The walls of the bones of birds are more cancellated than those of the mammalia. Birds consume more air in a given time, proportionally, than any other class of animals, and they soonest become asphyxiated when deprived of it. 208 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 435. In Reptiles, respiration is more simple than in mam- mals or birds. The lungs are less 'lobular and more bag- like, extending into the abdominal cavity. Upon the walls of these sac-like lungs the pulmonary vessels ramify. In the turtle, the tortoise and the frog, the thorax is not so formed as to act like a suction-pump, and accordingly these animals swallow the air by a sort of deglutition. Fio. 145. Fio. 146. FiQ. 146 (Owen). ToNong, Laeynx and LONOS OF A FKOO.— 1, 2, Lungs. S,4,Larjax. Fio. 146 (Owen). Heart and Lsnos of a Froo.— 1, Heart. 2, Arch of the aorta. 8, 3, Pulmonary artery. 4, 4, Pulmonary veins, 6, 6» Aorta. 6, Vena cava. 436. In Fishes, the respiration is still more modified and more complicated than in reptiles. Instead of lobular or bag-like lungs, there are found only a series of slit-like openings, or arches on each side near the head, called the branchiae, or gills. 437. The bony and cartilaginous frames of these arches, on the convex side, support processes. On these are many plates, or leaflets, covered by a delicate tessellated membrane, or epithelium, on which the microscopic capillary blood-ves- sels ramify. By this arrangement of extensive epithelial surface, the blood-particles are more minutely separated and acted upon by the air in the water. In breathing, the mouth THK RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 209 and gills of a fish open alternately ; the water entering the mouth escapes by the openings of the gills. Fig. 148. Fig. 147 (Owen). Section of a Branchial Abch, with a pair of prucossea eupportiiig leaflets or plates, from a cod^magnified two hundred and sixty diameters. 1, A section of a branchial arch. 2, A pair of processes. 3, Branchial leailets, or plates. The num. ber of leaflets in one process of the cod is about one thousand ; in the salmon, fourteen hundred ; in the sturgeon, sixteen hundred. iFio. 148 (Owen). Circulation of the Blood through the Branchial Leaflets (a diagram). 1, A section of a branchial arch. 2, A section of a branchial artery. 3, An artery sent along the outer margin of the processes, giving off capillary vessels to the leaflets. 4, A vein that receives the blood from the capillaries on the inner margin of the process after the respiratory change has been efiected and returns it to the branchihi vein (5). 438. A remarkable feature in the organization of some fish is the swimming, or air-bladder, placed in the abdomen under the dorsal spine, communicating often with the oesoph- agus or stomach by a canal, permitting the escape of air from its interior. By a movement of the ribs, the air- receptacle is acted on, so that by diminishing the quantity of air, the specific gravity of the fish alters according to cir- cumstances. Fish that swim near the bottom have no air- bladder ; as the eel, sole and turbot. 18* DIVISION IV. SENSORIAL APPARATUS. In the two preceding Divisions, the tissues and orgaiig directly involved in the movements of the body, and those most intimately connected with the preparation and assimila- tion of nutrient material, have been briefly described. In the present Division, we consider the organs through which is manifested the subtle power that controls these motions and processes, establishes telegraphic communication between the several parts of the body, and brings it into important relations with the external world. These, taken collectively, we name the Sensorial Apparatus. CHAPTEK XI. NERVOUS SYSTEM. I 44. Anatomy of the Nervous System. — Tu>o Forms of Nervoui Tissue. Clastificalion of the Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures. Spinal Cord. MeduUa Oblongcda. Peduncles of the Oerebelluvi — OftheOere- brum. Corpora Striata. Optici Tlialami. Corpora Quadrigemina. Corpus CaUosum. Venlrides. Hemispheres of the Cerebrum. Con- volutions of the Cfereirum and OerebeUum. Classificalion of Cerdnv- Spinal Nerves — Of Cranial Nerves — Spinal Nerves. Sympalhelic Sys- tem. Distribution of Sympathetic Nei-ves. 439. Neevous Tissue presents two formal characters, one, cell-like and gray in color; the other, fibrous and white. The former is arranged in masses called Centres or Ganglia, being the originating, active centres of nerve-force ; the latter, iu threads, which are simple conductors cf nerve-force, and 210 NERVOUS SYSTEM. Fig. 149. 211 •-VJ Fio. 149. A Representation op the Brain, Spinal * ' i. »mi Spinal Neeves;- 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, Spinal cord. 4, The sciatic nerve. A.. Distribution of the Olfactory Nerve. — 1, 2, Nerve of smell. B* Optic Nerve. — 15, The nerve of vision. C. The Gustatori Nerve. — 1, 2, 3, 4, Branches of the nervo of tas'e. D. Auditory Nerve. — 13, Nerve of hearing. 212 are named Nerves when they connect the ganglia with the various parts of the body ; and Commismres when they con- nect the ganglia with each other. 440. For convenience in study, the numerous Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures may be arranged in two great and closely-connected systems — the Cerehro-Spinal and the Sym- pathetio: the Cerebro-Spinal system including the series of ganglia within the skull and spinal column, their nerves, commissures and the lesser ganglia in the nerve-tracts : the Sympathetic system including the long chain of ganglia lying in front of the spinal column, their nerves, commissures and additional ganglia found chiefly in the abdominal cavity. 441. The Cebebeo-Spinal Axis commences with that por- tion of nervous matter which lies within the spinal column, extending from the second lumbar vertebra to the base of the skull, and known as the Spinal Cord. It contains within itself the filaments of all the nerves of the external parts of the trunk and limbs. It is soft, and white externally, but grayish within, forming the longest ganglion in the system. The cord is nearly cylindrical and double, the two halves _ ... connected by a nar- row commissure or bridge of the same substance as the cord, having within, through the entire length, a minute central canal. On each half are two slight, longitudinal lines, serving to dis- tinguish itinto J.nyramids and the back of the olivary bodies ; as they appear Fio. 162. \ . 1. Fig. 162 {LHdy). Stiiia7ed Bodies, Tbalami, Quabiuqehinal Bodt and CEit£BKU.DK. --1, Qimdrigominal body, S, Superior podunclo of the cerebellum. 4, Superior portioo of the middle peduncle. 5, Superior portion of the crua, or leg, of the cerebrom. 6, Pos- turlor tubercle of the thalamus, 7, Anterior tubercle. 8, Fundamental portion of the corebollum, 16, Thalamus. 16, Hemiephoros of the cerebellum. 17, Bentutod body. 18, Semicircular lino, 19, Vein of the striated body. 20, Anterior crura of the fornli:. 21, Strlntud body. 22, Fifth ventricle between tlie layera of the pellucid septum. in front, they diverge, forming stalk-like bundles known as the Peduncles of the Cerebrum^ a? they seem ta support the two NEEVOTJS SYSTEM. 215 hemispheres of the cere'brum, or brain proper, as the flower- stalk bears its flower. The anterior bundles pass upward to two large ganglia (one on each side the median line), called the Cor'pora Stria! ta, or Striated Bodies; the posterior bundles also pass upward to two ganglia situated a little behind the striated bodies, and named the Op'tid Thai' ami. In these ganglia the fibres seem to terminate, while a new set con- nects the ganglia with the main surface of the cerebral hemispheres. Fis. 153. Pio. 153 {Leidy). SECTION OF THE Brain along the Great Lowoitodinal Fissure.^ 1, Medulla oblongata. 2, Pons. 3, Cms of the cerebmm. 4, Arborescent appearance in section of the fundamental portion of the cerebellum. 5, Left hemisphere of the cere- bellum. 6, Inner surface of the left hemisphere of the cerebrum. 7, Corpus callosum. 8, Pellucid septum. 9, Fornix. 10, Anterior cms of the fornix, 19, Foramen of com- munication between the third and lateral ventricles. 20, Optic nerve. 24, Ocnlo-motor iiorve. 26, Fourth ventricle. 28, Quadrigeminal body. 29, Entrance from the third to to the fourth ventricle. 30, 31, 32, Anterior, middle and posterior lobes of the cerebrum. It will be noticed that these ganglia have an unbroken connection with the spinal cord through the peduncles of the cerebrum and the fibres of the medulla oblongata. Extending backward from the optic thalamus, is a body divided on its upper surface into four eminences, hence called 216 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the Corpora Quadrigemina or the Quadrigeminal body. It con- sists of four small ganglia, sometimes named Optia Ganglia (as they send nerves to the eye), which are attached to the peduncles of the optic thalamus, to the cerebellum and cere- brum and to the medulla oblongata. 443. All the above-mentioned ganglia are variously con- nected with each other, with the peduncles of the cerebrum and cerebellum, and, through the medulla oblongata, with the spinal cord. 444. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are closely united in their central part by a transverse commissure, called the Corpus Callosum, formed by a dense band of transverse fibres radiating at each extremity to the inner surface of its cor- responding hemispheres. The corpus callosum is arched in shape, and about four inches in length. It forms the roof of a large central cavity between the two ganglia, corpora striata, the cavity being divided by a thin, double membrane (the pellucid septum) into two communicating apartments called the Lateral Ventricles. Each of these has for its roof the corpus callosum ; for its floor, the Fornix — ^a membrane continuous with the corpus callosum behind ; for its inner wall, the pellucid septum ; and for its outer wall, the corpus striatum. The floor of the lateral ventricles forms the roof of the Third Ventricle, which is a narrow cavity between the optic thalami, communicating with the fouj th ventricle lying below and back of it, by a narrow passage-way. Hence it appears that the lateral ventricles, in the centre of the cere- brum, communicate with each other and with the third ven- tricle, the third with the fourth, and the fourth with the central canal of the spinal cord, making one unbroken com- munication through the whole extent. 445. Within the hemispheres are numerous other small ganglia, membranes and galleries, whose description our present limits will not allow. 446. The hemiepheres of the cerebrum enclose all the other parts, in front, above and behind, like a great overshadowing dome. Their outer surface is of gray matter, hence they are NKKVOtJS SYSTEM. 217 essentially two connected ganglia, and the largest in the system. Each hemisphere is marked off by fissures into three lobes, the frontal, middle and posterior lobe or ganglion, the frontal being the largest, and there is a little offshoot of the frontal lobe, called the Olfactory. Each of these lobes has its surface moulded into many tortuous and complicated elevations of the cerebral substance, termed Convolutions, which are marked off from each other by secondary winding fissures, named Sulci; thus there is formed "one unbroken but undulating sheet" over the whole surface of the brain. Fig. 154. Fig. 154 repbssbhts a Contoldted Cerebral nEMispHERE, a, a, The scalp turned down, b, b, b. The cut edge of the hones of the skull, c, The external strong membrane of the brain (dura mater), suspended by a hook, d, The left hemisphere of the brain. 447. The general plan of convolutions in the two hemi- spheres is the same, but in detail there is want of exact sym- metry. It is a remarkable fact that the higher the mental development, the more unsymmetrical and complicated are the convolutions, and the deeper the depressions or Sulci. This is not only seen in comparing the lower animals with man, but in comparing different races of men. The brain of the "Hottentot Venus, who was no idiot," has been de- scribed as having the convolutions of the frontal lobe strik- ingly simple and regular, and as presenting an almost perfect 19 K 216 the Corpora Quadrigemina or the Quadrigeminal body. It con- sists of four small ganglia, sometimes named Optic Ganglia (as they send nerves to the eye), which are attached to the peduncles of the optic thalamus, to the cerebellum and cere- brum and to the medulla oblongata. 443. All the above-mentioned ganglia are variously con- nected with each other, with the peduncles of the cerebrum and cerebellum, and, through the medulla oblongata, with the spinal cord. 444. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are closely united in their central part by a transverse commissure, called the Corpus Callomm, formed by a dense band of transverse fibres radiating at each extremity to the inner surface of its cor- responding hemispheres. The corpus callosum is arched in shape, and about four inches in length. It forms the roof of a large central cavity between the two ganglia, corpora striata, the cavity being divided by a thin, double membrane (the pellucid septum) into two communicating apartments called the Lateral Ventricles. Each of these has for its roof the corpus callosum ; for its floor, the Fornix — a membrane continuous with the corpus callosum behind; for its inner wall, the pellucid septum ; and for its outer wall, the corpus striatum. The floor of the lateral ventricles forms the roof of the Third Ventricle, which is a narrow cavity between the optic thalami, communicating with the foui th ventricle lying below and back of it, by a narrow passage-way. Hence it appears that the lateral ventricles, in the centre of the cere- brum, communicate with each other and with the third ven- tricle, the third with the fourth, and the fourth with the central canal of the spinal cord, making one unbroken com- munication through the whole extent. 445. Within the hemispheres are numerous other small ganglia, membranes and galleries, whose description our present limits will not allow. 446. The hemispheres of the cerebrum enclose all the other parts, in front, above and behind, like a great overshadowing dome. Their outer surface is of gray matter, hence they are NilKVOUS SYSTEM. 217 essentially two connected ganglia, and the largest in the system. Each hemisphere is marked off by fissures into three lobes, the frontal, middle and posterior lobe or ganglion, the frontal being the largest, and there is a little offshoot of the frontal lobe, called the Olfactory. Each of these lobes has its surface moulded into many tortuous and complicated elevations of the cerebral substance, termed Convolutions, which are marked off from each other by secondary winding fissures, named Sulci; thus there is formed "one unbroken but undulating sheet" over the whole surface of the brain. Fig. 154. FlO. 154 REPRESENTS A CONVOLDTED CEREBRAL IIemisphere. u., a, The Bcalp turned down. 6, bj 6, The cut edge of the bones of the skull, c. The external strong membrane of the brain (dura mater), suspended by a hook, d. The left hemisphere of the brain. 447. The general plan of convolutions in the two hemi- sjiheres is the same, but in detail there is want of exact sym- metry. It is a remarkable fact that the higher the mental development, the more unsymmetrical and complicated are the convolutions, and the deeper the depressions or Sulci. This is not only seen in comparing the lower animals with man, but in comparing different races of men. The brain f)f the "Hottentot Venus, who was no idiot," has been de- scribed as having the convolutions of the frontal lobe strik- ingly simple and regular, and as presenting an almost perfect 19 K 218 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. symmetry in the two hemispheres, such as is never found in the Caucasian race, and which much resembles that of the lower animals. Fie. 155. Fio, 155 {Leidy). Base op the Brain. — 1, Anterior lobes of the cerebrum. 2, Middle lobes. 3, Posterior lobes. 4, 5, Anterior and posterior extromities of the great longi- tudinal fiasure. 11, Crura of the cerebrum. 12, Pons. 13, Medulla oblongata. 14, Pyra* midal bodies. 14*, Decussation of the pyramids. 16, Olivary body. 16, Restiform body. 17. Hemispheres of the cerebellum. 19, Cnis of the cerebellum. 20, Pnenmogastrio lobule of the cerebellum. 21, Fissure which accommodates the olfactory nerve ('Z2), 23, Bulb of the olfactory nerve. 24, Optic commissuro. 25, Oculo-motor nerve. 26, Pathetic nerve. 27, Trifacial nerve. 28, Abducent nerve. 29, Facial nerve. SO, Auditory nerve. 31, GlosBo-pharyngeal nerve. 82, Pneumogostrio nevve. 33, Accessory nerve. 34, Hypo- glossal nerve. 448. The cerebellum, like the cerebrum, has its hemispheres marked off info lobes. The lobes are highly subdivided on their sides and surface into thin plates or laminje, by cres- eentic furrows or sulci. The white fibres within the cere- NERVOUS SYSTEM. 219 bellum are so arranged that, when a vertical section is taken, it presents the appearance of the trunk and branches of a tree, and hence it bears the name of Arbor Vitce (fig. 158). 449. The parts already described, viz., the brain and spinal cord, constitute the Cerebro-Spinal Axis, from which proceed Fig. 15fi. THE NERVES OF THE CEEEBEO-SPINAL SYSTEM. 450. Certain of these nerves conduct nerve-force /row the ganglia to their own distal ends in the tissues, chiefly mus- cular, where motion is produced ; other nerves carry impressions from their extremities to the centres ; the first are termed Motory from their function, and Efferent from the direction 'of conduction; the second are termed Sensory and Afferent. The anterior fibrous bundles of the medulla oblongata, passing upward to the corpora striata, form a Motor Tract, so dis- tinguished by the. endowments of the nerves that issue from it ; the posterior bundles passing to the Thalami Optici form a Sensory Tract. 451. The Cerebro-Spinal nerves are also distinguished as Cranial nerves when they pass directly from the brain, through openings in the cranium ; and as Spinal when they issue from the vertebral openings of the spinal column. The Cranial Nerves are arranged in twelve pairs, named numerically, counting from before backward, or from their function, destination or specific character. They may be arranged in three groups, according to their functions, as Sensory, Motor and Mixed. Pio. 166 {LHdy). Segment op the Spinal Cord. — 1, Anterior median fissure. 2, Posterior median fissure. 3f Postero-lateral fissure. 4, Antero- lateral fissure. 5. Anterior column. 6. Lateral column. 7, Posterior col- umn. S, Anterior commissure. 9, Anterior horns of the gray sub- stance. 10, Posterior horns. 11, Gray commissure. 12, Anterior root of B spinal nerve springing by a number of filaments from the antero- lateral fissure. 13, Posterior root from poBtero-lateral fissure. 14, Ganglion on the posterior root. 15, Spinal nerve formed by the union of the two roots. 220 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. fi C3 ^ ■2 M H ^ h? ■4 e^ M d e^ !25 fc a M 1 __4 ^ rygang EC a oblon (M o ^ lO ■g a 3 •* c 1 ."S S .2 "S ■5 = a -3 g 6b 60 "W "O 2 ,S - 03. g> o F a ^5 M ^ 1 R 1 « s 1 « ^ . ^ 1 ..Medi ..Spin ' >> : ^ J o • TO 1 ^ D J C t ^ 1 i •5 -5 ...Porti ,..Hyp, ...Splni •s S 5 « - - □ H " i J3 TS •5 ■£ _fl ^ *- *3 « ^ « Ttl to t^ rH iH ^ 1 ^ O 1 S o o s § c p, a 350 ■S ■?, 3 :^s 60 C o p w2 J3 9< a. •3 -3 (5 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 221 Fig. T57. 19" 222 Fia. 167. Distribution op Pkbcmooastrio Nerves. — a, Section of the brain and me- dulla oblongata. 6, The lateral columnB of the spinal cord, c, c, The respiratory tract of the spinal cord, d. The tongue, e, Tile larynx. /, The bronchia, g, The oesophagUB. k. The stomach, i, The diaphiugm. 1, The pnoumogaetric nerve. 2, The superior laryn- geal nerve. 3, The recurrent laryngeal nerve. (These two ramify on the larynx.) 4, The pulmonary plexus of the tenth nerve. 5, The cardiac plexus of the tenth nerve. These two plexuses supply the heart and lungs with nervous filaments. 7, The origin ol the fourth pair of nerves, that passes to the superior oblique mnscle of the eye. 8, The origin of the facial nerve, that is spread out on the side of the &ce and nose. 9, The origin of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, that passes to the tongue and pharynx. 10, The origin of the spinal accessory nerve. 11, This nerve penetrating the stemo-mastoideui muscle. 12, The origin of the internal respiratory or phrenic nerve, that is seen to ramify on the diaphragm. 13, The origin of the external respiratory nerve that ramifies on the pectoral and scaleni muscles. Fig. 158. '^<,->'^^- Fia. 168. A Vertical Sbctiok of the Gkrbbrdh, CsRBDBLLnH and Mkdulla Ob- longata, showing the relation of the cranial nerves at their origin, 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum, with its arbor vltie represented. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, The Bftnal cord. 6, The corpus callosum. 6, The first pair of nerves. 7. The second pair. 8, The eye. 9, The third pair of nerves. 10, The fourth pair. 11, The fifth pair. 12, Tl.e sixth pair. 13, The seventh pair. 14, The eighth pair. 15, The ninth pair. 16, rhp tenth pair. 19, The eleventh pair. 18, The twelfth pair. 20, Spinal nerves. 21- The teutorium. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 223 453. The Spinal Nerves are arranged in tliirty-one pairs, and (unlike the cranial nerves, excepting the Trifacial) eacn arises by two roots : an an- terior or Motor root spring- Fro. 1.59. ingfrom the anterior columns of the spinal cord, which are fiS^4f=3^ continuous with the Motor *fe^Ka^-2 tract before mentioned ; and S^iKBhj a posterior or Sensitive root ^^^?^S^ from the posterior columns I^B/^ of the spinal cord, and con- N0KiG^S9WBB£ft\H tinuous with the Sensory tract. »-fi BHaBB^ SKJ @S i[iill The Sensitive roots are larger BEMBHSEBBBaWulU-"' than the Motor, and each has an imbedded ganglion, after the formation of which the two roots unite into one KSfsjaa^!^^^ trunk, forming the spinal ll| IMWJaB&j nerve, which passes out of |^Lmn¥|B)rai the spinal column through ^SvMuG^ls'li the intervertebral openings. ^ vfl^ '" 454. The Spinal Nerves W^ 'Wa« are divided into — (uir^ ' Cervical 8 pairs. uS}^ Dorsal 12 " ||gj(, ^^^^^ Lumbar 5 " i Sacral 6 " At some parts of their course certain branches of the nerves reunite, forming networks called plexuses. Thus the four upper cervical ^„, 159. a b.icx tiew of the BRim and nerves anastomose, forming Spiml Cokd.-1, The cerebrum. 2, The cere- , bellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the the cervical plexus, at the f.,,^ S, The brachial ijlexus of nerves. 6,7, side of the neck; the four S, 9, Nci-resof thearm. 10, Nerves that pass , • 1 1 ii under the ribs. 11, Tlie lunihar plexus of lower cervical, and the upper „^^^^, ^.,^ j,,^ ,,^^^, p,^.^^,^ of nerves. 13, dorsal. form the brachial U, 15, le. Nerves of the lower Umbs. 224 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. plexus (fig. 159), from which proceed six nerves which ramify upon the muscles and skin of the upper exti'emities ; the last dorsal and four lumbar nerves form the lumbar plexua^ which Bends off six nerves to 'ramify upon the muscles and skin of the lower extremities; the last lumbar and four upper sacral form the sacral plexus, which distributes nerves to the muscles and skin of the hip and lower extremities. FiQ. 160. Fig. 160 REPRESENTS THE SmPATHETia Ganqlia, and their Conxection with other Nerves, from the grand engraving of Manec, reduced in size. A, A, A, The semilunar ganglion and solar plexus, situated below the diaphragm and behind the stomach. This ganglion is situated in the region (pit of the stomach) where a blow gives severe suffering. D, D, D, The thoracic (chest) ganglia, ten or eleven in number. E, E, The external and internal branches of the thoracic ganglia. G, II, The right and left coronary plexus, situated npon the heart I, N, Q, The inferior, middle and superior cervical (neck) ganglia. 1, The renal plexus of nerves that surrounds the kidneys. % The lumbar (loin) ganglion. 3, Their internal' branches. 4, Their external brauches. 5, The aortic plexus of nerves that lies upon the aorta. The other letters and flgnres re* present nerves that connect important orgaiu and nerves with the sympathetic ganglia. THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, 455. The Sympathetic system, like the Cerebro-Spinal, is double, consisting of two chains of ganglia, one on each side NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 225 of the spinal column, running through the deep parts of the neck, into the chest and abdomen. These ganglia communi- cate with each other, with the spinal cord and with the inter- nal organs — as the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, pancreas, intestines and kidneys. In the neck and chest the ganglia are arranged in pairs ; those of the neck are three in number and the largest of the system ; those of the chest, twelve in number, a ganglion resting upon the head of each rib ; in the abdomen the arrangement is irregular. 456. A peculiarity of the Sympathetic nerves is, that they follow the didribution of the blood-vessels. Starting from the heart, they envelop the large vessels with a close network, called the Arierial plexus ; and in the abdomen, behind the stomach, the large blood-vessels are surrounded by many small ganglia, all united by networks of fibres called the solar plexus, because the other plexuses of the abdomen radiate from it, like the rays diverging from the sun. In all parts of the body, these nerves accompany the arteries which supply the different organs, and form networks around them which take the names of the organs, as the hepatic plexus, splenic plexus, mesenteric plexus, etc. § 45. Histology of the Nervous System. — Three Microscopic Elements of Nerve-Tissue. Nerve- Cetts. Nerve-Fibres. Membranes of Cerebrospinal System. 457. Nervous Tissue is composed of three microscopic elements — Nerve- Cells, or Ganglionic Corpuscles, White or Tubular Fibres, and Gray or Gelatinous Fibres. 458. The Neeve-Cells are nucleated cells ; that is, vesic- ular matter containing, besides a pulpy substance, an eccen- tric, roundish body, or nucleus, enclosing one or more nucleoli surrounded by colored granules (32). These nerve-cells have various branches or offsets starting from any part of the cell- wall and completely continuous with it and with the con- tents of the cell itself. The branches connect the cells with each other, and also with the nerve-fibres. Their number varies from one to twenty, and the cells are accordingly dis- K* 226 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. 161. / -A < I' Fig. 161 (Leidy). PoETtos OF Gray Substance, from THE Exterior of the Gerb- BELLDM. — 1, T.wo nerve-cellH with bipolar prolongations. 2, Orannlar matter. 3, Nu- clear bodies. 4, Nerve-iibres. tinguished as unipolar, bipolar and multipolar (fig. 16). A collection of nerve-cells constitutes the essential part of a Ganglion. They are imbedded in a matrix of fine, soft, granular matter, and variously mingled and interwoven with multitudes of fibres. Composed of such masses, do we find the whole convoluted surface of the brain, the thalami optici, the corpora striata, the quadrigeminal body and some other minute bodies ; from these, one un- broken, gray tract may be traced through the interior of the peduncles of the brain, the interior of the medulla ob- longata and of the spinal cord (fig. 164). The various ganglia of the sympathetic system are also of the same substance. 459. The White or Tubulae Fibres, or the ultimate nerve-filaments, consist of an outer, structureless membrane en- closing a layer of trans- ^"'- "2. parent fluid fat, or me- dullary matter, within which is a firmer part — a gray, ribbon-like thread — called the cen- tral band-axis, or the axis cylinder. This is identical in structure with the processes of the nerve-cells with which it is con- tinuous, and is very important, as it is sometimes the only part of the nerve-fibre left within the structureless sheath ; thus constituting the so-called pale, non-medullated nerve- fibre. As the medullary matter encloses the band-axis, it is often, though improperly, called the medullary sheath. 4G0. The nerve- filaments are distributed to the skin, muscles and glandular organs, in all parts of the body. From these points they approach each other, uniting into Fig. 162. Nerve-Filamekts, decusaing with their sheath. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 227 little bundles or fibres, and then into larger bundles, till they are of sufficient size to be seen by the naked eye, when they constitute a nerve. The filaments do not blend with each other, but lie in simple juxtaposition, each retaining a com- plete individuality from its origin to its termination. Like the fibres of a muscle, they are bound together and protected by a covering of areolar tissue, called its Neurilem'ma, or sheath, which also contains the blood-vessels for the nutrition of the nerve. The filaments become gradually finer toward their outer extremities, till at length the sheath, medullary por- tion and band-axis become undistinguishable. Their mode of termination is uncertain, though the sensory nerves, at least, seem to have free extremities. Fig. 163. F:s. 163. DugnAU or Huuam Bbain, in Vertical Section, showing the Eituation of the different ganglia and the course of the fibres. 1, Olfactory ganglion. 2, Hemisphere. 8, Corpus striatum. 4, Optic thalamus. 5, Tubercula quadrigemina. 6, Cerebellum. 7, Ganglion of tuber annulare. 8, Ganglion of medulla oblongata. 461. The tubular fibres compose the white parts of the brain and the spinal cord ; the chief substance of the nerves ; and also pass into and mix with the gray substance of the brain, cord and all the ganglia. They vary in size, being finest of all in the superficial layers of the brain, fine in the nerves of special sense and in the ganglia, larger in the fore part of the spinal cord, and largest in the motor nerves. 462 Besides the White tubular fibres, there are found, 228 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. chiefly in the Sympathetic System, Gray or Gelatinous Fibres, which are flattened, more minute than the white fibres, and greatly resembling their band-axis. Some have considered these but a form of connective tissue, but whether they be so considered, or as true nervous elements, they seem to be pro- duced by the coalescence of elongated nucleated cells, the contents of which, as the cells enlarge, become soft and finely granular, while the nuclei appear wider and wider apart. 463. The Membranes of the Cerebro-Spinal System are four in number — the Dura Mater, the Pia Mater, the Aracli- noid Membrane and the Epen'dyma. The Dura Mater is a tough, fibrous membrane lining the bony walls of the skull and spinal column, forming their periosteum. The Pia Mater is another fibrous and very vascular membrane which closely invests the brain and spinal cord, and sends processes into all their fissures. The inner surface of the dura mater, and the outer surface of the pia mater, each become very delicate in structure and are lined with an epithelium : this gossamer mem- brane is named the Arachnoid Membrane. Its two layers unite at many points, thus forming closed sacs, which, like other serous membranes, secrete a fluid called the arachnoid fluid. 464. The dura mater not only firmly invests the brain and spinal cord, but sends ofi" supporting partitions — that which de- scends between the hemispheres of the cerebrum being called the Cerebral Falx; that between the hemispheres of the cere- bellum, the Cerebellar Falx; and that between the cerebrum and cerebellum, the Tentorium. Through separations in the laj'ers of the dura mater, channels are formed, performing the ofiice of veins : they are named Sinuses of the Dura Mater, and are lined with a continuation of the ordinary epithelium of blood-vessels. The dura mater also furnishes the areolar sheaths to the several cranial and spinal nerves ; therefore it is continuous from the lining of the cranium to the extremity of the nerves in the difierent parts of the body. 465. The Ependyma is a delicate, transparent, serous mem- brane, lining the ventricles of the brain and the central canaJ of the spinal cord. NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 229 ? 46. Physiology op the Nervous System. — Man's OompowiA Nature. Bdalion of the Nervous System to this Nature. The Bank of the Nervous System. Relation of the Nervous Centres to the Sensitive and Motor Nerves. Classification of the Centres. System of Dependen- cies, General Function of the Organic Centres. Their Modes of Befiex Action. Peculiarity of Sympathetic Action. Functions of the Reflex or Spinal Centres. Their Acquired Action, and the Theory Explaining it. Practical Importance of the Automatic Tendency produced by Sepiti- Hon and Association. Character of the Sensational Centres and their Action, Internal Stimuli to the Activity of these Centres. Functions of the Ideational Centres. Ideas Suggested by the Same Object different in Different Individuals. Various Manifestations of Reflex Action in the Ideational Centres. Emotional Character of these Centres. Voli- tional Character. Relation of the Emotions to the WUl. Influence of the Physical Nature for Good or for Evil. The Language of the Musdes. 466. At different periods of the world's history, many dif- ferent opinions have prevailed concerning the respective existence of body and soul, and their relations to each other. The pagan Greek included all under the one word yo/ij and the Eoman under that of anima, which was almost " equally applicable to the vegetative life of a cabbage, the animal life of a sheep, and the spiritual life of an apostle." During the fifth century before the Christian era, Anaxagoras advanced a shadowy idea of man's compound nature, which at the day- dawn of . Christianity assumed a clear and definite outline. At length philosopher and Christian advocated the supremacy of the immaterial nature over the material, and eventually regarded their interests as antagonistic. The body was deemed the source of all evil — the work of the Prince of Darkness. At the present day, more than at any former period, efforts are being made to rightly balance the two natures, and yet many seem to regard the body as a gloomy prison-house in which God has shut us up, rather than as a beautiful " temple " in which the mind and soul may dwell as priest and priestess, using all its appointments in rendering service to the Lord of the temple. 467. The Neevous System is the border-land where the material touches the immaterial. It possesses that highest 20 230 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND ITYGIENE. refinement of physical organization through which the mind may manifest itself, and by means of which it may control and bring into service, not only the various organs of the body, but other matter more external and remote. 468. The organisms heretofore described have no inherent active power, but are entirely dependebt upon the nervous system : thus, the bones are dependent for movement ufon the contractility of the muscles ; this contractility, upon the gtimulus of the nerves; this stimulus, apon the energetic action of the nerve-centres ; and these centres are graded in rank and measurably dependent, the lowest upon the next higher, and so on to the highest, or convoluted centres of the hemispheres. 469. In their function, the nervous centres are intermediate between the sensitive and motor fibres; as the sensitive fibres, being acted upon at their distal extremities, convey impressions inward to the centre ; and the motor fibres, being acted upon at the centres, convey nerve-force outward, and produce motion at their distal extremities. Let any part of the surface of the body be touched by a hot iron, and mus- cular contraction instantly follows ; but there has been time enough for the sensation of pain to be conveyed to the nervous centre, and for an impulse to be sent from that centre to the muscles : such action is called the Reflex Action of th& Nervous System. By this means a communication is established be- tween the difl^erent organs. This communication is never direct, but from one organ inward to the nervous centre, then outward to another organ : so are the diflferent functions associated and exercised for the common good of the whole. 470. In dealing with the functions of the Nervous System we adopt the following classification of the Nervous Centres : viz. — 1st, The Primary or Ideational Centres, comprising the gray matter of the convolutions of the hemispheres (446) ; 2d, The Secondary or Sensational Centres, comprising the gray matter between the floors of the lateral ventricles and the decussation of the pyramids (442); 3d, The Tertiary Centres, or Centres of Reflex Action, comprising the gray NERVOUS SYSTEM. 231 matter of the spinal cord (441) ; 4th, The Quartemary or Organic Centres, comprising the gray matter of the Sym- pathetic System (455). 471. The arrangement of this system of centres is like that of a well-ordered body politic. Each distinct department, or nerve-centre, acts independently within certain limits, but beyond these limits it is subordinate to the next high«r: thus, the Organic Centres are subordinate to the Keflex or Spinal Centres ; the Keflex, to the Sensorial ; and all, to the Ideational or Supreme Centres. In each centre the indi- vidual cells probably difier in rank, some having a higher dignity, some a lower, but each its special appointment, its assigned duty. Such would be the inference from their varied form, color, size, and mode of branching. There are probably important difierences of chemical constitution and action, but of this we have no means of proof. There is, then, reason for supposing that from the lowliest cell in the Organic centres, to that of highest rank in the Ideational, there is a long series of dependencies, and, so nice is the ad- justment, that if one fails to conform to the laws of the organization the others must sufier. Slight disturbances may take place in the lower centres without the knowledge of the Supreme Authority, but any serious matter beyond their con- trol is early reported ; this is the meaning of pain, weariness, etc. If the warning is disregarded at headquarters, there is liability to an open rebellion that will shake the system to its foundations, and not unlikely result in its complete over- throw. " The well-being and power of the higher individuals are entirely dependent upon the well-being and contentment of the humbler workers, which do so great a part of the daily work of life." 472. The Organic or Sympathetic Centres are not well understood, but the distribution of their nerves would indicate that they exercise a controlling influence over the involuntary functions of digestion, absorption, circulation and assimilation. From the fact that these nerves reach their ultimate destination supported on the arterial vessels, 232 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. it is probable that their influence is exerted through a certain control over the muscular coat of the heart and arteries, thus hastening or retarding the course of the blood, and increasing or diminishing its quantity in various organs. Thus the functions of nutrition, secretion, etc., depending so much upon the state of the circulation, are made to sympathize with each other very closely; hence the name, " Sympathetic' System (456). 473. The organic centres being connected with the various organs by sensitive and motor nerves, are capable of an inde- pendent reflex action. They are also connected with the cerebro-spinal system, and are more or less assisted by and subordinate to it. In health the brain takes no cognizance of their action ; when diseased, however, the centres report to the highest authority by means of cramps and other severely acute pains. In its normal action, a centre seems to expend only so much force as is disposed of by the motor nerves ; in diseased action there is a surplus, which is con- veyed to the next higher centre, to be disposed of by its motor nerves ; if there is still a surplus, it passes on as before. 474. There are three kinds of reflex action taking place either wholly or partially through the Sympathetic System ; viz. — 1st, The reflex action from the internal organs to the voluntary muscles and sensitive surfaces : examples are seen in the convulsions of children, caused by the irritation of un- digested food in the intestines ; and in adults, in the attacks of temporary blindness or confused vision so often accompany- ing indigestion. 2d, The reflex action from the sensitive sur- faces to the involuntary muscles and the internal organs; as mental and moral impressions received by the senses distuib the motions of the heart and aflTect the circulation, digestion and secretion ; disagreeable sights or odors produce nausea and other functional derangements. 3d, The reflex actian between the internal organs ; as the associated action of tiie stomach, liver, etc. The variation in the capillary circula- tion of the abdominal viscera, according as they are active or inactive, is probably referable to a similar influence. NEEVOTTS SYSTEM. 233 475. One marked peculiarity of the Sympathetic System is, that its nerves and ganglia act with much less rapidity than those of the Cerebro-Spinal System ; hence, inflammation of the internal organs is not manifest for several hours after tho application of the exciting cause ; as the effects of a chill or cold do not usually follow immediately after the exposure. Because of this tardy action, the effect remains long after the cause is removed. A very beautiful example of the slo^^ action of the sympathetic nerves is seen in the movements of the iris of the eye. The ciliary nerves controlling these movements originate in the brain, but pass through, and are affected by, a sympathetic ganglion. In passing from the dazzling sunshine into the house, we are scarcely able to distinguish objects about us, and some minutes are often re- quired to adapt the iris to the- less amount of light ; and the same slow movement is evident in passing from a less degree of light to a greater. Were these nerves purely cerebro- ^nal, the action would take place instantly. 476. The Teetiakt, Reflex or Spinal Centres. The white, tubular substance of the spinal cord connects the muscles and integuments below with the brain above, and thus assists in the production of conscious sensation and voluntary motion. The gray matter forms nerve-centres, which exert a general protective influence over the whole body. They preside over the involuntary movements of the limbs and trunk; if a finger touch a heated surface, it is suddenly with- drawn, and that without effort of the will, and often in oppo- sition to it. The same movement takes place upon tickling the foot of a person asleep. They regulate the action of the ephincter muscles, as in the rectum and bladder. They exer- cise a certain control over the changes of secretion, nutrition, etc., as is manifest in cases of disease. Thus we see that many human activities are performed by the reflex action of the spinal centres, inherent in their natural constitution. 477. They are, however, capable of an acquired reflex action, which is matured through experience. An act or an association of acts becomes easier to them by repetition. 20* 234 ANATOiry, physiology and hygiene. This acquired power of reflex action has been accounted for by a theory * which is at least beautifully illustrative of the fads in the case. Every display of energy in the nerve-cells causes a change or waste of nervous element which is re- paired by nutrition. This theory assumes that the charuetei of the waste determines the character of the deposit ,• that the particle deposited is necessarily endowed according to 'the particular kind of activity manifested, and that this endow- ment inclines the particle to the same kind of activity again. By each rtpetition, the tendency becomes stronger and more definite, till, after a longer or shorter series of repetitions, the action becomes automatic. 478. When a certain class of movements have, after many voluntary efforts, become associated, they become perceptibly more and more easy. Walking is at first a very conscious and voluntary act ; but it may become so far reflex and automatic that one in a profound abstraction may continue to walk without being at all conscious where he is going, and when he wakes from his revery may find himself in some other place than that which he intended to visit. Multi- tudes of our daily acts are the result of this acquired reflex action of the spinal centres. The wisdom of such an arrange- ment is very evident, for but little could be accomplished if acts became no easier by repetition and association. Con- scious efforts of the will soon produce exhaustion, while the automatic acts of which we are speaking occasion compara- tively little weariness. We often say of certain rounds of duties that they do not weary us, for we are aecustomed to them. In speaking of this acquired power of which the spinal centres are capable. Dr. Maudsley says, "Like the brain, the spinal cord has its memory. A spinal cord without memory would be an idiotic spinal cord, incapable of culture — a degenerate nervous centre in which the organization of special faculties could not take place. It is the lesson of a good education so consciously to exercise it in reference to * Dr. Maudeley. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 235 its surroundings that it shall act automatically in accordance with the relations of the individual in his particular walk of life." 479. The Sensational Centres, including the gray mat- ter of tha medulla oblongata, and of the base of the brain as far as the lateral ventricles, consist chiefly of the nervous centres of the higher or special senses, as sight, hearing (442), etc. Any one of these senses is quickly destroyed by destroy- ing its ganglion : the loss of the quadrigeminal body destroys the sight as effectually as putting out the eyes. That these centres have an independent reflex action may be seen by the involuntary closure of the eyelid when a strong light falls upon the eye, or by the involuntary contortions of the face when an article is sour or bitter to the taste. These are examples of natural reflex action, but, like the spinal cord, these centres are capable of an acquired reflex action ; as in the articulation of words upon seeing their signs ; adapting the movements of the body to the rhythm of music, in dancing, marching, etc. Most of the sensations of the special senses become clear and definite only after a long course of training ; for instance, the visual sensation of the adult is a very different matter from that of the child whose eyes have recently opened upon the world. " The sensation of the culti- vated sense thus sums up, as it were, a thousand experiences, as one word often contains the accumulated acquisitions of generations." 480. In speaking of the acquired reflex action of the spina] centres, we referred to the theory that a relio, or residuum, of every activity remained in the nerve-cell as a special endow- ment ; that perhaps the character of the activity determined the character of the nutritive deposit. This theory is equally applicable to the sensational centres, and equally illustrative of the certain fact that acts of this class are rendered easier by repetition. 481. The sensational centres are excited to activity not only by impressions from the organs of the special senses, but by sensations from within the body, both from the organic 236 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. and ideational centres. Of the former, examples are afforded when the higher nervous centres are weakened by disease, or when the organic stimuli have an unnatural activity, as is the case with the intemperate man. 482. The Ideational Centres seem to have the power of fashioning into ideas the impressions received by the sensa- tional centres. When the various properties of an object are presented by the different senses, these centres reject the un- essential, and, selecting the essential, mould them into an organic unity, or idea. By means of the sensorial centres and nerves, we may gain perceptions or impressions of the qualities of a rose, but these would be isolated, and we should have no clear and definite idea of the rose, without the mould- ing and vivifying influences of the ideational centres. 483. Different persons obtain very different ideas of the same object ; the character of the idea being dependent upon the character of the organization both of the sensational and ideational centres, and the character of the organization upon natural endowment, or inherited organisation, and also upon the education received. 484. The ideational centres, like those already described, are capable of an independent, reflex action, which may be manifested in different ways :. 1st, This may take place through the motor tract, thus giving rise to what have been named ideomotor movements. This energy may be exerted either upon the voluntary or involuntary muscles, and in the former case either with or without consciousness: the idea that vomiting must take place when a qualmish feeling exists will hasten or even produce vomiting, affording an example of the reflex action of an idea upon the involuntary muscles, conformable to what has been said of the subordination of the organic nervous centres to those of the cerebro-spinal system. Examples of the reflex action of ideas upon our voluntary muscles are seen every hour of our waking life; these may be unconscious, as is seen in most persons who talk to themselves, or they may be conscious, and yet without the intervention of the will, as when a quick-tempered indi- NERVOUS SYSTEM. 237 vidual quickly resents an insult by a blow. 2d, The reflex action of an ideational nerve-cell may not only operate downward upon the muscular system, but downward upon the sensory centres : the idea of a nauseous taste may excite the sensation to such a degree as to produce vomiting. The action of ideas upon our sensory ganglia is indeed a regular part of our mental life, for the co-operation of sensory activity is necessary to clear conception and representation, and by it we may see our own ideas as actual images. Those great writers who delight us with their vivid descriptions of scenery or events possess this power in a high degree. 3d, Another very important reflex action of these centres is that which modifies the secretions and nutrition : a flow of saliva may be produced by the thought of food, or a flow of tears by a sym- pathetic idea. 4th, There may be in these centres a reflex action among the ceUs themselves. One cell reacts to a stimulus from a neighboring cell, then transfers or refircfs this energy to another. This may be the condition of activity among these cells during that process of the mind which we call Reflection. 485. These ideational centres are also the seat of the Emo- tions. When an idea is attended with some feeling, either pleasant or unpleasant, it is so far Emotional; and when the feeling preponderates, the idea is obscured, and the state of mind is then called an Emotion, or, when rising above the ordinary degree and becoming impatient of restraint, a Pas- sion. The capacity for emotion depends essentially upon the range and vigor of ideas. The man of great strength of mind, as a Milton or Napoleon, is capable of deeper emotion than the man of dwarfed and puny intellect. Indeed, just here lies, in no small degree, the secret of his superior power. The same stimulus may at one time produce simply an idea, and at another time an emotion, according to the condition of the nerve-cells. 486. Every centre of idea is also a centre of Volitionary re- action. When an idea acts directly downward, we call the efiect ideomotor; but when there is deliberation or reflection 238 delaying the action, and it afterward takes place downward, we call the e^ectjuolitional. Volition is also exercised in pre- venting as well as in producing an action. 487. The exercise of the Will is the highest energy of which the supreme centres are capable. Within certain limits, the ideas and emotions are subject to its control. Suppose a being endowed with the intellectual and emotional natures, but not with the will : though possessing the intelli- gence of a man, his capacities for action would be inferior to those of the brutes, for, like them, his actions would be the result of mere sensational impulses, and yet he would be destitute of that natural guide of brutes which we call in- stinct. This represents the wretched condition of a man whose will is by any means so enfeebled that it fails to con- trol the mental and physical powers. 488. The power of the will depends both upon the inherited organization and also upon the training it has received, for volitions, like sensations and ideas, become more easy and definite by repetition. A naturally weak will may be greatly strengthened by due care and training. According to the theory before mentioned, each volition leaves its relic, trace or residuum which inclines the portion of nerve-element exercised to a like activity again. If we accustom ourselves to decide promptly, to act energetically and to carry out our purposes in the many smaller and less important affairs of life, we gain a power of will which may be carried into higher departments of action and into circumstances of greater embarrassment and difficulty. 489. The Will bears very important relations to the Emo- tions. If they are allowed to react independently, as is theii natural tendency, they weaken the will ; if duly controlled and co-ordinated, they strengthen it. The passionate nature of the child may, by proper training, become a potent f )!(« for good in after years, "giving a white heat, as it were, to the expression of thought, an intensity to the will." "Untrained, it will become a no less potent force for evil, and the individual under the mastery of his passions will NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 239 be tossed about as helplessly as' a boat in the rapids of Niagara. 490. The free action of the will requires an unimpeded association of ideas, and the ease and completeness of such an association depends upon the condition of nervous element, very slight disorders of which declare themselves in the de- terioration of the will-power. As in the spinal centres dis- turbance of the nerve-element weakens their control over movements, so in the ideational centres disordered nerve- element is quickly manifested in the loss of will-power ; and as in great disorder of the spinal centres all co-ordinating power is lost and convulsions ensue, so in great disorders of the ideational centres all co-ordinating power over the thoughts and feelings is lost, convulsive reactions of the cells take place, and the individual becomes insane. 491. We have seen that the mind is closely united and yet distinct from the material organ through which it acts — de- pendent for its manifestations, but independent in essence. So intimate is the union, that the body exercises a powerful influence in leading us upward into a true and higher life, or downward into a low and sensual existence. What this in- fluence shall be depends somewhat upon inherited organiza- tion, but more upon education. Accepting the theory already advanced as at least illustrative, we see that if the thoughts, feelings-and volitions are pure and true and good, their im- pressions or residua remaining in the nerve-cells are of the same character, and tend to give a right direction to the future activities of these cells. If the thoughts, feelings and volitions are evil in nature, the impressions or residua will also be evil, inclining to evil activities in the future. When we resist a temptation to wrong action, then we not only avoid the particular evil, but lay up that which will render the next resistance easier and more natural. If we yield to the temptation, we are not only guilty of the particular wrong, but lay up that which will make resistance more difli- cult or yielding more easy and natural for the future. When a man sets his heai-t to do right, all his physical being struggles 240 ANATOMY, PHySIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. to give him aid ; and when he sets his heart to do wrong, its energies are expended in dragging him downward. 492. The visible impress which the workings of the mind leave upon the body is worthy our notice. The character of the man is declared by the lines of his muscles, which tell no lies. Especially is this true of the muscles of the face. Let him narrow his soul by penuriousness, become the victim of rasping jealousy, wear the nettles of envy against his heart, or be the slave of defiling lust, and in spite of any natural comeliness or studied concealment, his true character will be proclaimed to all who have learned aught of the language of the muscles. " Be sure your sin will find you out," says He who has made the fleshly lineaments to reveal the most hidden vice. The more secret the viciousness, the deeper is the impress. But if the spirit of evil thus leaves the traces of its blackened pen upon the face, the spirit of goodness writes thereon in no less legible characters of light. Purity of heart, nobleness of purpose, restful ness of soul, soften, irradiate, spiritualize the outer man, giving a higher beauty than that of form or complexion, even to him who is wrinkled by years, bowed by infirmity and scarred by the battles of life. § 47. Hygiene of the Nervous System. — Two Classes q( Agencies Affecting the Health of the Nervous System. Natural Heritage. Im- portance of the Physical Agency — Air — Diet — Exercise and Steep. The Effect of Mental Impressions on the Body. Mental Exercise. Me- creation and Amusement. Harmonious Development of the Different Mental Powers. 493. We have seen that diflferent organs of the body are entirely dependent for functional action upon the stimulus aflfbrded by the nervous system ; and since this is the mate- rial organization through which the mind acts, we are led to the inevitable conclusion that the physical condition of this system must aflTect, more or less, the mental manifestations. It becomes, then, a matter of primary importance that wo NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 241 understand the conditions essential to the health of this sys- tem, especially as suffering from nervous disease exceeds that of other diseases, as the delicacy of the organization exceeds that of other organizations of the body. 494. In considering the hygiene of the nervous system, it is necessary to have reference both to physical and mental agencies. The highest health and vigor of the nervous sys- tem doubtless require — 1st, A sound nervous organization by inheritance. 2d, A nutrition equal to the demands of re- pair and growth. 3d, The harmonious action of the various mental powers. 495. 1st, A Sound Organization by Inheeitance. " Each of us is only the footing-up of a double column of figures that goes back to the first pair," is the striking ex- pression of a great truth. Every-day observation shows that children inherit not only the features, but the physical, mental and moral constitution of their parents. Even those utterly ignorant of the laws of transmission are wont to estimate the child according to its family ; favorably, if of a " good family " or " good blood ;" unfavorably, if of a " bad family" or "bad blood." Every formation of body, internal and external, all intel- lectual endowments and aptitudes, and all moral qualities, are or may be transmissible from parent to child. If one generation is missed, the qualities may appear in the next generation. It is important to notice that not only the natural constitution of the parents may be inherited, but their acquired habits of life, whether virtuous or vicious, but espe- cially is this true of vice. Even when the identical vice does not appear, there is a morbid organization and a tendency to some vice akin to it. Not only is the evil tendency trans- mitted, but what was the simple practice, the voluntarily adopted and cherished vice of the parent, becomes the pas- gion, the overpowering impulse of the child. 496. M. Morel sketches the history of four generations as follows: "First Generation. — The father was a habitual drunkard, and was killed in a public-house brawl. Second 242 Generation. — The son inherited his father's habits, which gave rise to attacks of mania, terminating in paralysis and death. Third Generation. — The grandson was strictly sober, but full of hypochondriacal and imaginary fears of persecu- tions, etc., and had homicidal tendencies. Fourth Genera- tion. — The fourth in descent had very limited intelligence, and had an attack of madness when sixteen years old, termi- nating in stupidity nearly amounting to idiocy; with him the race probably becomes extinct." 497. Says a learned physician, after long and close ob- at rvation of the evil effects of tobacco : " If the evil ended with the individual who, by the indulgence of a pernicious custom, injures his own health and impairs his faculties of mind and body, he might be left to his enjoyment, his /oo^'« paradise, unmolested. This, however, is not the case. In no instance is the sin of the father more strikingly visited upon the children than the sin of tobacco-smoking. The enerva- tion, the hysteria, the insanity, the dwarfish deformities, the consumption, the suffering lives and early deaths of the chil- dren of inveterate smokers bear ample testimony to the feebleness and unsoundness of the constitution transmitted by this pernicious habit." 498. Should we trace the effects of the whole list of vices, it would be with equally sad results ; even of the great love of money-getting, the celebrated Dr. Maudsley says : " I can- not but think, after what I have seen, that the extreme pas- sion for getting rich, absorbing the whole energies of a life, does predispose to mental degeneration in the oflfepring, either to moral defect, or to moral and intellectual deficiency, or to outbreaks of insanity." 499. Any kind of nervous disease in the parents, whether natural or acquired, seems to predispose to innate feeble- ness in the child. From this instability of nervous ele- ment, the slightest irritation often produces convulsions in the young child and loss of equilibrium in the adult. Such a natural constitution may be improved by a judi- cious education and strict obedience to physical and men- NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 243 tal laws; but the original defect can never be entirely removed. 500. 2d, A Nutrition equal to the Demands of Repair and Growth. The relation of the nervous centres to the blood is the same in kind as that between other parts of the body and their blood-supply. Great waste is produced by nervous action ; hence, the centres are very largely sup- plied with blood-vessels, especially the Ideational centres. The activity of ideas is largely dependent upon the active flow of blood to the nerve-cells. Activity of thought invites the blood which, in turn, is so necessary to activity. The nerve-centres, then, must be supplied with the proper quality and quantity of blood ; hence, whatever deteriorates the blood impairs the health of the nervous system. It is evi- dent, then, that — 501. The nervous system may he impaired by impure air. Everybody knows that bad air injures the lungs, but. few realize that, on the whole, it injures the brain still more. As the nerve-tissue is the most delicate part of the body, it soonest feels the evil effects of imperfectly oxygenated blood. (See Respiration.) 502. The nervous system may be impaired by improper diet. We are wont to believe that improper diet may affect the digestive organs, but seldom consider the mental and moral effects of such diet. Improper food poisons the blood, and thus the nerve-centres are cheated of their nutriment and also poisoned ; hence, the ideas become confused, the emo- tions morbid and the will weakened. The whole man is crippled, physically, mentally and morally. It is an indis- putable fact that bad bread, for instance, inay thus have a very immoral influence. Those much engaged in mental labor suffer most from bad diet. No teacher can teach well, no lawyer can plead well, no physician can practice well, no minister can preach well, who habitually takes improper food. (See Digestion.) 503. If such be the effect of improper food, what shall wo say of such poisons as alcohol, opium, haschish, tobacco, etc., 244 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. which act so directly and powerfully upon the nervous sys- tem ? The same poison does not equally affect all the nerve- centres ; thus, strychnine acts upon the spinal centres, but not the cerebral; haschish, upon the sensory centres, giving rise to hallucinations ; alcohol, upon the cerebral centres par- ticularly. The alcoholic poison first produces an increased activity of the muscles, then alternate exaltation and de- pression, both physical and mental ; finally, stupor, relaxa- tion of the muscles and deep sleep. These symptoms are transitory ; but let the poisoning process be continued, and true delirium, so weU known as ' delirium tremens," follows, and at length what is known as " chronic alcoholism ;" and while intoxication lasts a few hours, and delirium tremens a few days or weeks, chronic alcoholism spreads its banefiil in- fluence over years, unless death prevents the flill develop- ment of the tragedy. The victim of alcoholic poisoning is equally enfeebled in body and mind. The nervous system becomes exhausted, the moral sentiments perverted, the will- power broken, and he seems powerless to cease from the fatal habit which has produced the change. 504. With the opium-eater the diseases of the nervous sys- tem declare themselves even more rapidly than with the drunkard. Says M. Morel : " Given the period at which a person begins to smoke opium, and it is easy to predicate the time of his death ; his days are numbered." 505. Tobacco is one of the most virulent poisons. It soothes the nerves temporarily, only to leave thein more enfeebled and irritable. Even excessive use of tea and coffee may prove disastrouu to the health of the nervous system. 506. The nervous system may be impaired by want of physical exercise. Among other agencies that affect the nervous sys- tem, none exert a wider influence than bodily exercise. It seems to be required to complete the change which the blood undergoes while passing through the kings and skin, without which the waste of nerve-element could not be repaired. In persons who are merely sedentary, having little occasion for NERVOUS SYSTEM. 245 active thought, this want of exercise is sufficiently mis- chievous ; but when there is great mental activity, the mis- chief is vastly increased. Thousands of ministers, lawyers, those who sit in the bank and counting-room, shorten their days because of this neglect ; especially is this the case in America. The English nobility, notwithstanding their many indulgences, are a long-lived race, and this is doubtless owing to their spending so much time in open-air exercise (208). 607. The nervous system may become impaired hy taking toe little sleep. " Sleep knits up the raveled structure" of nervous element ; for during sleep, organic assimilation is restoring what has been expended in functional energy. A periodical renewal of nervous energy as often as once a day is an insti- tution of Nature. Among the wise arrangements of the Creator,. none harmonizes with the wants of the system more perfectly than the alternation of day and night. The amount of sleep necessary depends upon the age, health, natural temperament and occupation of the individual. The more rapid the exhaustion of nervous energy from any cause, the more sleep will be required. The young and the aged need more sleep than the person of middle life; the sick, more than the well; those engaged in mental pursuits, more than those wearied by manual labor ; persons of great sensibility, more than the sluggish natures whose normal condition is more nearly allied to sleep ; woman, more than man. We may say in general that the time should not be less than froni six to eight hours, and most persons require a longer period. The time, however, must be proportioned to the need Among the more affluent classes, the customs of the times are quite incompatible with those habits of sleep which are essential to mental vigor. Where amusements are pursued till late hours, night after night, the nervous system greatly sufiers, and every department of the mind becomes un- healthy. The man who, eager to become rich, takes time from his sleep for business purposes, draws from his brain capital. The mother — ^alas! here we must stop. Mothers 21* 246 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. are the one class who hardly get any rest till the " blessed Father takes them in his arms and gives his beloved sleep." 608. 3d, Harmonious Action of the Various Men- tal Powers. That the bodily organs may be directly affected by impressions purely mental does not admit of doubt. Of this fact the skillful physician never loses sight ; for a hopeful, healthful influence of the mind may be made a remedial agency quite as powerful as that of drugs and plasters^ 609. Regular and systematic mental exercise is essential to the health of nerve-tissue. Exercise increases the flow of blood to the active part. We have seen this to be the case in the muscle, and that by use it is both enlarged and strengthened. In like manner the nerve-tissue needs exercise; and as the gymnast becomes expert, not by spasmodic muscular efforts, but by accurate, persistent drill, so must the mental athlete gain his power by the regular performance of such exercise as he is able to bear. The gymnast at first feels pain in his muscles, but he has only to persevere, with proper intervals of rest, and what was at first so difficult becomes easy, while power is gained for severer feats. So the person unaccus- tomed to mental gymnastics feels headache and confusion at first, but frequent repetition will make easy and natural the very thoughts which struggled so painfully into existence, and the nerve-tissue will gain the firmness which increases its capability of action. Under such a course of training, the change in the brain-tissue is often so great as to modify perceptibly the form of the head. 610. Says Dr. Ray: "I have no hesitation in saying that, of all the means for preserving health, there is nothing more sure, or better suited to a greater variety of persons, than habits of regular and systematic mental occupation of some dignity and worth. In this proposition I would embrace all those kinds of employment which pass under the general name of business, and which, little as we are disposed to recognize the fact, bear the same relation to the health of the mind that food, exercise, etc., do to the health of the NERVOUS SYSTEM. 247 body. Work is the condition of our being as active and progressive creatures." Employment which is steadily pursued as a part of the established routine of life, and felt to be, in some degree, a matter of necessity, has an effect on the mind far more salutary than that which depends on the impulse of the mo- ment, and is determined by no sense of necessity, no force of habit. 511 . The saddest effects of the absence of stated useful emr ployment are seen among women of easy drcumstanees. "It is a po'jr view of woman's duties and capacities that confines her to a little busy idleness, because the chances of fortune have placed her beyond the necessity of earning a living; and they must have but a narrow view of the exigencies of social life who believe that any woman of tolerable health and strength may not find abundant opportunities of that kind of work which affords no other recompense than the consciousness of doing good, and therefore to be done, if done at all, by those who can dispense with every other compen- sation. A life of idleness and luxurious ease can be no more honorable to one sex than to the other, and we know very well that in a man it creates no claims upon the respect and confidence of the community." The little accomplishments of needlework, so generally diffused, cannot be dignified with the name of work. Many a mind, liberally endowed, from want of mental exertion becomes dwarfed, or may end in mental depression, particu- larly if ill health or deep affliction throws its weight into the scale. 512. The amount of exercise should be adapted to the liealth and age of the individual. If from any cause the nervous system be weakened, an amount of exercise which would be quite harmless to one in health may prove disastrous. The nerve-tissue of children and youth needs the same care as has been shown requisite for other tissues, and overwork, that in the adult is followed by fatigue, easily removed by rest, in the child may result in irreparable injury. At this period. 248 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the tissue is soft and yielding, and when the blood-vessels become long distended by great activity, they may become permanently enlarged, and pern anent congestion produced. Parents and teachers should not fail to remember that there are important differences in the quality of different brains. In some children the mental reaction to impressions is sluggish and incomplete; in others, the reaction, though slow, is quite complete; in others, again, the reaction ia rapid and lively, but evanescent, so that, though quick at perception, they retain ideas with difficulty ; while in others there is that just equilibrium between the internal and external in which the reaction is exactly adequate to the impression. These differences sliould be taken into the account, and the dull mtellect roused, while that unduly active should be re- strained. It is too often the case, however, that exactly the opposite course is pursued. The fond parents and ambitious teachers, misled by the early promise of genius, excite tlie child to new activity by unceasing cultivation and the never-failing stimulus of praise. For a time the progress of the child is all they could desire, but in exact proportion as the picture of the future brightens to their fancy, the proba- bility of its realization lessens. The brain, worn out by pre- mature exertion, loses its tone, leaving the mental powers weakened and depressed for the remainder of life. The ex- pected prodigy is then outstripped by many whose dull oul^ Bet promised him an easy victory. 513. We often hear the saying, "The valedictorian is never heard of after Commencement-day ;" and it is too often true when the honors are gained at an early age. The present tendency is to treat the mind like a race-hoi-se, goad- ing it on to make a certain round in a given time, and that before the brain-tissue has gained the consolidation requisite for severe exertion. Mary Lyon, with her characteristic wisdom, refused to admit to the Mount Holyoke course of study girls under sixteen years of age, and from her long list of applicants usually selected those not less than eighteen. Let the material organ of the mind be subjected to a KERVOTJS SYSTEM, . 249 Byslematic, thorough, gymnastic training, taking for it the necessary time, and the firm, educated tissue will be fitted for enduring labor in later years; but let it be weakened in youth, and it must ever work under a burden, if indeed it work at all. Moderation in mental exertion is also a necessity with the aged, as they have no vitality for recuperation after severe exhaustion. 514. Intense activity too long continued impairs the dronged brain. The nerve-cells in a state of rest are neutral in their chemical character, but after severe exercise they become acid. When in this condition it is hazardous to continue the exercise. Sufficient rest should be taken to restore them to their normal condition. Congestion, or an undue accumula- tion of blood, also attends excessive functional action. The «fieet of severe congestion in the spinal centres is to produce convulsions; in the sensory centres, roaring in the ears, flashes of light before the eyes and various hallucinations ; in the ideational centres, stagnation of ideas, swimming in the head, and, if long continued, irregular and convulsive action of the cells, causing delirium. The co-ordination of function is destroyed, the will-power abolished. The de- lirious ideas are the expression of a condition of things in the supreme centres analogous to that which in the spinal cord utters itself in convulsions. 515. The required rest is often afforded by recreation and amusement. "Important as stated employment unquestion- ably is to the mental health, amusement or recreation is scarcely less so. Few persons, whatever their mental charac- ter or temperament, can safely dispense ■with these altogether. Even the most commanding intellects sometimes seek the recreation which their exhausting labors make necessary in forms of amusement which, to those who feel the necessity less, seem to be frivolous and puerile. Endowed as we are with the faculty of being amused, it seems to be a reflection on the Author of our being to regard amusements as something to be carefully shunned rather than sought and enjoyed. 250 "To those whose life is one of severe toil and harassing care, amusements constitute almost the only practicable means for repairing the constant waste of the nervous energy. Especially is this want felt by women in the humbler walks of life, whose daily round of care and toil not only draws more largely than that of the stronger sex on the physical and mental energies, but is lightened by none of that relief which is afforded by a greater variety of duties and more frequent periods of rest." Observation. — The brain, when severely taxed, is often rested by some kind of mental exercise which, without being fatiguing, requires just enough effort to impart interest. Hence, a change from Mathematics to the Languages, or from these to music, poetry or painting, will give the needed relaxation. 516. To maintain the highest mental vigor, each faculty of the mind should receive its due share of cultivation. Our various faculties were not bestowed at random, to be used or not as inclination may prompt, but each has its appointed place in the mental economy. Each bears some relation to every other, making one harmonious whole. Ail cannot and need not receive the same amount of cultivation ; but let any one power be so neglected that it might as well be wanting, or let it be applied to some other than its destined use, and an element of strength is lost, the mind becomes to a greater or less extent weakened and one-sided, and therefore jars in its working. One must form habits of attention, accustom the mind to continuous thought, cultivate the reasoning powers and beget a taste for exact knowledge, if he would be in any measure equal to the intellectual effort essential to true success in every calling of life. He must, however, also call into action the creative power of the mind, the imaginor tion, to give vividness to his conception, to add force to his reasoning and to light up the whole horizon of his thought. Many cry out against this faculty, forgetting that it is God- given, and capable of a culture that shall make it of inesti- mable value. It is the abuse of it, not the use, which we are NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 251 to guard against. Its exercise must not be indulged to an extent incompatible with the claims of the other faculties. It must not be allowed to fashion with unbridled power our principles and motives, our aims and ends. Give it, however, the. purest material to work with, and, within proper bounds, no faculty is of more real service or more worthy of our re- gard. Especially is it of value in presenting to the mind an ideal of excellence, a standard of attainment, practicable and desirable, but loftier than anything we have yet reached. 517. The oesthetie faculty, the love of the beautiful, should not be allowed to remain inactive. Its importance is recog- nized only as we understand its value. An object is beautiful to us just in proportion to our power to discover through the material form the thought of which this form is but the ex- pression'; for beauty is but the spirit looking out through the visible, the material. Is not he, then, a happier, a wiser and a better man, who so develops this faculty that he may not only read the thought and sentiment embodied in the works of art, but also the thoughts of the Creator in their varied forms of expression through all the kingdoms of Nature? 518. Man has also a moral faculty, the power of discrimi- nating between right and wrong, which is quickly followed by the feeling of obligation to do the right and avoid the wrong. Upon the right use of these faculties depend the happiness and the destiny of man. The power of an ap- proving conscience over the human mind, and consequently over the health of the Nervous System, cannot be over-esti- mated, while on the other hand, the torments of an accusing conscience not only " cut the sinews of the soul's inherent strength," but snap one by one the gossamer filaments of the brittle thread of life. We have given only a glance at a few of the mental facul- ties, but should we take them one by one, through all the departments of mind, and note their uses, we should find none which could be unused or misused without detriment to our health, happiness or usefulness. 252 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 519. Concerning the hygienic influence of a Harmonious Development of the Mental Powers, Dr. Ray says: " A partial cultivation of the mental faculties is incompatible not only with the highest order of thought, but with the highest degree of health and efficiency. The result of professional experience fairly warrants the statement that in persons of a high grade of intellectual endowment and cultivation, other things being equal, the force of moral shocks is more easily broken, tedious and harassing exercise of particular powers more safely borne, than in those of an opposite description, and disease, when it comes, is more readily controlled and cured. The kind of management which consists in awakening a new order of emotion, in exciting new trains of thought, in turn- ing attention to some new matter of study or speculation, must be far less efficacious, because less applicable, iu one whose mind has always had a limited range than in one of larger resources and capacities. In endeavoring to restore the disordered mind of the clodhopper who has scarcely an idea beyond that of his manual employment, the great diffi- culty is to find some available point from which conservative influences may be projected. He dislikes reading, he never learned amusements, he feels no interest in the affiiirs of the world ; and unless the circumstances allow of some kind of bodily labor, his mind must remain in a state of solitary isolation, brooding over its morbid fancies, and utterly in- competent to initiate any recuperative movement." I 48. Comparative Nbuboi.ogy. — The Comparison of the Nervous System of other Mammals vrith that of Man — Of Birds — Of Reptiles — Of Fishes. The Arrangement of the Nervous System of MoUuaka — Of Hadiata, 520. We have seen that in the Motory and Nutritive ap- paratuses, there is an arrangement and condition of tissues, organs and functions, in all classes of vertebrates, homologous to those in man. Analogy would induce the supposition, that in the arrangements and appointments of the nervous system n similar condition would bp found. Here are found gang- NERVOUS SYSTEM. 253 lia, commissures, and nerves afferent and efferent, but the higliest development, the convoluted hemispherical ganglion, seems to be wanting in the lower orders of the mammalia, in birds, reptiles and fishes; with this general exception, all other homologous parts are more or less developed. Fig. 164. Fig. 165 -2 Fio. 164 (OwjCTi). Babe of Brain of a Horse. — ^1, Cerebrum. 2, Optic ganglion, 3, Cerebellum. 4, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. FlQ. 165. Brain of a Bird.— 1, Cerebrum. 2, Optic ganglion. 3, Cerebellum. 4, Medulla Oblongata. 521. In the Mammalia, the relative size of the cerebrum and cerebellum, except in the lowest order (monotremata), as the ornithorynchus, is about the same as in man, but in birds the cerebellum is proportionately larger than the cere- brum ; the sulci of the cerebrum and cerebellum of other mammals and birds are less developed than in man, and the same is true of the relative size of the brain, large and small, also certain ganglia are comparatively larger. In the horse. 22 254 ox, etc., the olfactory, optic and auditory ganglia are large and the senses of smell, sight and hearing are acute. This is particularly apparent in birds, as the eagle, vulture and buz- zard. In these, vision is not only far-reaching, but acute, and the same is true, to a certain extent, of smell and hearing. In some animals, as the mole, where vision is feeble, and in others where smell or hearing is obtuse, the ganglionic bulbs are very small and the nerves very delicate. 522. In Birds the hemispheres are not united by a corpus callosum, as in mammals ; the cerebellum is proportionately larger than the medulla oblongata ; and the comparative weight of the brain to the body is less than in mammals. Fib. 166. Fig. 167. Fio. 166. Brain op ak Aluoatob.— 1, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Csrobrnm. S, Optic ganglia. 4, Cerebellum. 6, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. Pl3. 167. Bkain op a Fish.— 1, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrum. 3, Optic ganglia, t, Cerebollum. 6, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. 523. The brain of Reptiles constitutes but a very small part of the body. It is smooth, and without convolutions. The hemispheres are hollow, and there is no striated body. The cerebellum sends no prolongations across the medulla ob- longata, so as to form a kind of ring, as in mammals. 524. The relative size of the cerebrum in man, compared with that of the mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes, varies much. In some few, the relative weight between the brain NERVOUS SYSTEM. 255 and body is about the same as in man, while in others it is less — seemingly au homologous appendage, as in the orni- thorynchus. As we descend in the scale of animal life, the cerebellum, the medulla oblongata and the ganglia of some of the special senses, as of smell and vision, are larger relatively than in the corresponding parts in man, since these animals depend upon them for their subsistence and safety. 525. The spinal cord of all mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes varies most in length, but in structure, investment and function it resembles that of man. The number of pairs of spinal nerves correspond to the number of the vertebrae, but the size of the cord is relatively larger than the cerebrum, also the cerebellum and several of the ganglia. 526.- The brain of the Fish is small ; it does not fill the whole cranial cavity, there being found within it a-spongy, fatty mass. The investment and protection of some of the organs of special sense are modified, as seen in the eye of some fishes, the deep-sea shark for instance, where the sclerotic tunic of the eye is bony, in order to protect this organ from the great pressure of the water. Perhaps the most wonderful arrangement is found in the electric fishes, as the common Torpedo, Malapterurus, and the Electric Eel of South America. 527. " The torpedo is a cartilaginous fish. Fig. ir.s. Its body is smooth, and represents a disc nearly circular, the anterior edge of which is formed by two prolongations of the muzzle, which on each side proceed to unite with the pectoral fins, and leave between' these organs the head and the branchiae, an oval space, in which is lodged the electric apparatus of the fish. This apparatus is composed of a num- ber of vertical membranous tubes, closely packed like honeycomb, and subdivided by tokpkdo. horizontal partitions filled with mucosites. and animated by several very large branches of the pneumo- gastric nerve, which, in this and other electric fishes, is larger 256 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. than the spinal cord. In these singular organs is produced the electricity which has now been proved to resemble in every respect common electricity. By experiment it has been ascertained that this property depends on the posterior lobe of the brain, and that by destroying this lobe, or cutting the nerves proceeding from it, the faculty is lost." 528. "The Gym- notus, or Electric Eel, possesses the power in the highest degree. It is met with in vast numbers in the rivulets and stagnant waters of the immense plains of South America. The electric shocks, which it discharges at will, are sufficient- ly strong to kill men and horses, and be- ing transmissible through water, the gymnotus does not require to touch its prey. At first the electric discharges are feeble, but when roused they become terrible ; but by thif effort it becomes ex- hausted, and requires repose before it can renew the attack : this is the moment its captors avail thero- eelves of to seize it. The electric organs are arranged along the back and tail." In the Articulata, the body is different in its general Fia. 169. Blbctkio OboanS of Torpbdo.— 1, Bratn. 2, Splual cord. 3, Eyo nud optlo nerre, 4, Spinal nerve. 6, Branohla!. 6, Electrical organ. 7, Pneumo- gostrlc norve. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 257 structure and the nervous system is correspondingly modified. The body is composed of several sections artic- ulated with each other in a lineal series. The ganglia of the nerves of special sensation, as of sight and hearing, of motion, of respiration and nutrition, are larger than those of general sensation. In the nervous system of the cen- tipede, whose general structure is similar to that of other articulates, the ganglia are arranged in pairs of nearly equal size, except the ganglion that answers to the brain, which is larger, along the ventral surface of the alimentary canal. Fig. 171. Fio. 170. Fig. 170, Nervous System op AN Insect. — 1, 1, GcDtral gang- lia. 2, 2, 2, Nerves that coDuect the ganglia. Each pair is connected Fig. 171. Biagbam of a Centipede. with the preceding, with the integument or skin and with the muscles of its own segment, by sensitive and motor filaments of nerves. 529. In Mollushs are found the ganglia and commissure arrangement, with nerves sensitive and motor, afferent and efferent, and on a plan corresponding to the body. The structure of the organs of sense is less complete than ^ in vertebrate animals. Some mollusks are gifted only with the iense of touch and taste ; a great number have eyes, whose structure varies ; none have yet been found possessing a spe- cial organ for smell. 530. In the Eadiata, the star-fish manifests one of the 22* 258 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. simplest forms of the nervous system. It consists of a central mass, with five arms radiating from it. In the centre is the mouth, and beneath it the stomach or gastric cavity, which sends prolongations to each limb. The nervous system con- sists of five similar ganglia situated in the central portion at the base of the arras. These ganglia are connected by com- missures, and each sends off nerve-filaments to the cor- responding limbs. Fig. 172. Fie. 173. Pia. 172. DiAaBAU of the Typb of a Moilbsk. — 1, CEsophagal gauglia. 2, Cerebral ganglia. 3, Pedal or locomotive ganglia. 4, Respiratory ganglia. Fra. 173. DusKAM OF A Ramata— Thi Star-Fish. 531. We have seen that in all grades of the animal king- dom the cell-structure obtains, but in the lowest forms of animal life nerve does not exist. The stimulus which the little creature receives from without would seem to produce some change in the molecular relations of its almost homo- geneous substance, and these insensible movements col- lectively to amount to the sensible movement which it makes ; the molecular process in such case being perhaps not unlike that which ensues and issues in the coagulation of the blood when the fibrin is brought in contact, as some think, with a foreign substance. The perception of the NERVOUS SYSTEM. 259 Stimulus by the creature is the molecular change which en- sues, the imperceptible motion passing, . by reason of the homogeneity of its substance, with the greatest ease, from element to element of the same kind, as it were by an infec- tion, or as happens in the folding of the leaves of the mimosa, or sensitive plant ; and the sum of the molecular motions, as necessarily determined in direction by the form of the ani- mal, results in the visible movement. "With the differentiation of tissue and increasing com- plexity of organization which are met with as we ascend in the animal kingdom, the nervous tissue appears, but at first under a very simple form. Its simplest type may be repre- sented as two fibres that are connected by a nerve-cell ; the fibres are appa,rently simple conductors, and might be aptly compared to the conducting wires of a telegraph, while the cell, being the centre in which nerve-force is generated, may be compared to the telegraphic apparatus; in it the effect which the stimulus of the afferent nerve excites is transmitted along the efferent nerve, and therein is displayed the simplest form of that reflex action which plays so large a part in ani- mal life." The relations of the animal kingdom afford a striking evi- dence of divine unity, bound together in the closest harmony, and the work of Him who was the Beginning and will bi the End. CHAPTER XII. THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. Undeb this head are classed the Tongue, the Nose, the Eye, the Ear and the Tactile portions of the Nervous System. 2 49. The Anatomy of the Obgans of Speciai, Sense. — The Organ of Taste — Of Smell. The Coats of the Bye. The Humors of the Eye. The Musdea of the Eye. The Protecting Organs. Oassi- fication of the Organs of Hearing. The External Ear. The Labyrinih. 2Tie Internal Ear. The Organs of Toueh. Two Layers of Skin. The Epidermis. The Dermis. The Hairs. The Sebaceous Glands. The Perspiratory Olands. The Nails. 532. The organ of the Sense of Taste is the mucous membrane which covers the Tongue, especially the back part of this organ, and the palate. Upon the upper surface of the tongue the mucous membrane has various little eminences, called papilla, resembling the villi of the intestines. The Fig. 174. Flo. 174 (Leidy). Biaqram of thb Papill* op thb Tongok, moderately magnifict]. 1, Cupltate papillee, 2, Conicul papillre. 8, Epithelium. 4, The same Etracturo form- ing bunches of hulr-like processea. 6, Connective tissue. principal of these are of a composite character, and present three varieties — the Qircumvallate, the Fungiform and the Conical. The Circumvallate papillte are shaped like the letter V with the point turned downward, and are surrounded 260 THE OEGANS OF 3PEC!IAL SEXSE. 261 by an annular wall-like elevation, whence their name. They are about a dozen in number, and are found upon the pos- terior part of the tongue. The Fungifoem papillae are broad at the free extremity. and narrow at the base, having some- thing of the mushroom shape, whence their name. They are more numerous than the circumvallate, and are scattered over the surface of the tongue, but are especially numerous" at and near the tip. The Conical papillae are smaller and more numerous than the others, and are found in the inter- vals between them, arranged in rows diverging from the median line of the tongue. All the above-described papillaa and the spaces between are covered with simple papillae, conical in form. From those surrounding the conical papillae, the squamose epithelium rises in hair-like appendages, which give a brush-like arrangement, admirably adapted to the im- bibition of liquids to be tasted. These hair-like appendages give the velvety character to the surface of the tongue, and upon them the furred condition of this organ depends. Minute blood-vessels and nerves pass up into these papillae, thus giving a large extent of sensitive surface. Fig. 17S. Fia. 175 (DaUm). Diagram of the Tongue, with its sensitive nerves and papillse, 1, Lingual branch of fifth pair. 2, Glosso-pliaryDgeal nerve. Nervous filaments are received from the fifth, ninth and twelfth pairs of nerves. The branch of the fifth, called the Gust'a-td-ry, is the nerve of taste and ordinary sensibility; 262 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the twelfth, called the Hypo-glossal, of voluntary motion, By means of the ninth, or Glosso-pharyngeal, the tongue ia brought into association with the fauces, oesophagus and larynx. It is of obvious importance that these parts should act in concert; and this is effected by the distribution of this nerve. Fio. 176. Fio. 176. The Distribution of the Fifth Pair of Nekves. — 1, The orbit for the eye. 2, The upper jaw, 3, The tongue. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The fifth piurof nerres. 6, The first branch of tliis nerve, that passes to the eye. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, DiTisions of this branch. 7, Tlie second branch of the fifth pair of nerves is distributed to the teeth of the upper jaw. 16, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, DiviBions of this branch. 8, The tliird branch of tlie fifth pair, that passes to the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw. 23, The division of this branch ttmt passes to the tongue, called the gustatory. 24, The division tliat Is distributed to the teeth of the lower jaw. 533. The organ of the Sense of Smell is a part of the delicate mucous membrane lining the nasal passages. These passages extend from the opening of the nostrils in front, to the pharynx behind; they are high, vaulted and narrow, and 'Separated from each other by a partition partly bony, and partly cartilaginous. This double cavity is separated THE ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 263 from the mouth by a bony floor (the hard palate), which is continued backward to the root of the tongue by a fleshy curtain, called the soft palate. In ordinary positions of the mouth, this palate and the root of the tongue pfiect a closure between the mouth and the pharynx. Each of the outer walls of the nasal chamber has three bony processes called tur- binated bones, arranged one above another, like shelves. The fpjnt of the chamber is bounded by a thin plate of bone, filled with perforations, hence, named the eribiform, or sieve-like Fig. 177. Fie. 177. A Vertical Section of the Middle Pakt of the Nasal CAViTiBa. — ^7, The middle spongy bones. 8, The superior part of the nasal cavities. 10, The inferior spongy bones. 11, The vomer. 12, The upper jaw. 13, The middle channel of the nose. 14, The lower channel of the nose. 17, The palatine process of the upper jaw- bone. 18, The roof of the month covered by mncous membrane. 19, A section of this knembrane. plate. Upon it, rest the olfactory lobes which send numerous filaments through the perforations to the mucous membrane of the two upper turbinated bones, afibrding the special sense of smell ; the membrane of the lower bone receives a branch from the fifth nerve, which is endowed with common sensi- bility only ; the odor of cologne, for example, is distinguished by the olfactory nerve, and the pungency, by the branch of the fifth nerve. 264 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fra. 178. A Side View op the Pabsage of the Nostrils, and the Dibtbibutiozt oi THE Olfactory Nerve. — 4, The olfactory nerve. 5, The fine divisions of this nerve on the membrane of the nose. 6, A branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 534. The chief organ of the Sense of Sight is the Eye. The globe of the eye, or eyeball, is composed of three con- centric envelopes — viz., the Sclerot'iea, with the Cornea in front ; the Cho'roidea, with the Iris in front ; and the Retina, which is internal. These make up most of the solid part of the eyeball, which is a hollow sphere filled with three fluid or semi- fluid substances — the Aqueous Humor, the Orysialline Lens and the Vitreous Humor. Fic. 179. Fro. 179 A Section op the Olode op the Kye. — 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, Thecomea. (This connects with the sclerotic cent by a bevelled edge.) 8, The choroid coat 6, 8, Tho Iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina, 10, 11, 11, Chambers of the eye that contain the aqueous humor. 12, Tho crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 16, The optio nervo. 16, The central artery of the eye. THE OUGAXS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 265 The Sclerotica, or Sclerotic coat, invests the globe of the eye, excepting the part covered with the cornea in front. It is composed of white fibrous tissue arranged in many layers, which cross each other at right angles, and form a tunic of great strength. It is white, glassy and opaque, and is commonly called "the white of the eye." It has few blood-vessels and seems destitute of nerves. The Choeoidea, or Second Coat of the eye, has some fibrous tissue like the sclerotica, but is chiefly composed of blood-vessels and pigment-cells. These cells give the coat an intense black color on the inside, but externally it is brown. It lines the sclerotica, and is connected with it by a delicate areolar tissue. It is perforated behind, for the passage of the optic nerve, and terminates in front in the eil'iary ligament (composed chiefly of dense areolar tissue), in the anterior part of which the iris is inserted. This muscle also lies at the juncture of the sclerotica and cornea, being in connection with the first coat and cornea, and the second coat and iris. The CiLiAEY Processes consist of a number of minute, triangular folds, formed apparently by the plaiting of the internal layer of the choroid coat toward its front part. Their bases are toward the pupil, and the free portion rests against the circumference of the crystalline lens. These processes are covered with pigment-cells. The Iris occupies the opening of the choroidea in front, forms a partition between the anterior and the posterior chambers of the eye, and is pierced by a circular opening, which is called the Pupil. It is free, except at its peripheal attachments, and floats freely in the aqueous humor. The posterior surface of the iris, or uvea, is thickly covered with pigment ; but the anterior surface gives the color of the eye, so remarkably and beautifully varied in different individuals, aid presenting numerous blended tints of black, brown, blue and gray. The iris is generally regarded as a modification of muscular tissue. It has two layers of fibres — one layer of radiating fibres, converging from the circumference to the centre, the other of circular fibres. 23 M 2G6 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. The Eetina is the inner coat of the eye, formed by the expansion of the optic nerve upon the inner side of the cho- roid coat, but not extending so far forward. It ends at a short distance from the ciliary Ugament, in a jagged edge, froin which an exceedingly fine membrane extends to the ciliary processes. Its inner surface is bounded by an exceed- ingly delicate membrane, called the " membrana limitans," which separates it from the vitreous humor. Fw. 180. A View of the Anterior Segment of a Transtebse Section of the Qlobi * THE Ete, seen from within. 1, Tlie divided edge of tlie three coatB — Bclerotica^ cho- foldea and retina. 2, The pupil, 3, The iris : the surfoce preseuted to -view in this sec- tion heing the uyea. 4, The ciliary procesaes. 6, The scalloped anterioi border of th« retina. 535. Of the three humors, or liquid substances of the eye, the Aqueous, or watery, is situated in the anterior portion of the organ behind the cornea. It is an albuminous fluid, with an alkaline reaction and liquid like water. The iris is pla(!ed vertically in the fluid, the space between it and the cornea being the anterior chamher of the eye, and that be- tween the iris and crystalline lens behind, the posterior cham- ber. The two chambers are lined by a membrane secreting the aqueous humor. The Crystalline humor, or lens, is situated immediately behind the pupil, and is surrounded by the ciliary processes. It is invested by a transparent, elastic membrane, called the THE ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 267 capsule of the lens. The humor is more convex on the pos- terior than on the anterior surface. It is imbedded in the anterior part of the vitreous humor, from which it is separated by a thin membrane. The lens consist of thin layers, like the coats of an onion. The external layer is soft, but each successive one increases in firmness. Observation. — ^When the crystalline lens or its investing membrane is changed in structure, preventing the rays of light from passing to the retina, the affection is called a cataract. Fig. 181. Fig. 181 (Leidi/). Muscles op the Eye. — 1, The palpebral elevator muscle. 2, Tbe snperior oblique. 3, The pulley through which the tendon of insertion plays. 4, Supe- rior straight muscle. 6, Inferior straight muscle. 6, External straight muscle. 7, 8, Its two points of origin. 9, Interval through which pass the oculo-motor and abducent nerves. 10, Inferior oblique muscle. 11, Optic nerve. 12, Cut surface of the malar pro- cess of the superior maxillary bone. 13, The nasal orifice. A, The eyeball. 536. The Vitreous Humoe forms the principal bulk of the globe of the eye. It is an albuminous fluid resembling the aqueous humor, but is more dense, and if once discharged by disease or accident, it is irrecoverably lost; while the aqueous humor may be lost and afterward restored. Tliis humor is enclosed in a delicate membrane, called the %'a- loid, which sends processes into the interior of the globe of the eye, forming the cells in which the humor is retained. 268 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYQIENE, 637. The Muscles of the eye are six in number. They are attached at one extremity to the orbit behind the eye ; at the other extremity they are inserted by broad, thin tendons to the sclerotic coat, near the junction of the cornea. The white, pearly appearance of the eye is caused by these tendons. Observation. — If the external muscle is too short, the eye is turned out, producing the "wall eye;" if the internal muscle is contracted, the eye is turned inward toward the nose, and is called a " cross eye." 538. The Protecting Oegans are the Orbits, Eyebrows, Eyelids and Lach'rymal Apparatus. The Orbits are deep, bony sockets in which the globes of the eye are placed. The bottom of each orbit has a large perforation, giving passage to the optic nerve. These cavities are lined with a thick cushion of fat. The Eyebrows, forming the upper part of the boundary of the orbits, are two tegumentary prominences covered with coarse hair. The Eyelids are two movable curtains, having a delicate skin on the outside, muscular fibres beneath, and a narrow cartilage on their edges, which tends to preserve the shape of the lid. Internally, they are lined by a smooth mucous membrane, which is reflected on the front of the eye upon the sclerotica. This membrane is called the Conjunctiva. Observation. — When this membrane is inflamed, it some- times deposits a whitish material called lymph, which accounts for the films, opacities and white spots seen upon the eye after the inflammation has subsided. On the internal surface of the cartilage there are found several small glands, which have the appearance of parallel strings of pearls. They open by minute apertures upon the edges of the lids. The edges of the eyelids are furnished with a triple row of hairs, called eyelashes, which curve upward from the upper •lid, and downward from the lower. The Lachrymal Apparatus which secretes the tears THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 269 consists of the Lachrymal Gland with its ducts, Lachrymal Canals and the Nasal Duct. The Lachbymal Gland is situated at the outer and upper angle of the orbit, occupying a depression in the orbital plate of the frontal bone. Ten or twelve small ducts pass from this gland and open upon the upper eyelid, where they pour upon the conjunctiva the lachrymal fluid, or tears. Fig. 182. Fig. 182 (Leidy), The Left Eyelid aiid Lachrtual Gland, turned Forward and Inward, to show their Inner Surface. — 1, Upper and lower part of the orbit. 2, Portion of the palpebral urbicular muscle, 3, Attachment of this luiiacle to the inner margin of the orbit. 4, Perforation for the passage of the external nasal nerve. 5, Offset described as the tensor muscle of the eyelids. 6, Palpebral glands. 7, Posterior, and 8, anterior portions of the lachrymal glands. 9, 10, Ducts. 11, Orificos opening on the inner snr&ce of the upper eyelid. 12, 13, The lachrymal orifices at the summits of the lachrymal papillse. The Lacheymal Canals commence at the free borders of each eyelid, near the internal angle of the eye, by two minute orifices, called " punc'ta lach'rymalia" (tear points). Each of these ducts communicates with the sac at the upper part of the nasal duct. The Nasal Duct is a short canal about three quarters uf an inch in length, directed downward and backward to 23* 270 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOaY AND HYGIENE. the inferior channel of the nose, where it terminates by an expanded orifice. The tears, secreted by the lachrymal gland, are conveyed to the eye by the small ducts before described. They are then taken up by the puncta lachry- malia and carried by the lachrymal canals into the lachrymal sac, from which they are passed to the nasal cavities by the nasal duct. Fig. 183. Fia. 183. ViKW OB Laohbthai, Oland ahb Nasai. Doct.— 1, The liichrymal gland. 2, Ducts leading from the lachrymal gland to the upper eyelid. 3, 3, The puncta lachry- malia. 4, The nasal sac. 6, The termination of the nasal duct. 539. The Sense of Hearing does not strictly belong to one organ, but to several, which are grouped into three divi- sions — the External Ear, the Tym'panum* and the Labyrinth or Internal Ear. 540. The Labyrinth is so called from its remarkable and varied configuration. It is divided into three portions — the Vestibule, the Semieiroular Canals and the Coch'lea. f 641. The Vestibule is a small and somewhat triangular cavity about the size of a grain of wheat. It is placed almost vertically in the centre of the labyrinth, and is a kind of entrance-chamber or ante-room to the semicircular canals behind and the cochlea in front. * 6r., lUmpanon, a drum. f 6r., kochlot, to twist. THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. Fig. 184. 271 Flo. 184. A View of thb L^btbinth Laid Opkn.— 1, 1, Cochlea. 2, 3, Two canals, that wind two and a half turns around a hollow axis (5). 7, Central portion of the laby- rinth (vestibule). 8, Fenestra rotunda. 9, Fenestra ovalis. 11, 12, 13, U, 15, 16, 17, 18, Tho semicircular canals. Highly magnified. 542. The Semicirculae Canals are three curved pas- sages, describing more than half a circle, and are about the twentieth of an inch in diameter. Two of them open into the vestibule at both extremities, and the third at one ex- tremity. Both the vestibule and the canals contain a trans- parent fluid like lymph, and in this fluid, without touching the walls of the cavity, floats a membranous labyrinth, cor- responding in form to the osseous one, but considerably smaller. It is a sheath or bag enlarged at the vestibule, and sending out prolongations into the semicircular canals on the the one side and the cochlea on the other. It is filled with a lymph-like fluid of greater consistency than that in which it floats. The auditory nerve is distributed in the walls of this membranous labyrinth, and nervous filaments connect iD with its osseous counterpart. 543. In front of the vestibule is the Cochlea, so called from its resemblance to a snail-shell. It consist? of a bony 272 ANATOiry, physiology axd hygiene. canal which winds around a hollow axis nearly three times, gradually decreasing in diameter, and thus forming a spiral cone. The interior of the canal is divided into two passages by a membranous partition, upon which the remaining parts of the auditory nerve ramify. The passages are filled with lymph, and communicate with each other at the apex of the cone and at the apex of the base ; one opens into the vesti- bule, the other into the Tympanum (the Fenestra* Rotunda). Fio. 185. Fio. 185, A View ot thx Auditokt Nerte, — 1, Spinal cord. 2, Medulla oblongata. 3, Lower part of the brain. 4, Auditory nerve. 5, A branch to the semicircular canals. 6, A branch to the cochlea. In the outer part of the bony wall of the vestibule is the Fenestra Ovalis, an oval-shaped perforation about one-eighth of an inch in length and one-sixteenth in width. This is closed by a thin fibrous membrane, which prevents the escape of the fluid from the vestibule, and through it the sonorous vibrations pass to the vestibule. 544. The Tympanum, or middle ear, is an irregular bony cavity larger than the vestibule and just outside of it. It is separated from the external ear by a thin, semi-transparent membrane of an oval shape. This is very closely fitted into a groove, between the tympanum and the auditory canal. The tympanum is often called the Drum of the ear, and very appropriately, for the membrane of the tympanum is in con- tact with the atmosphere whose sonorous vibrations beat upon * Lat., a windoa. THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE, 273 it much like drumsticks upon the head of a drum. There are several openings into the tympanum, of which the largest is called the Eustachian tube, from the name of the first anatomist who described it. It is a trumpet-shaped canal somewhat over an inch and a half long, extending from the fore part of the tympanum obliquely inward, forward and downward to the pharynx. The tube is lined with a ciliated epithelium continuous with that of the pharynx and tympa- num. In the tympanic cavity are three bones, or ossicles, the smallest in the body, weighing only a few grains. From their resemblance to the articles, they have been named the Mallet, Anvil (attached to this bone is a little tubercle, or orbicular bone, which is sometimes regarded as a separate ossicle) and Stirrup. The Mallet and Anvil articulate by a hinge-joint; the Anvil and Stirrup by a ball-and-socket joint. Fig. 186. Via. 186. A View of all thk Parts op the Ear. — 1, The canal that leads to the in- tomal ear, 2, The membrana tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The central part of the labyrinth (vestibnle). 8, 9, 10, The semicircular canals. 11, 12, The chan- nels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve. 14, The opening from the middle eai , or tymiiauum, to the throat (Eustachian tube). M» 274 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 545. The External Ea.i lies outside the membrane of the tympanum. It is composed of the auditory canal and the part which projects from the head. The canal, or Ecc- ternal Mea'tus* Audito'rius, is partly bony and partly car- tilaginous, about one inch in length, and narrower in the middle than at the extremities. Short, firm hairs are stretched across the tube, preventing the ingress of foreign bodies. Beneath the thin cuticle are small follicles which secrete the Ceru'men, or wax. The part of the external ear outside the cavity has numerous prominences and ridges. (For Physiology of Hearing, see 565.) 546. The skin is the principal part of the body concerned in the Sense op Touch, but the tongue and lips also possess this sense. The skin consists of two layers. The external, or superficial layer, destitute of blood-vessels and nerves, is called the Ep-i-derm'is1[ (which consists of two layers, difierent in many respects, one being named the Cuticle, the other the Soft Epidermis) ; and an internal, or deeper layer, abundantly supplied with nerves and highly vascular, called the Dennis, Cutis Vera (or true skin). This layer presents two very dif- ferent surfaces, of which the external is called the Papillary layer, the internal the Co'ri-um.'l 647. The skin covers the whole exterior of the body, and at the margins of the apertures is directly continuous with the mucous membrane, which last is an integument of greater delicacy, but has substantially the same composition — viz., a deep fibrous, sanguine, sensitive layer, a basement mem- brane, and an epithelium, or superficial, insensible and blood- less layer. Thus the whole body, externally and internally, has a complete epithelial investment. 548. The Epideemis holds the same relation to the dermis that the epithelium does to the deeper layer of the mucous membrane. It varies in thickness, from the thin, delicate membrane upon the internal flexions of the joints, to the • Lat., meo, to pass, a passage. f Gr., epi, upon, and derma, skin. J Gr., chorion, skin. THE OEGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 275 thickened covering of the soles of the feet. This variation is perceptible in infants, before exercise can have had a ly influence. Pig. 187. Fio. 187. A Vertical Section of the Skin. — 1, 1, The lines, or ridgea of the cuticle, cut perpendicularly. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, The furrows or wrinkled of the same. 3, The epider- mis. 4, 4, 4, Colored layer. 5, 5, Dermis, or cutis vera. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Papillse. 7, 7, Small furrows between the papillsa. 8, 8, 8, 8, Deeper furrows between each couple of the papillae. 9, 9, Cells filled with fat. 10, 10, 10, Adipose layer, with numerous fat resides. 11, 11, 11, Cellular fibres of the adipose tissue. 12, Two hairs. 13, A perspira^tory gland, with its spiral duct. 14, Another perspiratory gland, with a duct less spiral. 15, 15, Oil- glands with ducts opening into the sheath of the hair (12). A diagram. During life the Epi- DEKMis is constantly undergoing loss, throw- ing off the superficial epidermoid scales, which are constantly renewed by fresh cells,- originating on the sur- face of the true skin. These gradually undergo transformation from the spherical to Fig. 188. Fig. 188 (Leidy). Fbaohent op Dandruff frou THE Head. — 1, Portion of dandruff, consisting of non-nucleated cells. 2, Several fragmentB,consisting of nucleated cells. 3, Isolated cells, some with and some without nuclei. 4, A cell more highly mag- nified, exhibiting granular coc teats and a nucleus. 276 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. 189. the flattened shape, as they approach' the surface of the cuticle. The soft epidermic layer is the seat of the color of the skin. The difference between the blonde and brunette, the European and the African, lies only in the deep, newly-formed layers of the epidermis. In the whitest skin, the cells of the epi- dermis always contain a slight amount of the pigmentary tint, which disappears from the cells as this soft layer is transformed into the cuticle. 549. The Cuticle is a translucent, horn-like membrane. Its deeper surface is continuous with the soft epidermic layer from which it is constantly re- newed. Its free surface is inces- santly wearing away, or shed in small flakes, constituting scurf or dandruff. 550. The Dermis, or True Skin, is made up of interlacing bundles of white areolar tissue, mixed with yellow elastic fibres. These are so interwoven as to constitute a firm, strong and flexible web. In the superficial part, the web is so close as to re- semble felt cloth. In the deepest layers the network is loose, and encloses the hair-follicles with their sebaceous glands, and small masses of fat. In most situations, plain muscular fibres are found mixed with the fibrous and elastic tissues ; these are always present where hairs exist, to which parts they are often attached ; but on the palms and soles, where these ai-e absent, no mus- cular fibres are ever seen. 551. The outer surface of the dermis, as seen when de- nuded, is provided with little conical-shaped projections, called Papilloe (6, fig. 187). These are prolongations of the upi)er compact tissue of the corium into the newly- formed layer of the epidermis. Tho papillse are very Fl3. 189 (Leidy.) ScuKP prom thb Leg. — 1, A fragment of scurf, consist- ing of dried, flattened, non-nucleated cells or scales. 2, A few cells with a nucleus. 3. A cell more highly mag- nified, to exhibit its polyhedral form. THE ORGAKS OF SPECIAL, SENSE. 277 numerous on the palm of the hand and on the free border of the lips. 552. The cutis vera is abundantly supplied with blood-ves- gels, lymphatics and nerves. Its general surface is covered with a close capillary network, from which looped vessels project and enter the papillae. The lymphatics also form a close network on the surface. The nerves pass upward from the subcutaneous areolar tissue, and form, as they approach the surface, minute plexuses, from which the nerve-fibres are given off. Some of these fibres are lost in the compact tissue of the dermis ; others end, per- haps, in loops ; and many pass into certain of the papillae, for it is said that some of these do not receive nerve-fibres. In the papillae these fibres end in loops, or, as in the fingers, the sole of the foot, and perhaps on the red margin of the lips and the point of the tongue, they appear to terminate in small oval, con- densed bodies, called tactile cor- puscles, situated in the centre of the papillae. In any case, it is supposed that the nerve-fibre turns back to rejoin some nerve- cell in the nervous centres. The network of nerves imbedded m the upper porous layer of the true skin is derived from nerves which take their winding course through the fat, distended openings of the corium. Fig. 190 {Leidy). Vertical Section op Tns Skin op thb Forefinger across Two OF THE KiDGEa OF THE SURFACE; highly magnified. 1, Dermis, composed of an intertexture of hundles of fibrous tissue. 2, Epidermis. 3, Its cuticle. 4, Its soft layer. 5, Subcutaneous con- nective and adipose tissue. 6, Tactile papillse. 7, Sweat glands. 8, Duct. 9, Spiral passage from the latter through the epidermis. 10, Termination of the p^sage on the summit of ridge. the 278 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 553. The minute depressions from which the hairs of the skin emerge are called the Hair-follicles, or sacs. They are buried in the cerium, or true skin. At the bottom of the follicle is a more or less elevated portion of the dermis, often forming a distinct papilla, which is destitute of cuticle. The root of the hair is composed of soft, pale and somewhat com- pressed nucleated cells; it ia adherent to the lining of the fol- licle, or root-sheath. When a hair is plucked out, the sheath adheres to it, but the vascular papilla at the bottom of the fol- licle remains, and a new hair is generated upon it. If the papilla is destroyed, no new hair can be formed. All these papillae, ex- cept those of the finest hairs, probably receive nervous fibrils. The part of the hair projecting above the surface is called the Shaft. The shaft is usually cylin- drical, but sometimes flattened. It consists of an outer part, called the Cortex, composed of a single layer of imbricated scales whose edges are directed toward the point of the hair. Beneath the cortex is the so-called fibrous part of the hair, which constitutes its bulk, and consists of fusiform cells clustered into flattened fibres, running longitudinally and intermixed with pigment granules. Lastly, the very deepest cells, occupying the centre of the shaft and constituting the pith, are not elongated, but polyhedral and loosely connected together, and containing chiefly pigment or fat granules. Fra. 191 (Leidy). Diaoeam op Strdo turb'of the Root of a Hair within ITS POLLICLE. — ^1, Hair papilla. 2, Capillary veeael. 3, Nerve-fibrea. 4, Fibrous wall of the hair-follicle. 5, Basement membrane. 6, Soft epidei^ mic lining of the follicle. 7, Its elastic cuticular layer. 8, Cuticle of the hair. 9, Cortical substance. 10, Medullary Bubstance. 11, Bulb of the hair, com- posed of soft polyhedral cells. 12, Transition of the latter into the corti- cal substance, medullary substance aud cuticle of the hair. THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE, 279 Fig. 192. Many of the unstriated muscular fibres from the true skiu pass obliquely down from the surface of the dermis to the under side of the slanting hair-fol- licles. The contraction of these fibres erects the hairs, and by draw- ing the follicles to the surface and pulling in a little point of the skin, produces that roughness of the in- tegument called "goose-skin," or Chilis Anserina. The standing on end of the hair of the head, as the result of extreme fright, may be partly due to the contraction of such fibres, as well as to the action of the occipito-frontalis muscle. 554. Each hair-follicle receives, in nearly all cases, the ducts of two Sebaceous, or Oil- Glands, which are situated in the dermis. They are found only where hairs exist. Each gland is a fiask-shaped body, com- posed of from five to twenty little sacs, clustered around and leading into a common duct. These glands are lined by a fine epithelium, and the unctuous secretion first anoints the hair-bulb, and then oozes out upon the neighboring surface of the cuticle. The sebaceous glands are of considerable size. 555. Immediately beneath the skin, over the whole surface of the body, there are a multitude of little glandular bodies, called Perspiratory, or Sweat Olands. Each gland consists of a minute, cylindrical spiral duct, which passes inward through the epidermis, and terminates in a globular coil, in the deeper meshes of the cutis vera. The opening of the duct upon the cuticle is called the "pore." This aperture is oblique in Fio. 192 (Leidy). Poetion of a Hair fbou the Outer Part of THE Thigh, magnified. 1, Shaft of tlie hair covered with trans- verse markings indicating the projecting edges of the cuticular scales. 2, Cortical substance at the end of the hair, broken up into coarse fibres, as the result of frio- tion of the clothing. 280 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. direction, and possesses all the advantage of a valvular open- ing, preventing the ingress of foreign injurious substances to Fig. 193. Oii^Glands and Ducts, magnified thirty-eight diameters. 1, A, Oil-glaud fVum the Bcalp ; B, Its duct. 2, A, Two glands from the skin of the nose ; B, Common duct. 3, A, Oil-gland from the nose ; B, The duct filled with the peculiar animalculsa cf the oily substances ; the heads are directed inward. 4, A, Cluster of oil-glands around the shaft of the hair (C) ; B, Ducts. the interior of the duct or gland. These glands, coming in contact with the capillary blood-vessels, receive a watery fluid (the perspiration) from the blood, having the following composition : Water 995.00 Animal matters^ with lime .10 Chlorides of sodium and potassium and spirit extract.. 2.40 Acetic acid, acetates, lactates and alcoholic extracts... 1.45 Sulphates and substances soluble in water 1.05 1000.00 The formation of this watery fluid is constant, but usu- ally evaporation takes place as fast as it reaches the sur- face. This is called the " insensible transpiration " of the skin. 556. The Nails are horny appendages of the skin, and correspond with the hoofs and claws of animals. They are THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 28 J flexible, translucent plates continuous with the epidermis, and rest on the depressed surface of the cutis vera, called tht matrix, or bed. By maceration or severe scalding, the nail be- '"■ comes detached with the epi- dermis, even in life. The horny layer of the nail answers to the cuticle ; it is com- posed of numerous layers of flat- j,^ ^„ ^ g^„„„^ „^ ,„, j,^„ „, tened, nucleated cells, or scales, thb finoeb ahd nail,— 4, section of while the soft layer corresponds *« 1=^' "T"' "'.*' ,^°^"- /'/,f ■ ■' ^ ^ formiDg the cnshion at the end of the with the deep parts of the epi- Onger. 2, The nall. 1, 1, The cuticle dermis, and is made up of deli- -on*!""'"' ^i^-- '""J "'"'-«' t*" ™' ' ^ of the nail, at 3, 3, 3. cate polyhedral, nucleated cells. The nails increase in length by the constant addition of cells at the root ; they grow in thickness by the formation of cells on the under surface. This double development explains why nails are thickest at their most convex portion. For Physiology of the Skin, see 570. I 50. Physiology op the Organs of Special Sense. — Primary Use of the Sense of Taste — Of Smell, Some of the Laws of Light. The Adaptation of the Eye to the Laws of Light. Cause of Short-sighted- ness — Of Long-Sightedness — Defect remedied. Functions of the Different Coats of the Eye. The Accessory Parts of the Eye. Hearing. Func- tion of the Fklemal Ear — Auditory Canal — Eustachian Tube — Cochlea and Semicircular Canals. Sounds reach the Fluid of the Labyrinth by Two Paths. Special Organ of the Sense of Touch. Functions of the Skin. Use of the Epidermis — Of the Cuticle — Of Cutaneous Papillae. Vessels of the Oorinm. Function of the OH-Glands. Uses of Per- spiration. 557. The primary use of the Sense op Taste is to guide animals in the selection of food, that noxious articles may not be introduced into the stomach. In man, this sense has been so abused and perverted by the introduction of stimu- lants and condiments, and the endless admixture of different articles of food, that the natural action seems to have been almost entirely superseded by acquired taste. This sense be- 24* 282 comes very acute by cultivation, as may be seen in those persons whose' business it is to judge of the quality of certain articles by the taste ; as tasters of wine, tea, etc. The acute- ness of taste, however, varies in different persons. Insoluble substances are tasteless. 558. In man, the Sense op Smell is one of inferior im- portance. It furnishes the mind with but few ideas, and these are mostly subservient to his physical well-being. This sense leads us to avoid disagreeable odors or putrescent food, and when acute, to escape the injurious effects of many vapors which endanger health. 559. The Steuctuee of the Eye is beautifully adapted to the laws of light, a few of which it is necessary for us to notice. When light passes through a medium of unvarying density, the rays are in straight lines, but when it passes from a me- dium of one density into another of different density, they ^re refracted, or bent from a straight course, unless striking the medium perpendicularly, when they are unchanged. When light passes from one medium to another having a convex or concave surface, instead of a flat surface, a great degree of refraction is produced, and the greater the curva- ture, the greater will be the amount of refraction. Fit a con- vex lens in an opening of the shutter of a darkened room ; the rays of light will cross each other in the lens, and an in- verted image of any object outside, as a tree or house, may be received upon a screen placed in the room, at a certain dis- tance behind the lens. The exact point where the image is most distinct, is called the focus of the lens, and the dis- tance from the lens to the image, the focal distance. Now, in the eye, the pigment of the choroid coat gives the darkened room, the retina the screen, the pupil is the opening in the shutter, and the three humors are the curved lenses. The rays of light from any object cross each other, and an inverted image is formed on the retina. 560. The shape of the cornea and aqueous humors is con- vexo-concave ; the vitreous humor is concavo-convex ; while THE OEGANS OF SPECIAL, SEITSE. 283 the crystalline humor, or lens, is convexo-convex. It may at first seem that only one lens is necessary ; but light is com- posed of three primary colors, which are not equally refracted by the same lens, hence, there would be upon the edges of any single lens prismatic colors which would interfere with the distinctness of the image. This is obviated, by the adapta- tion of the curvatures of the lenses to the different colors. 5G1. Suppose our object outside the darkened room to be at that distance from the lens which will give a distinct image upon the screen ; now, if the object approach the lens, the image will be indistinct unless a more convex lens be substi- tuted for the first, or the distance between the lens and screen be increased. If the object recede, the image will be indis- tinct unless a less convex lens be substituted for the first, or the distance be lessened between the lens and screen. By a very nice adjustment, the eye is able to change the con- vexity of its lenses, and also to vary the focal distances, thereby udapting it to a wide range of vision. This is accomplished by the ciliary ligament and the muscular fibres connected with the ciliary processes, which change the curvature of the crystalline lens and the cornea by compression at the cir- cumference, and at the same time throw the lens forward, in- creasing the distance between it and the retina. The iris also aids, in adapting the eye to different distances. It con- tracts when viewing a near object, and dilates when viewing one more remote. 562. When the cornea or crystalline lens is too convex, or the latter is too far from the retina, short-sightedness is pro- duced, and the defect is measurably remedied by the use of concave glasses ; when there is too little convexity, long- sightedness is the result, and convex glasses should be used. In old age, the humors being deficient in quantity, cause the flattening of the convex parts, hence the need of convex glasses. In the selection of glasses, the lens for each eye should be chosen separately, as the foci of the two eyes do not usually exactly correspond, therefore a lens that will suit one eye may strain the other. 28 I ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 563. The Sclerotic Coat gives form to the eye, and serves for the attachment of the muscles which move the eye in various directions. The movements of the two eyeballs are always simultaneous and harmonious, but frequently not symmetrical. The function of the pigment of the choroid coat is to absorb all the luminous rays not necessary for vision. " If the sclerotic and choroid coats be carefully dissected off from the posterior part of the eye of an ox or any other large quadruped, leaving only the retina, and the eye so prepared be placed in a hole in a window-shutter, in a darkened room, with the cornea on the outside, all the illuminated objects of the external scene will be beautifully depicted, in an inverted position, on the retina. " Few spectacles are more calculated to raise our admira- tion than this delicate- picture, which Nature has, with such exquisite art and with the finest touches of her pencil, spread over the smooth canvas of the expansiod of the optic nerve — a picture which, though scarcely occupying a space of half an inch in diameter, contains the delineation of a lioundless scene of earth and sky, full of all kinds of objects, some at rest and others in motion, yet all accurately represented as to their forms, colors and position, and followed in all their changes without the least interference, irregularity or con- fusion." 564. The Accessory Parts of the Ia/b are of two kinds ; the one designed to -protect the globe, or ball, the other to move it and give the required direction to fulfill its office. To enable the eye to move in all directions, without friction, it is placed on a cushion of fat which lines the bony orbit, thus protect- ing the globe on all sides except in front ; here are the Eye- lids, which by their alternate movement of depression and elevation spread over the front of the eyeball a watery .lecretion, by which its surface is constantly bathed, and its brilliancy and transparency kept unimpaired. By the contraction of a small ring-like muscle (the OrhiniK laris), the eyelids quickly draw together, and as they instantly separate, the secretion from the lachrymal gland is diffused THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 285 over the conjunctiva. During life, this muscle is ever active and watchful for the safety of the eye. When a cinder or dust gets under the eyelids, it irritates the conjunctiva, and the movements of winking are very rapid. A viscid fluid is spread along the margin of the lid, which prevents the tears running over the eyelid. The Cilia, or Eyelashes, so interlace that protection is given the eye from light substances floating in the air. The Eye- brows assist in shading the eyes when exposed to strong light, and they lend expression to some emotions of the mind. 565. Hearing is that function by which we obtain a knowledge of the vibratory motions of bodies, which consti- tute sounds. Independent of the sense of hearing, sound, as sound, has no existence in nature. 566. The External Ear collects the waves of sound and re- flects them on the membrane of the tympanum ; this mem- brane facilitates their transmission to the chain of bones in the tympanum, to the walls of the cavity and to the air it contains; from the stirrup to the oval window; from this membrane the vibrations are communicated to the fluid of the labyrinth, until finally they are received by the expan- sion of the auditory nerve, by which the sensation is commu- nicated to the brain. 567. The function of the Auditory Canal is to receive and . conduct sonorous vibrations to the membrane of the tympa- num. This membrane is admirably adapted for the recep- tion of atmospheric sound-waves. In hearing, the air in the tympanic cavity plays an important part ; the design of the Eustachian tube is evidently to allow of equal atmospheric pressure upon both sides of the membrana tympani. The complicated communications of the internal ear contain the higJily important parts of the organ of hearing. The Vesti- bule is the part essential to the simplest exercise of this sense. The Cochlea and Semicircular canals, or rather their contained membranous canals, receive vibrations through the mixed membranous and bony tympanic apparatus. It is asserted by some physiologists, that sound is communicated through the 286 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. cranial bones ; the transmission, however, through the solid bones of the head, if it exists, is effected with difficulty. 668. By this sense, therefore, we 'distinguish the quality, intensity, pitch, duration and direction of sonorous impulses. The delicacy with which these distinctions are appreciated varies in different individuals. The complication and finish of the auditory apparatus, and the perfection and delicacy of its action, are second only to those of vision. 669. The Sense of Touch, though common to all parts of the Skin and adjoining mucous membranes, has for its special organ, the hand. It is most admirably adapted to its office, by reason of the number, size, arrangement, structure and abundant nervous supply of its papillae. 570. The functions of the Skin are threefold : 1st, As a Protecting membrane ; 2d, As a Medium for the distribution of the tactile nerve-filaments; and 3d, As an Eliminating organ. The extent of the skin, as it invests the entire sur- face of the body, following all its prominences and curves, its arrangement in layers, differing in structure, vitality and function, make it an external envelope of harmonious unity, in appointment and end. 571. The uses of the Epidermis are various. It serves to cover and protect the delicate sensitive parts behind it; to prevent the too rapid escape of heat; and to restrain the evaporation of the fluids of the skin and its appendages, at the same time that it furnishes a medium through which those secretions can reach the surface of the body. 672. The Cuticle is constantly destroyed and replaced, as is proved by the disappearance from the skin of such stains as those produced by nitrate of silver ; or the scales thrown off after some acute diseases, as scarlatina. The restoration ■of the cuticle is observed after the process of vesication by blisters, and in consequence of burns and scalds. By thesie means large patches of cuticle are removed ; but they are renewed in short time, under favorable circumstances. The pigmentary substance is also capable of rapid reproduction. 573. The cutaneous Papillce serve to increase the nutritive THE ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 287 and formative surface for the generation of the constantly wasting epidermis. 574. In the Corium, or internal' layer of the skin, resides vitality. Here the arteries of the skin penetrate from be- neath and end in a capillary network ; the veins emerging from the skin are more numerous and much larger than tho arteries. The skin is abundantly supplied with nerves, but their mode of termination has not been accurately ascer- tained. 575. The surface of the skin possesses the power of absorb- ing both liquids and vapors. The principal, if not sole, agents of this function on the surface of the body are the cutaneous Lymphatic vessels, which are active in proportion to the tenuity or absence of the cuticle. To a slight extent, the skin is a respiratory membrane in man, giving off car- bonic acid gas, and actually absorbing oxygen. 576. The sebaceous matter from the Oil-glands anoints the hairs with oil in their progress of growth from the skin, and also imbues the cuticle, by which it is rendered repellent of water. The oiliness of the surface of the skin, occasioned by this material, permits the ready adhesion of dust and dirt, and necessitates the use of soap for the easy removal of ita excess. This oily product often becomes inspissated and dis- tends the glands, most frequently in the face, and especially on the nose; and at the mouths of the ducts it becomes mixed with dust. When pressed out it assumes the spiral form of the duct ; hence it is commonly taken for a worm. In the healthiest individuals, the sebaceous matter contains a curious parasite, called the "pimple mite." 577. The uses of the perspiration, or sweat, are twofold : 1st, To free the system of a certain quantity of water ; and 2d, To eliminate from the body certain special products of chemical changes. The quantity of perspiration exhaled by different parts of the body differs widely. Its general quantity is influenced both by intrinsic and extrinsic conditions; thus, it is aug- mented by increased vascularity of the skin, by a higher 288 ANATOSIY, PHYSIOLOGY A.VD HYGIENE. temperature of the body, by a quicker circulation, and there- fore by exercise and effort generally. Perspiration may also be induced by additional covering of the body, and also by peculiar conditions of the nervous system. 578. Of the external conditions which modify the quantity of perspiration, the condition of the aimosphere is most im- portant. Thus, in warm air the activity of the cutaneous circulation is increased, which increases the perspiration, whilst cold air has the opposite effect ; again, dry air in- creases the perspiration, whilst damp air diminishes it. Simple warmth acts by increasing the vascular action through the skin, whilst dryness operates by maintaining a constant evaporation from this membrane ; on the other hand, cold diminishes the vascularity of the skin, and damp- ness of the air impedes evaporation. The combination of moisture with heat, however, increases the exhalation by the skin, which then appears in large drops. Large quantities of warm drinks also increase perspiration. Observation. — The skin is said to regulate the quantity of fluid given off by the kidneys, and the quantity of fluid left in reserve in the blood and soft tissues generally; but the kidneys should rather be regarded as the true regulators. Observation shows that in cold weather the skin exhales less and the kidneys excrete more fluid; while in warm. weather the skin eliminates more and the kidneys less. 579. The use of the non-vascular and insensible outgrowth of the epidermis, the hair, is protection ; and the function of the nails is not only protection, but support to the yielding softness of the flesh at the finger-tips. When they reach exactly to the extremities of the fingers, they then fulfill the intention for which they were made, by enabling the fingers to hold both small and hard substances, and to tear and peel off skins of vegetables or animals. They are called into action where nicety of execution is required in art. THE OEGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 289 J 51. Hygiene op the Organs of Special Sense. — Pervermon of the Sense of Taste — Of Smell. Mow the Eye should be Used. GavM of Amaurosis. The Effect of Continued Oblique Position of the Eye — Viewing Objects at Different Distances. Bathing the Eye — iJe- mmxd of Dust. Causes of Defective Hearing. Parts Essential to Hear- ing. Clothing. Kind of Material for Clothing. Class of Persons that need more Clothing. Cleanliness of Clothing. Bathing — Modes of Bathing — Time for Baths — General Mules for Bathing — • Water a Cura- tive Agent. Air Beneficial to the Skin. Effect of lAght ore the Skin. Treatment of Bums and Scalds — Of Corns — Of Frost-Bites. 580. The Sense of Taste becomes perverted by the im- oioderate use of stimulants and condiments and the endless admixture of different articles of food. These indulgences lessen the sensibility of the nerve. In children, this sense is usually acute, and their preference is for food of the mildest character. This sense is varied more than any other by the refine- ments of social life; thus, the Indian's like or dislike regard- ing particular articles of food generally extends to every individual of the tribe, but among civilized men no two per- sons are alike in all their tastes. 581. The Sense of Smell may become impaired by being frequently and powerfully stimulated by pungent articles, as " smelling salts ;" also catarrh, or any influence that thickens the mucous membrane or renders it dry, diminishes the sensi- bility of the nerve of smell. Hence, the sense becomes very obtuse in persons addicted to the pernicious habit of "snuff- taking." 582. The Eye is a delicate organ, requiring care to preserve it in health ; like other organs of the body, it should be exer- cised and then rested. The observance of this rule is par- ticularly needful to those whose eyes are predisposed to inflammation. If the eye be used too long at one time, it becomes wearied and the power of vision diminished. On the contrary, if not called into exercise, its functions are enfeebled. 683. Sudden transitions of light should be avoided. The iris 2& N 290 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. enlarges or contracts according to the degree of light, but the change is not instantaneous. Hence the imperfect vision in passing from a strong to a dim light ; an overwhelming sensa- tion is experienced when passing from a dimly-lighted apart- ment to one brilliantly illuminated. A common cause of Amaurosis, or paralysis of the retina, is using the eye for a '-ong time in a very intense light. 584. Long-continued oblique position of the eye should be avoided, or it may produce an unnatural contraction of the muscles called into action, producing squinting or strabis- mus. The vision of a cross eye is always defective, as only one eye is used in viewing the object toward which the atten- tion is directed. The defect is remedied by a surgical opera- tion. Children should not be allowed to imitate the " cross eye," as what is intended to be but temporary, may become permanent. 585. The eye of the child should be trained to view objects at different distances. The ciliary muscles are as capable of education as any others, and may be made to act very effi- ciently in adapting the lenses to view near or remote objects. Care on the part of the instructor and parent regarding the distance from the eye at which the child should hold his book or work would save many cases of defective vision. 586. Bathing the eye in tepid or cold water is benejieial; provided the eye be gently wiped and usually toward the inner angle ; also, to remove the secretion from the lachrymal gland that sometimes collects at this angle, as it contains saline matter. Observation. — Particles of dust or cinders should be removed from the eye by means of soft linen or silk. If the substance is concealed beneath the upper lid, take a smooth rod, like a knitting needle, place it over the upper lid in contact with and just under the edge of the orbit ; hold it firmly by means of the lashes, turn the lid gently back over the pencil or needle, and remove the intrusive substance. If unsuccessful, too many attempts should not be made, as inflammation may be induced, but consult a surgeon immediately. THE ORGANS OP SPECIAIi SENSE. 291 587. The Sense of Hearing, like the other senses, is capable of great improvement. By cultivation, the blind are able to judge with great accuracy of the distance of bodies in motion, and even of the height of buildings. The Indian will distin- guish sounds inaudible to the untrained ear. 588. Hearing may he impaired by the destruction of the membrane of the tympanum. The obstruction of the Eusta- chian tube is not unfrequently the cause of defective hearing. I5y its closure, the vibratory effect of the air within the tym- panum is diminished in the same manner as in the closure of the side of a drum. Enlarged tonsils, inflammation of the fauces and nasal passages, often attend and follow colds and attacks of scarlet fever, etc. For such deafness, remedial means should be directed by a skillful physician. Observation. — ^The nostrums for the cure of deafness are usually of an oily character, and may be useful in cases of defective hearing caused by an accumulation of wax in the external canal of the ear ; but a few drops of any animal oil will serve the purpose as efficiently. 589. In hearing, the integrity of the drum of the ear is not absolutely essential for the due performance of the function. The loss of the small bones does not necessarily cause deafness unless the stirrup is diseased ; but if the auditory nerve or membranous vestibule becomes diseased, there is no remedial agent for the loss of hearing. 590. The Hygiene of the Skin, the chief organ of the Sense of Touch, holds important relation to the general health of the body. To maintain its healthy action in every part, attention must be given to Clothing, Bathing, Light and Air. 591. Clothing is chiefly useful in preventing the escape of too much heat from the body, and in protecting the body from exposure to the evil effects of a varying temperature of the atmosphere. In selecting and applying clothing, the fol- lowing should be observed : 592. The material for clothing should he a bad conductor of heat. As air is a non-conductor, material should be chosen which is capable of retaining much air in its meshes ; and as 292 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AMD HYGIENE. moisture increases the conducting power, the material should not be such as will absorb or retain moisture. Furs retain much air in their meshes and absorb scarcely any moisture, and consequently, are well adapted to those subject to the great exposures of very cold climates. Woolen doth, next to furs and eider down, retains the most air and absorbs the least moisture, hence it is a good article of apparel for all per- sons, unless too irritable to an over-sensitive skin. In that case, the flannel may be lined with cotton, or silk may be substituted. When of sufficient body or thickness, silk is a good article for inner clothing, excepting when it produces too much disturbance of the electricity of the system. Next to these articles, cotton is well adapted for garments worn next the skin. Linen should never be worn by persons in any way enfeebled, even in warm weather or in hot climates. It is a good conductor of heat and readily absorbs moisture ; hence, with such covering, the body is surrounded by a layer of moisture instead of air. 593. The clothing should be both porous and loosely fiited. The necessity of porous clothing is seen in the wearing of India-rubber overshoes. In a short time the hose and under- boot become damp from retained perspiration. The residual matter thus left in contact with the skin is reconveyed into the system by absorption, causing headache and other dis- eases. Unimpeded transpiration, and a layer of air secured by loose clothing, enable the skin to imbibe oxygen, which gives it tone and vigor. Observation. — As the design of additional clothing is to enclose a series of strata of warm air, we should, in going from a warm room into cold air, put on our extra covering some time previous to going out, that the layers of air which we carry with us may be warmed by the heat of the room, and not borrowed from the heat of the body. 594. The clothing mttst be suited to the state of the atmosphere and to the condition of the individual. Sudden changes of temperature should be regarded; but it is usually unsafe to make changes from thick to thin clothing, excepting in the THE ORGAJTS OP SPBCaULL SENSE. 293 morning, when the vital powers are in full play. The even- ing usually demands an extra garment, as the atmosphere is more cool and damp, and we have less vital energy than in the early part of the day. Observation. — Many a young lady has laid the foundation of a fatal disease by exchanging the thick dress, warm hose and shoes, for the flimsy fabric, thin hose and shoes which are considered suitable for the ball-room or party. All sud- den changes of this kind are attended with hazard, which is proportionate to the weakness or exhaustion of the system when the change is made. 595. The child and the aged person require more clothing than the vigorous person of. middle age. Judging from ob- servation, we should infer that children needed less clothing than adults. The exposure to which the vain and thoughtless mother subjects her child very frequently lays the foundation for future disease. The system of "hardening" children, of which we sometimes hear, is as inhuman as it is unprofitable. To make the child robust and active, he must have nutritious food at stated hours, free exercise in the open air, and be guarded from the cold by proper apparel. Those who have outlived the energies of adult life also need special care re- garding a proper amount of clothing. 596. When a vital organ is diseased, more clothing is needed. In consumption, dyspepsia, and even headache, the skin usually is pale and the extremities cold, because less heat is generated. Persons sufiering from these complaints need more clothing than those with healthy organs. 597. Persons of active habits need less clothing than those of sedentary employment. Exercise increases the circulation of the blood, consequently, the vital activities become more energetic, and more heat is produced. We need less clothing when walking than when riding. 598. The clothing should be kept clean. Some portion of the transpired fluids of the body must necessarily be ab- sorbed by the clothing. Hence, warmth, cleanliness and health require that it should be frequently changed and 26 • 294 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. thoroughly washed. Under-garments worn through the day should not be worn through the night, nor the reverse. When taken from the body, such garments should not be hung in the closet or put into the drawer, but exposed to a current of fresh air. The covering of beds should be thoroughly aired every morning, and frequently renewed. 599. Damp clothing is injurious. All articles from the laundry should be well aired before being worn. When the clothing is wet by accident or exposure, it should be changed immediately, unless the person is exercising so vigorously as to prevent the slightest chill. When the exercise ceases, the body should be rubbed with a dry crash towel till a thorough reaction takes place. Beds and bedding that have not been used for some weeks become damp, and should be dried before use. A hostess cannot be guilty of a more inhospitable act than that of sending her guest to her fine guest-chamber, to occupy a bed which has been long unused. 600. Bathing is indispensable to sound health as well as to cleanliness. The skin soon becomes covered with a mix- ture of perspirable matter, oil and dust, which, if allowed to remain, interferes with the action of the skin as an excretory organ. This increases the action of the lungs, kidneys, liver, etc., which take upon themselves the excretory work which the skin fails to perform. By overwork they soon become diseased, and if it is continued, the result will be consumption and other diseases of the vital organs. Again, obstruction 3f the pores will prevent respiration through the skin, and deprive the blood of one source of its oxygen and one outlet of its carbonic acid. 601. Bathing gives tone and vigor to the internal orgaiu. When cool water is applied to the body, the skin instantly shrinks and the whole of its tissue contracts. This contrac- tion diminishes the capacity of the blood-vessels, and a por- tion of the blood is thrown upon the internal organs. The nervous system is stimulated and communicates its stimulus THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 295 to the whole system. This causes a more energetic action of the heart and blood-vessels, and a consequent rush of blood back to the skin. This is the state termed reaction, the first object and purpose of every form of bathing. By this re action the internal organs are relieved, respiration is light- ened, the heart is made to beat calm and free, the tone of the muscular system is increased, the appetite is sharpened, the mind more clear and strong, and the whole system seems to possess new power. Regularity in bathing is necessary to produce permanently good effects. 602. The simplest modes of bathing are by means of the sponge or the shallow baths. The body may be quickly sponged over, wiped dry and followed by friction. The water may be warm or cold. If cold, the bath should be taken in the early part of the day, and followed by exercise. If exercise cannot be taken, the individual should rest under covering. The warm bath should usually be taken just be- fore retiring. If taken at other hours, it should be followed by rest from half an hour to one hour under proper covering. 603. The shallow bath, in which the body is parili/ immersed in water, is very pleasant and safe, provided the bather exer- cises in it by vigorous rubbing and does not remain too long. For a cold bath it is not often safe to exceed five minutes, and with delicate persons the time should rarely exceed two or three minutes. A bath is considered cold when below 75° ; temperate, from 75° to 85° ; tepid, 85° to 95°. This and every other form of bath should be followed by thorough friction with a coarse towel or flesh-brush. 604. The frequency of bathing mxist depend upon the con- dition and occupation of the individual. Daily bathing may be practiced with profit by most persons, but to the studious and sedentary it is in most cases absolutely indispensable. 605. The hour for ablution is of importance. It should neither immediately precede nor follow a meal. The same is true of severe mental and muscular exercise. Thie bath is less beneficial in the afternoon than the forenoon. The best time for cold baths is two or three hours after breakfast 296 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. The system is then at " flood-tide," while from that time till the retiring hour the tide is ebbing; hence, the worst time foi a cold bath is at bed-time. For those who cannot choose their time, the hour of rising will answer very well — that is, for many persons, especially if they become accustomed to the use of water by beginning at another and a better hour. If the mind and body are brightened by the early bath, and an exhilaration follows, .the bath is beneficial ; if on the con- trary, languor follows, and the skin looks blue or too pale, it is injurious. That the bath is to be followed by exercise must not be forgotten. 606. In diseases of the skin, and many chronic ailments of the internal organs, bathing is a remedial measure of great power. In disease which has baffled the skill of physicians depending wholly upon internal remedies, the effect of a systematic course of baths is often surprising. Like other curative means, the baths should be directed by those who thoroughly understand the use of water as a remedial agency. Matters of diet, exercise, etc., require adaptation to the treat- ment of the particular case. Those who desire the fuM benefit of these means must avail themselves of the appliances of a well-conducted water-cure establishment. 607. A few simple rules must be observed in bathing. The face and head should be wet in cold water before the bath. Cool baths should not be taken when the person is chilly, perspiring or greatly fatigued. All general baths should be taken briskly, the skin well rubbed and quickly dried, fol- lowed by a healthy glow over the whole body. Exercise should immediately follow all baths. Warm baths at night should be taken just before retiring; at other hours they should be followed immediately by rest, under coverings, after which exercise should be taken. Soap is admirably adapted to the removal of dirt from the skin, but if it is too freely used on the general sur- face of the body, it dissolves the oily exudation of the seba- ceous glands, leaving the skin dry or wrinkled. The ex- ternal epithelial cells may be removed too rapidly when THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 297 soap is used in excess, consequently the skin is not properly protected. 608. Pure Aie is an agent of great importance in the functions of the skin. It imparts to this membrane some oxygen, and receives from it carbonic acid gas. It likewise removes perspiration and portions of the oily secretion. 609. Light exercises a very salutary influence upon the skin. It is no less essential to the vigor of animal than of vegetable life. Dwelling-houses should be built with refer- ence to the free admission of sunlight and air into all occu- pied rooms. The dark, damp rooms so much used by indi- gent families and domestics in cities and large villages are fruitful causes of vice, poverty and suffering. Ladies often suffer seriously from too much exclusion of sunlight. Ex- cepting in very warm weather, they should practice sitting or exercising in the full sunshine of the out-door world. 610. Burns and Scalds. When blisters are formed, the epidermis is separated from the other layer of the skin by the effusion of serum ; this fluid shotild be let free by punc- turing the cuticle, care being taken not to remove the thin raised skin, as it makes the best possible protection to the sensitive, inflamed tissues beneath. When this thin outside layer of skin is removed, immediately cover the denuded parts with wheat flour, or a plaster made of lard and bees'- wax or the white of an egg ; in a word, substitute a cuticle to protect the exposed nerves from the air. When dressings are applied, they should not be removed until they become dry and irritating. To prevent vesication, when only a small patch of the skin is scalded or burned, apply steadily cold water until the smarting pain ceases ; then put on a simple dressing, " not to take out the fire or heal it," but to protect the injured membrane. 611. When the epidermis, in particular spots, is exposed to excessive pressure or friction, it becomes too much thickened, producing Corns. They are not necessarily confined to the feet, but are produced in front of the clavicle of the soldier N* 298 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. from the pressure of his musl'et, or on the knee of the cqbbler The pain of the callosity is due to their exciting inflamma- tion in the sensitive dermis upon which they press. Remove the pressure, and the affected part is restored to its normal state. 612. Frost-Bite is usually manifested first upon parts un- protected by covering, as the face or ears, and especially the nose. In such case, the skin first becomes red, from con- gestion of the dilated capillary vessels ; next it becomes bluish, from arrest of the circulation ; and afterward of a dead white hue. To restore circulation and sensibility, rub the frozen part with snow or apply iced water. Keep the sufferer at first in a cold room, and let the return to a higher temperature be gradual and cautious, or gangrene may super- vene. The Chilblain is not produced by the action of cold, but by the effect of heat on the chilled extremity. APPENDIX. CHAPTER XIII. CARE OF THE SICK. 2 1. In every home, however humble or dignified, woman is usuiUy the Nurse. Nature seems to have endowed her in an especial manner to minister at the couch of disease and suffering. To be a good nurse requires a high type of womanhood ; she should have both mental and physical power, blended with integ- rity and Christian trust. If "good nursing is half the cure," how important that the daughter be early taught how to prepare drinks and nourishments ; to administer medicine ; and to perform the varied and important duties of the faithful nurse I The physician well knows that his attentions upon the sick are quite unavailing unless the nurse oheys his directions. For a nurse, or immediate relatives or friends of the sick, to put their judgment in opposition to that of the physician, is not only arro- gant, but endangers the patient. The room for the siok should be selected where sunlight may enter, and as far from external noise as possible. It is poor economy, not to say unkind, to keep a siok man in a small, ill-arranged bed-room, when a more spacious and airy room is kept for only occasional "callers." All superfluous furniture should be removed from the sick room. In the first stages of disease, it is always proper treatment to rest both body and mind. It is wrong to tempt the appetite of a sick person ; the disinclination for food is the warning of Nature that the system cannot well digest it. The beneficial effects of bathing can hardly be over-estimated, but the mode of the bath should be directed by the medical ad- viser. The best time, however, for bathing is when the patient feels most vigorous and freest from exhaustion. Care is necessary to wipe dry the skin, particularly between the fingers and toes, and 29» 300 APPENDIX. also the flexions of the joints. Friction from a brush, moreen mitten or a dry flannel that has been saturated with salted water tends to relieve restlessness in patients. Air-baths have a tran- quillizing influence. Quiet should reign m the sick room. No more persons should enter or remain in it than the welfare of tl t patient demands. It is the duty of the physician to direct when visitors should be ad- mitted or excluded, and the nurse should enforce the directions. The movements of the attendants should be gentle : no bustling to "clear up the room" at a fixed time ; this should be done quietly and when it will give the least annoyance to the sick. (It may be necessary to use a damp cloth in dusting the furniture, also the carpet, especially if the patient has disease of the lungs. ) Creak- ing hinges should be oiled; shutting doors violently and heavy fvalking avoided. All unnecessary conversation should be deferred. If a colloquy must be carried on, let the tone be so high that the patient, if interested, can thoroughly comprehend it. The making of the bed is often badly conducted. All bunches should be removed, the material of the bed laid even and a thin quilt spread smoothly over a mattress. When convenient, have the head of the bed northerly (182), and so situated, at least, that the sick man may look on something more pleasurable than a table of glasses and phials. A nurse should never manifest impatience in arranging the pillows, but try to adapt them to the comfort of the weary patient. AU vtendU employed in the sick room should be kept clean. Water designed for the patient to drink should not stand long in an open glass or pitcher, but be given fresh from a spring or well. A very sick person is fatigued by being raised to receive drinks, hence, a bent tube or a cup with a spout should be used. Both the apparel and the hed-linen should be changed more fre- quently in sickness than in health, and oftener in acute than in chronic diseases. All clothing, whether from the laundry or bureau, should be well dried and warmed by a fire previous to being put on the bed or the patient. No agent is of more importance to the sick room than pure aii , hence, the nurse, with all convenient speed, should remove every- thing that can emit an unpleasant odor. She should be chary of keeping ripe fruit or bouquets of flowers any length of time in the sick chamber. When a disinfectant is needed, procure at the druggist's, chloride of lime. To change quickly and eflFeotively the APPENDIX. 301 air of the sick room, cover the patient's bed with an extra blanket and closely envelop his head and neck, except the mouth and nose ; the door and windows can then be safely opened for a short time without detriment. After the windows are closed, retain the extra coverings on the patient until the room is of proper warmth. Unless duly protected, the patient should never feel currents of air, although fresh air should be constantly admitted into the sick room. A well-adjusted thermometer is indispensable, as the feelings of the patient or nurse are not to be relied on as a true index of the temperature of the room. Regulating the warmth of the patient is one of the many duties of the nurse. There is a "sweating tem- perature ;" when this is exceeded, perspiration will cease if it has been present; or that it will not take place during a high tem- perature. The patient should no more be allowed to complain of too much heat, without an attempt at its reduction, than he should be permitted to remain chilly when it is possible to remove it. The nurse should not confine herself to the sick room longer than six hours at a time. She should exercise daily in the open air, also eat and sleep as regularly as possible. No doubts or fears of the patient's recovery, either by a look or by a word, should be communicated by the nurse in the chamber of the sick ; this duty devolves upon the physician. Medicines assist the natural powers of the system to remove dis- ease. They should be given regularly, judiciously and with a cheerful manner. Life itself is often at the mercy of the nurse, and depends on the faithful discharge of her duty. Drinks have a more decided influence upon the system than is generally admitted ; hence, the nurse should never depart from the quality of the drink, nor even exceed the due or prescribed quantity. Giving "herb teas" without the sanction of the phy- sician may cause serious evil. The food of the sick should be prepared in the neatest and most careful manner, and the nurse ought to obey implicitly the phy- sician's directions about diet. When a patient is convalescent, the desire for food is generally strong; great care, firmness and pa- tience is required, that the food be prepared suitably and given at the proper time. We append a few modes of preparing nourishment for the sick. Crust Coffee. — ^Take light, sweet bread or crackers, and brown them thoroughly as you would coffee berry ; when wanted for use, 26 302 APPENDIX. pour over boiling water (the crusts will admit of several replenish ings of boiling water) ; add sugar and cream to suit the condition of the patient. Gruels. — Com meal requires to be boiled several hours to be suitable nourishment for the sick. The mode of preparing gruel should be suited to the case and directed by the physician. Wheat, or oat-meal, farina and sago, can be prepared in less time, though they must be well cooked. Add salt while cooking. Egg Chiiel. — ^Take the yoVcs of two eggs, boiled hard, and with a knife reduce them to a fine powder ; beat this into a flour gruel made of new milk ; salt and spices may be added if the condition of the patient admits. Beep Tea. — Meat contains principles that may be extracted, some by cold, others hy warm, and others, again, by boUing, water; it shoujid be cut very fine, and submitted for three hours each time, in succession, to half its weight of cold, of warm and of boiling water; the fluids strained from the first and second macerations are to be mixed with that strained from the boiling process, and the mixture should be brought to a boiling heat to cook it — the fat skimmed off ; add a few drops of some acid, with salt, for a flavor. ? 3. The duty of the Watcher is scarcely less responsible than that of the nurse ; and, like the nurse, she should ever be cheerful, kind, firm and attentive in the presence of the patient The watcher should be prompt, and reach the house of the sick at an early hour ; before entering the sick room, she should eat a simple, nutritious supper, and also during the night take some plain food. She should be furnished with an extra garment, as a heavy shawl, to wear toward morning, when the system becomes exhausted. The directions about the sick, especially the administration of medicine, should be written for the temporary watcher. Whatever may be wanted during the night should be brought into the sick chamber or the adjoining room before the family retires to sleep, that the slumbers of the patient be not disturbed by haste or searching for needed articles. Sperm candles are preferable for the sick room. Kerosene, in burning, emits a disagreeable odor, often annoying to the patient. All lights ought to be so arranged as not to be reflected in the part of the room where the sick lie. It is not necessary that watchers make themselves acceptable to APPENDIX. 303 the patient by exhausting conversation. If two watchers are needed, it is more imperative that they refrain from talking, and particularly whispering. Most sick persons have special need of nourishment about four or five o'clock in the morning. When taking care of the sick, light-colored clothing should be worn in preference to dark apparel, especially if the disease is of a contagious character. It is always safe for the watcher to change her apparel worn in the sick chamber before entering upon her family duties. Disease is often communicated by the clothing. It can hardly be expected that the farmer who has been laboring hard in the field, or the mechanic who has toiled during the day, is qualified to render all those little attentions that a sick person requires. Hence, would it not be more benevolent and economical to employ and pay watchers who are qualified by knowledge and training to perform this duty in a faithful manner, while the kindness and sympathy of friends may be practically manifested by assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified and useful assistants? POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. i 3. Poisoning, either from accident or design, is of such fre- quency, that every household should keep some available remedy, and every person should know what to do in such alarming contin- gencies. Nearly every poison has its antidote, which, if used ai once, may prevent much suffering and even death. When known that poison has been taken into the stomach, the first thing is to evacuate it by the use of the stomach-pump or an emetic, unless vomiting takes place spontaneously. As an emetic, ground Mitstard mixed in warm water is always safe. Take one tablespoonful to one pint of warm water. Give the patient one-half in the first instance, and the remainder in fifteen minutes, if vomiting has not commenced. In the interval, drink copious draughts of warm water. Irritate the throat with a feather or the finger, to induce vomiting. After vomiting has begun, give mucilaginous drinks ; such as flaxseed tea, gum-arabic water, or slippsry elm. If the patient is drowsy, give a strong infusion of cold cofiee, keep him walking, slap smartly on the back, use electricity ; it may be well to dash cold water on the head, to keep the patient awake 304 APPENDIX. After the poison is evacuated from the stomach, to sustain vitaj action, give warm water and wine or brandy. If the limbs are cold, apply warmth and friction. In ALL cases of poisoning, call immediately a physician, as the after-treatment is of great importance. > (Water Hemlock). Poisons. Aconile (Monkshood). Bclladona (Deadly Night-Shade). Bryony. Camphor. Conium Cicuta Croton Oil. Digitalis (Foxglove). Dulcamara (Bitter-Sweet). Gamboge. Hyoscyamus (Henbane). Laudanum. Lobelia. Morphine. Opium. Paregoric. Sanguinara (Blood-Boot). Savin Oil. Spigelia (Carolina Pink). Stramonium (Thorn Apple). Strychnine (Nux Vomica). Tobacco. Antidotes or He3iei>i£S po& PoiaoHS. For Vegetable poisons give an emetic of Mustard; drink freely of warm water; irritate the throat with a feather to induce vomiting. Keep the patient awake until a phy- sician arrives. Arnica. Prussic Acid. Bitter Almonds (Oil of). Laurel Water. Ammonia (Hartshorn). Potash. Soda. Iodine. Vinegar and water. ■» Drink, at once, one teaspoonful of > Water of Hartshorn (ammonia) in •' one pint of water. Antidote is Vinegar or Lemon Juice; followed with sweet, castor or lin- seed oil. Thick cream is a sub- stitute for oil. No emetic "I Starch or wheat flour beat in water I Take a Mustard emetic. APPENDIX. 305 Antidotes or Remedies for Poisons. \ Take at once, a Mustard emetic; Chili Saltpetre (Nitrate of Soda). [ '^""'^ copious draughts of ,varm -' water ; followed with oil or cream Saltpetre (Nitrate of Potassa). Lunar Caustic (Nitrate of Silver). Corrosive Sublimate (bug poison). White Precipitate. , Bed Precipitate. Vermilion. Arsenic Cobalt (flf powder). King's Yellow. Batsbane. Scheele's Green. I Two teaspoonfuls of table salt (chlo- y rideof sodium) mixed in one pint ' of water. Beat the Whites of six Eggs in one quart of cold water; give a cup- ful every two minutes, to induce vomiting. A substitute for white of eggs is soap-suds slightly thick- ened with wheat flour. Emetics should not be given. Use a stomach-pump as quickly as possible, or give a Mustard emetic until one is obtained. After free vomiting, give large quantities of Calained Magnesia. The anti- dote for Arsenic is Bydrdted Per- oxide of Iron. Acetate of Lead (Sugar of Lead). \ Use a Mustard emetic ; followed by White Lead. [■ Epsom or Glauber Salts. The Litharge. > antidote is diluted Sulphuric Add. Antimony (Wine of). Tartar Emetic. Pearl-asb. Ley (from wood-ashes). Salts of Tartar. Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol). Nitric " (Aquafortis). Muriatic " (Marine). Oxalic Acid. 26* The antidote is ground Nutgall. A substitute, oak or Peruvian bark ; followed by a teaspoonful of pare- goric -V Drink freely of Vinegar and water ; I- followed with a mucilage, as flax- i seed tea. Drink largely of water or a muci- lage. It is important that some- thing be given quickly, to neu- tralize the acid. The antidote is Calcined Magnesia. Chalk, lime, strong soap-suds are substitutes for magnesia. 306 APPENDIX. F018OH8. Matches (Phosphorus). Bat Exterminator. Verdigris. Blue VitrloL Bling of Insects. Charcoal Fumes. Gas or Burning Fluid. Antidotes or Remedies fob Poisons. }Give two tablespoonfuls of Calcined Magnegia; followed by mucilag- inous drinks. }The antidote is Cooking Soda, or White ofEgge. Drink milk freely. Ammonia, or cooking soda moistened with water, applied in the form of a paste. The wound may be sucked, followed by applications of water. } Fresh air and Artificial Sespira- tion. For the Treatment of Wounds and Arrest of Hemorrhage (363). For the Recovery of Asphyxiated Persons (430). For Bums and Scalds (610). GLOSSARY, kB-zfOhtETS. [L. abdo, to hide.] That part of the body which lies between the tho- rax and the bottom of the pelvis. Ab-doh'in-is. Pertaining to the abdomen. Ab-duc/tob. [L. abduco, to lead away.] A mnscle which moves certain parts, by separating them tcom the axis of the body. A-Oe-tab'c-lux. [L. acetum, vinegar.] The socket for the head of the thigh-bone ; an ancient vessel for holding vinegar. A-ce/tio. [L. acetum^ vinegar.] Relating to acetic acid. This is always composed of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon in the same proportion. A'CHil/us. A term applied to the tendon of the two large muscles of the leg, A-crc/hi-on. 6r. axpo?, aJeros^ highest, and UJU.05, omoSt shoulder.] A process of the scapula that joins to the clavicle. Ad-duc/ior. [L. addiicOy to lead to.] A muscle which draws one part of the body toward another. A,l-bd'h£N. [L. albus, white.] An animal substance of the same nature as the white of an egg. A-Ln'HiN-DX. [L.] The name given to the metallic base of alumina. Ai/VE^-LAB. [L, alveolus, a socket.] Per- taining to the sockets of the teeth. AH-uofNi-A. An alkali. It is composed of three equivalents of hydrogen and one of nitrogen. Am-phi-aRtTHBo/sis. fGr. ajbi^t, amphi^ both, and ap0pfaSia, arthrodia^ well arti- culated.] A mixed articulation. A-nas/to-xosk. [Gr. ova, ana, through, and oTo/ia, i^ffma, mouth.] The com- munication of arteries and veins with each other. An-a-toh'i-oax. Relating to the parts of the body when dissected or separated. A-nat'o-ut. [Gr. ava, ana, through acd TOfL-q, tome, a cutting.] The descrii- tion of the structure of animals. The word aiuitamy properly signifies dissection. An-oi-oi/o-ot. [Gr. ayyeioc, angeion, a vessel, and \070f, logos, discourse.] A dracription of the vessels of the body; as the veins and arteries. AN'an-Li. [L. at^/idus, a comer.] A term applied to certain muscles on account of their form. An-i-uai/cu-L£. [L. animalcuta, a little animal.] Animals that are only per- ceptible by means of a microscope. An'nu-lar. [L. anntdus, a ring.] Having the form of a ring. An-ti'cus. [L.] a term applied to certain muscles. A-obi/a. [Gr. aopn], aorte; from ai}p, air, air, and n^pe&i, tereo, to keep.] The great artery that arises from the left ventricle of the heart. Ap-o-steu-ro/sis. [Gr. ano^ apo, from, anc vevpov, neuron, u nerve.] The mem- branous expansions of muscles and ten- dons. The ancients called every white tendon neuron, a nerve. Ap-VA-KAfTVa. [L. apparo, to prepare.] An assemblage of organs designed to produce certain results. Ap-pend'ix. [L. ad and pendeo, to hang from.] Something appended or added. A'que-ous. [L. aqua, water.] Partaking of the nature of water. A-BACH^NOin. [Gr. apaxvi},aracA9t«, a spider, and ei2os, etdos, form.] llesembling a spider's web. A thin membrane that covers the brain. Ab/bor. [L.] a tree. Arbor vita. The tree of life. A term applied to a part of the cerebellum. Ab/ie-bt. [Gr. ai}p, aSr, air, and n^pcai, 307 308 GLOSSARY. Ureo^ to keep ; because the ancienta thought that the arterieB contained only air.] A tube through which blood flows fi-om the heart, A-rtt-£/noid. [Or. apvTatfo, arutoina^ a ewer, and eifioc, eftZos, form,] The name of a cartilage of the larynx. As-oend'ens. [L.] Ascending; rising. Ab-phtz/i-a. [Or. a, a, not, and ox^irftc, rphyxiSj pulse.] Originally, want of pulse; now used for suspended respira- tion, or apparent death. As-traq/a-lus. [Gr.] The name of a bone of the foot. One of the tarsal bones. AUD-iMoN. fL. audiOf to hear.] Hearing. AUD-iT-o^Ri-U8. [L.] Pertaining to the or- gan of hearing. An'Bi'CLE. [L. auricufa, the external ear ; from auriSy the ear.] A cavity of the heart. Ax-ii/la. [L.] The armpit. Az'iL-LA-BT. Belonging or relating to the armpit, A-zote'. [Gr. a, a, not, and ^ohj, roe, Hfe.] Nitrogen. One of the constituent ele- ments of the atmosphere. So named be* cause it will not sustain life. Ben-zo/io. Benzoic acid. A peculiar vege- table acid obtained from benzoin and some other balsams. Bi'cepb. [L. bis, twice, and caput, a head.] A name applied to muscles with two heads at one extremity. Ui-cus/piDS. [L. bist two, and cuspis, a point.] Teeth that have two points upon their crown. Bile. [L. bilis.} A yellow, viscid fluid secreted by the liver. Bi-P£n'ni-fork. [L. bit, two, and perma, a feather.] Having fibres on each side of a common tendon. Baaoo'i-al. [L. brachium.] Belonging to the arm. Bri/vis. [L.] Brevis, short; brevior, shorter. Cronob/i-a, -j£. [L.] a division of the trachea that passes to the lungs. BRONcn-i^Tis. [L.] An inflammation of the bronchia. Udo-oi-n a/tor. [L. buccinum, u trumpet.] The name of a muscle of the cheek, so named because used in blowing wind isutrumeata. BxTB/sm Mu-co/sa [L. bursa, a purse, and mucosa, viscous.] Small sacs, containing a viscid fluid, situated about the joints, under tendons. Ga^cvh. [L.] Blind; the name gjvnn to the commencement of the colon. Cal/ci-um. [L.] The metallic basis c Mme Calx, Cal'cis. [L.] The heel-bone. Cap/il-la-rt. [L. captOus, a hair.] Ko. sembling a hair; a small tube. Gap/sdle. [L. capsula, a little chest,] A membranous bag, enclosing a part. Ca/put- [L.] The head. Caput tdU, the head of the colon. Cab/bok. [L. carbo^ a coal.] Pure charcoal An elementary combustible substance, CaRpBOn'io. Pertaining to carbon. Car/di-ac. [Gr. xapjio, kardia, heart] Relating to the heart, or upper orifice of the stomach. Car/ne-a, •m. [L. caro, camis, flesh.] ITlesby. Ca-rot/id. [Gr. KOfioi, karos, lethargy.] The great arteries of the neck that con- vey blood to the head. The ancients supposed drowsiness to be seated in these arteries. Car/pus, -x. [L.] The wrut Gas/ti-laoe. [L. cartHago.'] Gristle. A smooth, elastic substance, softer than bone. CADTCA'siAnr. One of the races of men. Ga'ta. [L.] Hollow. Vena Oava. A name given to the two great veins of the body. CeiAu-lab. [L. ceUuIo, a little cell.] Coni< posed of cells. Cer-e-bel^ldii. [L.] The hinder and lower part of the brain, or the little brain. Ceb/e-bro-Spi/hal. Relating to the brain and spine. Cer/e-bruh. [L.] The fh>Qt and large part of the brain. The term is some times applied to the whole contents o' the cranium. Cer/vi-oal. Relating to the neck. Ceb^x. [L.] The neck. Chest. [Sox.] The thorax ; the trunk ol the body fVom the neck to the abdomen. Ghlo/rine. [Gr. x^^^poC) chlonu, green.] Chlorine gas, so named A-om its color. Odor^a, -A. [L.] A cord. An assemblage of fibres GLOSSARY. 309 Cho'roid. [Qr. x^P^oi^t chorion.'] A term applied to eeTeral parts of the body that r^emble the skio. Chyle. [Gr. x''^'**! cJiulos, jnice.] A nutri- tive fluid, of a whitish appearance* which Is extraqted from food by the action of the digestive organs. CHYi^i-pi-CA'TiO!r. [L. chyluSj chyle, and faciOy to make.] The process by which chyle is formed. Chtmk. [Gr. x^M^^) chumos^ juice.] A kind of grayish pulp formed from the food in the stomach. CerH-i-v^iCA/Tiozr. [L. chumos, chyme, and facio, to make.] The process by which chyme is formed. Cn/iA-ET. [L. dliOy eyelashes.] Belonging to the eyelids. Cin-b-ei'tious. [L. cinus, ashes.] Having the color of ashes. Clat'i-cls. [L. clameulOj from clavis^ n key.] The collar-bone; so called from its resemblance in shape to an ancient key. Glei'do. a terra applied to some muscles that are attached to the clavicle. Co-AG'tr-LVH. [L.] A coagulated mass; a clot of blood. CoctcTSi. [Gr.] An assemblage of bones joined to the sacrum. Coch'le-a. [Gr. xoxAu, kochlo, to tvnst ; or L. cochl&ij a screw.] A cavity of the ear resembling in form a snail-sbell. Co'LOir. [Gr. KtoKov^ kolon, I arrest.] A por- tion of the large intestine. Co-lum'na, s. [L.] a column or pillar. Coh/mis-scre. [L. committo, I join to- gether.] A point of union between two parts. CoM-MtJ/Nis. [L.] A name applied to cer- tain muscles, Com-plex/ds. [L, contpfecfor, to embrace.] The name of a muscle that embraces many attachments. C!0K-PRE8s/0R. [h. con, together, and premOf presstts, to press.] A term applied to some muscles that compress the parts to which they are attached. roN^DTLB. [Gr. KOffii/Ao?, kondufns, a knuckle, a protuberance.] A promi- nence on the end of a bone. Cox-JUNC-TiAvA. [L. con, together, an^jungo, to join.] The membrane that covers the interior part of tne globe of the eye. Cop/pER. A metal of a pale red coU r tinged with yellow. Cor-a'coid. [Gr. ieopa{, Jcarax, a crow, and etdiK, eCc2os, form.] A process of the scapula shaped like the beak of a crow. Co'ri-om. [Gr. xopioi', chorion^ skin.] The true skin. Corn/b-a. [L. comu, a horn.] The trans* parent membrane in the fore part of the eye. Cor/po-ra. [L. corpus^ a body.] The name given to eminences or projections found in the brain and some other parts of the body, Cos'ta. [L. casta, a. coast, siae or rib.] A rib. CribAri-porh. [L. cr&trum, a sieve, and forma, form.] A plate of the ethmoid bone, through which the olfactory nerve passes to the nose. Cri'coid. [Gr. KpiKov, Tcrikos, a ring, and eiSo«, ddos, form.] A name given to a cartilage of the larynx, from its form. Cets/tal-line. [L. crystaUimis, consisting of crystal.] Orystalline tens, one of the humors of the eye. It is convex, white, iirra and transparent. Cu'bi-tus, -I. [L. cubitus, the elbow.] One of the bones of the forearm, also called the ulna. Cu'boed. [Gr. KvJSov, Arufcoj, a cube, and ei5o9, eftZo;, form.] Having nearly the form of a cube. Cu-se'i-porm. [L. cuneus, a wedge,] The name of bones in the wrist and foot, Cus^PiD. [L. cuspis, a point.] Having one point. Gu-ta'ne-ous. [L. cuUs, skin.] Belonging to the skin. Cti/ti-cle. [L. etttis.'] The external layer of the ekin. Curtis Ye'ra. [L. cufu, skin, and vera, true.] The internal layer of the skin; the true skin. De-cus-sa^tiow. [L. decutio, I divide.] A union in the shape of an X or cross. Dei/toid. [Gr. SeXra, delta, the Greek let- ter A, and etfios, eftZo*, form.] The name of a muscle that resembles in form the Greek letter A. Dent/al. \h. dens, tooth.1 Pertaining to the teeth. De-press'or. [L.] The name of a mnsclo 310 GLOSSARY. that draws down the part to which it is attached. Dxbh'oid. [Gr. StpiiOy dermal the ekin, and etSoc, etdos^ form.] Resembling skin. Ds-scEND'ENa. [L. de and scarido, to climb.] Descending, falling. Di'a-phraoh. [Gr. Staifipayfia, diaphragma^ a partition.] The midriff; a muscle sepa- rating the chest from the abdomen. Di-ar-rhce'a. [Gr. Stappeu, diarrhea^ to flow through.] A morbidly frequent evacua- tion of the intestines. Dr-ARrTHRo'sis. [Gr. fito, dia, through, and ap9povvt arthroun^ to fasten by a joint.] An articulation which permits the bones to move freely on each other in every direction. Di-as'to-le. [Gr. SiotrTeAAu, diasteUOf to put asunder.] The dilatation of the heart and arteries when the blood enters them. Di-oes/tion. [L. d^estio.\ The process of dissolving food in the stomach and pre- paring it for circulation and nourish- ment. DiGri-TofRVn. [L. d^fituSf a finger.] A term applied to certain muscles of the extremities. Dob/sal. [L. dorsum, the back.] Pertain- ing to the back. Du-o-de/nuu. fL, dtiodenuSy of twelve fingers^ breadth.] The first portion of the small intestine. Du'ra Ma/ter. [L. duruSf hard, and mater, mother.] The outermost mem- brane of the brain. Dts'en-ter-t. [Gr. 5vs, dus, bad, and tvTepioL, enteria, intestines.] A discharge of blood and mucus from the intestines attended with tenesmus. Drs-PEp/si-A. [Gr. 6v$, dus, bad, and iremw, pepto, to digest.] Indigestion, or di£B- culty of digestion. Ex-am'el. [Fr.] The smooth, hard snb- stanco which covers the crown or visible part of a tooth. En-dos-mo'sis. [Gr, tvSov, endrm, within, and (1)0-/109, osmoa, to push.] The trans- iiiiaslon of fluids through membranes, in ward. 1M>bn/dt-ma. [Gr.] The membrane which lines the ventricles of thu brain. Kp>i-dsrh/i8. [Gr «n-i, epi, upon, and 6epfj.a, derma, the skin.] The superficial layer of the skin. Ep-i-qlot'tis. [Gr. em, epi, upon, and VAmtto, gWtta, the tongue.] One of the cartilages of the glottis. £tb'moid. [Gr. -t)d/AO$, ethmos, a sieve, and f ifios, efdo5, a form.] A bone of the skull. Bu-STA^CHi-AN Tube. A channel from tho fauces to the middle ear, named from Eustachius, who first described it. Ex/CRE-MEKT, [L. excemo, to separate.^ Matter excreted and ejected; alvine dia* charges. Bx'cRE-TO-RT. A little duct or vessel, des- tined to receive secreted fiuids and tc excrete or discharge them ; also a se- cretory vessel. £x-ha/lant. [L. exhalo, to send forth vapor.] Having the quality of exhaling or evaporating. Ex-TENS^OB. [L.] A name applied to a muscle that serves to extend any part of the body ; opposed to Flexor. Fascial. [L. fades, face.} Pertaining to the face. Falx. [L. falx, a BCjrthe.] A process of the dura mater shaped like a scythe. Fas^ci-a. [L./tucto, aband.] A tendinous expansion or aponeurosis. Fas-cic/d-lus, -u. [L. /asds, a bundle.] A little bundle. Faux, -ces. [L.] The top of the throat. Feh'o-ral. Pertaining to the femur. Fe'uur. [L.] The thigh-bone. Fs-hes'tra, -um. [li. ferustra, a window.] A term applied to some openings into the internal ear. Fi'bre. [L./6ra.] An organic filament or thread which enters into the compositioa of every animal and vegetable texture. Fi'BRtN. A peculiar organic substance found in animals and vegetables; it is a solid substance, tough, elastic and com- posed of thready fibres. Fi'bro-Car/ti-laqb. An organic tissue, par^ taking of the nature of fibrous tissue aiti that of cartilage. Fib/u-la, [L., a clasp.] The outer ind loserr bono of tho leg. Fii/a-ment. [h.JUammta, threads.] A fin* thri'ad, of which flesh, nerves, skin, etc.. are composed. Flex'iow. [h.Jltctio.] The act of bending. GLOSSAEY. 311 Woihl-CLK. [L. folliculitSj a small bag.] A gland ; a little bag in animal bodies. Fob£'akh. The part of the upper extremity between the elbow and hand. Fos/ba. [L., a ditch.] A cavity in a bone, with a large aperture. Fb^num. [L., a bridle.] Frtenum lingiue, the bridle of the tongue. Fdnc'tion. [L. fungor^ to perform.] The action of an organ or Bysteni of organs. Fun/qi-form. [L. fungi^ and /orma.] Having terminations like the head of a fungus, or a mushroom. Gan'oli-on, -a. [Gr.] An enlargement in the course of a nerve. Gas'tric. [Gr. yaonjp, gaster, the stomach.] Belonging to the stomach. Gas-troc-ne'mi-us. [Gr. yao-njp, gaster, the stomach, and «i^ju.i7, Imeme^ the leg.] The name of large muscles of the leg. Gei/a-tin. [L. geUi^ to congeal.] A con- crete animal substance, transparent and soluble in water. Gihg/lt-FORH. [Gr. yiyyAv/ios, gitiglymos^ a knife-like joint, and eidos, ddos^ a form.] An articulation that only admits of motion in two directions. Gle'noid. [Gr. yKtivTi^ gleni, a cavity.] A term applied to some articulate cavities of bones. Glob'ba. [Gr.] The tongue. Names com- ponnded with this word are applied to muscles of the tongue. Glos'bo-Pha-rtn'gi-al. Relating to the tongue and pharynx. Glot/tib. [Gr.] The narrow opening at the upper part of the larynx. Glo'te-us. [Gr.] A name given to muscles of the hip. GOH-PHO/sis, [Gr. yoixiffovvt goniphoun^ a, nail.] The immovable articulation of the teeth with the jaw-bone, like a nail in a board. nEH'oR-KHAGE. [Gr. atjxo, haimOj blood, and prfyvvitij regnuOf to burst.] A dis- charge of blood from an artery or brain. HiS-TOi/o-GT. [Gr. ioTos, hislos, tissue, and Aoyos, U>gos^ discourse.] A description of the minute structure of the body. ITc'mer-ub. [L.] The bone of the arm. Qt/a-loid. [Gr.] A transparent mem- brane of the eye. Ht/dbo-oen. [Gt. vJtup, hydor, Mater, and yewoua, gennao, to generate.] A gas which constitutes one of the elements of water. Hy'qi-ene. [Gr. uytetvov, ftufTicftion, health ] The part of medicine which treats of the preservation of health. Ht^ois. [Gr. V and etStK, etdot^ ehape.j A bone of the tongue resembling the Greek letter Upsilou in shape. Hy/po-glos'sal. Under the tongue. Th« name of a nerve of the tongue. Ii/e-uh. [Gr. etXoi, eHo, to wind.] A por- tion of the small intestines. Ii/i-DM. The haunch-bone. iN-ci'BoE. [L. incido^ to cut.] A front tooth that cuts or divides. In/d£Z. [h. indicOf to show.] The fore- finger; the pointing finger. In-nom-i-na/ta. [Ij. in, not, and nomen, name.] Parts which have no proper name. In-ob'cu-late. [L. in, and osculatus, from oscidoTj to kiss.] To unite, as two ve» sels at their extremities. In'ter. [L.] Between. In-ter-cost'ai.. [L. inter, between, and costa, a rib.] Between the ribs. In-ter-so'di-i. [L. inter, between, and nodus, knot.] A term applied to some muscles of the forearm. I»-ter-sti'tial. [L. Miter, between, and gto, to stand.] Pertaining to or contain- ing interstices. In-tes'tines. [L. inliu, within.] The canal that extends from the stomach to the anua. I^EiS. [L., the rainbow.] The colored circle that surrounds the pupil of the eye. I/to-rt. a hard, solid, fine-grained sub stance of a fine white color; the tusk of an elephant. Je-ju'num. [L., empty.] A portion of the small intestine. Ju^au-LAR, [L. jt^idumf the neck.] Re- lating to, the throat. The great veins of the neck. La/bi-uu, La/bi-i. [L.] The lips. LAB/r-RiNTH. [Gr.] 'The internal ear, so named from it^ many windings. Lach'ry-mal. [ [j. lachryma, a tear,] Per taining tu tears. 312 GLOSSARY. Lac'te-al. [L. toe, milk.] A small vessel or tube of animal bodies for conveying chyle from the intestine to the thoracic duct. Lam'i-wa, -m. [L.] a plate or thin coat lying over another. LAit^rNZ. [Gr. Aapuyf, larujia:,] The upper part of the v/indpipe. Lar-yn-gi'tis. Inflammation of the larynx. La-tis/bi-mus, -mi. [L., superlative of laius, broad.] A term applied to some muscles. Lg-ta/tor. [L. Zevo, to raise.] A name ap- plied to a muscle that raises some part. Lig'a-mrnt. [L. lign, to bind.] A Btrong, compact substance serving to bind one bone to another. Lin'e-a, ~m. [L.] a line. Ljh'oua, -jr. [L.] a tongue. Llv^BR. The name cf one of the abdominal organs, the largest gland in the system. It is situated below the diaphragm, and secretes the bile. Lode. A found projecting partof an organ. fiON/Qua, Lon/gi-or. [L., long, longer.] A term Applied to several muscles. LuH^BAR. [L. lumhus^ the loins.] Pertain- ing to the loins. Ltmph. [L. lympha^ water.] A colorless fluid in animal bodies, and contained in vessels called lymphatics. Ttm-phat'ic. a vessel of animal bodies that contains or conveys lymph. Mao-ne/si-dm. The metallic base of mag- nesia. Maq'nus, -na, -num. fL. great.] A term applied to certain muscles. Ma'jor. [L,, greater.] Greater In extent or quantity. Man'qa-nese. a metal of a whitish gray color. Mar/row. [Sax.] A soft, oleaginous sub- stance contained In the cavities of bones. Ma8-se/ter. [flr. /xacrtraoiLiat, massamnai, to chew.] The name of a muscle of the face. Has/ti-catb, Mab-ti-oa'tion. [L. ma.'J^'co.] To chew; tlie act of chewing. Mab/toid. [Or. jLiao-To?, mastoSy bronat, and , aid, to carry, and ^aya, phago, to eat.] The name of tlie passage through which the food passes from the mouth to the stomach. O-lec'ra-nox. [Gr. wAei/e, olene, the cubit, and Kpavov, krannn, the head.] The elbow; the head of the ulna. (Vle-xn. An oily substance which is fluid at ordinary temperatures. Ol-pact'o-ry. [L. oleo, to smell, and facio, to make.] Pertaining to smelling. O-men'tuu. [L.] The caul. O'ho. [Gr. tanoi, omos, the shoulder.] The name of musclos attached to the shoulder, Oph-thai/uio. [Gi o<^daAjxo;, ophthalmos, the eye.] Belonging to the eye. Op-fo'nens. That which acts in opposition to something. The name of two muscles of the hand. Of^ti-cos, Op'tic. [Gr. owrofjiai, optomai, to see.] Relating to the eye. 27 Ofi^Bic'u-LAB. [L. orbii, a circle.] Circular. Or/qak. A part of the system destined to exercise some particular function. Or/i-gin. Commencement; source. Os. [L.] A bone; the mouth of anything. Os'ma-zome. [Gr. oo-jxt;, osmi, smell, and ^01^09, zomog, broth.] A principle ob- tained from animal fibre which gives the peculiar taste to broth. Ob/se-ous. Pertaining to bones. Os'si-FY. [L. ossa, bones, and Jucio, to make.] To convert into bone. Os/te-ine. [Gr. otrrnov, osteon, a hone.] The albuminous ingredient of tlie bones. Os-TE-oi/o-GY. [Gr. ooreoi', osteon, a bone, and Aoyoff, logos, a discourse.] The part of anatomy which treats of bones. 0-va/m. [L.J The shape of an egg. OXrAj/ic. Pertaining to sorrel. Oxalic add is the acid of sorrel. It is composed of two equivalents of carbon and three of oxygen. Ox^Y-GEN. A permanently elastic fluid, in- visible and inodorous. One of the com- ponents of atmospheric air. Pa-la/tum. [L.J The palate; the roof of the mouth. PAL-FE-BRAfBDH. [Ii.palpe^ra, the eyelid.] Of the eyelids. Pai/uar. [h.palma, the palm.] Belong- ing to the hand. Fal-ma'ris. a term applied to some muscles attached to the palm of the hand. Pan'cre-as. [Gr. irav, pan, all, and Kpea^, kreas, flesh.] The name of one of the digestive organs. Pan-cre-a'tin. The albuminous ingredient of the pancreas. Pa-pii/la, -& [L.] Small conical promi- nences. Pa-rai/y-sis. Abolition of function, whether of intellect, sensation or motion. Pa-rbn/chy-ha. [Gr. Trapcyxew, parengcheo, to pour through.] The substance con tained between the blood-vessels of an organ. Pa-ri'e-tal. [L. paries, a wall.] A bone of the skull. Pa-rot/id. [Gr. irapa, para, near, and aiTO?, olos, the gen. of ovi, otu, ear, the ear.] The name of the largest salivary gland. Pa-tei/la, -X. [L.] The knee-pau. 314 GLOSSARY. Pa-thet'i-CUS, -CI. [Gr. ira0o9, pathos, passion.] The Dame of the fourth pair of nerves. Pec/io-bal. [L.] Pertaining to the cheat. Ps'dis. [L., gen. of pes, the foot.] Of the foot. Fkl/i-tonos. a term applied to masses of fat. Pei/li-cle. [L., dim. of peUuSf the skin.] A thin skin or film. pEiyviB, [Ii.] Tho basin formed by the large honea at the lower part of the ab- domen. PEH'Ni-roBM. [L. pennay a feather.] Hav- ing the form of a feather or quill. Pep'bin. [Gr. ircTTTw, pepto, to cook.] An ingredient of the gastric jnice, which acts aa a ferment in the digestion of the food. PER-i-OARfDi-iTif. [Gr. TTcpi, peH^ around, and KopfitOf Jeardictf the heart.] A mem- brane that encloses the heart. Per-i-chon/dri-um. [Gr. wept, peri, around, and xovSptKt chondros, cartilage.] A membrane that invests cartilage. Per-i-crVni-um. [Gr. irept, peri, around, and Kpaviov, hranion, the cranium.] A membrane that invests the sknll. Per-i-mts'i-um. [Gr. n-ept, peri, around, and jtivff, muSy a muscle.] The investing membrane of a muscle. pEBri-STAi/Tio. [Gr, n-epioTcAAu, pertsteZM, to involve.] A movement like the crawl- ing of a worm. PeEpI-to-ne'um. [Gr. irepi, peri, around, and T€W€w, teinein, to stretch.] A thin, serous membrane investing the internal surface of the abdomen. Per/ma-itbnt. Durable; lasting. Per-spi-ra/tion. [L. jwr, through, and ^ro, to breathe.] The excretion from the skin. Phai/anx, -GE8. [Gr. ^aXavf , phalanx, nn army.] Three rows of small bones form- ing th( fingers or toes. Pha-lan'oi-al. Belonging to the fingers or toes. pEiA-RTN'aE-AL. Relating to the pharynx. Poar/ynx. [Gr. ^apuyf, pharutix.'] The upper part of the oesophagus. Pnos/PHOR-U8. [Gr. ifnat, phds, tho light, and ^flpu, pherS, to bear.] A combustible enliNtanoo, of a yellowish color, seml- trunHparent, resembling wax. Phres'ic. [Gr. 4>priVy phrin, the mind ) Belonging to the diaphragm. Phtb-i-oi/o-gy. [Gr. iftvtrK., phusis, nature, and Xoyoff, logos, a disconrBe.] The science of the functions of the organs of animals and plante. Pi^A Ma^tee. [L., good mother.] The name of one of the membranes of the brain. • PiG-HreN'TUM Ni'aEUM. [L.] Black paint ; a preparation of colors. Pin/na. [L., a vring.] A part cf the ex- ternal ear. Pla-tts/ma. [Gr. irXarur, plaifUf broad.] A muscle of the neck. Pletj'ra, -m. [Gr. irXevpo, plmra, the side.] A thin membrane that covers the inside of the thorax, and also forms the exterior coat of the lungs. Pleu/ral. Relating to the pleura. Plex/d8. [L. pledo, to weave together.] Any union of nerves, vessels or fibres, in the form of network. Pneu-mo-gas/trio. [Gr. Ttv^fLav, pneumon, the lungs, and ytumfp, gcutir, the stom- ach.] Belonging to both the stomach and Inngs. PNEU-M0-N0l/0H3T. [Gr. WVeVflOJV, pneUT?iOT>, the lungs, and Xoyo?, logoSy a discourse.] A description of the Inngs. Poi/li-cis. [L.] a term applied to muscles attached to the fingers and toes. Pons. [L.] A bridge. iVw varolii, a part of the brain formed by the union of the crura cerebri and cerebelli. Pop-ltt-e'al. [L, ptipUs, the ham.] Per- taining to the ham or knee-joint. A name given to varions parts. Pos'ti-cus. [L.] Behind; posterior. A term applied to certain muscles. PoB/*i-o Du^. [L., hard portion.] The focial nerve; sorenth pair. PoR/ti-0 MoiAis. [L., soft portion.] The auditory nerve ; seventh pair. Po-TAs'si-UM. [L.j The metallic basis of pure potash. PRO-Dos'cis. [Gr. irpo, pro, before, and ^o tnble and Animal Kingdoms, 11. between Organized and Unorganized Bodies, 12. between Animals and Plants, 12. Dkixks, 127. Drowned PF.nsoN8, Treatment of, 205. Em, Bones of, 273. External, 274. Middle, 272. Internal, 270. Physiology of, 286 ElASTIS, 33. ENSOOARDIUBi, 157. EpiDPRMiS, 274. Epiglottis, 184. Epithelium, 25. KUST.'VCHIAN TVDG, 273L ElCRETIOIT, 179. Eie, 264, 282. Protecting Oi-gawa of, 268. Face, Eones of, 33. Pascia, 74. FA5GICtIl.I, 79b Fats, 33. Fenestra, 27Z Fibre, 22. Fibrin, 31. vibr0.cart1lage, 20. Food, Quantity of, 123. QnaHty of, 125. Manner of taking, 127. Conditions when talcing, 12Sk Frosi-Biie, Treatment of, 29S. Ganglia, 21(K GaNQUONIO C(>B-FU8C].Er 24. Gastuic Juice, 117. Gelatin, 32. Glands, Lachrymal, 269. lymphatic, 140-142. Oil, 279, 287. Perspiratory, 279, 28T. Salivary, 10". Qloddlin, S2. Glucose, 83. Gltcerine, 33. n^BIATIN, 82. II Ain-F'iLi.iOLEa, 278. Heart, '.50. Anricles of, 160, 167. Ventricles of, 160, 158. IIeasiso, Sense of, 270. Il£HORRHASx, Means of Arresting, ISO. Htdroqen, 34. I.fOSIT, 33. Intestines, 108-114, Intestinal Juice, 110. Iris, 265. Joints, 47. Physiology of, 69. Krbatin, 33. KiDNETS, 180. Labyrinth, 270. Lachrymal Apparatus. 2fi8. Lacteals, 137. Lactin, 33. Lacuna, 50, 59. Lartni, 183-186, 196. Liqament, 41, 54. LlOHT, 297. Liver, 109-114. LUNOB, 186, 187. Lymph, 137-143. Ltuphatics, 140, 144. Mabsarin, 33. Meatus Auditorius, 274. Medulla, 52. Oblongata, 212. Spinalis, 40. Membrane, Basement, 25. Cerebro-Spinal System, 238. Oastro-Pulraonary, 28. Mucons, 28. Serons, 27. SynOTial, 27, 63. Urinary, 28. Mebentert, 116. MoLLUSCA, Definition of, 67. Mouth, Stmctnre of, 103, lift Mucus, 116. Muscles, Anatomy of, 7S. Histology of, 79. Chemistry of, 81. Physiology of, 83. Hygiene of, 89. Intercostal, 193. Striated, 80. Non-Striated. 8a Volnntary, 88. Mucin, 32 INDEX. 321 MuBocuir, SI. Myocomma, 101. Mtoleuma, so. Mtoloot, Comparative, 68. NULS, 280, 288. Nasai, Ddct, 269. Neurin, 33. Nerve-Cells, 225. " CENTREa, 210, 230. Serves, 81, 210. Cranial, 219. Cutaneous, 277. Spinal, 223. Sympatlietic, 224. NERTors Ststem, Anatomy of, 210. Histology of, 225. Physiology of, 229. Hygiene of, 240. Nedrologt, Comparative, 252. NlTROGIH, 31. Nucleated Cell, 14. Nurse, Duty of, 199. NuTRiTiTE Apparatus, 103. (esopeagub, 107, 112. Oil-Glaitds, 279. Oleix, 33. Oftici Tealahi, 215. OROAmzEB Bodies, 12. Osteology, Comparative, 67. OxYOEW, 34, 199. PAPILLiB, 262-276. Palate, 110. Pakceeas, 109-112. Pancreatic Juice, 119. Pancreatiit, 32. Paeotid Olahs, 107. Patella, 46. Peduncles, of the Brtdn, 215. Pelvis, 42. Pepsin, 32. Peptones, 32. Pericardium, 150, 165. Perichondrium, 186. Perimysium, 80. Periosteum, 52, 60. Peritoneum, 116. Perspiration, Uses of, 287. Pharynx, 107. Pleura, 185, 188. Pneuhonologt, Comparative, 205. Poisons, and their Antidotes, 303. Portal Vein, 141. Protoplasm, 14. Proximate Constituents, Orgjinic. 30. Inorganic, 30. Pyramids of the Brain, 213. Badiata, Definition of, 67. Eebpihatort Organs, Anatomy of, 183. Histology of, 186. Chemistry of, IBS. Physiology of, 190. Hygiene o^ 197. Retina, 266. Rooms, Yeutilation oi^ 198. Warming of, 201, Sacrum, 43. Saliva, 117. Saiavin, 32. Scapula, 43. Secretion, 178. Semicircular Canals, 271. Sice Room, 300. Skeleton, 36. Skin, 274. Sleep, 245. Sleeping Room, 199. Sound, 285. Smell, Sense of, 262. Spinal Cord, 212, ■■* Column, 89. Splanchnology, Comparative, 131, Spleen, 109, 115. Starch, 34. Stearin, 33. Stomach, 107, 112. SVEAT Qlandb, 279. Synovia, 69. Tarsus, 47. Taste, Sense of, 280. Teeth, 105, 111, 122. Tendons, 81, 85. Thoracic Duct, 140. Thorax, 38. Tissues, Adipose, 21. Areolar, 18, Cartilaginous, 19. Connective, 17., Fibrous, 19. Muscular, 22. Nervous, 23. Sclerous, 21, Tubular, 22. 322 INDEX. TOKSUE, 110, 261. Touch, Sense of, 274. Trachea, 184, 187. TlUPAHDM, 272. CLnuATB Chemical Eleuekts, 34 Clnar, 43. UllINIFEROUB TUDULES, 181. Ufea, 265. Vai tes of the Heart, 1£8 of the TelDB, 159. VCNB, 151, 159. Teins, Portal, 165. PulmoDary, 155. Ventilation, 201. Tentricies, of the Heart, 150. of the iirain, 216. Vertebra, 39. Verteerata, DefinitioD of, 91. Vestibule, 270. VttLi, 122. Vocal Cords, 186. ** Orsanb, 183. Watcher, Dnty of; 302. THE END. KEY TO OUTTEE'S NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS HUMAN AND COIPABATIVE ANATOMICAL PLATES. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. Iir using these charts, we wonld saggest that the pupil carefully examine the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text in connection with the lesson to be recited. The similarity between these and the charts will enable the pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct his recitation from the latter. Let a pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical out- line chart, and also give its structure, while other members of the class note all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give the use of that organ, and, if necessary, others may give an extended explanation. The third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends, while other members of the class may supply what has been omitted. After thus presenting the subject in the form of topics, questions may be proposed pro- miscuously from each paragraph, and where examples occur in the text let other analogous ones be given. If the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied, confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared. When practicable, the three departments should be united ; but this can only be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned, while the physi- ology can be united with the anatomy in all chapters upon physiology. CHART No. 1. OSSEOUS SYSTEM— HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. A. Bones of the Human Body. — 1, The frontal bone. 2, The superior max» illary (upper jaw-bone). 3, The inferior maxillary (lower jaw-bone). 4, The cervical vertebriB (bones of the neck). 5, 6, The lumbar vertebrsB (bones of the loins). 7, The sacrum. 8, The temporal bone. 9, Tho scapula (shoulder-blade). 10, 10, 10, The ribs. 11, 11, The innominata (hip-bones). 12, The humerus (arm-bone). 13, The radius. U, The ulna. 15, The car- pus (wrist-bones). 16, 16, The metacarpus (bones of the palm of the hand). 17, 17, The phalanges (finger-bones). 18, The femur (thigh-bone). 19, The ii KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAIi CHAETS. patella (knee-pan). 20, The tibia. 21, The fibula. 22, The tarsus (bones of the instep). 23, 23, The metatarsus (bones of the middle of the foot). 24, 24, The phalanges (toe-bones). 25, Ligaments of the shoulder. 26, Ligaments of the elbow. 27, Ligaments of the wrist. 28, Ligaments of the hip-joint. 29, Ligaments of the knee. 30, Interosseous membrane. 31, Ligaments of the ankle. 32, The clariole (collar-bone). 33, The sternum (breast-bone). B. Bonee of the Cow. — 1, The frontal bone. 2, The upper jaw (superior maxillary). 3, The lower jaw (inferior maxillary). 4, The cervical rertebra* (bones of the neck). S, The dorsal vertebrsa (bones of the back), 6, 7, The lumbar vertebrse. 8, The caudal vertebrae. 9, The scapula. 10, 10, The ribs. 11, The innominate bones. 12, The humerus. 13, 14, The radius and ulna. 15, The carpus. 16, The metacarpus. 17, The phalanges. 18, The femur. 20, The tibia. 22, The tarsus. 23, The metatarsus. 24, The phalanges. C. Bones of the Bird, — 1, The cranium. 2, The superior mandible (upper jaw). 3, The interior mandible (lower jaw). 4, The cervical vertebrae. 6, The dorsal vertebrse. 8, The coccyx. 9, The scapula. 10, The ribs. 11, The pelvis. 12, The humerus. 13, 14, The radius and ulna. 15, The car- pus. 16, The metacarpus. 17, 17, Phalanges, 18, The femur. 20, The tibia. 21, The fibula. 22, 23, The metatarsus. 24, Phalanges. 32, The coracoid bone. 33, The clavicle (furcula). 34, The sternum. I). Bonee of the Tortoise. — 1, The head. 4, The cervical vertebrae. 5, 5, 6, 6, The dorsal vertebrae and lateral plates. 7, The iliac bones. 8, The 'caudal vertebrae. 9, The scapula. 12, The humerus. 13, 14, The radius and ulna. 15, The carpus. 16, 17, Phalanges. 18, The femur. 20, The tibia. 21, The fibula, 22, The tarsus. 23, 24, Phalanges. 32, The clavicle. 33, The coracoid bone, B. Bones of the Fish. — 1, The bones of the head. 2, The upper jaw. 3, The lower jaw. 4, 5, 6, The dorsal and caudal vertebrae. 8, The first dorsal fin. 9, The second dorsal fin. 10, One of the ventral fins. 12, A pectoral fin. 18, A ventral fin. F, Diagram of an Annuloae. — 1, The vascular (blood-vessel) system. 2, The digestive system. 3, 3, The ganglia (nervous) system. 4, 4, A series of tings of hardened skin which forms an external skeleton. G. Diagram of a Mollusk. — 1, The digestive canal. 2, The heart. 3, 4, S, Ganglia (knots of nervous matter). H. Diagram of a Radiate. — (A star-fish), 1, Central aperture. CHART No. 2. MVSOULAB SYSTEM— HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. A. Muscles of Human Body. — 1, The oooipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis palpebrarum. 3, The levator labii superioris. 4, The zygomatious. 5, The massetor, 6, The orbicularis oris. 7, The temporal, 8, Zygomatioi, 9, The depressor labii inferioris. 10, The deltoid, 11, 11, The pectoralis major, 13, The supinator longus, 14, Palmaris longus. 15, The flexor carpi KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS. UJ radialis. 16, The obliqnus externus. 17, The sartorius. 18, The adductor longas. 19, The rectus femoris. 20, The vastus externus. 21, The vastus internus. 22, The tendon of the quadriceps extensor. 23, The gastrocnemius 24, The extensor longas digitorium. 25, The tibialis anticus. 26, The short extensor muscles of the toes. 27, The tendons of the long extensors. 28, The serratus maguus. 29, 29, The external abdominal rings. 30, The saphenous opening. 31, 31, 31, 31, The tendons of the wrist and fingers. 32, The Btemo-hyoidens. 33, The stemo-cleido-mastoideus. 34, The biceps. 33, The triceps muscle. B. Muaclet of t^e Cow. — 1, The occipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis pal pebrarum. 3, The masseter. 4, The levator labii inferioris. 5, The platjsma 1, The trapezius. 10, The latissimus dorsi. 11, The pectoralis. 16, 17, The external and internal oblique muscle. 18, The opening for the mammary artery and vein (milk-veins). 19, The biceps femoris. 20, 20, 20, The glutei! muscles. 33, The masto-hnmeralis. C. Mu8cle» of the Bird. — 1, The occipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis pal- pebrarum. 5, The masseter. 7, The temporal. 10, The deltoid. 11, The pectoralis. 13, The sacro-lumbalis. 14, The extensor carpi ninaris. 19, The vastus externus. 20, The gluteii. 23, The flexor longus digitorium. 24, The extensor longus digitorium. 33, The longus colli. 34, The extensor plicae alaris. 35, The teres major. D. Muaclet of the TortoUe. — 1, The digastricus. 10, 10, The deltoides. 14, The palmaris. 18, The semi-membranosus. 23, The tibialis anticus. 24. The gastrocnemius. 28, The sub-coracoideus. 31, 32, The flexores digito- rium. 34, 35, The triceps brachii. £. Muscles of the Fish. — 1, 2, 3, and a, b, c, represent the zigzag arrange- ment of the muscles of the fish (myocomma). F. Diagram of an Insect. — 1, The head. 2, The first segment of the chest, with the first pair of legs. 3, The second segment, with the second pair of legs and the first pair of wings. 4, The third segment, with the third pair of legs and second pair of wings. 5, The abdomen without legs. CHAET No. 3. NUTRITIVE SYSTEM— HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. A. The Internal Organs of Man. — 1, The parotid gland. 2, The submax- illary gland. 3, The sublingual gland. 4, The oesophagus. 5, The larynx and trachea. 6, The left lung. 7, The right lung. 8, The heart. 9, The vena cava descendens. 10, The aorta. 11, The pulmonary artery. 12, The stomach. 13, 14, The left and right lobe of the liver. 15, 15, 15, The large intestine. 16, 16, 16, 16, The small intestine. 17, The diaphragm. 18, The gall-bladder. B. Into-nal Organs of a Goat. — 1, The second stomach (reticulum). 2, The third stomach. 3, The fourth stomach (rennet). 4, Fold of the mesentery. 6, The jejunum. 6, The ileum. 7, The csscum. 8, The colon. 9, The right kidney. 10, The rectum. 11, 12, Lobes of the liver (turned forward). 13, The gall-cyst. 14, Inferior part of abdomen. 15, The omentum. IV KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHAET8 C. Organs of a winged Beptile, — 1, The ventricle of the heart. 2, 3, The auricles of the heart. 4, 5, 6, Blood-vessels. 7, The trachea. 9, 10, 11, The liver and its appendages. 12, The stomach. 13, The duodenum. 14, 15, 16, The intestines. 17, The cloaca. 18, The caeca. D. Diagram of the Organs of a Frog. — 1, The heart. 2, 2, Arches of the aorta. 3, 3, Pulmonary artery. 4, 4, The pulmonary veins. 6, The stomach. 6, The digestive canal. CHAET No. 4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM— BUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. A. Digestive Organs of Man. — 1, The upper jaw. 2, The lower jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The hard palate (roof of the mouth). 5, The parotid gland. 6, The sublingual gland. 7, The larynx. 8, 9, The oesophagus. 10, The stomach. 11, 11, The liver. 12, The gall-bladder. 13, Its duct. 14, The duodenum. 15, The pancreas. 16, The spleen. 17, 17, 17, 17, The small intestine. IS, The caecum. 19, The appendix vermiformis. 20, 20, The as- cending colon. 21, The transverse colon. 22, 22, The descending colon. 23, The sigmoid flexure of the colon. 24, The rectum. B. Digestive Organs of a Fowl. — 9, The oesophagus. 8, The crop (inglu- vies). ',, Ihe second stomach (proventriculus). 10, The gizzard. 11, 11, The liver. 12, The gall-bladder. 13, The bile duets. 14, 14, 14, 14, The duode- num. 15, The pancreas. 16, The caeca (pouches). 17, The large intestine. 24, The cloaca. 25, The trachea. C. Digestive Organs of an Ox. — 1, The oesophagus. 2, 2, The rumen (paunch). 3, The second stomach (reticulum). 4, The omasum (maniplies). 5, The fourth stomach or abomasum (rennet). 6, The duodenum (intestine). D. Digestive Organs of an Insect. — 8, The crop. 9, The gullet. 10, The gizzard. 14, 14, The chylific (digestive) stomach. 16, 16, Biliary vessels. 17, The intestine. 18, The renal vessels. 24, The cloaca. E. Digestive Organs of the Sword-Fish. — 11, 11, The liver. 13, The bile duct. 16, 16, The csecas (pouches). 17, 17, 17, The intestine. 24, The largo intestine. F Digestive Organs of the Herring. — 1, 1, The air-bladder. 2, The air- due: (pneumatic). 9, The oesophagus. 10, The stomach. 16, The cseca. 17, 17, 17, The intestine. CHART No. 5. ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM— HUMAN AND COMPARAJIVE. A. Ahsorhent Vessels in Man. — 1, 2, S, 4, Lymphatic vessels and glands of the lower extremities. 6, 6, Inguinal lymphatics and glands. 8, Lymphatic vessels of the kidney. 12, The thoracic duet. 10, 10, 10, The intercostal lymphatics. 11, The roceptaculum chyli. 13, Lymphatics of the neck. 14, 14, Carotid arteries. 15, Axillary glands. 16, 17, 18, Lymphatics of the arm and hand. 19, Lymphatics of the face. 20, The right subclavian vein. 21, The junction of the thoraoio duct with the loft subclavian vein. KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHARTS. V B. Section of the layers of the Skin. — 1, The dermis. 2, 3, The epider- mis. 4, The rete mucosnm. 5, Subcutaneous connective and adipose tissue. 6, Tactile papillae. 7, Sweat or perspiratory glands. 8, The duct of the streat glands. 9, Spiral passages of the ducts through the epidermis. 10, 10, The termination of the ducts on the surface of the epidermis. C. Section of the Papillm and Glands of the Skin. — 1, 1, 1, 1, Ridges of the cuticle (cut vertical). 2, 2, 2, Furrows or wrinkles of the cuticle. 3, The epidermis. 4, The rete mueoaum. 5, The dermis. 6, 6, 6, The papillae. 7, 7, Small furrows between the papillae. 8, 8, 8, 8, Deeper furrows between each couple of the papillae. 9, Fat cells. 10, 10, 10, The adipose layer, with numerous fat vesicles. 11, 11, Cellular fibres of the adipose tissue. 12, Two hairs. 13, Sweat or perspiratory gland, with its spiral duct. 14, A snior- iferous gland with a duct less spiral. 15, 15, Oil-glands, with ducts opening into the sheath of the hair. CHART No. 6. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM— HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. A. Respiratory Organs of Man. — 1, The larynx. 2, The trachea. 3, The right bronchia. 4, The left bronchia. 5, 6, 7, Lobes of the right lung. 8, 9, Subdivisions of the bronchi or bronchial tubes. 10, 10, 10, 10, Air cells. 11, 11, The diaphragm. B. Diagram of the Bloodvessels in Man. — 1, The vena cava descendens. 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right ventricle of the heart. 4, The left ventricle. 5, 6, The aorta. 7, The pulmonary artery. 8, 9, Divisions of the pulmonary artery. 11, Pulmonary vein. C. Section of a Quadruped. — 1, The oesophagus. ■ 2, The trachea. 5, 6, The lungs. 7, The heart. 8, The stomach. 9, The liver. 10, 10, Intestines. 11, II, The diaphragm. 12, 13, The kidney and duct. 14, The brain. 15, 15, 15, The spinal cord. 16, 16, 16, The vertebrae. D. Section of a Lobule of a Bird's Lung. — 2, A bronchial tube. 3, 4, Divis- ions of a bronchus that end in sacs. 8, 8, 9, 9, Abdominal air-sacs. E. Lung of a Goose. — 2, A bronchus. 3, 4, The bronchial tubes laid open. 10, 10, Apertures of communication with air-cells. 11, 11, Abdominal bron- chial orifices. G. Respiratory Organs of the Water-scorpion. — 1, The head. 2, The base of the first pair of feet. 3, The first ring of the thorax. 4, The base of wings. 5, Base of the second pair of feet. 6, 6, 6, 6, Stigmata (opening at the edge of each joint). 7, 7, 7, 7, Tracheae (air-tubes). 8, 8, Air-sacs. F. Diagram of the Bronchial Leaflets of the Cod. — 1, A section of a bron- chial arch. 2, 3, Bronchial leaflets or plates. J. Diagram ^ the Circulation of the Blood through the BronchiaX Leaflets. — 1, A section of a bronchial arch, 2, A section of a bronchial artery. 3, 3, An arterial branch along the outer margin of the processes, giving off capil- lary vessels to the leaflets. 4, A vein that receives the blood from the capil- laries of the inner margin of the process. 5, Bronchial vein. VI KEY TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGHCAL CUAET8. H. A Plexus of OapxUarrf Yeaaele. K. Diagram of the Relative Positions of the Blood-vessels to the Air-cells. — 1, A bronchial tube communicatiag with the air-oelle, 2, 2, 2. 3, A branch of the pulmonary artery containing bluish blood. 4, A branch of a pulmon- ary vein containing scarlet or purified blood. CHART No. 7. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM— HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. A. Circulation in Man. — 3, The right ventricle, i, The right auricle. 5, Arch of aorta. 6, Left pulmonary artery. 7, The vena cava descendene. 8, The vena cava ascendens. 9, The descending aorta. 10, The right femoral artery. 11, The left femoral vein. 12, The subclavian artery. 13, The sub- clavian vein. 14, The jugular vein. 15, The basilic vein. 16, The cephalio vein. 17, The kidney. 18, The brachial artery. 19, The ulnar artery. 20, The radial artery. 21, The anterior tibial artery. 22, The posterior tibiaJ artery. B. Diagram of the Circulation in Reptiles. — 1, Ventricle. 2, 3, Left auri- cle. 4, Right auricle. The arrows show the direction of the blood. C. Diagram of the Circulation in the Fish. — 1, The pericardium. 2, The auricle that receives blood from the body. 3, The ventricle that sends blood to the gills. B. Diagram of the Heart of Mammals. — 1, The vena cava descendens. 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right auricle. 4, The opening between the right auricle and right ventricle. 5, The right ventricle. 6, The tricuspid valve. 7, The pulmonary artery. S, 8, Its branches. 9, The semi-lunar valves of pulmonary artery. 10, The septum between the two ventricles of the heart. 11, 11, The pulmonary veins. 12, The left auricle. 13, The opening between the left auricle and the left ventricle. 14, The left ven- tricle. 15, The mitral valve. 16, The aorta. 17, The semi-lunar valves of the aorta. E. The Heart and Arteries of a Snail, — 2, The stomaoh. 3, 3, The inteit- tine. 6, The heart. 6, The aorta. 7, The pulmonary artery. CHART No. 8. NERVOUS SYSTEM— HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. A. Section of the Human Brain and Spinal Column. — 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, The medulla oblongata, 4, 4, The medulla spinalis (spinal cord) in the canal formed by the vertebrte of the spinal column. B. Back view of the Brain and Nerves in Man. — 1, The cerebrum. 2,^The cerebellum. 8, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5, Brachial plezus of nerves, 6, Internal cutaneous, 7, Ulnar, 8, Musculo-spiral, 9, Circum- flex. 10, Intercostal. 11, Lumbar plexus. 12, Sacral plexus. 13, Posterior tibial. 14, Anterior tibial, 15, Popliteal, 16, Sciatic, 17, Coccygeal, 0. The Sympathetic Nerves. — 1, The renal plexus of nerves. 2, 3, 4, Lum- bar ganglion. 5, Aortic plexus. 6, Solar plexus. 7, Dorsal ganglia. 8, 9, KEV TO NEW OUTLINE ZOOLOGICAL CHAETS. vii Cardiao nerves. 10, Inferior cervical ganglia. 11, Brachial plexus. 12, Superior cervical ganglia. D. Bate of the Brain of a Horae. — 1, The cerebrum. 2, The optic ganglion. 3, The cerebellum, i. The medulla oblongata and spinal eord. B. Brain of an Alligator. — 1, The olfactory ganglion. 2, The cerebrum. 3, The optio ganglion. 4, The cerebellum. 5, The medulla oblongata and spinal cord. F. Brain of a Bird. — 1, The cerebrum. 2, The optio ganglion. 3, The oerebellnm. 4, The medulla oblongata. G. Brain of a Fish. — 1, The olfactory ganglion. 2, The cerebrum. 3, The optio ganglion. 4, The cerebellum. 5, The medulla oblongata and spinal cord. H. Nervous System of the Beetle. — 1, 1, 2, 2, Nervous ganglions and cords. I. Biagram of the Nervous System of the Centipede. — ], Nervous ganglia. J. Diagram of the Nervous System of the Star-Fish. CHAET No. 9. SPECIAL SENSE— HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. A. The Nervous System of Man. — The convolutions of the large brain (cere- brum). 2, The lesser brain (cerebellum). 3, The cervical nerves. 4, The dorsal nerves. 5, The lumbar nerves. 6, The sciatic. 7, The peroneal nerve, 8, The posterior tibial nerve. 9, Median nerve. B. Section of the Globe of the Eye. — 1, The choroid coat of the eye. 2, The sclerotic coat. 3, The retina. 4, The cornea. 5, 5, The iris. 6, The pupil. 8, 9, The chambers of the eye that contain the aqueous humor. 10, The crys- talline lens. 11, 11, The vitreous humor. 12, Arteria centralis retinae. 13. The optic nerve. C. Distribution of the Trifacial (fifth pair) Nerve. — ], The trifacial nerve 2, A branch that passes to the eye (ophthalmic). 3, A branch distributed tr the teeth of the upper jaw (superior maxillary). 4, The branch that passes to the tongue (5) and teeth of the lower jair (the inferior maxillary). 6, The gustatory branch. 7, Inferior dental nerve. D. Distribution of the Olfactory Nerve. — 1, The olfactory (or nerve of smell). 2, 2, The fine divisions of this nerve on the membrane of the ncse. 3, A branch of the fifth pair (trifacial) nerve. E. Front view of the Organ of Searing. — 1, The auditory canal. 2, The drum of the ear (membrana tympani). The chain of bones in the ear (3, The malleus. 4, The incus, and, 5, The stapes). 6, The cavity of the tym- panum. 7, The vestibule. 8, 9, 10, The semi-circular canals. 11, 11, 12, Channels of the cochlea. 13, Cavity in the mastoid portion of temporal bone. 14, The opening from the middle ear to the throat (Eustachian tube). F. Compound Eye of the Bee. — Its division into facets (highly mag- nified). F. Facets stiU more highly magnified. f . Facets with hairs growing between them. Questions, Diagrams and Illustrations FOR ANALYTICAL STUDY AND EECITATION, ALSO FOE TJNU'IC AND SYNTHETIC REVIEW OF CUTTER'S ANALYTIC ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE HUMAN AND COMPAEATIVE. Peofitablb reading and study require the same analysis and method as clear and efficient teaching. Unification of ideas and principles is also aided by varied and frequent reviews. To aid pupil and teacher, the following Questions, Diagrams and lUmtrations have been prepared. The Questions in the larger type are to be used in the analytic study and recitation of para- graphs; those in the smaller type, to aid pupil and teacher to secure unifia investigation and review of parts more or less anahgous in structure, function or hygiene; while the diagrams and illustrations are to be used in synthetical examination and review of the sections, chapters and divisions. I would also suggest the use of the blackboard in drawing outline figures and diagrams, and in writing the topics to be reviewed. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by CALVIN CUTTER, M.D., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. DIVISION I.— OUTLINE PRINCIPLES. ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. CHAPTER I.— General Remarks. ? 1, The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared. 1. State the Linnsean distinctions of the three kingdoms of Nature. Name the three kingdoms, and define each. 2. Of what are Organic and Inorganic bodies combinations? What is said respecting Life-force? 3. Give the distinguishing features of Organized and Unorganized matter. 4. State the distinctions between animals and plants. 5. What is said of these distinctions in the lower forms of life? I 2. Definition of Terms. 6. Define Organ, Apparatus and Function. What is Anatomy? Physiology ? Hygiene ? 7. Of what are organs composed? Define Histology and Chemistry. CHAPTER II.— General Histology. ?3. Cells. 8. Where do you find Unity of Plan ? 9. Define Protoplasm. What is Animal Protoplasm? 10. What is said of nucleated cells? Of the modifications of these cells? 11. Distinguish between animal and vegetable cells. 12. Of what is the simple cell the type? 13. Of what does a simple cell consist? Give an illustration. 14 To what modifications are cells subject? 15. What is the shape of the cells? 16. In what ways do cells multiply? 17. What is said of the growth and decay of cells? ? 4. Primary Tissues. 18. How are the different tissues of the body formed 7 Upon what do their characters depend ? 19. To what are the Primary Tissues reducible? QtJESTIOXS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 20. State the object and character of the Connective Tissues. 21 . Of what is the Fibrous form composed ? State its nature and forms. 22. Give the composition and forms of the White Fibrous tissue. What is Gelatin? 23 Describe the Yellow Fibrous tissue. Why called Elastic? Dops it gelatinize ? Where found? When found together, whal proportion of White to Yellow Fibrous tissue? Observation. 24. Of what does the Areolar form consist? What is said of its cellular structure? What of its individuality? Observation. 25. Describe the Cartilaginous tissue. Mention the properties of Cartilage. Where is this tissue found? What is the re- lation of cartilage to bone ? 26. Under what condition is Fibro-cartilage formed ? State quality and adaptation. 27. What peculiarity has the Adipose tissue ? Of what composed 't Where found ? Its use ? 28. Where is the Sclerous tissue found? What is said of its composition ? 29. Give the composition of Muscular tissue. Name its kinds, and describe each. What is its characteristic? What of its electrical nature ? 30. Describe the Tubular tissue. What is the office of the capil- lary vessels? Of what are their walls composed? Where is this tissue found ? 31. How is the Nervous tissue distinguished? Where found? In what respect like the Muscular tissue? Mention its ele- ments. 32. Describe the Ganglionic Corpuscles. 33. What is said of the Gray fibres ? Where found ? 34. Speak of the White fibres. 35. Where are the gray and white substances found? ^ 5. Membranes. 30. What is the Basement membrane? What is the Epithelium 1 Why so called ? 37. Name and describe the varieties of the Epithelium. Of what power the Cilia? Where is the Ciliated Epithelium found ? 38 What is beneath the basement membrane? What are consti- tuted by the epithelium, basement membrane, and fibro- areolar tissue? 39. Where is the Serous membrane found? Its qualities ? l» 6 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 40. What is said of the Synovial membrane ? Observation. 41. Describe the Mucous membranes. 42. Where is the Gastro-Pulmonary Mucous membrane found? 43. Where the Urinary? 44. What is continuous with the Mucous membrane ? Observation CHAPTEE III.— General Chemistry. § 6. Solids and Fluids. 45. Of what is the human body composed ? What is said of the proportion of solids and fluids ? 46. What are Proximate Constituents? Define Organic and In- organic Proximate Constituents. 47. Name the Inorganic Proximate Constituents. 48. Give the classes of Organic Proximate Constituents. 49. What are contained in the Nitrogenous class? Name the most important. 50. What is the office of Albumen in the animal economy? Give the derivation of its name. Where found? What pecu- liarity has it? 51. Describe Albuminose. 52. What is Fibrin ? Where found ? What is the influence of alcohol upon it? 53. Describe Musculin. How hardened? 54. Where is Globulin and Haematin found ? 55. Give the properties of Casein. Where does it exist? 56. Define Cartilagin. What is Osteine? Chondrigen? 57. Define and give the property of Salivin. 58. Describe Pepsin, and state its property. 59. What is Pancreatin ? State its actions. 60. Describe Mucin. 61. WhatisNeurin? 62. Define Keratin. 63. To what is Elastin peculiar? 64. Where is Melanin found ? 65. Of what use Biliverdin? Color? 66. Name the acids of the nitrogenous class. 67. Mention the non-nitrogenous groups. 68. Of what are the fats composed? From what derived? What is Glycerine? 69. Mention the different kinds of sugars. Where are starch granules found 7 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. t 70. Name the ultimate chemical elements, with their percentagi proportions. 71. In what condition are oxygen and hydrogen ? 72. What is said of carbon? What becomes of the chemica] elements in decomposition ? UNIFIC EEVIEW. [Compare 9 with 119.] What is the relation of Protoplasm to ossification ? [Compare 11-17 with 119, 120, 152, 173, IM, 237, 240, 306, 335, 339, 340, 378, 389, 458, 464, 465, 547 and 55.3-556.] Where do you find nucleated cells? Have they any influence on the plan of structure 7 What relation does the cellular tissue bear to the muscu- lar ? In the lining of what organs do you find epithelial cells ? In the lining membranes of what organs do you find ciliated epithelium ? [Compare 20-26 with 123-126, 177, 306, 334-340, 387, 388, 463 and 464.] Name the connective tissues. Mention some distinguishing features of each. Where do you find the white fibrous tissues ? Where the yellow fibrous? Where is cartilage found? [Compare 28 with 120-122.] What tissue is found in the bones ? [Compare 29 with 173-176, 240-243, 306 and 337-340.] What is the structure of muscular tissue ? Where found ? [Compare 30, 341 with 459-462.] In what blood-vessels do you find the tubular tissue ? In what system 7 [Compare 31-35 with 457-462.] Tell what you can about the nervous tissue. [Compare 36-38 with 237, 238, 240-243, 246, 335, 339, 340, 376-379, 388, 389, 463 and 464.] Name the parts of the body where you find the Basement membrane. [Compare 39 with 244, 246, 334, 390 and 463.] Where is the Serous membrane found ? [Compare 40 with 125 and 177.] What is the office of the Synovial membrane? [Compare 41-44 with 237, 238, 240-243, 386-389, 547 and 548.J Name the Mucous membranes. The mucous membrane lines what organs? Point out the difference between mucous and serous membranes. With what is the mucous membrane continuous ? 8 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AITD ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 191. Fia. 191 {Lfidy), Diagram exbibitinq the Relative Position of the Common Ana lOMiCAL Elements op Serous and Mdcous Membranes, the Glands, the Ldno3 and THE Skin. — 1, Epithelium, Becreting cells or epidermia, composed of nucleated cells, and occupying the free surface of the structure mentioned. 2, Basement layer, represented much thicker than natural, in comparison with the other layers. 3, Fibrous layer, in which the arteries and veins (4, 4) terminate in a capillary network. Magnified. Fig. 192. Fio. 193- Fio. 192 (Leidy). Cartilage. — Section through the thickness of the oval cartilt^ of the nose. 1, Toward the exterior. 2, Toward the interior surface ; highly magnified. It exhibits groups of cartilage cells imbedded in a homogeneous matrice. Fig. 193 {Leidy). Process of Multiplication, or Cartilage Cells. — 1, Simple cartilage cell from the embryo. 2, lucrcaao of cartilage colls by division of the primary coll. 3, 4 Groups of cartilage cells, from an adult articular cartilagB. Magnified. Fio. 194. Fig. 194 (Leidy). An Idbal Cell.— 1, Coll with its wall, protoplasm, nucleus and its nucleolus. 2, The sumo divided into two. S, The same divided into four colls. 4, The same divided Into many cells. The dark portion, the protoplasm; the white spot, the nucleus ; the toner emull circle, the nucleolus. Maguiflud. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILIiUSTRATIONS. SYNTHETIC REVIEW. Essential diBtinctions between mine- ral, vegetable and animal king- doms. !'• Natare of life-foice, Vitalized and non-vitalized bodies compared, ^ Three Kingdoms compared* Chap. I. Animalsand plants compared. General Thefie distinctions in higher and Remarks. lower forms. Organ, apparatus and functions. ?2. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Structure of organs, qflbrms. Histology and Chemistry, Unity of plan in animals and plants, ' Protoplasm, Nucleated cell, Simple cell, ?3- Adaptation to different offices. cats. Life and shape of cells. Modes of multiplication of cells. Growth, perfection and decay, Sivision L Primary tissues, OuUine Object of the connective tissue. Primiplet Fibrous tissue. Ohjlp. n. Areolar, , ■ General Cartilaginous, ?4 Histology. Adipose, PntiuxTy Sclerous, Tutuet. Muscular, Tubular, Nervous, Basement membrane. Epithelium, §5. Serous membrane. Membranes, Synovial " Mucous membranes. Solids and fluids. Proximate constituents, Inorga.nic " §6. Chif.HL Organic " SoUdtand • General Nitrogenous " fluldt. Cliemistry. Non-nitrogenous " Ultimate chemical elements. State the General Remarks, the General EQstology and the General (Ihwraistry of the human system. 10 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. DIVISION II.— THE MOTORY APPARATUS. ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 73. Why is the Motory Apparatus so called? Name its orga?is. CHAPTEE IV.— The Bones. I 7. Anatomy of the Bones. 74. Of what does the Internal Framework of the body consist? 75. State the number and classes of the bones. 76. Name the divisions of bones of the Head. 77. How many bones compose the Skull? Give their names and positions. 78. What is said of the skull-bones? How are they united? Observation. 79. How many bones in the Face? Name and describe them. 80. The Ear has how many bones ? 81. State the number and names of the bones of the Trunk. 82. How is the Thorax formed? What its natural form ? Whal organs does it contain ? 83. What is the situation of the Sternum ? 84. Describe the Ribs. Distinguish between true and false. Why the floating ribs so called? What of their length and breadth? 85. Of what is the Spinal Column composed? What is meant by body and process of a vertebra? State their uses. What is said of the arrangement of these processes ? 86. State the arrangement of the Vertebrae. 87. Describe the Cervical vertebrae. 88. What is said of the Dorsal? 89. How are the Lumbar distinguished ? 90. What is found upon the Anterior and Posterior parts of the body of the vertebras? 91. What are found between the arches of the vertebras? How do they differ from other ligaments ? 92. Speak of the Intervertebral ligaments. 93. Of what is the Pelvis composed? 94. Describe the Innominatum. 95. What is the Sacrum ? 96. What changes occur in the Coccyx during life ? QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 11 97. Mention the number and names of the bones of the Upper Extremities. 98. Where is the Scapula situated? 99. To what is the Clavicle attached? 100. Describe the Humerus. 101. What is the Ulna? 102. What is the position of the Badius? With what does il articulate? 103. Speak of the number and arrangement of the bones of the Carpus. 104. State the arrangement of the Metacarpal bones. 105. How many bones in the phalanges of the fingers? 106. How many in the Lower Extremities? What their names? 107. What is said of the Femur? 108. Patella? 109. Tibia? 110. Fibula? 111. Tarsus? 112. Of how many bones does the Metatarsus consist? 113. How many do the phalanges of the toes contain? 114. How are joints formed ? Name their groups. 115. Mention and describe each kind of immovable joints. 116. What are the mixed joints? Give examples. 117. Whatissaidof movable joints? How many kinds? Describe each. 118. Give special description of certain forms of movable joints. ? 8. Histology of the Bones. 119. What is the character of the primitive basis of bone? State the changes prev:ous to ossification. 120. Give the Intra-cartilaginous mode of ossification. 121. State the Intra-membranous mode. 122. What are the structure and texture of the long bones ? Where is the Medulla found ? 123. Distinguish between the Periosteum and Endostenm. 124. Of what service is Cartilage? How arranged? 125. Of what use the Synovial membrane? Name and describe its kinds. 126. What are found in connection with the Synovial membrane? Describe the several kinds of ligaments. 12 QTJESTIONB, DIAGEAM8 AND ILLTTSTRATIONS. 2 9, Chemistry of the Bones. 127. Of what are the bones composed? Mention the mineral con stituents. Observation. ? 10. Physiology of the Bones, 128. Name the uses of the Bones. 129. What qualities found in bone? 130 What advantages result from the structure and arrangement of the skull-bones ? 131. Mention the offices of the spinal column. 132. How are strength and firmness secured ? How the necessary rotary movement? To what are the muscles attached? What arrangement for the spinal cord? What provision is made to prevent injury to the brain ? 133. What purpose do the Ribs serve? 134. State the offices of the Pelvis. 135. What is said of the form and proportion of the Upper Ex- tremities as relating to the hand? 136. Compare the Lower Extremities with the Upper. 137. Why are the shafts of the long bones hollow? 138. Enumerate the uses of the joints. 139. State the purposes of the different classes of joints. 140. Give the use of the Synovia. 141. What is said of Cartilage? 142. Speak of the function of the Ligaments. 143. Of what service the Periosteum? 144. What is illustrated by each bone? 2 11. Hygiene of the B mes. 145. What is the influence of exercise on the health of the bones? How should it be taken ? 146. To what are the lower extremities of the very young not adapted? 147. What should be avoided ? Why? 148. Why should an erect position be maintained ? 149. How are distortions of the body produced ? 150. What statement by eminent physicians? How may slight curvatures of the spine be prevented or cured? 151. In the fracture of bones or injury of limbs, what is necessary? What is " White Swelling ?" Observation. QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND rLLUSTEATIONS. 13 J 12. Comparative Osteology 152. Name and describe the sub-kingdoms. 153. Give the classes of the Vertebrata. 154. Compare the Vertebral Column of Mammals. What ia said of it in Birds ? Reptiles ? Fishes ? 155. What is said of the bones of the head in Mammals ? Birds ? Eeptiles? Fishes? 156. Why not a Clavicle in the ox. Describe the clavicle of Birds. Reptiles. Fishes. 157. What of the Scapula of the lower order of animals? 158. Speak of the Sternum of Birds. Reptiles. Fishes. 159. Describe the Ribs in the different classes. 160. What is said of the Humerus? 161. What of the Radius and Ulna? 162. What of the Carpus and Metacarpus? 163. Compare Posterior and Anterior Extremities of the several classes. What suggestion by the author? UNIFIC REVIEW. [Compare 74 vrith 152.] What oonstitntes the Skeleton? What is said of it in the different sub- kingdoms? [Compare 76-80 with 155.] Compare the Bones of the Head in man with those of the lower animals. [Compare 81-97 with 154, 158 and 159.] What are the bones of the Trunk ? Are they all found in the lower animals ? Which is the largest bone in a Bird? [Compare 97-106 with 160-162.] Name all the bones of the Upper Extremities in the different classes of the Vertebrata. What peculiarity in the clavicle of Birds? [Compare 106-113 with 163.] Describe each bone of the Lower Extremities. [Compa-, 119-122 with 8-11 and 152.] What is the earliest organic form of living things ? State the process a{ ossification. [Compare 123 with 21-24.] What tissue in the Periosteum? Use of this membrane? 2 14 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLU8TEATION8. [Compare 126 with 21-23.] What tissue forms the Ligaments? What does Ligament signify T [Compare 127 with 47, 52, 56 and 70.] Ifame both the organic and inorganio matter in bones. [Compare 145 with 202, 213, 214, 281, 361 and 506.] What is neoessary to the health of the bones ? What results follow a want of eieroise ? State the influence of exercise upon the health of the dif- ferent organs. S'S s -I- 5 "3 ■s -S - * - s i 3 1 3 IIP 7 S 8 u is a ^1 I i - ta S a til til " " g a •: o !; a gi as a |5 fa QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 15 Fig. 196. 16 QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND ILLTJSTBATIONS, §7. Anaixmyof, HMaioffyof. \ 2 9. SYNTHETIC REVIEW. The Skeleton and its uses, Number and classes, Head, Trunk, Upper Extremities, Lower Extremities, Joints, Definition and classes of Joints, Immovable Joints, Mixed, Movable, Peculiar forms of Movable. Formation of Temporary Cartilage, Intra-cartilaginons mode of ossification, Intra-membranous mode. Structure of the Long Bones, Periosteum, Endosteum, Cartilages of the Joints, Synovial membrane. Ligaments. Chemical Composition, Experimentshowingearthyandanimalmatter. / Chtmitbryof. General uses of. Adaptation of their structure to their uses. Skill as shown in the Skull, " " Spinal Column, " « Kibs, " " Pelvis, " " Tipper Extremities, " " Lower Extremities, " " Long Bones, The uses of the Joints, Classification of the Joints, Of Movable Joints, Function of the Synovia, " Cartilages, " Ligaments, " Periosteum, Perfection of this part in the animal fabria Efi[ect of exercise upon the bones of children, " compression, " stooping, Treatment of Fractures, " Sprains, " Felons. Classification of Animals, " Vertebrates, Compare Spinal Column of Vertebrates, " Bones of the Head, " " Thorax, " " Extremities. Give the Human and Comparative Anatomy and Histology of the Bones ; the Chemistry, the Physiology and the Hygiene. ilO. FliytiaUign if ?11. Hygimtttf. ?12. OomfaraUw Ottmlogyof- Chap.it. The Bona QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 17 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. CHAPTER v.— The Muscles. i 13. Anatomy of the Miiscles. 164, What property do the Muscles possess? By what law governed? Give the diflferent forms. 165 Describe the Fasciae. Speak of the attachment of the muscles. 166 Give the number and kinds of the muscles. 167. How arranged? Define Extensors and Flexors. Examples. 168. State the office of the Occipito-Fron talis ; of the Orbicularis Palpebrarum; of the Orbicularis Oris; of the Masseter and Temporal ; of the Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid. 169. Of the Pectoralis Major ; of the Serratus Magnus ; oftheOb- liquus Externus and Bectus Abdominalis. 170. Of the Trapezius, Ehomboideus Major and Minor ; of the Latissimus Dorsi ; of the Serratus Posticus Inferior. 171. Of the Deltoid ; of the Biceps ; of the Triceps ; of the Flexor Carpi Radialis ; ofthe Flexor Carpi Ulnaris; of the Flexor Digitorum ; of the Extensor Digitorum ; of the Extensor Carpi Badialis. 172. Describe the Glutei, Sartorius, Rectus Femoris, Vastus Ex- ternus, Vastus Internus, Triceps Abductor Femoris, Biceps Femoris, Extensor Digitorum, Peroneus Longus, Gaa- trochnemius Externus, Tendo- Achilles. § 14, Histohgy of the Muscles. 173. Into what is a Muscle separable? 174. By what is each muscle invested? What is Myolemma? 175. Name and describe the classes of muscles. 176. How is the contractility of the muscles stimulated? 177. What are Tendons ? In what is each tendon enveloped ? 178. Where do you find the blood-vessels of the muscles? 179 What position do the Nerves occupy? What is said of the different classes of the nerves? 2 15. Chemistry of the Muscles. 180 What is said of the chemical composition of the muscles? Muscle sugar is where found? 181. How does proper muscular substance differ from simple fibrous tissue ? 2» 18 QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AIJD ILLUSTRATIONS. 182. Name some of the chemical changes attending musculai action. What is said of the "muscular current"? Ob- servation. 1 16. Phyeiology of the Muscles. 183. State the relative uses of bones and muscles. 184 Name the uses of the muscles. 185 To what are the Voluntary itiuscles subject? What is im- plied by the motion of a limb ? 186. Of what aid the muscular sense ? What is said of the exer- cise of this muscular sense ? 187. What are the Involuntary muscles? 188. What involuntary muscles are somewhat under the control of the Will? Of what advantage this? Observation. 189. State the office of the Tendons. Do they possess contractility? In what respect do you see in them an exhibition of care and skill? Illustrate with the hand. 190. Define a Lever, and name its kinds. 191. Explain each kind. 192. Where are the principles of the first kind illustrated? 193. Where those of the second ? 194. Of the third? 195. What is said of the oblique action of the muscles? What is important to notice in this connection? Compare the Extensors with the Flexors. 196. Where does the puUey find illustration ? 197. What is said of the direction of the different layers? 198. In what is mechauical skill shown? 199. Speak of muscular force. 1 17. Hygiene of the Muscles, 200. What advantage in possessing healthy muscles? Name the first essential. What is the influence of pure blood on the muscles? 201. Why should the muscles not be compressed ? What is said of the pressure of dressing in case of a fractured limb ? What are the results of tight dresses on health ? To what is tight-lacing compared ? 202. How does exercise promote the health and growth of muscles ? Illustration. 203. State the relation of relaxation to contraction. Illustration. QUESTIONS, DIAGKAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. IJ) 204. Give a reason for a change of employment. Illustration. 205. How should the muscles be called into action ? Observation. 206. How rested? 207. How should exercise be taken t 208. What kind of exercise ? What pastimes should be chosen ? 209. To what should the amount of exercise be adapted? Ob- servation. 210. State the proper time for exercise. Observation. 211. Mention the influence of the mind on the muscles. 212 What should be taken into consideration as to the amount of exercise? 213. In what diseases are great care and discretion necessary as regards exercise ? 214. What is said of the exercise of the muscles in chronic diseases of the digestive organs? What is important to secure beneficial results? Observation. 215. Why do the muscles require erect positions of the body ? 216. What attention should be given to children and youth? What care in furnishing school-rooms ? Observation. 217. Why relaxation of muscles necessary in walking, jumping, etc. ? Observation. 218. State and illustrate the influence of education. Observation. ? 18. Comparative Myology. 219. What is said of the muscles of Mammals? Of their color? 220. For what is the muscular system of Birds remarkable? 221. Speak of the muscles of Beptiles. 222. What modification of muscles in Fishes? What color? UNIFIO KEVIEW. [Compare 164, 165, 166 with 173, 174 and 219-222.] What is the structure of the muscles ? State their relation to the bones. Compare the muscles of man with those of other mammals. What ii peculiar to muscle ? [Compare 176 with 441, 450 and 469.] What are the causes of muscular activity ? State the connection between the muscular and nervous system. [Compare 177 with 22.] Where do you find the white fibrous and muscular tissue closely related? [Compare 178 with 371.] How are the muscles nourished ? 20 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTBATIONS. [Compare ISO with 50-53.] Of what is the muscular tissue composed? [Compare 201 with 360 and 425.] State the evil results of compression of the muscles. [Compare 202 with 361 and 506.] What is the influence of exercise on circulation and muscular power { What the effect ot a want of it on the Nervous System ? [Compare 203 with 209, 210, 281 and 506.] In taking exercise, what caution as to the age, time, amount, etc.? BS ..I -I S S- I, B .= f » a I US' .S g 2. gat |a £ si" B g • ^? a 8. ? 2. » B ' a g." P I u 1 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 21 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. Law of muscular contraction, Consequent forma of muscles, Modes of attachment, Number and general arrangement. Of Head and Neck, " Anterior part of Trunk, " Posterior " " Upper Extremities, " Lower Extremities. Analysis, Sheaths, Voluntary and involuntary, Exciting agents of contractility, Tendons, Blood-vessels, Nerves. Chemical composition. Chemical changes attending muscular action. Muscular current. Relative uses of Bones and Muscles, Important functions. Relation of the Will to muscular action, " muscular sense " " The muscular sense a source of enjoyment, Importance of involuntary movements, Importance of such movements being some- times voluntary. Tendons, Mechanical powers exhibited in muscular action. Lever, Pulley, Oblique action, etc.. Deep-seated, Minute. Healthy condition. Freedom from compression, Exercise, Conditions to be observed in exercise. Exercise sometimes injurious. Effect of mental stimulus. Regard necessary to age and health. Position of the body. Proper tension. Education. Muscles of other mammals and man, " Birds, " Reptiles, •' Fishes. §13. Anaimny tf. J14. HitMagyof. I 15. Chemutrytif, §16. of. ?17. Hygitm of. §18. Comparalive Myology of. Chap. V. The MiucUi Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology, the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Muscles. 2? QTTESriONS, DIAGRAMS AND tLLOSTRATIOMB. Fig. 198. QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AJSD ILLUSTRATIONS. 23 DIVISION II.— MOTOEY APPARATUS. SYNTHETIC REVIEW. Skot. 7. Anatomy of. "1 ' " 8. Histology of. " 9. Chemistry of Chap.it. " 10. Physiology of. TlteBoms. " 11. Hygiene of. " 12. Comparative Osteology of. SiTlsion n. " 13. Anatomy of. MoUrry Apparatut. ' 14. Histology of. * 15. Chemistry of. Chip. V. " 16. Physiology of. The ituecUs. " 17. Hygiene of. " 18. Comparative Myology o£ Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology, the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Motory Apparatus, 24 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. DIVISION III.— THE NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. 223. In what processes are the organs of the Nutritive Apparatus used? Name the organs. CHAPTER "VL— The Digestive Oegans. ? 19. Anatomy of the Digeslive Organs. 224. What are included in the Digestive Organs? 225. Describe the Mouth. 226. What is said of the Teeth ? How many parts has each tooth ? Observation. 227. What are the temporary teeth? The permanent ? Name and describe the different forms of the teeth. 228. Of how many pairs do the Salivary Glands consist? Name and describe each pair. Observation. 229. Describe the Pharynx. 230. What is the CEsophagus? 231. What is said of the Stomach? 232. Mention the divisions of the Intestines. Describe the small intestine. 233. State the length and parts of the large intestine. Describe each part. 234. Describe the Liver. By what surrounded? How many lobes ? What is on the under side? 235. What is said of the Pancreas? 236. What is the Spleen ? Why so named ? 2 20. Histoloyy of the Digestive Organs. 237. By what is the alimentary canal lined ? 238. Describe the covering of the mouth. Describe the tongue. Name and describe its muscles. Distinguish between hard and soft palate. 23'J. What is the relation of the teeth to the mucous membrane of the mouth ? Give their composition. What is the Enamel ? Describe the Cement. 240. Describe the walls of the Pharynx. QUESTIONS, DIAGKAMS AND ILLtJSTEATIONS, 25 241. Name and describe the coats of the (Esophagus. 242. Describe the Stomach and its coats. 243. What is said of the coats and muscular fibres of the intes- tines? What are the Valvulae Conniventes? Describe the Villi. 244. How many coats has the Liver? Describe the lobules. What is the mid-vein? What relation the hepatic system to the portal? 245. Describe the coats of the Spleen 246. What is the Peritoneum ? i 21, Chemistry of the Diffestive Orgatts. 247. What secretions effect chemical changes during digestion ? 248. What is Mucus? Its composition ? 249. Describe Saliva. Its composition. What is said of it when first secreted? What salts does it contain? State its chemical effect. 250. What are the properties of Gastric Juice? Name its charac- teristic constituent. What saline matter? What of its solvent power? What changes does it effect? 251. Describe Bile. Its composition. What changes caused by it. 252. What is said of the Pancreatic Juice? What per cent, solid matter? Its salts? Its chemical power? 253. Speak of the Intestinal Juices. 254. State the summing up of the changes in three staminal prin- ciples of food. 255. What is the relation of acid and alkali in the digestive fluids ? § 23. Physiology of the Digestive Organs. 256. What change in food is necessary? What is Primary As- similation? What Secondary ? What is Digestion? ' 257. To what is the alimentary canal likened? What do recent investigations show ? 258. Speak of the changes of food in the stomach. Can the food return to the oesophagus? Why not? When does the food leave the stomach? What is there peculiar about the Pylorus ? 259. What changes occur in the alimentary canal ? 260. What is said of the absorbing surface of the intestines? 3 B 26 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. i 23. Hygiene of the Digestive Organs. ?61. Name the first requisite for the preservation of the Teeth, What is the effect of sudden changes of temperature? Should acids be used? What objection to the use of tobacco ? Why should the teeth be frequently examined ? 262 When should the temporary teeth be removed? What do the irregular permanent teeth generally require? Does toothache always indicate a necessity of extraction? Ob- servation. 263. What is required for the health of the Digestive Organs ? 264. What is said of the quantity of food? 265. What must the supply equal? When must supply exceed waste? 266. When should the quantity of food be diminished? 267. Why is more food required in winter than in summer? 268. To what should the amount be adapted? 269. What should be the quality of food? 270. What must proper aliment contain ? 271. How should food be cooked ? What are the best methods of preparation ? 272. To what should the quality be adapted? 273. What is said of vegetable diet? 274. Who require stimulating food? Who unstimulating? 275. What is said of the manner of taking food? 276. Why should food be properly masticated? 277. Why not take drink with food? 278. Why should regard be had to the temperature of drink? 279. How and when should food be taken? 281. State the reason for not taking food just before or after exer- cise. What is the influence of moderate exercise? Ob- servation. 282. Why is it not best to eat immediately before retiring to sleep ? 283 What influence does the mind exert upon the digestive organs? How should indigestion arising from nervous prostration be treated? 284. After long abstinence, what kind of food should be taken ? 285. What influence does the condition of the skin exert? 286. Why is pure air necessary? General Observation. lie- capitulation. QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND ILLUSTBATIONS. 27 ? 24. ComparaUve Splanchnology. 287. What is said of the Nutritive Apparatus of Vertebrates? 288. Compare the mouth and teeth of the Vertebrates. 289. Of Birds. 290. Of Reptiles. 291. Of Fishes. 292. How are the digestive fluids supplied? 293. Speak of the stomach and intestines of Vertebrates. 294. Give the process of digestion in Buminants. 295. Name and describe the stomachs of Birds. 296. Compare the alimentary canal of Beptiles with that of Mam mals or Birds. 297. What is said of the alimentary canal in Fishes ? UNIFIO REVIEW. [Compare 225-227 with 287-291.] Compare the teeth of man with those of the lower animals. [Compare 228 with 292.] Describe the Salivary Glands in all animals. [Compare 229-236 with 293-297.] Contrast the Digestive Organs of Man with those of other Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Fishes. [Compare 237, 238 with 36-44, 289-292, 647 and 548.] Give a full description of the lining membrane of the mouth and alimentary canal of the ditEerent classes of animals. [Compare 239 with 288-291.] Speak of the histological composition of the teeth in animals. [Compare 240-243 with 293-297.] Give the comparative Histology of the (Esophagus, Stomach and Intestines, [Compare 244 with 292, 296 and 297.] What is said of the Liver in the different animals ? [Compare 247-255 with 45-51, 57-60, 65 and 67-70.] Give an outline of the Chemistry of the Digestive Organs. [Compare 256-260 with 294 and 295.] Compare the digestive processes in different classes of animals. [Compare 280-286 with 209-214, 410-415 and 500-506.] In what condition should the system be to take food without injury ? State the influence of exercise upon digestion. What does the health of the baman system require ? 28 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLTJSTEATIONS. FlO. 199. Fis. 200. Fia. 199. STOMilcn of an Ox.— 1, (Esophagus. 2, Rumen (paunch). 3, Beticolum (honeycomb). 4, Omasum (niaiiy-plies). 5, Abomasum (rennet). 6, Intestine. Fla. 200. Stomach of a Shzef.— 1, (Esophagus. 2, Rumen. 3, Reticulum. 4, Oniasum. 6, Abomasum, or rennet. 6, Intestine. Fio. 201. Fig. 202. Fio. 202. Thk Alihxntart Caral or TBI Sword-fish. — 1, Liver. 2, 8, Cbch, or pouches, connecting with smalt Intes- tine, 4, 6, Smiill intestine, coiled. 6, Large intestine. 7, lUliary duct. Fro. 201. TBI AUHXNTART Oanal or TBI Flying Liiakd.— 1, (Esophagus. 2, Stomach. B, 8, Small intestine. 4, Large Intestine. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AKD ILLTTSTRATIONS. 29 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. Mouth, Teeth, Salirary Glands, Pharynx, CEsophagus, ?19. Stomach, Anatomg of. Intestines, Liver, Pancreas, Spleen. Lining membrane of Alimentary Canal, Mouth, Composition of the Tongue, « Teeth, Palates, Pharynx, 2 20. Coats of the (Esophagus, Bittologyof. " Stomach, " Intestines, ." Liver, " Spleen, Peritoneum. ^ Secretions, Names, Chap.TI « Character, Mucus, DigesHoe Ofrgmu. Saliva, Gastric Juice, ?21. Bile, Clumuti^of. Pancreatic Juice, Intestinal Juice, Changes in Food, Acids and Alkalies. Assimilation, Chymification, ? 22, Chylifaction, Physiology qf. Destination of Chyle, Preservation of Teeth, Removal " Quantity of Food, ?23. Quality " Hygiene of. Manner of taking Food, Condition of the System, Nutritive Apparatus of Vertebrates, ?24. Mouth and Teeth, Digestive Fluids, Stomach and Intestines. - Cbmparaiive Splanchnology of State the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physi- ology and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Digestive Organs, figs. 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204. »• 30 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 203, 'Fia. 204. Fio. 203. 'Err Alihbntart Canal or Man. — ^1, (Esophagiia. 2, The stonRcli. 3, Cur- iluc orifice. 11, Pylonia, 6, Biliary duot 4, 4, 4, 4, Small Intestines. 6, Pancreatic durt 7, ABcondlng colon. 8, Tranaverao colon. 9, Descending colon. 10, Rectum. f 10. 201. Ths Aumzhtart Oanal o? a Powl. — 1, Tho oesopltagua. 2, Inglavies (crop). 8, ProventiculuB (aecrettng Btomach). 4, Triturating stomach (giEsard). 6, Intratino 6, Tvo cieca. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 31 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. CHAPTER VII.— Absorption. 298. Define Absorption and Absorbents. State the difference be- tween general and intrinsic absorption. § 25. Anatomy of the Absorbents. 299. Of what do the Absorbents consist? What is Lymph? Describe the Lacteals. 800. What is said of the Lymphatic Glands? 301. Where are the Lymphatic Vessels found? State the kinds of Lymphatics. How are the Thoracic and Lymphatic Ducts formed ? 302. Give the course of the Thoracic Duct. 303. Describe the Lymphatic Duct. 304. Where are the Lymphatic Glands found ? 305. What is the Portal Vein? 2 26. Histology of the Absorbents. 306. Describe the coats of the Lymphatic Vessels. With what are the larger Lymphatic Tubes supplied ? 307. What is the supposed composition of the Lymphatic Glands ? 308. Give -the origin of the Lymphatics and Lacteals. 809. Of what does Lymph consist? ? 27. Chemistry of the Absorbents. 310. What chemical changes occur in the absorbent system ? 311. Give the proportions of the chief ingredients of Chyle in the afferent Lacteals. In the efferent Lacteals. In the Thoracic Duct. 312. What changes take place in the Portal circulation? 2 28, Physiology of the Absorbents. 313. What is the office of the Lymphatics? 314. What may the office of the Lymphatics inclurlc? What if said of disintegration of the tissues? 316. Speak of the absorbing power of the mucous membrane. 316. Illustrate the absorbent power of the skin. 42 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. S17. When are the fluids of the serous and synovial membrane! absorbed ? Observations . 318. Describe Endosmosis. 2 29. Hygiene of the Absorbents. 819. What should be the condition of the air? Observation. 320. What influence has moisture? Observation. 321. What is the influence of nutritious food upon absorption f 322. What care is necessary in handling poisons ? Fio. 205. Fia, 206. — Small inteatine. 2, 2, 2, Laotoali. 3, 3, 3, Thoracic duct, 4, Stomach. &y Colon. 6, Pancreas. T, Liver. 8, 8, Diaphragm. 9, Heart. 10, 10^ Lunge. 11, Large rein into which the thoracic dnot opens. 12, 12, Spinal column. QUESTIONS. DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 33 SYJSITHETIC EEVIEW. Process of Absorption, Specific and General. Absorbents, Lymph, Lymphatic Glands, Thoracic Duct, Lymphatic Glands, position. Absorbent Veins. Lymphatic Vessels, _ " Gland8,_ Origin of Lymphatics, Lymph. Changes in absorbent system, " portal circulation. Office of the Lymphatics, Power of different tissues, . " " membranes, Absorption in disease, Imbibition of membranes. Condition of the air. Effect of nutritions food, " removal of cuticle. ?25. Anatomi/ of. ?26. Histology of. ?27. (^lemistry 1^. ?28. Physiology qf. ?29. Hygiesit of. Chap. VII. ThiAbsorhenU Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiologj and the Hygiene of the Absorbent System of man. B» 34 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTEATION8. Fio. 208 Fio. 206.— 1, 1, The abtorbenta of the lower extremitiea. 2, The small inteatine. S, The lacteala. 4, 4, The thoracio duct. 6, 6, 6, Absorbent duota. 6, 6, Absorbents of the arms. 7, Absorbents of the neck. 8, A large vein that opens Into the right Muiole of the heart. B, The right auricle. 10, 10, The diaphragm. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 35 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. CHAPTER VIII.— The CiBOULATioir. §30. The Blood. 323. From what source is the blood derived? Of what does the blood consist? 324 For what purpose is the blood constantly undergoing loss ? Observation. 325. Why must the blood be kept in circulation? Name the Cir- culatory Organs. i 31. Anatomy of the CircuMory Orgam, 326. Describe the Heart. 327. What are the Arteries? To what is the Aorta likened? What are the Capillaries ? Where found? 328. Give the course of the Veins. What constitutes the Systemic circulation ? What the Pulmonic ? 329. From what part of the heart arises the Aorta? Name ita divisions. Describe the Arch. 330. State the course of the Thoracic Aorta. 331. What is said of the Abdominal Aorta, its divisions and sub- divisions ? 832. Give the divisions of the Carotid arteries. To what parts of the body do the subclavian arteries furnish branches? What is said of the extension of the subclavian artery? 333. How are the Veins arranged? Describe the Superior Vena Cava. Inferior Vena Cava. Portal vein. Pulmonary veins. J 32. Histology of the Cfirculatory Organs. 334. Of what is the Pericardium composed? 335. What can you say of the Endocardium? Where does the fibro-elastic tissue form four rings ? What and where are the Semi-lunar valves? 336. Whereare the Mitral valves? Where the Tricuspids? 337. Upon what is the muscular structure of the heart based? What is said of the superficial fibres? Where is the middle stratum of fibres found ? 338. Of what do the muscular fibres of the auricles consist 7 36 QUESTIONS, DIAGEAMS AND ILLUSTEATIONB. 339. Name and describe the coats of the arteries. 840. How are the veins constracted? Describe the valves in the veins. Where found? 341. Give the structure of the Capillaries. ? 33. ChenMry of the Bhod. S42. State the analysis of the blood. 343. What per cent, of solid matter and water in the blood? 344. How are the mineral substances distributed in the blood V What effect has air on blood? § 34. Physiology of the (Xreulatory Organs. 345. Why is circulation necessary? Why a double heart? 346. Give the Systemic circulation ; the Pulmonic. 347. What is said of the contraction and dilatation of the auricles and ventricles? What is the effect of such action? 348. In the construction of the circulatory system, what was necessary? 349. By what means are proper circulatory impulses given ? 350. How is a backward flow from the auricles prevented? From the ventricles? From the arteries? From the Pulmonary artery? 351. How are the arteries protected against sudden action of the heart? 352. How is the current maintained ? 353. Explain the capillary circulation ; also the portal current. 354. How is a continuation of the flow through the veins effected? 355. How is the intermittent pressure caused by the action of the heart equalized? 366. What secures the relative amount of blood to each organ? 357. What provision is there for contingencies? 358, By the study of circulation what effect is produced upon the susceptible mind? i 35, Hygiene of the (Xreulatory Organs. 859. What temperature should be preserved? 860. Why should the clothing be worn loosely ? 861. What is the influence of exercise on circulation? 862. What is said of the quality and quantity of the blood? Illustration. QTTBSTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLTJSTKATIONS. 37 363. In case of haemorrliage from divided arteries, what should be done? 364. In flesh wounds, what course is to be taken? Observation. What is the treatment of wounds caused by blunt instru- ments? Of wounds from poisonous bites? i 36. Comparative Angiohgy. 365. What is said of the blood and circulatory organs of Mammals ? 366. Of Birds? 367. Of Reptiles ? 368. Of Fishes ? UNIFIC REVIEW. [Compare 323 with 313-318 and 256-260.] Sire in full the change in food during primary assimilation. [Compare 324 with 369-378.] How does the blood contribnte to the growth of the different parts of the body? [Compare 325 with 326-333.] Kame and describe the organs by which the blood effects this contribution. [Compare 326 with 365, 367 and 368.] Compare the heart of man with that of other Mammals, and with those of Birds, Reptiles and Fishes. [Compare 327-333 with 365-368.] Describe the blood-vessels in the different classes of animals. [Compare 359-362 with 201, 202, 211-214, 264-274, 509 and 591-607.] What conditions favor free circulation ? What can you say of the food in this connection ? How is exercise essential to the'health of the nervous tissue ? In connection with circulation, what is said of the slothing aid bathing ? 4 38 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AN1> ILLUSTBATIONS. SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. Blood, its circulation, " loss of. Circulatory Organs. Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, Veins, Aorta, Arch, " Thoracic, " Abdominal, Arteries, Carotid and Subclavian, Veins, arrangement, Superior Vena Cava, Inferior " Portal Vein, Pulmonary Vein. Pericardium, Endocardium, Valves of the heart, Muscular structure of the heart. Arteries, their coats, Veins,. Capillaries. Analysis of the blood. Distribution of mineral substances. Necessity of double circulation. Systemic Circulation, Pulmonic Circulation, Their relation to each other. Necessary provisions, Circulatory impulse. Prevention of the flow. Current maintained, Flovr through the capillaries, " " veins. Equalization of the current. Due supply to each organ. Provision for contingencies. Mechanism of the body. Conditions favoring free circulation. Treatment of divided arteries. Blood and blood-vessels of Mammals, « " Birds, " " Eeptiles, " " Fishes. 2 30. The Blood. 2 31. Anatomy qf. ?32. HisU^ogyof, 2 33. Chemiiiryqf, 834. Physiotogy t)f. 2 35. Hygimtnf. 2 36. OamparaJbive Jngalogytif. Chap. Tm. ' The (Xmdatari Orgaiu. Give the Anatomy of the several parts of the Circulatory Sys tern. Human and Comparative, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology and the Hygiene. caMMoniCAneTatAareftr— ffXTSSAMt JUaiAAR WaV- - IIVTmiVALJUBtJLAR VEffH- / VEIN-— ' ^i-'iM t/\ 6-' Fio. 207. 3y 40 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 208, Fia. 2)09. Fia. 208. A DiAORAK op the Circulation of Mahhals.— 1, Right auricle. 2, Kiglit TODtricle. 9, Loft anricle. 10, Left ventricle. 4, 6, Pulmonary arteries. 7, 8, Pul- monary velnB. 11, 12, IS, 13, Aorta and its branches. 6^ It, Pulmonary capillaries. 14, 14, Systemic capillaries. 17, Tricuspid Talves. 19, Mitml Talves. 18, 20, SemiloniLr Talves of the pulmonary artery and the aorta. Fia. 209. A Diagram of the Oiroulation of Rsptiles.— 1, The pericardium. 2, The Tentrlcle, 3, The right auricle. 4, The left auricle. Fio. 210. A Diagram of tqb Oirodlation of Fishbb. — 1, The pericardium. 2, The ventricle. 8, The auricle. 4, Tbo vessel that conveys the blood to the branchla (gills). 6, The vesfiol that conveys the blood tvom the gills to the body of the fish. 6, The vessel that coDveya the blood from the body of the fish to the heart. In thpso three diagrams the arrows Indicate the direction of the blood. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILTiUSTRATIONS. 41 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION, CHAPTEE IX.— Assimilation. § 37. Assimilation, General and Special. 369. How is life maintained ? Distinguish between General and Special Assimilation. 370. What is said of the corpuscles of the blood? What of the blood-plasma? , 371. State the first stage in the nuti'ition of the organs and tissues. What is the second? The third? The fourth? The fifth? 372. How are new cell-elements reproduced? When does this process occur? 373. What is Special Assimilation ? 374. Name the secreting glands and membranes. What is said of substances not found in the blood? 375. How is excretion efiected? Name the excretory organs. How are the substances which are eliminated from the blood in excretion produced? 376. Speak of the secretory and excretory processes. 378. Describe the kidneys. Observation. UNIFIC REVIEW, [Compare 369 trith 3.] In stndyiog assimilation, Trith what distinctions between organized and unorganized bodies do you become acquainted ? [Compare 370 with 256-260.] Give the successive stages in Primary Assimilation. Compare 371, 372 with 13-17, 45, 46, 119-121, 173, .178, 180, 181 and 460.] Speak of the structure of cells, and tell how their growth is promoted. [Compare 373, 374 with 247-255 and 36-44.] Name the secretory organs, and state the changes caused by their secretions. [Compare 375-379 with 13, 14, 247, 251, 253, 391-395 and 554.] Uistinguisa oetwocn Excretion and Secretion. In what processes do the epithelial cells become ruptured? Of what adTantage ia excretion ? 4* 42 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. Assimilation, General and Special, Blood, its formation. Assimilation, Secondary, First Stage, « " Second " « « Xhlrd " « " Fourth " " " Fifth " Secretion, " its glands and membranes. Excretion, Secretory and excretory process compared. Kidneys. ?37. AssimiUUionj General COM SpeciaL Chap. IX AMgimUati-n '■ State what you know of Assimilation, general and special, Secretion and Excretion. FiQ. 211. Fra, 211 (,Le(dy). LomiTCDiNAL Section or a Kidnxt.— 1, Cortical sobstanre. ^ Beoal pjTamld. S, Bonal paplllin. 4, Pelvla. 6, Ureter. 6, Renal artery. 7, Renal rein. 8, Branohoi of the latter vessela In the ninug of the kidney. QUESTIONS, DIAGKAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 43 ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. CHAPTER X.— The Eespikatoey and Vocal Oegans. 2 38. Anatomy of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 380. Of what do the Eespiratory and Vocal organs consist? 381. Describe the Larynx. Of what is it composed? What is said of the Thyroid cartilage? Of the Cricoid? Of the Arytenoid? Of the Epiglottis? 382. What is the Trachea? 383. Give the divisions and subdivisions of the Bronchi. 384. Of how many divisions do the Lungs consist? Of what form are they? What is the Pleura? Compare the Lungs. § 39. Hktohgy of the Bespiratory and Vocal Organs. 385. What is said of the structure of the Larynx ? , 386. Describe the Vocal cords. 387. Of what is the Trachea made up ? Speak of each part. 388. Distinguish between the Bronchi and Trachea. 389. How are the Lungs constructed? In wliat way are the air- cells connected together? 390. Describe the Pleura. I 40. Chemistry of the Eegpiralory and Vocal Organs. 391. Of what does Bespiration consist ? 392. 393. State the sources of carbonic acid. 394. Give the proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid in the arterial and venous blood. 395. State the physical process by which an exchange of oxygen and carbonic acid in the capillaries is effected, also the chemical process. 396. In what respect does expired air differ from that inspired? 397. What is the source of animal heat? Of what temperature the tissues ? Of what the blood ? § 41. Physiology of the Bespiratory and Vocal Organs. 398. What are the objects of Respiration ? What are the results of the chemical changes ? 899. Of what acts does respiration consist? How is inspiration effected ? Give the motion of the ribs and diaphragm. 44 QUESTIONS, BIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTKATIONS. 400. What is said of the movements in expiration? What muscles are called into action ? 401. Define abdominal and pectoral respiration. < 402. How is the air in the air-cells renovated? 403. Is the amount of air taken in and given out in respiration always the same? 404. Speak of the frequency of respiration. 405. What are the actions of sighing, yawning, sobbing, laughing, coughing and sneezing ? 40G. What is the office of the Larynx in respiration ? Of what is the Larynx the special organ 7 407. What laws govern the vibrations of the vocal cords? 408. What modify the tones? How further modified? Ujwn what does the general strength of the voice depend? ? 42. Hygiene of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 409. Why iap'roper respiration important? 410. Why must there be a constant and sufficient supply of pure air? 411. What is the influence of carbonic acid? 412. Mention its sources. 413. What regard should be had for the surroundings of our dwelling-houses ? 414. Where is the chief danger? 415. What remarks as to the necessity of ventilation of school- rooms? Of churches? 416. Of concert-halls? 417. State the influence of habit in accustoming ourselves to foul air. 418. What is said of the ventilation of sleeping-rooms? Ob- servations. 419. What attention should be paid to the sick-room ? 420. Speak of the means of ventilation in summer. 421. What means in winter? 422. What is the healthiest known means for ventilating a small room? 423. What is said of the use of stoves? 424. Give the quotation on the use of steam for warming rooms. 425. What besides purity of air is required for proper respiration ? What objectionable fashion is noticed? 426. Compare the custom of the Chinese women with that of the American. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTEATIONS. 45 427. What effect lias compression of the mother's chest on her offspring ? 428. How can the chest made small hy compression be enlarged? Observation. 429. By what is respiration much influenced 7 430. State the process of resuscitating persons asphyxiated from drowning, strangulation, electricity, or breathing poisonous gases. Observation. ? 43. Comparative Pneumonology. 431. How does the Respiratory apparatus in all the mammalia compare with that in man ? 432. Describe the Lungs of Birds. 433. What is said of the Ultimate Pulmonary Capillaries? 434. What marked modification of respiration in Birds? 435. Speak of respiration in Reptiles. 436, In Fishes. 437. Describe the Gills. 438. What Remarkable feature in the organization of some fish? UNIFIC REVIEW. [Compare 380-385 with 431-438.] Compare each respiratory Organ in man with :that of the lower classes of animals. [Compare 385-388 with 21, 22, 23 and 25.] Name the tissues found in the organs of respiration. How disposed? [Compare 389 with 26, 36, 37 and 341.] What tissue in the Lungs? Describe the variety of Epithelium in the organs of respiration, and name those organs. Describe the capillaries. [Compare .390 with 39.] What memhrane forms the Pleura ? What is said of it and its secretion ? '• [Compare 391-396 with 45, 46, 50 and 70-72.] Give the chemical changes which occur during respiration. [Compare 397, 398 with 182, 186 and 187.] What chemical actions prbduce heat? State the influence of respiration on motion. ... [Compare 425-428 with 206.] Of what advantage is exercise of the lungs? What is necessary after exercise? [Compare 429 with 211, 215, 509, 614 and 515. What connection is there between respir^ion and mental energy? What caution is given ? 46 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. SYNTHETIC REVIEW. Larynx, '' its parts. Trachea, 2 38. Bronchi, Amtiami/qf. Lungs. Larynx, Vocal Cords, Trachea, g39. Bronchi, HUltHngyof. Lungs, - Pleura, * Respiration, Carbonic Acid, HO. Exchange of Oxygen and Carbonic Acid, Expired and inspired air, Clumhtryaf. Animal heat. Object of respiration. Modes Renovation of air in air-cells, Amount of air in respiration. Number of respirations. . HI. Modifications of respiratory movements, Chip. X. Double function of the Larynx, ^lysit^ogyof. . The Sapirainrt Special " " and Vocal Vibration of the Vocal Cords, Organs. Conditions affecting tones. " " strength of voice. Importance of proper respiration. Pure blood, how obtained. Carbonic Acid, its influence. " its sources. Dwelling-houses, location, " impure air in, Public Buildings, ventilation. H2. Sleeping-rooms, " Sick-rooms, " Bi/gimnf. Pure air and warmth, how obtained. Importance of moisture, Compression of respiratory organs, Enlargement of the chest, Influence of nervous system, Resuscitation of asphyxiated persons. Mammalia, Respiratory Organs of. Birds, " « Reptiles, " " ?43. . Cbmparatiit Fishes, « " of- J Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physi- ology and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Organs of Respiration, figs. 212, 213, 214, 215, 216. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 47 Fio. 213. Bia. 212. Fio. 212. 3, 3, 3, Tho lobes of the right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left lung. 5,6,7. The heart. 9, 10, 11, The large blood-vesselB. 12, The trachea. 15, 15, 15, The diaphragm. Fio. 213. 1, Outline of right long. 2, Outline of left lung. 3, 4, Larynx and trachea. (, 6, 7, 8, Bronchial tubes. 9, 9, Air-cells. Fia. 214. Alt Ideal View op the FuLuoinc GiBCDLinoit.— 1, 1, The right lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 8, The trachea. 4, The right bronchia) tube. 6, The left bronchia] tube 6, 6, 6, 6, AiiMlells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The right ventricle. 9, The tricuspid valves 10, The pulmonic artery. 11, The branch to the right lung. 12, The branch to the left lung. 13, The right pulmonic vein. 14, The left pulmonic vein. 15, The left auricle, 16, The left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves 18 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLTJSTEATIONS. 49 DIVISION III.— THE NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. SYNTHETIC REVIEW. . 19. Anatomy of. 20. Histology of. U 21. Chemistry of. Chap. VI. 11 22. Physiology of. ■ The Digestive Organs. (( 23. Hygiene of. " 24. Comparative Splanchnology of. , • 25. Anatomy of. u 26; Histology of. Chap. VII. u 27. Chemistry of. • The Absorlh grits. u 28. Physiology of. tt 29. Hygiene of. u 30. The Blood. It 31. Anatomy of. tt 32. Histology of. Chap. VIII. ti 33. Chemistry Of. t UieOirmla- It 34. Physiology of. iicn. , tt 35. Hygiene of. :t 36. Comparative Angiology of. a 37. Assimilation, Greneral and i 3pe- ■ Chap. IX. cial. ' J Assimilawm. tt 38. Anatomy of. tt 39. Histology of. tt 40. Chemistry of. Chap. X. tt 41. Physiology of. Eesptratory Organs. tt 42. Hygiene of. K 43. Comparative Pneumonology of. Dmsion IIL ^viritive Apparatus, Give succinctly the Anatomy, the Chemistry, the Physiology and the Hygiene, Human and . Comparative, of the Nutritive Apparatus. 50 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. DIVISIOl^ IV.— SENSORIAL APPARATUS. ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. CHAPTEE XL— Neevous System. § 44. Anatomy of the Nerooux Syttem. 439. What two formal characters does Nervous Tissue present f Give the arrangement and names of each. 440. How are the Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures arranged? What is included in each system 7 441. Describe the Spinal Cord. What ha the Medulla Oblongata? To what is this enlargement due? What may be seen in each of the lateral halves of the Medulla Oblongata? What forms the Decussation of the Anterior Pyramids? How is the Fourth Ventricle formed ? 442. Where is the Cerebellum? How is the Pons Varolii formed? Describe the Inferior Peduncles of the Cerebellum. What are the Peduncles of the Cerebrum, and why so called ? Give the course of these bundles. How are these ganglia connected with the Spinal Cord? Of what does the Quadrigeminal Body consist? 443. What is said of the connections of all the above-mentioned ganglia? 444. How are the hemispheres of the Cerebrum united? How are the ventricles formed ? 445. Are the above-mentioned all the ganglia, membranes and galleries which exist in the brain? 446. What is the relation of the Cerebrum to the other parts? How many lobes has each hemisphere? How does the surface appear? 447. How do the convolutions in the two hemispheres compare? What is a remarkable fact respecting these convolu- tions? 448. What is said of the Cerebellum? 449. What do the brain and spinal cord constitute ? 450. Into what classes are the nerves divided ? How are the motor and sensory tracts formed? 451. Distinguish between cranial and spinal nerves. 462. Give the grouping and arrangement of the cranial nerves. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLTJ8TBATIONS. 51 453. How many pairs of spinal nerves? How do they differ from the cranial as to their origin? 454. What are the divisions of the spinal nerves? What are plexuses ? Name them, and give their formation. 455. Descrihe the Sympathetic System. 456. What is a peculiarity of the sympathetic nerves f I 45. Histology of the Nervous System. 457. Name the elements of nervous tissue. 458. Describe the nerve-cells. Where found? 459. Of what do the White Fibres cpnsist? 460. Where are the nerve-filaments distributed? What is said of their individuality? How are they arranged? What their mode of termination ? 461. Where are the Tubular Fibres found? What of their size? 462. What are the Gray Fibres? 463. Name the membranes of the Cerebro-spinal System. Describe the Dura Mater, Fia Mater and Arachnoid Membrane. 464. Give a further description of the Dura Mater. 465. What is the Epeudyma? 2 46. Physiology of the Nervous System. 466. What opinions have men in different ages held respecting the relation of soul and body? 467. How is the Nervous System related to the compound nature of man? 468. What influence has this system on the different organs? 469. Speak of the connection between the Nervous Centres and the motor and sensitive fibres. 470. Classify the Nervous Centres. 471. Give a full description of the relations existing between the different Centres. 472. What is the function of the Sympathetic Centres' 473. What is said of their connections? 474. Name and illustrate the different kinds of reflex action. 475. Give a marked peculiarity of the Sympathetic System. Illus- trate it by the iris of the eye. 476. What is the oflSce of the white substance of the spinal cord ? What that of the gray? 477. How is reflex action acquired? State the theory of acquired reflex action as respects repetition. 52 478. Mention the influence of association. Why is such an arrangement wise? 479. Describe the Sensational Centres. Show that these centres have an independent reflex action. Can they acquire re- flex action ? 480. What theory is applicable to these centres ? 481. How are these centres excited to action? 482. What power have the Ideational Centres? 483. Upon what depends the character of ideas? 184. What is the first way in which the independent reflex action in these centres is manifested? What the second? Third? Fourth? 485. Of what are these centres the seat? 486. What relation is there between the centre of idea and voli- tion? 487. What is the highest energy of which these centres are capable? 488. Upon what does the power of the Will depend ? 489. What relations to the Emotions does the Will sustain? 490. What does a free action of the Will require ? 491. What influence has the body over the thoughts, emotions and volitions ? How does the theory already given find appli- cation here? 492. Where does the character of a man leave visible tracings? 2 47. Hygiene of the Nervous System. 493. Why is a knowledge of the laws of the hygiene of this sys- tem important? 494. What agencies affect the health of this system ? Name the requirements of its health and vigor. 495. What in addition to the features of parents do children in- herit? May acquired habits be transmitted? 496. What history is given by M. Morel ? 497. What is said of the evil effects of tobacco? 498. What is the effect of all vices in parents? 499. What results spring from nervous diseases in parents ? How can such natural constitutions be improved? 500. State the second requirement of health and vigor. 501. Speak of the evil of breathing impure air. 502. What are the results of improper diet? 603. Speak of the effects of alcohol, opium, etc. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 53 504. How does the use of opium compare with that of intoxicating drinks ? 505. What is said of the use of tobacco, tea and coffee? 506. What will a want of physical exercise produce? 507. Speak of the benefits of sleep, and the amount needed. 508. Name the third requirement of health. 509. Why is mental exercise essential ? 610. Give the remarks of Dr. Ray. What is said of steady em- ployment? 511. Where are seen the saddest effects of an absence of stateii employment? What remarks as to the little accomplisli- ments of needlework? 512; To what should the amount of exercise be adapted? What differences are there in the quality of different brains? 513. What is the present tendency in education ? 514. State the effect of intense activity. 515. Give the influence of recreation and amusement. Observa- tion. 516. What is essential to the highest mental vigor? What is said of the use of the imagination ? 517. What attention is it important to pay to the aesthetic faculty? 518. What is the moral faculty? Upon what depend the happi- ,: . ness and destiny of man? 519. Give Dr. Ray's remarks concerning the hygienic influence of a Harmonious Development of the Mental Powers. g 48. Comparative Neurology. 620. In what respects does the Nervous System of man differ from that of the lower orders of animals ? 521. Compare the brain of other Mammals with that of man. 522. Compare that of Birds. 523. Of Reptiles. 624. What is said of the relative size of the Cerebrum? Of the Cerebellum, Medulla Oblongata and some of the organs of Special Sense ? 625. Speak of the spinal cord and nerves. 526. Describe the brain of the Fish. 527 Describe the Torpedo. 628 Describe the Electric Eel. What is said of the structure and nervous system of the Articulata? What of them in the Centipede? 54 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 629. Speak of the nervous system in MoUusks. 530. Describe the nervous system in Badiata. 631. How is stimulus received in the lowest forms of animals? How is it perceived? As we ascend in the animal king- dom, what tissue appears first? What is the simplest type? Of what do the relations of the animal kingdom afford an evidence ? UNIFIC REVIEW. [Compare 439-456 with 520-530 and 471, 472.] Compare the Nerrons System in man with that in the lower orders of animals. [Compare 457, 458 with 10, 31, 32 and 36-38.] Give the composition of Nerrous Tissue. Describe its first element. [Compare 459-462 with 33, 34 and 35.] Describe the White and Graj Fibres, Where are they found T [Compare 463-465 with 21, 22, 36, 37, 38 and 39.] What membranes belong to the CerebrO'^pinal System ? What names do they assume there ? [Compare 469-474, 479 and 482 with 441, 442, 446, 453 and 456.] Name the Nervous Centres. Give their functions. What do they ooio * prise ? Speak of the Sympathetic System. [Compare 500-502 with 264-279 and 409-412.] What is essential to the health of the nervous system T What is raid ai food and air in this connection ? [Compare 506 with 200-215.] What can you say of the influence of physical exercise on the health of I'll* nervous system t QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTBATION8. 58 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. Nerrona Tissue. Forme, " " Arrangement, Oanglia, Nerves and Commissures, Spinal Ooi^, Medulla Oblongata, Cerebellum, Peduncles, Cerebrum, " Corpora Striata, Optici Thalami, Corpora Quadrigesima, Corpus Callosum, Ventricles, Cerebrum Hemispheres, Convolutions, Gerebro>Spinal Nerves, . Cranial Nerves, Spinal Nerves, Sympathetic System. Nervous Tissue, Composition, Nerve-Cells, Nerve-Fibres, Membranes, Man's comppund nature. Nervous System. Its relation to this nature, " " Its rank, NervouM Centres. Function, " " Classes, " ** Arrangement, Organic Centres. Function, ** " Connection, ** " Modes of reflex action, ** " Marked peculiarity, Reflex Centres. Function, " " Acquired action, " " Importance of acquired action, Sensational Centres. Character and action, " '* How excited to activitrt Ideational Centres. Function, Different persons have different ideas. Ideational Centres. Independent reflex a, Tin' 1linniri<- (clie.-^t) KH"(ili». ten or eleven in number. K. E, Theoxtern«l and int-Tiial l.nmrlH'M oi (ln> thoracio Kanslia. G, H, The rij;ht and loft coronary plexus, Hjtuated iipnn Ihc lu-iirl. 1, N, Q.The inferior, middle and supoiior cervical (neck) gaiifilia. 1, Tho renal plcMiw iiliH'ives that Murroundn the kidneys. 2, The lumbar (Kdn) ganplinn, y. Their inteiiml IhiumIh'h. 4, Their external brnnches. 5, Tho aortic plexus of inTvea that lies upon llu! aortn. Tho other lettws and figures represent nervob that connecl Importiiiit orj^aiiH and noi-vea with tho sympathetic ganjjiia. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 57 Pig. 219. Fio. 219. DusRAH OF HuHAN BBiiH, IN Vebtical Sectioh, showing tbe Bitnation of the different gangliiv and the course of the fibres. 1, Olfactory ganglion. 2, Hemisphere. ti Corpns striatum. 4, Optic thalamns, 5, Tubercula qnadrigemina. 6, Cerebellnm. 7, OangUon of tnber annulare. 8, Ganglion of mednlla oblongata. Fio. 221. Fio.220. Km. 222. Pia.220. BbawofaBibs.— l.Cerebmm. 2, Optic ganglion. 3, Cerebellnm. 1, Mednlla oblongata JFia. 221. Brain of an Ailioatoe.— 1, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrnm. 3, 3i tic ganglia. 4, Cerebellum. 5, Medulla oblongata and spinal cord. Fio. 222. Brain of a Pisa.— 1, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrum. 3, Optlo ganglia. I, Cerebellum. 5, Medulla oblongata and spinal cord. 68 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTKATIONS. ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. . CHAPTER XII.— The Organs of Special Sense. 2 49. The Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense. 632. WlSit is the organ of the sense of Taste? Give a description of the Tongue. From what nerves are filaments received ? 533 Describe the organ of the sense of Smell. Mention the nerves. 634. What is the Eye? Name its parts. Of what service is the Sclerotica? Describe the Choroidea. What is its com- position ? Of what do the ciliary processes consist? What is said of the Iris ? What is the Retina? 535. Describe the Aqueous Humor. Crystalline lens. Observa- tion. 536. What is the Vitreous Humor? Distinguish between it and Aqueous Humor. 537. Speak of the muscles of the Eye. Observation. 538. What are the Orbits? Eyebrows? Eyelids? Give the Ob- servation. Of what does the Lachrymal Apparatus con- sist? Where is the Lachrymal Gland situated ? Describe the Lachrymal Canals. Nasal Duct. 539. What is said of the sense of Hearing? 540. Why the Labyrinth so called? Give its divisions. 541. Describe the Vestibule. 542. Describe the Semicircular Canals. 643. Speak of the Cochlea. Of the Fenestra Ovalis. 644. What is the Tympanum? Why called the Drum? Where is the Eustachian Tube? What are found in the tympanic cavity? 546. Describe the External Ear. 546. What is concerned in the Sense of Touch ? Give its layers. 647. What is said of the Skin and its connection with the mucous membrane? 648. Give the relation of the Epidermis to the Dermis. What change does the Epidermis experience? What is the seal of color? 649. What is the Cuticle? 650 'What is said of the Dermis? What are found with ijie fibrous and elastic tissues? QUESTIONS, DIAGIIAMS AMD ILLUSTRATIONS. 59 551. Describe the Papillae. 552. Speak of the blood-vessels, nerves and lymphatics of the Cutis Vera. 553. Where are the Hair-Follicles ? Describe the different parts of a hair. What results from the contraction of the un- striated muscular fibres ? 554. Describe the Oil-Glands. 555. Where are the Sweat-Glands? What are "pores"? What is "insensible perspiration" ? 556. Speak of the Nails. Of what is the horny part composed ( How do they grow? ? 50. Phydohgy of the Organs of Special Sense. 557. State the primary use of the sense of Taste. What is said of this sense in man ? What is the effect of cultivation ? 558. Is the sense of Smell one of great importance? Why not? 559. When light passes through different media, to what changes are its rays subject? What effect has convex or concave surfaces ? Illustrate and apply the above principles. 560. Give the shape of those parts of the eye which act a-s media. State the use of so many lenses. 561. In what case will a more convex and in what a less convex lens be required? How is the eye able to change the convexity of its lenses and vary its focal distances ? 562. What is the cause of short-sightedness and long-sightedness ? What suggestion in the selection of glasses ? 563. What is the function of the Sclerotic coat? What that of the pigment of the Choroid coat? How may the functions of some parts of the ey& be beautifully shown ? 564. Speak of the accessory parts of the eye. What enables the eye to move without friction ? How are the eyelids drawn together? Give the functions of the Eyelashes and Eye- brows. 565. What is Hearing? 566. What is the function of the External Ear? 5G7. What that of the Auditory Canal? State the design of the Eustachian Tube. Give the uses of the Vestibule, Cochlea and Semicircular Canals. 668. What are distinguished by this sense? How does this appa- ratus compare with that of vision ? 569. Speak of the special organ of the sense of Touch. 60 QUESTIONS, DIAGBAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 570. State the threefold functions of the skin. 571 . Give the uses of the Epidermis. 572. What is said of the Cuticle ? 573. Of what service are the cutaneous Papillae? 574. Where does vitality reside ? Why there ? 575. What power does the surface of the skin possess? 576. What are the uses of the oil derived from the oil-glanda? 577. State the uses of Perspiration. By what is the quantity in- fluenced ? 67&. What is the influence of the condition of the atmosphere? 579. Give the functions of the Hair and Nails. § 51. Hygiene of the Orgam of Special Seme. 580. What perverts the sense of Taste? By what is this sense varied? 581. By what does the sense of Smell become impaired? 582. What care is necessary in using the eye? 583. What is the effect of sudden transitions of light? 584. What should be avoided ? 585. How should the eye of the child be trained? 586. What is beneficial ? Observation. 587. Can the sense of Hearing be improved? 588. How may this sense be impaired? Observation. 589. What parts are absolutely essential, and what not? 590. To what must attention be given? 591. What is said of the use of clothing? 592. Of what material should it be ? Compare furs, woolen cloth silk, cotton and linen. 593. Why should the clothing be porous and loosely fitted? 594. To what must it be suited? Observation. 595. Who require the more clothing? 596. What is said of clothing when a vital organ is diseased? 597. What persons need less clothing? 598. What is said of cleanliness of the clothing? 599 What of damp clothing? 600. What is indispensable to health? 601. What effect bus bathing on the internal organs? 602. State the simplest mode of bathing. 603. Speak of the shallow bath. 604. Upon what must depend the frequency of bathing? '505. What should the time be? QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 61 606. In what diseases is bathing of great importance? 607. State the rules to be observed. 608. State the influence of pure air. 609. What influence does light exercise ? 610. What is a blister? What care should be taken? How ii vesication prevented? 611. What are Corns? From what comes the pain? 612. What is said of Frost-bite? How is Chilblain caused ? Fig. 223. 'VSSf^ Fio. 223 {Dallon). Diasrau of the Tonsue, \rith its sensitive nerves and papilla 1. Lingnial branch of fiftli pair. 2, Glosso-pharyngeal nerve. Fig. 221. A Side View of the Passage of the Nosteiis, and the Dibtribotion o> TUB Olfactort Neeve. — 4, Tlie olfactory nerve. £, Tlie fine divisions of this nerve on the membrane of the nose. 6, A branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 6 d2 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. SYNTHETIO REVIEW. Organs of Taste, Smell and Sight, Sclerotica, Clioroidea, Ciliary Processes, Iris, Kotinii, Aqueous, CrystalHue and Vitreous Humors, Muscles of tbe Bye, Orbits, Jilyebrows, Jfiyelids, Lachrymal Glands aud Canals, Nusul Duct, Organs of Hearing, Labyrinth, Vestibule, Semicirdular Canals, Cochlea, Tympanum, External Iflar, Organs of Touch, Two layei-g of skin — Epidermis and Dermis, Hairs, Sebaf:eous and Respiratory Olands, Nails. Sense of Taste, Primary use, " Smell, " Laws of Light, ^' . Adaptation of the eye, Short-sightedness, Cause, Long-sightedness, " Defect remedied. Coats, Function, Accessory parts of the eye, Hearing, External Ear, Function, Auditory Canal, " Eustachian Tube, " Cochlea and Semicircular Canals, Function, Hearing, " Organ of Touch, Skin, Function, Epidermis and. Cuticle^ Function. Cutaneous Papillse, Corium, Vessels, Oil-Glands, Function, Perspiration. Use, " Quantity, " External condition, Hair and Nails. Sense of Taste. Perversion, Smell, Eye, how to be used, Amaurosis, Oblique positions, long-continued, Viewing objects at different distancbfl^ Bathing the eye. Dust, removal, Defective Hearing, Cause, Hearing, parts essential, Clothing, Material, Class of persons needing more clothing, Clothing, CloanlinoKB, Uatliing. Modes, " Time, " General Rules. Water a curatlvo agent, Bkin. Air beuellcial, Effect of light, Burns and Scalds, Treatment, CorDB, Frost-Uito. §49. Analam/yof, §50. Physiology of. 261. Hygiene (tf. Chap. XII. The Organs of Special Sense. State the Ailatomy, the PhyBiology and the Hygiene of the Organs of Special Sense, the Care of the Sick, of Poisoned Persons and of persons injured in any way. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 63 Fig. 225. Fio. 226. A Section of thb Gix>be of the Ete. — 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, The borcea. (This connects with the sclerotic coat by a beveled edge.) 3, The choroid coat. 6, 6, The IriB. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 11, Ohamberu of the eye that contain the aqueous humor. 12, The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 15, The optic nerre. 16, The central artery of the eye. FlO, 226. Fio. 226, A View op all the Parts of the Ear. — ^1, The canal that leads to the inter- aal ear. 2, The membrana tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The central pari of the labyrinth (vestibule). 8, 9, 10, The semicircular canals. 11, 12, The channels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerre. 14, The opening from the middle ear, or tympa anm. to the throat (Eustachian tube). 64 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTEATIONa APPENDIX. CHAPTEE Xin.— Oabe of the Sick. 21. The Nurse. [Compare 591-599.] GleanKneee. — lITliat regard should be had for cleanliiieaB ? [Compare 601-608.] Bathing. — Mention what is said respecting bathing. [Compare 264-286.] Food and Drink. — What is said of the food and diink of the siok? Name the means of nourishment^ and tell how they are prepared. Temperature. — Speak of the temperature of the sick-room. Light. — What suggestions are made as to light? Quiet. — How may quiet be had ? Mention other datiec of the norse. ? 2. The Watcher. Give the duties of the Watcher. I 3. JPokona and their Antidotes. When poisons have been taken, what is to be done ? Name the most «om mon poisons, and their antidotes. [Compare 363.] How can hesmorrhage be arrested ? [Compare 361.] Oive the manner of dressing wounds. [Compare 430.] How may asphyxiated persons be reoovered 1 [Compare 610-613.] Bpeak of Burns, Scalds and Frost-Bite, and their treatment. QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 65 DIVISION IV.— SENSORIAL APPAEATUS. SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. Sect. 44. " 45. " 46. « 47. « 48. Anatomy of. Histology of. Physiology of. Hygiene of. Comparative Neurology of. Chap. XI. ■ TAe Nenma Division IV ■ TheNenom Apparalm. (( U 49. 50. 51. Anatomy of. Physiology of. Hygiene of. Care of the Sick. Poisons and their Antidotes. Treatment of Wounds. Arrest of Haemorrhage. Recovery of Persons apparently Drowned. Treatment of Burns. Chap. Xn. . Ttie Orgaiis of IjxeiaiSeme. Chap. xm. Appendix. State the Anatomy, the Histology, the Physiology and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Nervous Apparatus, and the Care of the Sick, Poisons and their Antidotes, Treatment of Wounds, Hsemorrhage, Burns, and persons apparently drowned. t>6 QUESTIONS, DIAGRAMS AND 1T,I,USTBAT10N&. 3, Cells. 4). Tiuaues. 6. Membranes. SUMMARY.— SYNTHETIC REVIEW, } } B£OT. 1. The Three Eingdoma of Nature Compared. " 2. DeflnitioDB. Chap. I. GeTieral Bemarks. ** 6. Solids and Fluids. " 7. Anatomy of. " 8 Histology of. " 9 Chemiatry of. •• 10. Physiology of* " 11. Hygiene of. " 12. Comparative Osteology. »' la Anatomy of. " 14. Histology of. ** 15. Chemistry at " 16. Physiology of, " 17. Hygiene of. '* 18. Comparative Myology. ** 19. Anatomy of. " 20. Histology of. " 21. Chemistry of. " 22. Physiology of. « 23. Hygiene of. ** 24. Comparative Splanchnology. " 25. Anatomy of. " 26. Histology of. " 27. Chemistry of. " 28. Physiology of. " 29, Hygiene of. « 30. The Blood. " 31. Anatomy of. " 32. Histology of. " 33. Chemistry of. " 34. Physiology of. " 35. Hygiene of. " 86. Comparative Angiology. " 37. Assimilation, General and Specific, r " 38. Anatomy of. " 39. Histology of. " 40. Chemistry of. " 41. Physiology of. '* 42. Hygiene of. " 43. Comparative Pneumonology, " 44. Anatomy of. ** 45. Histology of. '* 46. Physiology of. *' 47. Hygiene of, " 48. Comparative Neurology. " 49. Anatomy of. " 50. Physiology of. * 61. Hygiene of. Care of the Sick. Poisons and Antidotes. Treatment of Wounds, Heemor- rhago, of apparently Drowned Persona and of Burns. CflAr. II. General Histology. Chap. III. Genercd Chemistry. . 1 Chap. IV. Thi B/mex. Chap. V. The Muscles. Chap. TI. The Digestive Organs. Chap. VII. The Absorbenis. Chap. VIII. The Oirculation. Chap. IX. Assimilation. Chap. X. 27te Organs <^ Re^iration, Chap. XI. Tlic Nervous Cmap. XII. The Organs ^ Special Simse CiiAi'. MM Appmdix. DivisioiL I. Outline Principlfs. Division XL AloUfry AjrparaiMS. 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A NEW HISTOEY OP THE UNITED STATES. UNITED S TATES HISTORY. A History of the United States of America. Including some Im- portant Facts mostly omitted in the Smaller Histories. Designed for General Reading and for Academies. B'Y" J"0SI:J^I3: 'W. XjIBIEJaDS. Revised Edition. With Maps* 12mo. Extra Cloth, $t.75. " An honest and truthful book, and worthy of welcome acceptation by all who can' appreciate the warp and woof of American history in their true texture and strength, without the gloss of a partisanship or patriotism that can see only one side of a question or one aspect of a fact. . , . No other volume of the same size could contain more extensive or varied information, or classifjr it in better proportioned departments. As it stands, it is the only complete history of our country from the discovery of the Northmen to the election of Mr. Hayes, em- bracing all the leading events between these two widely-separated dates."— Literary iVorld (Boston). 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