CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE How to identify the stars, 3 1924 012 311 472 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924012311472 HOW TO IDENTIFY THE STARS •The. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON - CHICAGO ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO HOW TO IDENTIFY THE STARS BY WILLIS I. MILHAM, Ph.D. FIELD MEMOKIAL PROFESSOR OF ASTRONOMY IN WILLIAMS COLLEGE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1909 r All fHgkts reserved COPYKIGHT, 1909, • By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1909. ^ Norlnoal) ^nss J. S. Cuihing Co. — Berwick Jt Smith Co. Norwood. Mu>., U.S. A. CONTENTS FAGE I. Introduction i II. The History and Number of the Constella- tions 3 III. The Methods of Designating a Star . . 12 IV. Star Magnitudes 15 V. Star Colors 20 VI. The Number of the Stars .... 21 VII. The Method of Locating the Stars and Constellations 23 VIII. The Method of Further Study • ■ . 33 I. INTRODUCTION The ability to recognize the more brilliant stars and to locate the more conspicuous con- stellations or star groups, is both an interest- ing and a useful acquirement. The number of people who have a real interest in popular as- tronomy and a fair acquaintance with the stars and constellations is steadily increasing and they find real pleasure in their information. To the meteorologist who would make observa- tions of the position of the streamers of the Au- rora Borealis or locate the place of the appear- ance and disappearance of bright meteors, a knowledge of the stars and constellations is absolutely necessary. The best way to locate the position of an auroral streamer without the use of apparatus is to observe the stars between which and over which it extends. Similarly the point of appearance and disappearance of a me- teor has been definitely determined if the near- est star in each case has been noted. If great 2 HOW TO IDENTIFY THE STARS exactness is desired, the angular distance and direction of the point in question from the nearest star may be estimated. Whenever an object is thus located by means of the stars, the exact time of observation and the place of ob- servation (latitude, longitude, and elevation) must also be stated. From such observations made at two, preferably more, stations, the distance, height, and direction of an auroral display, and the distance, height, direction of motion, velocity of motion, and orbit in space of a meteor may be determined by computa- tion. The purpose of the constellation tracings and the descriptive material here given, is to serve as a guide in taking the first steps in learning the stars and constellations and also to point the way to the acquisition of further informa- tion on the part of those who desire it. The method here followed and the material presented is essentially the same as that used in the course on Descriptive Astronomy in Williams College. II. THE HISTORY AND NUMBER OF THE CONSTELLATIONS The first definite information concerning the constellations comes from Claudius Ptolemy at the Alexandrian School of Philosophy in about 150 A.D. He was a great systematizer of in- formation and summarized the astronomical learning of his time. His original writings in the Greek are lost, but an Arabic translation of his manuscript on Astronomy, called the "Al- magest," has come down to us. In it he enu- merates, describes, and locates 48 constellations ; 21 northern, 15 southern, and 12 zodiacal. These constellations by no means covered the whole sky, as a large part of the southern hemi- sphere was not mapped and there were often unmapped spaces between the constellations. As the centuries passed, the need of more con- stellations became apparent, but it was consid- ered sacrilegious to add to the Ptolemaic list. Finally, in 1601, two constellations were added 3 4 HOW TO IDENTIFY THE STARS by Tycho Brahe. This opened the way, and for two centuries nearly every astronomer of note considered it his duty to map a group of stars and give to the group a name of bis own choos- ing. Thus by 1800 there were at least 109 fairly well known constellations, and a large con- stellation (Argo) in the southern hemisphere was divided into four, thus making 112. The difficulties w^ere now as great as before new constellations had been added, for some of the constellations overlapped and names had been given to some of th&m which could never be- come international. Graduall)^ by practically common consent, 24 were dropped, so that at present there are 88 constellations. The ac- companying list shows the number of constel- lations added by each astronomer. mSTORY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS 140 A.D. Ptolemy . 48 1601 Tycho Brahe . 2 1603 Bayer 12 1679 Royer S 1690 HaUey . I 1690 Hevelius . II 1725 Flamsteed 2 1752 La Caille . 14 1770 HeU . . . I 1776 Le Monnier 2 1776 Lalande . I 1777 Poczobut I 1800 Bode 9 109 Argo divid ed into four parts 3 112 Twenty-foi ir were dropped .... 24 88 Some authorities attribute one constellation to the Emperor Hadrian in 130 a.d., one to Eratosthenes in 3cx> a.d., and four to Bart- schius in 1624 a.d. and thus a smaller num- ber to some mentioned in the table. These eighty-eight constellations do not overlap, have definite boundaries, and cover the whole sky. The boundary lines usually wind in and out among the stars and are very irregular, particularly in the case of the 6 HOW TO IDENTIFY THE ST.\RS northern constellations. Some of the southern constellations have boundaries which are for considerable distances arcs of great or small circles. The constellations are also of very unequal size, some being ten times as large as others. The following list contains the names of the constellations, the Latin genitive of the name, the meaning of the name, and the name of the originator of the constellation : — Name Genitive Meaning Proposer Androm'-eda Androm'-edse Andromeda Ptolemy Ant'-lia Ant'-liae Air-pump La Caille A'-pus Ap'-odis Bird of para- dise Bayer Aqua'-rius Aqua'-rii Water carrier Ptolemy A'-quila A'-quilse Eagle Ptolemy A'-ra A'-r« Altar Ptolemy. A'-ries Ari'-etis Ram Ptolemy Auri'-ga Auri'-gae Charioteer Ptolemy Boo'-tes Boo'-tis Bootes Ptolemy Cse'-lum Cse'-U Chisel La Caille Camelopar'- Camelopar'- Giraffe Hevelius or dalis dalis Bartschius Can'-cer Can'-cri Crab Ptolemy Ca'-nes Ca'-num Hunting dogs Hevelius Venat'-ici Venatico'- rum HISTORY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS Name Genitive Meaning Proposer Ca'-nis Ca'-nis Greater dog Ptolemy Ma'-jor Majo'-ris Ca'-nis Ca'-nis Lesser dog Ptolemy Mi'-nor Mino'-ris Capricor'-nus Capricor'-ni Goat Ptolemy Cari'-na Cari'-nse Keel La Caille Cassiope'-ia Cassiope'-ise Cassiopeia Ptolemy Centau'-rus Centau'-ri Centaur Ptolemy Ce'-pheus Ce'-phei Cepheus Ptolemy Ce'-tus Ce'-ti Whale Ptolemy Chamae'-leon Chamselon'- tis Cir'-cini Chameleon Bayer Cir'-cinus Compasses La Caille Colum'-ba Colum'-bse Dove Royer or Bartschius Co'-ma Co'-mae Berenice's Tycho Brahe Bereni'-ces Bereni'-ces hair or Eratosthenes Coro'-na Coro'-nse Southern Ptolemy Austra'-lis Austxa'-lis crown Coro'-na Coro'-nas Northern Ptolemy Borea'-lis Borea'-lis crown Cor'-vus Cor'-vi Crow Ptolemy Cra'-ter Crate'-ris Cup Ptolemy Crux Cru'-cis Cross Royer Cyg'-nus Cyg'-ni Swan Ptolemy Delphi'-nus Delphi'-ni Dolphin Ptolemy Dora'-do Dora'-dus Sword-fish Bayer Dra'-co Draco'-nis Dragon Ptolemy Equu'-leus Equu'-lei Little horse Ptolemy HOW TO IDENTIFY THE STARS Name Erid'-anus For'-nax Gem'-ini Grus Her'-cules Horolo'-gium Hy'-dra Hy'-drus In'-dus Lacer'-ta Le'-o Le'-o Mi'-nor Le'-pus Li'-bra Lu'-pus Lynx Ly'-ra Ma'-lus Men'-sa Microsco'- pium Monoc'-eros Mus'-ca Nor'-ma Oc'-tans Ophiu'-chus Genitive Erid'-ani Forna'-cis Gemino'-rum Gru'-is Her'-culis Horolo'-gii Hy'-drae Hy'-dri In'-di Lacer'-tse Leo'-nis Leo'-nis Mino'-ris Lep'-oris Li'-brae Lu'-pi Lyn'-cis Ly'-rse Ma'-li Men'-sse Microsco'-pii Meaning The river Furnace Twins CrEine Hercules Clock Snake Water snake Indian Lizard Lion Lesser lion Hare Balance Wolf Lynx Harp Mast Table Microscope Monocero'-tis Unicorn Ori'-on Mus'-cse Nor'-mae Octan'-tis Ophiu'-chi Orio'-nis Fly Rule Octant Serpent carrier Orion Pkoposer Ptolemy La Caille Ptolemy Bayer Ptolemy La -Caille Ptolemy Bayer Bayer Hevelius Ptolemy Hevelius Ptolemy Ptolemy Ptolemy Hevelius Ptolemy La Caille La Caille La Caille Hevelius or Bartschius Bayer La Caille La Caille Ptolemy Ptolemy HISTORY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS Name Genitive . Meaning Proposi Pa'-vo Pavo'-nis Peacock Bayer Peg'-asus Per'-seus Phoe'-nix Peg'-asi Per'-sei Phoeni'-cis Winged horse Perseus Phoenix Ptolemy Ptolemy Bayer Pic'-tor Picto'-ris Painter La Caille Pis'-ces Pis'-cis Austra'-lis Pis'-cium Pis'-cis Austra'-lis Fishes Southern fish Ptolemy Ptolemy Pup'-pis Retic'-ulum Pup'-pis Retic'-uli Stern Net La Caille La Caille Sagit'-ta Sagitta'-rius Scor'-pius Sculp'-tor Scu'-tum Sagit'-t£e Sagitta'-rii Scor'-pii Sculpto'-ris Scu'-ti Arrow Archer Scorpion Sculptor Shield Ptolemy Ptolemy Ptolemy La Caille Hevelius Ser'-pens Sex'- tans Serpen'-tis Sextan'-tis Serpent Sextant Ptolemy Hevelius Tau'-rus Telesco'-pium Trian'-gulum Trian'-gulum Austra'-le Tau'-ri , Telesco'-pii Trian'-guli Trian'-guli Austra'-lis BuU Telescope Triangle Southern triangle Ptolemy La Caille Ptolemy Bayer Tuca'-na Tuca'-nae American Bayer Ur'-sa Ma'-jor Ur'-s£e Majo'-ris goose Greater bear Ptolemy Ur'-sa Mi'-nor Ur'-sse Mino'-ris Lesser bear Ptolemy Ve'-la Velo'-rum Sails La Caille Vir'-go Vo'-lans Vulpec'-ula Vir'-ginis Volan'-tis Vulpec'-ulae Virgin Flying (fish) Fox Ptolemy Bayer Hevelius 10 HOW TO IDENTIFY THE STARS It will be seen that there are three kinds of names used ; names of animals, names bor- rowed from mythology, and names of pieces of apparatus. When and where the constellations were originally designed are questions which have received a great deal of attention and study. This subject can be merely sketched in out- line here. The list of 48 constellations given by Ptolemy was by no means original with him, but was simply a slight revision of an earlier list by Hipparchus, date about 140 b.c. And even before his time a fairly full descrip- tion of the constellations can be found in the poem of Aratus of Soli, date about 280 b.c. But this was simply a versification of an earlier astronomical work by Eudoxus in 370 B.C., and this in turn, as we now know, was not based on observations made by the Greeks, but on astronomical information that was at that time at least two thousand years old. There are three sources of information as to the origin of the constellations: first, the in- ternal evidence from the constellations them- selves ; secondly, the documentary evidence in HISTORY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS ii the form of references in the early writings; thirdly, the inscriptions on monuments, tablets, coins, etc., which are continually being dis- covered. The originators of the constellations naturally portrayed the things with which they were familiar. The elephant, camel, tiger, and crocodile are not represented. This would exclude India and Egypt as possible places of origin. The portion of the sky left un- mapped shows the portion of the sky not visible to them. They must thus have lived in about 38° north latitude. In short, all lines of evidence show that the constellations prob- ably originated in the Euphrates valley, and were practically complete as early as 3000 B.C. What we have is thus the Latin form of a Greek digest of very early information. For further information about the origin of the constellations, see — BROWN, Primitive Constellations ; Williams and Nor- gate, London, 1899. LOCKYER, The Dawn of Astronomy ; The Macmillan Company, 1894. MAUNDER, Astronomy without a Telescope, Chapter I ; "Knowledge" Office, London, 1902. . MAUNDER, The Oldest Picture-book of All; The Nine- teenth Century Magazine, September, 1900. III. THE METHODS OF DESIGNATING A STAR The oldest, but now obsolete, method of designating a particular star was to describe its position in the constellation. The portion of the sky belonging to a certain constellation was supposed to be covered by a representa- tion or picture of the thing after which the constellation was named. Thus a star might be described as located "in the head of Her- cules" or "in the right knee of Bootes" or "in the horn of the bull." Many star charts still give those old pictures in connection with the constellations. There are four modern methods of designat- ing a star, (i) By name. Hundreds of stars have received individual names, but less than a hundred of these are now in general use. They are usually of Latin, Greek, or Arabic origin, and are either proper names or de- scribe position. For example: Regulus, Spica, THE METHODS OF DESIGNATING A STAR 13 Aldebaran. (2) By means of a letter. In 1603 Bayer introduced the system of designating the stars in a constellation by means of the letters in the Greek alphabet. These are, in order : — a alpha 7\ eta V nu T tau /8 beta Q theta ^ xi V upsilon y gamma I iota omicron ^ phi 8 delta K kappa ■n- pi X chi e epsilon X lambda p rho t/; psi I, zeta ^x. mu cr sigma 1.9 a 3.1 if^ «^C/ \ L _V / 2.2 7 \ 3.0 £ /3 2.3 / 2.4 '3^~~"~~"^--^-~_- 3.5 o« a 2.2 „ (Algol ^ (Var. 2. 3 to 3.5 3d. a Alpheratz 7 and 5 Orange W 3'/2 h. 42° V, h. 38° Fig. I Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 CASSIOPEIA • 3.4 e - 2.8 0^ ^7 2.3 •a 2.5 • ^ 2.4 a Var. 2.2 to 2.8 Irr. 1 h. 60° Fig. s CORONA BOREALIS # -f .V 5.0 /p 3.7 4.7 a 15'4 h. 30° Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. io 1.6a«^ GEMINI r ^^ ^^^.34 1.2^'^'\^^ V ^3.2 3.5 a*— \ / "~~~-«7 1.9 a Castor f Var. "3.7 to 4.5 10 d. p Pollu V Var. X Or.W 3.2 to 4.0 230 d. 7 h. 24° ' Fig. II Fig. 12 Fig. 13 SCORPIUS a Antares RW 16y2 h. —26° Fig. 14 Fig. is 4.0 a SERPENS y' f >*o 2.8 OPHIUCHUS 1 , f€ 3.8 / 3.0 a \ / 3.3e, •^ ["'^'Wm 3.6 ^^^^.Ti •^^6 17 h. -4° IsYj h. 8° Fig. i6 Fig. 17 PEGASUS 2.1 a« And. / / / / ( • — — ( 1 ( I a Markab /3 Var. 2.2 to 2.7 Irr. 22^ h. 17° Fig. i3 SAGITTA ,o 4.4 3.S 5 A _^^-'^--'^ k;S 4.6 VTs 7 3.7 \ 20 h. 18° Fig. 19 Fig. 20 TAURUS o Aldebaran RW 4M h. 18- Fig. 21 URSA MAJOR a Uubhc f Mizar c Alioth o^ Alkor Fig. 22 Fig. 23 Fig. 24 BOOKS FOR THE GENERAL READER OF SCIENTIFIC TASTES Avebury's Peace and Happiness By the Right Honorable Lord Avebury, P.C. {^formerly Sir John Lubdock), i2mo. Cloth, 3g6 pages. $i.jo»et. Simple, sensible advice on such topics as the proper treatment of the body and the mind, on education, on our attitude towards children, friends, and enemies, on riches, on nature and religion. Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits By L. H. Bailey. i2mo. Cloth. 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